i
otras
fa
ery
SNe Se
%s
*
&
“}
‘
itera S
Estes resins,
biegeectet
' oe:
wan
ial
fl
REPORT
OF THE
‘
SIXTY-SEVENTH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
TORONTO IN AUGUST 1897.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET,
1898.
Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.
PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
CONTENTS.
———
Page
Ossxcts and Rules of the Association .............scscsseeeenseevenseeseseeceeees Xxix
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Secretaries from commencement .............eceeee Badgutch eens s .apatesenec te xl
Trustees and General Officers, 1831-1898...............05 pap tcabh « sae Rs vcisaap cae lii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1882 ... liii
SRE MENGETID ES LOCUS «<0 <vevctanuiinacecsaieoecdbcnessilvesesswacvertdhcossdeescancee Ixxi
Lectures to the Operative Classes ...........esecsseeseeeees aasiepingeinenccsweessateese Ixxiv
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Toronto Meeting ........... pmdbogy
PEER NGC OUNCI. USO7=O8 vc ssiscceccesduceslencscecestacsecvcecacdcveteoeanactesce xxvii
Treasurer’s Account ........0.....005 Side one Meleasetelalets det telat ECAH AS BB SS ERAceT HORT Ixxvili
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ..... oo beex
Report of the Council to the General Committee .........csseessesseceaseeceees . lxxxii
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Toronto Meet-
NES faa conse wcats c dvet em gaoiecns tase nn cuinedtenascentensecnteeee 1xxxviil
Communications ordered to be printed 27 evtenso ...........ccseceeseecesseneeees xevii
Resolutions referred to the Council for Consideration, and action if
desirable ...... (Oude edodeagornengotocHt dct CBseJnor a Ocetabs acethaceerpeoecce ocr GenAeee xevii
Synopsis of Grants of Money ..............00- midusaniaiadeveMeugta denies saaileagespbe ng xeviil
Places of Meeting in 1898, 1899, and 1901 ..............ssesccesseeseececseceeecceee xcix
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for
MMMM TE PMORCSE Meese onc ive aac oiey ered cccacctesenecnneeesasesottpaeaatiees c
General REM iba aahite a fait apaneceign ieee « 2ursidA <tde'g ites enddesdveaacnacieemmveshd exvi
Address by the President, Sir Joun Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L,, LL.D., Sc.D.,
Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., For.Sec.G.S., Correspondant de l'Institut de
France, &¢. ......60 SOCHCORO SEO ee MadaeetcccsuigsanetcvacstNgeutneera tint cours 3
£2
iv REPORT—1897.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The markt indicates the same
but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where tt is published in extenso. |
Page
Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R. Mrtpona (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hotmus (Secretary), Mr.
Francis Gatton, Sir Doventas Gatton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Jonn Evans, Mr. J. Hopxinson, Professor
T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. WuitTaxer, Professor E. B. Poutton, Mr. CurHBert
Pnnx, and, Rev. Canon EL. B. TRISTRAM *s5s.<c.ccecsemscassdere cesses secenaseeeaeas 235
Report on the State of the Principal Museums in Canada and Newfoundland.
sy Eien YM. Aw, MLA... D:Sc,, Ti G.Sie casenaenceceisreny desesecersesaebalegeedees 62
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the EKlements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscozn (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyrr, Professors J. Dewar, G. D.
Livrinec, A. Scuuster, W. N. Harriey, and Wotcorr Gisss, and
Captain AsnEY. (Drawn up by Dr. WATTS.) ......000-0csseesonccossessnsencns
Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord RayLeicH (Chairman), Lieut.-Colonel. AttaNn Cunnine-
HAm (Secretary), Lord Krenvin, Professor B, Pricz, Dr. J. W. L. GLAISHER,
Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, Major P. A. Mac-
Manon, and Professor A. Lopez, appointed for calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, for taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form ..............-+ 127
The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Pheno-
mena.—Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Meipora, Mr. J. Hopxryson, Mr. H. N. Dickson,
and Mr. A. W. CiaypEN (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...... 128
Seismological Investigation.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Dr. C. Davison and. Mr. Jonn Mitye
(Secretaries), Lord Krrvin, Professor W.G. Apams, Dr. J. T. Borromizy,
Sir F. J. Bramwett, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horacr Darwin,
Major L. Darwin, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Professor J. A. Ew1ne, Professor
C. G. Kyorr, Professor G. A. Lesour, Professor R. Merpona, Professor
J. Perry, Professor J. H. Porytine, and Dr. IsAAc ROBERTS ............02- 129
co I
or
I. Report of Work done for the establishment of a Seismic Survey
of the World, drawn up by Jonn Mityz, F.R.S., F.GS.......... 129
II. Records of the Gray-Milne Seismograph. By Joun Munyz,
UB is UE GS obo wxcasic don’e ans a ppeenceane ween tara ck os ¢niye cients 152
III. The installation and working of Milne’s Horizontal Pendulum.
By Jown Minne, F.R.S., FGIS. ....cccccscecsccseees a dedveveseaseninee 137
CONTENTS, Vv
Page
IV. Observations at Carisbrooke Castle and Shide. By Joun Mityz,
BERS PENG ncaccer date tocsecsrencdsecion see ei eset clcasttodtdbeesteasees 146
Y. Earthquake Records from Japan and other places. By Jon
MMSGIENTH EVSEUIS c, HE GES Aa. 32% Jc lateaidssid duh cteln se beaanilale. saeessesteeaamens 153
VI. The highest apparent Velocities at which Earth-waves are propa-
pated. By JOHN, MiIrmNE ERAS. E.Git. | cscccenestcssccesecttsteere 172
VIII. Diurnal Waves. By Joan Mitrnz, F.R.S., F.GS..........00c00000: 176
VIII. The Perry Tromometer. By Joun Mitnz, F.R.S., F.G.S. ...... 181
IX. Sub-oceanic Changes. By Jonnw Mitnz, F.R.S., F.G.S. ......... 181
Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Elec-
trical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
G. Carzy Foster (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GuazEsroox (Secretary), Lord
Ketyin, Lord Rayteten, Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G.
Apams, and Otiver J. Loper, Drs. Joun Hopkinson and A. MurrHeap,
Messrs. W. H. Preece and Hersert Taynor, Professors J. D. Everett
and A. Scuustrr, Dr. J. A. Frremine, Professors G. F. FrrzGeraxp,
G. Curystat, and J. J. Tomson, Mr. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Borromtey,
Rev. T. C. Firzparrick, Professor J. Vir1AMU Jonzrs, Dr. G. JonnsTonE
Sroney, Professor 8. P. Taompson, Mr. G. Forsus, Mr. J. Rennre, Mr.
E. H. Grirritas, and Professor A. W. RUCKER .......c..ccceceeeeceesecreceeeee 206
Apprnpix I,—Note on the Constant-Volume Gas-Thermometer. By
Gri CARMYSHOSTHR MEARS: taccher sgsteeneseteaceeeeetens 210
» 11—On a Determination of the Ohm made in Testing the
Lorenz Apparatus of the McGill University, Mon-
treal. By Professor W. E. Ayrron and Professor
SUV TRTAMUU ONBB)-. .Ssocrererina ico 6s demic ssuestan sence sfces 212
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren, Professor A. CkuM Brown (Secretary), Dr. Joun
Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER Bucwan, and Professor R. Coprtanp. (Drawn
BEES UPUSENDES ECEUANG) A wren tcl Mabaeiis Shaded omens occ cables sBabewin te naculowt eeee see akeaes 219
Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. W.N. Suaw (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, Rey. T. C. Frrz-
PATRICK, and Mr. W. C. D. WHeErHam (Secretary), on the present state of
our knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ...............:0000 ApBCuL 227
ApPENDIX.—The Theory of the Migration of Ions and of Specific Ionic
Velocities. By W. 0. Damprer Wueruam, M.A. ... 227
The Historical Development of Abelian Functions up to the time of Riemann.
EDM RETAN COOKic- ctactactcreseece ceescaceeer ares coc corteter ttosst teeen once tehees 246
The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T, E. THorpr (Chairman), Professor J. J. HumMet (Secretary),
Dr. W. H. Perrxiy, Professor W. J. Russert, Captain ABNEY,
Professor W. Srrovp, and Professor R. Mutpora. (Drawn up by the
TLS A: Baa GRRE See te fee 4 ee RAS Ee ea oR 286
The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Grapstonz (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMsTRONG
(Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. GrorcE Guapstone, Sir JoHN
Lussocx, Sir Puirre Maenvs, Sir H. E. Roscor, and Professor 8. P.
Er EF OP BEA re MA Pt Pee ne AE ne EC 287
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor W. A. TinpEn (Chairman), and Dr. H. E. Armsrrone
(Secretary) ......... Gaudconhdecesectecueee Fae swe e east dlseceddausammeacs denccasnetas 292
vi REPORT—1897.
Page
The Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor R. WarinaTon (Chairman), Mr. C. F’. Cross (Secretary), and
Mr. Manning Prentice. (Drawn up by the SECRETARY.)...............00008 :
The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.—Fourth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. Emerson Reynoxips (Chairman), Dr.
C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND, Professor F. CLowzs, Dr.
Huce Marsnatt, Mr. A. E. Frercuper, and Professor W. CAariLEton
OV ATTTTAMA: tres oat hack Dus ou Gactewacece ce cbugeedease sce ocen eee Reet tee eee eae
The Production of Haloids from Pure Materials.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor H. E. ARmstRone, Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr.
C. H. Bornwamiey, Mr. J. T. Cunpatt, and Mr. W. A. Sunstone (Secre-
tary), appointed to investigate the Production of Haloids from Highly-puri-
HedmWateriallgets.<sesc> svesaisenecheos cei etoscveoasessebnetsesdsces se Sven eee eee
294
295
Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee, -
consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. E. J. GARwoop (Secretary),
Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crtcx, Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Dr.
WHeetton Hinp, Dr. G. J. Hinpr, Mr. P. F. Kenpatt, Mr. J. W.
Kirxcey, Mr. R, Kinston, Mr. G. W. Lampiueu, Professor G. A. Lppour,
Mr. G. H. Morton, Professor H. A. Nicnotson, Mr. B. N. Pracu, Mr. A.
SrraHan, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Dr. TRAQUATR, appointed to study the
Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn up by Mr. GaRwoop.)
Structure of a Coral Reef.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J. Sortas (Secretary),
Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Professors J. W. Jupp, ©. Lapworru, A. C.
Hanppon, Boyp Dawkins, G. H. Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and A. Strpwart,
Admiral W. J. L. Warton, Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray, W.T, Branrorp,
C. Lz Neve Fosrer, and H. B. Guppy, Messrs. F. Darwin, H. O. Forsss,
G. C. Bournz, A. R. Bryniz, J. W. Grecory, W. W. Warts. and J. C.
HawxsHaw, and Hon. P. Fawcerr, appointed to conside a project
for investigating a Coral-Reef by Boring and Sounding ..............ssceeenee
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Kighth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor Jamms Gurixir (Chairman),
Professor T. G. Bonnzy, Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Mr. J. E. Beprorp,
Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Mr. J.G. Goopcuitp, Mr. Winti1Am Gray, Mr, Ropert
296
Kinston, Mr. A. 8S. Rerp, Mr. J. J. H. Tears, Mr. R. H. Trppeman, |
Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F. Wootnoven, and Professor W. W. Warts
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...........+.scssssessenescavscsseseees
Cretaceous Fossils in Aberdeenshire——Report of the Committee, consisting
of T. F. Jamison (Chairman), A. J. Jukes Browns, and Jonn MILNE
(Secretary), appointed to ascertain the Age and Relation of the Rocks in
which Secondary Fossils have been found near Moreseat, Aberdeenshire ...
AppEenDIx.—On the Fossils collected at Moreseat. By A. J. Juxus
BROWNE © « sas acs tive sun tcioseewanes chic ttecie « «coh ass hanno
Singapore Caves,—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
FLower (Chairman), Mr. H. N. Ripney (Secretary), Dr. R. Hanrrscu, Mr.
CLement Rerp, and Dr. A. Russet WALLACE, appointed to explore certain
Caves near Singapore, and to collect their living and extinct Fauna .........
The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Thirteenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor T. WitTsHIRE (Chairman), Dr. H.
Woopwarpd, and Professor T. Rupert Jones (Secretary). (Drawn up by
Professor .T. RUPERE'DOWES.) | .....:.-esocseccevescrerssees asi Srle oboe Mcnecsmenatn
Irish Elk Remains.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Bop
Dawxins (Chairman), his Honour Dremster Gritz, Mr. G. W. Lampiven,
298
333
337
342
CONTENTS. Vil
Pages
Rey. E. B. SavacE, and Mr. P, M. C. Kermope (Secretary), appointed to
examine the Conditions under which remains of the Irish Elk are found in
MIP ER DUAN Me tag Auk eich coRevctineccsecccae ce oncketes lode cas ccndavoreetobececcocBadecs 346
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor E. Hurt (Chairman), Professor T. G, Bonney, Mr. P.
F. Kenpatt (Secretary), Mr. C. HE. DE Rancz, Professor W. J. Sotnas,
Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Rey. 8. N. Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr. Ducanp
Bett, Mr. F. M. Burton, and Mr. J. Lomas, for investigating the Erratic
Blocks of the British Isles and taking measures for their preservation ...... 349
The Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of Oceanic
Islands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. Fiowrr
(Chairman), Professor A. C. Happon (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourne, Dr.
H. O. Forszs, Professor W. A. Herpman, Dr. Jonn Murray, Professor
Newton, Mr. A. E. Surpney, and Professor W. F. R. Wetpon. (Drawn
RP PMN HG SUCTOURTY.)/=6 0: covch. cde J ncmolvsseacavesisveccvecadsesdareaacedess sss pagenananne 352
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. Herpman (Chairman), Pro-
fessor E. Ray Lanxester, Professor W. F. R. Wetpon, Professor S. J.
Hicxson, Mr. A. Szpewicx, Professor W. C. McInrosu, Mr. W. E. Hoyts,
ANd eVir, PERCY SLADEN (Secretary): ..0.-hsceccssserestocscceesecelescacceceestocsee 353
- AppenDIX J.—Report onthe Occupation of the Table. By Mr. H. M.
NEIBNON( 03 sa. caacemaunaatentessiciecmascc Seo acjadceisvea ys teeta 304
» I1,—List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological
Station from July 1, 1896, to June 80, 1897 ......... 356
III.—List of Papers which were published in 1896 by Natu-
ralists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological
SIGH ENON tcp»: cningttates son enasecae sd ceawea see Mas Ete es 307
”
The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Seventh Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor A. Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Branrorp, |
Professor 8S. J. Hickson, Mr. O. Satvry, Dr. P. L. Scrater, Mr. E. A.
SMinH, and Mr. D. SHARP (Secretary) ......2.cccccesessesccsscesesscessdecsevences 358
Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir W. H. Frowmr (Chairman), Professor W. A. HerpMaN,
- Mr, W. E. Hoyts, Dr, P. L. Sctarzr, Mr. Anam Szpewick, Dr. D. SHarp,
Mr. C. D. SHerporn, Rey. T. R. R. Stessine, Professor W. F. R. Wxpon,
nde Mrob A? BATHER (Secretary). ..c1..c..csccscctesscscuaecsseodcccosouccscsceeces 359
Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor Newton (Chairman), Mr. Joun Corpnavx
(Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harvis-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrrinerton, Rev. E.
Ponsonsy Knustey, and Dr. H. O. Fores, appointed to work out the
details of the Observations of the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
MEERA MES EOUO =O ccc cancnrcsds Ciceuact sauce tascadonetecsoecsscseds sodeostesscccecane 362
Life Conditions of the Oyster: Normal and Abnormal.—Second Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. Herpman (Chairman), Professor
R. Boyce (Secretary), Mr. G. C, Bourne, and Professor C. S. SHERRING-
TON, appointed to Report on the Elucidation of the Life Conditions of the
Oyster under Normal and Abnormal Environment, including the Effect of
Sewage Matters and Pathogenic Organisms. (Drawn up by Professor
Herpman and Professor Boycs.)..... “QhadcoQROGOCOOSOTOCOOCCSDECBOB EOF Gna Mac bdAcn. 363
Index Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLowEr
(Chairman), Dr. P. L. Sctater, Dr. H. Woopwarp, Rev. T. R. R. Sres-
bine, Mr. R. MacLacutan, and Mr. F. A. Baruer (Secretary), appointed
to superintend the Compilation of an Index Animalium .............. AGAOUHESOL 867
viii REPORT—1897.
Page
African Lake Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L.
SctarEr (Chairman), Dr. Jonn Murray, Professor E. Ray LANKESTER,
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, and Professor G, B. Howzs (Secretary)......... 368
Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Tenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scrarper (Chairman), Mr. Guorce MuRRA}
(Secretary), Mr. W. Carruruers, Dr. A.C. L. Gtnruzr, Dr. D. Sarr,
Mr. F. Du Cann Gopman, Professor A. Newton, and Sir GrorcE Hamp-
SON, on the present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of
the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained
Deficiencies in the Fauna and Plora...- 2... .-. 2.2. <c-s2.00.0se00seseneneneeenen sane 369
Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. Bourne (Chairman), Professor
E. Ray Lanxesrer (Secretary), Professor S. H. Vines, Mr. A. SeDGWICcK,
and Professor W. F. R. WELDON, appointed to enable Mr. Warrer Gar-
STANG to occupy a table at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion at Plymouth for an experimental investigation as to the extent and
character of selection occurring among certain eels and fishes, and to cover
the costo MGerbaln’ ap PaTAUUS: sce, onesies ons seem s'saas<adonenerenass-0soaeeueeett wets 370
The Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. J. MackinpEr (Chairman),
Mr. A. J. Herpertson (Secretary), Dr. J. Scorr Kerrie, Dr. H. R. Mit,
Mr. E. G. Ravensrern, and Mr. Err Sowersurts. (Prepared by the
BSBCLOPSICY .) boscsnid teeta odiem ow cctneiceraatsig noite ga teeecebee SEP enane Rice a pie seca cio ae Renee 370
The Climatology of Africa.—Sixth Report of a Committee consisting of Mr.
E. G. Ravenstern (Chairman), Sir Jonn Krier, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. H.
R. Mitt, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chair-
TIAA arsetie ews oes nk « sctaadiadé Paeols gunep doe oe eee one ace adse Seeete ss Jassie Set saan eee 409
Experiments on the Condensation of Steam. By Professor H. L. CatnenDAR
and pErofessor dls, 1. INECOLSON, <..-.0--ccennsensnaseaseedsen=as <0 0 nce= eet aemanng 418
Part I. A New Apparatus for Studying the Rate of Condensation of
Steam on a Metal Surface at Different Temperatures and
Pressures. By H. L. Cattenpar and J. T. Nrconson...... 418
Part II. An Electrical Method of Measuring the Temperature of a
Metal Surface on which Steam is Condensing. By Pro-
fessor wl Wl. OATENDAR) (2. .00csm-scbnors stag oes ote ame saeeeeee 422
Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories—Appendix to
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. B. W. Kunnepy, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Professor J. A. Ewine, F.K.S., Professor D. 8. Capper, Pro-
fessor T. H. Brars, and Professor W. C. Unwiy, F.R.S. (Secretary) ...... 424
Screw Gauge.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. H.
PREECE (Chairman), Lord Ketyry, Sir F. J. BRaMwett, Sir H. TRuEMAN
Woop, Major-Gen. Wasnrr, Col. Warxin, Messrs. Conran W. Cooxx,
R. E. Crompton, A. Strou, A. Le Neve Foster, C. J. Hewirt, G. K. B.
Epuinstont, T. Bucknny, E. Rice, and W. A. Price (Secretary), ap-
pointed to consider means by which Practical Effect can be given to the
Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 ...... 426
Linguistic and Anthropological Characteristics of the North Dravidian and
Kolarian Races.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E.
Srpyry Harrranp (Chairman), Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. J. L. Myrss,
and Mr. Hues EAyweren, Jun. (Secretary), :.....00.ons0>-eBe~sansopsen-asaeeee 427
Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public
Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir Doveras Garon (Chairman), Dr. Francis WARNER (Secretary), Mr.
CONTENTS. ix
Page
E. W. Brasrooxr, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Mr. E, Waits Watts. (Drawn
AVR UNEM IE EENELATVA cic silos shes Soedehl v.ctosssicwschideteare cc cextaceso.ecsesrdesneas ees 427
ArpenDix.—Six Tables showing for each inquiry the children who ap-
pear to require special care and training ou mental or
physical grounds. The classes of children are presented
in sub-groups arranged in age-groups and according to
thomehoolistandandsy <...ctscteas+serndtensved dus ocaveseossenees 431
An Ethnological Survey of Canada.—First Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. GEorar Dawson (Chairman and Secretary), Mr. E. W. BrABROOK,
Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. E. 8. Harrtann, Dr. J. G. Bowrtnor, ABBh
Cuoa, Mr. B. Suzrn, ApBE Tanqvay, Mr. C. Hitr-Tour, Mr. Davip Bortz,
Rey. Dr. Scappine, Rev. Dr. J. Mactran, Dr. Neriin Braucnemtn, Rev.
Dr. G@. Parrerson, Professor D. P. Penwattow, and Mr. C. N. Bett ...... 440
ApprnDIx I,—The Growth of Toronto Children. By Dr, Franz Boas 448
9 II.—The Origin of the French Canadians. By B. Sutrs... 449
Anthropometric Measurements in Schools.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. Macarisrrr (Chairman), Professor B. WinDLE
(Secretary), Mr. E. W. Braproox, Professor J. CLELAND, and Dr. J. G.
GARSON ......... Dot BASED IC UOOSS REQ CuO Du BO UDO Tend aco SeS sage aL Bee rerBnara cos tubtnea a 451
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom,—Fifth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Mr. E. Sipnry
Harrianp (Secretary), Mr. Francis Gatton, Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor
A.C. Happon, Dr. JossepH Anpurson, Mr. J. Romrtty Aien, Dr. J.
Beppo, Professor D, J. CunnincHam, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr.
Arruur J. Evans, Mr. F. G. Hitton Prices, Sir H. Howorrn, Professor
R. Metpora, General Pirr-Rivers, and Mr. E. G. Ravenstern. (Drawn
MRC MEST LOMRCIELH oie cca weidion dis volo new ocalemcGeceasnes Vansdest quite shegsanaaessisecucce 452
Appennpix I.—Further Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland.
By The late Rev. Watter Gregor, LL.D. ......... 456
» I1.—Report on the Ethnography of Wigtownshire and
Karkeudbrightshine jis cdsscsaes ct 2.208 s cacwtatds secre 500
» 111.—Report of the Cambridge Committee for the Ethno-
graphical Survey of Hast Anglia ................000 .. 003
¥ IV.—Observations on Physical Characteristics of Children
and Adults taken at Aberdeen, in Banffshire, and in
thewslanid! OME WIS: 2c. 500 cowed cede sestoone sehak otsteak 506
o V.—Anthropometric Notes on the Inhabitants of Cleck-
heaton, Yorkshire ..... Sha ceaaeecian edutces Samaechecs taste 507
rs VI.—Report of the Committee on the Ethnographical
DULVEVAOUMMelANG. Cecats.cccen-sersdeesec sedesccnecsececrees 510
Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. J.
Evans (Chairman), Mr. Joun L. Myers (Secretary), and Mr. E. W. Bra-
BROOK, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester Excavation Fund Com-
Re MEHR MBL OPA EONS! 220) 6000+ 55 0sas ce oseessvevuweveeyorueech ts sven visa eassaguarn 511
Functional Activity of Nerve Cells.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. W. H. Gasxett (Chairman and Secretary), Mr. H. K. Anprrson, Pro-
fessor F'. Gorcu, Professor W. D. Hatireurton, Professor J. B. HAYcrart,
Dr. J. N. Lanezny, Professor J. G. McKrenpricx, Dr. Mann, Professor
Burpon Sanperson, Professor E. A. ScHArsr, Professor C. 8. SHERRING-
ton, and Dr. A. D. WALLER, appointed to investigate the changes which
are associated with the Functional Activity of Nerve Cells and their Peri-
BMGEAL Bix tenslOvs) Jotucei<tsatsiesesecesevcocscerss epclveee enie daca sacunemmanmenatiacs ac ser 512
x REPORT—1897.
Page
Apprnprx I.—On the Origin, Course, and Cell-connections of the
Viscero-motor Nerves of the Small Intestine. By
J. L. Buncn, M.D., B.Sc. ..... Zois nabisiawlas coe oeammee ate cist
II.—Electromotive Changes in the Spinal Cord and Nerve
Roots during Activity. By Professor FRANcIS
Gorcu, F.R.S., and G. J. Burcu, M.A. .............5.
1II.—The Activity of the Nervous Centres which correlate
Antagonistic Muscles in the Limbs. By Professor
”
”
C. S. SHERRINGTON, M.D., FURS. .4.es.ceccsacceeceess :
TV.—On the Action of Reagents upon Isolated Nerve. By
A. D. Watter, M.D., F.R.S., and 8. C. M. Sowron
V.—Histological Changes in Medullated Nerve after Treat-
ment with the Vapours of Ether and Chloroform,
and with CO,. By A.D. Water, M.D, F.R.S.,
ANG. SHY MOUR WGTOWAD 2. sceenveunsasoser.-ccseppemenncet
VI.—An Investigation of the Changes in Nerve Cells in various
Pathological Conditions. By W. B. WaRrrineton,
M.D MRAG LP so senboateabenr enh scets'. ee ceene aan nene
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Joun G. McKrnprick (Chairman), Professor G. G.
Morray, Mr. Davin S. Wryeats, and Mr. Joun 8. McKnnpricr, on the
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph, and on the Form of the
Voice-curves made by the Instrument...........:.scccucoscsessossesecossonebaneseiees
The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced into
the Circulation. Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
i, A. ScHArer, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor C. 8. SHerrineton, F.RS.,
Professor R. W. Boycr, and Professor W. H. THompson (Secretary).
CDrawa up by, the Secretary.) 21.40. .60..catiesevveceeswe sen ts sqa dest dl step eee
Fertilisation in Pheeophycexe.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. B. FArmeR (Chairman), Professor R. W. Puitres (Secre-
tary), Professor F. O. Bownr, and Professor HARVEY GIBSON.. ...........60++
Preservation of Plants for Exhibition— Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor Baytny Batrour,
Professor Errera, Mr. W. GArpiner, Professor J. R. Green, Professor
M. C. Porrsr, Professor J. W. H. Tran, Professor F. E. Wetss, and Pro-
fessor J. B, Farmur (Secretary), appointed to Report on the best Methods
of Preserving Vegetable Specimens for Exhibition in Museums ............
”
513
518
526
531
5387
CONTENTS.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
xh
Szection AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Page-
Address by Professor A. R. Forsyra, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the
oF bo
SN EBTOMSE te cae Race Date a Be cele co.cin ce ene eR Ee oaie aie cieiaina Dewiaa slobuemebewatedae wera betctatmeels
Report on Seismological Investigations .........:.csesesecseeeeeeeneeneeenees redsuit
- Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.........:scseseesesseeeseeeeeeseeee
On the Unification of Time. By Jonn A. Parrmrson, M.A. ...........006
. Preliminary Note on Photographic Records of Objective Combination
Tones. By A. W. Ricxsr, F.R.S., R. W. Forsyru, and R. Sowzer ...
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
. On the Determination of the Surface Tension of Water, and of certain
Dilute Aqueous Solutions by means of the Method of Ripples. By
PEER DORSEY, PUD coves cdacne-iaeosgeeessnsrassceedesdbcnewaihlgedebbassies t
. On a New Method of Determining the Specific Heat of a Liquid in terms
of the International Electrical Units. By Professor H. L. CALLENDAR,
PAYS Ero. and Ele D., BARNES, MUACSC. |. pf. ccs cnr neces ceesdeseiclge denmdacie :
. On the Behaviour of Argon in X-Ray Tubes. By Professor H. L. Catten-
DAR, M.A., FUR.S., and N. N. Evans, M.A.Sc.... .......0cssccscersrcerercoess
. On the Fuel Supply and the Air Supply of the Earth. By Lord Kernvry,
DAES USE ER oe oete Seis. rosteseerincckacdcuds shes cduucad ech snenn ccd otearteccentemelinicat ance.
. A Canadian and Imperial Hydrographic Survey. By Professor ALEx-
OND TE OHNSON, MEAS PEI. Sy Li ecidiescehasceesee as vuideeeroess mshi Bene ve'cesne’ :
. On the Specific Heat of Superheated Steam, By Professor J. A. Ew1ne,
F.R.S., and Professor STANLEY DUNKERLEY ........0..cceecseeeesseeeeeseeeenes
. “New Varieties of Kathode Rays. By Sirvanvus P. THompson, F.R.S. .
. On the Spectra of Oxygen, Sulphur, and Selenium. By C. RuncE ane
See YAR OTREINGMM marae ccac Sean a eee amea ga St UWL etc e Patek im a dL yea eee) tie, o2s eRlaame
. The Influence of Pressure on Spectral Lines. By J. Larmor, F.R.S.
. Changes in the Wave-frequencies of the Lines of Emission Spectra of
Blements: By Wid: ELUMPEHREYS .:.c0.cesecsseecscoocerastscsossecagenecesdenens
. “An Experiment with a Bundle of Glass Plates. By Professor SrinvaNnus
Perel ONUPRON BE WEU NS uw chide gulch sells salviteloipisv/el-tejesinee’siy-miaue celine saeieaetiemeelslecet salts
. *A Tangent Galvanometer. By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, F.R.S.
. On the Constitution of the Electric Spark. By AnTHUR ScuustTER, F.R.S.
557
507°
557
xii
14,
oo to
it
6.
REPORT—1897.
; Page
A Reduction of Rowland’s Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
to the Paris Hydrogen Scale. By Wu.S. Day, Ph.D. ...............00000 559
. “A Comparison of Rowland’s Mercury Thermometer with a Griffiths’
Platinum Thermometer, By F. Mattory and C. W. WaArTDNER............ 560
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
DEPARTMENT I.— MatrHEMATICS AND PuHysics.
. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions .............00..000000 560
. On the Solution of the Cubic Equation. By ALExXanDER Macrarrann... 560
. The Historical Development of the Abelian Functions. By Dr. Harris
TEGN COURS Se AG | bscjcide Solebe dole $ dsadevs Jac ceet Soho Sdentces ee Aces fe ee 560
. On a Notation in Vector Analysis. By Professor O. Henrict, F.R.S. ... 560
. “New Harmonic Analyses. By Professor A. A. Micnrrson and S. W.
PSE ATPON pone cpntnruisnnngesssiho¥ ass sdb asecow seqeaaaee niin neteee Leceeies heen 562
“The Multipartite Partitions of Numbers which possess Symmetrical
.Graphs in three Dimensions. By Major P. A. MacManon, F-\R.S. ...... 562
. On the Quinquisection of the Cyclotomic Equation, By J.C. Graswan, 562
. A Kinematic Representation of Jacobi’s Theory of the Last Multiplier.
Sy als Tike OR, SNES. 0220 50.0. 24. sc caught aeBbnn one ea dtes te dun casas eee ene 562
. Increase of Segmental Vibrations in Aluminium Violins. By Dr. A.
MIP RUN GHE, 2 8odiceivecaes vases sks sda cccbus eee seek oetoee Meee LE = eee 564
D5partmMent I].--Mernoronoay.
. Report on Observations at the Ben Nevis Observatory ............eseeeeeeeees 564
i
2. Report on the Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
damien) Phenomena: ..55...0csssans002¢acunaseacees Meewest. chesess eco 564
3. Monthly and Annual Rainfall in the British Empire, 1877 to 1896. By
Joun Hopkinson, F.R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.E, .........0..cceeecenneeeseeess 564
4, On the Temperature of Europe. By Dr. VAN RIJCKEVORSEL...........00000+8 566
5. *The Climatology of Canada. By R. F. STUPART..............cccecceeseseneee 567
6. The Great Lakes as a Sensitive Barometer. By F. Narrmr Denison ... 567
7. “Slow Refrigeration of the Chinese Climate. By Dr. J. Epxmns ......... 569
8. Progress of the Exploration of the Air with Kites at Blue Hill Observa-
tory, Mass., U.S.A. By A. Lawrence Roos, 8.B., A.M., F.R.Met.Soc. 569
9. Kites for Meteorological Uses. By C. F. MARVIN.......ccceeeeeeceeee Soe sone 569
10, Meteorites, Solid and Gelatinous. By Dr. Orro HAHN...........ccc0c0000000 569
11. “November Meteors and November Flood Traditions. By R. G. Hanr-
BURTON (2). 525-2 eoncnsensasesions->«peecseseevewesclsadeeade bec «enecmeetener st teenetete 569
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
DerarrmMnnt I.—E.ecrricrry.
1. Demonstrations on the Form of Alternating Currents. By Professor Dr.
EA DEATIN: »-orcederstercrer sop sesconisonronntecntpesuelsieaiene Rimteet een an 570
2. Note on an Electrical Oscillator. By NICOLA THSUA........00cc0ccceeeeseeees 570
3. An Electric Curve Tracer. By Professor E. B. Rosa .......secccecoceceseeee 571
4.
5.
“ID
CONTENTS. xiii |
Page
On the Use of the Interferometer in the Study of Electric Waves. By G.
MMIAUDE Ts acpiecweasviccs aeevep cede scuhieasesniclecradaaapeep Segnsinas'S usps sperisionmesitsside sais 574
An Instrument for Recording Rapidly Varying Potential Differences and
em Laie NV GANIC dks, aitedete cam cvadap ames bates Sagengaachinapcpandiae«sennacnas 575
; Report on Hlectrical Standards........5........cc.sesccesecenccssetecencrsesacceseces 575
*On the Calculation of the Coefficient of Mutual Induction of a Cirele and
a Co-axial Helix. By Professor J. Virtamu JONES, F.RAS.........0..00000++ 575
. On a Determination of the Ohm made in Testing the Lorenz Apparatus
of the McGill University. By Professor W. E, Ayrton, F.R.S., and
ETGTESSOL Ji, VERTAMU SONES cH ORGe .scpaguecssssswe'e stele + cles wnicllewtinemecsinsese se 575
. On the Relations between Arc Curves and Crater Ratios with Cored
Positive Carbons. By HERTHA AYRTON ........ccscsceseecessscecscesesdeeaeens 575
. On the Source of Luminosity in the Electric Arc. By H. Crew and O.
HET PAS QIN. asin cise shi ses ooasesises sie Me hase eclek de acamen eek aaa icp naeisne ewan eee 577
. On some New Forms of Gas Batteries and a New Carbon-consuming
IB SReTWy eS Y, WV RETARD UN ASI 5 fcc c denice xe wrintonionsesiabch -neeiletscmeanes aaabeus 579
2. On the Determination of the State of Ionisation in Dilute Aqueous Sola-
tions containing two Electrolytes. By Professor J. G. MacGrecor,
IDJS(Gs “gondoegennenncnceduccobeseesupee err eEr SEE ee Reon Cate ee cebecRene nies’. 581
DEPARTMENT II,—GENERAL PHYSICS.
. An Apparatus for Verifying the Law of Conservation of ‘Energy in the
Human Body. By Professor W. O. Atwater and Professor EH. B. Rosa 583
. The Rate of the Decrease of the Intensity of Shrill Sounds with Time.
SE yg eVernAY VAC NUR EO LU TIOR seis gets iol sed aise sanjaveaisbakaciierisc sam ep'ebilmns sans 583
3, A New Instrument for Measuring the Intensity of Sound. By A. G.
Sere SUT aA bs, EI SHMR PE. son ntececccwncssasossscascese sade vcves dacmedegerebties 584
4, Atmosphere in its Effects on Astronomical Research. By PurcivaL
MIVA pea seis. seeseon- sconces saeesecsascscatasesecescgscuedavcccatuess cseaneecdedsacens ss 585
5, “Automatic Operation of Eclipse Instruments. By Professor Davin P.
“STD os -oagddodedodpboacddusosbobbe Han oedeeopEbnc UPSEEodnr Ncddbn SeececeAnenentogenmaa: 585
6. The Cause of the Semi-annual Inversions of the Type Solar Curve in the
_ Terrestrial Magnetic Field. By Professor Frank H. BieELow............ 585
7. *Observations at Toronto with Magnet Watch Integrator. By Professor
Frank H. BigEtow ........ Pe cont bocodenEeBonlnciecaenbacdashpcirocaed stincengatte 586
8. The Yerkes Observatory. By Guorce EH. HALh...............cceeeececeeeeen ee 586
9. *The Effects of Tension and Quality of the Metal upon the Changes in
10.
eit.
Length produced in Iron Wires by Magnetisation.. By B. B. Brackerr. 586
On the Susceptibility of Diamagnetic and Weakly Magnetic Substances.
SE MRREMIN SIRES c Setce tc tr cdude sai: sone daunnncassanee as evecsseasamescMachesd sfaue 4 586
On Magnetic Periodicity as connected with Solar Physics. By ArtHurR
_) JUBWEIE Go oc biaconsendecedcnosesuasubocLecdor ob baceib risen GocbenJe occat US caOnanORMESeste rac 587
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
On the Refractivity of certain Mixtures of Gases. By Professor Ramsay,
Hey 5 0d. MORRIS VW). RAVES... .0cecuccsenseessechcaseoseacedeapinddancncseaes 587
. Note on the Use of the Trifilar Suspension in Physical Apparatus. By
Sitvanus P, THOMPSON, FIRS. ceesseeseeeoes poevess scesvgdyrcatbansgae opi deaes ds 588
XIV
3.
4,
5.
6.
fe
8.
9
10.
REPORT—1897.
Page
*On Zeeman’s Discovery of the Effects of Magnetism on Spectral Lines.
By Professor O. J. LODGE, F.R.S. oo... cece eccseceeeeecaeee eee ceneensenees we» 588
*On the Use of a Constant Total Current Shunt with Ballistic Galvano~
meters. By Professor W. E. Ayrron, F.R.S., and J. MATHER ............ 588
*The Sensibility of Galvanometers. By Professor W. E. Ayrroy, F.R.S.,
SER MG) PUA AIEEE C258 coal We a newn 1e5 Lo. Jot on datededineacedte tence seubwenknan neater” 588
*Short versus Long Galvanometers for Very Sensitive Zero Tests. By
Professor W. E. AyRTON, F.R.S., and J. MATHER ........ csc ceeeeeeeeeeeeeee 588
On a Research in Thermo-electricity by means of a Platinum Resistance
Pyrometer. By EH. M; ToRY, M.A... ..:...J..ceseecoscssetcanvenstnn-selesenen antes 588
On a Simple Modification of the Board of Trade Form of the Standard
Clark Cell. By Professor H. L. Cattenpar, M.A., F.R.S., and H. T.
IB AGINHSS) MAAUSC; PE. sebhsscu'sscne atic edossteeoten sroacteeen’coh demic. esate eeesntemene 591
*On the Cyclical Variation with Temperature of the E.M.F.of the H Form
of Clark’s Cell. By F.S. Spiers, F. Twyman, and W. L, Waters 591
On the Disruptive Discharge in Air and Dielectric Liquids. By T. W.
EDMONDSON tenconecrseesccese ses ser scans Son scopmstgsoabna 5G05 Spi sbadccdmaseceesscond 591
Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by Professor W. Ramsay, Ph.D, F.R.S., President of the Section ... 593
1, Reform in the Teaching of Chemistry. By Professor W. W. ANDREWs... 601
2. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ..............+++ 608
3. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ............ 608
4, *Interim Report on the Proximate Chemical Constituents of the various
Usa yk Ott i aadedadesncppceunocaacsoedbcodd ric: sn: iSunentiSoontpeonsabnnringddoiionoscossse. 608
5. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.................see0seeeeee 608
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
1, *Helium. By Professor W. RAMSAY, F.RAS. ........0.-.:csesececcececeeceeceees 608
2. *Contributions to the Chemistry of the Rare Earth Metals. By Professor
IBOHUSLAY, (BRAUNER weeds ses scnensssteess case seccaeneet mes cches esas tinea eae 608
3. On the Chemistry and the Atomic Weight of Thorium. By Professor
IBOHUBLAV: BRAUNER. 6. s.cssc0~+0es0resees cunecspisceg peice osiseeenseelstisbiire <ectamee 609
4, The Atomic Weights of Nickel and Cobalt. By Professor THropoRB
W. Ricwarps, A. 8. Cusuman, and G. P. BAXTER .............:ecececeeeers 609
5. *On the Occurrence of Hydrogen in Minerals. By M. W. TRAveERs ...... 610
6, The Spectrographic Analysis of Minerals and Metals. By Professor W.
N. Harrnny, F.R.S., and HuGH RAMAGE .......cccccccccsccsccseccesssvssevests 610
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1. Demonstration of the Preparation and Properties of Fluorine. By Pro-
PessOr Hi, MEBGANG i.e vesinine ves scaessesacvcacenneereate Say iieoatmean cae aects aeaeee 611
2, *The Properties of Liquid Fluorine. By Professor H. Morssan and Pro-
FESBOT J IH WAR;: We bSecceceeaveavesceesnesescecsh Aches doceee ae taeen Ree atpRae Se neeeE 611
3
. *Demonstration of the Spectra of Helium and Argon. By Professor W.
RAMBAY, F.R,S, ...eseececneveees eagaine ieasanae savenaegiueretettotmetenecceeect cr ccnennn 611
CONTENTS. xv
Page
. The Permeability of Elements of Low Atomic Weight to the Réntgen
Rays. By JoHN WADDELL, B.A., D.Sc.........cecseceeseeeeeeneeneeeeesseneeeees 611
. Continuation of Experiments on Chemical Constitution and the Absorp-
tion of X Rays. By J. H. Guapsronz, D.Sc., F.R.S., and W. Hinspert . 611
6. *On the Action exerted by certain Metals on a Photographic Plate. By
MeV VT OR PEUUSSEDE goby Bese tcccccatlocnsscscesclsssbhiecsoscedvccsouseresvasascaacsenns 612
7. *Photographs of Explosive Flames. By Professor H. B. Drxon, F.R.S, 612
8. Distribution of Titanic Oxide upon the Surface of the Earth. By F. P.
MSEGNIPEN GON Hs O)Setlaaecepanadascnsaabcneredsnssea>pcnsauaceaa-hacsivchusncnsegeaet us 612
9. Deliquescence and Efflorescence of certain Salts. By F. P. Dunnineron,
Saas Mac enact ANT ade dnt n so. cn aise cede oe <acinae Tact oa dea daweatapencee High 612
10. Some Notes on Concentrated Solutions of Lithium and other Saits. By
JouHN WADDELL, B.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. .......ccceeeeereeeceee een eees Pulessencces 6138
11, *On the Formation of Crystals. By W. L. T, ADDISON ................0000 618
12. Note on a Compound of Mercury and Ozone. By E. C. C. Baty ......... 613
13. The Reduction of Bromic Acid and the Law of Mass Action. By JAmzs
WALLACE WALKER, Ph.D., M.A., and WINIFRED JUDSON ............000005 613
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
1, On the Composition of Canadian Virgin Soils, By Franx T. Suurt, M.A.,
Mee eh adr act car anaig rasa vet nani Guemsnin’<Teaceeesesemaaa<eaNanst ss 616
2. Analysis of Some Precarboniferous Coals. By Professor W. Hopason
TERRI, coopoddadan Seok BnCoEcecouS SE EG doa npogeD Bs uC oD LOCO AO UE HoAaSNSuyAce Aa uucbEeR Sa aOBe 620
3. *The Constitution of Aliphatic Ketones. By Professor P. C. FREER...... 621
4, *The Chemistry of Methylene. By Professor J. U. NEF ..........se0seesee0 621
5. Formation of a Benzene-Ring by Reduction of a 1:6 Diketon, By A.
*LATCIRIETTAIS ST RE BRSBS Send aGsAaSeacnocadacnaqdadebdaceSdsquedeca dene aeecocosEdedce esadecee 621
6. Condensation Products of Aldehydes and Amides. By Caries A. Koun,
PMPEME RISC] = 80 Satcatn se cccanhnsteptac is csncts cate enccetaueocettae eave dle tevediacke 622
7. A New Form of Bunsen Burner. By Hue MArsHAtt, D.Sc. .....0...+4 623
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1. *Molecular Movement in Metals. By Professor W.C. RosErts-AUsTEN,
RE yaya a cigeistes de do Abninadia ohh wbdninn oe nite oc guieag donee pada Men eagorelt'gaii 623
2, The Causes of Loss incurred in roasting Gold Ores. containing Tellurium,
SN oy Fee E94 ay cas su apn esa cassesseae'Geqssansenncdasmpatan cacueunanimpees mois =2 623
3. *The Behaviour of Lead and of some Lead Compounds towards Sulphur
Dioxide. By. H.C, JENKUNS,........sscsscccesssersceecessrseegiseseeses sanseeeeees 624
4, *The Vapour Tensions of Liquid Mixtures. By Dr. W. L. Minter and
Fie LLOSHBROU GH: 4.05, Jecqcenancdovadeasesatsassanscucsccsaesncsqagenseeieessssnisectd 624
5. *The Electrolytic Determination of Copper and Iron in Oysters. By Dr.
Me AGWINOFIN scincianstesppiescit tas sts pacs cc neicsdepecaiicc saree seams cceee sie snc ss cauictoaide ses 624
6. The Nitro-Alcohols. By Professor Lours HENRY...........scceeeecreeeeeeeees 624
7. The Plaster of Paris Method in Blowpipe Analysis. By Professor W. W.
PASNEW Soot ewecccccenesn-noperrassedevytsehcecacasauidy vee taeperocss \escerndnsncaanserse 625
8. *Some Experiments with Chlorine. By R. RansFoRD......... eLedacontear 627
9. Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis .............+5 627
Xvi REPORT—1897.
Pa,
10. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ...........:scesseeeeceseseneeeeeeee 627
11, Report on the Direct Formation of Haloids from Pure Materials............ 627
12. *Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy .........cee-s-seeeseeee 627
13. Report on the Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws.............00++ Bt Mitch 627
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 628
1, Some Typical Sections in South-western Nova Scotia. By L. W. Barter,
PED Oso a ee cvrisiacecdascacscataeasouwosnsaussuncmnnagnachtcaeecannccs te ceueat = ane 640
2. Problems in Quebec Geology. By R. W. Ents, LL.D., F.R.S.C. ......... 640
3. Report on Life-Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks ....................5 642
4. The Stratigraphic Succession in Jamaica. By Ropurr T. Hitt............ 642
5. Preliminary Notice of some Experiments on the Flow of Rocks. By
Paws DO Anvms and Jon T. NaGOUSON’ ...-::va-eapeesensscdowmpicasasessces 642
6. The Former Extension of the Appalachians across Mississippi, Louisiana,
and Texas. By Professor Jon C. BRANNER, Ph.D. .............sceseeeeees 643
7. Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef ........0........csscssceseecneeess 644
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20,
1, A Group of Hypotheses bearing on Climatic Changes. By Professor T.
(CECHAMBERLDN |. .cccstas sacsaascs ognroe ghee ancselacsncaeasiuu<--5oe + ocak see 644
2. Distribution and Succession of the Pleistocene Ice Sheets of Northern
United States. By Professor T. C. CHAMBERLIN ............ccseeceeeeeeee: 647
3. On the Glacial Formation of the Alps. By Professor A. PENCK............ 647
4, On the Asar of Finland, By P. KROPOTKIN ........scscccsecessecscesessseseees 648
5, The Chalky Boulder-clay and the Glacial Phenomena of the Western-
Midland Counties of England. By H. B. Woopwarp, F.R.S. ............ 649
6. Glacial and Interglacial Deposits at Toronto. By A. P. Coremay, Ph.D. 650
7. On the Continental Elevation of the Glacial see By J. V. Spencer,
PAD AGS. const ccneetess oncceses ent debuthavoeacsntneoedtater co gicce saat 651
8, The Champlain Submergence and Uplift, and their Relations to the Great
Lakes and Niagara Falls. By FRANK BuRsLey TAYLOR.........0...00cc000e 652
9. *Remarks introductory to the Excursion to Niagara Falls and Gorge. By
IG. Ky GULBERL ~ .acesessescaesvess ess chadandbas sad dar deevs diacsteiten alee 653
10. Drift Phenomena of Puget Sound and their Interpretation. By Bayrry
WADI. +. sassierss.ctvrscocssesanecescosssapun sek sastastiebaeeet eatuersce sete: mmm 655
11. The Southern Lobe of the Laurentian Ice Sheet. By Professor C. H.
TTPOCH OIG: « nearer eceyewnncdvenve dup deyedcavneratientodannevsdaaeitee tela 655
12. On the Origin of Drumlins. By Professor N.S. SHALER........c00..c00ccee0e 654
13, The pre-Glacial Decay of Rocks in Eastern Canada. By Ropertr CHat-
MISE, IGS ING soci es cce2sseseseles tes occaae desea ek ake tena ee ee 655
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. Note on Certain pre-Cambrian and Cambrian Fossils ce to be re-
lated to Eozoon. By Sir W. Dawson, F.R.S. .....cscccsseseesecceececseececce 656
CONTENTS, XVil
Page
2. Note on a Fish Tooth from the Upper Arisaig series of Nova Scotia. By
SE WV HITHAVER oisnccl oe sopecanssiv as CBs toca tory COA Bee nC een eae 656
8. On some new or hitherto little known Palzozoic Formations in North-
Eastern America. By H. M. Amt, M.A., F.G.S.........ccccccecceeceeceeeeees 657
4, Some Characteristic Genera of the Cambrian. By G. F. Marruew,
NDE Ee Na oa cand ce as i'n He edie abacag asain cus niet esse nc lepeh eieees 657
5. Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ............s0e.00e+ 658
6. Report on the Secondary Fossils of Moreseat, Aberdeenshire ............... 658
7. Influence d’un éboulement sur le Régime d’une Riviére. Par Mgr. J.-C. K.
LAFLAMME ..... vens.ns 5 cohol /-pulevatiacsinsh stabs sts ¥elldNias cslectecseee eae ASR eCRCe Ee 658
8. *Report of the Coast Erosion Committee of the East Kent and Dover
- Natural History Societies, By Captain D. McDAXIN ........0...0.c0ccceeees 658
9. Report on the Fauna of Caves near Singapore...............csseeecceecesseeeeees 658
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1, Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles .................c0.00e Seca: 659
. On the Relations and Structure of certain Granites and associated Arkoses
on Lake Temiscaming, Canada. By A. E, Bartow, M.A.,, and W. F.
PSH UER esta OCH ose dee see metre ck sce te sccect cot eecneacensanocecnauericensncarncese . 659
3. Report on the Irish Elk Remains in the Isle of Man .............cccccceecneeee 660
4, On some Nickeliferous Magnetites. By Witter G. Minuer ...... eeaccee 660
5. Differentiation in Igneous Magmas as a result of Progressive Crystallisa-
SiGneamels ye. Vee EL. DRA MPAs HIS: s ocdoclstevce sconseteekssassecntacccumes 661
6. The Glaciation of North-Central Canada. By J. B. TyRRELL............... 662:
7. The Geological Horizons of some Nova Scotia Minerals. By E. Grxrry,
aN TED WES ER omen eto e vs cssrcnscaumetedeees sens Cathk Ugengndoces spose. 663:
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24,
1. On the Possible Identity of Bennettites, Williamsonia and Zamites gigas.
Bay Ae) Cp SEWARD, MAL, EGS sc.5..ncslecnasessosdsees ances asta sass 1 Bas tantesott 663°
2. Glacial Geology of Western New York. By Herman LeRoy Farr-
BEBBED MES coe sic sete oan son ts apata dt nahdaaetccante hop easaealinad th aatemeeiatt bani dead’ GOA
8. Second Report on Seismological Investigation .............scseecseeesceeceeees 664
4, Earth Strains and Structure. By O. H. Howarri ..............cc00ceeeeeee 664
5. Palzeozoic Geography of the Eastern States. By E. W. Crayrots, B.A.,
Deere cer Soe coe ne sone Gar ins Saaes tape cad Seen eee tuameak cabt eel sais onccs 665.
6. On the Structure and Origin of certain Rocks of the Laurentian System.
lage RAg KDA DAMES PRD M IRS: Ce ooo viccsesscescncstetsestoceossescceeoss 665
7. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest ...........0...sccesecssccseceeeeees 666
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1, *Joint discussion with Section H. on ‘The First Traces of Man in
BMTNIE LICR sac uecdeslotesscacstinartee ec dacap rete es oso ocdarcansogetioanoutemeee 666
2. *Exhibition of the Ferrier Collection of Minerals in the Biological Museum 666
co
. *Exhibition of the Collection of Canadian Fossils in the Museum of the
School of Practical Science .........sseceeees Madpthah «cick Sp esa LQ Re ea ae Srey. 666
1897. a
XVill REPORT—1897.
Page
4, *Exhibition of a Collection of Devonian Fossils from Western Ontario in
the Section Room. By Dr. S. WOOLVERTON ........-ssssseeneceseeeseneeeeenees 666
5. *Exhibition of a Collection of British Geological Photographs in the Sec-
tion Room ......... Gpaeiicibe Seta neteatck catia: Sameacs senaes tase semeseient ees aes re nena .--- 666
Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by Professor L. C. Mra, F.R.S., President of the Section ......... .. 667
1. Report on Investigations made at the Zoological Station, Naples............ 683
2. Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological
Station, Plymouth... ...cc/sdetswwuevalesucssecesnessccscccees vucarveaureh saucy seeeee 683
. *On the Naples Marine Station and its Work. By Dr. Anton Dourn ... 683
. *On a proposed Lacustrine Biological Station. By Professor R. Ramsay
WRIGHT Sic ccicv ens ods dese aacenmrecp be sanins caedeaQasebeee du ciindse osacecssaeetpeeramees 683
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
, Reconstruction and Model of Phenacodus primevus, Cope. By Professor
Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN .......- Fale Ree SuteAsces' slaps bales vie cise ose Sere etn ean 684
. On Skeletons and Restorations of Tertiary Mammalia. By Professor
Flanry HATREERED: OSBORN S248. costaces.cccccttecdcecsssedscjessstoseccccceneeneeast 684
. Oysters and the Oyster Question. By Professor W. A, Herpman, F.R.S. 685
. The Amblyopside, the Blind Fish of America, By Dr. C.H. Erepnmann 685
. The Origin of the Mammalia. By Professor HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBORN... 686
. Description of Specimens of Sea-trout, Caplin, and Sturgeon from Hudson
Bayo - By Protessor EDWARD EH. PREM OW .;. ....+/..0.010500.43+sbeneansuaeeeeeenne 687
. On the Esocide (or Luciide) of Canada. By Professor E. E. Prince ... 688
. *Recent Additions to the Fish Fauna of New Brunswick. By Dr. Puiip
Compe. sac id gilofaite o Coie ab sales CALI UBEA Pe CaeUn epee wea Glee vfs addutece siatinit wis vis ot tres Canen orammReIN 689
. Theories of Mimicry as illustrated by African Butterflies. By Professor
Epwanrn B; Pouvnton,; MA: tE Risi.d.. ct. 2sc.ctecvccss oceccews.daunensahenaeeeeente 689
. *On the Surface Plankton of the North Atlantic. By W. Garstane, M.A. 691
. “Remarks on Branchipus stagnalis. By A. HALKETT ...........s:cecseeneees 691
. Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication ..........:sceeeseessseneee 691
. Report on the Index generum et specierum animalium ..........:0cceeeeceeeee 691
. Report on the Zoology and Botany of the West Indian Islands ............ 691
. Interim Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland ......... o. 691
.. Report on African Lake Mauna occas sepsaract acne sets --b00/scenncathnaneyeieenad 691
Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands .............sssseceeseseeseeeees 691
. Report on the Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology
of Oceanicslands.s.steeccnaeersecreeneceeseeese reac asa savctesssS entemere sweseevews
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
. Protective Mimicry as Evidence for the Validity of the Theory of Natural
Selection. By Professor Epwarp B. Povtton, M.A., F.R.S.........-.2c066 692
. Economic Entomology in the United States. By L. O. Howarp, Ph.D. 694
10.
CONTENTS. xix
Page
On some remains of a Sepia-like Cuttle-fish from the Lower Cretaceous g
rocks of the South Saskatchewan. By J. F. WHITHAVES .............00006 694
. The Statistics of Bees. By Professor F. Y. EDGEWORTH ...............0ceeee 694.
. The Appearance of the Army Worm in the Province of Ontario during
1896. By Professor J. HOYES PANTON, M.A. .......ccccecssssecsceerevensenes 695
. *On a supposed New Insect Structure. By Professor L. C. Mrat1, F.R.S. 695
. *On Recapitulation in Development, as illustrated by the Life History of
the Masked Crab (Corystes). By W. GARsTanc, M.A. ........scceeceeceees 695 °
. *On Musculo-glandular Cells in Annelids. By Professor Gustave Gitson 695
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
. On the Plankton collected continuously during a traverse of the Atlantic
in August, 1897. By Professor W. A. HerpMAN, F.RBS. ............. ee 695
. The Determinants for the Major Classification of Fish-like Vertebrates.
Bay POfeSSOF THHODPRD GIL J... .c.0ccccerevecesceavecuscsenewesausesaseuedsseean 696
. On the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in Terrestrial Vertebrates, By
Ec HLessOMyL WHODORE) Gillies das hessds des os chdeaucee coe cdcc stele ses cdewes elder eaaete 697
. *The Morphological Significance of the Comparative Study of Cardiac
Meenas ar bsys Dry Wy. das} GAS BEL, PY RiSe hc tna spels scsi sea cdeap uel ecapiccandaee 697
. *Observations upon the Morphology of the Cerebral Commissures in the
Vertebrata. By Dr. G. Eniior SMITH, M.A. oo... cece eeee cece eee eee een eee 697
. *Some points in the Symmetry of Actinians. By Professor J. P.
MWMEM VETS RAUSIIS ooo aceeh cca t- cc Ol. «meee baat vasecumear ah wat takde daetuicitde oduasben besten 697
. *The Natural History of Instinct. By Professor C. Ltoyp Morean, M.A. 697
he
. On the Heematozoon Infections iu Birds. By W.G. MacCatium, B.A... 697
. The Post-embryonic Development of Aspidogaster conchicola. By JosrPH
SPACER OTD EEN DD ss cas astra slows digs ania ox hietteech asia ais siete wena alot ne'S om sisiessnielok £.. 698
*On a particularly large Set of Antlers of the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus).
wo? (Gi ENTE (ng do |i aaa Reb on sdteiee aoc o-Oonrabeceeperbsnenca cnceceen secchosedesc ace 698
*On the Evolution of the Domestic Races of Cattle, with particular Re-
ference to the History of the Durham Short Horn. By G. P. Huauus... 698
- Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by J. Scorr Krtrin, LL.D., Sec.R.G.S., President of the Section ... 699
1, Kafiristan and the Kafirs. By Sir Gzorcz Scorr Ropertson, K.C.S.I. ... 712
2.. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa ...........csscessesseceseosecasecuees 712
8. Novaia Zemlia and its Physical Geography. By E. Detmar Moreay,
ee oo dar et nace ee ea Wik aide Saaasad tp np Uxanapen areal 712
4, Sea Temperatures north of Spitsbergen. By B. LetcH SMITH............... 713
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
‘1. Scientific Geography for Schools. By Professor RicHarp E. Dopee...... 714
2. Report on Geographical Education ........sssccsscssccsssrssccescesconsccsssensens 714
_ 3. Forestry in India. By Lieut.-Col. FRED. BAILEY ..........66... Beeeeewatticss 714
a 2
xXx REPORT—1897,
Page
4, A Scheme of Geographical Classification. By Hucu Ropert Mitt, D.Sc.,
SEV Ss Dnmeasnier sreneatcaktet tet oteecsseasecras caunsele deces onte cctens stone oaseedesenctely 715
5. On the Distribution of Detritus by the Sea. By Vavenan Cornisu,
M.Sc., F.R.G.S., F.C.S. ..... ade supe dwaseencuekedtnesnoe derecho teeneeee eeeeeaee 716.
6. On certain Submarine Geological Changes. By Jonn Muixyz, F.R.S.,
HE GEES ge cera pig ae aaa aah ba saithin welch bass io sdinen's nedandinle cosespaiajacce aes eee amen 716.
7. The Congo and the Cape of Good Hope, 1482 to 1488. By E.G. Raven-
SUNEVLINN SSS as cp wei ie ale Tee Clecin xis Bolger Spies Wepeteea sides va slaeee cae ele ete eee falyé
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1, Institutions engaged in Geographic Work in the United States. By
IMARCUREBAKOER, siccarsduenctinns egos o0cece does esemtnsacass'e: -sacaconee tek eenmeeeneee 718:
2. A Brief Account of the Geographic Work of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. By T. OC. MENDENHALL............cccceceeseceecesescncusencs 719
3. The Hydrography of the United States. By F. H. NEw t ........,...... 719
4, The Coastal Plain of Maine. By Professor Wint1am Morris Davis...... 719.
5. *The Unification of Time at Sea. By C. E. LUMSDEN................cc0cee0 720
6. The Barren Lands of Canada. By J. B. Tyrrett, M.A., B.Se. ............ 720
7. Geographic Work of the United States Geographical Survey. By CHARLES
Mae WAELCODT stswcawectolncctscee ss anGaethnn weceeeeads thecal ds decorate a 720:
. The Topographical Work of the Geological Survey of Canada. By J.
FVWARLTIE: . sp ccictictterctekt ou tresle'e sie are aren awaatenhaen tunes cepeones Atte cadet acco 72}
. The United States Daily Weather Survey. By Professor Wituis L.
IMOORD; ULI aii aspen sed- ace serwecdueseyectitecteestane: boccoorces hh tee aaa 721
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
1. The Economic Geography of Rhodesia. By F.C. Senous .............00068 721
2.) A Joumey in Tripolt, ‘By J. UL. Mymes, WAS)" 0.) ee 722
3. On the Direction of Lines of Structure in Eurasia. By Prince Kroporxry 722
4, Potamology as a Branch of Physical Geography. By Professor ALBRECHT
PENG Sscnese'enan scsviucsvcasoavescfavehostnnsstvcewcdiwnec tages: teen ts oeey ean 723
5. *Geographical Development of the Lower Mississippi. By E. L. Corr-
LIED» 2 50/05 ni cin-'s evs ss wsininte Some afte sane aaelempbessns/hehs se welderoseass ache tts ete eeeeeen « 123
6. *“South-eastern Alaska Geography and the Camera. By Orro J. Knorz . 724
7. *The First Ascent of Mount Lefroy and Mount Aberdeen. By Professor
H, BeDixon, ERIS ARGS Aereats wbteceeecioeees abecctee eet ee 724
8. Mexico Felix and Mexico Deserta. By O. H. Howarrn...............0...55 724
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1. *The Material Conditions and Growth of the United States. By Hunry
GANINEDD 5 1.0...0! iyacnes opeesheoces oecadbiphaelteve dips covalavl tec. ft mene eee 2
2. Geographical Pictures, By Hue Rosert Mitt, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.......... 725
3. Geographical Wall-pictures. By Professor ALBRECHT PENCK............... 725
4. Geography in the University, By Professor W1tt1am Morris Davis ... 726
CONTENTS. xxi
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by Professor E. C. XK. Gonner, M.A., President of the Section ...... nO87
1, The History of Trade Combination in Canada. By W. H. Moore......... 737
2. Recent Aspects of Profit Sharing. By Professor N. P. GILMAN............ 738
8, A Consideration of a European Monopoly as a Contribution to the Theory
GrState Industries. By S. M* Wickert, PH.D. °..............sccceseceeesenee 738
4, *Statistics of Deaf-Mutism in Canada. By G. JoHNSON ..............000002+ 739
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
1, *Some Fallacies in the Theory of the Distribution of Wealth. By Pro-
SPER PERTTI bs careening cle Cugeaseec eddie ca sinaceces. o> saadneddiehesinaneeiar 740
2. Canada and the Silver Question. By Joun Davinson, D.Phil. ............ 740
3. *The Origin of the Dollar. By Professor W. G.SUMNER...........seceeeeees 740
4, *Silver and Copper in China. By Dr. J. EDKINS .............cccceseeeeeeeeees 740
5. *Characteristics of Canadian Economic History. By Professor A. SHortr 741
6. Economic History of Canada. By J. CasTe~n HOPKINS ............0000ss00e 741
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
- National Policy and International Trade. By Epwin Cannan, M.A. ... 741
. On Public Finance, chiefly in relation to Canada. By J. L. McDoveatz,
77s Tig Sag <i RE 2 SR es RE ER ca A a Pa RE RAE AS OM 742
. Crown Revenues in Lower Canada (1763-1847). By J. A. McLzav...... 742
4. The Evolution of the Metropolis, and Problems in Metropolitan Govern-
TER UMEE ESY) VV Mo EL EA TIM OPH: fog. ces eno. s aco nchsnnausmacdsdislasegusins peli 743
5. Local Differences in Discount Rates in the United States. ey. R. M.
BEROMEN RIDGE, PH.D), sie ctenscscoges se casedacdessancccec sce ducesseascasséeges secdcs 744
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
1. *The Economic Geography of Rhodesia. By F. C. SELOUS ............000006 746
2. *Economic Aspects of the Workmen’s Compensation Bill. By J. R.
|W ELI RISIATIT op gene cece np coon tnE er Ocge Ge Doo EC a HOsC Ga ce aC co obOdeduanenr oc Poco a arutirec 746
3. *The Relation of the Employment of Women and Children to that of Men.
ESA AROUSED aN BIGHT tiraccrecscaiseaccsdessyeteaiceesenasscclecasaadosseesterg 746
4, *Recent Reaction from Economic Freedom in the United States. By R.
Pema ONY ICI setictes Seis ese sa'sainesdea ew ue viistecwpicce aeisisncljacisevesse'wa'sslewdee seseeide cee se 746
5. *The Theory of Economic Choices. By Professor F. H. GIppines......... 746
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1. “Some Economic Notes on Gold Mining in Canada. By Professor J.
ILAWTOLS case cep Loree BOSD USER EE ODE n Det Cen ONDE SOU ne Bee npenen Conard ssnuee-ceberrer 746
2. *Theory of Railway Rates. By W. M. AcKWORTH ............44 Mi tyaeg eos: 746
xxil REPORT—1897.
Section G.imMMECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section .............+ 747
AF
2,
The Soulanges Canal, a Typical Link of the 14-foot Inland Navigation of
Canada between Lake Erie and Montreal. By J. Monro, M.Inst.C.E, ... 754
On the Hydraulic Laboratory of McGill University. By Professor HENRY
T. Bovey, M.Inst.C.E., and J. T, FARMER, Ma.B.........cecsssecsereescereeee 754
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
. Supplementary Report on the Calibration of Instruments in Engineering
Lak 755
OVAPOLICH © ais ccessissssae=cacsd cocsssatocadsacamseneees ovctesiinns snes gionssemonescary
. The Strength of Columns. By Professor GAETANO LANZA ........:sseeeeees 755
. Results of Experiments on the Strength of White Pine, Red Pine, Hem-
lock, and Spruce. By Professor H. T. Bovey, M.Inst.C.H. .............0004 758
. A New Apparatus for Studying the Rate of Condensation of Steam on a
Metal Surface at Different Temperatures and Pressures. By Professor
H. L. Cattenpar, M.A., F.R.S., and Professor J. T. Niconson, B.Sc. ... 759
5. Tests on the Triple-expansion Engine at Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology. By Professor Cectt H. PEABODY ...........s.csesesseseeeceesenseeesers 759
: MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1 sReport.on Small Serow Gaupesscc....00-ernecccs-cmcess=>ressceeCaskesycomitecntes 761
2. *Montreal Electric Tramway System. By G. C. CUNNINGHAM ..........06 761
. The Present Tendencies of Electric Tramway Traction. By J. G. W.
ATDRIDGH, MA, McInatiC. Hy vice. fie aaivecds fas te ckavedesdsqevocdeasstoee eens eneees 764
. On a New Method of Measuring Hysteresis in Iron. By J. L. W. Grx1,
BiAgBeiieed cas Wvcecetiaus ncbabtondestensbeacnsestseds sbacecdtvcueey setdes dcoeaenmeaae ney 762
. A New Method of Investigating the Variation of the Magnetic Qualities
of Iron with Temperature. By F. H. Prrcower, M.A.Sc.........0s:e0eseeeeee 763
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
1. *Some Tests on the Variation of the Constants of Electricity Supply
Meters with Temperature and with Currents, By G. W. D. Ricks...... 766
2; “Roller Bearings. -By W: 3B. MAESHAUT ccc0.0 0. /.asacd ccna soccessepneeemeeensed 766
iv)
i
. Analysis of Speed Trials of Ships.) By W. G. Warxer, M.Inst.M.E.,
ASM Inst:C.Ey 2:2 .00.s.cscotectcedactetenesnrteeneaeecesbapaaveraeeset sateen eee eneeeeeeas 766
. “A Modern Power Gas Plant Working in a Textile Factory. By H. ALLEN 767
. “Effect of Temperature in Varying the Resistance to Impact, the Hard-
ness, and the Tensile Strength of Metals. By A. MACPHAIL .............. 767
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
. tThe Scalp-lock: a Study of Omaha Ritual. By Miss AttceC, Frurcuer 788
. tThe Import of the Totem among the Omaha. By Miss Anice C.
NTETOHUR #055 i220cbsscSeeoec cca tee cetecckadccce cn yee eee ane 788
CONTENTS. XX
3, Squaktktquaclt, or the Benign-faced Oannes of the De ee British 5
BRC ery CeORLED TL OUM™. cacacn- nice acct seratss csesacsinVevseecssicedectclonscees 788
4, The Blackfoot Legend of Scar-face. By R. N. WILSON ..........ceceeeeee ee 788
5. Blackfoot Sun-offerings. By R. N. WILSON ...........ccsceeeeeeeereeeeueeeeees 789
6. *Star-lore of the Micmacs of Nova Scotia. By Sranspury Hagak......... 789
7. tThe Lake Village of Glastonbury and its place among the Lake dwellings
Sememematioeg. bay Pir. Fo. MUNRO «3s agadecuaeqscandedaessicsniassetaddantastaaseees 789
8. Report on the Silchester Excavations ............secsecscsecesseencnseneneeeseers 789
9. Some Old-world Harvest Customs. By F.T. ELWORTHY................0006+ 789
10, Report on the North Dravidian and Kolarian Races of Central India...... 789
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
Address by Sir Wittram Turner, M.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
1,
2.
3.
Pere O NUT OM TNG SECHON s1scc4-ceen-secycctatesseqcssncevesssionecensccectadscbearcass 768
*Demonstration of the Utility of the Spinal Curves in Man. By Pro-
PSSEOIVANDRAONOTUARI «hive eca. cacecidoamsane ose asodseawe oli dense qedelemisiteapep oat 790
*The Cause of Brachycephaly. By Professor A. Macaristmr, F.R.S....... 790
*Notes on the Brains of some Australian Natives. By Professor A.
VUNG AMG TS DCRR sal a pclae oSa-tas Bec dns eiday elused sows ds creeds vs sues esses spidhigasrea = ahs = 790
*On some Cases of Trepanning in Early American Skulls. By Dr. W. J
LG IGNDDIS SohdsecBeeeSeRDnEOOH-cc Eee t code ese OCEBEG eeLeneens to hr cbr Bec oae east eel se onc 25010 790
. A Case of Trepanning in North-Western Mexico. By W. Cart Lum-
PIOUSP ZA OU DT AG SER LI CKAY 20s ce tciacdus anda debacgeas osue cess oscsenesee ese seddasgds 790
6. Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations in Children from the Normal 791
7. Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools............:..eeseeeeeeees 791
8. *An Experimental Analysis of certain Correlations of Mental Physical
Reactions. By Professor LIGHTNER WITMER ........ceecseeeeeeneeseeereeeees 791
9. The Growth of Toronto School Children. By Dr. Franz Boas ............ 791
10. *The Physical Characteristics of European Colonists born in New Zealand.
ya erp els O; DORBESIss 2. ice uecdnsaasssccsensseceuarassetacs «secsinidaadassasinaes sate 791
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1. +Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada ............:scceecseceeeeees 791
2. *The Seri Indians of the Gulf of California. By Dr. W. J. McGze ...... 791
3. *Historical and Philological Notes on the Indians of British Columbia. By
SENN neice Loe Acddidddcddanchacescoasgnvscosyessscsnsensvacetas sees 791
4, The Kootenays and their Salishan Neighbours. By Dr. A. F. CHAMBER~
PUAUN GSR. Seok «is ddccbcedatie us <easq0Uiheeds on eleieasccescadenss fase esse s@dabnceisas «ces se 792
5. Kootenay Indian Drawings. By Dr. A. F. CHAMBERLAIN ........2....-0+ 792
6. *A Rock Inscription on Great Central Lake, Vancouver Island. By
De W. MACKAY: J.....00...cecccscencccceovcnvcnssceccscaccccnsssccscansceveaenccenes 793
7. Blackfoot Womanhood. By Rev. Jomn Macrzan, M.A., Ph.D............. 793
8. On the Hut-burial of the American Aborigines. By E. Sipnsy Hartianp 794
9. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada.............:sseseeeesrecesenesneee 795
10. The Origin of the French Canadians. By B. SULTE .........ceesseeeeeeerenees 795
11. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom............... 795
12, *The Evolution of the Cart and Irish Car. By Professor A, 0. Happon 795
XXi1V REPORT—1897.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
Page
. *The Jesup Expedition to the North Pacific. By Professor F. W.Purnam 795
1
2. *Discussion of Evidences of American-Asiatic Contact ..........scececeee Maren oo
3. Why Human Progress is by Leaps. By GHoRGE Inks ..............c0scosceee 796
4
. *On the Transmission of Acquired Characters. By Professor J. Cossar
I WART UR AR Go iceninsics sane decdtecgat ccdendoeeeoet nace cue aot eee tee eRe 796
5. *On the Kafirs of Kafiristan. By Sir Grorcr Rospertson, K.C.S.I. ...... 796
6. *On the Mangyans and Tagbanuas of the Philippine Isles. By Professor
Dey, @,, WiGROWSUER, ..accsss sundial tl Loses teaceaswarhl. sh sbeedasnte ee 796
7. Report on the Necessity of the Immediate Investigation of the Anthro-
pology of Oceanit Islands: . 5.5. 028i ticcc. deli bets teese cone ssaueannageee yee 796
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
“Joint Discussion with Section C (Geology) on the First Traces of Man in
the New World
a. *The Trenton Gravels. By Professor F. W. PUTNAM ........ccceseeees 796
6. *Human Relics in the Drift of Ohio. By Professor E. W. Craypote 796
1, On some Spear-heads made of Glass from West Australia. By Sir W.
Anrmwaies a RS: WRU Ste ns ccs; eee hnceaaaeeee eee ee ee eee 796
2. *The Genesis of Implement-making. By F. H. Cusnrne 797
Peace ee ewe wen teneenee
8. *Adze-making in the Andaman Islands. By Professor A.C. Happon ... 797
Section I.—PH YSIOLOGY (including Experimentat Patnonoey and
EXPERIMENTAL PsycHoLoey).
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Address by Professor Micuart Foster, M.D., Sec.R.S., President of the
Section
ie eee ee eee eee eee eee Cee eee CCrrrrrrr rere rr rer err rrrrer rrr reer rr)
1. The Rhythm of Smooth Muscles. By Professor H. P. Bowprrcn ......... 809
2. The Innervation of Motor Tissues, with special reference to Nerve-
endings in the Sensory Muscle-spindles. By Professor G. Cart Huser,
M.D:, and Mrs’ Di WUPt ....ssagacesonasnaer avons ®es nee rseess yee eee 810
3. *The Muscle-spindles in Pathological Conditions, By O. F. F. Grinpaum 811
4, The Ear and the Lateral Line in Fishes. By Freprric 8. Lex, Ph.D.... 811
‘5. “On the Effect of Frequency of Excitations on the Contractility of Muscle.
By Professor W. P. Lomparp
D)
6. A Dynamometric Study of the Strength of the Several Groups of Muscles,
and the Relation of Corresponding Homologous Groups of Museles in
Man. Byid. Hy Kengoga, MT, ..2.2.2- 0c. .2tsieeekeccs aaa Pee . 812
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
1. The Output of the Mammalian Heart. By Dr. G. N. Srpwarr ...........+ 813
2. Observations on the Mammalian Heart. By W.T. PoRTER ...........00. 814
CONTENTS, XXV
Page
8. On the Resistance of the Vascular Channels. By Professor K. Hirtute 815
4. *The Comparative Physiology of the Cardiac Branches of the Vagus
Nerve. By Dr. W. H. GASKELL, FURS. cecseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeennes 816
5, On Rhythmical Variations in the Strength of the Contractions of the
Mammalian Heart. By Arthur R. CUSHNY .......:.csseceecseeseeeeeseeeenee 816
6. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors ......... 817
7. The Absorption of Serum in the Intestine. By Professor E, WarmMourH
acco nd ckyyaneqascanees ddanXatea-psemndehsecdehadadevs sreeudas qaavanopeeqaachae 817
8. *The Function of the Canal of Stilling in the Vitreous Humour. By
Professor ANDERSON STUART.......csececseceecesseneccneccsecaneeuerensewnsceaeseees 820
9. *Description of some pieces of Physiological Apparatus. By Professor
ANDERSON STUART ........068 AoC EROSB CEO “Conc IA HEEBOR Enc aEn eooeec saeaceccur omer Or” 820
10, On the Phosphorus Metabolism of the Salmon in Fresh Water. By D.
Norn Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P., Ed. 21... ..cccccscscecceretecscseseenceneessceenes 820
11. *Electrostatical Experiments on Nerve Simulating the effects of Electric
Rays. By Professor JACQUES LOEB ...........ccseeeeeeeeeen eee eenersnessweeees 821
12. The Gastric Inversion of Cane Sugar by Hydrochloric Acid. By Pro-
fessor GRAHAM LUSK .............ssccccscsscnccccstcessscssonscescsgenerscsersecenoes 821
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1. Study of the Comparative Physiology of the Cells of the Sympathetic
Nervous System. By Professor G., OARL HUBER ...........sssseeeeeeeeeeeeees 822
2, Investigations in the Micro-chemistry of Nerve Cells. By J. J. Mac-
IMSINIABE Steen fev ansintcevossrscsacsossocccinaessnanoscdssccosonetectoetathastssatedeeddseebelne 822
3. An Investigation of the changes in Nerve Cells in various Pathological
conditions. By W. B. Wargineton, M.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.P. ............ 822
4, Action of Reagents on Isolated Nerve. By Dr. A. WALLER, F.R.S....... 822
5. Action of Anesthetics on Nerve. By F. Srymour Liovyp ...............+:+ 822
6. *Action of Anesthetics on Cardiac Muscle. By Miss WELBY .........++ 822
7. Période Réfractaire dans les Centres Nerveux. Par Professor Dr. C.
EULOH EW, veo ncccecoecooossacstescsrecssesaseasecesscsansesssecstsnncraccocnnccsccoensvecers 828
8. *On a Cheap Chronograph. By Professor W. P. LOMBARD............++++++ 823
9. Demonstration of the Pendulum Chronoscope and Accessory Apparatus.
By Dr. H. W. SCRIPTURE .........ccc..csscscevscasenscnccescacenserscaseccersseeeees 824
10. The Tricolour Lantern for Illustrating the Physiology and Psychology of
Colour-vision. By Dr. E. W. SCRIPTURE ........-.scsseeseceeceeesenseneersneee 824.
11. Observations on Visual Contrast. By C. S. SHerrineron, M.A., M.D.,
Neca enalt ceca evaereshaceanerescesscaah save eatdanucnpeca= hos lequsmvadecoces ts 824
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
*Discussion with Section K on the Chemistry and Structure of the Cell ...... 826
1 ol Rationale of Chemical Synthesis, By Professor R. Merpora,
erates eeenen dees cenaysaeuinrncneerstersks ers vse ans dauens venns os sav omdusdetnanens 2
2. *On the Existence in Yeast of an Alcohol-producing Enzyme. By Pro-
fessor J. R. GREEN, FLR.S. f.....ccc.cesctsccocescccccncesccsessccssescnsceccneenees 826
3. *New Views on the Significance of Intra-cellular Structures and Organs.
By Professor A. B, MACALLUM, Ph.D.........cccseceereeeeeneeteneeeeeenssesensees 826
Xxvi REPORT—1897.
CONT Oo Ot
Ion F® wWhHH
oo
. Preliminary Account of the Effects upon Blood-pressure produced by the
. Report on the Preservation of Plants for Exhibition...............
. Report on the Fertilisation of the Phacophycese ....s....ssessseseeeseeeeenennees 859
. The Growth of the Mycelium of Aecidium graveolens (Shuttlew.) on the
. The Nucleus of the Yeast Plant. By Harorp WAGER
. A Disease of Tomatoes. By W. G. P. ELLIs, M.A. .......sc:cccccccceensceees 861
. On the Chimney-shaped Stomata of Holacantha Emoryi. By Professor
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
Page
Intra-venous Injection of Fluids containing Choline, Neurine, or Allied
Products. By F. W. Morr, M.D., F.R.S., and W. D. Hatrrsurton,
1 EDP oe oS ae Eee ee Perea sy ee ae Sot tl! 2
. *On the Distribution of Iron in Animal and Vegetable Cells. By Pro-
fessor: AGB. MAGALLUM; PHEDIi2 ati. diet sat Weeteedeoreaee nanos oe eee eta ane ease 827
. *On the Presence of Copper in Animal Cells. By Professor W. A. HErp-
MAN, F.R.S., and Professor RUBERT BOYCE ..........scscescecececececsceseers 827
. *On Internal Absorption of Hemoglobin and Ferratin, By F. W. G.
MAOKAY +s ccscceesscsucdscdscdcsecdedasdedtancsscostederes suetbecoreoeeeeinetbanneeentir ss 828
. “On Secretion in Gland Cells. By R. R. BENSLEY ...............eccecesceees 828
. *The Morphology and Physiology of Gastric Cells. By R. R. Benstey... 828
. Visual Reaction to Intermittent Stimulation. By O. F. F, Grinpaum... 828
. Functional Development of the Cerebral Cortex in Different Groups of
Animals, By Professor Wrs~Ey Mrits, M.A., M.D. ..,........ceceecneeeees 828
. The Psychic Development of Young Animals and its Somatic Correlation,
with special reference to the Brain. By Professor Wuxstry MI ts,
ICS, RIGID 2s daa asaaonassonedeoosgacdaeneeeeecen aii Gasser mags << x65: eee eee 829
» “The Physiology of Instinct. By Professor Ltoyp Moreay, F.G.S. ...... 829
. “The Nature and Physical Basis of Pain. By Professor L. WirMER ...... 829
. The Action of Glycerine on the Tubercle Bacillus. By S. Moncxron
Copeman, M.A., M.D., and F. R. Braxenn, M.D...........02..cccecsecneseeees 829
. “Inhibition as a Factor in Muscular Co-ordination. By Professor C. 8.
NHBRRINGTON, ES. veccsVeconsavetecuceeccovsnsacdezegraduaesssssaseus cae eeeeene 830
. *A Movement produced by the Electric Current. By Professor F.
BRAUN 5 dick clad cubs titeed beddodet eee Wa daslelan shane asks codecs sdeeanereanee’ 830
Section K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
Branches of the Witches’ Broom on Berberis vulgaris. By P. Maenus... 859
Stereum hirsutum, a Wood-destroying Fungus. By Professor H. Mar-
sHitn Warp, DSe/ERS, +e ee ee 860
sieca's a eee eee 860
(CHARIES JH. BESBEY psc acaccueececehe catocihcoceknoseces santos eee sgeeches 861
- Some Considerations upon the Functions of Stomata. By Professor
CHA RTES)EH WBESSBY, | decvecs dhcceaweskaneeeete’ owed ss anneads veandesee? a ee ee 861
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
Address by Professor H. Marsuatt Warp, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of the
il
SOCHON ...0.snevandeecenvedeeuene «can van ccessnatt aches «ion tcl este e Renee ean 861
On the Species of Picea occurring in North-eastern United States and
Canada. By Professor D. P, PENHALLOW......sssssssesseesssevsceecsseseeceree 862
CONTENTS. XXVli
2. *Contribution to the Life History of Ranunculus. By Professor CouLTER
3. On the Distribution of the Native Trees of Nebraska. By Professor
CHARLES EH, BESSEY .,.,,.,0crspoecsrccctsaccecescecctnadadabucsdesssecssecsessssscorss 86
4, The Vegetation Regions of the Prairie Province. By Roscozn Pounp and
IBBEDERIC By, CLEMENTS: 5 0 .<ace'seciaplscmollilsesenctowicchicefSs ansneescqerespedeissmcees
5. The Zonal Constitution and Disposition of Plant Formations. By FREDERIC
PCGEMENTS |. scccsganeenrnce Haaawelasebapaa's abe duecnaep se UearesmeeNeans>s as cegs wes
6. The Transition Region of the Caryophyllales. By FrepEric KE, CLEMENTS
7. Note on Pleurococcus. By DororHBa F.M. PERTZ ...........seseeeeeeees eens
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
1. Antherozoids of Zamia integrifolia. By Hersert J. WEBBER, M.A.......
2. *On Diagrams illustrating the result of Fifty Years’ Experimenting on
the Growth of Wheat at Rothamsted, England. By Dr. H. E. Arm-
DIERON GS Eke cccccase ces ncn scccsesorccccnene se cetnccueceecccasdg cols dee secemerenet
3. A Preliminary Account of a New Method of Investigating the Behaviour
of Stomata. By FRANCIS DARWIN, F.R.S..........ccccccsesecensssscssensensenes
4. *Notes on Lileea. By Professor CAMPBELL .........scssseeeeeseeeeseesenersens
. “Lecture on Fossil Plants. By A.C. SpwaRD, M.A. ........csececeeeeeeees
6. *On the Existence of Motile Antherozoids in the Dictyolacee. By J. L.
MUMS corm cocica donut ae evades 042 soswadsuncekenaratvennysenIaspaseeucseseqenanabens
or
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
*Joint discussion with Section I on the Chemistry and Structure of the
Cell; introduced by the reading of three Papers, viz:—
* The Rationale of Chemical Synthesis. By Professor R. Mretpots, F.R.S.
*On the Existence of an Alcohol-producing Enzyme in Yeast. By
Professor J. R. GREEN, F.R.S.
*The Origin and Significance of Intracellular Structures. By Professor
A. B. Macattum, Ph.D. ............085 fe Can Re bbbe See bodne Bbence et ante cborict:
1, Further Observations on the Insemination of Ferns, and specially on
the Production of an Athyrioid Asplenium Trichomanes. By H. J. Lowe,
TNT Sy - Gon dScc re ede Doe CBD UGE OA COCDOCL CacebeoCc Ca cuC HBO BAD acHnnIsE hoonsatseRbadcenspoud
2. On ae than one Plant from the same Prothallus. By E. J. Lowe,
E.R
te meee n ere mera n eae e seer ee eee ees Eee EO OSes eas EEE SOE H EE HES SERS H EEE HEEEEESSESESR EEE E ED
3. Results in Experiments in the Oross-fertilising of Plants, Shrubs, and
PRRCCS ery AVM. SAUNDERS) sau. .icc~sieeosaucsesenceteseredaseddansdsacewsrscniscoses*
4, *On a Hybrid Fern, with Remarks on Hybridity. By Professor J. B.
RRR olor oleae beat ches vo remo rans nu Saeeuanateaade ds ssanavaceiuee ns scceune
5. The Morphology of the Central Cylinder in Vascular Plants. By E. C.
SR Teese een he set aban aniitislieteeat dh auccnokssdeticadt <p cuas sds dut casasdeaticeadce
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1, The Gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum, By Epwanrp C, JEFFREY,
2. Remarks on Changes in number of Sporangia in Vascular Plants. By
II MOWMBO WHR HcbusS,) tse sccessscrissedessisevoccdavesssstcs¥edescpeum@ehoceut@lecweeens 872
Page
862
863
863
864
864
864
865
865
866
866
866
866
867
867
869
ae
XXVill REPORT—1897.
Page
3. Notes on Fossil Equisetacee. By A. ©. Spwarp, M.A., F.G.S............. 872
A, *On Streptothrix actinomycotica and allied species of Streptothrix. By
Professor E. M. CROOKSHANK, M.D. ..........ccccecteececcsesceveceeecnsscncnees 873
5. *Observations on the Cyanophyces. By Professor A. B. Macattum, Ph.D. 873
4. Report upon some Preliminary Experiments with the Réntgen Rays on
Planta,; i By Growen Es A TKENGON :.....0..0..0.0epaenbugeedessnevess debeeabeae 873
PGCK ager sapeesesnessaturanss poe paneetewens sans caneaspenpeppes sso ssonpassuspD aunty samt 874
Erratum
Page 286, for Dr. W. N. PERKtn, read Dr. W. H. PERKIN.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
—_4+—_
OBJECTS.
Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, inthe British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sam of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Awnnvat Susscrisers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive
Xxx REPORT—1897.
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.
Assooctatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3, Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment.] ~
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
9. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!
Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
i i
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXi
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance’; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Crass A. Permanent Members.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Cuass B. Temporary Memsers.?
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Committees.3
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,‘ and of preparing Reports
? Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.
2 Revised, Montreal, 1884.
% Passed, Edinburgh, 1871.
* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
XXxli REPORT—1897.
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ez officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.!
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the Sectional Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.3
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded withont delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Thursday and Saturday.°
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
ELGG. MA Sahtee eet. edd , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... > If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.
1 Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 3 Edinburgh, 1871.
* The mecting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883, > Nottingham, 1893,
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXlil
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
8. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.!
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 A.M. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal, It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.
_ The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
2 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871.
1897. b
XXXIV REPORT—1897.
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with rts efficient working.
That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.’
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee,
Notices regarding Grants of Money.?
1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.
2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.
3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one‘year only. If the work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.
4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.
} Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
? Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV
5. In each Committee the Chairman is tne only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.
6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.
7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.
. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
further grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.
9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.
10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of Natural History are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Association.
11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased ont of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.
12. All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.
oO
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.
At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee, except for Thursday and
Saturday.
b2
XXXVI REPORT—1897.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the.Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms,
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ew officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.”
If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.*
1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
? Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865,.
* Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.
a
——— ee EEE
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVil
Corresponding NSocieties.'
1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4, Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
ist of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required tor the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
XXXVIli REPORT—1897.
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
11. It will bethe duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Commvittees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
(1) The Council shall consist of !
1. The Trustees.
2. The past Presidents.
3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
4. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
. 5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
} Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxX1x
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
Qnd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
“BEST ‘90 ysusny ‘NV HONIG
‘sd “bsq ‘aosspoy qdesop | s+ ***gyy-g “bag ‘outzog uyor "OC wosmndoy “UL “Ad OWL | om Ogura “WW “LYAODUVH NONUAA "M ‘ADH OTL
‘CW “bsg ‘aoystyerg Woo
"SW “bsg eyxreg ed1009
“bs A) i@) 999110,.7 eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eer ee ouepTeyOe TL yedroung “ANY AIDA OL
trreeeeeestanoumgted JO [Tey OUT, *uo}dureyy.10N JO sTAbIVyT OUT,
oe qsnsny “ ONAT-NO-TILSVOMON
“soa “bs ‘u094n yA *ur ‘oR “SY “qanoorBy MOMIOA "AA “AST 0
Sd “bsg ‘uoyny “uA, SU '9 H A “AM “ACH OUL SU ‘GNVIUGENOHLYON JO TUNG eu,
By) oO “bs ‘aosmepy uyor COOP eee nett eee ener eeeeenenes ‘VS “Sa ‘ureyang jo doysig oud
*[Ood1eATT Tor4N} eae Sas oSsien apenas re tise epee: “ora “TOMO “AN *AOYT “E91 ‘Tr raquuaydeg “roosumarryT
Teeteesserseeess** S WOpuoTy Jo AqIsIATUA, OY} Jo TOTI90
ueyO “Sd “SU “NOLONITUNG JO Tuya emt
-jsuy [efoy ‘sorg “bsg ‘rexTe AA *N Wdesor
“bs falling eovyTe A "ULM
‘Sd CV Steg noi A | soeterieterionsi 00" om 9a Hoaiv gL HOOK AY ASR SE | om
"Sid “Swi ‘ “‘s1eg “m0}103 ery ep digg as
“C'W ‘Tkery, qossejorg) SL" rae oa“ ‘bea Toye UpoL “SH “S"T'd “‘WOLMzoN Jo doystg aq.
“Did “SW ‘orvaqhuop *q "AM *AOY } “988I ‘ze Jsnsny “TorsTug
‘I mW
‘Ss
ears ae a aS “SU “uojdueyzzoN Jo smbreyy on) **** “Sd “'T'O'd “ANMOGSNYT JO sInduvN out
“bsq ‘uepuoAoH “A “A { ‘SW “aw “beg ‘preqowa ‘9 *£
‘om “SU “C'W ‘Aueqneq rosseyorg
J
nw ‘sua ‘pA : ataiejayeiaiejeta’e\e's aishetsje/s/ataiaraneicinie¥elsinislsiews suisse crit siece aft
Bs Pe reer ope fori, OES EE Tem ao) get ‘ot yeusey “ta
cs Jo [ekoy ‘uomsy ‘noypMEA “wy “MA Tg SV UE SUA Uozuurxg yumoosta J sss eeeseeeeeeress qTT ‘CAOTT LSOAOUd ‘ATU oT,
2 Se ae eT cau Reervnceart Ree Me igi ot ie sey Pore terse su"
ry be “mT *ceare ar & a FORO EH eee eee eee e eee eee e eR ee eeeeees, feceate gg & 4 ‘I
S oR “AR T'S Wd ‘Seqtog 10ssayorg OR S'U'd TOSMNT PPC NS [eoqog “Gow ‘ANVvASTUT TIVDQOGOVIN LUIS
ia
scenye 7 & . .
[a=] Swit Te eee Seni ssadeartemenrartteesess ‘Siirad TO'd “Bs ‘owtec wIOL } , "ee81 ‘9B eunp ‘aparuanvo
Ggopag Sy T_ ‘Mopsuex, tosseyorg tao) or TeSoy romouoysy “S"y'd “bsg ‘Airy “a “O) ‘S'O'd'A “S'U'd'A “VW ‘HOIMDCYS WVAYV ‘AgY ony,
ton “SW “WW UG reer Me el Tp rpppe per see sess)" '"908 "1009 *seld “S"W id TEMOT AA "MM ee j ‘ZEST ‘61 ounr ‘aorxO
OR “SUL “CW “Auoqne tossagorg [seer esse eerseeeeeeeeesceceee comp OO ap TSH “Laysmorg prawc aig) ‘oR “SOU “SU “a'd ‘ANVINON ‘A ‘Amy ony
"SOUS WA WW ‘SAM TO88JOTT | oe sees es eeeeeeeeeeee en egegeg Gguageg fer & syne “LEST ‘26 toquiagdeg ‘xuox
"spd “bsg “unt ‘herp se SDE “SW “VN “gmooreH woueA “Maou { ‘oR “SNA SU “TOC ‘WVITHMZLIA THYH ouZ
‘SSINVLEYOSS 1V9071 "SLNAGISSYd—390IA *“SLN3GISSud
*JUAUIADUAUUMO) 870 Wout ‘saruDjaloagy YHoOTT pM ‘szWapIsAalTJ-20L4
‘squapisalg yp “uoynwossy ysiiung oy? fo buyoopr fo sammy, pwn saomjg 2y2 buamoys aqQn,,
xl
xli
PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.
ST OVW TeMod ‘Jord ‘Aoy oy ‘sad “aI ‘Auoqned Josseyorg
seeecoareg “Cra “eqysulmysoM JO Uva 9y4 ‘Aoy ATOA OT, *PLOFXO
Jo AzISIOATU 0} OF "ag" ‘T'O'a “bsg ‘qanooqsy Teayoug “+ seuoqL
See ewe eee eee ee we ee eee eee AVISTOATI, ou4 JO LOTJEoUVYH-201A OUT,
sereee scoarur pIOFxO JO doysy_ pxzoy OU. "SW ‘ossoy Jo [eq ONL
*LFST ‘ez oun ‘auorxO
wera lalele rene See .62/<Y DIOTXO) Jo AVIs19ATUQ Oty 10} 'd'W
‘ora “TOG “Wed ‘SIIONI AUUVH LUadOU UIs
"W'd “bsg ‘puvpoy T910A\9TOM *H
"SW OVW AORTBA Hoqoy “Ave
eee eee eneeeeas 5 amet is cap aie) eins ip aiainieriaceN Ta ny, ‘pIOfxO jo doystg p1o0'yT OF.
seer teeseceeeseoee sonny Grog “apy “greg ‘moyUNeIS ‘1 as.1004) 1g
See cccccccccesceseeescecses 8 TTT ‘oTAQJO'T ABYY sopTByO ‘WOH qasIy
seeeesececeses srr TOISIOUL[SA JUNOOSTA ‘TO’ ‘WoUINQYSY ploy
seeeeermorg “qsnolOgIVA JO [IV ONL, *TOySoyOULA, JO sMbAB]Y OUT,
“bsg ‘Apoow ‘9 ‘A ‘iL
"9PST ‘OT toqtmioqdag ‘NOLANVHINOG
"a'W “bsg “yreID ArueH
‘Sd “S'99'0'N ‘NOSIHNDUNN AGdMNI MOLMAGOU AIS
Be mewe wees sear eeerereresee ‘SW Gow ‘yOLMspog Lossejorg "sey OUT,
tis peswielsle se sovereciveiewwesee scene Lovie Voll sos nV eee
eee eee ee er eeeereee ‘a'a ‘ersury “9 "ADT ‘a'a TIBqeIy "Pf "ACY
treeeeeesceecres TOIMION Jo dousted OUD *OsPIMpIVH, JO [eH UL
‘Sid “VW ‘pew rossojory
“CPST ‘61 Cun ‘ADaINAaNV)
‘SU “Th “bsq ‘surydoy ULBITIEM,
reeees con Goad “eg ‘“IHHOSUAH ‘Md NHCE UIS
eS ee eee
+e secon ‘TTaMOg IOSSoJOIg *AOY OTL, "sr “CW ‘WaMO |
“ben ‘980A. TWIT, ee eee wee weet ee eeeeeeee "ony iy “Qanoorey “A “M “ANY
"SW “att *fqs01009 “A "ACW Pe eee eee ee emer ewes eeeeeeeeeee® “OW ia wenen “bs ‘Kepere,y JOBqonL 2 “PEST 4 qaquraydag ‘au0zK
‘STE “bsg ‘Tauseyy setmoy.y, ) ‘Syd “HM “ToysMorg PIAea MY “AW ‘AT}AOA\ gawNgg aYor “WoH eML [ *****! "SA “(ATH Jo uve) ‘a'a ‘MOOO Vad “) ‘AMY OUL
‘SO “Dsq *piley32@ Ue seer ee eeewenee "SO *qqed10yL qunoostA. SW ‘ULB TTAZqT TL [ee
“DET AMO]O) “ULM, )\ aviescereravine-ee eines ereieiaieisina sisreieielv vietwieiwierateelsiels ares snore
sbeq aos OTL | CE ac oman ea | “ever ‘Ln asnsury ‘snr0p
. "eT . . . . : eeaee eee ee eee eee ee ee ee eCenTe ‘
ee: OE ee es | sede ea eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeessQruDy JUNOOSTA "BAOISTT JO UY oUL S'WUd ‘ASSOuU LO TUVA AL
"SPST ‘ez OUNL ‘URLSHHONVIT
“creme * ¢ . ee escenye 7 Serre it ‘ "7 "ornare or Sure & we
CW “bsg “Satu T *M Swa “a' Wn “bsg “Armory *O"M SW CV TOMBS “V "ACU Foe sererereeee conn NOLUGOT SIONVUA GUOT UL
SW “bey ba eon at | ee eeeeee $0 nies a: 0) (8in'ei8/0/a\m0 ea ria P s.e.s.a.v)e\¥' Slew racy. ‘poomsoH Soos yt}
SW Ud “bsg erelg moze (om ST QoqsoH "AON pus uoH “saa TO" “bsw ‘uoqed uyor
<Bagy re AaEOGL DABUONT) -. cod sncaidhjShcn vice 09 ote SabWeee oases oP ae
“bsg ‘xoyt ara 4.19q 0% 3 > qreg ‘puvpy “a 538
ane Fi x Se ewe EEE HHH HHS EHH EEE EEE EEE HHH HEHEHE H HEHEHE ES “‘qaeg ‘uomeT *O 4g
a lm syssdvenseedvenecsereeevsssserem fon pron skeMOn 0 [SE CULL
“TFSI ‘62 Ae “ALOOWATT
sreeeeeron Gourd “TTHMAHM WOSSHAOUd "ATX UL
ocr “bea S08n8 Lies iL) sees aquMospy-JUNoT Jo Ley OUT, Sua “qreg ‘ameqstig “TT ‘iL at ‘OFST “LT Taqmaydeg ‘MonsvTp
tat TIePEr Seeawih SW “AopsMoag pravq Is ‘T'S “oousary priory perouey-soleyy J tee SU ‘ANVATVAVANE FO SINOUVIN SUL
—— eee LL
1897.
REPORT
xl
ula d]e’aie)¢'g\sie e'e'sieies oie a's cieie.e'deyenrsayety oo TSW “bsg ‘Tassel ULETT[LAL
+ see ee cece ceneeensececeseveserecesesssoanriqmyy ‘ada[og AIIULL TL,
JOTOISCN “SOM SVEN WOR “Sr “OC ‘Teer A LOssojorg “AO "PaQT ‘0% qeqmioqjdeg ‘100auAIT
‘a W “bso ‘uvmuy semoay
eee ee ee ee eeeeee ine ‘SU ‘XI MOUNVH ao IVa oud
‘SU “C@' “bsw ‘uosuryorq ydesor
Settee eeseee erases sone Cour Soar HCTT “CW UaMO Lossoyorg
teeeeees cur Gor “aT “qaeg ‘uoqesg Aor sudjeyy ep dywd 1S
$/0)6'@/oie/eia; 0.9 :6(0,s)a/e/s[ersiaie eis /e wien gery snr ry Cera y “WW ‘Ao]soqqO1A\ PLOT OL
Poe P PPP PP eee eee ee eee eee eee eee ‘Sa ‘amoqsqyvoyM TOssezorg
settee sesercoarar ‘sax "[OD-"QnarT "S'W'd “bsg ‘oouedg wert
tees AQIOOG “TWA PUL “ITT TMH 047 JO ‘sag “W'S “bsw “sory septeyO
“Sw “WN Norsspeg ‘Jorg acy = “"S'U'd “T'O'd ‘Aepereg tossozorg
treeeeee Gurr ‘ysnoroqsapuoy prot "SW ‘OISHVO Jo [Vy OUT
“ees ‘L eats ‘TInt
fate dias Feb ssa Tentausoe yee ee ee pee Eee
ales ‘som “SWaA CW “bsa ‘SNINGOH WVITTIIA
“‘4suT
Sov [MA ‘ser “bsg ‘sqoovr poyyog
WIM AA CON ‘bsg ‘tedoop A1uoH
Co celeeDeavecesiavecee ecerrenrer Sower ay *sord aman ‘mosuTqoy “AT "L “AOU
Ceeneeeccasssees qogrog ‘ado [100 3,u9ent "sold “Cd Omuchag "Sq ‘AO
eee ee ‘VIWWN “a'a ‘SyOULEL pIBApy "Ay
oc.conea'e ge se sesineerare ‘gyoag Bp eq *E suey arg
COCOONS IIIS 04 He af oa ‘sold ‘assory jo [avg ou
$/2(6)n/:s)n\minioje.8)0/b.0/sia.n)e/ipie\eieia.e eis ial ccany airy “TOE ‘coy LysU JO [AUy OUD
*"Segt ‘T toquioydag ‘IsvaTIg
PTR e eee eee eee eee eee eee * Ayatw0g yefoxy og jo “ITA
y ‘svar, ‘Arty hoy ‘ANIAVS CUVMAT THNO100
*MOSIIM ‘dl “A\ Tossayorg
“CW “bso 99,1 WOHTTAL
“bsg “WOITV “1 “Lf “AN
eee
"AW “bse “ploqqop "0 ‘¢
CPE SOR OCICS SC CIC Ac ger ool PW Mer sg
I “qaeg ‘nvaltog "gq uYor 1g
“greg ‘WOJ[PPI “WW CVITILAA US
‘o'T "WT “Ds ‘outosuey 95.1094) a
a
“Ds ‘TEPPTa TMyy-LY 25.1009
“bsg ‘sutg ULATIIE
"SV wa “bsg ‘Avy sopreyp
er ODOT ap ag “ovary “Soq1OiT ‘df wossejorg
sors rd A “CN ‘MOST “d “Al 1Ossaj01g “gs.mquipy Jo |
Tost ‘@ Amp ‘HOIMSaT
Pe aeneocecececececccesgsenesesersserse s KOI TOMIOU
‘WW ‘MOjsSuOH LOssejorg "Ao
-o1sy “S'ad “T'O'a “bse ‘AUIV TINGCIa WOUOTD
NA
VW ‘Xr spag Jossajoig *Aey
treeeeesTorMION Jo doyst_ PLOT OUL "A WV ‘Wavyse[puey ploy on,
thee e eee ne ee eeeeeseenersensens scone fF
teeeeeeseecrtry ‘£T[9A04S IOSSOJOTT "S'UW'T ‘say09 “H “H Jossejorg
——_——— ee
‘ocsT ‘Iz Aine “HOUNANagy
eee eecaggeccoesreacccsreverser a MOIDUY 49 ‘preu0o'y
‘49 PUB LOZwATBY "4g JO BSoTION pozUn o4y Jo [ediouttg
“TR L'swd “ATT “HM ‘UALSMaUA CIAVC UIs
Aqistoaty 049 JO pedroung “g's'u'd'A “A'C ‘eT uo ary ATOA OUL
sors y sad “Sw “T0'd “Weg ‘ouvqsig ‘JT setMoyy, Ig [vroueH
teeeeeee soca “((eteuey-a019sup PLOT) e[Aog prawd “UOH JUST OWL
eee erect ecee et sneeeeess ecuenre gy “mod ory ‘f1oqasoy JO [AVY OTL
PoP eee eee eee eee eee eee ee aC iste i 6 “TOM “q.1e0q4eO JO [1Bq OU
eee eee eee ee) qsmqurpy JO JSOAOIG ptoT oud “uo Qasr aL
‘a's tu “bsg ‘poy, sour
‘STW SUS WT “CW ‘“Moyeg Lossoyorg
“a RT
‘SU “VIN ‘PUBlEM Aossoyorq “AoY
SUM WSU JOId “ANU "SW “CTT Ae ‘toysmorg pra 1g
See ee eee ee oe eee sat iad Mine tee city ee BAS “mod ‘Avperygy TOSSIJOIg
eee eee ee ee ee eee “3D "299 “Say “Whe “Dsiy ‘urIMreg sol.teqp
“gaa STO “aN “WV ‘Teed Woqoy Ug ‘UO FSH OU
seeserecoecs scare ‘AoTSO}OLM PLOT OTL AQMOLIBE, JO [VY OWL
“beg ‘aousyO some p
"a'W “bsg ‘1949991 1A
“DSa ‘STEM ULBTTILA
“NU ‘TepuLy areydep
"GPST ‘ZI taqmoydag ‘NVHONINUIG
‘SV'Ud “VIWW “a'd ‘NOSNIGOU "UY iL ‘ATU OL
"SPST ‘6 JSNSNY “VASNVAS
Wee e anes sees eacese erases sersseses samy ‘£01009 yesory
ay} JO quepisezg ‘NOLANVHLYON AO SINOUVN ML
COORSOOOUSE. iF “Dear ‘QAO "aT “AN ‘SW “bsq AMT “AA SLOT
DOO OOS at bi RO Or OTs is ‘Qepuryy jo usaq ony “AO AOA OUL
ster eee arecercseecceeenvons sncuyy ‘sold “SW ‘omoog BI od ‘LH Ug
DOITOMIICOC IEC Ts is ‘o1BpVy qunoostA. ‘LL ‘oqng yo sInbivyy au
‘SaINVLSYORS 1V901 *“SLNAGISSYd-3501A *“SLN3CISSad
‘a'W “bsg ‘100IN *C
*bsq ‘OSplidscoyy M0477 IT
—_oOC
cE S,plaeq 4g Jo doystg pro0'y om ‘SW “a W “bsg ‘WeIATA “H ‘LC
PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES. xiii
SV d SST OVN UENO tosoJoLT “SUA CCH PUBjoy rossejoid
Treserereeeeee sgn OST "SUL CTT “CW ‘Aueqned 1ossejord
iis Si PIOFXO “omy qslayQ Jo wag * ‘ad ‘TOPPYT “OH ‘Aoy Ar0A ONL
Ow (VIN “bee SaauET 282000 teesevertessersets sQurr “i ‘pxogxO JO doustd PLO'T OWL “opet ‘ig eune “MXOAKO
‘O'a V SH UIS *S “Cf *H> ee ‘ossoy Jo [eq O ne atiereAy iy? fobseaye cba feeyyer (6
UO Mee wo pacer SEE Le OE POOL Csyre Os wrd'A “VN ‘APISHLLOUM CUOT UL
-pi0yxXQ Jo JuvUaqnery proyT “SY “T'O'A “qsnor0girey jo oynq IL
p10FXQ Jo AqIs1OATUA O49 JO TOTIAOUVTD-OTA "Tod ‘ounor ‘I ‘AeY OWL,
p1OJxO JO “ATU O49 Jo AoTPPoOULYO “'T'O'A"'O'd “YM ‘Aqrod Jo [reg OU
teepreqy jo Ayunog oy JO TOTOATION * ‘SW ‘a'TT “bsg ‘uosmoyy, "Vy
SiGinjetacten’ inna as aivtvivtdlatetalulrale, olsie ‘sta | “CPC ‘WOSMIqoYy “A “LE “ACW ONL
Seige Wrage detects tec geste sete “WW ‘qmooreyy A "AM “AST OTL
“bsq “OUTA “I UyoLr
eee ween ‘SW “mor * ne 19° rele 9) *TOSTIAN “T PMepoy qg .
“yy ‘orn tossayorg-| setts seeeeee eee gry OO" CAH ToqSMOTT PAV IS [ 698I ‘FI toqmieqdog ‘Naaauaay
‘SOME “O'S TOOIN "f Tossojorg | sett tts Sr TOMS WN “uta “PISIOH “A “a UHOL TIS LYOSNON FONIUd AHL SSHNHDIH TVAOU SI
‘ “** waapraqy 40 ANID ay} JO JSOAOTT PLOT OU
inserter garg SESE ‘OM aT“ taapieqy jo [leq oT,
se enenaeeeeeeeeesseeeeveeesersesscuarir GOs ‘puomtyory Jo enc oT
PTRPP eRe eee eee eee eee eee ‘SD “VW “bs ‘TeUsTey UyTeD sourel
siete)s|erozeis)siekeinisislere.niehaibi*) eLels Islas * osprequrey “eB0T100, AQIUIAY, JO 1oqsvyy *gegT ‘2g tequiezdeg ‘sanHT
SV'wd “sod SVT
‘WH “bsg ‘WosTr\\ SBUOTT,
"S'O' “bsg “pava\ soydg “A
“Y'g ‘SYOUI SBMLOYL, “AS
WW "uoH ‘ ‘Sw “Od TOMOUM (AM AOU om [itr ttsseeessss ss sumasnyy USE 209 JO, squem
WS *"qaeg “0}.103 9 ary sedyeyy ep diryd us saaedoq A104STH yey NT aud jo quaptiegmtradng * aio &
“ah aN aig ‘SOUTBE ‘LW WOH 4UsIy OU | “S'la “Su'd'A “TO'A “CW “bst ‘NEMO GUVHOIU
‘Ss ah Wid “AW “qontepoy qunoostA p1O'T OWL,
= Pe SOW TL TW oro “Ds ‘SOUL Op OUP "7
ee ee eee eee ee eee on} ‘T ‘iL ‘gl svaq u0yy pao'y ou.
rey tae spa! TSW “VIUn ' ary “bsg ‘(IMD preqony
aaiecieiit eee 7 Neriets vets ee ecuareg & ‘aT! eg “qoorery [atto[o)~"qNoV'T
“7 “bsnq § = . BEBE a JO [BAOY SUNOCO EN ase Vw ee of G tol 9 0 “Woq [Ite "Uy Werth 3 5 ‘
a ic ae 7 TOC MOP SAP AGE Sti. oc nnesnesere son PERL ee Sic ean
*bsy {0900g “GE APUN'T | .......seeeeveee OPTYLIVIL op oqTwE, POT ‘arep[iy JO sMbrvyy ULL, “sr “Tod “a'd ‘CAOTI AGUHAIWOH “AGH UL
ee ee ene eee Tee eee eee tmyquqd beysi=) #1076) Aqrary, jo qsOAorg aud
eee eee etter eee eee eee ee myquq jo 10hV plO'T ouy “u0R VSN OUL
Seeepanh EVs JU “OSO[D STOUBIT *AOTT ond “Dsq ‘Toye pAopy Wo Ieg svuroy,T, 7 ‘ ‘
oa ope Wedivba dt oauGi aia cent SG iain = Wal “TOA “S9S'O'D ‘WOstyoM]T *T FOMOPOY WS |... + ee HI9 x0 Jo gest 9 yenan Vv te lame o7
Sortayee “qd Dee ae yaa ee aoe 2 eT 1OISHIg PUB JoyseonoT) Jo doyste MOT oUL cmantonee Lad ad eae re ao 90 30 701d
Vu ‘Wosurqoy "49dB) | ..... eee siete eens eeeeeeeeeeesenereencunn gy Eeoarr fgron(E JO [VM ILL, ‘SW “ATI “aw “bsq ‘ANGGNVC ‘dD SATUVHO
Roe hee eae Cees ae EL “V'T “WosuIOT|T, WEITEM TosseJorg
“Dsgr oro WeNTEAL : ** 90 Tekoxy ayg Jo Joyseyy “SW “WN “bsg Swaeyqery svuroyy, :
‘GIy ‘uostopuy svmony, xossayorg 4 1722S “psq ‘waMtD 10718 AX ‘ay aT a a baits “9981 “OL roqmeydag “MoDSV1)
pris ree ‘ eee wees are) stoletym's serurelels eaters Salone eset Ta ‘a xVe 119. 'T soptey, ag seen ener en eeee ‘Sy "Saad ‘ T a TMING UL
TT Shay SHBG UROL | oss. veccecscasde doce netends neu Serene tinge Oe pat ROTTER ae TIApay, do
Poe Pee eee eee erage q ‘ounprejovyy [edrourtg ‘aoy AtoA OL
seeeeseeeees coart “DST [SO ‘WT L'W “DS ‘plPEyoromos WeNTAL
ee ee eeseesevesos ren SAaIappDV “7 ‘2 ‘UO FUSNYy OU,
*eggT ‘9 raqmojzdeg ‘NWVHONINUI,
**** pxroyXO Jo AgisteaTUy au UT ABo]09H Jo LOSsoJOrT
“SOT “SUA “CIT “VW “bsg ‘SdITTIHd NHOL
*** Jaqsa0I0M JO doystg pAo'y 99 *Aa yy qq3nT ouL
sree gemeytd Sad “Td “WW ‘A01809901\\ PIO'TT “WOH FUSTY SUL
** 9IIYsioqsa010\ JO FUBUEQNeTT-p10T ‘U09]e93A'T psO'T “UOR IySIY ONL
ee eeee teen eeee eee ag ‘SURAT sopreyyp "ADIT omL “bsq ‘souvyo iF “r
*y'W ‘elfog ‘qd *) “AO ONT,
*bsy ‘urepraqmeqyg Arua uyor
"SHU CVA “bsg “unl ‘smonyeyy Wey
eeeeees* OTIGSHOIMIBA, JO JULMANeVT-pIO'T ‘YSIO'T PLOT “WOR IYSY oT,
Seen Deets mink Bene Be eee MELE jo [Avy oy ‘NOH 44S OUT
aITYSployeyg JO yWVUyNeL]-pIOT ‘PIEMYOrT Jo [wy O44 “MOH FUSTY OTL,
eee ee eee ewww eee ee eneeee
‘VS a Soo iy sth: tf “TH “bsq UL “A
**** Uqegq Jo UOovapyory 949 V[qetoUIA OTT,
tereseoeess nrolaIeH JO Uva oy4 “Ady AIOA ONT,
Poe e PUP e eee eee eee eee eee eee ees UvU41Og ploy ‘NOH IWSIy OL
eee eee eee UOSTAN [Avg “WOH FSH oy,
Poe eRe eee eee eee eee es Lauren JO SMbivyT 99 OIGON 4SoTT oy
oalsie'a\siciaiaia' civ: ‘aisie\sinipinlo(¢ieie s\6\/¥)simjnieieie\einiejere\si@\s sinia\a(disieinie eisie/q'= OTC SIO
"V'TT ‘POOMUTA\ 'H *H “AY OUT,
“bsg ‘sted “1 “OD
‘SD “bsg ‘etooyy *D
"POST ‘FI aqmoydog ‘HIVE
morn “TOG “WN “Wed “ITHAT SHTUVHO UIs
ee "sy Od “SW S “Dsiy ‘stopuug "AAs
****bsy “MOsuTyoIg "A stoue.T "a W “bsg ‘AVM “AT ; -
-INMOg JoyULMAINIT-p1OT ‘AIVLIO pUB YIOH JO [Tq oy} “UO FYSIY OUT,
eee eee "SV Wa “a' a ‘atorpeaoyyp e[dmoy, ‘ae
eee eee oe CS Leg cease vaes +0 Maes Suet eu QUO UTL
SUIUIPL JO 94NAYSUT WIoyZION oY} JO yUepIserg * ‘bs ‘ POOA SBLOUOTNT
eee eee ee apAsVoMeN Jo 1odepy “bay ‘ Teg WBIIIMO'T OBES]
seeeeeeeerees anuly, [BOD aq} JO TBULTTETO * ‘bsq ‘a0pAey, YSn_
sepeeeeewess sco SS “TO “A' TT ‘TNA serteqo IS
See eee weet ee ee ee ee eeesreeeeeeee ‘VA Meg ‘avAjaaory, "OD To9TBA AIS
"bsg ‘ureyde[y 'O “tT
*bsq quny *H snysnsny
“bsg “OI90N “V
"COST ‘92 4SNSNY ‘ANA T-NO-WILSVOMAN
seeverecrereccurr “CTT “d'O ‘DNOULSNUV 'M UIS
1897.
arenes "ord “ait “bsg ‘ UMVQITBT UBT
REPORT
seeeeesees secur dag “TO “W'It Sa4099 "H “) Lossojorg Z
* jesoy romou0ysy “gyda “Tod “V" Ww “bsq ‘Airy ‘a “D *S98T ‘T 1090900 ‘ANaTuaNvO
TOT e eee eee eee eee eee eee ee rT "3° Wi Vv" W ‘sqeqO “p AOY OL Toc U UEP Pee Ue eee eee eee ee eee asprqureg jo AqIs
seloeicineneitisien Seelise eeu Ti key one “orm spas Iossajorig “Ady aq, (-1aATUQ ay4 ut Aqdosopyd Tequowrtadx gy pus [BinjzeN Jo
asprqurey ‘aBeTIop Ayrurry, Jo ose “S"W A “AC TOO MA “AN “AOU CULL | TOSsayord WeTMOSYO’L “SU “VW ‘SITTIA “d ATY UL
teseeeeeeeereeeesess KT Jo uvag “G'd ‘ulMpooy AsArey *Aoy A19A OL,
seeeeees OSpLIquiep Jo APISIOATUL 944 JO LOT[AOUVYN-doIA 04 ‘ACY OUT,
“WW ‘stoteg “WW 'N ‘Ae’ ou,
“WW ‘suteary “Cf 4) tossejorg
‘ST a
ee soe acer) ‘Sold. Ute Wao’ a‘ ‘VI ‘suepy * 0 ‘£ TOssojorg
Souwrd “yy ‘mo sulqeg ‘9 *p 1osseyorg |
weer ee ee ee eee "TOUSULT OV TWA “SW ‘mosuLyspoy “Gq A0sseyorg
seaeeneneaeeeeeeseneneetcenecesnstttseseeseseeseseseses® JOISQTIO
WRT “008 “Td 1 “4VT “sot “SW “CTT “bs “omor 93008erg ees |
ae “TW “bsg ‘toumy, yeurdsy somes “LOST ‘p aqumojdeg “UMISHHONVIL
wisps ugateapee nee cenetataes “Sata “any poomiog umreluog 9 rere gana ar “CTT “bs ‘NUIVEUIVE WVITIIA
teseeees sguyT Sor “dW “qed ‘uojesg Aety sede ep did as
sd “Sad C'C ‘roysoqourn Jo doystg prot ou
seeeeeseeres gry td oT'O'd “a W ‘Aoqaeys pxoy OU
evciaienie neem aLOTASETT A jo yreq ons,
“‘salaviagyoas 1Y90"1 ‘SLN3GIS3ud-3OIA ‘SLN3GISaud
“V'q ‘o00s0y "A *H 1Ossojyorg
“W'W “bsq ‘emosusy anyy.ry
“bsq ‘PION pa-Ty
Tee e ee eee eee eee eee "TO'USUL WW aT S i ant § “Dsq so soon
"gD “Va “bs ‘orrqsiqred ‘a .
xliv
xlv
PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.
pidladeeadmed ower PEL Liat “We'd “Dsq CIN Kg ydesor
eee e ee eee ee cei ee dare SEU ily, ‘Toa ‘ ‘OTT * ‘bsq ‘aqnor at: somBr
‘wat TOO ace att “qed “UVIOMIT MM Ydesor Ig
“y'sid foun *y “Id *Aou ) ae ,
seveveceresteererseerseaong Gbsa ‘SABID “i "Ss é “OLST “FI Toquiaqdas “tooauaAr’y
“V'WN ‘sursauyq ‘A Aquey Aart) ..
“Dey ‘WORE PICU) oo... eeeeeeseseeeeeeeee gee Ororg GUOISPEED “HM "WOR War gL SHE ‘SW “ATT ‘AWIXOL “H “iL wossaaoud
AOPTWEE MAOH | ees ce sesecenseseceses seein Sqaue ‘uonaeasr Jory sedteyT ep IIMA 41
ese ce setesecrerensecuarer amalas “Kq10q JO [ley oy} ‘uO qysTy aan
Us'Ta “sw ‘aTI “wt “bsg ‘JOqIBL XOq “H “AM
, snee parame | ent nessa teteseaeeseseverrseveesuaaes “bsq ‘xo a19A\ 41007,
: lipo a stl ou pia a Gong § ogee Deg * ‘jaqued.ey "gq TeIITM “69ST ‘ST ysnsuy “AaLaxy
dastea iran Bene irrries ee ea aeieusehe 2 i: “gud COTT ‘Suumog ugor ug ("syd “TO'd ‘SHMOLS ‘D ADYOUN WOSsHLOUd
SVWWa “Psat Sa *S AtUOH | "on CaN “EO 9g {JOOUHION *H PAOBLS US WOH qUsty ONL
se crevccesssceeces Sreeeereeeeveres OAR JO [IBY OT9 ‘OH WSN OL
eee eee 6/5, 4,0iibipfa: Bio! eine SBA isipiSiRiaie: SIRO) OATS GEES
-Tu8 0 APISIOATUA ayy Uy ArQoTHO;. ue <mo0u019s O TOSS8fOL,
Jo AY TU) OY} UF At DP aSY FF JOTI *g99T ‘ ‘I qsn3ny ‘HOIMUON
Cone eee eee eeeetereteeeers aT ORCA!
“Swd°To'd “aN “bso ‘UTMOOH NOLTYG Hdasor
*[[PMOF SpUlFZ UOUVH *AdIT
"V'WW ‘uojduio01g ydesor ‘Aa
‘ajduAreq preuog "iq
eee ee ed teeeeeeeeeseeeseshorr (OMIT SIIG SsemolL
UWwapuaoyT “Sy wd “SU “T'0'C “Wl 3 ‘bsg * BUTE RV dene oaeU er
aia aeaiinralvieta ei patie stateove ‘SOU ST “SW “qeg ooqqny uyor us
Sasi aspraqurey jo AqistoaTu ‘D ou} Ur AB0j009 JO IOSssejorg Wepre
“Poo * vom ‘Sy “sw ‘ ads Tipe ‘Vi SDIAsSpag Wepy “acy ony,
Cr C6 Os = “3 bY i i “qe ‘nvaliog 1240q ugor ag
tt '* STOJION JO JUBUEINeLT-pAoy ‘1eySedIe'T Jo [TVG 04} ‘MOH 4YSry oy,
asoT10D poqay | aq} jo Tedioujrg * w “a a TI Lt “bsg ‘ soqiog *q somve
oe ee ee qsinqg
-uIpy Jo AqzIsr9AtUy 044 jo setjonre® ‘su a‘ a: oa ‘“ToySMOIg plasg ag
eer ee ee er iy Seen eeeeeee
“be ‘uos1apuy yoy
‘bsy ‘Sop oxByT uysny uyor
“bsg “unl ‘uostapuey “¢
"LOST ‘F Taqmeydeg ‘aranaq
ss Se sich awa Ane amen tae TO'd
DN “HONWIONNG FO AMNG AHL WOVUDN SIH
: “qaeq “leyxeg plas Ig
seo “spurs” r aa 11‘ ‘TOM “Weg “dost omy *T YOMepoy aS
ee ere) sees
ee ‘an ‘ ‘qaeg ‘AATISO UNO Ig
; ‘L'X ‘payeuury ploy oy9 ‘uo yysry UL,
Ce eee eee ereenes OOOO COCO 1. 4 ‘QtATy JO [AV O44 ‘MOR IOSy on,
sretess*Dsiy ‘8019 “iL ‘SVU “Sd “bsg ‘pury Tessuy uyor
oe ee eee Oia iat i roa yi “bso ‘JayooH ydasor
‘sath o49 JO 1oysbyy “Sa “bsg ‘ Wey eID seuloy.L
“"** QITYSULVYSUIyION JO PMoyg-ysiy “bey ‘qqaM *O “L
Co re
_ CV ‘UBT’, “Ef AO OU
‘S*T'd “S' VW ad “bsg ‘emo *p pavapa
*u0s}.10qoy “Iq
‘dW ‘uostuaq "gf *¢ *‘uoH FySTY ONT, [ ** ag ot < Oe T ‘HAOHD M
. seeeee sete: ca * @, iS
**** QITSUIBYSUIIZON JO yuUeUayNerT- pIOT ‘Jedjeg ploy “uoH yySny oy, ee : et i
**** @ITgstoysadlo'T JO JUBMOINALT- PLOT ‘pueygny jo oynq 944 VBI STAT
**** guiqshqiaq Jo JuvUyNeL]-pAoT ‘omTYsMOAEg Jo oyNG oO} doVLD STE
teerees smorpuy "99 Jo AJISIOAIT sn) ‘preuooy ‘99 puv LOWwATuR “4g Jo |
—_——"
eee eee eee eee eee eee ee ed "SOT “Sd “bs ‘stopurg * Ay
‘bsg ‘ome Set my eee ee “oT Sort aT RS yf “a°qTt “roquod.ep “g “MA “Id
sou
“og “yg “bsg ‘ayuedieg query ‘A
‘SHU CSW CATT “aoe “uosurpaey *p Atuey stg Tereuey-10leyy “GIST ‘oz qsusny “Io1siug
ih eh ino ¥ eae ae pe eat UP pa Vr ** TOISLIg jo 1A oun { * SH “SU Soro "4sul ‘MVHSYMVH NHOr UIs
“ord “aN “ao “aug “ojOoyWION “H ploye7zg ug ‘UoH Sty oy,
CEO SO OWT ‘aronqy jo [eq uy “uo qs on.
seeeronrT “TOT ‘SoyoJg Tossajorg “SW ‘Wosurqoy “aq ‘sexy old |
+ scary ‘SMOIPMY “ACL “AIUOH “IC *AaY ATT,
“bsg “Blur ‘1,
“MTD “aT “4 Aossajorg
"Dsay “Gav snqzrent) *A\
av SaaS ‘ "PLIST ‘6T Jsusny ‘isvaTag
TW “Fteg “soelye A, preyony i | terror GOTT Tod ITVANAL ‘£ WOSsToud
eee ee eer eee eee x fhe maoheg SS af OSsOI JO [ae ory “Uo;T qs OIL
sreeeececwooes “SU “TO “UsPisiugy Jo [reg oy *uoH, FUSNY OMT,
*S18T ‘LI taquiaqdeg ‘auosavug
Heskeae vee oie eee cece eee eee ee ee eT "SOW Coan ay
‘Gud ‘NOSNVITTIM ‘MA UTCNVXAIV UOSSHIOUd
a
“Sd CSU a “AeysyaeH UOL ATS “‘paoypeig JO 1odeyy OUT,
. iaGGis)sisisialeinisisleisie\e) (sera ‘109810, “A “AM “UO WSIy oy,
“SUM “T‘O'd ‘uoyysuoH proy “UOH WUSTY CML
P "bsg ‘pavppoy pasyoryy
‘a'C Teqdare) “ay "f AON ONL
*bsqy ‘aosdmo0yy, |
1897.
‘Sw TO" ‘sda rosseyorg = “SW “'T'0' “bsg “go1sse-p |
eee eee ee es oy es as "ST ir Seay ‘09g “Oey ‘adreyg "ad
Tres grog Sota “Sard Ca “yee Jooqqny uyor ag
ed "SOW “Tod “OT ‘arlysuoaocy jo oynq oq3 a0vIy) SIH
Ce "T'0'a OT “pT ‘puomqony jo ayud ayy a0BLly SIH
te eeeesess es TTOTION JO ONC OY} 90VLD SIT *xossng jo
AqunOD oy4 Jo FUBUEZNOL'T-pAo'y “AOysEYDIYO JO [Tey 04} ‘UOH ISI OU,
REPORT
“bsg ‘99eEM Actua
“TWIT “Id “Aey OUT,
*bsq ‘toyuediep sepreyD
"SL8L ‘PL ysnsny ‘NoLHDIUg
gerry ‘ rat as “Ont “CW “Ds IT LINTAIVO ‘aM
ae tee tee eee ee on ‘rs “sor. “TOR ‘ah “uosT{sImqg Tossajorg
ac EE SST oe RE a “SU “TW “ory ‘ey hel uofT md
ae : eS OW “sad “Td “seg ‘TAT soprego ag
“SW TOC “8980 “a'O'M “3vg_ “Wostyommyy *] YoLepoy IS
eee ee eeene eaiahn iectecreey a ADS ANUS HHSC SE CTTOUCRT A oF Feral]
"TAS ‘g ysndny ‘HpunaNiag
pein oa Pee ce Pe Lee ee wee wees ‘TSW al “SUT
“C'TT “VW ‘NOSNOHL WVITIIA UIS YOSSHAOUd
‘E'S “bsg Sporzeyy “a “e
"TSW “AW ‘uMoIg wnip “Vy Aossojorg
-UIpy Jo AzIstoatuy ayy jo jedrouug “yw “4avg Query JopuexeTy 1S
**pueloog Jo [BLoMe-ooNsup PLOT “CTT ‘sysuy Uyor ‘WOH FqSTY UL
Ce oe qsmquipy jo 480A01g pro'yT 099 ‘uoR FYUSIYy OUT
eee eee ory rod Soy ‘yonopoong: jo ang 0} 208.1) SIH
‘Sa)/YVLEYOaS 1V907 “SLNAGISSYd=3951A “SLNAGISadd
ae “a oe
xlvi
4 ween ee eeeeeeeens ‘ST “7 RT'S wa “ ‘art’ ‘an “UCU IOSSOJOLg
5 Pircer tees eae ‘am ‘T's wd “CTT ‘aw “bsg ‘ wosmOoyT, WILY
4 : sioipicie iis orm obieite Een SCE) aT: CIA Ok a “T'O'"YSUL W ‘MeysyAMVy UgOL Ig
oma arm “beg ‘noempuy yeedmog, | 2)2/:2:2 ii ;22E BM CAB COIL Ochs a AOS DED OMIT | ru ESE ey ee
Teer TeaT SNL RoE heey eee scene roa * Wn ‘OAOHD) "UAL AIS "WOH OU, p**tt ttt" serine ae ae ye got “ST ‘sold
Fete e eee ee entree VW ‘gyfarp woovepypry o[quiousa 94, | “SHA “ATT “T'0'd “a “9vg “MOOTANT NHOL UIS
seen ee eeeeee ‘SOU ‘ ‘Ow “TO Draenei: uoy ISty OUT,
Pe ee re i ei RIOK jo OAR poy 019 "WOH, qusnt ou
ee ae ereronseres “or “a'd ‘YOK JO doysiquory 99 sory) Sty
#8 oo ecgeeyeny: as ‘gp ‘sean “ST a “Sma “a1 “bsg ‘shergor UsMy “¢ “O88 ‘e% qsnany “VaSNV AS
Se ee i ny S')'d “ST ‘ ‘AW “bse “usa “VT “I PEO e emer eraser ee eressteeeenee teres es KZ01009
‘bsq “yoryg somee a 06-8000 Sst et W “bsg ‘uvrar, Aossngy “yy | [eorovrg Jo wmesnyy oy Jo puv ‘Wopsury paqyun oy7
SO “a'Ud “bsg wesr0yy “AA ; “W PA0IH “U“A\ WS ‘WOH oT, | Jo Aaarng [worsopoay oy JO [w.raUlay)- Opal “S*')'d' A
teeta tee erereerees wasuvag Jo r0keyy eu | “Saad “GIT “bst ‘AVSNVU AIMNOUO MAUANYV
teneereees ocTOP JO [lB_ OY} ‘WOR IYSIY IL
“sora “aI “beg ‘Aqiog u0yoO “H
ey eeceee ee eccceces aeeee ‘SO “saa “IW “BUMPO “AA tO8EeF0r
“Dsq ‘sso a“ "6 S°" as ‘s" ae a‘ ; sm ‘oa an ae tee a ns “6181 ‘0g asnsny ‘ a1adaaHs
is sees es Aaa ee) Dee OT 8 Senne eee eee e esas sete enenennees OMT SOT MW TAT AL
‘SOT ‘OMMOULEY A JO Leg ON “CO UST OL | og onp a egrr ay “CITC W ‘NVNTTV ‘£'D YOSSHAOUd
oa aes oe SOWA “HM WUNTEAZAT [te OU} “HOH INSEL OUL
SOWA SW CIT VW “Pe ‘orrysuoaeg Jo ayn oy] eVIH STH
eH. PLOT] “WOH JUST OUD VIN
SUE “TOG “Wes ‘ssoy JO [ed om} “TOH SRL OUD
ess “sur “TO'd “voTIstwUg Jo Teg oUs “VOR IUFHT CULL
seereeee sce ‘q001q Y JO oN 94 VdVIH) SIE
eee eee eee eee eee ee ee ee ee ee ete uyqud ‘azo [09 Aqrarty, jo 4soAo0rIg ou
Tee eee eee eee eee ee uyqn¢ jo pe p1oy oy ‘OW ISN OUT
“SST ‘PI ysusny ‘xan
IE ec eS ec SOWA OSV UE OSU
'a11TTo'd “VW “bsg “AGOOMSILLOdS WVITTIA
‘an “WOsta3IS *4) IOSSOJOIT
‘aT “bsg ‘ POOAION ugor
‘bsq you soumer
‘Sr OV 'IN Mea “8 “UW tossoyord
eee weer eeee
PORE UCREO TOPE ee eee eee qs “Su a “bsg ‘oqug eouads serzey
‘H'O CV “bsg ‘apnory Wert
perth ahi a‘ “S'V HL a ‘ ‘s’ Wa “a1 “VW “bsa ‘epoomsiygodg wreryiM
Bi eorelg pxoy “WOH IS OUT,
Guo, JO [LV ONy “MOH FUSTY OL
Rt
a “LIST ‘GT snsny ‘HLAOWATT
dceueses casworna hfe, senmesnb ne cansNesee ctereiaae
“sad “CIT “A'N ‘NOSWOHL NATIV WOssHs4oud
ify
“Dey “pzOyoqT AL WoyTUMU | reese sets te reset sets ee esse ageaT:
“beg ‘orenbg UelTITA
*bsq ‘smBpy WITTE ere eee eee ey “oy WW ey
ictoeueres oceseegagnoeBe
———S=—s i
*9181 ‘9 Joqmieydag ‘MODSYTH
Ee cary tee ae ee
‘Sw “ATION ‘SMPUGNV SYNOHL WOssHuoUd
soeibise sisiesjes 2) SIS ely et we Oly aes i is COs ZOU UOT Rae sone
‘aS ad “Sad “T'O'd * Eaiaia “VW ‘Wosuiog.T WBIIIM Ig Losseyorg
Tee ee eee eed ‘rw a |\ ae “qe TPMXVL SUILI4S WeTIIM ae
eee eee eee eee eee eee eee AOSSRLD) JO JSOAOIg PlOT OY} “uo on
“SOM TSW Sa COTT “L'e ‘WASTY Jo exNC O47 2081 STH
“bsg “YOTMIVL “Ce
*bsq ‘omeyery sour
‘SOU MPV) “A AC
PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.
BUDGODDU TY "SH ‘00g “@'TT “'T'O'C “VW ‘829048 *H 4) Tossojotg
: aoe ase
iiaiee
piiebeigbbitadnns sere: vate et UTS ‘ow “bsy ‘sunox somve
ana are eoeRe RE Hee te et |
eee
1897.
REPORT
xlviii
‘V'W ‘atatg ‘9 Iosseyorg
"SOUSA WW “bsg ‘ase. susuy4
“WW “Ds ‘arquiorp *M “£
“bsq ‘pavary "Ss
“bsq ‘Avstmey "y "YY
‘AW “swt OM ‘SOUT,
“Ds ‘Wosuaaeqg “9 "Gg
“bsg ‘uosmeg "gf "gS
“mouraA “A
“bs ‘STIL “AA AL
“bs ‘Sta “HL
“bs ‘Solty Stq107¢
"bsg ‘arane,y oy ‘gy uyor
“DS “Ooorler "¥ “A ‘0
"'SSIWVLAYOSS 1V9071
sso “ST “sar aud “wi “bsg “oywpog Aowy dud
ee ey a <9 Wi | “SOW “ord “Wht *YOIM4soarg IOssajoig
eee ee ee eee eee eee eee ee ee ey ‘a’ 1'T “ay ‘saoygtuas uljor iossayorg
teeeeerseeeesess TOpUOT ‘UINOSsNpY AIO4STH [VANGVN [9 JO LOJOoIT.
“SOUT “or” “sorlg “OTT “SU “OTT ‘TIMOLT ai 4 “mM IOSsojOIg
tteteneeeedeeseecceeesterteetetereeetesneenerernte stIQQHIaqY JO
AqISIOATU BY} JO AO[[oouNYH-vorA “Q'¢ ‘olg [ediourrg *Aey AIOA OL,
Tete ee secs ee eeeeeeereeetenseeretsseeseetenesereeeeet TION IO
jo AqjistoatuQ oy} -Jo iyoOy “GIT “yw “bs ‘ureq Jopuexoly “G88l “G6 taqmaqydag ‘NadauTay
SVU cmon! ad Sonar iT Say WW ‘MostuOYT, TWWRITITA mg LOssayorg i eee eee ee ee ee ‘SO “TSW Conn “O11 “qud
vrrteess waapsoqy JO A419 0N9 Jo ySoaorg ploy “sq ‘SMoygvTy some | “TW "d'O'M ‘UIVARVId NOA'T WIS ‘NOH LHDIU euL
eee eee eee eee eee eee ee ee ‘SVU SU
“CTT “VIC ‘sortwopeg puy plojawig Jo [Wey on} “UOH WIT OUT
Sees eee eee eaeeceeeereseeeersrsesseeeeseseeers QITHSTQODIONY
Jo quevneqnary-pioy “CTT “useploqy Jo [Avg ou} ‘UOH 4UsIY ONL
ote eee ee tweepi0q Vy Jo AqIstaAlay ey Jo
ToTeoUBYO “'T'O'a “HH ‘Uoprz0H puv puomyory Jo ayNq 944 VDBIH SI
‘SOT SW a a TT “ad “T0'd “AW ‘purpyuery prwapy Aessojorg
Tete ee eneeeeceeeetseertereenceerecereoresesesnpoaneyy (LUO OWL
. ¢ 6
gear “Snr “CTT “WIT “DI'9 ‘Mosmud UIETTTLAL 1g TedioutLy PSST “12 ISNSNY “IVAULNOTT
i)
seeees OSpLqmuD Jo AZIsIOATUQ OY UT soIshyg [vjuet
od xq jo qossejold “SD UA “SVU “SU “ATT
“TO'Q “WW ‘HYIQIAVU GCUOT ‘NOH LHDIU UL
eee eeee
COP eee Pin Rae cial 8 were ie eT ST ‘radduy, sopvyo msg “uo ou.
WO'D ‘S18 YOOrLL, Aepuexely 1g ‘uo ou.
“VO RT'S Wd SOT “AW “AON “BAG BOAT 11g UOH FOsIY OUT
“OTT “TO'd “a0 ‘preuopovyy Iapuvxery uypor 1g ‘WOH FUSTY CULL
TT “OOD “epBuvy Jo [B1euay-1OM1AAH oy} LouT[ooxm StH
“E881 ‘6 taqmoqdes ‘Lu0dHINOg
se eereeeeeereeeeeess OSpIIQMUBy JO APISIOAIT) O44 UL
SOVULEYIVIT ING JO Tossejolg WLMETPES “SVU dA
“SUL “CTL “TOC “VN “bs ‘ADTAVO UDHLUV
AGISIOATUL) VILOZOT A 049 JO IOT[POUVYD-doTA “C"T'T “bsy poommoary'y "¢
eee ee ‘SOU “Ua “ant WT “ONO ‘TOSMB “A or [ediountg
****UlOy4V'T JO [Vy OY “MOH IUSIY ONL, SV UT
“SW “QT ‘Sotvoyeg pus plojavip Jo [VY oyy ‘UoH AUS oN
ram
Terese nr “Sd “OTT “vt ‘Aqaaq Jo Lawg oy} MOH FySTY ONL
‘te Ds ‘Teqtog *g§ weypuds A, , *OAING vUvaOpIO 243
JO [VANUEH-1OqOONIG “Sy wT “AO “mH ‘ex00N *O *V [eAoM0+-s0leT_ in ‘ Ge
Seals lelanaislassi naj apaeiay aces eeaen rescusce Taree 2 ZSS1 ‘Es Jsusuy ‘XOLdNVHIO0g
SAW “CM FUCUMBYH OCT LOSSOJOTT |_weccccuccciscrcsonsesserdrecesassvcccene “TOSUL
st eceecseecececcesovecerssargmqieded IBM O44 JO JUSMYST[CeIST lia Sour “GIT “Toa “bs ‘SNHNSIS “AM ‘0
Teormeyp omg jo 10}OaIIG ood’ A “Sard “TO “Ds oqy ‘Vv “i
SR I a OO a ROC Ghee resqensacpeal 04 roydeis
“ops “SY UT “SW UT Sad “a'O'M ‘sUeAg ‘Pf ‘a Ug urezdep
eee en are ee ****9rdue T-gUnoy ploy oq3 “uo qusly oLL
"SLN3OISSYd-30IA "SLNZGISSYd
xlix
PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.
“ong “ae “bsg ‘qomnyy wWor0¢ arn" “Daa ‘osnoyoOpOM “I “A
‘TW “a0 ‘ormey *d “ef euo}oD "I'd “de “bsg ‘oumys ‘dc *H
Licctuosntertenvsrsdedebaspuvsnttsvessrests a Ta! ‘EE “bse “U04SeT-0105 "SA
YW ‘dag § ‘C11 “C W “VW ‘04so,q [ovyoryy 1osseyorg 9°
‘S'D'd “S'T'd “V" ing ‘pleyemorg pxvuosy *Aoy oT,
CW'W ‘U7 Jo Woovepyory ou} eTqeroueA om,
“bs ‘sq9@AA “AE fering rece T ‘g Joquioydag ‘HLVg
“MOULD “bss axaTIONS “P f 0" eA “sa us zo Ca 0* TORY TES | eceenssnensn Men tbe tment sharper “Tonsur ye
“bsg Aorqdun “M “ygeg jo IOLV TY Elia) [nydrysi0 A qqsnyt ouL “s" wit or! oa TTTMNV Ud ‘f MOLUAACwuA ais
neeeweees CEEOL gL gy 093110 jo doystg. ot} "Ady qq sn auL
‘TC ‘STO.M PUE yyeR Jo doystg pI0'T oy} AoW JUST PUL "LOH ISTY OUT,
Weg Jo ssonbivy_ ot} ‘uoH ysoW on,
isUasaeasie sstuverget se foctoviev? sctvafeatevest See Radnertativeds aver ranternat age
-I9MOg JO JUBUOINEL'T-p1O'T ‘ATOAIO PU HILO Jo [eT O44 “MOH WYSry ony,
“bsg ‘elnor y400se1g somer)
"ae “bsg ‘poomAay IIATIO
‘af “bsq ‘moyYysy seutoy,y,
E ss sepa SOW SV" ‘s¥teqoy WeITITM IS
'SO'U'A ‘a’ ‘Sunox ‘H ‘Vv IOssajorg eeeeeee psresisinin slsisiolalphsicie ln is\s wins euas adaT[0D siamMQ a4 Jo [edroulg ouL
‘SU “os'a nogecees Belew ee tie * APISTOATUD BIOZOTA OY} JO AO][S0UB|D-291A OUT, “2881 ‘Te ISNSNY ‘WAISAHONV TL
“an TT Teqsreyy Soult y IOssajolg we enee i! paogyeg jo OAT aug ynjdrys.0 A qs ouL TOP eee eee eee eee ee eee . Od A
* aqsoqouey_ JO To<VTT oy9 [NJdrys1oM WUSIY ONL | “SUA “Add “AIT “T'O'd “d'W ‘HOOSOU ‘A “H IS
soe “Tt7** proyeg Jo doysig at} ‘acy IOSIy OU
eM EN aU a “roqsoqouRyL jo doysig pi0'T 94} “ANY FSI ATT,
ee SO
“og'q “bsg ‘tosurydoy saptryy | **
‘S'S “OT aT “Dsa ‘Kepeley ig “a “-
er ee tee ce ee a ‘SW “Og'C ‘w0sye AA "AA EL ‘AON
ete eee eee ee i ‘VI AprzwA "WV ACY
eee er) ‘SOW ory “ood OPILL ‘v “Mm TOssejorg
“bsg ‘qre7 “p sore eee eee w en eeee ‘SU “sold “OTT “TOE TW ‘soqoiS 3) “1 LOSSOJOL “988T 1 Taqtueqdag ‘NVHPSINIG
pee ard TTT ‘£0 AES ES ox eee weerene soeeeseos so Trey SUlUig jo z0keyq “bso * NVIUTFAV]T SVULOTT, POOH HHO eee ee ee ween eee * epeueg ‘eorquoyy ‘Aq1s190A
Soa “bi — ee he a OU wees eseeseeeeseeesecreey ‘raqsao10M JO doystg PIO'T ou} “Ao WUSNT UL ( FUN THOM JO AopeoweyO-eo1A pus yedrourtg “gor
5A OUPISTEO WUUTPE “L |. arysproyeyg Jo yuBUOIMaYy-pxOT] ‘KojS0I}01M PIO'T “WOH IBY ONL | “SUA “CTT “VW “D'WO ‘NOSMVG WVITIIA ‘£ UIS
cee eae Bayes oe WD SL gnOntON paio'y ‘uO FU STy OUT,
“OTTYSHOIMIB AM JO queneynery-px07T * "T'O'a ‘WsleT ploy ‘uoR AUSTY OUT
‘ealysdoryg JO UBUE\Ner]-pAOT ‘plojyperg Jo [ey oY} ‘MOR FYSIY ONT,
eas
ieee
~
for)
(oe)
re
se eeee open Of, tovnare ag we .
a'f Aowmy, yor Ag “Syd AOL) "UM" A US “WOH ISTH ONL -eaet ‘at seqmueideg ‘invitowrLzoN
ee eeee DO Lerwis gale Pie.8-4.siea Ne aes RS ER jo AqISIOATtI()
ayy} ur ABoporshyq JO Aossojorg “W'S Wa “SU “TOA :
“QTT “aw “VW ‘NOSUMGNYS NoGuUod 'S “f “UC ,
«Dg ‘Suen Wyg1y
“W'yT ‘W0zvOH “H “AM LOssazorg
"ON'G ‘soMO]O “Tf 1OSsojorg
teeeeceeeess UpYSUIJON Jo AAV OUT “Aedjeg ploy “UOH FYSIY OUT
‘+ 9Q[ISVOMON JO OYUC OY} OVID SI *PUB]ILOg JO ayNC OY} ooBLH SIH
CoCo ee soeresee ss tbeeeetessesesesesneseesseseseresee aspuqmvry jo
APISIOATU OYA JO AOT[AOUBYHO “Hy ‘otrsUOAaM JO ONC OY} VoVry STH
— ‘MOSUL H' A ‘S"tT'00g “WT ‘109S80,7 [OBUOTPE TOssajorg
aALYSMABYSUTZION JO ‘YNol]-pxoy ‘suvqyy “99 JO exNd oF ooUVrH SIA
ee stone eeeeeeesanpecunregy SW QIU 4) ‘'d LOssojorg
*bsq ‘aosiiiey uyor | ** eS Bini eie
‘wSsea
"Z68I “g ysusNy ‘HOUNYNIGy
“os'a “VW “bs ‘orAtiso quer “| trreereer ee serpy “TSO MINIT UTIL IIS Tedrourtg,
ue er BAINES OE Pal eR ee “TLOpsUuly peqyuy a9 jo Avaang
SP ON MSTA “OIL [voHBoTOa) oy} JO [eroUapH-r0j0N “S'H'd “G'S'A A
Cee GIT ae og) aa PRIOR S'U ‘dag “Moy “os'd “A"1'T ‘AIMIGN GIVAIHOUV IS
"Q'TT ‘Araqasoy Jo [AVY ely “WOH FYSIY OUT
‘LM ‘uviyjory Jo ssonbivy]y oy} “WOH ySOW OUT
See eee ewer eee ee eee “TSINQUIpH JO JSOAOLT pao'y otf} ‘10H qUsNy ouL
pUuypary Jo xamouOsy [whoy “SVU “SW “ATT Wea yea As
‘sy sag “TSU “Swe tog “os'd “aI ‘eheD PIeqory aS
SV Sree seen eeee oe * . ‘ey seer “SW “qe ‘UApTOMOTT ‘a'‘L‘eus
cyeyy ‘totus, POUT (MH TOS8]014 oes cc eee ae eee eee eee ay eee ton IQSNT OLD
a
‘T681 ‘61 ysusny ‘taIaUVyO
a pepe ee Shes? ac sis OE U0 “SVU
"SU “aud “ATT “TOC “bse ‘SNIDDOH WVITTIIM
1897.
aed pa see el catice’ ke ans GRITS ae aIBSopely, ploy ‘UOH PSY OL,
SOT “S'0'd “OS “PSw “UOSUTAY “ANH gow “sryo9g “CTT OTO'd CV “USP Aey ploy ‘WOH UTE OL
eee ee ) i eet ‘ogng jo ssonbavyy oy9 “uoH 4soyt od
++ oaTtsuRSx0MBpH Jo qUVUAWMOLT-pAOT ‘TOSpUTM PLOT "WOH FSI OL
Cr “"s'E'SsoTg OTS Wl Soy “aN ‘UMOIg wnig ‘Vv =|
tree ony TIER, MoIpUY TG ‘“M'O'YSUT'T “eg “wosyry saute arg
|
REPORT
‘OBST ‘g toquiaqdeg ‘samy
eoeee ae eeeee rs eeee e . ‘T'O'"USUL U0 ty ick Sond
“oa “TO'd “a'D “INAV SALSNNNAV MOlUACaas als
Setet AG Sora Spat oor SW Mad “ad “Loe aeerg woAT 11g “WOH JUS OL
S'D'd “S'Ta ‘WIN ‘O “I aossojorg ) .. SUL AW ATT ANd (LOM ot 18 | :
Ving “sar wosdivy AoupAs cee ee ae) 2 HS Ra ue EO Se eee
GROOM ROR Te SHUT YM WV Wed ou9 NOH IWSTY ONL
PLOT PES netinpacvulersarseat ‘ ‘
i SW HTD “Ts'0'D “O's ‘aodry jo ssanbavyy oq} “WOH 4sOW OUD
“SOW “Sad “CTT VW “O'S ‘errysmoaag JO oxN 4} PVH STH
seseesssmmOnsUr Te “S'od “Sad “T'O'C “Ie “Ted WeITIAOT “TAS
eee eee eee ee) preysayey) jo 10ABTY ata [NJdrysIOM OUT,
TENS ese ce sess sess ss SQSROMAN JO IOAVL aud [nydrysi0.M quant ou
; ‘e+ sot ‘ureyandg Jo AjIstoAlUy oY} JO UdpABM Of} “ADY AdoA OL
‘Wh OT VATION uvuliey ap Lossojorlg . ee ‘a'1I “TH ‘fa LOT uyor “uo qs eu
"sold “op'a ‘uospeg BdITINd ‘d AOssejorg \ ss ST SaTT “Toa “a'O ‘SuONsSUUTY pxoy ‘MOR INST OUT,
‘ada ‘a[QSBoMe NT jo doystq pilot aug "AIT qs ou
ee ee "+? TVTJOMSUOAB YT jo peagc § aug “uo VSI OUL
‘*** VYING Jo JUvUEQNATT-plOT ‘ULBYANG Jo [By eyg “WOH VSIV ONL
sedeseaeceeneresteceererteeeeess «DUT qUMyQON Jo uBtoynory
-pIOT “ATT “TO'E “NM ‘PULTIequinyAON Jo oxnq ey} eo8TH BIH
4 ‘SRINVLEYOTS 1VOO7 "SLNSGISSYd-3OIA ‘SLNAGISAaud
‘E891 ‘TT tequieqdog “INA T,-NOdO-HTISVOMAN
neta Sera iee pecseeteeseosewensenisesass 0s TIROSPL
ysyMg 949 jo squeugaedeq AI0sST [BINIVN 24
jo dopoUg “SO “ST “S'Z ‘sad “SOU “SW
“qT “a'0 ‘HMO AUNTH WVITIIA WOSsad0ud
ia ee a
————
li
PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.
“bsq WOSTTITM “S “Lf
"S'D'd “bsy “TOXTeM “HA
‘aud “a ‘wnyiyeovyy “g “VY AOssejorg
“Dsl “AUTEM “AA
‘ST “bsq ‘uosdwory, "9 ovesy
‘SW ‘usupiwyH “Vy “MA Aossejorg
: “bag “AOPIN " “
OSE “NTT “V'a “bsg 990090N *V ‘9
‘bsq ‘uosjoMey “A
‘W'WN “bsq ‘o5tN ‘HC
“WW “bsg ‘vonaq "9 “D
‘VN “bsg ‘oummog 'p 4a0qI15
tteeteeeeeaeuteaeeeeeeeeaersiveseseeessenenseterens BBB JOT
TOUOIsSIMIMIOD YSIH “ATT “D'W'O'D ‘UMS "V p[BuOg alg ‘NOH or,
eee eee eee “att ors we) “OTTO “qq ‘xoddny, SaTIVYyH AIG ‘u0H OUL
“*****OT1B{UQ JO BOUTAOIG 944 1OJ UOLVoONpA Jo 1oystaryy 4 "aOR oy .T,
theeeeeeccecssesoess O1IBqUG JO BOUTAOIY 244 JO 1oIWMIeIg oY} ‘MOH ey,
******O11BqUO JO BOUTAOT OT} JO JOWIOAOH-JUBMAQNOVT oY} MNOMOR stp
teteeeeteaeeaeaseuereuseseeeerssenessoee® BOBTIED J9 HOTITUMOC
ayg JO AOSIUI SMG “H'W'O'D ‘TOMNVT PHIM IIS ‘uoH OUT,
OSC “SW “ATT “TO “0'A0') ‘ULApoy ploy ‘uoH 4yS1y oyg,
Pe irs "ST . TO'a WW ‘qs1o fey ploy ‘uO qs o1L
Wtrreseeeceseeereeeerors BpBMRD JO MOTUTMIOG 944 Jo [e1oTeH-100
“TOAOD “N'W'O'D ‘Weoprleqy jo [eq oN} ‘NOR AWYSry oy Aouapjeoxg sip
OPP ee ee ey ‘SU ‘OBPISIOATT *YV Tossojorg
eee ee ee ee et "Ta “a'r “Dsq ‘feulsy "7 “AP,
Pe ee Be ialedicl mat talib = h(a i (Oy, eg 8 Ba “Dsiy ‘sayoorp "mM
ee ei) "a'TT “bsy ‘ouoquyey “MM
srtesseecceceecccesess T00dMaATT ‘asaT[09 AqIs19ATUQ Jo pedioulrg oy,
"REO 3 LPO IU OOS OOD AIDS 8 ENF “TOE ‘200802 *g Arne ag
ie eee ee ee ee ee ey ‘d'f ‘poomio, “gq "AM IIS
“aTIYSBOUVT JO JUvUANOIT-p1OT “Hy “WOWag Jo [Te oy} “MOH FYSIy oy,
** ‘JoodIeary Jo 1oheyY ploy “q'O'H ‘Aqaoq Jo [req oy ‘MoH IWSTyY OUT,
| sow “bsg “ploqqop "EL ANAT “SW “WIN SurlMaeg “A YD
“LEST ‘BT ysnsny ‘oLNouoy,
Neha Cte bed miorg ede ee “g*p'oeg 10g “W'S
‘S'U'svany “Gs “GIT T'0'd “a'0'H ‘SNVAD NHOfL IS
"9681 ‘9T Joquiaqdey ‘TooduaArT
SOC Peete ee teeter ee ee tees ee ee Ayetoog pekoy arty Jo
O7U0IOT, JO ATISIOATU) 94} JOJUEpISeTg “CTT y'W ‘uopnory ‘f r0ssajory
sreeeeeess OVUOIOT, JO OAV OUT, “SUA “YW 'O ‘wosMe WRIT, :
| quopisg “CIT “TO'd “luvd ‘YALSII HdAsoLr WIS
—————S———
‘SU “T0O'E ‘puspuetr gad “Saal “TO'd “yreg ‘sayoqg +H *H aIg
Ce ee i ay Yormsdy Jo 10k “bsy ayavg "A 7
WLeYse[PUOY PIO'T “WOH IQSY OUT, "Y's" ‘TeyUTey prloy “uy Aysry oy,
vs reses* Gorasdy Jo prvmeyg ystH “y'W “Mpéa.y priory ‘wor WWSIy ou,
"tt" xossy JO JUBUEINELT-p1oT “Syoog ‘YspaAvey proy ‘uoH ISK ong,
i Seen eee eae aspliqmey jo AqIsIOAIT)
aq} JO preahayg YSIH “SU “ATT “UBysuIs[eM p10T ‘uoH 4ystY OUT,
Ce er ei ei rr ri)
"G68L ‘TT taquiaydag ‘HOTA\SaT
aia eee ES ‘Sy "Sow “oad “att
TO'd "*O'M ‘NOLIVD SVYIDNOd UWIS NIVIdvVO
ee yloyns jo Aqun0g
dt} Jo yWeUEINALT-"prO'T “VW ‘109sIIg JO smubavy_ oy} ‘UOH soy OUT,
treesecees -KiqguTOay) JO LOSSOJOIg UBIPLAVY “S'yzWT ‘toysaayAg “pf *f “AG
Pee nee tin ese sie8 s'Fieieieticieiciels +(e iniae ue Mar alee rnlome ma * Se AOTOROTTR ET:
[einjeNT JO AOssejorg uviepes “sua “Aa ‘emg “gq ‘Avy OTT,
“OUTOTpa JO Lossajorg suisey “Syd “CW “y2¥q ‘puvpy eyAq Asay ug
i ee ee ‘SUL “TW “q1eq ‘ulosjentaeg prequaog ag
"r 8" *aaTl0p S[Nog ITV Jo wopreM “T'O'C ‘wosay “wy “A AIS
ieee ee ee ee ed *pIOJXO JO IOAB aaL "FEST 8 qsnsny “uoaxO
seeteeesss** ‘NIOFXO JO AFISIOATUA O49 JO TOTT9OULTI-901A OT} “ASY oY,T, \*PIOJXO JO AFISAOATUG 94} Jo AOT[EOURTO “SU “T'O'A
eres tees see" suse “TOC “UAey pxoy “UO WS OL / “YM ‘AUNASITVS AO SINOUVN AHL ‘NOH LSOW UL
“OTLYSUIBY.SUION Jo JuLUEqNory-ployzy *piTyosyIOY PAT “uo IUSIy OT,
ey ‘ada ‘piozxO jo doysig. priory oud “AGT qs euL
SoS ad “TO “Oe ‘Aroqasoy Jo [ey oy “WOH ISI ONL,
Street eeee eect eeerertceeresterteseeersereteeeneeters OTTTSHIOT
jo queueynery-pioT “OA “g'O'N ‘esvyUVM PIOT ‘uoH as eT,
ead Ree pe te Manel OS III IOS SIO ow 7) jo Aqunop
ay} JO FuBTOINETT-pIOT “H'WO'H ‘Aostoe Jo [LUT 04} “MOH FUSTY ONL
a
lii REPORT—1897.
TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1898.
TRUSTEES.
1832-70 (Sir) R. I. MurcHIson (Bart.),
E.R.S.
1832-62 JoHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S,
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., F.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.
1872-98 Sir J. LuBBOcK, Bart., F.R.S.
1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
R.S.
1883-98 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.8.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFAIR,
FE.R.S.
GENERAL TREASURERS.
1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.
1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.
1891-98 Prof. A. W. RUCKER, F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
E.R.S.
1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
E.R.8., and F. Baty, Esq.,
E.B.8.
1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MurcHIson,
Esq., F.R.S.
1337-39 R. I. Murcuison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S.
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcouison, F-.R.S.,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J. ¥F. ROYLE, Esq., F.R.S.
1852-53 J. F. RoYLE, Esq., F.R.S.
1853-59 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.8.
1861-62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-63 W. HopKins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S,
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
1868-71 Dr. T. A. H1gst, F.R.S., and Dr.
T. THOMSON, F.R.S.
1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and Dr. MICHAEL FOSTER,
F.BS.
1876-81 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.RB.S.
1881-82 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.5.,
and Prof. F. M. BALFoUR,
F.R.S.
1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1883-95 Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
Esq., F.R.S.
1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq.,
F.R:S., and ‘Prot ) HE. “AY
ScHAFER, F.R.S.
1897-98 Prof. E. A. SCHAFER, F.R.S., and
Prof. W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
C.B., F.R.S.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1831
1832 Prof. J. D. ForRBxEs, Acting
Secretary.
1832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Hsq., M.A.
1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A,
Assistant Secretary.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.
1881
JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Seeretary. | 1881-85 Prof. T. G. BonNEY, F.R.5.,
Secretary.
1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.
1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.
1890-98 G, GRIFFITH, Hsq., M.A.
lili
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES,
I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr.
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
...|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr.
Stokes.
Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,
Stevelly, 3. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof
Stevelly, G. G.
1832. Oxford...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1833. Cambridge |Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
1834. Edinburgh |Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
1835. Dublin...... Rey. Dr. Robinson ......... ard
1836. Bristol...... Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
1837. Liverpool...|Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
1838. Newcastle |Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.B.S.
1839. Birmingham | Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....
1840. Glasgow ...|Prof. Forbes, F.R.S...........5.
1841. Plymouth | Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......
1842. Manchester|Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.
1843. Cork......... Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A.
1844. York......... The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
1845. Cambridge |The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.
1846, ae Sir Fol F. W. Herschel,
ton. Bart., F.R.S.
1847. Oxford...... Rey. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.B.S.
1848. Swansea ...|Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
1849. Birmingham | William Hopkins, F.R.S.......
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
1851. Ipswich ...|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
E.RB.S.
1852. Belfast...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
1853. Hull......... The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
1854, Liverpool...) Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.
1855. Glasgow ...|Rev. Prof. re M.A.,
E.RB.S., F.R.S.E
Tyndall,
liv
Date and Place
REPORT—1 897.
Presidents
' 1856. Cheltenham|Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
1857.
1858.
1859
. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864.
Rev. T. R. Robinson,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.
Rev. W. Whewell,
V.P.R.S.
The Earlof Rosse, M.A.,
F.R.S.
D.D.,
D.D..,
icine,
Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
G. B. Airy, M.A, D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes,
F.R.S.
M.A.,
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.B.S.
Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter......
1879. Liverpool...
1871, Edinburgh
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880.
1881.
. Brighton...
. Bradford ...
. Belfast......
« Bristolie.c...
. Glasgow’...
. Plymouth...
. Dubl
(hs ee
. Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
F.R.S.
F.RB.S.
.|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Secretaries
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall. .
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.8. Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,| Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
F.RB.S.
J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. P. G. Tait, F.B.S.E. .
M.A,
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S. .
Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett,
M.R.LA.
Prof. Balfour Stewart,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
M.A.,
M.A,
M.A.,
Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soc.
Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.B.S.
D.D.,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
.|Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L.Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
George Johnstone Stoney,|A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
M.A., F.R.S.
O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,|W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S.
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. 0. J. Lodge,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lv
Date and Place
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1832.
1833.
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford ......
Ipswich
Liverpool. 55
Toronto ...
.|Prof. W. M. Hicks,
|Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,|
Presidents
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. Chrystal,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
Prof. G. F, Fitzgerald, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.RB.S.
J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. <A. Schuster,
F.RB.S., F.R.A.S.
R.T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.RB.S.
M.A.,
Sc.D.,
Ph.D.,
Prof. A. W. Riicker, M.A.,
F.R.S.
M.A.,|
E.RB.S.
D.8ce., F.R.S.
Secretaries
W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
son, O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.
. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
J. Walker.
Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
G. T. Walker, W. Watson.
Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker,
W. Watson.
Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C. Glashan, J.
L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison,
|Dr. Apjohn, Prof, Johnston,
| Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
/Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
9834. Hdinburgh..| Dr. Hope.....2......scescsascsceees
: : SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Cumming .........
1837. Liverpool...| Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
1838. Newcastle | Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester
Cambridge
. Southamp-
ton,
Prof. (LiGraham,-F'.R.8. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
Jobn Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.......
Rev. Prof. Cumming .........
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S,
Prof. Miller, H. L, Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson. ;
‘Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
|J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. L, Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
lvi
Date and Place
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea
1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
seeeee
1853.
1854, Liverpool
1855.
1856.
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
1857.
seeeee
1858.
aeeene
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861.
1862.
Manchester
Cambridge
1863.
1864.
Newcastle
Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast......
1875. Bristol
1876.
1877. Plymouth...
Dublin ...
1878,
1879. Sheffield ...
..-|Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
...| Prof.
|W. H. Perkin, W-R.S. 2...
REPORT—1897.
Presidents
Secretaries
Rey. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S.
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S-
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
E.R.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. ©. Brodie, F.R.S. ...
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. B. ©. Brodie, F.R.S......
Prof. W.A.Miler, M.D.,F.R.S.,
Prof, W.H.Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
E.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.......
Prof. W. A. Miller,
Wee RDS
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
M.D.,
T. Anderson, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S. .........
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. P. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
E.RB.S.
Reece De nN WeWscateasstaenates
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly,
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams,
Rk. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof,
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote. ,
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof, Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler ‘Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A, Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
KE. Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
Dr. H. E, Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
...|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
Date and Place
1880.
13881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886,
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892,
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES
OF THE SECTIONS. lvii
Presidents
Swansea ...|Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,.
E.RB.S.
VOU Kisscecess Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. |
Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,|
ton, F.R.S. |
Southport |Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Montreal ...| Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,'
LL.D., F.B.S.
Aberdeen...| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
Birmingham| W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Manchester | Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.
Secretaries
P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.
P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.
H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.
C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.
J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.
A, Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.
E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.
Bath’. .....6 Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.S8c.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Newcastle- |Sir J. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
upon-Tyne| D.C.L., F.R.S.
Leeds ...... Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S. |
Cardiff ...... Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, |
C.B., E.R.S. |
Edinburgh |Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S.......
Nottingham |Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Oxford...... Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S. |
|
SECTION B (continwed).—CHEMISTRY.
Ipswich ... ae R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......
Liverpool...| Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S.
Toronto ... Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......
Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn
Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.
Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan.
GEOLOGICAL (anv, untm 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, ITI.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......; John Taylor.
1833. Cambridge.|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......| W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
1834. Edinburgh ./Prof. Jameson .........:esseeeee J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1835. Dublin...... en Din Griftith '. 2, Joc. sedscecs sees Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
1836. Bristol...... Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,
Geog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.
T. J. Torrie.
1837. Liverpool... | Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—| Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
Geog.,G.B.Greenough, F’.R.S.
graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, R.N.
1838. Newcastle...|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—| W. C. Trevelyan, Capt, Portlock.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe,
Geography, Capt. Washington.
1839. Birmingham | Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F’.R.S,
land, Charles Darwin.
lyiii
REPORT—1897.
Date and Place
. Glasgow ...
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847. Oxford
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855,
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
. Plymouth...
, Manchester
. Cork
PINOLE. 222esh2
. Cambridge.
~ Southamp-
tor.
. Swansea...
.-Birmingham
. Edinburgh!
. Ipswich
. Belfast
PES asete
. Liverpool..
Glasgow
Cheltenham
aeeeee
Aberdeen...
Oxford) ..c.00
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Birmingham
...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Presidents
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-|
graphy, G. B. Greenough,|
E.R.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...)
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8. ......
Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Henry Warburton, Pres. G. §.'
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,)
F.R.S.
Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......|
Very Rey.Dr.Buckland,F.R.8.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,|
F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.RB.S.,
F.G.S8.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S. |
Secretaries
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J.Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.
KE. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.
Oldham,
SECTION © (continwed).—GEOLOGY.
Lieut.-Col.
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.
Portlock, R.E.,
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S8.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,)
LL.D., F.B.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
.».| William Hopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.|C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.
|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....|Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw,
Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof, Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Themas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C, —
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. EH.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
‘The subject of Geography was separated from Geology and combined with
Ethnology, to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘Geographical
and Ethnological Section’; for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page lxiv.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lix
Date and Place
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton pelt
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristol....:..
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Sern
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
eeeeee
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Toronto
...| Archibald Geikie, F.B.8.
‘Presidents
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,8.
Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton, |
Bart., M.P., F.B.S.
.|W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...
...|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,
Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S8.
Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ......
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
D.C.L.,
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof, P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.
H. C. Sorby, F.RB.S., F.G.S....
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.RB.S.,
F.G.S.
R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. OC. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.8.
W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec. |
G.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., |
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L., |
F.R.S., F.G.8.
Prof. A. H. Green,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S8.
Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.
M.A.,
J. E. Marr, M.A., F.BS.,
Sec. G.S.
Secretaries
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.
J Armstrong, F.W.Rudler,W.Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
mah, W. Topley.
E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, HE. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Waits.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, ‘W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
J. W. Carr, J. EH. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
.|F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement
Reid, W. W. Waits.
F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.
J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, Clement
Reid.
Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-
E.RB.S. :
lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.
lx
Date and Place
REPORT—1 897.
Presidents
BIOLOGICAL SC
Secretaries
IENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY,
1832
1833
1834
1835.
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
. Oxford |Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...
. Cambridge'| Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.
. Edinburgh ,| Prof. Graham
acces
Peer errr rere Ty
| Rev. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
|W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
Dr. Allman..... aceheskasseneesene
Rey. Prof. Henslow
aeeees
eoveee | TUCV., TLOL, LIENSIOW wocceceevees
. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay..........sssecee.
. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart: .........
. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ..........+
. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
. Plymouth... | John Richardson, M.D.,F.R.S.
. Manchester |Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
. Cork William Thompson, F.L.S....
. York Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.
J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
J.Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
iG. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R
Patterson.
Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
1845, Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,' Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
1846
1847
. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
ton. F.R.S.
= Oxford)ss.-.- H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. 1xiii.]
1848
1849
1850.
1851
1852.
1853.
1854,
1855.
1856.
1857.
- Swansea ...,L. W. Dillwyn, F.RB.S..........
. Birmingham
William Spence, F.R.S. ......
. Edinburgh
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
- Ipswich ...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.RB,S.
Belfast
seweee | WV SILO Y sasewncccssssncvceeseene
Hull....... ne
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres. L.S.
Dublin Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,|
eeeeee
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C, Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
F.R.S.
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy, were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. Ixiii.
|
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxi
Denese
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1858. Leeds ...... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
1859. Aberdeen... | Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. | Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....|W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
1861. Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.|Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr,
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1862. Cambridge | Prof. Huxley, F.R.S._ ......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Balfour, M-D., F.R.S....|Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
.|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1865. Birming-/|T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
ham ! H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1864, Bath......... |Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
SECTION D (continued) .—BIOLOGY.
1866. Nottingham|Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford ..
of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
A. R. Wallace.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
1868. Norwich ...|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
1869. Exeter...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.|Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.
1870, Liverpool..,|Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D., Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof. WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
1871. Edinburgh .| Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, HE. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
.| Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.
1 The title of Section D was changed to Biology; and for the word ‘Sub-
section,’ in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word ‘Depart-
ment’ was substituted.
lxii
Date and Place
REPORT— 1897.
Presidents
Secretaries
1874, Belfast ......
1875, Bristol ......
1876, Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublini......
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
VSSL. York.........
1882. Southamp-
ton.!
1883. Southport *
1884. Montreal ..,
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof.
Cleland, F.R.&.-—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
F.R.S.
A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. MeKendrick.
J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. RB.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
KE. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.RB.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.8.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. J. 8S. Burdon Sander-
son, F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of. Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W.C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.
W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof,
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son,
E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W.R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F.. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.
G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
Prof. T, W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.
1 The Departments of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were
amalgamated.
2 Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. lxx.
eC
1888. Bath.........
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1887. Manchester
Newcastle -
upon-Tyne
1889.
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
serene
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham’
1894. Oxford? ...
1895. Ipswich
' 1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto
Presidents
lxiil
Secretaries
Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S8.
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.L.S8.
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
M.A., M.D., F.RB.S.
Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
E.R.S., F.L.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S8.E.
Rey. Canon H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.
SECTION D (continued).
...| Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...
.| Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. ......
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
8. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.
¥. KE. Beddard, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.
G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
G.
'G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
W. A. Herdman, 8S. J. Hickson,
W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.
W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. 8. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.
—ZOOLOGY.
G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E.
Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.
H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.
Hoyle.
W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.
E. E. Prince.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES,
1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh
sweet resseeees
V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION B (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol ......
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester |
Dr. J. C. Pritchard
Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S.
Prof. W. Clark, M.D.
se eeeenee
T. E. Headlam, M.D. .......
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S..
James Watson, M. D.
see eeeeee
|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S.
Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.
Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
.| Dr. Symonds,
Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
..|T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
.| Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
Dr.J.Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. S.
Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent,
1843. Cork ......... |Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1844. York......... J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I, Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent,
1845. Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... |\Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr, Webster.
1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. xx,
2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.
kxiv
REPORT—1897.
Date and Place
Presidents Secretaries
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. .../C.P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton. gent.
1847. Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......) Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W, P.
| | Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.|
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers,
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen... |Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.|Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
1862. Cambridge |G. HE. Paget, M.D.............0++ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.|Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
1864, Bath... .c.c: Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,|J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
F.R.S.
1865. Birming- |Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,!Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
ham.? F.R.S, | Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
1846.Southampton| Dr. J. C. Pritchard
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. lvii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
| Dr. King.
eee eeeeenene
1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ... | Prof. Buckley.
TSAR SWADSCD oo vcilcsssesdescenesersnanee-chospessnaene ces G. Grant Francis.
11849) Birmin oharn||s..cce..cedawodee teewer bese e= tee’ Dr. R. G. Latham.
1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,)R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Pres. R.G.S. Norton Shaw.
1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. Shaw.
Repo sell seen R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
1854. Liverpool... |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
F.R.S. Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,/Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr,
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham |Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,)R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin...... Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. R.LA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
) By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lx.). Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.
2 Vide note on page 1xi.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lxy
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
2858. Leeds ...... Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,/R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
F.R.S. laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
1859. Aberdeen...|Rear - Admiral Sir James| Richard Cull, Prof.Geddes, Dr. Nor-
; Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
1860. Oxford...... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L..|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
F.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1861. Manchester | John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
1862. Cambridge | Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
1863. Newcastle |Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
F.R.S. C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.
1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
F.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
1865. Birmingham | Major-General Sir H. Raw-|H. W. Bates, 8S. Evans, G. Jabet,
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.| C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
1866. Nottingham) Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. EH. T. Cusins, R.
LL.D. H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
1867. Dundee .../Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. |H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.
1868. Norwich ...|Capt. G..H. Richards, R.N.,|T. Baines, H.’W. Bates, Clements R.
F.R.S. Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continwed).—GEOGRAPHY.
4869. Exeter...... |Sir Bartle Frere, K.OC.B.,|H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
LL.D., F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas.
1870. Liverpool...|Sir R.I.Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,|H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.| Mott, Clements R. Markham,
1871. Edinburgh | Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. |A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas,
1872. Brighton ...| Francis Galton, F.R.S..........;H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
1873. Bradford ...|Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.|H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
1874. Belfast...... |Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,|E. G. Ravenstein, H. C. Rye, J. H.
¥.R.G.S. Thomas,
_ 4875. Bristol...... Lieut. - General Strachey,|H. W.° Bates, HE. C. Rye, F. F.
R.E.,C.8.1., F.R.S.,F.B.G.S.| Tuckett.
1876. Glasgow ...|Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S....... H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.
1877. Plymouth.../Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,|H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Dublin...... Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
1878.
1880. Swansea ...
Sole Work...i42.:
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1897.
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R 8.5.
1879. Sheffield ..., Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L.,
C.B., F.R.S.
Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.1.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.
1884. Montreal ...|Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.8.,V.P.B.G.S8.
1885. Aberdeen...|Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C,
Rye.
Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O’Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
J. 8S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, EH. G,
Ravenstein, Rey. G. A. Smith.
d
Ixvi REPORT—1897.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1886. Birmingham| Maj.-Gen. Sir. F, J.Goldsmid,|F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
K.C.S8.1., C.B., F.R.G.S. E. G. Ravenstein.
1887. Manchester|Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,|Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. §. Keltie,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
1888. Bath......... Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,|J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Ravenstein.
1889. Newcastle- |Col. Sir F. de Winton,|J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
upon-Tyne| K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. Sulivan, A. Silva White.
1890. Leeds ...... Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert|A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie,
Playfair, K.C.M.G.,F.R.G.S.|_ A. Silva White.
1891. Cardiff ...... E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,|John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
E.S.8S. kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L.,F.R.S.,|J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
V.P.R.Scot.G.8. Keltie, A. Silva White.
1893. Nottingham|H. Seebohm, Sec. B.S., F.L.S.,|Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
¥E.ZS. Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.
1894. Oxford...... Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, R.N.,|John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.
F.R.S. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.
1895. Ipswich ...|H. J. Mackinder, M.A.,|John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
F.R.G.S. R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
1896. Liverpool...|Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.|Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
1897. Toronto ...|J. Scott-Keltie, LL.D. Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.
H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge, Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........(J. E. Drinkwater.
1834, Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......)W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C..
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........|F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
F.R.S. Rawson.
1841. Plymouth.,..|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842, Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
» E75 a 00) 0: ee Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. .../Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,|/J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
F.L.S. cock.
1845. Cambridge |Rt.Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam| J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.B.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849. Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
1850, Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr, John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.R.S.E. Stark.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xvii
n=
Date and Place
Presidents
1851. Ipswich ...
1852.
Belfast......
1853. Hull.........
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1857.
1858. Leeds
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.8.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P....
Secretaries
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856. Cheltenham
Dublin
1859. Aberdeen...
1860.
1861. Manchester |
1862.
1863.
1864.
Oxford
severe
Cambridge
Newcastle .|
Bath
ee eeeeeee
1865. Birmingham
1866,
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
Nottingham
Dundee .....
Norwich....
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
Workin. cones
Southamp-
» ton.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.I.A.
Edward Baines .......secccsseres
Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
William Newmarch, F.R.S....
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.B.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof, J. HE. T. Rogers............
M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......
Samuel Brown ........ssecsseces
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan ............0s0008
James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. §.S.
Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.1,
M.P
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof, J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.8.
G. W. Hastings, M.P...........
Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.
Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
T,. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Prof. J. HE. T. Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts,
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
iG. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
KE. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof, Leone Levi, E, Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
Baden-Powell, Prof. H. S. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
d2
G.
Ixviil
1883.
| 1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
“1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
¥R47.
1848.
1849.
1850.
REPORT—1897.
Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries
Southport /|R. H, Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S. |Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Montreal ...|Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,| Prof. H.S. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
G.C.S.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S. Prof. J. Watson.
Aberdeen...) Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,/Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8S.
Litt.D. Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
Birmingham|J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S. F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Manchester) Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.|Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.
Bab Desens 6 Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,| Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
LL.D., F.R.S. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.
Newcastle- | Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,| Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
upon-Tyne| F.S.S. | F.B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
Leeds ...... Prof. A. Marshall, M.A.,F.5.S.|W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
. | T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. H.C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.
Cardiff ...... Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D., Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
D.Sc., F.S.8. | E. C. K. Gonner, H. Lil. Smith,
| Prof. W. R. Sorley.
Edinburgh |Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle, Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
K.C.B. KE. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
aia) He Prices
Nottingham! Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,' Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
F.S.S. | Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
| L, L. F. R. Price.
Oxford...... Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,!E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
HESS: W. A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs,
Ipswich sade laembrice, Melt Jcecwcsats E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
H. Higgs.
Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P....!E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A. S. Hewins, H. Higgs.
Toronto ...|Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. |E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A.
Shortt.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
Bristol...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.;T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Liverpool...|Rev. Dr. Robinsor ............ Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Newcastle |Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T-
Webster.
Birmingham | Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.| W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T
Stephenson. Webster.
Glasgow ....|Sir John Robinson ............- J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
Plymouth j|John Taylor, F.R.S. ens bey Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
Manchester|Rev. Prof. Willis, F. R. Ss. .|J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
Corktissese.- Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Maed esosteone John Taylor, F.R.S. ............| Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S.......... Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
South’mpt’n| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
Oxford...... Rey. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
Swansea ...| Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé,
Birmingh’m | Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.R.S.|Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Edinburgh |Rev. R. Robinson ............... Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
Ipswich ..,!William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby.
1851.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lxix
eee
Date and Place
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886. Birmingham
Belfast......
Hull
Liverpool..
Glasgow
Cheltenham
Dublin.,....
se eeerene
Leeds ......
Aberdeen...
Oxfords...
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
Dundee......
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol ......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin ......
Sheffield ..,
Swansea ...
Southamp-
ton
Southport
Montreal ..,
Aberdeen...
.|John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ..
...| W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S. .
Presidents
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S. ........
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.5. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .........
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.
Prof.W.J.Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
.|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., E.R.S.
Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.
seeeeeeee
W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ..
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E.
Edward Easton, C.K. .........
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
J. Abernethy, F.R.S.E..........
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...
J. Brunlees, Pres. Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........
Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E.
..|Crawford Barlow,
Secretaries
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.
.|J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson.
..|L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.
.|C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M, Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
| P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
W. Mz Tee P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt..
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C
Manby, W. Smith.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J.G. Ganhle, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman.
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
Ned Atchison, J. N.Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N.’Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. ‘i’. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. "T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W B
Marshall, E. Rigg.
lxx
REPORT—1897.
Date and Place
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891,
1892,
1893.
1894,
1895.
1896.
1897.
1884.
1885,
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889,
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1894.
1896.
1897.
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff......
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Toronto
Montreal...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Toronto
Presidents
Secretaries
Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
W. dH. Preece,’ F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...
Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.RB.S.,
F.R.A.S.
T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.
Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
F.C.S.
Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
¥.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
...|Prof. L, F. Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M.Inst.C.E. .
Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E.
.|G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.
C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.
Popplewell, E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, H. Talbot.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
8. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.
Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof, Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.1.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......
Lieut.-General
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
Dr. J. Evans, Treas. R.S.,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...
Pitt-Rivers,
Prof. A. Macalister,
M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.
M.A.,
Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
...|Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
D.C.L.
Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. ......
ee SEGA eewarner: 1, Re Scena sess
G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.
G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.
G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.
H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
Roth.
J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H.
Ling Roth.
Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,
Prof. A. M. Paterson. ‘
A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,
Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.
SECTION I—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprrmentAn
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHooey).
Prof. E. A. Schifer, F.R.S.,|Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 8S. Haldane,
Oxford
M.R.C.S.
Liverpool,..| Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.
Toronto
M. 8. Pembrey.
Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S. Sherrington.
...|Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. | Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. S. Sherring-
ton, Dr. L. E. Shore.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
lxxi
Date and Place
Presidents
1895. Ipswich
1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto
.|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.| A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.
Secretaries
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.
seeeee
...| Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward,
Prof, F. E. Weiss.
Prof. J. B. Farmer, E. C. Jeffrey,
A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.
Date and Place
LIST OF EVENING
LECTURES.
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
ee eeneeee
1844, York.........
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
teens
1848. Swansea ..
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull.........
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......
Sir M. I. Brunel
R. I. Murchison
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.RB.S.......
Prof, E. Forbes, F'.R.S..........
Dr. Robinson
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........-
Dr. Falconer, F.RB.S........ eeeee
emcee eee ee weet eeneaee
G.B.Airy,F.RB.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
WR. Grove, EUR.S. .........0.
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....
.| John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Tre HaTaday .HeR.S. 4.2022. c5a:
Rey. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Drs Mantel, HRS. Jsc<.c5-2+s
...| Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
¥F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S.............
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Russia.
..| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
lxxil
Date and Place
REPORT—1897.
Lecturer
1854,
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865,
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872,
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool..
Liverpool...
Glasgow
‘Cheltenham
seeeee
seeeee
Aberdeen...
Oxford
seeees
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
seeeee
Edinburgh
Brighton ..,
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......
...|Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.8.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson
Col, Sir H. Rawlinson
Wirsitt sGTOVe. SHAE jecersesncass
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ..
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., ¥.R.S.
Prot, Odling, W.ORGS. s<csssessaee
Prof. Williamson, F.R.5S.......
James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S........
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. nay
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S........
William Huggins, F.R.S.......
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.....
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S..,....
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
--.|J. Fergusson, F.R.S..........60+
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D. F. RS.
J. Norman Lockyer, F. R. 8.
.| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., ¥.R.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
HSeAGEAIDel y HisisSs. secede
E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.
Poet eeeenees
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Wie Ks Clifford ..; sccesce
Subject of Discourse
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
. |Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.
Correlation of Physical Forces.
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands,
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
.|Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics. ;
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
.|The Chemical Action of Light.
|Recent Travels in Africa.
.| Probabilities as to the position an@
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
.. {Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
.| Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
.|The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
..../Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Moderm
Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.
.| The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Date and Place
“1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast ......
1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ..
1877. Plymouth...
\
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881.
1882. Southamp-
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888.
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
eaeeee
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894. Oxford......
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Ixxiii
Lecturer
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prof, Huxley, F.R.S8.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
,|Prof. Tait, F.RS.E. .
Sir Wyville Thomson, F R. s.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S..
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.......
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. .
W. Crookes, F.R.S. ..
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
ee eecccees Animal Intelligence.
see eeeeeee
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S.
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.RB.S.
eeeees
Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.B.S.
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S...
John Murray, F.R.S.E..........
A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.B.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton
ween wn ene
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A
E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S.... |
eee eeeeee
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.
Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S
Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.
J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Subject of Discourse
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarised Light.
Railway Safety Appliances.
.| Force.
The Challenger Expedition.
Physical Phenomena connected with
the Mines of Cornwall and Devon.
The New Element, Gallium.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Paleon-
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
| Tides.
Pelagic Life.
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Galvanic and Animal Electricity.
Dust.
|The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
.|The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
The Great Ocean Basins.
Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.
. |The Rate of Explosions in Gases,
Explorations in Central Africa.
The Electrical Transmission
Power.
The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.
The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.
How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.
Mimicry.
Quartz Fibres and their Applications.
Some Diffculties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.
Electrical Stress.
Pedigrees.
oS
.| Magnetic Induction.
Flame.
The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.
Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.
of
lxxiv
REPORT—1897.
Date and Place
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1894.
1895.
1896.
Oxford
Ipswich
Liverpool...
1897. Toronto ...
Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.| Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism.
...|Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. | Magnetism in Rotation.
Prof. Percy F. Frankland,|The Work of Pasteur and its various
F.R.S.
Developments.
Dr. F. Elgar, F.R.S. ............ Safety in Ships.
Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L. | Man before Writing.
Prof. Roberts Austen, F.R.S. |Canada’s Metals.
Pepin es Manu Sensrctesceascsceas. Earthquakes and Volcanoes.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
.| Experimental Illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
Unwritten History, and how to
Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
The Colours of Metals and their
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1867. Dundee......| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force.
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F.R.S8.
Bodies by the Spectrum,
1870. Liverpool... |Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,| Savages.
E.R.S.
1872. Brighton ...| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.| Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
18738. Bradford ...|C.W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Fuel.
1874, Belfast...... Prof Odline, HORS. ..ccrs..ssc The Discovery of Oxygen,
1875. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone.
1876. Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,|A Journey through Africa.
R.N.
1877. Plymouth ...| W. H. Preece.....0..s.ssscvsecesss Telegraphy and the Telephone.
1879. Shefield -. |W. Hi. AyabON .....:.0cce+ep een Electricity as a Motive Power.
1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............ The North-East Passage.
USBI. Vorkt nn. .c.0 Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.R.S. flakes.
1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas.R.S.
ton. read it.
1883. Southport |Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S.......... Comets.
1885, Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions.
1886. Birmingham | Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
E.R.S. Alloys.
1887. Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ...... Electric Lighting.
1888. Bath......... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,)The Customs of Savage Races.
F.R.S.
1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........|The Forth Bridge.
upon-Tyne
1890: Leeds <..... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. |Spinning Tops.
1891. Cardiff ...... Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S8. | Electricity in Mining.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.|Electric Spark Photographs.
1893. Nottingham | Prof. Vivian B. Lewes......... Spontaneous Combustion.
1894. Oxford...... Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S .|Geologies and Deluges.
1895. Ipswich ...|Dr. A. H. Fison............-0.00. Colour.
1896. Liverpool...| Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S..../The Earth a Great Magnet.
1897. Toronto ...|Dr. H. O. Forbes New Guinea.
lxxv
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE TORONTO MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor A. R. Forsyth, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ; Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S. ;
Prof. Henrici, F.R.S.; Dr. G. W. Hill; Prof. A. Johnson, M.A.,
LL.D. ; Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S.; Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,
F.R.S.; President Loudon; Prof. A. A. Michelson; Prof. S.
Newcomb,
Secretaries.—Prof. W. H. Heaton, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. C. Glashan ;
J. L. Howard, D.Sc. ; Prof. J. C. McLennan, B.A.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Prof. W. Ramsay, F.RS.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. G. F. Barker ; Prof. F. W. Clarke ; Prof. H. B.
Dixon, F.R.S.; W. R. Dunstan, F.R.S. ; Prof. B. J. Harrington ;
Prof. E. W. Morley ; Prof. W. H. Pike ; Prof. I. Remsen ; Prof.
W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. W. H, Ellis; Arthur Harden (Recorder) ; Charles
A. Kohn ; Prof. R. F. Ruttan.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Dr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S. ; Prof. C. LeNeve Foster,
D.Sc., F.R.S. ; Prof. G. K. Gilbert ; Prof. H. Alleyne Nicholson,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. A. P. Coleman, M.A., Ph.D.; G. W. Lamplugh ;
Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S. (Recorder). *
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.
President.—Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S. ; Prof. R. Meldola,
F.R.S. ; Prof. E. B. Poulton, D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Prof. R. Ramsay
Wright, M.A., B.Sc.
Secretaries— Walter Garstang, M.A. ; Prof. E. E. Prince, B.A. ; W. E.
Hoyle, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—J. Scott-Keltie, LL.D.
Vice-Presidents—Dr. Burwash; E. G. Ravenstein; Prof. Albrecht
Penck ; F. C. Selous ; Coutts Trotter.
Ixxvi REPORT—1897.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Professor E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.?
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Clark, M.A., LL.D.; Prof. J. Mavor; the
Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle, K.C.B.
Secretaries.—E. Cannan, M.A.; Prof. A. Shortt, M.A.; Henry Higgs,
LL.B. (Recorder).
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ; Prof. H. T. Bovey, M.A. ;
Prof. John Galbraith, M.A. ; Prof. G. Lanza ; Prof. W. C, Unwin,
F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Hecorder) ; W. A. Price,
M.A. ; Prof. Callendar, M.A., F.R.S.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President. —Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—E. W. Brabrook, C.B., Pres. Anthr. Inst.; Prof. A.
Macalister, M.D., F.R.S.; R. Munro, M.D., F.R.S.E.; Dr. W. J.
McGee ; Prof. F. W. Putnam, D.Sc.
Secretaries.—A. F. Chamberlain, Ph.D. ; H. O. Forbes, LL.D. ; Prof.
A. C. Haddon, D.Sc. ; J. L. Myres, M.A., F.S.A. (2ecorder).
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY,
President.—Prof. Michael Foster, M.A., LL.D., Sec. R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Lord Lister, P.R.S.; Surgeon-General J. S. Billings ;
Prof. H. P. Bowditch, M.D.; W. H. Gaskell, M.D., F.R.S. ; Prof.
A. B. Macallum, M.B., Ph.D. ; Prof. W. Osler, M.D. ; Prof. C.
Richet, M.D. ; Prof. A. D. Waller, M.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—Prof. Rubert Boyce, M.B. (Recorder) ; Prof. C. 8. Sherring-
ton, M.D., F.R.S. ; L. E. Shore, M.D.
SECTION K,—BOTANY.
President.—Prof. Marshall Ward, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. D. P. Penhallow, M.A.; Prof. Farlow, M.D.,
LL.D. ; Prof. F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—H. C. Jeffrey, B.A. ; Prof. Bretland Farmer, M.A. ; A. C.
Seward, M.A.; Prof. F. E. Weiss, B.Sc. (Recorder).
1 Prof. Gonner was unable to attend the Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1897-98.
PRESIDENT.
SIR JOHN EVANS, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A., Treasurer of the Royal Society of London.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,
His Excellency the Right Hon. the Eart or The Hon. the PReMiER of the Province of Ontario.
ABERDEEN, G.C.M.G., Governor-General of the The Hon. the MINISTER OF EpucaTION for the
Dominion of Oanada. Province of Ontario.
The Right Hon. the Lorp Ray eicH, M.A,, The Hon. Sir vee Turrer, Bart., G.C.M.G.,
D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 0.B., LL
The at ‘Hon. the Lorp KELvin, G,.O.V.O., M.A., Sir WILLIAM. sets O.M.G., F.R.S.
iL.D., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. The Mayor of Toronto.
The Rt. Hon. Sir WirRID Lavrigr, G O.M.G., Professor J. Loupon, M.A., LL.D., President of
Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada, the University of Toronto,
His Honour the LImUTENANT-GOVERNOR of the
Province of Ontario.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR W. OROOKES, F.R.S., V.P.0.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the Eart of Ducin, F.R.S., F.G.S. The Principat of University College, Bristol.
The Right Rey. the Loxp BisnopP of Bristol, D.D. The Masrer of the Society of Merchant Venturers
The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp Fry, D.C.L., F.RB.S., of Bristol.
F.S.A. JOHN BEDDOR, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Bart., D.O.L., F.R.S. Professor T, G. BONNEY, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., P.S.A.,
The Right Worshipful the Mayor of Bristol. F.G.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor E. A. ScHAFER, F.R.S., University College, London, W.C.
Professor W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, C.B., F.R.S., Royal Mint, London, E.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GnrirFiTH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W. RtcxkeEr, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
ARTHUR LEE, Esq. | BERTRAM ROGERS, Esq., M.D.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
J. W. ARROWSMITH, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Boys, C. VERNON, Esq., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., O.B., F.R.S.
OREAK, Oaptain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. RAmsAy, Professor W., F.R.S.
DARWI, F., Esq., F.R.S, REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
EpGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., D.O.L. F.R.S.
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir C. W., K.O B. SHaw, W.N., Esq., F.R.S.
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F B.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A. TEALL, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
HERDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S. THISELTON-DYER, W.T, , Hsq., O.M.G., F.R.S.
Hopkinson, Dr. J., F.R.S. THOMPSON, Professor s. P. .y L.R.S.
HORSLEY, Victor, Esq., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
Mark, J. E., Esq., F.R.S. TYLOR, Professor EB. B., Fa 8.
MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S. Unwin, Professor W. GC. ., F.RS.
Povutton, Professor E. B., F.R.S. Wuite, Sir W. H., K.O.B., F.R.S,
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the Genera] and ‘Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer aud
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luszocs, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.A.
The Right Hon. Lord Piayratrr, @.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, KGS als
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S.
Prof. A, W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Allman, M.D., E-R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Lord Playfair, G.C.B., F. R.S.
Sir Wm. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S.
Sir H. E, Roscoe, oe
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart.,
Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B.,
Sir F. A, Abel, Bart, be
F.R.S.
ROB.
Sir Wm. Huggins, K.0.B., F.R.S.
Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof.J.S.Burdon Sanderson,I’. R.S.
The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.,
F.R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Lord Lister, D.O.L., Pres.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S,
G. Griffith, Esq., M.. A.
Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S.
P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B.,
AUDITORS.
| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F,.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., I’.R.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
| Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S,
Ixxvill
Dr.
1896-97.
REPORT—1897.
THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
RECEIPTS.
£ 8s d
Balan ceybrovg hb lonward. wedysedeccss sees erancwavpeadsrepaeates supe ce 957 15 3
PFE COMPOSULONS easy lecersacess- ack cecessccvenss sores saasaaeegan 490 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ....0......sesscseececececeses 336 0 0
AmmBal SUDSerIPHOUS i ccasesse > cesesnadcsedsenssssecesese:secrspeivatee 580 0 O
Saleio£ Associates! Dickets ..... sa. 000 sdeessiies lebcepee sehen cete ccs cets 1369 0 0
Daleiof Ladies Tickets: ‘cacxccagevossscocsdvacecevoncese nce stseaeanne 873 0 O
Sale ioL PUDUICAIONS Ao crcccc-csccs--esse=socecsoscceyeressacrecmeemne 217 18 5
Interest on Deposit at Liverpool Bank .................:sceeeeeene 18 16 0
Mer estiON HC HeQUEE TIS! 25..ccs-csc0sccacseses cou scessemessedeate 312 6
Dividends ion/Consolaiyict. ste tecvesesesceectedetoesacoscsctesessceueee 200 7 4
Dividends on India 3 per Cents ..........ssescsosssscccssncsncenees 104 8 O
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned :—
Erratic Blocks Committee .........scsceeseseeceeeeee Le By)
Corresponding Societies Committee ............... 0 8 10
Calibration Committee ..........-csrerssocosecsoasceese 15 18 11
Ethnographical Survey Committee.................. 317 0
Electrical Standards Committee...............60000 16 15 10
——. 388 3 7
incGome,UAsTeE LUTE nce asees satanesecesstsaccesersesss. ose cascavecseare 30 8 6
Sale of Tickets for Toronto Meeting (to June 30) :—
MLE SNUCINDETS a: sascturanseestoaccceesestte reece ss-ccs Gees 40 0 0
PATINUMALPVLCINDEIS Stececscarc:cessessnestsscecrencrscceete 26'°0°"0
New: Amnual Members|. O23 5...t:0in's ted sversecssecser. 24 0 0
Associates ......0 SSO RCER DEC OS JOS CORRE CHE aoe RCOLe 32 0 O
122 0 0
£5341 9 7
Investments
£ 5. d.
June! 30), 1896s {Cansolssavac-cte cee cet ee eee ne ee ee ee Zb37 3 6.
Indiaid per! Centisii.. vss; qsecevwscenccvssecaesesee 3600 0 0
£11,137 3 5
See
LuDwic Monp, 4
HERBERT McLEHOop, } atm
GENERAL TREASURERS ACCOUNT. Ixxix
from July 1, 1896, to June 30, 1897. Or.
1896-97. PAYMENTS.
£ Ss ithe
Expenses of Liverpool Meeting, including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &C. .............sescessesseccrecsceece elo, on 6
Rent and Office Expenses .......cccssssseseccccecscscscsesescees seseusp OL de FT
DGIATLES tocviecs sens sacssascatees seuss adaiaensacaecdasea Naeaseks eects OOSwEDE 0
"3 Printin p:: Bind inf (&cemecbecces dike sssitce ve see dea tendenaes one Fe Ll bSelOe: 6
Payment of Grants made at Liverpool :
Feit Pe! 2
Mathematical Tables ...........cccseeeescee Nidstestetd Acie lide CUT)
Seismological Observations........+s.eeeeeeeees waeeune 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers...,..... 2 AB ADO boob ECEMAD 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain Integrals ...........-. i 10 0 0
Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ........--seeeeeeeee 0 0
Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis ......-+ee.eeeeeeee 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ..........2e-eeeeee 0 0
(rAnTa MOG esa gativicicicias ac mideiaclaele qe Jaroadnbadar Joc 0 0
Photographs of Geological SURE EDSMirs or ninin vie aid als oie’! s.cheler='s 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in the Isle of Man ............ 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples .. 0 0
Table at the Biological Laboratory, Plymouth. . 10 8
Zoological Bibliography and Publication ......... 0 00
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium ..........-+.. 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands..... Sacco aun ONO
To work out Details of Observations on the Migration of
BEF ian etal akiieetetete ojaaieis, co iecnias ocean Getoacesoarany . 20" 6)~0
Climatology of Tropical ‘Africa aidane jAt fouacene aemonD 20 0 0
MPRA papal SOKVvey cee esnnecisaciaselaclen sien sveaienee 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condition OL OMUAXED. .ecau esis.ce 10 0 0
Silchester Mxcavation .. 2. ...ccccescecssccsncccesduccs 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes associated with the Functional
Activity of Nerve Cells and their a wheal 2 Exten-
SIGHIBW. iio atalcaincelp oft a)n - - . 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid -. 30 0 0
Physiological ‘Applications of the Phonograph asia since 15 0 0
Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors .... 20 0 0
Fertilisation in Phaeophyceee ....--scseeereeeceeecseecs 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Committee.......... palaalssiehsine 25 0 0
1059 10 §$
In hands of General Treasurer :
On deposit at Liverpool ............cssseeeeeeees seeeeeeel500 0 0
At Bank of England, Western Branch £939 7 4
Less Cheques not presented ............ 60 10 0
= STSulT 4
(GENS) Oy Prone near pptecs Sepaacha sean nae aiee speetaswarcsasesen lida comnO
SH fie!
£5341 9 7
oe
Account
June 30, 1897: Consols ...........ceeeee scene
India 3 per Cents .
ARTHUR W. RUCKER, General Treasurer.
July 9, 1897.
{xxx REPORT—1897,
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents
Old Life | New Life
Members | Members
1831, Sept. 27 ...... "G0 pus ere Ce The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L...........,. = _
1832, June 19......) Oxford ..... ..| The Rey. W. Buckland, F.RB.S. . — —
1833, June 25...... Cambridge .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. , — —_
1834, Sept. 8 ...... Edinburgh ..| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L... — —
1835, Aug.10......| Dublin ..... ..| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL. — —
1836, Aug. 22...... .| The Marquis of Lansdowne ....... — _
1837, Sept. 11...... The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.. — —
1838, Aug. 10..,...| Newcastle-on-Tyne,..! The Duke of Northumberland . — —
1839, Aug. 26 ...... Birmingham ......... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, — _—
1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow........ ..| The Marquis of Breadalbane..,. = —
1841, July 20 .,,...) Plymouth..... ..| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. .... 169 65
1842, June 23.,....) Manchester .. .| The Lord Francis Egerton. . 303 169
1843, Aug. 17...... Cork ........ ..| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. 109 28
1844, Sept. 26 ...... otk pear .| The Rev. G. Peacock, DD. ..... 226 150
1845, June 19...... Cambridge .. .| Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., 313 36
1846, Sept. 10. ...| Southampton ..| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. . 241 10
1847, June 23 ...... xford 2... .| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart........ 314 18
1848, Aug. 9......] Swansea........ ..| The Marquis of Northampton . 149 3
1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham .| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. 227 12
1850, July 21 ......) Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H. ....... 235 9
1851, July 2.....4:.. Ipswich ..... G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal . 172 8
1852, Sept.1 . Belfast ..| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.RB.S. 164 10
1853, Sept.3 . Hull ..| William Hopkins, F. R S. 141 13
1854, Sept. 20 ...... Liverpoo .| The Earl of Harrowby, FRS. 238 23
1855, Sept. 12...... Glasgow........ ..| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. .. 194 33
1856, Aug.6 ...... Cheltenham .| Prof. CO. G. B. Daubeny, M.D...., 182 14
1857, Aug. 26 ...... Dublin ..... .| Zhe Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.. 236 15
1858, Sept. 22...... Leeds .. ..| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L. .... 222 42
1859, Sept. 14 ...... Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Consort .. 184 27
1860, June 27 ......) Oxford ........ ..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. .. 286 21
1861, Sept.4 . Manchester ..| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113
1862, Oct. 1 . Cambridge .. ..| The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A. ...... 239 15
1863, Aug. 26 ..,...| Newcastle-on- .| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. ...... 203 36
1864, Sept. 13...... BAGH espe esate kia Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. .... 287 40
1865, Sept.6 ..,...| Birmingham.. ..| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22...... Nottingham .. ..| William R. Grove, Q.' C., E.R.S, 207 31
1867, Sept. 4 ......} Dundee ..... ..| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.OB. 167 25
1868, Aug. 19..,...) Norwich ..| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196 18
1869, Aug. 18...... Exeter ..... ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ., 204 21
1870, Sept. 14...... Liverpool .. .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LUD... 314 39
1871, Aug. 2 ...... Edinburgh .. ..| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246 28
1872, Aug. Brighton ..... ..| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. . 245 36
1873, Sept. | ...| Bradford .. ST RETOLD. Williamson, F.R.S, 212 27
1874, Aug. ...| Belfast .., ..| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., PRS. : 102 13
1875, Aug. ».| BPIBtOL <. | Sir John Hawkshaw, O. E. . F.RB.S.., 239 36
1876, Sept. ...| Glasgow ..| Prof. T. Andrews, MD. yet eetenaewas 221 35
1877, Aug. es Plymouth... .| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D. 173 19
1878, Aug. zal Dublin es. ..| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., 201 18
1879, Aug. .| Sheffield. . .| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D. 184 16
1880, Aug. Swansea ..| A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F, 144 11
1881, Aug. WOrk a aesssce: .| Sir John Lubbock, Bart. 272 28
1882, Aug. Southampto 2 Dr2 GSW. Siemens. F.R.S 178 17
1883, Sept. Southport ..... ..| Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., BRE 203 60
1884, Aug. Montreal .. .| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. 235 20
1885, Sept. Aberdeen ..... ..| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B., FE 225 18
1886, Sept. Birmingham ..| Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R 314 25
1887, Aug. Manchester .. .| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L. ., FR. 428 86
1888, Sept. Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. Bee Roce 266 36
1889, Sept. Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., 277 20
1890, Sept. ..| Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R. aaa 259 21
1891, Aug. ee Huggins, ERS. 189 24
1892) Aqp) 3) Edinburgh || Sir A. Geikie, LL.D.,F.RS. .... 2 280 14
1893, Sept. 13...... Nottingham .. ..| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson 201 17
1894, Aug. 8 ...... Oxford), ..| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.B.S. 327 21
1895, Sept.11...... Tpswich ..... ..| Sir Douglas Galton, F.RS...00....... 214 13
1896, Sept. 16...... Liverpool .| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. RS. ... 330 31
1897, Aug. 18 ...... ROTONGO yee, coerce: Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.RB.S. ......... 120 8
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.
+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
ATTENDANCE AND, RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. Ixxxi
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
Attended by Renae Sums paid
received on freon
Old New ieee during the |¢,+ scientific Year
Annual | Annual Sear Ladies |Foreigners} Total Meeting Pp
Members | Members EAE Le
Seer Sts =
_ _— _ _ _ 353 —_ = 1831
— _ — _ —- —_— _ — 1832
—_ _— —_— _ _— 900 -—— _ 1833
— _ _ _— — 1298 — £20 0 0 1834
—_— — —_— — — — — 167 0 0 1835
— _— _ | _ —_ 1350 —_— 435 0 0 1836
—_— — _ —_— — 1840 — 922 12 6 1837
— _— _ 1100* _ 2400 — 932 2 2 1838
— _ —_ — 34 1438 _— 1595 11 0 1839
a = _ — 40 1353 —_— 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 —_ 60* — 891 — 1235 10 11 1841
75 376 33t 331* 28 1315 = 1449 17 8 1842
71 185 —_ 160 — —_ — 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 9t 260 — _— — 981 12 8 1844
94 22 407 172 35 1079 — 831 9 9 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 —_ 685 16 0 1846
197 40 495 203 53 1320 _— 208 5 4 1847
54 25 37 197 15 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 15919 6 1849
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 O| 34518 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0 381 9 F 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 O0| 205 0 0 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0} 38019 7 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0| 48016 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 68411 1 1859
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0] 1111 510 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0| 128915 8 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0| 1591 7 10 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0| 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 O 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0} 1622 0 0 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0| 1572 0 0 1870
311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0|:1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0| 1285 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0} 1685 0 O 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0| 115116 0 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0| 1092 4 2 1876
238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0O| 1080 11 11 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 O| 731 7 7 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0| 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0} 1126 111 1882
330 323 952 841 2714 3369 0 0 | 1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 2203 2256 0 0| 1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0| 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509. 12 1984 2107 0 0| 1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0} 1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0} 78916 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0| 102910 0 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0 864 10 0 1892
328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894
é 290 31 493 261 22 1324 | 1236 0 0| 97715 5 | 1895
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0| 1104 6 1 1896
286 125 682 100 41 1362 1498 0 0| 105910 8 1897
SS EERE
t¢ Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
1897 e
Ixxxil REPORT—1897,
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the Year 1896-97, presented to the General
Committee at Toronto on Wednesday, August 18, 1897.
The Meeting at Montreal in 1884 was the first occasion on which the
Association held a Meeting beyond the limits of the United Kingdom.
Some of the Members then considered that it was a hazardous experiment ;
but the decided success of that Meeting fully justified the innovation,
and when an invitation was received for holding another Meeting in the
Dominion of Canada, in the University City of Toronto, the General
Committee accepted it with unanimity.
The Executive Committee at Toronto have succeeded in making very
complete preparations for the reception, not only of British Members of our
Association, but of several Continental and numerous American Men of
Science who propose to take part in our proceedings. The Council desire
to record their grateful sense of the efforts made by Professor Macallum and
his colleagues to render this Meeting a success, and of the liberality with
which those efforts have been supported by the Dominion Government,
the Government of the Province of Ontario, and the City of Toronto.
The Council also desire cordially to thank the Associated Cable Companies
for granting, under certain restrictions, free ocean telegraphy during the
Meeting to Members coming from the United Kingdom. The Council
have likewise to offer their thanks to the several Railroad and Steamship
Companies which have afforded special facilities to Members.
The Council have nominated Sir Donald Smith, High Commissioner for
the Dominion of Canada, the Hon. Arthur Sturgis Hardy, Premier of the
Province of Ontario, and the Mayor of Toronto to be Vice-Presidents of
the Association.
The Council heard with great regret that Mr. Alan Macdougall, who
was appointed one of the Local Secretaries for the Toronto Meeting, had
died after a long illness. Mr. Macdougall took an active part in the pro-
ceedings which gave rise to the invitation to Toronto, presented to the
Association in the year 1894, at the meeting at Oxford. ;
The Council have been informed by Mr. Vernon Harcourt that he
does not intend to offer himself for re-election as General Secretary after
the Toronto Meeting. Mr. Vernon Harcourt has held the office of General
Secretary for fourteen years, and the Council desire to record their sense
of the invaluable services which he has constantly rendered to the
Association during this period. The Council recommend that Professor
Roberts-Austen, C.B., F.R.S., be appointed General Secretary in succession
to Mr. Harcourt.
Professor Schiifer having informed the Council that it would be incon:
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxxiil
venient for him to attend the Meeting at Toronto, they have requested
Professor Roberts-Austen to undertake the duties of General Secretary
during the Meeting in his place.
The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his accounts from July 1, 1896, to June 30, 1897,
which have been audited, will be presented to the General Committee.
The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science, who
have attended Meetings of the Association, to be Corresponding
Members :—
Dr. F. Kohlrausch, Berlin. Prof. E. Zacharias, Hamburg.
Dr. van Rijckevorsel, Rotterdam.
The following Resolutions were referred to the Council for considera-
tion and action, if desirable :—
(1) ‘That the Council be requested to take such steps as they think
best to bring before the Government the question of the establishment of
a National Physical Laboratory, in general accordance with the recom-
mendations contained in the Report appended hereto, and to invite the
co-operation of the Royal Society of London, the Royal Society of:
Edinburgh, the Royal Astronomical Society, the Physical Society, and
other kindred societies, in securing its foundation.’
The Council, after considering this question, resolved to appoint a
Committee to bring the proposal before the Government.
The Committee consisted of the following Members :—
Lord Kelvin . ;
Lord Rayleigh . - 2 -
Mr. Francis Galton . 4 f : |
Professor A. W. Riicker . - . ;
Sir Douglas Galton . ; P - A |
The President of the Royal Society . . |
: : : Royal Society.
Sir H. E. Roscoe
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook British Association
Professor Oliver Lodge ;
Professor A. Schuster é : z
Professor G. F. Fitzgerald. : . Royal Irish Academy.
The Astronomer-Royal . A 5 . Royal Astronomical Society.
Mr. A. Vernon-Harcourt . Chemical Society.
Captain Abney 7 Physical Society.
Dr. John Hopkinson ° . . Institution of Civil Engineers.
Professor W. H. Ayrton . . » Institution of Electrical Engineers.
The Royal Society of Edinburgh was also represented by Lord Kelvin.
The Council have been informed that, at the request of the Committee,
a Deputation waited upon Lord Salisbury, and have recently learned
that a Committee has been appointed by the Treasury : ‘To consider
and report upon the desirability of establishing a National Physical
Laboratory for the testing and verification of instruments for physical
investigation ; for the construction and preservation of standards of
measurements and for the systematic determination of physical constants
and numerical “data” useful for scientific and industrial purposes, and to
report whether the work of such an institution, if established, could be
associated with any testing or standardizing work already performed
wholly or partly at the public cost.’ -
The following will be the members of the Committee :—
e2
lxxxiv REPORT—1897.
The Tord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Robert Chalmers, Esq., of the
(Chairman). Treasury.
Sir Courtenay Boyle, K.C.B. A. W. Riicker, Esq., D.Sc., F.R.S-
Sir Andrew Noble, K.C.B., F.R.S. Alexander Siemens, Esq.
Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S. T. E. Thorpe, Esq., F.R.S.
W. C. Roberts-Austen, Esq., C.B.,
F.B.S.
(2) ‘That it is of urgent importance to press upon the Government
the necessity of establishing a Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain,
which, by collecting information with regard to the native races within
and on the borders of the Empire, will prove of immense value to science
and to the Government itself.’
The Council referred this question to a Committee consisting of the
President and General Officers, with Sir John Evans, Sir John Lubbock,
Mr. C. H. Read, and Professor Tylor. The Report of the Committee was
as follows :—
‘A central establishment in England, to which would come informa-
tion with regard to the habits, beliefs, and methods of government of
the primitive peoples now existing would be of great service to science,
and of no inconsiderable utility to the Government.
‘1. The efforts of the various societies which have, during the last
twenty years, devoted themselves to collecting and publishing ethno-
logical information have necessarily produced somewhat unequal, and
therefore unsatisfactory, results. Such societies had, of course, to depend
upon the reports of explorers, who usually travelled for another purpose
than that in which the societies .were interested ; and such reports were
naturally unsystematic, the observers being mostly untrained in the
science. Again, whole regions would be unrepresented in the transac-
tions of the societies, perhaps from the absence of the usual attractions of
travellers, e.g. big game or mineral riches. This has been to some extent.
corrected, at least as to the systematic nature of the reports, by the pub-
lication of “‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries ” by the Anthropological
Institute, with the help of the British Association.
‘Tf it be admitted that the study of the human race is an important
branch of science, no further argument is needed to commend the gather-
ing of facts with regard to the conditions under which aboriginal races
now live, and, if this work is worth doing, it should be done without
delay. With the exception, perhaps; of the negro, it would seem that
none of the lower races are capable of living’ side by side with whites.
The usual result of such contact is demoralisation, physical decline, and!
steady diminution of numbers; in the case of the Tasmanians, entire
disappearance. Such will probably soon be the fate of the Maories, the
Andamanese, the North American Indians, and the blacks of Australia.
While these exist it is possible to preserve their traditions and folk-lore,
and to record their habits of life, their arts, and the like, and such direct
evidence is necessarily more valuable than accounts filtered through the
recollection of the most intelligent white man.
‘It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon this point, as no one will
seriously question the value to science of such information. But it does
seem necessary to urge that no time be lost.
‘2. As to the benefit to the Government of these inquiries, the history
of our relations with native tribes in India and the Colonies is rich in
examples. No one who has read of the ways of the African can doubt
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. “Ixxxv
that a thorough study of his character, his beliefs and superstitions, is a
necessity for those who have to deal with him. And what is true of the
natives of Africa is also true, in a greater or less degree, of all uncivilised
races. Their ideas of common things and common acts are so radically
different from those of civilised man that it is impossible for him to
understand them without a special training.
‘Even in dealing with the highly civilised natives of India it is most
necessary that an inquirer should be familiar with their religion, and
with the racial prejudices which the natives of India possess in common
with other civilised nations,
‘ A training in knowledge of native habits is now gone through by our
officers, traders, and missionaries on the spot ; and by experience—some-
times dearly bought—they, after many failures, learn how to deal with
the natives. By the establishment of such a Bureau as is here advocated
much might be done to train our officers before they go out, as is now
done by the Dutch Government, who have a handbook and a regular
course of instruction as to the life, laws, religion, &c., of the inhabitants
of the Dutch Indies. The experience thus gained would then mature
rapidly, and they would become valuable servants to the State more
quickly.
‘The collecting of the necessary information for the Bureau could be
done with but little expense and with a very small staff only, if the
‘scheme were recognised and forwarded by the Government. If instruc-
‘tions were issued, for instance, by the Colonial Office, the Foreign Office,
the Admiralty, and the Intelligence Branch of the War Office, to the
officers acting under each of these departments, not only that they were
at liberty to conduct these inquiries, but that credit would be given to
them officially for good work in this direction, there is little doubt that
many observers qualified by their previous training would at once put
themselves and their leisure at the disposal of the Bureau.
‘The Bureau itself, the central office, would be of necessity in London
—in no other place could it properly serve its purpose—and preferably, for
the sake of economy and official control, it should be under the adminis-
tration of some existing Government office. But the various interests
involved make it somewhat difficult to recommend where it should
he placed. The Colonial Office would obviously present some advantages.
‘The British Museum has been suggested, with good reason, and there
appears to be no insuperable difficulty if the Trustees are willing to
undertake the responsibility of controlling such a department.
‘The staff would not be numerous. A Director accustomed ‘o deal
‘with ethnological matter would necessarily direct the conduct of the
inquiries, and until the material assumed large proportions, two or three
clerks would probably suffice. If the value of the results were considered
to justify it, the increase of the area, of operations over the world would
probably call for additional assistance after the Bureau had been at work
for a few years.
‘The Bureau of Ethnology in the United States aims chiefly at pub-
lishing its reports, but its area is limited to America. The scope of the
present proposal is so much wider that the Committee think it better not
to deal with the question of publication at present.
‘If this report be adopted by the Council it will be necessary to
approach the Government, and impress upon them the importance of
having such an organisation for carrying out these recommendations.
Ixxxvi REPORT—1897.
For this purpose a Deputation should be appointed, and it would be well
to invite the Council of the Anthropological Institute to appoint two
members.’
The Council resolved that the Trustees of the British Museum be re-
quested to consider whether they could allow the proposed Bureau to be
established in connection with the Museum: and if they are unable to
sanction this proposal, that the authorities of the Imperial Institute be
requested to undertake its establishment.
The matter is now under the consideration of the Trustees of the
British Museum.
The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, together with the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1897, has been received.
The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola (Chairman), Sir Douglas Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. Cuthbert Peek,
Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, and Professor W. W. Watts is
hereby nominated for reappointment by the General Committee.
The Council nominate Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S., Chairman, and
Mr. John Hopkinson, Secretary, to the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies to be held during the Meeting at Toronto,
In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—
Anderson, Sir W.
Foxwell, Professor.
Lodge, Professor O. J.
Vines, Professor.
Ward, Professor Marshall.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—
Boys, C. Vernon, Esq., F.R.S. Preece, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S.
*Darwin, F., Esq., F.B.S.
Edgeworth, Professor F. Y., M.A.
*Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K,C.B.
*Halliburton, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. Vernon, M.A.,
M.Inst.C.E.
Herdman, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
Hopkinson, Dr. J., F.R.S.
Horsley, Victor, Esq., F.R.S.
Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.
Meldola, Professor R., F.B.S.
Poulton, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
Ramsay, Professor W., F.R.S.
Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson, M.D.,
E.R.S.
Shaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.
Symons, G. J., Esq., F.B.S.
Teall, J. J. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq., C.M.G.,
F.R.S.
*Thompson, Professor S. P., F.R.S.
Thomson, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
Tylor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S.
*White, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.
It was resolved last year, at the Liverpool Meeting, that two meetings
of the General Committee shall be held at Toronto, and that an adjourned
meeting shall be held in London at the beginning of November, for the
election of the President, Officers, and Council for 1897-8, and for fixing
the date of the Meeting in that year. The Council have arranged that
the adjourned meeting shall be held at the Rooms of the Royal Society,
Burlington House, on Friday, November 5, at 3 p.m.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxvii
At this meeting an invitation which has been received from the
Corporation of Glasgow to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association
in 1901 in that city will be presented to the General Committee.
The Council, acting on behalf of the Association, have presented to
Her Majesty the Queen the following Address of Congratulation on the
completion of the sixtieth year of her reign :—
To the QurEN’s Most Excretitent Magzrsry.
May it please your Majesty,—
We, your Majesty’s most dutiful and loyal subjects, the President and
Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
desire most respectfully to approach your Majesty with the expression of
our sincere and heartfelt congratulations on the completion of the sixtieth
year of your Majesty’s auspicious reign.
During that reign, which has exceeded in length that of any of your
illustrious predecessors, the increase in prosperity of your Majesty’s
subjects has been unparalleled.
This advance in the welfare of the nation has been in no small degree
due to the astonishing progress of science during this period, and its
application to the details of daily life ; and we thankfully recognise the
interest constantly displayed both by your Majesty and by members of
your Royal Family in the promotion of science. Of this, the acceptance
by His Royal Highness the late lamented Prince Consort of the Presidency
of this Association at Aberdeen, in the year 1859, was a conspicuous
illustration.
That your Majesty’s subjects in all parts of the globe are united in
their efforts to promote the advancement of knowledge is evinced by the
fact that the Association holds its annual meeting this year at Toronto,
on the invitation of one of the principal Dependencies of your Empire, the
great Dominion of Canada.
There, as here, the Members of the Association will ever pray that
your Majesty may long be spared to rule over a contented, grateful, and
united Empire.
Signed on behalf of the Council,
ListTER,
President.
June 23, 1897.
The Address was laid before the Queen by the Home Secretary, who
has informed the Council that Her Majesty was pleased to receive the
same very graciously.
Ixxxvili
REPORT—1897.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Toronto MEETING In AuGusT 1897.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Making Experiments for improy-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
Seismological Observations.
To assist the Physical Society in
bringing out Abstracts of Phy-
sical Papers.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor G. Carey
Foster.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Oliver J. Lodge, Lord Ray-
leigh, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. Preece,
Professors J. D. Everett and A,
Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professors G. F. FitzGerald and
J.J. Thomson, Mr. W.N. Shaw,
Dr. J. T. Bottomley, Rev.
T. C. Fitzpatrick, Professor J.
Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. John- |
stone Stoney, Professor 8. P.
Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr. |
E. H. Griffiths, Professor A. W.
Riicker, and Professor A. G.
Webster.
Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Secretaries—Dr. C. Davison and
Professor J. Milne.
Lord Kelvin, Professor W. G.
Adams, Dr, J. T. Bottomley, Sir
F. J. Bramwell, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin,
Major L. Darwin, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Professor C. G. Knott, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Professor R. Mel-
dola, Professor J. Perry, Pro-
fessor J. H. Poynting, Dr. Isaac |
Roberts, Dr. G. M. Dawson,
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
C. V. Boys, Professor H. H.
Turner, and Mr. M. Walton
Brown.
Chairman.—Dr. E. Atkinson.
Secretary. — Professor A.
Riicker.
Ww.
To co-operate with Professor Karl | Chaizman.—Rev. Robert Harley.
Pearson in the Calculation of |
certain Integrals.
Secretary.—Dr. A. R. Forsyth.
| Dr, J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A.
Lodge, and Professor Kar] Pear-
son.
Grants
£ sd.
75.00
75 00
100 00
20 00
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Ixxxix
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Grants
The present state of our Know-
ledge in Electrolysis and Elec-
tro-chemistry.
To establish a Meteorological Ob-
servatory on Mount Royal,
Montreal.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements.
The Electrolytic Methods of Quan-
titative Analysis.
The Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours.
The Promotion of Agriculture:
to report on the means by which
in various Countries Agricul-
ture is advanced by research,
by special Educational Insti-
tutions, and by the dissemina-
tion of information and advice
among agriculturists.
To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.
Chairman.—Mr. W. N. Shaw.
Secretary.—Mr. W. C. D. Whet-
ham.
Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick and Mr.
EK. H. Griffiths.
Chairman.—Professor Callendar.
Secretary.—Professor C. H. Mc-
Leod.
Professor F. Adams and Mr. R. F.
Stupart.
Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.
Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A.
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, and Captain
Abney.
Chairman.—Professor J. Emerson
Reynolds.
Seeretary.—Dr. C. A. Kohn.
Professor Frankland, Professor F.
Clowes, Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr.
A. E. Fletcher, and Professor W.
Carleton Williams.
Chairman.—Dr. T. E. Thorpe.
Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hum-
mel.
Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J.
Russell, Captain Abney, Pro-
fessor W. Stroud, and Professor
R. Meldola.
Chairman. — Sir John Evans.
Secretary.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong. 4
Professor M. Foster, Professor
Marshall Ward, Sir J. H. Gilbert,
Right Hon. J. Bryce, Profes-
sor J. W. Robertson, Dr. W.
Saunders, Professor Mills, Pro-
fessor J. Mavor, Professor R.
Warington, Professor Poulton,
and Mr. §. U. Pickering.
Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Prof. P. F. Kendall.
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. S. N.
Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr.
Dugald Bell, Mr. F. M. Burton,
and Mr. J. Lomas.
12
00
00
00
00
00
REPORT— 1897,
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To consider a project for investi-
gating the Structure of a Coral
Reef by Boring and Sounding.
To explore certain Caves in the
Neighbourhood of Singapore,
and to collect their living and
extinct Fauna.
[Last year’s grant of 401. unex-
pended. ]
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological In-
terest.
To study Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks.
[Balance of last year’s grant. ]
To examine the Conditions under
which remains of the Irish Elk
are found in the Isle of Man.
[Balance of last year’s grant.]
To ascertain the Age and Relations
of the Rocks in which Secondary
Fossils have been found near
Moreseat, Aberdeenshire.
Members of the Committee
Grants
Chairman.—Professor T. G. Bon-
ney.
Secretary.—Professor W. J. Sollas.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors
J. W. Judd, C. Lapworth, A. C.
Haddon, Boyd Dawkins, G. H.
Darwin, 8. J. Hickson, and
Anderson Stuart, Admiral Sir
W. J. L. Wharton, Drs. H.
Hicks, J. Murray, W. T.
Blanford, C. Le Neve Foster,
and H. B. Guppy, Messrs. F.
Darwin, H. O. Forbes, G. C.
Bourne, Sir A. R. Binnie, Dr. J.
W. Gregory, and Mr. J. C.
Hawkshaw.
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Ridley.
Dr. R. Hanitsch, Mr. Clement
Reid, and Mr. A. Russel Wal-
lace.
Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.—ProfessorW.W. Watts.
Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. An-
derson, and Messrs. A. S. Reid,
EK. J. Garwood, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, J. E. Bedford, R.
Kidston, R. H. Tiddeman, J. J.
H. Teall, J. G. Goodchild, H.
Coates, and C. V. Crook.
Chairman.—Mz. J. E. Marr.
Secretary.—Mr. H. J. Garwood.
Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,
Dr. Wheelton Hind, Dr. G. J.
Hinde, Mr. P. F. Kendall, Mr.
J. W. Kirkley, Mr. R. Kidston,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Mr. G. H. Morton,
Professor H. A. Nicholson, Mr.
B. N. Peach, Mr. A. Strahan,
and Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman.—Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins.
Secretary.—Mr. P. C. Kermode.
His Honour Deemster Gill, Mr.
G. W. Lamplugh, and Canon
E. B. Savage.
Chairman.—Mrx. T. F. Jamieson.
Secretary.—Mr. J. Milne.
Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne.
£
s. d,
40 00
10 00
10 00
tite ie nit i i
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To further investigate the Fauna
and Flora of the Pleistocene
Beds in Canada.
To enable Mr. H. M. Vernon to
investigate the development of
Echinoderm larvz experiment-
ally, or, failing this, to ap-
point some other competent in-
vestigator to carry on a defi-
nite piece of work at the Zoo-
logical Station at Naples.
To enable Profesor 8. J. Hickson
to study the fertilisation of
Alcyonium, Mr. C. D. Scott to
investigate the physiology of
secretion in Tunicata, and
Messrs. A. H. Church and G.
Brebner to study the repro-
duction of marine Alge, or, in
default of these, to appoint
some other competent Natu-
ralist to do a definite piece of
work at the Plymouth Marine
Laboratory.
Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium.
The Biology of the Lakes of
Ontario.
Healthy and unhealthy Oysters.
Climatology of Tropical Africa.
State Monopolies in other
Countries.
Chairman.—Sir J. W. Dawson.
Secretary.—FProfessor A. P. Cole-
man.
Professor D. P. Penhallow, Dr. H.
Ami, and Mr. G. W. Lamplugh.
Chairman.—Professor W. A.
Herdman.
Secretary.—Mr. Percy Sladen.
Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, Professor W. C.
M‘Intosh, and Mr. W. E. Hoyle.
Chairman.—Mz. G. C. Bourne.
Secretary. — Professor E. Ray
Lankester.
Professor Sydney H. Vines, Mr.
A. Sedgwick, and Professor
W. F. R. Weldon.
100
20
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower. 100
Secretary.—Mzr. F. A. Bather.
Dr. P. L. Sclater, Dr. H. Wood-
ward, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
Mr. R. McLachlan, and Mr.
W. E. Hoyle.
Chairman.—Professor L. C. Miall.
Secretary.—Professor R. Ramsay
Wright.
Senator Allan, Dr. G. M. Dawson,
Professor W.H. Ellis, Professor
E. E. Prince,.and Professor
John Macoun.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.
Secretary.—Professor R. Boyce.
Mr. G. C. Bourne, Professor C. S.
Sherrington, and Dr. C. Kohn.
75
30
Chairman.—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein.| 10
Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.
Sir John Kirk, Dr. H. R. Mill,
and Mr. G. J. Symons.
Chairman.—Professor H. Sidg- | 15
wick.
Secretary.—Mr. H. Higgs.
Mr. W. M. Acworth, the Rt. Hon.
L. H. Courtney, and Professor
H. 8S. Foxwell.
xci
00
00
00
00
00
00
XCll
REPORT—18&97.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose |
Members of the Committee
Future Dealings in Raw Produce.
To consider means by which better
practical effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Screw
Gauge proposed by the Associa-
tion in 1884.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.
The Lake Village at Glastonbury.
To organise an Ethnographical
Survey of the United Kingdom.
[And unexpended balancein hand. |
Chairman.—Mr. L. L. Price.
Secretaries.—Professor Gonner
and Mr. E. Helm
Mr. Hugh Bell, Major P. G.
Craigie, Professor W. Cunning-
ham, Professor Edgeworth, Mr.
R. H. Hooker, and Mr. H. R.
Rathbone.
Chairman.—Mr. W. H. Preece.
Seerctary.—Mr. W. A. Price.
Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R. E. Cromp-
_ton, Mr. A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K. B. Elphinstone, Mr.
T. Buckney, Col. Watkin, Mr.
KH. Rigg, and Mr Conrad W.
Cooke.
Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.
Secretary.—Mr. Cuthbert E. Peek.
Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr, R. G. Hali-
burton, Mr. David Boyle, and
Hon. G. W. Ross.
Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.
Secretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Gene-
ral Pitt-Rivers, Sir John Evans,
and Mr. Arthur J. Evans.
Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
Secretary.—Mr. EK. Sidney Hart-
land.
Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Joseph Anderson, Mr. J.
Romilly Allen, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Mr. W. Crooke, Professor D. J.
Cunningham, Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, Mr. Arthur J. Evans,
Dr. H. O. Forbes, Mr. F. G.
Hilton Price, Sir H. Howorth,
Professor R. Meldola, General
Pitt-Rivers, and Mr. E, G.
Ravenstein.
To co-operate with the Silchester | Chairman.—Mr. A. J. Evans.
Excavation Fund Committee in | Secretary.—Mr. John L. Myres
their Explorations
Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
20 00
7 00
37 10 0
25 00
7 A010
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To organise an Ethnological Sur-
vey of Canada.
The Anthropology and Natural
History of Torres Straits.
To investigate the changes which
are associated with the func-
tional activity of Nerve Cells
and their peripheral extensions.
Fertilisation in Pheophycez.
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Dr. George Dawson.
Secretary.—Dr. George Dawson.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Professor
A. C. Haddon, Mr. E. 8. Hart-
land, Dr. J. G. Bourinot, Abbé
Cuog, Mr. B. Sulte, Abbé Tan-
quay, Mr. C. Hill-Tout, Mr.
David Boyle, Rev. Dr. Scad-
ding, Rev. Dr. J. Maclean,
Dr. Nerée Beauchemin, Rev.
Dr. G. Patterson, Professor
D. P. Penhallow, Mr.C. N. Bell,
Hon. G. W. Ross, Professor J.
Mavor, and Mr. A. F. Hunter.
Chairman.—Sir W. Turner.
Secretary.—Professor A. C. Had-
don.
Professor M. Foster, Dr. J. Scott
Keltie, Professor L. C. Miall,
and Professor Marshall Ward.
Chairman.—Dr. W. H. Gaskell.
Secretary.—Dr. A. Waller.
Professor Burdon Sanderson, Pro-
fessor M. Foster,
Halliburton, Professor J. B.
Haycraft, Professor F. Gotch,
Professor C. 8. Sherrington, Dr.
J. N. Langley, Dr. Mann, and
Professor A. B. Macallum.
Chairman.—Professor J.B.Farmer.
Secretary.—ProfessorR.W.Phillips.
Professor F. O. Bowerand Professor |
Harvey Gibson. -
Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.
Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.
Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Douglas
Galton, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Sir John Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. Cuthbert Peek, Mr. Horace
T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan,
and Professor W. W. Watts.
Professor |
EB. A. Schiffer, Professor J. G. |
McKendrick, Professor W. D. |
|
|
(
100
bo
or
00
00
00)
00
Xclil
XC1V
REPORT—1897,
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
|
|
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To confer with British and Foreign
Societies publishing Mathematical
and Physical Papers as to the desir-
ability of securing Uniformity in the
size of the pages of their Transactions
and Proceedings.
Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.
To confer with the Astronomer Royal
and the Superintendents of other
Observatories with reference to the
Comparison of Magnetic Standards
with a view of carrying out such
comparison.
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.
The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.
That Professor 8. P. Thompson and Pro-
fessor A. W. Riicker be requested to
draw up a Report on the State of our
Knowledge concerning Resultant
Tones.
The Application of Photography to the
Elucidation of Meteorological Phe-
nomena.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor 8. P. Thompson.
Secretary.—Mr. J. Swinburne.
Prof. G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton, Mr.
R. T. Glazebrook, Professor A. W.-
Riicker, and Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.
Chairman.—Lord McLaren.
Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.
Mr. John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, and
Professor R. Copeland.
Chairman.—Professor A. W. Riicker.
Secretary.—Mr. W. Watson.
Professor A. Schuster and Professor H.
H. Turner.
Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary.—Dr. C. Chree.
Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Riicker.
Chairman.—Myr. John Murray.
Secretary.—Mr. John Murray.
Professor A. Schuster, Lord Kelvin, the
Abbé Renard, Dr. A. Buchan, Dr. M.
Grabham, Mr. John Aitken, Mr. L.
Fletcher, Mr. A. Ritchie Scott.
Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.
Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.
Professor Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor
Edward Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,
Professor A. S. Herschel, Professor
G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr.
W. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered,
Mr. A. Strahan, Professor Michie
Smith, and Professor H. L. Callendar.
Chairman.—Mx. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.
Professor R. Meldola, Mr. John Hopkin-
son, and Mr, H. N. Dickson.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
nme EET [SS nnn Enns nennnIrne nN UE URDU
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
XCV
For Calculating Tables of certain Ma-
thematical Functions, and, if neces-
sary, for taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the re-
sults in an accessible form.
Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation.
That Mr. E. T. Whittaker be requested
to draw up a Report on the Planetary
Theory.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
e
The Carbohydrates of Barley Straw.
The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.
The Description and Illustration of the
Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palzozoic
Rocks.
To consider the best Methods for the:
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.
The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Canadian
Photographs of Geological Interest.
— a
Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.
Secretary.—Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cun-
ningham.
Professor B. Price, Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
Professor A. G. Greenhill, Professor W.
M. Hicks, Major P. A. Macmahon, and
Professor A. Lodge.
Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.
Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.
Professor A. Schuster, Dr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain W.
de W. Abney, Dr. C. Chree, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. W. E. Wilson, and Pro-
fessor A. A. Rambaut.
Chairman.—Professor H. McLeod.
Secretary.—FProfessor Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.
Chairman.—Frofessor R. Warington.
Secretary.—Mr. C. F. Cross.
Mr. Manning Prentice.
Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Seeretary.—Professor H. EH, Armstrong.
Mr. George Gladstone, Mr. W. R,. Dun-
stan, Sir J. Lubbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoe, and Dr.
Silvanus P. Thompson.
Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. H. Armstrong.
Chairman.—Rev. Professor T. Wiltshire. |
Secretary.—Yrofessor T. R. Jones,
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.
Seeretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.
Rev.G. F.Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston, Pro- |
fessor H. G. Seeley, and Mr. H. Woods. |
Chairman:—Professor A. P. Coleman.
Secretary.—Mr. Parks.
Professor. A. B. Willmott, Professor F.
D. Adams, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, and
Professor W. W. Watts,
xcvl
REPORT—1897.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
The Investigation of the African Lake
Fauna by Mr. J. E. Moore.
To continue the investigation of the
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, with
power to co-operate with the Com-
mittee appointed for the purpose by
the Royal Society, and to avail them-
selves of such assistance in their in-
vestigations as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government or the Trus-
tees of the Museum at Honolulu. The
Committee to have power to dispose
of specimens where advisable.
The Necessity for the immediate inves-
tigation of the Biology of Oceanic
Islands.
To report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany
of the West India Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora,
To work out the details of the Obser-
vations on the Migration of Birds at
Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87.
Zoological Bibliography and Publica-
tion.
Anthropometric Measurements in
Schools.
To co-operate with the Committee ap-
pointed by the International Con-
gress of Hygiene and Demography in
the investigation of the Mental and
Physical Condition of Children.
Linguistic and Anthropological Cha-
racteristics of the North Dravidians
-—the Uranm's.
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.
Dr. John Murray, Professor E. Ray
Lankester, and Professor W. A. Herd-
man.
Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.
Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor 8. J. Hick-
son, Mr. O. Salvin, Dr. P, L. Sclater, and
Mr. Edgar A, Smith.
Chairman.—Sir W. T. Flower.
Secretary.—Professor A. C. Haddon.
Mr. G. C. Bourne, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Pro-
fessor W. A. Herdman, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Dr. John Murray, Professor
A. Newton, and Mr. A. E. Shipley.
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary.—Mr. G. Murray.
Mr. W. Carruthers, Dr. A. C. Giinther, Dr.
D. Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
and Professor A. Newton.
Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.
Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M.
Barrington, Mr. W. E. Clarke, Rev.
E. P. Knubley, and Dr. H. O. Forbes.
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. F. A. Bather.
Professor W. A. Herdman, Mr. W. E.
Hoyle, Dr. P. Lutley Sclater, Mr. Adam |
Sedgwick, Dr. D. Sharp, Mr. C. D.
Sherborn, Rey. T. R. R. Stebbing, and
Professor W. F. R. Weldon.
Chairman.—Professor A. Macalister.
Secretary.—Professor B. Windle.
Mr, E. W. Brabrook, Professor J. Cle-
land, and Dr, J. G. Garson.
Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton.
Secretary.—Dr. Francis Warner.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Mr. White Wallis.
Chairman.—Mr. E. Sidney Hartland.
Secretary.—Mr. Hugh Raynbird, jun.
Professor A. C. Haddon and Mr. J. L.
Mpyres.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
XCVii
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The physiological effects of Peptone
and its Precursors when introduced
into the circulation.
The Establishment of a Biological
Station in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor E. A. Schiifer.
Secretary.—Professor W. H. Thompson.
Professor R. Boyce and Professor C. S.
Sherrington.
Chairman.—Proféssor E. E. Prince.
Secretary.—Professor D. P. Penhallow.
Professor J. Macoun, Dr. T. Wesley
| Mills, Professor E. Macbride, Dr. A. B.
Macallum, and Mr. W. T. Thiselton-
Dyer. ,
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.
A Report on ‘The Historical Development of Abelian Functions,’ by Dr. Harris
Hancock,
A Paper by Professor Callendar and Professor J. T. Nicolson on‘ A New Apparatus
for Studying the Rate of Condensation of Steam on a Metal Surface at different
Temperatures and Pressures.’
The Table of. Measurements made by Professor Martens for the Committee on
‘Calibration of Instruments in Engineering Laboratories.’
A Report. by.Dr. Henry M. Ami on ‘ The State of the Principal Museums in Canada
and Newfoundland.’
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
af desirable.
That, in view of the facts (1) that a Committee of Astronomers appointed by the
Royal Society of London, in consequence of a communication from the Royal Society
of Canada, has recently considered the matter, and has arrived at the conclusion that
no change can now.be introduced in the Nautical Almanac for 1901, and (2) that few
English Astronomers are attending the Toronto Meeting of the Association,
Resolved : That the Committees of Sections A and E are not in a position to arrive
at any definite conclusion with respect to the Unification of Time; but they think it
desirable to call the attention of the Council to the subject, in which the interests of
Mariners are deeply involved, with the view of their taking such action in the matter
as may seem to them to be desirable. :
That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of approaching the
Government with a view to the establishment in Britain of experimental agricultural
stations similar in character to those which are producing such satisfactory results in
Canada.
That a Committee be appointed to report to the Council whether, and, if so, in
what form, it is desirable to bring before the Canadian Government the necessity for
a Hydrographic Survey of Canada, and that the following be the Committee :—
Professor A. Johnson (Chairman and Secretary), Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Admiral Sir W. J. L. Wharton, Professor Bovey, and Professor Macgregor,
1897. f
xcvill - REPORT—1897.
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
The
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer
General Committee at the Toronto Meeting, August 1897.
for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
*Foster, Professor Carey—Electrical Standards ..........:::006 75
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Seismological Observations .............. 75
* Atkinson, Dr. E.— Abstracts of Physical Papers ............++. 100
*Harley, Rev. R.—Calculation of Certain Integrals ............ 20
*Shaw, Mr. W. N.—Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ...... 35
Callendar, Prof.—Meteorological Observatory at Montreal... 50
Chemistry.
*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
ihe dilénadits” 2c.4 722s ekeaisaeitee. 0h ts nanos nena
*Reynolds, Professor J. Emerson.—Electrolytic Quantitative
Wixi y pie 0, ji2iced hee tk Jee Sadotes Gees s tals ogslobe nate stele stant 12
*Thorpe, Dr. T. E.—Action of Light upon Dyed Colours ...... 8
Evans, Sir J.—Promotion of Agriculture ............c00ce 5
Geology.
*Hull, Professor E.—Erratic Blocks .............02.eeeeeeneseeees 5
*Bonney, Professor T. G.—Investigation of a Coral Reef ...... 40
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Fauna of Singapore Caves (Unexpended
Seoqooooo®
ooo Oo
balance in hand, 401.) ..........c0.0:scesecseeseeesececeeeeroeanees —
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest ... 10
*Marr, Mr. J. E.—Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks
(Unexpended balance in hand) .............2++.eseeeeereeeee ee —
Dawkins, Professor W. Boyd.—Remains of the Irish Elk in
the Isle of Man (Unexpended balance in hand) ............
*Jamieson, Mr. T. F.—Age of Rocks near Moreseat............ 10
Dawson, Sir J. W.—Pleistocene Fauna and Flora in Canada 20
Zoology.
*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Table at the Zoological Station,
P21 RR ee era Saat ee a ee eee rims errs apy 100
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Table at the Biological Laboratory, Ply-
SEG Re ce oses apnea ne Seog ones og
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Index Generum et Specierum Animalium 100
Miall, Prof.—Biology of the Lakes of Ontario .................. 75
*Herdman, Prof. W. A.—Healthy and Unhealthy Oysters ... 30
Carried TOrWArd ; 4.040.600. sca essneecesatnesageaiosars £810
* Reappointed.
So) o:o [a5 oO
ooooocos
coo °°
oo oo
or; oooco (=
xcix '
£
ree LORMAN LG cade jes vumsctas'teaearerls <anyeccernrratena’ O10
Geography.
*Ravenstein, Mr. E. G.—Climatology of Tropical Africa ....., 10
Economic Science and Statistics.
Sidgwick, Prof. H.—State Monopolies in other Countries ... 15
Price, Mr. L. L.—Future Dealings in Raw Produce ......... 10
Mechanical Science.
*Preece, Mr. W. H.—Small Screw Gauge .........sscceeceseeeees 20
Anthropology.
*Tylor, Professor E. B.—North-Western Tribes of Canada ... 75
*Munro, Dr. R.—Lake Village at Glastonbury .................5 37
*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Ethnographical Survey (and unex-
pended BB UAR CORTINA) 5. bs dus 4-1) 5 Awe ede ese oman arnaveanees oo 25
Evans, Mr. A. J.—Silchester Excavation ....... saitndays CCUNA
*Dawson, Dr. G. M.—Ethnological Survey of Canada ......... 75
Turner, Sir W. —Anthropology and Natural ist Hit of
Torres Strait ........ . 125
Physiology.
Gaskell, Dr. W. H.—Investigation of Changes associated
with the Functional Activity of Nerve Cells and their
emer el ol DISTENSION gs cog axon <1 red redttwsseccserassuniceele 100
Botany.
Farmer, Professor J. B.—Fertilisation in Pheophycee ..... - Db
Corresponding Sosieties.
*Meldola, Professor R.—Preparation of Report .............06 + 25
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1898.
n
:
ok
i=) ooo oo
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1898 will commence on
Wednesday, September 7, at Bristol.
The Annual Meeting in 1899.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1899 will commence on
Wednesday, September 13, at Dover.
The Annual Meeting in 1901.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1901 will be held at
Glasgow.
c REPORT—1897,
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
1834.
£ s. d.
Tide Discussions ....... “Contos 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ........s++++ 6270 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
#167, 0 O
1836.
Tide Discussions .....-...+e++++ 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,
SCS aes et ease seaeteenede stencsenwcss 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con- :
tinued Heat .......seeeereees i ®
Rain-gauges ...cccresseesees Beeson, Lowa,
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Lunar Nutation..........0+.e00» 60 0 0
Thermometers .....sceeseceeeeee 15 6 0
£435 O 0
1837
Tide Discussions .....e..sssse08 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.............0005 70 0 O
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol ..........0:..0005 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 93 3) 10
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ..........+. 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
IGATOMELETS|. ..s-cpeessnastscesanens 1118 6
£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ..........s0008 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
(HOS) |) Socasecioosoeeandanorocenear 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ..........5. 41 12 10
Bristol Tides ............00- Aeaeeen cDQe OO
Growth of Plants ..... 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers .........sess0ee00- 3.6 6
Education Committee 50 0 O
Heart Experiments ....... dacoo See)
Land and Sea Level..........+6 267 8 7
Steam-vessels...........0..ssssoee 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee 31 9 5
£932 2 2
1839.
£ 8. a.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c. ............ 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides ......c0s.ssscssseeee 35 18 6
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 O
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 7
Railway Constants ........... 28 7 G
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 O 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0
Stars in Lacaille ............... i Oph
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0O
Animal Secretions.........+.+. 10 10 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ..........s000. 16.) 1 ene
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3 0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
RIN OS USSIC) csv casen0 semereseacars AO 75'S
Fossil Reptiles ..c....sseeeeeeeee 118 2 9
Mining Statistics ............06- 50 0 0
£1595 11 O
ee
1840.
Bristol Tides .......c0s+csess0s0e 100 0 O
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ..........+. 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions .........s+0++. 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level....... Peery te OE a
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille) ...........ss+e0ee 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .......00....es 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .......eseeeees 1515 0
Wateron Iron’ <.........2--scess 10 0 O
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics ............60+ 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels .........s++e++ 184 7 0
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMENA Yeeisicbseeesesseccsscowey AO OO
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .........0...000 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
———_
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1841.
£ 8. a.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature..........+- fo) gilts haat 01
Actinometers ...........ssce.seeee 10 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ............ line ean
PNGTIG ME OISOUGSssc2c0.ccecesecesssos 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3: 0° 0
MMMAGMITN RIVETS: “ose sssocecscseess. be OreO
Marine Zoology .........seeeseeee 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps .............s000. 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Piars Guacaille)...........ccs.c00 Ue dl
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... (IS)
Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0 0
Water on Iron .................. 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness ............se000+ 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
(reduction Of) ...........206. 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles ..........00...+++ 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ ...... 62 0 6
Railway.Sections ...........- ese S10
Worms of Vessels ............6s .. 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
REL YINOUGI acy erases soc esis< 55 0 O
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
BL ete eles nein 5 sic oiselsie'es 5a.s 0 100 0 O
Mades at Veith -..........0.s006. 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... 9 6 3
RAMESIOLCNIGN. 5 ...c0ncsdeadoccoses 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ..............+ 2 0 0
£1235 10 11
1842,
Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ...............4. 59. 8 0
Gases on Light .............cee0e 30 14 7
MI BLONOMECLETS....~.460c-2e0ceesces 2617 6
Marine Zoology........scsesseeee 1 5 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Hducation......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
PUM CEM dirs vacieatdaanset sess actos 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............006 i6l1 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication
EMC DOME )Pdveduncnscaennsieas ce 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............00+ 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on |
HROCER) sc ascseuen deesidencielces +=. 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments
AiPERYMNOULD, sececcscccectsecss 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... SDF OF 6
ci
Soe Sands
HOLcevOL WANG fisgacssceceecsses 1G Oe
Light on Growth.of Seeds ... 8 O O
‘ Vital Statistics ..............+00« 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
OM NtARS ae cccsateexe AMiee cer orc Jan Oa)
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
HORGDRR«. <onssaavemiesstoneeaencs 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
IVEINeSS (aideere---dadde- caer s 77:12 8
Meteorological Observations
abpPlymMOuUubhy Ts is.sesesssasenes 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’*s Anemometer at Ply-
MOULD A: .coaeasscunaente sage oe 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
QObSerVAtlONS <.\ccec-ccgacnaane 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities .....cccsa.-. 39 «6 ~«O
Construction of Anemometer
at IMVerness:: scaresecscceses dna 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
MOONS) “cossuced-cowsdadedasecere er Sey 8a 0
Oxidation of the Rails of
Railway 8.2: scadscessacevsssetee 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ............... 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way: NECUIONS, .. sovcecor esses ces 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
RHO G iemete aah aserancuseatacacds 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
Gla DURG ys amagienanascuaasesnesssas 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 44 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .....ssecesseeeees 10 0 0
Marine Zoology ........sssressees 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics .......cccecsesees 36 5 8
REPORT—1897.
cii
£ 8. a.
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 O
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator .............++ 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
Of Materials: ....cc.cc.seceeers 0 0
£1565 10 2
1844,
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
Plymouth ..s.ssseeeeeseeeseees 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .........cceseeeee 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
SOURIS Mine v-sadtenewacsdnsterseneee 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature
OLStAIS'. ...scceccdenecmans 1g42" 29° 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
COLY coos ccsesswenuniccneveenn sens ey 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-
NAUOLY: .. cavessevectveccessusonss 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature
am Greland): <..<:ssswdaseseces=s 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way SeCtIONS ....cscceceecsoree 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusea of the
Aigean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
WORN WAL. Sones. cuveasesae oo 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
OLISCCUS cite duscosdinssverecdce 9¥ 0" 0
Experiments on the Vitality
OLISCEUS ayeweresccese seers US22iy SPSS
Exotic Anoplura ............... 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 O
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0
£981 12 8
1845.
£ s. d,
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness! iose-a:esctesseeha 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-Operation .........secseeees 1616 §
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh................06 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory ..........06 4317 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ............+6. 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of
Shells Fit. seccnvesosteeome a ae 20 0 O
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CINCH ewww eseadendeeeeeeetee ee 200. \0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OL ISGATSTS covsrt -sxeseasseu 1844 21115 0
Fossil Fishes of the London
ON aivnersacsnscer sees: sar sece-- ashe 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
| Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ....,.... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
TRCEET Ss ween oreletoeeevesievwcnse see ll 7 ~6
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 33°53
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 8
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 0
£685 16 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1847,
£ 8. a.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829............ 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
REICH ectsepecesccsecenncaasescse 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ............ 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds ............... Poe
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
£208 5 4
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 1]
Atmospheric Waves .........+++ 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ...........0+46 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of
BIUETS) | Weep amnwoswess nancies acesnes 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5.0. 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at ditto...........0..06 ; 76 25
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 8 1
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PPEMIOMCNIO.<....-cocecacecessee 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... 13 9 0
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 0
Periodical Phenomena......... Ta) Oy 0
Meteorological Instruments,
LEM sat cnwepcaresesss2s sss 25 0 0
£345 18 O
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
PERM 4 toe stacueentar dnueoorseese 309 2 2
CODY OF HEA)... cceiensercewe 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants............... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0
£391 9 7
cill
1852.
8. a,
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
FOr 1850) ..,-..cccnecsescesseesee 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion of Heat ........2-...s-+0e 5 2 9
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-
NELIDA .......cececcececeeeeergere 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .....+.....000e 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0
£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British
AMMC]IdA 25.0. saon-cocacsecsaaas 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast
of Scotland..............se0c0s 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... a (OO
£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant)........eceeseceee 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0
Effects, of Temperature on
Wrought Tron..............000+ 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PhenOMENA,.......eseeereseeees 10 0 0
British Annelida .........sse08 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ...........0006 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ............00. LOK Fda
Map of-the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 400
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854......... £75 0:0
1855... 0000 £500 0 oy BiB) OO
REPORT—1 897.
CclV
8. a.
Strickland’s Ornithological
DYLONYINS scecvdedersrs-<seetes 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging
HOTMS, ...-soceecsnstecccesosssses 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA J... 2 sccenvoneeeseess 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-
PMCHES eee nesccesese nse teneadnene 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
OL SCOLIANG |. .cccedoede'cesssmasse 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol- :
lusca of California ......... 10:0 50
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mada-
CASCAT ten sercbatiscsssessssceds 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-
Miles teaepe seta ccreasasenns est aacea 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
NOM ee sa-sasatietedvacoseredeswees 10-_0\; 0
Temperature of Mines......... 7 45.20
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations............ Ds Aa
Vaife-DOADS <c...ce+osdaeesd>ssnasae 5 0 0
£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-
TENET) S50 sepadaouctincnaccnanneoce 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
Dio COMANG vesssacssstel esse ner LOGO 0
Dredging near Dublin......... Db BO 270
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5° 56 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 18 13 2
Report on the British Anne-
ase esas erveentte ce duis done sec 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
HTS ee casessceaeens pidean eet 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
JANG aecceervessteetanerseecenaaeee LOO" 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 O
Bi BGs
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0
Trish Tunicataniess, ed-cevesee-s- 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Medusidee ............+0+ 56 0.0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 O O
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland............... 10 0 O
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20:0...
Balloon Ascents.......scecsses..s 39 LL. O
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels ...........1 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
PIAS! .. sccece-oneseeeeereneecee Oe)
Researches on the Solubility f
OF (Sallis: os. ..sec8-s-oseth teres 30 0 0
Researcheson theConstituents
of Mannres ....ccecesch canta 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon
NCLOUNUS ieee sew ss0suuteac tence 113 6
£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 300 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—
1860...... £50 0 0
1861... 229 00) eee
Excavations at Dura Den....., 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 O
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ............... 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-
ACHIONS) «2 ceessrdecksoent eases 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and
DCB, sete nes since inentnn ten saona 5 0 0
Dap CATGle yo tecieinctaancosscrns come 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-
LOWS: Bees sscunsnacarenenes sh seers 50 0 0
PRISORDGtiscessnepaeeesse=os seers 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............06 10 0 0
Adpine Ascents,...<--sr.-rcosess 6 510
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 0
£1111 65 10
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1862.
£ 8.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
Patent Laws .......-.cseeeeeeseee 21 6
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine ......sceeeveceeeereeaces 5 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0
Photographic Pictures of the
PUM pies avdvscccveeseccsrscsores 150 0
Rocks of Donegal............++ 25 0
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland Coasts ...........- 25 0
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0
Dredging North-east Coast
Of Scotland. .........:.ccesesees 6 9
Ravages of Teredo ............ 3 11
Standards of Electrical Re-
SISTANICE ....0ccccceccserecceases 50 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0O
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
IBrisan Dich Siivecs.csscesecscosess 20 0
Gauging of Water............65 12 10
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0
Thermo-electric Currents 5 0
£1293 16
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
PISDSES)) ...ccesscsesceceaceveses 25 0 0
PRRPRETIMO DIN sic conse asceccassceninees 25 0 0
MAIN OSSUIS: ......0.0002seeseeene 20 0 0
FRCIrIMgS 2... .cecccscecsccessrevens 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal............ a 10,0
PEEISOU DICT... cccceceensescscase 20 0-0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
“CL GUAYS) | -pGcne Rasge pO nee DoIpDepDeOe 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast of
2 T0770 Dee cpoep coe e eee EEC ere 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland
piste. 1D Woe echidll Ga Sener ceeen er oe 17, 3 10
Dredging Committee superin-
REESICN CO) iy stank vevdaeesen se fe k05j O00
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0O
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
' Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0O
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Electrical Construction and
Distribution .........sseescee 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ Nin 104,/0
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ......... ae 100.057 0
aQioooocoecocoso on coo eos aoe, ooog>
£
Thermo-electricity ..........+. 15
Analysis of Rocks .........+++ 8
| Ey Groida.....c...ccessescensceoeeees 10
£1608
1864.
| Maintaining the Establish-
wloooes
olooo
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
| Coal Fossils ...sccceec-.sseseeees 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
Ments .....000- EL sakecavusadanee es 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-
SISCANCE 2. ..cccccecdsecsecesere 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Wydroidaie csteececasdccseasecessnc 10 0 0
Askham es) Gitte (Gaedses.cosenses 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
| Rain-gauges ......ssececssenenoe 19 15 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the
Tehri Gaggaccoconccocdensde 50 0 0
Spectral Rays.......cccc.ceseeeeee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..........+. 20 0 0
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee .........6. 100 0 0
Fy Groida....,..scecedessessecensesee 13. 0 0
Rain-Gauges .eccersecseccseeeeres 30) <0),.0
Tidal Observations in the
Jalnbinlofer.2 GApeqeos eo oo de Ic 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds .........++. 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds .........--..+. 20 0 0
MpiSHPH OV) cc.cacaedessapes-osceas 25 0 0
American Mollusca ...........+ ae 0
Organic ACIDS ......s..s-...000- 20 0 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
Hurypterus .......0cccessnceessuces 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding ..........0+++. 25. 0,0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 O
Marine Fauna ..........sseeeeee 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
In Water ........ssecesceeccesees 100 0 O
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ......++0++- 40 0 0
£1591 7 10
cvl REPORT—1897.
1866.
ED
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0
British Raintiall.:...tcccccssss+0s 50 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 O
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0
Chemical Constitution of
Wash inGn (7... .cce--csbmeesabne 50 0
Amyl Compounds .............+. 25 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall .......--.--:s<e=s 25 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
HMWALET s penctesconseccere sae. 50 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
Col Sminenscscecs ene setenv eapaeneue 29 0
RIP ORS NIGMS <ccncscssesesvsonssn 10 0
Trash Annelida, -.<.....-.ce<sseses 15 0
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene
UL AROG ee tvaneciconasccsveccdvecss 50 O
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0
3
£1750 1
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Meteorological Instruments,
Palestine 5.2.5. vecesecsbaseskess 50 0
Lunar Committee .............06 120 0
Metrical Committee ............ 30 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0
Palestine Explorations......... 50 0
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0
British Rainfall s ........teceese 50 O
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 O
Bournemouth, &e., Leaf-beds 30 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-
ELON score. cen seiasteeoeieencesr se 100 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25 0
Fossil Crustacea .........2e.0+6 25 0
Sound under Water ............ 24 4
North Greenland Fauna ...... ta, 0
Do. Plant Beds 100 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0
ahem Maw.’ <5. seesaetuece tone st 30 0
£1739 4
ococoooocooooo coooceocececqcoeco o&
RIOoo ecoC0c° jo) oooo eocscoo Socooccton Ss
1868.
£
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. €00
Lunar Committee ..........-..6- 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record...........++« 100
| Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Steamship Performances. .. 100
British Rainfall i. sncssesecssancee 50
Luminous Meteors.............0 50
OreaniciNGids) hsn<cusseseseaened 60
Fossil Crustacea........0.s00ss0ss 25
Methyl Seriestoiecsc, ecaam.owereen 25
| Mercury'and Bile ...-.s.csscs.s- 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone ROCKSig..k..-smsnacaekee= 25
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall... 30
| British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-.. «. 650
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
HIOSSIL Ora) jc scapnn axa dvsleebbiive 2
Tidal Observations ............ 190
Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
&
os
C10 oo gooocooocoeoooo oooeococeocecooeoce“e
colo oOo sees eSCeSoOSD SSOOSCSOSoCSSOSOOS &
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate
ANITID: cve dipessincdencneneeceoeee 100
£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee.......s...ssesees 50
| Metrical Committee............+6. 25
Zoological Record ...........000+ 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water lisscdccvcccssscenc ret,
British Rainfall...........s.ss00e 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
BIC, cach cqeewseuaceuweeeatadaendus 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of
@ast ron 2e.esccesscxssucscrssas 80
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl] Series:.......sccsssseees 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
Stone ROCKS s.:5..sesesecece aces 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30
HOssil- Mora icasiecueeessecseseeas 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
OrganicvAcids® Sreccrcaseseace ss 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ...........0+0+ 20
Soon SSGoeqoonceoeo cod eseoo co see6
ooo ooooooo o°o9O 9SO900° SSO cos 9
GENERAL STATEMENT,
£ 3. d.
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
PIONS) <2. crossvesvosencecesceooes 15 0 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ........- 10 0 0
£1622 0 0
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee............
Zoological Record..........-..+
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Slo coceosococecesacoe: cCooo; oOo oo So
Slo ooooeosoqoocooecocooce cece coocec
Mrs BUSHES ..ccesverseinsesine 10
Chemical Nature of Cast
LS Tel SadeecoRPen Cee BO HOCPOE Ce tene 80
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15
BTIGISH Rana]... c.sesncsnese 100
Thermal Conductivity of
PRET OCG s veces cnsessecesacedrvess 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4
Bagshot Leaf-beds ........0+4 15
PIGSSEL LON, se cecrewsrcckacvecsse 25
Tidal Observations .....0...... 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment ......... 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
MEMS Lic Polnie's bivs'o.cle sis selena paiciete 60% 50
£1572
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress
AEM HEINISLLY Ve. .ccccaessteeceee 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............... 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations °........... 100
MURISSLESLOTA etcccsscocstevncessse 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... 7
Beiiish) Ramtalhs.-i2s..c...c00-e 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ......s.....000 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects ......scccesceeees 20
ooooowooqceco coc ©
eooooosooooo coo oOo
SS oo cea Siem aie Siero. sale S.Ocio >
'OoOlo oo op seoosoeooeoo oeoeseooso
£
| Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing .......e+sse+ 20
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......s.++++ 20
Moab Explorations ........+0. 100
Gaussian Constants .........+++ 40
£1472
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee............ 75
Zoological Record............... 100
Tidal Committee .....,......... 200
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab......... pace LOD
Terato-embryological Inqui-
BGs) Eeepccpanqaobconnenecacdecoca 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
Heat in the Blood............... 15
Fossil Crustacea ..........2..06 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta .-. 25
(angr Objects! 2. ..cccsesrsssesm. 20
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20
British Rainfall.......... sapcocee 100
Poisonous Substances Anta-
POMISWieaeeeersesessoeacdanceatee 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
StUbHtION (ECs: secesccnsececcsnes 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 50
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
hclbSinsecvnasadwndwoaddsacaedeens ce 25
£1285
1873
Zoological Record...........+0+ 100
Chemistry Record............6++ 200
Tidal Committee ............... 400
Sewage Committee ............ 100
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25
Fossil Elephants ............... 25
Wave-lengths ........cecseeeees 150
| British Rainfall: 5. o...0, «esse 100
Hssential Ome res. ccsccudvessoce 30
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Gaussian Constants .........+0. 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature... 150
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20
Timber Denudation and Rain-
Pally Sots Gerscdh 9: stausceccsohios 20
Luminous Meteors..........-.+++ 30
£1685
eoleo cococococoooeococess &
oloo ooooeoooocooooooeoo
cvili
1874.
wm 8. Ge
Zoological Record.........se.0+ 100 0 0O
‘Chemistry Record...........2+++ 100 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 O
Elliptic Functions............... 100 0 O
Lightning Conductors......... 10 0 0
‘Thermal Conductivity of
HROCKN aoe cesenseeecessanrscencess. 10 0 0
Anthropological Instructions 50 0 0
‘Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors .......-..+ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15s O 0
British Rainfall..............0+6 100 0 0
Hssential Oils............:sssse-ee 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms..........+..+. 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot- -
Art xaos «0 vcs ymteieswssciiee tee one 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Trades UNIONS ......cccensesescs 25.00
Mountain Limestone-corals 25 0 0
HMIPATIC DIOCKS! .cccsce--ses.osese 10% (O50
Mredging, Durham and York-
shire Coasts’ ...tes.sesosecncns 28 5 0
‘High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0O
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... Sonal i)
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
IMEASULCHsa tmensls tasstessien sions ad 715 0
£1151 16 O
1875
Rlliptic Functions ............ 109 0 O
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 209 0 0
British Rainfall ...3.........s.00« 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
-Chemistry Record............... 100 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
‘Estimation of Potash and
FPHOSPHOLICACIG Wi <eccp snes LO 5070
Isometric Cresols ............... 20 0 0
Sub- Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
‘Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 O
Harthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10.0, 0
Development of Myxinoid
HI SHES ER cictonescscratteaesicntsen 20 0 0
Zoological Record............+++ 100 0 O
‘{nstructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0
£960 0 0
1876.
‘Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall. v2... eee 100 0 0
Ohm's Law. s..:ces cesses 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
REPORT—1897.
os. wel
| Tsomeric Cresols © .........+0+0+ 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACcebales....aeroree ee esaneeennere 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.............4- 13 4050
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0O
Geological Record.............0+ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of
TROGKS ae. ccasqsce secehee eer 10) OFF0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... OO
Zoological Record.........+00.++ 100 0 0
Close# Dime. s.ostseecse ss seartans 5 0-0
Physiological Action of
SOUNGi c.ssecsccccsrseehonecmens 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... Lb OR@
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam-vessels ............ 5 0 0
£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in
Wimerallss <cosc..ccccecssccpesias 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
OCIA Rawecusssecicee-peeeureeena ied Dts ey Fi
Zoological Record.............0« 100 0 0
Kent's Cavern’ oi. vescsnseusscesn 100 0 O
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 O
Elasticity of Wires ....:...... + LOGF OS)
Dipterocarpez, Report on ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of
HTC At saedssnunes onc scceessesesntene 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and. Nickel lc cccssccstss coer 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ..........sc00- 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACELALE | oe s.ccscsnvssenedaceenes 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in
STIG Naege sence antase ste seeeat bate 15 0 0
Development of Light from
OORIR DAS ics ceases stsvecatcavas 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid:......<....:.. 17S, (0
Geological Record.............0« 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
PHOTICIACIAS ECrscscocadepacean To 0e 0
£1128.9 7
a
——eE—E——— KSC
|
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1878.
fas:
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0
Geological Record..........++.++ 100 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
Recorder .......scceeseececeeeees 10 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0
Investigation of Underground
Watters........ccccencserecscscees 15 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure.......eseeeeeeeeeseeees 30 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million .............+- 100 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0
Zoological Record ........-++++0« 100 0
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
BIOs ceeeasacascesneCceres-osssnses 15 0
Thermal Conductivity of
RROCKS .2,.csccccecccepecses cesses 416
Luminous Meteors...........++++ 10 0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0
£725 16
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples..............+. 75 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0
Tilustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ LTO
Record of Zoological Litera-
ECW ade ccesccccsecescsesccescsess 100 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0
Exploration of Caves in
BOrne0 ....sscceccoceeseseseeees 50 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0
Record of the Progress of
GEOLOLY vec cccscrcesveccsenseees 100 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts.............4 25 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0
Underground Waters............ 10 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0
Improvements in Astrono-
Mical Clocks ............s0000+ 30 0
Marine Zoology of South
WY EVOD) cic cccecncnseaccosesevece=s 20 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ........ » 12 15
=e — Nis — Ya 'é ooo o© oOo S8SOo ©& Oo
oo oo
fo) = ai ea sa Kea i )
& 18. a:
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 9
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
CfFCIENtS .....5..cccecereececeees 30 0 O
Datum Level of the Ordnance
SULVEY, ssesec.ccc ana onsen cenaens 10°, OO)
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... ile t
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ........+..- 10 0 0
£1080 11 14
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
TC Yaevoscnugressestccenseausseceet 10 0 90
Underground Temperature... 10 0 ®
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
Heat, *...ccccacccecssescssececeee Sibi 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 60 On
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 5 0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0:
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines ............... AALS
Report on Carboniferous
PolyZOa .c.scesceccscecene caegeet LO Orr ©
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
REMIT S Oe enqnonearcacommoamnencrme i0 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record...........+.+. 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ............ 5 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
UHM Chascedevarederscenasecesherset 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station
at Naples .......2..c.csccceees 75 0 0
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry .......sssesseeeee 50 0 ©
Patent Laws .recscscessseeee seacee O@RO! 0
£731 7 7
cx
1881,
£ s. d.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
High Insulation Key............ 50/0
Tidal Observations ............ 10 0 0
Specific Refractions ............ Taal
Fossil PolyZ0a .....ecececeseenre 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 O
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
Tertiary Flora .........--.-ss00+ 20 0.0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station vp O40
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and
UETICH) seoverscetce>scer cerns sos 50) 0
Zoological Record...........+.+- 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings .......0..+--. 30 0 0
£476 3 1
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ....,.... Mors Ll
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ..........s0006 100 0 0
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
THOMMELELS co soens sneer eneses 20 0 0
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements..........0+.+ 50 0 0
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra «.....seecseeee 25 0 0
Geological Record........+..+.+. 100 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
DADAM oo cdecseenscssesscsaceswasy 25 0 0
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
ROCKS i oeshevee qe debes epepanan ee 10 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0 0
Geological Map of Europe ... 25 0 0
Circulation of Underground
WILCNE to capecsenstmapaceeesstbine 15 0 0
Tertiary Flora of North of
Al enna see ss cree saressss 20 0 0
British Polyzoa ......ccsseesseoes 10 0 0
Exploration of Caves of South
Ol relanigl gaseshs-eeesacetseene 10 0 0
Explorationof RaygillFissure 20 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Albuminoid Substances of
SeruMsscasnseme ee taveccancupnce 10 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise........s+++++ 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 100 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
IPRS — Aer gbane eo deboednssnhgre 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 50 0 0
£1126 111
REPORT—1897.
1883.
£ 8. ds
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NeViS ........esesseeeee 50 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WatlVES.cacsosnsces sheep acsatense 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN space ne avecee rans iaeeeee 50 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 0
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... TOs)
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS ..crccecsencssacerers 25 0 0
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales .......+-...++6 TOO 0
Circulation of Underground
Watens)..nsa:asessscaecdeepeieuar leo ano iO
Geological Record..........+.+++ 50 0 90
Exploration of Caves in South
GE Tneland. ...s0-asevsasyeepaexs LOT Ono
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Micration OF Binds. sascsennpes. 20 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise...........++0 38 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
IDA=DJALO. 6 sccceseenscsersssaee 500 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
CAM Picids «c.ccenewunicernes eke 10 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Screw Gauges.........sesse0e oso, Dl Ope
£1083 3 3
1884.
Meteorological Observations
on. Ban Nevisicn..<-sesceemnee 50 0 0
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust...........ssse0e 20 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow..........sccessassessss Arg aie |)
Tidal Observations...........+.+ 100) 0)
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
QAPAM) coe casseacesacpecssaae omnes 750 «0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0 0
Fossil Polyzoa...........e.scseccee 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 O
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS. ...0.-sseaseseceesns 15 0 0
Circulation of Underground
WAteDS).......c0..csserecesensegee 5 0 0
International Geological Map 20 0 O
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata ......se.esecerere 50 0 O
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 0
Migration of Birds............... ‘20 0 0
Coagulation of Blood............ 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0
£1173 4 0
se iitiines
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1885.
£
Synoptic Chart of Indian
Ocean ......... soreeecpeoeeeee een 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
ROUIB ts sulecpueatccecswececssssseee 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
Of Number®s.......0...0.000c000e 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis ...........+sse00e 50
Meteoric Dust .............20008 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
BIGIBGIONIS soo .cosccocecsevecnueees 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
MOUS cect twat eldse adden sacecasses 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu
RMU ey acecdnaaencrwctertcncden ence 25
eraill (HISSUPGR Is... secccpesteres 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Jaya ase accre os -occereee ee 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzozoic
TGS) pence Berbes-coccoanere 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
ao
.
Siaeoec oqeoo' Sees - eS ©" 6 So S82 SoS 70s 0 2
coloco cee coocoeo coo oo oop oC eo cece oO eo oso
Geological Record .............+ 50
Circulation of Underground
VAR crednen asndoecmeccescadeess 10
Naples Zoological Station 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
PR ATP gee ceediecascieseshs foscce se 25
Recent Polyzoa ...........sceesee 10
Granton Biological Station ... 100
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom ......... 150
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
£1385
1886.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Solar Radiation ................ 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
SATIN ais 2 sislnsateassecdased se sesles de 30 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and
InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0
CXl
£ 8. d.
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine.............+. 10 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales ............... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek :
HSIAMOS His. << setup eddomesdaasdter's 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
MAGA. 2s autopsekaacstvsakraeas ses 50 0 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation .......0..sses 18 10
Hlectrolysis..........00.sseeeseeses 30
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75
Standards of Light (1886
UATIN)) <ceccs ccusee sass pence 20
Standards of Light (1887
PANG) ccees scctsgaemeuns scapes 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations ...........0s0e006 15
Maenetic Observations......... 26
Electrical Standards ............ 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra ............ 40
Nature of Solution ............ 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WLUSjiacensis'ss sivoie cc's ot: eomonptandce 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
@USSG eramt) yes sacssssnscenenns 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
QUSSii arant) ©... ccpaevoasyeee 50
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20
Erratic Blocks ......s.seceseeeee 10
Fossil Phyllopoda ............+.- 20
Coal Plants of Halifax........- 25
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20
Underground Waters
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10
Provincial Museums Reports 5
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Naples Biological Station 100
Plymouth Biological Station 50
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Record ..........060+ 100
Flora of China ............cocss. 75
Flora and Fauna of the
CaMELOONS ..........00eceeeeeee 75
Migration of Birds
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles
Regulation of Wages
Prehistoric Race of Greek
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20
Soo So0 OC ooococeseooo coco ocooeco cC¢ © eooeooeonwno fo S&S OCS
o'eoo oso oo eooooccoooo co coeoooo oOo G&G ecoooooeoorvlUlcOWmUC D]WChUcCOCOCS
£1186 18
cxil
1888.
£
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150
Electrical Standards............ 2
Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
MLECtrolySisneeet.csecsesbostck. .s 30
Uniform Nomenclature in
Mechanicst;3:.620:.....0ckces 10
Silent Discharge of LElec-
PVCU Varte csaceeeteesneecedccecsnes 9
Properties of Solutions
Influence of Silicon on Steel
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
DEV alin aaaisiola\a'elatalte’s sole sas Sane slo's
Tsomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
Action of Light on Hydracids
Sea Beach near Bridlington...
Geological Record ...............
Manure Gravels of Wexford...
Erosion of Sea Coasts
Underground Waters
Palzontographical Society ... 5
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.., 5
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius
PMMIE Sis saeesesenesaee sciences
Development of Fishes—St.
Andrews
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth
Migration of Birds
Flora of China
Naples Zoological Station ...
Lymphatic System
Biological Station at Granton
Peradeniya Botanical Station
Development of Teleostei
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions
Precious Metals in Circulation
Value of Monetary Standard
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development............
North-Western Tribes of
Canada Vi vt.csiestccasesecs
Prehistoric Race in Greek
NSIS Siaseeeeeesrskachecde ssh
Poeeee reer errr re reer erry
eee ee weeene
Aeneas ewe neeee
SoS obes or
ojo o Oo 9990 eSscees°00909090 0S CG © ScoOSeCCCSCO co oor
alo oOo oOo SF9e0 sSeescecooo co CG © cooecococo o coos o owonoe®
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50
Electrical Standards............. 75
HLECLTOLY SIS. .cencnbenepereee ree eeee 20
Surface Water Temperature... 30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
OMlOxyveen =... ..nesees Aeceaand,
~ OCOOCOoCSo
o ooood
REPORT—1897.
GS a:
Methods of teaching Chemis-
LEY *\ 5.0 -teeeaseosscstee cee eeane ee 10 0.06
Action of Light on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record...........0... 80 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VIUSI IS. aeceenceresteeecncss Ene 20 0 O
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of
Wight \ccocseencnqecescceeceomeeet 15 0 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
Floraiof China (aecceccscsesssete 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic
System eos, ¢.-Hocmeekenecneeee 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly
Uslands?s:% «. kissovss cancer eee 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of
Atlas Range.) ...\.28.esees 100 0 6
Action of Waves and Currents
in HMstuaries j2.ii5..i..tss.0000 100 0 0
North-Western Tribes of
Canada, ...:.ccsacsesessauosnteee 150 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 0
Marine Biological Association 200 0 0
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100 0 0
£1417 0O 11
1890.
Electrical Standards............ Te ie 0
Hlectrolysis: .s-.ss»aaceeeososers 5 0 0
Hlectro-optics.........ccsceseeeeee 50 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15.0 O
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 O
International Standard forthe
Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 0
Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricity on
OXYGEN, J asscsc. costs tees 5.0 0
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 0
Recording Results of Water
ANAIVBIS , 5.2..2.c0brsesaaeees eee 410
Oxidation of Hydracids in
msusunlightpel-.aeresscscsce eee 1 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WLUS Pi ssaesn sc cetee deus. de cckes 20 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground
(WALCISi sates eaceecuheaencres 5 0 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 O
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ 10210580
Geological Photographs ...... 7 14 11
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Perade-
MLVAS..cteerderteoseks ee pecees 335 pFAO” 10
GENERAL STATEMENT,
£ 8.
Experiments with a Tow-
TIGG ceeecacevsnsssevccevonnevsvene 4 3
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries’ ........ccceseceee 150 0
Graphic Methods in Mechani-
GAINSCIEN CCN. s.vedocbecsscedee 11 0
Anthropometric. Calculations 5 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0
£799 16
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory........- 50 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Electrolysis............ssesceeeeeee 5 0
Seismological Phenomena of
PUD AMM e a cwagapciosicisse cc's ous 2 10 0
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 0
Photographs of Meteorological
Phenomena.........sssseeeseeee 5 0
Discharge of Electricity from
PEP UNG Sle veye act «aces sqnatsasste 10 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
ROC REEIN 0 ras'ecresscretaescrese 50 0
International Standard for
Analysis of Ironand Steel... 10 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
INVES cero sctuscistds costaloasn deed 25 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10
Geological Record.............++ 100 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
MIS cose siss ss scncedeascuiee 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda.............+ 10 0
Photographs of Geological
EECTCS iM sestpeser-dhdesdecss ese 9 5
Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25 0
Registration of ‘Type-Speci-
mens of British Fossils...... 5 5
Investigation of ElboltonCave 25 0
Botanical Station at Pera-
LGTY El as dpi caty ad eoemiacdse Jason 50 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0
Marine Biological Association 12 10
Disappearance of Native
HUES E? « ave aidecotdasane donk ce ca 5 0
Action of Waves and Currents
RVEHISHMIATICS, (1. .cesuslenendeses 125 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0
North - Western Tribes of
AMIACLAN 5 ceatcacataencnasorass 200 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0
£1, 029 - 10
1897.
wloooc © oc of &
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
» 0
cxiil
1892.
£ 3. d.
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0O
Photographsof Meteorological
Phenomena... .0....ssceseeevere 15 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from
POINTS. ..cvscsscastccerverunsacse 50 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of
JAPAN Me costdedandceueusverertncsss 10 0 O
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
Action of Light on Dyed
COLOUTS svseaesTelsveccorsrceas 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks .......seseceeeees 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological
IMterest) ciicedscestenescesvs cue’ 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Investigation of Elbolton
(CEN Rr eicosbcenananccnaeer cannot 25 0 O
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0
Cretaceous Polyz0a ......e+0+0+ 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net ..........2+0+ 40 0 O
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West
India Islands ............00000 100 0 0
Climatology and Hydrography
of Tropical Africa ......... + 50 0 O
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0 O
Anthropological Notes and
OHERIES s,s: canctecacarehsataacs 20 0 0
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-
Shonaland ........scsseeeseneee 50 0 0
North-Western Tribes of
@anaGay penstseespases sceedegars 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0
£864 10 0
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 15 0 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Fal-
mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVGR Mn tcc ccancoaswcesaacacs's 20 0 0
Erratic Blocks ..........0sese00e LOS ORO)
Fossil Phyllopoda............++. 5 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ...... 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland
LDS rove vapreonscee<pccdnaessasteld 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0O
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West
India Islands ..........6+ s+. 50 0 0
fc}
REPORT—1897.
Cxiv
£
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30
Physiological Action of
Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20
Index of Genera and Species
OLPATIUMALS) snaeest pacers emacs 20
Exploration of Karakoram
Mountains .........ssseseeeeeee 50
Scottish Place-names ......... 7
Climatology and MHydro-
graphy of Tropical Africa 50
Economic Training ............ 3
Anthropometric Laboratory 5
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25
North-Western ‘Tribes. of
DANA Des ssadecsincwec dens sacnee 100
Corresponding Societies ...... 30
£907
1894,
Electrical Standards............ 25
Photographs of Meteorological
PHENOMENA, coassereseedeeneerke 10
Tables of Mathematical Func-
OMS) “ccsseceenenasupessesnenceny 15
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5
Wave-length Tables............ 10
Action of Light upon Dyed
COlOUTS Wenescaurtentenccotuernen 5
Hirratic BIOCKS) ......secscsecesss 15
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava KCl vise dsccuenctearerces 20
Eurypterids of the Pentland
LU See caaescsoedcotccecaswen senna 5
New Sections of Stonestield
SHEE, - cpprioscebCOnaneDgda ODInLIS 14
Observations on LEarth-tre-
THOUS MMeteinn cnc sace cee nceneranarsc 50
Exploration of Calf- Hole
WavGencsscteseseseronessucscastaxe 5
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Marine Biological Association 5
Zoology of the Sandwich
SIAMGUSS Sire wate -sosepiecsae vers 100
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40
Structure and Function of the,
Mammalian Heart............ 10
Exploration in Abyssinia 30
Economic Training ............ 9
Anthropometric Laboratory
SUABISUICS sen atceneieceesnspeencrs 5
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10
The Lake Village at Glaston-
Lata eysponbacenns SocaSboshesepeede 40
Anthropometrical | Measure-
ments in Schools ............ 5
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 20
Corresponding Societies ...... 25
%
oo. Soros So. OF OS
i
[MMSce of SCMaOlon oOcSo loo coo —o oo. Cl Soo (omc =o) ES
aloo cocoeo cco co o of
1895.
Sis:
Electrical Standards............ 25 0
Photographs of Meteorological
PhenoOMenaiereessenceavestreeses 10 0
Harth Tremors) )-cssaccascseeve 75 O
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-
vations made at Falmouth
Observatory ........ecsccoesee 50 0
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-
dards mes. cecudedsokaeaetase neta 25 0
Meteorological Observations
On Bene NGS receeeeeeateeeses 50 0
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10 0
Action of Light upon Dyed
OlOUTSTaneseate ns ieee oteene 46
Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials ...........000 20 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VAGIVES ss ccanceseuieceneseetneeees 30 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-
alWSisy 4.22.20 Re Sides 30 0
Erratic Plocks® ‘sc. csscseneesneces 10 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ........+ 5 0
Photographs of Geological In-
Leresh: \...actecsanssssspanoaseecs 10 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, (&Cs"scccctadvoosevesdeure 10 O
Eurypterids of the Pentland
1 ee pe nounconaIddocho-aunadoce 3 0
New Sections of Stonesfield
Slate’ &... gcelesswoeeereeeres 50 0
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave 10 0
Nature and Probable Age of
High-level Flint-drifts .. ... 10 0
Table atthe Zoological Station
at: Naples: «..-.susccaseorscce coe 100 0
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea.............0 35 9
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 50 0
Index of Genera and Species
OLANIMAl Steaaeserecestecker eter 50 0
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5 0
Exploration ef Hadramut 50 0
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments 25 0
Anthropometric Measurfe-
ments in Schools .........+4+ 5 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0
Exploration of a Kitchen- '
midden at Hastings ......... 10 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph............005 25 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0
£977 15
Sm oto eS eco of
=
Lo moo KOlone OOO 3 Reo So -So GOO =O Oo O19 o Fe
1896.
Photographs of Meteorologi-
cal Phenomena ............4+-
Seismological Observations...
Abstracts of Physical Papers
Calculation of Certain Inte-
gt
Uniformity of Size of Pages of
Transactions, &C. ........0605
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements ...
Action of Light upon Dyed
RIGIOTS) ©. .c00eccsanceseccsnseens
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
WEEN Mebacnacisesesdaacsicncssss sess
DEW tea nesestevemstensodecers «
Reprinting Discussion on the
Relation of Agriculture to
Science ......+ =coinerncnneaoee
Erratic Blocks .........se0ss+ee.
Paleeozoic Phyllopoda .........
Shell-bearing Deposits at
VAAL 8 sc sasscve ce cceceseas
STIS tosoens Sue C aa ecO COREE
Investigation of a Coral Reef
by Boring and Sounding ..
Examination of Locality where
the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-
ford Museum was found ...
Paleolithic Deposits at Hoxne
Fauna of Singapore Caves ...
Age and Relation of Rocks
near Moreseat, Aberdeen
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples ...............
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea ...............
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-
UST 1S = srostengact ntsc pc aederoene
Oysters under Normal and
Abnormal Environment ...
Climatology of Tropical Africa
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments......
Small Screw Gauge
North-Western
SHAG \cscencernghcsscetersstes=
Lake Village at Glastonbury .
Ethnographical Survey.........
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children.............4
Tribes of
GENERAL STATEMENT.
100
So or oF oSacm
o
Ss e190 ec°0
a eco. .eoS Sie: (aon oo © oF OCS
o
o os 2S: ooo
So, .oscSs) Co-SO oS SC co. oS: S So!S
CXV
Ses. as
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph.........+++++. 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
TMILECE 20... 0cncecccncenscecsoress 30 0 0
£1,104 6 1
1897.
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-
tegrals.....cecccoccsscrsssscesoes 10 0 0
Electrolysis and Electro-
Chemistry ......ceereeeee ee a0, 0) 0
Electrolytic Quantitative An-
ALYSIS’ ....ceccccsscnsesccerserers 10 0 0
Juometie Naphthalene Deri-
VALVES .c0.secreevees avecedstesens 50 0 0
Erratic Blocks ..........+. copes) HO Ob. O
Photographs of Geological
Interest ......scseceerenssscnees 15 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in
the Isle of Man............... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples ......seseeeeeeeee 00 0 0
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
Zoological Bibliography and
Publication.......cecceseseeeeee 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium ...........ssseeeeee 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ........- 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-
tions on the Migration of
BATS) yccseacchanesessenevacsseon 40 0 0
Climatology of Tropical
AFTIGA . co cccccccsecenersssesesnrs 20 0 O
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children.............+. 10 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes as-
sociated with the Func-
tional Activity of Nerve
Cells and their Peripheral
EXXtensiOns ......seeeeeseeeeeers 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 O
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph...........++++ 15 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors...... 20 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
IMNIttO’ ....scseseescneenceeeeneees 25 0 0
£1,059 10 8
exvi REPORT—1897.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, August 18, at 8 p.m., in the Massey Hall, Toronto,
Lord Lister, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres.R.S., resigned the office of
President to Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Treasurer of the
Royal Society, who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which
see page 3.
On Thursday, August 19, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the
Legislative Buildings.
On Friday, August 20, at 8.30 p.m., in the Massey Hall, Professor
Roberts-Austen, C.B., F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Canada’s Metals.’
On Monday, August 23, at 8.30 p.m., in the Massey Hall, Professor
John Milne, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Earthquakes and Volcanoes.’
On Tuesday, August 24, at 8.30 p.m, a Soirée took place in the
University Buildings.
On Wednesday, August 25, at 2.30 p.m., in the Gymnasium, the
concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grarits of Money for Scientific Purposes
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Bristol. [The Meeting is ap-
pointed to commence on Wednesday, September 7, 1898.]
Erratum.
Report 1896, page 867, line 4, for Professor GonNER, read Mr, L. L. Price.
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
1897.
OL
POUAGG A. a Tuna
'
'
5 a = we 7
Sa a
= -— ;
. «
A a ‘
=
*
. ‘
} ~—
:
» =
=. / a
a a
* as
pe F ar
aa ae ke i ks
ie aer big i
‘ " sr cape
‘ ‘ eas
. w. Lear
i 7
' , » A ;
y i
: ‘
a
ADDRESS
BY
SIR JOHN EVANS, K.C.B.
D.C.L., LL.D., Sc.D., Treas.R.S., V.P.S.A., For.Sec.G.8.
CoRRESPONDANT DE L’INSTITUT DE Francz, dc.
PRESIDENT.
OncE more has the Dominion of Canada invited the British Association
for the Advancement of Science to hold one of the annual meetings of its
members within the Canadian territory ; and for a second time has the
Association had the honour and pleasure of accepting the proffered
hospitality.
In doing so, the Association has felt that if by any possibility the
scientific welfare of a locality is promoted by its being the scene of such a
meeting, the claims should be fully recognised of those who, though not
dwelling in the British Isles, are still inhabitants of that Greater Britain
whose prosperity is so intimately connected with the fortunes of the
Mother Country.
Here, especially, as loyal subjects of one beloved Sovereign, the sixtieth
- year of whose beneficent reign has just been celebrated with equal rejoic-
ing in all parts of her Empire ; as speaking the same tongue, and as in
most instances connected by the ties of one common parentage, we are
bound together in all that can promote our common interests.
There is, in all probability, nothing that will tend more to advance
those interests than the diffusion of science in all parts of the British
Empire, and it is towards this end that the aspirations of the British
Association are ever directed, even if in many instances the aim may not
be attained.
We are, as already mentioned, indebted to Canada for previous hos-
pitality, but we must also remember that, since the time when we lasti
assembled on this side of the Atlantic, the Dominion has provided the
B2
4, REPORT—1897.
Association with a President, Sir William Dawson, whose name is alike
well known in Britain and America, and whose reputation is indeed
world-wide. We rejoice that we have still among us the pioneer of
American geology, who among other discoveries first made us acquainted
with the ‘ Air-breathers of the Coal,’ the terrestrial or more properly
arboreal Saurians of the New Brunswick and Nova Scotia Coal-measures.
On our last visit to Canada, in 1884, our place of assembly was Mont-
real, a city which is justly proud of her McGill University ; to-day we
meet within the buildings of another of the Universities of this vast
Dominion—and in a city, the absolute fitness of which for such a purpose
must have been foreseen by the native Indian tribes when they gave to a
small aggregation of huts upon this spot the name of Toronto —‘ the place
of meetings.’
Our gathering this year presents a feature of entire novelty and ex-
treme interest, inasmuch as the sister Association of the United States of
America,— still mourning the loss of her illustrious President, Professor
Cope,—and some other learned societies, have made special arrangements
to allow of their members coming here to join us. I need hardly say how
welcome their presence is, nor how gladly we look forward to their taking
part in our discussions, and aiding us by interchange of thought. To
such a meeting the term ‘international ’ seems almost misapplied. It may
rather be described as a family gathering, in which our relatives more or
less distant in blood, but still intimately connected with us by language,
literature, and habits of thought, have spontaneously arranged to take
part.
The domain of science is no doubt one in which the various nations of
the civilised world meet upon equal terms, and for which no other pass-
port is required than some evidence of having striven towards the advance-
ment of natural knowledge. Here, on the frontier between the two great
English-speaking nations of the world, who is there that does not inwardly
feel that anything which conduces to an intimacy between the representa-
tives of two countries, both of them actively engaged in the pursuit of
science, may also, through such an intimacy, react on the affairs of daily
life, and aid in preserving those cordial relations that have now for so
many years existed between the great American Republic and the British
Islands, with which her early foundations are indissolubly connected ?
The present year has witnessed an interchange of courtesies which has
excited the warmest feelings of approbation on both sides of the Atlantic.
I mean the return to its proper custodians of one of the most interesting
of the relics of the Pilgrim Fathers, the Log of the ‘ Mayflower.’ May this
return, trifling in itself, be of happy augury as testifying to the feelings of
mutual regard and esteem which animate the hearts both of the donors
and of the recipients !
At our meeting in Montreal the President was an investigator who
had already attained to a foremost place in the domains of Physics and
ADDRESS. o
Mathematics, Lord Rayleigh. In his address he dealt mainly with topics,
such as Light, Heat, Sound, and Electricity, on which he is one of our
principal authorities. His name and that of his fellow-worker, Professor
Ramsay, are now and will in all future ages be associated with the dis-
covery of the new element, Argon. Of the ingenious methods by which
that discovery was made, and the existence of Argon established, this is
not the place to speak. One can only hope that the element will not
always continue to justify its name by its inertness.
The claims of such a leader in physical science as Lord Rayleigh to
occupy the Presidential chair are self-evident, but possibly those of his
successor on this side of the Atlantic are not so immediately apparent.
I cannot for a moment pretend to place myself on the same purely scien-
tific level as my distinguished friend and for many years colleague, Lord
Rayleigh, and my claims, such as they are, seem to me to rest on entirely
different grounds.
Whatever little I may have indirectly been able to do in assisting to
promote the advancement of science, my principal efforts have now for
many years been directed towards attempting to forge those links in the
history of the world, and especially of humanity, that connect the past
with the present, and towards tracing that course of evolution which plays
as important a part in the physical and moral development of man as it
does in that of the animal and vegetable creation.
It appears to me, therefore, that my election to this important post
may, in the main, be regarded as a recognition by this Association of the
value of Archxology as a science.
Leaving all personal considerations out of question, I gladly hail this
recognition, which is, indeed, in full accordance with the attitude already
for many years adopted by the Association towards Anthropology, one of
the most important branches of true Archeology.
It is no doubt hard to define the exact limits which are to be assigned
to Archeology as a science, and Archeology as a branch of History and
Belles Lettres. A distinction is frequently drawn between science on
the one hand, and knowledge or learning on the other ; but translate the
terms into Latin, and the distinction at once disappears. In illustration
of this I need only cite Bacon’s great work on the ‘ Advancement of
Learning,’ which was, with his own aid, translated into Latin under the
title ‘ De Augmentis Scientiarum.’
It must, however, be acknowledged that a distinction does exist be-
tween Archeology proper, and what, for want of a better word, may be
termed Antiquarianism. It may be interesting to know the internal
arrangements of a Dominican convent in the middle ages ; to distinguish
between the different mouldings characteristic of the principal styles of
Gothic architecture ; to determine whether an English coin bearing the
name of Henry was struck under Henry II., Richard, John, or Henry
III., or to decide whether some given edifice was erected in Roman,
6 REPORT—1897.
Saxon, or Norman times. But the power to do this, though involving no
small degree of detailed knowledge and some acquaintance with scientific
methods, can hardly entitle its possessors to be enrolled among the votaries
of science.
A familiarity with all the details of Greek and Roman mythology and
culture must be regarded as a literary rather than a scientific qualifica-
tion ; and yet when among the records of classical times we come upon
traces of manners and customs which have survived for generations, and
which seem to throw some rays of light upon the dim past, when history
and writing were unknown, we are, I think, approaching the boundaries
of scientific Archeology.
Every reader of Virgil knows that the Greeks were not merely orators,
but that with a pair of compasses they could describe the movements of
the heavens and fix the rising of the stars; but when by modern Astro-
nomy we can determine the heliacal rising of some well-known star, with
which the worship in some given ancient temple is known to have been
connected, and can fix its position on the horizon at some particular spot,
say, three thousand years ago, and then find that the axis of the temple is
directed exactly towards that spot, we have some trustworthy scientific
evidence that the temple in question must have been erected at a date
approximately 1100 years B.c. If on or close to the same site we find that
more than one temple was erected, each having a different orientation,
these variations, following as they may fairly be presumed to do the
changing position of the rising of the dominant star, will also afford a
guide as to the chronological order of the different foundations. The
researches of Mr. Penrose seem to show that in certain Greek temples, of
which the date of foundation is known from history, the actual orientation
corresponds with that theoretically deduced from astronomical data,
Sir J. Norman Lockyer has shown that what holds good for Greek
temples applies to many of far earlier date in Egypt, though up to the
present time hardly a sufficient number of accurate observations have been
made to justify us in foreseeing all the instructive results that may be
expected to arise from Astronomy coming to the aid of Archeology.
The intimate connection of Archeology with other sciences is in no
case so evident as with respect to Geology, for when considering subjects
such as those I shall presently discuss, it is almost impossible to say
where the one science ends and the other begins.
By the application of geological methods many archzological questions
relating even to subjects on the borders of the historical period have been
satisfactorily solved. A careful examination of the limits of the area over
which its smaller coins are found has led to the position of many an
ancient Greek city being accurately ascertained ; while in England it has
only been by treating the coins of the Ancient Britons, belonging to a
period before the Roman occupation, as if they were actual fossils, that
the territories under the dominion of the various kings and princes who
struck them have been approximately determined. In arranging the
ADDRESS. 4
chronological sequence of these coins, the evolution of their types—a pro-
cess almost as remarkable, and certainly as well-defined, as any to be
found in nature—has served as an efficient guide. I may venture to add
that the results obtained from the study of the morphology of this series
of coins were published ten years before the appearance of Darwin’s great
work on the ‘ Origin of Species.’
When we come to the consideration of the relics of the Early Iron
and Bronze Ages, the aid of Chemistry has of necessity to be invoked.
By its means we are able to determine whether the iron of a tool or
weapon is of meteoritic or voleanic origin, or has been reduced from iron-
ore, in which case considerable knowledge of metallurgy would be involved
on the part of those who made it. With bronze antiquities the nature
and extent of the alloys combined with the copper may throw light not
only on their chronological position, but on the sources whence the copper,
tin, and other metals of which they consist were originally derived. Iam
not aware of there being sufficient differences in the analyses of the native
copper from different localities in the region in which we are assembled,
for Canadian Archeologists to fix the sources from which the metal was
obtained which was used in the manufacture of the ancient tools and
weapons of copper that are occasionally discovered in this part of the
globe.
Like Chemistry, Mineralogy and Petrology may be called to the
assistance of Archeology in determining the nature and source of the
rocks of which ancient stone implements are made ; and, thanks to
researches of the followers of those sciences, the old view that all such
implements formed of jade and found in Europe must of necessity have
been fashioned from material imported from Asia can no longer be main-
tained. In one respect the Archeologist differs in opinion from the
Mineralogist—namely, as to the propriety of chipping off fragments from
perfect and highly finished specimens for the purpose of submitting them
to microscopic examination.
T have hitherto been speaking of the aid that other sciences can afford
to Archeology when dealing with questions that come almost, if not quite,
within the fringe of history, and belong to times when the surface of our
earth presented much the same configuration as regards the distribution of
land and water, and hill and valley, as it does at present, and when, in all
probability, the climate was much the same as it now is. When, how-
ever, we come to discuss that remote age in which we find the earliest
traces that are at present known of Man’s appearance upon earth, the aid
of Geology and Paleontology becomes absolutely imperative.
The changes in the surface configuration and in the extent of the
land, especially in a country like Britain, as well as the modifications of
the fauna and flora since those days, have been such that the Archeologist
pure and simple is incompetent to deal with them, and he must either
himself undertake the study of these other sciences or call experts in them
8 REPORT—1897.
to his assistance. The evidence that Man had already appeared upon the
earth is afforded by stone implements wrought by his hands, and it falls
strictly within the province of the Archzologist to judge whether given
specimens were so wrought or not ; it rests with the Geologist to deter-
mine their stratigraphical or chronological position, while the Palzonto-
logist can pronounce upon the age and character of the associated fauna
and flora.
Tf left to himself the Archzologist seems too prone to build up theories
founded upon form alone, irrespective of geological conditions. The Geo-
logist, unaccustomed to archeological details, may readily fail to see the
difference between the results of the operations of Nature and those of
Art, and may be liable to trace the effects of man’s handiwork in the
chipping, bruising, and wearing which in all ages result from natural
forces ; but the united labours of the two, checked by those of the Pale-
ontologist, cannot do otherwise than lead towards sound conclusions.
It will perhaps be expected of me that I should on the present occa-
sion bring under review the state of our present knowledge with regard
to the Antiquity of Man ; and probably no fitter place could be found
for the discussion of such a topic than the adopted home of my venerated
friend, the late Sir Daniel Wilson, who first introduced the word ‘pre-
historic’ into the English language.
Some among us may be able to call to mind the excitement, not only
among men of science but among the general public, when, in 1859, the
discoveries of M. Boucher de Perthes and Dr. Rigollot in the gravels of
the valley of the Somme, at Abbeville and Amiens, were confirmed by
the investigations of the late Sir Joseph Prestwich, myself, and others,
and the co-existence of Man with the extinct animals of the Quaternary
fauna, such as the mammoth and woolly-haired rhinoceros, was first
virtually established. It was at the same time pointed out that these
relics belonged to a far earlier date than the ordinary stone weapons
found upon the surface, which usually showed signs of grinding or polish-
ing, and that in fact there were two Stone Ages in Britain. To these
the terms Neolithic and Paleolithic were subsequently applied by Sir
John Lubbock.
The excitement was not less, when, at the meeting of this Association
at Aberdeen in the autumn of that year, Sir Charles Lyell, in the presence
of the Prince Consort, called attention to the discoveries in the valley of
the Somme, the site of which he had himself visited, and to the vast lapse
of time indicated by the position of the implements in drift-deposits a
hundred feet above the existing river.
The conclusions forced upon those who examined the facts on the spot
did not receive immediate acceptance by all who were interested in Geo-
logy and Archeology, and fierce were the controversies on the subject
that were carried on both in the newspapers and before various learned
societies,
ADDRESS. 9
It is at the same time instructive and amusing to look back on the
discussions of those days. While one class of objectors accounted for the
configuration of the flint implements from the gravels by some unknown
chemical agency, by the violent and continued gyratory action of water,
by fracture resulting from pressure, by rapid cooling when hot or by rapid
heating when cold, or even regarded them as aberrant forms of fossil
fishes, there were others who, when compelled to acknowledge that the
implements were the work of men’s hands, attempted to impugn and set
aside the evidence as to the circumstances under which they had been
discovered. In doing this they adopted the view that the worked flints
had either been introduced into the containing beds at a comparatively
recent date, or if they actually formed constituent parts of the gravel then
that this was a mere modern alluvium resulting from floods at no very
remote period.
In the course of a few years the main stream of scientific thought left
this controversy behind, though a tendency to cut down the lapse of time
necessary for all the changes that have taken place in the configuration of
the surface of the earth and in the character of its occupants since the
time of the Paleolithic gravels, still survives in the inmost recesses of the
hearts of not a few observers.
In his Address to this Association at the Bath meeting of 1864, Sir
Charles Lyell struck so true a note that I am tempted to reproduce the
paragraph to which I refer :—
‘When speculations on the long series of events which occurred in the
glacial and post-glacial periods are indulged in, the imagination is apt to
take alarm at the immensity of the time required to interpret the monu-
ments of these ages, all referable to the era of existing species. In order
to abridge the number of centuries which would otherwise be indispensable,
a disposition is shown by many to magnify the rate of change in pre-
historic times by investing the causes which have modified the animate
and inanimate world with extraordinary and excessive energy. It is
related of a great Irish orator of our day that when he was about to
contribute somewhat parsimoniously towards a public charity, he was
persuaded by a friend to make a more liberal donation. In doing so he
apologized for his first apparent want of generosity by saying that his
early life had been a constant struggle with scanty means, and that “ they
who are born to affluence cannot easily imagine how long a time it takes
to get the chill of poverty out of one’s bones.” In like manner we of the
living generation, when called upon to make grants of thousands of
centuries in order to explain the events of what is called the modern
period, shrink naturally at first from making what seems so lavish an
expenditure of past time. Throughout our early education we have been
accustomed to such strict economy in all that relates to the chronology of
the earth and its inhabitants in remote ages, so fettered have we been by
old traditional beliefs, that even when our reason is convinced, and we
10 REPORT—1897.
are persuaded that we ought to make more liberal grants of time to the
Geologist, we feel how hard it is to get the chill of poverty out of our
bones.’
Many, however, have at the present day got over this feeling, and of
late years the general tendency of those engaged upon the question of the
antiquity of the human race has been in the direction of seeking for
evidence by which the existence of Man upon the earth could be carried
back to a date earlier than that of the Quaternary gravels.
There is little doubt that such evidence will eventually be forthcoming,
but, judging from all probability, it is not in Northern Europe that the
cradle of the human race will eventually be discovered, but in some part
of the world more favoured by a tropical climate, where abundant means
of subsistence could be procured, and where the necessity for warm
clothing did not exist.
Before entering into speculations on this subject, or attempting to lay
down the limits within which we may safely accept recent discoveries as
firmly established, it will be well to glance at some of the cases in which
implements are stated to have been found under circumstances which
raise a presumption of the existence of man in pre-Glacial, Pliocene, or -
even Miocene times.
Flint implements of ordinary Paleolithic type have, for instance, been
recorded as found in the Eastern Counties of England, in beds beneath
the Chalky Boulder Clay ; but on careful examination the geological
evidence has not to my mind proved satisfactory, nor has it, I believe,
been generally accepted. Moreover, the archeological difficulty that Man,
at two such remote epochs as the pre-Glacial and the post-Glacial, even if
the term Glacial be limited to the Chalky Boulder Clay, should have
manufactured implements so identical in character that they cannot be
distinguished apart, seems to have been entirely ignored.
Within the last few months we have had the report of worked flints
having been discovered in the late Pliocene Forest Bed of Norfolk, but in
that instance the signs of human workmanship upon the flints are by no
means apparent to all observers.
But such an antiquity as that of the Forest Bed is as nothing when
compared with that which would be implied by the discoveries of the
work of men’s hands in the Pliocene and Miocene beds of England,
France, Italy, and Portugal, which have been accepted by some
Geologists. There is one feature in these cases which has hardly received
due attention, and that is the isolated character of the reputed discoveries.
Had man, for instance, been present in Britain during the Crag Period,
it would be strange indeed if the sole traces of his existence that he left
were a perforated tooth of a large shark, the sawn rib of a manatee, and
a beaming full face, carved on the shell of a pectunculus !
In an address to the Anthropological Section at the Leeds meeting of
this Association in 1890 I dealt somewhat fully with these supposed
ADDRESS. 14
discoveries of the remains of human art in beds of Tertiary date ; and I
need not here go further into the question. Suttlice it to say that I see no
reason why the verdict of ‘not proven’ at which I then arrived should be
reversed. '
In the case of a more recent discovery in Upper Burma in beds at
first pronounced to be Upper Miocene, but subsequently ‘ definitely
ascertained to be Pliocene,’ some of the flints are of purely natural and
not artificial origin, so that two questions arise : first, Were the fossil
remains associated with the worked flints or with those of natural forms ?
And second, Were they actually found in the bed to which they have
been assigned, or did they merely lie together on the surface ?
Even the Pithecanthropus erectus of Dr. Eugéne Dubois from Java
meets with some incredulous objectors from both the physiological and the
geological sides. From the point of view of the latter the difficulty lies
in determining the exact age of what are apparently alluvial beds in the
bottom of a river valley.
When we return to Paleolithic man, it is satisfactory to feel that we
are treading on comparatively secure ground, and that the discoveries of
the last forty years in Britain alone enable us to a great extent to recon-
stitute his history. We may not know the exact geological period when
first he settled in the British area, but we have good evidence that he
occupied it at a time when the configuration of the surface was entirely
different from what it is at present : when the river valleys had not been
cut down to anything like their existing depth, when the fauna of the
country was of a totally different character from that of the present day,
when the extension of the southern part of the island seaward was in
places such that the land was continuous with that of the continent, and
when in all probability a far more rainy climate prevailed. We have
proofs of the occupation of the country by man during the long lapse of
time that was necessary for the excavation of the river valleys. We have
found the old floors on which his habitations were fixed, we have been
able to trace him at work on the manufacture of flint instruments, and by
building up the one upon the other the flakes struck ‘off by the primeval
workman in those remote times we have been able to reconstruct the
blocks of flint which served as his material.
That the duration of the Paleolithic Period must have extended over
an almost incredible length of time is sufficiently proved by the fact that
valleys, some miles in width and of a depth of from 100 to 150 feet, have
been eroded since the deposit of the earliest implement-bearing beds. Nor
is the apparent duration of this period diminished by the consideration
that the floods which hollowed out the valleys were not in all probability
of such frequent occurrence as to teach Paleolithic man by experience
the danger of settling too near to the streams, for had he kept to the
higher slopes of the valley there would have been but little chance of his
implements having so constantly formed constituent parts of the gravels
deposited by the floods,
12 REPORT—1 897.
The examination of British cave-deposits affords corroborative evi-
dence of this extended duration of the Paleolithic Period. In Kent’s
Cavern at Torquay, for instance, we find in the lowest deposit, the breccia
below the red cave-earth, implements of flint and chert corresponding in
all respects with those of the high level and most ancient river gravels.
In the cave-earth these are scarcer, though implements occur which also
have their analogues in the river deposits ; but, what is more remarkable,
harpoons of reindeer’s horn and needles of bone are present, identical in
form and character with those of the caverns of the Reindeer Period in
the South of France, and suggestive of some bond of union or identity of
descent between the early troglodytes, whose habitations were geographi-
cally so widely separated the one from the other.
In a cavern at Creswell Crags, on the confines of Derbyshire and
Nottinghamshire, a bone has moreover been found engraved with a repre-
sentation of parts of a horse in precisely the same style as the engraved
bones of the French caves.
It is uncertain whether any of the River-drift specimens belong to so
late a date as these artistic cavern-remains ; but the greatly superior
antiquity of even these to any Neolithic relics is testified by the thick
layer of stalagmite, which had been deposited in Kent’s Cavern before its
occupation by men of the Neolithic and Bronze Periods.
Towards the close of the period covered by the human occupation of
the French caves, there seems to have been a dwindling in the number of
the larger animals constituting the Quaternary fauna, whereas their re-
mains are present in abundance in the lower and therefore more recent of
the valley gravels. This circumstance may afford an argument in favour
of regarding the period represented by the later French caves as a con-
tinuation of that during which the old river gravels were deposited, and
yet the great change in the fauna that has taken place since the latest of
the cave-deposits included in the Paleolithic Period is indicative of an
immense lapse of time.
How much greater must have been the time required for the more
conspicuous change between the old Quaternary fauna of the river gravels
and that characteristic of the Neolithic Period !
As has been pointed out by Prof. Boyd Dawkins, only thirty-one out
of the forty-eight well-ascertained species living in the post-Glacial or
River-drift Period survived into pre-historic or Neolithic times. We
have not, indeed, any means at command for estimating the number of
centuries which such an important change indicates; but when we
remember that the date of the commencement of the Neolithic or Surface
Stone Period is still shrouded in the mist of a dim antiquity, and that
prior to that commencement the River-drift Period had long come to an
end ; and when we further take into account the almost inconceivable
ages that even under the most favourable conditions the excavation of
wide and deep valleys by river action implies, the remoteness of the date
ADDRESS. 13
at which the Paleolithic Period had its beginning almost transcends our
powers of imagination.
We find distinct traces of river action from 100 to 200 feet above the
level of existing streams and rivers, and sometimes at a great distance
from them ; we observe old fresh-water deposits on the slopes of valleys
several miles in width ; we find that long and lofty escarpments of rock
have receded unknown distances since their summits were first occupied
by Palzolithic man ; we see that the whole side of a wide river valley has
been carried away by an invasion of the sea, which attacked and removed
a barrier of chalk cliffs from 400 to 600 feet in height ; we find that what
was formerly an inland river has been widened out into an arm of the
sea, now the highway of our fleets, and that gravels which were originally
deposited in the bed of some ancient river now cap isolated and lofty
hills.
And yet, remote as the date of the first known occupation of Britain
by man may be, it belongs to what, geologically speaking, must be
regarded as a quite recent period, for we are now in a position to fix with
some degree of accuracy its place on the geological scale. Thanks to
investigations ably carried out at Hoxne in Suffolk, and at Hitchin in
Hertfordshire, by Mr. Clement Reid, under the auspices of this Associa-
tion and of the Royal Society, we know that the implement-bearing beds
at those places undoubtedly belong to a time subsequent to the deposit of
the Great Chalky Boulder Clay of the Eastern Counties of England. It
is, of course, self-evident that this vast deposit, in whatever manner it
may have been formed, could not, for centuries after its deposition was
complete, have presented a surface inhabitable by man. Moreover, at a
distance but little farther north, beds exist which also, though at a some-
what later date, were apparently formed under Glacial conditions. At
Hoxne the interval between the deposit of the Boulder Clay and of the
implement-bearing beds is distinctly proved to have witnessed at least
two noteworthy changes in climate. The beds immediately reposing on
the Clay are characterised by the presence of alder in abundance, of hazel,
and yew, as well as by that of numerous flowering plants indicative of a
temperate climate very different from that under which the Boulder Clay
itself was formed. Above these beds characterised by temperate plants,
comes a thick and more recent series of strata, in which leaves of the
dwarf Arctic willow and birch abound, and which were in all probability
deposited under conditions like those of the cold regions of Siberia and
North America.
At a higher level and of more recent date than these—from which
they are entirely distinct—are the beds containing Paleolithic imple-
ments, formed in all probability under conditions not essentially different
from those of the present day. However this may be, we have now con-
clusive evidence that the Paleolithic implements are, in the Eastern
Counties of England, of a date long posterior to that of the Great Chalky
Boulder Clay.
14 REPORT—1897.
It may be said, and said truly, that the implements at Hoxne cannot
be shown to belong to the beginning rather than to some later stage of
the Paleolithic Period. The changes, however, that have taken place at
Hoxne in: the surface configuration of the country prove that the beds
containing the implements cannot belong to the close of that period.
It must, moreover, be remembered that in what are probably the
earliest of the Paleolithic deposits of the Eastern Counties, those at the
highest level, near Brandon in Norfolk, where the gravels contain the
largest proportion of pebbles derived from Glacial beds, some of the
implements themselves have been manufactured from materials not
native to the spot but brought from a distance, and derived in all pro-
bability either from the Boulder Clay or from some of the beds associated
with it.
We must, however, take a wider view of the whole question, for it
must not for a moment be supposed that there are the slightest grounds
for believing that the civilisation, such as it was, of the Paleolithic Period
originated in the British Isles. We find in other countries implements
so identical in form and character with British specimens that they
might have been manufactured by the same hands. These occur over
large areas in France under similar conditions to those that prevail in
England. The same forms have been discovered in the ancient river
gravels of Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Some few have been recorded
from the north of Africa, and analogous types occur in considerable
numbers in the south of that continent. On the banks of the Nile, many
hundreds of feet above its present level, implements of the European
types have been discovered ; while in Somaliland, in an ancient river
valley at a great elevation above the sea, Mr. Seton-Karr has collected
a large number of implements formed of flint and quartzite, which,
judging from their form and character, might have been dug out of the
drift deposits of the Somme or the Seine, the Thames or the ancient
Solent.
In the valley of the Euphrates implements of the same kind have
also been found, and again farther east in the lateritic deposits of
Southern India they have been obtained in considerable numbers. It is
not a little remarkable, and is at the same time highly suggestive, that
a form of implement almost peculiar to Madras reappears among imple-
ments from the very ancient gravels of the Manzanares at Madrid. In
the case of the African discoveries we have as yet no definite Palzonto-
logical evidence by which to fix their antiquity, but in the Narbada
Valley of Western India Paleolithic implements of quartzite seem to be
associated with a local fauna of Pleistecene age, comprising, like that of
Europe, the elephant, hippopotamus, ox, and other mammals of species
now extinct. A correlation of the two faunas with a view of ascertaining
their chronological relations is beset with many difficulties, but there
seems reason for accepting this Indian Pleistocene fauna as in some’
degree more ancient than the European.
ADDRESS. 15
Is this not a case in which the imagination may be fairly invoked in
aid of science? May we not from these data attempt in some degree to
build up and reconstruct the early history of the human family? There,
in Eastern Asia, in a tropical climate, with the means of subsistence
readily at hand, may we not picture to ourselves our earliest ancestors
gradually developing from a lowly origin, acquiring a taste for hunting,
if not indeed being driven to protect themselves from the beasts around
them, and evolving the more complicated forms of tools or weapons from
the simpler flakes which had previously served them as knives? May we
not imagine that, when once the stage of civilisation denoted by these
Paleolithic implements had been reached, the game for the hunter became
scarcer, and that his life in consequence assumed a more nomad character ?
Then, and possibly not till then, may a series of migrations to ‘fresh
woods and pastures new’ not unnaturally have ensued, and these follow-
ing the usual course of ‘westward towards the setting sun’ might
eventually lead to a Paleolithic population finding its way to the extreme
borders of Western Europe, where we find such numerous traces of its
presence.
How long a term of years may be involved in such a migration it is
impossible to say, but that such a migration took place the phenomena
seem to justify us in believing. It can hardly be supposed that the pro-
cess that I have shadowed forth was reversed, and that Man, having
originated in North-Western Europe, in a cold climate where clothing
was necessary and food scarce, subsequently migrated eastward to India
and southward to the Cape of Good Hope! As yet, our records of dis-
coveries in India and Eastern Asia are but scanty ; but it is there that
the traces of the cradle of the human race are, in my opinion, to be
sought, and possibly future discoveries may place upon a more solid
foundation the visionary structure that I have ventured to erect.
It may be thought that my hypothesis does not do justice to what
Sir Thomas Browne has so happily termed ‘that great antiquity,
America.’ I am, however, not here immediately concerned with the
important Neolithic remains of all kinds with which. this great continent
abounds. I am now confining myself to the question of Paleolithic man
and his origin, and in considering it I am not unmindful of the Trenton
implements, though I must content myself by saying that the ‘turtle-
back’ form is essentially different from the majority of those on the wide
dissemination of which I have been speculating, and, moreover, as many
here present are aware, the circumstances of the finding of these American
implements are still under careful discussion.
Leaving them out of the question for the present, it may be thought
worth while to carry our speculations rather further, and to consider the
relations in time between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Periods. We
have seen that the stage in human civilisation denoted by the use of the
ordinary forms of Paleolithic implements must have extended over a vast
16 REPORT—1897.
period of time if we have to allow for the migration cf the primeval
hunters from their original home, wherever it may have been in Asia or
Africa, to the west of Europe, including Britain. We have seen that,
during this migration, the forms of the weapons and tools made from
silicious stones had become, as it were, stereotyped, and further, that,
during the subsequent extended period implied by the erosion of the
valleys, the modifications in the form of the implements and the changes
in the fauna associated with the men who used them were but slight.
At the close of the period during which the valleys were being eroded
comes that represented by the latest occupation of the caves by Paleolithic
man, when both in Britain and in the south of France the reindeer was
abundant ; but among the stone weapons and implements of that long
troglodytic phase of man’s history not a single example with the edge
sharpened by grinding has as yet been found. All that can safely be said
is that the larger implements as well as the larger mammals had become
scarcer, that greater power in chipping flint had been attained, that the
arts of the engraver and the sculptor had considerably developed, and
that the use of the bow had probably been discovered.
Directly we encounter the relics of the Neolithic Period, often, in the
case of the caves lately mentioned, separated from the earlier remains by
a thick layer of underlying stalagmite, we find flint hatchets polished at
the edge and on the surface, cutting at the broad and not at the narrow
end, and other forms of implements associated with a fauna in all essential
respects identical with that of the present day.
Were the makers of these polished weapons the direct descendants of
Paleolithic ancestors whose occupation of the country was continuous
from the days of the old river gravels? or had these long since died out,
so that after Western Europe had for ages remained uninhabited, it was
re-peopled in Neolithic times by the immigration of some new race of
men? Was there, in fact, a ‘great gulf fixed’ between the two occupa-
tions ? or was there in Europe a gradual transition from the one stage of
culture to the other ?
It has been said that ‘what song the Syrens sang, or what name
Achilles assumed when he hid himself among women, though puzzling
questions, are not beyond all conjecture’ ; and though the questions now
proposed may come under the same category, and must await the dis-
covery of many more essential facts before they receive definite and satis-
factory answers, we may, I think, throw some light upon them if we
venture to take a few steps upon the seductive if insecure paths of con-
jecture. So far as I know we have as yet no trustworthy evidence of any
transition from the one age to the other, and the gulf between them
remains practically unbridged. We can, indeed, hardly name the part of
the world in which to seek for the cradle of Neolithic civilisation, though
we know that traces of what appear to have been a stone-using people
have been discovered in Egypt, and that what must be among the latest
ADDRESS. 17
of the relics of their industry have been assigned to a date some 3,500 to
4,000 years before our era. The men of that time had attained to the
highest degree of skill in working flint that has ever been reached.
Their beautifully made knives and spear-heads seem indicative of a culmi-
nating point reached after long ages of experience ; but whence these
artists in flint came or who they were is at present absolutely unknown,
and their handiworks afford no clue to help us in tracing their origin.
Taking a wider survey, we may say that, generally speaking, not only
the fauna but the surface configuration of the country were, in Western
Europe at all events, much the same at the commencement of the Neolithic
Period as they are at the present day. We have, too, no geological indi-
cations to aid us in forming any chronological scale,
The occupation of some of the caves in the south of France seems to
have been carried on after the erosion of the neighbouring river valleys
had ceased, and so far as our knowledge goes these caves offer evidence of
being the latest in time of those occupied by Man during the Paleolithic
Period. It seems barely possible that, though in the north of Europe
there are no distinct signs of such late occupation, yet that, in the south,
Man may have lived on, though in diminished numbers ; and that in some
of the caves, such, for instance, as those in the neighbourhood of Mentone,
there may be traces of his existence during the transitional period that
connects the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. If this were really the case,
we might expect to find some traces of a dissemination of Neolithic cuiture
from a North Italian centre, but I much doubt whether any such traces
actually exist.
If it had been in that part of the world that the transition took
place, how are we to account for the abundance of polished stone hatchets
found in Central India? Did Neolithic man return eastward by the
same route as that by which in remote ages his Paleolithic predecessor
had migrated westward ? Would it not be in defiance of all probability
to answer such a question in the affirmative? We have, it must be
confessed, nothing of a substantial character to guide us in these specula-
tions ; but, pending the advent of evidence to the contrary, we may, I
think, provisionally adopt the view that owing to failure of food, climatal
changes, or other causes, the occupation of Western Europe by Paleolithic
man absolutely ceased, and that it was not until after an interval of long
duration that Europe was re-peopled by a race of men immigrating from
some other part of the globe where the human race had survived, and in
course of ages had developed a higher stage of culture than that of
Paleolithic man.
I have been carried away by the liberty allowed for conjecture into
the regions of pure imagination, and must now return to the realms of
fact, and one fact on which I desire for a short time to insist is that
of the existence at the present day, in close juxtaposition with our own
civilisation, of races of men who, at all events but a few generations ago,
1897. c
18 REPORT—1897.
lived under much the same conditions as did our own Neolithic predecessors
in Europe.
The manners and customs of these primitive tribes and peoples are
changing day by day, their languages are becoming obsolete, their myths
and traditions are dying out, their ancient processes of manufacture are
falling into oblivion, and their numbers are rapidly diminishing, so that it
seems inevitable that ere long many of these interesting populations will
become absolutely extinct. The admirable Bureau of Ethnology instituted
by our neighbours in the United States of America has done much
towards preserving a knowledge of the various native races in this vast
continent ; and here in Canada the annual Archeological Reports pre-
sented to the Minister of Education are cndering good service in the
same cause.
Moreover the Committee of this Assoz.ation appointed to investigate
the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social conditions of
the North-Western tribes of the Dominion of Canada is about to present
its twelfth and final report, which in conjunction with those already pre-
sented will do much towards preserving a knowledge of the habits and
languages of those tribes. It is sad to think that Mr. Horatio Hale,
whose comprehensive grasp of the bearings of ethnological questions, and
whose unremitting labours have so materially conduced to the success of
the Committee, should be no longer among us. Although this report is
said to be final, it is to be hoped that the Committee may be able to
indicate lines upon which future work in the direction of ethnological and
archeological research may be profitably carried on in this part of Her
Majesty’s dominions.
It is, however, lamentable to notice how little is being or has been
officially done towards preserving a full record of the habits, beliefs, arts,
myths, languages, and physical characteristics of the countless other tribes
and nations more or less uncivilised which are comprised within the
limits of the British Empire. At the meeting of this Association held last
year at Liverpool it was resolved by the General Committee ‘that it is of
urgent importance to press upon the Government the necessity of
establishing a Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain, which by collect-
ing information with regard to the native races within and on the borders
of the Empire will prove of immense value to science and to the Govern-
ment itself.’ It has been suggested that such a bureau might with the
greatest advantage and with the least outlay and permanent expense be
connected either with the British Museum or with the Imperial Institute,
and the project has already been submitted for the consideration of the
Trustees of the former establishment.
The existence of an almost unrivalled ethnological collection in the
Museum, and the presence there of officers already well versed in
ethnological research, seem to afford an argument in favour of the proposed
bureau being connected with it, On the other hand, the Imperial Insti-
ADDRESS. 19
tute was founded with an especial view to its being a centre around which
every interest connected with the dependencies of the Empire might
gather for information and support. The establishment within the last
twelve months of a Scientific Department within the Institute, with well-
appointed laboratories and a highly trained staff, shows how ready are
those concerned in its management to undertake any duties that may
conduce to the welfare of the outlying parts of the British Empire ; a fact
of which I believe that Canada is fully aware. The Institute is therefore
likely to develop, so far as its scientific department is concerned, into a
Bureau of advice in all matters scientific and technical, and certainly a
Bureau of Ethnology such as that suggested would not be out of place
within its walls.
Wherever such an institution is to be established, the question of its
existence must of necessity rest with Her Majesty's Government and
Treasury, inasmuch as without funds, however moderate, the undertaking
cannot be carried on. I trust that in considering the question it will
always be borne in mind that in the relations between civilised and
uncivilised nations and races it is of the first importance that the pre-
judices and especially the religious or semi-religious and caste prejudices
of the latter should be thoroughly well known to the former. If but a
single ‘little war’ could be avoided in consequence of the knowledge
acquired and stored up by the Bureau of Ethnology preventing such a
misunderstanding as might culminate in warfare, the cost of such an
institution would quickly be saved.
I fear that it will be thought that I have dwelt too long on primeval
man and his modern representatives, and that I should have taken this
opportunity to discuss some more general subject, such as the advances
made in the various departments of science since last this Association met
in Canada. Such a subject would no doubt have afforded an infinity of
interesting topics on which to dilate. Spectrum analysis, the origin
and nature of celestial bodies, photography, the connection between heat,
light, and electricity, the practical applications of the latter, terrestriai
magnetism, the liquefaction and solidification of gases, the behaviour of
elements and compounds under the influence of extreme cold, the nature
and uses of the Réntgen rays, the advances in bacteriology and in pro-
phylactic medicine, might all have been passed under review, and to many
of my audience would have seemed to possess greater claims to attention
than the subject that I have chosen.
It must, however, be borne in mind that most, if not indeed all, of
these topics will be discussed by more competent authorities in the various
Sections of the Association by means of the Presidential addresses or
otherwise. Nor must it be forgotten that I occupy this position as a
representative of Archeology, and am therefore justified in bringing before
you a subject in which every member of every race of mankind ought to
be interested—the antiquity of the human family and the scenes of its
infancy.
C2
20 REPORT—1897.
Others will direct our thoughts in other directions, but the farther we
proceed the more clearly shall we realise the connection and inter-
dependence of all departments of science. Year after year, as meetings
of this Association take place, we may also foresee that ‘many shall run
to and fro and knowledge shall be increased.’ Year after year advances
will be made in science, and in reading that Book of Nature that lies ever
open before our eyes ; successive stones will be brought for building up
that Temple of Knowledge of which our fathers and we have laboured
to lay the foundations. May we not well exclaim with old Robert
Recorde !—
‘Oh woorthy temple of Goddes magnificence : Oh throne of glorye and
seate of the lorde: thy substance most pure what tonge can describe ?
thy signes are so wonderous, surmountinge mannes witte, the effects of
thy motions so diuers in kinde: so harde for to searche, and worse for to
fynde—Thy woorkes are all wonderous, thy cunning unknowen: yet
seedes of all knowledge in that booke are sowen—<And yet in that boke
who rightly can reade, to all secrete knowledge it will him straighte
reade’!
' Preface to Robert Recorde’s Castle of Knomnledge, 1556,
REPORTS
ON THE
STATH OF SCIENCE.
Fs eae eee
oo rae
’
’
”
ee ee ee ee
. Li dood
=
A ——
al 4 y »
wae
¢
ie + 7 ee
‘ 7 i
a a
*
.
. +
*
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
Corresponding Societies Committee.— Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor R. MELpoLa (Chairman), Mr. T. V. HOLMES
(Secretary), Mr. Francis Gatton, Sir DouGLas Gatton, Sir Raw-
son Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir JOHN
Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W.
WuHiTakeER, Professor E. B. Poutron, Mr. CuTHBERT PEEK, and
Rev. Canon H. B. TRisTRAM.
TuE following Corresponding Societies nominated delegates to the Toronto
meeting.
The attendance of the delegate at the first meeting of the
Conference is indicated by the letter a, and at the second by the letter B.
A
> Pb
ww
Bowe w
Andersonian Naturalists’ Society
Belfast Natural History and Philosophica
Society
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.
B Berwickshire Naturalists’ Field Club
Buchan Field Club
B Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society
B Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club
East Kent Natural History Society .
B East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies
Essex Field Club : ; - :
Federated Institution of Mining Engineers
Glasgow Natural History Society
Hertfordshire Natural History Society
Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society
Leeds Naturalists’ Club. .
Liverpool Geological Society
Manchester Geographical Society
Manchester Microscopical Society . ;
North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers
B North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club
B Perthshire Society of Natural Science
Malcolm Laurie, B.Sc.
1
i spanaies Swanston, F.G.S.
G. P. Hughes.
John Gray, B.Sc.
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.8.
Professor J.Viriamu Jones, F.R.S.
Professor A. C. Haddon, B.Sc.
A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.
H. R. Mill, D.Sc.
Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S.
Archibald Blue.
Professor EH. E. Prince, B.A.
John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S.
G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S.
Harold Wager, F.L.S.
Professor W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
W. E. Hoyle, M.A.
Professor F. E. Weiss, B.Sc., F'.L.8.
W. Hamilton Merritt.
W. D. Spanton, F.R.C.S.
H. R. Mill, D.Sc.
24 REPORT—1897.
A Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A., F.G.S.
A B Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S8.
Society
B Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . 4 . Professor L.C. Miall, F.R.S.,F.L.S.
The first meeting of the Conference was held in the University of
Toronto on Thursday, August 19. The Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee were represented by Professor Meldola, F.R.S., Chairman, and Mr.
John Hopkinson, Secretary of the Conference.
The Chairman suggested that, in view of the smallness of the gathering
(only eleven delegates being present), a paper on the Museums of Canada,
by Dr. Henry M. Ami, of Ottawa, be deferred to the next meeting. At
the Liverpool Conference the question of federation amongst the local
Natural History Societies of Great Britain had been referred to the
Corresponding Societies Committee, and the action of the Committee had
been embodied in the Report, which the Secretary would now read.
Mr. Hopkinson then read the following Report of the Corresponding
Societies Committee :— ?
The Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg
leave to submit to the General Committee the following Report of the
results of an attempt made, since the Liverpool Meeting, to obtain the
opinions of the local scientific Societies on the question of the desirability
of a much greater amount of féderation among them than at present
prevails.
In accordance with the decision of the Committee at a meeting held
October 29, 1896, copies of Mr. Abbott’s scheme for the formation of
District Unions of Natural History Societies (which was discussed at the
Liverpool Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies) were
forwarded to the sixty-six Corresponding Societies and to fifty-eight others,
together with the following letter :—
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
BURLINGTON HousE, LoNDON, W.
November 1896.
S1r,—We are requested by the Corresponding Societies Committee to call your
attention to a scheme drawn up by Mr. George Abbott (General Secretary of the
South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies) for promoting District Unions of Natu-
ral History Societies, a copy of which is inclosed. This scheme was discussed at
the Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies of the British Association
held at the Liverpool Meeting of the Association last September, when the great ad-
vantages of federation were generally admitted, and some examples of it were
explained. At a meeting of the Corresponding Societies Committee on October 29
the Report of the Conference of Delegates was considered, and it was decided that,
as the circumstances in which the local Societies are placed are extremely varied, it
is desirable that each Society shall be asked its opinion on Mr. Abbott’s scheme, and
as to what kind of federation it considers to be the best. We have therefore to state
that the Corresponding Societies Committee will be greatly obliged if your Society
will be good enough to favour them with its views on the subject at any date not
later than December 20, 1896.
We are, Sir, yours faithfully,
R. MELDOLA, Chairman,
T. V. HoLMEs, Secretary,
Corresponding Societies Committee, British Association.
The Secretary.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 25
When the Committee met on March 19, 1897, only twenty-six answers
had been received. The Secretary was accordingly directed to write to
eleven of the Corresponding Societies which had not replied asking for
some expression of their views on the subject of federation before the end
of April. This second application produced eight additional replies,
making the total received thirty-four, which may be thus classed :—
Answers from Corresponding Societies . : : : - 20
= » Other local Societies . : ; : : . if
34
As regards the nature of the replies the nae may be thus
arranged :—
Belong to Unions already . 9
In close touch with a Union 1
Prevented by circumstances from j joining Unions 2
Undecided . - 3 4
Generally favourable to Unions : 9
Unfavourable in their own cases. 9
34
The answers received from Societies which already belong to a Union,
or are in close touch with one, call for no remark. The two Societies
prevented by circumstances from joining Unions are the Cambridge Philo-
sophical Society and the Marlborough College Natural History Society.
In the replies from the four Societies classed as ‘ undecided,’ perhaps the
most significant remark is to the effect that the Club in question is doubt-
ful whether economy of energy might not be dearly purchased by loss of
‘enthusiasm, and whether ‘a deadening uniformity ’ might not result from
Unions. Of the nine Societies generally favourable to Unions, two only,
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society and the Leicester Literary
and Philosophical Sociéty, sent definite, detailed plans of what they pro-
posed to accomplish in their own localities. And a third, the Essex Field
Club, stated that it was in communication with the Norfolk and Norwich
Natural History Society with the view of establishing some degree of co-
operation between the two Societies in the future. The others contented
themselves with the remark that union was a step in the right direction,
or with some other phrase expressing vague approval.
The replies received from the Societies classed as ‘unfavourable in
their own cases’ vary very much as to their approval of federation in the
abstract. All these Societies are Corresponding Societies, and have
counties or other large areas as their spheres of work.
It is noticeable that while most of the replies received before March 19
were, more or less, favourable to federation, those sent in answer to the
second application are all, more or less, unfavourable. This difference
between the character of the earlier and the later replies seems to point
to the conclusion that the local Societies addressed which have sent no
26 REPORT—1897.
answer—90 out of 124—have abstained either because they are wholly
uninterested in schemes of federation, or are more or less unfavourable to
them. Judging from answers received, it would appear that Societies
having a whole county or some district of similar size as their sphere of
operations are usually indifferent, or averse, to union with adjacent counties
or districts. Members of such Societies do not generally feel a strong
local interest in larger areas, and at the same time they do not need the
help of other Societies in the publication of their transactions. On the
other hand, experience shows that a large number of the smaller local
Societies are associations rather for lectures and excursions than for local
scientific work. And the brief annual reports they issue are of little
interest, except to their own members. Consequently they also are unin-
terested in questions about federation.
A feeling unfavourable to federation may result from the existence in
a district of two large towns of nearly equal importance within a few miles
of each other. Thus both the Bath Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club and the Bristol Naturalists’ Society report that some years ago
an unsuccessful attempt was made to promote some kind of union among
the local Societies there.
A glance at the Federations of the past may be of use. Three or four
years ago the Midland Naturalists’ Union and the Cumberland and West-
morland Association both came to an end, after the former had existed
sixteen years, and the latter a few months longer. The ultimate failure
of the Midland Union was, in all probability, largely due to the want of
any common feeling among its members of being ‘ Midlanders.’ But
Cumberland and Westmorland are two counties which have a strong
affinity for each other, and have been much associated together in many
ways. Possibly the ultimate failure of their Association may have been
mainly the result of the absence of any town in those counties so pre-emi-
nent in size and importance as to be able to form a recognised standard
and central Society.
Two Societies, which once belonged to the Midland Union, express a
preference for Unions like the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. The great
advantage possessed by that federation lies, however, in the fact that all
its members, though they may live as far apart as any members of the
Midland Union once did, have the common feeling of being Yorkshire-
men. But Warwickshire, for example, may feel no special affinity for
Nottinghamshire, or the county of Leicester for that of Stafford.
In short, while no one can doubt the great desirability on all grounds
of increased federation among the various local Societies, it is obvious that
success must depend, not on the abstract merits of any given scheme, but
on its suitability to the local conditions in which it is expected to work.
Some disappointment may be felt at the slightness of the interest
manifested in federation. But it may be hoped that many Societies which
are more or less averse to any close federation with neighbouring Associa-
tions have, nevertheless, had their thoughts profitably directed towards
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 27
the attainment of a much greater amount of mutual co-operation and
assistance than at present prevails.
The following Societies have been added to the list of the Correspond-
ing Societies :—
1. The Halifax Scientific Society and Geologists’ Field Club.
2. The Brighton and Sussex Natural History and Philosophical Society.
3. The Andersonian Naturalists’ Society.
The Chairman, in inviting discussion, said that there were great
differences of opinion with regard to federation, but he thought that
much good might result from some such scheme as the grouping of
counties for occasional meetings of their Local Societies, if for no other
purpose than to avoid duplication of work. By the proceedings of Local
Societies being collected into one publication, diffuseness would be avoided,
and the money spent by individual Societies upon printing might profitably
be diverted into other channels.
Professor Herdman said that many scientific men in provincial towns
like Liverpool had thought a great deal about this question in recent
years, but there were many difficulties in the way, some of which he dis-
cussed. Asa matter of history, for one or other of these reasons, every
attempt made by the Liverpool Geological and Biological Societies to
decide upon a line of action with other Local Societies had ended in
failure. Office-bearers in active Societies of good standing were, as a rule,
opposed to federation, and if there were one subscription to federated
Societies the income of each individual Society would be reduced.
Dr, H. R. Mill stated that the East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies was very successful, all the members of the federated Societies
having the same feeling of local patriotism, and that the Perthshire
Society of Natural Science was one of the best of these Local Societies,
its museum being one of the sights of Perth. The Kirkcaldy Natural
History Society was also one of the best in the Union. These Societies
meet in different towns each year, have joint excursions, and are so satis-
factorily related as to give him great faith in the importance of union.
He thought there should be a better result from the action of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee than from any other agency, and wished
that some stronger action had been taken than was indicated in its
Report.
Mr. G. P. Hughes said that the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club was
doing first-class work in archeology and natural history, but he did not
think that federation could be accomplished in the counties of England
north of Yorkshire and Lancashire, the area being so large.
The Rey. J. O. Bevan spoke in favour of joint meetings of the Wool-
hope Naturalists’ Field Club, the Cardiff Natural History Society, and
the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club. It seemed to him that the
British Association possessed the best means of leading provincial Societies
into union.
Professor Weiss said that the Manchester Microscopical Society was
28 REPORT—1897.
willing to federate with some of the other Local Societies, and found a desire
for affiliation, but a difficulty in carrying it out, many Societies thinking
that they would lose more or less of their identity in union. He thought
that economy might be effected by original papers being published in
journals specially devoted to the branch of science of which they treat,
the Local Societies only publishing accounts of their meetings and
excursions which would be of interest to all their members.
Mr. W. D. Spanton, while deprecating actual federation, was in favour
of joint meetings of the Societies in his district—North Staffordshire.
Mr. R. E. Dodge (New York) mentioned the Scientific Alliance of
New York as having accomplished something by union, the announce-
ment of meetings being satisfactorily made in the Bulletin of the Alliance,
and the libraries of the different Societies being kept together in one
building. At Washington the Joint Commission, on which all the Govern-
ment scientists are represented, was formed on similar lines.
Dr. Henry M. Ami (Ottawa) said that this question had also arisen in
Canada. For two years they had been attempting to bring about the
union of the Ottawa Literary Society and the Ottawa Field Naturalists’
Club. This club was wasting energy by the publication in the ‘ Ottawa
Naturalist’ of non-scientific matter which crowded out scientific papers.
There was a movement on foot in Canada to form a Canadian Academy
of Science, in which geology, botany, zoology, and microscopy would be
represented.
Mr. Hopkinson said that there were various ways in which federation
could be carried out, which he might roughly group under three heads—
amalgamation, union, and co-operation with representation. He instanced
the Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club as a good example of the
benefit of amalgamation, a strong field club doing good local work, and
publishing the results, having been formed by the coalition of two Societies
which were struggling for existence. The advantages of union without
amalgamation were well illustrated by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
each Society composing it being quite independent, but meeting together
at an annual congress in different Yorkshire towns. Amongst its mem-
bers were several Yorkshiremen, like himself not now residing in the
county nor being members of any of the affiliated Societies. The publi-
cations of the Union were devoted to the meteorology, geology, botany,
and zoology of Yorkshire. Under the third heading might be cited the
present Conference, or such Societies represented as were co-operating
with Committees of Research of the British Association ; while there were
several intermediate links between the three grades of union. Federa-
tion, therefore, did not imply sacrifice of individuality.
Section C.
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh called attention to the appointment of a Com-
mittee of this Section for obtaining a collection of Canadian Geological
Photographs, on the same lines as the British Committee.
Re ee oe
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 29
Section D.
Professor Herdman requested the delegates of Societies located on the
coast to give attention to the investigation of green oysters and to the
causes which may account for the colour. If oysters were observed to be
at all tinged with green, it was desirable to ascertain whether any local
conditions, such as the presence of copper mines near the sea, or some
other pollution of the water, explained the fact. Professor Herdman said
he would be grateful for full details as to any observed cases.
Mr. W. E. Hoyle urged the importance of the accurate use of generic
and specific names in the publications of Local Societies. In particular,
when naming new species, full and accurate descriptions should always be
given.
The second meeting of the Conference was held in the University of
Toronto on Monday, August 23. The Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee were represented by Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S., President of
the Association, and by Professor Meldola, F.R.S., Chairman, and Mr.
John Hopkinson, Secretary of the Conference.
The Chairman said that it was usual, at this second meeting of the
delegates, to take the various Sections in alphabetical order, and hear from
representatives appointed by the sectional Committees any suggestions
they might have to make with regard to the Committees of Research to
which the Corresponding Societies could render assistance ; but he sug-
gested that they should take advantage of the presence of Professor
Miall, President of Section D, who would make some remarks upon a
possible line of work in which the representatives of the Local Societies
were interested.
Professor Miall then made the following remarks :— My appearance
here this afternoon is due to the fact that Professor Meldola and myself,
who visited Niagara on Saturday, fell into conversation upon the work of
the Local Societies. Your chairman thought it might be of some use to
bring before this meeting, in the form of suggestions, as practical as
possible, some portions of our talk at Niagara Falls. The Local Societies
carry on a great variety of work, but upon that and upon the special
influence of those Societies with regard to scientific investigation I do not
intend to offer any remarks. I desire only to bring before you one par-
ticular line of inquiry which may be of interest to you, and from which
we may perceive how one side of natural history is, as it seems to me,
unjustly neglected. I refer to the study of life-histories. We study
animals and plants in a great variety of forms ; we compile statistics of
them, and we collect specimens ; but the central point of interest, the
life-history of the animal, is neglected.
‘It may be thought that this study of life-histories is not specially
suited for the amateurs who compose a large part of the Local Societies.
Tt cannot be denied that the work is hard and has special difficulties con-
nected with it, for to prosecute it in an adequate manner involves some
30 REPORT—1897.
knowledge of anatomy and physiology, and also some acquaintance with
the problems of development as well as a considerable power of obser-
vation and much enthusiasm. These certainly appear to be large demands,
but we cannot expect to get any scientific results of real importance
which are not procured at’ the cost of much labour. The things which
lie upon the surface and are easily got at are, asa rule, in the present
development of science, not of very great value. If we aim at achieving
real scientific results we must expect to have to pay for them both with
our time and with our labour.
‘If there be anyone here who may think of devoting himself to the
study of life-histories, I need hardly say that he has an abundant choice of
subjects, even in so narrow and so well worked a country as England.
I will ask your permission to take a run over that department of natural
history with which I have of late years occupied myself. I refer to the
study of insects. Anyone who has occupied himself with promoting the
scientific study of insects will, I think, agree with me when I say that almost
everything still remains to be done. The insects have been collected and
classified, but with rare exceptions their life-histories are still unknown.
Let me instance the Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, for the simple reason
that they are better known than the rest. We know well their external
forms or shapes ; the stages of many have been recorded and drawn ; and
along with these external features we know something about their food-
plants, mode of life, and so on ; but how their mode of life and peculiarities
of structure are interrelated we know not. I think it is a reproach to
the naturalists of our generation that they are content to leave the higher
knowledge of insects and devote their whole attention to mechanical details.
‘As a type of what I am dealing with, let me refer you to the common
Diptera. I donot think that more than a dozen out of the vast number of
these insects have been thoroughly investigated. It seems that 200 or 300
have been studied, at least superficially, and of these we know more or less;
but they are among many thousands of which it seems that we are practi-
cally in complete ignorance. What, then, can we expect to learn about such
a subject as this unless we are prepared to meet difficulties and incur the
cost of time and labour? Here is a vast and important field inviting the
attention of naturalists ; and when we consider the number of enthusiastic
naturalists scattered, not only over our own, but also over every other
country, we might surely expect most important results if this business
were taken seriously in hand,
‘As to the methods of inquiry, let me suppose that any one of you
intends to take up live natural history. I should recommend him to study
the things which are commonly found round about him ; to procure those
animals which he is accustomed to see again and again every day, and
which he will not have to go a mile or two to procure, say from the nearest
stream if not too far away. Then as to the helps which exist, there is a
literature of this subject ; but one difficulty is that most, if not all, of this
literature is written in a foreign language. Malpighi wrote in Latin, and
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 3l
Swammerdam in Dutch, Réaumur in French, while Boerhaave translated
Swammerdam’s work into Latin.
‘It is singular that so great a lapse of time has taken place with little
addition to the literature of this subject, since these writers are of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The work which they carried
forward with so much promise of high achievements was allowed to fall
into neglect. There are a few exceptions, but, generally speaking, from the
commencement of the century up to the present time the subject seems to
have fallen into almost complete abeyance.
‘To incite beginners to undertake this special work of the study of life-
histories, [ think that something might be done if we were to put before
them a single example of a common insect worked out with some degree of
detail. If that were done in England it would get over the difficulty felt
by naturalists who have not made acquaintance with a foreign language.
We have hardly any examples of life-histories worked out and presented
to us in a thoroughly acceptable form. This difficulty seems to me so
considerable that I am now trying to draw up such a life-history of the
Chironomus, or blood-worm, which is everywhere accessible. It is one
of the most instructive insects known to naturalists, and in twelve months
I hope to have its life-history ready for the use of the student.
‘But it is not enough merely to have a book put into the hands of
students; they must know how the actual work of observation is done.
It might be possible to pick up from among the members of the Corre-
sponding Societies in various parts of England an enthusiastic party of
young men and show them how particular things are done. For instance,
how to capture certain kinds of insects, how to study them anatomically,
how to disclose the embryonic development and the inner changes which
accompany metamorphosis. Let me suppose that out of the members of
the Local Societies situated within convenient distance of the city of Leeds,
where I have my laboratory, twelve should agree to assemble some time
next summer, say in July, and take up the work which I have proposed,
each to bring his own microscope, if he has one. I will then undertake to
go through a quite elementary course of training on the Chironomus, its
life-history and its development. I think I can undertake to initiate
such a party of investigators into a useful method of carrying on the study
of life-histories, and I think they will carry home with them, from a short
course of study, a determination to pursue the work. We could then try
the experiment in another district, London for instance ; and I should also
be glad to do anything by way of correspondence to further this study.
‘If we should succeed in carrying out this plan it might lead to a
revival of the study of natural history in our country. Each student
might turn into a centre of infection when he went home, and spread the
virus through his brother naturalists. Let us look forward to such a
revival, and if the suggestions which I have made should command for
this subject the sympathy it deserves, we may realise a bright future for
this important branch of knowledge.’
a2 REPORT-—1897.
Sir John Evans expressed the indebtedness of the meeting for the
practical suggestions of Professor Miall. He hoped that those present
would realise the desirability of extending the work of the Local Societies
in the direction indicated. Listening to Professor Miall’s plea for the
study of the life-histories of insects, he recalled the observation of a great
ancient authority, Pliny, who said that the nature of things is nowhere
more complete than in the least (Cum natura rerum nusquam magis
quam in minimis tota sit), a remark which he thought foreshadowed the
results discovered by naturalists by means of the microscope in modern
times.
The Chairman said that he would like to express the hope that when
Professor Miall’s suggestions had been circulated among the members of
the Corresponding Societies, and his ideas had borne fruit, they would
have the pleasure of hearing, at another Conference, of his students having
achieved valuable work under his tutorship.
Dr. Ami then read his ‘ Report on the State of some of the Principal
Museums in Canada and Newfoundland,’ which was ordered by the
General Committee to be printed in extenso, see p. 62.
The Chairman said that he could not help being struck with the great
wealth of material existing in Canada. Englishmen must feel a certain
amount of regret that the museum question is not taken up with more
earnestness in their own country. Their provincial museums only existed
with much difficulty, and were altogether dependent upon private bounty
in carrying on their existence. Anyone who visits many of the local
museums in England must see that the museum question has not taken
that prominent part in public opinion which it ought to do, Dr. Ami
had collected a vast amount of information of great value. There must
be in the museums of Canada much valuable material in the way of types,
and students in all parts of the world would be the gainers if it were
widely known where those types were to be found.
Professor Prince explained that the Fisheries Collection at Ottawa
under his charge was made for the Fisheries Exhibition in London in
1883, and was brought back to Canada and given a permanent home. It
was scarcely representative of the various fisheries of the Dominion, but
it was an interesting collection to anyone coming from the old country, as
it represents the waters of a country abounding in ganoids and other
remarkable creatures of scientific interest. He considered the Victoria
Museum to be a perfect model of its kind.
Professor Meldola then proposed a vote of thanks to Dr. Ami, and
Mr. Hopkinson seconded it, remarking that he was specially interested
in the museum question at the present time, for, with other members of
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, including Sir John Evans, he
was now endeayouring to raise sufficient money to build and endow a
museum for Hertfordshire, for which Earl Spencer had granted an ample
site at St. Albans. They had already been promised about 1,500/., but
had decided not to commence building until 2,000. had been raised.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 30
A temporary museum had been opened at St. Albans, and he felt sure,
from their success in obtaining objects of local interest for it, that if the
money required could be raised an interesting and valuable collection
would be got together. He feared that Dr. Ami’s paper was too long to
be published in the Report of the Conference of Delegates, but as the
Conference stands upon the same footing as any Section of the Association,
it was empowered to suggest to the Committee of Recommendations that
this paper was considered of sufficient importance to be published 2m
extenso in the Report of the Association, and he moved that this request
be made.
The vote of thanks and recommendation were carried unanimously.
Section H.
Professor Haddon, speaking on behalf of the Ethnographic Survey
Committee, said that it seemed to him that, while the Local Societies
properly spend a great deal of time on natural history, they neglect the
study of man, who is an animal, and deserves to be studied as thoroughly
as the lower animals. Local Societies might well undertake a survey of
the ethnography of their own districts. He would be sorry to draw
students away from the study of other branches of natural history, but he
thought that there must be many members of the Local Societies who did
not study the fauna, the flora, or the geology of their locality, but would
be interested in ethnographical work of some kind. There are several
anthropological investigations which could be attempted almost anywhere.
Besides observations on the colour of the hair and eyes, the stature, the
shape of the head, and other physical characters, the customs and beliefs
of the people and their folk-lore should be studied. Asexamples, mention
need only be made of local customs on particular days, or the numerous
and very interesting singing games of children, such as ‘Jenny Jo,’
‘ Dukes-a-riding,’ ‘Green Gravel,’ and the like. These might seem to be
trifling matters, but many such customs and games are the only records
we have left to us of the religious rites and social customs of our
ancestors, and therefore they are by no means to be despised. It would
also be advisable for the local scientific and photographic Societies to
interest their members in depicting the geology, natural history, and
- ethnology of their district, the latter especially. Many opportunities for
the study of British anthropology are vanishing or becoming modified,
just as surely as are corresponding details in the islands of the Pacific.
1897. D
BY
Jaqmoeu rad
*Aypeuorseooo0 ‘ssurpsso0r1g |*pp Jo JUoWSsossY
*KyTenuue ‘suonovsuery,
“ATTBNUUe
“qsTeinyeNy Wioqseq YNOS ,
“ATV
-nuue ‘sSurpesoo1g jo
jeuinor pue suoorsuviy,
“ATyenuTe ‘4.10day
SATUIUOUL ,“FSTTVINGVN YSHIT ,
*Alpenuue ‘ssurpsoo1rg
“AyTenuue ‘suory
-OBSUBI]T, PUv SSULpId001g
“ATTenuue
‘suotoesuviy, pue 41ode yy
“<yTTenuue ‘suooesus.zy,
mec heconees
Ax9a9 Ynoqe ‘sreauTsug
Sumiyy jo worjngtysuy
poyeiepeag JO suoljorsuv..y,
“A[[BUOISBI00 ‘SSUT
-pasoig ‘yioday yenuny
*Ayreok-J[ vy ‘suoovsuBly,
“AT[enuue ‘sjox,7 ov,
+ | Jo ploooay pus suoloRsuvIy,
“A[[BUOISBOD0 STOTY
-oBsuvIy, ‘ylodey jenumy
“A[penuue ‘suomorsue.y,
1897.
REPORT
“ATenuue ‘ssurpa001g
“Ayenuue “410de yy
*ATTenuue ‘ssurpeed
-O1g £ATqQuOUI-1q ‘jeurnor
Ayre
-nuue ‘quiQ SqsTBVanqeyNy
DATYSYOIA IO 949 Jo A104Stpy
*Ay[enuue
‘sBuIpseo01g =pue 410dexy
“Ayyenuwe
‘sSutpooo0r1g ~pue 4az0deyy
“Ayyenuue ‘ssurpesoo01g
ATreworsedoo ‘sjeunry
Suol}BoTTqug JO ansst
sH
[an) jo Aouonbaig pur a9t7,
‘PS “SOT
"8g
"sq
“SOT
“SOT
“ST “21
‘eee
pue sayeroossy |
"pgs ge stoquayy
"sg
*"P9 “SOT
"9q
“3g
"5g
“SOL
“SOL
“SLIT
“P9*SL
"59
EGC
“SOL
“Pd “SB
torydtzosqng
jsnuuy
auoN
auoON
"P9 “8G
"sq
ouONT
ouoNy
auoNy
*P9 “SOL
auoN
STE
auloN
euoNy
auto NT
EE §
Eb rcnonicg
“oo"g opt
“Sq ULOTT 006 “aN ‘Apreo
‘sarqaloog OT | -HiTy gsanqeyAy, “Sueg “Gq WITT
AayjsioH uaydaysg
€8 ‘Amqieyury “qooqg sue 6T
serra
91 ‘sivrag Sorp “TT “yoounyO “fC
uljqug ‘4yunomfpueg
0&% ‘poy PIOJND ZI ‘wosuyor *T, "Jord
yqnoursa M ‘Ta1exoIGO
Scg ‘ooprlaoquoyy ‘Wosprvyory “PL WOsTaNt
G83 Apunsy) ‘ay ‘uopsorp “Te ond
89 souvzuag “YStaI0H ‘gq wyOL
aULOGMIRD ‘UATE
016 ued “Spd “A'O ‘seMOy,L, WTI
PlegteqseqO
e099 YSIpueaArH cy ‘pavmoyH
#8& U'M ‘IPH [elomey wosueqdoyg
pxeaydegs “fa M PUR “ULL
029 ‘dD ‘laqysoyO ‘unesnyy 1ouaasory
HIpwwy
9gh oa1qg AIL “9S 96 ‘YOON 01!
“srnqsMeryg
E81 foaS oaysep ze “ysoll0g “H “H
query,-Wo-u0JINng
008 490118 WSIH Og ‘sqqIy seMoqL
5 proyiojeg
(is) ‘00199 TodeyO ¢ “OTA “ToTOOT, “we
[09st “WORD “pBOY
L9T aVOIgUiad ¢3 “C"W “ogshy eopooy,y
“qsmngyued “V “
esl ‘mOyysSug “yo013g YornyO ‘urnesny_
uoJNOg *M pure [TBYysavyy
99% "I'M “WRysuruIg ‘aseT[oD Uoseyy
‘aN ‘OSTEM ‘TIMDPYS “VA
‘anny *H ‘Ady pue “g'N ‘qqudsumq
00F “oop ‘snqutopio ‘ApreH “ff “AC
WIN ‘ssi
00g "pe “T ‘arenbg osaT[op ‘umoesnyy
‘va ‘Sunox
0c% ‘WNW ‘WY ‘orenbs esaTjop ‘uinesnyy
Wqe_ “WoryN@4sUy OYTAUEINS pus
00T Areroqry [eAoy UIZIV “MA "AM ‘AO
IeMAC *( PUB SSO
OST “XOTY ‘“MOSSBLD ‘yoo1yg O81004) F0Z
sIoqMIO yy AxeyoI0eg Jo ssorppy
JO ‘ON pu omey 10 s1oqaunb-peoyy
‘quiphy
TOIT "4099 “A
* 009 ‘Ht "NUON ‘T
008 "V"H'N ‘ep “und
* * 0 ‘WN UaNG
* ‘OV "HN yest0g
* ‘0 °H'N ‘W aopsorp
* "009 *[08+4) "UY “MU.
“sul
‘OOSSY «UIP «= “ANTIOQ
“qsuT
"gun "PIAL “#10380
* “Tog "FEN ‘00g J94s9T19
* 005 YBN HIpIUO
*'O ‘HTIBA “Aag 2p “1e—D
‘00g "ory "HN “gang
°O “WT UvyONg
* © ‘90g FUN 109811
‘00g
Md ‘HN voyysrg
“009 Td ‘H ‘N ‘Wu
* ANID “FEN “USYOIM Og
* ‘OE EN ase
‘009 "Td “H “N 4Sts10d
‘ ‘O"l V‘H'N Wea
"009 “4eN Uvimosiepuy
OMEL poyeraerqqy
=
-[VINzBN JO WOIU, puBTJOOS Jo 4suq
LSSL
‘Katoog AIOASIFT TRANIVN 4UIy yseq
Z9ST ‘AJoI00g
uvienbywy pue A104sIyy [BING
eN AvMoTey pue siLyssolayunqg
SSSI “ANID PIM SIsteANgeN UTIGua
9181 ‘QUID PIAL wetzenb
“uy pue A10jstyy [RANyeN Josz0cy
OL8T ‘anip AtoystH
[eingeN puv [eordoososo1yy WopAoryQ
FIST ‘JO
Ayatoog worsofoay Tesoy ‘T[eMaI10pH
6E8T ‘Jo anqIQSUT
pue UORIODSSY SUIUIT, ‘[[PAUIOD
TAST ‘stoomsuy JO UOIyNIYSUT
SerqUnoOHD PURIPI pus pleyaegseyHD
TST ‘oanqeiaqyvy pue
aoUalOg [BINJZUVNY JO AJoIOOY AeysoyO
* L981 “Aqoqoog ,systTeangeN Brprey
€68T ‘aNIO
pred AeA Wioaeg puv oopvirp
9L8T ‘Aqoto0g [volso[o@yory pues
AlOysty [eANyeN yWwer1y-wo-aoyang
* ASST “ANIO PPM weyoug
* ZOST ‘Aqatoog ,sqst7wangeN [Oqs!tg
PEst ‘Aqo100g |vorydosopyg pus
AL04S1 Ff [PINZB N Xossng puv wow sig
SE8T ‘Ayo100g Tworqdosoniy
pue A104stA [RINgVNY WeYysuIUIIg
TEST ANID SystrBINye NT oATYSHOTAog,
ZOST “ANID PION SIStIVINAVN FSeI[Og
TZ8I ‘Aqoto0g yeorydos
Od pus A10481H [eaANgeN ySvILog
ES8I “QUID pela Uvtaenb
-quy pus AroysIH [BINJUN WRG
ess
*£ya100g ,S9ST[e1nge NE UVINOS Opry
uoTpepuNnog JO oyvq PUL ay IMA
"26-LEST Hof uoynwossp ysyrug ay, fo soyowog bupuodsetwog oy,
FRB ‘SeraID0g S81 |
35
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
*sTIYMOUT OM4
AIOAO Qnoqe ‘sueoutsu
suiyy jo uonmnqysuy
peywiepa,y JO suomovsuBry,
*AyTenue ‘410dayy
“ATpenuue ‘saomovsuvry,
“ATTBNUUe
‘qaodey pur suoousuery,
‘mmnuue red sq.ed
SUIT IO WY S10 ‘suoTpORSURAY,
“Arqquour ‘<ydva3
-09H, : A[iojrenb ‘[euimor
*AT[B TOISBI00
Ivory «uz
“ATq}UOULI ‘saqoNy voUETOg
‘qseuruueyy
*AyTenuue ‘ssutpasoo1g
“AyTenuue ‘ssurpaoo01g
“ATTBUOISBI00
‘srodeg { Ayrenuue ‘410dax7
“AyTenuue ‘suonovsuery,
*A[J0j1eNb ‘suoyovsuviy,
*A][eUOIsvd00 ‘suOTJOBSUBI,
‘ATTenuue ‘suorovsuvry,
“AyTenuue ‘yeummor
“AT[eUOTSsv900 ‘smOT{OVSURIY,
“saved a014
Io 0M Arado ‘sSutpav001g
*A[104.1enb ‘suorovsuviy,
“Aypenuue ‘s8urpss001g
“SqQUOU OMY
AIVAO ,“QstveangeN XvjIe_,
*sioded [vuorsvo
-00 £ ATTenuue ‘ssuypaao01g
“Ayyenuue ‘ssut
-pes00rg pue suolqovsuvxy,
‘syTenuue ‘suoyovsuvry,
*qjuour
AI9A9 Ynoge ‘suoTOBSUBI,
pus AyIa
“SOL 2
*sg pUv ‘sg
*P9 “SOL
"89
“11
‘P9'SOT SaqwIOOSsSy
SL ‘71 sioquiayy
"sg S}UApIsoy
-UON pus saipey
“Pg ‘S, MauteT}UI+)
“P9 “SZ pure "sg
‘Pd “80
SOIPUT * ST 7T
“SIZ
SAC
*P9 ‘SOT SJuepnys
pue ‘say-woN
“ST “IT (U9 pIsayy
“P9'SOT Sayeloossy,
“ST ‘7 [S1aquayy
"89
“PO “8B PUB “sg
“11
“8G pus ‘se
“SOT
“SOT
“PO "SL
"PO "SG
“Siga
“sg SaqRIoossW
"pg ‘SL SOQ
“SOT
auoNy
am10 NT
"PS ST
"P9 “SOT
"89
auONT
euON
"PI'S
auoNt
Ou0 NT
ouoNt
ouONT
euoN
ouoO Nt
ouloNT
auoN
ouoN
OO
‘SOL.
“SOT
oul NT
au0ON
“STIL
90 NT
“PO “SL
auoN
ouoN
693
0sé
106
SIZ
686
008
OFT
98
Lad
€¢
069
£9€
Soqyeloossy 2
“SCO OE
O8T
06
00T
09T
98
08%
098
Ost
0F9
"OOSSV OF
“quan Zee
OFZ
oss
Aaysuaeg
‘SOMO SUIUI ‘TTSMOWW “HA “L
* yortAeW “H ‘aZalToD ySnor0qyrey~y
AL0S01H “J, pure [[esprvog “yr
“HW “Taqsoqousyy “ja0149 uMorg ¢9
Jojsoqoueryy ‘apig sso
‘eeg qaoqteH gt ‘dung ‘9 “GT
Avegs
“yuvi9 ydesor puv eSuoz, somer
“TeqsayouRyy ‘qeeayg uoyeq uyor ¢
Jaysoqouvyy ‘asvuosieg s,Arepy
4S 9f “SOU ‘syqnqramog IT
uvyq JO 9ST
‘Sesurey ‘opistitH ‘epourray *O “W ‘A
WoOsuryaer "Gg *Aay ‘a1IYSyI0 A
‘moyey, = ‘aywssroy10X ‘cIMesnyy
TOYSBPLOW
TPMXeTT “f ‘uomngysuy = efor
Agsvog ‘OH ‘won ysuy Tesoy
Jood1aary ‘400139
Jadvyp ‘ssurprng s,caverSieyy FT
“N'Y ‘sda stoquq °9 “gq ydvp
jood1z0ary
‘aoynqysuy pekoy qouny ‘iT ‘OD “W
TOSMIL) “Wf “umnesnyy woryw10d.109
Spaoy ‘Aorumry “ye A, oep
“IOV F ‘AOTIMOT) “YG “MA { SpoarT
‘AojULry “PYISOM ‘HOSTIM “a "A
spoay
‘eorlg woyrT % ‘qyAs10q “q “AG
aqua
‘400119 TIAOMS[OW eg ‘TOSMBT “MA
SSOUIOAUT
Qo0S Us 6s ‘MeQoWD “pH “T
* aqestoy ‘pug a1ep ‘plegsorp ‘pe *y
sueqly “49
DSUBINOUL’ ST ‘aosurydoy uyor
“Sd “OTVd "M
‘uoydureqqynoy ‘uoryngysuy Laprep
9214qRID ANgqyIY ‘suL00y
8 Aqoto0g jworydosopiqg pu AvI94VT
Mos
“SPIN “Joong WIE L0G ‘IoAvTY UYOL
MOSSRTH
0011S UIVT L0G ‘POOMTEM "W ‘gs
AMOSSETH ‘suIvayy
‘qoopinyy Avporeg = *p
aud y,-wodn-a]9sBoMo NT
‘TRH TTA ‘UMOIG WOUPAL “TW
rassnr
‘Birjadep
* Bag 4sur pur[pry
"008 "HN ‘T1090 ‘aTteyy
"00g quag ‘qoueyT
‘ "009 ‘OI "ouryy
a "009 ‘T0945 *"qouvyy
c "009 ‘d00H "yours,
‘008 “V “H ‘N wey JO “I
"008 ‘1S "NW WoqTe
“008 “ITUd “41'T [ood Ary
* 1009 "Toa [ood ary
* "90g *30a4 ood ary
"008 "WH [ood ArT
"008 *[IUd "WT to4sao1eT
“OOBSY “10S "0 “UN Spaa'T
* "9088 "1004 spaary
4 PUvparyT "90g *4vqg
* "90g "Tog ssoTIAAUT
* "0 °H ‘N °TepsompoH
* * "008 *H ‘N 8949
7 8 8 "0 il spueA
* ‘O° "D'S ‘Ss Kee
* "909 “TIT AoFsepy
* "009 *H "N Mossvpy
* 00g "Toay MOZsvpy
* ‘Bug ‘UT “9sur “pat
6981 ‘stoauIsUT [vorueqooTy puv
*[AlQ ‘Sururyy Jo oqnqrysuy puripryy
POST ‘Aqa100g £103
“SIA, [Bingen asaljog ySnoroqiavypy
SE8T ‘AqaI00g [vorystyuqg roysoTOULTL
7 O88T
Aqatoog ywordoosororpy ro4satjoueyy
8E8T
ToysorpoUT pT
¢ P88T
ApoIooy peorqdvis0ey Jaysoyounyy
‘Ayooog wor Soyoay
61ST ‘AJo100g uerenby wy
pus Aros [vnzeN ‘Jo oysT ‘Uv
6181 ‘Ajot00g oytyu
“PS PUG S]ST[VINAVN Play uozep
BIST ‘JO Ayat00g [wo
“ydosoryg puv Areraqry ‘joodaaaryq
* 8981 ‘AJeL00g [worZo[0aH [oodaeary
T68T ‘Aqoyo0g peorydva3o04 Jood.1zaAvyT
GL8T ‘Aqo100g Sutro0uts ug [oodrzaary
gst ‘Aqoro0g [vo
-Tydosopiyg pre Axv104vy 104sa0107]
89ST “WoIyeIOOssy oYT7
“WdTOY PUB qnID ,sstTeInyeN spay
FLEL “WOIyeroossy [voIZo[oa4y spoaT
L¥ST ‘Jo Aya100g ArmMbD
pue [worsyeyg “puvpory
G18I ANIO PONT
pus AjoI00g opiquarog ssouroaut
ZS81
‘qniQ Axo; YeAN_eN opepseujoy
S18 ‘QUID Pleat puv Ago10
-O§ ALOWSIPY [BANYBNT O.ATYSpAo}qIOTT
-uy qetoog
S881 “ANID PIeNT oarysdure yy
PLST “QUID Pela Teorsoy
094) PUB AqaIO0g OYTQUEIDg XRITV_
GOST
‘Jo Ayetoog yworydosoprmg ‘Mossupy
[gst ‘Jo
Aqgotoog AroqystyZ yeanqeN ‘mossepy
SE8T ‘Jo Lq0T00g PworZoTOo4 ‘\oSsepy
S190ULS OT
SUIT, JO uoMNINSUL pozsepay
D2
1897.
REPORT:
oO
on
eS. Fr Fee Lae
“Aypenuue 410deayy
“ATTAMOUT “4sITVIN}eN OTL »
{ A]penaus *suOTZOvSUBAT,
“ATpenuuwe ‘ssarpevdorg
“AT[BIUUETq ‘suOTORSUBIT,
‘AyTenuue ‘sd arpeso1g
*savoA-JyBy ‘Teumor
“yguouL
AIOAD qnoqe ‘s1seuIsUq
Suuyy jo worynqiysuy
poyerepay jo suoyjorsuBry,
“ATTeNUUe ‘suOTORSTIY,
“AyTenuus ‘ssarpsa01g
aead [Owe samy
Is ‘puepjoog Jo o4nq1y4sUT
SUIT, 94} JO suoTjoesuRAy,
*A[reqaenb
{qstyeinye Ny 104800037 ,
“ATLeruuatq ‘suotoesueTy,
“AyTeNUUB ‘SBUT
-pev001g puv suoljovsuBty,
*<Tyenuue 4.10day
*AT[BVUOISBO
-00 ‘SUOT}VAIASQO [BOTsOT
-o1oajeyy ‘ ATpenuae ‘g10dayy
“ATenuae
‘q10dey pues suoljoesueLy,
*AJ190}1eNb ‘Teurnoe
“Ayenuue
‘suoljovsuery, pue 4az0dayy
*qQU0uL
Awad ynoqe ‘sro0usugq
sur «jo worqngyysuy
poyetepag jO suoovsueiy,
“Aypenuwe ‘suorovsuvzy,
SUOT}VOTTGNY JO anssy
jo Aouenbaty pus oygtT
‘1G
“pT soyeloossy
S*pg"sol Staquieyy
“SET
“60T
“39
*s¢ pue’sol
‘STS PUL "pg “STS
‘16
*P9 “SOT
‘SIZ PUB "Pg “STS
Fa
i
"Pg ‘sg
"P9 “SOT
"P9'SL
"sq
“SOL
"9g
“SGP PUB "STZ
"8g
wondiazosqng
yenuuy
-10pury ywodttay, “aq “YIOK “wmasnyy
005 “IIT "SY10X
* MOTI “AUN "SIOZ
‘00g *ATOg *[00x) 'SyIOX
* "0 ‘Wl ‘N edoqqooM
A ‘OV NC ALTE ML
* "90g ‘30a4H aprsousy,
* Sag ysur ‘Beg *g
* 100g ‘TIN weopry *g
‘00g "HN “V "Us}9s,tu0g
* goog *4suy Sararyy
» * "CO 'N toqysaqooy
“00g TOY “qT oTepyooy
* “TOS *N ‘009 "sq410g
* 009 "WH 'N ‘zag
* "qsur "TY Aopsteg
* * "003 "FEN “990N
* $005 "H ‘N '103,N
008 °V 'D “AN BRIS '"N
“4SUl “Sugg ‘N
+*009 "QBN AMON “JON
ODL poyeraeraqgy
ouON OSP
*saqBl00ssy
19¢°2 puw speeT ‘peoy x1eg op
euoN LSP 693 “S'la “yYonqeoy uwostueq “M
PPEYAT “u0ydoH
auoN Sol “SO ‘19q7VD JomoT “UM “Aay
aLOOP 11999 “H *plojareyL
“SOL O01’ ‘KIVIQUT ao1g ‘MOOY quip edoyjoo Mm
woysurmvay ‘aso0iy queasy ¢
"PY “SZ 06 ‘AopWeIZ “Gg "S “NHOIMAB AA ‘CUMasnyL
TosyFIMS “LW
‘xy ‘audy-m0-ayysvomanN ‘asplig:
euoN 002‘T sulisg ‘eyngysuy yeorydeisoay
“Pd “SOT meysurmitg 490149 [[eUMoN
pus *s— “7T LOT ¢ “WO 4sul ‘WW ‘qjImMg Jepuexe[y
UMOT, edep ‘uines
ouoN 88 “YY wvoryy yynog ‘Aonsurted "T
TOABVIM “MM “I AOY pur oquivag
*P9 “SOT 0s¢ "If 1OO-aT ‘moun ‘ayjsvp eq,
‘aN ‘UOzTUe
ou0N 6LP ‘azovounyg ‘UvMMOlIEg soulee
194saqo0 yy
SsuoN aa ‘sno uepury ‘qaiomdeyH uygor
a[epyooy ‘ye014g ployse.t,T
Eng £hS SOL “OS'a ‘YWOMYsY pleulsoy “¢
"PY “SZ 0ZE * OSTA 'L'S ‘Wy4teg “4ear49 Avz,
seems UO “A Iq ‘aouez
euoN 6L “ued ‘SsuIpiing oquqd ‘wnesnyy
‘sg ChE Aorsteg ‘eovtg Ayunop ¢ ‘reupavy ‘¢
mMeysui4qON
*P9 SS O9T ‘proy wozorsTY cee ‘Sura Arma
uoqdueyyJioN ‘epereg
euON OST lv yseT es “WW ‘woxd ‘N “H
“"SYRqS ‘aTJSVOMoN ‘AaSvIvOTA
"sg 00% Aoepeny “WW “Aaz1ed “AM AL “ACU
euky-todn-97}seoMe NT
ouoN Osl'T T@H TTAeN ‘uMoIg U0zTeA “IV
TOLMAO NT
auoN 996 *qooI]S PAOJXO g ‘WOSTOYOIN “V “ML
ear SIsquoyL Axreya10ag JO ssaippy
aouRlqUg jo ON pue omen JO stozrenb-peayy
*(panurguwon) ‘oR ‘SHILHINOY DNIGNOASHUN0N
& 54s
‘Ayopoog wordosoyrma ost s4y40.X
TOST “WOIT SqSITVINyeN OATYSHIO
LE8T ‘Aqetoog OL
-yooy dog pue [vorso[OayH ear1ysy.10 x
1g8T
qnID PION .S9stTeINJeN edoyjooM
POST ‘QUIN PIM .S}s1s0rowyo
“ITV pus ,SISI[VINJEN OITYSYOIMAB AA
L881 ‘Agaroog [vopydvrs0ay aptsauAy,
LOST ‘sta0uLsug
SUT JO o4NjYSUy o1tqs1a4se0
~AOM VY PUB oiTysploy#ezs WINS
LLST ‘£9010
-Og [eorydosoriqd UWrolyy yIUOg
SPST ‘AqoI00g ATOYSTH [v.48 NT
pue [vorsojoeyory allysjosieumog
+ * Jo aqngrysuy Surarpy ‘puepjoog
SLET ‘ANID ,8}S11BANGeN 19}soyooY
8181 ‘Aqyar00g
opUeIog pus Are1o}T olepyoory
L981 ‘eoua10g
Teanjeyy jo Ajowog osysyqs0g
6EST ‘AjaT00g UBIIeNnbIy
“Wy pue A104S1H [vingeN vouvzueg
808T
‘morynqysuy pvorydosopyg Aojsveg
6S8T
‘Agatoog $= SIsTTerngeNy ueysuiqwoN
918T “ANID pled pu Aqa1003
AIOYSTH LeANIVNY artyqsuoydareyyat0 Ny
GOST ‘AqaI00g
[worsojowyory pue quip ple
SITCANJVN ITYSplOFVIS UPON |
GS8T
‘SIOOULSU [BOTUBTOOTY pur SuLULpL
JO eUNgysUl puvpsuy jo YWON
698T ‘Aqot00g
SISVANYVNY OlMIONY puv yYOION
MOepUNog JO oFeCl PUL ALL 11g
rt
co
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
968T |LES-0&SG
L681 | LE ‘9E
“ Zea
‘ddy »
“ |106-€06
e | GE=92
“ ITSI-g9T
“ |SII-601
“| 69-39
“| 68-88
“ “j09T-98T
968T |T9T-O9T
L68T |006-86T
9681 | 95-F6
leer-0gt
Lest| 2e-1e
peustt
qng| *%d
“XI
9681 194
‘XI
96-Sé8T
TIAX
‘TIAXX
“XI
“
TIAXX
TIX
96-2681
cI
yivgq 10
auINjOA
* PB DLNIONT wassit
* .L0daeT
* WUYVLNIDAT LASsT
: ‘ * SUDLT
. . « “cc
"20bq
qouimor
"20
qwuinor
* ‘a04g ” quodagy
. “i
* “SUDA,
uorywortqnd Jo e134],
‘O il Xossyy
* 008 “Gd “S410
. .
‘O ‘il Xossay
‘OH 'N ‘W uvopforp
‘O “HV “H 'N 9osr0q
009 ‘[Itq MoSsepy
* 009 "H ‘N '003,.N
* 9005 "[lqq MOSsRpy
* ‘90g ‘doay ‘Woury
008 “Td ‘HON SEPA
008 "V "HN Te) “ang
Ayat00g
JO ODT, paywraciqqy
JseysoYO[ON pur vosioyl 4%
oqenbyyeg q4stI9 pesoddns puv saston qireq
‘ qejemorvg Ystyy Arunuee ayy uo aj0N
8123
qysta-AyU9My OF ageioAy WyIM poreduroo
‘9681 A[ur 07 Arenuve ‘projsmyayO ur ypeyurery
{681
IOF POUYSIG, puv wopfosH Jo T[eyurey ATreq ayy,
i : : * THOMKOTY Fe PULATIITM B UO
e194} 9u0p
Y1OM OY} PUL SdTIOJAIOSqQ STAON usg oJ,
: * SUOIPBAIOSYO puv I10day [vorsofo10aq0TT
soqny,
wUNnIvA JO Aqisourmarn’y O1IJOIT ey} yuoqe
uas}UOY pur ‘prvueT ‘z410}7 JO SOleAoosIq, OUT,
ity uedg 94} ut as1eyqo
SI] OIqooTW ue Aq sLey x Jo uoronporg oyy,
[lejurey ues0g ‘{suvs0Q 9e1U],
UI SOT :O8LI-ZLLI ‘sodedoA syoog ureydeg
(eI1n}
-09'T) sptnbrry Jo sovyzing 944 Jo sarytedo1g ou,
* sIqueMITEM 72 SMOTFBAIESqO [BOLSoTO109}0
: : * CG8T ‘sotmjurng jo AZojo109}0 Fy
* WRITIEM “109
“punuip® “f elo
if “1OyTSORBYD
: * q ‘preu
~Aug- oqdureg
j ‘dO
‘Aay «= ‘aspliquieg
‘xoTy ‘Iq ‘ueyqong
meq “VO
7 “VW 'H ‘Aoy ‘shog
5 . np
Iq ‘Kayu10}jog
‘priory ‘poomsgyAg
SSM oC
* ydasor ‘yyoro1vg
* "M ‘Ady ‘aospuy
rodvg Jo aqyry,
“GONGIOG TVOISAHG ONY TIVOILVNAHLY]— YP wo2rjo0y
JoyNW Jo awvy
°g OTN WT aouepr000% Ul 999}TUIUIOD 9Y} JO Are}aINag oY} 07 yuoS
SaT}OINOG Surpuodsor109 ayy Jo suorvorqnd oy} Jo syred 10 saumnjoa ay} ur paystfqud sxoded jo sopit} aq} A[UO Sate}UOO anSojeyLo sIyy, y*y
“JE8L ‘T aunge burpua wah ayy Burinp sayaroog pauwnu
-anogn ay hig paysyqnd ‘suorpbysaaur oyfrguayog yooory 07 bursafar asoyy hiyjoroadsa pun ‘suadvgz qunjsoduyr asoue ayg fo wapuy
1897.
oc
REPORT
9681
poyst]
-qnd
8
3
S0T-L6
091-981
GcISEet
G6GI-SIT
‘sqyooqs
uaL,
P9T-T9T
66798
$96
OZI-60T
96-€6
66-8
GL-&&
6I-F1
69-69
PIG" 8F6
GEG-1ES
6h FG
IGG O16
F9-€&
ese
“XI . . . lotta
EXT . J 1VULNOL
TIAX 4 r cio bets
03 - ‘. * "SUDA,
TAX | - ; c Ahad
T ri . rE a
Su * BUYVDINJON Lasse
“ . . . “ec
“ . . . “
a . é Q ‘SUDA T,
‘TIAXX | ° * "904
x * SUDINADAT Wass
‘IX ‘8 qousnor
pra | * BUDINION Lassyy
TITAXX | ° : * “SUDLT,
TIAX = R rf
x ere ter
at Toreorqnd JO oat,
* ‘00S "H 'N 80H
* "009 “H 'N ‘00},N
* 00g “ [ood ArT
*U0lUQ, “JBN ‘SyIO
"00G "[Yd MOSSv[H
009 ‘Td “4vT jood.ary
OI Xossq]
* "009 "H 'N sveH
‘009 [ld Mossel
‘OC “I Xossq
‘00g *do0eH ‘our
° “WT Xossqy
* ‘00g "FUN Brpreg
‘0 “dV “H 'N yesi0q,
‘009 "IMd "H ‘N “WUT
£21009
J OLL poysraoiqqy
CGST Ivo oy} Satmnp s11yspI0jz,10 7] Ut
pearesqo vusmousyg [eorsojoueyg uo ys0daxy
c * suor}VArIesqQ pur y10daxy [Vorso[OION{OP[
968T
‘JI caquieosg ‘ayenbyyiegq Yysi[suq yeory oy,
AyOWIQ09Tq pues As1euy OLyO0e[q] sutp10o0
-oY puv SulInsvoy{ UL pasn syueuINAysUy eULOg
GOST pur ‘F68T
‘6681 ‘ZE8T ‘IG8T 10¥ proypergq Jo ASojos0aq}0
“Aydersoqoyd Avi-X I0f snyereddy odutg
; * qySr] Jo sMorA WIApOTL
9681 UL projsapoyD
ye pue (1o}soyo[oH Iwou) UepxeT 4B [][BsUrey
Q68T Iwo
OY} UL SALYSpIOFIIOA Ut [eyurey ayy uo qsoday
CGST read oy} Ul eITYSpIOy
-jIOH{ Ul Use} SUOT}LAIOSqQ eOTso[OJeUNITD
GEST qwod oy SuLmp ‘suvqry “4g ‘asuety
ey, 38 Udyxe} SUOIZVAIOSGQ [BOTdOTOLOOJOT
mOoryer
-odeay puv ‘uoryepoor9g ‘[[PJUTeY OITYSpI0;zIE HL
quouna4suy
yeondg MON y + adoosomorqoojoydoere4g soy
MOTA JO
fe 9681 FO 1o4,VAM OUT,
5 * UOLVSLAVN pue ouITY, JO UOTBOyIUA
jeteaeg ppyIwy
qe ‘odivyosiq Sutajzysry repnqoyy Ao ‘aplog, V
S681
Jo vuatmousyg poipury pu Asopor0sje][ OY,
* gg Suup yosr0g Ul [[esyurey oy} uo y10doy
oynyysuy puelpryL
pue weysutuig oy} Jo ATOZvAIOSqQ oy} 4e
UdYL} SUOTJVAIOSYO [VOLSOTOLOOJOTY JO Splo0o9y
qodvg Jo opty
*(panu2Uo2) SONAIOY IVOISAHG GNV TIVOILVNGHLYW—'Y 027005"
* preapy ‘Korey
: aye ‘OD ‘meyyrey
; ‘dO
“Mm ee
: * U0}
Sad ‘A 'V VP
‘ysno10gspuey oT
"ep Iq ‘ardjuLoeyy
‘£'O ‘Jord ‘spoT
* dofjsouryD “H
3 “7 “SO ‘prvuinyy
. ‘ce it
* ugor ‘aosurydoyy
. “i ‘a ‘sIIe yy
“gq seuloyy, ‘aqqniy
"N “M ‘poomueaty
* pivapy ‘mosqry
. 9) “al ‘SUBAT
. g TEL ‘doje
* porjTy ‘TIeMsserp
IOYNY Jo otuuyy
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES
“
“
9681
“
“
SPL-IPl
6G-€1
sT-T
89-99
Sl-TL
LEST \6LE-G9E
ae ee
“RULSINGHO—'g wWor1dag
L68T |9ET-861
968T
g1-9
L68T | TOL-66
“ee
«
-
-
-
-
9LT-69T
9P-TF
oat 8FI
9-9
IGI-LIT
968T | OOT-¥6
68-86
—TITAX
LOST |“AX—TEX
968T |961-06T
“ce
989-989
L68T |F8S-188
“
QERT IGZ2-827)
6LI-GLT
L81-Z81
‘TIAX
tPF
‘TIAXX
“c
‘THX
“AT
‘TTX
“THAXX
T
‘III
<a
F$6-S681
TIAXX
“XXX
96-681
968T 104
a
‘TIX
96-681
‘TTAXX
a
. .
* "“SUDLT,
20tq pun ptoday
qousnor
* “SWDLT,
ISU DINIDAT LO JU FT
* “SUDLT,
: : 1DUMNor
“ce
* “SUDLT
‘ . * 904g:
‘subuy, pwo puoday
* .L0daT
“SUD,
‘qSuy “pag “SWOLT,
"SUDA,
"20M
‘0 “A ‘V HN 810g
.* 00g "FEN “390N
"00g "Td sossepp
“ec “
‘Sug “UL “9SUl “pT
‘OL FEN FSPFLOT
“909 “dodx) "TOUR] .
* ‘00g “JeN BIpIUD
‘0 AD'S “8 XPFTPH
‘oog “ary “H “N woyng
"1008 “H “N 003,N
"0 ‘Wd ‘N odoqfooM
"00g [Yd Mosseyy
‘008 ‘VO "HN ‘8899 °N
‘009 "Id “H'N Uoyysrg
.
* 00g "TY ‘S410 X
‘00g ‘JEN “AMON "HON
“q8UT'FUNOD pI 'J109S0q9
‘0 ‘H ‘N ‘W uopfoip
"009 “Td MossepH
009 “GUN ‘ALON “JION
osy sivax paipunyy v siséyeay I9ye Ay
41 Aq ope udeq savy 4eYy} SOTTAAOOSTIG 9Yy JO
auos FO JUNODOY ue YYtm ‘sJUL[G JO qIMOID
ay} surdpnyg jo poyjoy B ‘10 f ang[ng 4og
(sserppy Tet} ueptserg )
AystmeyH jo uvuoysty sv ddoy uavusey ig
SOLIOIT
-[oD youerg ut dmep-oi1y jo uorneurmiojeq
qsoy, dep sume ayy Aq ILy oY} UL Oprxou0;,
uoqieg jo uoTeMISy pus uUoTDJeq OI,
PLOM oruesiouy oy
jo pling oAIssoriso1g pur siseg [eAdUIIg OU,
puvjsusent) Jo Aso0100990
quiod-MolA @ SB WOOT, OU,
: *OGST Ivod OY} SULINP XVFI[VA UI 1oyVVa AA
S681 PUL PE8T FO TOyyeOM OUT,
* smoquivy Arer1emnuredng
E681 JO JUSNOIg yer eqT,
E681 ‘ore Ur FySnoIg pue ywoH
Aporapoopy Jo suoryeorddy orsomog
(g68T 30
pated ary) Adojor09 jo — odo yeuorj009g
4 * yooodg jo ammgen [eoIsny, ey,
. . .
AILYSAIOX “YGST UL LoyWVOM OT,
‘ : : i G68T ‘SOON [BOLSOT[OION}O
* qrojovIjyorg paaoidmy uy
Surfoams-ouljfl Ul UBIPLo|
ooUseyy O49 ‘JO esp pure ‘Jo uOTZBULULIEyoq oY],
sony
-elodmoy, Ye WO SuUOTyvAIESGQ IOYJINF oUL0g
Ar0yearosq STAO N udg IY} 9B SULAIOSAO puBosTT
* g68t ‘OT SUI ‘“ysvop yseq eyy UO epty, YStH
‘gq SvULOT TL, ‘SaA014)
* ugor ‘surpjop
‘ef ‘Jorg ‘uosnsi0,q
* *f ‘uortpmbop
* ‘W ‘Jorg ‘saMo[g
* "pao ‘MoIpuy
“quolla[D ‘adseI
“ALO “TOMaI AL
: *p SXOTOIT MA
sqqt) “1 pue
“ somep ‘STOMA
‘Aqoog ‘uosdmory,
. “ 4
: *H ‘Treqqnog
: "TM ‘stoh£eg
‘L ‘Aaoty ‘soady
‘Ty ulgieyy ‘osnoy
[rounog Fo yaodayy
* "MM "VW “W09SOIg
oc “cc
. Or ga | ‘Kore g
‘A ‘H ‘Iq ‘suosivg
. “li nS | ‘puouo
"VW “AL ‘TOs[oyoIN
1897.
REPORT:
40
poyst|
“qn
*<a™
GII-801} “XXX
LOS-GEE ‘TIX
|
SFE-9FE os
6I-T 8681 104
60¥- 16§ TTA
F862 “xXxXX
606-861 xX
9LI-69T <
6P-GE iy
TI8E-1lé IX
SET-26l| TIIAXX
801-66} ITAXX
669-9E9 ‘1X
LST-0S1 oS
16-¥ IIx
FES-96G =
§19-Z0¢ $
€LE-G9G ib.S
jlvg 10
esed auInjo\
‘suns, puv ycodary
I 7104 f
* 2L0daey
‘O04
"SUDA, pwn 2Lodary
* ‘SUDLT
. a3 “ec
“"98sUuy “pag “Swot,
. . “cr
‘D0LT.
“99UT “pag ‘sUD4T,
* WSUDLNIVAT assy
. “ “
worworTqng JO eT,
‘20g “V ‘DAN URIS N
* “SUL UTTY “ysuy “pag
D “204 ‘[O94) MOSSLH
‘00g “TIYq ‘SyIOX
* ‘009 *[oax [ood ary
008 “VD “AN ‘HPIS "N
: "209 "[Oay) MOSSVLD
qe punofz suremoy roY}O pur BROBEEO ayy U0
aoUvIT JO Spley[Voy oy} JO SUOISUAIXT O[qQIssog
(OSV I] Jeers, soley sourep ‘qq JO UOTyIpA
(pily,L) quedat ay} 0} voUEIOJay PeLIOedg YIM
‘goussiomiqug jo uoTsent oy} UO SsuTIveq
Toy} pur ‘sysodaq AT[oyg [oae-YStH 94} UO
sorerqyioy, 1addq ayy jo
‘BLeUIAPOUIYOY puv vaovysnip oq} jo stsdoukg y
aIIysvouv'y puv o1Tyseyy ut
SEIT] ON} Woy sjulidjooy 949 Jo UOTYvOYIssElO
: ABo0[0ay—ya10dexy peuorioag
qouysig epATO JO WWI
24} UL sI9LOB[H JUN0eI ysouL 949 JO SeDMepIAm
"INOTOAN—'Q woysag
* “‘qsuT ‘Bug Nl
° Bug uN 4sUy ‘pag
“ “c
: ‘00g "[OdH MOSSeL
. . * -qsuy “Su ‘Nn
‘O “a xossq
* “Bug “UN “say “pag
. . . “qsuy ‘suy 'N
: ‘Bug “ySUy purl Pr
* ‘sug ‘ur, “sul “pod
Ayaro0g
JO STILL poyBraaiqqy
Soul] AOL Ul Saryselg
10} sesng Arojeg Surkojduy jo jasueq ou
* saATso[dxm WIIM syuomLIedxY IoyQAN
suotsojdxg Arorop Jo vusmousy, ayy,
dOVUINF-Jsel_ oy} JO sjonpoid-Ag oy,
(sommyoo'T tieyeiy) unify pue uos1y
qsuq [vog jo uotsojdxgy oq} UO So}0N
(ssaIppy) Seqorvesoy yUa0aL JO JUST yy
Ul pomora A]T[VA vary oy9 jo Ajddng 109¥M Oy
JopModuny WyIM poreduoy sez
soatsojdxm Ayojeg jo Aousloy”_ pue 4sop syJ,
* suorso[dxq AraT[[0D yueder Jo syoedsy amog
* suorso[dxq Axe1[[0D UI YIVeq jo sesneH oy,
Soul TROD Jo dmeq youlg
ay} UO SUOTWVAIOSGO IOY}ANJ YYIM 10430903
‘STIOM UL JIM Jour s¥y sAlyvooyng eyy
Jo seoinog pue ainjeN oY} UO suoTyeodTysoAUT
rodeg Jo oy,
*(panunjqU09) XUISINDHO—'_ worw099'
STON “MA ‘uoprld
.
*f ‘WoLles.10¢¢
presnq ‘Ted
* poagTy ‘9a
‘O ‘H ‘Ao[svag
* “a ‘oyreg
somvr ‘UosIopuy
“ “ec
A ‘sneqyUr Ay
‘ad Wd “4aenyg
‘HV ‘Jorg ‘u0yxag
WA Jorg ‘Avsumey
.
"CM ‘URUISIQ
peg ‘preaoy
. “ec “ce
: ‘H ‘TI’
‘S ‘¢ ‘ouepreH
IOYINY JO omuyy
41
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
“
L681
6— 6LI
6— P6I
66-S19
GOP -EhP
661-861
ggg-cgs
916-016
SOT-€0T
666-686
OTG-G0G
01-99
961-GST
S9G-PS6
TPE-6EE
"XO-"ITAO
8-66
01-86
68h GOP
O9F-ESF
681-981
6§-9€
Og9g-0FS
!
GGE-E0E
‘TIX
x
TIAX
‘TIX
‘TIA
“AXX
L68 Pan
968T IO“
‘II Id “ITX
TA
“A
‘II
‘TA
THIAXX
TIX
TIA
Wx
Tf
‘IX
. . “ec
* SUVS
: * "00
"WSU “pay “SWOUT,
. . .
"I0bq
‘SUDA, puv 2Lodary
“"9suy “pag “SUD,
* "SUDLT,
. “ce
. “cc “
+ 98UYDLNIVAT AYT,
: : * “SWOL],
. “ “c
* PSYDINION YSLT
‘ p “SUDAT,
00 PUD *8UDLT,
* BUDINgOAT YSwoT
: : * "SUDMT,
* "'QSUT ‘PAT “SUDAT,
20Uq
““9suy “pag ‘suvuz,
"V0
“98U TDA ‘Suna
‘Sug ‘UW “ysUy "pad
"00g "[O8H) MOSSEL
‘O° “V “HN Jesr10q
‘Sug "ysU] pUelpIL
* "90g *[ooxy) [ood Ary
‘008 'V ‘0 “WU 'N ‘B¥IS (N
. *-qsuy ‘Sug ‘N
‘00g "[OaAH MOSseLy
. “cc “
* UOTUL) “FEN ‘SHIOX
‘909 "[09x) “WY “AMUIOD
. “ ce
‘0 “HN UrTqnd
‘Sug “UN “SUT “pay
"OY "N ‘00g ‘sqyIOg
* "OWN Urqng
* ‘00g ‘FUN HIpIeQ
. . *4SUT “Sug ‘N
"09g ‘Toax [ood AIT
e * ‘qsuy “sug ‘N
“Oca V ON AIR AL
* + qsuy ‘saq "N
[
TTB AA
[BIBUIPT 871 07 WOTZELAI UL BOLIZW Jo Asojoa4y oy,
; * S9ST UST 94} JO SoouvofoA 4soyeyT oy,
: * 4orn4stq wvysey1og oy} fo Adojoay) ou,
Ieoqynog 4B uoTyVI0[dxqy eyy pue
PIPVlVOD PULP SY} JO UoIsue4xy ureyseqy OU,
Joodisary Jo pooysnoq
“4sIoN OY} WoOIJ SYOOY Ossviay, Jo seskeuy
; Spog [Bg SqI pue IOAvAA\ IOATY ONY,
aSsplig 1eusyy 0} [oodrsary woz sore, YIION
JO 4SBOD OY} JOSOINyYA,T [BOLSOTOS4) VY} U0 S930N
Souo}SOUNLT
utr semnjoury TeMyEN 10 ,81UJOL , uodn syremaiy
: Sloplnog e11Tysupooury
ysnoroqivog JO SOzITOO IJOMOTT OY} UL WOTJDDG WV
9 * —- s}stdO[09H OILYSU[OOULT I0F FIOM
: - S : * S[ISSO,] YSIUIOD 10 s9j}0N
MOPPIM PUR UITQNG Jo seyuUNoD sq}
yo aang opgdtecsoyoud [eo1so[094H pesodoig V
: BOLIOMLY UL VIUIeTP[O
PIPE
[BoD d1lysMIvYySuIyjON 24} Jo yIWITT UIeyynog
(q949q JO a41g 943 Jo AI04
-SIF] [VOLSo0[0945 oY} Ul Sau90g) ssoIppy [Tenuuy
ul[qnd JO pooynogysIoN 4svo-yynos 943
UY sTap[Nug oyu JO couRpuNqy TeUMIOF ONL,
: joodéyuog Fo ASoTooxy ayy,
pur[eaz,
MON ‘e[NsulMeg Tyee 9q} JO spreyploy ou
SoUTT[eSAID UIOATRI 94
Ul wstydiomejyoyy JO ssaooig oy} Jo yoVeYS V
olqudeyy uvonyy
Ynog ‘spleyploy MoorysisjueA 94} UO saJON
YOTMIV AA
JO JSOM-Y]}IOU SO]ITH XIS OITYSYOIMIvAA JO avd
@ ut sadnoy reddy 0493 ut souoyspueg 043 uO
; : : : r * Plepleop yaoy OUT
nratmanc
qoo[e A, ‘WOsqry
'V Ug ‘oryIey
puows( soy ‘Ioqsiy
* as100 ‘uojsung
puelloH
‘d pue “Wy ‘uosxyo1q
. “ ‘“
CG onriay ‘Q0ueiy od
* qteqoy “sreI9
. “ “
* "HE uyor ‘ayxoop
k ‘H ‘£ ‘suy[op
‘LV 9 ‘Ford “109
. . ach » ‘aon
* — £ruazy ‘saqyvog
. ‘H W “ADT ‘aso[O
* “WL ‘Tqoingqo
‘sop'aay ‘Toqduep
"og aq ‘Aemeyeg
' “@'H ‘Teyung
‘dd “A0Y ‘orporg
TID "U UIUN
pue ‘uosdmig
Fi 9) oT ‘Apeig
1897.
REPORT
42
7~
at |)
9681} 6I-ST | F6-68T
“| 98-68 ‘II
LG8T | 6I-LI *AT
“
“ce
968T
“
“
968T
L68T
payst|
-qnd
801-96) ‘IIAX
996-496 ‘TX
PG-<6 ss
09-g¢ He
68-LL a
FL-6L ss
GL-ITL | “IITAXX
T9-6P x
LPG-2VG
006-€6T
G9T-O9T *xI
161-061 ‘TIT
VIT-IIT} L681 104
€ST-SF1 TX
68e-LlE| “IIA
69E-LYE “AI
qavgq 10
phag cate A
* "SUDLT,
ouimor
* *SUDLT,
*20Uq.
qpudnor
. ° .
*SUDMT,
. 66 ity
* ISUYDINIDNT WASST
ybouruunypy Lv0V] UX
+ Qs DLNADAT OY,
‘SUDLT
* -9suy “pa,
4 * D0
204 pun 2uoday
uoryeortqnd 5° ORL
"OVAL ‘N odoypoo
008 ‘ld “H “N “UU
"9 “WT uegong
‘0° “V “H 'N 30SI0q@
* "209 “doay "TOUR py
. iy “cc
. . “ “
‘OD “WW xossq
. .
‘008 ‘V “H 'N Fe JO T
* MOIUQ “YN *syIOX
qsU]JUNOD ‘pI J103S89q0
"909 [OAH TOOd AVT
* "0 “HN 98319
Aya100g
JO OKL poqvracqqy
4 Jo kSZojooy oy} UO sojoN JOyIIN,T
: * gjouuvygD 1078, punors1opuy,
* (oInqoorT) Os) pue ULsIIQ Sz] : [ROD
twnasny, AjUNOH yas10q oy} UI puvsusary
soddgQ oY} Woy S[Issoy Jo uoTdaTTODO wv UO
Arau90g
YsyiIg Io JO soysojoUIVYO pur UIsIO oJ,
IOUN0D,.O “AA
&q_ mpoqdkusy, ye punoy snudrydos uo ajo
uMOIg dt
. .
: : * puUvIS[ IeMOYY WO soJON TVOLSOTONH
UesIOWIL[Y)
yqnog Jo spreyreog posoddns ayy uo saqyoN
ya ‘yoog Areg yseqr a3 jo Asojooy ayy,
syoo0q
BIpIVQ ye (joy E90) SuLtog TM deeq V
yeu g
JOMOT JO SUIT 94} WOIZ MUP sHInvsoAYQYOT UY
(prey quoweysyD “1p Aq Ayoro0g [ekoy
ayy 07 today) Yoody perowly at} 09 MOLWV[oyy
oyY pus ‘UIqoIT 4 spsodeq oryyypoRyvg ey
yoodny
[BLOR[H oT} OF UB OLY WLoV_ JO UOLVpoY OL
XOSSTL
wynog jo Aydvasorshygq yuUsloUY 94} UO saJON
: qso1oq surddgy jo Asojoey oy} Jo YooyGg V
c , * moTjoag [worsofoexy Jo qaodayy
usar AIUe_ Iapuexe[y : WeLIOWAy Uy
arysupoouryT our v7VIyg Aepuodag
pur URINE oY} YYVoueq UOIsSUD}X pPIvAL
-]S89 S}I 0} DATIL[AL SUOT}SA5SNg [VOLdO[OaY
:ppeyleop ertysmMRYSUTZION pu oILGSyIOX OY],
spurl[y sty ueaviQ ayy Jo A109yy, [eormeudg oy,
femosneg
S,qURTD) OY} JO UOTPTPUOD JuaseTg PUL UISHO oq],
el
rode Jo a1,
‘any ‘oyonoy, evry
* ydosor ‘uopuvy
* somevr ‘preoury
"ey
‘sumoig - soxne
‘M punusg ‘syor
semouyy, "A “iL
pue “Ty, Wf ‘pawmoy
Teas *A\ wean
pue “7 ‘uf “pavaoyzyt
. a“ “cc
. cA ‘L ‘SouUl[O}]
"N'Q ‘Aoqy ‘UOSTIIe EL
* pargpy “1ex1eH
* "gan ‘Leqseu
‘A W'aey ‘poysaory
* ureryiM ‘Aer
JoyNy jo oweN
*(panunquo0) XNOTOAH—'9 worz9dag
43
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
L681
“oc
“
“
968T
“
L681
81-6
6-36
I6I-ST1
GS-09
L8I-FLT
T08—086
LLO-ELG
616-816
6E-0E
9F-€F
Lg-a¢
él
FIT-LOT
SI9-6I9
OF-L1
6G GIT
LI§~GO0E
SPS-LEE
€19
TEE-LEE
L8E-§8E
‘ID9d TIX
6-681
TX
THAXX
‘TIX
“AI
‘TI 94 1IX
cP
TIX
TIA
. . “
s * ‘SUDLT,
‘SUT “pay ‘SUDLT,
2 * “SUDA,
: qvULnor
g * "SUDAT,
. . “e
- * q40daay
“ “
‘Puy “pay ‘suvuy,
. .
"0b
; LA A
“ee
‘WSUT “Pay ‘SUDAT
"204.
* "90g ‘Toay "AT “MUIOD
: ‘O “WN edoypoom
“qSU[-JUNON "PIP F10S04)
‘008 “J@N BIPIeO
: “00g “00H "OUR
e "008 ‘Joon Mossepy
: 9 ‘Oo ‘W Weyong
* "90g "TOO “Ay ‘MUON
* 008 °H 'N ‘1f90 “42 IT
: a "005 “FUN “ION
‘q8UT"JUNOD PI J1098949
“sug “4suy "ye “g
. * "005 “JBN [0S
* “0 WV H'N 810g
: ‘009 "JOO MOsSRTD
. . . *qsuy “SUL ‘N
‘BU UNL “YSUT “poy
° 009 *[oa4H Tood, ary
. . . . .
‘ssoippy Ares10Ataay
AmqpayT reau youystq oy9 Jo ASoloay
Hooey ‘oped Aapieq
‘OUI P¥T ASOT TH oy} 4v yIsodaq oxy,
Aay[eA eppuoyy
‘mpoqdu, AT, ye Ureag [BOD 400F-¢G ayy WoIT (snw
h wy dog) , Jopidg, ¥ SuIpnpoUr‘s[isso,7 [e19ANs UG
* 9681 ‘puevleoy ut sayenbyjaegq oxy,
UviIy
gO pues, 94} JO pu YON 94} Jo syooy
snoleyrmoqreg pue euoyspues poy PIO ©43 UO
TI Hed
T Hed
‘QOIISI. MOSSeTH 9G} Jo AvIQ rJeplnog ey}
ut aUISITBSIO eUulIV, JO voUaIIM00Q 94} UC
* ~—- quasoIO[ JV puvsuda.Ly OYJ,
famines IayJO JO aso} 07 UOIZLIEI UL YIAG
‘49 JO Spog ousd0I[g oy} Jo VIOFIUIMILIOY ONY,
PUI
YSNoLOg [AV OY} FO S[issoq snosoeyzo1Q Jo 4srT
PUurp}O9g
JO WSVOD 4SAA4 OY} JO Splolg vavy Areyyqs97, ou,
arrysAqi10(T
pue oxrysUTEysaI9}0N jo sjtsodacy winsd 44 ayy,
‘ * [BoD Jo s}sinqyng pue sdung
: ‘I weg : epodororrg ys 999 uo sajoN
asvUBAY JO Spag Yyooqing oy} WoAZ
(j uopourns]) Invsouy e@ Fo s}uLIdyoog 9493 UO
auojsomry Avy, yoo oy} sutdéjropun
SITOS opua[quioy Jo T[1g a44 Aq poyt{dmoxose
SpULTYSIA, 24} JO SYOoY oisvg parojyy 04} UO
Avg sMopvoj{ [[Vysieyy 0} You
-of] WOIZ DIIGSYOIMIsg Jo oulry ysvoH ory,
qezedynoyyO jo [e10Uly, waNntANT[ay, oy UO 9}0N
* BUTJUISIY UIOYZION UL SuLurpy
purt
-IOZJIMG Ul VII4G [BIOVpH yus00I UO SUOTFVAIOSGO
(sjorystq diopsyxr1epy pu
«<i _
‘UL ‘opeqmypog
. ‘eT 9) ‘radtg
@ [hp suosreg
*M ‘10UT0D,O0
"Y uyor ‘fqaan
“ce ty
“ec “
souvep ‘UOSTLONT
‘f£'d ‘TeUOU
“ME ‘F991
* ‘a ‘yorfoqy
“ o
“ZL ‘Vv ‘osTe079
‘Cl ‘Meqorayy
‘dA £ ‘Te gste]y
yoLae
‘T1epsetgd - Tosuvyy
*ydep
Jojog “eur
'g ‘pf ‘aevuUaTOI
Arua Fy ‘sino
0°90
‘gspliouo'y
* "p ‘svuloTy
1897.
REPORT
44.
“cc
“cc
“
oc
“
“
be
9681
“
L68T
“
3
“ce
“ce
“ec
“
“
“ec
9681
poysty
“qnd
eSe-6FE
SE8-1&E
668 -8I1E
ZIZ-LES
993-91
11-69
| 68-92
9-3
Ele
Gee-eee
08-92
F9-89
oge-eze
SPP-O6P
61P-OTP
068-L8E
LLE-&9E
886-986
Ig-Lé
993-896
O9T-SST
eseg
968T ION
“AI
Td 11X
>.<
“
“
“
‘IIA
968T TOT
‘TAX
“AT
AN
4B gq 10
ouIn[oA
“
. . “
G * ‘SUDL,
ee
BUY VANIOAT LDA DET
P81 DANIONT IT,
. . “
§ * ‘SUDLT,
. . “ec
. .
90NT
yppange, oN PUT,
. IL A
ISYDINON YSL4T
uorworTqnd JO OH,
“ “
“cc a
“a “ce
‘00g ‘00 MOSSeLH
Dl ‘D'S Besa ue
* WOU "YBN *SxIOX
z **O “W weyong
*00G *[0A4) "YY “AUTON
‘00g "JOA MOSSBLY)
oe ee
“ tc
“ “
‘00g "[oax) [ood avy
*uolUy “YeN ‘syIOX
* goog “ysuy Surat
‘00g “Yd “WT r0ysa01e]
"O° N Brrqnqd
Aya1o0g
JO ODRL Peyslsiqqy
2990 943 UO
YALA AL
JO pooymnoqysiaN oy} Ut sjauueyyD szeany Aq
PIes
-[vop sirysidy ay} JO Ioquy [Isso oy} Ut
syuv[g o1doosororpy [Isso Jo ATaAoOSICT oY} UC
yooumny
MON ‘UBMISTeID 4v o}1ydeIyH 0Y} UL spuomeI(T
jo Aroaoosiqy pure ‘ayrydery AIA [VoQ perreyoO
* SUIBJUNOW 9JlUBIH URIIY IY} JO MOIA MON VW
s ’ XBJTVA JO YSUVT oy} Jo vAVIAg oT,
XvjI[BY JO Ysweg oy4 Jo
semnqueg Teorsopoap pur jeorydeisoisdyg omog
: siop[nog oi1ysupooury
OITYSUpOOULT ut ‘ox ‘aqlavIyH
deyg Jo slap[nog jo soue1mM00Q ey} U0 saI0N
tmaapi0q Vy
‘qvasaIOWY JO IJlIC 9} Wor; syissoy snovdvya1O
qynowyey
Ieou ‘yy10duaey, 4e pog 4ser0,7 ouTIeMqng sy,
pur[yoog Jo UOTFVMIO, OUOJSpULY poy PIO eq}
jo uoghydopsg pure sagypodvohT evxrsuex) oy} uO
v.Ws{0) (eke) 9)
reorsdy ur Apngg & :4svop sIIYsyOIMIEg ot,
* 98B0O SOTRM "PIAL O49 FO FM OWL
Joodyorrq ye pue
‘£qso1n yearg ye Av rJeplnog [earoyiuraes0,7
Suy[ney pue Surplog Ye oF wory
-vjar ut ASolooy YSYIG : SsSaIppy [eyUepIsolg
: WVyAUBI JO YJION JOIST
ayy Jo ASopoax) Vovyzing sayy Jo yunoooW sug
‘ * —-:puvpyUoyy MON JO survag [e1OUTP, OTT,
aurInogysen
we maqshg sn0a0eqer) qoddy 949 0} 4ISIA V
: ‘qsa10g auTq peSieuqug y
rodeg jo O31,
*(panunquo?) XNOTONN—Q Uor,009
“ “
. “cc “ce
* uor ‘yaTug
“TORITTIM ‘uosduayg
. “
* ‘soy, ‘pavddeyg
moJMEN LL
pue “xs ‘uvueYyg
u * "9 §sq10q O17
qIeuoRy, 193g
pue ‘souve ‘prey
“ oe
“ee “ce
“ce “ce
PIET[PN “L “opvary
* rae ‘ao4so1g
* somvup ‘a0tjuelg
: “UM Id “49VIg
‘ "TT ‘ay ‘rasovig
IOyNYW Jo auvyy
45
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
L68T |OST-LTT
nn ne
* artysuoydmeyqyioN jo vuneg utipemmeyy ott,
args
-u0jdmeyzION ut (pneuredviq) sazvbob vyvwy
aITysuOJaMVYyION ul (TIN) srgvuchsow epuvy
Cureqylig 0} MeN) ‘oarqsuojydue
“ “
. “ “ce
. “ “
| 968T 09 ‘XT . . qouimor | * * "009 "H “N ‘U07,N | -Y}ION Ul ‘AOU ‘vq7p “IVA “TT ‘SnMIeDUW LYULT | ° “| [QUOT] ‘smepy
‘ANOT00Z—'(T U0172909
saliag
9UOJSOWIL] OUI] SNOLAaFIUOGIeDH 949 Jo spog
JOMOT 04} YJIM o9vUIEITe YOIyM ‘4OrL4sICq
aisdmep 94} Jo BzRIYVG ‘IoyeMYseTg IO ‘ouTTy
“ l9ge-Fee a z : x - : re -snovy 943 Ul punoy get oly oy uo sajon |* uyor ‘iq ‘sunox
cc ZLE-OLS “ec . . ° “ec . “cc sé . ‘II qle gq . os “ec
968T |696-E96 "4 k 3 - ; ‘00G "[O94) MOXSE[H | * ‘Twregqg ‘psodeg ourvyy ve ‘Ae[D ropynog |* ydosor ‘4y31t\\
yoog Areg 4svgy ye
~ \SeG=O88) “TCX |” g * SUD | * * ‘00g “F@N Hipp | sztsodaq poq-T[aqg ey} Jo BloTy pue vunegy yy, |* “MA “A ‘WO}OM
“| 01-6 x : . . nite, AED uit * sqiodey—xossy UI [voM jo yOIvag ul Samog |* ‘“ ©
LEST |SSo-ESz y : cs = , ; : uf + * xossq ul ‘fajoaM JU [eoD jo yorveg ul Suliog |* = “ re
xossq] sompoH “A ‘DL
“ |813-81 % s oa i Sage ibiaas es pue xjoyny Url [woQ Jo yorveg ur ssursog | 2 “Up “LOYVITY AY
sos(yeuy 103244 OULOS
“\06I-L9T ‘XI ‘ SUDINIDAT Lass | * 2 ‘ "CO “q xessq Tata AC AI wed) SUOT}OOS-[JOAA XOSSH Smog | * “UWIAA “TABI AL
“ lepl-pell XXX ‘sunt, & 200daT | ‘009 '°Y ‘DO “AN ‘PRIS 'N * qemoig jo ABopoayH ayy, |* semoyy, a[paeAy
espace der (org)
968T |ESE-6FE) 968T ION | * psrppungwAT ayT | * * UOIUA) “GUN ‘syIOX | Jeplnog wolng sIsljeinjyeN siTysupooUITT oyy, | “MA “ADY ‘[ToMyouy,
“| 18-08 1 ; : “ Si c ee Aqiog woz sninesoxysyoy }* “ re
LO8T |6FI-TET } aITgsuoydureyIAON Ul 9zI[OO IOTIOyUT
~ | SORmaL : , : ik ss pue sery roddg 943 Jo spog uonounr oy |° “ u:
9681 | OS-LF “XI . ; [oUusnor | * * "009 "H ‘N ‘U0},.N | ° ‘ satysuojydmeqyion ut shol[eA Teoepy-c1g | ‘Agoog ‘uosdmoyy,
. YIOM SlVvax YU,
« | P2769 | LE8T AOR | 2827vunzmNr OUT | * * UOTUQ “JBN ‘SYIOX 8a pue soTIM0D Jepjnog eIYSHIOA egy | * svmouy, ‘427,
«| 2S 6F “ : lips < es ss * udiueg ye paqysy paleqTy ue ug |‘ i mY
St-LF | Il 9d TIX) * “"sup4y | * ‘d0g "[oey “y "MUIOD | * syxorF “AG Aq poqiiosop se ‘sazeTg e710] OY, | ‘Pstouesq‘suoydoqg
SIU [B0O'T
L68T 6I-ST Tl? ‘ 2 * "00Uq | * "O°" “VN ‘Mae | otOs Ul paqeaysnq[I ‘speg [aAvIy JO UISIOQ oyg, |* ‘g's ‘foyurqg |
1897.
REPORT
46
——
~
“oe
968T
L681
968T
L681
968T
L68T
968T
L681
968T
payst]
“and
|e 1 | (One ee ee SS aan
“F8-EL
FGL-GGI
8I-€T
POE-EBE
19-95
89Z-G93
WAX]
-"XX[
LEI-FEI
L06-F06
TéI-Lol
69-89
PSE-1g€
tr
99-99
GLE-LIG
68-66
OLG-696
6II-LIT
9LT-OLT
9L
696-896
ened
TH
16ST 104
968T ION
x
“XI
anh
‘I
i
b6-€68T
L681 104
TA
‘TIAX
“AI
G7
‘II
“AT
“XXX
968T 104
‘TA
“AI
L68T 104
6-681
qaeq 10
eunjoA
yOvUuunyy snoyy e LX
. cc “
* 9SYVUNIYAT OUT,
74 “ce
* WSYMINIOAT LASS
* 20lg P SUDLT,
YOourmuunyy L00VT UX
. . . 73
. . . oc
* “SUD
* PSYDINION AUT
* PBYDLNIDAT YSlT
D0LT
qnuinor*
: : * 20eT
1DULNOL
* "SUDAT,
‘suDuy, pun quodagy
* 982DINJON AYT,
* PYDINIOA YSUOT
: : *SUDLL
+ gSyDLNQUAT AY,
: : * SUDLT,
uorwoITgn JO MIL,
’ ‘208 ‘V ‘'H “N Wey JO T
. . ce 73
UOIUQ “YN “SyIOX
. “ec
‘CW Xossyy
“909
Tg ‘N ‘00g YVOg
‘VY ‘HN Ueyy Jo T
* 909 ‘Veh “MION ‘JION
. “ “ec
: "ON sdoqjoo
: * MOU “JEN ‘SHIOZ
si * ‘ON Gand
° 'O “LV H ‘N 99s10q
: 009 "AT 'N A\oSsepy
5 "OE V (N Me AL
* "008 "ld “H “N “arg
“009 “TTY “IVT 103s0010T
00g 'V ‘0 ‘AN ‘BtIS ‘N
: * MOU “IeN “SyIOX
‘ o% "OK IN Urang
‘009 "[IGq “JIT 10qse010']
* * WOTUQ “"¥BN “SYIOK
‘O “WN edoqjoom,
£91009
JO OFLL poyeraciqg V
SAIS! sqo spiig
TmOTOog aa jo qrodayy
968T JO
“VOIIAsI Toquinyy oy} Wor; SOJON PUT
" @IISyIOX
yee Ul prejsng 8 Meenboeyy jo euUeTIMI00
* qsor0,q Saiddg ut sparg oy,
XOssSy] Ul SPIT PIM JO WOrjoojorT OYL
(g68T 1vaX 94} Surmp
Aparo0g dy} JO FIOA\ 94} UG) ssoippy Sutusedg
: wo}00g Teowdopomoyugy ayy Jo yaodayy
; . é " ALOFTON, FO
4sevop 943 UO (sovaI0U0UMm Uopouory) [ey MIe NT
ety, FO eoUsITNIO ON} FO priooayy ATV ue UO
* p09 vYVALF JO VAIeTT 91} UO
* SOILTV 831 pue vz0huosaP snus OI,
umnjny
projprig ye punoz sayovoryo0g etu0g
WUINISN]T UIpQu oy} UL speMIUY YStyT
£681
Uy peazesqo sIopidg ys ory puv MON UO
: * s[RUIUIR]T UeITVysny euo0s UG
: (ox ‘ASoloyuoeyeg{) ssoippy [eIjuepiserg
puryeaz MON
jo (wngnjgound uopouaydy) prezvy ereyeny, oy],
MOTJD94OIT
pue I9qySnv[g I19y} WO saJON AIM ‘syoosuy
yo setoedg ureqiao jo souviveddesiq oy,
: * squoreg 19480,7 s3t puv OoyonyH ey,
O€8T
—6ZLT JUNODOW SuepIeMYyOMYD wodryg sy
mos} | UYULIOA J0|}O JO spuay XOT 1oz pred sung
: I9[qQIVA\ SULIT IIT,
yieg oyespeig jo vraydosjop ary,
. 5 ; * eITysyIoX UT TAM) OFT PUL
. . .
FEST UL oLLYSpxozoropy ur CsoloyywIC,
“aA ery oan
"9 yor ‘aTTerD
. oe 6
UPUISSO
* uyor ‘xnvopi10p
itd “ce
: WRITE “8199
* — £ruszT ‘s0zv0H
: ‘SH ‘ONvIN
* Jor ‘AysuqO
‘V'L iq ‘ueudryp
. "M ‘f ‘TaqIVOD
* Wy ‘eyuedieg
‘dO
‘aay «‘aspriquivgp
; “aT ‘Aq ‘uoo1g
"g ‘qd ‘Ao ‘otporg:
“ML Fold “ospug
‘ yuri ‘[joysnog
*STIOM “AA ‘Opel
Sees Ae
“A ‘049 “mosuag,
: “qT ‘sored
somvp fasnoyyord
‘ "9 "Mm ‘UMopysy
qodvg JO eh,
*(panurjquor) KNOTOOZ—'T Uo22095'
IoyNY jo owen
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES
« | 6-18 | f
* l191-9S1| “IIT
*FZgahe Ah
9681| 26-97 | “IITA
“ 199T-6FT L68T TOT
Z61-06T
L681 |FOT-9F1 ‘T
THAXXX] As
9681 Tere] }
“VFO 11F ‘II
L681 | II-OT ‘'S
18 TA
J | 84769
“g9-89
F9-8F .
“ (SPI-LeT ‘II
SQI-SS1 “A
“e \SPI-ert|” TT
9681 | OL-19 | ‘IIIAXX
T8e-08¢| “AI
LOST |Leg-086) “AT
: Ae — a
62 “i
9681| 79-89 | “XxX
LOB \OSE-LFE
YSouuunyy wovTux
. . . “ee
* ‘SUDAT,
*00uq
* PSYDANQONT OY],
* SUDA,
‘I0LT pun ‘suvuy,
* BiDUNgvAT *YyooRT
* AY DLNIOAT wassyT
* SUDLT
. .
qpuinor
"0b PUY "SUDA,
" BYDUNIDT YSreoT
"IOUT PWD) "SUDAT,
* "SUDLT,
‘204q pun quodoey
* “SUDA
BYyDINuN wofyneyT
‘sumuy § quodagy
qouimor
‘009 “V ‘H ‘N Ue] JO 'T
00g "TOI “H 'N “jan
* 008 "H ‘N S}oqy
* ‘oO “qUN TOISTAg
* UOIUQ) “FEN ‘SyIO
‘OH TIRA “AOS 3 “IUD
PS “N 009 ‘sq}10q
* "9 "NI daysoqooy
‘O) “il XOssqy
009 “GUN ‘MION “JION
‘00g ‘Id “H ‘N ‘wg
"109 "N ‘009 ‘syqaog
* "ON Ulrqng
"Tog “N ‘00g *sqT}10g
* ‘00g "FEN rpIeg
O° TEN ISUzLOg
008 ‘Td “FYI 104so010'T
008 ‘YOry “H 'N “ng
‘OH 9 ‘8 °S XeHTeH
008 ‘VY ‘0 “A 'N ‘BPS (N
009 “HN MOssepy
TOrasdy ye Suryooyye
TO} VS;OORBY. ie 0} aqesateq sv yaodory
TPH OY} JO Varley ony,
G68T wok ayy
Sarnp eTSspIop IaH UI pearasqo vxreydoprdayT
* BOLlOUly Ul punojz sumtoMyoog
Oru) SIST]eI
“Ny@N IIIYSU[OOULT 9} 0} SsaIppy [eiyuopIsery
: * (@1mqdeT) Bag 949 Jo syydaqy oYy Ut OFT
(arnqoe'T) sorjtargy pur emyonayg azoyy : sosuodg
suinasnyy JO an[eA [euoTywonpy oy} UO
YS IOANT MO
4so10,q surddyy ut
worgunbo DNoIUIBsIGT JO spew oy} Jo ATOAOOSICy
: * —- gJOJSOMO'T WOIF SOON UOTYLAISTPL
ye
PIYPIOO wong jo vuneq oyvIqQo4190A OU],
< * —- Spllg YStyIIg JO SutysoN IY} UO sojON
C * wuelopung Jo spoog yooxy ay} Wo sajJON
key, oy} JO wiseg oy} pur o11ysyI0g
JO Spllg jo sjsoNY 94} UQ :SaI0N whosny
a007T rvau ‘pueysT
SA5100 YQ pue ‘Hoy Yyoujlg oy} ‘touoyg
i a i ayy Jo AXONS TeInjeN oy} UO sojON
sy 10jeM-Ysa1 7
pooy
~moqy sien pue yynourkaA, Jo v193do00[09 oJ,
* —- gOLX4STC, OY} FO soysTyT outog
(snoyonby snjgourg) roddiq oy,
: ASojomoyug—yaoday [euoTyooy
SOJON puB ‘oJorTOY, SUOTIIPPV
YI ‘ortys|[Asry ‘uvyomnueupry Jo yory4stq
OY} UL paaAlosqo udeq DAVY YOIYA SpaAlg Jo 4svT
* ua pue pur[prorg us9M30q UosTIvduI0D &
. . «
. .
: FOYNY YON puw HTOJION yJNog ar vioqyd
{
* qaysmsaq “{TUD
a * AL ‘sqqrp
‘ ‘HV ‘sqqty
' ‘Oc°y aq ‘eda 7
“MM
WOU) ‘Ad ‘LOL MO, 7
. “ce “
b ‘A 'H “qsa110,7
‘HM dg omopy
"HO “A0y ‘Sarppory
‘yoMopery “poousr
* “HL ‘q@ ‘wosreuny
919949 "fF ‘FIOITH
‘WHA
‘TOO-"qnary ‘argu
‘ "a ‘p¢ ‘aapsieng
(09%
e1) “WH ‘190
‘ey -puomumig
‘qq ‘ouviq
‘d ‘MAM ‘Iq ‘uouu0g
: i e-4g
‘HH ‘adsoyystuog
*purpoyy, “9 ‘Avg
“MAA ‘STAR
"ML “Aoy ‘Arq7eq
‘f UyoL ‘ystolsTeq
REPORT—1897.
co
~
Ler-eet
981-F8T
““
968T
“cc
968T
L68T
968T
ii pe,
9T-T
STL
90T
ELE-L9IG
FOL
TF
SP-Fe
996-ZSZ
O&8Z ‘63
THAT
“1x
Gt-1F
96-99
681-881
POTTS
69-S¢
61
9FI-TFI
61G-O1G
89T-F91
8LI-LLT
GE l-66T
916-616
lil
96~S68T
“
‘XI
LG8T 104
‘IIL
TA
6-681
} TA
f Tra
T
08
al
‘IIIA
A
06
“A
WAN
“e
L68T 104
968T 104
96-268T
poysty
“qnd
606-661
eseg
qivg 10
awn[oA
"0b DUD 'SUDLT,
* “SUDALT,
qouimor
* "SUDLT,
* SYDANIDAT OUT
"004.
. “ce “
. “ “c
* WSUDLNIDAT YSlT
: * SUDLT,
BYDINIDAT LVLYOET
“Suna,
: : * 208
RMON 2vfyvyT
* SUDALT,
* JSUDINIVAT YS1OT
* "SUDLT,
. 6“ “
. “ “
* QSYDINION OT,
4 " * "BUDLT,
uOTwoITGNg JO EPL
10g “Nl “0g “SyBOT
‘OH 'N “WW uopforp
* "008 "H "N 003,.N
* "008 "H 'N §319H
* UOIUQ “JeN ‘SIOZ
gh saree EL
. “cc
. “ se
‘OH ON Ulpqud
‘ON edoypoo
"009 “YEN “MION “JION
" "009 'H 'N 8349,
‘O°H 9 8 °S XeTPH
* UOlUQ “JeN ‘SyIOZ
0 f “TIBA “AS 27 “TBD
* 009 “JEN TOSI
‘OD ‘HS ‘8 X8FT2H
* UOIUQ “JEN ‘SyIOX
* "0 a (N Uqnd
*00§ “VEN "MIONT “JON
. se “ec
* UOIUA “JEN ‘SYIOX
‘OH 'N ‘W vopfo1g
Ayat00g
JO OTL poyerasiqqy
apesiig skog oy} Aq sorpnyg Axoysty yeInyeN
: BAILY ULe}IGO JO spoyz]T 9aAty9940I1g III,
G68T 10F pooymmoqysian pue
artysuojdueyyION jo ASojoyy WIG 943 UO sozON
(ssarp
-py AresioAluUy) s[eUIUy Jssuome pry yenqn],
arlysupooury Ut *CTINIC)
SLupsaLlay snumapoyouhyey ‘Wweweuel,g pury oJ,
IUSEAA
JO 9ISs~T 949 pue omysdmepy jo sa[ydoay oxy,
YLON “ON Ul Mey ‘vpvundiun vriunanaz
SUJOP Ul WstULpT
jo quamdoyoaac, oY} UO SUOT}VAIOSqGQ IOAN
: puryery Jo syeg ayy,
* Ue Ul JOM PUL
YINowIeA ye s7g9n/ SNL
FEST Ul PIOJXO 9 WOIVEIOOSSY SHINE
oy} 0} sayesoleaq jo saouslayuoOD 944 UO 410daxT
a1}70g ong vB Jo ATO}G OFT OUL
(014
-BNUIJUOD) sITYSHIOX Jo V19jdoaloH ayy jo ysiy
; (emyooT) spurs] puelyoys 9} FO Spit OUT,
(aimyoo'T WIWeAeY) SpIg YS
vroydopidaT
JO 48II [e00T 0} suoyjoarI09 pur suoljippy
: XVILY JO sorpisqyqgng ayy,
IGST 10; vsaydopidey o1tysy10 X
MOPPOIM ‘00 ‘AoT[VA ANTeUT
-UdTD UL puL vi[Mbeusny uo pa}oa[[09 syoosuy
Aytardey ut (Avery
‘soon fqyp wnppboja0g9) [MQ purlyweaz MON eq,
* —- @ATYSHIOX Ul OSuo[ JSOAIVFT OUI,
AytaaZuo7y 119T} pur s[MO
WVYAUBID 7B SISTIVINJVN VITYSULOOUVT
(wargsamop YIBYIV) JYOWII-9snoy 9} WO soyoN
. . . es .
. .
qodeg J 2hL
W “I, ‘tofo1g977
* preapor “499A0'T
* ploy “PLOT
soulng ‘uryyodory
* STITRAN “HT ‘oxy
‘Oo sf ie Tse
‘A OP “LM “OUR
‘ "Ty 'y ‘uosoumve
‘soyy, ‘WosurIqoyn yy
“Lf “%1930H
* uyor ‘uosurydoyy
‘Hf ‘Aey ‘uUOspoyyT
. ‘OM ‘aay ‘Aa
. ‘AH ‘soley
* g8100y ‘Sutpreyy
‘preapa ‘Aeprt[eH
Be INC Vie eed
‘ "Nf “oqreH
, ‘H af ‘doumy
; Pe ‘eyqery
ANGST elgg 9)
* "H ‘9 ‘uvmpoor
IoyjNy jo owuy
*(panujqUo9) KNOTOOZ—'T Uor9ag)
49
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
968T
iti
968T
L681
o
“
[61-9FI
OLT
961 S11
866
91-9
6I-LT
LGB GGG
6F-9F
1g-OL
€Fl- IFT
90T-GOT
FS-8F
LOST PE
681-81
66-F16
606-106
£6768
88-92
GP-8E
996-26
68T-g8T
PST-LEL
O8I-g21
L9-e¢
BS-FF
S61-F6I
‘TIAXX
L681 107
TA
THA
96-968.
TA
‘II
BUN
L68T 107
oF
9681 10g
‘TA
‘TIT
9681 10
“
“XXX
96-S68T
* SYDINZOAT 9YT
* “SUDLT,
0b
‘O04 ‘pun 2Lodayyr
: * SWDLT,
* DUU
* PBYDINION YSL4T
* PSYDANID OY,
ybou
“UU L0vT UX
. . ° “c
*D0LT
. . .
. . . “
* p40daey
* Q8YDLNION AUT,
. . 66
+ SUDLT
* gsyDUngON OUT,
. “ “
aUDLy pun Lodagy
s * ‘SUDUZ
‘Oa VH 'N yost0q,
* MOIUQ “JEN ‘syIOZ
009 ‘JEN ‘MION “JON
* "909 ‘JeN [OISIIg
‘009 ‘Td “H 'N 3¥319a
‘009 “JBN ‘AION “JION
009 “yeh ULIMOSIOpuy
* "08 N aed
* uolUg “YVN ‘SOX
‘008 'V H'N Ue] JO 'T
* ‘00g ‘JUN [0JsLI
‘00g “TI “WT 100d ary
‘000 "FVN ‘MION “JION
‘“ “
008 “H 'N ‘T1°0 “41287
* UOIUQ “JEN ‘SyIOX
009 “JN “AMON “JON
‘008 “YOly “HN “Fn
* WOIUQ “JN ‘SyIOX
oe “sé
O'd 'N ‘Beis 'N
uopsorg
' saj0N WgpM ‘eraqdoprdeyT puepyasog Jo stT WV
Prd Surpesiq-ysyig vB [YS w1oy, oyvasoy oxy,
(epromoyd 7
puev xproosy Surzj1mM0) ortysy10X Jo v1raydoyo
“HL pae ‘eraqdoineN oy} jo gsiy Arvurutprg
: ‘ jerjeg rewyn 7
{INS pesurm-yovrg
TOS
jo pooymoqysioN 94} 0} SIOJISTA IauIUING
"(snexpPY. Tenueprsord) Splig JO uOTRIsITT ONY,
* - YNouIY A Worf sojonN YS
‘ png Mossepy
e : OFT-pId uugingng pue puNoIH o4seA\
: * SspiIg JO UoTywIsIP, OU,
STIUS
UO SyIOM Jus00xy
mwo01qoeg
yeordoosorory 943 Jo sjoalqg pue swty oy,
qstpernqe nN ATO
% JO Yood-ojoN OY} Woy sopouyy pue sjouT
: * ojrry Jo A1ojsATY OU,
TOF
-ION UL Sutpeerg [[Iquoodg jo soyonN Apreq
P88I-ZSsI ‘Ajoro
“08 yeordooso1orp, YOIMION puv ¥AOJAON oy],
, * WONT OTEpanT 07] OY} JO TOUS PL
SplIg WO suoTyeAIAsqO
¢ YSHOIOG [IV] IW9u syOasuy WO SMOTIVAIESGG
qolI4stq YsnoLoq[avyy 94
30 SDI qdeoxe) S[RULIMW 99¥IqQ9910A JO 4SIT
2 ‘£I04STET TeINye NT uo dissoy
: ‘ : * SHLOJION FO VosnT POT OUT
(F681 ‘SsoIPpY TeIUoptserg) AyranuMI0;D
pue [eNPIAIpUuy oY} Ul jy AOZ opsonyWg oyy,
aILt[SUpOo
“UlT YON GOrystq, PIoxTY ay} Jo er1oqdid aulos
aILYSprIoyeyg ‘oppeoyD “THA
odey Oy} 96 MosTesey JOPEMIOH O47 UI SFT
: SAOOE 3 aodey yeuoroeg
s194sfO
. . . . . .
JoywMYSA pue puey
. . . .
‘W ‘N “aospreqory
‘DH “103904
. - 7 9) ‘qq1t0d
‘WL ‘0 Vystmorg
, ‘? A ‘ouderg
‘ "Ty ‘uosia4q4eVg
: *y ‘uosie9q}eg
* uyor ‘mosieyeg
F ‘Hd ‘¢ “towed
‘O ‘meYPIO
“a ‘TAO
. ‘Vv ‘ft ‘Id “10JIONT
* uyor ‘moIMeN
* "VW ‘Jorg ‘a0jMeN
“c “ce
* some ‘UIVIqy0;
“ “
“ sé
. . “T ‘yorrA9T
. ‘H “ay ‘apeofl
* ainqyty peysr
* -q diryd “aoseyq
. “a "e ‘mosey
“ce oe
‘aa et ‘PIeveseH
1897
REPORT
50
“c
968T
L68T
968T
L68T
968T
L68T
“
968T
L681
9681
L681
9681
“e
L68T
968T
poustl
-qNd
EST
6&6 6&6
SLT
FIZ-LOG
006-L6I
ShE-SEé
Lo~
9L-FL
SLT
6G 816
6G8-GIE
691-€ST
991-691
OF-L6
808-S0E
GEG L1G
TILT-T9L
PEE-SEE
SEE-GEE
See-Lée
602-L6T
eseg
a
F6-E681
“ce
968T 104
TP
“
TA
“AI
96-268T
‘TA
aN
“XI
“
“AI
L68T 100
“ec
9681 104
“
‘AI
‘TIAXX
4avq 10
auIn]OA
. “ . “
* ‘SUDAT
. . “cc
* gsyDungOnT OT,
. . .
204
. . . “
* “SUDA,
puinor
+ qtodayy
. “ oe
* PSY DUNIDAT YSWOT
* ISUDINIDAT Lassa
. . * SUDA],
“ec
. “ee
. a“ “cc
. “ce “ce
. “c “ee
* gsyDanquNr OY],
. “
. . oe
qouinor
"204
uorworTqng JO ALT,
. “ ™ “
: ‘O “a ‘N odoqpoo,
. ce “e
2 * UOIUQ “VN ‘syIOZ
: OC VN AMIR AL
. “ee 6c
. "009 “Gen “MIO NT oN
, ‘009 ‘H 'N MOBSELH
009 “[lqd “H ‘N uoyy Stag
. . “é “
O° ON WqAd
© ¥ © .f) 7 Sosen
. “
‘009 "TI "VT J0ys0010'T
: “ec “
: * MOM] “GeN ‘SyIOX
“ce “
. oe it
: 009 “HH (N Mossely
© “OV EEN) Aesr0Gg
Ayoroo0g
JO OTILL poywraoiqqy
pad oy JO squyy pue uoynqrrystq oq} uO
" * suooveg uooo1g oy} Jo AsOTOyAIUIO OU,
9681 ABN 04
FEST Av ‘Aq A\ Wosy soq0N ATOYSTH [eingeN
BUNNY] IILYSHLOX
9} 07 UOTFTppe ue : AQUI Fe SUT M SyOnoD
atporg
‘E ‘d “AW 99 “ANID PPL eTysyOrMre MA
aq} JO topunog 949 Jo YoyoxQ pvorydvisorg
YOFION Jo AQunoH oy} 09 pardde se “FEgt
pure Osst JO SJoy UWOrOoJOTG SpItq PIM OL
G68T Ut
TINSEL OL8Q OLAso N. 91} 09 suoTyIppy om0g
: * SOYsTT JO UOTYLINOTOD OTT,
so10Yg Ino UO sieTJaMq snoring
ONSOTLIVH S,UBUION F
Apvig wtorz popiduaoo ‘epoovzysQ YStT JO 4svy V
* puvyoiy ur “deuog ‘wagsphounjaw sadjna svupp
spig a1oqg
OL Xess Ul Spl PITAL JO WoWoejorg OUT
* siaMog UI OV
aN JO Ploy
-OSNO}{ OY} UI doULZA0dMT Itay} pue BiL0j0e
* —- BEST 99 OGL ‘vt0ydousurs FY
‘ ; ; 168T PUP O68
‘BOSNT[OW IoyVMYsely pue pur'y s
: * €68T 09 68ST ‘vaojdiatoxy 4
" 8 * 68ST ‘etoydoprdary a
ag eS ZEST ‘spagq : Aydersorqreg
‘auag ‘sppp.oa snjoprydwy jo syiqey
‘aury ‘snunbod waauny Jo uoryeMo[og
q *aUIy) ‘SUDLY DUT JO SAINJOUI} IAT[-JSON
CGR SULINp JosIo(] UI s}UuL[ YT JO SumeMop,T
qsIly 043 pure “ow ‘syoasuy ‘spilq jo sooue
-readdy 4SiItq 94} JO SUOT}VAIaSqGQ UO 410daxT
Jjodvgq Jo O41,
*(panurquo2) ADOTOOZ—'q wWo1sdag
* ‘Vy ‘a ‘dosuremg
. “ “c
‘soyy, ‘aosuaydoyg
‘9 '§ ‘Kouryg
. 73 “
* ‘SOUL ‘Tloayynog
‘VM “qgtUIg
‘H “AN ‘efosquayg
. ty “
“EU Ia ‘yaxeyog
"gO ‘Tassny
'V (H ‘Sayqoooy
‘“ “
ee “oe
. ‘a “mM PORE OT
“ ve
“"q ‘iq ‘wos}10qoxy
"WN ‘uospreyory
IoyINY Jo wey
51
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
q9
OL
(eInqoa'T) vorIyy [eIyUAD Ut "SIT
| OT F—GLP| ‘TI ; > wutnor | * ‘0g “doonH opiseuty, | ormyng [eLysnpuy pue [efolamMmoD spuvpsugq | ‘uoprsyg-youes,7
1681 | 36-PL "A qoday pun ‘swouy, | * *d0g ‘B04 joodzeary | ° : : ; ess] Sprvmoy Aoumor VW | "T "YW “AK AOUOIETT
(Ayot00g peorydvrsoay [euoeN
uvoliomy oy} Aq poysttqng) “A1epunog
“ lors-008 UH 5 $ : ‘00g “500n opisoudy, | pue ‘ajdoag “quowurea0n s0xT :BONZUGA | “] WIT[IM ‘stan
TeZ-Lie 1X ‘ te : "00g ‘Soa ‘youeyy | * * sdvyy foamng oouvupsg jO 978g 949 UE | ° ‘L ‘H ‘yoo
9681 |822-922] “III es ¥ " — 00§ ‘B0aH optssudy, "+ (@InqoaT) uoye10;dxy rejog yuaooy | * ‘WV ‘eng
“ 9SI-6FT “cs . . 73 “ce “ . . . . yeury BNSPIVOIN pasodorg ” “ “
© |\8FI-LET 3 ‘ i 2 1 : : ’ ; 3 f *“Teuvp zong eu, |* “Ts “PTY ‘somog
aILyseo
“ “|L6I-88T - : D « fe sc “UeT 4sve-qyoN jo AydeiSoany yeoishyg oy |* eqsozy ‘aoqog
(PSST Ul We74TTM 19999] ‘eM
“ 1406 ‘€0] ‘IIX . U . : "909 ‘Soon ‘yourTT | B Woy syowsgxG) ‘sanoqaezy pur SIOATYy odey | ‘fe- Bing ‘yoxrg
LOST |GOF ‘80F ‘lll : : qpuinoe | * ‘00Q S004) optsoudy, | * ; ; * (81n909T) WnOWIeYY, spreMoy, |* “Eq ‘eSpiteyyy
“AHAVUNOUH— fT Wwordag
a1TYSu04
968T| 19 ‘XI : : pusnor | * * “008 "H ‘N u0},.N | -dueyji0N ur youryxe you (‘uuryq) venwod aya |" "TO “FUSIIM
L681 | FI-ZT II sByvinjoNenfyyH |" ‘O'’a ‘)'S'S xeneH | * ‘ i ; : Coppi JO SIROTT ONL | “HE WOqry “IOS
“ SOT-00T “ . . “ . . “ “ . . . sasuryo oy} pue BAIV'T 19zVAA | * “ ‘“
(ajnwea
any =(); ‘XI : : qpuinor | * " ‘008 “H 'N U0},.N | venwpsouy) YQOW ssug oy} Jo uoos09 MUL | "H ‘A ‘AIT Spoom
968T| SL-1L | “XXX | ‘Sunuy puv quoday | ‘oog'y “OW CN ‘BRIS ‘N | * ‘ i " opisvag oy} 4e edoosoroyy oy, |* = “SL ‘SUPATEAL
“| L9-€9 | L681 10g | * gsxyvungnar ayy, | - " UOlUy) “FEN “SyIOX | * * AOTTLVA JUEIL-PIT OY} Woy sojON pg |* “TC “VT ‘OOTIUM
“| SF-1z 26 * PUYDINIDNT wassy | * ; ‘ ‘Oo “q xossip | ° : * XOSsq] JO VOSN[[OT oUIIVUI-uON ou, | * ‘TA AA ‘QQ2M.
qs910,J UeIaOpaTeg
L68T |TOT ‘O9T ul! , "Nae ' “O'H TIRA ‘A099 % “WR | OY} WHoIy suotToadg uo sajoN :4%Q PITA OUT, | ° UPPeA ‘SUIyIe A
“ |€08-10¢| F6-68T |" * ‘sum |: “Om ‘Nedoyjoou |: ° °- <° © MOUUOW, O47 UL SurpAeIy | “HW soy ‘sure A,
rH { fice a \ ‘I SYDINIONM{YO |“ "O'T O'S ‘SxeyeH | * é - Aoy[eA Uepuoppny ayy Jo sprig |* “H “GOMIOZE AM
| saqyeIq
ROZOT ‘yy é U " ‘00lq | * “00S "TIUd "HN “Watg | -2910A IaMOorT eYy UI sornsdep Teuervadng ayy, |* eremg ‘queour,
“ spunwupy yg sing
ISBG-LAG ‘TA : . ‘SUDLT, | * "OO “FEN “AION "JION | Teo ‘yxO0%so7, ye ox ‘eroydousw A ayvatnoy | ° ‘HAM ‘¥ony,
9681} &Z ‘XI q : qvucnor | * * 909 'H 'N 004.N | * ‘ 7 " "G68 ‘SeqON [VoLsoTOYAIUIO | * “M ‘UIl[vULOT,
“ |L01-66 6 ‘ ‘ "SUDay, | OOS "VY “HN Tey “ung | * puepyoog Jo ysaa-yynog oq} ut Surysy-[wog |* “g ‘see ‘uosuo
pesemmenes Soysy — ~ =
| JART!) Qi-arn
U A@IIM IMAM AT AUT
Lid
E2
1897
REPORT
ee SE a. ol le oe ——-
9681 |OST-LF1| “IIAXX | ° . * “00bg | * “009 “TU MOSSETD | * ‘ i * neg “BOvor}Ty, FBT OF FISTA uyor ‘mostt
L68T |L9T-LST) “TTX a ouLnor | * ‘0g ‘Boay ‘youryy | * PULTSaq Jo sIoaTy a[qQustaeN puv spay og |* “A [euory ‘STOMA.
el eeiz | ge-aest |*° 2 awoday | “00g Td “HN wowWsg | °° 791 0} LeLSuey woIy AouMoL @ HO SA]0N | © 4) AN SHITE
968T |16T-06T ‘XI * WsUyVINIVAT wassyy | * : - og xassq | ° Be'T oar OUy Jo A10}STY 949 UL eposidgq uy |° ‘OM “OTR
“ FE-1T sl $ . ae 7 : Gu wD : * (ou0a'T BitaIg) AIjUNOH TpUseT{ OUT, | “UIA “Ae ‘UBIATA.
“ 1eQ%-108 ‘e : C &E i s ‘6 eaulny MON UL AguINOL SLosaHoVW “MIUGUO |" ‘d'L ‘UOSMOYL,
L68T ¢1-c9 ‘TIX . . “ . . ‘009 *Booy ‘qouryy . . . . . . . . vpuesy 9) ai “AY ‘Yqimg
968T |666-986 TIL ‘ ; - : ‘00g *3004H) optsoudy, | * * — (anqoorT) ‘wpeURD Jo SadIMOosay OY, |" VPIVUOGAIS‘qyIUAG
“ ¥9-09 se 5 Fe = " bs & 3 . ¢ WOLJVIOOSSY VSNV]T IY} JO YOM OWL, | AM “ART ‘MOSUIqoYy
LOST |L8T-e81) “UX , r : ‘ : ‘ it ; y * yoqsoyoury ut Aydeisooy yworpoulg |* “ “
9681 |LFS-SES Tye : : we } “909 ‘Boey "youryy | * : : uoyoslorg dey Jo sqyuoma[y OUT, | * PIBMOH. "p “pao
B ‘unt ‘atuo
-royyony "gq a
LOST \S0F-G6E| “TIT i ’ 1oUuLnor ‘00g Soap episaudy, | * : : ‘ ulueg ul soouemedxg [euosiog | pure “sep ‘yoouutg
- fr9a00s1q JO a8y ay} JO pue oy} 07 UMOP
Aydeasoyreg jo Aro sip yy Ul poywaysuy[ sv
9681 6&E-E1E "Ty . * 920mg | * ‘209 ‘TY ‘gvT yood,ary | ‘aoz110oH eorydvrs0ey oy] JO JuoMOSIE[Uy OUT, | * ‘unl “oay ‘drpiyg
: ‘MH
“ leor-ze ‘TIX : . “ : 90g “Soon ‘youryy | * : ° : 2 ; : purjsusong?) | 11g ‘wey ‘avULON
(-Agoro0g peorydeas
-oax yekoy oy} Aq poysttqnd) “wolp
LOST |I6E-8LE oS ona G ‘ se “ -edxq onory UeISOMION Ot} JO SHMSeY oMtog |* “WT IC ‘UesUBN
(Jopelquasioyy ,
BIUBISHYO oy} Woy) ‘sMseY OYTPUES
9GS8T \E8G 626 ‘TI ‘ ; ie : ‘904 ‘Sooxy) aptsoudy, | SIL pue ‘uomtpedx gy aepog yJION SuesueN “IG |* “H ‘Ford “UOT
ie Wis TIX ‘ Fi ‘ . ‘90g ‘Boon ‘yours | 96-S68T UoNtpedxg uLYysy o49 Jo SIMSON OUT | “M TS ‘TP MXe TL
“ \etp-TIt ‘TIT : . Mg : ‘90g “doox) apisoudy, | * : ‘ : + skereyy oy pue viskvyeyy |* "“H Jold ‘smmory
« | oe-T¢ TIX : : us , ‘909 ‘SoeyH “youry | * : : s - — (guoa'yT varaIg) eyyuog | * "7 “A\ SyD007
“ |90F-GOF "IIL , , qoudnor | * “00g *doaxy eptsouy, | * (einyooyT) BOlZY [AWAD 9SoA\ UT soouat1edxq rv
osuoy Youely ‘ACW
«| 2q-9@ YAY qlodary Pup '"suvayz, | * ‘90g ‘Soaxy ood, ary | Ul S[eavIy, pus ‘yeog suooromey Jo JUDSW OUT, | SSTIAL ‘Ko[saury
“ 69-G¢ TIX : , qouinoe | * * 90g “s004H "qouryy | * : ; SOLLOPMIIGT, PUB IOATY ISIN OL |’ “Hf ‘uosyour
L681 | FL-89 IN qlodary pun sunt, | * ‘90g ‘Soa food, ary | * ; : ; * 9681 ‘vt}og 0} Aaurnor V | ° * fey ‘TH
AGS |S9S-ESS ‘IX , : sf i _ st sf qoafqng [OoYyDS B sB Aydeasoey Jo TaEO oun |* DM 9°IMOH
‘ aluolon
“1161-601 es : : As ‘ 2 us sf uvT[eIjsny 94} Jo sselsorg pue IMO oud s * Ay Sradrey
Pepneebll| OU pied ole wgoek@cegupmem |: °°. Catal Jeuieea eames” dousiet “woLaepy
968T [OZE-1LE ‘Ill : ; qnuLnor | * ‘009 "3004 opisoudy, | * ; ‘IT Weg :SmMoqysioN Toy puve VIsIEg | “WATS PIUSPLON
vq 10 Ayo100 rf
Ce eee siro,, | MRPHAMa J CLE Seen Paine sodvg Jo OL Joy NY Jo suvNy
eh ey i el POE se
Bice) mmr | hea
*(panuuos) XHAVADOEH— AV ¥022098)
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
101909199 rodoid 11943 03 sv syavUTOIT
“ |Z0I-16 ee * “Sug ‘Ul ‘4SUT "po,7 pue ‘skemedoy jo sedfy, snoriea Jo uodioseq |° ‘MQ ‘aoysurIIeH
1681} LPI "TIX ““99Uy “pay ‘suvLy, | * : * ‘qsuy ‘Suq “N : * dio ase[neH olyuao0 | * oe tS
“ | oc-1IF | 96-E68T | ‘20Uq pun qioday | * ‘009 "TtTd "H ‘N 3S¥%ILPT *(omnqoe7) SOSVITIVH SSBTOSIOF Io ‘sattqowmoyny | * uyor ‘aMorg
968T |LLE-69E ‘IX y “ $ : ‘SUT ‘UTP “ISUT ‘pay ‘ * soIQ JO sulyseoy [votuvyooyy | “J, v0vr10FT ‘umoig
“ leTg-90¢ ae : ue t s : * qsuy “sug ‘N | ° 9 * eUulIng UI Ssuutm-pfoy uodn sojoN | * “A “Wy ‘A;MoIg
: ; AMOUNT
: mvajg oaeredurog syI Uo soJON YL
| :y1qg ameurdy, s,Auedurop Arat[joH w194s9 AA
| L681 |886-Z8e| “IX : os Pa " ‘Sag UN "JSUT "peg | Jeory’ oy} ye oursug sutputyy punodmoy oyy, |~ wany ‘amuerg
| ; " UBMOOTL “A
968T 966-166 ube X 3 =" : , * "qsuy “Sug 'N | ° ; } ATOJON YNouva\ ye oseyney | pur “y “mM ‘9d
L681 |8I-Zel| “IIIX | * “sur “pag ‘suvay | * ‘Sug sur ‘BRg'g | * * * suoysordxg Azorjop ut eyvy Suravg |“ "pe ysourg ‘Aoyreg
‘MONTIOS IVOINVHOSI—"Y woroag ;
“| $8-G6L TIX 4 oes “Pad “SUDLT | * ‘Sug “ysuy “Rig ‘S| * 3 ; ‘ ; *“SsaIppy [BIqUOpISeTg | **g “YY WOSMIITIT A
“ lect-1Ft TA : ‘ ‘supa | *, “009 YeN ‘AION “FION | * * «GBT Jo AraYsty SulteF]{ 94} UO sajoN | * "CO ‘uosye\\-foOrAG
. FUSMAYST[QVISH [BLOIpUL oq} JO UoTJON poy
9} JO UOTZIpUOD B sv puUL[II[ Ul UOTVeSIQTT
* l@Pl=set ed : : Me : 3 . of uO Sox¥y, JO [RAOWAY 94} IOF UoYsessng VW |* “MM ‘VY ‘sjenmeg
quout
“ IqeI-8zl x : qpuinor | * purely ‘00g yxI9 ~Aoydurgy UIEpPOH 70 Jayoviegg Sayenjon,y oug, |* “HH ‘O ‘meyploO
* (Ssoippy [etjueptserg) wo1r4
“* Jege-eye fit PPLDANION “YO : * — *d "NI Taqsatooxy ~B[S1so"T UISpoW PUL yINZOH JO smey yeMIeN |" “NV ‘UeUIION
“|\e9-6ho| IX ' “sUDdy | * | “BUG “UTI “9SUT “pad ; “ssoippy [eguapiserg |* “Vv “D ‘TedW
j AtQUNOD SUIsIUO[OH pus ‘TeIo1oMIUMOD ‘Sutin
“| 69-LS by : : * Shae . : s ss “Sune 98ai_) B emT0Daq puepsuq seq AYM |*° “WY ‘Jorg ‘aspory
968T| T6-OL | TIAXX | ° * ee VOL Tles “009 “[I{d MOSse[H 7 DOBTOOS UE. SOM IST PETS. CeuzOAK. |: olAL, BREN “UTM
$ SMOISSOOUODH SULUTT IOZ svory
1681 SLI-O9T TIIX : * 78 J ‘Day ‘Suvuy, | * : ‘ ‘qsuy “Suq ‘N | oyenbapy pure sme] sulutpy UstIe10 uodnsejoN |* ‘q “A ‘ploysoH
“ 1G18-€63 =| » 8 0b | * "00K “TY “WT 100d,avy | F681-FF8T ‘ToodisarT—uoreqruvg Jo uorynpoag |* “A “M “Id ‘edog
(AyQa100g 94} JO YLOAA
“ |83L-Se1 : os a a % aq} UO SyIVMSY JoyyAN,T) ssorppy A1ojonporyUy | * ‘HM ‘ppod
S[OOYOS [VUOT}VN YSN] Ur
“6 \N1Z-9Ts “¥ . % qvusnop | ° *, puRely ‘00g ‘447g | MOTZoNpyY [wOORIg puL [eLYsnpuy Jo UA oY, | * SopreyO ‘uosmeq
qsniy, JUetmMeAcIdmy Aj MOSsepTH oy Jo }
% (99-664) “ILARX. | * ; * “OOlg | * “00g "TIYd MossepH | suotyetedg ayy Jo synsoy ayy pure Aroqs(F oy, | JoNTANG “wTOYSTYO
. UOIPTIGD pe2SonN pu ojngqtyseq
: jo jyeyog uo uoje[sisey ULoLIOUy pue
9681 SIZ-SFI ‘x : : qpuinor | * * puPpery ‘00g ‘4eqg | ‘[eIMOTOD ‘USsIEIOg spiesoI sv sTIvjoq IoqjIN | “WY SSI 4QerIVg
a ete ne
A ae ee oy ge eS ee Ea eee
2 © « wa Bete ae ee
REPORT—1897.
54
ee) Mls FO we ee
“
oc
9681
L681
968T
peyst]
“qnd
6I-T
166-616
6ST-SST
13-106
90T-OT
P8I-S8T
GIG
966 PGG
O6T-LLT
9-99
FOE-L6G
F8-FL
662-466
69G- LIS
GET-86T
T8-OL
98T-GLT
LII-LOT
66-GEG
GEE-16E
SOT-€6
10S-G6F
89E-SFE
016-006
SGI-T91
eaug
418 q 10
awnjoA
a ae
f ‘sume,
. “cc
. “cs “
98UT “Pay “SWHLT,
* “SUDLT
“pul ‘pay “suv,
* SULT,
“cc
"PSUy “pay ‘sUD4y
. . “ee
* ‘SUDNT,
“
“98Uy ‘pay ‘SULT,
: : * "SUDLT
“
. “
. “a it
“"28Uy ‘Pay “SWDLT,
"20.
UOTwOTGN JO OTT,
oar “ul “4suy “pay
* + “qsuy “Sug *“N
* ‘90g “qf [ood ary
“ysuTJUNOD "PLAT F109S9TD
. . “qsuy ‘Suq 'N
‘Bug “UNTY “SUT “pag
* 00g “Wf [ood ary
. . ‘4ST ‘Buy ‘Nn
* "goog "ysuy Sururyy
“ “ec
“ce “
‘Sug “UI JSUT “pag
‘qsuy ‘yunop “PIN “FreqseyO)
* 009 " Tood ArT
‘SUG “UW SUT “py
* “Sug “4suy “pr
‘SUG “UN “ISUT “pag
* 90g “MT Jood, ary
‘Sug “SU PULTPI
‘Sug “UL YSU “pay
* + qsuy “Sug “N
"00g "Td MosseTH
Ayar0g
JO OPEL, paqeracrqqy
szyeqs
auras pue suuog jo wmoysfg uuemsruopy
, sivay Sur19e4g o1jnerpAH pur wiva49
* uoisuvdxg Aq Ulepl SUISTY [VOIWIOA B SUIQITT
sodoy
Suljney{ 10 Surpury, soy Suydnop surdg y
suoTye10dQ,
Sura, 07 Ayorqospq yo uowyvoyddy oyy,
Sugg
BOLIOULY YJION JO
soyejg U1a4svm-yINOY ay} Jo A1ysupuy [VoD oy,
uojMmeyH ‘ArOrT[OH ArIoqaTIsIT AA 7B FURL
Sutuvspo-[wop + pue ‘ssuayjy-sorjsng ‘suryurg
Supyais qyeyg jo sseoorlg Ssulzoaay y10qOH OYJ,
: * 1OYM SUIPUIAA TOF soouvrlpddy
Arar[[op
qouperquely 4e oulsag Suidung jediurg oq,
* oasetnezy Arepuooag
: * Aysnq you ynq sq oq Avut oul B MOTT
* gr9Tlog oUlIeyy UI UOTSNqmoD
SoljTeNseD 4UI0eI JUIOS UO SOON
yqia ‘digg preog uo Arourpoey, Suryero.ctjoy
‘ OpVI], [VOD 9} 0} UOTYV[er Loy} puv s{emTrey
. . .
AIOYION TPH UOZVOV 9¥ AqorsyoaT| JO osQ oyL,
sumeqshg 10q}0 pue Jouesa
:SioTlog Wag SUM OZ [eoM pelopmog
soouvl[ddy 1104} pus syI0\\ VsvIaMag
$ * S208} TreaduoT UO SUI}INO-[BOH OII{09TT
SPIPYPION UeIpUy oy,
SUTIOqUITy, SUL FO Spoyyo Ystur0y
AMOSSETD
Jooursug Areqaeg ‘ueyong “gd “MA ‘TI 9] OU,
“UL ‘Tes10quezqoryT
* *e'q ‘sTTOMoH |
* THRITT TAA ‘OULOFT
“AA “H ‘SMO
* udjsoy ‘Aeprjoy
‘SH
‘Jog ‘meysopoy
* yYelmeler ‘pvoyy
c somvrp ‘orjseyy
Vv god)
. “
M ‘emoryey
* 981004 ‘19TMO0,7
* EL ‘Tipsryog
: “q ‘Alouuey
qUusMIE[D ‘SplIvApiy
kep
-T[OY] uA[soy pur
“ISH ‘proyuing
* uefkig ‘unuog
“Hh “A ‘tadoog
* "Wd LL ‘exrelo
* WO “V ‘uojarreyO
° ‘ap ‘urdeqo
* souvp ‘s1oueyy -
rode g JO apt,
*(panu2Uuod) AONHIOG TYOINVHOEW—Y 2027009)
IOYNY JO suey
. aqor marerTOW |
|
55
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES,
LG68T) 66-96 GI packing *‘sunaz ) 009 ‘VAN Te) ‘UNG |] * 907g yuoIoUY Ue UO poqiIosuT ,euNqIOT.y, |* semer “mnoqied
‘ ‘dH 'd
9681 |OFT-SET| “ITAX | * . * 900i |* ‘O’A'V HN 2s810q | * 3 * ¥IOMYAIeM pues YOINYO UoYMouYy | Ig “asy “ToxVA
LGO8L| 8h-8E ra : ‘suns | ‘009 “V"H ‘N ‘Tey ‘wing | * ¢ : . p * aIOTYOT weoqyiry |* Tenureg “4jouLy
anhalt i Ath >is NR Ha: re ma ee
*IDOTOdOUHINY—' FT wousag
espe dees bast why tb.” a te a ee ee eee ee ee
uorepiuesg pue WOoTy
-emesieury Jorg YIM Suiysnip Aq : uoly
“ Ig9e-198 - . a x -OBI}XT PION Jo ssoooig soyex-mmyytyorym oF, |* * Ugor ‘soyeX
SOUISUM SUIPULM IATVA-OpI[G psourleg
“ |183-86 s we « : % g 0} pordde seveyH uolsuvdxy o[qeizeA O1yemIoyny | * He a
p Aratyjoo epyseoudpy
L68T |SF6-8Es = ie - * Bug ‘UIP '9SUl ‘pag | JV quel Suyzig pue Saryeerq-[eop eyowry}AyY | ° "dM ‘SUSE
“ leZ1-e21 g «6 MS “qsuygunoD pry ‘J103saqO | * a : . + Surouag Ajozeg doy-q1g | * Woomtg ‘uosze
(sserppy Tetaep
968T |69T-SET = uf 4 : ‘Sug ‘asuy puvypryy | -Iserq) sxeeurSuq Surat, Jo uoyvonpy oy, | * HI “9 TOXTeM
s19q90 4jIM poreduioo sv pue ‘quesolg pue
“ |T99-8F9 4 K ui . ‘Sug ‘sur ‘yeig ‘g | ysvg ‘sourSuq Surdumg ysrus0g jo nq ony, |* *“N ‘Hexysery,
Surpurmzaag Jo saseo Ul s}Ig JO Teed
“ l99g-$99| “IIX iss és ‘qsuy‘qunog' pry "J19qseyO | -peezT a4} ut sedeg Suyroddng soy sdord-Ayozeg | UBIYSEqQeEg *O'UITUS
oufy-aodn-me[f£M rveu ‘Arat{[OD ava :
L68T \661-E6T| ‘ITIX "SUT. ‘PAT "SUDLT, | * * -qsuy ‘Sum 'N | -eIv[Q 3e syyeyg OMY, Jo sulyulg oy} uO sojON |*° ‘UZ ‘aosd unig
sdiyg ;
968T |16G-066| “ITAX : : “"suDuy, | * * ‘90g "mf pood,ary | ureayg Joy oxeIg s,uosduIg jo woTdrioseq | * * -y ‘uosduarg
L68T |F6F-88F ‘TIX ""ISUy “pay ‘SUDLT | * - ‘qsuy ‘sag 'N | ° : C S}STSINI [VIO JO Worywonpy oy, | * aptarg ‘Avyg
Siopudy, PUL SOULSUY OST JO UoIyepourmoD0y
“ | 98-16 Y ee SASS CBee ayy roy yodeaq aayouoooy ev Jo uordr0seq | * "DM {9909
SUIyIOAA pue WorjONAWsUOD
‘supa, | * — * =~ 00g ‘mf Jood, ary | ato} Sayooye suortpucg :skemprey qqsry |* JepuBxely ‘ssoxy
SOUT [20D Ur
.
SP StiESsrl “ITAK | * OS
968T |STE—90E IX Ww a + Sug -urpy ‘gsuz po | Aqrortzo0p9 Jo esq oy} Ur AressoooU suoTJNEOIIg | ‘M “H ‘MeYSOAvY
“ lgg9-ge9 t o 2 *qSUyJUNOD PIP 'F1E9seqO | * : Aroyoo Aejsvapq ye osepney OL1ZO9T HT uBqyeUoL plop sotq
L68I |8E9-EE9} ‘IIX ‘ysur pag ‘supy, | * 6° Bug ysur ‘pi, | * *— Atatq[o9 Aoysvorg qv oseiney ozOeT| |" Uo ‘pr0yzssig
9681 | 09-6F ‘TIAX > : *"SUDLT | * * "00g “M Tood, ary | ° * sodig 1omeg UL soIn[Ieq outos UO SaqON | * “A UqoL ‘ured
42qstN
: UeULION pue
LO8T |9FI-TFT}| 9 “TITX “PSU “pag “SUDuy, | * * ISU VSUGNT |e peteerme tea. Tepe 3 Sururur-[eop wo sojoN | ‘uouresty ‘eTqON
9681] 6&-18 | ‘IIAX |° j * ‘swpuy, | * * ogg yoodary]/* * * » * -sqeig Suravg pepyyry |* Imgyy ‘Woysnyy
Surpura-[vop Jo uorydnss0zUy noTyTA
nest lro-ze9] oo ctrx lt asur par super, | * 6 * =~ “Sum asuz pry | AterTI09 q903pr7 9 yyeug B JoyuomosIE~Ug on | “a ArueH ‘AqI1FI |
1897.
REPORT
eo)
wD
9G8T |FET-L3I
LOST |OST-80T
968T |L0T-101
TS-62
L681 see!
“ \6LT-9TT
I6LT-8LT
Fe | kre
“ lP2t-101
“1913-602
“| 99-9g
968T \ISS-ShS
“1996-996
LOST |F9S-19
“ I861-Z61
“ J0ZI-611
96ST |\FSI-6LT
L68L| 99-99
9681 | $3-06
CN camo
L681 | L97-E
** 1996-F92
eae iy
9681 /891-F9T
IL1-891
L681 |LFI-SEI
peyst]
-qug aseg
‘IIL
$6-868T
Wd TTX
mat
IX
IW3d TTX
$6-€68T
“cc
TIL
TIAX
‘III
96-681
ae
96-S68T
GL
“AI
F6-C68T
B:O:6:«
WH
eae
qavg 10
auUIN[OA
. . .
00NT
* SUDLL
‘suDLy, pun 2Loday
SUYDINZONT LOLYD IT
yoouguunyy. MOvT UX
" $ gouinor
: . * “20e
: * ‘SUDLT,
0.
YSDUWUUDTY 4D0VT UT
. . . “
* *SUDL],
d0lq pun 2Lodaay
. ° . 6
* “SUDLT,
‘sUDLy, puv qLodary
. . . “cc
. . . “cc
* ‘SUDLT
sUOrzBOITIQN” JO 8ATL
* "9 WE'V HN 810g
‘003 “V “H ‘N ‘18D “und
‘00g "VO “AN ‘HeIS 'N
‘O° “D'S 'S XeHTPEH
"009 "V “H 'N Uri JO T
* "9 ZN edoqjoo,
‘009 “H “N “V “W8}08,UI0g
J 008 ‘Td “IT 100d ary
: {00g ‘soay ‘your
‘009 “H 'N “V “YS}08,UO§
= +9 <a (N edoyoom
. “ec
‘D ‘a syuRHy
» O'd V'H'N 998100
‘008 ‘V ‘H'N Ue Jo TI
' "OH ‘N ‘WW wopsorp
009 ‘V “H‘N ‘8p ‘ung
“009 ‘Id "H 'N ISPJIO
300g "¥ “H.N Tep “ming
"O ‘g ueyong
"9° '9 <a *N edoqqoo A,
‘00g VO ‘d ‘N ‘HVS 'N
* 100g "HOLY “H 'N “AN
008 ‘V “HN Te) “Und
Suryeur
-yolg pu 410340g uo WOFVeTOSSICT TROWOISTH
ue YA ‘seqqy TOTAL ‘jeqseg ye More
ysyiig @ pue Oey spud YsyMgq-ourmMoy B UO
aayssongun Jo sou0jg URUIOY peqiIosuy OY,
: {Z0jowyory—oday [euoryoag
XUJIeH JO Ystvg oy} punore pur Ul spur]
“lool et} UO UIT IAOJsIyoIg JO sadueptAq
: WOL}O9g [eoLsojow@yory ay} Jo yxodoayy
; yoyo AajsunjT Ul punofz 904g paqitosuy
* STI wopusrg oy} UO SMOIIeg OA\,
Aqiporay{ «FO syoodsy usopoyy
(‘sosodind [eting 03 peyoAap puevy jo
qunome ere] ey) ‘peed oy} OJ oynqQIIy, s,euIyD
* queullequy Ystjiug jJuoMUy uy
(wanan{ig 27094 ) yUAA
-10eQ pus (unin{Ig wosy) ysp-uodn-wospte%D
uoydmeyynog Jo pooy
-IMOqySION oY} wos suodveM ozuo1g yusTOUy
S[Oaviy 004
-dmvyynog ey} Jo syuomoldmy o1gytpoweg oy,
G68T PUe Fest
daymp meyseyiog yw punoy syuomedmy yur
* uorjoag [eorsojodoryjuy Jo y10deyy
SUAMO(T
anes eqy uo TNUINy, smos JO sjuazuOH OUT,
AIVIEM}Y oy} JO sSOMVN IdLTq OY} JO omMos uO
(eimyoarT) yuomvUIO Jo AL09STAT
oq} Ur gaydeqg V “parler, 04 qdksy wor
: JOsIO OMoysIyarg WV
snSuvie}j0,q Jo Auoivg oy,
pivfmoig qvou ‘au0jsuy 4v OSNO}T
uoeSig plo ue jo suoyepunog Jo Asosoostq
pa7oa[[OH oq OF ST 4I MOY pUe ‘SL OIOTA[OMT FETAL
eqowreyd ayy Jo sormumnyy oy JO ATOAOOST, OUT,
- * SUOTIIG 9B SUOT}BAVOXT JuddeIT
SOIT, UPPIO If} UL SUsxUSTH OTL,
. .
. . . .
A£ya10g
JO O9LL poyeraciqq y
qadvg Jo o}1J,
‘(panuszUo0) AHOTOCOMHLNY— 7 20270906)
‘o'r
‘(fap se, {-Tesueyl
‘fe Id ‘preuopoeyy
. . 9) ‘cavudry
: qtaqory ‘avery
‘OW ‘d ‘pourra yy
‘TW ‘Aoy ‘aoqgdozy
“iT ‘Ady ‘yooourpy,
‘WO “f£ Ad ‘uaatH
* ‘qi caoy ‘ardyey
. “L aH ‘AY IOM
* soumep ‘soTaAvd
e ° “
? "A ‘oe
* + ‘uoysurumng
“WV SSH “Urper9
* "0°H ‘te4TI09
* "Y ‘pat ‘selop
* as10ay ‘fayoo
‘fH Id ‘yoouuryyD
“Vy ‘aoyy ‘slowpeyO
. - "Ty “iL AR)
‘gaqjopreyyH ‘ouing
“LT soRe10yy ‘UMOIg
. “ “e
* sotave ‘imoqivg
ION Jo suey
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES,
“
9681 | 98-16
€c-91 | ‘IIIAXX
8IZ-ZI3| “AT
18-83 6L
12-61
9G-GS “AT
O9I-FST ‘I
9g¢-sec| “III
99-8F ral
602-81 y
I61- 61 ‘III
GL-L9 IIAX
GIT-8I1 $
GO1-&6 ‘4
96-36 ‘Til
Gt-IF IIIA
GPI-ZFI| F6-S681
8- | 96-S68T
PSt-13F ‘II
€6-G6 “A
OZI-8IT] ‘IIL
163-892 ma!
9ST-I81 ‘III
S6I-I61 uy
09-99 | #6-868T
96-S68T
. . . “ce
‘SUDL,
*20Lq
‘ : * SUDLT,
: : * 20g
yboupwunyy evovy ux
*20uq
“ “e
YOnuniuvyy LvovpuUg
. . .
"0b
* ‘SUDLT
* gL0dayy
* BUYVDINIDOAT “YI0I
pode IY PUD "SUDLT,
: * "SUDLT
, $ * -20nq
* ‘SUDLT
* 20ucT puv pLoday
a Y * "SUDL
"00g “JN BIpIUN
"009 [Id “HT 103s0010]
00g “V 'H'N ‘Tey “wnq
"'O ‘q weyong
‘O “A ITRA “Aeg pur “ae
. . .
‘0 ‘A squey
009 "V'H'N ‘Tey ‘ung
* "009 [IY “qT ood ary
‘008 “V “HN ‘wey JO 'T
’ ‘Oa Wag Ee Na ISSO
* "009 “V ‘H ‘N Weyl JO 'T
g * "909 ‘4eN [OISIIG
: “"O “A ‘N edoyjoom
‘008 ‘TITd “HN wow s11g
* ") ‘Ni Iaqsaqooyy
¥ *00Q “B0ay) ood ary
* 00g ‘YOIY “H ‘N “yang
* "009 “1d “IVT Tood avy
* ‘009 "Gory “H 'N “Hug
sd te be
* +9 aN edoqqooy
“008 TH BN ached
7 avuons
‘ : * sypouloerg [empeyjyep Yepurly
aITys194se01e'T ‘LoTqAO
WOIF SUleMET Yst}Ig posoddus omos uo
usaruyoory pue oysiqy
yo soysTTed 94} UI Sji6,qQ 10 sdurvy oulos ug
* (emgoeT) sperreg ysts300g
0 G , > * —- ayysep reqjyouung
(910499'T )
oJIT [eulUy jo somurg pue syjAy{ omog
Ayunog oy} Jo souvent
d0V[q 94} Ul paureyuo0d sao qualouy 1ey}0
pus OMOISIGoIG oy} JO asensuey oy} Jo sooviy,
: somiqy SUdIpTIyO pur sprog Jeppy
: : * sulemoy oluny su0s UG
uel
JO 9ST 94} FO SIOTY[OY 94} OF SMOTyNGIA}ZU0H
aTIsVQ e109
{jemuayserg 4e yisodaq snosovyny,
USPPIW-UsyoUM OIGITTOON Ajreqy «uy
: * ssdIppy [eI}UepIserg Sawnay
WOT}VI}SNI[I IOF WeUO'TT 07 doUdIITOY
reyeds jt ‘(UOIstAIG] puvy xueyT ve) sudery,
: * yoo Aepsuro0g, XUB]T GT,
. : qesioulog ‘u0}4qsy
S007 auatt suleorey Ysyuig yuenuy suu0g
dureg Aojtsurrey
(ssorppy Temsne
-u[) ssorso1g oyUEIOg Jo suoTyepunoy oJ,
(samyoaT Inoy Fo yovyysqy) soymbyuy
ysnuey 0} doUaIOzeI TeIoadsoa qyIM ‘Acojow@yoIy
2 * predayy out jo o[doag ,satyvo-uryy , OY,
SquUI0Nv,VH ULULOY OTT,
: " surOSsn) snorsi[ou pue oyseurod, npurH
* aqqy wepxo1p
Ainqpe'T rvsu preypeg
Apy ‘ayy Aq punoz soyeyy AU wo syremoy
Jajsoqousy ‘Ie\\ MON ey
jo spunory out Ul osplig uemMoy pesoddns oy,
(91nyoorT) uviy
JO SpurIsy YyNog 94} pue ‘AvrImuIstuuy ‘AIOT,
yo ALOT ALOU pur ‘smoysug [eIoog ‘soymbyuy
* (ssorppy) ASotodorgyuy ut satpnyg
Ivou
pue
yUSTAI[O ‘WOIpPTeAA
ueul
“NIT, “MM ‘axon,
‘H
‘f ‘Ady ‘uosmoNy,
"TM ‘top hey,
some ‘aouedg
‘D ‘§ ‘teyynog
“MT, “aroyg
soup ‘mvyg
*‘f ‘Aay ‘uoyqdag
* "yd ‘ropa0ry
quemalpD ‘prey
ec “cc
uyor ‘Ady ‘aunt
‘gd ‘V Aq ‘esmorg
mena ‘sdipiqd
“fH “qarn0yiy40g
asi00x ‘aukvg
‘H'O ‘f ‘seyied
* *M ‘BatTpoO
qsaurg “f ‘SUIAeN
* 7 ‘UOxoyT
“ “
1199 ‘H ‘9100]
VEG ‘UeSTTTITL
"PAT ‘ao sTPPIA
1897
REPORT:
58
9681 [eze-1ze| 968T OM | * ANvUNIAT >YT ‘woTUQ “FEN ‘syIOX | * 96ST ‘TT Ame uo Aoqqy eyooy ye punoy BSTY **N “Pf ‘e009
L68T |801-S0T TA is is . 4 i purer ur ‘yung ‘szswabungsypy wispy dng a Seas
“1808-10 th ae ss : J es OS1[g ‘0p ‘sureyUNOy XO oT} JO VIO[T 94} UO '
9681] Z8T “A QSUDINIOAT YSIbT * "O°" CN UlTquqg * pueyary ut (und) vsouqun vrwvjnydosog * "NI ‘uespop
“ 1061-681) L681 10,4 PBUYVINIONT IYI, uo “YN ‘SyxIOZ ¢ , ; * sasso]{ O[2pIOppIN Sulog | * ‘e TT ‘sx900
qso10,q Surddy ut pury
L68T |9&3-S&2 ‘XI ISUYVINIDAT Wass * ‘oq xossq | -poOoM OY} JO JUOMIOSvULI AY} WO SUOIZBAIOSYO ‘NO SWogxng
(S68T
ae oe) 06 ‘ * "8UDLT * WOT “JEN ‘syIOX | ‘ssorppy TeUeptserg) sessoyT jo Apnyg oUy, | “A Id ‘apeMY erg
9681T| L-¢ ‘II 7 spDUUup ‘009 JBN UBIUOSIOpUY | * (vunjuow snuyQ) saya YOAM YOO MLL | * * uyor ‘psog
proy3uryo 7 wNesnY yse10,q 949 UT poyueserd
FPG EFS *X1 * B82 DINIVAT LISS 5 * ‘9 <q xessq | -a1 oq plnoys Aq} Moy pur ‘sary, se10q INO | SD *FOId ‘Je8[nog
86-96 ‘T BwUYVINIDAT YLYOET ‘O° OD S'S XVINIVH |’ : 3 5 Z i + qrodey yenuay | wooag [voruvyog
L681} O8S-LL | LE8T TOM | * 781D4N2VAT OY * mol) “FEN ‘SYTOX | * * garqsvouery ur “qq ‘Sy27vnby waumg |* inyyy ‘yoUUEg
wor}
968T |IFI-8E1| PE-E68T ; “SUD, "ON odoqjoom, | -vzurdsuvxy, susuaa poog :Sx2O JO YIMOIH OUT | * dyryg ‘stAeg
meyIndg
YNog pue olYysyIOX YWON OF sorqptyeoory
jeuorIppe yyIM ‘ ayepAe[sueM PUR sTeprJep
LGO8LISSI-GLI| LEST JOM | * ysagvunguar ay,7, * MOIUQ “VN ‘SyIOX | -PIN JO VIO]A SSOP 9} 1OF SpLoosyY Mou oULOS * ‘ay ‘soureg
‘uury ‘sndow
leeeriea) SITAX : : * 200g |* ‘OAV H'N 208I0q | -409 obvzumpg Jo AqotxeA SILYsyesiog Meu B UO | “H punupyA ‘Taye
968T | OL-99 | “XXX ‘supty pun quoday | ‘00g °Y ‘OA 'N ‘BRIS "N | * j . . fuejog—podey [euoryoag | * "v ‘¢ ‘Aorpny
‘ANVLOG —‘y woroagy
pS) os a ee: Oi en ees oe Cee ane ee Se es
T&-06 | “ITTAX s*sunty | * * goog ‘qsuy Sururpy | * suolsopdxg Arot[oO ur yyveq Jo sosnvH eyL |S “Cf AC ‘ouepleH
* sayorvasay yueoey Jo mora ut Apnyg [eo1soy
“| 98-06 | ‘ITAXX 2 Ee | 0 009 "[IYq MOSsepH | -omjeg B +: sasvestq 9AT}OaFUT OF Ayvunwamy | “Lf “Ford ‘s}zeop
9681} 901-86] “IIAX * "sUDuy | * * -qoog “4suy Sutury | * ‘ Sururd-[vop Jo suoI}IPUOH WITVOH OUT, |* “SVC ‘UeUMOIIEg,
||
peyst]
“ad
ase Wd TO | uovorqng Jo OL uate: jodvg Jo a1L aoyyNy jo oumyy
ouIN]O A JO-OTEL Peywraaiqqy
‘ADOTOISAHG—'J U0oagy
59
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
9681
968T
“cc
L68T
GoI-T@l
LU-1h
OFI-6ET
96-696
F6I-98T
LYI-SPI
OGF-LIF
10F-68§
L8E-€8§
LL
186-086
LPT-LEL
69-99
P86-LLS
8FG-1h6
t8I-89T
LOT-T9I
€8-18
801-F01
| 6-1
¢9¢-ag¢
69-19
&&
gg
PSI-8F1
8-1
‘TIT
L6O8L 100
TA
“A
96-S68T
L681 100
‘II
L68T 107
‘TI
TA
ae
“A
968T 10
‘TA
“XI
‘ddy
968T 10
‘I
“XI
Ybouruunyy svorv7y Ux
* SY DINIOAT 9Y,T,
* WYDINION YStLT
* "SUDLT
* PBYVINION OUT,
* ISUDINIOAT *Y903T
* QSUDINIDAT OT
* ‘SUDLT
* JSUYDUNQUAT Y8LT
* BSYyDINQOAT YT,
° “
* ‘SUDA,
qpusnor
* SUDLT
ByvINIONT cvfyneT
* PSY DINJON PYT,
“ce “
qsyvLngun wvfyozy
: 2 EL
* “SUDLT
784 DANQOAT WORE
* "009 ‘V "H 'N Wey Jo 'T
; * UOlUg ‘VN ‘SxIO_
‘0 “aA (N Und
* "OH 'N ‘W vopfoip
* — * MOU, “FEN ‘SYLOX
"Cl 'N Jaqysoqoory
: * MOIUQ “VN ‘SyIOX
‘OD (a SUPT
a ‘009 “FEN “MION “FLON
‘008 ‘V "HN Te) ‘and
F * "O°" N Urrqud
: *uoluy) 4JeN ‘syx10zR
ty 6“
* "909 “JBN ‘AION "JION
* + 009 *H ‘N 04,N
S * "009 "H 'N SHoqRT
* ‘0 A) 8S XeTeH
: * UOIUQ “FEN ‘SyIOZ
' "0 WD ‘S'S XeTeH
"+ 1008 "HN 003,.N
‘003 "V HN ‘Tep “wng
s O “Wl Xessy
WOTJOIG TwoLUejog 94} Jo y10doxy
2 * squv[g UomMoD omos Jo AIstMeYD oY],
: * puvyaly JO 4Sva-YyNog 94} WOIZ spoamvag
* -YSnoT WSeJP_ JO Opts YIION oy} Worz asly
wolpeUr[Od JO Spoyjzo]
QUIOS :SJULTG SUMIOMOTY JO UOTZeSI[TYAOT YY,
puriiequmny ‘u0z.sur
-YIOM JVIU SJUL[G sey IaYyJO pu Vagn7 vI014
: * : * snipey o[im-aoy, mo jo viorq
: * gIlYSvouRy oye] 10J sp1099y Que MON
*plig, ‘wngasia
-ind wnbajsoouhyyy se poepriooer ATsnotserd
‘opr qunjjaua, uniyouhyimgy ssoy, 9Y4 U0 930N
* qgoLqysiq, YyNowIeA 4ywaLH Jo VIOLA
(wary ‘Tsung ‘sueyor]) syuelg poog
ul[qua Jo 41vayy
ony Uy punorskerd jooyog wv jo Auvjog oxy,
*. gILysupooury [Nog Jo sassoyy
: * AanS[Oy JO VIOLT 94} 09 WoTNqII4WUOH V
purldey UBISSNY JO VOLT IY} 07 UOTQNGII4WUOH Y
GEST ‘SUOTZVAIOSqO [eoIso[oueyg
Pl0F410
JO pooyimoqysieN oY} UL poqzooT[OO sassoyT
: , * xXvyTeH FO YSMV_ oy} JO VIO, OL
punoz
seqnedg jo asrry yg ‘Aqjag 4v Aerog susun jy
: (opumosnue myyumury ) onEsy ALA OUL
* UOTIVIOSU YT
snl wnwmopyay gp
dILYSSoLIpUNG 4SomM-qIAON
UL YIM Jour squv[_q Jorey jo 4sl'T poyejouay
prozsuryo 7e UNesny_ 4s910,7 94} ut poyuosord
-a1 aq plnoys Aeq} Moy pur ‘IduNg xXessy ayy,
. . . .
‘IV's
‘AOY ‘Qpoulloy
‘Od ‘Iq ‘wessey
SoyTMouy
‘0 “W Sst pus
“ZT, ‘Jorg ‘uosuyor
uBuUsueyy ‘Wf SSI
# “ L Jorg ‘uosugor
UOJINTY * AA ‘SOULLOF
WRITIIM ‘wosspoR
* myor ‘qj10Mdey_
: uyor ‘Aru 7T
‘a ‘a
‘Aoy «= ‘aJooJVOP
. ‘H » ‘Sle yL
. * Jaqyog ‘Avin
‘dT ‘A0y ‘aosqry)
* "MM ‘AaYy SaTMO
yep) “CH ¥
“MH 100 ‘Wepre
. N ‘H ‘dOxIq
‘ -ysng ‘aoz1eg
. ‘aM ‘dumig
“ “
, ‘0 ‘pue[ssolp
. . wt ‘£09
. uyor ‘et110p
* "0 “W ‘3d ‘84009 ,
1897.
REPORT
60
eo) eddy td Ie re
‘Ss hate OIL pine
“ \930-€31| “IITAX
1118-606] “AT
“| §9-T9 a
> MOTELS ‘TII
9681 |OSI-SZI| PE-E6ST
L681 | FL-F9 oP
Nhat ‘XI
“ 106T-LLT ‘TI
me itggoule $
968T | Z0Z-006 “A
“ l9FS-FFS] “AT
L681 | $3-Z3 SI
9681| FOE | 968T 104
1681 | 26-83 use
ef (ddy) ‘
68-1
* (186-982 ss
96ST SEs EZ) FE-E6ST
‘ GSI
1681 | #8-18 | L68T 104
CH Tl
“ce G8-¥8 “
9681 | &8 Si
POUSIT] oSp d 4iBg 10
-qug smnj[oA
OO
sppUuy
"D0
* SUDLT,
PSUDANIDA LVLYVTT
. . . “cc
. .
* ‘SUDLT,
* guodaay
. . . “
* SUDLT,
. “e “<
* PSNVINION 8b]
: : qpuLnor
* “SUDLT
* QsUDINIDNT OT
* BUDUNIDAT WassT
* “SUD,
. “ “oe
.
* 98YDLNION OUT
: : sppUu yy
“
. »
7PUuULNOL
woHworTANg JO OTH,
009 “H ‘N “V ‘Uses mI0g
* "00g ‘4eN uvIMOsiopuy
" ‘0 WV "HN esr0q
"909 ‘Td “HVT 10989010
' O°‘) ‘S'S xeeH
* 00g “WoIV “HN “Hug
‘ * "OD “A 'N edoyjooa,
* ‘009 "HN ‘TI9O “Quy
‘008 "H 'N SHOH
* ‘00g "WOIY “H ‘N “yng
. . “e “
‘0 ‘AH “N arqnd
: ‘009 "H 'N Aossepy
‘08 °V “H'N ‘189 “und
5 * MOIUQ “YN ‘SyIOX
.
tone) sar Oe
a . ““ “
O ‘d ‘N edoyjoom
* + WOIU “IBN *SHIOX
, “008 LING | el hed A
‘008 "H 'N U09,.N
4);er0g
JO OTFLT, Poyeraorqq y
104) juotupeyst qsery : qosromog Jo vI0L iT “OUL
. * sassop eepsopé[O,
OFTT ered
-as0A Jo AyIOVUAaT, JO soowR\sUT OMI, TO soqON
’ * squerd ysyig jo sameyy teyndog omog
juuNqny pur suridg ut woo;lg stoop op ATA
(681 ‘ssorppy [eyuep
-ISAIQ) UL] OF WONVOY UL stUstUvs.10-O10TP
artys
-pl0ja1oy] UI SoaT], YVO SUT JO syuoMoMseaTYT
: YSHolog[ AV] Wsu syURTg UO SsuOT}eAIOSqG
(aInjoa'yT JO JORIYSC VY) WOIWOAIIT s}I JO suvay
oy} pus YoRyV JO opoyy Toy} : ung orqrseavg
CI 94eq) pooy
-MOQYSION PUB FUWOIT-WO-ToOJING JO VIOL,T OU,
ABMTRY ‘0D
‘qoorquolD jo BIO[.T pue vung oy} UO saqoN
* — MOTIBD ‘OD UT poqd9T[00 woryedayy
: * JITSUMOJSTAA—CGST OF SOION [voruLjog
* GG8T Loy SoJON [VoTUROg
9S8T “JOMASIC, projyvayg Jo smoyerq
sotoodg 4sor0,q Surddyy ayy uo saqyoN YIM
‘eozoqo0AP OY} Jo Apnyg oy} UO syUTF [VOTORIG
+ aIIYsproyore]T] JO VIOLA OY} 0} SHONNTPPY
SULIOT O[QUIBIG MON 991,
TqNH WS MON OAT,
* yemsog Arua zT
‘OT Y “OC?” “Vg ‘HOH SvmMOUy, : weIOomeT uy
: ep4io ou} JO ONISIC IMUIUEY O43 JO SJUBId
aso[O ysng odroqyssury
woydueg}.10
‘SUOTVAIOSGQ [BOLso[ousyg
. . . .
. ’ ’ ‘ .
Ivou waye} ‘9G8T
jodvg Jo oy,
"A ‘YW Ao ‘Avra
* some ‘Cerny
. .
“A ‘o[noyy
‘La ‘HOW
“HO ‘SSO
. .
‘HD “IC ‘SMIOTT
* [loa “A ‘e100
. + + ‘yortAaq
* 981004) ‘[assvy[
s10q}0
“urn “gq ‘gq ‘mosey
Iosovig
TI ‘H pue “ef
“a Iq ‘Aous9 MIT
* pra “erpry,W
“ “
soture ‘MaIpUyoTL
* uyopr iq ‘eMoT
* Imyyry ‘1984svT
. “s “
. a“ “
aqsnsny ‘Ady ‘Ae'T
. at “ec
* pjoury ‘J ‘see'T
u “y uyor ‘80'T
. “ “
: * £QUIM ‘MT
qoyqyny jo oulBNy
pS SS eee a a Ec a a a a es ee es -*
: *(panurquod) XNVLOG—y
uwoujoag
e >
61
NDING SOCIETIES.
SPO.
CORRE
L681
968T
L681
968T
“
“
L681
968T
“
L68T
968T
L68T
“
968T
L681
“
S616
GLE-LIE
866—&66
6LI-LOT
OFI-EET
6SE-S6E
9TE-60€
GIG LPG
88I-T8t
gé-sT
9LT-ELT
8gT-LZE1
996 Soe
6t-G
FSG-LLS
€6-16
Lh-GG
961-681
861
SEL-GEI
SLL
96-61
O0T-g6
ILF-SOF
I61-LLT
00T-68
66-666
TSG 6F6
661-€6T
BLI-LLI
L68T 100
968T 107
L681. ION
“
“ce
9681 107
9681 10d
LG8T 10g
"AT
L68T 10,4 \
9681 10,4
T
‘Il
9681 100
LG8T IOT
SI
XI
L68T 104
‘Il
JN
L681, TOW
PSYDINION OUT
0 qodary
ee
QSUDANIDAT YT,
: Joumor
ISYOINION OUT,
# UYDINIDAT LVJYO ET
: spnuuy
oe “
ISNDLNJON PUL
. . “ce
( * ‘SUDA
PBUYVINION YT,
JSUVINIDAT *Y9ORT
hS * *SUDLT,
“cs “
“ os
“ec a3
“ “ce
PSUYDINJON YSVLT
“ “
: ‘UOIUQ “JUN ‘SYIOX
O08 “dd BOR
' * UOlUGQ “JEN ‘SyIOX
: 009 ‘HH 'N Mossepy
: * MOIUQ “JeN ‘SyIOX
* "O°H'°9'S 'S XUTPH
* ‘009 ‘WeN uvTUOSsIapUuy
: * UOIUA) “JBN ‘SYIOX
‘008 “V H'N [89 “aud
209 “HE ‘N sWoH
: * WOU “YVN ‘SxIOX
"2 “N Jaqysoqooyy
‘009 “TI YW] 104s9010'T
. . ““ “cc
. . “ce “cc
. . te “ce
Od ON Uqud
. . sc “
* ssvis-o4y pue ssers-M0p
$9}0O Jeary ye sysTTeINyeN sIlysupoouryT
auIMog 7e sysl[VIMyeN s11Tysupooury
. . .
‘ —- syUB[_ aITYsUpOOULT Jo onsoTeywO [ROWIO W
CIIT Wed)
Ayowoog yeorydosoytyd 9aTysxIOX oq} 70
WNWeqIdy] oy UL SJUvT{ YS Jo onsoyezep
* —- SaSSOT[ BITYSHIOX 4S9A\ puw [[emsog Aru9y
VSly 1ayVMYsol JO WOrOeTJOH ey} UC
Urey
0} Mou snsung eB “IW ‘snsoz71q)ng snepiquog
* puvja1omyse\\ FO tosnyy, pue woyedayzy oy} uO
Aa[VA WepqeayT oy} UT sossoyy
aiysidy Ul SUOTSIMOXG JO spr1099yy
PLPyaLy, pue [[eypovH Ye S|st[VnzEN oITYSyIO X
OITYSYIOX
0} Mou ‘orjeday oIeYy v :wwswyaynzeT vynqne
* uINtIeqIay satu ay} wo y10day
; * qsIUBJOg YSIYWI_ sIn4NT 94} JO YIOAA OT,
SPULTPIW YING oy} WoT
satoedg jo asr'y @ YAIA ‘woovIeyOQ oY} UO sajON
68-888T ‘woowr
as (Oe pue ‘saty-wiag ‘suzaq : Aydeasoyqrg
SIOMOT WY] SSIMG FO WOdAT[OH ATT
SIOMOTT
JO UOTWSI[YIAT 94} 0} WONV[EY Ul syoesuy
968T UL LoJsure'y Fo
SOULAOIg oy Ul APotyo poyooq][oo ‘syueTg YSU
G Soyer] VAVULIUUOD ITT} JO VAOT.,T PULIS]T OY,L,
pUuUL[eI] UL seugsaaps obvowpasy
* UBAG) UT SQNIO PP FL
* OSI[Y ‘0D ‘AvLIMUISTUY JO SJURTG oT,
. . .
. . . .
If €68T-() LEST “e10,,q
ATITOMATIMY TTATOAT OITA TH CATTANATACTIONN Orr
‘uUeLIpy W ‘Ao
‘yooovag-ayNIpoo A
‘fH ‘WoOsUTyT
* UIM “TTOAN9TT AA
“"S'D PUB“ M “SAA,
WRITE “J1eA\09g5
* as10ay ‘1aTqryg
“LH ‘uiddog
“UtOR “qILWIg
‘W ‘¢g *qy tag
‘dW 197818
“AD “JONTH-39008
* souvy' ‘stapuneg
* "dM “youqaoy
“A BARIO sstpy ‘edg
‘Vv OL Ady ‘uojsorg
“ce ee
“ec “
“ te
“ec “
‘TT Wy ‘tesovrg
62 REPORT—1897.
Report on the State of the Principal Museums in Canada and New-
foundland. By Henry M. Ami, M.A., D.Sc,, F.G.S., of the
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Tue following report on the state of the principal museums in Canada
and Newfoundland is based upon information contained in a correspond-
ence between the Director of the Geological Survey Department at
Ottawa (Dr. Dawson) and the curators or officers in charge of the several
museums, who very kindly supplied the information desired.
The four following points in connection with museums received
particular attention :—
1, The approximate number of specimens classified and displayed in
each museum.
2. The relative importance of collections in geological, mineralogical,
botanical, zoological, ethnological, or other classes of material.
3. Any special collections acquired from individuals included in the
museum.
4, Types of species (if any) preserved in the museum, with the name
of the describers.
The order in which the several museums are presented is geographi-
cal. Beginning with the most easterly one, the Museum of the Geo-
logical Survey of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland, and closing
with the Provincial Museum of British Columbia, Victoria, British
Columbia.
The principal object in view in preparing this report was to gather
definite information regarding the amount of material at present housed
in the various museums of the country, and thus enable the Director of
the National Museum at Ottawa and others, to whom applications for
information are constantly coming in, to give satisfactory replies.
The report consists of a consecutive list of museums in Canada and
Newfoundland, including only the principal ones known to the Depart-
ment, with brief descriptions or abstracts of the contents of the different
museums enumerated.
Brief descriptions and notes on fifty-one private collections in Canada
are also added.
This report does not profess to be complete in every respect. The in-
formation presented, however, has been obtained from the most reliable
sources available—from official letters sent by the curators or officers in
charge of the several museums addressed, or from published papers and
reports on the contents of museums in the different provinces.
The thanks of the writer are due to Dr. G. M. Dawson, Director of the
Geological Survey Department at Ottawa, for many valuable suggestions
and kind offices in preparing this report.
Geological Survey of Newfoundland.—Contains about 3,000 specimens,
of which 2,000 at least are arranged and classified, to illustrate the
economic and natural resources of this colony. The mineralogical
cabinets comprise 600 specimens; the paleontological and geological
ON THE PRINCIPAL MUSEUMS IN CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 68
collections include 850 specimens ; whilst the collections of birds, fishes,
shells, &c., number together 426 specimens. There is an herbarium
of the plants of the island, prepared by Professors B. L. Robinson and
H. Schenck, of Harvard. Economic exhibits of the fisheries (seal and fish-
oil, &c.) of Newfoundland. There is also a fair collection of ethnological
specimens, besides a numismatic collection. Museum, in charge of J. P.
Howley, Esq., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland,
and supported by the legislative grant, is located in St. John’s, Newfound-
land, in the Post Office Building.
Provincial Museum, Halifax, Nova Scotia.—Contains about 10,000
specimens. The geological cabinets include: Minerals, 1,000 specimens ;
rocks, 300 specimens ; fossil organic remains, 2,000 specimens, for the
most part collected and arranged by the late Dr. D. Honeyman. The
zoological department includes 1,500 specimens, and the botanical collec-
tion is that prepared by Dr. Henry How. Museum supported by grant
from the Legislature of Nova Scotia, and in charge of Dr. E. Gilpin, F.G.S.,
Commissioner of Mines for the province. Located in a large room,
80 feet by 20 feet, in the uppermost storey of the Halifax City Post Office,
the property of the Dominion Government. Types. Contains a few
types of fossils described by Dr. Honeyman and the type specimen of a
giant squid described by Professor A. H. Verrill. Curator : Dr. E. Gilpin,
M.A., F.G.S., Halifax, Nova Scotia.
The University Museum, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia.—
Contains upwards of 1,600 specimens, classified and arranged for the use
of students and professors. Of 700 specimens in the zoological collection
the native birds of Nova Scotia form an important part. The geological
cabinets comprise a good series of Nova Scotian minerals, Nova Scotian
carboniferous fossils, and European cretaceous fossils, 450 specimens in
all. The Patterson collection of archeological remains from various
parts of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island is of considerable import-
ance : it includes 330 pieces. The Thomas McCulloch collections com-
prise birds, rocks, fossils, minerals, and plants. An herbarium illus-
trating the flora of Nova Scotia is in course of preparation. Supported
by the University authorities and by the Thomas McCulloch fund of
$1,400 given to Dalhousie in 1884. The Rev. Dr. Forrest, principal, and
Professor E. Mackay, pro-curator, in charge, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Acadia University Museum, Wolfville, Nova Scotia.—Contains upwards
of 5,000 specimens, neatly arranged and classified for the use of students
and professors. The geological cabinets include 504 specimens of minerals,
365 rock specimens, and 800 fossil organic remains. The zoological
collections comprise 690 specimens, divided as follows :—Ornithological :
birds, birds’ eggs, and their nests, 300 specimens. Conchological, 300
species, besides a large number of marine invertebrates. In the herba-
rium we find nearly all the plants occurring in New Brunswick, presented by
G. U. Hay, of St. John, N.B., besides collections from various parts of
the province and from foreign countries. There is also a small ethno-
logical collection. The zeolites, amethysts, and trap rocks from Blomidon
are of local and special interest. There is also a fair collection of coins.
Curator : Professor A. E. Coldwell, M.A., Wolfville, Nova Scotia.
King’s College Museum, Windsor, Nova Scotia.—For the use of
students. Contains 5,500 specimens. The mineralogical cabinets hold
the first place; the botanical collections come next. The next
important individual collection is the Cosswell Herbarium of pheno-
64, REPORT—1897.
gamous and cryptogamous plants from Great Britain. Supported by the
Senate of King’s College. Acting Curator: Professor F. W. Vroom,
Windsor, Nova Scotia.
Pictou Academy Museum, Pictou, Nova Scotia.—Includes a very good
and fairly complete collection of the birds and mammals of the county of
Pictou, an herbarium, and a cabinet of geology illustrating the minerals
of Nova Scotia, with special reference to the coals, iron ores, and fossil
remains of Pictou County. Enriched by numerous collections made and
arranged by Dr. A. H. Mackay, Superintendent of Education for Nova
Scotia, and a past principal of the Academy.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick Museum, St. John, N.B.—
Contains about 15,000 specimens, arranged and classified. The Gesner
Museum of Geology, &c., is included in the same building. Geological
collections comprise 1,400 specimens of minerals, upwards of 1,000
specimens of fossils, and the zoological department, embracing collec-
tions of birds, fishes, reptiles, mammals, insects, shells, birds’ eggs, and
birds’ nests, contains 3,741 specimens in all. There is a good herbarium,
comprising about 6,500 sheets, 1,500 New Brunswick phanerogams
and cryptogams, and 5,000 phanerogams, foreign, European, West
Indies, United States, Canada. About 600 specimens in the archzo-
logical cabinets and 200 in the ethnological series. The paleontological
collections are chiefly those of Dr. G. F. Matthew and of the late
Professor C. F. Hartt.
Type specimens of fossil organic remains from rock formations in the
vicinity of St. John, &c., described by Dr. Matthew, Professor 8. H.
Seudder, Mr. C. F. Hartt, and Sir J. W. Dawson are carefully preserved
in the cabinets of this museum.
‘The most valuable,’ Dr. Matthew writes, ‘are the types of the
Devonian plants collected by Hartt and described by Sir William Dawson.!
There are here also the types of the fossil insects described by Dr. 8. H.
Scudder that were collected by Hartt.’ Also some few other types and
a good many typical fossils of various formations. The museum is housed
in six rooms on the second floor of St. John City Market, Charles Street.
The society receives a small annual grant from the New Brunswick
Legislature. Curators of the Museum: Dr. G. F. Matthew, Samuel W.
Kain, Esq., A. Gordon Leavitt, Esq.
The University Museum, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
N.B.—Organised about 1836 by Dr. James Robb. The approximate
number of specimens classified and displayed to-day in the museum is
2,800, of which about 1,300 belong to the geological collections of minerals,
rocks, and fossils from various parts of New Brunswick and other pro-
vinces of Canada, Europe, and the United States. There are 1,495 speci-
mens in the zoological cabinets, including birds, birds’ eggs (representing
250 species), reptiles, crustaceans, fishes, insects, molluscs, and star-fishes,
&c., most of which are the gift of foreign institutions and societies. There
is also the nucleus of a small archeological collection, including pipes,
pottery, and stone implements from New Brunswick, with a few from the
United States. The economic mollusca, the Cambrian fossils of St. John,
New Brunswick, and the ornithological collection by Messrs. Ganong,
Matthew, and Adney respectively comprise the most conspicuous and
1 See Reports on Fossil Plants of the Devonian and Upper Silurian of Canada.
Geological Survey of Canada, Montreal, 1871.
ON THE PRINCIPAL MUSEUMS IN CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 65
special collections. Curator: Professor L. W. Bailey, M.A., Ph.D.,
F.R.S.C., Professor of Geology, University of New Brunswick.
Muséum de VUniversité Laval, Québec, Quwebec.—The nucleus of this
collection, which now amounts to 35,000 specimens, arranged and classified,
was the old ‘Cabinet de Minéralogie’ of the Quebec Seminary. The
mineralogical cabinet to-day comprises more than 4,000 specimens. Of
special interest is a collection of minerals made by the Abbé Haity for the
Quebec Seminary. Besides 1,000 specimens of rocks, determined by Dr.
Sterry Hunt, the geological collections include upwards of 1,000 fossil
remains, some from Canada, determined by the late Mr. E. Billings and
by Dr. H. M. Ami, others from the late Abbé Joachim Barrande, of
Bohemia. The zoological collections include 17,000 specimens : 1,200
mammals, 14,000 insects, and 2,000 shells from various parts of the world.
The botanical collections, including l Abbé O. Brunet’s herbarium, named
by Gray, Hooker, Engelman, and Michaux, comprise upwards of 10,000
sheets. Herbaria, by Hall, Parry, Harbour, Geyer, N. Rield, Leidenberg,
Vincent, Moser, Smith, Durand, Nuttall, and Rafinesque are also included
in the botanical collection at Laval.
The dried specimens of plants are supplemented by an excellent coliec-
tion of woods from Canada and foreign countries.
An archeological and ethnological collection of about 1,000 pieces,
prepared by Dr. Joseph Charles Taché, for the most part illustrates the
manners and customs of the Huron aborigines and Indians of North-East
America. The numismatic collection contains some 3,000 coins and
medals.
The ‘Lea collection’ of Unios, the Macoun collection of North-West.
Canadian plants, the St. Cyr Herbarium of Quebec, the Dr. Ahern col-
lection of Quebec fossils, form some of the more conspicuous collections im
the museum of the University. Curator and Rector: Very Rev.
Mgr. J. C. K. Laflamme, P.A., F.R.S.C.
Muséum de V Instruction Publique, Québec, Quebec.—Contains 32,450
specimens, neatly housed, but uncomfortably overcrowded in a portion of
the uppermost storey of the Provincial Parliament Building, Quebec.
The local Legislature has given a small annual grant to the curator for
the support and maintenance of this museum for a number of years.
The geological collections consist of 3,500 specimens of minerals and 780
fossils. The zoological collections amount to 4,430 specimens as follows :
Mammals, 60 ; birds (mounted), 46 ; birds (skins), 514 ; birds’ eggs, 271 ;.
fishes, 65 ; mollusca, 3,480. The entomological collection is large and
contains 15,670 specimens, including as it does |’Abbé Provancher’s.
type collections of Canadian insects, described and figured in his ‘ Faune
Entomologique de Québec.’ The St. Cyr Herbarium is very exten-
sive, and includes an excellent series of the Quebec flora. It contains:
7,870 sheets. Curator of the Museum: Mons. D. N. St. Cyr, Québec,
Quebec.
Muséum du Séminaire de Philosophie, Montréal, Quebec.—For the use
of the students and professors. Contains about 6,300 specimens, of which
2,000 are geological (minerals and rocks) ; 1,500 paleontological ; 2,810
zoological, besides a fair collection of botanical specimens for teaching
purposes. Amongst the special collections we note one, ‘Collection de
Minéralogie faite pour le Collége de Montréal par les soins du célébre
Haiiy, 1822.’ Most of the fossils are European. Curator : L. Lepoupon.
Muséum du Collége Saint-Laurent, St. Laurent, near Montreal, Quebec
1897. F
66 REPORT—1897.
Miscellaneous collections, comprising upwards of 18,000 specimens. Up-
wards of 1,000 specimens each of minerals, rocks, and fossils comprise the
geological cabinets, and as many each of the zoological and botanical
collections, according to the curator’s report. The ‘ Crevier collection’ of
fossils from Montreal and vicinity and a numismatic collection form the
most interesting special collections we note in this museum. Supported
by private contributions and donations of friends to the Congregation of
the Holy Cross. The collections are classed under twenty-five heads and
in charge of the curator—Rev. Joseph C. Carrier, C.S.C., St. Laurent,
Quebec.
Peter Redpath Museum of McGill College, Montreal, Quebec.—75,000
specimens, arranged and classified for the use of professors, students, and
the general public in a large, well lighted, and commodious fire-proof build-
ing, built for the purpose, in 1882, by the munificent gift of the late Peter
Redpath, Esq. The geological collections, including the Dawson collec-
tions of Devonian, Carboniferous, and Cretaceous fossil plants, of Pleisto-
cene fossils, Microsauria, Eozoon, and many other types, and the Logan
Memorial Collection include some 16,540 specimens, divided as follows :—
Fossils, 8,000 ; minerals, 2,880 ; rock specimens, 5,660. The Holmes and
Miller cabinets of minerals are included in the above figures. There are
also excellent collections of petrographical slides. The zoological collec-
tions comprise 19,685 specimens as follows :—
Specimens
Mammals - A ; 5 6 : 7 170
Xirds . ‘ 5 5 ‘ ‘ < - ‘ 500
Birds’ eggs . : : - - - : - 125
Reptiles : . : ¢ 5 : : - 90
Fishes . H f 3 : i r 4 5 200
Crustacea. - dj ; 5 . : : 300
Mollusca 5 : . - : > . : 7,500
Insects . - 5 P f : Z i . 10,000
Echinodermata . : i A : ‘ : 250
Annulata . 4 : - . A Fs 100
Anthozoa . 5 £ ; 2 4 3 3 200
Protozoa and Hydrozoa 5 s : ; r 250
The University Herbarium consists of upwards of 30,000 sheets, and
includes the Holmes Herbarium and the Macoun collections of Canadian
plants, exhibited at the World’s Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, in
1876. There are also representative collections from Australia, India,
Japan, South Africa, South America, and Northern Europe. Specimens
of the Canadian timber trees, as well as those of the United States and
foreign countries, are included in the ‘ Economic Collection.’ Botanical
collections in charge of Professor D, P. Penhallow.
The archological and ethnological collections comprise some 1,200
specimens illustrating the implements, pottery, and weapons of the abo-
rigines of Canada and foreign countries, besides Egyptian antiquities in
the Dawson collection.
The ‘Carpenter collection’ of shells is a special feature, and contains
many types. The Chitonide are of special interest. The McCulloch col-
lection of birds is also worthy of note, besides the entomological collections
of Messrs. Bowles, Cooper, and Pearson, acquired for the museum in recent
years,
Types.—This museum contains numerous type specimens of species and
ON THE PRINCIPAL MUSEUMS IN CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 67
varieties of recent and fossil organisms described by Sir William Dawson,
Professor James Hall, George Jennings Hinde, T. Rupert Jones, Joseph
Leidy, O. C. Marsh, D. P. Penhallow, J. T. Donald, and P. P. Carpenter.
Hon. Curators: Sir William Dawson, Dr. B. J. Harrington, Dr. D. P.
Penhallow, Dr. F. D. Adams, Dr. W. E. Deeks, Peter Redpath Museum,
Montreal.
Museum of the Natural History Society of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec.—
Total number of specimens displayed and classified, 18,250. Of these the
zoological collections comprise nearly two-thirds, viz., 11,220 specimens,
as follows :—
Mammals (mounted) . ‘ . . . . 150
Birds (mounted) : : : A . : 1,300!
Reptiles (mounted) . : : 5 : : 50
Fish (mounted) . : * : : i : 120
Shells, classified and labelled , f : F 4,000
Crustacea. “ . : 5 e 200
Insects . Z i q ‘ 3 ; "i 5,000
Radiates Z : - : - 4 A é 150
Coralsand sponges. 2 2 : ' F 250
11,220
These 11,220 specimens, together with a botanical collection of Cana-
dian and British plants, numbering 1,600 sheets, make up the total of
12,820 biological specimens. The geological collections comprise 1,500
rocks and fossils, besides 2,500 minerals, amongst which are some rare
old finds. Of birds’ eggs there is a collection of 160 specimens.
There is also the ‘ Ferrier collection’ of Egyptian antiquities, pre-
sented in 1859 ; the ‘C. U. Shepard collection’ of minerals, numbering 600
specimens; and a rare collection of birds from the Malay Archipelago
presented by H. J. Tiffin, Esq., in 1892.
The collections in this museum have been enriched from time to time
by private donations, and much of the work in classification is due to Sir
William Dawson, Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, the late Mr. E. Billings, and many
others. This society received provincial aid for a number of years, but is
now supported by the members of the Natural History Society of Mcn-
treal. Curator: J. B. Williams, Esq., 32 University Street, Montreal,
Quebec.
Museum of the Geological Survey of Canada—the National Museum of
Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.—Contains some 92,000 specimens, arranged and
classified for reference. The finest and most complete collection of Cana-
dian minerals, rocks, and fossils. The geological cabinets and cases
include upwards of 14,000 specimens of minerals and rocks, illustrating
the mines and mining industry of Canada, besides a typical collection of
16,000 fossil organic remains neatly labelled and classified, representing
about 4,600 species, of which about 1,000 are the types of species de-
scribed by the late E. Billings, and some 600 types described by Mr.
Whiteaves. Other type specimens of fossil organic remains in the collec-
tion are the types of species established by Sir Wm. Dawson, Sir W. E.
Logan, J. W. Salter, Dr. S. H. Scudder, Professor T. Rupert Jones,
Professor E. O. Ulrich, Professor E. D. Cope, Professor H. Alleyne
' Nicholson, Dr. Henry Woodward, Professor James Hall, Dr. Arthur H.
1 600 of these are Canadian.
F2
68 REPORT—1897.
Foord, Mr. W. R. Billings, Dr. H. M. Ami, and Mr. L. M. Lambe.
Among special suites may be mentioned fossils characterising the ‘Quebec
Group’ of Logan and Billings from Quebec and Newfoundland.
About 150,000 specimens, illustrating the paleontological characters of
the various geological formations in Canada, from Atlantic to Pacific, and
from the United States boundary line to the Arctic Circle, are kept for
reference in the store-room and basement of the museum, together with
a series of duplicate specimens for collections intended for educational
purposes.
There is also a remarkably fine collection of Ordovician Crinoidea from-
the Trenton of Ottawa and Hull, and a fine series of Devonian fishes
from Bay des Chaleurs, and the original specimens of Hozoon canadense.
The zoological collections comprise 15,000 specimens, including the
‘ Whiteaves collection’ of shells, Atlantic and Pacific coast shells of British
North America—corals, radiates, and sponges from various localities—
besides birds, mammals, reptiles, and the ‘Geddes collection of Lepi-
doptera,’ chiefly Rocky Mountain and Canadian.
Types: North Pacific and N: Atlantic recent sponges described by
Mr. L. M. Lambe; Mollusca, foraminifera and other invertebrates de-
scribed by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, A. E. Verrill, J. B. Smith, Alex. Agassiz
and others.
Ethnological collection includes the ‘Mercier collection’ (chiefly N.W.
Eskimo) ; the ‘ Herschfelder collection’ of Indian remains from Ontario ;
the Powell collection of Pacific or West Coast Indians of British Columbia,
besides various collections made by officers of the Geological Survey of
Canada.
Madoc Meteorite, Thurlow Meteorite (pars) also in the collection.
The herbarium contains upwards of 80,000 sheets, of which 50,000
form the most complete collection of Canadian plants. Besides numerous
types and co-types of Canadian species described by Hooker, Michaux,
Torrey, Pursh, Gray, Watson, Kindberg, Robinson, Peck, and other
botanists, the herbarium comprises large and representative collections
from Great Britain, Scandinavia, Northern Russia, France, Germany,
Switzerland, Austria, Italy, Greenland, the United States of America,
including Alaska, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Natal, &c. There
are also included the classic herbaria prepared by Menzies, Sir Joseph
Back, Sir John Richardson, Douglas, Drummond, and other arctic
explorers in the early years of this century, besides a complete collection
of Canadian woods and a fair collection of the native fruits from the
Atlantic to the Pacific. The herbarium is in charge of Professor John
Macoun, Dominion Botanist.
Director of the Museum: Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
The Fisheries Museum, Ottawa, Canada.—Under the immediate care
of the Department of Marine and Fisheries at Ottawa. Contains the
best collection of Canadian fishes in the Dominion. This collection,
primarily brought together in 1883 as part of the exhibit from Canada at
the Fisheries Exhibition, London, England, gives a very fair idea of the
fisheries of the large bodies of fresh and salt water of the Dominion from
an economic standpoint. Specimens determined for the most part by Mr.
J. F. Whiteaves, of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1883. Now in
charge of Professor Ed. E. Prince, B.A., F.L.S., Commissioner of Fisheries
for Canada, Ottawa.
Central Experimental Farm Museum, Ottawa, Ontario.—Contains a
(ON THE PRINCIPAL MUSEUMS IN CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 69
good ‘herbarium of Canada. Collections of native and cultivated fruits,
seeds, &c., preserved in a liquid medium for reference for agricultural as
well as horticultural purposes. Samples of the cereals, grasses, and fruits
which grow in Canada as the result of tests made at the central and other
experimental stations in Canada. Samples of soils from different portions
of Canada and the North-West. Director: Dr. Wm. Saunders, F.R.S.C.,
Ottawa, Ontario. Maintained by the Dominion Government Territories,
forming part of the Department of Agriculture. Collections of insects
injurious and beneficial to vegetation. Botanical and entomological
collections in charge of Dr. James Fletcher, Central Experimental Farm,
Ottawa, Ontario.
Queen’s University Musewm, Kingston, Ontario.—Contains 22,700
specimens, arranged and classified for the use of professors and students.
Of these there are 3,600 minerals and rocks and 5,000 fossil organic
wemains, in all 8,600 geological specimens. The zoological collections,
chiefly mollusca and other invertebrata, number 3,146 specimens. -Ento-
mological and ethnological collections defective.
The herbarium is an excellent one, and contains 9,435 sheets of
Phanerogamia and Cryptogamia of Canada and other countries. Type
specimen: Large slab showing tracks of Sawropus wnguifer, Dawson,
from the Carboniferous rocks of Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
Special collection: The ‘Rev. Andrew Bell collection’ of minerals,
rocks, and fossils, consisting of 1,500 specimens. Curator : Rev. J. Fowler,
M.A., F.R.S.C., Kingston, Ontario.
Museum of the School of Mining, Kingston, Ontario.—The mineral
collection consists of about 9,000 specimens, classified as follows :—
(1) Specimens to which students have access, 5,650 ; (2) specimens illus-
trating physical mineralogy, 900; (3) mineral species, 2,120, specimens ;
(4) ores, &e.
The paleontological collections consist of the Columbian Exposition
collection sent to Chicago by the Geological Survey of Canada, and presented
to the Ontario School of Mining, together with a number of specimens of
Ontario paleozoic fossils. Curator: Professor W. G. Miller, M.A., Ph.D.
Biological Musewm, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario.—Contains
between 15,000 and 20,000 specimens, of which the geological department
includes about 12,000 specimens, as follows :—
Ferrier collection of minerals x 2 é . 6,000 specimens
Paleontological collections . : : A . 4,000 3
Rocks, &e. . = 5 : : é . 2,000 *
The zoological collections alone number 8,000 specimens, and include
‘specimens of living and fossil representatives of the various classes and
orders of the animal kingdom, as well asa large series of models for educa-
tional purposes. There is alsoa good herbarium, with collections of woods,
models, &c., all of which serve to illustrate the botanical department in
the university. The ethnological department, established by the late Sir
Daniel Wilson, contains a large collection of crania aud implements.
There are no types in the museum. Curators: Professor R. Ramsay
Wright, M.A., Ph.D., Professor A. B. Macallum, M.A.,C. Jeffrey, Esq., M.A.
Museum of the School of Practical Science, Toronto, Ontario.—Contains
6,000 specimens, of which 3,292 belong to the geological department, and
‘are divided as follows :—
Minerale eels = le tl Le, 6° (1,240 specimens
Rocks . : ot. SRT FO se er ”
Fossil organic remains Pei a Sam ie! SCORE
70 REPORT—1897.
Besides the above there is also a students’ collection of 1,600 species
for reference, and 1,200 thin or microscopic sections of rocks. Economic
minerals a speciality. Curator: Professor A. P. Coleman, M.A., Ph.D.,
University College, Toronto, Ontario.
Museum of Victoria University, Toronto, Ontario.—3,000 specimens.
are included in the geological collections (500 mineral specimens, 500
rocks, and 2,000 speciwens of fossil organic remains). There is also the
‘Taylor collection of archeological remains’ from both the eastern and
western hemispheres. Jeteorite from near Victoria, N.W.T. Curator :
Rey. N. Burwash, D.D., Queen’s Park, Toronto, Ontario.
Ontario Archeological Museum, Toronto, Ontario.—Supported since:
1887 by an annual grant of $1,000 from the Ontario Legislature.
Excellent collection of stone and clay pipes, copper and iron, and
stone implements and weapons from various portions of the province of
Ontario, besides collections from United States mounds, from British
Columbia, &c. The collections in all amount to about 20,000 pieces (not
counting individual wampum beads, «&c.), thousands of flints, hundreds of
celts (plain and grooved), gouges, hundreds of bone and horn instruments,
numerous clay vessels, 200 crania, 700 miscellaneous Aztec specimens,
250 slate gorgets, 40 ‘bird’ amulets, besides clay vessels from Aztec and
Pueblo mounds.
The collection is neatly labelled and catalogued as to exact name of
locality, name of donor, collector, and date. Curator: David Boyle, Esq.,
Ontario Archeological Museum, in connection with the Department of
Education, Ontario.
Canadian Institute Museum, Toronto, Ontario.—Supported by legisla-
tive grant and membership fees. It is located at 58 Richmond Street
East, Toronto. Established 1849 ; incorporated by Royal Charter, 1851.
The specimens belonging to the old Natural History Society of Toronto
(now the Biological Section of the Institute) form part of the Canadian
Institute Museum collections. The zoological collections comprise the
following :—
Birds (Canadian) - 2 : : ; . 729 specimens
Birds’ eggs (Canadian) : ‘ 3 : : MHNS2Z9 5
Birds (foreign) . : : ‘ i : . 150 t
Mammals . : “ - : : : x 62 ”
ns Reptiles : : - : , . : > 200 %
Insects . 5 . 5 5 ‘. : h . 2,000
There is also a small. herbarium. - Curator: James H. Fleming,
Esq., Canadian Institute.
Hamilton Association Museum, Hamilton, Ontario.—Contains 8,000
specimens, arranged and classified, of which there are about 3,300
geological, divided as follows :—Fossil organic remains, 2,500 ; minerals,
800. Fine collection of the sponges and graptolites of the Niagara forma-
tion, Canada. The herbarium contains 1,400 sheets, belonging chiefly to
the local flora. Zoological collection defective, although some few and
rare species are exhibited. Small collection of ethnological specimens
from Canada and the South Sea Islands. The Mrs. 8. E. Carry collections
of 3,000 specimens of shells, recent and fossil, and of Indian relics form
part of the exhibits at present in the musuem—a loan collection.
eens (pro-Curator), S. A. Morgan, B.A., 26 Erie Avenue, Hamilton,
ntario.
Ontario Agricultural College Museum, Guelph, Ontario,—Contains
ON THE PRINCIPAL MUSEUMS IN CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 71
about 5,000 specimens : Minerals, 230 ; rocks, a small collection ; fossils,
65 ; zoological collection miscellaneous, and divided as follows :—
Birds . F 4 : a ‘ . - 4 . 3898 specimens
Reptiles 5 < 5 i : A : - : Ait eats
Fishes : ‘ , 3 5 0 F ) SMROO 3b
Mollusca. é . : 3 5 H : S102
Molluscoidea : é - 3 y . : arth,
Insects 3 y 2 A F é a - of tibia,
Annuloida . i 3 “ é é i 3 s | EST 9
Celenterata . . E. = ‘ 3 3 Sat desis
Protozoa. * g : : : : : , Hugs
In all g : . 1,422
The botanical collections, comprising dried plants and seeds for agricul-
tural purposes, European plants, &c., contain 1,698. specimens and
samples, besides a fair collection of Canadian woods.
Museum and college under the supervision of the Department of
Education for Ontario, Dr. 8S. P. May, Toronto, organiser of the museum,
and J, Hoyes Panton, officer in charge, Guelph Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ontario.
Entomological Society of Ontario, London, Ontario.—Contains the
leading collection of entomological specimens in Ontario. The Society
has also a botanical and a geological section. Curators of the Museum :
J. Moffatt, Esq., Professor Dearness, and 8. Woolverton, London, Ontario.
Museum of the Literary and Historical Society of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
Manitoba.—Contains several thousand specimens. The natural history
collection comprises the birds, mammals, and insect fauna of the province
and the North-West Territories of Canada. Very fair collection of
minerals, rocks, and fossils from various geological formations in Mani-
toba and the other provinces. Housed in special apartments in the City
Hall of Winnipeg. Curator : Charles N. Bell, Esq., City Hall, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Canada.
Provincial Museum, Winnipeg, Manitoba.—Contains several hundred
specimens of fossils from the Trenton limestone of Manitoba, and from
the Cretaceous shales of the North-West Territories. Located in the
Parliament Buildings, Winnipeg, and supported by a grant from the
Provincial Legislature.
Rocky Mountain Park Musewm, Alberta, Canada.—Supported by the
Dominion Government. The majority of the specimens exhibited were
sent from the Geological Survey Department and Museum at Ottawa.
Contains interesting collections of the birds, plants, woods, &e., of local
interest to tourists and travellers. Tllustrates the fauna and flora of the
Rocky Mountain region of Canada. Superintendent : H. Douglas, Esq.,
Banff, Alberta, North-West Territories.
Provincial Museum, Victoria, British Columbia.—This is one of the
best kept and most interesting collections in Canada. Upward of 11,000
specimens arranged and classified for reference. Good collections of
rocks, minerals, and fossils of British Columbia and other parts of Canada.
The Newton H. Chittenden collections in ethnology of special value and
interest. Zoological collections fairly complete.
Types: Two type specimens of birds: (1) Melospiza Lincolnii,
Brewster; (2) Zaprora salivus, Jordan, from near Nanaimo, Gulf of
Georgia, British Columbia. Curator : John Fannin, Esq., P.O. Box 471,
Victoria, British Columbia.
Cum oo bo
ANH
14,
16.
16.
17.
18.
19,
20.
REPORT—-1897.
Notes ON Private CoLLEecTIONS IN CANADA.
. Dr. A. H. Mackay
. Andrew Downs, Esq.
. Harry Austin, Esq.
. T. J. Egan, Esq.
. The Lawson Herba-
rium.
. Dr. John Somers
. Dr. Lindsay . 5
. Dr. Lucien Allison
. 8. D. Scott, Esq.
1 Gt aU” Hay.
Esq.,
F.R.S.C.
. A. Gordon Leavitt, Esq.
. J. S. Maclaren, Esq. .
Dr. G. F. Matthew,
F.R.S.C.
Dr. T. J. W. Burgess,
F.R.S.C.
Sir Wm. Van Horne,
K.C.M.G.
Rey. Robert Campbell,
D.D.
Harold B. Cushing,
B.A.
Dr, B. J. Harrington
W. Uague Harring-
tor, Esq., F.R.S.C.
Dr. James Fletcher,
F.L.S., F.R.8.C.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Good reference collections in botany and zoology. Special
collection of Canadian Spongillz; also micro-organisms.
Ornithological collection.
(Dartmouth) Ornithological collection.
(Dalhousie University) Ornithology.
Containing the extensive series of mounted and dried
plants of Nova Scotia and other parts of Canada, with
special reference to the Ranunculacee and Filices of
the whole Dominion.
Herbarium.
Herbarium.
St. John, New Brunswick.
St. John and New Brunswick Diatomacez.
Numismatic collection.
New Brunswick and general Canadian plants.
Collection of native birds for reference.
Numismatic collection, collection of medals, clasps, &c.
Best collection of St. John group fossils. Palzozoic
fossils from maritime provinces and other parts of
Canada. Numerous types of species of fossil plants,
sponges, mollusca, insecta, trilobita, &c., from various
horizons (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian)
in the Paleozoic of New Brunswick ; European fossils ;
also recent plants and marine invertebrates.
Montreal, Quebec.
Herbarium contains about 15,000 sheets. Excellent and
very complete collection of Canadian flowering plants,
including North-West Territory and Rocky Mountain
flora, 2,509 species. Ontario collection very complete.
Canadian vascular cryptogamic plants, 7,000 sheets,
Extensive collection of fossil organic remains from Canada,
the United States, and Europe.
Herbarium containing plants representing flora of Mon-
treal Island, Murray Bay, and other portions of the
Province of Quebec.
Complete collection of the ferns of the island of Montreal.
Fair collection of Phanerogamia of Montreal Island and
vicinity.
Cabinets of minerals from Canada and the United States
for reference collection, Type specimens, dawsonite,
chemawinite, &c.
Ottawa, Ontario.
Very complete collection of Ottawa Coleoptera and Hymen-
optera; also Spiders and Proctotrypidz. Contains
numerous types of species new to science. Also collec-
tion of Canadian flowering plants.
Specimens illustrating his ‘Ottawa Flora’ or ‘ Flora Otta-
waénsis’ as published in the ‘Transactions of the
Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club.’ Botanical collections
from nearly all parts of the Dominion and elsewhere.
Also extensive collections of insects injurious and
beneficial to vegetation, &c. Excellent collection of
Lepidoptera.
ON THE PRINCIPAL
21. Walter R. Billings,
Esq.
22. W. L. Scott, Esq.,
B.A.
23. George R. White,
Esq.
24. Frank R. Latchford,
Esq., B.A.
25. Dr. H. Beaumont
Small
26. R. B. Whyte, Esq. .
27. Walter F. Ferrier,
Esq., F.G.S.
28. Dr. H. M. Ami. :
29. J. Burr Tyrrell, Esq.,
B.A., B.Sc., F.G.8,
30. W. J. Wilson, Esq.,
B.Sc.
31. Joseph Towsend, Esq.
32. T. W. E. Sowter, Esq.
33. Rev. J. M. Goodwillie,
M.A.
34. Rev. Professor James
Fowler, M.A.,
F.BR.S.C.
35. W. G. Kidd, Esq.,
M.A.
36. Rev. W. G. Young,
M.A.
MUSEUMS IN CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 73
Very complete collection of Ordovician fossils from the
Ottawa Valley, including those from Paquette’s Rapids,
Hull, and Ottawa City and vicinity.
Excellent collection of birds and birds’ eggs of Ottawa
and vicinity.
Excellent collection of mounted birds and birds’ skins for
reference in Ottawa district.
Collection of Ottawa Unionidz contains Unio borealis,
A. F. Gray, a type from the Ottawa River described from
Mr. Latchford’s collection. Also large series of Ohio
and Western Ontario as well as other Canadian
shells.
Good collection of the flowering plants about Ottawa and
vicinity.
Excellent reference collection of the flora of Ottawa and
vicinity. Perth specimens. Species of rare occurrence
in the collection.
Excellent collection of Canadian minerals. Also foreign
type and other minerals. Collection of rocks—litho-
logical. Canadian fossil organic remains.
Fair collection of Ottawa and general Canadian flowering
plants. Foreign and domestic shells. Collection of
Canadian ethnological specimens. Utica fossils from
Ottawa and vicinity.
Collection of Canadian Acaridz and Arachnid. Con-
tains types described by G. Haller, A. Poppe, F’. Keenicke,
J. H. Emerton, J. W. Peckham, and J. B. Tyrrell.
Choice collection of Devonian fossil plants from the ‘ fern-
ledges’ of Lancaster Co., New Brunswick. Also two
co-types of fossil insects described by Dr. G. F. Matthew.
Paleontological collections: 3,000 Guelph fossils; 1,000
Ordovician fossils from Trenton, Utica, and Lorraine of
Ontario; 500 Niagara corals and other fossils; 400 pre-
Glacial plants and shells.
(Aylmer, Quebec.) Collection of Chazy fossils from
Aylmer and vicinity. Fair collections of Trenton and
Black River fossils from the Ottawa Palzeozoic Basin.
Mr. Sowter’s collections of Ordovician fossils include
more than 2,000 specimens.
Vernon, Ontario.
Collection of archzological remains from Ontario; also
Hamilton group, Niagara, Clinton, and Black River
fossils from various districts in Ontario.
Kingston, Ontario.
Large herbarium, consisting of 14,731 sheets, representing
flora of New Brunswick very completely, and that of
other parts of British North America very well, besides
foreign specimens.
Very good collection of the minerals of Ontario. This
collection was exhibited at the World’s Fair, Chicago,
in 1898 as part of the Province of Ontario exhibit.
Lansdowne, Ontario.
Ornithological and Oological collection.
74
37.
38.
39.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50,
51
B. E. Walker, Esq.,
F.G.S.
James H. Fleming,
Esq.
Hon. G. W. Allan .
. A, E. Walker, Esq. .
. A. T. Neill, Esq.
. Col. C. C. Grant .
. Thomas Mcllwraith,
Esq.
. A, Alexander, Esq. .
Jonathan
Esq.
Pettit,
Rev. Hector Currie,
M.A.
Rev. W. Mintern
Seaborn, M.A.
— Willing, Esq. .
Dr, C. F. Newcombe.
Rev. G. W. Taylor,
M.A., F.R.S.C.
John Fannin, Esq. .
REPORT—1897.
Toronto, Ontario,
Extensive and choice collection of Canadian, Niagara,
Hamilton group and Ordovician fossils. Also fine col-
lection of British and United States fossils. Unde-
scribed Stromatoporoids.
2,000 bird-skins, including 500 species, nearly all Canadian
birds. Also mounted birds from Canada and some
foreign birds.
Collection of native (Canadian) birds.
Hamilton, Ontario.
Collections of local fossils, including rare and undescribed
fossil sponges from Silurian of the district.
Collections of fossils and minerals from Canada, ranging
from the Laurentian to the Cretaceous.
Collection of Medina, Clinton, and Niagara fossils,
graptolites and sponges a speciality. Also few Indian
relics.
Complete collection of Canadian birds; also many foreign
species.
Botanical collection, local flora.
plants.
Also Georgian Bay
Grimsby, Ontario.
Excellent collection of Niagara (Silurian) fossils, contain-
ing good crinoidea, &c.
Thedford, Ontario.
Very complete collection of Hamilton group fossils from
Thedford (Widder), Bartlett’s mills, &c., in Lambton
County, Ontario.
London, Ontario.
Collection of Devonian fossils, chiefly corals from Western
Ontario.
Olds, N.W.T.
Entomological collection, North-West noctuids. Type
specimens and undescribed specimens in collection.
Victoria, British Columbia.
Excellent collection of Cretaceous and Tertiary fossils
from British Columbia, &c. Numerous undescribed
forms, including decapod crustacea.
Canadian and British mollusca. Large and important
reference collection of Western (especially) as well as
Eastern recent shells (Nanaimo, B.C.).
General collection of fossil organic remains, from the
Cretaceous and Tertiary of Vancouver and other
islands, and recent natural history specimens from
British Columbia (Victoria, B.C.).
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS 75
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. EH. Roscoe (Chairman),
Dr. MarsHatL Watts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professors
J. Dewar, G. D. Livetnc, A. Scnuster, W. N. Hartuey, and
Wotcorr Gisss, and Captain ABNEY. (Drawn up by Dr. WarTs.)
CoBALT.
Hasselberg : ‘ Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akadem. Handl.,’ Bd. 28, No. 6, 1896.
Exner and Haschek : ‘Sitzber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cv. (2), 1896.
Wave- Reduction to
length Intensity | Previous Observations Me ae Oscillation
(Rowland) and (Rowland) noo. Frequency
Are Spectrum | Character SG Ay in Vacuo
*5531-06 7 151] 49 18074:8
6525-27 5 s Fe 18093°7
*5524-24 2 ” ” 18097:1
*5523:56 6 ” ” 18099-4
5516°29 3 7 = 18123-1
5495-94 4 150 | 5:0 18190°2
5489°90 6 ” ” 18210°3
*5488°38 3 3 5 182153
*5484-22 6 ” ” 18229°1
*5483°57 8 548370 Thalén a 5 18231-3
5477°37 + ” ” 18251°9
*5477°13 6 ” ” 18252°7
5470°73 4 1:49 55 182741
5469°55 4 ” ” 18278:0
*5454-79 7 5 . 18327°5
6453-61 2 545330, 3 is 183315
5452°53 3 ”» ” 18335°1
*5444-81 7 544430, F = 183611
*5437:25 4 1:48 a 18390-0
5431-30 3 ”» ” 18406°8
5427°59 2 e i 18419°4
5427 41 2 # » 18420-0
5427-01 2 7 ; 184217
5425°87 3 - ss 18425°2
5408°37 3 rs 18485-0
5407°75+ 5 ” ” 184870
*5402:24 4 ” ” 18505°8
5400-03 3 1:47 A 18513°4
539402 2 = 51 185343
5391:01 2 ” ” 18544:3
*5390°71 3 * 3 18545°3
*5381:99 5 zm os 185754
*5381°31 4 “ . 18577°7
*5377°99 2 = a 18589°2
5374:21 2 + is 18602°3
*5370°60 2 P rs 186148
* Coincident with a solar line.
¢ Solar line double, Co and Mn (Co>Mn).
} Observed also by Exner and Haschek in the spark spectrum.
76 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Wave: Reduction to
: 5 Vacuum Pens
length Intensity | Previous Observations Oscillation
(Rowland) and (Rowland) Tae Frequency
Arc Spectrum | Character ne ale in-Vatno
A
*5369:'79T 63 6369°25 Thalén 1:47 a 18617°6
5369:13 3 "I 18619°9
5366:97 3 ” ” 18627°4
*5362°97 6 5363°75 4, 1:46 95 18641°3
*5359°41 2 65360°75 i, a a 186537
¥5359°16 2 = Pry 186545
5353°69§ 3 PRES ODE 5 5 18673°6
#535229 5 635245 “f é 18678:7
5349-29 4 i ” 18689°3
5347°68 4 os - 18694°6
5344-79 3 ’ : i, 18704-7
*5343'58 6 6343°85 i, "A Bp 187089
*5342°86 8 5343°35 —,, a 7 18711-°5
5341°53 5s : E 1871671
5339-71 4 E .- 18723°5
5337-56 2 e : 18729-9
5336°36 3 i. cA 187342
*5335-06 4 double + ‘5 187388
#533385 4 a F 18743-0
*5332°85 4 ss Ke 18746°6
5331-65 Bs + - 18750°8
5326-49 3 rs is 18769:0
5326°15 4 A 4 1870-2
*5325°44 5 1:45 =F 18772°7
5321-95 3 ‘ C 18785:0
*5316-96ttt| 5 a ier 188026
#5312-84 5 as 18817-2
5310°47 3 EA a 188256
5301-24 | Bs sl NEE: 18858°3
5292-45 2 " zs 18889°6
5288-02 3 z - 18905°5
5287°78 3 ek 18906:3
*5283-68 3 : 189211
*5280°85 6 528069, 2 s 189311
5276°38 5 ” ” _18947°2
5268-72 5s 5268°79 =5 5 A 189747
*5266°71 6 5266'79 eA 1-44 aa 18982°2
+5266°51 6 2 18982°7
*5266-00 3 4 . 189845
5257-81 5 a , 190141
5254-83 4 if - 19024-9
5250°21 4 1:43 * 19041°6
"5248-12 5 9 : 19049-2
5237°32 2 ¥e 19088-5
¥5235°37 Bs 5235-49, e Fe 19095°6
#*5230:38 Bs 523109, % ‘4 191139
5222-71 3 . a 191419
5219-28 2 :. 19154-7
5218-42 4 is : 191577
¥*5212°87 53 5213:09 “- 1:42 = 191781
§ Solarline double J 00 5353°60. tt Titanium 5369-81.
tit Solar line double {esi6-76 ; the corona line.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. vies
CoBALT—continued.
Wave- sg ee to
length Intensit F : ass: Oscillation
(Rowland) and ij ease Frequency
Arc Spectrum} Character ee phi in Vacuo
A
*5211:08 2 1:42 5:2 19184:7
5210°28 3s ” ” 19187°6
5172°49 4n 1:41 Fr 19328°7
5166°30 4 ” ” 19350°9
*5165°32 4 ” »” 19354°6
515903 4n ” ” 19378-2
5158-61 4n ff Fr 19379°8
615653 5 ” ” 19386°8
6155:04 3 ” ” 19393°2
¥5154:26 5 ” ” 19396°1
*5153°43 3 ” ” 19399°3
*5150:03 4 ” ” 1941271
*5149°32|| 3 ” ”» 19414-7
*5146°96 6 ” ” 19423°6
*5145°73 4n ” ” 19428:2
*5142°65 3 ” ” 19439°9
5133°65 6s 1:40 # 194740
*5126°37 5s ” ” 19501'7
5125°88 5 ” ” 19504°5
5124-99 3 ” ” 19506°9
*5123-01 5 ” ” 19514°5
*5113-41 5 ” 54 195510
*5109:08 5 ” ” 19567°6
*5108°55 2 ” ” 19569°6
*5105°73 4 ” ” 19580°4
5100°30 3 1:39 ” 19601°3
*5095:18 5 ” ” 19621:0
5088-08 3 ” ” 19648°4
507764 3 ” ” 19688°8
6035°16 2 1:38 a 19854:9
5034:24 3 ” ” 19858°6
5033°55 2 ” ” 19861°3
*5022°37 3 1:37 55 19905-4
| 5007-49 3 »n | 9 19964°6
| *4993:27 3 ” ” 20022°3
| 4988°15§ 5 1:36 ” 20042-0
: 4986-69 3 » 33 20047:9
498015 5 ” ” 20074:2
4974-75 3 sy {ipo at 20096-0
4972-16 5 ” ” 20106°5
4971-22 3 ” ” 20110°3
*4968-09 3n ” ” 201230
*4967°72 2 3 ” 20124°5
4966-77 5 a 7 201283
4959-89 2 ” ” 20156°2
*4953°37 4 1:35 a 20182°8
4948°77 3 ” ” 20201°9
4942°56 2 ” 56 20226 8
4941°53 2 ” ” 20231:0
4936°61 3 ” ” 20251:2
4935°40 2 ” ” 20256:2
4933-08 3 ” ” 20265°7
|| Also Mp. § Double.
So - Sees
REPORT—1897,.
CoBALT—continued.
78
Wave-
length Intensity
(Rowland) and
Arc Spectrum | Character
*4928-48||
4925-20
4920-47
*4912-62
4908-68
4907-78
4907-30
4904:37
4899-72
4897°36
*4887-19
4882-90
4880-43
4878°53
*4869°59
*4868°05 1
4863-64
4862:29
*4855°86
4855-40
*4843-61
*4840°428
*4818-13
*4816-11
4814-16
*4813-67
4798-01
+4797-93
4796-46
4796-00
*4793-03
4785-26
4782-76
4781-62
*4780-14
¥*4778-42
*4776°49
*4771-27
*4768:26
4767°33
4756-93
*4754:59
*4749°89
4746°31
4742-76
4742-40
4738-34
4737-95
4735-04
473225
4728-14
4727-95
WCAWAMNN NH EOAMPUANINIADAWAMDAPWWORAKEWHOCWNWWORWN OP RATINMWOWRWR
|| fee Titanium,
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
486790 Thalén
483990
| 4814-40
4749-34
§ Solar line double {
”»
Reduction to
Vacuum
a EE
Oscillation
Frequency
ae thon in Vacuo
A
1:35 56 20284°6
” ” 20298°2
” ” 20317°6
1:34 5 20350°1
” ”» 20366°5
” ” 20370°2
” ” 203722
” lees’ be 20381-4
” ” 204037
” - 20413°6
% v 20472'8
” ” 20474:0
” ” 20484°4
1:33 5 20492°4
as 4 20530°0
‘3 ~ 20536°4
” + 20555°1
” ” 20560°4
” 57 20587°9
as s 20589-9
” “4 20640°1
1:32 “fj 20653°7
” * 20749°2
» “ 20757°9
%» “s 20766°4
” sp 20768°5
131 a. 20836'3
” FA 20836°6
” = 20843:0
“+ 7 20845-0
” an 20857°9
” a 20891°8
” ” 20902°7
9 5:8 209079
5 n 209141
+ By 20921°6
5 “- 20930°1
“5 os 20957°4
x 5 20966°2
” +“ 20970°3
1:30 + 210162
7 n 2102675
> “ 21047°3
“ 4 21063°2
” » eI 21079:0
on a 21080°6
a - 21098°6
+ of 21100°4
S as 21113:3
te 7 21125'8
1:29 5-9 211441
BS | 211449
Fe 4840°50 /{ 4814:10
Co 4840°42 | 4814:35
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Wave-
length Intensity
(Rowland) and
Are Spectrum | Character
CoBALT—continued.
i ————— —
Reduction to
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
| | |
4725°44
4721°61
*4718-67
470457
4699°35
*4698-60
*4697-19
$4693°37
4688°68
4686-05
$*4682:53
4680°62
4677°73
4677-46
4676°91
4668-04
$4663°58
*4657°56
465501
4653-93
4652-01
$4651-28
¥4645°34||
*4644-48
4643-92
4640:99
+*4629°47|
4629-05
$4625-88
4624-70
$4623-15
4622'83
4620:96
4614:18§
4612°57
4609-08
*4607-46
4601:31
$*4597-02
$*4594-75
¥*4588°86
4587°08
$4581-76§
4580-32
4575-12
4573-75
$4570°18
456677
{4565-74
4564-98
456435
4564-13
4562:11
DOP WWW APOW ROW WWWRADWWWWWOWWNIW AP wWorwlhd
B
_
CLO WO OR OD
nn
WWRWOAARWW
|| See Titanium.
4531'75 Thalén
Vacuum
Lvs
A+ x
1:29 59
» ”»
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:28 7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”»
1:27 Fr
” ”?
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
4 6:0
” ”
” ”
” ”
”? ”
” ”
” ”
1:26 a
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:25 -
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
$5 61
§ Solar line double
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
2115671
21173°3
21186°9
21250°0
212736
21277:0
21283°4
21300°7
21322°1
21334:0
21350°1
21358°8
213720
21373°3
21375°7
21416°4
214369
21464°6
214763
21481:3
21490:2
21493°6
21521°5
21525:0
21527°6
21541°6
21594°8
21596°7
21611°5
21617:0
216243
21625°9
216345
216663
21673°9
21690°3
21697°9
217269
21747°2
21758:0
21785'9
21794°4
21819°7
21826°5
21851°4
21857°9
218750
21891°3
21896°2
21899°9
21902°8
21903°9
21913°6
{ 4581-69.
4581°59.
79
80 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Reduction to
eect a aa Observations eins Oscillation
Rowland) 7 eae oo Frequency
(Rowland) ra EE SUMED,
Are Spectrum cae A+ x- in Vacuo
|
geile 3 1:25 | 61 219550
549° e < 219729
4547-06 3 ‘, ks 21986'1
aa | |: | eel
fiers | ha ee
4540-96 3 LAT) 5, 22015:7
$*4534-18 8 2 = 22048-3
$*4531-14 10 453145 Thalén is S 220631
4528-12 5 - 5 220781
452694 3 ” ” 22083'9
aes | obs |) #o) oe
4519-42 4n . “s 22119-6
#451728 ‘4 : i 221311
#451433 5 ;, re 921456
4500:71 2 123 | ,, 992126
4499-45 2 "i ;. 22218'8
$4494-92 5s Mees 99241-1
4492-23 : " a 992545
4490°46 | “a “ 992632
4486°89 4s | zo “s 22281-0
4484-65 rae | 4 “ 922921
$*4484-07 5s | ., * 929945
4483-70 bn ., i 992968
$*4478-45 6 A 223229
4477-36 3n | ‘ “ 223984
4471-96 4 | Re " 22355°4
$4471-70 6 | 1p 3 92356:7
+*4469-72 8 | ¢ ff 22366'6
eae | i | ps Se) | ae
4445-21 4 I eed os 22489°9
sie | la * || +] |) dimes
#443637 gt age Z Prive
4431-78 4 hoe toes. 22558:0
4421-48 Bs P2i}] ts 22611°6
4417-55 6 7 ( 22630-7
poles 3 < x 92635°4
$*4402°85 4 : s 22706'3
*4395'99 4 | ” » 22741:°7
teas iy be (#29) cl |
$e438802 Cal ea es 9783-0
+*4380-25 6n ast ss 29823°4
*4379-37]} 3 fe %) 22828-0
eel he > || nol. | ieee
*4374-66 3 3 : 22852'6
$*4373-77 6 ‘ 4 22857°3
f437127 | 6 Jee ” 22870°3
4 4549°65
{ Solar line double { 4549-80"
|| Perhaps due to Vanadium.
a Titanium line at 4549-79.
aa ~~~
ON WAVE-LENGIH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 81
CoBALT—-continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
Arc Spectrum
4366°37
4362:11
4361-20
*4360-98
*4359-60
$4357-33
*4357-05
*4353-96
4340-39
$4339-76
4331:38
*4390:53
4310-24
t*4309°54
{4307-57
| 4303-36
429814
$*4292-41
| $*4285-93
*4276°25
4270:58
4268-59
4268-18
$4263-92
4260-05
*4952-47
$4248-37
$4945°76
4249-06
*4941-69
*4938-63
*4937-54
$*4934-18
*4930-15
$*4295-28
$*4215-03
$4210-26
$4207-77
4198-58
4198-01
*4193-01
$*4190-87
£*4187-44
4171-02
$4162:33
$*4158-58
$*4150 59
4139-58
{4129-49
$*4121-47
£*4118-92§
$*4110°69
+e
1897.
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
SUH IP BS 82 St Co, 82. C2 HBO 160 CO /KO\RO C9
Co OO OD to He Co HE OT Go
aS 6p
=]
ee ee eee
OS 6 He» He He OL OT He PR OD DD SS Se Se bt tS wD OT tt
§ Solar line double {
Reduction to
Vacuum
2 [pete
galt
1:20 | 64
” Ah
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:19 re
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:18 a
, | 6B
” ”
1:17 .
” ”
” ”
” ”
” a
- 66
” ”
1:16 is
” ”
” ”
” “oy
” ”
115 67
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
114 e
” ”
” ”
fc 68
1:13 af
4118-92 Co.
4119-02
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
22895'9
22918°3
22923°1
229242
22931°5
229434
22944'9
229612
23033-0
23036°3
23080°9
23138°9
231942
23197'9
23208°4
232312
23259-4
23290°4
23325°7
23378°5
23409°5
23420 4
23422°7
234461
23467°4
23509°1
23531°8
23546°3
23566°9
* 235689
23585°'9
23592:0
23610°7
236332
23660°5
237180
237449
23759-0
23811-0
238142
23842°6
23854°7
238742
23968°2
24018°3
24040-0
240863
241502
24250°8
24256°4
24271°4
24320°0
82 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- Vacuum
length ee P a a = Deed Oselleties
(Rowland) ie ae | eOUeR ET
Are Spectrum Character A+ <- in Vacuo
4110-21 4 1:13 | 68 24322°9
410983 2 :s " 24395'1
410489 4 e 4 243544
*410457 4s # # 24356'3
4097°37 4 5) 16 24399-0
4096-08 4 244067
* 4093-20 4 1-121| |, 4493-9
* 4092-98 4 4 ‘ 244252
+*4092-B5§ 8 24427°7
£*4086-47 7 a} oi 24464-1
*4085-74 3 % i 24468 5
teaosz7s | 6 meee rie
4081-63 3 ‘ rs 244931
t*4077-55 5 3 . 24517°6
wee| | Sa) ee
i s ” » r
4069-70 3 ; 24564-9
+*4068-72 6s é 24570°8
+*4066-52 6s < # 245841
+74058°75 Bs rd 4 246312
*4058°36 Bs 4 és 24633°6
$4057°36 4s as sl 24639°7
$4057:10 4 ” ” 24641°2
4054-08 4 OTE | Ria 24659'6
+*4053-08 5 = x 246657
4049-43 3 eh eo 24687'8
oa | |) ae
*4040°76 3 if nd 247408
4035:73 7 247717
eunpat 6 £ 24824-1
#402354 3 3 is 248467
$*4021-05 7 ce f 248621
£*4019-47 4 fe 24871°9
4014-12 4 110 | | 24905-1
+*4011-08 2 : 24993-9
$*3998-04 8 3997-94 L. & D. CoN ova 25005°1
*3995-458tt| 9 399533, 8 25021°4
*3994-65 3 . 250264
$#3991-82 4 399204, e . 25044-1
399169 4 e 2 25044-9
$3990-45 4 399084, aa 25052 7
3987-26 4 | 3987-74, é ‘ 25072:8
$*3979-65 6 397934, A | ah 251207
3979-03 8n aa | as 251246
+*3978:80 6 Z x 25126'1
+3977°36 3 ; ; 25135'2
$3975-48 3 109 | 3, 25147°1
t{ Exner and Haschek’s numbers : 3995:52.
, 4092°45. 3995-456.
§ Solar line double { crear Oak {
3995'35.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 83
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
Are Spectrum
£*3974:87
£#3973-29
$3972°66
+3969:25
3961-14
3958-06
*3957-79
$*3953-05
$3959-47
$*3947-28
$*3945-47
£*3941-87
3941-01
+#3936-12§
$*3934-05
3933-32
$3929-42
$3925:32
$*3922'88
3921-24
+*3920:898§
$3920:28
3919-79
3917-26
+*3915-66
+*3910-088
+*3906'42
+*3904-20
+*3898 64§
$*3895:12
*3894-21¢t
3893-44
*3893-19
3892-26
+3891:83
+*3885'40
+*3884-76
£*3882-04§
£*3881:18
+*3880:54
$*3876-99
*3874-10tt
*3873-25tt
£*3870°65
*3866:92
$3863-72
CoBALT—continued.
ee Previous Observations
Character (peed)
6 397474 L. & D.
3
4
2 3969°44 ¥;
6 3958°34 +
2
7 395304 Fe
4
3
6 394553 r
6 3941°53 7
5
8 393613 55
4
2,
4
3
5s
3}
4s
4
3
5 3916°83 *s
2
a 3909°63 js
6 3905°83 5
4
4
7 3994-93 os
10nr 3994-03 5
3
23
3
3
4s
5 388463 =
7 3881°63 A
3
3.
6 3876°72 A
70 3873°82 FA
9n 3873:02 7
4s
2
3
3920'99 Fe.
§§ Solar line triple! 3920°8! Co.
| 3920-75 Fe.
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
_ $f Exner and Haschek’s numbers: 3894-13, 3874-05, 3873°17.
3910-08 Co { 3898°65 Co,
§ Solar line double {
3936°12 Co. f 3882712
3935°95.
3882-04 Co
3909°98 Fe
25150°9
25161°0
25164°9
25186°6
25238°2
25257°8
25259°5
25289'7
25293'4
25326°7
25338°3
25361°5
25367-0
25398'5
25411°9
25416°6
25441°8
25468°4
254843
25494:9
25497-2
255012
255044
25520°8
25531°3
25567°7
25591°6
25606°1
25642°7
25665°8
256718
256769
256786
25684°7
25687°6
25730°1
257343
25752'4
25758°1
25762°3
25785°9
258051
25810°9
25828-2
2585371
258745
3898°b5,
G2
84,
REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Reduction to
Wave- = Vacuum saillott
length Intensity | Previous Observations Occillation
(Rowland) | ¢y Se (Rowland) 1 vous
Arc Spectrum yaaa 3 pNee a7
ee |
£*3861:29 6 886112 L. & D. 107 | 73 25890°8
*8860°55 || 4 i a 5 258957
$3856°93 4s | 1:06 3 25920°1
$*3851-97 4 ” " 25953'4
$3851:09 53 es ds 25959°4
3850°24 3 9 +s 25965°1
*3845-59tT 9nr 3845°42 os 3 s 25996°5
$*3843°90 4 33 Pr 26007°9
*3842-20tT 7n 3842-02 Fr 3 % 26019°5
$*3841-60 4s Al Wie 26023°5
3836-04 3 + ; 26061:2
teae-82 3 es . 26062°7
$*3833-02 3 ” ” 26081°8
3820-02 4 - 74. 26170°6
+3818-08 3 eo 26183-9
+3817-02 4 ae 26191:2
$*3816°58 5 3816-31 oc 1:05 | en 26194:2
$*3816-46 5 3815-72 i i Ainle Se 261950
3814°58 4 ae 26207°9
Rr rK 3 ae ee 26221°7
$*3811°16 3 ” ” 26231°4
[*3808°24 4 3807-91 is x se 26250°5
$*3805:90 | 3 we mares 26267°7
3777-65 4 3777°60 3 - 5 264642
{3774-72 4 3774-60 os 1-04 i 26484-7
$8760°52 3 7 75 26584°7
3759°83 3 - 26589°4
ares 5s pew 26619°5
$3754:50 3 3754-50 si, nee eae 26627°2
1375295 2 a) ” 26637°9
$*3751°75 4 ” ” 26646'7
| *37650:06 5 Ee 5 26658°7
$3745-61 7 3746-40 Fs Lo = 26689°4
3740°3L 4 ier a 26728'3
£*3736°30 5 873580" i, | 1:03 x 267569
$*3734:30 53 ; e 267713
4373362 5 3733-40, a ¢ 267762
*3732°5294] 6 a - 26784'1
+*3731:42 2 “ * 26792:0
$*3730°618§ | 5 3730°40 9 oe ales 26797°8
+*3726'80 3 ee 26825°1
$*3712°3) | 4 3712:20 iy eis’ 5 26929°8
t*3711'80 | 3 Weary Hl ais 26933°'5
*3708°96 / 5 pe F 26954'1
$*3707°61§ 4 5 Vila dy 26964:0
$*3704:17 6 370410 a ae he 26989:0
$*3702°40 5 3702°30 % és Re 27001°9
|| Also Manganese.
tt Exner and Haschek’s numbers: 3845°57, 3842°12.
3730°60 Co.
q Also Iron. §§ Solar line triple 3730°50 | p,
3730°43 ‘
§ Solar line double
3707°70 Ti.
3707°60 Co.
i aa
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 85
CoBALT—continued.
Wave Reduction to
length Intensity Previous Observations | __ genni Oscillation
(Rowland) elec (Rowland) Tifpeierial pA lic arg
Arc Spectrum racter pi) =— in Vacuo
*43693'65 5s 3693°39 L. & D. 1:02 | 7-6 27065:9
*3693°53 3 ‘ d 27066'8
$3693-27 5 | 369299, - é 27068:7
ee 4s | 369079 ,, i : 27086'3
36866 3 as » | 27117-4
3685'13 3 28:
sieae2 | |” | orisa3
$*3683'184 7 3683-09, ny | Te 27142'8
+*3676'69 6 a ‘3 27190°7
$*3670°20 3 is Ke 27238'8
se : 366238 —,, 3 - 27297°3
U5 . 27329'3
$*3657°12 4s 365668 si, Lol | ? 27336-2
en 4s 365458, # is 27355'2
: , | 27369°5
3651°42 4s ; 27378-9
1 ”
3649-479 6 364938, se é 27393'5
$3648°30 4 ” ” 27402°3
ae 5 3 < 27405:9
4 x : 27410-2
3645-60 3 ‘i ‘ 27422'6
+3645°36 4 te » | 274244
3643-34 5 3643-28 —,, J if 27439'6
Sore 5 | 3641-68 __,, a3 “ 274501
3639: 5 | 363948 4 7 27467'6
3637-49 4g | : 78 27483:7
+*3636°89 4s | 363668, A 0 a 27495°7
$*3634'86 5 363478 —,, ns 27503'6
$3633-52 3s f " 27513°7
$*3633-00 5 | 3682-78, Ce hi 27517-7
Bear | - a 275243
631: em | s t 27528°7
+*3627-96 7 | 362738 ,, 2 % 27555°9
$*3625'13 5 | 55 3 275774
3624-48 4 | ee 27582'4
$*3620°59 4 ss Mime 27612-0
$3618:17 3 ” ” 27630°5
+*3615°56 4 361538 1-001 |g 27650°4
$*3611°89 5 361188, 53 j 27678'5
$*3609-°92 3 ” ” 27693°6
3608°50 3 ” ” 27704°6
£*3605°50§ 6 360558 ——,, 5s fe 2727-6
+*3605°19 4 zi ff 27730:0
+*360462 4 . s 27734°4
$*3596-67 4 A ie 21795°7
*3595-00tt ix 359498, ee 27808'5
$*3591-92 3 iP e 27832'5
$3589-44 2 z ( 27851'6
é 3605-62 Fe | 3586-30 Fe.
§ Solar line double 4 3605.50 col 3586-20 Co. { Also Iron,
t} Exner and Haschek’s number: 3595:00.
86 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Reduction to
hibehben Eifenally Previous Observations Waren eee a
an See requency
(Rowland) | Character Coenen U in Vacwo
Are Spectrum AGE a
*3587:30tt 10nr 3587:28 L. & D. 1:00 T9 27868:2
*3586°20$ 3 s “3 278768
+3585-92 3 fs r 27878'9
$*3585:28 Tr A i 27883°9
[*3584 92 5s i me 27886:°7
+3582-00 4 S i 27909'5
$3579-16 4 rf 5 279316
3579-01 4 x is 27932'8
$*3578:20 4 857798 » - i 279391
3577°80 3 0:99 “ 27942°2
*3577°36 3 - is 27945-7
£*3575'48 Tnr 3575°47 SH iy re 27960°4
£*3575-06 6nr 3575°07 A ss + 27963°7
*3569°48tt | 10nr 356947 |, : A 28007°4
*3568:36 3 4 a 28016:2
+*3565-08 6r 356507, aoe 280420
$*3564-25 4 ie a 28048°5
£*3563:04 5s - * 28058:0
*35 62°22 Bs i Motes 28064°5
*3561-01tt 6r 3561-07, xe 8 280740
3560-44 4 . 4 28078°5
+*3558-90 Bs és % 28090°7
#355328 3 ad 7 28135'1
+*3553°L2 | i is x é 281364
$#3552°85 4 355297, E. i 28138°5
£*3550°72 6r 3550°67 ss 55 8:0 28155'3
£*3548:60 5 3548°57 39 os A 28172°1
+*3546-36 4 . h 28186:0
$*3543-40 6s 354337, ee eee 282135
+3534-92 4 098 | ° 282812
¥3533-49tt | Tr 353337, fae 28292°6
*3529-92t+ 9nr 352937, : a 28321°3
+*3529-17 6 352896, et tie 28327°3
*3526-96¢t 9nr 352686. # : 28345°0
¥*3525-97 3 ‘ : 28353:0
¥3593-85 5 # i 28370-0
*3523-571t8| Gr 3523-46, ee) gat 28372'3
+*3523-00 4 . 283769
*3521-70tt | Gr 3521-46, Be: 28387°4
$*3520-20 6 3520-06 * is » 28399°5
*3519:90 4 tes 28401:9
*3518-49tt 7 3518-26 ,, aes 28413'3
*3513-621t 7 Ee 28452°7
*3512-784+ 7 351256, ee z, 28459°5
: J 3605-62 Fe { 3586-30 Fe { 352357 Co.
§ (Rolardine double») 2505-50 Co 1 BeBe Co | 3523-47
tf} Exner and Haschek’s numbers: 3587:36, 3569°58, 3560°97, 3533°46, 3529-96,
3527-00, 3523-60, 3521-70, 3518-53, 3513°58, 3512-80.
3553:12 Co.
|| Solar line St ae Fe.
3552°85 Co.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 87
CoBALT—continued,
Reduction to
Wave- c Vacuum Lie Bs
length Thpeuty Previous Observations ams Oscillation
and Frequene
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland ) 1 veacree
Arc Spectrum A+ Fa
*3510-53f§ 7 351026 L. & D. 0:98 8-1 28477°6
"3509-98118, 7 350986, “I " 28482'1
*3506-44 tt 8nr 350616 ,, 2 Ke 28510°8
$3505:28 3 : Py as 28520°3
+3504'88 4 ‘ y 28523'5
*3503°86 3 3503-96 ” 3 e 28531°9
$*3502:76 6nr 350256 ,, 4 i 28540°9
*3502-41¢t 9nr 3502°16 a - oe 28543°7
$£*3496°83S 6r 3496°56 op 0:97 “hp 28589°2
*3495-S2tt | 7 3495°66 y, : : 28597'1
$*3492-15 3 2 3 28627°6
£*3491-46 5 349116, se % 286332
$3490:89 5 2 4 28638-0
*3489-54tt 8r 3489°36 Fe “n 7 28649-0
+*3487-86 4 es i. 23662°8
$*3485:49 7 3485°25 i 5 a 28682°3
$43483-55 6r 3483-25, th 4 28698-2
3480-16 3 f 28726'2
3478-90 4 347855. ft " 28736'6
$*3478-69 4 ; 3 28738°5
$*3478-01 3 " 28744-0
$*3476:49 4 3476°55 hi 5 A 28756°5
*3474-668 4 “ i 2877-7
*3474-15tt Snr 3473-95, - os 28775°9
$*3471-52§ 5 FF . 28797°7
SPARK SPECTRUM.
ener and Regesnon to
Haschek Intensity | previous Ob : aeua Oscillation
Wave-length and sl wy Lesa Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum sr Nig er
3469°2 2 0°97 8:2 28817
3468:7 2 i; 2 28821
3468-3 2 4 3 28825
3467-7 2 Pe “9 28830
3467-5 2 s 5 28831
3465-96 8 Fe “f) 28843°8
3465°5 2 # 7 28848
3463-01 8 ie 2ee6e4
34613 4 7 ”
3460°5 2 i P 28890
3458°5 2 0:96 3 pri
3457°8 2 ” ”
* Double.
tt Exner and Haschek’s numbers: 3510:52, 3509-92, 3506'45, 3502'30, 3495°78,
3489°58, 3474-11.
§ Solar line double { 3471°52 Co.
3471-47 Fe.
8&8
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
3457-1
3456'6
3456'2
3455°6
3455°4
3453°71
3453°0
3452°6
3452°1
34518
*3451°3
3449-62
3449°32
34475
3447°3
3446°5
3445°6
3443°82
3443-4
3443°2
3442-2
3441-4
34413
3440°8
3439-0
3438-0
3437°2
3435°9
3435°6
3433°18
3432°5
3431°73
3431-1
3430°9
34300
3429°5
3429°0
3428°5
3426°6
3424-7
*3424-0
3423'0
34219
3421:0
3417°9
3417-32
3415°9
34149
34137
3412°80
3412-48
3411°7
3409°32
3407-1
3405°28
REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Iutensity
and
Character
=]
i=]
SCHNIDNNINDNAANEPHY YH EPH EY YHHHNDHYNDYNYNHKMENHWHANNNANNANNNYNHNYKHOONHNH He
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
28918
28922
28926
28931
28932
28946:2
28952
28956
28960
28962
28967
28980°5
28983:0
28999 ©
29000
29007
29014
29029°3
29033
29035
29043
29050
29051
29055
29070
29079
29085
29096
29099
29120-1
29125
29131°5
29137
29139
29147
29151
29155
29159
29175
29192
29198
29206
29216
29223
29260
29254°4
29267
29275
29286
29293°2
29295-9
29304
29323°0
29343
29357°9
— ae
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 89
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
( Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
3403°7
3403°3
3402°3
3402°2
3402°0
3399°3
3399°0
3395°50
3393-71
3391-2
3390°6
3388°30
3387'8
3385-4
3384-1
3382'3
3381-7
3381-2
3378°9
3378°5
3377°2
337674
3376°2
33748
3374°4
33742
3373°4
3372°2
3371°1
3370'S
3369°7
3368°8
3367°3
3366°4
33660
3365°3
33645
3363°9
3363°4
3363'0
3361-7
33615
3360°5
3359°4
3358'S
3358'3
3357:0
3356°6
33561
3355°3
3354-48
3352°9
3351°7
3351°3
3350°5
Intensity
and
Character
bo bo bo bo
Bp %
NN PNY PN HNNHAANN PRADO LD
B
DHHRPANNHNHHYNHRKREY NYP RNNHYHYNNHN ON PR Ob NAN
5 5S oe 5 a
COBALT—continued.
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
1
x es
i A
Osciliation
Frequency
in Vacuo
0:95 | 8&3
29372
29375
29384
29385
29386
29410
29416
29442°3
29464
29480
29485
29504'8
29510
29531
29542
29558
29563
29567
29587
29591
29602
29609
29620
29623
29627
29629
29636
29646
29656
29661
29668
29676
29690
29697
29701
29707
29709
29719
29724
29727
29739
29741
29749
29759
29765
29769
29780
29784
29788
29796
29802-4
29817
29828
29831
29838
90 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
ee and a to ¥
aschek Intensit 5 . scillation
Weave lest eae —— caer ath a Reapenoy
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) er a in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum FV
334893 4 0:94 | 85 29858
33471 4 > és 29869
3346°4 2 " 3 29875
3344-2 2 a5 4 29895
33429 4 % ms 29906
33421 2 a Fr 29913
3341°5 4 _ in 29918
3340:0 4 % és 29932
3336°6 2 5 29963
3334°3 5 % * 29983
3333°5 4 BS a 29990
3329°6 4 A 53 30026
3328°4 2 5 ., 30036
3327'1 4 B . 30048
3325°4 4 . 86 30066
33240 2 a - 30076
3323-0 2 x - 30085
3322:3 5 a Ns 30092
3320°5 2 m 30107
3320:0 2 - - 30111
3319°6 4 ., Py 30115
3319°4 2 i. is 30117
3318°6 2 5, _ 30124
3315-2 2 < - 30155
3314-2 5 “A i 30164
33133 2 Es - 30172
3313°1 2 _ 30174
3312°3 4 ‘5 “5 30181
3308-9 2 i * 30213
33086 2 a - 30215
3307°3 4 4 i 30227
33065 2 B * 30234
3305°8 2 + * 30241
3305-2 2 - ss 30246
33049 2 _ sf 30249
3304-2 2 “ ai 30255
3304-0 2 s i 30257
33034 2n a4 is 30263
3301°9 2n 4 a 30277
3301'3 2n 0:92 x 30282
3298°8 4 A - 30305
32976 2b a - 30316
3296'6 2b a 6 30325
3294:7 2 A 4 30343
3294°1 2 $3 a 30348
3293'5 2 ” ” 30354
3292°2 2 3 A 30366
3290 6 2b is as 30381
3287-7 2 i 87 30407
3287°4 4 os a 30410
3286-0 2n ; x 30423
3283'9 2 5 a 30451
3283°57 7 ” ” 30446:0
3282°3 2b ” ’ 30457
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
Intensity
and
Character
3281°5
3279-4
32790
3278°3
32778
32775
3276°6
327410
32720
32714
3270°5
3269°7
3269°3
3268-2
32679
3265°5
32650
3262°5
3261°8
3261°2
3260°9
3260°0
3258°5
32582
32565
32543
3250°1
3247°70
3247°30
3247°2
3246'3
3246-0
3245°7
3245°5
32442
3243°8
3239°1
3238°5
3238-0
32372
3235°7
3234°7
3234°3
3231:0
3228°8
32282
32271
32263
3225°3
3224'8
3221°8
3221-4
3219'2
32180
3217-2
PNYHHNHNNHANTH PPD IO
BB 6B B
Sor 8 i )
Bp
i=]
Baga ete NS) BS KS) RO 1D Pe, Bo 6S GG r hD BO RD BORD AO > Oe Be
i=}
novo e
COoBALT—continued.
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+ Les
A
0:92 87
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0°91 i
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
rr 8-8
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” . ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”»
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0:90 Pr
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
30465
30484
30488
30495
30499
30502
30510
30534°0
30553
30561
30567
30575
30579
30589
30592
30514
30619
30642
30649
30655
30657
30666
30680
30683
30699
30720
30759
30782:2
30785:4
30787
30795
30798
30801
30803
30815
30819
30864
30869
30874
30882
30896
30906
30910
30941
30962
30968
30979
30986
30996
31001
31030
31033
31055
31066
31074
91
92 REPORT—1897.
COoBALT—continued.
Exner and poe to
Haschek fox be : Oscillation
Wave-length gee sis ees Frequency
(Rowland) | Character Poniant) 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum Pt een
3217°0 2 0:90 | 8:8 31076
3215-4 2 - 8:9 31091
32142 2 ” ” 31103
3213°5 2 ” ” 31110
321271 2 ” ” 31123
3210°9 4 as ‘3 81135
3210'3 4 Es ” 31141
3206-2 2 fe) Fs “- 31181
*320471 2 teats 3 31201
3203-2 2 fis es = 31210
3202°3 2 eer ” 31219
3200°5 2 owes an 31236
3199°4 2 Le ae - 31247
3198-7 2 |» r, 31254
3198°5 2b Les * 31256
3197-2 2 fee 7 31268
3197°0 2 = - 31270
3196°6 2 * * 31274
| 3196-2 2 « » 31278
| 3194-1 2b ie es 5; 31299
| 3193-2 2 i kge - 31308
| 3192:3 2 . 31316
| 3191°3 2 ” ” 31326
3189°8 2 ise ; 31341
3188-5 5 Noe ” 31354
3186°4 4 1a wes iy 31374
31860 4 9 - 31378
3184°4 a hes i 31394
3182-2 4 |; 0:89 a 31416
3180-4 2 or os 9:0 31434
3180-1 2 ee " 31437
3179°6 2 Laer Fa 31441
oie 5 ie ee 31464
) “31750 4 i 31488
3174:2 4 - 5 31495
3173°2 2 a 5 31505
317271 2n “f a 31516
3171°4 2b - * 31523
3169°8 5 Re * 31539
31681 4 = 5 31556
3164°6 2 s # 31591
3163:7 2 = m4 31600
3161:7 4 eS = 31620
3161:2 2 ey ss 31625
3159°8 4 ” ” 31639
3158°8 5 | age .; 31655
3156°7 2n S - 31670
3155°8 2 - a: 31679
*3154-82 q ps “A 31688°6
31528 4 aS i 31709
3150°8 2n ‘5 - 31729
3149°4 4 5 i 31743
31471 5 9 91 31766
3144-1 2 = Pr 31797
31407 2 08 = 31831
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 99
CoBALT—continued.
io)
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
‘Spark Spectrum
31400
3137°9
3137°4
3136°9
3132°3
3130°9
3129°6
3129°1
3127°4
3126°9
3126:7
3123-0
3121°6
31215
3118-4
31168
3115°8
3115°2
31145
3114:3
3113°6
311273
3111°4
31109
3110°7
3110°2
3109°6
3109 3
3107°6
3107°2
3105-9
3105°5
31041
3103°8
3102°5
3100°9
3100°6
3100°2
3099-2
3098-3
3097°3
30969
3096°5
3095'8
3093°3
3090°4
3089-7
3088°7
3088:0
3086°9
3086°6
3082°9
3082°7
3081:0
3079'S
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
es eel
pbdwhbhaanth
BS ps SEIS TEE ISTE!
i=}
LDN NH HH PHNHYHHE RH HHH HHFPPRDHY HHH RE
i=}
Mie Hep) RD) t= (Ga) BORO
Oscillation
- Tasineney
in Vacuo
A+ a
0:88 | 91 31838
Pr “ 31859
a 7 31865
‘ a 31870
" ‘8 31916
‘ + 31931
Ee i 31944
Pr or 31949
i 7 31966
i “ 31972
Pr 3 31974
ae ia 32011
FP op 32026
+ 32027
a9 - 32059
s 7 32075
Pe nr 32085
cf 7 32092
iW 9-2 32099
- a 32101
a ) 32108
An A 32122
” ” 32131
A » 32136
“ “F 32138
“ ii 32143
. 54 32149
a cn 32153
A ” 32170
” A 32174
is a 32188
” ” 32192
“ ~ 32206
a ” 32210
5) af 32223
0°87 ” 32240
” ff 32243
rr + 32247
9 + 32257
fr Fy 32267
- “ 32277
i = 32281
5 iv! 32286
5 Pr 32293
a 7 32319
* rp 32349
i “ 32361
a Fr, 32367
Fr ‘ 32374
i ” 32386
a ri 32389
a 93 32428
” =“ 32430
a 32448
” » 32464
94 REPORT—1897,
CoBALT—continued.
| Ricner dnd ; Reda to
Haschek Intensity Previous Observations acum Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) Frequency
(Rowland) | Character A ia in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum ze x
3078-7 2n 0°87 9:3 32472
3077°8 2n 5 32482
3077°3 2n 99 5 32487
3076°3 2 7 + 32498
3073°6 Es A ms 32526
3072°4 6 © . 32539
3072-1 4 x i" 32542
30710 2 < ~ 32554
30687 2 ” ” 32578
3066°5 2 ” ” 32601
3064-7 4 5 + 32621
3064°5 4 5s “ 32623
3063°6 2 ” ” 32632
3062°3 2n 0°86 eo 32646
3061-9 6 e ‘s 32650
3061°0 2 * - 32660
3060°1 4 A zs 32670
3058°6 2 7 32686
3056'8 2 8 - 32705
3055:2 2 S Ps 32722
3054:8 2 ‘5 Fe 32726
| 3053-0 2 » |, O4 32746
3050°6 2 “ ve 32771
3050°2 2 3s 5 32776
3048°9 5 = Rs 32790
| 3048°3 2 a i 32796
, 30463 2 5s 6 32818
| 3044°10 7 »» 5 32841°0
| 3042°6 4 Bs - 32858
| 3041:9 2 x 5 32865
3041'7 2 > ne 32867
3041-0 2 . 32875
3039°7 2 3 - 32889
3036'8 2 5 is 32920
3035°6 2 ” ” 32935
| 80384:7 5 - = 32943
| 8034°5 4 » 5s 32945
| 8034°2 2 "8 “ 32949
/ 3032°6 2n o 5 32966
| 3032-0 2 55 . 32973
| 3031-4 2 = ie 32979
| 3031-2 2n . a 32981
| 3028'4 2n :, eS 33012
| 3026°7 2n a es 33030
3026°5 5 r - 33032
30245 2 “4 9-5 33053
3023-7 2 0:85; , 33062
3022°8 2b _ 5 33072
3022'5 2 vs , 33075
3020°1 2 a Aa 33101
3019°9 2 BS 5 33104
3019'3 2 yi , 33111
3017°7 6 x 33128
3017°5 2 ” ” 33130
| 3015'8 2 x a , 33149.
——w |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES. OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 995
CoBALT—continued.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland )
Spark Spectrum
3013-7
3011-7
3011:2
301071
3008-9
3008°3
3006:1
3005'S
3005°0
3001:7
3000°7
2999°8
2996-7
2995°2
2990°4
2989°7
2988°2
2987:2
2982°3
*2981-7
297871
2975°6
2973°3
2971°7
2971-1
2968'7
2968°3
29653
2964'8
2963-0
*2961°7
29613
2961:0
2959-7
2957°8
2955°5
2954°83
2954-0
2944:0
2943'2
2942°5
2942°2
29341
2933°7
2930°5
2929°7
2929:0
292871
2927-8
2927°0
2925°6
2924°8
2924°2
2921°7
2919-7
Intensity
and
Character
| ee ee
=]
oe
BOND NS Im BS BO i BD Ge DO Co bo BO BO im BY BO bo BO be He LORD bO on
PRIESTS
WT SM SAU SL)
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+ am
A
085 | 95
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
F 9°6
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
0°84 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
9°7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
a 9°8
” ”
0°83 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
»” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 3:9
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
33172
33194
33199
33211
33225
33231
33256
33259
33268
33304
33316
33326
33360
33377
33430
33438
33455
33466
33521
33528
33568
33597
33623
33641
33648
33675
33679
33713
33719
33740
33754
33759
33762
33777
33799
33825
33833°2
33842
33957
33967
33975
33978
34072
34077
34114
34123
34131
34142
34145
34155
3417)
34180
34187
34217
34240
96 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Exner and Reduction to
Haschek Intensity | Previous Observations Vacoum Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) SS a ee Frequency
(Rowland ) Character 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum sa 2
29187 5n 0°83 9:9 34252
2916-7 2n 33 , 34275
2916'°2 2n 4 ad 34281
29155 2n ae pa 34289
2914-7 2 0 = 34299
2913-7 2 a eS 34311
2912-1 2n % - 34329
2911-6 2n cs . 34335
291071 2n - e 34353
2908'9 2n 7 39 34367
2907°7 Qn * : 34381
2907:0 2 s - 34390
2905'6 2n , ii - 34406
2905:2 2n ay es 34411
2904:3 2 9» & 34422
2903°8 2n 0°82 35 34428
2903:2 2 a . 34435
2899'9 2 if = 34474
2898:8 2 + . 34487
2897°9 2n ” ” 34498
28959 2 is 10:0 34522
2895°5 2 r = 34526
2895'3 2 ” ” 34529
2894:9 2 A es 34534
2899'4 Qn i 34563
2890°5 6 * 4 34586
2889'7 4 iH ; 34596
2888°6 2n ri 34609
2886°5 4 - + 34634
2883°8 2 a f 34666
2883°5 2 0 %» 34670
2882°3 2 4 [ 34684
2882°0 2 ia a 34688
2880-5 2b x 34706
2879:7 2n . e 34716
2878°6 2 ” ” 34729
28769 2 . . 34750
2876°6 2 ” ” 34753
28742 2 ” ” 34782
2874:1 2 ” ” 34785
2873-5 2 He si 34791
2873-0 2 id x 34797
2872°6 2 Ns 10] 34802
2871-28 7 v* Woes 348176
2870'2 4n : ‘ 34831
28683 2n ” ” 34854
2867-5 2n cS 34864
28667 2n HA 5 34873
2865°6 2n ts if 34887
2862°7 2 0°81 3 34922
2861°5 2n si i 34937
2859'7 2 es x! 34959
2858-5 2 ‘4 3 34973
28573 2b . a 34988
2856°2 2 is e 35002
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
COBALT — continued.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
2855°8
2853°5
2852°2
2851:0
28501
2849°7
2848°4:
2845'8
28442
2840°8
2838-0
2837°3
2835°8
2835°1
2834°5
2834-0
2831-7
2828-7
2827-4
2827-0
2825°3
2823-7
2823°3
2821°9
282071
2819°5
2819-0
2818°8
2818-2
2817-2
28163
28159
2815:7
2813-4
2813:0
2812-7
2811°7
2811-0
2809°5
2809-2
2807-2
280771
2805'8
2805°6
2804'7
2804°2
2803°9
2802-7
2802°3
2801-2
2799°2
2799:0
2798°5
27972
2797-0
1897.
Intensity
and
Character
io”
o
Co
B
BO
o
f=]
PS tee Sa SAR PgR RST RUINS SH BS TSU OSH SS BOT SEBO Sa SBS BOUND BS INO RS BO/ED a BORD: BOQ ROD RO TS
o
ye > He bo bo bo
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
35006
35035
35051
35065
35078
35081
35097
35129
35149
35191
35226
35235
35253
35262
35270
35276
35304
35342
35358
35363
35384
35405
35410
35427
35460
35457
35464
35466
35474
35486
35498
35603
35505
35534
35539
35543
35556
35565
35584
35587
35613
35614
35630
35633
35644
35651
35655
35670
35675
35689
35714
35717
36723
35740
35743
if
97
98 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
rac “Vacuum | gitt
asche Intensity . . scillation
Wave-length and : Beet Frequency
(Rowland) Character Ag so in Vacuo .
Spark Spectrum x |
2796°3 4 0°80 | 10-4 35752 |
2794:9 4 ” ” 35769
2794:0 5b ” ” 35781
2791°7 2 ” ” 35810
27911 2 “p % 35818
2789'6 2 ” ” 35837
27861 4 os on 35882
2785°6 4 ” ” 358389
2782°8 2 0-79 oF 35925
2782°3 2n 5 on 35931
2781°6 2 aa + 35941
27801 2 a be 35960
27796 2 . “ 35966
2779 0 4 ” ” 35974
27783 2 ps 35983
27763 6 + *p 36009 ‘
27752 4b > 10°5 36023
2774:0 2 ” ” 36039 :
27730 2 ” ” 36052
2771:0 2b ” ” 36078 ;
2769°2 4 ” ” 36101
2767:0 4n ” ” 36130
276674 4 oF ce 36138 .
27649 2 ” ” 36158 .
2763°9 i eA 7 36171
2763°2 2b ” ” 36180
2762°4 2b “= I 36190
2762'1 2 55 A 36194
2761°6 2 ” ” 36201
2761°5 2 = as 36202
2760°5 2 7 ‘ 36215
2758°6 2 a “- 36231
2758'4 2 a A 36242
2758:0 2 + < 36247
2757°4 2 “J “F 36255
2754:7 2b Py “s 36291
2752-4 2 7 36321
2751:0 2 a 106 36331
2750-4 2b 33 a 36347
2748°6 2 +o 5 36371
2745°3 4 3 “s 36415
2742°5 2 is ae. 36452
2742-2 2 Pe 36456
2741°6 2 0:78 e 36464
2740°5 2 is oa 36479
2739°2 t 3 He 36496
2738°5 2 a3 2 36505
2737°5 2 S = 36519
2737-2 2 ” ” 36523
2734-9 4b - a 36553
2733'8. 2 “ . 36568
2733°2 4 ” ” 36576
2731:3 4 ” ” 36604
2731°0 2 PA Es 36606
2729°4 2n ” ” 36627
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 99
CoBALT—continued.
ne : . Reduction to
Ware ean ey i Observations Yee Oecitlation
owlan 5 : wlan requenc
Spark Spectrum an ag ‘ At : - in Vacuo
2729:0 2 ‘1
2728'1 de a Ha pete?
ane ; ” 8 36645
2723-7 2 ” ” 36692
2723-0 2 Sah ae pas
2722-2 2 va ee pele
27211 4 Ble: aon
2720-0 3 ” ” 36739
Sea 3 ” " 36754
2717:3 on ” ” 36766
orind : ” : 36792
2716-1 4 ” ” 36801
arte Ff » e 36807
2711°9 on 9 ” 36842
2710°4. 2 ” ” 36864
pil te a. ” “ 36884
2708:1 4 ” ” 36900
pis a ” 9 36915
2706°8 6n ” Ey 36922
2706-0 2 ” ” 36934
2704:3 2 ” ” 36944
2702°5 4 ” ” 36967
2701°8 2 ” ” 36992
27006 9 ” ” 37001
2697-1 t em es pete
2695:9 2 ” ” 37066
ensure : ” 7 37082
eae ro ”» a 37098-4
2692-4 2n ” ” 37121
2689°8 4 ” ” 37131
2689-2 2b ” ” 37167
2687-0 2b ” ” 37175
2686°3 2b ” ” 37205
SEER A : " a 37215
2684-6 Bn ” ” 37227
aeLRe oo Pe hia 37239
esihes an » i 37254
2682-2 2 oe pale
2682-0 2 sy ” 37272
2680°5 4 3 % 37275
2680°3 9 ” ” 37296
2679:9 2 ” ” 37298
2678:2 4 ” ” 37304
2676-2 bn ” ” 37328
26740 2 ” ” 37356
2673-7 2 ce a
2673°3 2 9 ” 37390
2672'3 4b ” ” 37396
2670°8 4 ” ” 37410
2669°9 4b ” ” 37431
2668°3 2b ” ” 37444
2666°3 3 ” ” 37466 -
26653 3 ” ” 37494
- 2663°58 8 ” ” 37508
” ” 37032°6
H2
100 REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Exner and pee to
Haschek . 3 sheet illatio
Wave length inepianty aber estrone 7 ia Fay aaa ite
owlan :
Spark Spectrum ae uaa i oR
26627 2n O77 | 109 37545
2662-2 2n ” ” 37552
26581 2 a ’ 37610
2656-5 4b PF » 37633
2653-74 { 0°76 ” 37671:8
2652°8 4 ” 110 37685
2652°4 2 a ” 37691
2650°3 2 a A 37721
2648-70 7 o ”” 377433
2646°5 2 AS Ei. 37775
2643:2 2 af “ 37821
2641°2 2n z F 37851
2641:0 2n > ” 37853
2640°5 2 pe ” 37861
2639°3 2n = i 37878
2638'1 2 Pa is 37895
2637°9 2 +s is 37898
2637-4 4 5 ds 37905
2636°1 4 * Fs 37924
2634:°9 4 “ » 37941
2632-30 8 . * 37978°6
2631°4 4 2 11d 37993
26311 4 3 “5 37996
2630°5 2 * “5 38004
2628°8 2 a ES 38029
2627:7 2 a a 38045
2627:0 2n ” ” 38055
2625°5 2 P os 38077
2625°3 4 ve “ 38080
2624°5 2n = FS 38091
2624:0 72 . 3 38099
2623-7 2 sy A: 38103
2622°6 2 a * 38119
2622°4 2 F _ 38122
2622:0 4n Pe » 38128
2621:0 2b ‘a a 38142
2619°8 4 - A 38160
2618'8 4 oy a 58174
26153 2b a + 38226
2614-39 7 Pr ” 38238°7
2613'5 5 3 AS 38252
2612°6 4n a - 38265
2610°4 2 z : 38297
2609:0 2 0:75 .| 11:2 38318
2608'1 2 “s a 38331
2605'9 5 a aS 38363
2605°7 5 <a ~ 38366
2604:'5 4 * BH 38384
2603°3 2 5 i 38411
2600°9 2 f a 38437
2594°4 Dat 5 As 38534
2594-2 2 * 38537
2593'8 4 ss “ 38542
2593:5 2 ‘ Ke 38547
25915 2 a ek 38577
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
Intensity
and
Character
CoBALT—continued.
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
2589°1
2587°25
2585°3
2583°2
2582°30
2581°4
2580°38
2575°6
25749
2574°5
2572°3
2569°8
2569:0
2567°4
2567:0
2565°5
2564:18
2562°7
*2562'3
2561:0
2560°10
2559-48
2558°6
2557°4
2556°8
2555°2
2554:2
2554:0
2553°3
2553°0
25524
2550°6
2549°9
2549°4
2548°6
2548-4
2546°80
2546:3
2545°8
2545-1
2544°6
2544:3
2543°8
2543-4
2542-00
2540°7
2540°3
2538°9
2537-6
2536°8
2536°6
2536°1
2535-7
2535-4
25345
aes ay Rag redone ee ie a tp ee ee ace eed en eg oe He eat he ee
Bie rte Rei i We hi fe NS A nO HEE
to
B
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
38612
38639°8
38669
38700
38713°9
38728
38742°7
38815
38825
38833
38865
38903
38915
38939
38945
38968
389874
39010
39016
39036
39050
39059°0
39073
39091
39103
39125
39140
39143
39154
39159
39168
39195
39206
39214
39226
39229
392535
39262
39269
39280
39288
39293
39300
39316
393280
39344
39354
39376
39396
39409
39412
39420
39426
39431
39446
101
102 REPORT—1897,
CoBALT—continueds
Kinerand Reduction to |
Haschek Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Wave-length and — Previous Observations §|———-———— Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum An i sh
2534-0 6 0°74 | 11:5 39452
2533'8 4 ” ” 39455
2531°9 2n ” ” 39485
25301 5 “A 11°6 39512
2529-6 B, “ ” 39520
25291 2 ” ” 39528
2528°68 7 ” ” 39534°7
2528-3 4 ” ” Ke 39540
25262 2 ” »” 39573
2525:08 vf ” : 395911
25247 4 ” ” 39597
2523-0 4 » ” 39623
2521°5 5 5 3 39647
2521°0 2 ” ” 39655
2519-90 8 9 ” 39672'5
2517°9 2 0:73 we 39704
2517'd 4 ” ” 39710
2515°6 2 ” ” 39740
2514-0 2 a + 39765
2513°1 2 ” 3 39780
2512-4 2 ” ” 39791
2512-2 2 = a 39794
2511°9 2 si 117 39798
2511-23 if " » 39808-0
2509'3 2 9 i> 39840
2508-1 4 ” + 39859
2506'8 2 “ - 39879
2506'51 8 b> » 39884-4
2505-7 2n ” ” 39897
2504:0 2 = ” 39924
2500°9 2 » x 39974
2500-6 2 a: z 39978
2498-3 | 5 ” a 40007
2497-6 4 » ” 40026
2496'8 2 ” ” 40039
2495°5 2 * a» 40060
2494-7 2 ae : 40073
2493'6 2 3 iiss 40101
24924 2 5) F 40110
2499-2 2 ~ + 40113
2491-4 2 » ” 40126
2491-2 2 5 oy 40129
2490°8 2 » » 40136
2490°4 5 * > 40142
2487-4 4 » i 40191
2487-2 4 ” + 40194
2486°5 6 7 x 40205
24854 5 ” » 40223
2484°4 2 PA 5 40239
2484'3 2 ¥ i 40241
2484-1 2 ” > 40244
24836 4 " oe 40252
2483°3 2 ” ” 40257
24822 2 ” ” 40275
2480°2 2 si. » 40307
rrr
tS
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
2479:1
2478°5
2478-2
2477°4
24773
2476°6
2476-4
2473+1
2472:9
2471:8
2470°3
2469°5
2467-0
24642
2462-1
2461-8
2461-2
2460-2
2459°3
2456-2
2455°5
2454°5
2454-2
2453'8
24533
2452'5
2451-6
2450:0
2449-2
2447°8
2446'6
2446-0
2443-8
2442°6
2441:7
2441-1
2439-0
2438-4
2438-0
2437-0
2436-7
2436°3
2435:1
2434-2
2432'6
2432'3
2431-7
2430'8
2430°6
2429'9
2429:5
2428°4
2426-6
24262
2425-0
Intensity
and
Character
PS LSS) DEMURE A oS PS LS is SN male al al
Sas al SH SOS
=]
RS Far RD Hs Ca Ca bO Go 1S ES
5
PED RD PD DD ROD PDD RE
CoBALT—continued.
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
103
073 | 11°8
40325
40335
40340
40353
40355
40366
40369
40423
40426
40444
40469
40482
40523
40569
40604
40608
40619
40635
40650
40701
40713
40729
40734
40741
40749
40763
40778
40804
40818
40841
40861
40871
40908
40928
40943
40953
40988
40998
41005
41022
41027
41034
41054
41069
41096
41101
41111
41127
41130
41142
41149
41167
41198
41205
41225
104
REPORT—1897.
CoBALT—continued.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectram
*2423°7
2422°6
2422-1
24210
2420°8
2419°3
2418°5
2417-7
2417-0
24160
2415°3
2414°5
2414-2
2411°6
2409°5
2408°8
2408°4
2407°7
2407°5
24063
2406°0
2405'2
2404°6
24043
2403°8
24029
2402°1
2401°6
2399°1
2398°4
2397°4
2396°8
2395°5
2394'5
2394:0
2392°6
2391-2
2389°5
2388°8
2386°7
23864
2385°6
2384-0
2383-4
2383-1
2382'3
2381°9
2381°7
2381:0
2380°5
2378°60
2377-1
2376°9
2375°2
2373°7
Intensity
and
Character
be
i=]
ee SL i a eal LS Me Ch)
RO He RO OURS BOHR HA OD HE RO RO HE HB RD OD HE RD BO RO BO HA ES ND
ESOS SSTO SS
Reduction to
Vacuum
Previous Observations 4 Seat
(Rowland) 1
at | —-
A
0:72 12:2
” ”
9 ”
O71 ~
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
5? ”
” ”
” ”
es 12:3
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
»” ”
” ”
” ”
ae 12-4
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
of 12°5
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
Ad ”
” ”
| 0:70 pe
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
41247
41266
41274
41293
41297
41322
41336
41350
41362
41379
41391
41404
41410
41454
41490
41502
41509
41521
41525
41546
41651
41565
41675
41580
41589 |
41604
41618
41627
41670
41682
41700
41710
41733
41750
41759
41784
41808
41838
41850
41887
41892
41906
41934
41945
41950
41964
41971
41975
41987
41996
42032°6
42056
42060
42090
42116
eh — ee ee — eee
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Are Spectrum
Intensity
and
Character
CoBALT—continued.
10
5
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
2373°4
2373'1
2372°5
2371°9
2371-6
2370°7
2369°7
2367°4
2367°2
2366°7
2365°6
23652
2365-0
236382
2362°6
2362'3
2361°6
2361°1
2360°7
2360°4
2359°0
2358'2
2356°6
2356°5
2355°6
2355°0
2354°5
2353°4
2352 2
23519
2351°2
2348°4
23478
2347°4
2347:2
2346°6
2345°5
2345-4
2344°7
2344°3
2343°6
2342°4
23412
2340°3
2339°5
2339°0
2338°7
2338°0
23376
233771
2336°3
2334'8
23342
2333°6
2333°1
>
i=}
HPPRNOD DN NNN LEN EN NHANNNHNNHNHN KN PWD bb
ion
i oe ee
| Reduction to
Vacuum
ax [2
A
0-70 | 12°5
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
. 12°6
” ”
”» ”
» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
3 12:7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
3” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
» 12:8
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
42122
42127
42138
42148
42154
42170
42187
42227
42231
42240
42260
42267
42270
42291°8
42313
42319
42331
42340
42347
42353
42378
42392
42421
42423
42439
42450
42459
42479
42500
42506
42518
' £2569
42580
42587
42591
42602
42622
42624
42636
42644
42656
42678
42700
42717
42731
42740
42746
42759
42768
42775
42790
42817
42828
42839
42848
>
106 REPORT—1897,
COBALT—continued.
Dage av Reino to
Haschek ; . . acuum Oscillation
Wave-length ae ety, Previous Observations {————___ Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum At OY
2330-4 4 0-70 | 12:8 42898
2329°2 4 ” ” 42920
2327°7 4 ” ” 42948
2327°2 2 » | 12°9 42957
2326°5 4 ” ” 42970
2326:1 4 ” ” 42977
2324°3 4 069 9 43011
2320°5 2 ” ” 43081
2319°9 2 ” ” 43092
23184 2 ” ” 43120
23182 2 ” ” 43124
231771 4 ” ” 43144
231671 2 ” ” 43163
2314:2 4 ” 13:0 43198
2313°7 2 ” ” 43208
2312°6 2 ” ” 43228
2311-6 4 ” ” 43247
2309°3 2 ” ” 43290
2309-0 2 ” ” 43296
2307-7 4 ” ” 43320
2307°5 2 ” ” 43324
230671 2n ” ” 43350
2305'1 2 ” ” 43369
2304'1 2 ” ” 43388
2303°0 2 ” ” 43409
2302°5 2 ” ” 43418
2302-0 2 ” » 43427
2301-4 4 ” ” 43439
2300°2 2 ” 13°1 43461
2299'9 2 ” ” 43467
2298°9 2 ” ” 43486
2297°3 2 ” ” 43516
2296:7 2 ” ” 43528
2296:0 2 ” ” 43541
22952 2 ” rn 43556
2293°5 2 ” 9 43588
2293°4 4 ” ” 43590
229271 4 ” ” 43615
2291°5 2 ” » 43627
2290°5 2 ” a 43646
2287°9 2 ” 13°2 43695
2287°8 2 ” ” 43697
2287°2 2 ” ” 43709
2286°3 5 ” ” 43726
2283°6 2 ” ” 43778
2282°5 2 ” ” 43799
2282-0 4 ” ” 43808
2281°2 2 ” ” 43824
2280°6 2n ” ” 43835
22789 2 ” ” 43868
22787 2 ” ” 43872
2277-4 2 0°68 ” 43897
2277:0 2 ” + 43904
2276°6 2 5 a 43912
22763 2 ” » 43918
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
2275°8
2275°5
2273°3
2272°4
2271°4
2270°4
2269°8
22683
2266°5
22646
*2261°7
226071
2256°7
2256'1
2253°5
2252°3
2251°2
2250°5
225071
2248-7
22482
2246-9
2246-2
2245°2
2242°8
22426
2237-1
22321
2230°5
2229°1
2225-0
2220°3
2213°9
2211°5
22063
2205°9
2205°6
2205°2
2203:0
2193°7
2192°6
2192°3
2190°9
2190°7
Intensity
and
Character
CoBALT—continued.
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
5
PHP PDN PE bb bb tb to bb bb
PDDHRPHYHYDYHRHYREN NDP EPH NN rhDY bb bbb bt
BS oNMNE a) BOSS
Reduction to
Vacuum
meee oes
A
0°68 13°3
”» ”
” ”?
” ”
” ”»
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
a 13°4
” ”
” ”
»” ”
” ”
” ”»
” ”
- 13°5
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »
” ”»
” »”
” ”
” ”
“ 13°6
” ”
” ”
0°67 ar
" 13:7
” ”
a 13°8
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
rr 13°9
” ”
” ”
- 14:0
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
43928
43933
43976
43993
44013
44032
44044
44073
44108
44145
44202
44233
44299
44311
44362
44386
44408
44422
44429
44457
44467
44493
44507
44526
44674
44578
44687
44787
44819
44847
44930
45025
45155
45204
45311
45319
45325
45333
45379
45571
45594
45600
45629
45634
107
108
REPORT—1897.
NICKEL.
Hasselberg, ‘ Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akadem. Handl.’ Bd. 28, No. 6, 1896.
Exner and Haschek,‘ Sitzber. kaiserl. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cv. (2), 1896.
Hasselberg
Wave. length
(Rowland)
Arc Spectrum
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
| Reduction to
*5893°13
*5858-03
*5 847-26
*5805°45
¥*5796°35
*5761:10
5754-86
*5748°57
*5715°31
*5712°10
*5709-80
*5695°22
5682-44
*5670°22
¥5 664-28
*5649-90
5643-31
5642-08
5639-02
*5637°32
5628-62
*5625°56
*5615-00
*5600:29
*5594-00
*5592-44t
*5589°63
*5588'12
5578-98
*5553°97
5510-28
5504°50
*5 495-20
*5477-13
*5468-42
*5462°71
*5436°10
5424-85
¥*5411-50
*5392-68
*5388-71
*5371-64
*5268-59
*5220°51
¥*5216-72
*5197-40
5192-70
BS
i=]
n
APQALPAMAW EP WWWANIRPAANAAWAMINLY Po
agou
or
Swwe ~
OF Ao
5893'22 Thalén
5857°72 s
5477-20,
* Coincident with a solar line.
+ Solar line double; least refrangible component due to Nickel.
t Observed also by Exner and Haschek in the Spark spectrum.
Vacuum
1
=
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
169643
17066-0
17097°4
17220°5
172475
173531
173719
17390°9
17492'1
17601°9
17508'9
17553°8
17593°3
176312
176497
17694°6
17715°3
17719°2
17728°8
177341
177615
177712
17804°6
17851°3
17871°4
17876°4
17885°4
17890°2
17919°5
18000:2
181430
18162°1
18192°7
18252°7
18281°8
18300'9
18390°5
184287
184742
18538°6
18552°2
186112
189751
19149°9
19163'8
19235°1
19252°5
AEE E——————eee Ct
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES-OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,
NICKEL— continued.
§ Solar line double {
{ Not coincident with Chromium, 5048°96.
5051°75
6051°85.
Reduction to
Hasselberg I j Vacuum
Wave-length nienaity Previous Observations
(Rowland) Char: t (Rowland) 1
Arc Spectrum coh ed 7A he
*5186'80 2 142 | 53
*5184°78 3) ” ”
*5176'73 zt 5176-71 Thalén ” ”
*5168°83 5 516941 1°41 ”
*5158°20 2 ” ”
*5155°92 7D 5156°21 3 ” ”
*5155°34 4n ” ”
*5153°43 4 ” ”
_ *5146°64 8n 5146°81 ” ” ”
¥*5142°96 Tn 5143-11 a ” ”
¥*5137°23 8s 5137°91 oc 1:40 ”
*5131°94 3n ” ”
*513055 2 ” ”
*5129°52 6 ” ”
*5125°39§ 5 ” ”
5121°74 3 ” ”
*5115°55 8 | 611600 ,, ” 54
*5103:13 4 ” ”
*5100°13 To | 5100°66 gy? 1:39 ”
*5099°50 5s 5099°46 a ” "
*5097°06 4n ” ”
*5094°61 2 ” ”
4*5089:13 2 ” ”
*5088°74 2 ” ”
*5084:27 8n ” ”»
*5082'55 5n ” ”
*5081-30 10n 5081-56 A ” ”
*5080°70 10 5080°70 ” ” ”
*5080°16 3 ” ”
*5058°22 2 1:38 ”
*5051°74§ Qn 7 a
*5049-01t 6n ” ”
*5042°35 bn ” ”
*5038°80 4 ” ”
*5035°55 10 5035°56 ” ” ”
*5018-50 4n 1:37 | 55
*5017'75 7 5017°46 op ” ”
*5012°62 4s ” ”
*5011°1) 3n ” ”
*5010:22 2 ” ”
*5003-92 2 ” ”
*5000°48§ Bn iy ‘
*4998-42 4 ” ”
*4997-04 2n ” ”
*4984°30 7 4984-10 e 1:36 ”
*4980°36 7 4980°40 ” ” ”
*4976°54 2 ' ” ”
*4971°54 3 ” ”
*4953°34 3 1:35 ”
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
192744
19281°9
19311°9
19341°4
193813
19389°9
193921
19399°3
19424-9
19438°8
19460°4
19480°5
19485'8
19489°7
19505°4
195193
19542°8
19590°4
19601°9
19604-4
19613°7
19623°2
19644°3
19645°8
19663°1
19669°8
19674°6
196769
19679:0
19664°4
19689 8
19700°5
19726°6
19740°6
19753°4
19920°8
19923°8
19944°1
199502
19953°7
199788
19992°6
20000°8
20006°3
20057°6
20073°4
20088°8
20109:0
20182°9
109
110 REPORT—1897,
NICKEL—continued.
Reduction to
Hasselberg Vacuum
Wave-length rey Previous Observations =| ——___ Sroreener
ore Character (Rowland) {" int Viagig
rc Spectrum ACs x
*4946:20 2 1:35 5-5 20212°0
*4945°63 3n ” ” 20214°4
*4937°51 4n ” 56 20247°5
*4936:02 4s 4935:90 Thalén = 2 20253°6
*4925°74 3 ” ” 20295'9
*4918°86 2 ” ” 20324'3
*4918°53 5s 4918-40 ” ” ” 20325°7
*4914-15 4n 1:34 ” 20343'8
*4912°22 3n ” ” 20351°8
*4904°56 7 4904:70 ” E ” ” 20383°6
*4887°16 3 ” ” 20456°2
*4874:95 4 : 1:33 yi 20507°4
*4873°60 4 4873°80 ” ” ” 205131
*4870:97¢ 4 ” ” 20524°2
*4866°42 7 4866:20 + » + 20543°4
*4864:46 2n ” ” 20551-7
*4864:11 3n ” ” 205531
*4857°57 3 ” 57 20580°7
*4855°57 6 4855°60 ” + s 20589°2
*4852°70 3n ” ” 20601-4
*4843°27 2 ” ” 20641°5
*4838-80 4 1:32 ” 20660°6
*4832°86 3 ” ” 20686°0
*4831:30 5 4831°10 ” "” ” 20692°7
*4829'18 6 4829°30 ” ” 3 20701°7
*4821°29 2 “3 f 207360
*4817:97 2 ” » 20749°9
*4814°77 2 7 a 20763°7
*4812°15 2 ” 7 20776:0
*4809°05 2 “5 fy 20788'4
*4807:17 4 ” ” 20796°6
*4792°98 2 ERB! as 20858'1
*4786°66 6 4786°64 6 An 20885'7
*4786°42 2 5 7 20886°7
*4773°55 2 bs 58 20943:0
*4764:07 4 1:30 5 209847
*4762°78 3 i . 20990°3
*4756'70 6 4755°84 aa i 7, 21017°2
*4754°95 3 ” ” 210249
*4752°58 4 7 " 21035°4
*4752°30 3 i 7 21036°6
*4732°66 4 5 a 211240 |
*4732:00 4 ” ” 911269
¥*4729°50 2 1:29 ‘i 21138°1
*4728°06 2 i a 211445
$*4715°93 6 ‘ i 21198°9
f*4714:59 9 4714-54 » cH - 21205°0
¥4712°24 2 ee - 21215°5
$*4703:96 bn BA 59 21252°8
$*4701:72 4 F ~ 21262°9
$*4701-°52 2 ” ” 21263°8
$*4686-39f 5s 1:28 3 21332°5
*4675'80 2 7 os 21380°8
+ Not coincident with Chromium, 4870°96, 4686-38.
ee tl
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. I111
NicKEL—continued.
Reduction to
Hasselber, . Vacuum BP pase
Wave-length Intensity | Previous Observations Oscillation
(Rowland) |g, 2% (Rowland) 1 ph Cr
Arc Spectrum aracter Ds a ie TEESE
+*4667-96 4 128 | 5-9 21416-7
$*4667-16 3 a s 21420-4
*4655°85 2 - + 21472°5
$*4648'82 6 4647-88 Thalén 137 | . 21504°9
*4647-47 3 ‘ 2 215112
#4618225 3 » | 60 21647-4
*4614-85 2 136 | ,, 21663°2
$*4606:37 5 a) 21703+1
#460515 8 K y 21708°8
Pee | |e ml | eee
Sareea a eae 217565
$*4592-69§ 7 5 4 21767°7
*4580°77 3 125 | * 218244
4567°59 2 ” ” 21887°4
#456010 4 1 | Ge 21923-2
*4553°37 3 a P 21955°7
ee |: | 3] ae
$*4547-148 4 =e len 21985°7
$*4520-20 Bs 134 | | 22116°8
|: ||) Be
*4490°71 4n 1:23 | 62 22262-0
*4481-30 2n B r 22308°8
*4470°61 8 x ve 293621
ran re | ee Al ieee
$*4469-59 8 eh acs 22402°3
£#4459-21§ 9 1 a 22419°3
4450°44 2 ” ” 22463°5
4450°29 2 ” ” 22464°2
4442-61 4 - if 225081
4441-64 2 . s 22508-0
eaagtar. | 8 me ee
4423-24 3 1:21 | 63 22601°6
t*4410°70 5n fe % 226658
$4401-70§ 9 id 4 297122
waggo-75 || 4 abe ahiee
teasers | 2 "|" | Serer
4390°47 3n 120 | >» 22770°3
+*4390-00 4 ia eS 29772-7
ae | t ene
438305 2 me ee 228089
4370-21 3n ‘i ii 228759
| +*4368-45 4 nl. Ge 22885-0
$*4359-73]] 6s 3 pe 99930°8
double 4618:15 4592°80 Fe | 4547:25 Fe | 4459°30 Fe | 4401°60
4359°80 Ba.
|| Solar line triple {#5078 Cr.
4359°73 Ni.
§ Solar line 4618-22 Ni fceeng Ni { 4547-36 Ni f 4459-20 Ni { Ta0-60 Ni.
112 REPORT—1897.
NIcKEL—continued.
vert nee to
assel berg * acuum . .
Waye-length eeeney Previous Measurements Cac anon
(Rowland) | gp (Rowland) % ba Seer
Arc Spectrum carumd At == in Vacuo
A
+*4356:07 4n 1:19 | 6-4 22950'1
4331-78 6 3 . 23078°8
*4330 85 5 ‘s hs 23083°8
*4395-75 Bs * J 23111-0
#4395-49 3n + i 23112°4
*4307-40 3 118 | 65 23209-4
*4298-94 2 . J 232550
$*4298-68 3 : 23256°5
#499715 2 i i 232647
+*4296-06 6 os if 23270°6
$*4288-16§ z te i 23313°5
$*4984-83 5 ie ‘ 233316
#4952-25 2 117 | 66 23510-4
4236°55 3 116 | ,, 23597-5
$4931-23 4 . * 23627-2
wes | 8 vis | "| a3ro-7
*4901°88 Bs ha 4 23792°3
*4200'61 4s * 23799°5
$*4195-71§ 5 ») | 68 93827-2
4184-65 3 i ‘3 23890°2
4167-16 3n ‘ f 23990°5
t*4164-82 2s 144 1S! 240039
+*4150°55 3 " 24086°5
*4143:12 2 | ee 24129°6
4149-47 4 is 4 24133°4
#414234 2 i a 241341
$4138-67 2 s = 24155°6
412396 2 LAs) 24241°7
$*4121-48 6s . 4 24256°3
+#4116°14 4 : * 24287°8
410437 2 ' : 24357°5
$*4086'30 2 112 | 69 24465°1
4075°75 3n é fe 24528°5
4075°05 3s if 4 24532°7
4073-08 2 is a 24544-5
4069-39 2 % ie 24566'8
4064:55 4 tf 24596°1
4057-45 2 9 f 24639'L
"4046-91 2 Lil | 7:0 24703°2
*4025-26 3 “ id 248361
$4022:20 2 - i 248550
+*4019-20 3 ‘ & 24873°6
4017-65 4n “ # 24883°2
$4010'14 3 Lio | 24929°8
+*4006-30 4 2 ’ 24953-7
#399545 7 et | cell 25021°4
399413 4n . iS 25029°5
+3984-18 4n fF : 25092'1
$3974-83 4n 109 | ,, 251512
+*3973-70$ 8 ‘ es 25158°4
(428815 [ 4195-77 Fe { $973°81 Fe.
§ Solar line double ;
| 4288-05
4195-71 Ni | 3973:70 Ni.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE{SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 118
NIcKEL—continued.
Reduction to
sel ber; : Vacuum ‘Nati
Went gti Enlaneity Previous Observations ‘ ieee
Tepe Character (Rowland) a 1 in Vacuo
$*3972:31 5 1:09 (fal 25167°2
$3970°65 4n , Fa 7 251777
3954-61 3n j “A 72 25279°7
8944-25 Tn ” ” 25346°2
$3914°65 2 1:08 ” 25537°9
£*3913-12 4 f i 25547°9
¥*3912-44 3n - » 25552:3
*3909°10 3n 2 or 73 25574:0
$*3905-67 3 9 ‘ 25596°5
*3889°80 5s 1:07 ” 25701:0
*3871°73 3 7 nS 25821:0
*3863°21 5 : 5 : 25880:0
*3858-40tt 9r 3858-42 L. & D. ” ” 25910°2
$*3844-71 3 1:06 rn icon
*3844°40 3n — as ;
£*3833-02 4 v ie 26081°8
£*3832-44 5 3832732 ” ” 26085°7
$*3831-82 6 ri v 26090-0
| 3829-49 5 ” ” 26105°8
| £*3811-46§ 2 1:05 | 7-4 26229'3
| *3807-30tt 8 3807-22 . i 26257°9
$*3793-75 6s * 5 26351-7
$*3792-48 5s 1 ‘ 26360°6
| *3783-67tt 8 3783'62 “ e a
*3778°22 3 “4 “+ 26460:
*3775°71tt 9 377562 1:04 “6 26477'7
$*3772-70 5s - 75 26498°7
*3769-58tt 2 3769°50 ” ” 265207
$*3762-76 4 Z - ae
£*3749-15 4s > “5 6665°2
eeacan’ 5s : * 26697°1
$*3739-89 2 " rf 26731:3
$*3739°36t 5 ” ” 26735:'0
£*3736-94 7s 373670 9 1:03 *n 2€752°4
*3730°88 3 “1 are 26795°8
$*3729-05 2 * BS 26809:°0
$*3724-95 3 3724-80 or is 76 26838°4
*3722:63 6 Fy “5 26855°1
eee 3 ” ” 269059
*3713°87 2 Ad oF 26918°5
*3713:49 2 aT fr 26921:2
$*3697-04 2 » > 27041°1
$*3694-10§ 4 1:02 + 27062°6
$*3688-58 5s 3688-19 - + * 271031
3683°65 2 7 TT 27139°3
$*3674-28§ 7s 3673'99 of 6 + 27208°5
$*3670°57 5s 367029 ,, * ie a 27236-0
§ Solar line Peay Ti Haeead Fe { 3674-28 Ni.
double | 3811:46 Ni | 3694-10 Ni | 3674-18 Fe.
3739-46 Fe.
+ Solar line triple } 3739:36 Ni.
3739°26 Fe,
t{ Exner and Haschek’s numbers : 3858-49, 3807:28, 3783°64, 377571, 3769°63.
1897. I
114 REPORT—1897.
NICcKEL—continued.
a Reduction to
Wave-length latest. Previous Observations Me as Dealanen
(Rowland) Ghatacter (Rowland) 1 ri aed
Arc Spectrum A+ =
*3669-38§ 4s 1:02 “cre 272449
$*3668°35 2 ” » 27252°5
$*3664-24t+ 6s 366399 L. & D. ” ” 27283'1
$*3662°10 4s ” » 27299:0
364413 2 1:01 ” 274337
3642°58 2 ” ” 27445°4
$*3641°78 3 ” ” 27451°4
$*3635:10 4s 3635°49 = ” 78 27501°8
t*3630°04 3 ” 55 275401
$*3624-875§ 6s 3624°68 o 9 + 27579°4
*3619°52Tf 10nr 3619°38 Bs ” ” 27620°2
$*3612°86 7 3612°68 a5 1:00 = 276711
$*3611-58 2 ” ” 27680°9
*3610°60ff 4r 3610°38 ap ” » 276884
*3609°44 5 ” ” 27697'°3
*3607:02 2 PP 5 27715°9
*3602°41 5 ” ” 2775174
*3597-84tT 7n 359758 ~ ” ” 277867
$*3588-08 58 ” 79 27862°2
*3577°37 2 0:99 ” 27945°6
*3571-99tT Tur 3571-78 . “s * 27987-7
*3566-50TT 9nr 3566°27 = a 5 28030°8
teapot “91 4s 3561°67 * on of 28073°3
*3560°08 2 ” 3 28081°4
$*353°63 4 3553°37 = Ay * 281323
*3551°66 5 3551°37 5 3 8:0 28147'8
$*3548°348§ 5 354807 a » BA 28174:2
*8533°89 2n 0:98 3 28289°4
*3530°73 3 3530°47 ss 3 a 283148
*3529°76 2 + BS 28322°5
$*3529-03 3 i > 28328°4
$*3528°13 5 5 A 283356
*3524-65tT 10nr 3524-46 = 5 35 28363°6
*3523°19 3 A} 5 28375°4
*3519-90tT 6 3519°66 “< nS F 28401°9
+*3518-80 4 3518°56 Pr G a 28410°8
$*3516°35 4 i = 28430°6
*3515-17tt 9nr 3514:96 3 a 5 284401
*3514:06ft 5 > 35 28449'1
*3510-47¢f 8nr 3510-26 = $1 284781
$*3507°85 4s 3507°86 * *- A 28499°4
$*3502°76 4 PS a 28540°8
*3501L-00fT 6 3500°55 . ss > 285552
*3496-50 2 0:97 PA 28591°9
*3493-10tt 9nr 3492-85 * a es 28619°8
$*3486-04 5 3485°75 4 a my 28677°7
§ Solar line f3973'81 Fe ( 3811-56 Ti { 3694-20 Fe { 3674-28 Ni { 3669°37 Ni.
double ) 3973'70 Ni | 3811°46 Ni | 3694:10 Ni | 367418 Fe | 3669-30 Fe.
{ Exner and Haschek’s numbers: 3619°52, 3610°55, 3597:78, 3571-96, 356650,
3524-60, 3519-90, 3515-15, 3514:10, 3510-45, 3501-00, 3493-15.
§§ Also Manganese.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
NICKEL—continued.
Reduction to
Hasselber . Vacuum sets
eT oth Intensity Pavisiiieataonn Oscillation
(Rowland) and (Rowland ) i Frequency
Arc Spectrum bi Deas A+ ; in Vacuo
t*3480°36 2 0:97 81 28724°6
$*3479°43 2 a 28732°2
$*3478-48 2 Fe “p 287401
pee bs pe L&D. 5 8 28788°1
3469°64 s 3469°45 A $9 8-2 28813-2
1*3467-63 5s 3467°35 FF af 3 28829°9
[*3462-95f 2 3 sa 28872°7
*3461-°78tt 8nr 3461-66 Br, a is 28878°7
*3458-59tT 8nr 3458°45 a 0:96 8 28883'3
SPARK SPECTRUM,
Exner and yeaa
ascbe Intensit : : scillati
Wave-length and Pag crianerh pais Toe
4 eri) Character en 2S in Vacuo
park Spectrum A
3458°51 8 0°96 8:2 289060
3454°2 = - a 28942
3453°5 ” ” 28948
3452°92 7 ” ” 28952°8
3450°6 2 ” ” 28972
34495 4 rs 3 28982
34485 2 ely ol denane
” ”
3446°34 8 ” ” 29008°1
3444-4 2 As 3 29025
3444:0 2 ” ” 29028
34430 2 Es 5 29036
34426 2 FS * 29042
3439:0 2n Ps PF 29070
34356 2 ep “r 29099
3433°65 7 ” ” 29115°3
3427°8 2 ny 8:3 29165
34263 2 *< 29178
3423°76 7 = 3 29199°4
3422°8 2 a a 29208
3422-4 2 9 A 29211
3421°4 4 ‘4 a5 29220
3420°8 2 on “ 29225
3414°83 8 0°95 = 29275°7
34140 4 FA A 29283
34126 2 " {7 | 39905
” ” o
34121 2n = = 29299
3411°1 2n 49 . 29308
3409°5 4 Ae as 29322
3409°1 4 fs a 29325
ft} Exner and Haschek’s numbers
+ Probably due to Cobalt.
: 8472°59, 3461-72, 3458°51.
12
115
116 REPORT—1897.
NICKEL—continued.
Exner and a to
Haschek Intensit : : ZHORNEED » Oscillati
Wave-length and Y | Previous Observations , Wreveenay
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
Spark S;ectrum ean 5 a
34074 5 095 | 83 29340
3403°5 5 an ” 29374
3401°8 2 ” ” 29388
3401°3 4 | ” ” 29393
33963 2 ns 8-4 29436
339305 7 ” ” 29463°6
3391°2 6 a ar 29480
3385°7 2 “A a 29528
3381°1 5 oF 7 29568
3380°62 a ” ” 29572°0
337674 2 0-94 as 29609
33748 5 5 *r 29623
3374°4 5 ” ” 29627
33741 5 “5 “4 29630
3372°1 6 3 “r 29647
3369°66 7 ” ” 29668°2
3367°9 2 ” ” 29684
3366'9 4 att ” ” 29693
3366°3 6 af = 29698
33659 6 a3 7 29702
3364°7 2 35 a 29712
33640 2 ° “i 29719
3363'8 2 | : ra 3 29720
3362°9 2 ” ” 29728
3361°7 5 as a 29739
3359°3 Sat Nae 29760
3350°5 4 | a x 29838
3345°1 2 2, “7 29886
3339°1 2n bs es 29940
3336'1 2b 093 5 29967
3327°5 2 ss + 30045
3327°0 2 “a 5 30049
3322°4 6 ‘5 8-6 30090
3320°9 2 = 30103
3320°3 6 a 30109
33157 6 = a8 30151
3313°1 2 . a 30174
3312°3 4 : fe 30182
3310-2 2 < - 30201
3300-5 2 e % 30207
3306-9 2 c 4 30231
3305-0 2 x3 of 30248
3302°6 2n Si 30270
3301'8 2n ‘ . 30278
3299°2 2b 0:92 _ 30301
32963 2 0 = 30328
3293°8 24 n - 30351
3290°7 2 i # 30380
3288°5 2b 3 8-7 30400
3287°1 4 4 . 30413
3286:0 2n - 30423
3286-1 2 ie " 30431
3284°5 2 sitll tates 30437
32828 F ce 30453
4 Se 30461
3281-9 (
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 117
NICKEL—continued.
Exner and a eer to
Haschek Intensity | Previous Observations es Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) —— a Frequency
(Rowland) Character 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum A+ aa
3280°7 2 } 0:92 8:7 30472
3276°7 2b % s 30510
3275°0 2 - s 30525
3274:0 6 = A 30535
3273°6 2n of * 30538
3271:2 5 Pe z= 380561
3269:0 2 x rp 30581
3268-2 z 5 “ 30589
3261°9 2n e 6 30648
3261:1 2n * FS 30656
3259:'0 2n 0-91 30675
32561 2 ‘a op 30703
3250°8 6 ” 88 30753
3249°5 4 + i 30765
3248°6 5 re 30773
3247-72 7 ” ” 30782:0
32455 2n nr - 30803
3243°22 7 ” ” 30824°8
3242:0 2 PP 3 30876
3237°1 2 a ay 30883
3236°4 2n + -- 30890
3235-8 2 “ P 30895
32348 6 > a 30905
32340 2 i % 30912
3233°11 7 ~F i 30921°2
3231°6 2 rs op 30935
32272 4 ay 5 30978
3225°2 6 5 7 30997
32240 2 nf 31008
3223-7 4 - at 31011
3221°8 5 “A a 31030
3221°4 5 ia is 31033
3220-2 2 0:90 nD 31045
3220-0 2 Pn mn 31047
3219°5 2 33 # 31052
3217-93 7 aS a 310671
3216-9 4 + 7a 31077
3215°7 2n “ 8:9 31088
3214-1 6 - x 31104
3213-5 4 + A 31110
3212°5 2 Pe A 31119
3210'1 4 o ia 31143
3209-1 2 - a 31152
3207°1 2 "1 ry, 31172
32054 2 i 7" 31188
3204-7 2 ny 31195
32023 5 7 + 31219
3200°6 4 is n 31235
3199°5 2 PA fb 31246
31973 5 7 fs 31267
3195-7 4 i “ 31283
3195-4 2 in et, 31286
3195°1 2 + 1 31289
3192°2 2b » ” 31317
31913 2. Ewa S es Fy: ‘ 31326
118 REPORT—1897,
NICKEL—continued.
Bxcoemand Reduction to
Haschek Intensity Previous Observations Vaenye Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) ae Frequency
(Rowland) Character 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum a a
3189°9 2n 0:90 8:9 31340
3187°8 2n i. ys 31361
3186°7 2n - 4 31371
3186°3 2 a5 + 31375
3184°5 4 : 7 31393
3183-4 2 sf 5s 31404
3183°2 2 a - 31406
3181°9 4 0°89 $) 31419
3179°7 2n + 9:0 3144]
3179°0 2n es 31447
3177°5 D ee YY 31462
31770 2 * a 31467
31764 2 - a 31473
3174:2 2n s ¢ 31495
3170°8 2 . 4 31529
3166°5 2 » 3 31572
3165°6 2 * ee 31581
31650 2 eS 31587
3164°4 2 . ¥ 31593
3159°7 2 5 ii 31640
3154'8 2 “4 33 31689
3153°5 Qn re *, 31702
31530 2, 7 i 31707
8151°5 2n “f i 31722
3149°5 2 = A 31742
3146-4 2 > 91 31773
3145°8 4 55 = 31779
3145°3 2 +4 31784
313426 8 0:88 ey 3189674
3133-0 2b aA “ 31909
3129°5 4 7 a 31945
3127°8 2n FS 53 31962
3127°3 2n ie s 31967
3121-7 2n as fs 32025
3121-0 2b ‘0 PA 32032
31168 2 5 BA 32075
3114:3 6 i 9:2 32101
3107°8 2 us a 32168
3105°6 4 55 PA 32191
3102:00 8 . 32228°1
3101-61 8 0:87 , 322321
3099°2 6 ri A 32257
3097°2 5 “A sa 32278
3094°4 2 es 3 32307
3089-9 2 + a 32355
38088°3 2n 5 +3 32371
3087°2 6 ~ =f, 32383
3080:82 tb ” 93 32449°6
30666 2 ‘3 7 32600
306475 q ” ” 32619°8
306-41 2 os -y 32627
3057-72 8 0°86 * 32694°8
3054:40 7 “4 + 32730°4
3050°88 8 “4 9-4 32768°0
3047°2 2 oa oF 32808
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 119
NICKEL—continued.
Exner and Beatin to
Haschek Intensit . . eCnit Oscillation
Wave-length and Y | Previous Observations |—————— Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 1 in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum A xT
3045°1 5 0°86 9-4 32831
3038°05 qT ” ” 329064
3035°5 2 ” ” 32935
3032°6 2 ed ge 32966
3032°0 5 a pr 32973
3031°3 2 aa Fe 32980
3029-5 2 pe id 33000
3026-0 2 ot hte 33038
3024-2 2 | OB 33058
3020-0 2 0°85 5 33104
3019°3 6 i ae 33111
3012°10 8 + +9 33189°9
3008°2 2 - a 33233
3003-73 8 Phi ae 33282-4
3002-60 8 | ae 33295°0
3092-66 i ae 9°6 33405°5
3091°3 2 os Ps 33420
3088°1 4 % Ps 33456
3087°3 2 6 33465
3085°8 2 1 A 33482
3085-0 2 a AM 33491
30843 5 °; a 33499
3083°6 4 , si 33507
3081°8 6 0°84 99 33527
3076°8 2 i “a 33583
30738 2 Cree 33617
3065°5 2b 7 9:7 33711
3061-5 2 oo oe 33757
3058'5 2 cA te 33791
3055-2 2b i te Ser 33829
3047°6 4 + i 33916
3044-1 6 ~ 9°8 33956
3042°9 2 0°83 ‘ 33970 .
3034°8 Qn Be! De 34064
3022-3 On ah oe 34210
2921°3 2b Ae SL] 34221
2919-2 2b ta ee 34246
29171 2b + ae 34271
2914-2 gz +5 fF 34305
2913°7 6 a 3 34311
2912°3 2 ph fae 34327
2907°6 4 et 34383
2906-0 Qn eh ae 34402
2900°3 2n 0°82 73 34469
28972 Qn eae 34506
2892-5 Qn ” | 100 34562
2891:4 Qn 3 34576
2883°8 2b canetate 34666
28825 2b ® id Pes 34682
2881°6 2 se Malla 34693
2881°3 Qn Cae ban 34697
2873°3 2 + oP 34793
28700 2 ee 101 34833
2868°7 2 FS Af 34849
2865°5 2 A re 34888
120 REPORT—1897,
NICKEL—continued.
Reduction to
eet Vacuum Oscillati
ascne i = ‘ Scillation
Wave-length ety. Previous Observations §{——____. Frequency
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) an ad in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum x
2864:2 2n 0°81 | 101 34904
2863°7 6 ” ” 34910
2861°6 2b ” ” 34935
28582 2 ” ” 34977
2857°5 2b ” ” 34986
2855°6 2 ” ” 35009
2853°6 2b ” ” 35033
2852°2 4 ” ” 35051
28511 2b ” ” 35064
2849°8 2b ” ” 35080
2846:0 2n ” 10°2 35127
2843'8 2b ; ” ” 35154
2842°5 5 ” ” 35170
2840°7 2n ” 9 35193
2839°0 2 ” +3 35214
2837°3 2n ” ” 35236
2836°6 2b ” ” 35243
2835°6 2 ” ” 35256
2835°2 2b ” ” 35261
2834°6 2 ” rf 35268
2832-4 2 ” ” 35296
2831-6 2 ” ” 35306
2829°2 2 ” ” 35336
2825'3 4 Ae 5 35384
2823°9 2n 0°80 | 10°3 35402
2823°3 24 ” » 35410
28213 4 ” ” 35435
2816-4 2n ~ a 35496
28T5'6 2n » » 35506
28143 Pr, o cf 35523
28133 2n ” 7 35535
2812°3 2n 35 a 35548
2810:3 2b ” “F 35573
2808°3 D Ap ss 35599
2807°6 2n “ rm 35608
28057 4 ” ” 356322
2804°8 2 “r “- 35643
2802°74 ff ” ” 356691
2802°3 2 rh se 35675
2801:2 2 > “pe 35689
2800°9 2n +) = 35693
2798'7 4 a 10-4 35721
2798°3 Or, a5 Hf 35726
2798 1 2 A + 35729
2795°59 q P _ 35760°2
2794'9 4 A s 35769
2790°8 2n a + 35822
2785°5 2b + “A 35890
27798 2 0:79 2 35964
2775-4 2b 10°5 36021
2771°5 2n > F) 36072
2770°2 2 is 36088
2769°0 2b oy h 36104
2760°7 2 fs * 36213
2759'0 ». Dix ‘ +) 3 36235
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
NICKEL—continued.
121
Exner and
Haschek
Wave-length
(Rowland)
Spark Spectrum
Intensity
and
Character
Previous Observations
(Rowland)
Reduction to
Vacuum
Z
A
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
2746'8
2743:1
2737°7
2736°5
2725°0
2723°7
2722:9
2722-4
2721-2
2711°9
2710°7
2710-4
' 2708'8
2707°7
2706°6
2705°6
2703:1
2700°4
2699°3
2696°6
2695°5
2693°2
2690°7
2689°8
2684°5
2682°4
2680°4
2679°2
2674°8
26745
2673°3
2670°4
2666°9
2666°1
2665°9
2665 3
2659°6
2655°9
2656°4
2652°5
2650°8
2647°0
2642°0
2641°3
2639'8
2639°5
2638°2
26372
2633°0
2632°5
2631°6
2631°5
2631°2
2630°4
2629-7
i]
BSB
WENN WhWNWNH HY hw bo to )
Be Se Be Rees COUR tO ne RS RS HES RS BD ROSIN
a ee
j=]
He bot
0-79
”
0°78
10°6
”
36395
36444
36516
36545
36686
36704
36715
36721
36737
36864
36880
36884
36906
36921
36936
36949
36984
37021
37036
37073
37088
37120
37154
37166
37240
37269
37297
37314
37375
37379
37396
37437
37486
37497
37500
37508
37589
37641
37648
37689
37713
37768
37839
37849
37871
37875
37894
37908
37968
37976
37989
37990
37994
38006
38016
122 REPORT—1897.
NICKEL—continued.
Exner and i
Haschek Intensity : oe ~
Wave-length and Previous Observations is oe Oscillation
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) ; Frequency
Spark Spectrum ha, ee in Vacuo
eis A
2629-4 2
2626:5 2b OE Tee ieee
2623°1 2 ” ” 38062
2622°1 2 ” » 38112
2618°9 2b ” bbe 38126
26153 4b ” ” 38173
2613-9 2 NY ee pee
26117 Dd ” ” 38246
2610°7 2 ” ” 38278
2610'2 4n ” ” ae
2606°5 4b ” ” 300
2605°7 4 O75 | 11:2 38355
2603°9 2 ” ” 38366
2603°6 D4 ” ” 38393
2602'8 0) ” ” 38397
2601:2 4b ” ” 38409
2599-1 2 ” ” 38433
2597-7 2 ” ” 38464
2592°8 2 ” ” 38485
2589°8 2 ” ” 38557
2589'6 2 ” ” 38602
2589:0 2 ” ” 38605
2588-4 5 ii | a 38614
2587°6 2 ” ” 38627
25841 4 ” ” 38635
2583°4 2 ” ” 38687
2578°5 2 ” ” 38698
2571°0 Qn ” ” 38771
2569°'8 Qn ” ” 38884
2566°2 4n ” ” 38903
2563°8 2 ” 11-4 38957
2561°6 2 O74 | » 38994
2560°3 an ” ” 39027
2558°7 Dy) ” ” 39047
25580 2 ” ” 39071
9556°8 2b ” ” 39082
2565:2 on ” ” 39100
2553-0 2b ” ” 39125
2561-1 2 ” ” 39159
2550°7 2 ” ” 39188
2550:'0 2 ” ” 39194
2549:4 4 ” » 39205
2548°8 2 ” ” 39214
2547°3 2 ” ” 39243
2546:00 7 ” ” 39246
2543°5 ) ” ” 39265°8
2541°3 2 ” ” 39305
2540°8 2 ” ” 39339
2540°3 2 ” ” 39347
2539°2 4 ” ” 39354
2536'1 2 ” ” 39371
2535°7 on ” ” 39420
2535°3 5a ay. 8 39426
” » = 894382
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 123
NICKEL—continned.
Exner and Reduction to
Haschek Intensity | Previous Observations Yen Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) Teas Ga ae Te Frequency
(Rowland) | Character Lei in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum mas (EE
2533°6 2 0°74 | 11:5 39459
2532-2 2 “p “ 39480
2529°1 2 116 39528
2528'1 2 35 3 39543
2527°6 2 fe ” 39551
2524°3 2 ” ” 39603
2522°9 2 ” ” 39625
2521°7 2 A ” 39644
2521°4 2 ” ” 39649
2521-2 2 of ” 39652
2519°3 2n ” ” 39682
2518°2 2 -< ” 39699
2517°9 2 0:73 » 39704
2516°2 2 ” ” 39730
25147 2n ry) PAY Soke, 39754
2510°92 8 s 117 398143
2506°8 2 = ” 39879
2505'8 5 ” ” 39895
2492-1 2 “F 11:8 40115
2491°2 2 ” ” 40129
2490°8 2 “1 7 40136
2490°7 2 ” ” 40137
24843 4n of ” 40241
2483°3 2 - ” 40257
2482-7 2n ” ” 40267
2482°2 2n ” ” 40275
2480°2 2 % ” 40307
2479°9 2 cf ” 40312
2478°6 2 “p ” 40333
2476°9 2 -r ” 40861
24731 6 - 11/9 40423
24721 2 + ” 40439
2470°6 2 “- ” 40464
2466°8 2n 0:72 ” 40526
2465°3 2 ” Lo” 40551
2461'9 2 ” ” 40607
2461°3 2 Pe 12:0 40617
2455°5 2 re ” 40713
2454-0 2 ” ” 40738
2452°4 2n =F 3 40764
2451°1 2n =) ” 40786
2449-1 2 1 ” 40819
2448°3 2 s3 rr 40833
2445°6 2 ay ” 40878
2444-6 2 Z ie 40894
2441°8 2 Ad 1271 40941
2441°7 2 % ” 40943
2439°3 2 op ry, 40983
2439°1 2 oo Fr 40987
243792 7 “6 ” 41006'5
2436°7 2 ” ” 41027
2433°6 4 ” ” 41079
2432°9 2 ” ” 41091
2432°6 2 . ” 41096
24323 2 ” w 41101
124 REPORT—1897.
NICKEL—continued.
Exner and Reduction to
Haschek Intensity | Previous Observations Vergum Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) ea eevee Frequency
(Rowland) | Character se iis Widens
Spark Spectrum A+ Xr
2431°6 2 0-72 | 12:1 41113
2429°2 2 ” 7 41154
2428-4 2 ; :, 41167
2425°0 2 » (122 41295
2424-1 2 ” ” 41240
2423-7 2 - 33 41247
2423-4 2 ” » 41252
2422°8 2n ” ” 41263
2491°3 2 OTL: 41288
2420°8 2 ‘5 ks 41297
2419-4 2 a5 ‘5 41321
2417-7 2 i is 41350
2416:18 7 4 4 41375°5
24141 2 “ mM 41411
2413'3 2 e ‘ 41425
2413°1 4 ” ” 41428
2412-3 2 ay | dB 41442
2411°6 2 3 ik 41454
2410°6 2 y ~ 41471
2409°7 2 1 9 41487
2408°8 2 Be 3 41502
2408-5 2 .s . 41508
2407°7 2 & és 41521
2407°3 2 3 41528
rai oon 2 i ae 41535
esis 2 al as 41544
2405-2 5 +5 if 41565
epics 2 » f 41582
2403°6 2 “an ne 41592
2401°9 2 » “i 41622
2398'2 2 u a 41686
23953 2 i. | ae 41728
23947 eine ‘ ‘5 41747
2394-49 i i 6s 417601
2392°6 4 m, ie 41784
2392'1 2 = »* 41792
2389'5 2 x if 41838
2389 3 2 °i it 41841
2387-7 4 é i 41869
2386°7 2 is ‘ 41887
2386°6 2 - ‘i 41889
2386°4 2 . i 41892
2385°6 2 fs 44 41906
2385:0 2 & 3 41917
2384-9 2 :, ‘i 41918
2383°5 4 af . 41943
2382-0 4 a) Vale 41970
2379°6 2 s z | 42012
picts : 0h 42028
selon 2 Po oe 42076
2375-4 6 ” ” 42086
2372'2 2 070 | » 42143
aabe'e 2 % oe 42195
2368°7 2 | |, 126 42204
rape li 4 i vel on 42226
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 125
NICKEL—continued.
Muniee endl pa ae to
Haschek Intensity | Previous Observations ewes Oscillation
Wave-length and (Rowland) iy San OT Frequency
(Rowland) | Character ae ee in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum Xx
23667 4 0:70 | 126 42240
2366:0 2 ” ” 42252
2365'8 2 ” ” 42256
2363°9 4 ” ” 42290
2362:2 2 ” ” 42320
2360°5 2 ” ” 42351
2360°2 2 ” ” 42356
2360°0 2 ” ” 42360
2359°0 2 ” 42378
2358°8 2 ” ” 42381
2356°9 2 ” ” 42414
2356°5 4 ” ” 42423
23550 2 ” ” 42450
2350°8 2 ” 12°7 42526
2350°0 2 ” ” 42540
2348°2 2 ” ” 42573
*2347°5 2 ” ” 42586
2346°7 2 ” ” 42600
2345°4 4 ” ” 42624
2345°3 4 ” ” $2625
2344°4 2 ” ” 42642
23441 2 ” ” 42647
2343°6 4 ” ” 42656
2343°2 2 ” ” 42664
2343°0 2 ” ” 42667
2341°2 4 ” ” 42700
2340°3 2 ” 128 42717
2339°7 2 ” ” 42728
2337°6 2 ” ” 42766
23372 2 ” ” 42773 ’
2336°7 4 pombiley «a8 42782
23346 5 ” ” 42821
2331:7 2 ” ” 42874
2330°0 2 ” ” 42905
2329°8 2 ” > 42909
2329°3 2 ” | ” 42918
2327°4 2 ” 129 42953
2326°5 4 | om 9 42970
2325°9 2 OG as 42981
2323°3 2 ” ” 43029
23230 2 » | oo» 43035
2322°8 2 ye eer 43038
23202 4 » a 43087
2319°8 4 tie Ss 43094
2318 °6 4 s ‘p 43116
2317'3 2 oe oF 43141
2316°2 4 Al me 43161
2314-1 2 a | 13°0 43200
2313'8 2 aah Wi tas 43206
2313°0 4 x a 43221
2312°4 4 ” ” 43232
2311-7 2 Fe ha be: 43245
2311:0 2 any blah aseaneat 43258
* Double.
126 REPORT—1897
NICKEL—continued.
Reduction to
Exner and Wachee ;
See roes inet, Previous Observations §{————______ renhe
(Rowland) | Character (Rowland) 22 poe in Vacuo
Spark Spectrum a
2308°6 4 0°69 | 13:0 43303
2307°8 4 “ 3 43318
2305°3 4 = 5 43365
2304-7 2 ” ” pee
2303°8 4 ” ”
2303-0 4 PP a 43409
2301°5 2 ” ” 43487
2300°3 4 “ 1371 43460
2299'8 4 aS + 43469
2298°3 4 ” ” 43497
2297°6 4 ” » 43511
2297-2 4 ” ” 43518
2296°6 4 5 ee 43530
229271 2 ” ” 43615
2290:0 2 ” ” 43655
2289°4 2 ” ” 43667
2288°7 2 5 n 43680
2288:4 2 + 13°2 43686
2287-7 4 3 = 43699
2287-1 4 3 5 43710
2281-2 2 ” ” 4.3824
BU18-4 ‘ al he
278°4 4 ” ” 3s
2277°3 4 0°68 5 43899
22766 4 <5 Ps 43912
22762 2 ” » 43920
2275°7 4 a 13:3 43930
22748 4 59 + 43947
OTL 2 POP ol ae
717 ;
2270-2 4 Bea 44036
2264.6 r ae eae fie ee
6 ” ”
2263°1 2 FS 13°4 44174
2260°1 2 a s 44233
2259°4 2n 7 - 44247
2258-0 2n a - 44274
2257-0 2 a hi 44294
22562 4 . a 44309
ae = | oa
53'2 ” ”
2250°7 2 eS 15 44412
2249-6 2 ” ” 44439
2247°3 2 i =f 44485
2247-1 2 - ; 44489
2245-2 2n ‘: i 44526
2242°7 2 7, EA 44576
2241°7 2 a - 44596
222871 2 0-67 | 13°6 44867
2226°5 4 % 13°7 44900
22250 4 fe = 44930
2224°5 2 Lhe * 44940
2223-1 2 » ie 44968
2221°3 2 a 4 45005
2220°5 4 “5 is 45021
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 127
NICKEL—continued.
Mxner and Reduatige to
* acuum Py «
Weve iecpth Anfensity Previous Measurements |—-- oe
(Rowland) | Character (Paxin®) az | 2- |] im Vacuo
Spark Spectrum x
2216'5 4 0-67 | 13-7 45102
9211-2 2 » | 138 45210
2210°4 4 7 th 45297
2206'8 Qn Y A, 45300
2905-7 Qn é i 45323
22037 2 "| 139 45364
ae a lee
21 ‘D 2 ” , o
91882 2 bie hah 5 45686
2185°6 4 066 | ,, 45740
2180°7 2 ‘ ‘ 45743
2179'5 2 orl tell 45868
2177°4 Qn if 45912
2169°3 4 a) aad 46084
2161°5 2 O66 | os 46250
91312 2 Ei ee 46908
2107°8 2 "1 47 47428
Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions.—Interim Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Lord RayLEIGH (Chairman), Lieut.-Colonel
ALLAN CunninGuaM, R.E. (Secretary), Lord KELVIN, Professor 5.
Price, Dr. J. W. L. GuaIsHER, Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Pro-
fessor W. M. Hicks, Major P. A. MacManon, R.A., and Professor
A. LopGe, appointed for calculating Tables of certain Mathematical
Functions, and, if necessary, for taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form.
Tue ‘New Canon Arithmeticus’ is a table quite similar to Jacobi’s
‘Canon Arithmeticus,’ except that it is calculated for the base 2 through-
out, whilst Jacobi’s tables are for various bases.
_ The new table contains the solution of the congruence 2*=R (mod. p)
for all primes (p)<1000, and also of 27=R (mod. p") for all powers o
primes, p” < 1000.
The left-hand table gives the /east Residues (R) to Argument « ; this
table has been computed throughout by two computers independently,
and the two copies have been checked throughout by both computers ;
thus this table is complete.
The right-hand table, giving the values of « (the exponent) to
Argument R is merely a re-arrangement of the former; one copy is
complete, the other copy is about half done, and checked in part.
The whole of the grant of 25/. for the year 1896-97 has been spent.
The Committee ask for reappointment without further grant, the
Secretary (Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cunningham, R.E.) undertaking to com-
plete the second copy, and the checking of both copies (without asking
for further grant) if the reappointment of the Committee be sanctioned.
128 REPORT—1897.
fhe Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological
Phenomena.—Seventh Report of the Commuttee, consisting of Mr.
G. J. Symons (Chairman), Professor R. MeEupoua, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, Mr. H. N. Dickson and Mr. A. W. CLayDEn (Secre-
tary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Tue work of the Committee has been continued during the past year,
especially with regard to the measurements of cloud altitudes by means of
photography. A considerable number of the results given in the report
for 1896 have been verified by repeating the reduction of the plates.
In order to afford an efficient check upon the accuracy of last year’s
results, the altitude and azimuth of the sun were calculated by a different
method and the altitude of the cloud deduced from a fresh set of co-
ordinates measured on the plate.
In no case did the new determination differ more than about 3 per
cent. from the old one, and in the majority of cases the agreement was
very much closer. Particular attention was given to the instances in
which the clouds had been determined to be floating at unusually great
altitudes, and there is no doubt that those determinations are substantially
correct.
During the last nine months it has not been possible to keep up a
continuous series of photographs. The excessive rainfall of the early part
of the year transformed the level ground between the camera stands and
around one of them into a series of muddy pools, so that work was impractic-
able. But with this exception exposures have been made whenever
opportunity offered, and the stock of negatives has been largely increased.
None of these additions have yet been reduced. The time available
for the observations is limited, and it has been thought better to accumu-
late negatives during the finer part of the year and reserve them to be
reduced in the winter, when opportunities for making observations are
rare.
The warping of the ebonite shutters of the cameras has again proved
troublesome, and steps have been taken to get them replaced by similar
pieces of aluminium, a change which will probably be effected before this
report is presented. Some delay was also caused by the mischievous
behaviour of some unknown persons, who, on June 22, amused themselves
by breaking the connecting wires and endeavouring to upset one of the
camera stands.
Leclanché cells of the ordinary pattern have been substituted for the
faulty dry cells formerly used, and have given complete satisfaction.
There is a good stock of plates in hand, and the photographs will be
continued during the summer.
No fresh departure having been made, and the current expenses not
being heavy, the grant made at Liverpool has not been drawn.
The work of the Committee being now limited to the investigation in
the hands of the Secretary, who will continue it at his own expense, no
grant in aid is asked, but the Committee would wish to be reappointed
for another year.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 129
Seismological Investigations—Second Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Dr. C. Davison and
Mr. Joun MILne (Secretaries), Lord Kenvin, Professor W. G.
Apams, Dr. J. T. Borromuey, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Professor
Cs Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Professor J. A. Ewine, Professor C. G. Knorr; Professor
G. A. Legour, Professor R. Metpoua, Professor J. PERRY,
Professor J. H. Poyntine, and Dr. Isaac RoBeErts.
CONTENTS. wien
I. Report of Work done for the establishment ox a eetamie Survey of the
World, drawn up by JOHN MILNE, FBS, 7.4 129
Il. Records ofthe Gray- Milne Scismograph. By. JOHN Sue, FR. S., B. G.S. 132
Ill. Installation and working of Milne’s Horizontal Pendulum. By JOHN
MILNE, F.R.S., 4S. . : : : : . 137
IV. Observations at Carisbrooke Castle and Shide. ‘By JOHN MILNE, F.2.S.,
LIER ane : ; . - - ; . 146
Carisbrooke Records. ; - - - - : : : . 146
Karthquakes at Shide .. : : : . 149
V. Earthquake Records from Japan and other places. By JoHN MILNE,
FERS. BGS. : 153
VI. Highest ‘apparent Velocities at which Earth-maves are propagated. By
JOHN MILNE, F.2.S., £.G.S. . 172
VII. Diurnal Waves. By JOHN MILNE, FR oe PGS. : : , . 176
VIII. The Perry Tromometer. By JOHN MILNE, FIRS. F.GS. . . 181
IX. Sub-oceanie Changes. By JOHN ao ERS, PGS. : ‘ . 181
Bradyseismic Action . : : 5 . 182
Sedimentation and Erosion . ‘ F P . 187
Causes resulting in the yielding of ‘Submarine Banks . : ; . 188
Cable Fracture. ‘ . 189
Conclusions and Suggestions for a Seismié Survey y of the World : . 204
I. Report of Work done for the establishment of a Seismic Survey of the World.
Proressor MIuneE has reported to the Committee that on January 31,
1895, he had issued a circular calling attention to the desirability of
observing earthquake waves which had travelled great distances, with
working drawings of the necessary installations.
Some months later Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz drew up suggestions
for the establishment of an international system of earthquake stations.
To this scheme Professor Milne and other members of the Committee lent
their names.
After the death of von Rebeur these suggestions were translated into
French and issued by Dr. G. Gerland of Strassburg, on his own respon-
sibility.
For this reason, but more especially because individual efforts have not
led to any definite results, the Committee have issued a letter to a number
of observatories requesting co-operation in the observation of earthquakes
which are propagated round and possibly through the earth.
Dr. Michie Smith has informed Professor Milne of the co-operation
which might be expected from the Government of Madras. The Kew
Committee have decided to establish an instrument.
__ Mr. Oldham, Director of the Geological Survey of India, has evinced a
desire to assist in making observations. It is likely that Professor Turner
of Oxford will purchase a seismograph, whilst others have made inquiries
respecting the necessary installation. Sir Clement Markham has already
offered his hearty support in carrying out a seismic survey of the world,
1897. K
130 REPORT—1897.
and there were strong reasons for believing that we might expect assist-
ance from both the Royal Geographical and Royal Astronomical Societies.
Letter sent to various Observatories and Persons.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE:
Burlington House,
London, W.
ROOT:
Sir,—It has been established that the movements resulting from a
large earthquake originating in any one portion of our globe can, with
the aid of suitable instruments, be recorded at any other portion of the
same; therefore the Seismological Investigation Committee of the
British Association are desirous of your co-operation in an endeavour
to extend and systematise the observation of such disturbances.
Similar instruments should be used at all stations; and the one
recommended by this Committee as being simple to work, and one that
furnishes results sufficiently accurate for the main objects in view, is
indicated in the accompanying report (see pp. 2-4) by the letter M; a
sketch of the same is shown on p. 7, whilst there is an example of one of
its records on p. 49.
We desire to know whether you are disposed to purchase, and make
observations with, one of these instruments, the cost of which, including
photographic material to last one year, packed for shipment, is about 50/.
Should you reply in the affirmative, we shall be pleased to arrange with
a competent maker for the construction of an instrument for you, and to
furnish instructions respecting installation and working. In case an
instrument be established at your observatory, we should ask that notes
of disturbances having an earthquake character be sent to us for analysis
and comparison with the records from other stations. From time to time
the results of these examinations would be forwarded to your observatory.
The first object we have in view is to determine the velocity with
which motion is propagated round or possibly through our earth. To
attain this, all that we require from a given station are the times at
which various phases of motion are recorded ; for which purpose, for the
present at least, we consider an instrument recording a single component
of horizontal motion to be sufficient. Other results which may be ob-
tained from the proposed observations are numerous.
The foci of submarine disturbances, such, for example, as those which
from time to time have interfered with telegraph-cables, may possibly be
determined, and new light thrown upon changes taking place in ocean beds.
The records throw light upon certain classes of disturbances now and
then noted in magnetometers and other instruments susceptible to slight
movements ; whilst local changes of level, some of which may have a
diurnal character, may, under certain conditions, become apparent.
Trusting that you will find it possible to co-operate in this endeavour
to extend our knowledge of the earth on which we live,
We remain, Sir (on behalf of the Committee),
Your obedient servants,
G. J. SYMONS, Chairman, C, DAVISON, | Joint Honorary
J. MILNE, Secretaries.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 131
It is requested that Replies be addressed to—
THE SeIsMoLoGIcAL CoMMITTEE, British ASSOCIATION,
Buriineton Hovusz, Lonpon, W.
Letter sent to the Foreign Office on February 25, 1897,
Shide Hill House, Newport, I.W.,
February 25, 1897.
To the Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Whitehall, London.
Sir,—I am directed by the Seismological Committee of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science to state that they are anxious
to obtain the assistance of the Marquess of Salisbury with a view to
ascertaining, through Her Majesty’s representatives in the countries
mentioned, whether the Governments of the same would be disposed to
co-operate in carrying out the observations indicated in the inclosed
circular, which are considered of great scientific importance.
The countries with which the Committee desire to communicate are
Chili, Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, U.S. of Columbia, Mexico, Brazil, the
Netherlands for Java, Greece, Spain, Portugal for the Azores, Russia for
Russia and Siberia, and Japan.
Should his Lordship be pleased to grant the assistance of Her
Majesty’s Government in this matter, I shall have the honour to forward
further copies of the circulars and pamphlets of which specimens are
inclosed.
The’ Committee have learned that the Government of Madras are
desirous to establish a station ; whilst Admiral Wharton, Hydrographer
to the Admiralty, considers the attainment of the objects in view of great
practical value to his department.
I have the honour to remain, Sir,
Your most obedient and humble servant,
Joun MILNE.
Communication with the Colonial Office.
A letter identical with that sent to the Foreign Office, and in which
thefollowing colonies were mentioned— Newfoundland, Bermuda, Barbados,
Trinidad, Jamaica, Honduras, Guiana, St. Helena, the Falklands, Cyprus,
and Malta—was forwarded on February 25, 1897, to the Colonial Office.
Communication with the Under-Secretary of State for India, April 10,.1897.
A letter in terms similar to the two preceding letters was addressed
to the Under-Secretary of State for India asking for co-operation in
establishing one station at Aden, three in India, and one in Further
India.
The results of these three communications have been that the Marquess
of Salisbury has granted the co-operation which was asked, a reply is
promised from the Colonial Office, whilst the Under-Secretary of State
for India has asked for and received more copies of our circulars and
reports.
K 2
132 REPORT—1897.
In addition to the above, thirty-one copies of circulars and reports
have been distributed as foliows :—
Tist of Observatories, §c., to which Circulars and Reports have been sent.
1. U.S.A. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University. Professor E. C. Pickering.
2. ,, St. Louis, Miss. Washington University. Professor W. S. Chaplin.
3. ,,.. Terre Haute,Ind. Polytechnic Institute. Professor T. Gray.
4. ,, Williams Bay, Wis. Yerkes Observatory. Professor G. E. Hale.
Bs is San Francisco, Berkeley, Cal. University of California. Professor
Joseph Le Conte.
6. Australia, Perth. The Observatory. Ernest Cook, M.A
7. ay Adelaide. Sir C. Todd, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
8 95 Melbourne. The Observatory. P. Baracchi.
3° a Sydney. The Observatory. H.C. Russell, F.B.S.
10. New Zealand, Wellington. Sir J. Hector, F.R.S.
11. Africa, Cape Town. The Observatory. D. Gill, F.R.S.
1D heks Natal. The Observatory. HE. Neville Nevill.
13. India, Madras. The Observatory. Dr. Michie Smith.
14. ,, Calcutta. Geological Survey. R.D. Oldham. ~
15. Mauritius, Port Louis. Royal Alfred Observatory. T. F. Claxton.
16. Hawaii, Honolulu. Lieutenant A. G. Hawes.
17. Malta, Gozo. The College. Father James Scoles, S.J.
18. Manila. Meteorological Observatory. Father Saderra, S.J.
19. China, Shanghai, Zikawei. Rev. L. Froc, S.J.
ZOLA sys Hong Kong. The Observatory. Dr. W. Doberk.
21, South America, Argentine. Cordova Observatory. W.G. Davies.
22. Canada, Toronto. The Observatory. Professor Stupart.
23. France, Paris,.126, Rue du Bac. M. A. d’Abbadie.
24, ,, » Bureau Central Météorologique. M. Professor Mascart.
25. Roumania, Bucharest. Institut Météorologique. Dr. Hepites.
26. Austria, Vienna. Hohewarte. Professor Dr. J. Hann,
27. Sweden, Upsala. Observatoire Météorologique. Professor H.H. Hildebrandsson.
28. Switzerland, Geneva. Professor F. A. Forel.
29. Spain, Cadiz. W. G. Forster.
30. Belgium, Uccle. Observatoire Royal de Belgique. A. Lancaster.
31. India, Calcutta. Geological Survey. C. L. Griesbach.
Offers for immediate co-operation have been received from Professors
E. C, Pickering (No. 1), Dr. D. Gill (No. 11), and Professor Stupart
(No. 22); Dr. Hepites (No. 25) will co-operate, using an instrument
received from Dr. Tacchini ; whilst Dr. J. Hann (No. 26) replies that he
is establishing the Ehlert type of pendulum, and later may also use ours.
Co-operation may be expected at some future time from Professor G. E.
Hale (No. 4) and Mr. Ernest Cook (No. 6).
The applications Nos. 13, 14, and 21 will, it is hoped, receive a reply
through the Under-Secretary of State for India.
The replies from Nos. 2, 9, 17, 19, and 30 indicate that co-operation
cannot be expected.
From the remainder replies have not yet been received.
Il. Records of the Gray-Milne Seismograph.
By Joun Mine, /.A.S., PGS.
The first of the above seismographs constructed in 1883, partly at the
expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the
standard instrument at the Central Observatory in Tokio.
I am indebted to the Director of that institution for the following
records. The records with which they are continuous will be found in
the ‘ Report of the British Association’ for 1895, p. 115.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 133.
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Central Meteorological Observatory in Tokio
between May 1895 and February 1896.
Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and
cP g Ampitnde of ae of
3 3 orizontal ertical
No. 3 Day Time 3 Direction Motion Motion Nera of
Ss 5 ock
Lal
A ese
secs. | mm. | secs. | mm,
1895.
H. M.S M. S.| | |
1,523 | IV 6 | 0 30 27 pa. | — | = = == = slight
1,524) ,, 9 6 20 34 P.M = i = hi = *
1,525] ,, 14 4 30 48 p.m. | — _— | - as
1,526| ,, 16 | 11 46 41 am. | — = =e = | = A
1,527| ,, 22 2 45 29 p.m. | — — —-);— — — slight, quick
1,598) ,, 25 | 6 38 43 aM. | — — f= | — |= slight
1,529] ,, 25 7 08 02 A.M. | -- = FE
1,530} ,, 27 5 41 59 a.m. | — — | a
1,531 = 28 8 33 36 AM. | — -- | +
1,532| VI. 2 | 11 45 19 am. | — = = = a Fe
1,533) ,, 2 8 38 0 P.M. /1 01) W.N.W., E.S.E.{ 1:3 0:8 sli}ght weak, slow
1,534] ,, Zale Weasu bby Acne i — = = se slight
1,535| ,, 7 2 30 15 pM. | — _ — — — — is
1,536 |. ,, 11 0 46 23 A.M. |1 07| N.N.W.,S.S.E. | 06 | 0-4 i weak, quick
1,537] ,, 15 4 30 31 P.M. | — - — — -= — slight
1,538; ;, 16 117 38 AM. | — — — — — — a
1,539) ,, 20 2 51 48 AM. | — — _—. — — — Ee
1,540} ,, 20 | 11 56 55 a.m. |10 0 SN. 03 0-2 slijght weak, slow
1,541] ,, 24 1 47 57 p.m. {1 28) S.W., N.E. 06 0-4 not/hing weak, quick
1,542] ,, 29 7 03 27 P.M. | — oa _— = — slight
1,543] 30 716 OamMm. | — a — _— — — a
1,544| VII.| 2 912 57 am. | — = =ao i |) = io
1,545| ,, 4 8 54 11 am. | — — — — — —
1,546 | ,, 3 | 10 42 07 pM. | — -- _— — _ _— pa
1,547| ,, 9 226 59 P.M. | — — _— — — — os
1,548] ,, 10 | 11 08 36 am. | — = = = KG
1,549} ,, 11 3 52 07 a.m. | — _ _— —_ _ a
1,550} ,, 15 9 23 40 a.m. | — — —_— — — _ %
1,551) ,, 17: |10 0 8 PM. /1 25) S.W., N.E. 05 07 0:3 O01 rather weak,
quick
1,552] ,, 18 9 55 42 P.M. | — _ = — = = slight
1,553] ,, 27 0 09 03 a.m. |0 37 S.-N. 05 0-4 |slight,) very weak, slow
1,554] ,, 31 4 44 30 p.m. {0 39) E.S.E., W.N.W.} 1:0 05 — _ 1;
1,555| VIII.) 1 3 53 50 AM. | — — _— _— _ — slight
1,556] ,, 1 7 32 35 pm. | — —-/-— ee %
1,557); ,, 3 5 36 48 A.M. | — _ —-);— — _— S
1,558; ,, 24 | 1116 8 PM. {1 29 S.-N. 05 0-4 — = weak, slow
1,559] ,, 31 9 37 21 pm. | — = — = — slight
1,560} IX 3 8 18 11 p.m. | — — _ — — — 5
1,561] ,, 6 0 37 26 aM. | — — — — ~- — “g
1,562] ,, 7 8 02 05 A.M. | — _ — — — — A
1,563] ,, 9 9 53 22 p.m. |0 37 S-N. 0'8 0-4 — weak, slow
1,564], 10 | 0 43 52 pM. | — = =e = a slight
1,565] ,, 18 3.18 54 pm. | — _ _— _— _— — me
1,566] ,, 21 | 11 24 30 am. | — — _ — _ — +3
1,567} ,, 21 | 1103 27pm. | — — — _ — — a
1,568] ,, 24 1 48 10 a.m. {1 08} N.N.E., S.S.W. | 0°6 1:7 ‘|slight,) very| weak, quick
1,569) ,, 25 2 52 124.M _ _ _ — _ _ slight
1,570} X. 4 601 12pm. | — ~ _ — _— _ a
1,571 = 8 116 OlpM. | -- _ —_— — — — (thing fallen
down to south)
1,572| .,, 11 311 53pm. |0 55 S.-N. 0-2 61 0-2 13 strong, quick
1,573] ,, 12 218 23pm. | — _ — — _ _— slight
1,574] ,, 13 8 34 50am. | — —_ — _ — _— a
1,675| ,, 13 1 33 57pm. | — —_ _ — — — ‘S
1,576] ,, 15 | 635 35am. | — = = = ae 3
1,577] ,, 15 305 llpM. | — — — — — — =
1,578], 17 | 14926pMm. | — = = = es a
1,579) ,, 23 6 56 26P.mM. |0 23 S.-N. 0-4 05 |slight,] very| weak, quick
1,580| ,, 2 | 655 53am. | — = = = eet slig)
1,581} ,, 24 748 17PmM. | — — — — _ a
1 ra 25 | 11 30124m. | — — — — _ _ 4
1,583] ,, 25 8 24 08 PM. | — — — — — _— or
1,584] ,, 27 | 11 44 23am. | — —_ _— _ -- _ ss
1.585| ,, 27 433 49PM. | — _ — _ -- — "
134 REPORT— 1897.
CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES—continued.
| | Maximum Maximum
Period aud | Period and
H fe 5 Amplitude of|Amplitude o
f = . 3S Bede Horizontal Vertical Nature of
No. | & | Day Time g Direction Motion Motion Shock
= =
t] =)
i secs. | mm. | secs. | mm
|
| H. M. 8. M.S ;
1,586] X. 28 017 51am. | — —_— | == — _ _ slight
1,587) XI. 7 013 28a.M. | — = ; — _ _ _ a
1,588| ,, 8 3.43 34am. | — — — _— _ _ “5
1,589; ,, 11 3.9 39am. | — — — — — _
1,590} °,, 19 3.27 23PpM. | — — — _— _ _ 5
1,591 5) 22 10 47 54 A.M. | — = — — —_ _— a
1,592 4 28 6 12 55 A.M. |0 43 S.E., N.W. 03 05 — => weak, quick
1 1,593} XII.) 10 1119 33 A.M. | — _ _ _ _ slight
1,594] ,, 12 | 1115 32am. | — = = _. —} — Ss
1,595| ,, 31 6 04 27 A.M. - — — _— —_ _ 3
; - 1896.
i Ti 1, | 911 23pm. [10 0 S.-N. 03 | 02 noth ing weak, slow
5 2 613 19pm. | — — —_ _ —- |— slight
i > 10 12 21 p.m. | — — — — —-\— ef
# 5 ll 24 27 pm. | — | — — — —-i—_— &
‘, 7 aT! 410 56pm. | — — a — _ | _— -
a 7 7 044PM. | — —_ _— —_— — a =
af 9 }1017 16 P.M. |9 23) S.-N 22 1162 | 05 | 06 strong, slow
» 9 10 42 20 p.m. | — — —_— — - i — slight
4 9 10 50 37 pM. | — — — _ _ _ ~
iy 9 11-14 49pm. | — — — — —_ — a
ut 10 0 31 42 A.M. |2 15) S.-N. og i) _— _— weak, slow
eA 10 0 39 09 A.M. | — | — _ _ — _— slight
es 10 04617 4am. | — — —_ _— —-/— =
% 10 0 46 32 A.M. | — = — —_ — _— =
3 10 122 0lAaM. | — — —_ _— — —_ 3
ie 10 | 212 51am. | — = = = Se ce Ae
a 10 250 24a.mM. | — — — _— —_— — | a
ny 10 5 52 20 a.m. |2 43 N.W., S.E 14 12 — — | weak, slow
cs 10 6 41 41 A.M. | — _ a — | slight
ae 10 7 04 21am. | — — _ —- | — | *
ae 10 | 11 24 29a.m. |4 22 S.-N. 13 V7) — — |. weak, slow
af 10 | 442 46pm. [4 0) W.N.W.,ES.E. | 1:2 10 | — |} — | »
8 10 8 08 44 P.M. | — — — —- j;— — slight
Be 10 | 10 21 59pm. | — — — —- | — _— a
i Db |) NEELO ARGS, je = = oe lak ie Ss
3 il 5 50 O8 AM. | — — — = — &,
5 11 706 43 A.M. | — — — —- j— — os
7 ll 849 12am. | — — _— — _— _ a
+ ll | 30 36 65.4.9. | — = — — ie ; — me
ra 11 447 30PM. | — — —_ _ — — ns
mS 12 | 11 06 37 pM. |36 0 E.-W. 0-2 0-402 102 weak, quick
& 13 5 26 35am. | — = = = Se slight
i 15 | 424 54am. | — = =: = = i
“4 16 242 3lam. | — — ; — —_ _— — Po
s 16 414 25 am. | — = = Sj =. =
» 19 6 08 22 p.m. |2 10 SN. 10 03 — = weak, slow
“ 22 3.11 25 am | — — — — —_ _— slight
a 22 4 43 40 A.M. |2 50) S.S.E., N-N.W. | 0°5 23 |slight,| very weak, quick
is 22 5 28 15 A.M. |30 0} S.S.W., N.N.E. | 0:2 03 —_— == ”
“A 22 716 27 am | — — — — _ — slight
3 22 | 616 29 p.m. | — = = |e | Fi
” 22 3 30 09 A.M. | — — — — _— — a
II. | 2 | .5 02 06 am. | — = Se) SES -
K 5 51017 pm. | — Ee = — Esa = vs
) 9 7 47 21 PM. | — _ _— _ _— — .:;
* 12 | 6 37 44 am. |1 09] SSE.,N.N.W. | 05 | 0:3 — | — | weak, quick
x 14 | 15611 Am. |0 40 S.-N. | 2:00:86 4) %0.3t 96 or 4 ‘3
os 14 2 03 44 am. | — a —}—- — | — | rather weak
4 15 116 20 am. | — = = = ee ee | slight
about |
i" 18 513 OPM. | — _ —_;— —_— = =
= I8 10 19 27 p.m. | — — — — 2h FS 5
ie 23 7 41 47 P.M. |3 55 N., W.S.E 1-0 37 jslight, very | weak, slow
» 23 9 35 50 P.M. | — _ - — —- | — | slight
” 24 9 56 03 P.M. | — _ — — —_ — | o
» 25 0 59 59 a.m. | — = = et ABA Se | 4
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 135
CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES—continued.
Maximum | Maximum
Period and | Period and
Amplitude of |Amplitude of
Horizontal Vertical Nature of
Time Direction Motion. Motion Shock
Duration
secs. | mm. | secs. | mm.
slight
ont
=I |
31 |
NA MDS
weak, "quick
| slight
”
>
K4
ow
~
Pott
1
4
©
w
i—}
bo
T
ANMSHRAIAHA
AN Mell
e141 |
police bide
SN
oo
BS
ba)
&
weak, quick |
slight
orapw awn’
ar
a)
ae
>
a
we
=)
2p
u
|
1A
I
c—]
co
cs
oo
°
o
°
~
i
»
oa
bas}
4
am
i<)
a
a
>
4
—
i
m
a
on
>
ue
J
=
&
i<}
| ”
| weak, slow
slight
weak, slow
slight
weak, quick
slight
”
So
SVE ETS Tete
ao
nm wi
a a a PF a
a
ow
oe
an
oo
La!
=
—)
oo
SIN J le We Vette ie thet bei tied tiated
SV TSTN TET TTT NT TT AEST Te
ro)
lal
°
bo
eet
»”
weak, slow
4
on
o
So
1}
sa]
4
ee
“als
cred
oo
eladl tll
slight
weak, slow
| slight
a on
4
PR we
| 24
A tim
SB mn
fesfe>|
ao
=}
a
c=)
oc)
>
2
5
=
=
a
Cod
o
”
weak, quick
slight
weak, quick
slight
ao
»
on
>
4
ar)
he
NN.W.,S.S.E.
S.S.E., N.N.W.
a
=
on
©
~
©
la)
=
w
lellaleaolitlglalellIIbiitbititd.
A
4
Ills
n
feo)
—
ow
| a
an
°
w~
i)
w
SA Tel oT) ea SP net aye
SU) Medel A eel ballet
i=)
lel |
oS
rl al |
_
ro]
a
to
an
i=)
a
2
ie)
-
AWN ORAWWORNWHINONMOOCSH
NHROOWr
wr
ow
an
Ds PD ed ber Pea RR Ra Pb) 2 er De es EO each ee eee De er >
SRR RSSRRR SRE SER RRR RRR RR RRR AR RRB SE
iS)
S
<7)
oo
ai
=
>
i
&
XQ
a
ws
>
<4
=
a
—)
>
Es
”
weak, slow
slight
weak, quick
weak, slow
slight
W.N.W., E.S.E.
S.E., N.W.
E.S.E., W.N.W.
x
_
~
ba]
ES
=
=
1)
lell|
fehl
aa
for)
_
w
>
2
%
con
He
ia
He
oe
2°
“oo
oo
we
bo
uo
ao
bas}
lworl al | |
ial
1 |
c—]
an
rs
Hol sie et I gl
<4
So
oe |
So
wo
os
a
scale Leal ates Seale iategt
°
&
°
w
weak, quick
slight
S.W., NE.
Co /BO ino be ou Gis BO 6916s Ce
a
©
ia}
&
e
we
2 52 A.M.
6 41 P.M.
i
OOOOOWD I NAHAAnor
boone bo
oe]
_
uo
>
J
AAA Tl
4
iA
fee ec isi tel Lia
&
mM
fe5]
s
:
Pl clotobel tal tel 1 tallifeltt Toa
4
”
Art Tee det tk a
ea ay le Ws
YROAS
&
nw
weak, slow
slight
»
="
>
od
we
SEM Nd
LledToall thea
Pelee ete
SNESoBRS
gz
sa)
5
ee) abt
'
136 REPORT— 1897.
CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES—continued.
Maximum | Maximum
Period and | Period and
a g Amplitude of |Amplitude of
= 3S . : Horizontal Vertical Nature of
No.| 8 | Day Time € | Direction Motion Motion
‘ A
secs, mm. | secs. mm.
H. M.S. M.S 4
1,719} VI. 16 0 49 48 am. | — _ _ — _— _ slight
1,720] ,, 16 1 05 22 am. | — _ - _ —|— %
1,721) ,, 16 1 32 14 am. | — _ — — — _— psd
E722 aces 16 416 30 a.m. |4 55) W.N.W.. ES.E. | 0°8 0-4 |slight,) very | weak, quick
1,723}) ,, 16 5 01 09 a.m. | — — —— — _ _— slight
S74 |i 16 6 40 01 am | — — _ —- }-/-—- ayo
L725) = 16 8 01 14 A.M. |3 20) W.S.W., E.N.E, | 10 03 |slight,) very weak, quick
1,726) ,, 16 8 15 20 AM. | — — _ _ _ — slight
WG2a Nt 16 8 16 29 Am. | — _ — — =f — =
1,728) 4, 16 9 32 01 aM. | — = = a ae lig a is
1,729 ae) 16 9 47 11 AM. | — = — — = — | BS
1,730] ,, 16 00 Orm. | — — - _— — —_ “
1,731} ,, 16 1 26 12 pm. | — _ =_ _ _— — 5
1,732} 4, | 16 | 128 38 pm. | — _ Sr SS #
1,733) ,, 16 1 29 48 p.m. | — _ - _ _ _ as
1,734) ,, 16 3 11 31 pM. | — _ _ — —{|— ss
1,735) ,, 16 4 23 27 pM. | — _ — _ —{|-— z
1,736) ,, 16 4 44 58 PM. | — — — — —|— a
LETT ss 16 5 46 18 pM. | — _ _ _— —s8| 5 — A
1,738] ,, 16 6 3118 pM. | — _ — _ = _ mn
1,739) ,, 16 9 58 03 pM. | — — _ — = —_ ae
1,740] 4 16 | 10 33 29 pM. |1 05) N.N.E,S.S.W. | 07 | 0-2 aa weak, quick
L741} | 17 | 7 47 27 am. | — — —-}/—-]J-}]— slight
1,742 ” 17 8 41 19 AM. | — — = = os = »
1,743) ,, 17 |} 10 30 20 am. | — _ _ - — | — 3
1,744) , | 17 | 0 48 28 p.m. |3 25) ENE, W.S.W.| 14 | 0-4 |slight,) very] weak, slow
1,745] 5, 17 3 13-39 Pm, | — —_ _ _ —/|— slight
1,746) ,, 18 5 49 38 pM. | — _— _ — — _ %
1,747 ” 22 2 53 59 P.M — = ae — —— — ”
1,748] ,, 24 | 112417 pM. | — =_ _ _ —|— ss
1,749 ” 25 209 19 p.m. | — — = — — — ”
1,750 ” 26 7 27 06 PM. | — _ aa — — _ »
1,751) _,, 30 7 26 03 am. | — —_ _ — — — x
1,752} VII 1 5 30 43 am. | — _ = _ _ _ ”
1,753) ,, 1 713 50 pM. | — _ - _ —_ = 8
1,754 » 3 1l 38 17 Pm _ — a — =e) »
1,755] 4 5 | 459 28 p.m. | — —_ = _ Se af
1,756) ,, 6 0 25 57 am. | — _ _— _ — _ 5s
1,757 ” 6 2 21 25 a.m = —— =. = — — ”
1,758 ” 7 6 35 26 PM _ 7 = = = a ”
1,759] ,, 7 9 39 33 am. | — — = _ =) |= dy
1,760) ,, 9 | 10 03 40 am. | — _ _ _ — ~ a
1,761) ,, 10 4 49 20 p.m. | — —_ _ — = — 8
1,762 ” il 7 44 27 A.M. | — i bros a == — »
1,763 ” 12 9 35 26 P.M. _— — Sx = a = ”
1,764 ” 13 7 53 35 PM _ = = — — == »
1,765 » 15 10 31 12 PM. | — = a a = — ”
1,766 » 16 9 43 20 P.M. | — = rat >= == => ”
1,767}, 17 | 10 41 47 pm. | — — == — = as
1,768] ,, 18 0 59 44 p.m. |1 58) SSE, NN.W. | 0°6 07 |slight,) very | slight, quick
1,769] ,, 18 3 36 17 p.m. | — = — _ = — igh
1,770), 19 | 412 32 pw. | — — == — —|]|-— i
1,771 ” 19 7 44:15 Pw. _ _ os — —_— ae »
1,772) 5 29 | 056 33 pm. | — — = _ —|— a
L781 * 5, 29 5 63 36 P.M. |2 16) S.W., N.E. 08 3-2 jslight,| very weak, slow,
stop clock
1,774} VIII.} 1 | 11 49 04 am. |2 09} SE, N.W. 08 | 22 04 | 03 weak, quick
1,775) 5 11 | 8 23 36 am. [20 0) S.W., N.E. 03 | 0-6 |slight,) very] rather ee
quic’
1776! 4, 12 4 31 56 PM. | — _— => _— — _— slight
1,777 ” 13 10 50 37 a.m — — — — — — ”
1,778) ,, 14 | 7 33 28 am. | — _ — _ —{- %
1,779| 4, 14 8 51 21 am. | — _— — -- — — =
1,780 ” 7 4 28 48 A.M. | — = SR a = = ”
1781) ,, | 20 | 6 05 37 pM. |0 50) E.N.E., W.S.W.] 03 | 29 | 0-2 |025 | weak, quick
1,782) ,, 21 1 24 41 am. | — = — _ = _— slight
1,783] ,, 23 1 37 10 p.m. | — _ _— _— —}]— 5
1,784] ,, 26 5 49 37 pM. | — — _ — —}j— os
1,785| ,, 27 725 0 PM. | — = - - — — es
lt De he
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 137
CATALOGUE OF EHARTHQUAKES—continued.
Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and
a Amplitude of peed of
J Ect Y 4 Horizontal ertical
Time g Direction Motion Motion Ge
A oe
secs.| mm, | secs.} mm.
H. M.S. M.S
7 01 01 PM. | — _— _— _ - _— slight
7 32 11 am. | — —_— —_ — _ — 4,
8 38 21 a.m. | — — —_ _- _ =_ sy
44211 pM. | — — slig} ht, _— — slight, slow
hori|zontal
5 09 33 p.m. | — | Destructive in 4 slight,} very ¥
Akita
2 56 51 PM — = = = slight
3.15 27 pM. | — -- _— — — — +
11 07 46 P.M. _— slig}ht, -- — a
| horijzontal
11 17 53 am. | — _— ss slight,) very | slight, quick
8 12 54 PM. | — = _— _ slight
11 16 25 p.m. | — = = = a iz
8 59 21 Pm. | — = = _ = _ “
2 38 07 P.M. | — = =
9 22 35 AM. | — _ — _ — — | =
1 43 08 p.m. | — _— _— _— _ _— ae
10 56 O1 A.M. | — _ _— _ _— _ ‘s
5 51 26 p.m. | — — — _ —_ — Fs
7 42 59 P.M. | — _ _ _ _ _ 7
11 07 17 a.m. | — — — = — — A
8 06 21 Am. | — = = = = im
1 36 58 pM. | — = = “= == |} a
0 13 61 p.m. | — _ _ ~_ — | — s
6 06 02 P.M. | — _— _ _ _ _ ie
11 08 19 a.m. /2 50) SS.W.,N.N.E. | 10 0-4 —_ — slight, slow
10 37 29 A.M. | — _ _— — _— —_ slight
7 56 41 am. | — = = = Se ¥
444 01 P.M. | — _ — _ — — H
11 22 26 a.m. | — _ — — — —_— om
4 02 47 P.M. | — _ — — _ _ x
117 25 am. |0 67] SSE, N.N.W. | 0:2 19 03 06 | weak, very quick
First begins very slight,
and after 5 seconds it shows
strong horizontal motion,
and continued 9 seconds;
then gradually became
quieter.
* Other shocks were :—Yokohama, 1h. 17m. 39s., slight; Yokosuka, 1h. 17m. 30s, weak; Mai-
Dashi, 1h. 30m. 03s., slight; Gifu, 1h. 20m. 46s., slight. This shock is supposed to represent a landslip
an the Bay of Tokio, for it only extends round Tokio.
III. On the Installation and working of Milne’s Horizontal Pendulum.
By Joun Mine, F.B.S., GS.
General Remarks.—As it has been established that the movements re-
sulting from a large earthquake originating in any one portion of our globe
can, with the aid of suitable instruments, be recorded in any other portion
of the same, the Seismological Committee of the British Association have
asked for the co-operation of observers in various parts of the world in an
endeavour to extend and systematise the observation of such disturbances.
The first object in view is to determine the velocity with which motion is
propagated round and possibly through our earth. To attain this, all
that is required at a given station is the times at which various phases of
motion are recorded, for which purpose, for the present at least, an instru-
ment recording a single component of horizontal motion is sufficient.
Other results which may be obtained from the proposed observations are
138 REPORT—1897.
numerous. The foci of submarine disturbances—such, for example, as
those which from time to time have interfered with telegraph cables—
may possibly be determined, and new light thrown upon changes taking
place in ocean beds. The records throw light upon certain classes of dis-
turbances now and then noted in magnetometers and other instruments
susceptible to slight movements, whilst local changes in level, some of
which may have a diurnal character, may, under certain conditions, become
apparent.
The Instrument.—The general features of a type of instrument which
the Committee have selected as being sufficient for the attainment of
the objects in view are shown in the accompanying sketch.
The instrument consists of an iron bed-plate and stand carried on
eR ie
Mirror
Pivot on Boom
three levelling screws. Resting against a needle-point or pivot projecting
from the base of the stand, and held in a nearly horizontal position by a
tie, is a light aluminium boom. Attached to the outer end of this boom
there is a small rectangular plate in which there are two slits, one of which
is large and the other is small. Partly for the purpose of balancing the
weight of the outer end of the boom, and partly for obtaining the ‘ steady
point’ of a seismograph between the attachment of the tie to the pivot, a
weighted cross-bar is pivoted.
When the boom swings to the right or left, the rectangular plate with
its slits passes to the right and left across a fixed slit in the lid of a box,
inside which a 2-inch (50 mm.) strip of bromide paper is being driven by
clockwork.. Light from a lamp is reflected downwards by a mirror to
cover the whole of the latter slit. It however only enters the box to
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 139
the right and left of the floating-plate and through the slits in the same.
When the boom is steady, the resulting photogram on the moving bromide
paper will be, when developed, that of a white band equal in width to
that of the moving-plate, down the centre of which band are two very
clearly defined lines, one of which is thick and the other thin (figs. 2, 3,
and 5). To the right and left of this white band the paper will have
been blackened by the light which entered at the two ends of the fixed
slit. On one edge of one of these black bands, at intervals of about
50 mm., there will be seen a series of white marks which have been
produced by the minute-hand of a watch, the broadened extremity of
which has hourly at the half-hour passed over the end of the fixed slit,
and for a period of about one minute eclipsed the light.
Should the clock at any time have failed to drive the bromide strip
with regularity this will at once be seen by differences in the distances
between successive time marks.
Installation.—The instrument may be placed on any solid pier in an
observatory, on a specially constructed pier in the ground-floor of an ordi-
nary dwelling, or in a hut or shed in the open. The room should be dry,
which will generally be the case if means are provided for ample ventila-
tion. In order that the photographic paper may be examined or removed
at any time, the windows of the room should be provided with shutters,
through one of which red light can be admitted. A column or pier of
convenient size may be two bricks, or 18 inches (45 cm.) square, which
rises 2 feet 8 inches (80 cm.) above the floor. The base of this may rest
on a 6-inch (15 cm.) layer of concrete, which in turn rests on a bed of
gravel rammed in the natural earth. The top of such a column may be
made smooth by a thin facing of cement, whilst its sides should be oriented
N.-S. and E.-W. It is convemient to have space to pass round the pier on
three sides. The table, which projects from the column ina N.-S. direction
and carries the clock-box should be strong, 3 feet 8 inches (1:12 m.) long,
3 feet 7 inches (1:09 m.) broad, and rise 1 foot 8 inches (50 cm.) above
the floor of the room. The upper surface of this table is therefore exactly
1 foot (30 cm.) below the top of the column. If an existing pier is used
the height of the table must be increased or decreased to maintain the last
dimension. The table is made wide to give space for the clock-box, which
is run out upon it from its covering-case when removing a film.
The installation may be on an alluvium plain or on solid rock.
Adjustment of the Pendulum.—The instrument is to be so placed that
the boom is in the meridian, or points N.-S. The balance weight is to be
placed at a distance of 35 inches (87 mm.) from the pivot, and the attach-
ment of the tie at a distance of about 5 inches (125 mm.). At the latter
point, but not shown in the sketch, there is a small upright, from the top
of which a thread is carried to within about 9 inches (22 cm.) from the
outer end of the boom. This is to prevent the boom from sagging. After
the bed-plate of the stand has been made approximately level, the boom
is suspended, as shown in the sketch, with its outer end about } inch
(3 mm.) above the top of the clock-box. To increase or decrease this
distance the tie, the last inch or so of which at its upper end is made of
unspun silk, may be shortened or lengthened by means of a screw at the
top of the stand.
The next point is to give the boom a certain sensibility, which
increases as the period of its swing increases. The sensibility which
must be arrived at is that which corresponds to an adjustment that
140 REPORT—1 897.
results in the pendulum having a period of 15 seconds—that is to say,
it is reached when the pendulum makes one complete swing or one back
and forward motion in 15 seconds. To make this adjustment the pivot
against which the boom abuts may be moved in and out until the desired
period is approximately obtained, after which the front screw of the stand
may be raised or lowered until the adjustment is completed. . To observe
the period the observer presses with his hand against the side of the
column. This sets the boom in motion. He then goes to the end of the
instrument, and, looking downwards through a plate of glass beneath the
lamp, watches the rectangular plate on the end of the boom and notes
with a watch how many seconds it takes for the boom, as it slowly moves
across the scale of millimetres fixed in the top of the clock-box parallel to
the slit in the same, to complete a back and forward motion, For various
reasons it seems that in all forms of horizontal pendulums this quantity
will not remain constant for any great length of time. It therefore must
be noted, say, once a week, and if any marked change has taken place the
instrument should be readjusted. For stations founded on rock the pendu-
lum may be adjusted to have a period of 18 seconds ; but witha pendulum
having this sensibility in a station on alluvium, the diurnal motion may
exceed the width of the slit in the clock-box, and with changes of weather
and the seasons the wandering of the pendulum to one side or the other
will be so great that readjustments will be continually required.
The boom is to be brought into a central position by turning one or
other of the two back screws in the bed-plate.
The Sensibility of the Instrument.—The distance between the two
back screws of the instrument is 150mm. The front one of these has
05 mm. pitch, so that one complete turn of this would tilt the
stand through an angle the tangent of which would be measured by
5X yho=sty- By means of a lever fitting the head of the screw, rather
than giving it a complete turn, it may be turned 1°, 2°, or any other
fraction of a complete turn that may be desired, this quantity being
indicated by a pointer attached to the screw which moves over an arc
graduated in degrees. For example, assuming that the boom has a period
of 18 seconds, and we find by several trials that a 1° turn of the
test-screw corresponds to a deflection of the outer end of the boom of
5 mm., as shown on the scale opposite the slit in the clock-box, and
assuming, further, that we can read displacements on the photogram of
1 mm., under these circumstances we can measure tiltings the angular
values of which would be
and because 1 sec. of arc=1/206265, it follows that 1 mm. deflection of
the outer end of the boom corresponds to a tilt of 0/38.
If we read deflections to within half a millimetre, to do which there is
no difficulty, the sensibility of the instrument is doubled. For the object
in view this is not required, and if a deflection of 1 mm. is obtained for a
tilt of 1’’ to 05, this will be sufficient.
Clock-box.—This, which can be run on rails in and out of the instru-
ment-case, has a cover which is removed to wind the clock and put new
paper in the roll. Once a day, when the lamp is filled and trimmed, and
the watch is wound, this cover is removed, and the 3 or 4 feet of paper
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 141
which has accumulated is roughly rolled up. At this time the date may
be written in pencil on the bromide film on the top of the upper roll.
The small top roll shown in the sketch should barely touch its neighbour,
whilst a corresponding roll in contact with the. driving-roll should press
somewhat tightly on the latter. These two latter rolls are not shown in
the sketch. Should the papers at any time refuse to move freely, it may
be necessary to alter the adjustment between these rolls to see that they
have not become sticky by contact with the bromide surface, or even to
cover the driving-roll with a piece of thin but roughish paper. If
moisture is suspected as being the cause of a stickiness of the bromide a
saucer of calcium chloride may be placed in the clock-box. The most
convenient form in which to use this substance is as cake mixed with
asbestos. Every week this can be dried over a strong fire.
Calcium chloride, or other desiccating agents, must not be introduced in
the instrument-case, for if they are a circulation of air is set up, and the
boom swings to and fro, giving records which have often been called earth-
tremors. For earthquake work the driving-roll must be adjusted in its
outermost position, when it will turn once per hour. In its inner position
it turns once in twelve hours, when it may be used, for example, for studying
the diurnal wave.
The Watch.—This must be compared fairly often with a standard
timekeeper, and its rate noted. It is particularly important that the
time at which its hour-hand commences and ends its eclipse over the slit
in the clock-box be noted, as it is from these markings that the times of
earth disturbances are measured. This can be done either by watching
the hour-hand of the watch by looking down the tube down which the
mirror reflects light, or by watching the same when the clock-box is taken
out of the instrument-case.
Developing, fixing, and copying the Film.—The films, which are 25 feet
in length, are developed once a week. The developer employed has been
chosen, because the same solutions may be used for several successive
developments. The stock is kept as two separate solutions, made up as
follows :—
Sulphate of soda, 1 oz. or 1 part by weight.
: Carbonate of potash, 3 oz. ONT 55° 5s 9
Ist Solution. Bromide of potash, z oz. (10 grs.) or 2. ss BS
Water, 5 oz. ro) as a
. Metol, Z0z.(75grs.) or? ,, 4, 3
2nd Solution. tweed g Pd a 8 : z .
For use one ounce of each of these solutions is to be taken and mixed
with about 24 ounces of water, and the whole is then poured into the
developing-tray.
The film is doubled backwards and forwards in this solution, and the
tray kept agitated until the development takes place, when the solution
is poured off into a bottle to be kept until the following week. After the
second time of use it may be strengthened with half an ounce of each of
the above two solutions, when it will last two weeks longer. It is then
thrown away. The next operation is to pour water once or twice into the
developing-tray, and to rinse the film, after which it is dragged bodily over
the end of the tray into a second tray containing a strong solution of
hyposulphite of soda (1 hypo and about 4 water). Whilst in this solu-
tion the folds of the film are one by one gently opened to allow the hypo
142 REPORT—1897.
to penetrate. After 10 or 15 minutes, when, by examination of the back
of the film, all trace of yellow colour in the film is seen to have dis-
appeared, the hypo is poured back to its bottle and the film is thoroughly
washed for at least 15 minutes in several changes of clean water. The
Fic. 2.—Japan Earthquake ; Carisbrooke Castle Record.
hypo may be used perhaps twenty times until it has become dirty and
ceases to have a saline taste.
The film in its tray of water is then placed on a plank or flat floor.
One end of the film is pulled out of the tray and placed face upwards on
Fig. 3.—Displacements on September 10.
the plank or floor, after which the tray is drawn backwards and the film
runs out and is left to dry.
Any particular portion of a film may be reproduced by tracing on
tracing-paper, or by photographical printing. For the latter process
place the film with its back on a piece of glass or the glass face of a
printing frame. A piece of bromide paper is placed with its sensitive
surface in contact with the film, and over this a strip of wood or the back
of the printing frame, when the whole four are clamped together with
springs, clips, or indiarubber bands.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 143
This is held up to the light of an oil lamp or an ordinary gas-burner
at a distance of 30 inches for 3 to 10 seconds. Next it is developed in a
little fresh but dilute developer. If the developer appears too strong,
add water and a few drops of a 10 per cent. solution of bromide of
potassium. Too long exposure causes the parts which should be white to
become grey. A weak acid bath (citric acid 1 part in 40 of water) tends
to remove stains. In warm climates a saturated alum bath may be used.
Tf blisters appear weaken the hypo-bath.
Although photographic reproduction is here referred to, reproduction
by tracing is quicker and usually sufficient.
The Photograms.—When the pendulum is at rest the photogram con-
sists of two straight lines, one of which is thin and the other thick, like
Fie. 4.—Commencement and Growth of a Tremor Storm.
10. P.M. WL. P.M.
i aot s a ei.23 vale 2«
FA eas aevi bead MAS ATE hie TS ero
is hrs. 16 Tus,
those shown over a distance of about a quarter of an inch on the left-hand
side of fig. 2 (‘ British Association Report,’ 1896, fig. 19, p. 229,!) which is
the diagram of an earthquake recorded at Carisbrooke Castle, in the Isle
of Wight, but which had its origin in Japan. The reason that two spots
of light are used is that for slow movements the fine line gives the best
definition, but for rapid movements the light passing through the fine slit
is not sufficient to produce an impression on the photographic surface,
and therefore, as in the middle of the figure, we have to rely on the image
from the large spot.
Because the watch makes its eclipses at the half-hour the intervals
marked as 20 hours, 21 hours, and 22 hours are read as 20°5 hours, 21:5
hours, and 22°5 hours, and then corrected from the known rate of the
watch and the observed time of the eclipses. What is chiefly required
} This figure, like the others, having been reproduced from a wood block, is not
so clear as the original.
144. REPORT—1897.
from such a diagram is the Greenwich mean time of the commence-
ment of the preliminary tremors which is near the small arrow, the
commencement of decided motion, and the duration of the disturb-
ance. After this, notes may be made of the number of maxima dis-
placements.
Such notes, together with a tracing or photographic reproduction of
the diagram, should be sent to the Seismological Committee, British Asso-
ciation, Burlington House, London, W.
In many instances the preliminary tremors, which in the illustration
continue over an interval of 34 minutes, may only continue over 5 or 10
minutes, and their duration appears. to be connected with the distance at
which the disturbance originated. The cause of sudden displacements
without preliminary tremors like those shown in fig. 3 (‘British Association
Report,’ 1896, fig. 2, p. 190).is at present unknown. They are rare, and
may be due to subsidence beneath the supporting pier. In a dark room,
and especially in a warm climate, when removing the clock-box, it is
quite possible that now and then a minute spider may find its way
Fie. 5.—Pulsations at Shide.
9.28.9.30.P.M ocT19™ 1895 10.30.P.M 11.30.P.M
SHIDE.
into the case. If when moving this box the boom is not set in
motion, the existence of the work of such an intruder may be suspected,
and it and its web must be removed. Such troubles are, however,
very rare.
A photogram commencing with intermittent long-period movements,
like those shown in the upper part of fig. 4 (‘ British Association Report,’
1896, p. 200), and increasing until they resemble its lower portion, indicates
that the boom has been swinging from side to side under the influence of
air currents established inside the case. Such movements, which have
been called earth-tremors and microseismic storms, are at times extremely
regular in their character. These latter, with periods of 2 or 3 minutes,
are called pulsations (fig. 5. See ‘ British Association Report,’ 1896, fig. 6,
p- 201). These movements are frequent during the winter months, and
especially at night.
Although they form an interesting study, because they may often
eclipse the record of an earthquake, it is necessary that they should be
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 145
destroyed or avoided. Often they may be destroyed by giving the room
in which they are situated a copious and even draughty ventilation. If
this does not succeed, the instrument must have a new installation. They
are seldom met with in a badly constructed hut or beneath a tent.
Examples of Daily Records.
Error of
Date |Light out} Light in| Eclipse Remarks
Watch
1897 h. m. h. m. sec.
Feb.12} 10.41 10.55 —33 Period 18s. Sensibility 1°=5 mm. Reset
25° to 30°.
21.55 21.57 |
» 13 | 10.30 10.50 —39 Kelipsed light from 10.55 to 10.56, as shown
by the eclipse watch.
21.38 21.40
&c., &c., &c., up to the end of the week.
From the above records it will be observed that the light has been
removed or extinguished twice a day. The times at which this is done is
very roughly noted with a pocket-watch. In the morning the lamp is
refilled, the eclipse watch wound, and, if necessary, the pendulum, which
may have wandered too much on one side, is reset.
The error of the eclipse watch must, relatively to some standard time,
be noted accurately. For meaning of ‘period’ and ‘sensibility,’ which
only need be determined once a week, and which can be expressed in
seconds of arc, see pp. 139, 140.
From the mark shown on the developed film when the light is eclipsed
the time at which the watch commences to make an eclipse mark can be
calculated. These times, as shown on the dial of the eclipse watch, should
always be the same, and therefore in order to guard against accident they
are only made occasionally. By adding or subtracting the error of the
eclipse watch to the time at which an eclipse mark has been made, the
exact G.M.T. of this mark is obtained, from which any particular phase of
an earth movement may be computed.
Weekly Report.
At the end of the week a report is drawn up of the records, the
form of which largely depends upon the movements which have been
recorded.
All times must be expressed in Greenwich mean time (civil), the day
commencing after 24 hours or midnight. Thus the ordinary notation of
June 16, 1.30 a.m., and June 16, 11.30 p.m., becomes June 16, 1.30, and
June 16, 23.30.
The most important elements to be noted about an earthquake
disturbance are :—
1, The exact time at which preliminary tremors commence.
2. The duration of those tremors,
1897. L
146 REPORT—1897.
3. The times at which various maxima of motion are attained, and the
tilting they represent expressed in seconds of arc.
4. The total duration of the disturbance.
5. A tracing of the photogram.
IV. Observations at Carisbrooke Castle and Shide.
By Joun Mixing, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Tn the report for last year it was stated that at about the end of June,
through the kindness of Mr. A. Harbottle Estcourt, Deputy-Governor
of the Isle of Wight, I had been enabled to establish a second horizontal
pendulum at Carisbrooke Castle, and a description of this installation,
together with that at Shide, was given in some detail. The object of the
second installation was to see how far the records of two similar instru-
ments at some distance apart coincided in character. The Shide records,
as already reported upon, consist of movements due to earthquakes which
have originated at some distance—displacements, which show that the boom
of the instrument has suddenly been caused to swing or change its zero
points ; tremors, which are irregular swingings of the boom extending over
many hours or several days ; pulsations, which are regular back and forth
movements of a pendulum, which movements have periods of two or three
minutes ; diwrnal waves and seasonal wanderings.
In the following report these movements will be discussed in the order
in which they are here mentioned, the Carisbrooke records being taken
first.
The Carisbrooke Records.
The Carisbrooke records were obtained between June 16 and August 31,
1896. Because the journey to Carisbrooke and back entailed a walk of
four miles, it was only visited once every twenty-four hours. For this
reason, together with the fact that the clockwork arrangement often
failed to drive the photographic paper—an imperfection which has since
been remedied—there were very many interruptions in the continuity of
the records. Notwithstanding this, a sufficient number were obtained to
compare with corresponding records at Shide, and to indicate the character
of Carisbrooke as an observing station.
The earthquakes recorded were as follows :—
July 5.—Four exceedingly small, elastic switchings of the boom, the first
at 3hrs. 6 mins. 47 secs., and the last at 3 hrs. 44 mins. 7 secs.
July 21.—At 7 hrs. 3 mins. 53 secs. there was a small elastic disturbance
with 5 maxima.
August 30.—A very heavy disturbance (see fig. 2), corresponding in
time, points of maxima, and other detail with the Shide record, No. 36.
This earthquake had its origin in Japan.
The first two records, which have amplitudes of ‘5 to 1 mm., do not
correspond with records at Shide, whilst there are similar minute dis-
turbances recorded at Shide which are not visible on the Carisbrooke
photograms. The conclusion, for the present, at least, is that these small
tremors, which suggest an elastic switching of the end of the boom, are
very often of local origin, whilst earthquake movements of a pronounced
character are recorded in a similar manner at both stations. The reason
that no record was obtained at Carisbrooke on August 26 (No. 35 in the
Shide list) was because on that day the recording apparatus was not in
operation. The days of such interruptions are indicated on the general
list of disturbances, pp. 147, 148.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 147
The sudden displacements or disturbances noted at Carisbrooke are
given on the list just mentioned. As compared with Shide they are very
few in number, and at the two stations there was no agreement in the
times at which they took place.
' Tremors and pulsations, which I am inclined to regard as being due to
slow and fairly regular air currents within the covering cases of instru-
ment, were practically absent at Carisbrooke.
Because the observation of the diwrnal wave and longer-period move-
ments require an adjustment of the clockwork, so that it runs at a
slow speed, these were not observed. Inasmuch as readings taken of the
position of the end of the boom showed but little change, it is probable
that they are small. ett
_ Because the latter three classes of movement were frequent at Shide,
whilst they were practically absent at Carisbrooke, it is evident that the,
latter station is. the better site for the observation of earthquakes.
Displacements observed at Carisbrooke Castle and Shide in 1896.
1. d.=large displacement ; m. d. =moderate displacement; s. d. =small displacement.
Shide | Carisbrooke
Date es ee a =
Time Character Time Character
Hs, Mm ag; H. M. S |
June 16 23 40 O UBKel2 — | —
Jen if 6 29 50 s. d. — —
Rep wel: 6 38 36 s. d. — -
+ 6 55 48 a a: —- —
aac 21 38 36 s.d: — | —
PAA 2D Nowe Ay 12k: ia! 5 51 40 ed:
ae das 18 45 12 eed — . zs
ee 2 AS * 6 s. d. 5 34 32 i Gk
” ” 4 33 44 s. d. 19°13) 12 s. d.
» 25 10 i8 16 m. d. Not working —
7, 26 LO” 26.426 s. d. a ¥ —
ae ae 6 28 26 s. d. 7 22 21 S/d
aly 8 16 0 s. d. T* 32 (3 s. d.
” ” 13° 3h +26 s. d. 7 47 31 lL @
” Tie s. d. Not working --
a 28 2 53 24 s. d. A ae — i
Peep 6 47 4 Said —_— —
» i de 1G 1. d. _ S..
am 20 10 8 50 1. d. Not working =
July 2 18 51 29 1. d. A a | —
ne 8 10 26 47 m. d. a i ae
” ” 21.10 41 eae ” =e, —-
co eR 21 26 41 s. d. ) ee —
iy, 4 £9) ba, 6 8. d. is or =
oe MeL PAT VG s. d. = — :
ate 9 26 20 Ld Not working =
53 & 43 i121 s. d. 3 Fr} = H
ee ly 36) 240, ld. oe PA — 1)
0 7 45 40 led: Ps “ —
» 13 0 41 17 ld. a 4 =
se 0035 Dict ae Ue We 4 eds ” " | —
ee! he & Sal s. d. bs . | = |
» 17 5 12 42 La. Not working | 4 |
yr! 5 26 25 Led: aot 2S
” 0 10 8 48 gs. d. — ==
148 REPORT—1897.
DISPLACEMENTS OBSERVED AT CARISBROOKE CASTLE AND SHIDE IN 1896—cont.
Shide Carisbrooke
Date CL B.S BS 7 a ide eee ree ie
Time Character Time Character
July 24 2.20 13 m. d. ao zh
” ” 8 34 45 s. d. _ —
”» oo” . 10” 33s s. d. —_— se
ah aay 13 21 41 s. d. = —
”» oo” 19 59 41 s. d. 3 =
” OO” 21 39 9 s. d. — ==
” 25 2 16 18 m. d. — ==:
eee 9 39 12 1d. 12 30 10 Ld.
» 26 TS ee Ld. = exe
2a T As. "3 1. d. == =
eee 10 10 27 s. d. os au
» 21 40 21 m. d. ae =
” 29 2 31. 33 m. d. — —
” ” 10 7 43 Sn Gu — eas
” oo» 14 29 55 id: oy) baz:
» 30 4 14 39 s. d. 2 8 47 —
Ant GA LOMA ie 6 s. d. LO S30 a7 ld
i! 2 14 33 s. d. vt =
” ” 10 21 27 s. d. a —
”» oo» 18 47 3 s. d. — —
Aug. 1 2 2 66 s. d. — —
” 18 54 6 s. d. poe Ese
me 18 54 19 s. d. —— =
aes Not working — 5 34 0O m. d
ae LOM — = a3 be
ay es 4 35 36 id: = ee
noo” 10 31 56 1. d. = ae
ay EB 2 15 26 s. d. — —
» 14 15 54 16 1. d. — —
” 16 HO af 46 sire be = a
” ” 13 58 58 8d. —s ——
» oo” 15 32 44 id: =a as
” 0» 15 49 0 WE = =
LG 9 10 4 Ind: =e a
”» 9 13 22 di = —
bo 21 38 12 idk ot wee,
een ty hal ts] — = fe hase
Lo 1 4 '5b 432 rd: =
aS 17 19 54 Id. 16 47 48 as
» 20 2 26 41 IP ok — =
” ” 18 59 39 if d. —_— ==
ayes 21 9 41 1. d. 20 7 150 m:d
ye 9 36 37 s. d. — a
hd 713 22° 26: 122 Hao Sen Les: 1. d.
” ” ad ——— 11 51 48 H d.
» of a = ADT » 6 =
ee) Bee A PAE s.d oe —
aye oes 5 50 45 1..d; —_— =
se WAGG : ‘ 10 22 27 Neck — —_
Pye 0, F - tie LD. Alo s. d —_ a3
a ides 22 29 34 l. d — ae
Records with an Earthquake-like Character observed at Shide, 1896-97.
For the commencement of the Shide records (August 19, 1895, to
March 22, 1896) the reader is referred to ‘ Report of the British Associa-
tion’ for 1896, p. 191, in which shocks and displacements are included in
————_ ae
eE——
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 149
one list. The following list only includes movements which have an
earthquake-like character ; but as it is possible that certain small displace-
ments may have been mistaken for earthquakes when examining the list,
the following explanatory notes will make it easy to identify records which
are doubtful.
The sign >, or a series of such signs, indicates a small movement, or
a series of small movements, with an amplitude of about 1 mm., which
commenced suddenly and ended gradually. It is quite possible that some
of them, at least, may be due to some local cause—as, for example, a slight
settlement beneath the pier on which the instrument is rested—and there-
fore are not earthquakes. The sign ~, or a series of such signs, indicates
a very small movement, or series of movements, which commenced
gradually and ended gradually. Such movements have a true earthquake
character ; but because I have no record where they were nearly simul-
taneously recorded at Carisbrooke, they must, in many instances, at least,
be of local origin.
Disturbances which are ‘moderate,’ or disturbances which have
amplitudes exceeding 2 mm., if these commence gently it may be as-
sumed that they are of earthquake origin.
All large disturbances commencing with decided preliminary tremors
are certainly earthquake effects. Those to which an asterisk is attached
are described at the end of the list in more or less detail. The materials
for their description have been derived from my own observations, obser-
vations made in Japan, communications from various observers in Europe
and Great Britain, the ‘ Bolletino della Societa Sismologica Italiana,’ the
columns of ‘ Nature,’ and other sources.
Earthquakes observed at Shide, Isle of Wight, 1896-97. (All times are given in
Greenwich mean astronomical time. Midday or noon = 0 or 24 hours.) °
Observed also at
~| Edinburgh, from
Hour of com-
No. Date mencement, Remarks
G.M.T.
Ischia
Potsdam
Nicolaiew
middle of August
1896.
1*| June 14 | 22 30 0 | Large \> : : A -|-J- [=
yt oe 10 6 26 Small >
» 24 9 47 56 ssn eiss
be PH 13. 8 35 tye gh
» 28 9 27 17 maak
Four maxima . : : : oy
9 » 30 10 6 O Small ~
10 18 21 57 wl
OND oP w
_
cs
ww
i=)
on
iJ=)
s
V
150 REPORT—1897.
EARTHQUAKES OBSERVED AT SHIDE—continued.
Observed also at
lg g
Hour of com- 4 | & a
No.} Date mencement, Romarks | e |as
G MT. e| 2 |fs
tee | oe | os
H., V Ss. |
16 10 11 31 Moderate, commences gently |
17* 18 51 29 “8 5 ch >|
18 July 8 14 54 14 Small loaner
19 17 46 11 5 aS |
20 » 11] 10 8 49 | Moderate. Four maxima
21 ko 8 12 53 | Small
22 par alls 19 240 | Moderate >
23 ‘pump ls, 0 948 | Small >
24 18 53 14 ee aN
25 23 52 50 Small. Several maxima >
26 i oO re SLL 26) 0 a
13 95 OJ ” ” ”
27 ital, 2b 2b, 0 - 2§ - nN
28 | Aug. 12| 23 53 36 | Very small ~
29 » 14] 1019 50 | Small ~
30 11 27 16 See ey tf,
31 » 28 5 38 52 > ae
32 » 25 4 27 31 es
33 5 3 21 Euan
34 2eoo) a > >
35*| ,, 26] 11 23 48 | Large preliminary tremors last | —-| — | — | —
1m. 16s. Duration 50m.
364 ,, 30| 20°23 6 | Large preliminary tremors last | — | — | —
34m. Duration nearly 3h.
37 | Sept. 10 0 57 51 =| Small ~7
38 | 17 36 23 aes
39 ake 17 44 32 | Small preliminary tremors last —-|-
5m. 44s. >
40 18 52 29 | Small ~
41 » | 14 0 51 39 of ee ee ‘ j : =
42 = 20 4 20 50 se
43 |! 4 29 10 aes
44 4 37 21 die
45 4 59 10 a es -
46 16 14 48 Moderate
AS yy) ZL 17 2 2 | Total duration—35m.50s.n~n7| — | — | —] =
48* wee 11 59 50 Moderate preliminary tremors | — | - —-|-
7m.10s. Duration—28m. 40s.
49*%|. ,,. 24] 10 39 20
50 ssh de 11 40 24 | Duration—34m.5s.7 . F -|-
51} Oct. 6 | 12 51 27 | Twelve separated maxima, end- | —
ing at 14h..9m. 18s. > > > ke.
52 LST ORL 5209) (Small >
53 » 14 7 41 25 | Moderate
54 ry 5 57 26 | Small >
55 a as 10 15 10 > followed at 10h. 28m. 50s.
by ~-. Duration—21m.
56*| ,, 31*| 1718 2 | Large preliminary tremors last | — | — | —
13m. 51s. Total duration—
3h. to 4h. : {
657 | Nov. 2 4 956 | Small> . ‘ : i —|-?
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
EARTHQUAKES OBSERVED AT SHIDE—continued.
151
Hour of com- |
Observed also at
| Ischia
{
|
No. Date mencement, | Remarks
G.M.T.
i]
’ He Mes
58 8 14 58 | Small >
59 NOLQO fA ee a
60 | Nov. 4 5 1 46 fe eae:
61 6 27 41 Se SS
62 8 57 47 Moderate
63 10 11 9 | Small ~
64 FEAT: 3 40 19 En (eles
65 6 52 19 sie sas
66 6 69 35 aie &
67* 9 44 58 | Large preliminary tremors last
15m. 46s. Total duration—
55m.
68 20 9 27 29 Moderate ~
69 | Dec. 1 21 55 33 | End at 23h. 31m. 20s. ~7A 7
70 ue 8 7 50 Small ~anana :
71 8 43 3 a >>
72 9 33 18 e SSS om
T3* » 16 |14.30to 22.0} A series of small tremors.
Maxima 17h. 30m.
74 a ks 13 12 11 |
16.28 to 18.28) Small tremors
75 » 26 {11.30 to 22.30) Ana
1897.
76 | Jan. 3 227.3 | Preliminary tremors last 8m.
3ls. Maxima motion at
2h. 36m. 53s.
77 » 8 | 22 39 3 | Maxima at 22h. 40m. 23s. 4
78 » 16 }10.8 to 10.29) Small Ann ‘i
79 23 52 47 a
80 98 Ali) SUG HS Biadl -Ay,5) oes |
81 ,, 18 |11.30to 16.30 Tremors with maxima’ at |
14h. 3m. 50s.
82 NLD 9 43 20 | Small ~
83*| Feb. 6 19 59 3 Tremors last 26m. 40s. Total
duration—lh, 6m.
84 pe beep | Snoalll F : : 5
85 yy Le 14 8ill Tremors last 3m. 50s. Dura-
tion—13m. 20s.
86 by tLo 3 23 36 Moderate. Duration—-9m. 20s. —
87 », 16 {12.30 to 22.30) Small An Cw : : 3
88 ea I 12 17 47 Four moderate maxima, ending
13h. 16m. 27s. From 6h. to
10h. not working.
89 | Mar. 1 14 40 14 | Moderate > F
90 pan) 14 49 34 * >
‘91 9 48 11 Small ~Anna~
92 +) lool, -22)46..56 Ae GS
93 a Lb 19 36 27 Moderate. Total dunration—
29m, 20s.
94 7, UG 449 49 | Small ~
95 3 8 Sh 26
——
” ”
| Potsdam
| Nicolaiew
Edinburgh, from
| middle of August
152 REPORT—1897.
Fig. 6.—August 26, 1896. Fia. 7.—September 12, 1896.
17. 44. 32
Fig. 8.—September 21, 1896. Fic. 9.—September 23, 1896.
17.2.2 11.59.50
$reg
Fig. 10.—October 31, 1896.
Fig. 12.
¥ 19 59.3.
Feb. 6.1897,
Fig. 13.—Potsdam, February 6, 1897.
19.50.30
G.M.T.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 153
V. Earthquake Records from Japan and other places.
By Joun Mine, F.R.S., #.GS.
Earthquake No. 1.—On the Sea-waves and Earthquakes of June 15, 1896,
in North Japan.
(Unless otherwise stated, Japan mean time, or G.M.T. + 9 hours, is here used.)
The sea-waves which at about 8 p.m. on June 15, 1896, invaded the
north-eastern coast of Nippon were as destructive to life as those which
accompanied the well-known eruption on August 26, 1883, of Krakatoa,
whilst one of the shocks by which they were preceded was of such severity
that it was clearly recorded in Europe, and in every probability caused a
disturbance over the entire surface of the globe.
. The magnitude of this disturbance, and the sub-oceanic changes by
which it was probably accompanied, make it well worthy of record. The
sources from which the following notes bearing upon this catastrophe have
been derived are various. Amongst the more important are translations
from the writings of Professor Kochibe and other officers of the Geological
Survey of Japan ; extracts from Japanese newspapers ; the records of the
Central Observatory in Tokio, and those from a large number of other
observatories at which disturbances were recorded ; and, lastly, the writer’s
personal knowledge of the devastated districts, and experiences connected
with sea-waves and earthquakes which have previously occurred in the
same locality.
A full discussion of the phenomena which accompanied this great
catastrophe might be divided under two heads, one containing an account
of the earthquakes which were recorded, and the other an account of the
sea-waves.
Although one or two houses were destroyed by earthquake movement
in Yamada, the greatest destruction was that caused by sea-waves, of
which the first three were the greatest. The places which suffered most
were Kamaishi, Yoshiyama, and neighbouring towns and villages lying in
the inlets of the cliff-bound coasts of Rikuzen and Rikuchu, on the
N.E. coast of Nippon. Fishermen twenty or twenty-five miles off shore
did not observe anything unusual.
List 1.—Shocks recorded in Japan on June 15 and 16, 1896.
Time (M.J.T.) Duration Direction Remarks Intensity
H. M. §.
E.N.E. A few houses :
7 32 30 P.M. 5m. Sew acdeod |] stignt
The high tide came,
7 53 30
8 2 35
and continual shocks
were felt.
8 33 10
8 59 0
9 31 30
9 34 5
9 45 40
9 50 10
10 32 10
11 22 0 /
11 33 15
oo
154 REPORT—1897.
The first list is that of thirteen shocks noted on June 15 at the Ob-
servatory in Miyako, a place lying to the north of Kamaishi and Yamada,
where the sea-waves were felt with great force.
The following is a list of shocks noted at observatories in various parts
of Japan. The Tokio shocks will also be found in the list of records from
the Meteorological Observatory in that city (pp. 155-6, Nos. 1,710 to 1,740).
Of these latter, it will be noted that there were only three of marked in-
tensity, and it does not seem that these were connected with the occur-
rence of the first sea-waves.
List 2 —Earthquakes noted at Observatories in Northern Japan in 1896.
Date Japan Mean Time | Character of Shock Place
H. M.S. |
June 15 | 5 43 15 P.M | slight Fukuoka.
; | 5 44 0 | “ Choshi.
i | § 44 43 iy Tokio.
/ $3 | 5 47 13 - Kofu.
| Pe 7 33 20 | weak, slow Awomori.
| Fs To. 10 | slight, slow Fukushima.
ms 7 34 14 weak, slow Tokio.
A | 7 30 20 slight, slow Nemuro.
$a 7 34 30 weak Hakodate.
=. 7 34 45 slight, slow Sakai.
s 7-35 0 weak, slow Utsunomiya.
a 7 36 21 oe Kofu.
a tase. 0 slight Yamagata.
- 7 45 57 | ») Fukushima.
a 7 48 43 | % 3
” | 7 52 0 | ” ”
“3 Tb 10 slight, slow “
~ Seok “5 Awomori.
a 8 7 5U slight Yamagata.
Ms | 8 5 36 weak, slow Kofu.
+ 8 10 26 slight Fukushima.
r | 8 21 20 33 Awomori.
ti 8 27 20 a Fukushima.
¥ | 8 32 45 7 Awomori.
= 8 33 53 bi Tokio
F. 8 38 10 A Awomori.
5 8 59 23 slight, slow RA
: 8 59 35 slight Fukushima.
As 9 0 38 Z, Tokio.
” S) 2 31 ” ”
- 9 3 45 ss Kofu.
iF 9 6=20 aH Yamagata.
4 Cees “ Fukushima.
" 9 13 55 Pr Awomori.
# 9 14 14 55 Tokio. i
Bs 9 17 20 oa Kofu. ;
os 9 19 40 i Awomori. '
es 9 26 18 . Fukushima.
ra Sy reeds: | " Tokio.
us 9 27 52 ‘s Awomori.
of ee % R
5 | 9 46 3L 9 eee
5 9 46 57 ss Fukushima.
a 9 49 30 * Awomori.
” 9 56 30 ” ”
9 56 39 x Tokio.
= | 9 59 52 a Kofu.
Date
June 15
”
”
”
”
Jane 16
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
List 2—continued.
155
eS eS SI oR ll ll oe
WE HH OCOSUOODODDOHE
PMWM MMW OH WWW Do >
Japan Mean Time
A.M.
A.M.
P.M.
slight
weak, slow
slight
weak, slow
slight
weak, quick
slight, slow
slight
”
weak, slow
slight
weak
slight
weak, quick
weak
slight
Character of Shock
Place
Yamagata.
Awomori.
Ishinomaki.
Tokio.
Kofu.
Tokio.
Awomori.
Pita
Tokio.
»
Kofu.
Yamagata,
Awomori.
Utsunomiya.
Fukushima.
Tokio.
Sakai.
Awomori.
Niigata. Clocks
stopped.
Kofu.
Yamagata.
Tokio.
Awomori.
Tokio.
Awomori.
”
Fukushima.
Tokio.
Kofu.
Yamagata.
Awomori.
Fukushima.
Tokio.
Yamagata.
Awomori.
Hikone.
Awomori.
Tokio.
Awomori.
Tokio.
Hikone.
Fukushima.
Tokio.
156 REPORT—1897.
Nearly all these disturbances were only felt in the northern part of
Nippon. Thirty-three were noted in Awomori, 26 were recorded in
Tokio, 15 in Fukushima, 10 in Kofu, 7 in Yamagata, and,2 in Sakai.
The two shocks recorded at Hikone, which is 450 miles distant from
Miyako, were probably of local origin. The fact that the Miyako earth-
quakes were only sufficient to disturb seismographs in North Japan, whilst
the effect of one at least of the series was recorded in Europe, indicates
that the origin of these movements was far from land. Had it been a few
hundred miles still farther off shore it seems likely that ordinary seismo-
graphs, recording on smoked-glass surfaces, would have failed to have
given any indications that submarine disturbances had taken place. We
have, therefore, here an illustration of the necessity of using horizontal
pendulums with photographic recording apparatus, or the equivalent of
such instruments, if we desire to study sub-oceanic movements or the
effects produced by earthquakes which have originated at great distances.
Sea-waves.—Coast of Rikuzen and Rikuchw (Home Department
Report).—First high water at 8.25 p.m. Altogether ten large waves, the
first three being at intervals of six minutes.
Miyako.—First high water, 8.20 p.m. Sea retreated about 7.15 p.m. ;
sea rose about 8.0 and 8.7 p.m. This last tide or wave rose 15 feet, and
people and houses were carried away. The tide rose six times.
Tawoi mwra.—Sea retreated 1,800 feet.
Hakodate (Yesso).—Tides rose and fell from 10 p.m. on the 15th until
10 a.m. on the 16th. At 4 p.m. on the 16th quiet was restored.
Mororan (Yesso).—High tide at 8 P.M.
Tokacht and Moyori (Yesso).—At 11 p.m. the tide was 10 feet lower
than usual. It rose four or five times to heights of 60 or 100 feet.
Kinkazan.—Tide gauge showed changes of 7 or 8 feet.
Bonin Ids.—Tide rose 3 or 4 feet.
Hawazi.—In fourteen hours fourteen tides were noticed, commencing
at 7.38 P.M.
Sownds.—Sounds like thunder or the report of a heavy gun were heard
at many places, at Miyako before 8 p.m.; at Kitsugawa, in Miyagi
Ken ; at Tokachi and Moyori, in Yesso, &c.
Unusual Set of Ocean Currents.—Sweeping up the eastern coast of
Japan is the great Black Stream, or Kuro Siwo, the strength of which,
as indicated by the distance to which it is felt and its position with
regard to the coast, is subject to seasonal variation. Along the inundated
coast a warm current is felt from spring to autumn, whilst during the
winter months the same shores experience a current that is cold. In
1896, spring passed, and yet the cold water hugged the shore, and the
fishermen seeking bonito had to go farther than usual from land until
they reached warmer waters.
Origin of the Disturbance.—Because the village of Taoi was destroyed
by two great waves, one coming from the south and the other from the
north, it has been assumed that at a distance of from five to eight miles
off the village a submarine landslip had taken place, and the waters rushed
inwards towards the scene of dislocation. Because places along 150 or
200 miles of the coast on which Taoi is situated were inundated at about
the same time, as Professor Kochibe points out, it is clear that the origin
of the convulsion was at a very much greater distance from the land than
that just indicated.
Because the sea-waves were preceded by earthquakes it is evident
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 157
that at least one of the latter must have been accompanied by enormous
dislocations in order to have produced the former.
These earthquakes, as recorded on land, were comparatively small,
which, from what we know of the dissipation of earthquake energy as it
radiates from its origins, indicates that the earth vibrations must have
travelled at least 100 miles.
The deast interval of time that we can give between the arrival of the
vibratory wave and the sea-waves is that observed at Miyako, which is
21 minutes.
If we assume a mean depth for the ocean off the north-east coast of
Nippon, along an easterly line, to the origin of the disturbance at 2,000
fathoms, then the distance from the land to the origin may be expressed
/12000 xg x 21 x 60,
or about 130 geographical miles,
Again, if we assume v, to be the velocity of the sea-wave, which may
be taken at 500 feet per second, this being a somewhat low observed
velocity for earthquake sea-waves approaching this coast; v, the velocity
of the vibratory waves, which over a short range has often been observed
at 7,000 or 8,000 feet per second ; and T the observed interval of time
between the arrival of the two waves, then the distance of their origin
from the coast is
ia Rakes
tS peeks)
or in this case about 113 geographical miles.
If we make v,=600 feet per second, the distance of the origin becomes
about 140 geographical miles.
Because we have taken the least interval that can be assigned to the
difference in the times of the arrival of the land and sea-waves, it may
be concluded that the origin of the Japan disturbance of June 15 was
along a submarine line at a distance of 120 to 140 geographical miles off
the coast of North-east Nippon.
Such a locus is at a depth of 4,000 fathoms, and, so far as we know
the sub-oceanic contours, exactly at the bottom of the Nippon slope,
forming the western boundary of the Tuscarora Deep, a well-known
origin for many large earthquakes (see map, fig. 14).
Although much evidence may be adduced to show that early in June
1896 the ocean currents were deranged in direction and intensity, the
cause of the submarine dislocation was probably seismic.
Velocity of Propagation of Harth-waves.—Assuming the origin to lie
120 geographical miles east of Miyako, to which place it travelled at a
rate of 8,000 feet per second, which fairly well accords with the velocity
it travelled from the Miyako isoseist to Tokio, and velocities of propaga-
tion of similar earthquakes over short ranges, the time, within a few
seconds, at which the earthquake occurred was, in G.M.T., June 14,
22h. 31m. Os.
G,M.T.—Times at which Preliminary Tremors commenced in Europe.
H. Me S&S. M.S
Padua. = : » 22 46 57 Time totravel . Star
Ischia. ; ; . 22 49 60 re ; ESS AG
Rocea di Papa . . 22 56 18 °F : » 25 58
158 REPORT—1897.
Fig. 14.—Map to show submarine earthquake origins near Japan.
Lortquakes duk 0 Grast or rusty
cco a ~O
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 159
The last observation evidently refers to a phase of movement different
from that of the first two, and therefore will not be further considered.
Padua . . 9,320 kms Velocity . . 97 kms. per sec.
Ischia . 2 9749 ” ” . onere ” ”
We should expect to have found these two velocities to have been nearly
equal. Their mean value, or the probable rate at which motion was
transmitted from Japan to Italy, was
9-2 kms. per sec. on an are.
And about 8:3 ,, ,, ,, on achord.
The velocity of transmission to Tokio was about 3 kms. per second.
Earthquake No. 8 (Cyprus).
A severe earthquake took place in Cyprus on June 29, at about
8h. 48m. Os. Other records of this disturbance were as follows :—
He OMe ss!
1. Shide Din 2 126
2. Ischia S 8 48 20
3. Rocca di Papa . 8 48 27
4. Rome : 8 48 35
5. Padua 8 49 O
6. Catania 8 50 30
7. Nicolaiew 8 47 O
The observations 2 to 7 clearly indicate a large error in the obser-
vation made near the origin in Cyprus. The only calculations of velocity
which can therefore be made are on paths between the Nicolaiew isoseist
and the first six places.
Distance in Kms. | Time of Transit
Piste Distance in Kms. from the from the Velocity in Kms.
from Cyprus Nicolaiew Nicolaiew per Sec.
Isoseist Isoseist
Mio ‘S:
Nicolaiew . : 1,332 — = =e
Catania . 5 1,684 352 3) 30 1:7
Ischia F : 1,813 481 1 20 6:0
Rome. 5 ; 1,998 666 Ie Sai 73
Padua 5 2,192 860 | 2.0 71
Shide . : 3,404 2,072 155, 26 2-2
The first and last determinations may possibly refer to the maximum
phases of motion, and the three intermediate ones to the velocity along a
path at some depth beneath the surface.
We have here an illustration of high velocities of propagation, which
we sometimes find between places each of which are at a distance from
an epicentre.
Earthquake in Iceland, No. 35, 1896.
August 26, at about 10.30 p.m. in local time. Very severe shocks,
originating in or near the Hekla ridge. Many landslides, four houses
thrown down. One fissure on the Oelvus River, 6 miles long. New
geysers appeared. Great surface changes.
August 27, 9.15 a.m., also severe.
1 See British Association Report, 1896, pp. 199 and 200.
160 REPORT—1897,
September 5, 11.30 p.m., also severe.
6, 2.0 A.M. a
_ 19, 11.20 a.m. ~
The above dates and hours, which latter, in all probability, are only
approximately correct, become in Greenwich mean time as follows :—
”
H. M. H, M.
Aug. 26 . . : . ; . ; 3 . Il 50and 22 35
Sept.5 . : : P . : . d . 12 50 , 15 50
Hi) : é : a ADL 280
The first of these was Ra at " Shide, Edinburgh, Strassburg,
Ischia, Potsdam, Nicolaiew, Kew, Paris, and possibly at other places.
The remainder were not noted at Shide, because at the hours mentioned
the instrument was not working, excepting on the 19th, when there was
a heavy tremor storm. The second and third were recorded at Strass-
burg, and the third and fourth were feebly shown at Edinburgh.
G.M.T.
Shide Records— Hs, Mae Pa:
Commencement . ‘ee - : 5 A 2arees
End of preliminary tremors : : : obra
1st max. attained . : . . : . ll 26 12
2nd ,, a : : - ; : ool y2ieeees
3rd ,, % : : : : : 21d B2eO
End . : Fi - : : . : 2 12 10e20
Edinburgh Royal Observatory (Bifilar Pendulum)—
Commencement . : : ; : : rage Bla Dey, 0
End . : : : ; : ; : LSD Rao
Kew (Declination Curve)—
Ist small crest . c - : : : - 11 27 O approx.
Pat ery eS . : : 5 : . 1th 29 One
nal Peers bus eat Lost ea edt Seo
Paris (Pare Saint Mawr)— Magnetic’ perturbations
observed by M. Moureaux—
ll 86 0O
It 42.0
11 4670
Magnetometers at Greenwich, Falmouth, and Stonyhurst were not
disturbed.
Strassburg (Horizontal pendulum used by Dr. G. Ger-
land)—
He a VB,
Commencement . . j 3 ; ; s HD (2enee9
Maximum . ; j . : F = ; ell 22a
Until . ; : 5 . 5 : : | 12 Waa 7,
End . 3 : 3 : r 3 : : ~ dl’ bSeeor
Rome . : - : ; « 12 2aao
Rocea di Papa ds. -metre pendulum). : ‘ : - is 26Re26
ions hs 4 Ae GES GD
Catania, S.4.N.W. ; 4 . : F % , > Lee:
ba N.E.-S.W. . 3 F - f ; ; » Al. 26> 58
Padua , F 5 " 5 5 7 * ‘ ~ 11 “305880
Tschia, B.W. : A F ‘ r “ b ») AUS Oma
oD BO? fi “N. 30° W. f ‘i : A : 2 LD Bias cee nee
. 30° W.-S. 30° E. ‘: , P : : 2 Lk Saas
1 See Nature, Oct. 15, 1896, p. 574.
==
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 161
The following table of distances from Hekla, in Iceland, to places
where movements were observed, together with the times at which the
latter commenced, shows that it is impossible to make any reliable calcu-
lations respecting the velocity with which motion was propagated. The
eauses of the discrepancies are probably to be found in the differences in
the form of the instruments employed, and the want of a sufficiently open
time scale on many of the record-receiving surfaces :—
Kms. We Me S,
Shide 5 : ! : i . 1,831 11 23 48
Strassburg . Sete 4 j .. 2,368 es oO
Padua , ‘ é F F s 211d 11 30 O
Rome. : : : 5 A . 38,182 Lia 2s "0
Ischia “ . F : 5 2 Sr S30n Ih 930 bs:
Catania - ; ‘ 2 ‘ ante’. HI MQ +4.
Earthquake No. 36 (N.E. Japan, Nambu).
For the phases of this earthquake as recorded at Carisbrooke Castle
and at Shide, see ‘ Report of the British Association,’ 1896, pp. 229, 230.
The photogram is reproduced in this Report, p. 142.
This shock created considerable destruction in the north-west part of
Nippon. It was recorded in Tokio as a slow horizontal movement with a
slightly vertical component, but the records from ordinary seismographs
were too small for accurate measurement. The time of its commencement
in Tokio was, in local time, 5h. 9m. 33s. p.m., or in G.M.T., 20h. 9m. 33s.
When this motion was recorded the disturbance would have advanced
4° on its path towards Europe.
The time taken for three of the various phases of motion to reach
Shide and the Isle of Wight, and the velocities of propagation, were as
follows :—
Velocity on Velocity on
— Are. Chord.
HH. M.S: Kms, per Sec. Kms. per Sec.
Phase 1. Tremors . : By ER: Sto 9°46
» 3 Heavy motion . : 47 33 3:15 2:68
» 5. The maximum. Aa eve SAGs 2:3 196
The following table is a comparison of the Carisbrooke Castle and
Strassburg records :—!
Carisbrcoke Strassburg Difference
Ham, & Il. M 8. M. gs.
Commencement of tremors . que 2m 20 17 50 5 16
a » Max. - - 20 57 6 20 29 56 27 10
End . c ; ; 3 » 2a 1629 23 38 2 21 42
Duration . ‘ A se eooe0) 3 20 12 26 52
Duration of preliminary tremors . 34 0 12 6 21 54
Because earthquake movement dies away gradually and fitfully, it is
not at all remarkable that there should be nearly 27 minutes difference in
the recorded duration of the disturbance as shown at Carisbrooke and
Strassburg. The differences between the two records which are noticeable
are in the times at which the preliminary tremors commenced and their
duration. Because Carisbrooke is not more than 360 kms. farther from
North Japan than Strassburg, it might be expected that the preliminary
tremors at the latter place would have been observed about half a minute
before they reached the Isle of Wight. A difference exceeding five
minutes either indicates that the Carisbrooke instrument is less sensitive
1 Nature, April 15, 1897, p. 558.
me L697. M
162 REPORT—1897.
than that at Strassburg, or else that between the Strassburg isoseist and
the Isle of Wight, motion was propagated at only a little over 1 km. per
second, which, it may be noted, is a rate of transmission often observed
over short ranges near to an epicentre. An inference to be derived from
this is, that for purposes of comparison it is desirable that all stations
should be furnished with instruments of equal sensibility.
If we accept the Strassburg record of the arrival of the first tremors as
correct, then the average velocity of propagation from Japan to that place
exceeded on the are 18 kms. per second, whereas the average of very many
other observations on the same path have yielded apparent velocities of
half this quantity.
The origin of this disturbance was along two almost north and south
lines in the middle of North Nippon. It may be taken as lying to the
north and south of a point in 140° 50’ E. long. and 39° 40’ N. lat.
The times at which the shock was automatically noted at various towns
were in local time as follows :—
H, M. Ss.
Miyako - 5 . : : . 5 8 55 P.M
Awomori . P A : A 3 gD ye oecle
Yamagata . : s : : : Aemctint athe (0)
Ishimaki ; 4 ; . : ~ 5S 8 SLO
Tokio . 3 H A 5 F J c Web 9) 3%
The distance between Tokio and Yamagata is about 150 g.m., and
Tokio and the origin 240 gm. Between the first two places the time
taken for the vibration to travel was 90 seconds, indicating a velocity of
about 10,000 feet per second. Assuming this to be correct, then the time
taken from the origin to Tokio would be 2m. 44s., from which it may be
concluded that the shock originated at 5h. 7m. 9s., or, in G.M.T., August 30,
20h. 7m. 9s.
The times at which the commencement of this disturbance was noted
in Europe were as follows :—
H. M. S
Shide . - : ° 20 23 6
Strassburg : 20 17 50
Ischia 5 : - : : , : : : 20 20 30
Rocea di Papa (2 maximum by a horizontal pendulum) 21 3 50
BS + » 7-metre Ms 20 55 O
” ( ” » 15, » ) 20 41 15
Rome . : . : ; : : : - 20 21 15
Catania, N.E.-S.W. 20 25 24
1 8.E.-N.W. 20 21 48
Nicolaiew : : 0 . 20 7 30
Time of origin in North Japan ZOE es
Omitting the observations at Rocca di Papa and Nicolaiew, the fol-
lowing velocities have been determined :—
Time of transit 3
Distance on are, in kms.
Distance on chord, in
kms.
Velocity on arc, in kms.
per sec.
Velocity on chord, in
kms. per sec.
Shide Strassburg Ischia Rome Catania
15m. 57s. | 10m. 41s. | 13m. 21s. | 14m. 6s. | 14m. 39s.
9,290 9,157 9,4€8 9,564 9,796
8,532 8,147 8,608 8,698 8,864
97 142 11°8 11:2 111
8-9 13:1 10:7 10:2 10:0
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 165
The previous calculation for Strassburg was from the Tokio isoseist,
but even the present result seems very high, whilst that for Shide is a
little low.
Earthquake No. 47 (September 21, 1896).
i EOE rag, GAH.
H. M. S
Shide . - S : : i ; i - 32° 40’ UT 2)
Fucecchio . : : ; 2 c c : — 16 51 50
Rome . ; f : ‘ F , : ; - 23° 18’ 16 53 25
Ischia . F ; ‘ ; : . 3 5 : 23°, 0! 16 53 58
Padua . . : - : 2 : 5 c 24° 0! 16 54 0
Rocca di Papa, E. ait ; P : 3 P j — 16 54 0
Catania, N.E.-S.W, . ¢ : ( : - ‘ 23° 0! 16 54 8
: S.E-N.W. . : ‘ ; ; 3 : — 16 54 16
Bama riee LisooT add) sryles mem oils eles ol Net GISER Ean 16 55 30
Nicolaiew . 5 3 . : : é - c _ 16 52 0
The origin may have been near Tiflis.
Earthquake No. 48 (September 23, 1896).
G.M.T.
H M. Ss.
Shide . : c : : : J 6 : : ge bi Lasso ts)
Caltagirone : = 3 : : - : : ep del 150) PaO)
Catania, N.E.-S.W. . ; F 3 E i : . 11 51 40
re N.W.-S.E. . ; : i é . j . 11 52 4
Ischia : : : : : ‘ F a : Lbs
Rome. A 5 4 : : i . : ‘ Loz ae
Rocca di Papa . : - : : : : 5 - 11 58 30
Pavia . : { ; : 3 f : 4 oP dele D4;
Nicolaiew . : 3 : f - : - : See b2) 0.
Earthquake No. 49 (September 24, 1896).
G.M.T
H. M. Ss.
Shide (only pare show: =U F : c : - 10 39 20
Ischia : P 3 . 5 F . 10 46 33
Rome . : ‘ : 2 j : : . 10 46 40
Catania, N. K. = Ne W. ; ‘ : a 3 3 ety LOLTZE 650,
a S.E.-N.W. . ; ‘ ‘ - E j . 10 46 47
Nicolaiew . : : : ; : A rs ; . 10 49 O
Earthquake No, 56 (October 31, 1896).
G.M.T
Observations at Shide, Isle of Wight— H M. 8.
Preliminary tremors commence . 3 " : eur TPadlst 2
” ” end . . . e . erly sal. .56
oe se duration . . 4 4 13 53
1. Large waves . . - . “ 5 “ . 17 31 55
2. Maximum é : : : : c : - 17 53 25
3. Maximum 5 : < “ * . «) 18> O36
End of disturbance aLout . = : : . i 20a iO
Duration, 3 or 4 hours.
Nicolaiew, commencement . 2 4 ; , cpelld Om
Ischia, H - 5 : C : Umm! Le es cots (7:
Potsdam, shock at ; : : “ : : Fie! Wf (iokap lea ahi
Origin probably Tashkent. —
164 REPORT—1897.
Earthquake No. 67 (November 5, 1896).
G.M.T
Shide Records: H.-S:
Preliminary tremors commence . : b : - 9 44 58
. duration . “ F 3 15 46
Maximum . 5 j : " A ‘4 5 J LOL Or Ly
Duration of disturbance about . a : : 5 Hoo
Nicolaiew, commencement : : ‘ é Fi SRS Bia)
S54 OUT
Ischia, ”
Earthquake No. 73 (Severn Valley).
Shide Records, December 16, 1896.
The earthquake which created so much alarm in the Severn Valley
at about 5.30 a.m. on December 17, when chimneys were shattered and
certain buildings more or less unroofed, was only barely perceptible in
the Isle of Wight. The booms of the seismographs at Shide were not
slowly tilted from side to side, as is the case when they record earthquakes
originating at a great distance, but merely set in a state of elastic vibra-
tion, behaving, in fact, like the pointers of seismographs intended to
record movements which we feel. The range of these elastic movements,
for the most part, were about lmm., and did not exceed 3 or 4mm. One
marked motion commenced at 17h. 30m. 55s., and lasted 5 minutes.
These tremors, which were intermittent and not continuous, as is
the case in an ordinary tremor storm, commenced about 11 p.m. on the 16th,
and ended at about 11 A.M. next morning. The duration of each group
was from 1 to about 6 minutes, and they were separated by intervals of
5 to 60 minutes. Twenty-two of the tremor groups shown by one instru-
ment apparently closely agree in time with 22 maxima shown by a second
instrument in another room.
Because there were certainly movements or phenomena observed
indicating movements of the ground before and after the chief shock,
the approximate times at which a few of the twenty-two groups of
tremors were noted are here given.
December 16: at about 11 hrs.; after 14 hrs.; at 15 hrs., two
groups; 16 to 18 hrs. an intermittent series, with a maximum about
17h. 30m. ; between 18 to 19 hrs., two groups; and the last at about
22 hrs.
Should it be found necessary, the exact time of each of these may be
computed from the original photograms.
Details connected with many observations contained in the first two
columns will be found in ‘Symons’s Meteorological Magazine,’ January
1897. These observations indicate that during the night of December 16 and
17 persons living in widely separated districts were from time to time dis-
turbed by what they considered to be a tremulous motion of the ground.
Because it was night time, in no instance that I am aware of can it be
assumed that accurate time observations were made ; and, therefore, a
few of them have been bracketed together, as possibly referring to the same
disturbance.
The Leicester and Hampshire observations, made between 9.30 a.m.
and noon, strangely enough, were the result of observing similar pheno-
mena, namely, the twitching of telegraph wires. In Leicester this was
seen by a number of persons, the wires vibrating vertically in an unusual
and extraordinary manner, there being no wind or other cause to which
the movement could be attributed.
ee eet
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
165
Tremors Observed before the Shock on December 16, at about 17h. 32m. 1896.
I.W. Seismo- T.W. Seismo-
Place Time graph Duration} graph Duration
T WwW
| H. M.
Rochdale . after 10 0
Brixton 1G (9)
Bangor 13 42 H. M. 8. M. 8. H. M. S. M. S.
14 3 52 418 14 4 31 2 47
Near Worcester 14 10 14 12 28 2 52 14 J1 29 2 47
Maidenhead 14 55 14 36 38 7 10 14 39 11 4 5
Worcester ay 0)
Salop 15 15
Worcester 15 35
- : 15 50 15 53 57 4 5 15 50 34 5 45
Wolverhampton 16 0
Droitwich 16 rae
Rs 16 20 16 25 18 2 44 16 24 3 1 23
Cardiff. 16 30f
Hereford . 16 50 16 42 2 14. 0 16 43 45 max
Salop Z - 17 0
Alderley Edge 1d pl
Hereford . 17 20 1710 2 1 24 17 11 29 | max.
og ie 17 30
Tremors Observed after the Shock on December 16, at 17h. 32m. 1896.
I.W. Seismo- LW. Srismo-
Place Time graph Duration graph Duration
T Ww
H. M. H.M. S M. 8. H. M. 8. M. 8.
Dulwich . : 17 50 17 54 33 5 45 17 60 5 6 49
| Southampton . 7 57 18 8 30 13 57 Re som 4 5
Leicester . 21 30 21 21 3 2 47 21 24 11 5 27
“4 23 0 22 42 22 252 | 22 36 27
(about)
Hampshire . jafter 24 0 23 49 2 | 22 22 :
At the time the tremors were recorded Seismograph T was moving
under the influence of convection or other air currents. From time to
time, however, it showed maxima of rapid motion, which indicates the
existence of an influence superimposed upon the slow swing. The times
of the commencement of these maxima are therefore not closely defined.
Notwithstanding this want of definition, it is worthy of note that eleven
of these records closely agree with the commencement of ten groups of
tremor records obtained from Seismograph W in another room, and the
times at which persons in various parts of England believed that they
had been disturbed by slight earthquakes, or had seen evidences of earth
movement. P
During the night there were altogether thirteen tremors at which the
seismographs moved simultaneously ; but it must be noted that there were
166 REPORT—1897.
a number of extremely small movements recorded by the two seismo-
graphs which did not agree as to their times of occurrence.
Should further comparisons of the records lead to agreements similar
to those here indicated, the conclusion will be that England is much more
frequently shaken by very small earthquakes than is generally supposed.
Earthquake No. 83 (February 6, 1897).
G.M.T.
Shide Records: H. M. 8.
Preliminary tremors commence . - 2 E F « 19159 3
2ndmax. . : : 5 : - 20 5 43
3rd_,, 7 : 6 : : - 20 9 43
4th ,, P : 7 5 5 - 2015 3
Ist large waves commence . g 4 : : i - 20 15 43
Sie > end : # t : 5 2 . 20 22 23
2nd 5 7 commence: .° st ; : “ 5 . 20 23 43
ay » end z ; - 5 4 ; . 20 31 438
1st concluding vibrations . : : 3 . 7 . 20 33 3
2nd, FA : : : : : : . 20 35 43
3rd m8 a - . : . : : . 2045 38
4th = Pe é : : ‘ : : . 20 54 23
Duration of preliminary tremors . : F : : ; 26 40
P disturbance, about . ; 5 , 3 oa
Strasshurg Records. (Dr. G. GERLAND with Dr. EHLERT’s Pendulums.)
— Begin End After Shocks end
H. M. S. H. M. S. H. M. §.
Ist Pendulum E. & W. 19 49 50 20 46 19 21 41 39
2nd Pendulum N.W. & S8.E. 19 45 25 20 40 20 21 54 0
3rd Pendulum §.W. & N.E. 19 45 25 _— 3 30 0
On the third pendulum there were three maxima of tremors.
Duration of preliminary tremors, 38m. 27s.
Potsdam. Dr. ESCHENHAGEN.
From a photographic reproduction of Dr. Eschenhagen’s diagrams the
following times are obtained :—
G.M.T,
H. M. 8.
Commencement of preliminary tremors : : : . 19 50 30
Duration of a4 a 3 : 4 3 29 16
Nicolaicw : - : 2 : . - 3 - - 29 S20
Tschia . - ° . . A . : s ° - 1955 O
'
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 167
Earthquake of February 19,1897. Origin, Japan (8h. 49m. Os. G.M.T.).
This earthquake was not recorded at Shide, the clock of the recording
apparatus having stopped. It was recorded at other stations as follows :—
HM. Ss.
Edinburgh . - : . . 9 30 O (maximum)
Nicolaiew . é : wee8 102), 0
Ischia . 8 55 30
Potsdam a i ae
The following are the times (J.M.T.) at which the shock was noted in
Japan :—
Miyako.—5h. 49m., strong and sudden, clocks stopped.
Yamagata.—5h. 49m. 10s., strong and sudden, clocks stopped.
Akita.—5h. 49m. 30s., strong and sudden, clock stopped.
Ishinomaki.—bdh. 49m. 30s., strong and sudden, clock stopped.
Niigata.—dh. 46m. 36s., strong, clocks stopped.
Fukushima.—b5h., 49m. 48s., strong, clocks stopped.
Utsunomiya.—dh. 50m. Os., strong, houses shaken.
Mayibashi.—bhh. 47m. 56s., strong, clocks stopped.
Tokio.— bh. 49m. 37s., strong and slow, clocks stopped.
Mito.—bh. 50m., strong and slow, clocks stopped.
Kofu.—hh. 50m., strong and slow, clocks stopped.
Choshi.—5dh. 51m. 24s., strong and long.
Nagoya.—5h. 52m. 36s., strong, clocks stopped.
Nagano.—b5h. 50m. 5s., weak and slow.
E’gaya.—dh. 48m., weak and slow.
Awomori.—h. 50m., weak and sudden, clocks stopped.
Hakodate.—5h. 59m. 48s., weak and sudden, stopped.
Uwajima.—5dh. 52m. 45s., weak and slow.
Yokosuka.—5h. 49m. 57s., weak and long.
Yokohama.—dh. 51m. 20s., weak, clocks stopped.
Hamamatsu.—oh. Tm., weak.
Hikone.—dh. 50m. 27s., weak and long.
Gifu.—5dh. 57m. 10s., weak.
Kioto.—bh. 51m. 4s., weak, with rumbling.
Fushiki.—h. 50m. 45s., slight and slow.
Nemuro.—dh. 40m. 45s., slight and long.
Kushiro.—bh. 50m., 50s., slight, with rumbling noises.
The greatest disturbance appears to have taken place at Sendai and
in N.E. Nippon, from which it is not unlikely that the origin of the
shock was near to that of June 15, 1896 (see Shock No. 1). This being
the case, the rate of travel on paths 9,749, 8,760, and 8,241 kms. to Ischia,
Potsdam, and Nicolaiew would respectively be 24, 9°7, and 45 kms. per
second! The first and last of these computations we hope to be in a
position to correct in some future report.
Examples of earthquakes which have sensibly shaken the whole of
North Japan can be found the effects of which do not appear to have
reached Europe.
168
REPORT—1897.
Earth Movements recorded by a Bifilar Pendulum at the Royal Observatory,
No.
or Whe
Shide
No.
ist)
or
87
88
Date
Aug. 25
” ”
ee
3° ”
” ”
” ”
Sept. 20
” 21
9 23
Oct. 6
Novy. 2
” 4
” 5
” 26
Dec. 4
Feb. 6
” ”
” 7
SC:
ae
Mar. 18
Edinburgh.
Ae Remarks.
H. M.
4 45 | Slight tilt to North.
5 40 a 5. South,
21 10] | Four slight bends in curve, North and South
210) alternately.
11 15) | Gap in curve. No photographic effect pro-
11 50} duced from 11h. 15m. to 11h. 30m. ; broadened
)| and badly defined line 11h, 30m. to 11h. 50m.
18 35 | Tilt.to North.
Sent! Gap very similar to the one at 11h. 15m
23 20 J ihe h ; :
1 50
3 30'| Four bends in curve, South and North alter-
5 0 nately.
6 20
17 5 | Trace of diffusion in the curve line. Line
slightly bent at several points during the
day.
11 57'\| Line distinctly diffused for 20 minut
1217 ine distinctly diffused for 20 minutes.
20 10 | Bend to North.
20 30 | Normal direction resumed.
22 46 Bend to South.
6 48 | Tilt to North.
22 35 || Line very irre ular, sinuous,
10 15 nits
— | Several very slight irregularities during the
day. None well marked.
8 16 | Small tilt to South.
19 33 Large tilt to North, about 2’5.
20 25) | Line diffused, with well-marked widening to
20 40} | South.
5 35 | Large tilt to North.
13 20 ” ’ ’
8 12 | Strong :
15 17 2 ” ”
9 30) | Gap in photographic trace. (At 9h. 30m gap
9 48 begins abruptly. At 9h. 48m. line is nearly
10 2 normal for a few minutes. Slight diffusion
and widening lasts up to 10h. 2m.)
12 82) | Gapin photographic line. (At 12h.32m. lineshows.
12 47 slight trace of diffusion and widening. 12h.
12 52 47m. to 12h. 52m. line is nearly normal, when
13.17 the gap begins, and ends sharply at 13h. 17m.)
2 54 | Small tilt to North.
eee
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
Records received from Professor Kortazzi, Nicolaien.
was von Rebeur’s Horizontal Pendulum.
169
The Instrument employed
Time, G.M.T.
a Time
m6
Ea
No. 8. 2| Date Remarks.
E Sy gee Gal Maximum Ecd
o
1896 H. M. S H. M. § H. M. 8.
1] 1 | June 14 — 22 0 0 — Record spoiled, Japan.
2 8 Mey 201 Sete 20 — 9 22 0 | Cyprus.
3 { 9 36 30 — — Small. Cyprus.
4 | 35 | Aug.26| 1122 0]| 11 37 O | 12 22 0| Max. amp.1(mm_ Also
sharp at 11h. 2!)m. 30s.
Iceland.
5136! , 30|20 730] 2033 O | 23 7 O| Also sharp at 20h. 17m.
; Os. and 21h. 7m. Os.
Japan.
6 | 39 |Sept. 12} 1712 0| 17 32 O | 18 12 O |, Max. 15mm.
7147| , 21/1652 0; 1659 O | 1732 0} Max. 35mm. _ LEarth-
quake in Tiflis.
8 | 48 ae 2allwliico2: 0 11 57 O 13 52 O | Sharp at 11h. 57m. 30s.
9 | 49 » 24/1049 9g 11 35 O 1210 O| Max. 75mm. Sharp at
11h. 6m. Os.
10 | 56 | Oct. 31/17 530] 1719 0 | 19 O Oj} Max. 52mm. Sharp at
17h. 10m. 0s. Djarkent
and Przewalsk.
11 | 57 | Nov. 2} 351 O 3 59 0 412 0| Max. 45mm,
12 | 67 > 5| 9 39 30 956 0 11 22 0 | Max. 18mm. Sharp at
9h. 44m, 30s. and 9h.
52m. Os.
1897
13 | 74 |Jan. 8| 22 24 0] 2252 0 | 24 38 O| Max. 8mm. Sharp at
‘22h. 48m. Os.
14 | 83 | Feb. 6| 1957 0| 2016 O | 21 22 0O| Max. 30mm. Sharp at
20h. 2m. Os.
15|85| , 12)14 6 O| 1418 O | 15 22 0] Max. 10mm. Sharp at
14h. 16m. Os.
[ os. 0
16/88} , 19} 852 0/,1016 0%) 15 2 O/| Separated maxima.
[12 95 0
17 | 89 | Mar. 1| 14 32 0 14 48 0 15 13 0 | Max. 4mm.
18 | 93 > LojAlskat 0 19 22 0 | 2012 Oj] Max. 19mm. Sharp at |
19h. 9m. Os. and 19h.
17m. Os.
170 REPORT—1897.
Records received from Dr. Giulio Grablovitz, Director R. Osservatorio Geodinamico
di Casamicciola, Ischia.
The movements were recorded on smoked paper by means of two horizontal
pendulums.
2 4
ic Time, G.M.T.
aA
No. ag Date Remarks.
I a poe ce-| Maximum End
ie)
1896 H. M. 8S. H. M, 8S Hy ots:
23 33 46
1| 1 | June 14) 22 49 50 |. oO. 36 49 0 30 0 | Large.
2|—| ,, 15| 17 38 47 = =
3:] = 41 23° +42 28 38 a =
8 56 3
4| 8| , 29| 8 48 20 { s59 25s; 917 0 Moderate.
5 | 35 | Aug. 26| 11 30 54 { ie oF 12 0 0| Iceland. Large.
= » » | 22 55 3 — = * Moderate.
21 7 0)
7] 36) ,, 30] 20 20 80 |) 5,43 gy| 22 22 0
8 | — | Sept. 5| i2 2 45 — — Iceland.
9}—| ,, 11] 20 30 35 S ie
10} — » 17] 2 53 40 — a Calabria.
11| 47] ,, 21) 1663 58] 1659 0 |17 20 0| Weak.
127 48'| 88) di ‘gee | {12 68 3} 12°43°90 |. 4,
13|}—| ,, 24] 10 46 33 = ‘S
49 :
anomie. wnt) tens) 0.| 13. 9520.| Tneertain eee is
50 strong wind.
15 | — | Oct. 29 | 23 56 35 = &
sl7 31 0
16 | 56 <) eols| Lite <8 6 117 34 0 18 32 0 | Moderate.
17 | 67 | Nov. 5| 95417 /£10 2 OL) 10 38
.10 3 OF ”
13|—]| , 9| 2232 8 2 S
1897
19 | — |} Jan,10| 9 8 O — — Gulf of Persia.
20 28 0
20 | 83 | Feb. 6| 19 55 0 ie “ of 21 0 0 | Moderate.
O41 6. ad ee oe s Calabria.
22|-—| ,, 19| 85530] 945 0 | 10 20 0| Moderate.
239/88: sq ee) ABkIG |) a3 18' 0. |-14 30 0
Eleven records refer to the same disturbances noted at Shide.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 171
The following observations have been received from Professor Dr.
Eschenhagen, Kénigliches Meteorologisch-Magnetisches Observatorium,
Potsdam :—
Records of Magnetographs.
Correspond-
No. pe Shits Date Time, G.M.T. Remarks.
NO.
1896 H. M. 8S.
1 35 Aug. 26 | 11 29 15 | Strong on all three magnetographs at
11h. 34m. 45s.
2 — eb, BE 11 257 | Weak, but strong at 11h. 7m. 45s.
3 36 ehh — Earthquake, but instrument was also
artificially disturbed.
4 — Sept. 5 | 1211 45 | From Iceland.
5 3 Pm al: = Earthquake, but instrument was also
artificially disturbed.
6 41 ” 14 awe ” ” ” ”
7 47 » 21] 17 6 27 | Weak. Strong at 1m. 42s, later. Ends
at 17h. 17m. 45s.
8 48 eae: 12 3 45 | Weak for4m. Also at 12h. 8m. 57s. to
12h. 13m. 27s.
9 56 Oct. 31 i215 16 Shock, but chief shock at 17h. 27m.
1897
10 83 Feb. 6} 20 31 57 | Duration, 4m. Lloyd’s balance.
ll 88? Pome) 9 41 33 < <
= — 9 43 59 as “9
pe —_ — 9 48 33 ” ”
Observations with a Conical Pendulum carrying a small Mirror on a Glass Boom
20 em. in length, and held horizontally by a Quartz Fibre. Period, about 1ds.
The apparatus is similar to that used for several years in Japan.'
emer yous | rasta, yy VAbbEomtate Tame, Remarks.
1897 H. M. S.
uf — Jan. 3 11 7 52 Duration, 2h.
2 — = wo 9 6 39 + 1h.
3 — Aes be 9 631 x lh.
4 78 » , LG 10 36 29 7
5 aS Fe ry) 14 37 37
6 83 Feb. 6 20 5 8 3 2h.
7 84 rr} 7 12 511
8 85 acud2 15 5 23 a Lh.
9 = vam 1a: 3.35 25
10 = F 15 10. 5 25 lh.
11 = 7 (CS 9 14 31 * 2h.
12 88 — 12 5 381 in 2h.
13 — 4, »/20 15 50 36
14 — eu egee 23 35 50 |
15 = Mar. 2 9 610 re 2h.
16 = 5 4 12 4 38 + lh.
17 — eG 19 5 40
The lists, it will be observed, are only comparable from January, 1897,
after which there are two magnetograph disturbances, corresponding to
two movements of the horizontal pendulum. The comparison between
these shows considerable differences in time, and indicates the necessity
1 See Report of British Association, 1892.
172 REPORT—1897.
of obtaining records from similar instruments, each recording on a surface
moving with sufficient rapidity to give an open time scale. It is satis-
factory to note that twelve of the disturbances were common to North
Germany and the Isle of Wight.
The following are more exact determinations of the commencement
of disturbances, determined from photograms :—
uw. M. s. G.M.T.
No. 4 (Shide 78), Jan.16 . ‘i - 10 2 6
ABC Gs BB gee 6 4, 2. aoe
iy | Sistas | ae Ree aioe to)
ZAGR AW EBB) a se eelO 5 - 3220 9
Observations at Rocca di Papa. Dy. A. CANCANI. (These observations reached
Shide too late to be used in computations of velocity, &c.)
No. ee Date sae Maximum Remarks
1896 H. M. §. H. M. 8.
1 1 June 14) 22 56 0} 23 23 15 | Period 18 seconds.
2 8 yy: 29 |-,8 48 27 8 52 30 | Also at 8h. 59m.
3 35 Aug. 26| 11 26 40 11 35 O| End at 11h. 46m.
4 36 » 930] 20 21 0 21 3 O| End at 22h. 16m.; the long
waves commenced at 20k.
41m.
5 — Sept.5|12 6 0 1215 O
6 — » 11) 20 38:20 20 56 O | End about 22h.
if AT el ae Or 0 = Duration 37m.
(about)
8 48 5 zeal) bb 0 12 3 O|} End about 12h. 20m.
9 56 Oct. 31/17 0 0 17 31 O | End about 18h.
10 67 Nov. 5} 9 59 O 10 1 30] Duration 1h.
11 83 Feb. 6} 20 24 0 20 27 19
9 37 20
9 39 30
2 — rye DUMP Stee eo) 9 41 20
9 45 10
947 0
. 13° 8 O
‘ 5 13 14 0
13 88 Ah 9 | ua te? 10 13.19 0
13 26 0
VI. The Highest Apparent Velocities at which Earth-waves are Propagated.
By Joun Mine, FAS, LGA.
The following table of the highest apparent velocities with which
earthquake motion is propagated over paths of varying length has been
drawn up for the purpose of indicating the general character of the
information we at present possess bearing upon this subject.
The sources from which information has been derived are various, the
more important being as follows :—
‘ Horizontalpendel-Beobachtungen,’ by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz
(‘Beitrage zur Geophysik,’ Band II.). These include observations made at.
Strassburg, Potsdam, Wilhelmshaven, Nicolaiew, Charkof, by the present
writer in Japan, by observers in Italy and other places. ‘ Bollettino
della Societa Sismologica Italiana,’ vols. i. and ii. The catalogues, edited
by Professor P. Tacchini, contained in the volumes give prominence to the
observations made at Italian stations, whilst observations made in Europe
and Japan have not been neglected. . ‘ Transactions of the Seismological
—_
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 173
Society,’ vols. i—xx. Seventeen Reports on Seismic Phenomena drawn up
by the writer for the British Association, 1881-1896.
With the exception of groups of obsérvations made within a few
hundreds of kilometres of an epifocal area, all records which refer to
maxima phases of motion, as, for example, those which apparently disturb
magnetographs, have been neglected, and therefore, taken as a whole, the
velocities given in the following list are based upon the times at which
preliminary tremors have commenced to show themselves at various
stations.
Apparent Velocity of Harthquake Motion along Paths of Varying Length.
oe ; Dis- : Dis- Veloeity
. = ace o . |tance on| in Kms.
Epicentre Date Observation aoe Arc in | per Sec. ta:
egrees! Kms. | on Arc
j—
1.5.A., Santiago . ' Oct. 27, 1894 Tokio 156 17,400 | 17:0 Mean of ob-
servations
at three
stations in
Tokio.
2 Oy a * i Charkof 119 13,230 | 12'13
3. Mexico a C é Nov. 2, 1894 Nicolaiew 102 11,300 | 10:0
| 4.8. A., Santiago . : Oct, 27, 1894 Rome 100 11,200 | 10°85
5. Merida Venezuela . Apr. 28, 1894 Charkof 94'8 10,550 91 Mean of ob-
servations
- at Charkof
and Nico-
laiew.
6. Japan, Sakata . fe Oct. 31, 1896 Catania 8815 | 9,796 | 111
itaa'ss N.E. Coast . June 15, 1895 Ischia 87'°8 9,749 87
Be) bias Sakata . . Oct. 31, 1896 Rome 86°10 9,564 | 112
Dit) aLOKIO) ©; -| Oct. 18, 1892 Strassburg 86°6 9,520 5°87
10:1 tes B . «| Nov. 4, 1892 a a 3 81
SS Pigs Nemuro . : Mar. 22, 1893 Rome 86-0 9,500 99
ee iy Sakata . Fi Oct. 31, 1896 Ischia 853 9,469 11:8
il yee) | Nemuro: ; . | Mar. 22, 1894 S. Russia 85'3 9,477 87
14s 5, N.E. Coast 0 June 15, 1895 Padua 84:4 9,320 97
etsy Sakata . a Oct. 31, 1896 Tsle of Wight 83°7 9,290 97
16. California . 7 2 Apr. 19, 1892 Strassburg 82:7 9,180 3°93
17. Japan, Sakata . Oct. 31, 1896 * 825 9,157 | 14:2
RST E55 Tokio . Apr. 17, 1889 Wilhelmshaven 81:7 9,070 68
ae on C1 . ” Potsdam 80°6 8,950 113
20. Philippines Mar. 16, 1892 Nicolaiew 789 8,758 6:08
21. cs Luzon a a 4 rf 5°41
22. Japan, Tokio May 11, 1892 % 71:2 7,910 9°55
354 5 . «| Oct. 18, 1892 # = — 3:23
Ba Tes an . .| Nov. 4, 1892 x, = = 6:28
25.) oy a - . | Mar. 23, 1893 = _— _— 3°72
put ed i . .| Jan. 18, 1895 st = = 6:3
2i22e Nemuro « . | Mar. 21, 1894 Mid Italy 707 | * 7,857 8:2
ae ee LOKIO! ~* . Oct. 7, 1894 Charkof 70°4 7,814 | 13:0
29. Quetta c 4 . | Dec. 20, 1892 Strassburg 45°7 5,290 5°65
BOs Pay n Q C. < Feb. 13, 1893 Ps ” ” 3°08
31. Central Asia, Wjernoje | July 11, 1889 Wilhelmshaven, 43°3 4,806 5:00
Potsdam
32. Quetta ; : ‘ Dec. 20, 1892 _— 34°6 3,840 3°86
83. Asia Minor, Amed .| Apr. 16, 1896 Strassburg 18-0 1,990 3°50
34. Patras. é : a Aug. 25, 1889 Potsdam 15°4 1,732 2°59
35. Charleston . 5 . | Aug. 31, 1886 — 15:0 1,678 518
36. Thebes 5 ; .| May 23, 1893 Strassburg 148 1,650 2°4
37. Asia Minor, Amed .| Apr. 16, 1896 Padua 140 1,580 94
38. Bucharest . ; , Oct. 14, 1892 Strassburg 13°0 1,450 2°35
39. Valoria, Epirus . «| June 13, 1893 3 121 1,350 30
40, cq C5 7 ' oy Nicolaiew 114 1,270 31
4i. Thebes E c b May 23, 1893 =f 10:3 1,150 2-0
42, Naples. 5 ; ‘ Jan. 25, 1893 Strassburg 90 1,000 3°62
43. Mount Gargano, Italy | Aug. 10,1893 = os Ay 3°62
44, Japan, Nemuro . -| Mar. 22, 1893 Tokio 87 965 2°6 Average
max. for
group of
4 shocks.
45. ,, Noto A F, Dec. 9, 1891 5 2°4 272 | 23 Average for
a group.
Bie 3 Gifu 5 , Oct. 28, 1891 ‘ 22 241 2°4 Max. for a
| group of 18
shocks,
p
174 REPORT—1897.
A glance at the above table, or the diagrammatic representation of the
same (fig. 15), shows that either there have been great differences in the
velocities with which movements have been propagated to points equally
distant from given origins, which is unlikely, or that there have been
larger errors in the determination of the time at which motion commenced
at different stations.
Possible causes for these errors are easily found.
Fre. 15.—Velocities of Earth-waves round or through the Earth.
Velocity in Km. per sec,
0 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 0°
Degrees, 19=111 Km.
1. Different instruments ; some being horizontal pendulums recording
photographically, others being pendulums varying in length and in the
frictional resistance of pointers recording on smoked surfaces, may have
unequal degrees of sensibility.
2, Similar instruments may be differently adjusted.
3. When a record is received on a surface moving at a rate of about
20mm. per hour, the error in determining the time at which a disturbance
commenced may be 1 minute.
4, A local shock may be mistaken for one arriving from a distance.
FEE Ss:
Se le a
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 175
Examination of Cases where the Velocity has been Abnormally High.
Shock No. 1.—This was recorded at three stations in Japan by hori-
zontal pendulums recording on photographic surfaces. From the fact that
ordinary seismographs did not record an earthquake on that day, and
because each photogram began with gentle tremors, it is safe to assume
that they represented an earthquake originating at a great distance.
Unfortunately, the note-books containing the clock corrections were burned,
but taking the time determinations direct from the photograms, they lead
to the conclusion that motion was propagated to Japan from a place
almost at its antipodes at a rate varying between 16 and 19 kms. per
second.
The greatest merit in this record is that it falls in line with what we
should expect from records taken over shorter ranges.
Shock 17.—Like other Strassburg records, this was obtained on paper
moving at a rate of about 1 mm. in three minutes. Independently of this,
however, we see that for the same shock at four other observatories
velocities of 9°7, 11-1, 11-2, and 11°8 kms. per second have been calculated
(Nos. 15, 6, 8, and 12), and it is therefore highly probable that the
determination for Strassburg of 14:2 kms. is too high.
Shock 28.—We have here another case of a record from a surface
moving at a rate of 1 mm. in about three minutes, whilst the epicentre
may have been distant from Tokio.
Shock 37.—Because a delicate seismograph at Catania was disturbed
2 minutes 40 seconds before the one at Padua suggests the idea that.
these Italian records possibly refer to a local disturbance, and not to the
one in Asia Minor. This point has been discussed by Professor M. G.
Agamennone (see ‘ Bollet. A. Soc. Sis. Italiana,’ vol. ii., No. 8).
Shock 35.—This estimate is based upon a most careful and elaborate
analysis of records, none of which, however, were obtained from the
automatic indications of seismographs.
Abnormally Low Velocities.
Shocks 9 and 23.—We have here two observations for the same shock,
and we find that the photograms obtained at Strassburg and Nicolaiew
were ‘schwach und wenig scharf,’ and for the former there was an
‘unbestimmter anfang,’ from which it may be concluded that the com-
mencement of movement at these places was not determined.
Shock 21.—-From the Nicolaiew record it appears that the commence-
ment of this disturbance is thus noted : ‘5:02 h. (7) Anfang der Storung.’
The uncertainty here expressed possibly explains the low velocity
recorded. :
Shock 16.—Here again there appears to have been difficulty in
determining the commencement of movement, owing to the undefined
character of the photogram.
Shock 25.—This was observed not only at Nicolaiew, but also at
Strassburg, the velocities being 3-72 and 4:2 kms. per second respectively.
Although von Rebeur in his ‘ Horizontalpendel-Beobachtungen,’ p. 492,
tells us that these velocities are based upon the observation of the time at
which the first weak movement is visible, from a table on p. 443 they
appear to have been determined from the observation of the instant at
which there was a sudden increase in motion, and are used with other
176 REPORT—1897.
observations to determine the mean velocity of propagation, which is that
of the greatest movements.
Shock 3.—Movement in Europe was extremely small, and no record -
was obtained at Nicolaiew. Possibly the smallness of the diagram, which
began ‘little by little,’ may have rendered it difficult to make accurate
measurements on the time scale.
The general result of the examination of data which have led to the
determination of velocities which appear to be either too high or too
low, is to find that such data are either imperfect or capable of another
interpretation.
The doubtful cases are placed in circles, and to these, based upon a
long experience in observing earthquake velocities over ranges up to about
1,000 kms., I should be inclined to add Nos. 33, 39, 40, 43, and 42.
Tf, therefore, we exclude the computations the accuracy of which is doubt-
ful, the general results towards which the continuation of the observations on
the propagation of earth-waves over ranges of varying length point is
approximately indicated in the following table :—
|
| \|
Distance fiom Origin | | Apparent Velocity in Kms. per Sec,
In Degrees | In Kms. | Oo Arc Ono Chord
10 | 2,200 2 to 3 2 to 3
50 | 5,500 | 5 5
80 | 8,800 8 75
100 11,100 | | 10 8:8
| 120 13,200 : 12 2 10222
| 160 | 17,700 | 16? 105?
VII. Diurnal Waves. By Joun Mitne, F.R.S., F.GLS.
Observations made on the Tennis Ground at Shide Hill House. Installation V.
On September 5, 1896, the horizontal pendulum which had been in
use at Carisbrooke Castle was brought to Shide, where it was installed on
a slate slab resting on an upended earthenware drain-pipe, sunk some
inches in the ground, covered by a jointer’s tent standing in the middle of a
tennis ground. The chief object of this installation was to study the diurnal
wave, as shown by the movements of a pendulum so placed that for ten or
twenty yards, at least, on all sides of it the surface conditions were fairly
similar. The tennis ground is in the middle of a small paddock which
slopes towards the west. On the eastern side, at a distance of forty
yards, is the building in which instrument T was installed, beyond which
the ground quickly rises to Pan Down. The sun, rising on this side, reached
the tent over the top of some high trees at about 9 A.m., throwing the
shadow of the tent towards the N.W. At about 4 p.m. this shadow, after
travelling through N. to the N.E. was lost, as the sun sank behind Mount
Joy on the west.
The bromide film was run at a rate of about 34 inches in twenty-four
hours, which was sufficiently rapid to give an easily measurable diagram of
the daily movement of the pendulum, the boom of which pointed from its
pedestal towards the south.
On September 13 a heavy tarpaulin (30 x 30 ft.) was spread over the
grass, immediately up to the tent on its west side. On October 13 this
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. rey
was moved to the east side, the object being to see whether such a cover-
ing had any effect on the character of the diurnal wave.
The Observations (1896).
lst week (Sept. 8--14).—From the 8th to the 14th daily waves were
marked, but there was such a marked steady displacement towards the
valley on the west that adjustments were required almost daily.
On the 8th and 14th it was fairly fine, but on all the other days there
was much rain and the weather was dull. The westerly motion, or down-
ward tilting towards the saturated valley, was also marked in the records
op: T.
2nd week (Sept. 14-21).—Because the westerly motion had been so
great the sensibility of the instrument was reduced, with the result that
the daily wave was hardly visible. There was still, however, a westerly
tendency. The weather was dull or fine, but there was no heavy rain.
3rd week (Sept. 21-27) :—
Sept. 21. 15-24 hours slight tremors. Fine. S. wind.
22. 18-20 hours slight tremors. Fine. Strong 8.W. wind.
» 23. Steady. Fine. Strong 8.W. wind.
» 24. 12-19 hours slight tremors. Fine. W. wind. Rain at night.
» 25. Steady. Strong wind, rain.
» 26. Steady. Rain, but calm.
» 27. Steady. Stormy. 8.W. wind.
On the 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th there were slight daily waves, but
after adjustment on the 25th the movement was barely visible.
It may be inferred that with cloudy weather the daily wave has been
small. The shock shown by T on the 21st is not shown.
Ath week (Sept. 28-Oct. 2) :—
Sept. 28. East motion completed 4 P.M. Fine. W. wind.
», 29. East motion completed 4.45 P.M. Rain. S. wind.
,, 30. East motion completed 2°30 to 3.30 P.M. Fine. N. wind.
Oct. 1. East motion completed 330 p.m. Fine. W. wind.
For six hours before the above times the motion was easterly, and for
six hours after it was westerly. In no instance were the waves large. :
Two slight disturbances, were noted, but these do not agree in time
with displacements observed on T.
dth week (Oct. 2-9) :—
Oct. 2. East motion completed 5 P.M. West motion completed at 10.50 P.M.
On all other days no movement. This was discovered as being due to
a spider, which was caught on Oct. 10.
6th week (Oct. 9-15) :—
Oct. 9. East motion completed 3.15 P.M., and west at 9P.M. Amp .9mm.
Fine. W. wind.
» 10. East motion completed 4 P.M. Amp. 3mm. Fine. 8. breeze.
» ll. Norecord. Dull. N. wind.
» 12. East motion completed 6 P.M., and west at 18hrs. Amp. 3mm.
N. breeze. Dull.
+ 13. Record bad. A large tarpaulin placed on ground on west side of
tent. Fine. N. wind.
» 14, East motion completed about noon. Wave small. Fine. N.E.
wind.
» 15. East motion completed 3 P.M., and west at 6.50 P.M. Amp. 6mm.
Little rain. Dull. S. wind.
: N
178 REPORT—1897.
We have here a case (on Oct. 15), where there has been a fairly large
wave on a dull day, and a small one (Oct. 10) on a fine day.
Very small tremors were seen on the following days :—
Oct. 9. 5 to 9 hours.
Pe eto 4 ©,
» 1b. 4to7 ,, and again 11 to 22 hours.
Three displacements were recorded which do not agree in time to
those noted by T.
7th week (Oct. 16-22) :—
Oct. 16. Very slight wave. Dull. Strong N. wind.
» 17. East motion completed 2h., and west at 6 P.M. Amp. 6mm.
Fine. N. wind.
18. East motion completed 3h., and west at 10 P.M. Amp. 14mm.
Fine. N.W. wind.
» 19 t020, Practically straight; possibly held fast.
”
The diurnal waves were marked on fine days.
Slight tremors were only observed on the 16th, 0 to 14 hours. There
was one strong deflection on the 16th, which is not shown on T.
8th week (Oct. 23-30) :—
Oct. 23. East motion completed 2h. 30m., and west about 8 P.M. Amp,
llmm. Fine. N. wind.
, 24, East motion completed lh., and west about 12 P.M. Flat. Rain.
S.W. wind.
» 25. East motion completed 3h. 30m. Fine. N. wind.
» 26. No record.
» 27, East motion completed 2h. 30m., and west about 8 P.M. Amp.
14mm. Fine. W. wind.
» 28. East motion completed 4h., and west about 9 P.M. Amp. 10mm.
Fine. W. wind.
» 29. Hast motion completed 3h., and west about 7 P.M. Amp. 10mm.
Fog. Calm.
It is difficult to say when the west motion is completed. The sharp
motion eastwards is from about 8 A.M. to 3 P.M., and westwards 3 P.M. to
8 p.m. Decided waves have been with fine weather, when cloudy and
wet, waves have been absent.
Slight tremors were observed as follows :—
Oct. 23. . 3to 7 hours and 18 to 21 hours.
» 24 llto21 ,,
Ae 20s Oo wODe a,
FORT WB 46 <BiOTR
28 cto 8...
SOS amo COMES ar.
Tremors, therefore, occurred at night, and whilst there was a rapid
westerly displacement. Moderately marked displacements took place on
the 23rd to 24th, which are not shown by T.
9th week (Oct. 30—Nov. 6.) :—
Oct. 30. No record. Moved tarpaulin to the east side of tent.
» 31. East motion 10 A.M. to 2.30 P.M., west motion 2.30 P.M. to 6.30 P.M.
Amp.8mm. Fine. N. wind.
Noy. 1. East motion 3 A.M. to 3.0 P.M., west motion 3 to 8 P.M. Wave
small. Dull, N.E. wind.
2. No record.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 179
Nov. 3. East motion 5 A.M. to 2.30 P.M., west motion 2.30 P.M. to 6 P.M.
Amp.4mm. Dull. N. wind.
4. East motion 10 A.M, to 3 P.M., west motion 3 P.M. to 7.30 P.M.
Amp.8mm. Fine. N. wind.
» 5. Hast motion 8.30 A.M. to 3 P.M., west motion 3 P.M. to midnight.
Amp.10mm. Fine. E. wind.
v
The greatest movements have been on the fine days.
Tremors were observed on October 30, 3 to 17 hours, of 2 mm. range,
and slight tremors on October 31 and November 4.
Three displacements were noted which do not agree with the records
of T, but the earthquakes Nos. 55 and 59 shown by T were well recorded.
10th week (Nov. 6-13.) :—
Nov. 6. East motion from before noon to 2.30 P.M., west motion 2.30 to
8p.M. Amp.7mm. Fine. N. wind.
» 7 East motion 6.30 A.M. to 3.0 P.M., west motion 3to6P.M. Amp.
1mm. Fog, frost.
» 8 No wave, but westerly displacement midnight to 7 A.M. Rain.
N. wind.
» 9 East motion from before noon to 2.45 P.M., west motion 2.45 to
8pm. Amp.7mm. Fine. N. wind.
>» 10. East motion 9 A.M. to 3.30 P.M., west motion 3.30 to 7 P.m. Amp.
6mm. Fine. Calm.
11. East motion from before noon to 2 P.M., west motion 2 to 6 P.M.
Amp.1mm, Dull. W. wind.
12. East motion 9 A.M. to 3 P.M., west motion 5 to6 P.M. Amp. 8 mm.
Dull. §S. wind. Afterwards fine.
The diurnal wave is evidently pronounced on fine days, and small or
absent when it has been rainy, cloudy, or dull.
Tremors were noted as follows :—
Nov. 6. 4 to 12 hours. Slight.
» 7 Tto22 ., Maxima of 2 mm. at 19 hours.
Reno.) Ato l2) 45 5 1mm. at 6 hours.
Os) G talt |; is 1 |aaaer
» l1.18to20 ,, 5 ers
12. 4tol3 ,, # Me ot
Six small displacements were noted, which do not agree with the records
of T.
The Diurnal Wave.
Figure 16 shows half-size tracings of daily waves taken from the origi-
nal photograms. Angular values for these waves may be approximately
obtained by assuming that 1 mm. deflection corresponds to a change
in inclination of 0°5 sec. of arc. Should accurate measurements of these
quantities be required, they can be obtained from my note-books.
Days on which the diurnal wave was very small have been omitted.
The curves which are given clearly show that the daily deflection is
variable in amount ; but whether the ground around the tent was open, or
covered by a tarpaulin on the west side or on the east side, the times at
which the pendulum commenced, completed, and ended its sharper
movements are practically the same. If we commence in the morning,
the direction of movement of the pendulum from a north-south line.
or its normal position, was such that it tended to approach a position that
would place its boom in a line with the sun and the shadow of the tent.
- That is to say, it swung towards the east, but it continued this motion
N2
180
REVORT—1897.
| F1@. 16.—Diurnal Waves at Shide,
896.
6.A.M
pe
LUA L
NOON.
5
Kai
PAT
if
4
Kar
A
SS
S
CAC
9PM.
Westerly
rt
nai
until the sun had passed the meridian,
or until 2or3 p.m. Then it returned,
following the sun until 7 or 9 P.M.
The text accompanying these dia-
grams shows that the movements are
practically confined to fine days, from
which it may be concluded that the
effect is connected with solar radiation.
In previous reports I have suggested
that it might be produced by the differ-
ence in load removed by evaporation on
two sides of an installation, such loads
from a surface of grass baing represented
by the removal of 4 or 51b. per square
yard per day.
The experiment with the tarpaulin-
cover placed first on one side of the
‘tent and then on the other, which failed
to produce any marked effect on the
character of the diurnal motion, indi-
cates not only that this is practically
uninfluenced by difterential evaporation
effects, but also by the heat received
by the ground on two sides of an in-
stallation, these effects being local.
We therefore have to look to the in-
strument, the pier on which it stands,
or external effects on a widespread
area. The fact that the diurnal wave is
marked on a brick pier rising from a
solid foundation in the middle of a
brick building shaded by trees,! and
also in cellars, in both of which places
the changes in temperature have been
small, indicates that the movements
are not to be accounted for by warp-
ings on the pier or portions of the in-
strument.
The fact that strong and steady
westerly deflections corresponding to
an increase on the slope of the hill on
which T and V stood accompany wet
weather, and that reverse movements
follow fine weather, indicates that a
load in the valley apparently causes
this to sink, whilst during the removal
of such a load it apparently rises. It
seems natural to conclude that the
diurnal waves are movements with a
similar origin. On hot days the valley
loses moisture, and therefore it rises,
' British Association Report, 1896, p. 213.
a
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 181
and the pendulum travels eastwards, whilst at night moisture is accumu-
lated, and it sinks.!
VIII. The Perry Tromometer. By Joun Mite, £.R.S., £.GS.
A Perry Tromometer, similar to that described in the Report of this
Committee for 1896, with photographic recording apparatus, has been
constructed, and for some days installed at Shide. Its sensitiveness to
elastic tremors was such that it recorded trains moving at a distance of
over half a mile, carriages at a distance of a quarter of a mile, and all
vehicles passing along a road near to the building in which it was placed.
For these reasons it was dismantled, but it may be again used when a site
free from the above-mentioned artificial disturbances, to which may be
added the sound-waves from heavy guns fired at a distance of five or six
miles, can be found.
In conclusion to the preceding sections of the Report the fact that the
records of earthquakes and other movements have been continuous has
been in consequence of the great interest taken in the observations by my
assistant, Shinobu Hirota, who not only understands the working of the
instruments in all their details, but has from time to time shown con-
siderable ingenuity in devising and constructing new pieces of apparatus.
IX. Sub-oceanic Changes. By Joun Mite, L.R.S., £.GS.
The object of the following notes, which are an epitome of a paper to
be communicated to the Royal Geographical Society of London, is to show
that beneath seas and oceans there are a certain class of geological changes
in operation which are more frequent, and often more intense, than
corresponding changes on land.
The sites of these changes are to be found below low-water mark at
comparatively shallow depths on submerged plateaus surrounding conti-
nents and islands, and on the face, and especially near to the base of the
steeper slopes of continental domes, and around submarine banks at
depths which may even reach 4,000 fathoms. On the level floor of
oceans, where sediments accumulate with immeasurable slowness, and
where for years and years ocean cables lie undisturbed, geological changes
are, so far as a lifetime is concerned, not recognisable.
The submarine operations to which it is particularly desired to draw
attention are those which are seismic and volcanic, the former at least
often being accompanied by the displacement as a landslide of such
enormous volumes of material that the whole surface of an ocean may be
agitated. Evidences that such displacements have had a reality is to be
found in the conditions under which cables have been buried, and in the
_ marked change in soundings near to spots where seismic efforts have been
exerted.
Other causes leading to displacement of materials on the face and
near to the base of submerged slopes are overloading by sedimentation,
erosion, the escape of water from submarine springs, and the effects of
currents.
The various sub-oceanic phenomena to which it is particularly desired
‘to call attention will be’ treated in the following order :—
1. Bradyseismic action.—Because earthquakes originating beneath
1 British Association Report, 1895, pp. 1383-139,
182 REPORT—1897.
the sea are more numerous and more intense than those originating on
land, the inference is that bradyseismic activity and phenomena which
accompany earthquakes, like landslides, are also more pronounced beneath
the sea than they are on land.
Bradyseismical movements include movements of upheaval or depres-
sion, by which rocks are bent, folded, faulted, or displaced, by thrust, together
with those which are the result of overloading, and may be exhibited as basal
crush. One set of movements involve the idea of elastic and seismic
strain, whilst the others a gravitational effect.
2. Sedimentation and erosion.—Submarine landslides which in part
are due to earthquakes.
The effects of overloading, submarine springs and currents.
3. Changes evidenced by cable interruptions and soundings.
4. Conclusions.
1. Bradyseismie Action.
Earthquakes the Origin of which are Submarine.—The earthquakes
which have a submarine origin may be divided into three groups :—
1. Those which have been felt and recorded on land, and which,
therefore, may be assumed, in the generality of cases, to have originated
on a coast-line or within a few hundred miles off in the ocean.
2. Those which have been recorded on shipboard out at sea, either as
tremors or as severe movements. Many of these disturbances are
probably volcanic.
3. Those which have not been felt on land, but have been distinctly
recorded there. In this group we find many of the earthquakes which
shake the world.
As illustrative of the frequency of the first gronp, I will quote from
observations made in Japan.! Between 1881 and 1883 in North Japan
the writer found that, out of 419 shocks, no less than 218 of them had
originated beneath the ocean. There had been 137 which had originated
on or near the seaboard, and therefore some of these had been of sub-
oceanic origin, whilst only 64 had originated inland. A large number of
these earthquakes came from the deep water off the mouth of the Tonegawa,
the largest river in Japan, which, as it approaches the sea, crosses the
alluvial plain of Musashi. ,
Between 1885 and 1892 no less than 8,331 earthquakes were recorded
in Japan—that is, on the average during this period of eight years there
were about one thousand shocks per year.” A glance at the map showing
the distribution of origins of these disturbances shows that nearly all of
them have originated along the eastern seaboard, and have been frequent
near the alluvial plains. Between January 1885 and December 1888,
when seismic activity was in a normal state—that is to say, when there
were no long series of after-shocks—2,018 earthquakes were recorded, of
which at least 1,034, or 50 per cent., originated beneath the sea. In
Japan, therefore, along a coast-line of 1,140 miles, there has recently
been at least about 250 submarine shocks per year. In some years there
have been 500.
From a seismic map of the world, I should estimate that round the
* ‘On 387 Earthquakes observed during Two Years in North Japan, by John
Milne, Trans. Seis. Soc., vol. vii. pt. ii.
2 Trans. Seis. Soc., vol. xx.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 1838
Pacific there are at least ten sub-littoral districts where earthquake
frequency may be about half that of Japan. If this is accepted as
probable, the sub-littoral seismic activity of the Pacific is represented
by 2,500 shocks per year, some of which have been accompanied by
submarine landslips and consequent changes in the configuration of the
ocean bed. When these latter are great, it is assumed that ocean-waves
are created. If we consider the seismic activity round the coasts of the
other oceans and seas which cover our globe as being, when taken
together, equal to that of the Pacific, then for the world, out of a possible
10,000 shocks per year, 5,000 of them have their origin on the sub-oceanic
continental slopes.
To get information about the second group, or earthquakes which
have originated far from land, we have to turn to the voluminous
catalogues of Perrey, Mallet, Kluge, di Ballore, Fuchs, and other statis-
ticians. Such extracts have been made by Dr. Emil Rudolph in his
papers, ‘Ueber Submarine Erdbeben und Eruptionen,’! who gives us an
account of 333 sub-oceanic earthquakes and eruptions. Because the
greater number of these shocks are of volcanic origin, they will be more
specifically referred to in the next section, The distribution of these is
various, but here and there they herd together, indicating localities where
changes are comparatively rapid. One favourite locality for submarine
disturbances is in the Equatorial Atlantic, about 20° W. long., and again
at 30° W. long., near to St. Paul’s. For each of these regions Dr.
Rudolph gives about thirty-seven shocks, in depths of water exceeding
1,000 and 2,000 fathoms.
The chief source of information for our last group is, however, derived
from the records of horizontal pendulums. Taking a list of them published
in the ‘Transactions of the Seismological Society,’ vol. xx., by the late
Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz, out of 301 records obtained in twenty-
seven months, there are only 25 which can with certainty be traced to
their origin. Out of the 176 which remain, 105 were almost simul-
taneously recorded at places so widely separated as Potsdam, Wilhelms-
haven, Strassburg, Nicolaiew, and Tokio, and therefore cannot be disposed
of as being due to some accidental disturbance of an instrument or to
small shocks of local origin. Each of them was a disturbance affecting a
very large area, and indicates an initial impulse of great magnitude.
What is true for the observations in Europe has also been true for my
own observations in Japan, and also in the Isle of Wight, the only
difference being that in Europe the stations were from 300 to 600 miles
apart, whilst in Japan and the Isle of Wight the stations were usually
near to each other, and never more than 30 miles apart. In some
instances, however, earthquakes of unknown origins were recorded in
Japan and Europe, and it is fair to assume that in these instances the
whole world had been shaken.
One disturbance noted by the author in Japan on June 3, 1893, had a
duration of five and a half hours. It was also recorded in Birmingham,
Strassburg, and Nicolaiew, at which latter place the duration of motion
extended over eleven hours. Amongst unfelt earthquakes, both for magni-
tude and duration, it exceeded all that have yet been recorded.
Because the character of the unfelt movements, the origin of which
cannot be traced, is identical with the character of those which have been
1 Beitrige zur Geophysik, Band I. and II.
184. REPORT—1897.
traced to earthquakes originating at great distances, it is, for the present
at least, assumed that the cause of the former is similar to the cause of
the latter. If this is the case, the only place towards which we can turn
to find the origin of the former appears to be beneath our oceans, and
when they are of a magnitude approaching that of June 3 their origins
must have been very far from land, otherwise a sensible shaking would
have been observed upon the nearest shores.
If we take the three classes of records to which we have referred in
conjunction, the conclusion to which they point is not simply that the
submarine evidences of seismicity are more numerous than those on land,
but also that they are very much more intense.
The Character of Submarine Seismic Districts—If we compare
together the characters of the districts where earthquakes of submarine
origin are frequent with those where they are practically unknown, the
differences are striking. In the former the land, as shown on the seaboard,
usually consists of strata which are geologically new ; it exhibits evidences
of recent elevation, some of which can be traced to historical times, whilst
its average slope from the mountains in the interior down beneath the
ocean is, over a considerable distance, relatively very steep.! The unit of
distance over which such slopes have been measured is taken at 2°, or
120 geographical miles. The following are a few examples of such slopes :-—
West Coast, South America, near Aconcagua «| Len! 20:2;
The Kurils from Urap . = : : : a loa an Seismic
Japan, west coast of Nippon 5 3 : . lin 30-4 { districts.
Sandwich Islands northwards : : : - Lin 235
Australia generally ci : : * ; ao 2 ini Gi
Scotland from Ben Nevis . : : ; - 1in158 | Non-seismic
South Norway . : : ; : : . lin73 | districts.
South America, eastwards . - 5 : +, Lin'943
The conclusion derived from this is, that if we find slopes of con-
siderable length extending downwards beneath the ocean steeper than 1 in
35, at such places submarine earthquakes, with their accompanying land-
slips, may be expected. On the summit of these slopes, whether they
terminate in a plateau or as a range of mountains, volcanic action is
frequent, whilst the earthquakes originate on the lower portions of the
face and base of these declivities.
The Cause of Seismic Strain, Deformation, Thrust, and Crush.—We
assume that the contours referred to in the last section are mainly the
result of rock-movement, and that seismic strain, due to a tendency to
further adjustment, is greatest where earthquake origins are most frequent.
The home of the volcano is evidently the place where the rocks have been
most deformed, whilst that of the earthquake is at the base of steep sub-
oceanic slopes where most deformation is in progress. The nature of the
forces in operation producing this deformation is twofold. First, there
is the horizontal thrust, so strongly emphasised by Lapworth, which may
or may not tend to increase the height of the mountain ranges bounding
its line of action ; and, secondly, a factor dependent on gravity, which,
acting on the side of subaérial and marine denudations, tends to lower
them. Earthquakes are for the most part spasmodic accelerations in
processes with these characters.
* See ‘Note upon the Geographical Distribution of Volcanoes,’ by J. Milne, Geol.
Mag., April 1880. Also address to the Geological Section of the British Association,
in 1892, by Professor C. Lapworth, LL.D., F.B.8.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 185
The distortions observed in fossils and pebbles, the difference in
thickness of contorted strata, and the ‘creep’ in coal-mines, all indicate
that great pressures may set up movements in stratified materials corre-
sponding to a flow. Mr. William Barlow, in a paper on the ‘ Horizontal
Movements in Rocks,’ ! as evidence of this, calls attention to the contor-
tions and foldings observed in glacial drift produced by a load above, the
dip seen on the face of the Grand Cation of Colorado, and the slight eleva-
tion observed in the area surrounded by cliffs known as the ‘San Rafael
Swell.’ These and other appearances may be regarded as instances of
‘ereep’ upon a large scale, when materials have been squeezed out from
beneath superincumbent strata.
In studying bradyseismical movement we usually take cognisance of
that which is most apparent. This is the vertical component of a dis-
placement, whilst the horizontal movement may be entirely overlooked.
The geotectonic structure of many countries, however, shows us that dis-
placements by horizontal thrust have taken place on an enormous scale,
and it is not unlikely that these forces, accelerated by the effects of crush,
are yet in operation round the basal contours of continental areas. Sub-
oceanic earthquakes are therefore announcements that sub-oceanic brady-
seismic action is in progress, and because these disturbances are more
numerous round the submerged frontiers of continental domes and in mid-
ocean than they are on land, it may be concluded that the distortions and
displacements due to bending, thrust, and crush are greater beneath the
sea than they are upon continents and islands.
Earthquakes and Landslides—In addition to these bradyseismical
effects, which only produce appreciable changes in sub-oceanic contour
after the lapse of long intervals of time, there are the effects which accom-
pany the actual shaking, which we may assume are not far different from
those effects which we see produced by earthquakes originating on land.
Many earthquakes which we feel, although they may create alarm and
shatter chimneys, do not produce any effect upon rocks and cliffs. This,
however, does not preclude the idea that shakings of equal intensity would
not produce effects upon submarine slopes, where, as compared with similar
slopes on land, critical conditions may more nearly approach in character
to the mechanism of the hair trigger. Severe earthquakes on land are
almost always accompanied by great landslides, and mountains which may
for ages have been green with forest growth by the sliding away of
materials cn their sides suddenly present the appearance of having been
whitewashed. The probable effect of similar shakings originating beneath
the ocean in the vicinity of steep slopes needs no explanation.
Another effect which sometimes accompanies these disturbances, and
which may have been their cause, is the creation of a fault 50 or 150
miles in length, by which the country on one side of this, relatively to
that on the other, has been suddenly raised or lowered 20 to 30 feet.
Earthquakes of this nature, if of submarine origin, would naturally
produce similar effects over large areas, and, if the magnitude of the
displaced materials, whether by landslides or faulting, were large, as com-
pared with the depth of the superincumbent waters, would also give rise
to sea-waves.
One of the most recent examples of effects of this description was that
which occurred on June 15, 1896, off the north-east coast of Japan. On
1 Quart. Journ.. Geol. Soc., November 1888.
186 REPORT—1897.
the evening of that day a submarine earthquake occurred in this locality
which was recorded in the Isle of Wight ; and, from the magnitude of the
diagrams, it may be assumed that the world was shaken from pole to pole.
Following this shaking, great sea-waves spread over the North Pacific
Ocean. The explanation of these phenomena is that the earthquake was
produced by fracture of the rocks, not at a point, but over a considerable
length, which movement, being accompanied by the displacement of huge
masses of material, gave rise to the sea-waves. The sub-oceanic contour of
this locality, where the depth of the water increases at the rate of 1,000
fathoms in 25 miles until the 4,000-fathom line of the Tuscarora Deep is
reached, lends itself to this supposition. The only difficulty we experience
is to estimate the volume of the material which must have been more or
less suddenly displaced at these great depths to have produced so great a
disturbance on the surface of the ocean. It is not likely that it was less
than that of the greatest landslide of which we have historical record as
having occurred upon the surface of the earth.
The data we have for calculating the position of the origin of these
great disturbances are numerous and exact. Our knowledge of the dissi-
pation of earthquake energy, as represented by its destructivity as it
radiates, indicates that an earthquake which dislodged sufficient material
to disturb the whole of the North Pacific Ocean must, at the very least,
have originated 100 miles away from Miyako, on the north-east coast of
Nippon, at which places a few houses were shattered.
The calculations to be found on p. 157, strangely enough, bring us
exactly to the base of the western boundary of the Tuscarora Deep, above
which there are 4,000 fathoms of water. This is a place from which many
earthquakes have originated, affording evidences, particularly in this
instance, of sudden sub-oceanic changes along the basal frontier of a
continent the magnitude of which it is difficult to estimate.
Submarine Volcanic Action.—If highly heated rocks saturated with
water were the only condition necessary for a display of volcanic action,
such activities might be as marked in ocean basins as round their margins.
The geological distribution of volcanoes, however, shows that before a
volcanic magma can expend and find exit on the surface, the pressure due
to superincumbent strata must be relieved, which is apparently obtained
when they are sufficiently crumpled upwards to form mountain ridges.
If, therefore, we seek for volcanic action beneath the sea, we may expect
to find the same along submarine ridges, and if we discover the same, as
we do along the central ridge of the Atlantic, the conclusion is that along
such a ridge an upward bradyseismical movement is in progress, and not
far from the region of eruptions there should be a region of earthquakes.
in certain instances, apparently, as is the case with the Aleutians and
the Kurils, so many eruptions have taken place along a submarine ridge
that a continuous and almost connected chain of islands has been formed.
On the flanks of the most southern of the latter group recent marine
strata have been raised, which, taken in conjunction with the fact that
hardly a year passes without some new eruption being noted, whilst sub-
marine shocks of earthquakes are frequent, indicates that Japan may in
time become connected with Kamschatka.
Any attempt to enumerate the various submarine ridges of volcanic
activity at present evidenced by these outcrops would be beyond the scope
of the present paper. One curious form of evidence, indicating the exist-
ence of volcanic activity entirely hidden in ocean depths, is referred to by
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 187°
Mr. W. G. Forster, in his paper on ‘ Earthquake Origin,’ ! from which we
learn that cables have, after their interruptions, been recovered from
which the gutta-percha had been melted—probably by water at a high
temperature. The cables referred to are near the Lipari Islands and
between Java and Australia.
Some idea of the frequency of earthquakes and volcanic shocks origin-
ating in the ocean may be obtained from a paper by Dr. Emil Rudolph.”
From his descriptions, which are derived from the catalogues of Perrey,
Mallet, the archives of the London Meteorological Office, évc., the follow-
ing table has been drawn up :—
North Atlantic, 1724-1886 . é 5 . . 28 disturbances.
Azores, 1843-1884 ; ‘ > - ? - 20 ”
Cape Verde Islands, 1854-1883. ; : = te ”
St. Paul’s, 1845-1886 . ; ; ; ee 3
Equatorial Atlantic, 1747-1878 . é P . 43 ”
West Indies, Leeward Islands, 1839-1886 . Stal 3
South Atlantic, 1616-1875 . : x soy) bs
West Mediterranean, 1724-1865 . 5 : reli of
East Mediterranean, 1820-1886 . ; 20 "
Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, 1751-1884 SLi D
Indian Ocean, 1818-1883. ‘ 3 bE 3
North Pacific, east side, 1790-1885 . “ . 22 ”
South Pacific, east side, 1687-1885 . : ere: 53
North Pacific, west side, 1773-1681 . A ee ”»
South Pacific, west side, 1643-1885 . . 10 ”
East Indian Archipelago, 1796-1883 . . waned ”
Total . . 333
The records generally are more frequent as we approach modern times,
and, to some extent, for those seas and oceans where there have been the
greatest number of observers. Dr. Rudolph regards all his records as
referring to shocks of voleanic origin, and, if they agree with his definition
of Seebeben, which are shakings originating in the ocean and propagated
as elastic waves, we concur in his views.
2. Sedimentation and Erosion.
This section of the paper is a consideration of conditions which lead to
the formation of sub-oceanic surfaces of instability which may yield by the
continuation of the operations by which they are produced, or by seismic
or volcanic actions.
The first fact to be noticed is that the materials resulting from marine
denudation round coast-lines and subaérial denudation of continental
areas are almost entirely deposited in the ocean, upon an area which is
relatively small as compared with that from which they were derived, and
therefore the rate of growth on littoral areas per superficial unit is on the
average greater than the rate of loss similarly estimated on continents.
We know from soundings that the materials derived from land are not
always deposited to form a gently sloping submarine plain, but often to
form surfaces with steep slopes. Thus, for example, the line of the Congo
continued seawards is represented by a gully the sides of which have
apparently been built up as a submarine levée. Materials thus accumu-
lated under the influence of gravity and hydrodynamic action apparently
1 Trans. Seis. Soc., vol. xv. p. 73. 2 See p. 183.
186 REPORT—1897.
result in contours which have reached limits of stability ready to yield as
more materials accumulate, by facial slidings, by overloading, by changes
in currents, by seismic action, and in other ways.
forms of Stability.—On land we have many illustrations of natural
curves of stability. A voleano mainly consisting of lapilli which have
accumulated round a central orifice has a form dependent upon the
density and strength as represented by resistance to crushing of its com-
ponent materials. To increase the height of such a mountain, it would be
necessary to increase the area of its base. The upper portion of Mount
Fuji has a slope of 30°, but as we proceed downwards the slope becomes
less and less until at last it is asymptotic to the plain from which it rises.
The average slope of this volcano is 15°.
If, therefore, on the face of a bank formed by the accumulation of
sediments, soundings, taken at points separated by one or more miles,
indicate a certain inclination, it may be inferred that the steepest slope
may possibly greatly exceed the quantity thus determined.
The only experiments bearing upon slopes of stability formed beneath
water with which the writer is acquainted are a few made by himself.
‘These experiments, which were made with sand and carried out in various
manners, pointed to the following general results :—
1. Sediments deposited under the influence of currents accumulate in
slightly flatter forms than those of similar materials built up on land.
2. Peaks, edges and corners of loose materials which may be fairly
stable on land are beneath water, even when it is still, quite unstable, and
quickly become rounded.
3. A mound or bank when thus rounded is very stable even under the
influence of strong currents, but the unstable form may be quickly repro-
duced by the accumulation of new sediments.
The conclusions then are, first, if we find beneath water very short
slopes of detrital materials, if they are 2° or 3° less than the angle at
which similar materials are self-supporting on land, they have reached a
limit of stability ; and, secondly, average slopes over distances of one or
more miles indicate the existence of much steeper slopes over shorter
lengths. ‘
Causes resulting in the Yielding of Submarine Banks.—Because it is
not likely that submarine earthquakes the movements of which are felt
round the world are the result of volcanic action whenever these are
accompanied by sea-waves, it may be inferred that the latter have been
produced by the dislodgment of vast masses of material from the faces of
steep slopes. Illustrations of such changes will be given in the next
section.
That intermittent facial sliding takes place on steep slopes during the
accumulation of new materials is rendered likely by what we observe
taking place on the faces of a mound of sand, submerged beneath water, as
it grows upwards as an accumulation from a fine stream of sand descending
from above.
Basal crush with horizontal displacement would only be expected to
occur around the lower edges of slopes of great height ; and as it is hardly
reasonable to suppose that such slopes owe their form simply to the
accumulation of sedimentary deposits, then the frequent origin of
earthquakes in such localities indicates that the primary cause of crush or
thrust is the result of yielding in rocky masses rather than that of
detritus. When speaking of cable-interruptions it will be seen that some
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 189
of these have been attributed to the displacement of materials which have
been loosened by the submarine escape of fresh water. Examples of
springs of fresh water in bays and along coast-lines are numerous, whilst
there is abundant evidence of the absorption of rainfall and even of rivers
on continental areas, which in some instances it is suspected find an exit
in the sea bottom. Granted theexistence of sub-oceanic springs, we see in
them at and near their exits a possible cause by which deposits may
be loosened and landslips take place. Under certain conditions such
dislocations might be expected to be periodical, following, for example,
the rainy seasons. Ocean currents which fluctuate in direction and
intensity, together with those of temporary character produced by the
backing up of water during gales in bays, estuaries, and coasts, may also
disturb the isostasy of submarine materials.
For details of these and other operations producing sub-oceanic change
reference must be made to the writer’s original paper.
3. Cable Fracture.
The fact that, on the level plains of ocean beds, cables lie for years
and years without disturbance is another testimony to the facts brought.
together by geologists to show that the flat plains of ocean beds are regions
where there is but little change. Directly, however, we approach sub-
oceanic banks or the margins of continental slopes, although the
depths may be abysmal, the fact that cables after interruption
have to be broken away from beneath materials which hold them
fast, indicates that regions of dislocation have been reached, and
what is true for these great depths is also true for localities nearer
land. Sometimes cables are bent and twisted, sometimes they are crushed.
Now and again sections are recovered which, from the growth of shells
and coral on all sides, show that they have been suspended. Others show
that fracture has apparently been the result of abrasions, whilst the ends
of wires, one of which is concave and the other convex, slightly drawn
out, indicate that yielding has been the result of tension. Needle-pointed
ends suggest electrolytic action ;! but, although cable-interruption may
occur in these and other ways, the explanation which best accords with
the observations made during cable-recovery generally are those which
attribute their dislocation to sudden displacement of the bed in which
they are laid, or to their burial by the sliding down of materials from
some neighbouring slope.
Sometimes it will be seen that earthquake movement and cable
fracture have been simultaneous, whilst many instances will be given
where an interruption has occurred at about the same time that an unfelt
movement has been recorded on land. These latter records, which in the
lists are marked with an asterisk, are unfortunately not numerous, and
only refer to days between the following dates :—
1, Observations at Potsdam, Wilhelmshaven, Strassburg, Nicolaiew, Teneriffe, and
in Japan. These, which include many of the writer’s observations, are published in
‘ Beitrage zur Geophysik,’ Band II., by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz, March 27 to
October 5, 1889; January 4 to April 27, 1891; February 23, 1892, to August 31,
' “
_ 1893.
2. Observations at Charkow by Prof. G. Lewitzky, August 4, 1893, to October 9,
1894. ;
} This may be due to electrolytic action between the zinc and iron of the
sheathing wires, or to the cable having rested on a mineral deposit. f
190 REPORT—1897.
3. Observations by Prof. G. Vicentini, at Padua, February 1 to August 29, 1895.
4, Catalogues of Prof. P. Tacchini, January 1895 to October 16, 1896.
5. Observations at Shide, Isle of Wight, by John Milne, August 19, 1895, to May
1897.
Fracture of Cables in Deep Oceans.
The times of earthquakes are given in G.M.T. astronomical time. Noon=24 hours.
North Atlantic.—Through the kindness of an engineer, whose experi-
ence in the laying and repairing of cables has extended over many years,
I am enabled to give the dates at which various cables have become
ruptured, or been restored to working order. The only case of alteration
in depth which he noticed was during the repairs of November 1884, but
this was not great. It seemed as if the picked-up cable had to be pulled
from under a bank of earth which had slipped down from the eastern
slope of the Newfoundland Bank.
The following is a table of North Atlantic cable-interruptions :—
North-eastern Slope of Flemish Cap.—(37° W. to 44° W. long.) July 1894 (about);
June 1888 (about); September 1889; September 1881; June 10, 1894*; July 28,
4.40 A.M., 1885; April 18, 8 P.m., 1885; July 25, 8 A.M., 1887; June 1895.
Near South-eastern Slope of the Newfoundland Bank.—(46° W. and 50° W. long.)
September 1887 (about); October 3, 9.15 P.M., 1884; October 4, 4.8 A.m., 1884;
‘October 4, 4 and 8 A.M., 1884; September 1889.
An unfelt earthquake was recorded, June 11, 7h. 22m., 1894, very strong at
Charkow.
A striking feature connected with these Atlantic troubles is that
nearly all have occurred in deep water near to the base of the eastern
slope of the Flemish Cap, 330 miles from St. John’s, Newfoundland, or
the south-eastern slope of the Newfoundland Bank. Off the Flemish Cap
in lat. 49° N. and long. 43° E. there is a slope, in a distance of 60 miles,
from a depth of 708 fathoms to 2,400 fathoms, or 1 in 35. Another
slope, over a distance of 30 miles, is from 275 to 1,946 fathoms, or 1 in 17.
Off the eastern side of the Newfoundland Bank, in a distance of 25 miles,
the depth changes from 27 to 1,300 fathoms, indicating a slope of 1 in 19.
These slopes are all well within the limits at which from time to time
yielding, due to bradyseismical thrust or secular crush, should be expected ;
and the further a cable can he kept away from the scene of such action, if
we may judge from experience, the longer will be its life.
In one case only has the cause of failure been attributed to a land-
slide, which it is just possible was caused by, or accompanied with, seismic
phenomena. A very significant fact is the case when three cables running
in parallel lines about 10 miles apart broke, at points nearly opposite to
each other, on the same straight lines. This was on October 4, 1884.
At first the accidents were attributed to the grapnel of a cable vessel, but
as no grappling was done then this hypothesis had to be abandoned.
Because three cables broke apparently at the same time in the same
locality, one inference is, that the cause resulting in rupture was common
to all, and this may have been a sudden change in the configuration of the
ocean bed. Such a change does not necessitate any alteration in depth,
such as could be detected by sounding, but either a landslip along a line
of considerable length or simply a line of fracture like that which was
suddenly formed along the Neo valley in Japan in 1891.
When, on the American and English coasts, types of seismometers
which will record the unfelt movements of the earth’s crust have been
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 191
established, it seems likely that the cause of cable interruptions may be
better understood. Because the fifteen repairs indicated in the previous
table possibly cost half a million sterling, the advisability of localising
areas that should be avoided, and that we should be able to attribute
effects to their real cause, are evidently desiderata of great importance.
St. Louis—Fernando Noronha.—From a paper read at the Institution of Electrical
Engineers by Mr. H. Benest, A.M.Inst.C.E., ‘On some repairs to the South American
Company’s cables off Cape Verde in 1893 and 1895,’ it seems that the St. Louis—
Fernando Noronha cable has been twice broken. The first break occurred on
December 26, 1892, about 130 miles from St. Louis du Sénégal, in a depth of 1,220
fathoms, at the time of a heavy gale. The tape covering for 140 fathoms was rubbed
bare to the sheathing wires, but on one side only. The sheathing wires at the break
were drawn out as if they had been broken in a testing-machine. The Fernando side
of the break also showed the effects of rubbing, and the character of the fracture
was similar to the other end. In picking up these two ends there was at first a strain
in one case not exceeding 2°6 tons, and the other of 4 tons; but as the ends were
approached this rose to about 6 tons, when the cable evidently cleared itself from
some obstruction, and came easily on board.
Although we have here evidence of what may possibly have been a
submarine landslip, I am not aware that at that time any disturbance was
noted in Europe.
The second date is March 10, 1895. Here, again, great difficulty was
experienced in breaking out the cable from beneath the mud, detritus, or
whatever the materials were that had covered it. The position of this
break was about 20 miles south-west from that of 1893.
On March 5, at 22 hours G.M.T., a very large unfelt disturbance was
recorded in Europe, and one of moderate intensity at several places in
Italy on May 10, at 10.4 p.m.
Mr. Benest holds the opinion that these fractures are connected with
submarine river outlets and gully formations in the ocean beds. The
gradients in the vicinity of the fractures vary from 1 in 34 (1° 30’) to
1 in 7 (8°).
Pernambuco— Cape Verde.—To the north-west of St. Paul’s (lat. 2° 41’ 45” N.,
and long. 30° 29’ 15’’ W.), which is a volcanic centre, two cables broke simul-
taneously in a depth of 1,675 fathoms, indicating that the rupture was due to a
widespread cause. This was on September 21, 1893. Here, in the deep ocean, this
was the only failure in nineteen years.
Madras—Penang and Aden—Bombay.—These interruptions are referred to on
pp. 198, 199. ; ’
Interruptions to Cables on or near to Sub-oceanie Continental slopes.
West Coast of Central and South America.—As illustrative of conditions
which may exist round many parts of the west coast of South America,
where there have been sudden and gradual upliftings of the land within
historical time, a portion of a chart showing contours near to the mouth
of the river Esmeralda is reproduced. The soundings are in fathoms.
Those in ordinary figures are from information received prior to June
1895, whilst those in larger type are from soundings taken in March 1896.
Changes from 13 or 20 fathoms to upwards of 200 fathoms in this short
interval of time are certainly remarkable ; and as the position of the cable-
repairing vessel ‘ Relay,’ belonging to the Central and South American
Telegraph Company, which made the observations, was ensured by cross-
bearings on the land, their general accuracy cannot be doubted.
The figures surrounded by a circle were taken many years ago, and
192 REPORT—1897.
are probably no longer correct. Off the shore, in a distance of 3 miles,
there is a depth of 200 fathoms, indicating a slope of 1 in 15, whilst at
distances of 10 miles from shore, over a length of | mile, slopes of 1 in 3
may be found.
We have evidently here many instances of recent change in sub-oceanic
form, and at the same time illustrations of conditions where considerable
instability might be expected, and cable-interruptions might therefore
frequently occur. It will be noted, by reference to the map, that the
position of fractures which have taken place are grouped near to the base
of these steep slopes, and in this respect follow the rule of similar occur-
rences in the North Atlantic.
The following is a list of certain interruptions which have taken
place off the coasts under consideration :—
La Libertad—Salina Cruz.—November 25, 1890.
Panama—San Juan del Sur.—june 4, 1889*; July 31, 1889*.
Sta. Elena—Buenaventura.—This section is laid off the mouth of the river
Esmeralda, at which point many breaks have occurred. Lat. 58’ 20’’ N., long.
79° 41' 25” W. August 30, 1890; January 25, 1891*; February 13, 1892; Decem-
ber 5, 1893*; December 6, 1893* ; December 14, 1893*; December 20, 1893.*
Paita (Peru)—Sta. Elena (Ecuador).—This section passes Talara point, where
many breaks have occurred. Lat. 4° 29’ S., long. 81° 17’ W. September 1892 ;
May 19, 1883; September 3, 1886; May 15, 1889* ; March 31, 1891*; April 9, 1891* ;
May 14, 1892*.
Mollendo— Chorillos (Perw).—This section crosses the gully off Pescadores point,
lat. 16° 24’ §., long. 73° 18’ W. February 23, 1884; March 24, 1884; April 5,
1884; June 13, 1884; January 30, 1886; August 13, 1886; August 16, 1887;
March 25, 1887; December 10, 1887, supposed to have been broken by an earth-
quake; December 11, 1888; February 21, 1890; March 15,1890; March 30, 1891* ;
June 4, 1895* ; October 16, 1892*, supposed to have been broken by an earthquake.
Avrica—Mollendo.—May 9, 1877, by an earthquake; July 15, 1887; before
June 24, 1891; August 13, 1891; June 6, 1895*, shore end broken by waves.
Iquique—Ariva.—May 9, 1877, by earthquake; May 7, 1878, by an earthquake ;
June 12, 1895*, shore end broken by waves.
Caldera—Antofagasta.—July 7, 1586.
Valparaiso, Serena.—July 26, 1877; August 15, 1880, by earthquake; July 8,
1885; before August 19,1891. July 4, 1895*, by landslide or earthquake.
The wnfelt earthquakes which were noted in or near Europe were as
follows :—
January 25, 1891, 5-01h. Asmall disturbance was recorded at Teneriffe.
March 26, 1891, 13°6h. to 148h. There was an earthquake of moderate
intensity noted in Teneriffe.
May 15,1892. At 2:9h. at Strassburg, and at 3°7h. at Nicolaiew, there was a
feeble shock. It is, however, possible that this earthquake may have had its origin
at Stavanger, in Norway.
October 13, 1892. At 17:07h., and October 17, at 11-88h, at Strassburg.
December 16, 1893. At Charkow at 13h. 13m. there was a strong disturbance.
June 4, 1895. At Padova at 18h. 23m., large disturbance.
July 5, 1895, 5h. 32m. At Padova, origin evidently at a great distance.
Whether these seven unfelt movements recorded on the eastern side
of the Atlantic were connected with seismic disturbances on the western
side of South America leading to cable interruptions, it is impossible to
speak with confidence until we know the howrs at which these interrup-
tions took place. In the meanwhile, all that we can say is, that it is
worthy of note that out of fourteen cable interruptions, seven of them
took place about the times when delicately suspended instruments in or
near Europe were set in motion. Six interruptions took place when
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 193
earthquakes were felt, whilst others were caused by landslips, which in
turn may have been the result of mechanical shaking. On certain
sections, as for example that connecting Arica and Mollendo, fractures
have only taken place in certain months, which in this instance are June,
July, and August. Restrictions like this suggest that the cause of
fracture has been due to landslips brought about by the escape of fresh
water beneath sea-level, the action of currents, or other sub-oceanic
phenomena having seasonal maxima.
The interruptions off Pescadores Point (16° S. lat.), although, when
recovering cables, branches of almost petrified trees have been brought
to the surface, Mr. R. Kaye Gray attributes to the great unevenness of
the bottom, there being in that neighbourhood submarine hills 3,000 and
4,000 feet in height.
The following notes bearing upon the above sections were kindly
drawn up by Mr. W. E. Parsoné, who has been engaged in cable work on
the west coast of South America :—
Arica—Mollendo Section.—This section was laid in 1875. On thenight of May 9,
1877, while the cables between Arica and Lima were being used for direct working,
a very distinct shock of earthquake was felt by the operator in the Lima office at
about 10.30 P.M., during receipt of a message from Arica, and communication
ceased a few seconds later. The intermediate station of Mollendo afterwards
reported that the shock was also felt there, and at about the same time,.and that
they were unable to communicate with Arica. Mr. Parsoné located the rupture of
the Arica— Mollendo section as close to the shore at Arica, and proceeded by first
opportunity to that place, where it was found that a violent earthquake shock on
May 9, 1877, had been accompanied by a tidal wave of unusual severity, which had
completely wrecked the greater portion of the town. The sea-front and harbour
had suffered enormous damage, the iron pier having been washed away, and prac-
tically all the craft in the port having parted their moorings or foundered. In
undertaking the repair, tons of anchor-moorings and material were picked up with
the cable, which had been considerably dragged out of position and twisted for a
considerable distance from the shore. Communication on this section was restored
on May 24, 1877, and worked without interruption until it was permanently
repaired by renewing a portion of the shore-end and intermediate cable on
November 17, 1878.
Iquique—Arica Section. —This section was laid in 1875. On May 7, 1878,a severe
shock of earthquake was experienced in the neighbourhood of Iquique, after which
the cable connecting that place with Arica was found to be interrupted. Mr.
Parsoné located the rupture at 6 knots from Iquique on the intermediate cable in
60 fathoms of water, and, after considerable difficulties working with barges, there
being no repairing-ship obtainable, succeeded in lifting the cable on the spot. Both
ends were recovered, and it was found that the cable (intermediate) had snapped
clean through, the compound on either side of the break being undisturbed, except
at, say, a distance of 18 inches on either, where the sheathing wires had made one
complete turn. There the compound had sprung, and some of the strands parted,
and the sheathing wires compressed out of position. But for these comparatively
slight indications of the enormous force which must have been exerted to make so
clean a break in heavy intermediate type, the cable was in no way damaged, the
rest of the cable being in as good condition as the day it left the factory. The
earthquake, which was undoubtedly the direct cause of the rupture, was said to
have a direction from south-west to north-east, and it was noticed with much surprise
that the base of the high cliffs on the fore-shore bore marks of recent disturbance
at a spot bearing due north-east from the position of the break. The disturbance
referred to had the appearance of a recently formed cavern or tunnel—a few feet
above the beach where the base of the hard rock was met—as if some enormous
piece of artillery had been fired point-blank into the rock, and this had also caused
a falling away of the surface rock above the opening, which peels off in layers like
decomposed slate. We could not land at the place to examine it more closely on
account of the surf and rocks, but attempted to do so by clambering and crawling
apes headland of rock; but large thin sections of decomposed surface slipped
(f 0
194, REPORT—1897.
away with us continually, and we had to give up the attempt. Communication was
restored with a piece of deep-sea cable and permanently repaired with the s.s.
‘Retriever’ on November 21, 1878.
La Serena— Valparaiso Section.—This cable was laid in 1876, and interrupted off
the Limaree Riveron July 26, 1877, as was thought, by floods from the river, although
in its normal condition it is practically a dry bed before it reaches the sea.
This section was again interrupted on August 15, 1880, by an earthquake; and
the same section was again interrupted by a landslip on July 4, 1885, presumably due
to an earthquake.
Mollendo—Choritlos Section.—This cable was laid in 1875, and was frequently
interrupted off Pescadores Point to the north of Mollendo, where considerable
inequality of depth is experienced, due presumably to the channels of an extinct or
subterranean river, whose estuary may now be some miles at sea, and create
periodical submarine convulsions at great depth and at, say, 40 or 50 knots from
the coast. In any case, all difficulty has ceased in this locality, since the cable has,
for a considerable length, been diverted to close inland and laid as close to the shore
as it was safe for a ship to get.
This section was also broken in two different places by an earthquake which
occurred on December 10, 1887.
East Coast of South America.—The geological and topographical
conditions on the east coast of South America are strikingly different
from those met with on the west coast. On this latter coast the land
plunges rapidly downwards beneath the sea, as a slope produced by
bradyseismic thrust and folding, whilst on the former, when measured
over long distances, the slope is gentle, indicating an absence of orogenic
activities. Although the land is generally continued seawards at a low
angle by the deposition of sediments and the scouring action of currents,
here and there declivities may have been produced by such epigenic
actions.
On the following sections interruptions have been rare or have not
occurred :—
Maldonailo—Montevideo.—Since 1875.
Santos—-Chuy.—Since 1892:
Chuy— Maldonado.—Since 1875.
Rio Grande do Sul—Chay.—Since 1875.
From these sections, which lie on the northern side of the Rio de la
Plata estuary, as we proceed northwards interruptions have been more
and more frequent. They are as follows :—
Montevideo— Buenos Ayres.—October 12, 1889.
Sta. Catharina—Rio Grande do Sul.—June 16, 1890.
Santos—Sta. Catharina.—March 12, 1890.
Montevideo—Rio Grande do Sul—April 25, 1889; June 11, 1889*; December 4,
1889 ; May 4, 1890 ; December 4, 1891.
Chuy—Montevideo—June 27, 1892; July 10, 1892* (restored); November 11,
1892 (date of interruption not recorded).
Rio de Janeiro—Santos.—April 16, 1889; April 5, 1890; December 24, 1890.
Bahia—Rio de Janeiro.—January 31, 1889; September 3, 1889* ; September 21,
1889* ; July 24, 1891; July 31, 1891; September 4, 1896.
Pernambuco—Bahia.—April 1, 1889; July 20, 1889; July 14, 1891.
Ceara—Pernambuco.—April 8, 1890; March 14, 1891*; September 1, 1893*;
January 12, 1895; March 3, 1896; March 4, 1897*.
Maranham—Ceara.—May 22, 1889*; April 29, 1890; January 20, 1891;
January 28, 1891; March 4, 1891*; March 8, 1891*; November 25, 1891; October 11,
1892* ; February 12, 1894*; March 6, 1894*; November 25, 1894; April 28, 1896;
December 2, 1896.*
Para—Maranham.—September 6, 1888; November 2, 1888; May 22, 1889*;
December 27, 1889; January 10, 1890; July 24, 1890; January 12, 1891; October 19, ©
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 195
1891; December 2, 1891; January 19, 1892; October 15, 1892*; March 20, 1893*;
September 1, 1893*; March 24, 1894*; July 23, 1894*; November 1, 1894;
November 10, 1894; November 15, 1894; January 7, 1895: February 9, 1895 *;
October 10, 1895*; December 13, 1895*; December 18, 1895*; July 9, 1896* ;
August 6, 1896*; October 8, 1896*; May 5, 1897.*
In the above list the thirty-one interruptions marked with an asterisk
took place whilst horizontal pendulums were in operation in or near
Europe.
The European observations were as follows :—
September 18, 1889. At Potsdam, 6'92h. to 9°3h., there was a large disturbance,
which suddenly became great at 7°87h. At Wilhelmshaven the disturbance lasted
from 7h. to 95h. The origin is unknown.
September 5, 1889. At Potsdam there was a heavy disturbance at 22:67h., with
a sudden increase at 23:08h. At Wilhelmshaven similar phases are at 22-5h. and
23:08h. Large disturbances also with unknown origin were noted on August 29 at
18°48h.
October 9, 1892. At Strassburg and Nicolaiew, at about 2-45h. and 2:70h.
March 3, 1891. At Teneriffe, earthquake at 1:79h. Origin unknown.
May 2), 1889. At Potsdam, a heavy disturbance at 10°55h, to 11-1h. Origin
unknown.
March 20, 1893. At Strassburg and Nicolaiew, at 5°18h. and 5:27h. At this
time there was an earthquake in Catania.
October 13, 1892. In Strassburg 17:07h. to 17:'78h. An earthquake on the
Donau.
September 1, 1893. At Charkow at 9.35 A.M.
February 12, 1894. At Charkow, a strong disturbance at 1.35.
March 24, 1894. At Charkow, about this time, exceedingly heavy disturbances
were recorded. From 17h.35m. on the 21st to 2h. 48m. on the 22nd; from 9°35h. on
the 22nd to 3°35h. on the 22rd; and on the 24th, from Oh. 26m. to 1h, 2m.
July 22, 1894. At Charkow, from 11:35h. to 17°35h.
October 9, 1895, at 13h. 26m. Slight.
July 8, 1896, at 14h. 54m. and 17°46. At Shide.
October 6, 1896, at 21°51h. At Shide.
May 5, 1897, at 10°44h. At Shide.
December 2, 1896, at 10 to11 A.M. At Shide.
Inasmuch as two of the interruptions took place on May 22, 1889,
and two on September 1, 1893, which closely correspond with the unfelt
but heavy earthquake in that year, we may say that out of twenty-nine
interruptions sixteen of these have approximately coincided with the times
at which earthquakes with unknown origins have been recorded in Europe.
Because on the Para—Maranham! section interruptions have been
- frequent in October, November, and December, and on the Maranham—
Ceara section in November and in March, in searching for the cause of
these interruptions we should look to variations in ocean currents or
phenomena with a seasonal change.
West Coast of Europe and Africa.
Mediterranean Lipari—Milazzo Sea.—December 1, 1888 ; March 30,
1889* ; September 15, 1889* ; February 9, 1893.*
Zante—Canea.—March 29, 1885.
1¢The Para—Maranham cable is, I believe, a friend writes me, ‘laid on a
shallow muddy bottom, the mud being so fluid that it is said that a schooner with
a fair wind can make a good passage when half in mud and half in water.’ If this
is so, then the Amazon floods may have much to answer for in connection with
cable-interruption.
02
196 REPORT—1897.
Patras—Corinth.—September 9, 1888 ; August 25, 1889* (two inter-
ruptions).
The earth-movements which were observed were as follows :—
March 28, 1889. At 7°35h. at Wilhelmshaven, fairly large.
September 13, 1889. At 5°50h. at Potsdam and from 7h. to 9°5h, at Wilhelms-
haven.
February 9,1893. At Strassburg 6-23h. to 8-48h., and at Nicolaiew 6:19h. to 8:07h.,
heavy movement. ‘The epicentre possibly near Samotrace. Two other earthquakes
were noted on this day.
August 25,1889. At Potsdam at 7°62h.and at Wilhelmshaven from 7°53h. to 9h.,
a large disturbance. Epicentre near Patras.
The Lipari—Milazzo fractures took place in depths of from 400 to 650
fathoms 2 or 3 miles distant from Vulcano, about north-east from
Solfatore.
The Zante---Canea interruption occurred about 5 miles west by south
off Sapienza Island, in a depth of 1,500 fathoms with a clay bottom.
Soundings varied as much as 250 fathoms in the length of the ship, and
from 1,350 to 1,834 fathoms in half a mile.
The first of the Patras—Corinth breaks occurred about 2 miles north
of Akraia, in mud at a depth of 197 fathoms, whilst one of the second
interruptions took place in the same locality, in depths varying between
408 and 270 fathoms within a mile, and the other, in cable No. 2, within
half a mile south of Morno point.
Mr. W. G. Forster, writing in the ‘Transactions of the Seismological
Society,’ vol. xv., respecting these districts, tells us that after the Filiatra
shock in 1886 it was found, by the broken cable 30 miles away, that
some four knots of the same had been covered by a landslip, whilst the
depth of the water had increased from 700 to 900 fathoms. In 1867,
after the destruction of Cephalonia, the soundings taken after the shock
were different from those taken before. Again, on September 9, 1888, at:
5.4 p.m., the town of Vostizza, in the Gulf of Corinth, was destroyed, and
simultaneously the cable between Zante, Patras and Corinth was inter-
rupted. The cause of this, as deduced from soundings and the appear-
ance of the fractured cable, appears to have been either a sudden tautening
caused by the sweeping down of a mass of clay from a 100-fathom bank
to a 300-fathom bank, or the actual yielding of the bed on which the
cable lay.
In 1889 a second cable was laid down in the Gulf of Corinth, but this,
when it had been down about three months, was, together with the 1884
cable, fractured at the time of an earthquake on August 25 at 8.51 P.M.
The 1889 cable seemed to have been smashed by the movement of a mass
of material about a mile in length, whilst the 1884 cable was broken at
two points by a slip on a 10 to 450 fathom bottom.
In the districts considered by Mr. Forster, there are, as he points out,
great irregularities in submarine contours, the depths within short
distances changing from 50 to 300 and then to 1,600 fathoms. By the
deposition of silt, and the undermining of steep slopes by bottom currents,
the exit of underground springs and even rivers, overhanging shelves,
tottering and precipitous rocks, and other unstable arrangements, may
suddenly give way and cables suffer rupture.
The facts are that the sub-oceanic contours are such that they might
be expected to be unstable, and that these contours, at the time of earth-
quakes, have suddenly been changed. In one instance there has been an
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 197
increase in depth of over 2,400 feet, and in another of 1,200 feet ; whilst
in the case of the 1889 disturbance, eleven and a half minutes later,
unfelt earth-waves of considerable magnitude were recorded at Wilhelms-
haven, 1,732 kilometres distant. Similar unfelt movements have also
been recorded at distant places at about the time when cable-interruptions
took place, in every instance where we have been able to make comparisons.
The conclusion, then, is that in this region earthquakes occur, producing
beneath the ocean what is equivalent to the landslips which similar move-
ments produce on land.
Bay of Biscay.—About 1875 the Direct Spanish cable was broken
about 150 miles north of Bilbao by what seemed to be a submarine
landslip, which may have been produced by an undercurrent produced by
the piling up of the surface waters under the influence of a westerly gale.
The soundings showing the neighbourhood of the interruption indicate
slopes of 1 in 7 and even 1 in 3, and it is therefore a district in which
landslides and dislocations might be expected to occur. From Mr. R.
Kaye Gray I learn that the 1872 Bilbao cable broke down periodically—
usually in the month of March, with or after a heavy north-west gale.
This took place about 30 miles to the north of Bilbao, and, when repairing,
it was invariably found that 4 or 5 miles had been buried. The cause of
these interruptions was attributed to.a heavy submarine current caused
by the piling-up of surface water, cutting the prolongation of a river-bed
with steep walls which, when undercut, fell in masses to bury the cable.
St. Thomé—St. Paul de Loanda.—Interruptions which have been
noted on this section were as follows :—
January 22, 1892; September 13, 1892*; November 24, 1892*; February 17,
1893*; April 11, 1893*; May 30, 1893*; February 5, 1894*; January 22, 1895*;
January 15, 1896*; May 2, 1896*; June 15, 1896.*
The dates on which unfelt earthquakes were recorded were as
follows :—
September 13, 1892. At Strassburg a very large disturbance from 9:54h, to
13°31h. Origin unknown.
February 16, 1893. At Strassburg at 0°08h. Origin possibly in Japan. P
April 11, 1893. At Strassburg and Nicolaiew, 18°58h. to 19h. Moderate. On
April 8 at these stations there was a heavy movement from 1°87h. to 4:17h. Origin
unknown.
May 30, 1893. At the above stations from 4:33h. to 5:32h.; a great movement.
February 5, 1894. At Charkow from 4h. 54m. to 10h, 34m. there was a strong
movement,
January 18, 1895, 2h. 37m. At many places in Italy.
January 15, 1896, 7h. 10m. At many places in Italy.
May 2, 1896, 1h. 20m. Strong through Europe.
June 13, 1896, 14h. 54m. Strong through Italy.
June 14, 1896, 22h. 46m. Strong through Italy and at Shide. Origin, Pacific
Ocean.
We have therefore ten cases of interruptions on or near to the dates
of nine of which large earthquakes were recorded. It is difficult to
imagine that this particular district should be characterised by any
seismic activity, but it seems possible that, if it is a district where
sediments rapidly accumulate to attain an unstable form, these might
from time to time give way under the influence of earth-waves originating
at a great distance.
On this particular section Mr. R. Kaye Gray points out that, from
198 : REPORT—1897.
the mouth of the Congo, extending seawards, there is a difficult gully
to cross, the walls of which are 2,000 feet in height ! Although the gully
widens towards the west, this height is maintained for a considerable
distance. The shallowest water is found along the edges of this gully,
which therefore has a transverse section not unlike that of a river bounded
by a naturally formed levée. "
The East Coast of Africa.—The following are interruptions noted in
various cable sections along the east coast of Africa :—
Mozambique—Zanzibar.—February 1, 1885 ; April 2, 1885 ; September 26, 1894*.
Delagoa Bay—Durban.—October 15, 1890; November 18, 1890; December 10,
1894; January 20, 1896* ; July 13, 1896*,
Mozambique—Delagoa Bay (Lorenzo Marquez).—November 11, 1890; November
oe: January 5, 1893*; January 25, 1893*; June 9, 1895*; December 24,
Zanzibar—Mombasa.—December 20, 1890; January 25, 1892; September 4,
ro phe ad 26, 1894*; March 6, 1896*; August 23, 1896*; September
” ‘Aden——Zanzibar.—January 8, 1890; May 11, 1891 ; December 5, 1891 ; February
20, 1893*; August 9, 1893*; December 21, 1894; September 2, 1895*; December
24, 1895* ; January 27, 1896* ; March 16, 1896* ; March 23, 1897 (?).*
With the nineteen interruptions marked with an asterisk, there are
eleven instances where these may have corresponded with the records of
unfelt earthquakes. Approximate coincidences with earth-movements
are as follows :—
January 22, 1898, at 19°87h. A weak disturbance was noted at Nicolaiew and
Strassburg.
September 1, 1894, from 1h. 43m. to 4h. 21m. Moderate at Charkow.
September 25, 1894, 16h. 49m. to 17h. 8m. At Charkow.
February 20, 1893, from 19:23h. to 19-78h. At Strassburg small, origin in Japan,
August 9, 1893, from 17h. 11m. to 19h. 4m. At Strassburg moderate.
March 3, 1896, at 16h. 33m. Recorded through Europe.
August 21, 1896, at 10h. 0m. Recorded at Padua.
September 2, 1895, at 13h. to 96h. and 19h. At Shide.
March 15, 1896, at 19h. 36m. At Shide.
September 21, 1896, at 16h. 53m. Recorded through Europe.
March 23, 1897. At Shide at 4-29h., slight.
Sir James Anderson, in 1887, speaking about the interruptions off
the river Rovuma (11° 8. lat.), remarks that, so far as soundings showed,
there was an even bottom and all that could be desired as a bed on which
to place a cable, yet every year the cable broke. The broken ends
suggested that the cable had been suspended until it snapped. Although
the cable was shifted further out, and then closer in, it still broke. This
happened eight times, and it was noticed that the interruptions occurred
at about the same time of the year. Seven of these breaks are fairly on
the same line, and Sir James’s suggested explanation of this cause was
that the time when the interruptions occur is at the termination of
the rainy season in the African mountains, at which time fresh-water
springs take away the bottom on which the cable lies, and leave it
suspended.
Mr. John Y. Buchanan suggests that sometimes a cable may be
broken in consequence of its slowly subsiding through ooze, until the
catenary strain becomes so great that it eventually snaps.
Aden—Bombay.—lInterruptions noted on this section were the —
following :—
July 11, 1881; June 3, 1885; July 27, 18865; July 11 1888 August 11, 1888.
—s —
mw
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 199
On the second and last of the above dates the two cables connecting
Aden with India were simultaneously broken, and the traffic between
India, Australia, and the East had to pass over the land lines of Russia,
Persia, and Turkey. The fractures took place on an even bottom a few
hundreds of miles from Aden. At the time of the 1885 interruption, a
fearful cyclone was raging at Aden, and it is therefore possible that the
ruptures may be attributed to causes similar to those which seem to have
operated on the Bilbao cables (p. 191). The place of fracture was 119
nautical miles from Aden, 20 to 25 miles south of the Arabian coast, at a
depth of 870 to 990 fathoms, on an even bottom of mud.
Penang and Madras.—Interruptions noted on this section have been
as follows :—
May 12,1873; November 15,1875 ; March 28,1876 ; November 9, 878; April 22,
1880; January 31,1881; June 6, 1883; November 15, 1883; June 13, 1884; Septem-
ber 2, 1886 ; November 2, 1886 ; November 14, 1886 ; September 22, 1888 (?); May 13,
1890.
On the above dates horizontal pendulums or the equivalent instru-
ments were not in operation, but that these interruptions were partly
due to sub-oceanic change may be inferred from the fact pointed out by
Sir John Pender in the ‘Electrical Review’ of May 23, 1890, who says
that nearly all the interruptions on this line have taken place on very bad
ground near the Nicobar Islands.
The following completes the list of interruptions on far eastern
lines :—
Rangoon—Penang.—September 4, 1886; May 13, 1890.
Singapore—Penang.—November 20, 1873; August 7, 1876; November 8, 1876;
December 20, 1876; July 20, 1877; October 19, 1877 ; September 30, 1878.
Batavia—Singapore.—March 31, 1873 (1); May 20, 1874 (2); August 13, 1874;
August 18, 1874; December 14, 1874; September 2, 1875; November 5, 1875; May 9,
1876; June 28, 1876; October 25, 1876; February 27, 1877 ; September 28, 1877 ; No-
vember 9, 1877; January 22,1878; May 2,1878; August 31, 1878; October 28, 1878;
December 28, 1878; September 20, 1879; December 3, 1883.
Port Darwin and Java (Banjoewanji).—June 21, 1872; April 27, 1876; Novem-
ber 8, 1877; September 27, 1878; May 29, 1879; July 4, 1879; March 5, 1883;
March 10, 1883; April 6, 1883; October 22, 1883; June 29, 1888 (two cables broken) ;
October 10, 1888 (both cables broken); October 22, 1888 (both cables broken) ;
July 11, 1890* (three cables broken, one being to Roebuck Bay); February 23.
1893* ; March 22, 1893*; September 27, 1893*; October 25, 1893* (two cables
broken) ;! October 26, 1893*.
The horizontal pendulum records are as follows :—
February 22, 1893. At Strassburg, 11°28h. to 11:78h.; also at Nicolaiew.
Moderate.
March 20, 1893. At Strassburg, 5°18h. to 5°53h.; also at Nicolaiew. Mode-
rate. Origin probably in Zante.
September 11, 1893. At Charkow, 16h. 13m. to 17h. 50m.
October 22, 1893. At Charkow, 6h. 53m. to 8h. 14m.
The two fractures of June 29, 1888, took place 20 and 25 miles south
by west of Mount Dodo, Sambawa, where depths vary from 734 to 1,130
' fathoms. Sir John Pender, at the ordinary general meeting of the
Eastern Extension Australasia and China Telegraph Company,” says that it
was found that these breaks resulted from ‘volcanic’ action ; and, curiously
1 See Electrician, November 3, 1893. 2 Thid., October 12, 1888.
200 REPORT—1897.
enough, when the cables were recovered, all sorts of things, even the roots
of trees, were found attached to them. The whole thing seemed to be a
great upheaval of nature. From the same paper, August 20, 1888, we
learn that these two interruptions took place at points widely separated.
In Port Darwin time, the fractures took place on June 29, at 10.40 p.m,
The three interruptions of July 11, 1890, took place, in Banjoewanji time,
at 1.35 A.m., on a rough, uneven bottom, between Tafel Hoek (Bali) and
Balambangan Point, Java, where the depths vary from 155 to 927 fathoms.
The duplicate cable was broken in three places, and overlaid about 65 miles
from Banjoewanji. The three cables run along two sides and near the
bottom of a gully separating Baly from Java, and are about 7 miles
apart. They practically broke on one line, and the cause was ‘ volcanic’
action.! In this instance, as in that of June 30, 1888, the submarine
displacements extended over an unusually wide area ; and, when we refer
to a chart, it is seen that at a distance of 9 miles in a south-west
direction from Tafel Hoek there is a depth of 1,180 fathoms, indicating a
slope of 1 in 7.
The only interruptions which can be compared with the records of
horizontal pendulums are the last five, whilst the time of the inter-
ruption of March 22, 1893, is not known. The mean Greenwich times
and dates at which the remaining four took place in 1893 are as follows :—
1, February 22, between 4h. 20m. and 16h. 20m.
2. September 12, 12h. 20m.
3. October 24, 17h. 5m.
4. October 26, 3h. Om.
The conclusion is that only the first of these four interruptions took
place when an unfelt earthquake was recorded in Europe, but similar dis-
turbances were noted on September 11 and October 22
The following table is a comparison of the days and hours when
earthquakes were felt in Java, with the times at which cables were
interrupted :—
Shocks felt in Java and Sumatra in approximate Date and G.M.T. of cable-
G.M.T. (Batavia time — 7 hours) interruptions
1872, June 16, 12h. to 14h : : . | June 21.
1876, April 23, 10h. 15m. Sumatra. : ~ || April: 27.
1877, November 3to4 . . | November 8.
1878, September 21, 19h. 30m. * Sumatra . | September 27,
1879, withoat records,
1883, March 6, 4h. 45m. Sumatra . 3 . | March 5.
» October 18, 17h. 0m. Banjoewanji . | October 22.
18&8, June 29, ath. 33m. Batavia . . | June 29, 3h. 40m.
», . October 8, 12h. 18m. Series of shocks Ociower’d
is ». 9, 12h. 26m. >. aie
2, 2h om, lieht shock . . | October 22.
1890, July 10, 16h. 50m. to 19h. 40m. Series of July 11, 6h. 35m.
shocks, some heavy. Java
1893, February 23, 15h.15m. Java. ; . | February 23, 4h. 20m.and 16h. 20m.
» March 22, 13h.32m. Light. Java . | March 22 (time unknown).
», September 9,22h.57m. Moderate. Java | September 27, 12h. 20m.
», October 23, 9h. 53m. Fifteen shocks,
very heavy. Java } October 25, 17h. 25m.
» October 25. A light shock
! See “Hlectrician, October 24, 1890, vol. xxv.
a
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 201
For the interruptions of cables on June 29, 1888, and July 10, 1890,
we have the assurance of those connected with their management that
A Tabular Arrangement of the Foregoing Interruptions.
2
Name of cables 3
a
s
Ler)
North Atlantic . -J—
St. Louis—Fernando Noronha. | —
Pernambuco— Cape Verde —
Luhibestad—Salina Cruz ~|—
1
1
| | o | June
L I eo | July
[LAI [Xev.
doen | Total
Panama—San Juan del Sur
Sta. Elena—Buenaventura
Paita— Sta. Elena
Mollendo—Chorillos
Arica—Mollendo
Iquique—Arica
Caldera—Antofagasta
Valparaiso—Serena
Montevideo—Buenos Ayres
Sta. Catharina—Rio Grande |
do Sul 4 3 cial ae
Santos—Sta. Catharina . .{—
Montevideo—Rio Grande do Sul) —
Chuy— Montevideo o .|—
Rio de Janeiro—Santos .
Bahia—Rio de Janeiro
Pernambuco—Bahia
Ceara—Pernambuco
Maranham—Ceara .
Para— Maranham
Lipari— Milazzo
Zante—Canea .
Patras—Corinth . ‘ :
St. Thomé—St. Paul de Loanda
Mozambique—Zanzibar .
Delagoa Bay—Durban
Mozambique—Delagoa
Zanzibar— Mombasa
Aden—Zapzibar
Aden—Bombay
Penang—Madras
Rangoon—Penang .
Singapore—Penang
Batavia—Singapore
Port Darwin—Java
lol | | | eo | Sept.
Sa cee Pee
a eee ee eee eos
[i Tiestinoancs te lea
Je Te Used sean Pane alee
lormlel | lol
Ltt ttl ml |
ry
|
|
r |
|
|
|
|
| |
lel sl th bt
Let Itt Lol | worl wl |
nore
RPDF PNWAWOWO OH SB RoR woods
ILL brome wl el
lela wee (Eh ol ol le lel
[
eel el
(fete bole ioeteel sd Ioan bell (fo lel. bisa i |
Luel | eer l Tt tle |
alee tulgcslet ane |
fal
| |
Pett tertlieeet I ti tit | titi delH-lTIId | | Fe.
i
AONwnrortan
sel Fee |
lerciet alee ceo enest ian tt) a eet st leer |
—"
Let tel rere lol | | mre | a
eo luting tel tele lenoet Ad nome! It. |
po adipiencee ewan ie, temetiwh mie leas | eof Le
rlel lol |
arel | tt |
rol | | oH]
altered te
wre
28 | 20 | 22 | 26 |245
bo
ran
25 19] 19
bo
oo
the cause was volcanic or seismic, whilst the actual or close coincidence
in the dates at which the remaining interruptions have taken place with
the days on which earthquakes have been felt leads to the belief that
the Port Darwin—Java section has suffered more from the effects of
sudden sub-oceanic change than from any other cause. The European
records of February 22 evidently refer to the disturbance which caused
ie eon on that date in Java between the hours 4:20h. and
The above table is a list of the thirty-eight lines just discussed,
along which one or more cables are laid. Since these lines were esta-
202 REPORT—1897.
blished, the number of interruptions which have occurred have been at
least 245. For certain lines it would appear that fractures were more
frequent at one season than at others, and that therefore a proper analysis
of the table or its parts—such, for example, as those to which earthquake
statistics have been subjected—amight lead to the discovery of periodicities
in cable-interruptions. Unfortunately, because the material in our
possession is yet so meagre, such discussions must for the present be
reserved.
Out of the 245 breaks, 87 of them, each marked with an asterisk,
occurred at the times when instruments were in operation which would
record unfelt earthquake effects. Fifty-eight of the 87 cable-interrup-
tions occurred at or about the times when Europe was agitated by these
unfelt movements. The fractures accompanying earthquake, or, as it is
sometimes called, voleanic movement—which could be felt, and which
in two instances caused destruction on neighbouring shores—were at
least 10 in number, which may be raised to 24 by including the Java
records. In three of these instances, two or three cables were broken
simultaneously. With the latter the submarine dislocations extended
over a wide area; in the Gulf of Corinth great changes in ocean
depth were brought about, and from this latter place we know the motion
to have radiated so that a few minutes after the interruption well-defined
diagrams of earth-waves were obtained at localities 1,000 miles distant,
at places where no movement could be felt.
Instances like the latter clearly establish a connection between cable-
interruptions, earthquake-motion which has been felt, submarine disloca-
tion, and the records of horizontal pendulums in distant localities. This
being the case, and because earthquake-motion cannot be felt at great
distances from its origin, it is reasonable to conclude that the records of
unfelt earthquakes which approximately coincide in time to those at which
cables have been interrupted may sometimes indicate that submarine
geological changes have accompanied seismic efforts.
Although certain conclusions arrived at in this paper are definite,
until the materials necessary for analysis can be obtained, others remain
matters of inference. The records of interruptions for the lines men-
tioned are, we have reason to believe, incomplete. The horizontal _
pendulum records with which to make comparisons have not only been
few in number, but, because they are confined to Europe, could only be
expected to throw light upon disturbances originating at a great distance,
which were exceptionally large. The records of earthquakes which have
been felt are confined to an imperfect list for Java, a few from the Medi-
terranean, and a few reported from the west coast of South America.
Lastly, the hours, and in some cases even the days, on which cable-
interruptions have taken place, together with the probable cause of these
interruptions, are unknown. These latter facts are no doubt to be found
in the archives of many cable companies, and it would be to the interest
of all who desire to increase our knowledge of sub-oceanic change if com-
parisons could be made between the records of unfelt earthquakes now
published, and the times and circumstances at and under which corre-
sponding cable-ruptures have taken place.!
1 The writer, whose address is Shide Hill House, Newport, I.W., England, would
be glad to receive any information respecting the day, hour, and probable causes of
failure, connected with cable-interruption.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 203
All that it is expected to find is that a certain, and probably a
small, proportion of these interruptions may correspond in time with
seismic disturbances ; and, because we know that certain cables have
been lost by landslips and dislocations accompanying earthquake-move-
ment, it is to be hoped that the expectation may be regarded as a
reasonable conjecture.
An Attempt to estimate the Frequency of Submarine Dislocations.—
If it can be assumed that the majority of cable-interruptions are due to
submarine displacements, and not to faults inherent in themselves (which
are comparatively of rare occurrence), the swaying of suspended sections
under the influence of waves and currents, the movements of marine
creatures, the boring of a feredo, and other exceptional causes, then the
tables which have been given of cable fractures will give some idea of the
frequency of such displacements. Because the list of interruptions for
a number of the lines mentioned are imperfect, and because each cable
follows a path carefully chosen as not being likely to suffer from sub-
marine disturbance, the frequency of dislocation derived from such an
assumption is more likely to be a minimum than a maximum. From the
known number of interruptions which have occurred on sections of given
length in a given number of years, the following table of dislocation
frequency per mile of coast per year has been computed.
Cable Dislocation per Mile per Year.
Length in
Name of cable nance Number of breaks
mriled per mile per year
Mollendo—Chorillos . - : s . 2 510 0-002
Arica—Mollendo ; : i : = » 146 0-003
Iquique—Arica . : - 3 : : ‘ 128 0:0040
Antofagasta—Iquique : A : : ‘ 250 0-0000
Caldera—Antofagasta : 3 : : ‘ 229 0:0004
Coquimbo—Caldera . ‘ c - 6 : 215 0:0000
Valparaiso—Coquimbo . - : : ‘ 219 0001
Santos—Chuy . : ‘ a : : 744 0:000
Maldonado—Montevideo . ; é ; A 72 0-009
Chuy—Maldonado . F : , ; ; 125 0-000
Rio Grande do Sul—Chuy. : : : 148 0-000
Montevideo—Buenos Ayres. : : : 32 0:004
Sta. Catharina—Rio Grande do Sul . 3 : 397 | 00004
Santos—Sta. Catharina . E § 5 : 293 | 00005
Montevideo—Rio Grande do Sul. : : 349 0-006
Chuy—Montevideo . : , Z , 5 201 0001
Rio de Janeiro—Santos . ‘ : : ; 223 0:009
Bahia—Rio de Janeiro. : ; pid y io 768 | 0-0011
Pernambuco—Bahia . ; é : > . 404 | 0:0036
Ceara—Pernambuco . : : : 4 : 481 ‘0:0018
Maranham—Ceara . - ‘ : cl Fi 408 0:004
Para—Maranham . - : : : : 381 | 0:008
St. Thomé—St. Paul de Loanda 5 : 785 | 0003
Delagoa Bay—Durban ; : : : 348 | 0-002
Mozambique—Delagoa . fF : : : 971 | 0:001
Zanzibar—Mombasa . : : : - : 150 0:007
Aden—Zanzibar A é A é ‘ c 1,914 0:0008
10,891 0:0023 average
204 REPORT—1897.
The coasts taken are the east and west sides of South America and
Africa. The total length considered representing shores which are
steep and those which are gently inclined is about 11,000 miles. The
general result which is reached is that the dislocations per mile per year,
on the coast-lines considered, which may be taken as having on the
average a character similar to that of the coast-lines of the world, are
represented by the number 0:0023, that is to say, there is on the average
one dislocation for every 434 miles per year. If we increase this number
to 500 miles, and remember the character of the records and that of the
paths to which they refer, although we have attributed all the interrup-
tions to submarine change, we are inclined to the opinion that the
estimate is not too great. This being granted, then, as there are about
156,000 miles of coast-line in the world, if the same were surrounded by
loops of cables, although each section might be laid in the most favour-
able position, more than three hundred interruptions resulting from sub-
marine disturbance might be expected to occur every year. In deep
water on a level soft bottom experience shows that a cable may remain
undisturbed and unchanged for long periods of time, indicating, as we
have already pointed out, that geological change is proceeding with
extreme slowness.
4. Conclusions and Suggestions for a Seismic Survey of the World.
Because earthquake origins are more numerous beneath the sea than
upon the land, it is fair to assume that the bradyseismical operations
resulting in the folding, bending, crushing, faulting, and thrusting of rock
masses are more active in the recesses of the ocean than they are upon
our continents. Sub-oceanic volcanic activity, as, for example, that which
tis met with in the mid-Atlantic, probably indicates the existence of
bradyseismic movement and a relief of strain. The concentration of de-
tritus derived from continental surfaces along coast-lines on tracts which
are comparatively small, indicates that beneath the sea the growth by
sedimentation is greater per unit area than the similarly estimated loss is
by denudation on the land. This rapid submarine growth, largely under
the influence of gravity, but modified by hydrodynamic action, leads to
the building up of steep contours, the stability of which may be destroyed
oy the shaking of an earthquake, the escape of water from submarine
springs, the change in direction or intensity of an ocean current, or by
other causes which have been enumerated. That submarine landslides of
great magnitude have had a real existence is proved for certain localities
‘by the fact that after an interval of a few years very great differences in
depth of water have been found at the same place, whilst sudden changes in
depth have taken place at the time of and near to the origin of submarine
earthquakes (see pp. 193 and 197). Large ocean-waves unaccompanied by
volcanic action indicate that there have been very great and sudden dis-
placements of materials beneath the ocean. The most important evidence
of sub-oceanic change is, however, to be found amongst the archives of
tthe cable engineer. The routes chosen for cables are carefully selected as
being those where interruptions are least likely to occur ; and yet, as it
has been shown, something which is often of the nature of a submarine
landslip takes place and some miles of cable may be buried. Here we
seem to have proof positive, especially along the submerged continental
plateaus, of sudden sub-oceanic dislocation. Because these changes are
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 205
frequent, it is reasonable to suppose that sedimentation and erosion and
other causes which lead up to the critical conditions are geologically
rapid.
M Briefly, the foregoing notes and facts indicate that beneath the oceans
certain important geological changes are more rapid than they are upon
land, whilst new sources from which information respecting these changes
may be obtained are pointed out to the student of dynamical geology.
The more important of these sources are the experiences of the cable
engineer and the records of seismographs, which are sensitive to unfels
movements. When a number of these instruments have been established
round the world, on the borders of great oceans, and on oceanic islands,
it is difficult to overestimate the practical and scientific results which will
follow.
The greater number of records, as it has been shown, would refer to
disturbances which originated beneath the sea. From the times at which
earth-waves arrived at different stations, as, for example, on the two sides
of the Atlantic, it would be possible to localise their origins, and in time
districts would be indicated which it would be well for those who lay
cables to avoid. Work of this nature has, by means of ordinary seismo-
graphs, been partially accomplished for Japan, and the seismic maps of
that country | show that sub-oceanic disturbances originating near to the
coast are herded in groups. Should a trans-Pacific cable be landed im
that country, to effect this through the middle of one of these groups.
would be inviting its destruction.
If we had the means of knowing that when an interruption occurred
in a cable at the same time an unfelt earthquake had been recorded, we
should then be in a position to attribute the fault to its proper cause.
The practically simultaneous failure of three Atlantic cables in 1884 led
to the hypothesis that they had been broken by the grapnels of a
repairing vessel ; fortunately for the owners of this vessel, it could not be:
substantiated.
From the ‘Electrician’ of August 20 and October 12, 1888, we learn
that the simultaneous interruption of the two cables connecting Java and
Australia in 1888 cut off the latter from the outside world for nineteen
days, and gave a pretext for calling out the military and naval reserves to
meet the contingency of war having broken out. In 1890 three cables
were simultaneously broken, and telegraphic communication with Australia.
was cut off for nine days. On these occasions, had there been established
in Australia a proper instrument for recording unfelt movements of the
ground, it is extremely likely that the cause of the interruption would
have been recognised as due to seismic action, and the fear of war and the
probable accompanying commercial paralysis would have been averted.
Other direct benefits, which have already been derived from the records:
of instruments such as it is here proposed to establish round the world,
are that they enable us to extend, correct, and even to cast doubt upom
certain classes of telegraphic information published in our newspapers.
Late in June last year we learned from our newspapers that a great:
disaster had taken place in North Japan, and that nearly 30,000 people
had lost their lives. Seismograms taken in the Isle of Wight not only
indicated how many maxima of motion had taken place, but showed that
there had been an error in transmission of two days, the catastrophe:
1 See Seismological Jowrnal, vol. iv.
206 : REPORT—1897.
having taken place on the evening of June 15, so that all who were to
reach the stricken district after that date were in safety.
On August 31 of the same year, the Isle of Wight records showed that a
disturbance similar to that which had occurred in Japan had taken place.
On account of this similarity, it was stated that we should probably hear
of a great earthquake having taken place in or near that country on the
above date at 5.7 p.m. Four weeks later this was verified by mail.
Another instance occurred some weeks later, when our newspapers an-
nounced that a great earthquake had taken place and several thousand
lives had been lost in Kobe. No doubt those who had friends and pro-
perty in that city were filled with anxiety. On this occasion the Isle of
Wight instruments were still indicating that nothing of the magnitude
described could have occurred. Later it was discovered that the telegram
was devoid of all foundation.
If we next turn to the scientific aspect of the proposed investigations,
we at once recognise the importance of the results which it is hoped may
be obtained for the hydrographer and the student of physical geography
and geology.
The greatest result which it is hoped may be achieved is to accurately
determine the rate at which earthquake motion is propagated over long
distances. In some instances the rates which have already been deter-
mined are so high, reaching 12 and more kilometres per second, that
the supposition is, that motion does not simply go round our earth, but
that it goes through the same ; and if this is so, then a determination of
these rates of transit will throw new light upon the effective rigidity of
our planet.
Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor G, CAREY Foster (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK
(Secretary), Lord Ketvin, Lord RayLercH, Professors W. E.
AYRTON, J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and OLIVER J. Lope, Drs. JoHN
Horxinson and A. Murrueapd, Messrs. W. H. PREECE and
HERBERT TAYLOR, Professors J. D. Everetr and A. SCHUSTER,
Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Professors G. I’. FitzGreraLp, G. CHRYSTAL,
and J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. Ssaw, Dr. J. T. Borromtey,
Rev. T. C. Firzparrick, Professor J, ViriamMu Jones, Dr. G.
JOHNSTONE STONEY, Professor S. P. THompson, Mr. G. Forpss,
Mr. J. Rennie, Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, and Professor A. W.
RUCKER.
AP?ENDIX PAGR
I. Note on the Constant-volume Gas-thermometer. By G. CAREY FOSTER, F.R.S. 210
Il. On @ Determination of the Ohm made in Testing the Lorenz Apparatus of the
McGill University, Montreal. By Professor W. E. AyRToON, F.R S., and
Professor J. VIRIAMU JONES, 7.2.8. i 5 212
At the Liverpool meeting the Committee agreed that the ‘calorie,’
defined as the heat equivalent of 4:2 x 10’ ergs, should be adopted as the
unit for the measurement of quantities of heat, but the question as to the
exact part of the absolute thermodynamic scale of temperature at which
PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 207
this quantity of heat could be taken as equal to one water-gramme-degree
was for the time being left open.
This resolution has made it incumbent on the Committee to consider
carefully—
1. The relation between the results of measurements of intervals of
temperature by accepted methods and the absolute scale ;
2. The specific heat of water in terms of the erg and its variation with
temperature.
With regard to the first point there appears to be no reason to doubt
that the scale of a constant-volume hydrogen-thermometer is very nearly
identical with the absolute scale.! The Committee have therefore decided
to recognise the standard hydrogen-thermometer of the Bureau Inter-
national des Poids et Mesures as representing, nearly enough for present
purposes, the absolute scale. This convention has at least the advantage
of giving a definite meaning to statements of the numerical value of
intervals of temperature within any range for which comparison with the
hydrogen-thermometer is practicable. If future investigation should show
that it is inaccurate to any appreciable extent, corresponding corrections
can be applied when necessary.
Experience of the use of the platinum resistance-thermometer in various
hands encourages the hope that it will afford a convenient and trust-
worthy working method of referring the indications of mercury- or other
thermometers to those of the standard hydrogen-thermometer. The Com-
mittee have consequently much satisfaction in learning that Dr. C. A.
Harker, formerly of Owens College, is at this moment carrying out at
Sevres, on behalf of the Committee of the Kew Observatory, and with the
concurrence of the Director of the Laboratories of the Bureau Inter-
national, a direct comparison of platinum thermometers belonging to the
Kew Observatory with the standard hydrogen-thermometer of the
Bureau.
As to the dynamical value of the specific heat of water—in other words
the mechanical equivalent of heat—it was pointed out by Professor
Schuster and Mr. Gannon in 1894? that the results of the best determi-
nations by direct mechanical methods agree among themselves much more
closely than they do with those that are founded upon electrical measure-
ments of the energy expended, although these in turn are in good agree-
ment among themselves. Additional significance is given to this remark
by the comparison of those determinations which, by extending over an
appreciable range of temperature, indicate the rate of variation of the
specific heat of water. Of such determinations there is one of each kind,
that of Professor Rowland by the mechanical method, and that of Mr.
E. H. Griffiths by the electrical method. The results of the former of these
have recently undergone an elaborate revision at the hands of one of
Professor Rowland’s pupils, Mr. W. 8. Day,? who has compared the
three principal thermometers employed in the experiments with the |
Sévres hydrogen-standard by means of three Tonnelot thermometers
which had been compared at the Bureau with the hydrogen-standard.
Messrs. C. W. Waidner and F. Mallory‘ have also compared two of
1 See Appendix No. 1 to this Report.
2 Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvi., p. 462; Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. lvii., p. 31.
% Johns Hopkins University Circulars, pp. 44, 45 (June 1897); also Phil. Mag.,
xliv. 169-172.
4 Ibid., pp. 42, 43 (June 1897); Phil. Mag., xliv. 165-169.
208 REPORT—1897.
Rowland’s thermometers with a platinum thermometer made by Mr.
Griffiths. The result of this discussion is to leave Rowland’s original
value unchanged at 15°, and to raise it by four parts in 4,000 at 25°,
making the rate of variation of the specific heat of water almost exactly
the same as that given by Griffiths’s experiments throughout the same
range.
The following table gives the numerical values :—
Values of the Specific Heat of Water at 15° C.
1. By mechanical friction :—
Author Date Result
Joule ‘ > - é ¢ 1878 4172 x 10‘ ergs.
Miculescu . - : ; ; 1892 4181 ,,
Rowland . 5 - 5 . 1879 4189 ,,
; mean specific heat
Reynolds and Moorby . .| 1897 | 4183x 10 { pent atee tet
2. By electrical methods :—
Author Date Result
Griffiths . . . . : 1893 4199°7 x 104 ergs.
Schuster and Gannon " ‘ 1894 LAE A ieeorys
Variation of the Specific Heat of Water.
Specific Heat
Temperature SER
Rowland Griffiths
6 4204 x 10* =
10 ALOT =
15 4189 .,, 4199-7 x 10
20 4183 ,, A193 2
25 ATTY, 4187-4
30 ALT3~,, ae
35 4174, us
Joule’s (1878) result is given by Schuster and Gannon (Proc. Roy. Soc., lvii.
p. 31) as 775 foot-pounds at Greenwich per degree Fahr. As Professor Schuster
has examined the thermometers employed by Joule, this value is adopted as the most
trustworthy statement of the result of Joule’s experiments : it is reduced to ergs and
the Centigrade scale.
Miculescu (Ann. Chim. Phys. [6], xxvii. 237) states his result as 426-84 kilogramme-
metres per kilogramme-degree of the normal hydrogen-thermometer between 10° and
13°. Taking g =980 96, this is equivalent to 4187 x 10 ergs per gramme-degree. The
mean temperature 11°5 has been adopted and reduction to 15° has been made by
means of the rate of variation given by Rowland’s experiments.
Reynolds’ and Moorby’s experiments (Proc. Roy. Soc., lxi.) refer to the whole range
from 0° to 100°. Their result is stated, in foot-pounds at Manchester and degrees
Fahr., as 776:94. To reduce to ergs and the Centigrade scale this number has
been multiplied by 1°8 x 30°48 x 98134.
Schuster and Gannon (Proc. Roy. Soc., vii. 25-31).
Rowland’s and Griffiths’ results are quoted from Day (Phil. Mag., August 1897,
p. 171), whose statement is adopted by Griffiths in Nature for July 15, 1897.
:
"
PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 209
The agreement between the separate determinations by the mechanical
and by the electrical methods respectively, and the regularity of the
differences between Rowland’s values and those of Griffiths, is such as to
raise a strong presumption that, in the experiments by both methods,
errors of observation have been reduced to a very small amount. At the
same time the difference between the two sets of results points to some
constant source of error in the measurement of energy affecting one or
oth. The mechanical method is, in principle, so direct and simple that
it is difficult to suppose its results affected by a constant error. On the
other hand, the electrical method being less direct and more complicated,
there is here more room for uncertainty in the data.
The electrical determinations depend upon the well-known relation
between thermal and electrical energy, which is expressible in the three
forms—
E2
JH=C’Ri=CEt=—, t.
Schuster and Gannon’s experiments are based upon the second form
‘of the equation, those of Griffiths on the third. In both of them electro-
motive force was measured by comparison with a Latimer Clark’s cell.
Schuster and Gannon measured, in addition, the strength of their current
‘by means of a silver-voltameter, and Griffiths measured a resistance in
terms of the ohm.
The accepted value of the electromotive force of the Clark’s cell depends
in its turn on the electrochemical equivalent of silver as determined by
Lord Rayleigh and Professor F. Kohlrausch, and consequently it appears
‘that the electrical determinations of the mechanical equivalent involve a
‘double reference to the electrochemical equivalent of silver, so that any
inaccuracy in the adopted value of this quantity would involve a duplicate
error in the value of the mechanical equivalent deduced therefrom.
In this connection it may be mentioned that, in a recent letter to
*Nature,’ vol. lvi. p. 292, Lord Rayleigh has stated that he does not
consider that a possible error of one part in 1,000 is excluded from his
determination of the electrochemical equivalent of silver. If it be
assumed that his value is one part in 1,000 too small, this would almost
exactly account for the difference between the electrical determinations
into which this quantity enters as a factor and.the direct mechanical
determinations.
It thus appears to be a matter of urgent importance that a redeter-
mination of the electrochemical equivalent of silver should be made, and
that the general question of the absolute measurement of electric currents
should be investigated. In order to enable them to carry out this investi-
gation, the Committee have decided to ask for reappointment and to apply
for a grant of 100/. towards the expense of the necessary apparatus and
experiments.
1897. P
210 REPORT—1897.
APPENDIX I.
Note on the Constant-volume Gas-thermometer.
By G. Carry Foster, /. 2.8.
The absolute thermodynamic scale of temperature introduced by Lord
Kelvin is connected with the properties of real fluids by the equation !
Tipe gs Pk Or a Sone)
where dv is the infinitesimal increment which unit mass of a fluid occupying
the volume v undergoes when it is heated, under constant pressure, from
the absolute temperature T to the infinitesimally higher absolute tempera-
ture T+dT, and dw is the amount-of work required to restore the original
temperature of unit mass of the fluid when it has undergone a fall of
pressure, dp, by passing through a porous plug, as in Joule and Thomson’s
experiments, without loss or gain of heat.
It follows that, if there is any fluid which does not undergo a change
of temperature when forced through a porous plug, an infinitesimal change
of temperature is to the total temperature on the absolute scale as the
resulting change of volume of this fluid is to the total volume. Such a fluid
would be called a perfect gas.
The following discussion of the bearing of the results of the porous-
plug experiments on the indications of a constant-volume gas-thermometer
is taken from a copy which the writer made in January 1894 of a fuller
discussion of these experimen’s communicated to him by his friend and
former pupil, Mr. John Rose-Innes. Mr. Rose-Innes will shortly read a
paper on this question before the Physical Society of London. In the
meantime the writer has his permission to make the present use of his’
hitherto‘unpublished results.
It will be remembered that Joule and Lord Kelvin found that all the
gases they experimented on were, with the exception of hydrogen, slightly
cooled by being forced through the plug. With hydrogen the effect was
smaller than with other gases and was a rise of temperature. Ata given
temperature the cooling effect was, up to five or six atmospheres, propor-
tional to the difference of pressure on opposite sides of the plug. For a
given change of pressure the effect decreased with rise of temperature,
and Joule and Lord Kelvin concluded that it was approximately propor-
tional to the inverse square of the temperature reckoned from —273° C.
With hydrogen the variation with temperature was too small for them to
consider it as clearly established ; if anything the effect became greater as
the temperature rose.
Mr. Rose-Innes’s discussion of these results is founded upon his
remark that an empirical formula with two constants, a and (#, namely
a
= F344 + B;
' Compare equation (16) of Lord Kelvin’s article ‘Heat’ in the Zneyclopedia
Britannica, vol. xi. p. 571; Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. iii.
Ss. |.
thi
PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 211
where @ is the cooling effect and ¢ temperature on the ordinary centigrade
scale, represents the experimental values rather more accurately than the
inverse-square formula, The values of a and £ calculated by him for air,
carbonic acid gas, and hydrogen, the change of pressure being represented
by 100 inches of mercury, are as follows :—
a B
Air “ ’ . 441-5 —0°697
Carbonic Acid : . 2615 —4:93
Hydrogen . . . 64:1 — ‘331
To apply equation (1) to the discussion of the gas-thermometer, we
may begin (like Joule and Kelvin) by expressing the work ¢éw, required
to restore the gas to its initial condition, in terms of the observed cooling
effect, and may write
cw=J CO=JC (¢ + B ),
where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat and C the specific heat of
the gas under constant pressure. If we remember that J may be written
J=W /mb’, where W is the work that must be spent to raise the tempera-
ture of a mass m of water by the amount )’, we see that the thermometric
scale on which @ and 0’ are expressed is of no consequence, provided it is
the same for both.
Putting II for the change of pressure producing a cooling effect 0, we
may write equation (1) thus, taking reciprocals of both sides :
dv _ JC a 7 <
Ton = (at B) < . . . . (2)
or, dividing throughout by T? and integrating between limits T and
infinity—
v v Petia) C/a B ‘
(ee rath) 6 + +
With regard to the first term on the right, it may be remarked that
all gases appear to approximate more and more nearly as temperature
rises to agreement with the equation m ily (a constant). Applying this
to (3), we get
B 20/4. 2)
avs, Tae T/>
or,
GelGhe OCS ug. dyes )
P= a" ii age (sn+8 . . (4)
Neglecting, provisionally, the Joule-Kelvin effect, we have. as a first
approximation,
—RT,
>
Vv
and we may take this value as accurate enough for use in the small term
containing p on the right-hand side of (4).
r2
212 REPORT—1897.
We thus get, as a second approximation to the value of p—
pat [ TZ Ga+Ar)| eee, eer
Tlv *?
Now let v remain constant, and let »), T, and p,, T, represent pressure
and temperature at the melting-point of ise and at the boiling-point of
water respectively ; we then get
=R JC ;;
on [T)— ile ($«+/T,)]
Rr _JCy
Tg [T, Tv 4a-+ BT,)].
By subtraction
eT
and
p—pv=(S— BIER) (n,n)
Hence
P—Po_ T—Ty
A—-P T,—T,
or, finally, if we assume 100 as the numerical value of the interval T,—T,
T—T,=100 2=/;
Pi—Po
‘whence we may conclude that, to the degree of approximation attained in
this calculation, the scale of the constant volume gas-thermometer is
‘identical with the absolute thermodynamic scale.
APPENDIX II.
On a Determination of the Ohm made in Testing the Lorenz Apparatus
of the McGill University, Montreal, by Professor W. EH. AYRTON,
F.LR.S., and Professor J. Virtramu Jongs, F.R.S.
This apparatus, made by Messrs. Nalder Brothers, is in general arrange-
‘ment and dimensions similar to the Cardiff apparatus described in the
‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,’ 1891, A, pp. 1-42, and
in the ‘ Electrician,’ June 1895, vol. xxxv. pp. 231 and 253.
The field coil, in pursuance of a suggestion contained in the Royal
Society paper, consists of a single layer of wire wound in a helical groove
of semicircular section, cut in the cylindrical surface of a massive marble
ring of about 21 inches outside diameter, 15 inches inside diameter, and
6 inches thick. This helical groove has 201 complete turns with a pitch
of 0025 inch. Bare wire, of mean thickness 0:02136 inch, was first used,
PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 213
and the outside diameter of the coil so wound was measured in the
Whitworth machine with the following results :—
|
Diameter Near front face Near middle Near back face
0°—180° 21:04772 21:04765 21°04765
10°—190° 21:04795 21°04765 21:04952
20° — 200° 21:04768 21°04755 21:04905
30°— 210° 21:04805 21°04745 21:04818
40°— 220° 21:04785 21°04755 21°04825
50° — 230° 21:04808 21 04730 21:04812
60° — 240° 21:04752 21:04755 21:04805
70° — 250° 21:04755 21°04755 21:04822
80° — 260° 21:04785 21-04795 21°04895
90° — 270° 21:04812 21:04780 21:04942
100° — 280° 21:04805 21:04815 21:04925
110° —290° 21:04808 21:04825 21:04898
120° — 300° 21°04785 21:04840 21:04905
130° —310° 21°04828 21:04835 21:04915
140° —320° 21:04828 21:04815 21:04908
150° —330° 21:04805 21:04805 21:04932
160°—340° 21:04872 21:04795 21:04858
170° — 350° 21:04778 21:04785 21°04812
\ a 35 OS
Mean 21:04797 21:04784 21:04872
General mean = 21:04818 inches.
The temperature, which was taken at each observation, varied between
19°-9 C. and 21° C., and had a mean value of 20°-4 C. Correcting for the
difference between the temperature at which the bars of the Whitworth
machine have their specified value and this mean temperature, we have
for the mean outside diameter of the coil, when wound with bare wire
0:02136 inch thick,
21-04932 inch at 20°-4 C.
From the above measurements it is clear that the wire lay on a very
true circular cylinder. With bare wire, however, of the thickness used it
was found impossible to obtain sufficient insulation between pairs of
convolutions. Hence, after much time had been spent in endeavouring to
insulate the successive turns by forcing paraffin wax in between them, &c.,
the coil was unwound and rewound with double silk covered wire which
had been first dried, then drawn through paraffin wax, and lastly baked
before the winding was commenced. To wind so large and heavy a ring
was not an easy matter, and it was not until the winding had been
performed three times that the layer looked sufficiently uniform and quite
free from abrasion of the silk.
The mean thickness of the double silk covered wire used in the last
winding was 0:01914 inch, so that the outside diameter of the wound
coil, calculated from the value given above for the coil wound with bare
wire, was
21-04488 inches at 20°°4 C.
The coil was then brushed over with melted paraffin wax, bound round
with silk ribbon that had been soaked in a solution of shellac, and finally
loosely covered up with a wide silk ribbon that had been passed through
parafiin wax.
214 REPORT—1897.
During the time that the ring was unwound the linear coefficient of
expansion of the marble was measured by Messrs. Spiers, Twyman, and
Waters, three of the students of the City and Guilds Central Technical
College. The experiment was attended with difficulty, for it was far from
easy to bring so large a mass of a badly conducting substance to the
same temperature, but ultimately the result 0000004 per 1° C. was
obtained.
At the conclusion of the resistance observations recorded further on,
the silk ribbons and the protecting layer of paraffin wax were carefully
removed until the silk covering of the wire appeared, and the diameter of
the coil was measured along two directions at right angles to one another.
The maximum difference between four measurements was only five
hundred-thousandths of an inch, and after the introduction of the proper
temperature corrections, the mean value of the outside diameter of the
coil was found to be
21:04687 inches at 20°°4 C.
This result is about one part in ten thousand larger than the calcu-
lated value given above, and the difference is probably due to the silk
covering of the wire having swollen slightly when the wound coil was
brushed over with melted paraffin wax. In the calculation, therefore, of
the coefficient of mutual induction we have considered it more accurate
to use the value obtained by direct experiment. Subtracting from that
value—21-04687—the thickness of the double silk-covered wire—0:01914
—we have for the mean diameter of the coil from aais to axis of the wire
21:02773 inches at 20°-4 C.
Shortly before the last set of resistance measurements was carried out,
the edge of the phosphor bronze disc was ground in position so as to be
made quite true with the axis of rotation, and immediately after the com-
pletion of the investigation the diameter of the disc was measured and
found to be 13-01435 inches at 19°-5 C. Messrs. Spiers, Twyman, and
Waters had previously determined its linear coefficient of expansion to
be 0:0000125 per 1° C., so that its diameter was
13:01451 inches at 20°°4 C.
During 1896 Mr. W. G. Rhodes, when he was an Assistant at the
Central Technical College, carried out the long calculation of the co-
efficient of mutual induction between the coil, as wound with bare wire,
and the disc by using the method given in the paper in the ‘ Philosophical
Transactions’ above referred to, and with the following values :—
Diameter of coil or 2 A =21-:02673 inches.
Diameter of disc or 2 a =13:01997 inches.
Axial length of helix or 2. 2 =5-025 inches.
Number of convolutions or n=201
He found
M=18056-36 inches.
= 45862°'33 centimetres.
This calculation was checked by Mr. Mather and independently by
one of the authors.
Now it can be shown that for the above values of A, a, x, and n
dM dA da dx
— = “2 S= < j= . ae
M 1:246 A 12346 = 00000
PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 215
and so the value of M for the particular values of 2A and 2a given
above, viz. 21:02772 and 13:01451 can be calculated. When thisis done
we find
M=18037°'51 inches.
=45814°45 centimetres,
and this was the value of M which we employed in our final determina-
tion, after allowance had been made for the effect of the central brush, as
will be described further on.
The accuracy of the preceding calculations was tested in the fol-
lowing way. Values of 2A and 2a, differing slightly from those em-
ployed by Mr. Rhodes, were selected, and by means of the formula for
iw the proportional change in M was determined by Mr. Twyman. Then
the value of M for these changed values of 2 A and 2a, was calculated by
the authors from a new formula involving an elliptic integral of the third
kind.!
The centre brush consists of a tube, 0:135 inch outside diameter,
which projects into an axial hole in the disc of 0-144 inch diameter.
Contact with the edge of the disc is made by three small tangential
phosphor bronze tubes lightly pressed on it, at points separated by
angular distances of 120°. Through all four tubes a small stream of
mercury is kept flowing, as this is found to greatly diminish the disturbances
caused by variations in the thermo-electric effects ; and the employment
of three brushes at the circumference, as suggested by Rowland, eliminates
small errors due to imperfect centering of the coil and disc.
To prevent the mercury which drops out of the central tube-brush
touching the disc at a larger radius than that of the hole in its centre an
ebonite boss is cemented to the disc, and this causes the mercury to drop
away quite clear of the metal of the disc.
If we take as the effective outside diameter of the central tube 0°139
inch, that.is the mean of 0°135 and 0-144 inch, calculation shows that the
coefficient of mutual induction is reduced by 4:50 centimetres, so that
finally we have
M=45809:95 centimetres..
As the allowance for the central brush only diminishes M by one part
in ten thousand it is clear that, for that degree of accuracy, an error of a
few per cent. in estimating the diameter of the central brush is of no
consequence.
The method of making the observations was the same as that described
in the papers on the Cardiff apparatus read before Section A of the British
Association at Nottingham and Oxford (vide Report of the Committee
on Electrical Standards, Appendices 1893 and 1894). The use of an
extremely sensitive Ayrton-Mather galvanometer of the d’Arsonval type
materially facilitated the readings being taken. Two such narrow coil
galvanometers were specially constructed by Mr. Mather himself for use
1 An account of this new formula as well as of that for aa will shortly be pub-
lished by Professor Viriamu Jones.
216 REPORT—1897.
with the Lorenz apparatus, and the data of the second instrument are
contained in the following table.
Resistance of suspended coil . 5 - . 1:9 ohms.
7 coil and suspension . : oO ID uss
Periodic time of complete swing : : . 76 seconds.
{ 1412 millimetres.
* | 1840 scale divisions.
Deflection in divisions at actual scale distance { 137 per micro-ampere..
used a 1, micro-volt.
Deflection in divisicns at scale distance equal to { 204 ,, micro-ampere.
2,000 scale divisions {58 1 Micro-volt,
Scale distance actually used
The resistance coils used were those previously employed in the Cardiff
determination of the ohm (vide Report of the Committee ov Electrical
Standards, Appendices IT. and ITI., 1894). They have been tested once
by Mr. Glazebrook, and twice by the kindness of Major Cardew in the
Board of Trade Electric Standardising Laboratory, with the following
results :—- ;
A. B. C.
Coil. Mr. Glazebrook, Board of Trade, Board of Trade,
Jan.-March 1894. November 1896. August 1897.
No. 3,873 | 9:9919 at14°8C.| 9992994 at 14°86 C. 10°00712 at 19°-3 0.
» 3,874 | 9:9926 at14°9C 9°993213 at 149-91 C. 10:00775 at 19°3C.
» 4,274 | *100050 at 15°-2 C, 1000595 at 14°77 C, 100078 at 19°-4 C.
» 4,275 | *100053 at 15°-2 C. 1000722 at 15°14 C, "100081 at 19°°4 O.
The coils Nos. 3,873 and 3,874 were stated by the makers, Messrs.
Nalder, to be wound with platinum silver wire, and the two others, Nos.
4,274 and 4,275, with manganin.
In the following table are given the temperature coefficients as
supplied originally by the makers, and as calculated from the tests A and
C, and B and C.
Temperature Coefficients of Resistance per 1° C.
: As supplied by From tests From tests
eo Messrs. Nalder. A and C, B and C.
No. 3,873 0000276 0000360 0:000318
yy 3,874 0000300 0:000344 0:000331
» 4,274 00000127 0:G000667 0:0000399
» 4,275 0:0000127 0:0000667 0:0000207
These figures show that a redetermination of the temperature co-
efficients, which we are now carrying out, is necessary.
Fortunately the last set of determinations of the resistance of these four
coils was carried out at Westminster, within a fortnight of the completion of
our absolute measurements, and weare much indebted to Major Cardew
for his kind promptness in the matter. The temperatures of these 1897
Board of Trade measurements were so nearly those of the coils during
our final absolute determinations, which were from 18°'8 to 19°°4 C., as
ee, re
_
PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 217
to render the effect of possible errors in the temperature coefficients.
negligible to the degree of accuracy aimed at by us. We have, therefore,
used the August 1897 Board of Trade values for these coils as transmit-
ting the Board of Trade ohm to the laboratory in Exhibition Road.
The standard thermometers used in the investigation were sent to.
Kew and their errors were determined at the time by the kindness of
Dr. Chree ; also, thanks to Sir J. Norman Lockyer, the clock in the
Mechanical Department of the Central Technical College, which trans-
mitted seconds to the fast running Bain Chronograph, was frequently
timed by reference to the current sent hourly to his room from the
General Post Office, and at 10 a.m. from Greenwich.
The results of successive measurements of the absolute resistances
became very concordant after, little by little, various possible causes of
small errors had been eliminated. Nine sets taken on July 30, 1897,
gave the following results for the value of the Board of Trade ohm in
true ohms, without allowance for the error in the clock rate.
1:000286 1:000277
1000256 1000306
1:000285 1:000284
1:000351 1:000307
1:000295
Mean 1:000294
or, since the clock was found to lose, during the daytime, at the rate of
three seconds per twenty-four hours, it follows that according to this.
investigation
1 Board of Trade ohm=1:00 026 true ohms.
It is important to consider in which direction this result will be
affected by sources of error that cannot be removed by careful adjustment,
centering, &c. They may be classified as follows :—
Effect Produced.
’ Result would be too
small.
Source of Error.
1, Over-estimation of the diameter of the coil arising,
for example, from the stress on the copper wire
haying caused it to compress the under side of its
silk covering.
2. Under-estimation of the diameter of the phosphor
bronze disc from a neglect of the tips of the cir-
cumferential brush tubes being possibly pushed
away from the disc by the stream of mercury
issuing, &c.
Result would be too
small.
. Presence of iron pipes, girders, &c. in the neighbour-
hood of the apparatus.
. Traces of iron in the phosphor bronze dise.
. Defective insulation between the support of the
central brush and the supports of the circum-
ferential brushes.
. Defective insulation between the convolutions on the
coil,
. Traces of iron in the marble ring,
Result would be too
small.
Result would be very
slightly too small.
Result would be tow
large.
Result would be too
large. p
Result would be too
large.
218 REPORT—1 897.
8. Defective insulation of parts of the circuit fromone Effect would depend
another. upon the position of
the leaks.
9. Permanent magnetic field at the apparatus. No effect, for the current
through the field coil
was periodically re-
versed.
As regards 4 and 7, special induction balances were constructed and
used by Mr. Mather to test the permeability of both the marble ring and
the phosphor bronze disc ; but, although a deviation from unity of one
part in fifteen thousand could have been detected in the permeability of
either, no such deviation was observed.
As regards 5 and 8, careful tests were made every day of the
insulation resistance of the apparatus, and it was always found to be
greater than one thousand megohms.
6. The insulation between the adjacent convolutions of wire could not
be measured when they were silk covered and buried in paraffin wax,
since a small leak between a pair of turns would not change the apparent
resistance of the copper coil by as much as the variation in temperature
of a fraction of one degree. We had, therefore, to content ourselves with
the precautions, previously described, which were taken to secure high
insulation in the winding of the coil.
When the ring was wound with bare wire it was possible to roughly
compare the insulation resistance between pairs of convolutions by
sending a constant current through the coil and measuring, very
accurately, the P.D. between every adjacent pair of the 201 turns. This
we did several times, but it was a long and laborious task.
When constructing a new Lorenz apparatus it will be well to consider
whether two separate helices should not be cut in the cylindrical surface
of the marble ring in which two independent bare wires would be bound,
a turn of the one being everywhere (except at the extreme ends) between
two turns of the other. The insulation resistance, therefore, between
the two windings would measure the insulation between the adjacent
turns, while in the ordinary use of the apparatus the two windings would
be joined in series so as to constitute a single coil. In this way it may
be possible to be more sure of the absence of 6 than by using paraffined
double silk covered wire, and at the same time, to entirely remove 1.
The direction of our experimental result, which shows that the Board
of Trade ohm is between two and three parts in ten thousand larger than
the true ohm could not, however, arise from 1. Nor could it arise from
either 2 or 3, still many experiments were made to detect any evidence
of the effective diameter of the disc being larger than its true diameter,
as measured in the Whitworth machine. But no change in the pressure
of the circumferential brush-tubes, nor alteration in the shape of their
ends, &c., indicated that, with the brushes as we employed them, the
effective diameter of the disc differed from its true diameter.
Our thanks are due to the three students whose names are given above
for much assistance in carrying out the long series of observations ; to Mr.
Harrison for bringing to bear, from time to time, the experience that he
had previously gained in the use of the Lorenz apparatus ; and we are
especially indebted to Mr. Mather for the suggestive aid which he rendered
us throughout the whole of the present investigation.
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 219
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secre-
tary), Dr. Jouxn Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER BucHan, and Professor
R. Coretand. (Drawn up by Dr. BucHay.)
The Committee was appointed, as in former years, for the purpose of
co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteoro-
logical observations at the two Ben Nevis Observatories.
The hourly eye observations by night as well as by day have been made
with the utmost regularity by Mr. Angus Rankin, the Acting Superin-
tendent, and the assistants during the year. The continuous registrations
and other observations have been carried on at the Low Level Observatory
at Fort William with the same accuracy and fulness of detail as heretofore.
The Directors of the Observatories tender their best thanks to Messrs.
A. J. Herbertson, T. 8. Muir, A. Drysdale, M.A., B.Sc., P. 8. Hardie,
George Ednie, and John S. Begg, for the invaluable assistance rendered
by them as volunteer observers during the summer and autumn months,
thus giving much needed relief to the members of the regular observing
staff.
Table I. shows for the year 1896 the mean monthly and extreme
pressures and temperatures ; amounts of rainfall, with the days of rain,
and the number of days when the amount exceeded one inch ; the hours of
sunshine ; the mean percentage of cloud ; the mean velocity of the wind in
miles per hour at the top of the mountain ; and the mean rainband at both
observatories. The mean barometric pressures at Fort William Observa-
tory are reduced to 32° and sea level, but those at the Ben Nevis
Observatory are reduced to 32° only.
Taste I.
1896 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- 25°443) 25°711| 25°410) 25°459) 25°460) a 25°127| 25°488) 25°077|25°367
~ servatory
Fort Wiliam 30°140) 29°597| 30°045} 30°266) 29°890} 29°958
Differences .} 4°645 4°633| 4:576| 4°602| 4°555| 4°480] 4°499
25°534
Mean Temperatures.
25°507| 25°021
30°092
4604
29°661
4°584
29°929
4°562
30°179 29°974| 29°646) 29°704
4577
4514) 4:47
BenNevisOb-| 282} 281 | 252] o94|] 389] ati | 495] 366) 87-0
servatory
Fort William | 413} 434 | 415 | 467] 538] 562] 567 | 554 | 53-1 | 426 | 43:3] 391 | 47:8
Differences .| 13:1] 153 | 163 | 17:3| 14:9| 151 | 162| 168| 161] 15 3 .
Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.
BenNevisOb-| 420 | 389 | 372| 448 | 582| 6f3| 5x9 | 500] 487) 45:0] 398
servatory
Fort William | 55°0 | 52°0 | 521 | 60°6 | 75:2 | 786 | 70:3 | 67:0 | 67:4 | 57°3 ete 517 | 786
14°9 | 158 | 22:0 | 17°3 | 174 | 17:0 | 1871 14:3 | 124 ft
Differences .| 13:0 | 131
Extremes of Temperature, Minima.
BenNevisOn.| 1£2 | 168 | 155 | 194 | 202! 809 | 31°3| 209] 273 | 144] 160] 148] 142
servatory
Fort William | 25°5 | 33:6 | 27:6| 302] 347| 463 | 424| 40:0 | 35-4 | 25:9] 247 | 226 206
Differences | 11:°3| 16°8| 121 | 108 | 145 | 15-4{ 111] 101] 81] 115] 87] 78] 84
220 REPORT—1897.
TABLE I.—continued.
1896 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April| May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Vec. | Year
Rainfall in Inches.
Ben NevisOb- | 16°20| 11°15| 19°55| 10°04| 2°91] 9°74) 6°87| 11°01] 10°78| 13°07) 9°77) 12°47 |133°56
servatory
Fort William | 9°50} 826) 10°64} 3°65) 1:27) 5:05) 3:96) 6:29] 7:01| 5°55] 4°68] 863] 74:49
Differences 6°70} 2°89] 8911 639; 164) 469] 2:91] 4:72| 3:77| 7:52} 5°09| 3:84] 59°07
Number of Days \ in. or more fell.
Ben Nevis Ob- 5 4 7 3 1 3 2 3 3 5 Bole wh 44
servatory
Fort William 3 3 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 4 16
Differences . 2 1 5 3 1 3 2 1 2 4 3 1 28
Number of Days of Rain.
Ben NevisOb-| 23 17 26 26 12 20 21 24 22 26 18 24 | 259
servatory |
Fort William | 24 18 24 22 rf 20 18 21 21 21 17 24 | 237
Differences .| —1 —1 2 4 5 0 3 3 cD lea 1 0 22
Mean Rainband (scale 0-8).
BenNevisOb-| 1°9 2°4 27 1:8 19 2°4| 33 28 27 2°0 16 17
servatory
Fort William | 3°6 3°8 3°9 35 3°8 4°4 46 45 54 34 35 35 4:0
Differences ./ 1°7 L4 1:2 7, 19 2-0 13 alte} 27 14 19 18 17
Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.
BenNevisOb-| 36 33 | 30 33 | 222 79 | 90 81 29 41 59 | 23 756
servatory
Fort William 17 28 85 93 231 129 | 135 131 74 71 25 17 11,036
Differences .|—19 —5 55 60 9 50 45 50 45 30 —34 | —6 28U
Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind in Miles.
Ben NevisOb-| 14 12 13 ll | 13 6 | ll 9 13 16 13 18 12
servatory | | | | | | | | |
Mean Percentage of Cloud.
Ben Nevis Ob-| 80 86 92 92 56 89 86 87 91 84 70 86 83
servatory
Fort William | 82 87 77 80 54 78 83 80 80 70 74 76 77
Differences .| —2 -1 15 12 2 11 3 7 1l 14 | -4 10 6
At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure for the year, at 32°
and sea level, was 29°929 inches, and at the top reduced only to 32°,
25°367 inches, being respectively 0-082 inch and 0-071 inch above the
averages. The difference for the two Observatories was thus 4°562 inches,
being only very slightly more than the average difference. At the top of
the mountain the absolute maximum pressure for the year was 26°252
inches, occurring at 10 a.m. of January 9, which is the highest yet
observed since the Observatory was established in 1883. At Fort William
at the same hour the pressure was 30°102 inches, also the highest hitherto
noted there.
The barometric observations at this time will be long remembered
as having been in all parts of the British Islands absolutely the highest.
hitherto recorded in each locality since barometers began to be in use.
In the morning of January 9, a broad belt of low temperature stretched
across Scotland from the Lewis to the Lothians, and it was within this
low temperature area that the absolutely highest readings of the barometer
were made. At several stations in the counties of Stirling, Dumbarton,
and the west of Perthshire, the sea-level readings rose to or slightly
exceeded 31-100 inches, the absolute highest of all being 31-108 inches at
Ochtertyre. It is remarkable that it was at Ochtertyre that the lowest
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 221
barometric observation hitherto made occurred, that observation being
27-333 inches, thus giving the range of 3°775 inches, a range which future
observation is not likely to increase. The weather at the time was strongly
anticyclonic, as the subjoined extracts from the Observatories show :—
TasLeE II.
Top of Fort
Ben Nevis. William.
° °
Dry bulb ; : 5 : . 29:0 26°7
Wet ditto ; 2 2 A - : . 213 264
Cloud : : 4 5 : ; Stell 10
Wind f : . 3 3 b ; ENE2
Sunshine,9to10 . : : F 3 60 min. none
The differences from the mean monthly pressures greatly exceeded the
average in January, February, May, July, August, and November, those
for January and May being greater than any that had occurred for the
previous forty years, and in these months accordingly relatively high
temperatures ruled on the top of Ben Nevis.
The following Table shows the deviations from the mean temperatures
of the months from the respective averages :—
TaBLeE III.
Fort Top of
William. Ben Nevis.
° °
January . 2°6 44
February 4-1 4:2
March 1-4 1.4
April 1:3 19
May 41 56
June : 6 : 5 : : éiagiite) i 21
July C : “ : : : . . —02 0:2
August . : : : : : : - —09 —12
September . = 2 : é : oe lOr’ —0°9
October . = ! ‘ A x . —41 —43
November : : 5 ‘ ‘ b . —04 19
December : : : : A : . —05 0:2
Year 5 “ : : , 3 ; 2 “O9 10
Thus it is seen the temperature at the top of Ben Nevis was relatively
much higher than at Fort William in January, May, and November, when
well developed anticyclones were of most frequent occurrence.
During the first half of the year temperature was above the average
at both Observatories, the mean excess at Fort William being 2°°4 and at
the top of Ben Nevis 3°-3. On the other hand, during the second half of
the year the mean temperature was 1°°0 under the normal at Fort
William, and 0°8 at the top of Ben Nevis. The two extreme months
were February, when mean temperature was fully 4°-0 above the normal,
and October, when it was fully 4°-0 under it at the two Observatories.
The absolutely highest temperature recorded during the year was 79°°9,
on June 14 at Fort William, and 61°3, also on June 14, at the top of Ben
Nevis. The absolutely lowest temperature was 22°°0 on December 18 at
Fort William, and at the top 14°°2 on January 23. The minimum
temperatures are exceptionally high for both places. At the top of the
222 REPORT—1897.
mountain 14°-2 is the highest minimum temperature of any year since the
Observatory was established.
As regards extremes of temperature the difference between the two
maxima was greatest in May, when it was 22°-0, and least in December,
when it was 12°-6; and the difference between the two minima was
greatest in February, when it was 16°°8, and least in December, when it
was only 7°°8.
The registrations of the sunshine recorder at the top show 756 hours
out of a possible 4,470 hours, being 61 hours more than in 1895. This
equals 17 per cent of the possible sunshine. The maximum was 222 hours
in May, being the highest hitherto recorded in any month except in June
1888, when the number of hours of clear sunshine was 250. The
minimum was 23 hours in December, no higher monthly minimum having
yet been recorded in any year. At Fort William the number of hours for
the year was 1,036, being 96 hours fewer than in 1895. This great
difference in favour of the top was due to a greater prevalence of anti-
cyclones during 1896, when clearer weather prevails at the top than at the
foot of the mountain. The maximum was 231 hours in May and the
minimum 17 in January and again in December. As the number of
hours of possible sunshine at Fort William is 3,497, the sunshine of 1896
was 30 per cent. under the possible.
In the subjoined Table are given for each month the lowest hygro-
metric readings :—
TaBLE IV.
_— Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April] May | June} July | Aug.| Sept. | Oct. | Noy. | Dec. |
° ° ° ° °o io} ° ° ° °o ° ° |
Dry Bulb . - | 25°0 | 26°0 | 23:2 | 38:8 | 46°6 | 47:0 | 44°4 | 45°0 | 48:7 | 21°5 | 26-1 | 29-0 |
Wet Bulb ‘ - | 180 | 19°0 | 16°8 | 30°0 | 33:0 | 37°8 | 35°3 | 35:2 | 42°5 | -185 |] 19°1 23°8 |
Dew-point . - |-20° |-16°7 |-22°9 | 18:8 | 16°7 | 27:7 | 24:7 | 23-4 | 35-7 | -1°8 | -16°3 4°9 |
. | Elastic Force . - | °O17 | 019 | °014 | °102 | *093 | °151 | °133 | -125 | -209 | -040 | °017 | -054
Relative Humidity 13 13 ll 45 29 47 45 42 61 35 14 34
(Sat.=100)
Day of Month 5 9 23 12 24 31 26 17 23 6 26 3 1
Of these lowest monthly humidities the lowest occurred on March 12,
when the dew-point was —22°-9, the elastic force of vapour ‘014 inch,
and relative humidity 11. Very low humidities also occurred in January,
February, and November. No low humidities were recorded in Sep-
tember, the lowest being on the 6th, when the dew-point was 35°-7, and
the humidity 61, and in this month the sunshine was small, being only
29 hours, which is the smallest recorded in this month since 1885, when
only 25 hours were recorded.
At the Ben Nevis Observatory the mean percentage of cloud covering
the sky was 83, which is the average, the maximum being 92 in March
and April and the minimum 56 in May; and at Fort William the mean
was 77, the maximum being 87 in February and the minimum 54 in May.
It will be noted that in the anticyclonic months of January, February, May,
and November, the sky at the top was much more clear of cloud as com-
pared with the foot of the mountain than is usually the case.
The mean rainband (scale 0-8) observation at the top was 2°3 for the
year, the highest being 3°3 in July, and the lowest 1-6 in November ; and
at Fort William 4-0 for the year, the highest being 5-4 in September, and
the lowest 3:4 in October.
ee Le
=
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 223
The mean hourly velocity of the wind at the top of Ben Nevis was
12 miles for the year, being the lowest velocity of any year since the
observations began. The maximum mean monthly velocity was 18 miles
an hour in December, and the minimum only 6 miles in June. For the
three summer months, June, July, and August, the mean was at the rate
of 9 miles per hour, but for the three winter months, December, January,
and February, it was 15 miles per hour. These are respectively the
lowest mean summer and the lowest mean winter velocities of the wind
hitherto recorded at this Observatory.
The rainfall for the year at the top of Ben Nevis was 133-56 inches,
being 15:56 inches greater than the rainfall of 1895. It was, however,
11-95 inches under the average of the past observations. The highest
monthly amount was 19-54 inches in March, and the lowest 2:91 inches in
May, being the smallest rainfall of any previous May. The heaviest fall
on any single day was 2°94 inches on January 17, which is absolutely the
least daily maximum fall yet recorded for any year.
On the top rain fell on 259 days, and at Fort William on 237 days,
these numbers of days being the average rainy days at the two Observa-
tories. At the top the maximum number of rainy days was 26 in March,
April, and October ; and at Fort William, 24 in January, March, and
December. The minimum number of days of rain at the top was 12 days
in May, and at Fort William 7 days, also in May.
During the year the number of days on which an inch of rain, or more,
was precipitated was 44 at the top and 16 at Fort William ; at the latter
place an inch of rain was not reached on any day of April, May, June,
July and November, but at the top, on the other hand, this amount was
exceeded on 7 days of March, while May had only one such day.
Auroras are reported to have been observed on the following dates :—
January 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 22, 29, 30, 31; February 2, 3, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19 ;
March 11, 12, 13, 14, 23, 30, 31; April 14, 15; May 2, 3, 4, 11, 17;
September 4 ; October 11, 13, 14, 15, 17 ; November 8.
St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on January 12, 27 ; June 20 ; October 5 ;
December 26.
The Zodiacal Light, March 12, 13.
Thunder and lightning was reported on January 20; April 10;
June 4; September 16.
Lightning only, September 14 ; December 31. °
It was intimated in last year’s Report that an intermediate station
had been established on Ben Nevis, at a height of 2,322 feet, or nearly
midway in height between the two Observatories. This temporary
station was established for the purpose of ascertaining with greater pre-
cision than has hitherto been possible the extent to which anticyclones
descend on the mountain ; but more particularly the relations of pressure,
temperature, humidity, rainfall, cloud, and wind at this intermediate
station with the observations at Fort William and on the summit of Ben
Nevis. The three stations are in a line with each other, and the heights
are 4,406, 2,322, and 42 feet. The observations were made by Mr. Muir,
of the Royal High School of Edinburgh, during September. A report on
the observations was prepared by Mr. Muir and read by him at a Meeting
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh last winter. The observations at this
intermediate station have been again resumed this year, and arrangements
have been made for a continuous record of observations from July 19 to
September 30. This year the weather fortunately has hitherto (till
224 ; REPORT—1897.
August 9) been mostly anticyclonic, being the type of weather so much
desired for the observations needed in carrying out the important inquiries
referred to above.
During the past year much of the time of the office in Edinburgh,
aided by Mr. Ormond and the staff on Ben Nevis, has been spent in pre-
paring for the press the whole of the observations, hourly and otherwise,
made at the two Observatories from January 1888 to 1896. These obser-
vations, now ready for press, will fill two large quarto volumes. <A dis-
cussion of the observations from December 1883, when they commenced,
to December 1896, is in progress, which, it is expected, will be finished in
the spring of next year.
Among the separate parts of this large discussion, already completed, are
the mean hourly variation of the barometer, and the temperature, for the
months and the year, at each of the two Observatories for the same terms
of years, from August 1890 to December 1896, or six years and five months.
The two sets of curves are therefore strictly comparable, being calculated
for the same time. The results are given in the four Tables, V., VL.,
VII., and VIII., at the end of this Report.
The hourly observations made by the Swedish expedition at Jan
Mayen in 1882-83, particularly the hourly barometric observations in
clear and clouded weather respectively, together with the observations
made on the open sea of the Arctic Ocean by the same expedition. The
results, in clear and in clouded weather, are of the greatest possible interest
in their relation to similar inquiries made with the observations of the two
Ben Nevis Observatories, and of other observatories in different parts of
the world, and reported on by your Committee in their Annual Reports
for several years past.
“But an equally great interest attaches to the discussion of these
barometric observations made on the open sea of the Arctic regions in
1882-83, together with similar observations made by Professor Mohn
in the Arctic Ocean in the summer months of 1876-77-78. From the
observations made on this ocean at a season when the sun is constantly
above the horizon, it is shown that there is only one daily maximum and
one minimum of pressure closely agreeing with the diurnal curve of
temperature. At the same season the smallisland of Jan Mayen presents
in its diurnal curves of pressure the usual double maxima and minima.
The same discussion opens up important inquiries as to the different
effects on the diurnal curves of pressure according as the terrestrial
radiation from the earth’s surface towards space, proceeds from extended
fields of snow, bare rock or soil, grass, or sheets of water.
The hourly observations of the rainfall and snowfall at the two
‘Observatories have been discussed, from which it is shown that the diurnal
curves have two maxima and two minima, and that the summer and
winter curves present striking differences.
The work of preparing maps, showing for each day the amount of the
rainfall at 120 stations well distributed over Scotland, is steadily progress-
ing. As the work proceeds it becomes more and more apparent that as
regards large rainfalls with west wind—(1) over all Scotland ; (2) over
western districts only ; (3) north of the Grampians only ; (4) south of the
‘Grampians only ; or with east winds—(5) over all Scotland, an exceedingly
rare occurrence ; (6) over eastern districts only ; (7) over only a narrow
‘strip on the coast ; (8) over the foreshores only of the Firth of Forth, the
Moray Firth and the Pentland Firth, these inquiries receive much elucida-
METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 225
tion from the contrasted hourly observations of the two Ben Nevis
Observatories, particularly the observations of dry and wet bulb
hygrometers.
Tasiz V.—Hourly Variation of the Barometer at the Ben Nevis Observa-
tory. Mean of 6-7 years from August 1890 to December 1896. Heaght,
4,406 feet. The figures represent thousandths of an inch.
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr.| May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.} Dec. | Year
1 AM. —1 1 1/—5)—3]—2|]—2|—2 2|/-—3 1 3) -—1
a. — 3 | — 3) — 5 | —10] —-s |— 8 f— 7 | — 8 8 be 3) — 0} — 5
ges —5]—7] —11| —14] —13 | —13 | —12 | —13 | — 9| —11]} — 6 | — 3] —10
es —11 | —10 | —16 | —17 | —17 | —17 | —15 | —19 | —13 | —15 | —9| — 8| —14
ass —14 | — 9| —15 | —i7 | —18 | —16 | —16 | —21 | —16 | —13 | —10 | —11 | —14
nonce —18} —- 9] —13 | —13 | —14 | —14| —14] -18] —14] —12 | — 9 | —11] —13
ess —15|—7/—9]—8] —11 | —10|] —10 | —14| —10| —8| — 6] — 9| —10
as —10} —2|—4|/—3)/—7/—5|—5)—9)}—8|-—2 1);—4|-—5
9 — 5 s8{/—1/—0|/—4]--2}|—2)—5|—4 2 5 ee |
TOP iy — 0 4 1 5 0 0 0o/—1]/-1 5 9 6 2
oc 4 7 5 8 3 3 4 2 1 8 9 9 5
Noon 4 ( 7 10 6 5 6 7 3 8 5 4 6
1 PM. 0 4 8 12 9 7 8 10 7 7 0o;-1 6
Bi ss —1 0 4 11 11 8 9 10 5 5|—4|]-—4 4
1 —-4/;-0 1 8 10 6 7 9 3 3/—-7/-—5 3
Cag, —0O;}-—2 0 6 8 6 6 Vi 2 1}/-—5/;-—2 2
cS 5 0 3 5 6 5 5 7 2 4}/—1]}—-1 3
Oe fas 8 5 5 5 5 4 4 6 3 7 2 1 5
i il 6 9 5 5 6 5 7 6 8 3 4 6
8 ,, 13 6 9 6 7 6 4 10 10 zi 4 7 7
9 x 14 5 9 5 9 10 8 11 10 5 5 8 8
OT 12 6 8 4 8 10 8 10 10 2 6 a 8
ll, 9 5 6 1 5 8 7 rh 9 0 6 8 6
Midnight 4 4 3] — 2 2 3 3 3 5 0 4 7 3
Inches 25°+ | 228 | +294 | -183 | -388 | 448 | -471 | ‘391 | 188] ‘371 | *209 | +255 | “168 | °300
Taste VI.—Hourly Variation of the Temperature at the Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory. Mean of 6-7 years from August 1890 to December 1896.
Height, 4,406 feet. The figures represent tenths of a degree Kahrenhett.
Hour Jan. | Feb, | Mar.} Apr. | May | June | July} Aug. | Sept.} Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
1 AM. =—1]/ —3}) —5] —11} —13 | —17 | -13|] — 8] —7 |] —2)/—2)/—2]/—7
a; —2]/—3/|]—6] —11| —15 | —19| —15| —10/ —9}/—2}]—1/—1/-—8
hiaes —2/|/—4|— 6] —12] —17 | —22 | —17} —12| —10} —4|/-—0/}—2/|-—9
45 —1|—4]—8]| —14| —20| —22 | —19] —13} —11/ —5/ —1]—1j] —10
5 —2|—4|]—9]| —15 | —19| —20 | —18} —14}] —12/ —6/—1]-—1] —10
Bi —1]—5]—11} —12 | —16 | —17 | —17} —14} —12| —7| — 2| — 2) —10
OTS —2])]—6|—11| —9] —11| —12] ~13] —11} —10/ —8|—5|—2/-—8
8 y —23)/—8s/—6|/—5/—7|/—6|—8|—8|—6|/—5|/—5/—2)—-—6
9, =—29/—5}/-1 1/—o}/—o}/—3/—3]/—1])—2|/—2]-—2]|-—2
10 ,, 0|-1 3 7 7 6 4 3 4 2 0 0 3
Mm 2 4 7 10 14 ll 10 8 8 5 2 3 7
Noon 3 8 10) 14] 19 16 15 12 12 8 4 5 10
1 PM. 5 10] 13 19] 923] 21 19} 15 14 9 4 5 13
2, Age 10)| 3851/9 18s 249) 194.) O15) nz |e te 9 5 3. 14
3 1 9 13 18] 994) 26) 23 18 16 8 4 2 13
4» 0 7 10} 15 20} 24| 20 16 13 4 1 1 ll
5 y 0 2 4 10 16 20 17 12 10 2 0 1 8
6 0 0 0 6 10 15 11 9 4 0 0 0 5
‘a —-1/—0/;/-—1/-1 4 10 6 4 1/—1)]=-1 0 2
8, —-0|/—0|/—2|/-—4/-2 2 2|/—0]/—0/;]-1 1}/—0/]—0
9 SO ee ae Be oa | | — DO ane
10 , ST tal) ao) Sl Buh oa Ball = Bi |-— 6h} — 6)) — 1 | — 0 Ole
ll Se Daler O) hea ee Sil le) | aa — A |) iG) |
Midnight | —o0|—1]|— 4|=—10| —12} —14| —10/ —9| —6|—2)/—1/)—2;—6
226 REPORT—1897.
Taste VII.—Hourly Variation of the Barometer at Fort William. Mean
of 6-7 years from August 1890 to December 1896. Height, 42 feet.
The figures represent thousandths of an inch.
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar,| Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
1 AM. 2 3 4 4 9 10 8 4 6 0 0 2 4
oie 0 2 1 2 8 8 5 0 An ea, |) a 1 2
BF 5 —4|/—4|/-7]/*-2 2 4 o;—6|—3/—9)/—6}] —3|—3
Aes —9!/—5/—9]-—2 2 4/—0/-—8/—5]-10|/—8]—8]|—5
aes ‘| —-15/—8/]—8/]—2 2 4}/—0/]-—9{/]—8]-—1l1}—9]-—12]—6
(Hees —18|—5/|/—4 4 7 8 4)/—5|—4/]—6|—7]-11]-—3
ee -17|}-—3|]-—2 if 7 8 6/-—3)/—1]/—3)}—5|—9]-1
Si —10 6 4 11 9 10 7h 1 2 6 5|—2 4
cs —5 7 5 9 6 6 5 2 3 7 8 3 5
On" % 3 10 7aleedo 3 4 4 3 4 9 13} 10 7
ail 4, 4 8 6 5|—2|—0 0 Te PS 7 pets a 4
Noon 1 7 5 3/—5/|]—2 0 0 0 4 7 5 2
1 P.M. —-5}/—2;);-—0/—3/—9|—7/-—4]/—2]—3]—1]—0]}—2|-3
oP —4!/-—8/]—5;—-—6/;-l1l1}-—-9}—5;/-—1}—5/]—4/]—6]—7|—6
Bina — 4] —14/ —10} —14| —14]} -—14| — 9| —6| —11] — 7] —10] — 9} —10
Aa. 1] —12/] —10 | —15 | —15 | —16 | —12} — 6} —11} —6|— 8] — 4] —10
5 os 2; —10/} —11 | —16 | —16,) —19 | —14} — 7] —12| —5|—6|— 4] —10
he tr 8}—1]—4] —12| —12] —16 | —11|} —4|—6 3/}/-—1 0|/—5
is 10 2 0o|/—8/—8s]|-12}/—9]—1]}—2 4 0 1|;-2
Sis 15 4 7 0;—0)}/—4]—2 7 8 7 3 6 4
Specs 13 4 8 4 6 3 4 10 10 6 3 6 6
LO 3 14 6 11 6 12 10 10 13 13 4 6 10 10
Logs 9 5 10 6 12 11 10 11 12 2 4 7 8
Midnight 8 8 9 7 12 13 10 9 10 1 5 7 8
Inches 29°+ | *874 | °929 | °796 | ‘953 | 1006 | ‘976 | °875 | °811 | °876 | °767 | *842 | ‘779 | “876
TaBLE VIII.—Howrly Variation of the Temperature at Fort William.
Mean of 6-7 years from August 1890 to December 1896. Height, 42
Jeet. The figures represent tenths of a degree Fahrenheit.
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year
1 AM. — 2|— 8| —18 | —32 | —40 | —42 | —32 | —26 | —19| -13| — 7] — 3} —20
Digs — 4) —11} —21 | —38 | —46 | —49 | —36 | —29 | —23 | —16/] — 9| — 5 | —24
ce — 4| —11 | —24 | —41 | —49 | —53 | —39 | —21 | —25 | —17|} — 8] — 5 | —26
ars — 5| —13 | —26 | —45 | —53 | —56 | —42 | —33 | —29 | —19} — 8] — 6 | —28
i aes — 5| —14 | —26 | —47 | —57 | —53 | —40 | —34 | —29 | —20/} — 8] — 6 | —28
(es — 6| —16 | —30 | —48 | —45 | —41 | —33 | —32 | —32 | —21 |} — 9] — 6 | —27
1 eH — 5 | —15 | —29 | —37 | —28 | —26 | —20| —23 | —27| —20) — 7] — 5] —20
Sas — 6 | —16 | —26 | —22 | —15 | —12/} — 9 | —12 | —18/] —18| — 9] — 3] —14
qs — 5 | —12'| —10 | — 4 3 5 5 2°).— 5 | —l9 |) — po hs
10”, —4/-—6/-—0 11 15 17 14 ll 7 1/-.1/]-—2 5
Vs 1 5 13 24 29 28 23 20 19 15 7 3 16
Noon 6 12 23 35 36 33 28 26 26 22 12 6 22
1 P.M. 12 20 32 45 45 41 36 32 32 29 16 10 29
et 12 25 35 50 60 46 40 35 36 31 17 11 32
Rees 10 28 39 55 54 51 43 40 41 32 16 10 35
4055 5 24 38 52 52 51 40 37 37 28 1l of 32
B45 3 17 33 46 48 50 37 33 32 17 7 5 27
GO 45 1 9 21 37 40 44 30 25 19 7 3 3 20
as 1 4/ 10| 20] 28) 34] 22] 192 8 3 2 9| 12
Bis -1 0 3 5 8 14 6 1);/-—-1/—2);-1 0 3
9 4 OS) a2 eS | 6 4 | 6 | = 3 || eee ee
10 4 —0;}—5]— 8| —14] —17| —16] —15 |} —12 | -12} —6] —4]—1]-—9
ll ve — 0; — 6} —12| —21 | —26 } —26 | —21} —17 | -15| — 8| — 4] — 3] —13
Midnight — 2|—8j| —15 | —28 | —34 | —34 | —28 | —22 | -18 | —13} — 6] — 4] —18
Mean
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 227
Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. W. N. Suaw (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, Rev. T. C.
Firzpatrick, Mr. W. C. D. WuetTHam (Secretary), on the present
state of our knowledge in Electrolysis and, Hlectro-chemistry.
APPENDIX.—The Theory of the Migration of Ions and bi ehestio Tonic Velo-
cities. By W.C. DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A. - PAGE 227
THE experiments upon the electrical properties of solutions, in relation to
their thermal properties, towards the expenses of which a grant of 50/.
was made, are in progress. The apparatus for the measurement of the
resistance of solutions has been designed, constructed, and tested. It has
been proved to work satisfactorily by test experiments with pure water
and with solutions of potassium chloride.
The cost of the apparatus, the essential parts of which had to be made
of platinum, has exceeded the amount of the grant.
The expenses incidental to the completion of the experiments are:
estimated by the Secretary at 35/., and the Committee desire that that.
sum be placed at their disposal in the ensuing year.
The section of the report on electrolysis treating of the theory of
migration of ions and of specific ionic velocities prepared by Mr.
Whetham last year is printed as an appendix to this report.
The Committee regret that the pressure of other engagements has
prevented further progress with the compilation of the report.
The Committee ask for reappointment, with a grant of 35/.
APPENDIX.
(f) The Theory oe the Migration of Ions and of Specific Ionic Velocities..
By W. C. Dampier WueEtTHaM, J.A.
The liberation of the products of electrolysis at the electrodes, and at
the electrodes only, shows that a continuous passage of the opposite ions in
opposite directions through the liquid must be going on. Whether the
ions are free from each other during their passage, or accomplish their
journey by means of continual decomposition and recombination of mole-
cules, does not matter for our present purpose. The numbers of the ions
in the middle portion of the liquid do not change, but, while the current
passes, a constant excess of anions is delivered at ‘the anode, and of
kations at the kathode.
If the opposite ions move with equal velocities, the result of the
passage of the current will be that, while the composition of the middle
portion of the solution remains unaltered, the products of the decomposi-
tion, which appear at the electrodes, are taken in equal proportions from
the solution surrounding the anode, and from that round the kathode.
If, however, one of the ions travels faster than the other, it will get
away ‘from the portion of the solution whence it comes more quickly than
the other ion enters. The concentration of this region will therefore fall
faster than that of the liquid round the other electrode, and the ratio
Q2
998 REPORT—1897.
between the rates at which salt is taken from the neighbourhoods of the
anode and. kathode gives also the ratio between the velocities of the
kation and anion.
Thus, by measuring the contents of vessels containing the electrodes
before and after the passage of the current, we can determine the ratio
between the velocities of the two ions in any given case of electrolysis.
Many such investigations have been made by Hittorf,! Lenz,” Loeb and
Nernst,’ and Kistiakowsky.4 An account of their methods and results
will be found in Professor Ostwald’s ‘ Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Chemie,’
2nd edition, vol. ii, p. 598, and most of the numerical results obtained
are included in a table compiled by T. C. Fitzpatrick and published in the
previous portion of this report, which appeared in 1893,
A further step was taken by Professor F. Kohlrausch in the year 1879.°
Kohlrausch introduced a satisfactory method of measuring the conduc-
tivity of electrolytes by means of alternating currents, and showed that,
from a knowledge of the conductivity, the sum of the opposite ionic
velocities (i.e. the velocity with which the opposite streams of ions travel
past each other) could be calculated.
Faraday’s work showed that the passage of a definite quantity of elec-
tricity through the solution involves the decomposition of a definite mass
of electrolyte, which varies as its chemically equivalent weight and as
the quantity of electricity. Thus the quantity of electricity which must
pass in order to decompose the equivalent weight of an electrolyte in
grams is independent of the nature of the electrolyte.
We may therefore represent the facts by considering the process of
electrolysis to be a kind of convection, the ions moving through the
solution and carrying their charges with them. Each univalent ion may
be supposed to carry a certain definite charge, which we may take to be
the true natural unit of electricity ; each divalent ion carries twice as
much, and so on.
Let us take, as an example, the case of an aqueous solution of hydro-
chloric acid whose concentration is m gram-equivalents per cubic centi-
metre.
There will then be m gram-equivalents of hydrogen ions and the same
number of chlorine ions in this volume. Let us suppose that on each
gram-equivalent of hydrogen there reside + gq units of electricity, and on
-each gram-equivalent of chlorine ions —gq units. If wu denote the average
velocity of the hydrogen ions, the positive charge carried per second across
unit area normal to the flow ismqwu. Similarly, if v be the average
velocity of the chlorine ions, the negative charge carried in the opposite
‘direction is m qv. But positive electricity moving in one direction is
equivalent to negative electricity moving in the other, so that the total
seurrent, O, is m g (w+).
Now let us consider the amounts of hydrogen and chlorine liberated at
the electrodes by this current. At the kathode, if the chlorine ions were
at rest, the excess of hydrogen ions would be simply those arriving in one
1 Pogg. Ann. 1853-9, vol. lxxxix. pp. 177; xcviii. p. 1; ciii. p. 1; cvi. pp. 337,513.
2 Mem. Petersb. Ak. 1882, vol. ix. p. 30.
3 Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1883, vol. ii. p. 948.
* Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1890, vol. vi. p. 97.
5 Wied. Ann. vol. vi. p. 160.
® This modification of Professor Lodge’s method of developing Kohlrausch’s equa-
tion was suggested to the writer by Professor G. F. FitzGerald.
&
es
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 229
second, viz. m uw. But, since the chlorine ions move also, a further
separation occurs, and m v hydrogen ions are left without partners. The
total number of gram-equivalents liberated is therefore m(u+v). This
must, by Faraday’s law, be equal to 7C, where 7 denotes the electro-chemical
equivalent of hydrogen. Thus we get
m(u+v)=nC=y m q(w+r),
and it follows that the charge, g, on one gram-equivalent of each kind of
ion is equal to 1/7.
We know that Ohm’s law holds good for electrolytes, so that the
current C is also given by k. dP/dx, where & denotes the conductivity of
the solution, and dP/dzx the potential gradient, i.e. the fall in potential
per unit length along the lines of current flow.
Thus ™(u+v)=k. dP/de;
|
dP
ous bt Bid oe aes
Now 7 is 1:03524+10~4 and the concentration of a solution is usually
expressed in terms of the number, », of gram-equivalents per litre instead
of per cubic centimetre.
Therefore w+v=1:0352 x 1074 h : dP
nm dx
When the potential gradient is one volt (10° C.G.S. units) per centi-
metre, this becomes
teen] 085 9G Ola”:
vi)
Thus, by measuring in C.G.S. units the conductivity of a solution of known
concentration, the relative velocity of its ions can at once be deduced. | It
is true that, in this investigation, we have assumed that all the contents
of the solution are actively concerned in the electrolysis—an idea which
seems to be disproved by the diminution in the molecular conductivity
with increasing concentration. But although, at any instant, only a part
of the electrolyte is active, we must imagine that each portion will become
active in turn, two given ions of opposite kinds being sometimes free
(i.e. active) and sometimes paired (i.e. inactive). -The immediate effect,
therefore, of the decrease in ionisation, with increasing concentration, is
to diminish the relative velocity of the ions, and this diminution will
reduce the molecular conductivity in accordance with the equation.
Since Hittorf’s numbers give us the ratio of the ionic velocities, we
can deduce the absolute values of w and v from this theory. Thus, for
instance, the molecular conductivity of a solution of potassium chloride
containing one-tenth of a gram-equivalent per litre is 1113 x 10~* C.G.S.
units at 18° C,
oo. U+tv=1:0352 x 107 x 1113 x 107%,
=1:153 x 10-°=0:001153 cm. per sec.
Hittorf’s experiments show us that the ratio of the velocity of the
anion to that of the kation in this solution is ‘51 :°49. The absolute
velocity of the chlorine ion under unit potential gradient is therefore
0:000589 em. per sec., and that of the potassium ion 0°000564 cm.
per sec. Similar calculations can be made for solutions of other con-
230
centrations.
REPORT—1897.
The following table shows Kohlrausch’s latest! values for
the ionic velocities of three chlorides of alkali metals in 10~° cms. per
sec. at 18°C., calculated for a potential gradient of 1 volt per cm. :—
KCl NaCl LiCl
n
atv u v u+v u v utv u v
0 1350 660 | 690 1140 450 | 690 1950 360 | 690
0:0001 1335 654 | 681 1129 448 | 681 || 1037 356 | 681
001 1313 643 | 670 1110 440 | 670 1013 343 | 670
‘01 1263 619 | 644 1059 415 | 644 962 318 | 644
03 1218 597 | 621 1013 390 | 623 917 298 | 619
a 1153 564 | 589 952 360 | 592 853 259 | 594
3 1088 531 | 557 876 324 | 552 774 217 | +557
1:0 1011 491 | 520 765 278 | 487 651 169 | 482
3:0 911 442 | 469 582 206 | 376 463 115 | 348
5:0 — — — 438 153 | 285 334 80 | 254
10:0 — — — — _— — 117 25 92
These numbers clearly show the increase in ionic velocity as the dilu-
tion gets greater. Moreover, if we compare the values for the chlorine
ion obtained from observations on these three different salts, we see that,
as the solutions get very weak, the velocity of the chlorine ion becomes
the same in all of them. Similar phenomena appear in other cases, and,
in general, we may say that, at great dilution, the velocity of an ion is
independent of the nature of the other ion present. This at once leads
to the idea of specific ionic velocities, the values of which for different ions
are given by Kohlrausch in the following table :—
Rory rh sf = 66 x 10-®cms. per sec. || Cl. 69 x 10-5 cms. per sec.
Na . : 45 + 4 Taba 69 ” i
Li 36 » - NO: 64 + ~
NH, 66 ” » OH Q 182 ” ”
H 320 ” ss C,H,0, 36 45 »
Ag 57 ” ” C;H,0, 33 ” ”
Having once obtained these numbers, we can calculate the molecular
conductivity of the dilute solution of any salt, and the comparison of such
values with observation furnished the first confirmation of Kohlrausch’s
theory. Some exceptions, however, are known. Thus, acetic acid and
ammonia give solutions of much lower conductivity than is indicated by
the sum of the specific ionic velocities of their ions as determined from
other compounds.
Professor Oliver Lodge was the first to directly measure the velocity
of an ion.” Ina horizontal glass tube connecting two vessels filled with
dilute sulphuric acid, he placed a solution of sodium chloride in solid agar-
agar jelly. This solid solution was made alkaline with a trace of caustic
soda to bring out the red colour of a little phenol-phthalein added as
indicator. A current was then passed from one vessel to the other along
the tube. The hydrogen ions from the anode vessel of acid were thus
carried along the tube, forming hydrochloric acid as they travelled, and
decolorising the phenol-phthalein. By this method the velocity of the
1 Wied. Ann. 1893, vol. 1. p. 385.
? British Association Revort. 188f p, 389.
a. ee
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 231
hydrogen ion through a jelly solution under a known potential gradient
could be observed. The results of three experiments gave 0-0029, 0:0026,
and 0:0024 cm. per sec. as the velocity of the hydrogen ion for a poten-
tial gradient of one volt per centimetre. Kohlrausch’s number is 0:0032
for the dilution corresponding to maximum conductivity. Lodge does
not mention the concentration of his solution, but it was probably large
enough to appreciably reduce the velocity.
When the current density at the kathode of a solution of copper sul-
phate exceeds a certain limit, the copper is deposited as a brown or black
hydride. C.L. Weber! explained this as due to the inability of the copper
ions to migrate fast enough to keep up the supply for carrying the
current, part of which will consequently be conveyed by sulphuric acid
formed by the action of SO, ions on the water. By measuring the limiting
current density and the conductivity of the solution, he estimated the
speed of the copper ions when they could travel just fast enough to carry
all the current, and hence he deduced their specific velocity. Similar
methods were used for solutions of cadmium sulphate and zinc nitrate.
The copper sulphate measurements were repeated with an improved appa-
ratus by Sheldon and Downing. This method does not appear to be a
very good one, for the dilution of the liquid round the kathode makes
it impossible to accurately determine the conductivity of the solution
concerned. This source of error will make the deduced velocities too
reat.
il Direct determinations of the velocities of a few other ions have been
made in another way by the present writer.* Two solutions, having one
ion in common, of equivalent concentrations, different densities, different
colours, and nearly equal specific resistances, were placed one over the other
in a vertical glass tube. In one case, for example, decinormal solutions of
potassium carbonate and potassium bichromate were used. The colour of
the latter is due to the presence of the bichromate group, Cr,O;. When a
current was passed across the junction, the anions Cl and Cr,O, travelled
in the direction opposite to that of the current, and their velocity could
be determined by measuring the rate at which the colour boundary moved.
Similar experiments were made with alcoholic solutions of cobalt salts, in
which the velocities of the ions were found to be much less than in water.
The behaviour of agar jelly was then investigated, and the velocity of an ion
was shown to be very little less through a solid jelly than in an ordinary
liquid solution. The velocities could therefore be measured by tracing
the change in colour of an indicator or the formation of a precipitate.
Thus decinormal jelly solutions of barium chloride and sodium chloride,
the latter containing a trace of sodium sulphate, were placed in contact.
Under the influence of an electromotive force, the barium ions moved up
the tube, and their presence was shown by the trace of insoluble barium
sulphate formed.
The following table shows the velocities of all ions which have been
experimentally determined. A comparison is given with their values as
calculated, for the same concentration, on Kohlrausch’s theory.
1 Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1889, vol. iv. p. 182.
2 Physical Review, 1898, vol. i. p 61.
3 Phil. Trans. 1893, vol. clxxxiv. A, p. 337; Phil. Mag., October, 1894; Phit.
Trans. 1895, vol. clxxxvi. A, p. 507.
232 REPORT—1897.
2 s 2| Specific Ionic velocity in
SO centimetres per second
ain
= = = Observer
ese Ba we es
og rom
= =| Kohlrausch’s Observed
os theory
Hydrogen in chlorides . 5, |e oma 00028 0:0026 O. J. Lodge
5 in acetates . . | 0:07 0:000048 0:000065 | W.C.D.Whetham
Zinc . F ° F . | 0:003| 0:000380 0:00051 C, L. Weber
Cadmium . : A . | 0007} 0:00031 0:00051 a
Copper (in sulphates) . a Oo 0-00030 000042 FS
> 3 4 5 Webi 0:00017 0:00045 Sheldon and
Downing
» (inchlorides) . Jof2O°1 — 0:00031 W.C. D. Whetham
Barium . . . - SUD | 0:00037 0:00039 -
Calcium ° A ; 5. |Aah! 0:00029 0:00035 %
Silver . 3 : 7 [fo Dai 0:00046 0:00049 Fr
Sulphate group(SO,) . O1 0:00049 0:00045 *
Bichromate group (Cr,0,) 01 0:00047 0:00047 sa
Cobalt (in alcoholicCoCl,) . | 0°05 — 0:000022 i
te Gee » _ Co(NO,),) | 0°05 — 0:000044 e
Chlorine (in alcoholic CoCl,). | 0°05 — 0:000026 %
Nitrate group (NO,) (in alco-
holic Co(NO,),) . 4 . | 0-05 — 0:000035 is
Noty.—The migration data for solutions of copper chloride are not known.
The specific ionic velocity of copper at infinite dilution (when it would be inde-
pendent of the nature of the combination) is given by Kohlrausch as 0-00031, but in
a solution of the strength used it would be considerably less. The sum of the
ionic velocities of cobalt chloride in alcohol, as calculated from the conductivity,
is 0:000060 cm. per sec., and that of cobalt nitrate 0000079. These numbers are to
be compared with the sum of the observed velocities given in the table—namely,
0:000048 and 0:000079 respectively.
The agreement will be seen to be quite as good as can be expected!
The number for the hydrogen ion in acetic acid is especially interesting,
for it shows that, in cases where the conductivity is abnormally low, such
as those of acetic acid and ammonia, the ionic velocities are reduced in the
same proportion. In such cases the mean free time of the ions (adopting
the language of the dissociation theory) is small as compared with their
mean paired time. They can move forward only while they are free, and
thus their velocity is reduced, and, with it, the conductivity of the solution.
Kohlrausch’s theory, therefore, probably holds good in every case, even if
alcohol be the solvent, if the proper values are given to the ionic velocities—
z.e. the values which express the velocities with which the ions actually
move in the solution of the strength taken, and under the conditions of
the experiment.
If we restrict ourselves to the specific ionic velocities—the velocities
at infinite dilution—we must introduce a factor measuring the ratio of the
actual to the limiting relative velocity of the ions. If we call this ratio a,
and take w and v to denote the specijic ionic velocities, we can express the
conductivity by the equation
a (u + v) = 1-0352 x 107%
10-7
k
# nee | ogee
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 233
The coefficient a is thus given by the ratio between the actual mole-
cular conductivity of the solution and its value at infinite dilution, and
can therefore be readily determined.
The velocities of the ions may be reduced by an increase in frictional
resistance, by a diminution in the fraction of the dissolved substance
which is, at any moment, active, or by a combination of both these causes.
In dilute solutions the resistance offered by the liquid to the passage of
the ions through it is probably sensibly the same as in pure water ; but
when the proportion of non-ionised molecules becomes considerable, we
cannot assume that this is the case. Arrhenius’ experiments on the con-
ductivity of jelly solutions,! while they certainly show that the ionic
friction does not depend on the molar viscosity of the medium, do not prove,
as usually seems to be assumed, that it is not affected by the addition of
more of the electrolyte, which would cause a molecular change.
While the solution is dilute enough for the friction to be taken as
constant, however, the coefficient a can be given a very simple physical
meaning. The fraction which expresses the ratio of the actual to the
limiting velocity of the ions must then also express the fraction of
its time during which, on the average, any ion remains active ; that is, it
must express the fractional number of molecules which are, at any
moment, in a state of activity. This fractional number may be called the
coefficient of ionisation.
Thus, although we can, if we like, always put Kohlrausch’s theory in
the form shown in our last equation, the constant a will only have a
definite physical meaning when the solution is so dilute that the ionic
viscosity keeps constant. This caution is necessary, for it seems to be
universally assumed that «, as deduced from the ratio of the actual to
the limiting conductivity, always expresses the ionisation of the solution,
whatever its concentration may be, although for fairly strong solutions no
convincing evidence has been adduced in favour of the assumption made.
It is possible that some of the discrepancies between the ionisation as
found from the conductivity and as deduced in other ways—as, for example,
from the depression of the freezing point—may be due to this cause.
On the other hand, the equation given on p. 229, in which wu and v
denote the actual velocities of the ions under the conditions of the experi-
ment, probably holds good whatever be the concentration of the solution,
and this gives the simplest and most certain form of Kohlrausch’s theory.
The fact that the molecular conductivity of aqueous solutions becomes,
in general, constant as the dilution gets very great shows that the veloci-
ties of the ions must then become independent of the concentration of the
solution. This seems to offer strong evidence in favour of the view that
the ions are free from each other, which is also indicated by the fact that
the specific velocity of an ion at great dilution comes out the same
whatever be the nature of the other ion present.
If the ions are not free, the alternative is to suppose that they move:
forward by taking advantage of a collision between two solute molecules by
means of which an interchange of ions may occur, and each makes a step
in advance. Now the frequency with which such collisions would happen:
must vary as the square of the concentration ; and, since the quantity of
electricity conveyed must also depend on the number of ions present, the
conductivity would vary as the cube of the concentration. The motion of
the ions cannot, therefore, depend on collisions between the molecules of
1 British Association Report, 1886, p. 344.
234. REPORT—1897.
dissolved matter. It must be an independent motion, and the ions must
be dissociated from each other. It will be noticed that there is nothing
to show that the ions are not combined with solvent molecules, and there
seems reason to suppose that such may be the case.
We may conclude, from the experimental confirmation described
above, that the velocity of an ion, as calculated by Kohlrausch’s theory
from the conductivity, really does represent the actual speed with which,
on the average, the ion makes its way through the solution. We can
therefore apply the theory with confidence to cases in which the experi-
mental confirmation would be difficult or impossible.
If we know the specific velocity of any one ion, we can, from the con-
ductivity of very dilute solutions, at once deduce the velocity of any other
ion with which it may be combined, without having to determine the
migration constant of the compound, which is a matter involving consider-
able trouble. Thus, taking the specific ionic velocity of hydrogen as
0:0032 cm. per second, we can, by determining the conductivity of dilute
solutions of any acid, at once find the specific velocity of the acid radicle
involved. Or, again, since we know the specific velocity of the silver ion,
we can find the velocities of a series of acid radicles at great dilution by
measuring the conductivity of their silver salts.
By such methods Ostwald, Bredig, and other observers have found the
specific velocities of many ions both of inorganic and organic compounds,
and examined the relation between constitution and ionic velocity. A
full account of such data will be found in a paper by Bredig in vol. xiii. of
the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie,’ p. 191. The velocities are
calculated from the conductivities measured in terms of mercury units,
and so must be multiplied by 110 x 10~ if they are wanted in centimetres
per second.
The velocity of elementary ions is found to bea periodic function of the
atomic weight, similar elements lying on similar portions of the curve.
The curve much resembles that giving the relation between atomic weight
and viscosity in solution. For complex ions the velocity is largely an
additive property ; to a continuous additive change in the composition of
the ion corresponds a continuous but decreasing change in the velocity.
Thus Ostwald’s results for the anions of the formic acid series give
Diff. for CH,
Formic acid . - HCO, 512} _19-9
Acetic a 5 > ,C.05 38°3} Lb tgp
ropionic ,, x EP EO O} 343 ,
Butyric ys EG, 308} ws
Valeug. 2 Seep. 28-85 — 20
Caproic'\.45, Seer HCO: 27-4} — 1-4
Bredig finds similar relations for every such series of compounds which
he examined. Isomeric ions of analogous constitution have equal
velocities. A retarding effect is, in general, produced by the replacement
of H by Cl, Br, I, Me, NH, or NO,: of any element by an analogous one
of higher atomic weight (except O and 8) ; of NH; by H,O; of (CN), by
(C,0,)3 ; by the change of amines into acids; of sulphonic acids into
carboxylic acids ; acids into cyanamides, dicarboxylic into monocarboxylic
acids ; and by monamines into diamines. The additive effect is, however,
largely influenced by constitution. Thus in metamerides the velocity
increases with the symmetry of the ion, especially as the number of
C—N unions gets greater.
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 235
Diffusion of Electrolytes.—An application of the theory of ionic velocity
due to Nernst ! and Planck 2 enables us to calculate the diffusion constant
of dissolved electrolytes. According to the molecular theory, diffusion is
due to the motion of the molecules of the dissolved substance through the
liquid. When the dissolved molecules are uniformly distributed, the
osmotic pressure will be the same everywhere throughout the solution,
but if the concentration varies from point to point, the pressure will vary
also. There must, then, be a relation between the rate of change of the
concentration and the osmotic pressure gradient, and thus we may consider
the osmotic pressure gradient to be analogous to a force driving a body
through a viscous medium.
In the cases of non-electrolytes and of all non-ionised molecules this
analogy completely represents the facts, and the phenomena of diffusion
can be deduced from it alone. But the ions of an electrolytic solution can
move independently through the liquid, even when no current flows, as the
truth of Ohm’s law for electrolytes indicates. They will therefore diffuse
independently, and the faster ion will travel quicker into pure water in
contact with asolution. The ions carry their charges with them, and, as a
matter of fact, it is found that, in general, water in contact with a solu-
tion takes with respect to it a positive or negative potential, according
as the positive or negative ion travels the faster.
This process will go on until the simultaneous separation of electric
charges produces an electrostatic force strong enough to prevent further
separation of ions. We can therefore calculate the rate at which the
salt as a whole will diffuse by examining the conditions for a steady state,
in which the ions diffuse at an equal rate, the faster one being restrained
and the slower one urged forward by the electric forces.
Let us imagine that we have an aqueous solution of some electrolyte
at the bottom ofa tall glass cylinder with pure water lying above it. Ina
layer of liquid at a height ~ let the concentration (i.e. the number of
gram-molecules per cubic centimetre) be c, and the osmotic pressure p.
At a height x + dx these become c—dc and p—dp respectively. The
volume of the layer cut off by horizontal planes at these heights is gdz,
where q is the area of cross-section, and this volume contains cgdx
gram-molecules of electrolyte. The difference of osmotic pressure between
the planes is dp, so that, on our analogy, we must imagine that the
force acting on the layer is —gqdp (the negative sign being taken
because the force is in the direction in which p decreases) and the
force on one gram-molecule is + 2 Now from the velocities of the
two ions under unit potential gradient, as found by Kohlrausch’s theory,
it is easy to deduce the velocity with which they will travel when unit
force acts on them. Let us call these velocities U and V for the kation
and anion respectively. The actual velocities in our case will therefore
be © Z and — Aad , so that the amounts passing any cross-section
of the cylinder in a time dé are
— Ug a4 dt and—Vq e dt.
1 Zeits. physikal. Chem. vol. ii. p. 613. Account in Nernst’s Theoretische Chemie, or
Whetham’s Solution and Electrolysis.
2 Wied. Ann. 1890, vol. xl. p. 561.
236 REPORT—1897.
If U is different from V a difference of potential is set up, the effect
of which, when a steady state is reached, is to make the ions travel to-
gether. If the potential gradient is . the numbers of the two ions which
would cross, under the action of this force alone, are
dP dP
—Uge 7A dt and+ Vqe Te dt.
Under the influence of both the osmotic and the electric forces the
number of gram-equivalents which diffuse in a given time must be equal,
so that we get
dp dP dp dP
NESE ois poser ih SS id Fp —— ———s °
dN= — Ugdt dn +c i) Vadt eg =z) .
or eliminating dP/dz,
For dilute solutions we may assume that the gaseous laws hold good, so
that
p=cRT,
c, the concentration, being the reciprocal of the volume in which one
gram-molecule is dissolved.
, aN= RTq
nj 2DV, de x
U+V dz”
We shall need the intermediate steps of this investigation when we
consider Nernst’s account of contact differences of potential ; but it has
been pointed out to the writer by Professor Fitzgerald that, when the
electrostatic forces make the opposite ions diffuse at equal rates, this last
equation merely expresses the fact that the resistance offered by the liquid
to the passage of an electrolyte is the sum of the resistances offered to the
passage of its ions—a result which we should naturally have expected from
the general properties of electrolytic solutions.
Thus, on the osmotic pressure analogy, the force acting on one gram-
molecule of hydrochloric acid is — . op ; so that, if we call & the resistance
Cc
offered when the velocity is unity, the average velocity will be — hae
; ck dz
and the number of gram-molecules crossing a section of the cylinder in one
second will be
Now the osmotic pressure of an electrolyte with two ions is double the
normal value, so that
p=2cRT,
and we get
2RT de
N= —==— 9 sat:
d Gila, dt
The resistances to hydrogen and chlorine moving with unit velocity are
1/U and 1/V respectively, so that the resistance to hydrochloric acid is
7s Soi RE WEE PAYS
oy ow?
i i
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 237
and we get the same equation as Nernst—
Liev de
IN = ay RT q Te dt.
From the general theory of diffusion we may take the quantity of sub-
stance diffusing through unit area in one second to be proportional to the
gradient of concentration, so that the quantity crossing an area q ina time
dt is i
c
dN= —Dgq jhe dt
where D is a constant.
By comparing this with our last equation, we see that, for electrolytes,
the diffusion constant is given by the expression
2UV
i) T= Uiv RT.
T is the absolute temperature, R the gas constant corresponding to one
gram-equivalent of substance (viz. 1-974 calories per degree or 8:29 x 107
ergs per degree), so that it only remains to calculate U and V, the
velocities with which the ions move under the action of unit force.
We have already seen that the charge of electricity carried by one
gram-equivalent of a kation is +1/y, and the charge on one gram-
equivalent of an anion is —1/, where y represents the electro-chemical
equivalent of hydrogen. The quantity of electricity associated with one
gram-equivalent of any ion is therefore 1/:00010352=9653 electro-
magnetic units. If the potential gradient is one volt (10° C.G.S. units)
per centimetre, the force acting on this gram-equivalent.will be 9,653 x 10°
dynes. This, in dilute solution, gives the ion its specific velocity, say w.
Thus the force required to give the ion unit velocity is
. 1l .
P A dynes= See
- kilograms weight.
If the ion have an equivalent weight A, the force producing unit
velocity when acting on one gram is P,=9°84 eo kilograms weight.
Thus, in order to drive one gram of potassium ions with a velocity of one
centimetre per second through a very dilute water solution, we must exert
a force equal to the weight of 38,000,000 kilograms. The table gives
other examples.!
Kilograms Weight Kilograms Weight
Py Py Pa Pi
Loa . 15 x 108 38 x 105 cl. A 14x 108 40 x 105
Na . . 22 ” 95 ” I . . 14 ” 1 ”
ii. 2 aT: 390 ,, NO, . : 1b ,, 25 5,
NH, . - 15 ,, 83" >. OH. ; 54 ,, 32 ,,
Elven shy vs CB here 310 ,, C,H,O, . 27 » 46 ,,
PAS is) ooe Li ¢ 16 ,, CHO, « 30 ,, 4145
1 Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. 1893, vol. 1. p. 385.
238 REPORT—1897.
Since the ions move with uniform velocity, the frictional forces
brought into play must be equal and opposite to the driving forces acting,
and therefore these numbers also represent the ionic friction coefficients
in very dilute solution at 18° C.
Let us now return to the consideration of the velocity. "We have seen
that the force acting on one gram-equivalent of an ion, when the poten-
tial gradient is one volt per centimetre, is 9,653 x 10° dynes, and that, in
dilute solution, this gives to the ion its specific velocity w. The velocity
it would attain under unit force will therefore be
U=—"
9653
In the case of hydrochloric acid, for example, the specific velocity of the
hydrogen is 00032, and that of the chlorine 0:00069 cm. per second.
. U=3°32 x10-%, and V=7'15 x 10-” cms. per second.
2UV
= =—_RT=2-49
oe
x 10-* cms. per second.
the velocities, for convenience, being reckoned in centimetres per day.
By experiments on diffusion this constant D can be found experi-
mentally,! and the agreement between theory and Scheffer’s observations
is shown by the table.
Substance D observed D calculated
Hydrochloric acid, HCl . G f , 2°30 2°49
Nitric acid, HNO, . f 4 3 x 2°22 2:27
Potash, KOH . . 4 ‘ mn ; 1:85 2:10
Soda, NaOH . é “ § : Z 1:40 1:45
Sodium chloride, NaCl . : : 111 112
Sodium nitrate, NaNO, . - 3 3 1:03 1:06
Sodium formate, NaCOOH . - ‘ 0°95 0:95
Sodium acetate, NaCO,CH, . : : 0:78 0-79
Ammonium chloride, NH,Cl . i 1:33 1:44
Potassium nitrate, KNO, = 2 : 1:30 1:38
The theoretical numbers are slightly increased by the assumption that
the ionisation of the solutions is complete, which is not accurately the
case. This correction, then, would make the agreement still better.
The possibility of thus calculating the diffusion constant must be
regarded as very strong evidence in favour of the soundness of the
analogy underlying the investigation.
Further developments for the cases of other solvents and of mixed
electrolytes have been traced by Arrhenius,? who shows, for example,
that the rate at which hydrochloric acid diffuses will be increased by the
presence of one of its salts. This is confirmed experimentally. Thus,
when 1:04 normal HCl diffuses into 0:1 NaCl, D is calculated as 2°43 and
observed as 2:50 ; and when the NaCl solution is 0°67 normal, calculation
gives 3:58 and observation 3°51.
Contact Difference of Potential—As we have seen above, when a
solution is placed in contact with water, the water will take a positive or
? Account in Solution and LHlectrolysis. p. 49.
2 LZeits. physikal, Chem, 1892, vol. x. p, 51.
Pe eS ie aes
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 239
negative potential with regard to the solution, according as the kation or
the anion has the greater specific velocity and, therefore, the greater initial
rate of diffusion. This idea can be developed to explain the difference of
potential at the surface of contact of two solutions or of a solution and a
metal.
Taking the equation which expresses the relation that, when a steady
state is reached, the ions migrate at equal rates, viz.—
dp, adey dp __dP
U gat (P+er- )=Vadt 2 oe)
we get
dP_1V-—U dp,
dx ¢ V+U dz’
or, since for dilute solutions p=cRT,
dP_RT V—Udp
de p V+U de
which gives on integration
_p—_prV—-U Do
PB, PSB es
Pi
If we have absolutely pure water in contact with a solution, p, is zero,
and the difference of potential apparently becomes infinite. Absolutely
pure water cannot be obtained, and the table of Nernst’s experimental
results, given on p. 242, shows too small a range of concentrations to fairly
test this equation. Nevertheless, cases will be described later in which
high potential-differences were observed when the concentration of the
ions on one side was made very small.
When the solutions of two different electrolytes are placed in contact,
similar things occur. Thus (Nernst) let us suppose that we have a
solution of hydrochloric acid in contact with one of lithium bromide. On
the one hand more hydrogen ions than chlorine ions will diffuse from the
acid solution into the other, and therefore the salt solution will receive a
positive charge. On the other hand, more bromine ions than lithium ions
will diffuse from the salt solution into the acid, and thus the potential
difference will be increased.
When a metal dissolves in a solution, Nernst traces an analogy with
the evaporation of a liquid. He ascribes to each metal a ‘solution-pres-
sure’ with regard to water, depending only on the temperature, which
tends to drive the metal into solution in the form of positively charged
ions. But this process will electrify the solution positively, and leave
the metal negatively charged. Electric forces will therefore be set up,
which oppose the further solution of the metal, and seek to drive back
to it the ions already in solution. The electrostatic capacities of the ions.
are very great, and hence equilibrium may be reached long before a weigh-
able quantity has been dissolved.
As the quantity of ions in solution increases, we may get equilibrium
set up, the solution pressure being balanced by the osmotic pressure of
the dissolved ions and the electrostatic forces of their charges. This
happens, for example, when silver is dipped into a solution of sodium
chloride. If, however, the solution pressure is very great, the electric
forces may reach such an amount that positive ions must be driven out of
the solution. Such cases occur when hydrogen is evolved from acids or
240 REPORT—1897.
one metal precipitated from its solution by another. In each case an
electrically equivalent amount of the metal is dissolved.
When hydrogen is evolved, it is first dissolved by the metal, from
which it separates in an electrically neutral form as soon as its concentra-
tion is high enough to give it a vapour pressure exceeding one atmosphere.
The process can be arrested by the application of an atmospheric pressure
sufficiently great, and this gives a measure of the solution pressure of the
metal used. Experiments are difficult, but Beketoff! and Brunner ? have
shown that hydrogen at a high pressure can precipitate silver, platinum,
and palladium ; Cailletet ° arrested its evolution from zine and sulphuric
acid, while Nernst and Tammann?‘ have examined the action of other
metals.
The electromotive force developed at the contact of a metal and a
solution of one of its salts has been deduced by Nernst by considering the
work done when one unit of electricity passes,’ but it seems that the same
result can be obtained from the equation giving the potential difference
between the solutions of an electrolyte of different concentration, which
we have already developed in the form
Vii): y
Pp, —P,=RT log, 22.
2 1 ViU das
If we suppose that in the case of a metal we are concerned with one
ion only —the positive one—we can put V =O, since no negative ions
enter or leave the metal, and the equation becomes
E = — RT log, Pa
Pi
where p, denotes something corresponding to the osmotic pressure of
the kations in the substance of the electrode, which gives its solution
pressure P. Thus, neglecting the negative sign, we get
E = RT ing,
P
p denoting the osmotic pressure of the ions of the metal in the solution.
In a simple galvanic cell of any ordinary form there are two metals,
say zinc and copper, in contact with the same solution of electrolyte. The
equation then becomes
E=RT (09. Bis og, =)
Pi P2
where P, and 7, refer to the zinc, and P, and p, to the copper. In two-
fluid cells, such as the Daniell, since the electromotive forces at the
electrodes are much greater than at the contact of the liquids, the same
equation may still be applied.
Galvanic cells can be constructed with two electrodes of the same metal
placed in solutions of different substances, or even of the same substance
at different concentrations. In this case, since the unknown solution
pressure of the metal is the same at the opposite electrodes, we can calcu-
late the total electromotive force of the cell.
1 Compt. Rend. vol. xlviii. p. 442 (1859).
2 Pogg. Ann. vol. cxxii. p. 153 (1864).
3 Compt. Rend, vol. lxviii. p. 395 (1869).
4 Zeits. physihkal. Chem. vol. ix. p. 1 (1892).
5 Zeits. physikal, Chem. vol. iv. p. 148 (1889).
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 241
Thus, taking a combination arranged according to the scheme
Ag | 0°1 AgNO, | 0:01 AgNO, | Ag
in which silver electrodes are placed, one in decinormal and one in centi-
normal solutions of silver nitrate, we get from the sum of the electromotive
forces of its various junctions
Puy Mig nef BNos
B= RI (lo pee a ang =)
Mo VEU Dy
2U
Vr.
where p, and p, denote the osmotic pressures of the silver ions in
decinormal and centinormal solutions of silver nitrate respectively.
In the scheme
Hg | Hg,Cl, | 0-1 HCl | 0-01 HCl | Hg,Cl, | Hg
Po
= RY log, =
TA
we have the first and the last contact identical, so that we may consider
the ‘depolariser,’ mercurous chloride, as the electrode, and thus get a cell
whose action depends on the negative chlorine ions. Its electromotive
force will be
‘A 2V
aon Rey
log?
P
By this method the following table was constructed by Nernst,! giving
a comparison between the observed and calculated values of the electro-
motive force of concentration cells. CC, and C, denote the concentration
of the two solutions in gram-equivalents per litre.
E in volts E in volts
Electrolyte C C2 (observed) (calculated)
HCL. ° F 0:105 0:0180 0:0710 0:0717
feat : : O1 0:01 0:0926 0:0939
HBr . ‘ . 0-126 0:0132 0:0932 0:0917
KEE. A 0-125 0:0125 0:0532 0:0542
NaCl . : 5 07125 0:0125 0:0402 0:0408
Licl . : - 01 001 0:0354 0:0336
NH,Cl 5 2 0-1 0:01 0:0546 00531
Nabr : . 07125 0:0125 0:0417 0:0404
NaO,C,H; . ; 0-125 0:0125 0:066 0:0604
NaOH é 0°235 0:030 0:0178 0:0183
NH,OH . - 0°305 0:032 0-024 0:0188
KOH. : : O01 0:01 00348 0:0298
The equations indicate that, in cells with both electrodes of the same
metal, the electromotive force will be greater if the concentration of the
ions of the metal in the solution round one electrode is made very small.
This can easily be done by placing the electrode in a solution which pre-
1 Zeits. physihal. Chem. vol. iv. p. 161 (1889).
1897, R
242 REPORT—1897.
cipitates the metal. Thus Ostwald! found that the electromotive force
of the cell
Ag | 0:1 AgNO; | 1:0 KCl | AgCl | Ag?
was 0°51 volt. Here the osmotic pressure of the silver ions in the solu-
tion of potassium chloride is very small to begin with, and is still further
reduced because the solubility of the silver chloride is lowered by the
presence of chlorine ions. The pressure can be calculated, and an appli-
cation of Nernst’s formula leads to a theoretical value for the electro-
motive force of 0°52 volt—a remarkable agreement with the observed
value.
Other similar cells, giving high electromotive forces with identical
electrodes, were examined by Ostwald.
Volt.
1. Silver nitrate (0°1) against silver chloride in potassium chloride . 0°51
2 rs rf 5 ammonia ; 5 5 5 0 . O54
oe 5 ES AA silver bromide in potassium bromide . 0°64
4, A y ey sodium thiosulphate ‘ ; a . 0°84
5. aA i Ph silver iodide in potassium iodide . = (0B ph
6 i 7 Ph potassium cyanide. ‘ : mm MSIE
7 sy Fr + sodium sulphide . F 4 ; . 136
Comparisons of other cells, in all cases showing an agreement between
the observed values and those calculated on the analogy of Nernst and
Planck, will be found in the second volume of Ostwald’s ‘ Lehrbuch,’
pp. 848, 850.
The number of silver ions can also be reduced by adding some sub-
stance which, by combining with them, removes them from solution.
This is shown by the fact that cells Nos. 2, 4, and 6 in the above list have,
like the others, high electromotive forces.
Other metals have been used as electrodes by Zengelis,? who showed
that, in many cases, the electromotive forces of cells whose electrodes
were copper, lead, nickel, or cobalt were greater the more the concentra-
tion of the ions round one electrode was depressed by the addition of a
salt.
Hittorf‘* has even shown that the effect of a cyanide round a copper
electrode is so great that copper becomes electropositive towards zinc.
Thus the cell
Cu | KON | K,S0, | ZnSO, | Zn
furnishes a current which carries copper into solution and deposits zinc.
In a similar way, silver could be made positive towards cadmium.
if we know the concentration of the ions round one electrode, it is
possible to calculate them round the other from observations on the
electromotive force, and this has been done by Behrend.°
The same ideas have been applied by Le Blanc® to the study of gal-
1 Lehrbuch, 2nd ed. vol. ii. p. 882.
* In order to prevent the formation of a precipitate an indifferent substance, e.g.
KNO,, is interposed between the AgNO, and the KCl.
% Zeits. physikal. Chem. vol. xii. p. 298 (1893).
4 Zeits. physikal. Chem. vol. x. p. 592 (1892).
5 Zeits. physihal. Chem. vol. xi. p. 466 (1893).
° Zeits. physikal. Chem. vol. viii. p. 299; vol. xii, 333; vol. xiii, 163 (1891-94).
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 243
vanic polarisation. He finds that, at the decomposition point in a
solution from which a metal is deposited at the kathode, the electro-
motive force of polarisation at this electrode is equal to the electrolytic
solution pressure of the metal in the solution, and is independent of the
nature of the electrode, provided it is not attacked. The numerous
apparent exceptions to this rule are referred to secondary effects, such as
the development of gases at the electrodes, which cause the electromotive
force necessary for their liberation to depend on the nature and condition
of the electrode. This, for example, makes the decomposition limit of
water rise to about 1°6 volt ; but when these effects are eliminated, it is
found that the true value comes out as 1:03 volt. Now 1:03 volt is the
maximum electromotive force of the oxy-hydrogen gas battery ; and thus
the decomposition of water is a reversible process at 1°03 volt.
Freudenberg ! has applied the theory to the electrolytic separation of
metals, and finds that metals are separated from a solution, through which
a constantly increasing current flows, in the reverse order of their ‘ decom-
position pressures.’ They can often be thus separated for quantitative
chemical analysis. The influence of the solvent on the solution pressure
of metals has been investigated by H. C. Jones,? who examined cellg
whose electrodes were silver in solutions of silver nitrate of equal strength,
the solvent round one electrode being water, and round the other ethyl
alcohol, methyl alcohol, or acetone. In all cases the water solution was
negative to the other. The ionisation of the salt in ethyl alchohol being
known, the ratio of the solution pressures can, in this case, be calculated,
and comes out 0:024.
Much discussion has taken place about the exact significance of the
‘solution pressure’ of a metal—the property represented by P in Nernst’s
equations. Following Nernst, Ostwald considers that P is a function
of the metal and temperature only, and consequently independent of the
nature of the negative iron. Measurements of the potential differences
at single reversible junctions—i.e. when the kation is of the same metal as
the electrode—have been made by Le Blanc* and Neumann.‘ The latter
measured the electromotive forces of cells made up with the junction in
question at one electrode, and mercury in a normal potassium chloride
solution with an excess of calomel at the other. The normal mercury
calomel electrode has a potential difference of 0°560 volt, and thus the
value of the other contact could be found, the potential difference between
the liquids being assumed to be small. Neumann found that at great
dilution the potential difference was in general independent of the anion ;
but Paschen, Bancroft, and other observers, working with metals in
solutions not of their own salts, which there is reason to suppose form
limiting cases of the reversible electrodes and are subject to the same laws,
have found that the potential difference does, when the metal is copper,
platinum or mercury, depend on the anion. Many experiments on cells
containing non-reversible electrodes have been made to determine the
influence of the nature of the ions and of concentration. Among these
experiments we may mention those of Paschen,® Ostwald,® Oberbeck and
1 Zeits. physikal. Chem. vol. xii. p. 97 (1893).
2 Zeits. physihal. Chem, vol. xiv. p. 346 (1894).
3 Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1893, vol. xii. p. 345.
* Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1894, vol. xiv. p. 225.
5 Wied. Ann. 1891, vol. xliii. p. 590.
§ Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1887, vol. i. p. 583.
R2
244, . REPORT—1897.
Edler,! Bancroft,? and A. E. Taylor.? Taylor finds reason to suggest that
the differences found by some of the observers on changing the anion
may be due to large potential differences at the surface of contact of the
two liquids in the cells. He finds that such differences arise in cases
where there is a tendency to form complex salts. Moreover, it has been
found by Gouy,* Rothmund,’ and Luggin® that the maximum surface
tension of mercury is not the same in all solutions, as Lippmann’s law
supposes, but varies in cases where complex salts might be formed. Now
the values taken for the potential difference at a contact between mercury
and solution depend on this result, and so an error is introduced into
many of the observations which depend on the subtraction of this
potential difference from the total electromotive force of a cell. Such con-
siderations may possibly explain exceptions to the rule that the potential
difference between a metal and an electrolyte is independent of the nature
of the anion. More experiments on the subject, particularly with rever-
sible electrodes, would be of great value.
In a general review of the results of this theory of the migration of
the ions, the agreement between calculation and observation is most re-
markable. The experimental measurements of the absolute velocities of
various ions, which have been described, fully confirm the general truth
of the theory, and leave no doubt that the values calculated from the con-
ductivities and migration constants give the real average speeds with
which the ions travel.
The ability of Kohlrausch’s theory to represent the facts being thus
established, it must follow that, in dilute solutions, the motion of one ion
is independent of the nature of the other ion present. This suggests thati
the ions are free from each other for, at any rate, the greater part of their
time, and this idea is, as we have seen, confirmed by the fact that the con-
ductivity of a dilute solution is proportional to the concentration, whereas,
if the ion were free only at the instants of collision between dissolved
molecules, it would vary as some higher power of the concentration.
Further evidence, pointing in the same direction, is furnished by the
general success of Nernst and Planck’s theory of the diffusion of electro-
lytes, and of the contact difference of potential between solutions. The
numerical deductions from this theory, which agree in general with the
results of experiment, involve (i.) the specific ionic velocities, as determined
by Kohlrausch, and (ii.) the freedom of the opposite ions to migrate inde-
pendently of each other until the electrostatic forces prevent further
separation. Thus we seem obliged to accept the idea, originally suggested
and strongly supported by other phenomena outside the scope of this
section of the Report, that the ions not only enjoy perfect freedom of
interchange, as Ohm’s law demands, but are actually dissociated from
each other for, at any rate, the greater part of their existence. It must
be particularly noticed that this freedom from each other does not at all
prevent the ions from forming chemical combinations with the solvent
1 Wied. Ann. 1891, vol. xlii. p. 209.
2 Zeits. physikal. Chem. 1893, vol. xii. p. 289; Physical Review, 1896, vol. iii. p. 250.
3 Jowrnal Physical Chemistry, 1896, vol. i. pp. 1, 81.
4 Compt. Rend. 1892, vol. cxiv. pp. 22, 211, 657.
5 Zeits, physikal. Chem. 1894, vol. xv. p. 1.
6 Zits. physikal. Chem. 1895, vol. xvi. p. 667.
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 245
molecules. Neither does it throw any light on the fundamental nature
of solution. It has been very generally assumed that the dissociation
theory of electrolytes was necessarily bound up with a view of solution
which considers the dissolved matter to be in a state dynamically similar
to that of a gas, and to produce osmotic pressure by the impacts of its
molecules, just as a gas produces pressure on the walls of its containing
‘vessel.
Now Poynting! has shown that the phenomena of osmotic pressure
can, on certain not improbable assumptions, be completely represented by
the hypothesis that chemical union occurs between the solvent and the
dissolved matter. In the present state of our knowledge the dissociation
theory of electrolytes seems perfectly compatible with such an explanation.?
All that follows from the facts is the essential freedom of the ions from
each other. Whatever be the cause of osmotic pressure, it certainly de-
pends, to a first approximation, at all events, on the number of dissolved
molecules, and not on their nature, and thus, whether it be due to impact
or to chemical union, it will have an abnormally great value when, as in
the case of electrolytes, the number of effective molecules is increased by
dissociation.
Again, the theory does not forbid the assumption that complex mole-
cular aggregates, formed of two or more solute molecules, may exist,
especially in concentrated solutions, as well as dissociated ions. Such
molecules would be electrolytically inactive, unless an odd ion was linked
to them. They would also, as has been suggested by Wildermann and
others, explain a lowering of the freezing point less than that calculated
from the conductivity.
It has been found that the specific resistance of many liquids, including
water (7.e. a dilute solution of electrolytes), increases when the electrodes
are brought within a certain critical distance of each other.* Similar
phenomena have been observed in the case of gases, through which an
electric discharge was passing, by Lord Kelvin, Baille, and Peace, and
this has been explained by J. J. Thomson on the hypothesis that a com-
plete chain-like structure is necessary for electrolytic conduction, which
cannot occur unless there is room for such a chain to form. It is possible
that the same explanation may hold good for liquids, the necessary
electrolytic unit being a complex structure formed of a dissociated ion
and several solvent molecules. From what has been said, it will be seen
that there is nothing inconsistent with this idea in the dissociation
theory.
To sum up the results of this section, we may say that, whatever may
be the ultimate nature of solution, it seems certain that the electrolytic
fons migrate in accordance with Kohlrausch’s theory, and, in a homo-
geneous solution, are free to travel independently of each other through
the liquid.
1 Phil. Mag. 1896, vol. xlii. p. 289.
? See letters in Mature, 1896, vol. liv. p. 571; vol. lv. pp. 33, 78, and 150.
3 Koller, Wien. Ber. 1889, vol. 98, ii. p. 201.
* See J. J. Thomson’s Recent Researches in Electricity, p. 72.
24.6 REPORT—1897.
The Historical Development of Abelian Functions up to the time of
fiemann. By Harris Hancock.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed iz extenso among the Reports. ]
(1) In 1846, R. Leslie Ellis! presented to the British Association a
‘Report on the Recent Progress of Analysis (Theory of the Comparison of
Transcendents).’ At the beginning of this memoir he says : ‘The province
of analysis, to which the theory of elliptic functions belongs, has within the
last twenty years assumed a new aspect ; in no subject, I think, has our
knowledge advanced so far beyond the limits to which it was not long
since confined.’ ‘This circumstance,’ he continues, ‘ would give a particular
interest to a history of the recent progress of the subject, even did it now
appear to have reached its full development. But on the contrary, there
is now more hope of further progress than at the commencement of the
period of which I have been speaking.’
These statements appear more emphatic when we consider that after
the lapse of fifty years, since the publication of Ellis’s report to the present
time, the same remarks are literally true, and when at the end of this
period we find that there is more hope for the future progress of analysis,
the theory of functions, than there has ever been before.
So great has been the growth of this science, extending on the one hand,
and with a broadening influence, far into the realms of almost every
branch of mathematical study, and on the other hand so comprehensive
and varied in character is its application to physical problems, that the
development of Ellis’s work must be divided into many parts.
(2) The present report which the author has the honour of submitting
to the Association is intended as a brief account of that part of the work
already begun by Ellis which treats of the developments of the Abelian
(including the hyperelliptic) functions. It is alsofound that the develop-
ment of these functions has been so rapid and so extended that an ade-
quate account of it would require much more space than can be given here.
The author has consequently decided to make this statement for the period
up to the time of Riemann. With Riemann, Weierstrass, Clebsch and
Gordan, Cayley and others, the subject takes directions so essentially different
that separate accounts along these different lines seem very desirable.
Much regarding the history of the general theory of functions may be
found in Forsyth, ‘Theory of Functions’; Harkness and Morley, ‘A
Treatise of the Theory of Functions’; Casorati, ‘ Teorica delle funzioni di
variabili complesse’ ; Brill and Nother, ‘Die Entwicklung der algebrai-
schen Functionen in alterer und neuerer Zeit’ (see ‘Jahresbericht der
deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung,’ 1894, bd. iii.). Fruitful sources
for researches regarding the elliptic functions are Konigsberger, ‘ Zur
Geschichte der Theorie der elliptischen Transcendenten in den Jahren
1826-29,’ Leipzig, 1879 ; short notices about the first discovery of elliptic
Junctions are given by Gauss, ‘ Werke,’ iii. p. 491; ‘Correspondance
mathématique entre Legendre et Jacobi’ (Crelle’s Journal, bd. xxx.
p. 205) ; and especially good is the account given by Enneper, ‘ Elliptische
Functionen : Theorie und Geschichte,’ Halle, 1890.
These works give more or less extended accounts of the subject under
Ellis, Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1846,
p. 34. We shall hereafter use the word ‘ Ellis’ in referring to this paper.
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS, 247
consideration ; other sources of information will be cited in their proper
laces.
, (3) A good account (especially from the German standpoint) is given
of the early development of the theory of functions by Brill and Nother
(loc. cit.). I shall here consider very briefly only such parts of the theory
' of elliptic functions that have a direct bearing upon this report, omitting
as far as possible what has already been given by Ellis.
(4) The contributions towards the advancement of the elliptic
functions by Tschirnhaus (1683-1700), the Bernoullis (1690-1730),
Fagnano (‘Produzioni Matematiche,’ Pesaro, 1750) are discussed by
Enneper (‘ Elliptische Functionen’).
Two works which must have exercised great influence upon subsequent
writers are Maclaurin, ‘A Treatise on Fluxions,’ Edinb. 1742, and
d’Alembert, ‘ Recherches sur le calcul intégral’ (‘ Histoire de l’Acad. de
Berlin,’ 1746, pp. 182-224).
(5) Euler extended and systematised the work that Fagnano had
begun. It was known that the expressions for sin (a+ 3), sin (a—), etc.,
gave a means of adding or subtracting the arcs of circles, and that between
the limits of two integrals that express lengths of arc of a lemniscate an
algebraical relation exists, so that the are of a lemniscate, although a
transcendent of higher order, may be doubled or halved just as the are of
a circle by means of geometric construction.
It was natural to inquire if the ellipse, hyperbola, etc., did not have
similar properties ; investigating such questions, Euler made the remark-
able discovery of the addition-theorem of elliptic integrals (cf. ‘Nov.
Comm.’ Petrop. vi. pp. 58-84, 1761 ; vii. p. 3; vii. p. 83).
Euler showed that if
f dé +f" dé dé
oV P(E) Jo V d(E) JV H(E)
where ¢$(é) is a rational integral function of the fourth degree in é, there
exists between the upper limits x, y, and a of the integrals an algebraic
relation which is the addition-theorem of the arcs of an ellipse and is the
algebraic solution of the differential equation?
GEN itt:
Vs) Vv 9(n)
Euler stated that the above results were obtained, not by any regular
method, but potius tentando, vel divinando, and suggested that mathe-
maticians seek a direct proof. The numerous discoveries of Euler are
systematised in his work, ‘ Institutiones calculi integralis.’
The fourth volume (p. 446) contains an extension of the addition-
theorem to integrals of the second and third kinds, as they were sub-
sequently classified and named by Legendre.
In each case geometrical application of the formule are made for the
comparison of elliptic arcs.
(6) The addition-theorem for elliptic integrals gave a similar meaning in
higher analysis to the elliptic functions as the cyclometric and logarithmic
functions had had for a long time. See Enneper (‘ Ellipt. Funct.,’ p. 541
et seg.) regarding the position occupied by Euler in the development of
the elliptic functions, and for a statement regarding Legendre’s work in
1 Euler, Wov. Comm, vol. x. pp. 3-50,
248 REPORT—1897.
this branch of mathematics confer Dirichlet’s ‘Gedachtnissrede auf Jacobi’
(Jacobi’s ‘ Werke,’ vol. i. p. 9).
(7) The suggestion made by Euler that one should find a direct method
of integrating the differential equation proposed by him (art. 5) was
carried out by Lagrange, who by direct methods integrated this equation,
and in a manner which elicited the great admiration of Euler. (See
‘Miscell. Taurin.,’ iv. 1768 ; or Serret’s ‘Ciuvres de Lagrange,’ vol. ii.
533,
#4 (8) "he consideration of relations between integrals that have different
moduli gave rise to a theorem due to Landen (and proved somewhat
differently by Lagrange), in accordance with which an elliptic integral
may be transformed into another integral of the same kind by means of
algebraic transformations. Landen (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1775, p. 285; or
‘Mathematical Memoirs,’ by John Landen, London, vol. i. 1780, p. 33)
proves that in general the hyperbola may be ac by means of two
ellipses, with the addition of an algebraic quantity.}
The germ of the general theory of transformation is contained in this
theorem, as has been observed by Legendre.”
By means of algebraic tranformations Landen was able to reduce
elliptic integrals of the first kind into forms that had the same modulus,
and showed that an elliptic integral of the first kind could be transformed
into an elliptic integral of the first kind with smaller modulus, or into an
integral of the first kind with smaller amplitude and greater modulus.
Lagrange? showed that the integration of any irrational function
which contains the square root of a function ¢ may be made to depend
upon the integration of a function of the form =. where P is rational ;
and that if ¢ is not higher than the fourth degree in x, the integration
may be reduced to that of
Ndx
Vv (1£p2) (L-g?a?)’
N denoting a rational function in «*, and p and q constants. If the
elliptic integral be reduced to this form, Lagrange showed by the intro-
duction of a new variable that this integral may be transformed into
another of similar form, but in which » and g become two new quantities
p' and q’, and that if p is greater than qg, p’ becomes greater than p and
q' less than g. By the repetition of this process the factor corresponding
to 1+9°x? may be made as near unity as we desire, and consequently the
integral may be expressed by a circular arc or logarithm ; if, however,
the transformations are made in the other direction, the functions corre-
sponding to 1+ pax? and 1+9a* become as near equal as we wish, and
thus the elliptical integral reduces to a lower transcendent.
Legendre investigated the general integral given above,
Pdx
eS :
1 An interesting geometric construction of this transformation is found in a letter
of Jacobi to Hermite (Jacobi’s Werke, bd. ii. p. 118). See also a geometric proof by
MacCullagh (Trans. of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xvi. p. 76).
? See Ellis, p. 37.
® Mémoire de U Acad. de Se., 1784-85; uvres ii. p. 253.
* Ellis, p. 44. Casorati, Teorica delle funcioni, &c., p. 6.
i
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 249
and showed that it was always possible to reduce it to one or the other of
three forms essentially different.
We may mention, in passing, as being among the early English con-
tributions to the subject memoirs by Brinkley (‘ Dublin Trans,’ ix. p. 145,
1803) and Wallace (‘ Edinb. Trans.’ v. p. 253). A criticism of Talbot’s
*Researches on the Integral Calculus’ (‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1836, p. 177, and
1838, p. 1) is given by Ellis, p. 41.
(9) The theory of the elliptic functions, as Abel and Jacobi! found it
in 1827, offered many highly enigmatical phenomena, which could not be
explained by the principles that were at that time in vogue. For example,
the degree of the equation which is found by means of Euler’s theorem,
and upon whose solution depends the division of the elliptic integral,
was not, as in the analogous question of the division of the circle, equal
to the number of the parts, but to the square of thisnumber. It was easy
to see the meaning of the real roots, whose number agrees with the
number we have in the division of the circle ; however, the number of
imaginary roots must have seemed without explanation (Dirichlet,
* Gedachtnissrede,’ p. 9). ;
We shall next consider the inverse functions of the integrals which we
have been treating. With Jacobi? we begin with the simple algebraic
integral
z dx we
| nin ir,
ov 1—2?
In this expression we may either consider w as a function of the upper
limit x, or inversely, the upper limit x as a function of uw. In the first
case, when w =sin~'a, it is not possible to express wu in the form of a
power series which is convergent for every value of x; and for a given
value of x, w is not determinate, but has an infinite number of values,
differing by multiples of 27. But when we regard the upper limit x as a
function of w, and write w=sin u, then x may be expressed as a series
which is convergent for all values, real and imaginary, of w; and when w is
given a definite value, then x also has a definite value, and x considered
as a function of w enjoys all the properties of a rational function.
The next more general algebraic integral is the elliptic integral
| SS
ov (1—a2) (1—x?2”)
TI(a).
As above, w=II(x) cannot be expressed by a series that is always
convergent ; and for a given value of « the variable w has not a definite
value, but a double infinity of values, differing by multiples of the periods
of elliptic functions (see next article).
The innate property of this integral could not be recognised if we
considered the transcendent x alone; but we have to regard the upper
1 Their first writings on this subject are: Abel, Crelle, bd. ii. September 1827 ;
Jacobi, two letters to Schumacher dated June 13 and August 2, 1827, in the Astrono-
mische Nachrichten, No. 123, vol. vi.
2 Jacobi, Considerationes generales de transcendentibus Abelianis (Werke, bd. ii.
p. 8).
250 REPORT—1897.
limit x as a function of uw, and with Legendre we write x=sin ¢, so that
the integral above becomes
its | a&
u= Saar
oJ/ 1—«*sin2o
We consider ¢ as a function of w, and write p=amplitude of w=am(w),
so that x=sinam (w)=sn u.
The function «=snw enjoys all the properties of a rational fractional
function, and, as is shown later in connection with the 6-function, the
numerator and denominator of this fraction may be developed in rapidly
convergent series for all real or imaginary values of w. Hence the elliptic
function x«=sn w has one, and only one, definite value, corresponding to a
given value of w.
(10) Periods of the inverse functions.—Abel and Jacobi recognised
that the elliptic functions have at the same time the nature of circular
functions and of exponential functions in that they are periodic for both
real and imaginary values of the arguments. They saw that the function
x=sn wu, for example, remained unaltered when w is changed into w+4K
or into w+ 2K’ ./—1, where K and K’ are definite constants.
Jacobi often repeated that the introduction of the imaginary was a
complete solution of all the enigmas that had previously beset this
subject.}
The introduction of the imaginary and the necessity of treating the
limit as a function of the integral were two great advances made by
Jacobi and Abel.
(11) Abel’s investigations took different directions from those of Jacobi.
Abel devoted himself to probiems that have to do with the multiplication
and division of elliptic integrals, their double periodicity, and their defini-
tion by infinite products. By the help of the principle of double periodi-
city he penetrated deeply into the nature of the roots of the equation
upon which the division depends, and made the unexpected discovery that
the general division of the elliptic integral with arbitrary limit may be
performed algebraically (i.e. through the extraction of roots) as soon as
the special division of the so-called complete integrals is presupposed
performed.
The simplest case of this special division is for the modulus to which
the lemniscate corresponds ; and Abel shows that the division of the
entire lemniscate is completely analogous to that of the circle, and may
be performed by geometric construction in the same cases as the circle
admits. The solution of the circle had been solved some twenty-five years
before by Gauss. The admirers of Gauss with Dirichlet, from whom the
above extracts have been made (loc. cit. p. 11), contend, from certain
remarks (among others) made by Gauss in connection with the division of
the circle and the lemniscate, that the principle of double periodicity was
also known to Gauss. Some persons might, however, insist that Gauss
too was beset by some of the enigmas above referred to, and that it was
more likely that Gauss omitted to mention these dilemmas than to keep
silent about the remarkable doubly periodic property of the functions
that are connected with the lemniscate. In this connection Enneper
(‘ Elliptische Functionen,’ p. 7) says that it is to be regretted that Gauss
did not communicate his remarkable discoveries to his contemporaries and
invite their co-operation.
? See Dirichlet, Geddchtnissrede auf Jacobi (Jacobi's Werke, i. 10).
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 251
Another important discovery is due to Abel’s investigations: when
the multiplier became infinitely large in the formule through which he
represented the elliptic functions of a multiple argument by means of
functions of the simple argument, he obtained remarkable expressions for
the elliptic functions in form of infinite series that are expressed as
quotients of infinite products.’
Jacobi, contemporaneously with Abel, was occupied in another part of
the theory of elliptic functions, and with equally as great success, A
fortunate induction of considering the transformation and the multiplica-
tion from a common point of view, and the last as a special case of the
first, led him to the conjecture that rational functions of any degree may
be used to transform an elliptic integral into an integral of the same form.
This conjecture was at once confirmed, since the number of constants
which may be arbitrarily disposed of for any degree is sufficient to satisfy
all conditions in order that the form of the transformed integral may
agree with the original (cf Dirichlet, loc. cit. p. 12).
Jacobi also showed how the elliptic functions may be expressed in the
form of infinite products, which may be represented by trigonometric
series, and he further used the infinite series to express the square and
product of these functions. These results, with the general theory of
transformation, are systematised in the ‘Fundamenta Nova,’ Kénigsberg,
1827; Jacobi’s ‘Werke,’ bd. i. p. 49; further developments in this
direction are mentioned by Enneper (‘Ellip. Funct.’ p. 74 et seg.). A
report of this work is given by Ellis (pp. 49-59), See also a paper by
Poisson (Crelle, bd. x. p. 342).
(12). Statement of Abel’s Theorem—We write, as above,
(L) [= I (2).
If in this expression X = 1 — 2, and if there existe a given algebraic
relation x,? + x,” = 1, then,
(1) («,) + Ia) = Constant ;
i.e. if sin’? + sin®’)= 1 theng + =a.
Further, if X= (1—z”) (1 — x’), and if we have given the algebraic
relation ?
4 (1 — x?) (1 — aq?) (1 — a3?) = (2 — 0? — a9? + ag? + KP 00,200920237)?,
then is
(2) M(a,) + W(a_) + (a) = 0.
From these two examples it is seen that, although in general we cannot
integrate (I.) by means of algebraic or logarithmic functions, neverthe-
less, we have expressions (1) and (2) for the sums of such integrals, pro-
vided the variables that occur in these integrals are connected by algebraic
relations.
By Euler’s theorem, any number of elliptic integrals of the first kind may
_ .’ See in this connection Cayley, Liowv. Journ. x. p. 385; also numerous papers
in his collected works :—Heine (Crelle, bd. xxxiv. p. 122); Eisenstein (Crelle, bd. xxxv.
p. 153; Liouville (Liowv. Journ. t. ii. p. 433); Lipschitz (Acta Math. bd. iv. p. 193);
Biermann (Theorie der analytischen Functionen, p. 323), &c.
? See a paper by Boole, ‘On the comparison of transcendents,’ Phil. Trans. 1857,
p. 750; and also Rowe, ‘ Memoir on Abel’s theorem,’ Phil. Zrans. Pt. III. 1881.
252 REPORT—1897.
be expressed by one such integral, where the upper limit of this integral
is a rational function of the upper limits of the other integrals. Similar
results are found for the elliptic integrals of the second and of the third
kinds. For those of the second kind there enters, in addition, an algebraic
function, and for those of the third kind a logarithmic algebraic function.
Abel considered the integrals of any algebraic functions, and established
a theorem for the transcendents that arise from the integrals of these
functions, which has for them the same meaning as Euler’s theorem has
for the elliptic transcendents.
The question proposed by Abel is: Suppose X in formula (I.) above is
any algebraic function of x, then is it possible, taking different variables,
to establish algebraic (or logarithmic) relations between integrals of the
form
when the variables are connected by requisite algebraic equations ; that is,
can algebraic (or logarithmic) relations be found among
IT(2,), II(a»), Mae d | TI (x),
when 2), %,... #, are connected by algebraic equations? If such is
the case, the question next arises: How many algebraic equations are
necessary, and do these equations depend upon the nature of the
function X ?
Abel, in his celebrated paper, ‘Mémoire sur une Propriété Générale d’une
Classe Trés-Etendue de Fonctions Transcendantes,’ ‘Ciuvres Completes,’
t. i. p. 145 (Sylow and Lie), considered the question in a still more
general form, and found that all those functions whose derivatives may be
expressed through algebraic equations, in which the coefficients are
rational functions of one and the same variable possess properties that
are analogous to those of the elliptic functions stated above.
The results of these investigations are expressed in the following
theorem, known as Abel’s theorem: Jf we have several functions whose
derwatives may be (expressed as) the roots of one and the same algebraic
equation, and all the coefficients in this algebraic equation are rational
Junctions of one and the same variable, then it is always possible to express
the sum of any number of functions which are like the first functions by
means of an algebraic (and logarithmic) function, provided a certain
number of algebraic relations can be established between the variables of the
Junction in question.!
The number of these relations does not depend upon the number of the
: dw dn dn
1 Such functions are ae =R (yt), Ga? = RB Gata, - -- aa = R (Yns@n)s
R denoting a rational function, where x;(i = 1,2,...m) are the points of inter-
section of two curves x(#,y) = 0 and @ (wy) = 0, and y; are the corresponding
values of y that are obtained from these two equations.
Now every symmetric function of the solutions common to x (#,y) = 0, and
(z,y) = O is a rational function of the coefficients of these two equations,
=n, CY
K=n”
Hence > R(@w,y)d@ is an one-valued function of the coefficients of x(#, y) = 0,
k=1
—_. ~ EO
Lal
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 25m
functions, but only upon the nature of the particular functions that are
considered. é
The same theorem is still true when we suppose the functions multi-
plied by any rational number positive or negative.
We may therefore deduce the following theorem: We are always able
to express the sum of a given number of functions, which are multiplied
each by a rational number, and in which the variables are arbitrary, by a
similar sum of functions, whose number is determinate, and in which the
variables are algebraic functions of the given functions.
As a further consequence is the theorem that the sum of any number
of integrals of the form considered may be expressed by the sum of a
definite number of such integrals with (perhaps) the addition of a deter-
minate algebraic (and logarithmic) expression, in which the variables are
algebraic functions of the variables of the first integrals.
We therefore have the following result : Although in general we cannot
integrate an algebraic function by means of algebraic or logarithmic
functions, we may, however, obtain for the sum of a certain number of
such transcendental integrals an expression which is composed of algebraic
(and logarithmic) functions.
Abel considered further the smallest number p of integrals through
which the sum of any number of other integrals may be expressed. This
is the well-known number which denotes the class (Classen-zahl) of the
connectivity of Riemann’s surface x(x, ¥), upon which y is an one-valued
function of «, and Clebsch’s deficiency of the algebraic curve x(a, y) = 0.
(See Cayley’s ‘ Addition to Mr. Rowe’s Memoir,’ loc. cit. p. 752.
Jacobi (‘ Werke,’ bd. i. p. 379) writes : ‘To this theorem we prefer to
give as the most beautiful monument of [Abel’s] extraordinary intellect,
the name Abel’s theorem, since it bears the entire stamp of his depth of
thought. We consider it the greatest mathematical discovery of our time,
as it in a simple form, and without the apparatus of the calculus, gives
utterance to the deepest mathematical thought.’
Legendre calls the theorem a monumentum ere perennius (letter to
Jacobi, Jacobi’s ‘ Werke,’ bd. i. p. 376).
The theorem is contained in a paper written in the year 1825, but not
published until after Abel’s death ; ‘Sur la comparaison des fonctions tran-
scendantes ’ (‘(uvres,’ t. ii. p. 55). The theorem so stated in this paper is :
The sum of any number of functions which have an algebraic differential
may be expressed through a definite number of such functions. It is de-
veloped in the large memoir above mentioned, ‘ Mémoire sur une propriété,
etc.,’ which was presented to the French Academy, October 1826, and not
published until 1841 in the ‘Mémoires des Savants Htrangers,’ t. vii.
Legendre in the third supplement of the ‘ Traité des fonctions ellip-
tiques,’ p. 191, gives to the transcendent
and 6@(a, y) = 0, this one-valued function being by Abel’s theorem an algebraic (and
logarithmic) function.
The points (2;,y;)(@ = 1, 2,. . . m) are not independent of each other, but as
soon as a certain number of them is given, the remaining p (say) are of themselves
determined, being the roots of an algebraic equation of the pth degree, whose
coefficients are rational functions of those points that are given, so that between
these coefficients there exist p algebraic relations.
254 REPORT—1897.
where f(x) is a rational function of « and X a function of greater degree
than the fourth in x, the name ultra-elliptic ; when X is of the fifth or
sixth degree in a, it is said to be of the first order ;! when X is of the
seventh or eight degree in x, of the second order, etc. In each order three
different kinds of integrals are to be distinguished, which are entirely
analogous to those ‘which the nature of things has introduced into the
theory of elliptic functions.’
Jacobi (‘ Werke,’ bd. i. 1832, p. 376) wished to call these the Abelian
transcendents, on account of the following works of Abel that had at that
time appeared :—
‘ Remarques sur quelques propri¢tés générales d’une certaine sorte de
fonctions transcendantes ’ (Crelle, bd. iii. 1828, p. 313).
‘ Démonstration d’une propriété générale d’une certaine classe de fonc-
tions transcendantes’ (Crelle, bd. iv. p. 200).
These papers treat of the more special functions in which y is con-
nected with « by the relation y?=X, where X has the same meaning as
above ; the term hyperelliptic is usually applied to such functions, Abelian
being used im general to designate transcendents in which y is defined as
any function of x through the algebraic equation x(x, y)=0.
(13) Abel’s theorem.—A brief account of some of the fundamental
statements of the preceding article is given here. The mode of procedure
is nearer that of Riemann, Fuchs, and later writers than that of the
original memoir. Some of the results as derived by Abel are given later.
The algebraic equation
X(2Y)=Pot Pry + poy? + ++ + Pray” +y¥°=x(y)=9,
in which all the coefficients are rational integral functions of x, and the
integral function
A(x, Y)=Yo+Ny+QY? +--+ +919"! =A(y)=0,
where the q’s are likewise integral functions of x, when considered geo-
metrically, represent two curves, which intersect in a certain number of
points. In the coefficients of these two equations may appear quantities,
U,V, W, » « « , Quantities quite indeterminate, upon which the coefficients
depend.
The co-ordinates of the intersection of the two curves are functions of
Ww, V, W, « « « » SO that we may write the two curves in the form
X(@Y 5 Uy%,20, « « .)=0,
O(x,y ; U,v,0, . . .)=0.
Let the points of intersection of the two curves be
Lis 5 La Yo 5 CasYz 5 +o uyYy 5
and when particular values w°,v°,w°, ... are given to w,v,w,..., let
the corresponding points of intersection be
Digs Din caniO'gs 0 aes, NG
LY 5 Lo°sYo° 5 Lz°,Y3° oo » &,°,Y,°
* Legendre uses the word class. We may remark here that, when he divides in-
Made
tegrals of the form laa into the three different Ainds, he must first assume that
2 is less than —lor a where A is the degree of $(#). See Richelot (Crelle, bd.
xii. p. 185), where different forms of the integrals corresponding to the different kinds
are considered.
a te. i i i
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 255
Let R (x,y) be any rational function of x and y, and form the sum
x=h as
> (2, Y.)Ax,.
cro saa
For the present discussion it is in every respect sufficient to consider
only one parameter w, and to specify the function 6(#,y)=0, which we do
by writing
(x,y) = (x,y) —w(x,y)=0, , HCE)
Onto (25%)
Yay)"
The rational function 1a takes the value w as often as it does any
other value wu.
Writing
‘oY
(I.) v=(i R(xoy,)de,
x, ofa
we have
(II.) Sn=$* pion os
<=1 ca} 7°,
In the expression (II.) we shall study w as a function of wu.
From (I.)
dw, dw, dx, dx,
hese dx, du a OL
Differentiate (1) with regard to u, and we have
ow oy dy \dx,
Wey +L ann (eras alee
-[(@. = +(2)e a _ 7 a i
Since *) + (3) =0, we have, after substituting the
—— oe On /a=o
Y=4¥« y =y, «
value of os * from this equation in (3),
(2)
dx,
u
in x, y,and u. =S(x,7,,u), where S denotes
a rational function.
Further, = *=R(a,y,) S(x,y.%)=T(x,y,,u) where T is also a rational
function.
«=p a>-
d
Finally, 7, ue w= ST(eayat)=r(u), say, where 7(u) is a rational
function in wu,
256 REPORT—1897.
Hence upon integrating
(IIL) Siz Sl" R(cay.)de, = (re) du.
= x, Oe
We note that the number p does not depend upon the function R(z,y).
(14) We thus have the sum of p» integrals expressed as the integral of
a rational function of the parameter uw. This integral depends upon the
nature of the function R(#,y) being, first, a constant ; secondly, the differ-
ential of a logarithmic function which is equivalent to a determinate
algebraic function ; thirdly, a logarithmic expression which likewise is deter-
minate, when the integral |R(x,y)dx are special integrals of the jirst,
second, and third kinds respectively.
The discussion of these special integrals, the normal integrals of the
first, second and third kinds, is found in Forsyth, ‘Theory of Functions,’
p. 443 ; Harkness and Morley, ‘A Treatise on the Theory of Functions,’
p. 435 ; Neumann, ‘ Theorie der Abel’schen Integrale,’ p. 245, ce.
(15) Nother! has proved that any algebraic curve may by means of
birational transformations be transformed into another curve in which
the highest singularities are double points with distinct tangents. We
may therefore assume that the curve x(z,y)=0 has no higher singularities
than these. Upon this hypothesis the most intricate integral that arises
may be expressed linearly in terms of the normal integrals of the first,
second and third kinds, with the addition, perhaps, of an algebraic
expression,
Abel allowed the curve x(2,y)=0 to have any kind of singularity ;
and hence the expression for the algebraic and logarithmic functions that
stand on the right of formula (IITI.) in art. 13 are necessarily very com-
plicated, By making use of the methods mentioned above, this complexity
is avoided, and the representation of the integral [rewyae may be obtained
in comparatively simple form.
(16) Denote the p ncagy independent normal integrals of the first
kind by v,(x,y)(A=1, 2,... p); then, as in art. 13,
c=p | X,,
S|3 clo,(0,y la =0 (mod. const.),
=] A x
x=q Cy
oS “Bile det > “doley) dx=—0 (mod. const.),
c=1 |X, ye <=] i qty qt«
where p+q=n.
The ports ar, 9, (x =—'1, 2, 22. - Q)S Syn Py. (= 1, 2, eee
the points z,, y, (k= 1, 2,. . 4 q) may be chosen at pleasure ; : ‘but the
remaining P points % 44 Yqi. (kK = 1, 2,. . . p) are no longer arbitrary, the
x’s being the roots of an algebraic equation of the pth degree
w+ a,x?) + a0? +... +4,=0,
1 Nother, Math. Ann. bd. ix. p.17; see also Halphen, Bulletin de la Soc. Math.
de France, t. iv. Dec. 1875, and t. iii. Feb. 1875; Bertini, Revista di Matem. 1891,
and Math. Ann. bd. xliv. p. 158; Poincaré, Compt. "Rend, July 1893.
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 257
where the constants a,, a, .. a, are determinate rational functions of
the other points,
DE ly lacs eee a ae DoD 4. 2D)
and Wey Hoe alge ths. )>
The corresponding values of y are the remaining ordinates of the points
of intersection of the curves y (a,y) =0, and 0 (x,y) = 0.
(17) Abel, in the proof of his theorem, stated in art. 12 wrote :
$(2) = | F (any) ae,
where f (x,y) is any rational algebraic function of x and y. He then
considered the sum of such integrals
i=.
PS («;),
v=1
where w; (i = 1, 2,. . . yx) are the points of intersection of the two curves
x(x,y) = 0, O(a,y) = 0; that is, the roots of the equation E(x)=0,
which is obtained by eliminating y out of the two given equations.
Of these points of intersection some may be stationary, while the others
are movable, the fixed points being independent of the parameters
uw, Vv, w,... (art. 13). Hence E (x) may be composed of two factors
F(x) and F(«), of which F,(a) does not depend upon w, v, w, .
Abel wrote the subject of integration in the form
Sey)
AY) xy)?
where f\(x,y) and f,(~,y) are integral functions of « and y and
Nyy = Oxy,
x'(y) ay
f=“ i=p
He found that & ¢(*,) = : Si(®i Yi) dx; = v,
3a itt > Sis Yi) X' (Yi)
where v may be a constant plus an algebraic function plus a logarithmic
function. (A concise expression for v, due to Rowe, is given in art. 20.
(18) After restricting the functions /\(«,y), f:(x,y) and F,(z) in such
a way that the logarithmic and algebraic functions of the expression above
disappeared, Abel found that the function f\(z,y) contained a certain
number of arbitrary constants, a number which depended only upon the
nature of the curve (7,y)=0. This number he designated by
‘y(= p, of art. 13).
In the equation 6(v,y)=qM+qytqyt...- + q—ay"t=0,a
certain number of the coeflicients of « in the functions g are supposed
indeterminate. Denote these by a, a, a,... Wesaw above that the
upper limits 7(1 = 1, 2, .. . mu) of the integrals in (I.) are the roots of
the equation E(~) = 0, and may be expressed as functions of the inde-
pendent quantities a, a, @,,... , of which there are, say, a.
Let these functions be :
#, =fi(@, 0), dg, -. - ), % = f(a, 0,,dg,. 6.) 2 os H(A, a; ay. .).
1897. 8
258 REPORT—1897,.
From these relations it is seen that as soon as a of the 2’s are given,
the remaining »—a may be determined in terms of the known ones. Abel
showed how to effect this determination, and in general that »—a = y.
In two special cases considered by Abel this number is less than y.
(See also Rowe, Memoir on Abel’s Theorem, ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1881, p. 731.)
Professor Cayley, in the ‘ Addition to Mr. Rowe’s Memoir,’ proved that y
was always equal to the deficiency of the curve (x,y) = 0, whatever its
singularities.
Professor H. F. Baker has recently proved the same theorem by means
of graphic methods in the ‘Cambr. Trans.’ xv. Part IV.; see also
‘Math. Ann.,’ 45, p. 133.
As a special case Abel gave the equation y(z,y) = 0 the form
y” + po = 0.
The form of the integrals whose sum is to be expressed as in
formula (I.) is
| File)dao,
So(x)y™
For the hyperelliptic functions (n = 2), when po is of the 2m — 1* or
2m™ degree, Abel showed that » — a =m — 1.
(19) Mathematicians were much interested in the new functions which
must be introduced in connection with the Abelian integrals. The
Academy at Copenhagen wished to see these functions extended to all
integrals of algebraic functions, which are included in Abel’s theorem ; !
and in regard to this wish Jiirgensen, Broch, Minding, Rosenhain wrote
some very important memoirs. The value of these memoirs, however, on
account of their less generality was much diminished when Abel’s great
paper was finally published in 1841.
Minding, in two short papers (Crelle, bd. ix. p. 295, 1833, and bd. xi.
p- 233, 1834), showed how to represent the algebraic and logarithmic
functions of Abel’s theorem for the special cases in which the algebraic
functions satisfy an equation of the third degree.
Jirgensen (‘Sur la Sommation des Transcendantes a différentielles
algébriques,’ Crelle, bd. xix. p. 113), took, as the subject of integration,
the quotient of two functions P(a, z;) and Q(a, z,), where P and Q are
integral functions, and where z; is a root of an equation that is similar to
Abel’s x(a,y) = 0.
After reducing EGS) to a form Me), where \ and »y denote in-
¥
Q (2, %;)
tegral functions (see Liouville, ‘ Note sur la Détermination des intégrals
dont la valeur est algébrique,’ Crelle, bd. x. p. 347),? he considered a
A(a, 2),
v(x)
sum of integrals of the form | where the summation is taken over
the jw roots of the resultant of two algebraic equations. This sum he
expressed in the form of an algebraic and logarithmic function.
In a second paper (Crelle, bd. xxiii. p. 126) Jiirgensen denoted by X(a, ¥;)
1 Cf. Jacobi, Gesam. Werke, bd. ii. p. 517. He does not mention Jiirgensen.
? See also references cited in art. 11, and a paper by Liouville, Sur l'intégration
@une classe de fonctions transcendantes, bd. xiii. p. 93.
ty
CO
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 259
a rational function of « and any one of the n roots y,; (i=1, 2,.. . 1) of
the equation
PtP Yr +py" 2+. + + Pry +Pr=9,
the p’s being integral functions of « ; then X (see Liouville’s paper men-
tioned above) may be given one or the other of the forms
xe er or X=f(2)9,(2),
where /(«) is a rational function of x, and ¢,(#) is an integral function of
x and y,.
Two leading questions are considered : (1) To find the cases in which
one can express | Xdx by a finite number of algebraic and logarithmic
operations (see art. 34) ; (2) To find the relations among the integrals
[Pe)oder)der, [7 er)on(ea)den « «
which correspond to variables x), «.,. . . that depend upon one another,
and upon the different roots ¥,, Yn, . .
Broch, ‘ Mémoire sur les fonctions de lh, forme,’
fas @) (Re) as
(Crelle, bd. xxiii. p. 148, 1841), developed rules for the summation of the
transcendents mentioned in the title, where f(x”) is a rational function of
: : : ee s— . -
x”, y an integer which is divisible by ,r and pare integers, and s an in-
teger less than 7. p
These are analagous to the investigations of Abel on the hyperelliptic
functions which had already been published.
In a previous memoir (Crelle, bd. xx. p. 178), Broch had discussed the
special case where p=1 and s=1. The basis of this paper is Abel’s
memoir, ‘ Démonstration d’une propriété générale,’ &e. Broch also sought
the minimal number of integrals (Abel’s y), through which a sum of inte-
grals could be represented.
Minding divided his paper, ‘Propositiones quedam de integralibus
functionum algebraicarum,’ é&c. (Crelle, bd. xxiii. p..255), into three heads.
He first gives an expression for a sum of integrals of the form
(te (a) F (ai, yi Po) da;
(xi)
when 9, and F are integral functions, and
g(x)=(x—c,)(x—cy) . . . (x—e,),
the c’s denoting constants. «, and y,; are the common intersections of two
curves
Poy +P Yb oes +Pr=05 NY THY? +o». +In=0,
which correspond to Abel’s x(x,y)=0 and 6(a,y)=0.
Minding further allowed arbitrary variable parameters in his functions
q, so that his results, as Brill and Nother ! remark, are only less general than
those of Abel in that fixed points of intersection of the two curves are not
considered.
1 Jahresber, der deutschen Mathematiker- Vereinigung, bd, iii, p. 229.
$2
260 REPORT—1897.
The contents of the second head are indicated by its title ‘ De numero
minimo integralium ad que numerus datus eiusmodi integralium reduci
potest.’
In the third head he makes application of the preceding theorems to
the equation : poy"+p,=0. (See also art. 19.)
Ramus (Crelle, bd. xxiv. p. 69) derives a formula for the expression of
the sum of yp integrals {(x,)+Y(a.)+ ...+d(u,), where {(x) has either
the form & y™ (x) dx or (2 uy where / (x) is an integral function
of «,m a positive integer, and y” (x) is one of the 7 roots y,(~), y2(), . -
y,(«) of the equation
O=potpryt py? t+ --- Pray ty
(Abel’s x(2,y)=0.)
The variables #,(7=1, 2, . . . ) are the points of intersection of this
curve with a second algebraic curve.
Rosenhain (Crelle, bd. xxviii. p. 249, 1844) employed as fundamental
equation
b(%y)=Poy" +Piy" +. . + +pr=0.
in the place of Abel’s x(a#,y)=0.
Proceeding in a manner very similar to that of Abel, he adopts in his
summation-formula integrands of the form
Q.y" 47+ Q.y" 3+ PS Pat
9'(y)
where the Q’s are the rational functions of a.
In discussing the hyperelliptic case (n=2) he gives ¢(a,y) the form
PoY¥2tPiytps and not the form usually adopted, y°=R(zx), po, Pi, Po,
and R denoting rational functions of «.
He then seeks to prove in the general case that the number of arbit-
rary constants in an integral of the first kind is equal to the smallest
number of integrals through which the sum of any number of such integrals
is expressible. The article is continued (Crelle, bd. xxix. p. 1).
(20) Boole, in a paper, ‘On the Comparison of Transcendents, with cer-
tain Applications to the Theory of Definite Integrals’ (‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1857,
p. 745), contemplates the following objects :
First, the demonstration of a fundamental theorem for the summation
of integrals, whose limits are determined by the roots of an algebraic
equation. Secondly, the application of that theorem to the comparison of
algebraic transcendents. ‘Thirdly, the application of the same theorem in
a new, and, as it is conceived, more remarkable line of investigation to the
comparison of functional transcendents. In the introduction to this paper,
Boole states: ‘As presented in the writings of Abel and of those who
immediately followed in his steps, the doctrine of the comparison of
transcendents is repulsive from the complexity of the formule in which
the general conclusions are embodied.’ With the intention of simplifying
these formule, Boole introduced a symbol differing in interpretation only
by the addition of one element from the symbol used by Cauchy in the
‘Calculus of Residues.’
This symbol, @), he defines as follows : ‘If ¢(x) f(x) be any function of x
composed of two factors ¢(x) and f(x), whereof ¢(x) is rational, let
©[9(x)]./(~) denote the result obtained by successively developing the
,
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 261
function in ascending powers of each distinct simple factor (of the form)
x—a in the denominator of ¢(~), taking in each development the coeflicient
of
x—a
developments, and subtracting from the result the coefficient of 1 /x in the
development of the same function in descending powers of «.’
The simplifications made by Boole are more than offset by the loss of
generality which characterise his formule.
Rowe (Memoir on Abel’s Theorem, ‘Phil. Trans.’ 1881, p. 713)
endeavoured to simplify Abel’s results, and at the same time to retain
their generality. Using the same notation as in art. 18, and employing
Boole’s symbol, he derives Abel’s theorem in the form :
v.y)de= SS 1 Sila, y dar
S | fendee= Ee
u - Si (x, y)
Of Fo (e) SLD tog 6(y) +0,
where C is a constant.
Professor A. R. Forsyth, in a paper, ‘Abel’s Theorem and Abelian
Functions’ (‘ Phil. Trans,’ 1883, p. 323) has obtained an expression for an
integral that is more general than that occurring in Abel’s theorem.
Professor Forsyth takes two given equations of degrees m and
between three variables, of which y and z are dependent, « being
independent :
, adding together the coefficients thus obtained from the several
F,,(2, Y z)=0, F,,(x, Y z)=0.
The Jacobian (functional-determinant) of these two functions is
denoted by J (===). A quantity T is defined by the relation
pa, Ys a).
O(a, y, 2)
where VY and © are rational algebraic functions of a, y, z. This quotient
: . U : -
may in turn be expressed in the form —, u where U is an integral
2
function of x, y, and z, and f(«) a function of « alone.
The generalised Abel’s theorem, as derived by Professor Forsyth, is
9 Uda spi [ d | U ter
ae Pee SSirea Ne © ayy aes Sar cee ce te} p
=| 7e@s (P=) OlF@ are ; _ +0,
Ys % Ys %
where the upper limits of the integrals on the left-hand side are the m.n. p
roots of the equation obtained by eliminating y and z between F,, and F,,
and an arbitrary rational algebraic function F,(2,y,z)=0. On the right-
hand side the summation extends over the m. roots y and z in terms of
x of the equations F,,=0 and F,=0. C is a constant.
The more general theorem Professor Forsyth enunciates as follows :
Let F(x), 7,...2,)=0 (i=1, 2,...r—1) be r—1 algebraic equations
of degrees m,, mo, . . . m,_, respectively, giving x, 73,...%, in terms of
x,; and let F,(a,, v5, ...,) be a function of these dependent variables,
the coefficients of which are functions of a, containing any number of
arbitrary constants. Form the eliminant E of all the F's, so that we
262 REPORT—1897.
shall obtain the set of roots x, by equating E to zero; and denote by
U any algebraic function of x), x, ... %,.
Then
sal bh dx, [ 1 ] U log F,
= \ +A.
= Fe); (fe 2) OLFe Iz; (fe Be es Ea)"
Bick nr piece Minis s Mole
The summation on the right-hand side is taken over all the roots of E=0,
which are assumed as the upper limits of the integrals ; while on the
right-hand side the summation is over all the roots F;=0, F,=0, ...
F,_,=0, considered as r—1, simultaneous equations giving 2, w3,... &,
in terms of 7.
In connection with this paper we note a paper by Professor Cayley,
‘A Memoir on the Abelian and Theta Functions’ (‘American Journ.
Math.’ vol. v. p. 137, and vol. vii. p. 101).
The first chapter treats of Abel’s theorem ; the second, a proof of
Abel’s theorem. The connection between the lines of thought presented
in this paper and those of Professor Forsyth are particularly interesting.
In the further developments of Professor Cayley’s paper, which is founded
upon Clebsch and Gordan’s ‘ Treatise,’ some geometrical results are brought
into prominence. The theory is illustrated by examples in regard to the
cubic, the nodal quartic and the general quartic respectively.
The general case where the fixed curve is any curve whatever has been
solved with great generality by Nother,! ‘Zur Reduction Algebraischer
Differentialausdriicke auf der Normalform,’ and ‘ Ueber die Algebraischen
Differentialausdriicke ’ (‘Sitzungsber. der Phys. Med. Soc. zu Erlangen,’
Dec. 10, 1883, and Jan. 14, 1884). Other addition-theorems, especially
for the hyperelliptic functions, are given in art. 32.
(21) Periodic Functions of Several Variables.—In art. 10 the periodic
properties of functions of one variable were considered, and it has been
seen that Abel’s theorem embraces the integrals of all algebraic functions.
Considering the inverse of these transcendental integrals, Jacobi dis-
covered the existence of the periodic functions of several variables, and
thus revealed the real significance and hitherto hidden properties of such
functions.
Some of Jacobi’s investigations? relative to hyperelliptic transcen-
dents are next given, since they may be used to illustrate Abel’s theorem
for the more general integrals, and set forth the properties of the inverse
functions that are comprised in this theorem.
If X denotes a rational integral function of the fourth degree in 2,
then by Euler’s theorem (art. 5) transcendents of the form
enjoy the singular property that if
II(@,) + 0 (a.)=I11(a),
then a may be found algebraically in terms of a, and x. Owing to
1 See also Nother, Math. Ann. bd. ii. p. 314, bd. ix. p. 17; Brill and Nother,
Math. Ann. bd. vii. p. 269, and continuation in bd. vii. ;. Klein-Fricke, Hilliptische
Modulfunctionen, bd. i. 1890, p. 533; Baker, Cambridge Phil. Trans. xv.; Math.
Ann. bd. xlv. p. 133, &e.
* Jacobi, Considerationes Generales de Transcendentibus Abelianis, Crelle, bd. ix,
p. 394, 1832; Werke, bd. ii. p. 7.
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 263
Abel’s theorem, analogous properties exist for all such transcendents, in
which the function X is any rational integral function of x. For, taking
the next simplest case, let X be of the fifth or sixth degree in «, and write :
* dx * xd
Oo —G(x), | “~*~ =0,(z);
and further write :
n= [Oe
1 ae
or
II (x)= A(x) +A,®,(z),
where A and A, denote constants.
Then from Abel’s theorem it follows that of the innumerable solutions
of the equation
(1) Ua) + MW (ay) +1 (x3)=M(a) +16),
there is one algebraic solution ; that is, a and 6 may be algebraically
determined in terms of x, «,, #3; from the two equations that are derived
from (1) :
(2) + B(x) + (x3) = O(a) + &(6),
@ (2) + (ay) +O (x3) = (2) + 9, (0).
(22) In general, if we write :
(erect ie Anse") Met _ 1 ()
where X=/ (a) isa rational integral function of the 2mth or 2m—1th degree
in «, it follows from Abel’s theorem that, if m values 2), %,... %m of the
variable x be given, through these m quantities it is possible to determine
(art. 18) in an algebraic manner m—1 quantities @, @,.- + G1 which
satisfy the transcendental relation :
T1(az,) + U(arg) +... O(a) =T(a,) + (aa) + «FOG n-1) 5
and Abel further showed that the quantities a), a, ... @m_, are the roots
of an algebraic equation of the m—I1th degree; and that each of the
coefficients in this algebraic equation may be rationally expressed in terms
of the quantities : x, %,...&,, and
/ Xi, / Xo, nq fA ge ere =f (z) (=1,2...m)'
It also follows from Abel’s theorem that, when any number whatever
of values of ~ are given, the sum of the transcendents I(x) which
belong to given values of « may be expressed through m—1 transcendents
Il(z) when the m—1 values of « in these transcendents are algebraically
determined from the given values.
(23) We consider next the case where the sum of four transcendents
are expressed as the sum of two, and where the arguments of these two
transcendents depend algebraically upon the arguments of the first four.
As above, we write :
= dx * oda
ee — d =®,(x),
\ /X ie Iq yer. 1(7)
264: REPORT—1897.
By Abel’s theorem, when the two equations
(1y{ MOH =—O(e) + B(o2) + Mes) +O(0),
D(a) + (0) =P, (2) +P, (@y) +P, (#3) +2, (a4)
are simultaneously given, a and 0 are algebraically determined in terms of
the given quantities x), ,%3,04.
Now write
(a) (2G) Pee ey (Sen ee
(P,(@,) +®,(*2)=0 ; D(%3) +, (x4)=v’.
Then from (1) it follows that
(3) } O(a) + 0(b)=u+w’,
| ®)(a)+2,(d)=v04+e'.
If now in (2) we consider x, and x, as functions of w and v and write
%=X(U,v), Ly=A, (u,v), and similarly in (2') write x3=)(w’,v’), e,=),(w',v’),
then it follows from (3) that a=dA(w+w',v+v’'), b=A\(u+w',v+r’).
Since a and 6 are algebraically expressible in 2),%,%3,%,, it follows:
that A(w+u'v+v’) and A,\(w+w',v+v’) are algebraically expressible in
terms of d(u,v,) A,(u,v), A(w',v’) and A, (w',v’).
The general theorem may be expressed as follows :
Let{’ EM = (0), (0,1, -- m—2),
0 Z
where X=/f(x) is a rational integral function of the 2mth or 2m—I1th
degree in 2, then, if between the m—1 quantities 2,2, ...%, . and the
quantities 2,2), ... U,_» the following equations exist simultaneously,
(L.) wz=,(0) + P,(a,)+ ... +O(%p 2), (1=0, 1,... m—2) ;
and if
CE) aS Na eg ca) PPO), Ys Se
with equations similar to (I.) and (II.) with accented w’s and a’s, then
these functions enjoy the same property as do the trigonometric and
elliptic functions, viz. :
The functions
Ai(Uoy HU sy + y's «Ung $U' m2)
may be algebraically expressed through the functions
Aj (Uy5 © » = Ug —o) AND A(26',2' 15 5» Wg 5)
(t=0, 1,... m—2).
(24) Integrals of differential equations.—Euler’s theorem sets forth the
complete algebraic integral of a differential equation of the first order
with two variables, which have been separated in such a way that
dx, dxy
We cal Re
where X, and X, denote the same rational integral function of the fourth
degree in x, and x, respectively ; and Euler! showed that the algebraic
integral was an equation of the second degree between the two quantities
x,+%, and 2.2».
Abel’s theorem sets forth algebraically m—1 complete integrals (inte-
grals which involve m—1 arbitrary constants) of m—1 differential
1 Euler, Institutiones, Calc. Int. t. i. cap. vi. § 2.
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 265
equations of the first order with m variables, in each of which the m
variables are separated.
Taking the next simplest case, let X=/(x) denote a rational integral
function of the fifth or sixth degree. Then the two transcendental
equations (see the preceding article)
D(x) + P(xy) + O(x3)=P(a) + B(d),
®)(x,)+©)(x.) +P) (x3)=,(a) +, (d),
owing to Abel’s theorem, take the place of two algebraic equations
between the five qualities x,, x, x, @ and b. Consider a and 6 as
constants. Then, when we differentiate the two equations just written,
the terms involving a and 6 drop out, so that these quantities appear as
arbitrary constants in the transcendental equations, or in the algebraic
equations which take the place of the transcendental.
Hence we have the following theorem : Let /(x) be a rational integral
function of the fifth or sixth degreein x, and write f(x,)=X,, (i=1, 2, 3),
then the differentia] equations of the first order with three variables,
Eye a ea Sg. ME Sala aE ag
VX, VX. VX; VX, VX. WX;
have two complete algebraic integrals.
This theorem is easily extended to m—1 linear differential equations of
the first order with m variables, in each of which the variables are
separated :
(ay a a
VX, VXe J Xm
(t=0, 1,,2)). i,.,,m—=2),
where X,, X5,... X,, denote the same integral functions in 2,9,
. %». Jacobi closes the ‘Considerationes generales,’ &c. with the
remarks : ‘We know that Lagrange, starting with the differential equa-
tion between two variables [art. 7] came to its complete algebraic integral
through direct methods of integration, and so by a new and singular
method demonstrated Euler’s theorem ; and so we think it worth the
while to investigate through direct methods of, integration the two
complete algebraic integrals of the system (s.) above, or more generally
the m—1 complete algebraic integrals of the system (%.), and thus adorn
Abel’s theorem with a new and no less singular demonstration.’
At the end of the ‘Note von der geodatischen Linie auf einem
Ellipsoid,’ &e. (‘Werke,’ bd. ii. p. 59), Jacobi finds that by making use of a
certain substitution he was able to extend the remarkable relation dis-
covered by Legendre between the complete integrals of the first and
second kind of two elliptic integrals whose moduli are complements to
each other to all hyperelliptic integrals ; and this same substitution, he
says, led him to the Abelian theorem itself in a way and through con-
siderations which are absolutely different from that of Abel. These
considerations originate from a mechanical problem.
The elliptic movement of a planet, or even the motion of a point in a
straight line, may be expressed through an equation between two elliptic
integrals. We have two methods of treating the same problem, of which
the one represents the solution in a transcendental, the other in an
266 REPORT—1897.
algebraic form. We thus derive a new method of finding the fundamental
theorem for the addition of elliptic integrals. Jacobi says that by
generalising this method through the introduction of any number of
variables he obtained the general addition-theorem in a new and ready
manner ; and at the same time there was opened a simpler way, through
the application of suitable multiplications, of coming directly to the
algebraic integrals of the systems of differential equations (c.) and (.)
above. See also a paper by Haedenkamp (Crelle, bd. xxii. p. 184).
(25) Following Jacobi’s suggestion of the preceding article, Richelot
(Crelle, bd. xxiii. p. 354) extended Lagrange’s methods (art. 7) andin a
direct manner integrated the differential equations (c.) and (3.)! above.
By his methods two algebraic integrals are found for Euler's differen-
tial equation, of which it is easy to prove that the one is a function of
the other ; while the two algebraic solutions of (c.) are independent. He
found two similar solutions for the system (’.) The general solution of
this system of equations he derived in the following form: In system
(3’.) let X=f(w)=A, +A a+Ayx?+ ... Ay,x", and for brevity write
F(x)=(*x—a,)(w—ay) . . « (w—2,) and F(x) = oF @)
eke if, next, the roots of
Le
the equation.
(agp +a;x+ayu?+ ... +a,0")?—b?(A,+A a+ 2.6 +A,,0")=0
be denoted by 2, 2, ... 2, ™),mg,... m,, and if the coefficients
Qy,%,, » . » b be determined through the first n+1 of these roots, then
the n—1 equations of condition, which must exist in order that the n—1
remaining quantities m,,m, .. . m,, be the roots of this equation, are the
nm—1 complete algebraic integrals of the system (2’.).?
Richelot assumed that f(x) has, as factors, #— aj, © —a,,.+-.
x — a,_,, and for brevity he wrote
P (x) = (w@ — my) ( — m3)... (© — m,) 5 Mm, = ao.
1 Change m into m in the system (%.) in order to have the system adopted by
Richelot, which denote by (3’.).
2 It is interesting to note here certain difficulties that the older mathematicians
experienced. Euler (Znst. Cal. Int. t. i., cap. vi. § 2, prob. 82, scholion 1) says it is
dz
VA+ Ba + Ca? + Da? + Hai +Fa* + Ga
cannot be treated in the manner of circular and elliptic integrals ; for if the coefficients
are restricted so that the root may be extracted, the formula becoming
quite clear that transcendents of the |
lear it can in no wise happen that several functions of this kind be
a+ bxe+cu*+dx
algebraically compared among one another. Lagrange tried in vain to extend this
theorem. This paradoxical thought is easily explained : for two algebraic equations
between the arguments of the integrals always satisfy the two transcendental relations
between these integrals when the function under the radical sign is of the fifth or
sixth degree (art. 24). These algebraic equations exist owing to the fact that the
numerator of the integral which is of the first degree has coefficients which are
always of such a nature that two of the arguments become roots of a quadratic
equation, whose roots involve the other arguments algebraically. As often, therefore,
as the transcendents unite within themselves a logarithmic and a trigonometric
part,it happens through the algebraic equations that both the trigonometric and the
logarithmic parts vanish independently in the two transcendental equations, so
that one relation is given among the logarithms and another among theares. Cf.
Richelot (Crelle, bd. ii. p. 181).
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 267
After some reductions he was able to express the n — 1 integrals of the
system (%’.) in the form,
V F(x) 1 V f (#2) 1 Sf (an) 1 4
F(a,) | F(@,) hip Dae th F(x) a a at wrtes bot F(x) age Zh
= — Aon; P(a);
(= 2, eee nm — 1).
One recognises at once much similarity between the quantities employed
here and those later used by Weierstrass in Crelle, bd. xlviii.
(26) Jacobi (‘ Demonstratio nova theorematis Abeliani,’ Crelle, bd. xxiv.
p. 28), derived the x — 1 algebraic integrals in a different manner than
that given above, and at the same time he established a new proof of Abel’s
theorem. Instead of the system (%.) he introduced n differential equations
with » variables \,, \.,. . . A, and the variable ¢:
AyidAy. Ag’ dAg Ani Ay
with the equation
AyMtdAy , Ao" dry APtaN ye
VF) VFO) VFO)
where /(A) is an integral function of the 21—1th degree in X.
For brevity let N, = (A, — A,) (A, — Ag) ©» » (Ag An)
where the vanishing factor \, — A, is omitted ;
and y = /(m — Xj) (m—A,). . . (m—d,),
where m — d is any factor of the function /(A).
The following lemma is next proved: If y (A) is a rational integral
function of the 2n—2¢h degree in X, then
Ss 0 WA,) = 05
<7 OA, N re
Making use of this lemma, Jacobi found an algebraic integral of the
system (=’’.) in the form
nf FOa) a MEAs) “oun sn Oia: Wea alavirct,
¢ (iB + eae * + fie) a
Corresponding to the 2n — 1 factors m — A of the function f(A), there
are 2n — 1 integrals of the form just written, of which n — 1 are sufficient
to give the algebraic relations between the m variables \,, Ao. - + An
Haedenkamp (Crelle, bd. xxv. p. 178), specialised the general case, and
found by geometric considerations the two complete algebraic integrals of
the system (c.) above.
(27) In each of the n — 1 integrals derived by Richelot appear two
roots of the equation / (x) = 0, while in Jacobi’s solutions there is found
only one ; and if imaginary roots enter f(z), the integrals found in both of
the methods just given have imaginary forms.
Richelot (Crelle, bd. xxv. p. 97) found another method of solution
which also depends upon two roots of the equation f(x) = 0, but has the
property of remaining real when for these two roots any two conjugate
roots are substituted. He succeeded further in finding a system of n—1
268 REPORT—1897.
solutions of the system (2’.), which contain none of the roots of the
equation f(x) = 0, or presupposes them in any manner. This more
general solution is an extension of Jacobi’s method, which was effected by
the consideration of mechanical problems (art. 24) and throws new light
upon Abel’s theorem, of which some fundamental forms are derived through
suitable integration.
Writing F (x) = (« — 2) (e — a). . . (« — x,), Richelot found as an
integral of 2’. ‘
Const. = | ae een * eee + ee qi
Reali’ speitin
F(a) A>, F( )
in which f (a) = Ay +A,x +... + A»,x", and a denotes any arbitrary
integer.
Let atake m — 1 different values a), a9, a,_;, and we have a complete
system of »—1 solutions of the equations (2’.) Through suitable integra-
tions of (' -) different forms of Abel’s theorem are derived in accordance
with Jacobi’s suggestions in art. 24.
(28) Jacobi (Crelle, bd. xxxii. p. 220) found that the — 1 algebraic
equations through which the system (=’.) was integrable consist ‘of one
equation of the second degree in a, and a, (where a, denotes the swm of
the quantities 7, 2,... ,, @ the sum of these quantities taken two at
a time, a, the sum taken three at a time, etc.), and of » — 2 equations by
means of which a;, . . . a, are linearly expressed in terms of a, and ay ;
and further, that between any two of the quantities a there exists a
quadratic, and between any three a linear relation (cf. also Weierstrass,
‘Math. Werke,’ bd. i. p. 267).
Jacobi further showed that if we write
F(x) = (6a bj") + Oya? + | =. 16,7
+ (cx” + ¢,0""! 4+ cow”? 4+... +40,)?
— (ax” + aya"! + diya"? Hm. . 3 a),
the differential equations (3’.) are completely integrated, if for x, 2,
. . @, are written the roots of the equation
a+ aa" 1+ anu" ?+... 44,
—~ (be + ba") +b,0" 2+... +456,) cos
+ (cu + ca"! + cov"? +... +.,) sin 9,
where @ denotes a variable angle.
See also Brioschi (Crelle, bd. lv. p. 56); and Cayley (‘Camb. and
Dubl. Math. Journ.’ vol. iii, 1848, p. 116); ‘Math. Papers,’ vol. i.
. 366.
= (29) Reduction and Transformation of hyperelliptic integrals—We
noted Landen’s substitutions for the elliptic integrals in art. 8.
Legendre, in the thirty-second chapter of the ‘Traité des fonctions
elliptiques,’ t. i. p. 254, showed in general how to reduce the integrals
{ Pda
VB + ya? + cat + ya® + Bat?
where P denotes a rational function in 2, to elliptic integrals.
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 269
In this connection we note a paper by Richelot, ‘ Ueber die Reduction
des Integrales Pe auf elliptische Integrale,’ Crelle, bd. xxxii.
J/z(1— 2")
p. 213.
In the third supplement of the ‘Traité des fonctions elliptiques,’
p. 207, Legendre investigated certain special forms of Abelian integrals as
de _ and calculated the values of such integrals with fixed limits :
el, 230
on p. 333 (loc. cit.), by making use of certain substitutions, he showed
ja
dx
J x(1— 2?) (1 — x22?)
elliptic integrals of the first kind that have the same amplitude, and whose
moduli are the complements of each other (cf a memoir by Catalan, that
was crowned by the Academy of Brussels, ‘Mém. couronnés par ]’Acad.
Royale de Brux.’ xiv. 2nde partie, p. 2).
Jacobi (Crelle, bd. viii. p. 416) extended this theorem to the integrals
|
that the integral
could always be reduced to two
7 —__, and to integrals of the more general form
J (+x?) (1 —4?2:7)
dx adx
——— an = :
j JR@) VRQ)
where R (a) = «(1 — x) (1 — cdw) (1 + xx) (1 + Az).
He showed that such integrals may be always expressed as the sum of
two elliptic integrals of the first kind which have the same amplitude,
but in general different moduli. See also Gauss, ‘ Determinatio attrac-
tionis, quam in punctum quodvis positionis datae exercet planeta,’ &c.
(“Werke,’ ii. p. 333).
More recent examples! of similar reductions are given by Hermite
(‘ Ann. Soc. Scient. Brux.’ I., B, p. 1, ‘Comptes Rendus,’ t. xl. 1855) ;
John C. Mailet (‘ Trans. of Dublin,’ 1874) (he extends the theorems of
Jacobi to hyperelliptic integrals of any kind); J. C. Mallet (Crelle,
bd. Ixxvi. p. 79, and bd. Ixxix. p. 176) ; Cayley (¢ Compt. Rend.’ t. Ixxxv.
pp. 265, 373, 426, 472).
(30) Richelot (Crelle, bd. xii. p. 181) shows that integrals of the form
(I) | : F(x)de
/(A + Bu + Cx®)(A, +B, +C,x)(A, + Baa +O)
} We mention in passing Gordan, ‘ Ueber die Invarianten biniirer Formen héheren
Transformationen’ (Crelle, bd. Ixxi. p. 164); Arondhold, ‘ Integration irrationaler
Differentiale’ (Crelle, bd. lxi. p. 95). In this paper extensive use is made of invariants.
Brioschi (Compt. Rend. t. lvi. and t. lix.) bases this theory of the reduction of integrals
|F@qnae upon the theory of the covariants of the ternary form. See also Brioschi
(Compt. Rend. \xxxv. p.708, 1877) ; Konigsberger (Crelle, bd. lziv. p. 17; bd. Ixv. p. 335;
bd. Ixvii. p. 97; bd. Ixvii. p. 56; bd. Ixxxv. p. 273; bd. Ixxxix. p. 89; Math. Ann.
bd. xv. p. 174) ; Bolza (Math. Ann. bd. xxviii. p. 447). A somewhat extended account of
the reduction of hyperelliptic integrals, including many of the more recent inyestiga-
tions, is found in Enneper’s Liliptische Functionen, p. 501 et seq.
270 REPORT—1897.
where F(x) denotes a rational function in 2, and where the factors in the
denominator are resolvable into real linear factors, may be reduced by
means of twelve substitutions of the form nate into an aggregate
e+dz
of integrals
ov 12 (1 e281) ety
where ¢ (2?) is a rational function in z’, 2? being in value situated between
0 and 1, as are also the quantities «?, \? and p?.
Richelot further proved that, whatever the degree of the function
under the square-root sign, provided it consist of linear real factors, integrals
corresponding to (I.) may be reduced to a form similar to that just
written.!
He further divides these integrals into the three principal kinds, and
by means of Abel’s theorem considers the peculiar properties of the
respective kinds. By making use of irrational substitutions which depend
upon a quadratic equation, he finds that integrals of the form
(M+ N2*)dz
Ve (1—22)(1 —x222)(1 —A222)(1 — p22?)
may be reduced to the same form
| (M,+N,y*)dy
J (1—y?)\(1—x?y?)(1 —N/2z2)(1 — 1/22?) y
where the moduli are either greater or less than the old moduli. By
repetition of this procedure the moduli rapidly approach zero or unity
(cf. art. 8).
(31) In a later paper Richelot (Crelle, bd. xvi. p. 221) reduces integrals
ee . 2Qdz
of the form | —— to | ae ae a: oT by
oV1l+a a / (b= 2 (1008 )(1—cos 102?)
means of the transformations — where t=+,/]—;?-
Making use of a substitution that was suggested by Jacobi,
Qy=/a+be+e2?+ J/a—bz+ cz”,
he shows that the sum and the diflerence of the integrals
| cd and ___ a
J (a+ bx + cx*)(a? + d)(a? +e) J (a—ba + cx?) (x? +d)(a? +e)
may be expressed through one Abelian integral. The second part of this
memoir is devoted to the numerical calculation of hyperelliptic integrals
of the first order.
In the posthumous writings of Jacobi a method is given whereby the
1 Of. Jacobi, Gesam. Werke, bd. ii. p. 38. These integrals may be expanded in
converging series according to sines or cosines of multiples of the same angle.
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS, 271
hyperelliptic integrals of the first order may be reduced into canonical
forms by means of certain substitutions, even when the factors of the
function under the square-root sign in the denominator of the integrand are
not all real. Jacobi also avoids the imaginary arguments introduced by
Richelot through the application of the substitution 2y=./a+bz+cz7+
/a—bz+cz*, and which Richelot again reduced to real arguments by
means of Abel’s theorem. When the degree of the function under the
root sign is greater than the sixth, and when this function contains
imaginary factors, Jacobi asserts that no one has found the substitutions
by which the reduction may be performed. At the close of this article
Jacobi discusses Euler’s addition-theorem from a more general standpoint
than that taken by Lagrange (art. 7).
(32) Addition- theorems “Yor hyperelliptic integrals.—Jacobi (Crelle,
bd. xxx. p. 121) derived an interesting form of the addition-theorem for
hyperelliptic integrals of the second and third kinds. Let R be a given
integral function ‘of the 2nth degree in x
R=a,2""+a,0" 14+... 41,
and V an integral function of the mth degree with unity as coefticient of
highest power of « ; further, let a be a constant and
(1) «V?4+@?R=(a— ay )( (a—ato) . . . (@#—2ons1)
=2"*14 aa" + a, a2" DS oust g daiel 3
then it may be proved that !
CADE ufda;
i > |F VaR@)
where m takes any of the values 0, 1, . . . ~—1, and where the upper and
lower limits of the integrals are two systems of roots of two equations of
the form (1), in which a and the coefficients of V have different values,
while R remains the same.
Further, we may deduce the following ae
t=2n+1
II. ee Ar
CIS Fema
where A, («=0, 1, ... +1) are algebraic functions of a, a, a. .
Gon). J acobi gives : a rule by which those functions are easily ‘determined.
Jacobi makes the theorem above more general by the introduction of
a new variable x»,,., and the formation of new formule
t=2n+2 ai'*<dar,
(III) Se oe
“
where the quantities a, a, .. . = 41) Gon42 are now determined through
an equation corresponding to (1)
(x—x,)(w—m) . . . (g@—a,,,,..) =a" "2+ a0" + agem + 2. . + Onse
For the integrals of the third kind Jacobi proves the following
theorem :—
By means of +2 given quantities x, 7, ... “p41, @, let three
1 Bee Abel, @uvres, t. i. p. 444.
272 REPORT—1897.
systems of n quantities w,, Wy . . - Was Yir Yo + + Yn3 M1 % + + » Zp be
determined through the three systems of ~ transcendental equations
{ wrdw; pai xdax,
J wR(w,) V/x,R(o,)
i=l
S(t OS ore (ie
VyR(w) At jJVaR(@) JVaR(a)
ee iL ni PO OC
eRe > ive R(x) aR(a)’
i=1
(m=0, 1h, 7.8 6, m—1)
in which R(x) is a given function of w of the 2nth degree; then there
exists among the integrals of the third kind the following equation :—
t=n dw: t=n+1 ax:
IV. ae eee < 3 ae oS as
we i eae Jw R(w;) > Fes JV #,R(x;)
if ( 1) UH, eee Una
+ —— n Se eee
1 ss Ya oes = Oe:
yy s+ Uns
ay) Hy + 2s Bn
When x is made unity in the above formule, they reduce to Legendre’s
form of the addition-theorems for elliptic functions.! See Jacobi,
‘Extrait d’une lettre addressée a M. Hermite’ (Jacobi’s ‘Werke,’ ii. p. 120).
(33) Interchange of parameter and argument of the integrals of the third
kind.—Legendre discovered this remarkable property of elliptic integrals,
and derived other formule in the same connection. (‘ Ex. de Cale. Int.’
t.i. p. 134 et seg.) The results of Legendre are implicitly contained in
the following formula, due to Abel (‘ Giuvres,’ t. ii. p. 43) :—
V8) aa [ea THD
(= aFoe) Y%) ama Vola
ada { ada
V o(x) JV 9 (a)
where ¢(x) is any integral function of 2, a,,.,,. are constants, and m,n
integers. Jacobi (Crelle, bd. xxxii, p. 185; ‘ Werke,’ bd. ii. p. 123) obtained
the analogous formula. Let /(”) be a rational integral function of x, and
F\(x) and f(a) any two rational integrals of «, whose sum
Ala) +fo(x) = aA ©)
= }(n—m) Amine? |
1 In this connection see Heine (Crelle, bd. lxi. p. 276); Schumann (Math. Ann.
bd. vii. p. 623); Scheibner (Math. Ann. bd. xxxiv. p. 473.) We mention here a paper
by Serret, ‘Mémoire sur la représentation géométrique des fonctions elliptiques et
ultra-elliptiques’ (Liouwv. Journ. t. x. pp. 257, 286, 351 and 421). Liouville (Compt.
Rend. xxi. p. 1,255, or Liou. Journ. t. x. p. 456) gives a method of representing elliptic
and hyperelliptic curves. See Ellis’ report, p. 72.
eT
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 273
further write
dlog (x) _ fil) Clog H(x)_ fae)
dx fay’ dz f(a)’
then
A Neaeer Ola aee
is equal to an aggregate of products of the form
CG (oa {ES
™ \ Ha) Joey
where m and v are integers, and the quantities C,, ,, are constants.
By making use of certain theorems from the theory of linear diffe-
rential equations, Abel and Jacobi extended the above results. Formule
are derived in which the products of the sums of such integrals remain
unchanged when the argument and parameter are interchanged ; and by
means of these formule n” integrals may be linearly expressed through 1?
other integrals, in which the parameter and argument have been inter-
changed ; ‘and vice ver ‘sd, these »? integrals may in turn be expressed line-
arly through the first n2 integrals. See in this connection Clebsch and
Gordan, ‘Theorie der Abelschen Functionen,’ p. 114, where some inter-
esting consequences are deduced.!
p dx
(34) Abel, ‘Sur Vintégration de la formule différentielle ” TR’ R et p
étant les fonctions enti¢res’ (‘(Euvres,’ t. i. p. 104), gave the conditions
d:
under which the integrals feces may be expressed through functions of
fo] \VR y Pp fo)
ptqV/R
p-Y vie
memoir, published, after his death (‘ CEuvres,’ t. ii. p. 87), the general pro-
blem is solved, when may an elliptic integral be reduced to algebraic-
logarithmic functions ? Weierstrass (‘ Math. Werke,’ bd. i. p. 297) says
that the general problem of integrating an algebraic differential by means
of logarithms, in so far as this is possible, was first proposed by Abel,
who had arrived at very important results, as is seen froma letter written
to Legendre (‘ Guvres,’ t. ii. p. 271), and it is very probable that just these
investigations led him to his celebrated theorem.
Abel (‘Euvres,’ t. i. p. 549) derived the more general theorem relative
to the form which one must give to the integral of any algebraic function
when it is possible to express this integral by means of algebraic and loga-
rithmic functions and elliptic integrals :
Let ¥|, y, ... y, be algebraic functions of x,, x, ... #,, and let
the z’s be connected by any number of algebraic equations.
the form log where p and q are integral functions.? In another
1 Cf. also Weierstrass, Werke, bd. i. p. 113, where the source of the property of
interchange of parameter and argument is revealed ; Frobenius (Crelle, bd. Ixxiii.
p. 93).
2 Cf. papers by Tschebyscheft (Liouv. Journ. 2nde série, t. ii. p. 1); Pick (Sitz-
ungsb. der kaiserl, Akad. der Wissenschaften in Wien, 1882, p. 643); Plana (Crelle,
bd. xxxvi. p. 1).
1897. T
274 REPORT—1897.
If any integral of the form
| (ide, +ysdiey + os Tyan)
is expressible in algebraic and logarithmic functions and elliptic integrals
in such a way that
| Qrdey +yydes+ ... +y,du,)=u+A,log v, + A,log v.+... +A,log v,
Hayy (t):)+G2po(to) + 2. +4nYn(tn)s
where A,, Ay... 5°@; @).« «are constants, 2, 045, Ug. oe tyy bo) « oe
are algebraic functions of #,, #.,. . .and W, J.,. . . are any elliptic inte-
grals of the three kinds with any moduli and parameters, then Abel proved _
that this integral may be always expressed in the form :
3 | (yids + ydity +. .. y'dz,)=r+A'log p'+A” logo’ +... +A@logp”
+a, (1) +ao(O2) + » - « $OnYnlOn)s
where 6 is an integer, a, a@,. . . ‘a, are the same as in the preceding ex-
pression; A’, A’... A™ are constants; 0,, A, (0), 05, Ay(8s) - .
Any An(On) 57,75 p',. . . p™ are rational functions ! of the quantities x), x»,
Dionne a op op on oa
Abel remarks (p. 550) that this theorem is not only fundamental in
all that concerns the application of algebraic and logarithmic functions and
elliptic integrals to the theory of the integration of algebraic differentials,
but it includes all the possible reductions of the integrals of algebraic
formulz by the aid of algebraic and logarithmic functions,
As a corollary is the following theorem : If [ae where p is any
b
rational function of a, and A(a,c) denotes +./(1—2?) (1—c’s?), is
expressible by algebraic and logarithmic functions and elliptic integrals,
then we may always suppose that
\ste, )=P2@ c)tat(y)ta'd,(y,)) +a Yo(yo)+ . «+
A, log 2! +9,’A(@, ¢) A. loge qo+qx'A(a, ¢) er
oats 1-4 A(a, ol ? ga—92' (a, 2)
where all the quantities p,q), go,» - - G1) Qos ++ + Yr Yir Yor + - » are
rational functions of «x,
From this may be derived a complete solution of the equation
ee ee
Ay, ¢) — A(a, ¢’)
where ¢« is a constant, and whence also the general transformation of
elliptic integrals of the first kind.
(35) Similar problems were discussed by Liouville? (‘ Mémoires des
Savants Htrangers,’ t. v. pp. 76 and 103) before he had seen the methods
used by Abel. Liouville says that the problems proposed by him do not
differ in their origin from those enunciated by Lagrange in the ‘ Théorie
= _({ dx
Vn (%) <=
= + /(1—2*) (1—-—¢*p 2).
? See Poisson’s report on these memoirs in Crelle, bd. xii. p, 342, and the note
appended by Liouville ; also Jiirgensen (Crelle, bd. xxiii. p. 129).
Je
, when @’ denotes any rational function of 2, and Am(@)
“
cc
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 275
analytique des Probabilités,’ viz. that the integrals of differential func-
tions cannot contain other radical quantities than those that enter these
functions, theorems which were known to the first inventors of analysis
(see Leibnitz, ‘ Act. erud. Lips.’). In the first of the memoirs mentioned
above Liouville proposes the problem of finding the form of the integral
fae when this integral may be expressed algebraically, where y and x
are connected by an algebraic equation
y*—Ly**—... —My—N=0,
L, M, . . . designating rational functions of x ; he shows that the value
of such an integral is equal to a certain rational function of wand y. In
the discussion of this theorem he classifies functions of one or more
variables according to the irrationalities that enter them.!
In the second memoir the general theorem which he proposes to
demonstrate is : if any algebraic explicit. or implicit function y is given,
it is always possible to decide if it has or has not for an integral an
explicit or implicit algebraic function ; and if the question is decided in
the affirmative, the same process will give the value Jude.
He shows that if the integral \yde may be expressed algebraically, it
has a value of the form :
[yde=at By +yy?+ wee bAy*
in which a, /3, y,... are rational functions of x. '
In the twenty-third volume of the ‘Journ. de I’Kcole Poly.’ p. 37,
Liouville finds that if the integral [yde is expressible as an explicit finite
function of x, it must be of the form :
[yde=t+ A logw+B log v+ ... +C log w,
where A, B, . . . are constants, and ¢, u, v, . . . are algebraic functions of a.
This theorem is of course contained in the one of Abel in the preceding
article. Liouville further shows that if Fe Pand R denoting integral
polynomials, cannot be expressed by an algebraic function of x, it cannot
be expressed as a finite explicit function of « ; from this follows that an
elliptic integral of either the first or second kind cannot be expressed as
an explicit function of its variable. (See also Liouville, ‘ Liouv. Journ.’
t. v. pp. 34 and 441, where it is proved that the same integrals, considered
as functions of their modulus, cannot be expressed in finite form.)
(36) Jacobi (‘De functionibus duarum variabilium quadrupliciter
periodicis,’ Crelle, bd. xiii. p. 55 ; ‘Werke,’ bd. ii. p. 25) proved that any
one-valued function of one variable cannot have more than two inde-
pendent periods, and that the ratio of these two periods cannot be a real
quantity and is irrational.
} See also two memoirs by Liouville, ‘Sur la Classification des Transcendantes ’
(Liouv. Journ. t. ii. p. 56, and t. iii. p. 523); and Poisson (Crelle, bd. xii. p. 89, and
bd. xiii. p. 93)
* Cf. Livuv. Journ. de U Ecole Poly., t. xiv. p. 137; and Ellis, p. 70.
Tt 2
276 REPORT—1897.
Making use of Richelot’s transformation, Jacobi wrote the general
integral under consideration in the form :
(A) i (othe dreeee
J «(1 —2x)(1—x?x)(1—d2x)(1 — pe 2)
He distinguished the values of this integral within the six intervals :
(1) eshte 20 - 1.2 1, Say eee
| 1 1 1 1
(4) eal eee 2? (5) Rae s) ieuwe ge (6) ye oe ee CO
When the upper limit «in formula (A.) is considered as a function of wu and
written x=A(w), this function behaves like a periodic function within
each of these intervals, and therefore seems to have six periods, of which
four are independent. Further, this function remains unchanged when
assumes any real or imaginary value, or better expressed, of the values
which w may take, there are always those which differ from any real or
imaginary quantity by less than any assignable quantity, however small.
Jacobi found in this a troublesome paradox, which, however, he had
already in a measure overcome by means of Abel’s theorem (see following
article).
Jacobi next proved that if a given function of two variables is an
one-valued function of these variables, it is impossible for this function to
have more than four independent periods.!
(37) The inverse functions.—Corresponding to the function w=sn w
(art. 9), if we try to introduce into analysis a transcendent «=)(w), where
(L)u= [OC =),
0 4
X being a rational integral function of the fifth or sixth degree in a, then
there is no analogy between this function and the elliptic function «=sn w,
since such a function, as seen above, has for every value of w not only
many values, but is wholly indeterminate,” if for the definition of the
integral we consider only the limits and not the paths which the variable
describes from one limit to the other. Hence, when we consider the
integral (I.) by itself, its inversion does not give useful results.
The close connection between the integral II(x) and the integral
(IL) 11, ()= i=
was seen in art. 23.
Jacobi conceived the very fortunate idea of inverting these integrals
1 The more general theorem that a one-valued function of n variables cannot
have more than 2n independent periods was proved much Jater by Riemann (Crelle,
bd. Ixxi. p. 197). See also Weierstrass (Monatsh. der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1876,
. 680; Hunctionenlehre, p. 166).
2 Gf. Jacobi (Crelle, bd. ix. p. 394; Werke, bd. ii. pp. 7 and 516).
oe
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 277
by connecting two integrals w and v with the variables x, and x, in the
following equations :
(1) ua [2 4 [SE =e) +(e),
ov Sh) dee
eye { ee [ogamhe) tines)
oVX JoVX
In these two equations, when w is given, the upper limits a, and x,
are not yet determined, there being two of them ; so that we may regard
w and v as independent of each other. This we cannot do when we
consider the integrals (I.) and (II.) separately ; for if « was determinate
for a given value of w in (I.), then it would be determined in (II.), and
therefore (II.) would be determined.
When wu and v are given, the totality of the upper limits (that is, of
x, and x.) is known; but these quantities may be permuted, so that
2,+2, and «a. are definitely determined when w and v are given, and
may be expressed as the roots of a quadratic equation Ax’+Bz+C=0,
where 2 += —P =4(u0),and.0-=F = (049. A, Bj and ©! are
functions of w and v, which have definite finite values for all finite values,
real or imaginary, of the two arguments ~ and v; and the functions
¢(u,v) and (u,v) have with reference to the arguments w and v four
simultaneous independent periods.
Let the values of x, and x, determined from the quadratic equation
above, be x, =A(u,v), x=A, (u,v).
In these functions it is seen that when one of the arguments goes to
infinity, the other becomes indeterminate, and when one of the arguments
changes by a constant quantity the other argument is also changed, so
that both arguments undergo an alteration at the same time, and the
period of one argument is determined by the period of the other ; this is
the characteristic property of the periodicity.
(38) The functions \(w,v) and \,(w,v) are analogous to the elliptic and
trigonometric functions, and may be algebraically expressed in terms of
functions that contain only one variable.’
For let x,° and 2,° be the values of «, and x, when we put v=0, and
x, and «,° the values of these variables when u=0.
Then from equation (1) and (2) above
TI(a,°) + 1M(aQ°)=w ; U,(2,°) + 1) (22°) =0,
TH(a,°) +H (ay)=0 5 (21°) +11, (a2) =e.
Hence
TI(a,°) + W(x?) + H(x,) + O(a) =u,
TT (22,°) + IL, (@9”) + Ty (a) + Oy (a) =.
Owing to Abel’s theorem, the two quantities x, and a, may be alge-
braically expressed as functions of x,°, 2,°, 2,, and #,” in such a wa
4 12%, 2; 2
at
TI (a,°) + H(arg°) + 1 (x2,) + T(x.) = (a) + T(r) =r,
11, (@,°) + 01, (x9) + U1, (@,) +1 (&) = 01 (x) +, (a) =
1 See Jacobi (Crelle, bd. xxx. p. 183; Werke, bd. ii. p. 85).
278 REPORT—1897..
exist simultaneously ; ; so that x, and a, are algebraic functions of the
four quantities «,°, x,°, #,°, and a, ; that is, the functions of two
variables A(w,v) aud dj(w,v) may be algebraically expressed i in terms of the
four quantities of a single variable
d(w,0), A(z, 0),
A(0,v), Ax(0,~).
Eisenstein (Crelle, bd. xxvii. p. 185) writes as follows regarding the
inverse functions : ‘Great difficulties are found with the Abelian integrals
whose inverse functions have a triple or multiple periodicity. Under the
assumption that an integral with definite lower limit may take all possible
real and imaginary values for any given value of the variable, the Abelian
integral ceases to be a function of its variable. In order to meet these
difficulties, for example in the Abelian integrals of the first order, Jacobi
considered two such integrals connected by the relations (1) and (2) of
the preceding article. But if we grant that the function II(x,) can have
all possible values for any given value of a, the function II(«,) may have
the same property for every given value of 2,, and so the sum w may for
a greater reason take all possible values for given values of «, and x. The
same is true of v ; so that it is not clear how we may speak in this wise
of a dependency between wu, v, 2, and x,’ Eisenstein then proposes,
in order to set forth the real nature of these functions after the analogue
of the elliptic functions (art. 11), to form the quotients of the quotients
of infinite triple products.
Jacobi (‘ Werke,’ bd. ii. p. 86) corrects Hisenstein’s objections with the
remarks that Eisenstein did not understand the nature of the functions
A(u,v), A,(w,v), his mistake being that he did not sufficiently comprehend
the fundamental principle of the co-existence of the periods relative to the
two arguments wand v. He then asks if the quotients of quotients are
not simply quotients, and points out how Eisenstein has made some
fundamental mistakes in the theory of elliptic functions (Crelle, bd. xxvii.
pp. 185 and 285),
(39) Hermite (Extrait d’une Lettre & M. Liouville, ‘Comp. Rendus,”
t. xviii. ; ‘ Liouville’s Journ.’ t. ix. p. 353) introduces into the analysis of
the transcendents of any algebraic differentials the inverse functions of
several variables, after the example of that which had been done by Jacobi
for the hyperelliptic integrals of the first order.
Using the notation of Abel and of Minding, he takes
X(Y=PotrytPyt..-+paiy'+y'=0,
an irreducible algebraic equation, whose coefficients are rational and in-
tegral functions of x. The roots of this equation he denotes by y,, y2,
- ¥, He further writes :
Se Y)=Htothyt © 6. hy"?
any rational integral function in « and y, in which the degrees of the
x’s are subjected to certain restrictions.
Finally, let y denote the number of arbitrary constants that are con-
tained in the function f(x,y) ; this function may then take y different
forms, which are represented by
Si(2Y), S(x,y); « SY):
eagle by, ayy aig tae ee aes Ht raiables where p>y and by %,), Y%,
» Yw, irrational functions arbitrarily chosen among the n roots y¥, Ya»
* Yn:
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 279
Then by Abel’s theorem we have in algebraic form the complete in-
tegrals of the system of equations.
x ‘(jp Yn) d
NE IE Fee)
= i xn)
(CA aL
(40) Hermite then takes for the inverse functions the quantities
%}, Xj,. . . , defined by the y equations
jeu | Xj s
5 7 fi (e;, Yon) dxj=u,,
j=1 x’ (Yu)
and writes
=D (Uy, Ug. « . U,),
(i=, 2,.. .7).
It follows ! without difficulty that the y functions
A (Uj +}, UgtV,. . . U,+,);
#=1,2,... Y)s
are the roots of an algebraic equation of the degree y, whose coefficients
are rational functions of the different functions
ry (21, Ug, we U,)s rN (v1, Vay Sige” ®)s
(1 Ee 4
In the third section of this memoir, Hermite discusses the periodic
properties of these functions, and determines their periods.
The theorem relative to the addition of the arguments leads to the
expression of the inverse functions in all their generality in terms of the
simplest particular functions, in which we may suppose successively that
only one argument varies, the others being constant, zero for example (¢f
art. 38).
As an illustration, we saw in art. 24 that functions connected with
the hyperelliptic integrals of the second order arise, in which appear three
arguments, II (w, v, w), say ; and from Abel’s theorem it follows that
Tutu +uvototo",w+w' + w= Tl (u, v, w) + TI (v', v', w')
+ Ti (w’, v’, w’’) 4+ alg. and logarith. function.
Now writing
we have
II (u’’, v', w) = II (0, 0, w) = 0 (0, v’, 0) + II (w’, 0, 0)
+ alg, and logarith. function.
At the end of this memoir are found certain theorems relative to the
transformation of elliptic integrals (¢f Hermite, ‘Cours 4 la Faculté des
Sciences de Paris,’ 4°™° éd., 1891); from these theorems formule are
deduced which set forth in a beautiful manner many problems of trans-
1 See also Hermite (‘Sur la division des fonctions Abéliennes,’ Mémoires des
Savants étrangers, 1848, p. 572); and Richelot (Crelle, bd. xxix. p. 281; and
Liouville’s Journ. 1843, p. 505). é
280 REPORT—1897.
formation, multiplication, and division that are found in Jacobi’s ‘Fund.
Nova.’ Among others we may mention a direct method of the trans-
formation of elliptic functions of the third kind, without presupposing, as
is done by Jacobi, the formula of the transformation of functions of the
second kind.
(41) Jacobi, in the eleventh section of his memoir ‘ De functionibus
duarum variabilium quadrupliciter periodicis,’ states without demonstra-
tion that if we have
xe =(u, v), y= dr, (u,v),
then the functions
By = A(NU,NLY), Yn = Ay (NU, nv)
are by Abel’s theorem obtained as the roots of a quadratic equation
Usz,? + U'z, + U"” =0,
in which U, U’, U” are rational functions of 2, y, / X,/ Y (see art. 37) ;
and from this it is seen, vice versd, that « and y may be obtained from
x, and y, by the solution of algebraic equations.
Hermite (Crelle, bd. xxxii. pp. 176 and 277) finds that the coefficients
U, U', and U” are of the form P + Q 4(a)Ay, where P and Q are rational
functions of x and y, and where
A(x) = VX (above)= Va(1—a) (1 —«?x) (1 —d2x) (1 — p?a).
Let i,/—1, %, i3/—1, i, be the foun periods of the integral
esse
dx, and 7’, / —1, @'g, t'3/ —1, 7’, the corresponding periods of
[oss #) dx ; then the simultaneous roots of the two equations
(A.) Un,?+ U'x, + U"=0, Uy,? + U'y, + U"=0
are expressed by Hermite through the formule
mt,f/ —1+m't, +m" ig —14m’'2,,
1 2 3 4
n
n= (w +
v+
mi /—1l4+m'i',+m'i',/ -1 on.)
a ’
n
7. (u “ mi, J —l+m'i,+m''%; =i ani
mt’ J —1+m't',4+m't'5/ —1 +m)
’
n
2
U+
where m, m’, m’’, and m’” may take any of the values 0, 1, .. . n—1.
For. brevity Hermite writes
T=mi, JV —l4+m'ig+m'is/ —1l+m''%,,
and V=mi' J —14+m'i’.+m'' 37 —l4+m'',
and by f (a,y) is denoted any rational symmetric function of a and y,
and p, qg, 7, s are used to indicate any four of the roots 2"=1.
~R
a
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 281
Hermite next proves that
m”’=n—-1 m"
‘=n-1 m=n—1 m=n—1 d I I’
ER eS Duk By al Guibas
m’”’=0 1 m'=0 m=0
I I’ te oe
Ay “+, 0+— pe gr ym" gm
1 7
=Y A+BA(A(nu, nv))+ CAA, (mu, nv))+DA(A(nu, nv)) A(AY(mu, nv))
where A, B, C, D are rational functions of \(nu, nv) and A, (nw, nv).
The first member of this equation may be denoted by » (wu, v), and
may be expressed rationally in terms of A (uw, v) and ), (wu, v), since, owing
to the fundamental properties of the functions \ and ),, this is true of
each of the terms constituting ¢ (1, v).
It is easily proved that
} ( psi VED tein 0h VET EN GG
117
v4 SV HLF ein $e yV = 1 +a)
n
=p "qr rs "'"'9 (u, 0),
whatever be the values of the integers x, x’, «’ and x’”,
The nth power of ¢ is a rational function in A (2, v), \; (uv, v), which
does not change when for these quantities are substituted any two other
of the simultaneous roots of the proposed equations. It follows, there-
fore, from the theory of the symmetric functions of the roots of a system
of equations in several unknown quantities, that this function may be
rationally determined in the coefficients of the equation (A.) ; and since
any rational function of two roots A(A (nw, nv)), A (A, (nu, nv’)) may be
put under the form
A+ BA (A (nu, nv)) + CA (Aj, (ru, nv)) + DA (A (nw, nv)) A (Ay (nw, nv)),
the theorem is proved.
(42) Hermite says, in continuance of the above discussion, it seems,
that the preceding considerations may be extended to the hyperelliptic
integrals in general.
For let A(a)= JV x(1—a) (L—A,?a) 2. (LA an 1),
0,(a)=a,+Batye+ ... +2",
de®)
and write
Wj 24%) + O,(2))+O(xo)+ . . . +¥(x,),
and %;=A,(tUo) Wy) Uo, » « » Un)s
(t=0, 1, 2, . . . m).
Aap =: (4p. \O%i \0n; \0a, 02;
Then A(u)= Ou) + aeaet Balm) +...4+ 8, (0)
i C=O are aa);
where the partial derivatives may be rationally expressed in terms of the
functions \. Since # is of the nth degree, it appears that the roots of the
equation of the nth degree
0= (2) + 0, (a) on
are the n functions %,a,,... 2.
x; Ox;
+ (ma = aE + O,(x) ar
282 REPORT—1897.
In a letter to Liouville (loc. cit. p. 361), Hermite states that the
representation of these functions is attended with great difficulties.
By supposing successively f(2,y)=ax+y and f(a, y)=2x.y, the pre-
ceding theorem will give, expressed by a sum of nth roots, in number
n'—1, the coefficients of an equation of the second degree, whose roots
will determine those of the proposed equations. These n‘—1 roots will
be expressed rationally in terms of four of them.
Hermite next discusses the division of the periods.
In the second paper mentioned above, Hermite derives first certain
theorems, from which he deduces, among others, Jacobi’s formula for the
algebraic expression of sin am (a) by sin am a , and Abel’s fundamental
properties of elliptic functions which relate to the addition of the argu-
ments ; other formule, which involve Jacobi’s H and © functions are
given.
Applications are then made to functions of two arguments and four
periods. Hermite writes the integrals of the third kind in the form
© [{ E229) 2+ GO 48)
the integral being subjected to vanish, when x=0 and y=0. Az repre-
sents the square root of the polynomial p,7+p,0? + p,x* + pyc! +p,0°.
After
w=Nue) y=Ay(20)
a=(a,8) b=),(a,/)
are substituted in (I.), this integral is denoted by II (w,v,a,6). When the
variables u and v are introduced into the integrals of the second kind
| ac) +23) °° (Seep)
they are first denoted by (w,v), and (u,v), respectively.
Two new integrals are defined by the relations :
E, (u,v) =2p,(u,v), + 3p,(u,v), and E, (u,v)=p,(w,v);-
The following theorem is then derived
II (u,v,a, 5) — TI (a,3,u,v) =p5(av — Bw) + aE, (u,v)
+ BE,(u,v)—wE,(a,/3)—vE,(a,/3),
a formula in which is seen the law of interchange of parameter and
argument (art. 33).
Hermite further defines a function © by the relation
®(u,v,a,)=I1 (u,v, 4,3) +uZ,(a,8) + vZ,(a,8)—c(av—fu),
where Z, and Z, are certain functions of E, and E, respectively, and
c is a constant.
Interesting addition-formule are derived for the two functions II and
® (cf. report made by Lamé and Liouville, ‘Comp. Rend.’ xvii. and
‘Liouv. Journ.’ t. viii. p. 502).
(43) The introduction of the theta-function.—The new functions of four
simultaneous periods which Jacobi had discovered were received with
great enthusiasm by mathematicians. The Academy of Sciences at
Copenhagen wished to see presented the analogous functions that are
connected with the integrals of all algebraic functions, to which Abel’s
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 283
theorem may be applied.'!_ The representation of these functions, however,
was not forthcoming, and later the solution of this problem was set as a
prize question by the Berlin Academy of Sciences.
Abel had shown that the elliptic function z=sn w could be represented
as the quotient of infinite products. Jacobi, with the thought of repre-
senting an infinite product by means of a transcendental function, intro-
duced into analysis the so-called 0-fwnction, which represents such a
product in the form of a power series. Investigating further this tran-
scendent, he discovered its marvellous properties, and made use of it in his
further researches in the elliptic functions. Jacobi? founded the whole
theory of elliptic functions upon this new transcendent, which made these
functions remarkably clear and simple, as well as their applications, for
example, to rotatory motion, the swing of the pendulum, and innumerable
problems of physics and mechanics ; also by it the realms of geometry
were essentially widened, and many abstract properties of the theory of
numbers were revealed in a new light.
Hence it appears that the 6-function showed itself of paramount
importance for the study of mathematics during the Jacobian epoch, and
as a prototype it served for the future development of the function-theory
and of all mathematics.
(44) The elliptic function a=sn uw, as shown by Jacobi, may be expressed
as the quotient of two @-functions, where the 6-function may be written
in the form
m=2
r) (u)= > eerie
m=—o
in which m takes all integral values from —co to +00, wu is the variable,
and the constant + is determined from the two periods of the integral
| da
a)
ov X’
where X is of the fourth degree in x ; or, as Jacobi says, 7 determines’ the
modulus of the elliptic integral.
(45) 0-functions of two arguments.—Goepel,? and in an independent
manner Rosenhain,‘ generalised the simple @-function of one variable and
formed analogous transcendents, the 6-functions of two variables
+0
a,m? +a,mn+a,n?+2mUu+2nd
H(un)= > @ : ,
—om,n
where here both m and x take all possible integral values from —coto +o,
w and v are the variables, and the constants a, aj, and a3 are deter-
mined from the four periods of the integrals
j dx f ada
— and ==
0 VX o VX
1 Jacobi, Werke, bd. ii. p. 517.
? Jacobi, Hund. Nova, p. 45; also Werke, bd.i., p. 497. More recently Schellbach
has made the @-function his starting-point in his book, Die Lehre von elliptischen
Integralen und den Theta-Functionen, Berlin, 1864.
* Goepel, Theorie transcendentium Abelianarum primi ordinis adumbratio levis
(Crelle, bd. xxxv. p. 277, 1847).
* Rosenhain, Mémoire sur les fonctions de deux variables a quatre périodes, Sc.,
Mém. des Savants étrangers, t. xi. p. 361; see also Crelle, bd. xl. p. 319. Further
see Jacobi, Notiz iiber A. Goepel, Crelle, bd. xxxv. p. 313.
284. RELORT—1897.
where X is a rational integral function of the fifth or sixth degree! in 2.
By means of the quotients of two such 6-functions Goepel and Rosenhain
showed how to represent the functions ¢(u,v) and u(w,v) (art. 37), and
thus completely solved the problem of representing the inverse functions
of the hyperelliptic integrals of the first order.
The zeros and periodic properties of these two 6-functions, the relations
between the squares of such functions and of the constants that enter
these relations, the number of independent relations, Goepel’s biquadratic
relation, the connection between these functions and Kummer’s sixteen-
nodal quartic surface, and similar questions, are found in Harkness and
Morley’s ‘A Treatise on the Theory of Functions,’ p. 341 et seq.
(46) Goepe] remarked that his investigations could be extended to any
number of variables ; but in this connection Jacobi showed that there is
a troublesome paradox ( Werke,’ bd. ii. p. 521 ; and Weierstrass, ‘Werke,’
bd. i. p. 142); since, when there are more than two variables, the
generalised 6-function contains more essential constants than the hyper-
elliptic functions with like number of variables.
(47) We must mention next papers by Hermite, ‘Sur la théorie de la
transformation des fonctions Abéliennes’ (‘Compt. Rend.’ xl. pp. 249,
303, 365, 427, 485, 536, 704, and 784).
Besides the sum and the quotient of « and y (of art. 37), which we
saw could be expressed through fractions whose numerator and denomi-
nator are functions of the argument wu and v, and have unique and finite
values for all finite real and imaginary values of these arguments, Goepel
and Rosenhain gave in an analogous form the analytical expression of
thirteen other functions of « and v, which depend algebraically but in an
irrational manner upon the first two.
Hermite? designates by /,(w,v), fo (u,v), . . .f\5(u,v) this complete
system of fifteen functions which appear in the study of the integrals
“ dz . y dx |
| Jo(z) '\ ve@)—?
aes 0
ioe ede " y ty
J egoh 2)
when ¢ (w) denotes a polynomial of fifth or sixth degree in x, and which
are analogous to the functions sn w,cn wu, and dn wu of the elliptic inte-
(1.)
1 Cayley (‘Memoir on the Single and Double '6@-function,’ Phil. Trans. 1880, pp.
897-1002) treats the whole theory ina manner analogous to that employed by Goepel.
In this paper special attention is paid to the relations among the squares of the
functions and to the derivation of the biquadratic relation among four of the
functions, which is the same as Kummer’s sixteen-nodal quartic surface. See also
Cayley (Crelle, bd. lxxxiii. pp. 210 and 235; and Forsyth (Biographical Notice on
Arthur Cayley, ‘Obituary Notices’ of the Proc. Royal Society, vol. lviii.), and
Cayley’s Math. Paper's, vol. viii. p. ix, where other references are given. Other papers
on the same subject by Cayley are found in Crelle, bd. lxxxv. Ixxxvii. and Ixxxviii.
Prof. Forsyth, ‘Memoir on the Theta-function, particularly those of two Variables’
(Phil. Trans. 1882, vol. elxxiii. p. 783) follows more closely Rosenhain’s paper, and
extends it in many directions. Cf. also Kénigsberger (Crelle, bd. Ixiv. p. 17; bd.
ixxxi. p. 193; and especially bd. Ixxxvii. p. 173, where the problem of transforma-
tion is discussed fully), and also Math. Ann. bd. xv. p. 174.
2? Hermite, Suz la théorie de la transformation des fonctions Abéliennes (Compt.
Rendus, t. xl. pp. 249, 303, 365, 427, 485, 536, 704, 784).
ON THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ABELIAN FUNCTIONS. 285
grals. In a similar manner he denotes by F, (w,v), F, (u,v), . . . F,;(u,v)
the functions of a similar nature to which one would come in taking for
point of departure the equations
ev atfer |" a+tpy
Oe oy,
ih 1,7 9@)"* |, vey)
\" pend Me Y Pdask ie
JME ON vee
where a, /3, y, and 6 are constants, and w (a) a polynomial of the fifth or
sixth degree in x.
Hermite proposes as follows the problem of transformation : The poly-
nomial / (x) in (I.) being given, determine the coefficients of (a), and
the constants a, 3, y, and 6in such a manner that the fifteen functions
F (u,v) be rationally expressed in terms of the fifteen functions /(w,v).
By comparison of the linear relations that must exist among the periods
of the f(u, v) functions and the F (u,v) functions, and of the relations
that exist among the periods that belong to these respective functions,
many remarkable consequences are deduced. In this connection seea
letter of Eisenstein to Hermite (‘Liouv. Journ.’ xvii.) and also Eisen-
stein, ‘ Ueber die Vergleichung von solchen terniiren quadratischen Formen,
welche verschiedene Determinanten haben’ (‘Sitzungsber. der Berlin.
Akad.’ June 1852), and Hermite (Crelle, bd. xlvii. p. 343). From these
papers is seen the intimate relation that exists between the analytic theory
of transformation and the arithmetical theory of quadratic forms.
In the execution of the transformation a system of sixteen 6-functions
is introduced, sixteen functions which may be algebraically expressed in:
terms of any two of them.
Four new functions, IT), ,, M,, and II, are introduced, which may be
expressed by an integral homogeneous function of degree « in four of the
0-functions. The [I-functions contain linearly * at : constants. There
are just enough conditions of the problem to determine these constants.
Further, the l[-functions are defined in terms of other @-functions. From
this follow immediately relations among the quadruply-periodic quotients
which arise from the division of two ©-functions and those which arise
from the division of two @-functions. These last functions may be regarded
as representing the more general periodic functions which orginate from
the hyperelliptic integrals of the first order, when the arguments «x and y
have been replaced by others which depend linearly upon them in any
manner.
Thus the proposed problem of transformation is solved.’ On p. 704
of the ‘Compt. Rendus,’ t. xl., Hermite gives a method of division of the
#-functions, and compares them with Weierstrass’ Al-functions of the fol-
lowing article.
Liouville and Hermite made use of the periodic properties of the single
6-functions, and derived for the elliptic functions the results of addition,
multiplication, transformation, and division ; and Hermite by direct trans-
’ Of. Brioschi (Compt. Rend. xlvii. p. 310).
286 REPORT-—1897.
formations gained a clearer insight into the properties of the 6-functions
of two variables. See Liouville (‘Compt. Rendus,’ 1851) ; and Hermite,
(Crelle, bd. xxxii. pp. 176 and 277).
(48) As those mathematicians whose works were mentioned in arts.
1-11 laid the foundation for the investigations of Jacobi and Abel, so
may we also regard the works that have been reviewed up to the present
time as introductory to the works of Weierstrass and Riemann.
The theory of Abelian functions has been so generalised, so widened,
by these mathematicians and their followers that we may make the same
remark concerning it as Jacobi (in a letter to Crelle, ‘Crelle’s Journ.’
bd. iii. p. 310) made regarding the elliptic functions : ‘You see that the
theory is a vast subject of research, which in the course of its development
embraces almost all algebra, the theory of definite integrals and the
science of numbers.’
As suggested in the introduction, an account of the works of Weier-
strass, Riemann, Clebsch, and later writers cannot be given in this report
owing to the lack of space required for such a statement. To leave the
work thus unfinished would cause the author much regret ; however, there
has just appeared the admirable treatise of Mr. H. F. Baker on ‘ Abel’s
Theorem and the Allied Theory,’ in which the discoveries of the mathe-
maticians just mentioned and the development of the theory of Abelian
functions are treated in a very comprehensive and elegant manner.
In conclusion, the author takes much pleasure in referring to this book,
at the beginning of which we are taught that no better guide can be found
to the analytical developments of pure mathematics than a study of the
theory of Abelian functions.
The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor T. EK. THorPE (Chawman), Professor J. J.
Hume. (Secretary), Dr. W. N. Perxin, Professor W. J. RUSSELL,
Captain ABNEY, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor R. MELDOLA.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Durine the past year (1896-97) the work of this Committee has been
continued as usual, and a large number of wool and silk patterns, dyed
with various natural and artificial brown and black colouring matters, have
been examined with respect to their power of resisting the fading action
of light.
The Committee regret to state, however, that at this meeting of the
Association they are unable to give an account of the results obtained,
since at the earlier date this year at which Reports of Committees had to
be sent to the Organising Committees the dyed patterns were still under
exposure to light, so that the Report could not be prepared. It will be
presented, however, at the next meeting of the Association. The Com-
mittee ask for reappointment, and for a grant of 8/. to carry on the
work.
at
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 287
The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE (Chairman), Professor
H. EH. Armstrone (Secretary), Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr.
GEORGE GLADSTONE, Sir Joan Lusgock, Sir Pair Maanvs, Sir
H. E. Roscoe, and Professor 8. P. THompson.
Your Committee have much pleasure in being able to report that during
the past year the teaching of science subjects in Elementary Schools has
made considerable progress. They think it unnecessary to repeat the
table showing the dearth of any such instruction, other than that of
Geography before the year 1890, but give the figures for the principal
class subjects for the succeeding years, showing that while ‘ English’ (7.¢.
grammar, not literature) is gradually losing favour, the scientific subjects
are all receiving more attention. It will be seen that there is a very
rapid advance in regard to Elementary Science, although ‘Object Lessons,’
as such, appear in the return this year for the first time, and have at once
taken a good place in the schools. The figures up to 1895-96, which is
the latest return issued by the Education Department, are as follows :—
Class Subjects—Departments 1890-91 | 1891-92 | 1892-9. | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96
English . 5 - 5 . | 19,825 | 18,175 | 17,394 | 17,032 | 16,280 | 15,327 |
Geography 4 - - - | 12,806 | 13,485 | 14,256 | 15,250 | 15,702 | 16,171 |
Elementary Science . F é 173 788 | 1,073 | 1,215 | 1,712 | 2,237 |
Object Lessons . : c : — — we rt Sa} 1,079
The number of departments in ‘schools for older scholars’ for the
year 1895-96 was 22,943, which, deducting 21 that did not take any class
subject, leaves 22,922. But History was taken in 4,143, and Needlework
(for girls) in 7,219 departments, and sundry minor subjects in 849, making,
with the other four subjects of the table, 47,025 in all. This shows an
average of more than two class subjects to each department, while in the
previous year it was rather less than two. While recognising with satis-
faction the increase in the returns for Elementary Science and Object
Lessons, it must not be assumed that they are given throughout the
schools, the latter subject being more particularly intended for the three
lower standards. The next return should show a great increase in these
Object Lessons, as they became obligatory on September 1, 1896, in these
standards,
Specific Subjects —Children | 1890-91 | 1891-92) 1892-93 | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96
Animal Physiology . . | 15,050 | 13,622 | 14,060 | 15.271 | 17,003 | 18/284
Botany .. 2,115 | 1,845 | 1,968 | 2,052] 2,483] 92.996
Algebra . . . . | 31,349 | 28,542 | 31,487 | 33,612 | 38,937] 41,816 |
LT | 870 927 | 1,279] 1,399] 1,468] 1,584 |
Mensuration . 2 ‘ 1,489 | 2,802 | 3,762] 4,018 | 5,614] 6,859 |
Mechanics ; - | 15,559 | 18,000 | 20,023 | 21,532 | 23,806 | 24,956 |
Principles of Agriculture. | 1,231 | 1,085 909 | 1,231] 1,196 | 1.059
Chemistry . . .| 1,847/ 1,935| 2,387| 3,043] 3,850] 4'g99
Sound, Light, and Heat . 1,085 | 1,163 1,168 1,175 914 937
Magnetismand Electricity 2,554 | 2,338 2,181 3,040 3,198 3,168
Domestic Economy . - | 27,475 | 26,447 | 29,210 | 32,922 | 36,239 | 39,794
Total . . - | 100,624 | 98,706 | 108,434 | 119,295 | 134,008 | 146,305
a
288 REPORT—1897.
The increased teaching of scientific specific subjects in the higher
standards is the natural consequence of the greater attention paid to
natural science in the lower part of the schools. The number of scholars
examined in the above subjects is shown in the table at the bottom of
previous page. This shows a fair increase in the total; the greatest
proportional increase will be found to be in Mensuration, Botany, and
Chemistry. In the case of the Principles of Agriculture, and in Mag-
netism and Electricity, there is an absolute falling off.
Estimating the number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and VII. at
605,000, the percentage of the number examined in these specific subjects
as compared with the number of children qualified to take them is 24-2 ;
but it should be remembered that many of the children take more than
one subject for examination. The following table gives the percentage for
each year since 1882, and shows that science is gradually recovering from
the great depression of about eight years ago :—
In 1882-83
» 1883-84
, 1884-85
, 1885-86
, 1886-87
» 1887-88
» 1888-89
, 1889-90
» 1890-91
, 1891-92
» 1892-93
, 1893-94
» 1894-95
1895-96
per cent.
bS bo DO BS RE DS et et ee ee" be bt bt
EWIODDODABDDOW AS
wAISH AD EOCOHORDS
The Returns of the Education Department given above refer to the
whole of England and Wales, and are for the school years ending with
August 31. The statistics of the London School Board are brought up to
the year ending with Lady Day, 1897. They also illustrate the great
advance that has been made in the teaching of Elementary Science as a
class subject, and they give the number of children as well as the number
of departments.
Years Departments Children
1890-91 11 2,293
1891-92 113 26,674
1892-93 156 | 40,208
1893-94 183 49,367
1894-95 208 52,982
1895-96 246 62,494
1896-97 364 86,638
The very rapid increase of the past twelve months must be regarded as
highly satisfactory ; but there is still room for improvement, as consider-
ably more than half the departments for older scholars are still without
this teaching.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 289
The work under the Evening Continuation Schools Code continues to
progress, as will be seen from the following table :—
Units for Payment
Science Subjects England and Wales London School Board
1893-94 | 1894~95 | 1895-96 | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96
Euclid - . = c 595 1,086 1,648 10 29 tl
Algebra 7 : - - 3,940 6,657 | 10,374 | 316 302 535
Mehaurstton F . | 14,521 | 382,931 | 41,772 279 374 452
Elementary Physiography : 2,554 4,045 6,590 37 9 5
Elementary Physics and 6,500 7,850 6,749 79 200 152
Chemistry
Science of Common PREP 6,223 | 10,350 | 12,906 | 231 262 468
Chemistry . : 3 3,484 7,814 8,222 | 212 455 404
Mechanics . : 841 1,148 1,458 230 197 209
Sound, Light, and Heat ‘ 500 1,046 861 — 15 11
Magnetism and Electricity . 2,359 4,451 5,073 | 662 776 783
Human Paes, 5 ‘ 5,695 8,395 7,825 91 68 56
Botany . . 5 336 547 905 5 91 97
Agriculture . ‘ E . 3,579 4,991 4,694 — — —
Horticulture : é ‘ 438 1,140 1,812 — — ==
Navigation . : i : 42 69 142 _— — --
Totals . : ; . | 51,607 | 92,520 | 111,031 | 2,152 |2,778 |3,179
It is evident that the more mathematical subjects—Mensuration,
Algebra, and Euclid—not only maintain their progress of the previous
year, but continue to increase, though not so rapidly in the aggregate.
Elementary Physiography and Horticulture show a great proportionate
increase ; while the remainder only show a slight increase or an actual
decrease. In Manchester the School Board have a well-regulated system
by which the scholars can rise from the Ordinary Day School, through
either the Higher Grade Day Schools or Evening Continuation Schools, to
the Board’s Science and Art Evening Schools. These are six in number,
five of which are furnished with a laboratory for the Study of Practical
Chemistry. Nearly all the Science subjects in the Directory of the
Science and Art Department are taught in one or other of these schools.
The Government Code for this year contains some important additions
bearing upon the subject on hand. In the Committée’s last report modi-
fications in the syllabus for Mechanics and Domestic Economy (for
girls) were desiderated, and a more general teaching of scientific method.
In the present Code no alteration is made in respect of the subject
‘Mechanics,’ but, while the course for Domestic Economy remains as
before, an entirely new syllabus has been provided under the name of
Domestic Science, which is defined as the Science of Domestic Economy
and Hygiene, and it is stated in a note that ‘the instruction in this
_ subject should be entirely experimental, the experiments as far as possible
being carried out by the scholars themselves, and arranged with the object
of solving a definite problem. Measurement and exact work should be
encouraged,’ The whole syllabus is given in the Appendix. The London
School Board has already adopted this in five of its schools.
There is an important alteration in the mode in which the Government
grant for specific subjects is to be assessed in the future. Hitherto it
1897. u
990 REPORT—1897.
has been on the result of the examination of the individual scholars, for
which, of course, inspection with notice was necessary ; henceforth the
payment will be by time, and the scale of payment will be determined by
the report of the Inspector on his visits without notice.
In Course H, in the Supplement to Schedule II., called ‘Experimental
Arithmetic, Physics, and Chemistry,’ there are some alterations in the
order of the work in the upper standards, with the addition of ‘ Floating
bodies’ and ‘The heat unit, heat capacity, and latent heat.’
In the schedule of studies for pupil teachers there is a new column of
Elementary Science (details of which are given in the Appendix), but it
is only an optional subject. This has an advantage over the working
under the Science and Art Department, as the matter for study is not so
specialised, and it extends through the whole of the Pupil-teacher course.
But there is no requirement that it should be carried out experimentally.
In the Elementary Science supplement to Schedule II., the subject
matter of Standard IIT. in all the different Courses is unaltered ; but it
is made clear that it is to be taught by means of illustrative object
lessons. ;
Teaching of Practical Housewifery, &c., must depend, not on empirical
rules, but on the scientific principles underlying the actual work.
The Code of regulations for the Evening Continuation Schools is
increased in bulk. The new subjects in Science are Domestic Science
and Commercial Geography. The scheme for Elementary Physics and
Chemistry is enlarged by the introduction of the measurement of heat,
and heat capacity. An alternative scheme of instruction in Hygiene is
provided, which is described as the scheme of the St. John’s Ambulance
Association. The detailed scheme for Commercial Geography includes a
considerable amount of matter touching the Physical Geography and
Climatology, and the raw -productions of the countries studied. The
scope of the syllabus for Domestic Science is much the same as that in the
Day School Code, with the proviso that ‘the applications to the home
should be the results of the discoveries made in the course of the experi-
ments, which should be undertaken in a spirit of inquiry or research.’
The directions are exceedingly minute, detailing the practical work to be
done at every stage of the study.
It is evident that if this kind of Science Teaching is to be given in the
Elementary Schools a body of teachers must be raised up who are well
indoctrinated in the new methods. This fact is being recognised now by
many of the large School Boards, and under that for London in particular
the classes in Practical Science for teachers, which have been conducted
by Mr. Heller for some time past, are already bearing fruit ; while the
same may be expected of the classes in Domestic Science for women
teachers, now under the management of Miss Edna Walter. The
Departmental Committee on Training Colleges, of which the Rev. T. W.
Sharpe (Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector of Schools) is Chairman, may also
be expected to do something to simplify and improve the teaching of
Science by providing a more appropriate course of study than the
specialised subjects of the Science and Art Department for the students
at those institutions.
There has lately been held in London an important Conference of the
International Congress on Technical Education, at which five members of
your Committee read papers or joined in the discussion. Although it was
not directly concerned with Elementary Education, there was much that
G
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 291
bore upon the importance and the methods of teaching Science in the
primary and continuation schools as a preparation for technical studies
properly so called. A full account of what took place at this Conference
is being printed in the ‘Journal of the Society of Arts.’ It includes also
a strong letter from Professor Fitzgerald in advocacy of the system which
he saw carried out by Mr. Heller during the Professor’s recent visit to
London as a member of the Commission on Manual and Practical Instruc-
tion in Primary Schools in Ireland.
The question of improved methods of Science teaching in Elementary
Schools has also been advanced by the action of the Joint Scholarships
Board. Early in February Sir Philip Magnus, Chairman of the Board,
wrote to the ‘ Times’ inclosing a copy of a memorandum which had been
prepared by a Committee of the Board, and had been forwarded to the
Vice-President of the Council. The memorandum may be found in
extenso in ‘Education’ of February 27. Its principal recommendation is as
follows :—‘ In the opinion of this Board, in order to place “Science” on a
sounder footing in Elementary Schools, and, above all, in order that the
teaching of the subject may be of real value educationally, it is desirable
that only one Science subject should be taught up to and within the Sixth
Standard, and that the course should be a progressive one. It seems that
this might be accomplished by adopting exclusively Course H, given in
the Supplement to Schedule II. of the Day School Code.’ It is hoped
that the Education Department will be able before long to adopt the
suggestion of the Board, whose object is to adapt the method of Science
teaching in its earliest stages to more advanced work, so that there may
be continuity in method from the Elementary Schools to the University.
‘
APPENDIX.
Domestic Science.—The Science of Domestic Economy and Hygiene.
lst stage.—Measurements of weight and size (volume), preferably in
the Metric system. Measurement of heaviness or density of water,
milk, &e.
Floating bodies—the lactometer.
General effects of heat on matter in its three states, with applications
to cooking, boiling, ventilation, hot-water supply, steaming, freezing,
clinical and household thermometers, weight of air, moisture in air, drying
and airing clothes, weather forecast, distillation, solution, and solubility,
modes of heating the dwelling, transmissicn of heat, clothing.
2nd stage.—Effects of heat on food materials, such as sugar, cheese,
flour, eggs, fat and lean meat. Modes of cooking: yeast, baking powder,
a loaf of bread. Effects of heat on mineral matter, such as iron, copper,
brimstone.
Rusting of iron, and general nature of air.
Burning of a match, candle, lamp, and phosphorus. Oxygen the active
part of air. Burning of carbon, coal, or coke in air or oxygen. Fuel and
combustion. Coal gas, burners, and gas stoves. The gas meter. Carbonic
acid gas, its presence in the atmosphere, its origin.
3rd staye.—Sources and impurities of water. Water supply and filtra-
tion. Hardness of water. Water a product of combustion. Composition
of water.
U2
292 REPORT—1897.
Acids and alkalis, soap, soda, and cleaning.
Ventilation and warming more fully considered.
The alimentary system. Foods, composition and functions. Classes
of foods.
Decay and disease ; disinfectants.
Elementary Science.
Candidates for probation.—Simple mechanical laws in their application
to common life and industries.
Candidates for engagement as Pupil-teachers,—Outlines of physiology
in its bearing on health and work.
First year.—Physiography. Matter. Formsof matter. Indestructi-
bility of matter. Mass, volume, density, specific gravity and weight.
Centre of gravity.
Force, motion, and inertia. The parallelogram of forces. Composi-
tion and resolution of forces. Conversion of rectilinear into circular
motion.
The Mechanical powers.—Principles of the lever, the pulley, the
inclined plane, and the screw.
Energy.—Heat, radiation, electricity, and chemical action as forms of
energy. Mechanical work.
Second year.—Physiography. Heat and temperature. Discrimina-
tion between heat and temperature. Effects of heat. The measurement
of temperature by thermometers. Change of state caused by heat, as in
ice, water, and steam.
Radiation.—Rectilinear propagation of radiation. Reflection and
refraction of radiation. The analysis of light by a prism, and its recom-
position, The colour disc. The visible spectrum.
Third year.—Physiography.—Chemical composition of matter. Mix-
tures and compounds. Water: its composition proved by analysis and
synthesis ; its physical properties. Elementary properties of oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, iron, and mercury: and of water, carbon di-
oxide, lime, silica, and the alkalis, common salt, iron oxide, and mercuric
oxide.
Terrestrial Magnetism.—Properties of the lodestone and artificial
magnets. The earth a magnet. Primary laws of magnetic attraction
and repulsion. Dip. The earth’s magnetic poles.
Fourth year.—No scheme of study is provided ; but at the Queen’s
Scholarship examination, marks will be given for success in passing one
of the Science subjects under the Science and Art Department.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives._-Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. TILDEN (Chairman) and Dr. H. BE. Ar-
STRONG (Secretary).
Durine the past year further important evidence has been obtained bear
ing on the constitution of the tri-derivatives of naphthalene confirmatory
of the conclusions previously arrived at, and also affording proof that the
interaction of phosphorus pentachloride and sulphonic chlorides is in all
cases a trustworthy method of determining constitution by reference to
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERILATIVES. 293
chloronaphthalenes (cf. Armstrong and Wynne, ‘ Proc. Chem. Soe.’ 1897,
152),
‘i has been found that the chloronaphthalene-disulphonic chlorides
afford a relatively small amount of trichloronaphthalene, and that a con-
siderable portion of the productis an intermediate compound—the d-
chloronaphthalene-mono-sulphonic chloride. From the results obtained
in the case of several a-/(3-disulphonic acids, it appears that of the two, as
was to be expected, the a-sulphonic group is the more readily displaced.
A series of remarkable observations have been made of the occurrence
of isomeric change in the case of 1 : 1/-dichloronaphthalene and its deri-
vatives.
The a-sulphonic acid of 1 : 1’-dichloronaphthalene is hydrolysed at
about 230°, and gives only 1 : 1’-dichloronaphthalene whatever be the
hydrolytic agent used. The /3-sulphonic acid represented by the formula,
Cl Cl
NS)
however, which cannot be hydrolysed below 285°, gives one or other of no
fewer than three isomeric dichloronaphthalenes—the 1 : 1’, 1: 2’, or 1 : 4’
modifications—according to the agent used.
When hydrolysed at 290° by means of a solution containing 1 per cent.
of sulphuric acid or one containing about 50 per cent. of phosphoric acid,
it behaves normally, yielding 1 : 1/-dichloronaphthalene. But if stronger
solutions of either acid be used, much of the salt is carbonised, and in this
case a small amount of 1 : 4’-dichloronaphthalene is obtained as the sole
volatile product. When concentrated muriatic acid is used as the hydro-
lytic agent, as much as 20 per cent. of the theoretical amount of the 1 : 4’-
compound is formed.
Lastly, if the potassium salt be mixed with sulphuric and phosphoric
acids, and superheated steam be passed through the mixture, 1 : 2’-di-
chloronaphthalene is the sole product of hydrolysis. In this last case it
is not improbable that further sulphonation precedes hydrolysis, and that
this has the effect of preventing the transference of chlorine to the para-
position, so that the 1 : 2’ is formed instead of the 1 : 4’ modification ;
thus :
OL Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl
> >
S s S :
5 Ss
The trichloronaphthalenes derived from 1 : 4’-dichloronaphthalene are
also, it appears, susceptible of ‘isomeric’ change.
Considerable attention has been paid during the year to the study of
the derivatives of a-methoxy- and a-ethoxy-naphthalene in comparison
with those of a-naphthol. It appears to be a much less ‘active ’ compound
294, REPORT—1897,.
than the latter, for example, readily yielding a monobromo-derivative,
whereas it is almost impossible to prevent the exclusive formation of
dibromonaphthol from «-naphthol.
A series of sulphonic acids have been prepared from a-ethoxynaphtha-
lene and its bromo-derivatives.
The Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor R. WarinGTton (Chairman), C. F. Cross
(Secretary), and MANNING PRENTICE. (Drawn up by the SEcRE-
TARY.)
TueE work upon the barley crop of 1896, which was reported in outline to
the Chemical Section in a paper read by Mr. Cross, has been more fully
dealt with in a paper read subsequently, and published in the ‘ Journal of
the Chemical Society,’ 1896, pp. 804-818. The subject was also dealt with
from the more special point of view of the relation of the furfuroid con-
stituents of these straws to the important problems of animal digestion and
alcoholic fermentation in a paper published in the ‘Journal of the Fed.
Inst. of Brewing,’ 1897, Pt. 1.
The investigations have been continued without interruption. We
have further and more closely studied the products of acid hydrolysis of
the cereal straws and of the celluloses isolated from them, and the main
results of these researches are embodied in a paper read at the Meeting of
the Chemical Society, London, on June 17.
Generally the results of the preceding paper (doc. cit.) are amplified
and confirmed. As it had been previously shown that the furfural-yield-
ing constituents of fodder plants are in large measure hydrolysed and
assimilated by the animal organism, so the evidence is accumulating that
certain of these compounds when fully hydrolysed (to monoses) by artificial
processes are susceptible of alcoholic fermentation.
It having been finally established that the pentoses themselves are
entirely resistant to the attack of the yeast cell, it follows that we are
dealing with a class of furfural-yielding carbohydrates, not pentoses.
At the same time the reactions of these compounds clearly indicates
that they are pentose-derivatives, and most probably methylene ethers of
the C, sugars of the general formula C;H,O, <i oH
O
It is difficult to devise reactions of decomposition or synthesis by which
such a constitutional formula could be finally verified. The literature of
es
the panlegone compound diperonal HOC.C aX > oe but with an
aromatic in place of a pentose residue, may be nil in evidence of the
exceptional difficulty of the problem presented.
The authors are glad to report that through the kindness of friends
they have now access to a vessel enabling them to operate upon a large
weight (7 kilos.) of the raw materials.
Working upon this extended scale, and upon the basis of the results
established by long investigation and previously reported to the Associa-
tion, we may confidently expect more positive and, we hope, final results.
ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 295
The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.— Fourth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair-
man), Dr. C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FRANKLAND, Pro-
fessor F. CLowEs, Dr. Huan Marswati, Mr. A. E. FLEetcuer,
and Professor W. CARLETON WILLIAMS.
Since the last report, which included an examination of the electrolytic
methods for the determination of bismuth, antimony, and tin, and for the
separation of the two latter, the experimental work of the Committee has
been continued. The investigations on the determination of cobalt, nickel,
and zinc are practically finished ; also further work on the determination
of bismuth and its separation from other metals ; but the Committee prefer
to delay the publication of these results until the next report in order to
make them as complete as possible.
The Committee ask for reappointment, with a grant of 104.
The Production of Haloids from Pure Materials.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor H. EH. ArmsTRoNG, Professor
W. R. Dunstan, Mr. C. H. Botoamiey, Mr. J. T. CunDat, and
Mr. W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
Production of Haloids from Highly-purified Materials.
THE investigation undertaken by this Committee, as has been previously
reported, has been greatly delayed by the difficulty experienced in their
attempts to obtain a supply of chlorine satisfactory, both as regards origin
and quality, for the work to be done.
During the past year, however, the Secretary has succeeded in pre-
paring (by the electrolysis of silver chloride) a suitable supply of the
element in question.
A full account of the method of obtaining chlorine from this
source, and of the experiments that have been made with it, has already
been published in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society of London.’!
It is therefore only necessary to state that novel and stringent means
were taken to secure the dryness of all the materials employed in the
various experiments, and that advantage has been taken of the oppor-
tunity which has arisen to examine once more the behaviour of chlorine
in sunlight, and also its behaviour under the influence of the silent
discharge of electricity.
The following is a summary of the chief results obtained :—
1. The introduction of a new source of highly-purified chlorine.
2. The observation that highly-purified chlorine, after it had been
dried by new and very stringent methods, still interacted rapidly and
completely with specimens of highly-purified and carefully dried mercury
made by several different methods.
3. That highly-purified and carefully dried bromine reacts readily
and completely with purified mercury. é
' “Observations on the Properties of some Highly-purified Substances,’ Trans.
Chem. Soc., 1897, by W. A. Shenstone.
296 REPORT—1897.
4. That iodine purified by the ‘Stas Method,’ and carefully dried,
reacts readily and completely with purified mercury.
It may be pointed out that these particular elements were selected
for examination because they are among those whose interactions have
not hitherto been found to be influenced by the presence or absence of
traces of water-vapour among the acting substances ; and because it was
thought that we are now at a stage at which it is more important to
re-examine actions belonging to this class, than to seek for fresh instances
of substances which cease to interact when highly dried.
5. That highly-purified chlorine does not, like oxygen, undergo conden-
sation when submitted to silent discharge of electricity.
6. That highly-purified chlorine is very little affected by exposure to
direct sunlight, but that it becomes more sensitive if rendered impure by
the adding of traces of moist air.
7. It has been noticed incidentally that lead glass may be heated to
its softening point in well-dried chlorine, without showing any signs that
it has been attacked, although in the damp state this kind of glass is
readily attacked by chlorine.
8. A new form of vacuum trap is described in the paper referred to.
It is recommended that the Committee be not reappointed, as no
further pecuniary assistance is likely to be needed, and the work can now
be carried on by those who are engaged upon it without further corporate
action.
Infe Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. HE. J.
GaRwoop (Secretary), and Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Dr. WHEELToN Hinp, Dr. G. J.
Hinpe, Mr. P. F. Kenpau, Mr. J. W. Kirxury, Mr. R. Kinston,
Mr. G. W. LampLucH, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. G. H.
Morton, Professor H. A. Nicnotson, Mr. B. N. Pracu, Mr.
A. Srraman, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Dr. Traquair, appointed
to study the Life Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks. (Drawn
up by Mr. GaRwoon.)
In consequence of the early date on which it is necessary to submit
reports, little work has been done this year up to the present time, but it
is hoped that during the summer months progress may be made with the
work of the Committee, and collections may be obtained from localities of
special importance.
At present a collector is engaged upon the fauna of the Millstone
Grit at Eccup, five miles north of Leeds, where a fossiliferous black shell
has been met with during the excavation of a puddle-trench for a reser-
voir. The bed occurs about the centre of the ‘Middle Grits’ of the
Yorkshire Millstone Grits.
The bed, which was discovered by Mr. Percy Kendall, some three
years ago, contains a rich Marine fauna, which has not yet, however, been
properly worked out. The fauna includes species of Nucula and Leda in
great abundance and in excellent preservation, also numerous individual
specimens of Lingula and Discina, Gasteropods occur, and a few speci-
mens of Goniatites, together with well-preserved specimens of Conularia.
ae © See” 2 ee
ON THE LIFE ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS. 297
Several specimens of Dithyrocaris have been found, and a single speci-
men of a minute Trilobite, cf. Brachymetopus Ouralicus. Fish remains
referable to two genera have been identified.
The fauna appears to bear little resemblance to that of the Cayton
Gill beds of Nidderdale, which lie at approximately the same horizon in
the Millstone Grit.
On the whole, the fauna appears to resemble in many points that of
the Ridsdale Ironstone shell of the Bernician beds of South Northumber-
land.
The Committee hope that the information obtained from this deposit
will be of value, in consideration of the comparative neglect with which
the fauna of the Millstone Grit has hitherto been treated.
Owing to the temporary nature of the exposure the Committee con-
sidered it advisable to expend a considerable portion of the grant in
obtaining the services of a competent collector, who has spent a fortnight
in making as exhaustive a collection as possible from the locality, under
the superintendence of Mr. Percy Kendall. The accounts have not yet
however, come in, and the Committee cannot therefore at present draw
upon the grant generously placed at their disposal by the Association, but
ask that the sum granted may be carried over to next year. They also
ask that a similar sum may be granted for that year.
The Secretary has been in correspondence with the various members of
the Committee as to the best methods of forwarding the objects of the
Committee. From many of these he has received valuable suggestions,
and it is hoped that reports will be furnished at an early date from each
of the members for special districts, giving detailed sections of the rocks
in their individual areas, and stating what reliable information has
already been collected regarding their fossil contents, and what yet
remains to be done in this connection.
Structure of a Coral Reef.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor T. G. Bonney (Chairman), Professor W. J. SoLLas
(Secretary), Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Professors J. W. Jupp,
C. Lapworts, A. C. Happon, Boyp Dawkins, G. H. Darwin,
S. J. Hickson, and A. Stewart, Admiral W. J. L. WHartTonN,
Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray, W.'T. Buanrorp, C. LE NEVE Foster,
and H. B. Guppy, Messrs. F. Darwin, H. O. Forses, G. C.
BourngE, A. R. Binniz, J. W. Grecory, W. W. Watts, and
J. C. Hawksuaw, and Hon. P. Fawcett, appointed to consider a
project for investigating a Coral Reef by Boring and Sounding.
As the expenses of the expedition were covered by the grants from funds
administered by the Royal Society, the sum of 40/., granted by the
Association at Liverpool, has not been drawn. But another expedition
has been already sent out from Sydney under the auspices of Professors
Anderson Stuart and Edgeworth David and others, with machinery to
overcome the difficulties which were fatal to the first attempt, and the
Committee ask that they may be reappointed, and that the grant made
last year, and not drawn, be renewed as a contribution to the expenses of
the new undertaking.
298 REPORT—1897.
Photographs of Geological interest in the United Kingdom.—Highth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. TempEsT ANDERSON,
Mr. J. E. Beprorp, Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. GoopcuiLp,
Mr. Witiiam Gray, Mr. Rosert Kinston, Mr. A. S. Ren,
Mr. J. J. H. Teauyt, Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Mr. H. B. Woop-
warD Mr. F. WooLnoucn, und Professor W. W. Watts (Secre-
tary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
THE Committee have the honour to report that during the past year 364 new
photographs have been received, bringing the total number in the collection
up to1,751. The early date of this year’s meeting has made it necessary
to close the lists earlier than usual, but in spite of this the number of new
photographs considerably exceeds the number received in any previous
year, although there have only been nine months to collect in, and the
harvest of some of the best months will not be reaped till next year.
Adding to this large number 219 prints and 81 slides given to the
loan collection, the increment is more than double that of any former
year. As well as this, 27 prints have been sent to renew old ones, lost,
faded, or withdrawn. The total number thus reaches 691. Fifty-three
photographs and several duplicates have been received since this Report
was sent in, and will be acknowledged next year.
From the detailed list it will be seen that eight new counties are now
partially represented, and progress has been made in eleven others,
hitherto poorly represented. Amongst the more notable donations may
be mentioned a large series of views in Wealden strata by Dr. Abbott,
some very beautiful Nottingham photographs by Messrs. Burton, of
Leicester, a very instructive series from North Staffordshire by Mr.
Armstrong, a set from the Sgurr of Eigg by Dr. R. D. Roberts, a series
of Yorkshire caves by Mr. Cuttriss, sets from County Dublin, Yorkshire,
and the Isle of Man by Mr. Reynolds, and several interesting pictures
from North Devon and the Isle of Wight by Mr. F. Mason Good.
Professor Allen contributes a good series of Charnwood and Nottingham
views, Mr. Bingley sets from the Yorkshire Dales and North Wales,
Mr. St. J. Phillips a most useful group from North Ireland, and
Mr. Whitaker several valuable prints. Last, but not least, the Com-
mittee wish to give especial mention to the munificent gift by Mr. R.
Welch, of Belfast, of 100 new platinotypes, which are not only perfect in
the technical skill and the process employed, but artistic and pictorial as
well, while, from a strictly geological point of view, they are so good that
not one could be spared from the collection. In addition to this he has given
50 prints in previous years, and 25 duplicate prints and 7 slides this year.
For other valuable new additions to the collection, the Committee
have the pleasure of expressing their gratitude to those donors, too
numerous to mention here, whose names are given in list 1.
The usual summary follows. It is carefully corrected by reference to
the actual contents of the collection so as to show its exact state, and it
will be useful in indicating the places in which it is advisable to start new
work. A glance will show that there are many areas of great geological
interest in England, as well as in Scotland and Ireland, of which we have
iw.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST 299
at present no photographic survey. The Committee desire especially to
draw attention to the following districts :—Areas of large and typical
physical features, such as the Pennine and Pendle Ranges, the South Wales
coalfield and its borders, the district of the Arans, Arenigs, and Cader
Tdris, the Harlech Mountains, the Yorkshire Dales, the Cotteswolds and
South Downs, the Malverns, and the Silurian ground of the Welsh border ;
the Yorkshire Moors, Lincolnshire, the area of the Northampton Oolites,
the Oxford district, Seaton and Blackdown, Central Wales, and Anglesey :
In Scotland, the North-west and Central Highlands, the Outer
Hebrides, Mull, the Sidlaws and Ochil Hills, and the Southern Uplands :
In Ireland, the Carlingford and Slieve Gallion areas, Kerry Cork, the
Limerick Basin, Waterford, and Wicklow.
Pre- New .
Ve vious addi- Total i aigase®
collec- tions ola
tion (1897) Prints Slides Total
ENGLAND—
Bedford : : ‘ — — — — — =
Berks P ' 3 — 3 — o
Buckingham : 3 — —_ — — — =
Cambridge . ; : — _ -— — —_— s=
Cheshire . , ‘ 44 4 48 8 3 1)
Cornwall . 4 $ 36 — 36 1 2 3
Cumberland 5 3 4 2 6 — — —_
Derby . - 25 2 27 1 -- 1
Devon 4 72 17 89 2 4 6
Dorset 4 é 3 12 51 3 3 6
Durham ; ; 23 — 23 1 — 1
Essex 1 — 1 = — —
Gloucester . 2 4 6 1 =— 1
Hants 6 13 19 1 —— 1
Hereford — — = — — —
Hertford i —_ if — a
Huntingdon — _— -— —— — ==
Kent 39 19 58 9 — 9
Lancashire . 39 2 41 5 5 10
Leicester $4 v4 91 10 9 19
Lincoln —_— 1 1 — — —
Middlesex . 3 —- 3 _— —_ _
Monmouth . 1 3 4 1 — 1
Norfolk 3 7 10 5 — 5
Northampton — — — — — —
Northumberland . 24 3 27 -— —_ _—
Nottingham 2 10 12 1 — 1
Oxford 1 — 1 — —- _
Rutland — = — = = —
Shropshire . 25 ' 1 26 5 3 8
Somerset . 29 10 39 5 3 8
Stafford . 12 14 26 5 ] 6
Suffolk : 1 1 2 — _— —_—
Surrey - 2 8 9 17 2 1 3
Sussex = — 8 8 — — _
Warwick . 7 4 11 1 —_— 1
Westmoreland 9 1 10 — — aS
Wiltshire 1 = 1 we = —
Worcester . : 2, — 2 1 — 1
Yorkshire . : 288 33 321 41 17 57
Total . 840 187 1027 109 61 159
300 REPORT—1897.
Pre- a
vious addi-
collec- tions Total eee
tion (1897) Prints Slides Total
Duplicates
WALES—
Anglesey
Brecknock .
Cardigan
Carmarthen
Carnarvon .
Denbigh
Flint
Glamorgan .
Merioneth .
Montgomery A
Pembroke 0
Radnor
| lomomse! | | |
meeaowl |S! | | |
_—
bo
| | wrorl Sil | |
w
4
Total . -| 101
tn
a
122 24 10
CHANNEL ISLANDS. : il 3 14
ISLE OF MAN. ‘ = 21 5 ;
s
ro |
= |
oo |
ScoTLAND—
Aberdeen
Arran .
Argyll.
Ayr .
Banff .
Berwick : ;
Caithness . A 5
Cromarty
Dumbarton .
Dumfries
Edinburgh .
Elgin .
Fife
Forfar.
Haddington
Inverness .
Kirkcudbright
Kincardine .
Lanark ‘ :
Linlithgow . : ‘
Nairn . é :
Orkney
Peebles
Perth . : .
Renfrew . : 4
Ross . - , 5
Roxburgh . ° .
Selkirk 5 5 5
Shetland . 5 f
Stirling . . .
Sutherland .
Wigtown . .
i Oe |
wy
lool | lleml el | ml oSeanoS!] 1 lal | Hee
loml lll ealel lal okmaneodS| | |] al weer
Leorl lll lolli lolllelasSl I lel lent |
lrowl | 1 I |
ise)
ie)
or
He
wo
Total . | 151 15 166
IRELAND—
Antrim 5 Fi F 130 34 164
Armagh . { I 2 _— 2
J
ao
xq
i)
OU
——————————————EEE
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 301
Pre- New
: 4 Duplicates
vious addi-
ua collec- tions Total |
tion (1897) Prints Slides Total
IRELAND (continued)—
Cavan. . . C —_— 1 1 “= — --
Clare . 5 3 8 — _ —
Cork . 5 C 1 — 1 — — —
Donegal 14 21 35 2 _— 2
Down. a 41 14 55 11 4 15
Dublin 12 9 21 2 1 3
Fermanagh . 2 ji 3 1 — 1
Galway . 1 22 23 3 — 3 I
Kerry . _ = _— = — ates |
Kildare F 2 — =— —_— _— —_ = |
Kilkenny . : : = == == = = =o
King’s Co. . _ — — _ — =
Leitrim — — —_— —- -- —
Limerick 1 —_— 1 — — --
Londonderry 13 6 19 1 —_— 1
Longford . : _— _ = — a =
Louth. 3 1 —_— 1 — — —
Mayo. -— 6 6 i 1
Meath. ; _— —_ — — — —_—
Monaghan . = _ = = = =
Queen’s Co. _— — — — —
Roscommon — — —_— — —_— —
Sligo . : A —_— 2 2 = — —
Tipperary — — — — —
Tyrone ; — — — — — —
Waterford . — — — — — =
Westmeath . — — — _ — f
Wexford — — — —
Wicklow — — -- — — — |
Dabahote) me lai 225 119 342 39 12 Biel
|
ROCK-STRUCTURES, &c. . 40 10 50 6 2 8
ENGLAND 5 é 840 187 1027 109 51 160
WALES . 2 4 3 101 21 122 24 10 34
CHANNEL ISLANDS 3 11 3 14 —o a =
IsLE OF MAN A 3 21 9 30 2 il 3
ScoTLAND. ‘ .{ 151 15 166 38 5 43
IRELAND ¢ : 223 119 342 39 12 51
Rock STRUCTURES ; 40 10 50 6 2 8
Total . . | 1387 364 1751 218 81 299
A special effort has been made this year to reach persons and districts
not hitherto reached, and a large number of circulars has been despatched
to geologists and photographers and to Societies established by both these
classes of persons.' It is difficult to get those who are not geologists to
take any interest in the subject, and almost impossible to persuade them
to photograph objects solely for their geological value. Many of the
photographs taken by those who are not geologists are, however, so im-
portant that it would be well if they would submit their albums to the
Committee, so that the latter might select such prints as are of permanent
geological interest. The collection now contains photographs of what
3802 REPORT—1897.
may be called the more sensational geological phenomena. What is now
rather more required is the steady surveying of ordinary, and especially
temporary, features and phenomena. Picked points on retreating and
advancing shore lines should be photographed at regular intervals ;
sections in variable deposits should be taken as the excavation of them
proceeds, and out-of-the-way districts should also be registered, even if
they only yield ordinary phenomena. Important as it is that fossils
should be accurately and faithfully figured, it is equally essential that
phenomena in the field should be figured in a way that is not only
accurate, but includes, without accentuation, the interpretation of the in-
vestigator, while it registers facts which may have escaped his observation.
In order to glean copies of the original photographs used as the bases
for illustrations in papers and books, a circular has been furnished to
Editors of Geological publications, and by the kindness of the Societies
and their Editors these have been sent out to the contributors of papers
so illustrated. The plates and other illustrations published are, when
possible, mounted by the side of the original photographs, and yearly lists
are published in the Report (list 5). The Committee are indebted to the
Editors of the publications of the Geological Societies and Associations of
London, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Cornwall, Yorkshire, Dublin, and
Belfast, and to the Editor of the ‘Geological Magazine’ for help in this
connection.
Friendly notices of the work of the Committee have been published in
‘Nature,’ ‘Science Gossip,’ several photographic journals, the ‘Standard,’
the ‘Irish Naturalist,’ the ‘Transactions of the Woolhope Club,’ and
elsewhere ; while an illustrated paper on the subject was published in the
‘Practical Photographer’ for April 1897; and another, illustrated by
reproductions of photographs kindly lent for the purpose by Miss Andrews,
Mr. Bingley, and Mr. Garwood, was published by the Secretary in the
first three numbers of the ‘Geological Magazine’ for 1897. A short
paper on the subject was also read by the Secretary to the South-Eastern
Union of Natural History Societies in 1896. Prizes have been offered by
the publishers of the ‘ Practical Photographer’ for specimen local surveys,
including the geological phenomena of a particular district. Albums
containing recent additions to the Collection have been exhibited at the
Royal Institution, the Geological Society, and the Geologists’ Association.
The results of these efforts have been gratifying in several directions.
Photographic surveys .have been started in Bolton and Devon; each
of these includes geological work. The following Clubs and Societies have
definitely undertaken to photograph in their own districts —The North
Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club, the University of Durham Philo-
sophical Society, the Woolhope Field Club, the Dublin Field Club, and the
Burton Natural History Society. From these sources valuable results
have already accrued, and further work may be confidently looked forward
to next year.
Much labour has been expended in getting the collection into thorough
order, and it is hoped that the greater part of this work is now satis-
factorily accomplished. All mounted photographs, to the number of
about 1,700, are accessible for reference in the Library of the Museum of
Practical Geology at 28 Jermyn Street, S.W., where they can be inspected
on application to the Librarian. They are classified geographically and
grouped according to countries and counties in twenty-three albums,
so arranged that their contents can be expanded as new photographs are
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 303
received. In addition to the mounting of most of the photographs
received during the last three years it has been necessary to unmount and
remount on standard, interchangeable, guarded mounts over 500 of the
older photographs. Considering the risk involved in this work, but little
real damage has been done to the prints, and the majority have come
through the ordeal unscathed, while not one has been irretrievably
damaged. Many of the descriptive forms have been rewritten and
expanded, and a large number which had been lost or never sent in have
been written up. The localities of all but two of the photographs in
the collection have been accurately ascertained, though there was in some
cases no written clue to them. Many photographs have been critically
examined, and additional points of interest in them have been discovered
and explained on the mounts or forms. The Committee express their thanks
to Mr. Strahan, Mr. Lamplugh, Mr. Gibson, Mr. Leighton, Mr. Nichols,
Mr. Watson, Mr. Welch, Mr. Whitaker, Mr. Shipman, Mr. De Rance,
Mr. Woodward, Mr. Goodchild, Mr. Brook, Mr. Hunt, and several others
for services in this direction. References to published descriptions and
plates are being filled up wherever possible. In many cases it has been dis-
covered that the photographs are beginning to possess a special interest
from the change or disappearance of the objects photographed. Thus the
pump at Marino, Co. Down, has been washed away, and there are photo-
graphs of Shakespeare Cliff before the landslip, to compare with those
taken since, and a print of Eccles Tower, free from sand dunes, before it
fell. On the other hand, the Carboniferous Forest shown in Photographs
33, 34, 35, and 939 has now been carefully protected by a building. The
beautiful section (972) showing a chalk cliff and screes buried under
Tertiary Basalt has been quarried away.
Concurrently with the rearrangement a card catalogue of the whole
collection has been made, and this is so arranged as to minimise the future
labour of registering new photographs, while at the same time it secures a
ready means of recording localities and particulars with accuracy. The
cards are used for acknowledgment to donors, who can thus correct
the particulars to be finally entered in the published lists. A county list
and an abbreviated numerical list have also been written, and for the first
time it has been possible to check the whole contents of the collection.
This has shown that, in spite of the difficulties of keeping a large set of
unmounted and miscellaneously mounted prints, only 3 per cent. of those
registered in the published list were not to be found, a result which
reflects much credit on the care exercised by the former Secretary,
Mr. Jeffs. Quite 1, and perhaps 2, per cent. of this apparent loss is due
to clerical errors in entering contributions in the published lists before
they had been actually received ; the other 1 per cent. seems to represent
actual loss, but this is to some extent compensated by the finding of
photographs which had not been registered in the printed lists. The
good nature of the majority of the donors of the best photographs has
enabled the Committee to make good almost all photographs of real
geological value, and at the present time not more than sixteen of the
photographs registered in the published lists are absent from the collec-
tion. The numbers of the prints which cannot be found or replaced have ,
been applied to new photographs received within the year, and thus the
numbering represents with fair accuracy the actual state of the whole
collection ; numbers below 1,400 in the list (No. 1) are those which have
been thus transferred, and any photographs which may be attached to
304 REPORT—1897.
such numbers in previous lists must now be finally cancelled, as the
Secretary has failed to recover them, or else they have never actually
been in the collection. With some of these numbers it will be noticed
that no photograph has ever been associated.
The Committee desire to express their warmest thanks to those donors
who have so kindly enabled them to bring the collection into a perfect
state up to date. The following names should be mentioned with thanks :
Mr. Stewart, Mr. Defieux, Mr. Bingley, Miss Andrews, Dr. Stolterfoth,
Mr. Brook, and Mr. Welch.
List No. 2 comprises lost photographs which have been renewed, and
List No. 3 is necessitated by the slight confusion which has occurred in
connection with the supply of missing photographs and the filling of gaps.
Here, again, many of the original donors have given help; their names
are mentioned with thanks in this list.
Certain Scientific Societies have been in the habit of issuing specially
taken photographs to their members, and several of them have sent sets
to the Committee in past time. An effort has been made to make these
sets more perfect, and the Societies in question have given ready help.
The Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society and the Liverpool
Geological Society, for example, have overhauled the list and promised to
contribute such of their prints as are still to be got to complete our set.
The Secretary will be very pleased to receive help from geologists in
annexing fuller and more accurate descriptions of the geological features
to the photographs, in order that they may become of the utmost use as a
work of reference. He will also welcome corrections and additional
information from those who inspect the collection. Several persons
anxious to obtain examples to illustrate both geological and geographical
phenomena have visited the collection, and to more than one it has been
found of much use for the purpose ; as it becomes larger and more repre-
sentative it must become increasingly important and useful in this respect.
The Committee will welcome suggestions as to the best method by which
eventually it may be possible to enable those interested in such things to
obtain reproductions or prints without imposing a strain on the time and
good-nature of willing contributors.
It has long been evident that, while it is essential that the main
collection should be permanently lodged at a central place where it can be
used for reference, it would be a great advantage if some portion of
it could be allowed to circulate amongst geological and photographic
Societies, in order that the kind of work necessary and its utility might
be made obvious to those bodies and persons likely to take it in hand.
For this purpose the best thing appeared to be the formation of a duplicate
loan collection selected from the best and most typical photographs in the
main collection and arranged geologically. A few duplicates found in the
collection have been set aside for this purpose, and an appeal has been
made to contributors to give prints or slides of those photographs most
suitable for the purpose. To this appeal there has been a most liberal
response, and a loan collection has been inaugurated. It now numbers
219 prints and 81 slides, of which a separate classified list is annexed
(No. 4). A description will be written to serve as an account of the
slides or as labels for the prints, and the two parts of the loan collection
will be ready for circulation amongst such Societies and Clubs as are pre-
pared to pay the expenses of packing and carriage, and to make good any
el
Pe.\ occulta yin eg amis
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 805
damage. The Secretary will be glad to receive early application from
Societies wishing to avail themselves of the offer of this loan, that arrange-
ments may be made in good time.
The photographs in this selected series are naturally of the kind which
would be most useful to those who wish to obtain typical examples for
teaching purposes or for exhibition in illustration of papers ; and there-
fore, whenever it has been possible to arrange it, an address is given
whence prints or slides may be purchased. But it must be distinctly
understood that the Committee can undertake no responsibility or corre-
spondence in this matter. All information possible will be circulated
with the collection, and there the Committee’s work must end ; would-be
purchasers must make their own arrangements with photographers, in
whom exclusively the copyright remains vested.
The Committee, in forming this collection, are much indebted to the
donors whose names are mentioned at the end of List 4, and particularly
to Mr. Bingley (who has given 39 prints and 23 slides) Mr. Welch (25 and
7), Mr. Goodchild (17), Mr. Nichols, Mr. Watson, Mr. Defieux, Mr.
Armstrong, Miss M. K. Andrews, and Captain McDakin.
The Secretary will be grateful if the donors of photographs will
kindly look through the parts of the lists in which they are interested
and notify to him any slips in the spelling of proper names, in the
geographical or geological descriptions, or mistakes of any other kind
which occur in the Report.
The Committee recognise that their work is yet far from completion,
and they therefore ask for their reappointment with a small grant to
defray some of the expenses connected with the mounting, storing, and
collection of photographs.
EIGHTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS
(to June 1897).
Nors.—This list contains the subjects of geological photographs
copies of which have been received by the Secretary of the Committee
since the publication of the last Report. Photographers are asked to
ailix the registered numbers, as given below, to their negatives for con-
_ venience of future reference. Their own numbers, where given, are
added, in the same order, to enable them to do so. .
Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the ph stographer direct, or from the officers of the Local Society
under whose auspices the views were taken. ’
The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances, over which the Committee have no
control.
The Committee find it necessary to reiterate the fact that they do not
assume the copyright of any photographs included in this list. Inquiries
respecting photographs, and applications for permission to reproduce
— should not be addressed to the Commrittee, but to the photographers
irect,
The very best photographs lose half their utility, and all their value
as documentary evidence, unless accurately described ; and the Secretary
would Be grateful if, wherever possible, such explanatory details as can
(f x
306 REPORT—1897.
be given were written on the forms supplied for the purpose, and not on
the back of the photograph or elsewhere. Much labour and error of tran-
scription would thereby be saved. A local number by which the print
can be recognised should be written on the back of the photograph and on
the top right-hand corner of the form.
Copies of photographs should be sent wnmouwnted to W. W. Watts,
Mason College, Birmingham, and forms may be obtained from him.
The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—
L= Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate. 10/8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &c.
E signifies Enlargements.
* indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors.
LIST 1.
ENGLAND.
CHESHIRE. — Photographed by C. A. Derieux, 50 Windsor Road, Tue
Brook, Liverpool. 1/2.
Ae
1560 (8) HilbreIsland. . . . Fault in Keuper Sandstone. 1891.
1561 ’ Hilbre Island, W. c . Fissure in Triassic Sandstone. 1890.
1562 . - . Trias Sandstone. 1890.
1563 Hilbre Island. ; . False bedding in Trias Sandstone. 1890,
CuMBERLAND.—Photographed by J. B. Batney, 27 North Street, Maryport.
ae
811 Maryport, looking north. . . Peat, Raised Beach, and Glacial Drift. 1896.
812 7 Po south. 4
” ”
DersysHire.—Photograpled by Mr. Frirn. Presented by
W. Wairaxer, £.R.S. 1/1.
1557 R. Wye, Cressbrook. . . Carboniferous Limestone.
Presented by W. Wuitaker, F.R.S. 10/8.
1558 Blackwell Dale. . : ° . Carboniferous Limestone.
DEvonsHIRE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/1. (£)
1445 (Dev. 1) Hotel Cliff, Ilfracombe. Synclinal fold in Devonian Rocks. 1896.
1446 (Dev. 2) Wild Peas Beach, Combe Folding of Hangman Grit. 1896.
Martin.
1/4.
1553 (Dev.3) Croyde Bay. . « Upper Devonian Rocks covered by Raised
Beach. 1896.
1554 (Dev. 4) Near Barricane Beach, Quartz-vein in Morte Slates. 1896.
Morte Bay.
4555 (Dev. 5) Baggy Point. 2 . Baggy Beds, fossiliferous, 1896.
1556 (Dev. 6) Croyde Beach. . . Syncline in Pilton Beds. 1896.
q ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 307
Photographed by F. Mason Goon, Winchfield, Hants. Presented by
W. Wuiraker. 11/9.
Regd.
No.
1454 Lynmouth. . : : : . Devonian Rocks on beach.
1455 > ; F ; . Town and Valley of R. Lynn.
1456 East Lynn, Lynton. . ‘ . River erosion.
1457 | FF ‘ ; : ” 2
Photographed by A. R. Hunt, Southwood, Torquay. 1/2.
408 Kent’s Cavern. , 2 . Canine teeth of Wolf, Hyzna, and Ma-
chairodus.
ae
Photographed by H. L. P. Lows, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow. 1 /2
4537 (C) Birch Tor, Dartmoor. . . Weathering of granite, 1894.
1538 (B) Bellever Tor, Dartmoor. Fr Pr 1894.
1539 (D) ae 1894.
1540 (G) West Dart, near Bellever River erosion in granite. 1894.
Bridge. 1894.
1541 (E) Lane’s Gully, Dartmoor. . ‘Phcenician Tin-working.’ 1894.
1542 (F) ” ” ” ° ” ” 1894.
Dorset.—Photographed by F. Mason Goon, Winchjield, Hants. 12 /10.
409 Stair Cove and Lulworth Cove. Contorted Purbeck and Portland Beds
with characteristic landscape.
410 Stair Cove, Lulworth. . ns Contorted Purbeck and Portland Beds.
Photographed by H. W. Moncxron, 10 King’s Bench Walk, Temple, B.C
1/4.
415 (591); Tilly Whim ‘Caves,’ Portland Stone and Chert Beds. 1896.
Swanage.
1416 (593) ! at ” ” Old working in Portland Stone. 1896.
1417 (592) Tilly Whim, Swanage. . The Chert Beds, Portlandian, 1896.
1418 (585) Durlston Head.. , Base of Purbeck Beds resting on Portlana
Stone. 1896.
Photographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Worplesdon, Guildford.
1447 (D1) Blashenwell, near Corfe Section in large tufa-pit. 1896. 1/1. (E.)
Castle.
1551 (D2) Branksome Chine, Bourne- Bournemouth Beds capped with Drift.
mouth. 1/4. 1896.
Photographed by C. J. Watson, Alton Cottage, Bottville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/2.
1512 (1038) The Agglestone, Stud- Ferruginous Eocene Sandstone. 1893.
land.
Photographed by A. Strauan, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1 /4.
1528 (38) Eastside of Lulworth Cove. Purbeck Rocks, ‘ Broken Beds’ and Cypris
Limestone. 1893.
Photographed by Prof. F. J. Auten, Mason College, Birmingham. 1/1.
1613 (16) Cliffs west of Lyme Regis. Lower Lias shale and limestone.
x2
308 REPORT—1897.
Photographed by R. Lanaton Coun, Loughrigg, Cavendish Road, Sutton,
Surrey. 1/4.
Regd. .
No.
1643 (8) Oswald’s Bay, Lulworth. . Series from Portland Beds to Chalk com-
pressed into about half a mile. 1893.
GuoucrsteR.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.
1547 (G1) Garden Cliff, Westbury-on- Variegated Triassic Marls. 1897.
Severn.
1548 (G4) ) Scar Hill, Nailsworth. . Junction of Freestones and liagstones,
Inferior Oolite. 1897.
1549 (G2) ”? ” ” oy) ” ” ”
1550 (G3) ” ” ” om ” ” ”
Hampsuire, Iste or Wicut.— Photographed by F. Mason Goon,
Winchfield, Hants. 1/1.
411 Scratchells Bay. . - 3 .- Chalk with Flints.
1458 ” ” . . . . ” ” ”
Photographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford.
Ly, GE)
1448 (1.W. 1) Between Colwell Chine Thrust-plane in How Ledge Limestone.
and How Ledge. 1896.
1449 (1.W. 2) Foreshore, Yarmouth. . Fan-palm leaf in Bembridge Marls. 1896.
1552 (I.W. 3) S. of Brightstone. . ‘Variegated Sandstones’ of Wealden age.
1/4. 1896.
Photographed by 8. H. Rurnoups, University College, Bristol. 1 /2.
41593 (21) Scratchells Bay. . . . Disturbed Upper Chalk with Flint bands.
1896.
Photographed by R. Lanaton Corn, Loughrigg, Sutton, Surrey. 1/4.
1636 (1) Alum Bay. . P ; . Coloured Sands. 1893.
GST (2); s; , 4 . . Cliffs and Needles. 1893.
1638 (3) Freshwater Bay. . : . Highly inclined Chalk. Crushed flints.
1891.
1639 (4) <4 : Arched Stack of Chalk. 1891.
1640 (6) 9 5s Chalk Cliffs along Strike of Bedding.
1891.
1641 (5) Watcombe Bay. . A - Inclined Chalk; formation of Caves and
Needles by Waves. 1891.
1642 (7) Headon Hill, Alum Bay. . Oligocene Strata. 1893.
Kent.—Photographed by Captain 8. Gorpon McDaxin, 15 Esplanade,
Dover.
414 (678) Shakespeare Cliff, Dover. Before the Great Fall in 1897 (taken in
1895). 1/4.
1635 (892) 5 + After the Great Fall in 1897 (taken
February 5, 1897). 1/2. (H.)
From the Collection of the late W. Tortey, F.R.S.
1473 Encombe Tennis Lawn, Folke- Fissure caused by Landslip of 1893. 1/2.
stone.
1474 ast of Encombe Grounds, Kast end of Landslip Fissure. 1893. 1/2.
Folkestone.
1475 ” 9 Fissure causea by Landslip, 1893, J/2.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 309
Read
12716 Undercliff between Sandgate and Folkestone Keds slipped over Sandgate
Folkestone. Beds. 1893. 1/2.
41477 Near Folkestone. A Landslipped Ground. 1893. 1/2.
1478 The Warren, Folkestone. . C ” ” ” 1/1.
1479 ” ” ° = > é ” ” ”
Photographed by H. A. ALLEN, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.
1494 fForeness Point, North Foreland. Chalk showing Erosion; Vertical Cliffs
and Deep Bays without Talus. 1892.
1495 Cliffs, N.E. of Margate. Vertical Chalk Cliffs. 1892.
*Photographed by Mr. D. Jounson, 10 Grecian Road Tunbridge Wells,
under the direction of Dr. G. ABBort, 2 Queen’s Road, Tunbridge
Wells, and presented by the latter. 1/2. (£.)
1514 (601) Grove Hill Road, Tunbridge Decoloration of Clay Bed in Tunbridge
Wells. Wells Sand. 1895.
4515 (602) Boyne Park, Tunbridge Decoloration of Tunbridge Wells Sand.
Wells. 1895.
1516 (606) Rusthall Common, Tun- Worn Surface of Decolorised Tunbridge
bridge Wells. Wells Sand. 1895.
1517 (607) Road from Tunbridge Honeycombing of Tunbridge Wells Sand.
Wells Common to the ‘ High 1895.
Rocks.’
1518 (612) In Copse, near road from # i fa
Tunbridge Wells Common to
‘High Rocks.’
1522 (623) Tunbridge Wells Common. Holes along Bedding Plane of Tunbridge
Wells Sand. 1896.
1526 (631) Boyne Park, Tunbridge Decolorised Sandstone. 1897.
Wells.
1527 (632) 56 + Sandstone Decolorised beneath Soil. 1897,
LANcAsHIRE.—Photographed by W. J: Harrison, 52 Claremont Road,
Handsworth, Birmingham.
1438
Beach at Grange.
1439 Grange.
Presented by W. WHITAKER.
1/2.
Boulders of Tuff and Limestone. 1896.
Glaciated Surface of Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1896.
LEICESTERSHIRE.— Photographed by T. B. Danten, Kinchley Hill, Lough-
borough. 1/4.
4419 Brazil Wood, near Mount Sorrel. Dyke of Granite in Hornfels. 1896.
Photographed by Prof. F. G. Auten, Mason College, Birmingham. 1/2.
1617 (20) Tin Meadow, near Peldar Agglomerate with large bombs. 1896.
Tor, Charnwood Forest.
1618 (21) Cragondriveto Charnwood CleavedAgglomerate (pre-Cambrian). 1896.
Lodge.
1619 (22) ” ” ” ”
1620 (23) Beacon 1:0) Sng Volcanic Ash and Hornstones. 1896.
1621 (24) Grounds of Hanging Rocks, Banded and Cleaved Hornstones of Wood-
Woodhouse Eaves, Charnwood. house Series. 1896.
1622 (25) ,, ” »
” ” ”
LincoinsHirE.— Photographed by H. Preston, the Waterworks, Grantham.
1/4.
1413
Wilsford Cutting, G.N.R. An-
caster.
Anticline in Lincolnshire Limestone. 1896.
310 REPORT—1897.
MonmoutusHire.—Photographed by H. L. P. Lows, Shirenewton Hall,
Chepstow. 1/2.
er
oO.
1544 (N) Entrance to the Severn Icicles showing water-bearing stratum.
Tunnel. 1895.
1545 (0) Shirenewton. ° é . Sink in Carboniferous Limestone, 1897.
1546 (Q) ay : 5 . Fracture of Carboniferous Limestone near
fault. 1897.
Norroix.—Photographed by W. J. Harrison, 52 Claremont Road, Hands-
worth, Birmingham. Presented by W. WuiTakeEr. 1/2.
1437 Cromer. . ‘ . . . Mr, Savin’s collection of elephant teeth.
1896.
Presented by CLEMENT REID, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W., and Copied by
AV. WN -uVV ATES.
1650 Church Tower at Eccles. . .» In 1886, when clear of sand-dunes. 1/2.
4699 | Copies of drawings in Lyell’s ‘ Principles,’
4700 ” ” ” - 4 showing condition of Tower in 1839 and
De! PA beige WMA | 1862. 118.
Photographed by A. StRAHAN, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.
4744 (35) Western chalk bluff, Trim- Boulder clay thrust under contorted chalk.
ingham. 1893.
1712 (42) Cliff at Runton. . : . Contorted drift, with included chalk
masses. 1893.
14713 (48) Cliff at Beeston. . : . ‘Augen’ structure in contorted drift. 1893.
NorTHUMBERLAND.—Photographed by E. J. Garwoop, Dryden Chambers,
Oxford Street, W.C. 1/1.
1450 Swine Den, Cullernose Bay. . . Grit and shale caught up and meta-
morphosed by Whin Sill. 1895.
1451 Snableazes Quarry, Ratcheugh. . Whin on Four-fathom Limestone, and
intruding on the shale above it. 1895.
” e ” ” ” ”
1452 ”% ”
NorrinGHAmsuHire.—Presented by W. WuiTAKER. 1/2.
413 Berry Hill, near Mansfield Wood- Lower Mottled Sandstone covered by
house. Pebble Beds of Trias.
*Photographed by Messrs. J. Burton & Sons, Leicester. 12/10.
1488 The Himlack Stone. . - . Stack of Trias cemented by Sulphate
of Barium. 1890.
1489
1490 Nottingham Castle Hill. | . Bunter Pebble Beds, 1882.
1491 ’ ” bad - - ” ” ” ”
1492 Nottingham Church Cemetery. . Caverns in Bunter Pebble Beds. 1882.
1493 4
” ” e ” ” ” ”
Photographed by Prof. F. J. Auten, Mason College, Birmingham. 1/2.
1614 (17) Berry Hill, near Mansfield Lower Mottled Sandstone. 1893.
Woodhouse.
1615 (18) Cinder Hill Brickyard, 3 Permian Marls, red and green, 1893.
miles W.N.W. of Nottingham.
1616 (19) Giltbrook, N.W. of Kim- Faults in Coal-measures and in a seam of
berley. coal. 1893.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 3811
SuropsHIrE.—Photographed by A. A. Armstronc, Denstone College,
Staffs. 1/2.
Regd.
No.
4420 (79) Ellesmere College. , .« Boulder. 1896.
Somerset.—Photographed by A. A. Armstrone, Denstone College,
Staffs. 1/2.
1421 12) Sedgemoor Battlefield and Escarpment of Rhetic Beds and Lower
Polden Hills. Lias. 1896.
4422 503) Cheddar Cliffs. . “ . Carboniferous Limestone. 1896.
1423 (505) ” ” . ° . ” ” ”
1424 (506) ” ” . . . ” ” ”
Photographed by 8. H. Reynoups, University College, Bristol. 1]2.
41585 (13) Cheddar Gorge. . - . Influence of dip in formation of cliffs;
Carboniferous Limestone. 1894.
1586 (14) ” ” . . . ” ” ” ”
1587 (15) ” ” S . ’ ” ” bh ”
4588 (16) Cheddar. . : - . Screes of Carboniferous Limestone. 1894.
Photographed by Prof. F. J. Auten, Mason College, Birmingham. 1/1.
4633 (15) Cheddar Pass. ; Erosion of Carboniferous Limestone.
4634 (14) Cheddar Pass, Pinnacle s FS Ai
Rock.
SrarrorpsHirE.—Photographed by A. A. ArmsTRoNG, Denstone College,
Staffs. 1/2.
4425 (128) Dovedale, from Izaak Carboniferous Limestone scenery. 1896.
Walton Hotel.
4428 (279) Ludchurch, N. of the Chasm .caused by landslip in Millstone
Roaches, near Leek. Grit. 1896.
4429 (280) 7 ” : ” ” ” ”
4430 (366) The Roaches, near Leek. . Escarpment of Third Rock, Millstone
Grit. 1896.
1431 (367) ” ” , ” ” ” ”
1432 (368) ” ” c ” ” ” ”
4433 (369) FA ” : ” ” ” ”
1434 (365) » ” . : ” ” ” ”
4435 (370) ” ” L. +h) ” ” ”
4610 (537) The Weaver Hills. . . Pockets in Carboniferous Limestone filled
with sand, clay, and gravel. 1897.
1611 (538) ” ” L e ” ” ” ”
14612 (539) ” ” . ” ” ” ”
Photographed by H. W. Mitnz, Barnet. 1/2.
4426 (M.11)R. Manifold, near Wetton. Swallow of River in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1896.
4427 (M.13) Thor's Cave ,, Pe Dry bed of River Manifold. 1896.
SurroLK.—Photographed by J. D. Harpy, 73 Clarence Road, Clapton, N.E.
Presented by W. Wuitaker. 1/4.
4453 South end of Covehithe Cliff, Marine denudation of Newer Pliocene
Southwold. strata; overhanging soil very marked.
Surrey.—Photographed by A. E. Murray, St. Clare, Upper Walmer,
Kent. 1/4.
4459 Lane between Shottermill and Fault in Lower Greensand. 1895.
Hindhead, Haslemere.
312 REPORI—1897,
* Photographed by D. Jounson, 10 Grecian Road, Tunbridge Wells, under
the direction of Dr. G. ABBort, and presented by him. 1/2. (£)
Regd.
No.
1519 (613) Sand Quarry, Oxted. . . Tubular ferruginous concretions in Folke-
stone Beds. 1895.
1520 (614) ” ” Us Ls ” ”. ” ”
1521 (615) ” ” . ° ” ” ” ”
Photographed by W. W. Warts, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.
1531 (250) Leith Hill . : . Lower Greensand escarpment. 1896.
1532 (251) ” - é . Lower Greensand landscape. 1896.
1533 (252) ” . Chert beds in Hythe Series. 1896.
4534 (254) Lane from Collickmoor Ironstone lumps in Hythe Series. 1896.
Farm to Dorking.
Photographed by R. Lancton Cote, Loughrigg, Sutton, Surrey. 1/4.
4644 (9) Leith Hill. . 5 ; Escarpment of Hythe Beds, Lower Green-
sand, 1891.
Sussex.—Photographed by W. J. Lewis Anzort, Seale House, The Vine,
Sevenoaks. 1/2.
1444 Hastings. . . F . Kitchen Midden. 1895.
Photographed by W. T. Fiowmrs, wnder the direction of Dr. G. ABBOTT,
2 Queen’s Road, Tunbridge Wells. 1/2. (£)
1523 (624) Eridge Rocks, Tunbridge Honeycombing along lines of false-bedding
Wells. in Tunbridge Wells Sand. 1896.
*Photographed by D. Jounson, 10 Grecian Road, Tunbridge Wells, under
Dr. Apsorr’s direction. 1/2. (£)
1524 (626) Cumberland Walk, Tun- Angular blocks of sandstone in bed of
bridge Wells. clay. 1896.
1525 (628) ” ” ” . ” ” ” ”
Photographed by A. R. Perry, 13 Wellington Place, Hastings.
Presented by P. H. Parmer. 11/8.
1646 West Quarry, West Hill, Hastings, Jointing and bedding in Ashdown Sand-_
near the Castle.
1647 ” ” ” ” ” ” »”
1648 ” ” ” ” ” » 99 ”
1649 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
Warwicx.—Photographed by W. J. Harrison, 52 Claremont Road,
Handsworth, Birmingham. Presented by W. WuiTaKeR. 1/2.
4440 California, near Birmingham. . Boulder Clay, 1892.
1441 ” ” ) ° ” ”
1442 Moseley |, ‘ _ Glacial Sands, 40 feet.
1443 Dosthill. . a 5 : . Cambrian Shales.
WESTMORELAND.—Photographed by Goprrey Binciey, Thorniehuwrst,
Headingley, Leeds. Sent through the YORKSHIRE NATURALISTS’
Union. 1/2.
1628 (3379) Sourmilk Gill, Easedale, Waterfall over Borrowdale Rocks. 1895.
Grasmere.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 313
Yorksuire.—Photographed by Mr. Auterston. Presented by
G. W. Lampiuau, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/2.
se
4260 Sewerby Cliff, near Bridlington Cliff of chalk, sea-beach, and land-wash,
‘Quay. all pre- -Glacial.
Photographed by F. N. Eaton, 1 Higher Lane, Aintree, Liverpool. 1/4.
1480 R. Doe, Ingleton. F ; . Near the Craven fault ; ancient rocks.
1481 ” ” = L s 4 ” P ” ” ”
Photographed by J. Hort Prayer, 16 Prince Arthur Road,
Hampstead, N.W. 1/2.
1535 Egton Bridge. . . . - Cleveland Dyke; two types of dolerite.
1536 ” ” . . . ° ” ” ” ”
Photographed by 8. H. Rernotps, University College, Bristol. 1/2.
‘4579 (7) Gordale Scar. ’ ; . Ravine in Carboniferous Limestone. 1889.
1580 (8) Malham Cove. . . Cliff of Carboniferous Limestone. 1889.
1581 (9) Moughton, near Settle. . Carboniferous Limestone resting uncon-
formably on Coniston Grits. 1889.
1582 (10) Pen-y-ghent, from Horton Hill of circumdenudation, Yoredale Beds
Station. and Millstone Grit. 1889.
Photographed by H. Percy, Doncaster. Sent through the YORKSHIRE
Naturauists’ Union. 1/2.
1470 (1) Railway cutting, near Marr, Anticline in Magnesian Limestone. 1897. |
W. of Doncaster.
1471 (2) ” ” ” ” ” 0 ”
1472 (3) ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
1487
Photographed by 8. W. Currriss, 6 Fieldhead Terrace, Camp Road, Leeds.
Sent through the LEEDS GEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION.
1500 Alum Pot, Ribblesdale. . . Caves and widened joints in Carboniferous
Limestone; Stalactites.
1501 Entrance to Brow Gill Cave, . re a 9
Ribblesdale.
1502 Interior of Brow Gill Cave. : ” ” 9 ”
1503 Hull Pot, Ribblesdale. . 5 ” ” ” ”
1504 Hunt Pot, ” ° . . ” ” ” ”
1505 Troller’s Cave (Hell Hole), ” ” ” ”
Wharfedale.
1506 Rowten’s Pot, Kingsdale. . 4 3 9 ” ”
1507 Goyden Pot, Nidd Valley. . : ” ” ” ”
1508 ” ” . . ” ” ” ”
1509 Gaping Gill, Ingleborough. : 0 » ” ”
1510 ” »” . . ” ” ” ”
Photographed by Goprrry Brinewry, Thornichurst, Headingley, Leeds.
Sent through the YorKsHIRE Naturauists’ Union. 1/2.
1568 (4076) Hardraw Scar, near Yoredale Rocks; Waterfall. 1897.
Hawes.
1569 (4077) » ” 99 » ”
1570 (4078) ” ” ” ”
1571 (4051) Walden Force, West Yoredale Series. 1897.
Burton Aysgarth, Mc
314 REPORT—1897.
Regd.
No.
1572 (4064) Aysgarth Force (lower), Yoredale Series. 1897.
River Ure, Wensleydale.
1629 (1767) Banks of River Nidd, Magnesian Limestone resting unconforme
below Knaresborough. ably on Millstone Grit. 1891.
14630 (3784) North side of Selwick Chalk. 1896.
Bay, Flamborough.
1631 (3749) Gristhorpe Nab, near Corallian Rocks on Oxford Clay. 1896.
Filey.
1632 (3764) Robinhood’s Bay. . . Lias. 1896.
WALES.
CARNARVONSHIRE. —Photographed by G. T. Atcuison, Corndon, Sutton,
Surrey. 1/4.
827 Yr Eifl (The Rivals), Nevin Bay. Igneous intrusions in Ordovician Rocks,
1895.
Photographed by Goprrey Binctrey, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.
Sent through the YORKSHIRE Narura.ists’ Union. 1/2.
1496 (3972) Y Foel Perfedd, near Perched Block. 1896.
Pen-y-Pass, Llanberis.
1497 (38970) +p 1896.
1498 (4000) Penrhyn Slate Quarries. . Lianberis Slates. 1896.
1499 (4001) _ 1896.
1623 (3999) Pass of Nant Ffrancon.’. Ordovician Rocks. 1896.
1624 (3943) a hs ¢ 1896.
1625 (3992) Head of Nant Ffrancon. - Fe 1896.
4626 (8950) Llyn Idwal, Twll Du, and . 1896.
the Glyders.
4627 (3958) Head of Llyn Idwal. . Storm inthe Devil’s Kitchen. 1896.
GLAMORGANSHIRE.—Photographed by A. A. ArmstronG, Denstone
College, Staffs. 1/2.
4436 (110) Mumbles Head, Swansea. Carboniferous Limestone. 1896.
Photographed by R. H. TippEman, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/2.
1697 Southerndown, near Bridgend. . Lower Lias resting unconformably on
Carboniferous Limestone. 1897.
1698 ” ” ” ” ” ”
MERIONETHSHIRE.—Photographed by G. J. Wiuuiams, Bangor. 1/2.
603c Foel Tan-y-Grisiau. . : . Granitite intrusive into Tremadoc Rocks.
Photographed by J. W. Ruxp, 17 Colebrooke Row, Islington, N. L.
1564 Dolgelly. . : = . Cambrian and Ordovician Landscape.
1565 Cwm Bychan Lake. . ; . Cambrian Rocks.
1566 The Roman Steps, Drws Ardudwy. * *
1567 ” ” ” ” ” ”
MonTGOMERYSHIRE.— Photographed by the late Rev. D. J. MacLeop,
Hope, Salop. 1/2.
703 The Roundtain from the 8. . Arenig Volcanic Rocks.
PEMBROKESHIRE.—Photographed by H. L. P. Lown, Shirenewton Hall,
Chepstow. 1/2.
1543 (A) Caldy Island, near Tenby. . Vertical Carboniferous Limestone. 1895,
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 815
RaDNoRsHIRE.—Presented by W. WuiTakER. 9/7.
meat.
0,
4559 Caban Coch, Birmingham Water- Silurian Grits.
works Scheme.
THE CHANNEL ISLANDS.
Jersey.— Photographed by 8. H. Reynouips, University College,
Bristol. 1/2.
1583 (11) South Hill Quarry, St. Lamprophyre Dyke intrusive in Grano-
Heliers. phyre. 1896.
1584 (12) Fast of Corbiére Point. Marine denudation of Granite. 1896.
Sarx.—Photographed by F. Mason Goon, Winchfield, Hants. 10/8.
412 Rocks at Port du Moulin.
ISLE OF MAN.
Photographed for Dr. A. Havitanp, Douglas. Presented by G. W.
Lampiucn. 1/1.
1461 North end of Douglas Bay. . lLonan Flags (Skiddaw Series).
1462 Prospect Hill, opposite the House Glacial Beds.
of Keys, Douglas.
1463 Poortown, West Quarry. . . Boulder of Diabase.
Photographed by 8. H. Reynoups, University College, Bristol. 1/2.
1589 (17) Langness, near Castletown. Basement Carboniferous Sandstone, rest-
ing unconformably on ‘Skiddaw Slate’ ;
both faulted. 1893.
4590 (18) Pooylvaaish, near Castle- Marine Denudation of Carboniferous
town. Limestone ; ‘reef-knolls.’ 1893.
1591 (19) Stack of Scarlett, near Sea-stack of augite-andesite. 1893.
Castletown.
4592 (20) Port Erin Harbour, North Contorted ‘ Skiddaw Slate.’ 1893.
side.
Photographed by W. W. Watts, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.
4763 (M10) Langness, near Castle- Carboniferous Conglomerate. 1897.
town.
1762 (M 23) Glen Wyllin. . F . Re-excavation of Drift-filled Valley by
Stream, 1897.
SCOTLAND.
ArRGYLL.—Photographed by Dr. R. D. Roserts, Clare College,
Cambridge. 1/4.
1464 (1) The Sgurr of Higg, E. . . Shape of Sgurr. 1896.
1465 (2) _ » from§S.. Pitchstone resting on Basalt sheets. 1896.
1466 (3) f " : . Pitchstone. 1896.
1467 (4) 7 A : . Cave at junction of Pitchstone and Basalt
with old river-gravel between. 1896.
1468 (5) f ee Spus Columnar Pitchstone. 1896
branching to N.
1469 (6) ” ” topof . » ”
* Photographed by W. Norrie, Fraserburgh. 1/1.
1529 (8) SgurrofHigg, . . . Pitchstone.
316
REPORT—1897.
Photographed by W. Lamonp Howie, Monton House, Monton,
Eccles, N.B. 14/4.
Regd
No.
1761 ( ) Beinn Nevis from Carn Mor View of mountain.
Dearg.
Banrr.—Photographed by A. S. Rep, Trinity College,
Glenalmond, N.B.
1758 (H.P. 109) W. of Gardenstown.
1/2.
Fault between Old Red Sandstone and
Metamorphic Series. 1897.
Excin.—Photographed by W. Lamonp How1s, Monton House,
Monton, Eccles.
1760 ( ) Speyside, near Fochabers.
INVERNESS.—* Photographed by W. Norris, Fraserburgh.
1530 (1) Corrie Laggan, Skye.
1/1. (E)
Earth pillars in Old Red Sandstone con-
glomerate.
1/1.
Glaciation.
* Photographed by G. P. Aprauam, Lake Road, Keswick. Presented by
W..W. Warts.
1701 So Sgurr na Gillean, Pinnacle
Route.
1702 (23) Sgurr na Gillean; the
Gendarme.
1703 (12) Glamaig, from-Sligachan. .
Pertu.—Photographed by A. R. Hunt, Southwood, Torquay.
432 Near Rumbling Bridge, Dunkeld .
M/s
Craggy form of Tertiary gabbros. 1896.
Weathering of gabbro along joints and
1896.
1896.
double basic dyke.
Cone of Granophyre.
1/2.
River-worn rocks.
IRELAND.
ANTRIM.—* Photographed by R. Wetcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Sent
through Betrast Naturauists’ Fretp Crus. 1/1.
1594 (5152) Murlough Bay.
4595 (5154) - e
1596 (5155) ” :
1651 (1175) Cooraghy Bay, Rathlin
Island.
1652 (969) The Grand Causeway.
1653 (253) Giant’s Eyeglass.
1654 (5119) Whitepark Bay. .
1655 (1173) Runabay Head and Porta-
leen Bay, Torr.
1656 (588) Cushendun.
1657 (549) Ess-na-Larach, Glenariff.
1658 (6151) Squire’s Hill, Belfast.
1659 ( ) Bay, near Kilroot. .
1660 (5118) Waterfall at Ballyrudder.
1744 (5112) Ramore Head, Portrush.
4745 (5113) Portrush. 9
1716 (5126) Shore at Golf Hotel,
Portrush
4717 (258) Portmoon. A ‘ .
Ancient Rocks, Trias, and Chalk.
1897.
Conglomerate at base of Cretaceous Sys-
tem, resting on Trias. 1897.
Excavated out of Chalk and Basalt. 1891.
Columnar and cup-and-ball Basalt. 1893.
Erosion of cliffs of columnar Basalt. 1885.
Storm action on Chalk. 1895.
Hornblende-schists and gneisses. 1889,
Caves in Old Red Conglomerate, 1886.
Gorge and waterfall in vesicular basalt.
Contact of Chalk and Basalt. 1896.
Eroded in soft Trias which forms land-
slips. 1896.
Glacial Sands and Gravels.
Lias shales intruded upon and altered by
dykes. 1895.
Lias shales cut by Tertiary dyke.
Peat under sand-dunes. 18965.
1886,
1895.
Columnar Basalt and dyke.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 317
1718 (360) The Corn Sacks, Bally- Coarsely columnar dolerite.
gally Head.
1719 (5105) Whitewell, Belfast. - Pockets of altered flints between Basalt
and Chalk, 1892.
1720 (5109) Whitehead Quarry, near Boulder Clay on glaciated surface of
Carrickfergus. Basalt and Chalk. 1896.
1721 (961) Portaleen Bay. ‘ . Schists. 1891 or 1892.
1722 (295) Curran of Larne. . . Raised beach. 1886.
1723 (5130) 4 - & . The Larne Gravels. 1889.
4724 (5122) Moylena, Antrim. . . Glacial Sands and Gravels. 1895.
1725 (5123) ” ” . . ” ” ”
Photographed by J. Sv. J. Putnurps, 20 University Square, Belfast. Sent
through Beirast Narurauists’ Fretp Cius. 1/2.
1597 (214) Tardree Quarry, S. side. . Columnar structure in rhyolite. 1895.
1598 (215) Sandy Braes. . : . Rhyolite decomposing into sand. 1895.
1599 (216) Squire’s Hill, N.of Belfast. Tabular flints, faults, and dykes in the
Chalk. 1896.
1600 (217) - A * Dyke in Chalk. 1896.
1601 (218) - % is Dyke in Chalk, including a mass of chalk.
1896.
1602 (219) Kilcoan, Island Magee. . Edge of dyke through the Brown Sands.
1896.
1603 (220) Cave Hill Quarry, Belfast, Dyke in Chalk. 1896.
W. end.
1608 (225) Crow Glen, Belfast. . Chloritic Chalk and Sands. 1897.
1609 (226) Glenoe, near Larne. ‘ . Oretaceous Rocks covered by Glacial beds
1896.
Cavan.—* Photographed by R. Wxtcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. Sent
through Betrast Naturauists’ Fietp Crus. 1/1.
4744 (5138) Blacklion. d : . Erratic of Millstone Grit.
CiarE.—* Photographed by R. Weicu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. Sent
through Betrast NaTuRALIstTs’ FieLp Cius. 1/1.
1661 (5131) The Burren district. . Terraces of Carboniferous Limestone.
1895.
1662 (5133) ” ” ” . . ” ” ” ”
1663 (5134) ,, " Tae . Limestone Talus covering terraces.
DoneGaL.—*Photographed by R. Weucu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. Sent
through Betrast NatuRALIstTs’ Fietp Cius. 1/1.
4664 (1472) Muckros ‘Market House.’ Bedding and jointing in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1890.
1665 (2212) The ‘SevenArches’ Port- Bedded quartzites. 1893.
salon.
1666 (13868) The Pullins, Ballintra. . Underground river channel in Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1894,
41726 (2271) Muslac Cliffs, Rosapenna. Contorted quartzites.
14727 (5142) Moross Ferry, Portsalon. Contorted schists. 1894.
1728 (5143) Moross Castle, Mulroy Overthrust fold with pinching out of
Bay. middle limb. 1894,
1729 (2207) Three Mouth Cave, Port- Quartzite cliffs. 1893.
salon.
4730 (2215) Port Leaca, Portsalon. . Stacks of Quartzite. 1893.
1731 (2222) Great Cave, Portsalon. . Arches of bedded Quartzite. 1893,
1732 (2246) Mulroy Bay, near Head.. Schistose rocks. 1893.
1733 (1351) Glen Columbkill. . - Metamorphic rocks and estuarine deposits.
* 1890.
318
Regd.
No.
1734 (1357) Glen Head. .
1735 (1359) The Sturrell, Glen Head.
1736 (1485) Teelin Salmon Rapids.
1737 (5136) Bundoran. »
1738 (1398) West end of Bundoran.
1739 (1399) _,,
1740 (1393) The Fairy Bridges, “Bun-
doran.
1741 (1394)
1742 (1386) The’ ’ Pullins, "Ballintra,
: Ballyshannon.
1743 (6137) Piper’s Cave, Pullins, Bal-
lintra.
Down.—Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews,
12/10. (£)
Belfast.
(1) Glen River, Newcastle De-
mesne.
1513
Photographed by J. Sr. J. Puiiuips, 20 University Square, Belfast.
through BeLrast NatTurAuists’ FreLD CLus.
4604 (221) Scrabo Quarry, Newto-
nards.
1605 (222) ,, 35 5
4606 (223) ,, * is
1607 (224) ,, » ”
*Photographed by R. Wetcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Beurast NatTuRALIsts’ FreLp Cus.
near
1667
1668
(716) The ‘ Butterlump,’
Newtonards.
(1552) The Happy Valley and
Slieve Lough Shannagh,
Mourne Mountains.
(1554) ,,
(759) Slieve Donard from Slieve
Bingian, Mourne Mountains.
(752) Castles of Kivvitar, Mourne
Mountains.
(767)
(5115) Glasdrumman, Newcastle.
(5116) ” »
(5117) ” ”
1669
1749
1750
1751
1752
1753
1754
REPORT—1897.
Cloud Banner. 1890.
Quartzite and dykes. 1889.
River erosion in schists. 1890.
Rain sculptured boulder clay. 1894.
Bedded Carboniferous rocks. 1894.
” ” ”
Sea-worn caves in Carboniferous Lime-
stone with the roofs falling in. 1892.
” ” 9” ’
Underground river channel in Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1894.
Cave with stalagmites and _ stalactites.
1894,
12 College Gardens,
Junction of Ordovician Rocks with gra-
nite; basalt dyke cut off by latter.
Sent
1/2.
Sills cut through by dyke of dolerite.
1897. 1/4.
” ” ” ”
Dolerite dyke with sills branching out
from it. 1896.
Sent through
Ty fabs
Erratic of basalt weighing about 133 tons.
1892,
Valley eroded in granite and floored with
alluvium. 1895.
Weathering of granite. 1889.
Weathering of well-jointed granite. 1890.
Weathered granite stacks. 1890.
Composite dyke. 1895.
Dusiin.—Photographed by 8. H. Reynoups, University College, Bristol.
1/2.
and lLambay
4573 (4) Portraine,
Island.
(2) Portraine. . : .
(3) is ‘ *
(4)
e Above Saltpan Bay, Lambay
Jsland.
1574
1575
1576
1577
1578
” . . . . .
Crushed Bala Beds. 1894.
Ordovician or Silurian grits and slates.
1894.
Overfolded Bala Limestone and Shale.
1894.
Bala Limestone. 1894.
Beginning of landslip. 1895.
Poca War
“= §
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 319
Photographed by R. Laneton Coin, Loughrigg, Sutton, Surrey. 1/4.
Regd.
No.
41645 (10) Coast of Howth. 3 . Cambrian Rocks. 1892.
*Photographed by R. Wetcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. Sent through
Betrast Narurauists’ Frecp Crus. 1/1.
1670 (5150) N. of Bray Harbour. . Submerged peat with tree-stumps in siti.
1896.
1745 (1603) Howth Head. , ° . Cambrian Quartzite and Slate. 1889.
Fermanacu.—* Photographed by R. Wetcn, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
1/1. Sent through Betrast Naturauists’ Fretp Cuvus.
4746 (1834) Knockmore, Enniskillen. High cliffs of Carboniferous Limestone.
1890.
GaLway.—* Photographed by R. Wextcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Sent through Betrast Narurauists’ Fietp Cius. 1/1.
4671 (5144) Benlettery, Connemara. . Jointed pre-Silurian Quartzite. 1896.
1672 (2139) Benbreen and Bengower Quartzite crags. 1895.
from Benlettery.
1673 (2124) Col between Bengower Pre-Silurian Quartzites. 1895.
and Benbreen.
1674 (2120) Summit of Benbreen. . Scarped face of Quartzites with talus at
foot. 1896.
1675 (5145) Summit of Bengower. . Scarp of pre-Silurian Quartzite. 1895.
1676 (2144) Kylemore Pass, Lake and Valley in schists and quartzite. 1894.
Diamond Mountain.
4677 (2141) Cashel Mountain, Conne- Granite and schist with basic intrusions.
mara. 1894.
1678 (2118) Derryclare Mountain, Glaciated quartzites. 1894.
from vale of Inagh.
1679 (2121) Derryclare Mountain and A: 1 -
Lough.
1680 (2123) Derryclare Lough and Pa Fr i
Ben Corbeg.
1681 (5146) Macdara’s Island. . - | ‘Block-beach’ of granite fragments.
1682 (5147) Roundstone. . ; : 1896.
1683 (5148) “2 ‘ = . Partly submerged peat beds. 1896.
1684 (2353) Dog’s Bay and Urrisbeg Glaciated granite ; beach of broken shells
Mountain, Connemara. and foraminifera. 1895.
1755 (5129) Dog’s Bay, Roundstone. . Kitchen Midden, Purpura lapillus. 1895.
1756 (5128) ,, rs a 3 " Littorina 9
4757 (5127) ,, “ oe i oe Patella e
Photographed by H. L. P. Lows, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow. 1/2.
1482 (H) Lough Muck, Connemara. . Glacier-worn rocks. 1889.
1483 (DD ,,
1484 (J) + » Mouthof . Relation of rocks, bog, and sea. 1889.
1485 (K) ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
1486 (L) Ross Row, Little Killery, Metamorphic rocks. 1889.
Connemara,
Lonponbrerry.—* Photographed by R. Wetcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Sent through Betrast Naturausts’ Frerp Cuus. 1/1.
1685 (1742) North entrance to Gorge Excavated in schists. 1896.
R. Roe, Limavady.
1686 (1744) The Dog’s Leap, R. Roe, * 9 1895.
Limavady.
320 REPORT—1897.
Regd.
No.
1687 (1749) Gorge of R. Roe, Lima- Excavated in schists. 1896.
vady.
1688 (1750) Southern entrance to ~ ,,’ a3 Ks
Gorge of R. Roe, Limavady.
1689 ( ) Glens of Banagher. Fa “4 .
1690 ( ) ” ” ” » ”
Mayo.—* Photographed by R. Wrtcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
Sent through Betrast Naturauists’ Fienp Cius. 1/1.
1691 (5170) Minaun Cliffs, Achill Flaggy micaceous quartzite, 1897.
Island.
1692 (5171),, » + Overfolded quartzites. 1897.
1693 (5172) "Cathedral Caves, Achill Marine erosion of flaggy quartzites. 1897.
Island.
1694 (5173)
1695 (5199) ‘Gulf? of Aille, Westport. ; Subterranean river in Carboniferous Lime-
14696 (5200) ,, 55 as stone, 1897.
Stico.—*Photographed by R. Wexcu, Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.
14747 (5141) Aughros Head. i . Lower Carboniferous strata. 1892.
1748 (5140) ” ” . : ” ” ” »
Rock Srructurgs, &e.
Photographed by H. Preston, Grantham. 1/4.
1414 ( ) Near Swanage, Dorset. . Chara-chert from Purbeck Beds. 1896,
Photographed by W. W. Warts, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4. (LZ)
1704 (183) Pondfield Bay, nearSwan- Chara-chert from Purbeck Beds. 1896.
age, Dorset.
1705 (184) ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
1706 (186) ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
1707 (187) ” ” ” ” ” ”
1708 (18) Spilsby, Lincoln. Sandstone.
1709 (162) Cheviots, Northumberland. Granite.
4759 (133) Mexico. . . . Perlitic structure in obsidian.
Photographed by J. J. H. TEAuu, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.
4710 Leckhampton Hill, Gloucester. . Inferior Oolite.
Photographed by A. R. Hunt, Southwold, Torquay. 1/4.
4514 Rydonball Cross, Devon. . + Radiolarian Chert (culm?) in Culm Con-
glomerate.
LIST* 2.
REPLACEMENTS.
The following photographs which were missing from the collection have
been replaced by the donors named :—
Cursnire.—C. A. Derieux, 50 Windsor Road, Tue Brook, Liverpool. 1/2.
460 Leasowe Shore. . . . .\ Blown sands showing stratification and
461 3 s9 A 2 : -Jf results of winderosioninsandhills. 1891.
462 Dove Point, Leasowe Shore . Submarine Forest-bed, general view.
463 (4) ” ” ” . ” ” ”
464 (5) ” ” ” > ” ” ”
ett i ce
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 321
DerpysuHireE.—G. Binciey, Zhorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.
Regd.
No.
477 (1293) Dovedale. , . . Erosion of Carboniferous Limestone.
483 ( ) " ; : > E
” ” ”
Dorset.—Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast. 1/4.
299 Lulworth Cove. . é - . Purbeck Beds.
LancasHire.—R. G. Broox, Wolverhampton House, St. Helen’s.
285 Ravenhead. C : . Coal-measures,including ‘Fiery Mine’ Seam.
86 ” ” ” ” ”
287 ” ” ” ” ”
288 ’ ” ” ” ”
289 ” ” ” ” 3?
290 5
” ” ” ”
This set forms a continuous series.
Yorxsuire.—G. Binauey, Thornichurst, Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.
1146 (3002) Trow Gill, Clapham. . Channel in Carboniferous Limestone.
Montcomery.—W. W. Warts, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/2. (£)
88 (12A) Corndon Hill,S.E. . . Base of the laccolite. 1885.
89 (12) ” ” ” ) = ” ” ?
90 (13) Corndon Hill, W. side. . Middle Arenig shales resting conformably
on the dolerite of the laccolite. 1885.
AYRSHIRE.—J. STewart,* 32 Boyd Street, Largs, Ayrshire. 1/4.
404 Loch Doon. - - : . Glaciated surface (rock-basin).
Kirx«cupsricut.—J. Srewart, 32 Boyd Street, Largs, Ayrshire. 1/4.
348 Ness Glen, Doon Water, near River erosion, 1891.
Dalmellington.
LANARKSHIRE.—W. W. Warts (Photographed by R. McF. Mure,*
35 Underwood, Paisley). 1/2.
33 Whiteinch, Partick, Glasgow. . Fossil Forest in Coal-measures.
34 ” ” ” B ? ’ ”
35 ” ”» ” , ‘ ”
Srirtine.—J. Srewart,* 32 Boyd Street, Largs, Ayrshire. 1/4.
405 Strathblane. 4 a ‘ . ‘Ballagan Beds,’ with fault in Limestone.
406 Spout of Ballagan, Ballagan FA FA
Glen.
Down.—Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast. 1/4.
1000 (2) Glen River, Newcastle De- Junction of Ordovician with granite and
mesne. basalt dyke cut off by latter.
FERMANAGH.—R. Wetcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1,
253 Knockmore, Enniskillen. . . Ossiferous Cave.
Rock-structures.—Dr. H. Srotrerroru, 1 Grey Friars, Chester. (L)
700 Denbighshire. . : : . Foraminifera, &c., in Denbigh (Carboni-
ferous) Limestone.
1897. ¥
322 REPORT—1897.
LIST 3.
CORRECTIONS.
Owing to loss, withdrawal, confusion of numbering, or double entry,
the following photographs have been renumbered and rearranged, or else
described in more accurate detail, generally by the kind aid of the original ,
donors. Photographs marked with these numbers in previous lists must
be cancelled.
By J. StEwart,* 32 Boyd Street, Largs. 1/2.
Regd.
No.
28 Bute, Cumbrae; the Lion Rock. Trap Dyke (formerly 353).
By R. Wetcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.
50 Antrim, Whitepark Bay. . . Arch of Chalk.
51 Fermanagh. Knockmore Bone (Formerly 958a).
Cave.
By R. G. Broox, Wolverhampton House, St. Helen’s. 1/1.
52 Denbigh. Llandulas, near Aber- Carboniferous Limestone (formerly 888).
gele.
57 Montgomery, Pistyll Rhaiadr. . Waterfall over Ordovician Rocks (formerly
889).
By A. O. Watker, Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay. 1/2.
53 Denbigh, Cefn Beuno, Vale of Caves.
Clwyd.
By A. E. Nicuots, 49 Reginald Terrace, Leeds. 1/2.
159 (G34) York, Garforth. : . Magnesian Limestone. 1889.
160 (G 34a) ,, i : : : 5 = 5)
161 (G36a),, S. Milford. “. 4 is 3
162 (G 36) ” ” “ ” ” ”
163 (G30b),, Garforth. : on
164 (G 30a) ,, » ” ” »
By WitBert. Goopcewi1p, 2 Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh. 1/2.
191 Edinburgh, Salisbury Craigs. . Dolerite.
By C. J. Watson, Alton Cottage, Bottville Road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham. 1/1.
319 Carnarvon, Blaen-y-nant, Llan- Perched Blocks on a glaciated surface.
beris.
321 4 Y Foel Perfedd, Llan- i, # Ai 5,
beris.
320 ” ” ” ” Perched Block.
322 ae MoorS.ofCapelCurig. Glaciated Rocks.
323 ” ” ” 4) Roche moutonnée.
324 ce W.side,CwmTryfaen. Large perched block on glaciated surface.
325 » Trefriew. - . Glaciated surface.
By J. Stewart,* 32 Boyd Street, Largs. 1/2.
404 Ayr, Loch Doon. . . . Glaciated surface (rock-basin) (formerly
350)
405 Stirling, Strathblane. . : - Ballagan Beds, with fault (formerly 351).
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL. INTEREST. 323
By A. R. Hunt, Southwood, Torquay.
407 Devon, Kent’s Cavern. ‘ . 5 Pecten shells cemented together. 6/6.
429 » Lower Dunscombe Quarry, Upper Devonian rocks. 1/1.
Chudleigh.
432 Perth, Rumbling Bridge, Dun- River erosion. 1/2.
keld.
By C. A. Derieux, 50 Windsor Road, Tue Brook, Liverpool. 1/2.
460 Leasowe Shore. . : : . Bedding and wind-action in sand-dunes.
461 ” ” bd i e s ” thd ” ” ”
462 Dove Point, Leasowe. . ° . Submerged Forest-bed ; general view.
463 ” ” ” . D . ” »” ”
464 ” ” ” . ° . ” ” ”
465 29 ” ” * ° . ” ” ”
466 ” ” ” : ° . ” ” ”
467 7 ; 33 - - , a of tree 2 feet in
diameter.
By Govrrey Bineiey, Thorniehurst, Headingley. 1/2.
468 (1243) Derby, Scarthin Nick,Mat- Carboniferous Limestone.
lock Bath. +
469 (1319) ,, Dovedale . - = »
470 (1329) _,, IE OL i a 4
471 (1301) ,, High Tor, Matlock. Fr 3
472 (1320) ,, Dovedale. 2 : cm &
473 (1830) ” ” ” ”
474 (1325) ,, ”
475 (1297) ,, Chee Tor, Miller’s Pr, a
Dale.
476 (1298) ,, Chee Dale. . ‘ oe as
ATT (1293) ,, Dovedale. u 3
478 (1299) , CheeDale . = ‘5 a
479 (1313) ,, Monsal Dale. . , iz 5
480 (1326) ,, Pillar Rock, Dove- 3 ay
dale.
481 (1300) ,, Ashwood Dale. 3 xn ; a
482 (1322) ,, Pillar Rock, Dove- i 3
dale.
483 » Dovedale. yi . ” 599
By H. J. Garwoop, Dryden Chambers, Oxford Street, W.C. 1/1.
900 Durham, Parson Byers’ Quarry, Main Limestone covered by shale.
Stanton-in-Weardale. (formerly 621a).
By Messrs. Stewart & Co., *Photographers, Myrtle Street, Glasgow. 1/1.
939 Lanark, Partick, Glasgow. . - Fossil forest in Coal-measures, Stigma-
rian roots and stems.
TS L.A
THE DUPLICATE (LOAN) COLLECTION.
The numbers placed after the description of the photograph refer to
the list of names and addresses given at the end. The first number refers
to the photographer who is also the donor in most cases. When he is
not so the donor is indicated by a second number.
; Y2
324 REPORT—1897,.
Full localities and descriptions are given in present and previous lists
under the numbers.
This collection is arranged geologically, and from time to time the less
perfect and less typical photographs will be removed and better ones sub-
stituted as they are given. Those laid aside can always be seen, sent, or
returned by request.
* Indicates that prints and slides may be bought from the photographer.
P. indicates prints. §. indicates slides.
es - Different Rocks.
1763 Conglomerate. é Carboniferous, Langness, Isle of Man. 1 P.
1708 Sandstone. . , c . Neocomian, Spilsby, Lincoln. 1 P.
1709 Granite. . ; ‘ : . Cheviots. 1 P.
576 Granite. . a ‘ : . Dewerstone, Dartmoor. 6 8.
863 Limestone. 6 ; ; . Carboniferous, Dinder Wood, Mendips. 2P.
137 * z 5 - : n Great Orme’s Head. 35.
700 6 : : F 3 Denbigh. 4P.8.
163 Magnesian Limestone. . i} Permian, Garforth. 5 P.
1282 Hornstones. . ; : . Pre-Cambrian, Charnwood Forest. 1 P. 8.
Rock-Structwres.
Bedding.
295 Coloured Marls. : Trias, Tewkesbury. 7 P.
1528 Limestones and ‘Broken Beds.’ Purbeck, Lulworth. 8 P.
960 Limestonesand shales. . . Carboniferous, Muckros Head. 9 P.*
4199 Limestone. . Malbam Cove. 35.
1352 Calcareous Grits on Oxford Gristhor pe Cliff. 3 P.
Clay.
False-bedding.
4563 Sandstone. p : F . ‘Trias, Hilbre Island, Cheshire. 10 P. S.
4 x : : - . The Sphinx, Egypt. 11 P.
Fossils in Rocks.
4710 Limestone, weathered. . Inferior Oolite, above Pea Grit, Leckhampton
Hill’ Peer; 8:
965 ‘Trees in Peat bog. . 5 . Armoy, Antrim. 9 P.*
467 Trees in Submerged Forest. . Leasowe, Cheshire. 10 P. 8S.
454 Tree in Coal-measures. . . Castleford, Yorkshire. 5 P.
155 ” ” « * ” ” 5 8.
33 A iy é . Partick, Glasgow. 42*1P.S
35 ” ” ” ” 49* i P,
34 a rt A 3 3 “6 42* 18,
939 Trees cS k i + AT* 1P.
Concretions.
523 ‘ Doggers’ in sandstone. . Corallian, Scarborough. 5 P.
Evidences of Earth-movement.
Elevation and Submergence.
424 Raised beach. “ - . On Devonian rocks, Hope’s Nose, Torquay.
13 P.
465 Submerged forest. 5 - Leasowe Shore, Cheshire. 10P.S.
Folding and Contortion.
369 Anticline. ; 6 . Carboniferous Limestone, Sedbergh 14 P.
879 3 - 5 5 i f a - Chepstow. 41 P.
eae s:.
839
963
434
57
1084
1569
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 325
Anticline. A ¢ - . Carboniferous Limestone, Draughton, York-
shire. 15 P.
Anticlines and Syncline. “Bi “ oF 15' P.
Contortion. . : : . Purbeck rocks, Stair Cove, Lulworth. 3 P.
” ° ° : . ” ” ” ” 358.
“i 3 f “ F near view. 6 §.
a : : ; ; Carboniferous ‘rocks, Hartland. 68.
as . : : . Ordovician rocks, Hope, Salop. 1P.S8.
Contortion. . ‘ F . Elland flagstones, Armley, Yorkshire. 45 P.
Overfolding. . ‘ . . Ancient Quartzite, Minaun Head, Achill.
(i) Ef
“ , A Ordovician rocks, Portraine, Dublin. 11 P.8.
Fold” with middle limb Mulroy Bay, Donegal. 9 P.
pinched out.
Faulting.
Trough fault. . : - . Coal-measures with coal-seam near Kimber-
ley, Notts. 2 P.
Fault. . f J ; . Gannister, Rowley’s Quarry, Leeds. 3 P.
Brecciation.
‘ Breccia-gash,’ Magnesian Marsden, Durham, 16 P.*
Limestone.
‘Crush conglomerate.’ . . Isleof Man. 1 P.
Jointing.
Flagstones, worn into cave Old Red Sandstone, Holburn Head, Caith-
and arch. ness. 17 P.*
Devonian rocks. . - . Castle Rock, Lynton, Devon. 38.
Carboniferous Limestone, Near Grange, Lancashire. 3 P.S.
‘Grikes.’
” »” . 3 ie Ss.
Hunt Pot, Ribblesdale. 188.
In ‘the last three cases the joints are weathering into caves.
Unconformity.
Raised beach on Devonian Hope’s Nose, Devon. 13 P.
rocks.
Llandovery on Arenig rocks. . Hope Dingle, Salop. 1 P. 8.
Carboniferous onancientrocks. Thornton Force, Ingleton. 3 P. 8.
Magnesian Limestone on Mill- Knaresborough. ° 3 P.
stone grit. . :
Trias resting on pre- -Cambrian Woodhouse Eaves, Charnwood Forest. 1 P_S.
slates.
Carboniferous Limestone on Moughton, near Settle. 11P.S.
Ordovician rocks.
Lias on Carboniferous Lime- Southerdown, Glamorgan. 43 P.
stone.
Cretaceous conglomerate on Murlough Bay, Antrim. 9 P.*
Trias.
Surface Agencies; Denudation and Deposit.
Running Water; streams.
Storm Gorge. . - : . Langtoft, near Driffield. 19 P.
Pot-hole in stream. 5 . Glenariff, Antrim. 9 P. 8.*
3 Ar é . Rumbling Bridge, Dunkeld. 13 P.
Waterfail. F i é . Pistyll Rhaiadr, Montgomeryshire. 20 P.
; , : 5 . Rocky Valley, Tintagel. 35.
HH over Yoredale Rocks. Hardraw Scar, Hawes, Yorkshire. 3 P.
REPORT—1897.
Caverns.
Weathered joints in Carboni- Near Grange, Lancashire. 3 P. S.
ferous Limestone.
Caves. . - Cae Gwyn, Vale of Clwyd. 4 P.
Interior of Brow Gill Cave. . Ribblesdale. 18S.
Stalactites. . : - . Gaping Gill, Ingleborough. 18 §.
. . : 5 18 §.
Pipe in Chalk. A : . Under Thanet Beds, Elham Valley Railway.
2LP:
Icicles, showing line of springs. Severn Tunnel, Monmouth. 41 P.
Gravel, &c., in pocketin Carbo- Weaver Hills, Staffs. 22 P.
niferous Limestone.
Wind Action.
Stack of Keuper Sandstone Peakstones Rock, near Alton, Staffs. 22 P.
cemented by Barytes.
Millstone Grit. : - . Brimham Rocks, Harrogate. 3 P.
” ¢ b) e ” ” 3 ey
” : . : 38.
Tunbridge Wells Sand. . - The Toad’ Rock, Tunbridge Wells: § 3 Ps
Blown sand, stratified. . . Leasowe, Cheshire. LOSES
” ” . . 10 P.
Sand-dunes advancing. . . Church Tower, Eccles, Norfolk. 44 P.
” ” ° . ” ” ” IP:
” ” = bet ” Ped ” 1 iP
Action of Rain.
Alltdearg Burn, Fochabers, Earth pillars in Old Red Sandstone conglome-
Elgin. rate. 46 P.
” ” ” 9” 46 P.
” ” ” ” 46 1 8S.
” ” ” ” 46 Pp Ss.
” ” ” cry 46 P:
” ” ” 9 46 iP
” ” ” ? 46 1
Frost and Weathering.
Screes of felsite. . . Head of Glencorse, Edinburgh. 23 P.
’ ” s . . 23 Ee
Fallen blocks on mountain side. Tyn-y-wern, Montgomery. 20 P.
Denudation of granite. . . Happy Valley, Mourne Mountains. 9 P.*
Glaciation; Glaciated Surfaces.
Scratched surface. . rs . Loch Doon, Ayrshire. 24 P.*
Trefriew, Carnarvon. 7 P.
Roche moutonnée. . . Capel Curig, Carnarvon. 7 5.
Roches moutonnées. 3 : + - < TEs
Glaciated rocks. e i . Cwm Glas, Snowdon. 25 P.S8.
Roche moutonnée. . . Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh. 23 P
Undercutting by glaciation. . Blackford Hills, Edinburgh. 23 P.
Perched blocks on smoothed Pass of Llanberis. 7 P.
surfaces.
Boulder on glaciated surface. Cwm Tryfaen, Carnarvon. 7 P. S.
Perched block on glaciated Pass of Llanberis. 3 P.
surface.
Glaciation ; Erratic and Perched Blocks.
Perched block. : - . Near Pen-y-Pass, Llanberis, Y Foel Perfedd.
3 P:
” ” . « . e ” ” ” 7 P.
”? 3) e . . ” ” » 1 8.
a
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 327
Erraticof Mount Sorrel granite. Aylestone, Leicester, 26, 27 P.*
» 5, Mourne granite. . Cloughmore, Rostrevor, Down. 9 P. S.*
» onCarboniferousLime- Near Grange, Lancashire. 3 P.S.
stone.
” ” ” ” ” ” 3 i S.
a OL os Great Orme’s Head. 3P.S.
Glaciation—Boulder Clays and Contorted Drifts.
Glaciated boulder in clay. . Near Crieff, Perth. 28 P.
Characteristic denudation of
boulder clay. . - . Filey. 3P.
” ” ” 3 8.
Contorted glacial drift. . : Sherringham, Norfolk. _ 29 P.
Moraine cut through by river. Bloody Bridge, Newcastle, Down, 32 P. S.
Marine Action ; Denudation.
Tunnel eroded by sea. , . Devil’s Cave, Elie, Fife. 23 P.
” ” ” . . ” ” ” 23 P.
Erosion along joints. . . Bird’s Island, Caithness. 17 P.*
Arch of erosion. e * . Carsaig Arches, Mull. 17 P.*
Sea-cirques. . . ; . Filey, Yorkshire. 3 P.
Caves. . ° 5 - . Flamborough. 3 P.
Stacks. . a SE,
Far advanced marine work on :
chalk. : 5 > : 3 P.
Marine action. A - : Thornwick Bay, Flamborough. 3S.
Sea stacks. . . Boscastle, Devon. 68S.
Sixty years’ denudation. | . Marino, Holywood, Down. 32 P.S.
Marine Action ; Landslips.
Cliff falls. : 6 » Shakespeare Cliff, Dover (before great fall,
1897). 30 P.
os . 4 ° . Shakespeare Cliff, Dover (after great fall).
30 P.
Groin bent by landslipin 1893. Sandgate. 30 P.
Wrecked house. - - 30 P.
Floor of house fractured, : $5 30 P.
Speeton Clay slipping. . . Speeton, Yorkshire. 3 P.
Volcanic and Plutonic Rocks.
Rock Types and Relations, .
Agglomerate. . * . . Charnwood, Leicester. 1 P.S.
: . South side Artbur’s Seat, Edinburgh. 23 P,
Tufts, ‘weathered. 4 . Burntisland, Fife. 23 P.
Lava sheets and ash beds, &e. Pleaskin Head, Antrim. 9 P.*
PA - Down Hill, Londonderry. 32 P.
Brecciated Lava - . East of Kinghorn, Fife. 23 P.
Basalt dyke, through chalk. . Cave Hill, Belfast. 9 P. S.*
Granite dyke. . . Brazil Wood, Charnwood. 1PS.
Veins of granite in slate. - Foel Tan- y-Grisiau, Merioneth. 31 P,
Two intersecting dykes of Macedon Point, Down. 32 P. S.
basalt in Trias.
North Stardyke. . . Ballycastle, Antrim. 32 P.
Dyke and branching sill of Scrabo Hill, Down. 32 P.
basalt.
Branching sillofbasaltin Trias. Scrabo Hill, Down. 32 P.
Intrusive sills of basalt. . - Whitewell, Belfast. 9 P.*
Dolerite sillin Tremadoc rocks. Criccieth,Carnarvon. 25 P. S.
Doleritesills oi) ie: se » Salisbury Craigs, Edinburgh. 23 P.
978
1147
1319
1435
1432
1315
1421
1085
1561
1191
1232
1122
1585
REPORT—1 897.
Dolerite sill, including shale .
Laccolite of dolerite. :
_ base of, resting on
shales.
” . ” ”
Laccolite, summit of, with
shales resting on it and a
small easement dyke.
Volcanic ‘ neck.’
Intrusive felsite.
” ” e is c
Granite cutting off Ordovician
Rocks which are penetrated
by a dyke of dolerite.
Dolerite dyke cutting through
chalk and including patches
of it.
Composite dyke.
” ”
Columnar structure. ‘ 2
Salisbury Craigs, Edinburgh. 23 P.
Fair Head, Antrim. 9 P. S.*
Corndon, Montgomery. 1P.
” i ee
” ” 1 ie
Tieveragh Hill, Cushendall. 9 P.*
Glencorse, Edinburgh. 23 P.
” ” 23 RP:
Glen River, Down. 32 P.
Squire’s Hill, Antrim. 33 P.
Glasdrumman, Newcastle, Down. 9 P.*
” ” . ” DES
” ” ” 9 pe
Rock-structures.
Giant’s Causeway. 9 P.*
‘Giant’s Fan.’ 9 P.*
” ”
” ”
Cup and ball structure. . :
Columnar diorite in Cambrian.
or diabase.
5 rhyolite.
Radiating columns.
Nodular porphyroid.
Perlitic structure.
Spheroidal structure.
Denudation of Tertiary Basalt,
&e.
Denudation of Carboniferous
Limestone.
Aymestry Limestone.
Millstone Grit.
” ”
hS:*
oe
‘ The Honeycomb.’
‘Giant's Gateway.’
” ”
Atherstone. (flee
Welshpool. 1 P.
Tardree, Antrim. 33 P.
The Spindle Rock, St. Andrews. 35.
High Sharpley, Charnwood. 1P.S.
Mexico. 1 P.
Ballengeich, Stirling. 34 P.
Origin of Surface Features.
Valleys.
Glenariff, Antrim. 9 P.*
Trow Gill, Clapham. 3 P.
Escarpments.
Weo (View) Edge, Salop. 29 P.
The Roaches, Staffs, 22 P. 8.
22 P.
” ” ¢ . . °
Carboniferous and igneous
rocks on Cambrian and
Uriconian Rocks.
Rheetic and Lower Lias.
Wrekin, Salop. "99 ice
Sedgemoor and Polden Hills, Somerset. 228.
Influence of structure planes.
Joints governing denudation.
” ” ”
” ” ”
and forming caves.
Bedding and joints influencing
formation of caves.
” ” ”
Dip influencing valley contours.
Tintagel. 3 P.
Hilbre Island, Cheshire.
Criccieth. 25 P.S8.
10 P.
Criccieth. 25 P.5.
Filey. 3 P.
Cheddar,-Somerset- 11 P.
13
714
1274
981
1645
603
436
726
801
474
864
1422
1423
135
512
580
1113
405
717
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.
Ancient Surface Features.
Perched Boulders.
Boulder resting on
limestone pedestal.
” ” ”
denuded Norber.
Drift-filled Valleys.
In chalk now being re-excavat-
ed by the sea.
In ‘Skiddaw Slate’ being re-
excavated by stream of
Glen Wyllin.
3 P.
+ 3P.8
Flamborough. 3P.5
Isle of Man. 1P.5.
Trias-filled Valleys.
In slates.
In Bardon Rock,
crush-planes.
along old
Swithland Wood, Charnwood.
Bardon, Charnwood. 1 PS
Dry Valleys and Caverns.
In Mountain Limestone.
Malham and Gordale. 3P.5
3 1E
T
Dry Waterfall i 3P.8 .
Cheddar Gorge. 2 P.
Buried Chiffs and Taluses.
Pre-Glacial .
Chalk cliff and scree covered by
Tertiary Basalts.
Sewerby Cliff, Bridlington Quay.
Cave Hill, Belfast. 9 P.*
Characteristic Rocks and Landscapes.
Pre-Paleozoic.
Archzan Gneisses, &c.
” ”
Pre-Cambrian
rate.’
Ancient rocks covered by Tertiary
Basalts.
‘ Slate-agglome-
Whitenhead, Sutherland. 17 P.*
iP
Bradgate Park, Charnwood. 1P.8
Murlough Bay, Antrim. 9 5.*
Paleozoic. .
Cambrian slates, &c. :
Tremadoc Slates intruded upon
by granitite. -
Wenlock Limestone.
Old Red Sandstone lavas and
tufts.
Tilted Old Red Sandstone. .
Carboniferous Limestone. .
brecciated.
and Volca-
nic Rocks.
Yoredale Beds.
Ballagan Beds. :
Carboniferous Volcanic Rocks.
Howth, Dublin. 37 P.
Foel Tan-y-Grisiau, Merioneth.
Wenlock Edge, Salop.
Pentland Hills.. 23 P.
Ps.
Crieff and Comrie Railway.
Dovedale, Derbyshire. 3 P.
329
35, 36 P.
31 P.
28 P.
Dinder Wood, Mendip Hills. 25.
Cheddar, Somerset. 22 P.
22 8.
Great Orme’s "Head, Llandudno.
Near Gargrave. 5 P.
Brent Tor, Devon. 68.
Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire. 38 P.
Strathblane, Stirling. 24 P.*
West of Elie, Fife. 23 P.
3 P.S8.
14.
15.
16.
I
REPORT—1897.
Carboniferous Trachyte. . - Bass Rock, Haddington. 23 P.
Lavas and tuffs. . Burntisland, Fife. 23 P.
Magnesian Limestone. : . Garforth. 5 P.
” ” . - . a5 5P
” ” : : . §. Milford, 5 P.
” ” . . ° ” 5 Tes
35 As - .. Garforth). 5265
Mesozoic.
Dolomitic Conglomerate.
Rock-salt in Trias. .
Keuper conglomerate. :
Rhetic Beds. : Lavernock. 7 P.
Corallian Rocks on Oxford Clay. Gristhorpe Cliff, Yorkshire.
Croscombe Hills, Somerset.
PP:
Witton Hall, Cheshire. $8,* 1 P.
Peakstones Rock, Staffs. 22 P.
3 P.
Filey Brigg, Yorkshire. 35.
Portland Stone and Cherts.
Contorted Purbeck Rocks. . . Stair Cove, Lulworth. 6S.
Wealden Strata. - - . Brightstone, Isle of Wight. 40 P.
Lower Greensand Cherts. Leith Hill, Surrey. 1P.S.
Upper Chalk. . 4 . St. Margaret’s Bay, Kent. 30 P.
Chalk and Boulder Clay. = . Flamborough. 3 P.
Chalk cliff. A The ‘ Giant’s Head,’ Portrush. 3 P.
Tabular flints, faults, and dykesin in Squire’s Hill, Belfast. 33P.S.
chalk.
Cainozoic.
Thanet Beds on Chalk. ° Elham Valley, Kent. 21 P.
Bed of flints on Chalk altered by Cave Hill, Belfast. 9 S.*
Basalt sheets.
Norwich Crag on Chalk. -
Boulder Clay on Corallian Rocks. Filey, Yorkshire. 3 P.
Implementiferous Gravel. Near Farnham, Surrey. 39 P.
Ossiferous Cavern. . ¢ - Knockmore, Fermanagh. 9 P.*
Submerged Forest. : . Leasowe Shore, Cheshire. 10 P.
Kitchen Midden. Purpura Roundstone, Galway. 9 P.*
lapillus.
i a Littorina. Roundstone, Galway. 9 P*.
“A . Patella Roundstone, Galway. 9 P.*
vulgata.
Names and Addresses of Donors and Photographer
. Professor W. W. Watts, Mason College, Birmingham
. Professor F. J. Allen, Mason College, Birmingham
Godfrey Bingley, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds
Dr. H. Stolterfoth, 1 Grey Friars, Chester .
. A. E. Nichols, 49 Reginald Terrace, Leeds
. The late J. J. Cole
C. J. Watson, Alton Cottage, B Bottville Road, "Acock’s Green,
Birmingham ‘
. A. Strahan, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. : c °
. R. Welch, Lonsdale Street, Belfast . é
. C. A. Defieux, 50 Windsor Road, Tue Brook, Liverpool
. S. H. Reynolds, University College, Bristol .
. J. J. H. Teall, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. C
. A. R. Hunt, Southwood, Torquay
H. Richardson, Sedbergh School, Yorkshire :
A. 8. Reid, Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perth, N.B. :
G. Hingley, Cullercoats School, near Tynemouth 5 5 -
W. Norrie, 21 Cross Street, Fraserburgh , . e = a
Tilly Whim, Swanage, 39 P.
Thorpe, near Norwich. 29 P.
"Ss.
bo
oe Ce es ed lo 2)
| or Smt
| | | | | Hwee i) me Oo
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 331
18. S. W. Cuttriss, 6 Fieldhead Terrace, Camp Road Leeds
19. W. Grantham, 54 Gordon Street, Scarborough . .
20. R. G. Brook, Wolverhampton House, St. Helen’s
21. Prof. E. W. Reid, University College, Dundee .
22. A. A. Armstrong, Denstone&College, Staffs .
23. W. Goodchild, 2 Dalhousie "Terrace, Edinburgh
24. J. Stewart, 32 Boyd Street, Largs, Ayrshire
25. G. T. Atchison, Corndon, Sutton, Surrey
26. The late J. Plant
27. Messrs. Burton & Sons, Photographers, Leicester
28. H. Coates, Pitcullen House, Perth
29. H, Preston, The Waterworks, Grantham .
30. Captain 8. G. McDakin, 15 The Esplanade, Dover
31. G. J. Williams, Bangor, N. Wales :
32. Miss M. K. Andrews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast
33. J. St. J. Phillips, 20 University Square, Belfast
34. R. Kidston, 24 Victoria Place, Stirling
35. Mr. Allerston
36. G. W. Lamplugh, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W.
37. R. Langton Cole, Loughrigg, Sutton, Surrey
38. J. Birtles, Legh House, Warrington .
39. H. W. Monckton, 10 King’s Bench Walk, Temple, E. C. :
40. A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford .
41. H. L. P. Lowe, Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow :
42. R. McF. Mure, 35 Underwood, Paisley, cary
43. R. H. Tiddeman, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W.
44, Clement Reid, 28 Jermyn Street,S.W.
45. J. E. Bedford, Arncliffe, Shire Oak Road, Leeds
46. W. Lamond Howie, Monton House, Monton, Eccles .
47. J. R. Stewart, Violet Grove House, St. Gecrge’s Road, Glasgow
_
HK pdonQopwe |
SS
ee —"
BQ eR REN WRP NR RE RF HF WwWonnwarrn
= fet xo lela Sagal) 1 LI
bo
e
oS
LIST 5.
REFERENCE List OF PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING GEOLOGICAL
Papers AND Memoirs.
Geologists’ Association. ‘ Proceedings.’ Vol. XIII. (1893-94), figs. 2, 5and
6. Report of Excursion to Norwich, dc. By C. Rei and others.
From negatives by A. Strahan.
Regd.
No.
4744 Western Chalk Bluff, Triming- Contorted Chalk under Drift.
ham.
4712 Cliff at Runton. Contorted Drift with Chalk.
1713 Cliff at Beeston. ‘ Augen’ structure in contorted Drift.
Vol. XIV. (1895-96), p. 310. Plate XI., A and B. Excursion to Swanage,
dc. By H. W. Moncxton and others. From negatives by H. W.
Monckton.
1415 Tilly Whim ‘Caves, Swanage. Portland Stone and Chert Beds.
1418 Durlston Head. Base of Purbeck Beds resting on Portland
Stone.
Geological Magazine. Dec. IV., Vol. III., 1896, page 18. Paper
on Perlitic Structure. By W. W. Warts. From negative by
W. W. Warts.
1759 Perlitic structure inobsidian, Mexico.
332 REPORT—1897.
Dec. IV., Vol. IV. (1897), page 31, de. Plates II., III., IV. Paper on
British Geological Photographs. By W. W. Warts. From negatives
by Miss ANDREws, G. Bineuey, and E. J. GARwoop.
Regd.
No.
541a Pump at Marino, Down. Encroachment by Sea.
4340 Flamborough Head. Drift-filled Valley in Chalk.
890, 891 Cullernose, Northumber- Intrusive character of Whin Sill.
land.
Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. By Sir A. Gert, 1897. Vol. IL.,
Figs. 316, 331, 333. From Negatives by R. Wetcu and G. P.
ABRAHAM.
245 Fair Head, Antrim . i . Intrusive mass of Columnar Dolerite.
41701 Sgurr na Gillean, Skye ‘ . Gabbro.
1702 The Gendarme, Sgurr na Gillean Gabbro and Dykes of Dolerite.
The Practical Photographer, Vol.. VIII., 1897. No. 88, pp. 113-115.
Paper on ‘Geological Photographs and Photographic Surveys.’ From
negatives by G. BincLEy and A. STRAHAN.
4629 Knaresborough . : & . Magnesian Limestone on Millstone Grit.
1381 Norber : . Perched Boulder.
4135 Thornwick Bay, Flamborough . Chalk and Boulder Clay.
4528 Near Lulworth . c . Purbeck Beds.
Journal Scottish Mountaineering Club. From negative by W. Lamonp
Howie.
1761 Ben Nevis from Carn Mor Dearg.
Open-air Studies. By Prof. G. A. J. Cote. 1895. From negatives by
the late J. J. Coe,
582 Stair Cove, Lulworth. Z . Contorted Purbeck Rocks. Pl. XI.
588 Cwm Glas Moraine, Carnarvon- Frontispiece.
shire.
From negatives by R. WELcH.
1724 Sands and Gravels, Moylena, Pl. III.
Antrim.
982 Murlough Bay, Antrim. . seu e leave
236 The Giant’s Fan, Antrim. . = el VT
973 Cave Hill, Belfast. . : . Dykein Chalk. Pl. VII.
251 Slieve Bingian, Down. . Granite. Pl. IX.
963 Glenariff, Antrim. . Pot-hole in stream. Fig. 1.
4751 Castles of Kivvitar, Mourne Granite. Fig. 16.
Mountains.
Trish Naturalist. From negatives by Miss M. K. ANDREWs.
541a Old pump, Cultra. F i weVol agl893e “Pla:
534 Dykes, Macedon Point. . Siliter ay vase |
558 North Star Dyke, Ballycastle, . f Vl Hi 1804 Fl. IV. Ses. T ane 2,
From negatives by R. WELCH.
1726 Contorted Quartzite,Rosapenna, Vol. ili. 1894. Pl. V.
Donegal.
1679 Derryclare Lake and Mountain, Vol. iv. 1895. Pl. IV.
Connemara.
ON THE CRETACEOUS FOSSILS IN ABERDEENSHIRE. 300
Cretaceous Fossils in Aberdeenshire.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of T. F. Jamieson (Chairman), A. J. JUKES Browne, and JOHN
MILNE (Secretary), appointed to ascertain the Age and Relation of
the Rocks in which Secondary Fossils have been found near Moreseat,
Aberdeenshire.
APPENDIX.— On the Fossils collected at Moreseat, by A. J. JOKES BROWNE, page 337
MoreseEat is in the parish of Cruden, in the east of Aberdeenshire. It
lies at an elevation of 300 feet above sea-level, and the surface of the
ground slopes to the sea at Cruden Bay, distant five miles to the south.
On the north the ground rises gradually, reaching the height of 450 feet
above sea in Torhendry Ridge, which is strewn with chalk-flints in great
abundance.
Previous Investigations.—Geologists are indebted to Dr. William
Ferguson of Kinmundy for the earliest notices of Greensand at Moreseat.
In 1839 an excavation 9 feet deep was made for the water-wheel of a mill,
anda drainaway from it,on the south side of the farm steading, a little below
the 300-feet level. The excavation was made in clay, and in it were
found layers of sandstone containing many fossils. The Rev. J. Johnstone,
Belhelvie, who lived at Moreseat at the time, says that the discovery excited
great interest, and that Moreseat was visited by scientific men, amongst
others by Professor Knight of Marischal College and University, Aberdeen,
who communicated with Dr. Thomson of Glasgow University on the
subject, and informed his class of 1839-40 that Greensand had been
discovered at Moreseat. Dr. Ferguson was a student in this class, and
thus had his attention directed to the Moreseat fossils from the first.
Hundreds of loads of clay were removed from the excavation, and many
fossils were collected ; but when the wheel was put in and built up, and
the drain was covered up, there remained no trace of the interesting
discovery.
‘In 1849, on making a deep ditch alongside a road to the north of the
farm steading, and a little above the 300-feet level, the same clay, sand-
stone, and fossils were met with. Dr. Ferguson sent a notice to the
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.! Next year he visited the newly-made
ditch, and sent an account of the original discovery and a description of
what he saw to the ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’? Dr. Ferguson’s description
of what he saw is quoted here, because it exactly coincides with what was
seen in subsequent excavations. ‘An excavation about 7 feet in depth
was made, and the section presented irregular layers of unctuous clay, of
a dark brown colour and soapy feel, and so tough and adhesive as to render
it a work of considerable labour to dig it out. Interstratified with this
clay were thin layers of a compact sandstone. These layers of sandstone
were not continuous; they graduated into each other, thinned out, dis-
appeared, and reappeared most confusedly. They were very much inclined,
dipping towards the south. The whole mass had much the appearance of
having been drifted ; although from the nature of the matrix, and the
state of preservation in which the shells were found, it did not appear as
if it could have been drifted far. The sandstone was tough and soft when
1 See Proceedings of the Society, vol. iii, 1849. 2 See vol. xxxvii. 1850,
334 REPORT—1897.
newly dug, but hardened on exposure to the air and became light-coloured
in drying. When wet, it presented a mottled appearance, the colour being
greenish ; when dry, this almost disappeared.’
In 1856 a collection of fossils from Moreseat, made by Dr. Ferguson,
was examined by Mr. J. W. Salter, of the Museum of Practical Geology,
Jermyn Street, London, and Mr. W. H. Baily ; and a list of twenty
specimens named by them was presented to the Geological Society of
London, and published next year in the Quarterly Journal of the Society,
along with a note by Dr. Ferguson. Types of these fossils are preserved in
the Museum. Mr. Salter regarded the Moreseat fossils as an indication,
in the near neighbourhood, of Upper Greensand in situ.
In the memoir descriptive of the sheet of the Geological Survey con-
taining Moreseat, notice is taken of the Greensand fossils found there,
and of the Chalk-flint fossils found at Bogingarrie, a few miles to the south-
west, also described by Mr. Salter ; but the surveyor does not say that he
saw at Moreseat any fossils or fragments of Greensand sandstone.
In 1894 the Secretary of the Committee was lecturing at Cruden on
Geology and Agriculture for Aberdeen County Council, and was induced
by the mention of Greensand in the memoir to visit Moreseat and make
inquiries ; but he could learn nothing further than that fossils had been
found in the excavation made for the mill-wheel, and-as it was enclosed
with masonry nothing could be seen. He visited the place repeatedly and
examined all the ditches and watercourses on the farm, but found no
fossils.
The reason of this was seen afterwards. When pieces of the sand-
stone were exposed to frost they became a soft paste on thawing, and all
trace of the fossils they contained disappeared. He afterwards met with
Mr. Alexander Insch, Peterhead, who has made a collection of Chalk-flint
fossils found on the ridge running south-west from Buchanness, and who
had heard that fossils had been found north of the farm steading. Ac-
companied by him and Mr. D. J. Mitchell, Blackhills, Peterhead, he again
visited Moreseat. An excavation was made to the north of the ditch seen
by Dr. Ferguson, and after passing through a foot or eighteen inches of
sandy clay, thin layers of sandstone with fossils were found. The appear-
ance of the layers of sandstone was peculiar. They conveyed the idea that
they were cakes of some plastic material spread out in a soft state, yet
not wet enough to bear great lateral extension without cracking. The
layers were full of vertical cracks, which broke them up into small frag-
ments. These might have been caused by shrinking on drying, as the
excavation was made where the ground would be dry in summer. The
method of occurrence was the same as that described by Dr. Ferguson
already quoted. The fossils found were chiefly shells and spines.
Specimens were forwarded to the British Association with an appli-
cation for a grant of money to ascertain by deeper excavation whether
the bed from which the sandstone had come could be found there. Though
the application was unsuccessful, digging was continued by Messrs. Mit-
chell and Insch, who collected a large quantity of fossils in various places,
over an area a quarter of a mile broad, in the neighbourhood of Moreseat.
In 1895 specimens were sent to Dr. H. Woodward, of the Natural
History Museum, London, with another application for a grant from the
British Association. A grant of 10/. was given, and the Committee already
named was appointed.
Dr. J. W. Judd, of the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
ON THE CRETACEOUS FOSSILS IN ABERDEENSHIRE. 300
was consulted about the specimens already collected by Messrs. Mitchell
and Insch, and by his advice they were sent to the Geological Survey Office,
where they were examined and compared with Dr. Ferguson’s typical
specimens by Mr. G. Sharman and Mr. E. T. Newton. They published a
statement of the result of their examination in the ‘ Geological Magazine’
in June 1896. They came to the conclusion that the specimens had
‘been derived from beds where a large part of the Cretaceous series of
strata occurs ; not only Upper and Lower Chalk, and Upper Greensand
as pointed out by Salter, but also beds of Lower Greensand or Speeton
Clay age.’ In making this statement they seem to have referred not only
to the specimens collected by Messrs. Mitchell and Insch, but also to the
Chalk-flint specimens in the Ferguson collection. It may therefore be
noted that though flints are found in great abundance on the ridge above
Moreseat, they become fewer in going down the hill-side, and are compara-
tively scarce at Moreseat, and it may be assumed that none of the flint-
fossils in the Ferguson collection were found in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the Greensand fossils.
Work of the Committee.—On being made aware of their appointment
the Chairman and the Secretary met on the ground, accompanied by
Messrs. Mitchell and Insch ; Dr. Ferguson unfortunately was unable to
be present. Mr. Johnstone, the proprietor of the farm, kindly consented
to allow an excavation to be made. All the places where fossils had been
found were examined, and it was resolved to sink a shaft at the highest
place where they were certainly known to be, in the belief that the frag-
ments of sandstone had been moved from a higher to a lower level. The
place selected is on a knoll north of Moreseat, about 330 feet above the
sea-level, and about a quarter of a mile from the place where fossils were
found in 1839. The ground to the north is covered with peat-moss over-
grown with heather, and nothing can be seen of its character. Half a
- mile to the north-east there is some cultivated land, and a pit had been
sunk by a crofter for a pump in white unstratified siliceous matter, appa-
rently detritus of chalk-flints. To the north-west another pit had been
dug. At first glacial drift clay was met with, then fine stratified sand,
unsuitable for a pump-well, and the excavation was stopped at 14 feet
deep. This hole was 50 feet above the site selected for the shaft. It was
thought best to defer the sinking of the shaft till the following summer
to avoid risk of obstruction from water.
Mr. J. T. Tocher, the Secretary of the Buchan Field Club, which is
affiliated to the British Association, undertook to contract for the work,
and along with Mr. Mitchell to visit it while in progress, and to examine
the material excavated.
The shaft was dug in the summer of 1896, and a depta of 30 feet was
attained. The first foot consisted of ordinary soil. Below it was found
a yellowish-brown sandy clay mixed with small fragments of sandstone
and pebbles of quartzite and flint. The sandstone was afterwards found
to be composed of Quartz, Mica, Glauconite,! and Colloid Silica, and it
may be termed Glauconitic Sandstone. Almost every fragment yielded
fossils, mostly small shells. At 3 feet the clay became finer and the
sandstone fragments more abundant. At 4 feet they were in layers
among the clay, gradually thinning out and disappearing, as described by
Dr. Ferguson. At 5 feet, on the south side of the shaft, a deposit of fine
1 ¢Glauconite. Round grains; dullresinous; light green ; chemical composition,
‘ silicate of protoxide of iron and potash.—Heddle, in Encyc. Brit., vol. xvi, p. 415.
336 REPORT—1897.
white sand was found, in which were pebbles of granite, quartzite, and
flint. In the other part of the shaft the clay continued, with numerous
bits of the grey glauconitic sandstone in a layer, much broken, dipping to
the south, which is the direction of the slope of the surface of the ground
at Moreseat. The mass of sand increased down to 8 feet, where it ended.
At the bottom of the sand there was a block of granite a foot in diameter,
and under it a large flint pebble. At 10 feet there was, on one side, a
mass of black clay with a soapy feel, in which sandstone fragments, much
worn, were found. This black clay stopped at 11 feet. At 14 feet it
began to appear again, and to take the place of the yellowish-brown clay,
which ended at 16 feet. The lower part of it contained many stones.
From this level the black clay continued all the way down to 30 feet,
where it was succeeded by red laminated clay, without stones of any kind.
The black clay contained large stones of granite and quartzite and small
fragments of the glauconitic sandstone all the way, but the stones grew
fewer in number the deeper the shaft was sunk, and the sandstone frag-
ments had almost ceased at 27 feet. The excavation could not be carried
farther than 30 feet, because, on reaching the red laminated clay, water
began to come in, and the funds were exhausted.
The Committee regret that they were unable to ascertain the nature
of the solid rock under the shaft. Most likely it would have been found
to be granite, the rock seen at the sea-coast from Cruden Bay to Peterhead.
The shaft was evidently in glacial drift clay all the way, and therefore the
sandstone fragments were not in situ, but had been transported, apparently
from the north. By a series of pits a few feet deep made in this direction
it might be possible to follow the sandstone fragments farther up the hill,
anda shaft sunk at the uppermost place where they could be found might
discover the bed from which they came ; yet the Committee cannot ven-
ture to express a confident opinion that another excavation would be more
successful than the last in finding the origin of the Glauconitic Sandstone.
Many appearances indicate that the latest changes on the surface of the
ground in the district in which Moreseat is situated were caused by local
glacial sheets, perhaps not on a great scale, yet capable of moving great
quantities of loose and soft matter. The white sand in the shaft seemed
to have been moved bodily from a bed seen to the north-west at a higher
level. The original seat of the Glauconitic Sandstone may have been to
the north of the shaft, a little farther up the hill, and yet the bed may
have been entirely removed by ice descending the hill. If, however, the
British Association renew the grant, the Committee will be happy to
make another attempt to find the origin of the Moreseat fossils. Some of
the gentlemen who have aided in the work might be added to the Com-
mittee.
Mr. Tocher, F.I.C., analysed the clays found in the shaft, and ascer-
tained that the reddish colour of the one was due to ferric iron, and the
black colour of the other to ferrous iron. There is at Aldie, about a mile
from Moreseat, a band of very black igneous rock. There may be also
some of it above Moreseat, concealed by superficial drifts, and if so it
would account for the colour of the black clay.
Mr. Insch collected a large quantity of sandstone fragments containing
fossils. These were examined by Mr. A. J. Jukes Browne, and will
ultimately be deposited in a museum in Aberdeen for preservation.
Mr. Jukes Browne is of opinion that the sandstone was a deposit made in
clear water of a moderate depth, not far from land, and that the fossils in
OE,
ON THE CRETACEOUS FOSSILS IN ABERDEENSHIRE. 307
it show that it corresponds to the Lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight.
Mr. Jukes Browne’s report is appended in full.
APPENDIX.
Report on a Collection of Fossils from Moreseat, Aberdeen.
By A. J. Jukes Browne, B.A., £.G.S.
The existence of Cretaceous fossils, embedded in a kind of ‘ Green-
sand,’ and found at Moreseat, near Aberdeen, has been known to
geologists for nearly fifty years. Mr. W. Ferguson discussed them in a
paper read -before the Philosophical Society of Glasgow in 1849, and
subsequently communicated to the ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’! In this
he observes that most of the remains are casts, and he mentions the
occurrence of several species of Ammonites and Belemnites, as also of
Cardium, Terebratula, Trochus, Solarium, Cerithium, and Spatangus.
Some of Mr. Ferguson’s fossils were examined and named by
Mr. J. W. Salter in 1857,? who gave a list of fourteen species, two of
them being Ammonites doubtfully referred to—Am. Selliguinus, Brong.,
and Am. Pailletianus, d'Orb. Four of the others he describes as new
species, and from the remaining six he comes to the conclusion that the
fauna is of Upper Greensand age.
From 1857 to 1896 no further light was thrown on the subject, but in
the latter year some of the fossils collected by Messrs. Mitchell and Insch
were submitted to Messrs. Sharman and Newton, who made a careful
examination of them, and communicated the results to the ‘Geological
Magazine.’* They compared these fossils with the specimens described by
Salter, which are preserved in the Museum of Practical Geology, and
found the matrix to be the same. They also state that though slight
differences are noticeable in different pieces of the rock, yet all the samples
are ‘so similar that one can scarcely question their having been originally
derived from the same bed.’
They found, however, that many of the fossils could not be identified
with any Upper Greensand species, but were Lower Cretaceous forms,
many of them identical with those occurring in the Speeton Clay. They
admitted, however, a few species which occur in the Upper Cretaceous
series only, and have not been found in any British Lower Cretaceous
deposit. Hence they conclude ‘that the faunas which in the south mark
the distinct horizons of Lower Greensand, Gault, and Upper Greensand
are here in Aberdeenshire included in one bed of nearly uniform character
throughout.’ This conclusion certainly invested the Moreseat fossils with
still greater interest than they possessed before.
A collection of the fossils was sent to me by the Rev. John Milne in
September 1896, but it was impossible for me to examine them in time to
report on them before the meeting of the British Association in that year.
I have since, however, given them careful attention, and have received
much assistance from Messrs. Sharman and Newton, whose previous
acquaintance with many of the species has saved me much time and
labour.
It is not an easy task to identify these Moreseat fossils, for they are
' Phil. Mag., vol. xxviii. p. 430 (1850).
? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xiii. p. 83.
* Geol, Mag., Dec. 4, vol. iii. p. 247.
1897. Z
338 REPORT—1897.
all in the state of casts and impressions. In no case does any actual shell
or test remain, but the firmness of the rock has in most cases prevented
the enveloping matrix from being pressed down on to the internal cast, so
that the external cover generally retains the shape and impression of the
original shell, and a mould can, if necessary, be taken from it. The
fossils had been carefully collected, and as both casts and covers had been
transmitted, it has been possible to determine many of the species.
Before discussing the species, however, the rock itself merits descrip-
tion, for its peculiar characters seem to have escaped previous observers.
To the eye it presents itself as a very fine-grained siliceous rock, resem-
bling malmstone, dark grey when damp and freshly broken, drying to a
lighter grey. Fractured surfaces often show spots and patches of darker
material than the rest of the mass. Under the lens it showed a finely-
granular matrix, containing many small grains of glauconite, and numerous
flakes of mica, with small patches of a yellowish-green mineral which is
apparently a decomposition product.
The general aspect and light specific gravity of the rock led me to
suspect the presence of colloid” silica, and accordingly I sent specimens to
Mr. W. Hill, F.G.S., for microscopical examination. Mr. Hill cut slices
from two of these, and furnishes me with the following account of the
structure exhibited by them :—‘The material of both slides is alike, and
compares most nearly with the micaceous sandstone of Devizes (Upper
Greensand). The ground mass consists of amorphous and semi-granular
silica, neutral to polarised light, with little or no calcite. There are
many sponge spicules, the walls of which have mostly disappeared, but
which are outlined in the matrix. The space once occupied by the spicule
is often partly filled with globules of colloid silica, like those described
by Dr. Hinde in malmstone, and similar globules are dispersed through
the mass of the rock. There is much quartz sand in small, angular, even-
sized grains, but not so much as in Devizes sandstone. Glauconite grains
are also abundant, but the quantity varies much in different parts of the
rock ; the grains seem to be breaking up, and are often seamed with vein-
like markings. There are also larger patches of dirty-green material,
which has a somewhat indefinite outline, and may be of secondary forma-
tion. Small flakes of mica are scattered through the slides, but it is only
when these are cut transversely that the mineral can be easily identified.’
From the above description it will be seen that the rock may be
termed a gaize—that is, a fine-grained sandstone, in which colloid silica is
an important ingredient ; this is not a common rock, and in England it is
only known as oceurring in the Upper Greensand in association with
malmstone. In France a gaizeof Lower Gault age, containing Ammonites
mammillatus and Am. interruptus, occurs in the Ardennes (Draize), but I
can find no record of the rock occurring in the Lower Cretaceous series
either in France or Germany.
The formation of gaize and malmstone probably took place in clear
water of a moderate depth ; it is not a shallow water deposit, and yet it
was deposited within the range of a current which carried fine sand. The
abundance of sponge spicules shows that the conditions were such as to
favour the growth of siliceous sponges.
Remarks on some of the Fossils.
The collection sent to me includes some species which have not
yet been recorded from the Moreseat rock, and as these are all Lower
—— ee
ON THE CRETACEOUS FOSSILS IN ABERDEENSHIRE. 339
Cretaceous forms, the Vectian element in the fauna is clearly very strong
—so strong indeed that I am led to doubt the existence of some of the Upper
Cretaceous species which have been supposed to occur. I therefore offer
some remarks on certain species, and give a complete revised list of the
Moreseat fauna, so far as it is at present known.
Micrabacia coronula, Goldf.—This identification requires confirmation,
It depends solely on Salter’s authority, for the specimen he saw is not in
the Jermyn Street Museum, and no other specimen has been detected in
the collections recently made. The species is not known to occur below
the Upper Greensand (zone of Pecten asper), and would be difficult to recog-
nise from a cast only.
Echinoconus castanea, Brong.—This also requires confirmation, for the
specimen so named by Mr. Salter has not been found at Jermyn Street,
and no other example has been seen. In England its earliest appearance
is near the top of the Upper Greensand, but in Switzerland it ranges down
to the base of the Gault (see de Loriol in Echinologie Helvétique), so
that it may in some localities range even lower. No species of Echino-
conus, however, has yet been recorded from rocks of Lower Cretaceous
age.
” Discoidea decorata (1), Desor.—This specimen was among those sent by
Mr. Milne. It consists of a nearly perfect external mould in two parts.
It differs from D. subuculus in having close-set rows of nearly even-sized
tubercles ; eight rows on the interambulacral areas, four on each set of
plates ; and four rows on the ambulacral areas, but the two inner rows do
not reach either to the apex or to the peristome. The mouth and vent
are both rather large. In these respects it agrees with D. decorata.
Mr. C. J. A. Meyer having informed me that he possessed specimens
of a Discoidea from the Vectian of Hythe, the Moreseat specimen was
sent to him for comparison. He reports that it agrees with those from
Hythe, but he is doubtful whether they are referable to D. decorata, Desor,
or D. macropyga, Ag. Both are Lower Cretaceous species.
Lhynchonella compressa.—The specimen so named by Salter is at
Jermyn Street, and has been examined again by Messrs. Sharman and
Newton, with the result that they think it is only a compressed variety of
Rh. sulcata.
Waldheimia faba, d’Orb. (non Sow.).—This being only a cast and the
shell being smooth, one cannot be quite sure of the species, but the shape
is well preserved, and I am indebted to Mr. Meyer for pointing out that
it has the squareness toward the front which is characteristic of the species
in question. This is well shown in the example figured by Davidson
(‘Cret. Brach.’ Vol. iv., Pl. vi., f. 12-14), which came from the Speeton
Clay of Knapton in Yorkshire.
Lima semisuleata, Sow.—This species has appeared in previous lists
on the authority of Mr. Salter, but the specimen is in the Jermyn Street
Museum, and Mr, Newton informs me that it is only an internal cast, and
may, with equal probability, be referred to Z. Dupiniana. As specimens
of the latter do occur, and none referable to L. semisulcata have since been
found, I think this Upper Cretaceous species may be omitted from
the list.
Arca securis, d’Orb.—I have ventured to enter the common Arca of
the Moreseat sandstone under the name of secuvis instead of under cari-
nata, because the specimens I have examined seem to me to come nearer
Z2
340 REPORT—1897.
to securis, and Mr. Meyer, to whom a specimen was sent, is of the same
opinion. The two species are so closely allied that some paleontologists
regard them as identical; but there are slight differences, and Messrs.
Sharman and Newton agree with me in considering the Moreseat speci-
mens to be smaller and shallower in the valve than the ordinary 4. cari-
mata of the Upper Greensand ; and in these respects they resemble
A. securis. In some of them, moreover, the ribs on the posterior area are
like those in d’Orbigny’s figure of secwris ; so that, if the forms are sepa-
rable, I think these should be listed as secwris.
Leda scapha (?), @Orb.—I have seen two casts which probably belong
to this species, though they equally resemble LZ. Marie of the Gault, for,
as Mr. Gardner has remarked, there is very little difference between these
species.
: Pectunculus umbonatus, Sow.—This is another of Mr. Salter’s identi-
fications, and unfortunately it also is only an internal cast. There are
several species of Pectunculus to which such a cast might belong, but the
probabilities are against its being P. wmbonatus. As no other specimen
has occurred among the fossils recently collected, it will be best to leave
it without a specific name for the present.
Turbo, like Goupilianus, d’Orb.—There is one specimen, a portion of
the external impression of the shell, showing an ornamentation resembling
that of Z'wrbo Goupilianus, which is a Cenomanian species. This speci-
men, however, was sent to Mr. Meyer, who informs me that he has an
imperfect specimen from the Vectian of the Isle of Wight which it equally
resembles.
Ammonites flexisulcatus (?), d’Orb.—A small Ammonite was found in
breaking up a lump of the material sent to me, and was forwarded, with
other specimens, to Messrs. Sharman and Newton. They reported that it
most resembles A. flexisulcatus, though the portion preserved is smooth
and without sulcations.
Nautilus sp., Sow.—Among the fossils sent me by Mr. Milne is the
cast of a Nautilus, badly preserved, but showing strong transverse rugations
or ribs like those of WV. radiatus, but its condition is such as to prevent
any certainty of identification. Mr. A.H. Foord has kindly examined the
specimen, but could not venture to name it.
= n o
5 ea ee Ke Se = at § s z
Beles Cbs & |S Be|B<e
S 2 |“ 3 Moreseat Fossils B42) » |eselac 3
earl Syt| ¢- |Be0/seN
a L aa ° Ors » >
\q 2 DN | =) =) 8 Day
ae i
| | ; oe
Actinizou.
lap: Coral (like Micrabacia)
Echinoderms
p- Ananchytes (? Cardiaster)
| p. | m. Discordea decorata, Desor (7?) : : *
p. Echinocyphus difficilis, Ag. . : : %
p. | m, Enallaster scoticus, Salter |
p. Echinoconus castanea (?), Brong. . c 1 ge * *
Annelida
p. Serpula
Polyzoa
Entalophora (7)
ee
Tevious UCol-
lections
In Mr. Milne’s
ia?
oy
fe
SSIS TS BID UD PHOS DD PoP
2S So oa 3S
So's
Collection
BE
BE
BE
FBE B 5B
BE B
BB FB
BE BS
5
BEB
ON THE CRETACEOUS FOSSILS IN ABERDEENSHIRE.
341
Oo
» » a
Bsz| 2 (23.38
Ses1 5 |SESl|ade
Moreseat Fossils gAs8 he Re 2|4es
gue| & |BAo|sss
BES) 8 |Se |és
Brachiopoda
Rkynchonella sulcata, Park . 2 : * * *
Terebratula sp.
Terebratella (cast only)
Waldheimia faba, d’Orb. (non Sow.) . * |
5 hippopus var. Tilbyensis.Dav. *
Lamellibranchiata |
Anatina sp.
Arca securis, d’Orb. ‘5 +
» Raulini (?) d’Orb. . * 2
Astarte striato-costata, Forbe * |
Avicula simulata, Baily |
Cardium Raulinianum, d’Orb * *
Cardium sp. (cast only)
Corbula
Cyprina Fergusoni, Salter |
Exogyra (small species)
Gervillia solenoides, Defr. . f 0 * x *
An near to rostrata
Goniomya
Tnoceramus
Leda scapha, d’Orb. - : ; *
Lima Dupiniana, d’Orb. : : *
» longa,(?) Rom. . : %
», near to abrupta, d’Orb.
Limopsis texturata, Salter
Lucina sp.
Ostrea frons (?) Park (carinata, Sow.) * * * ¥
Panopea
Pecten orbicularis, Sow. * * * *
Pectunculus sp.
Pinna tetragona, Sow. * *
Plicatula placunea, Lam. * 2
Spondylus
Tellina
Thetis (?)
Trigonia vectiana, Lye. . *
ss sp. noy.
Venus Brongniartina (?), Leym. *
Gastropoda
Acteon
Cerithium aculeatum, Forbes MS. . *
Dentalium ccelulatum, Bailey
Phasianella (like ervyna, d’Orb.)
Solarium sp.
_ Trochus pulcherrimus, Forbes 5 *
i BD:
Turbo (like Goupilianus, d’Orb.) ?
Cephalopoda
Ammonites flexisulcatus (7), @’Orb. *
A Mortilleti, P. & Lor. *
r Speetonensis (var.) . *
a Selliguinus (?), Brong. *
Belemnites sp. ,
Crioceras Duvallii . : . . 5 *
Nautilus, like radiatus, Sow.
342 REPORT—1897.
It only remains to indicate the conclusion to which the study of the
Moreseat fossils has led me.
Of the species enumerated by Mr. Salter in 1857 four have been
omitted from the preceding list, being regarded as doubtful identifications
which have not been confirmed by subsequent discoveries. Of the three
genera of Echinoderms mentioned by him the Discoidea was probably the
species which resembles D. decorata, and the two named respectively
Diadema and Ananchytes may have been Lower Greensand forms for
anything that we know to the contrary.
The number of named species available for comparison with other
faunas is now 32. Out of this total no fewer than 24 are species of Lower
Cretaceous age, and only 6 of these range into the Gault ; 5 are species
which have not been found elsewhere, 2 are Upper Greensand species, but
1 of these is a doubtful determination, and 1 is an Ammonite, of which the
identification is also doubtful. There is therefore an overwhelming pro-
portion of exclusively Lower Cretaceous species, namely, 18 to 2, while out
of the 6 Cephalopods 5 are exclusively Lower Cretaceous forms, the only
one which is not being the very doubtful Am. selliguinus.
The occurrence of one Upper Greensand echinoderm (EZchinocyphus
difficilis), and the possible occurrence of another ranging from Lower
Gault to Chalk (Hchinoconus castanea (1) ) is hardly sufficient evidence to
warrant the conclusion that a part of the rock-mass was of Upper Green-
sand age. There is nothing except the possible Am. selliguinus that is
specially characteristic of the Gault, and the question then arises,—what is
the evidential value of the occurrence of Echinocyphus difficilis, and possibly
also of Hchinoconus castanea? I think it may be answered in this way :
it is more reasonable to suppose that these two species, or forms very closely
allied to them, date really from Lower Cretaceous times, than it is to
suppose the deposition of exactly the same kind of rock material should
have continued at any one place from the time of the Lower Greensand to
that of the Upper Greensand. In other words, I believe that the rock-
mass from which the Moreseat fossils have been derived was entirely a
Lower Cretaceous rock, but high in that series, and corresponding approxi-
mately to the Aptien stage of France, and to the Lower Greensand or
Vectian of the Isle of Wight.
Singapore Caves.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. FLower (Chairman), Mr. H. N. Ripiey (Secretary), Dr.
R. HanitscH, Mr. Clement Rep, and Dr. A. RussEL WALLACE,
appointed to explore certain caves near Singapore, and to collect their
living and extinct Fauna.
THE Committee has received from Mr. Ridley an account of a preliminary
examination of the caves of Kwala Sum pur, and also notes on the animals
now inhabiting them. At the time of writing Mr. Ridley expected soon
to be able to pay another visit, and to use gunpowder to break up the
massive stalagmite. A first attempt to explore the cave deposits was not
successful, as dynamite was used and proved unsuitable for the purpose.
It will perhaps be better to reserve an account of the living cave fauna
till fuller collections have been made and the specimens have all been
determined. The Committee asks for re-appointment and the renewal of
the unexpended balance of the grant.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 343
The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Thirteenth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor T. WILTSHIRE (Chairman),
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupert JONES (Secretary).
(Drawn up by Professor T. RuPERT JONES.)
ConTENTS.
SECTION PAGE
- J. 1889-1892. Silurian Phyllopoda (2) < - ° . 343
II. 1885-1894. Cambrian Phyllopoda (?) i 5 : . 343
III. 1889. Rhachura venosa c ' : : = . B44
IV. 1893. Rhinocaris columbina . : s : . 344
V. 1895. Emmelezoe Lindstroemi . : : ; : . 844
VI. 1895. Pinnocaris Lapworthi . 5 - - - . 344
VII. 1895. Ceratiocaris reticosa 5 A 4 4 e . 345
VIII. 1895. Lingulocaris . 3 5 ¢ ; A : . 345
IX. 1896. Devonian Species of Ceratiocaris(?) . 5 . 345
X. 1896. Entomocaris and Ceratiocaris : : : . 345 .
XI. 1896. Echinocaris Whidbornet 4 : 3 3 . 345
XII. 1896. Caryocaris . - . ° 7 B 5 . 346
XIII. 1897. Estheria Dawsoni . . : 2 : 2 - 346
§ I. 1889-1892. Anomalous Silurian Phyllopods (?) from Germany and
America.—In the ‘Sitz.-Ber. Gesell. naturf. Freunde zu Berlin,’ 1890,
. 28, Dr. A. Krause described a small fossil carapace of doubtful alliance,
but possibly related to the Phyllopods, from the North-German gravel of
Scandinavian Beyrichia-limestone (Upper Silurian). In the ‘Zeitsch.
Deutsch. Geol. Gesell.,’ vol. xliv. 1892, p. 397, pl. xxii., figs. 19 a—c, Dr.
A. Krause redescribed and figured this anomalous little fossil.
Its lateral moieties are not free, separate valves, but united by an
antero-dorsal suture for a third of its length, and by an antero-ventral
suture for half of its length, the posterior region remaining open at the
edges. It also shows in front a round aperture, with a sulcus formed by
the somewhat inverted edges below it. The test is nearly oval and com-
pressed ; thickest and subacute in front ; bearing a small, low, subcentral
swelling. The surface has some reticulate ornament along the margins
for the most part, succeeded by linear, radiating, and concentric sculpture
towards the more convex area, which is finely punctate. It is 6 mm.
long, 4 mm. high, and 1-5 mm. thick.
In 8. A. Miller’s ‘North-American Geology and Paleontology,’ 2nd
edition, 1889, p. 549, fig. 1009, an allied form is described and figured as
Faberia anomala, n. sp. et gen., from the Hudson-River group, Ohio
(Lower Silurian). This has evidently some analogy to the foregoing
Upper Silurian form. It has a compressed, ovoidal, smooth shell, con-
sisting of two moieties, partially sutured above and below, and is rather
smaller than the German specimen.
§ IT. 1885-1894. Cambrian Phyllopoda (?).—Dr. G. F. Matthew, of
St. John, New Brunswick, has discovered several very small organisms
in the Cambrian rocks of North-Eastern America, some of which he
regards, with doubt, as having been carapace-valves of Phyllopodous
Crustaceans. He has described and tigured them in the ‘Transactions of
the Royal Society of Canada.’
To this group of small subtriangular valve-like bodies, obliquely semi-
3844, REPORT——1897.
circular or semi-elliptical, with straight, hinge-line and more or less definite
umbo, belong (1) Lepiditta alata, M., ‘Tr. R. 8., Can.,’ vol. iii. 1885,
sect. 4, p. 61, pl. vi, figs. 16, 16a; (2) Z. cwrta, M., p. 62, pl. vi.,
fig. 17 ; (3) Lepidilla anomala, M., p. 62, pl. vi., figs. 18, 18 a,b, ¢ ; (4)
Lepiditia sigillata, M., vol. xi. 1894, sect. 4, p. 99, pl. xvii. fig. 1; (5)
L. auriculata, M., p. 99, pl. xvii., figs. 2, 2a, 6. Some of these were re-
ferred to by us in the Sixth Report (for 1888), p. 174.
§ III. 1889. Rhachura venosa, Scudder, 1878, ‘Proceed. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xix. p. 296, pl. ix., figs. 3, 3a (referred to in our
Report for 1883, p. 216). Dr. A. 8. Packard, having received from
M. Gurley some imperfect specimens found in the Middle Coal-measures,
Danville, Illinois, describes them as being parts of a carapace, probably a
little over three inches long, and three caudal spines, also rather obscure
(‘ Proceed. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xxiv. 1889, pp. 212, 213).
§ IV. 1893. Rhinocaris columbina.—Mr. J. M. Clarke has contri-
buted a paper ‘ On the Structure of the Carapace in the Devonian Crusta-
cean Rhinocaris, and the relation’ of the Genus to Mesothyra and the
Phyllocarida,’ with illustrative cuts, published in the ‘ American Natural-
ist,’ September 1, 1893, pp. 793-801. The carapace-valves of Rhinocaris
columbina (J. M. C., ‘ Paleont. New York,’ vol. vii. 1888, pp. lviii. and
195-197) are described from better specimens, which show it to be a
bivalved (not univalved) form, and as having a narrow, median plate, of
which there is evidence in Mesothyra, making a double dorsal suture.
There is also a long, narrow, leaf-like rostrum inserted between the valves
in front. The relationship of this form with Mesothyra and Tropidocaris
is dwelt upon. The author thinks that Dithyrocaris and Emmelezoe have
some affinity with it. Ahinocaris and Mesothyra are regarded as typical
members of the family Rhinocaride. We may mention that Dr. Matthew
regards his Ceratiocaris pusilla from the Silurian of New Brunswick (see
‘Trans. Roy. Soc., Canada,’ vol. vi. 1888, sect. 4, p. 56, pl. iv., fig. 2; and
our Seventh Report (for 1889), p. 64, as Rhinocaris.
§ V. 1895. Hmmelezoe Lindstroemi.—Since our Twelfth Report,
presented to the British Association at Ipswich in 1895, the Swedish
Phyllocarids mentioned in that. Report as having been found by Dr.
Gustav Lindstrém in the Upper Silurian beds at Lau, Gothland, have
been duly described and figured in the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ decade 4,
vol. ii, No. 378 ; December, 1895, pp. 540, 541, pl. xv., figs. 2a-2d, as
Emmelezoe Lindstroemi, J. & W. The fish remains (Cyathaspis) and other
fossils associated with it are mentioned in detail by G. Lindstrém in the
‘ Bihang till K. Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl.’ vol. xxi. part 4, No. 3, 1895,
pp. 11, 12.
Mr. J. M. Clarke has suggested at p. 801 of his memoir mentioned in
§ IV. that the oculate genus Hmmelezoe may have some relationship to
the group to which Rhinocaris belongs.
§ VI. 1895. Pinnocaris Lapworthi.—This genus, represented by its
only known species, P. Lapworthi, has been carefully examined by
Woodward and Jones, and several specimens described, selected from a
large number in Mrs. Robert Gray’s collection at Edinburgh. This
memoir appeared in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ decade 4, vol. ii. 1895,
pp. 542-545, pl. xv., figs. 5-10. Excepting one specimen from the
Upper Silurian of Kendal, Westmorland, all the known specimens are
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 345
from the Lower Silurian of Girvan, Ayrshire, where Mrs. Gray has made
a large collection.
The peculiar ‘corded’ dorsal margin of the valves may have reference
to some longitudinal, narrow, intermediate ligament or plate, as in
Rhinocaris and Mesothyra.
§ VII. 1895. A new species of Ceratiocaris (C. reticosa, J. & W.),
preserved in the Museum of the Geological Survey, was described in the
‘Geological Magazine,’ decade 4, 1895, vol. ii. pp. 539, 540, pl. xv.,
figs. la, 1b. It is from the Silurian beds of Ludlow, Shropshire, and is
allied to C. cassioides, from that locality. Traces of a peculiar reticulate
sculpture constitute its distinguishing feature.
§ VIII. 1895. Lingulocaris.—In the same number (378) of the
‘Geological Magazine,’ 1895, at pp. 541, 542, a specimen of Lingulocaris
lingulecomes, Salter, belonging to the Rev. G. C. H. Pollen, 8.J., F.G.S.,
was figured and described. It came from Capel Arthog, North Wales,
probably from the Ffestiniog or middle division of the Lingula-flags.
Hence we may add ‘ Lingulocaris’ to ‘Hymenocaris’ for that formation
at p. 425 of our Twelfth Report (fifth line from the bottom).
§ IX. 1896. Devonian species of Ceratiocaris (?).—In the ‘ Monograph
of the Devonian Fauna of the South of England,’ Palzont. Soc., vol. iii.
part 1, 1896, the Rev. G. F. Whidborne describes and figures three obscure
casts of Ceratiocaris, one, C. (1) subquadrata, sp.nov., p. 7, pl. i, fig. 5,
from East Anstey ; another, Ceratiocaris (?) sp., p. 8, pl. i., fig. 6, from
Sloly ; and the third, somewhat indistinct specimen, namely, Ceratio-
caris (2), sp., p. 8, pl. ii, fig. 12, from Croyde.
§ X. 1896. Entomocaris and Ceratiocaris.—A collection of Ceratio-
caris-like Crustaceans from the Lower Helderberg Formation (Upper
Silurian), near Waubeka, Wisconsin, has afforded Mr. R. P. Whitfield,
of the American Natural-History Museum, New York, the opportunity
of determining two new species of Ceratiocaris, and a new genus (Lnto-
mocaris), allied to Ceratiocaris, but differing from it by the carapace-valves
being ‘strongly curved in front and behind on the dorsal margin,’ and by
the posterior margin not being truncate, as in Ceratiocaris, but obtusely
rounded. Entomocaris Telleri, Whitfield (p. 300), is figured in pl. xii.
of full size, but slightly distorted by pressure. Including the four exposed
body-segments and the trifid appendage, it is about 21 centimetres
(about 8 inches) long; and the valves are about 13} centimetres long
by about 64 high. Some indications of the swimming-feet attached to
the body are visible where one valve has been partially broken away from
the internal cast. Some mandibles, supposed to belong to this species, are
shown in pl. xiv., figs. 1, 2 ; and the caudal appendages in fig. 9.
Ceratiocaris Monroer, Whitfield (p. 301, pl. xiii., figs. 1-5, and pl. xiv.,
figs. 3-8), is carefully described from one nearly perfect and an imperfect
specimen, together with body-segments, caudal appendages, and some
mandibles. The carapace-valves seem to have been about 7}, centimetres
long and 4 high.
Ceratiocaris poduriformis, Whitfield (p. 302, pl. xiv., fig. 10), is
represented by a small specimen of abdominal segments and caudal spines.
§ XI. 1896 Lchinocaris Whidbornei, J. and W., noticed in our
Seventh Report (for 1889), p. 63, has been redescribed and refigured by
346 REPORT—1897.
the Rev. G. F. Whidborne in tke ‘ Monogr. Devonian Fauna, S. England,’
Pal. Soc., vol. iii. part 1, 1896, p. 6, pl. i, fig. 3.
Within the last few months Ananda K. Coomdry-Swamy, Esq., of
Warplesdon, has fortunately obtained a very interesting specimen of this
Echinocaris from the Sloly mudstone, showing, on the two counterparts
of the little split slab, two individuals, each having the same characters as
the specimen first described in the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ decade 3, vol. vi.
1889, p. 385, pl. xi., fig. 1. Though rather narrowed by oblique pressure,
the valves are equal in breadth to those of the first specimen. An addi-
tional feature of interest is seen in some body-segments, five in one
individual and three in the other. In each case, though the series cf
segments is not complete either at beginning or end, they are characteristic-
ally like those of Echinocaris, the distal edges bearing tubercles, the
equivalents of spinules.
§ XII. 1896. Caryocaris—In the ‘Journal of Geology,’ Chicago,
vol. iv. 1896, p. 85, Dr. R. R. Gurley has described Caryocaris as the
‘lateral appendages’ of the ‘polypary’ of a Graptolite! Caryocaris was
referred to by us in the First and Seventh Reports (for 1883 and 1891),
and was described in detail and figured in the ‘Monogr. Brit. Palzoz.
Phyllocarida,’ Pal. Soc., 1892, p. 89 et seg., pl. xiv., figs. 11-18.
§ XIII. 1897. A new locality in Nova Scotia has been determined by
Sir William Dawson for Estheria Dawsoni, namely East Branch, East
River, Pictou County, Lower Carboniferous. Several casts and impres-
sions of small valves, not more than two millimetres long, occur on the
bed-planes of a dark-red Lower-Carboniferous shale. Former occurrences
of this species were noticed in our Report (Eleventh) for 1894.
Trish Elk Remains —Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins (Chairman), his Honour DEEMSTER GILL,
Mr. G. W. Lamp.Luau, Rev. E. B. SavaGE, and Mr. P. M. C.
KKERMODE (Secretary), appointed to examine the Conditions under
which remains of the Irish Elk are found in the Isle of Man.
As the elk remains in the Isle of Man have only been met with in
curragh lands where it is not possible to excavate for them till the later
part of summer (unless in an unusually dry season), the Committee have
not been able to accomplish much before July 1, by which date the report
is presented.
An attempt was made in the first place to examine the spot at
Ballaugh where the skeleton, now set up in Edinburgh Museum, was
found in 1819.!
This was in the Loughan-ruy, on the farm of Ballaterson, eastward of
the Parish Church, Ballaugh. It is one of several shallow depressions in
a drift gravel platform, and measures about 120 yards by 40. It lies
about 50 yards west of the Ballacrye Road, leading from the highway to
the seashore, and has a boundary fence across the pool at its southern
end (Ordnance Sheet, iv. 10 (825)).
1 See Professor Owen, British Association Report, 1843, p. 237.
ON THE IRISH ELK REMAINS. 347
Permission having been obtained from the proprietor and occupier of
the land, some trial excavations were made on May 13 and 14, but the
water prevented our sinking to any depth except at the edge (S.W.) of
the hollow, where we penetrated to over 7 feet with the following
results :—
Loughan-ruy Ballaterson, Ballaugh.
Thickness Depth
of bed from turface
Ft. in. Ft. in.
A. Peat . 5 . ° . . ° shrekin6 1 6
B. Sand, yellow . 6 - . : : nih ted 2 6
C. Sandy silt, grey (with Salix herbacea and
Lepidurus (Apus) glacialis) . : 2 Sy PAE 5 0
D. Loamy peat . E : 2 : = OS 5 8
EH. Gravel - : . 1*0 6 8
F. Marl (‘ Chara Marl ’) 0 4 7 0
G. Sharp sand and gravel 0 6 and more.
Depth excavated . . ° Peay CR
Examples from these different beds were forwarded to the officers of
the Geological Survey for examination, and we are indebted to Mr. James
Bennie, of Edinburgh, who undertook the laborious washing and sorting
of the material, and to Mr. Clement Reid for his report upon them, which
we append.
On June 24 further excavations were attempted across the bed of the
pool, but the inflowing water prevented any results ; nor is it expected
that the necessary depth can be attained till the end of July or
the middle of August. It is hoped that further work will have been
possible before the meeting of the Association, although the results cannot
be attained in time to incorporate with this report.’
The Committee ask for reappointment. They propose to excavate in
the autumn at Loughan-ruy to the full depth of about 18 feet, at which
the Edinburgh specimen was found. The bones were apparently obtained
from the marl represented by the bed F of our section, this marl
evidently thinning off towards the edge of the hollow. Many skulls,
bones, and antlers are said to have been left. The Committee propose
also to excavate at Kentraugh, in the south of the island, where antlers
have been met with ; and at Ballalough, near St. John’s, and elsewhere,
where remains have been reported, with the hope of discovering such
remains in situ, so that a full examination of the accompanying fauna and
flora may be obtained.
Tt will be seen that the results of this examination are of considerable
importance. The little Arctic crustacean Lepidurus glacialis was first
found in the Isle of Man two or three years ago in the peaty material
obtained from a well on the gravel platform at Kirk Michael,’ and had
not hitherto been discovered so far southward in Great Britain. In that
instance the conditions were unfavourable for the investigation of the
deposit which contained it, so that our discovery of its remains at Loughan-
1 Such further work at Ballalough, near Peel, has proved successful, a fairly
perfect skeleton—with, however, the skull missing and some of the bones decayed—
_ having been unearthed. Full details will be given in our next year’s Report.—
October 1897.
2 Annual Report of Geological Survey for 1895, p. 13.
348 REPORT—1897.
ruy, associated, as at Kirk Michael, with Salix herbacea, will afford an
opportunity for a closer study of the conditions under which it occurs.
As Mr. Reid points out, it is especially desirable to investigate the
relations of this Arctic fauna to the beds containing the elk remains.
The following is Mr. Clement Reid’s report :—
“The following species of plants and animals were ebtained on wash-
ing samples of the deposits. Beds C, D, and F are all worthy of closer
examination ; for it is important to ascertain whether there is any
evidence in the Isle of Man of a mild period after the melting of the ice,
and before the deposition of the bed with Arctic willows. If the shell-
marl (F) containing the Megaceros remains was formed during a mild
interval, the complete disappearance of the Irish elk, so difficult to under-
stand, may be due to cold or to scarcity of food during a less genial
period. This point has never been cleared up in Ireland, notwithstanding
the numerous remains of the Irish elk that have there been obtained.
Bed “A:
Ranunculus flammula, Z. Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L.
Potentilla tormentilla, Z. | Potamogeton, sp.
“ Also caddis cases and eggs of insects.
“The plants are all common Isle of Man species.
Bed C.
Poterium officinale. | Moss.
Salix herbacea, Z. | Lepidurus (Apus) glacialis.
Carex, sp. Daphne (winter eggs).
Scheenus ? |
“Numerous leaves of the dwarf Arctic willow Salix herbacea and frag-
ments of the Arctic crustacean Apus glacialis, neither of them now
living in the Isle of Man, point to climatic conditions considerably more
severe than those now holding in the district.
Bed D.
Ranunculus aquatilis, Z. Potamogeton crispus, Z.
a flammula, Z. Carex.
es; repens, Z. Chara.
Littorella lacustris, Z. | Beetle (elytron).
“The plants are widely distributed species still living in the Isle of
Man. Littorella is usually northern.
Bed F.
Ranunculus aquatilis, Z. Chara, 2 sp.
flammula, Z. Insect remains.
“This marl thus far has yielded nothing to indicate the climatic con-
ditions.”
a
ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES 349
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—Second Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor E. Hutu (Chairman), Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. P. F. Kenpauu (Secretary), Mr. C. E. De Rance,
Professor W. J. Sotuas, Mr. R. H. TippEman, Rev. S. N. Har-
Rison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr. DuGaup Betu, Mr. F. M. Burton, and
Mr. J. Lomas, to investigate the Hrratic Blocks of the British Isles
and to take measures for their preservation.
Tue operations of the Committee during the year have been less pro-
ductive of immediate results than was anticipated.
The number of boulders recorded has been small, but several facts of
great interest have been brought to light. The diminution is due princi-
pally to the fact that a large section of the work which is carried out in
Yorkshire, viz., the enumeration of the boulders on the coast of Holderness,
has been carried to virtual completion, but other contributory causes have
been the inability of the Secretary to devote so large an amount of time as
he had hoped to the work of the Committee, and the severe loss sustained
by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee in the death of their most capable
and active Honorary Secretary, Mr. Thomas Tate, F.G.S. The respective
secretaries of the Lincolnshire Boulder Committee and the Geological
Section of the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club have been unable to prepare
their reports in time for publication this year.
The first feature of importance to be noticed is the large number of
additional records of Shap granite boulders ; the occurrence of this rock
in Weardale is interesting, as showing the broadening of the area of dis-
persion after the Pennine Chain was crossed.
Dr. Ricketts’ observation of many pebbles of Serpentine at Birkenhead
is remarkable, as only one fragment of that petrological type appears to
have been observed previously in the area of Lancashire and Cheshire.
The occurrence of pebbles of chalk and flint in North-Western
Nottinghamshire is a fact of importance, and may perhaps be taken to
indicate an extension of the chalky Boulder-clay.
The Noblethorpe erratic belongs evidently to the same dispersion as
the remarkable group of erratics in the Royston district, reported upon
two years ago, but it is several miles further west than any boulders
previously recorded in the district.
Some noteworthy additions are made to our knowledge of the distri-
bution of the now well-known Norwegian rocks, the Augite-syenite of
Laurvik, and the Rhomb-porphyries of the Christiania district. Mr.
Kendall has found the former at Saltburn and the latter at Staithes,
those being the most northerly stations at which they have been found.
Both were beach pebbles, but the travel of beaches on that coast is from
north to south, so there is no fear of their being wrongly ascribed to a
position to northward of their original locus as boulders.
Mr. Stather has found both rocks as boulders in situ in a lower bed of
Boulder-clay at Louth in Lincolnshire.
Far exceeding this in interest, however, is the recognition by an
eminent Swedish geologist, Dr. Munthe, of two rocks in Mr. Stather’s
collection, whose place of origin is on the shores of the Baltic. A disposi-
tion has been manifested to assume that, because the only Scandinavian
300 . REPORT—1897.
rocks that have been definitely identified among the erratics of our East
Coast were from the neighbourhood of Christiania, none from other
localities existed ; this fortunate discovery shows that assumption te
have been unwarranted.
The investigations of Mr. Stather have brought out the remarkable
fact that the chalk Belemnitelle found in the Yorkshire drift are referable
to a species which has never been found in the Chalk of the district. This
fact is of great significance.
CHESHIRE.
Reported by Dr. C. Ricketts, I.D., £.G.S., per Glacialists’ Association.
Birkenhead, Price Street—
14 small pebbles of serpentine.
DvuRHAM.
Reported by Dr. R. Taytor Manson.
Bishop Auckland Park, beside a small tributary of the River Gaunless—
1 Shap granite (now removed to the garden of Mr. R. Nelson, J.P.).
Etherley, Flashes Farm—
1 Shap granite (Mr. Nelson states that it is generally supposed to have been
brought from the Tees for use in a cheese-press, Another boulder on
the same farm is known to have been brought from Towler Hill, near
Barnard Castle).
LINCOLNSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. W. Staruer, £.G.S.
Louth, Brick-pit in James Street.—A section 50 feet in depth shows
two distinct superposed beds of Boulder-clay ; in the lower, 20 feet,
besides many well striated boulders of Mountain Limestone :—
1 Augite-syenite (Laurvikite) ;
1 Rhomb-porphyry. (Both of these were found actually embedded in the
clay.)
NorrinGHAMSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. H. H. Corsert, I.R.C.S.
Harworth, near Bawtry.—In the lower beds of clay at the Brickyard
fragments of chalk and flint occur.
‘In a gravel pit between Harworth and Bawtry the stones are almost
exclusively Triassic quartzite pebbles, but at the base, resting on Triassic
sandstone, are large boulders of Magnesian Limestone containing Avzinus.
‘YORKSHIRE. !
Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee.
Reported by Rev. C. T. Pratt.
Banks Bottoms, Noblethorpe—
1 Cleaved volcanic ash (probably Lake District), now removed to the
entrance to the Museum at Cawthorne.
? This report will be published in extenso in the Naturalist.
ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 351k
Reported by Dr. J. TEMPEST ANDERSON.
High Borough (Roman Camp), near Grosmont, 345 feet above 0.D.—
1 Shap granite. Now removed to Grosmont Churchyard.
Reported by Mr. W. Grecson, .G.S.
Cotherstone, 3 miles N.W. of Barnard Castle, about 600 feet above O.D.—
1 Shap granite.
Whashton, midway between Richmond and Barnard Castle, about 700
feet above O.D.—
1 Shap granite.
Reported by Mr. H. H. Corsert, If.2.C.S.
Cutworth and Sprotborough—
1 Shap granite; 2 orthoclase-porphyries; 3 diorites; 3 basalts; 1 carboni-
ferous grit; 1 weathered granite; 1 mountain limestone.
Balby.—At the Balby Brickworks—
1 basalt; 1 granophyre; 2 granites; 1 gneiss; 1 volcanic agglomerate; 1
quartz-porphyry.
Doncaster.—Found in excavating behind the Old Free Library—
1 basalt.
Reported by Mr. J. Farrau.
Claro Hill—
2 Shap granites. Nowremoved to the entrance to the Workhouse at Marton
cum-Grafton.
Reported by Mr. P. F. Kenpatt, 7.G.S8.
Saltburn—
1 Augite-syenite (Laurvikite).
Staithes—
1 Rhomb-porphyry. These two erratics were found as pebbles on the beach ;
they are the most northerly occurrences of the respective rocks.
Reported by the Hull Geological Society.
By Mr. F. F. Watton, 2.4.8.
Scarborough.—In drift 12 feet from the surface of the scarped cliff
at Castlefield—
1 Estuarine sandstone.
By Mr. J. W. Sratuer, 7.G.S.
Holderness—Dr. Munthe of Upsala University recognised in Mr.
Stather’s collection from the Boulder-clay of Holderness two rocks from
localities adjacent to the Baltic—
1 ‘ Post-Archean granite’ from Angermanland or Aland, Sweden; 1 Hallé-
flinta (? from Smaland, Sweden).
Holderness and South Ferriby—The Chalk belemnites which are fairly
common in the Boulder-clays here have been determined by Mr. Jukes
352 REPORT—1897.
Browne as Belemnitella lanceolata (Schloth). This belemnite is not
recorded from the Yorkshire Chalk, but B. guadrata, which is exceedingly
plentiful in the Upper Chalk of Yorkshire, I have not seen in the clays.
IstE or Man.
Reported by Rev. S. N. Harrison.
Kirk Bride shore—
1 Shap granite, subangular, striated.
Port Lewaigue shore—
1 Shap granite.
The Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of Oceanic
Islands.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
FLower (Chairman), Professor A. C. Happon (Secretary), Mr.
G. C. Bourne, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Professor W. A. HERpMan, Dr.
JoHN Murray, Professor Newron, Mr. A. E. SaipLey, and
Professor W. F. R. WELDON. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Tue Committee are not able to report any practical results from their
appeal of last year, but they hope, by keeping the matter before the
public, to eventually arouse an interest in the important objects which
the Committee have in view.
Although nothing definite has been accomplished this year, the Secre-
tary, acting in co-operation with a committee in Cambridge, is organising
an expedition, which will start next February, for the purpose of con-
tinuing his researches on the Anthropology of the Torres Straits Islanders.
These people occupy an area between that held by the Papuans on the
one hand and by the Australians on the other ; and, although it is well
known that they belong essentially to the Melanesian race, it is important
to finally establish their ethnic affinities. The natives are rapidly dis-
appearing, or are becoming modified by mixture with other races, and
thus there is an immediate need that they should be thoroughly studied
before it is too late to make accurate anthropological observations.
Mr. Sidney H. Ray, the recognised expert on the languages of
Oceania, will accompany the expedition. He has already published
studies on the two languages of Torres Straits and on that of the
neighbouring coast of New Guinea.! The other members of the ex-
pedition will consist of men trained in various branches of biology,
particularly in anthropology and physiology. So far as opportunity
offers, various branches of the anthropology of the natives will be studied
and numerous photographs taken. All the collections of objects illustrat-
ing the anthropography and ethnography of the Torres Straits Islanders
will be presented to appropriate museums.
The zoology and botany cf the islands will not be neglected, but the
services of a naturalist have net yet been secured.
1 Proc. Royal Irish Acad., 3rd. sc>. vol. ii. (1893), pp. 463-616; vol. iv. (1896),
pp. 119-373.
THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 353
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN, Professor
KE. Ray LanKester, Professor W. F. R. WELDON, Professor §. J.
Hickson, Mr. A. SEDGWICK, Professor W. C. McInrosu, Mr. W. E
Hoy .e, and Mr. Percy SLApENn (Secretary).
APPENDIX PAGE
I.— Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr.H.M. VERNON . . 354
Il.—-List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
July 1, 1896, to June 30,1897 .
Ill.—List of Papers which were published in 1896 dy Yy Naturalists who
have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station . 357
Tue table in the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Associa-
tion has been granted during the past year to Mr. H. M. Vernon, Miss
A. Vickers, and Professor W. F. R. Weldon.
Mr. Vernon has occupied the table during the months of April, May,
‘and June, and continued his investigations on the effects of environment.
upon the development of Echinoderm larve. He has furnished a prelimi-
nary report upon his work, which will be found appended.
Miss Vickers, who was engaged in studying the Alge of the Gulf of
Naples, has, through the kindness of Professor Dohrn, occupied the table
for nearly two months concurrently with Mr. Vernon. Your Committee
desire to express their appreciation of this generous act of consideration
on the part of Professor Dohrn. Owing to the early date of the meeting:
this year Miss Vickers’s report has not yet been received.
Professor Weldon proposed to occupy the table during the months of
July, August, and September, to investigate the phenomena of variation
in Crustacea ; and the result of his work will of necessity form part of
next year’s report.
An application for permission to use the table during the ensuing year
has been received from Mr. J. Parkinson, for the purpose of making in-
vestigations on the budding of the compound Ascidians, especially of the
Botryllids. He wishes to go to Naples at the beginning of October and‘
to remain six months.
An application has also been received from Mr. James F. Gemmill,.
Lecturer on Vertebrate Embryology in the University of Glasgow, for:
permission to use the table during the months of September and October.
In support of this application Professor Dohrn has kindly written to say
that he will be glad to allow Mr. Gemmill to occupy a table, if approved
by the Committee, concurrently with any other appointment made by the:
Committee. ‘
Other applications have also been received ; in fact, more candidates
for the table have recently come forward than at any previous period.
Your Committee trust that the General Committee will sanction the
payment of the grant of 100/., as in previous years, for the hire of the
table in the Zoological Station at Naples.
On April 14 there was commemorated at Naples the twenty-fifth
anniversary of the foundation of the Zoological Station. The occasion
was observed with much ceremony ; and a number of eminent scientific
men and high officers of State assembled to congratulate Professor Dohrn
1897. AA
3854 REPORT—1897.
and to confer upon him and his colleagues various orders of dignity and
academic honours. Among the numerous addresses presented to Professor
Dohrn, one, subscribed by more than nineteen hundred naturalists and
philosophers from all parts of the world, is sufficient to indicate the esteem
in which the Zoological Station is universally held. In the course of an
eloquent speech Professor Dohrn specially acknowledged his gratitude and
indebtedness to the British Association for their support, which has ex-
tended from the early critical period of the station’s existence up to the
present time.
The progress of the various publications undertaken by the station is
summarised as follows :—
1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’ the monographs
by Dr. G. Jatta on ‘I Cefalopodi, Sistematica’ (pp. 268, 31 plates), and
by Dr. H. Ludwig on ‘Seesterne’ (pp. 491, 12 plates), have been pub-
lished.
2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel’
vol. xii. part iii., with 7 plates, has been published.
3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1895
has been published.
4, A new and greatly revised English edition of the ‘Guide to the
Aquarium’ has been published.
The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station,
which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at
the end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who
have occupied tables since the last report, and (2) of the works published
during 1896 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station.
I. Report on the Occupction of the Table. By Mr. H. M. Vernon.
The Conditions of Animal Life in Marine Aquaria.
I was originally appointed to the British Association table at Naples
for the months of April and May, but my term was subsequently extended
to the end of June. My object in coming to Naples was to continue some
work I had been engaged upon during a previous stay at the Zoological
Station. This work consisted in an investigation upon the effects of
environment upon the development of Echinoderm larve. Atthe present
time I am endeavouring to elucidate something as to the conditions of
Animal Life—especially as regards those appertaining to Marine Aquaria
—hby the help of these larve, which are obtained very readily by means
of artificial fertilisations.
The work consists of two more or less distinct parts—first, of the
growing of the larve of Strongylocentrotus lividus under various condi-
tions, and then preserving and measuring them under the microscope, so
as to determine what change, if any, has been produced in their size by
the different environmental conditions ; and secondly, of the analysis of
the various specimens of water in which the larve are allowed to develop,
so as to determine how the degree of organic impurity of the water affects
the growth of the larve, and how this impurity may be most effectually,
as judged by both chemical and physiological standards, removed.
The analyses of the water thus far made have consisted in determining
F wR: Rape ae
THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 355
only the free ammonia and the albuminoid ammonia present. The
method used is the well-known one of distilling off a portion of the water,
and determining the ammonia present in the distillate colorimetrically
after the addition of Nessler’s reagent, and then further distilling after
the addition of an alkaline solution of permanganate of potash, thereby
obtaining in the distillate what is known as the albuminoid ammonia
present in the water. The values thus obtained afford a fair criterion as
to the comparative amounts of organic impurity present.
As, at the time of writing, I have been engaged on this work only
about two months, the results obtained must necessarily be regarded as of
a somewhat preliminary nature. Such as they are, however, they seem
to show that the method is one of some value. A good many experiments
have been made to determine the most favourable conditions for the
removal of the ammonia, which is present in large quantities in the tank
water of the Aquarium, by means of vegetable life. It has been found
that the alga Ulva removes the free ammonia present fairly rapidly, though
it has not much influence on the albuminoid ammonia. Indeed, if the
amount of this alga taken is more than about one square inch per litre of
water this actually increases in amount, presumably owing to the meta-
bolism of the vegetable tissues. The alga acts best in diffused daylight, it
being bleached in sunlight. Larvz allowed to grow in water purified by
this moderate amount of alga were found to be 14 per cent. larger’ than
those grown in the unpurified water. If too much alga has been added
they are smaller than the normal, or do not develop at all.
Probably vegetable life exerts its influence most powerfully through
the agency of minute alge and diatoms. Thus it was found that every
grain of the coarse sand which is placéd in the tanks of the Aquarium is
covered with a thin layer of alge and diatoms, and that in water filtered
fairly rapidly through a layer of this sand a few inches deep the amount
of free ammonia present is diminished to about a fifteenth of its previous
amount.
Several other possible means of purification of the water have been
examined. Thus it has been found that if water be exposed to sunlight
a few days in a flask filled up to the neck, whereby very little surface
comes into contact with the air, the amount of ammonia present is, if
anything, increased, but yet larvee subsequently grown in such water are
15 per cent. larger than the normal. Larve grown in water which has
been exposed to the action of the air as well as the sun in a flat, covered
glass jar are, however, rather smaller than the normal, and also the
ammonia present in such water is appreciably increased. Larve grown
in water previously heated to boiling are slightly increased in size.
Again, a series of observations is being made upon the relative capa-
cities for ‘fouling’ water possessed by various members of the animal
kingdom. Various animals of known weights are placed for known times
in measured volumes of water, and the increase in the amount of ammonia
present is then determined in a portion of the water. In another portion
larvee are allowed to develop, and so by subsequent measurement the
adverse effect on their growth of the products of metabolism of the various
animals is determined. Still, again, other observations are being made as
to the effects upon the growth of the larve of the addition of various
salts, such as nitrates, nitrites, and ammonium salts, to the water.
In conclusion I wish to offer my thanks to the Committee of the
British Association for the privilege of being allowed to hold the table, »
' AA2
356 REPORT—1897.
and also to the authorities at the Zoological Station at Naples for their
invariable kindness and assistance to me in my work,
Il. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1896 to the end of June 1897.
Duration of Occupancy
Num- State or University
beron| Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of Arrival Departure
907 | Stud. P. Dorello . | Italy - - . | July 7,1896 | Aug. 21, 1896
908 | Prof. S. Apathy . | Hungary. 3 ; yp LOS tues Oct. 28, .,
909 |. Prof. F. S. Monticelli | Italy ; : 5 950 LBs, 95 AIPONO We 20S. 45
910 | Prof. A. della Valle . | Modena . 5 7 =U Salen Sept.24, ,,
911 | Prof. V. Chmielevsky | Russia . ; S Penta? os by alah gs
912 | Dr. A. Romano. . | Italy é 3 vi WAuel ewes; —
913 | Dr. V. Diamare. ; a : A i strlen eke —
914 | Dr. A. Russo. ‘ af ‘ : ; en ae Oct. 19, ,,
915 | Prof. S. Trinchese 5 5 4 ; Pe Ia eel id BIT aE eae ss
916 | Stud. J. W. Langelaan| Holland . : 3 eo Wee ie ee
917 | Dr. Mazza . . | Italy ‘ ; le; Oy Sept. 3, ,,
918 | Prof. Oltmanns. .| Baden . C . | Sept. 4, ,, Oct. 20, »;;
919 | Dr. H. Boruttan . | Prussia . i . a? ABs Nove. 42,. 055
920 | Prof.G.B.Grassi .| Rome . ‘ : sie, One asset (RO Gtamaeae ass
921 | Dr. A. Bethe . . | Strasburg p A ay bah taal cl ONG aoe tes
922 | Stud. O.Fragnito . | Italy A : ‘ ay be Hanae —_
923 | Dr. M. Bedot . . | Switzerland . i Day SS Oct. 26, ,,
924 | Prof. d’Abundo. . | Italy 3 Z : p24, yO;
925 | Prof. Th. Studer . | Switzerland as IG meee ae
926 | Prof. Th. Ziehen . | Prussia . ‘ Sa Octs . Tosti. be ete an
927 | Mr. L. J. Picton . | Oxford . . 3 5 25s sy ee neon a
928 | Mag. G. Schneider . | Russia . : Sollsivery Mar. 17, 1897
929 | Dr. T. Beer . . | Austria . : B 1 CG, Sap |PAtprs;
930 | Dr. A. Kramer . . | Wirtemberg . , 5; LGS its Dec. 15, 1896
931 | Mr. A. Mordivilko . | Russia . : . | Nov. 5, ,, | Feb. 13,1897
932 | Prof. F. H. Herrick . | Smithsonian Instit, . » §, ; | Dee: 4, 1896
933 | Dr. G. Brandes. . | Prussia . F - sae tla sou ek ienl onl song
934 | Dr. P. Celesia . . | Italy ‘ ‘ : Pru 1 abn Seti ag Rie 25 Pl
935 | Dr. H. Driesch . . | Hamburg H ; >) OL, 74,70 )) Mayas
936 | Dr. C.Herbst . . | Prussia . ; E abt SLL oy 5) BLA
937 | Dr. Vastarini Cresi . | Italy ; : : SESE 455 =
938 | Dr. L. Schultze . | Prussia . ; d se ibe fas Feb. 12, 5,
939 | Dr. G. Schischkoff . | Bulgaria. ; i DEC lig 4 5 —
940 | Dr. L. Briiel . . | Saxony . . i Parra ee —-
941 | Mr. F. B. Stead . | Cambridge ‘ ; ft 28, —
942 | Dr. G. Tagliani . | Italy : : .| dan. 1,1897 --
943 | Dr. G. Jatta . . | Zoological Station . $1 OU Ls es ae
944 | Dr. Ph. Barthels . | Prussia . ’ ; Pea fs Pan fe aves 2
945 | Prof.G. Ruge . . | Holland . : ella tuss ae tas
946 | Dr. F. Studniéka . | Austria . ‘ | | Feb. 15, |, Pf idbed is at
947 | Dr. J. v. Uexkiill . | Strasburg ; c aoe lt Ras June 8, ,,
948 | Dr. R. Lauterborn . | Bavaria . ‘ ; Beil beaGs mes Apr.19, ,,
949 | Prof. H. EB. Ziegler . | Baden . ; Seat Salussy Papi. eee
950 | Dr. R. Krause . . | Prussia . . 2 Sah Peete be LeU as
951 | Prof. K. Kostanecki. | Austria . : z Fa Ma UDavoass ns ee aa es
952 | Dr. M. Siedlecki 5 x : “ ‘ 33 Dy 55) | Taye,
953 | Dr. O.zurStrassen .| Hesse . 3 ' ape ai 5 ale Apr. 25, ,,
954 | Stud. W.Paulcke .| Baden . i ‘ so Las sot BLO ares
955 | Prof. V. Hacker . | Wiirtemberg . : Saat ays 5 OP Se
956 | Dr. E. Meek . . | Smithsonian Instit.. 33» 19,09 ep Layee
957 | Dr. J. Sobotta . . | Prussia . : i te a is9 9: eee
958 | Dr. Sidney Wolf . | Strasburg : 3 arches ap Apr. 12, ,,
THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 357
II,. A List or NATURALISTS—continued.
Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
| List was made use of Arrival Departure
| 959 | Miss Vickers . . | British Association. | Apr. 3, 1897] May 26, 1897
960 | Prof. W. His . | Saxony . : , oe Gn. gs Apr. 19, 55
961 | Mr. H. M. Vernon . | British Association . de Oe =
962 | Dr. J. Graham . Columbia College . eae tas May 14, ,,
963 | Dr. H. Jennings . | Smithsonian Instit.. ay hla June25, ,,
964 | Dr. Fischel Austria . ; n ser ORs, May 29, ,,
965 | Dr. A. Taquin . . | Belgium . (| 4 sae LBs 45 —
966 | Prof. A. Sewertzoff .| Russia . 5 : ai Sage —
967 | Dr. H. Neal Smithsonian Instit. . el Gaaenas May 29, ,,
968 | Dr. E. Rousseau . | Belgium . ‘ An (es hae ee —
969 | Prof, P. Samassa . | Baden . F ‘i syne O55 Junel3, ,,
ITI. A List of Papers which were published in the Year 1896 by the
Naturalists who have occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.
P. Samassa
G. Bidder . Fy
©. Herbst ‘ ‘
”
Studien tiber den Einfluss des Dotters auf die Gastrula-
tion und die Bildung der primiéren Keimblatter der
Wirbelthiere. I. Selachier, ‘Arch. f. Entwickelungs-
Mechanik.,’ B. 2, 1895
+ The collar-cells of Heteroccela.’ ‘ Quart. Jour, Micr. Sc.,
vol. 38, 1895.
. Ueber die Regeneration von antennenihnlichen Organen
an Stelle von Augen. 1. Mittheilung. ‘ Arch. f. Entw.-
Mech.,’ B. 2, 1896.
. Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber den Hinfluss der
verinderten chemischen Zusammensetzung des umge-
henden Mediums auf die Entwickelung der Thiere. 3.-6.
Theil. JZbid.
+ Ueber Regeneration von antennenihnlichen Organen.
‘Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturf. Ges. Ziirich,’ B. 41, 1896.
V. Willem und Schoenlein Beobachtungen itiber Blutkreislauf u. Respiration bei eini-
N, Iwanzofi . ‘
EE. MacBride . >
J. E. 8. Moore :
M. v. Lenhossék .
E. Drechsel
J.v. Uexkiill . ‘
A. Russo 5 ‘
”
‘'T. H. Morgan .
n
* .
gen Fischen. ‘ Zeitschr. f. Biologie, B. 32, 1896.
. Ueber den Bau, die Wirkungsweise u. die Entwickelung
der Nesselkapseln von Ceelenteraten. ‘Anat. Anz.,’ B.
11, 1896, u. ‘Bull. Soc. Natural. Moscou,’ vol. 10, 1896.
The development of Asterina gibbosa, ‘ Quart. Jour. Micr.
Sc.,’ vol. 38, 1896.
On the structural changes in the Reproductive Cells dur-
ing the spermatogenesis of Elasmobranchs. Jbid.
Histologische Untersuchungen am Sehlappen der Cephalo-
poden. ‘Arch. Mikr. Anat.,’ B. 47, 1896.
Beitrage zur Chemie einiger Seethiere. ‘ Zeitschr, f.
Biologie,’ B. 33, 1896.
Zur Muskel- u. Nervenphysiologie von Sipunculus nudus,
Tbid.
. Ueber die Function der Poli’schen Blasen am Kauapparat
. der reguliiren Seeigel. ‘Mitt. Zoolog. Station Neapel,’
B. 12, 1896.
Nuovo contributo all’ embriologia degli Echinodermi.
‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 10, 1896.
. Per un recente lavoro di E. W. MacBride sullo sviluppo
dell’ Asterina gibbosa. bid.
The number of cells in larve from isolated blastomeres of
Amphioxus. ‘Arch. f, Entw.-Mechanik.,’ B, 3, 1896.
« The production of artificial astrospheres, Ibid.
358 REPORT—1897.
H. Driesch , . . Die taktische Reizbarkeit der Mesenchymzellen von Echi-
nus microtuberculatus. Ibid.
oF ; 5 . Betrachtungen tiber die Organisation des Hiesu.s.w. Ibid.
B. 4.
3 Fi > - Zur Analyse der Reparationsbedingungen bei! Tubularia.
‘ Vierteljahrsschrift Nat. Ges. Ziirich,’ B. 41, 1896.
G.v. Koch . ; . Kleinere Mittheilungen iiber Korallen. (10. Zwischen-
knospung bei recenten Kordllen. 11. Knospung von
Favia cavernosa.) ‘ Morphol. Jahrbuch,’ B. 24, 1896.
A. Borgert . A » Zur Fortpflanzung der tripyleen Radiolarien (Phzodarien).
‘Zool. Anz.,’ B. 19, 1896.
“ sre « Die Doliolum-Ausbeute des ‘ Vettor Pisani.’ ‘Zool. Jahr-
biicher,’ Abth. f. Systematik, B. 9, 1896.
J. Sobotta . F » Zur Entwickelung von Belone. ‘ Verh. Anat. Ges.,’ 1896.
M. Wheeler , ‘ « The sexual phases of Myzostoma. ‘ Mitth. Zool. Station
Neapel,’ B. 12, 1896.
L. Neumayer . . Der feinere Bau der Selachier-Retina. ‘Archiv f. Mikr.
Anat.,’ B. 48.
H. Ziegler . 3 » Die Entstehung des Periblastes bei den Knochenfischen.
‘Anat. Anz.,’ B. 12, 1896.
” ° . - KEinige Beobachtungen zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der
Echinodermen. ‘Verh. der deutsch. Zoolog. Ges.,’ 6.Vers.,
1896 (partim).
K. Kostanecki ° - Ueber die Gestalt der Centrosomen im _befruchteten
Seeigeln. ‘Anat. Hefte, Merkel u. Bonhet,’ B. 7, 1896.
F.S. Monticelli , - Adelotacta Zoologica. ‘Mitth. Zool. Station Neapel,’ B. 12,
1896,
D. N. Voinov,. A » Halacarus Trouessarti, nouvelle espéce d’Halacarides de la
; Méditerranée. ‘Bull. Soc. Zool. dé Frafice,’ 1896.
V. Faussek . “ . Zur Cephalopodenentwickelung. ‘Zool. Anz.,’ 1896.
S. Pereyaslawzewa . - Mémoire sur l’organisation de la Nerilla antennata. 0.
Schmidt, ‘Ann. Se. Nat. Zool.,’ t. 1, 1896.
V. Hiicker ° - Pelagische Polychztenlarven. Zur Kenntniss des Neapler
Friihjahr-Auftriebes. ‘ Zeitscht. £. Wiss. Zoologie,’ B. 42,
1896.
P. Ziegenhagen , « Ueber Entwickelung der Circulation bei Teleostiern,
insbesondere bei Belone. ‘ Verhandl. der Anatom. Ges.,”
1896. : i ’
The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Seventh Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor A. Newton (Chairman),
Dr. W. T. Bianrorp, Professor S. J. Hickson,. Mr. O. Satvin,
Dr. P. L. Sciatrer, Mr. E. A. Smita, and Mr. D. SuHarp
(Secretary). :
Tue Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re-
appointed. It has continued to work in conjunction with a Committee
appointed by the Royal Society for the same purposes. Since the last
Report Mr, R. C. L. Perkins was maintained at work in the islands till
March last by aid of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu. He
has now returned to England, and is engaged in arranging his second set
of collections for being worked out. The Committee is endeavouring to
get all the material reported on by competent specialists, several.of whom
have made considerable progress. The work to be done is, however, so
extensive, especially in arthropods, that the Committee anticipates a
period of two years must elapse before the work can be satisfactorily
completed. Papers, of a preliminary nature, have been published since
the last Report by Mr. K. R. Sykes (‘Proc. Malacol. Soe.,’ 1896), by
ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 859
Mr. R. C. L. Perkins (‘ Entomol. Monthly Mag.,’ 1896), and by D. Sharp
(‘Entomol. Monthly Mag.,’ 1896). The Committee requests reappoint-
ment to enable it to complete its work.
Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Second Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir W. H. FLowErR (Chairman), Professor W.
A. Herpman, Mr. W. E. Hoyts, Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Mr. Apam
Sepewick, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. C. D. SHERBoRN, Rev. T. R. R.
STEBBING, Professor W. F. R. WELDON, and Mr. F. A. BaTHEerR
(Secretary).
THE Report presented in 1896 stated that this Committee was issuing
two circulars : (I.) Questions concerning general principles of Bibliography
and Publication, sent to experts and leading zoologists ; (II.) Suggestions
concerning various cognate matters ‘wholly within the control of editors
and publishing committees,’ sent to the editors of all publications con-
nected with zoology.
Circular I. has been sent to 115 zoologists, the majority of whom have
had practical experience in Bibliography. From 36 of these, in various
parts of the world, replies have been received, containing, in many cases,
a detailed discussion and practical suggestions of much value. <A digest
of these replies is being drawn up, and the Committee hopes to furnish a
definite Report thereon next year. Meanwhile certain of the suggestions
and criticisms received have greatly helped the Committee in its con-
sideration of the replies to Circular IT.
To this latter Circular and its strictly practical proposals the Com-
mittee thinks it advisable to confine attention for the present. Circular
II. has been sent to the editors of nearly all the publications listed in the
‘ Zoological Record,’ viz., to some 800, the exceptions being those whose
addresses could not be ascertained ; it has also been sent to the editors of
various publications not hitherto included in the ‘ Zoological Record ’ list,
é.g., all zoological publications recently started.
Replies were not specially solicited, but comments have been received
from 39 editors or publishing bodies, to all of whom the Committee
desires to express its thanks. Among them may. be mentioned : the R.
Physical Society of Edinburgh, the Natural History Society of Glasgow,
the Cambridge Philosophical Society, the Entomological Society of London,
the Liverpool Biological Society ; ‘Nature,’ ‘Natural Science,’ ‘The
Zoologist,’ ‘The Entomologist,’ ‘The Journal of Malacology,’ ‘Journal of
Physiology,’ Cambridge ; The R. Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch; K.
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin ; K. Zool. u. Anthrop.-Ethnogr.
Museum zu Dresden ; Zoological Station in Naples ; R. Soc. Scientiarum
Bohemica ; Physikalisch-dkonomische Gesellschaft zu Kénigsberg ; R. Soc.
Sciences in Upsala ; Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou ;
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam; Geological
Society of America, Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, Essex
Institute, Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Natural History Society
of New Brunswick, ‘Science,’ ‘Bulletin of American Paleontology,’
‘Entomological News.’ All these replies are favourable to the suggestions
of the Committee in the main, and some even ask for further advice.
Exception has, however, been taken by some to suggestions 1, 3, and 7 ;
360 REPORT—1897.
while comments have also been made on suggestions 2, 4, and 5. It is
proposed to deal with these in order.
First, the Committee wishes to state clearly that it has no wish, even if
it had the authority, to lay down laws for zoologists or for publishing
bodies and editors. It is, however, plain that many are grateful for
some guidance, and the Committee hopes that it may serve as a medium
for conveying to those who need it the general opinion of the experienced.
There are also difficulties which, though they appear to some insuperable,
may possibly be surmounted in ways that have been communicated to the
Committee.
(1) ‘That each part of a serial publication should have the date
of actual publication, as near as may be, printed on the wrapper,
and, when possible, on the last sheet sent to press.’
Five correspondents do not see the use of this, thinking that the date
on the wrapper is enough, and that in the case of annual publications the
date of the year suffices. The Committee would point out that wrappers
are constantly lost in binding, and that periodicals are often broken up by
specialists or second-han1 booksellers, the consequent loss of date causing
much trouble to workers of a later day. To avoid this, the Cincinnati
Society of Natural History would add the date at the head of each paper,
while ‘ Natural Science’ prints the month and year across every page-
opening. Some societies, e.g. the Philadelphia Academy, issue a certificate
of dates at the end of the volume. The Liverpool Biological Society ‘ put
at the head of each paper the date when it is read, and are willing to add
the date when it is printed off’: neither of these dates are necessary, and
they may be misleading, In most cases the actual day of publication is
immaterial, especially in cases where no new species are described, but at
least the month should always be given, and the Committee does not see
that there need be any difficulty in doing this. If some unforeseen delay
does occur, the date can always be rectified with a date-stamp.
(2) ‘That authors’ separate copies should be issued with the
original pagination and plate-numbers clearly indicated on each
page and plate, and with a reference to the original place of publi-
cation.’
The Committee believes this to be a most important recommendation,
and its view is supported by all the zoologists consulted. Nevertheless,
many leading publications continue to issue authors’ copies repaged, and
often without reference to volume-number, date, or even the name of the
periodical. The remedy is so simple that the Committee urgently appeals
for its universal application.
(3) ‘That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed
privately before the paper has been published in the regular
manner.’
Tt is a curious fact that on this question editors take a different line
to working zoologists. All the latter who have discussed the matter
agree with the Committee as to the extreme inconvenience caused by the
general custom. Among the editors, however, nine (7.e., nearly one-
quarter) protest against the present recommendation. The objectors
represent small societies which publish at lengthy intervals, and their
reasons are : that it is not fair to an author to prevent him from receiving
ON ZOOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND PUBLICATION. 361
his separate copies for perhaps a year ; that it is not to the advantage of
science that work should thus be delayed ; that a society which did this
would receive fewer contributions and lose its members. In brief, the
argument is: ‘We are too poor to publish properly ; therefore we must
allow authors to publish improperly.’ This form of argument suggests an
easy remedy, and one that, on the informal suggestion of the Committee,
has already been put into practice by the Liverpool Biological Society
and by the R. Physical Society of Edinburgh. The remedy is this :
In cases where a volume or part can only appear at long intervals, each
author that requires separate copies of his paper for private distribution
before its publication in the volume or part should be permitted them only
on this condition—that, for every month before the probable issue of the
volume, a certain number of copies—say five—should be placed by him in
the hands of the society or its accredited publisher, in order that they may
be offered for sale to the public at a fixed price. Further, that the society,
for rts part, should announce the publication, with price and agent, of their
papers to some recognised office, or to some such paper as the ‘ Zoologischer
Anzeiger.” The details of expense must be settled between the author and
the socrety.
(4) ‘That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in
its title, while keeping the title as concise as possible.’
It is satisfactory to find no objections raised to this recommendation,
since there is no doubt that there is room for much improvement in this
direction. Such phrases as ‘ Further contributions towards our knowledge
of the... . ,’ or ‘Hinige Beobachtungen tber ... . ,’ or ‘ Essai d’une
Monographie du genre ....’ might well be dispensed with as super-
fluous. ‘The ornithologist who, in 1895, published a book with a title of
ninety-one words would seem to have forgotten the functions of a
preface.
On the other hand, it is pointed out that certain periodicals, such as
the ‘ Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France’ and the ‘Sitzungs-
berichte der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin’ publish
communications without any title, to the constant confusion of naturalists
The Committee begs to urge the reform of this practice, in which it can
see no advantage.
(5) ‘That new species should be properly diagnosed, and
figured when possible.’
The only comment on this is the proposed omission of the words
‘when possible.’ With this the Committee sympathise, but wish to avoid
all appearance of laying down a law that would constantly be broken.
(6) ‘That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant foot-
notes or anonymous paragraphs.’
Naturally nobody supports such actions as are here objected to, but
since some have doubted the possibility of the latter, it is as well to state
that the suggestion was based on an actual case occurring in the Report
of a well-known International Congress. The proposal of a new name,
without diagnosis, in a footnote to a student’s text-book, or in a short
review of a work by another author, is a by no means rare occurrence.
The Committee believes that such practices are calculated to throw nomen-
clature into confusion rather than to advance science.
362 REPORT—1897.
(7) ‘That references to previous publications should be made
fully and correctly if possible, in accordance with one of the recog-
nised sets of rules for quotation, such as that recently adopted by
the French Zoological Society.’
Dr. Paul Mayer, of Naples, writes : ‘Most authors are extremely idle
in making good lists of literature themselves, and even oppose my correct-
ing them according to our rules. There ought to be some training in this
at our Universities.’ This is confirmed by one or two other editors, but
not all have the energy of Dr. Mayer. Some, indeed, oppose the word
‘fully’ on the ground that it leads to waste of time and space. The
Committee would explain that the reference to a particular set of rules
was intended merely as a guide to those who have not had the training
that Dr. Mayer would like to see ; they would also point out, in the
words of the editor of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, that
‘what may be intelligible to the specialist is very puzzling to the general
student.’ Nowadays, when so many zoologists work with the aid of
authors’ separate copies, it is an enormous convenience to them to have
the title of the paper at least indicated, and not merely the volume, date,
and pagination given. The Committee, therefore, cannot agree that this
suggestion involves a waste of time.
Finally, the Committee recommends that copies of this Report bédis-
tributed to the editors of all publications connected with zoology’; and
for this purpose it recommends its reappointment with a grant of 6/. ls.
for expenses of printing and postage.
Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Interim Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor NEwTon (Chairman), Mr. JOHN
CorDEAUX (Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M.
BaRrineTon, Rev. E. Ponsonsy KnusBiey, and Dr. H. O. Forses,
appointed to work out the details of the Observations of the Migra-
tion of Birds at Lighthouses and Iightships, 1880-87.
Ir is with extreme regret that your Committee have to report the serious
illness of Mr. William Eagle Clarke, shortly after his return last autumn
from the delta of the Rhone, to which his zeal in investigating the sub-
ject of Bird Migration had led him at an unhealthy season. In conse-
quence of this illness he has been able to make but little progress in
executing the task of working out the details of the Observations already
so successfully digested by him, which task had been entrusted to him by
your Committee.
It seems quite certain that no useful result could follow from at pre-
sent placing in other hands any of the records which the Committee
possess, even if such a course would be fair to Mr. Clarke, who has already
bestowed so much labour and time upon them, and therefore your Com-
mittee, in the hope of his eventual recovery, respectfully request reappoint-
ment.
« oa,
a
ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 363
Life Conditions of the Oyster : Normal and Abnormal.—Second Report
of the Conunittee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chair-
man), Professor R. Boyce (Secretary), Mr. G. C. Bourne, and
Professor C. S. SHERRINGTON, appointed to Report on the Hlucidation
of the Life Conditions of the Oyster under Normal and Abnormal
Environment, including the Hfect of Sewage Matters and Pathogenic
Organisms. (Drawn up by Professor HerpMan and Professor
Boyce.)
The Green Disease.
Since our Report, read at the Liverpool Meeting of the British Associa-
tion Jast September, in which we announced that we had discovered a pale
green disease, accompanied by a leucocytosis, in certain American oysters
laid down on our coasts, two papers have appeared which require brief
notice. One of these is an article by Dr. D. Carazzi in the ‘ Mittheilungen’
of the Naples Zoological Station for 1896, and the other is the ‘ Supple-
ment to the Report of the Medical Officer for 1894-95,’ which deals with
oyster culture in relation to disease, and which appeared towards the end
of 1896.
Dr. Carazzi has worked with the ordinary European oyster (Ostrea
edulis) at Spezia. The green oysters which he has investigated are
the ‘ Huitres de Marennes,’ and some oysters of unknown origin which
he obtained from the bottom of a yacht. He has also had specimens of
the Portuguese oyster, but, so far as appears, no American oysters. He
considers that all the green oysters he has examined have been healthy.
He has apparently not seen any condition at all resembling the pale chalky
green, unhealthy state that we find in certain American oysters, and so he
seems inclined to deny its occurrence! We have endeavoured to demon-
strate to Dr. Carazzi the existence of this: diseased condition by sending
him both living specimens and also pieces of the affected mantle, é&c.,
fixed, preserved, and imbedded in paraffin ready for sectioning. Dr. Bul-
strode, in the Medical Officer’s Report referred to below, has clearly met
with the green disease we described last year ; and we have also had the
satisfaction of showing it to Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, of Helder, who visited
our laboratories last February for the purpose of seeing our oyster work.
Our specimens and preparations have also been seen at all stages of the
investigation by our assistants and colleagues! at University College,
Liverpool.
The latter of the two works, a book of 174 pages, and many illus-
trations, consists of reports by Dr. Thorne Thorne, Dr. E. Klein, and
Dr. Bulstrode, upon the conditions under which oysters are cultivated
and stored, and upon the connection between unhealthy conditions and
the presence of pathogenic organisms in the oysters. Although these
reports contain little that was not known to those interested in the
subject, still they served to draw public attention to what had been only
previously known to oyster investigators, viz., that some—by no means
1 Our thanks are especially due to Professor Sherrington, Dr. C. Kohn, Dr.
Abram, Mr. Cole, and Mr. Scott. We are indebted to Mr. C. Petrie, Liverpool, and
Mr. Rupert Vallentin, Falmouth, for help in obtaining special kinds of oysters.
364 REPORT—1897.
all—of our oysters and mussels are grown or kept under most insanitary
conditions, and so may, when taken as food, without the necessary precau-
tions, from unhealthy localities, cause disease or poisoning. The con-
clusions on the public health question are entirely in accord with what we
(Boyce and Herdman) recommended in a former report (Ipswich, 1895) as
the two requisite sanitary measures, namely, first, the inspection of all
grounds upon which shellfish are grown or bedded, so as to ensure their
practical freedom from sewage ; and, secondly, the use, when necessary, of
what the French call ‘ dégorgeoirs’—tanks of clean water in which the
oysters should be placed for a short time before they are sent to the
consumer.
Copper in Oysters.
There are two other points in the Medical Officer’s Report to which
we must allude. The first is that Dr. Bulstrode’s report corroborates our
account of the pale green disease which we have discussed in our pre-
vious papers, and which we refer to more fully below. He has independ-
ently met with a condition in oysters from the South Coast of England
which is clearly the diseased condition we had described. This is the
more important as Dr. Carazzi in the paper referred to above seems
inclined to doubt our account of the pale green disease. The second
point is that Dr. Thorpe, who examined some green oysters obtained
by Dr. Bulstrode at Falmouth, found that they contained a notable
amount of copper. This observation has raised once more the question,
which was by many considered settled, as to whether large amounts
of copper might be taken up by the oyster, and as to whether any of
the green forms of oyster owe their colour to copper.
We have alluded in former reports! to the great difference of opinion
that has existed in the past as to the green colour of certain oysters, and
there can be no doubt that that difference of opinion has been largely due
to the fact that the observers worked with different kinds of oysters. Some
investigated Marennes oysters (0. edulis) and found that with dark blue-
green gills they were in a perfectiy healthy state, that they contained very
little copper, and that some iron was present in the pigment. In all that
they were perfectly correct ; but that does not prove that the pale green
American oyster (0. virginica) is also in a healthy state, and that its green
colour is due to iron and not copper. If there is one thing more than
another which this investigation has taught us, it is caution in drawing
general conclusions from what is found in one oyster or one brand of
oysters. At an early period of the investigation we were inclined to agree
with some previous investigators that copper, though present in small
quantity in all oysters, had nothing to do with the green colour; but now
we have to definitely announce that we find copper in considerable quan-
tity in the green American oysters, that the copper reaction coincides
histologically with the green granular leucocytes, and that consequently
the copper may be regarded as the cause of the green colour.
Professor Bizio records that he found (in 1835 to 1845) copper in
oysters at Venice; and he suggests that the colour of the Marennes
oyster is due to a compound of copper. Subsequent work upon Marennes |
oysters, in which little or no copper was found, may have seemed to throw
1 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1896, p. 668; and Report Lancashire Sea-fisheries Laboratory
for 1895 and 1896.
a i
7 he
ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 365
discredit on Bizio’s observation ; but we think it very possible, in the
light of our recent experience, that Bizio was dealing with the same
copper-bearing green pigment that we have met with.
From numerous analyses that have been made for us by Dr. C. Kohn,
it is pretty certain that about 0:006 grain (0°4 mgrme.) of copper is the
amount that is normally present in the healthy oyster ; and this copper is
usually supposed to be located in the hemocyanin, which, as Fredericq
and others have shown, is a constituent of the blood of many crustaceans
and molluscs. The amount of copper, however, that we have lately found
in green oysters is far in excess of what can be accounted for as due to
the hemocyanin.
Out of 120 American oysters opened at one time, we picked the six
greenest and the six whitest. Dr. Kohn analysed these for us and found
that the six green ones contained 3°7 times as much copper as the white.
This shows that there is an absolute increase in the amount of copper
present in the body, and not merely a redisposition, such as the concen-
tration of the copper of the hemocyanin in certain leucocytes.
Further, Dr. Kohn finds that the greenest parts of an oyster, if
snipped out and analysed, contain, in a ratio corresponding to that stated
above for whole oysters, more copper than the corresponding parts of a.
white oyster. These experiments, and the histological reactions described
below, demonstrate the coincidence of the copper distribution with the
green colour.
Seat of the Green Colour.
It may be well that we should state again the method of occurrence
and the histological distribution of the green colouring matter. In the
American oyster (O. virginica) re-bedded on the English coast, a well-
marked pale chalky green colouration is frequently observed, especially
in autumn. This colour, in its appearance and distribution, is unlixe
that seen in the gills of the Marennes oyster. It may occur in patches:
on the mantle, but more frequently it is confined to the vessels and
heart ; in some cases, owing to the universal injection of the vessels,
the entire oyster has a greenish tinge. Microscopic examination shows
that the green colour is due to leucocytes, which are coarsely granular.
The leucocytes are ameeboid and tend to collect in masses. The oysters
in which this massing of green leucocytes occurs do not appear to us
as healthy as those which are colourless. They are frequently thin,
with the liver shrunken, but we were unable to find evidence of any
parasitic or other irritative cause of the disease, either by staining or
cultivation. Examination of considerable numbers of the English native
(O. edulis) shows that the green colouration is occasionally encountered
in that form, and that it is due to the same cause, but it is by no means
so frequent as in the American species.
Investigation of the Pigment.
The following are our details of the histo-chemical investigation of
the pigment. The green pigment is insoluble in boiling alcohol, ether,
chloroform, xylol, and other fat solvents ; it is soluble in dilute acids and
alkalis. The addition of potassic ferrocyanide to sections containing
the green colouring matter, or to the leucocytes themselves, gives a red
reaction, indicating the presence of copper ; but the reaction can be
366 REPORT—1897.
most readily obtained by the addition of a small quantity of ‘5 per cent.
hydrochloric acid to the potassic ferrocyanide. Ammonium-hydrogen
sulphide gives also an immediate reaction with the green pigment.
Ammonia strikes a beautiful blue wherever there is green. It was then
found that pure hematoxylin is an extremely delicate test, giving an
immediate blue reaction in exceedingly dilute solution. Previous treat-
ment of the green colouring matter by 3 per cent. nitric acid in alcohol
prevented these reactions, and subsequent treatment with acidulated
potassic ferrocyanide resulted in a very faint general prussian blue coloura-
tion of the tissue generally. We concluded that there was no inorganic
aron present in the leucocytes, that the leucocytes which form the green
patches contain a considerable quantity of copper, and that, just as in the
case of iron, as shown by Professor Macallum,! pure hematoxylin is a
most delicate test, but that great care must be taken to ascertain by other
reagents which of the metals is present. Very numerous tests were
made with the blood obtained from white oysters, and micro-chemical
reactions revealed in some instances faint traces of copper. Hzemocyanin
has been described in the blood of molluscs and apparently in the blood
of the oyster. We have examined numerous samples of blood taken from
the white oyster, but have failed to get any blue colouration on exposure
to air. In the green oysters a very faint blue colour has been noticed in
some cases on exposing the blood to air.
Cause of the Pigmentation.
There can be no doubt that Ryder,? in America, about 1880, investi-
ated the same kind of green oyster with which we are dealing. He
showed that the green colouring matter was taken up by the ameboid
blood-cells, and that these wandering cells containing the pigment were
to be found in the heart, in some of the blood-vessels, and in aggregations
in ‘cysts’ under the surface epithelium of the body. He describes the
colour (in the ventricle) as a ‘delicate pea-green,’ and states that it is
not chlorophyll nor diatomine ; he suggests that it may be phycocyanin
or some allied substance. We have now shown that it is due to a copper
compound.
We consider that Ryder came nearer to what we now consider to be
the truth than any previous investigator has done. He was trying to
show that the colour was derived from the food. Carazzi has recently
suggested that the colour (this, it must be remembered, is in the Marennes
oyster), due to iron, is derived from the bottom on which the oyster is
lying. We have tried numerous experiments in feeding oysters on iron and
copper salts, both soluble and insoluble, of various strengths, and also in
keeping oysters on a bottom of iron or copper salts—including rusty iron,
old copper, and copper filings—but in none of these experiments (the full
details of which we shall publish later) have we got sufticiently consistent
and continuous results to enable us to determine whether or not the animal
obtains its copper from the contents of the alimentary canal or from the
water through the surface of the body. These experiments and observa-
tions are still being carried on.
1 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 1896; and Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1896,
. 973.
2 U.S. Fish Commission. Reports and Bulletins from 1882 to 1884.
Sa
ON THE LIFE CONDITIONS OF THE OYSTER. 367
We may add that the green oysters containing copper are found in
some localities where there can be no question of copper mines or old
copper from ships’ bottoms. We venture to suggest that the pigmentation
may be due to a disturbed metabolism whereby the normal copper of the
body becomes stored up in certain cells.
We desire to continue this work. Our investigation is drawing to
a conclusion, but there are still some points we hope to settle, such as
the origin of the copper and the conditions determining its deposition.
The colouring matter in the other kinds of green oysters also requires
reinvestigation. We desire, then, that the Committee should be
reappointed for one year more, with the addition of Dr. Kohn, who has
rendered us valuable service on the chemical side, and with a grant to
meet the expenses of the investigation.
Index Animalium.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
FLOWER (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Schater, Dr. H. Woopwarp, Rey.
T. R. R. Stessinc, Mr. R. MacLacuuan, and Mr. F. A. BATHER
(Secretary), appointed to superintend the Compilation of an Index
Animalium.
THE object of this Committee is to prepare, and ultimately to publish, an
index to every name, whether valid or invalid, that has ever been applied
as the generic or specific denomination of an animal, recent or fossil.
The work of compiling the Index is carried on by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn
at the British Museum (Natural History).
The Committee has decided to deal first with the names occurring in
literature published: between the years 1758 and 1800 inclusive, since this
section of the literature is the most important for questions of priority.
Within these limits Mr. Sherborn has during the past year prepared a
list of the literature to be searched.
Since the last Report was drawn up 982 volumes and tracts have
been indexed, and about 10,000 species listed. In addition Mr. Sherborn
has prepared a separate index of the names of animals in the tenth and
twelfth editions of Linnezus’s ‘Systema Nature,’ since it was considered
by the Committee that the publication of this would be a useful prelimi-
nary step of much value to naturalists.
The Committee begs to remind zoologists that the Index, in the form
of a card catalogue, now containing about 140,000 references, can be re-
ferred to in the library of the Geological Department of the British
Museum (Natural History) any week day between 10 a.m. and 4 P.M.
A detailed account of the methods and progress of the work was
published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society’ for 1896, pp.
610-614, and was reprinted in the ‘Geological Magazine’ (n.s., Dec. iv.,
vol. ii. pp. 557-561, Dec. 1896). A notice of this and an appeal for the
support of zoologists was published in ‘ Natural Science’ for June 1897
(vol. x. pp. 370-371).
The value of this work to zoologists (including paleontologists) and
the satisfactory progress that the grant of 100/. by the Association has
rendered possible justify the Committee in recommending its reappoint-
ment, with the addition of Mr. W. E. Hoyle, and in asking for a renewal
of the grant.
368 ; REPORT—1897.
Ajrican Lake Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
P. L. Scuater (Chairman), Dr. Joun Murray, Professor E. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor W. A. HERpMAN, and Professor G. B.
HowEs (Secretary).
Mr. J. E. 8. Moors, A.R.C.S., London, left England on September 7,
1895, and returned to Europe on January 1, 1897.
The primary object of his expedition was the collection, by means of
dredging, tow-netting, and other resources, of material for the adequate
working out of the structure, and, as far as possible, the development, of
the singular fresh-water Medusa (Limnocnida tanganyike), and some
other remarkable animal forms which, from their shells brought home by
travellers, were known to inhabit Lake Tanganyika, and to present a
combination of characters unlike that of any other fresh-water stock.
Incidentally, the faunas of Lakes Shirwa, Kela, and Nyassa were as far
as possible studied ; and in this way much light has been thrown on the
geographical distribution of the fauna of the great African lakes, It
has been ascertained that Tanganyika contains at least two distinct
faunas—one which is more or less fully represented in all the great
African lakes, and another peculiar to Tanganyika itself. The latter
embraces the Medusa, some of the fresh-water fishes yet to be determined,
some new species of Crabs and Prawns, a deep-water Sponge, and mem-
bers of some eight or nine genera of Gastropods. Some of the latter are
already known from their shells (such as Z'yphobia, Lithoglyphus limno-
trochus, and Paramelania), but there are others which have yet to be
described. All these animals, like the Medusa, exhibit marked marine
affinities, but they cannot be directly associated with any living oceanic
forms ; and it is suggested they may represent the remains of a special
fauna which has persisted in the lake for a vast period.
Observations were also made upon the Protozoa of Lake Tanganyika,
with the result that there were discovered apparently new species of
Condylostoma and Peridiniwm, both of which are widely distributed
over the surface of the lake.
A number of topographical observations were made, and rock speci-
mens were collected which will add to our knowledge of the geology of the
districts visited. Besides this, representatives of classes and orders of
animals other than those referred to above were collected. Mr. Moore
is at present working out the collections at the Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, and the full results will be published in a series of
papers to be communicated to the Royal and Zoological Societies, and in
the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’
The following is a diary of Mr. Moore’s movements while in Africa : —
Arrived at Capetown on September 21, 1895, and at Durban on Sep-
tember 28. Left Durban on October 18 (having been detained by the
loss of a steamer), and arrived at Chinde on November 2. Left Chinde
on November 4, and arrived at Blantyre, via the Zambesi and Shiré
Rivers, on November 27. Being detained by the war in progress at the
north-east end of Nyassa, Mr. Moore left Blantyre for Zomba on Decem-
ber 23, and after an interview with Sir Harry Johnston, to whom Mr.
ON AFRICAN LAKE FAUNA. 369
Moore expresses his special indebtedness for assistance and advice, he left
Zomba again for Blantyre on December 26. On January 1, 1896, he left
Blantyre for Mtope, on the Upper Shiré River, and proceeded thence by
boat to Fort Liwonde. Proceeding up the Shiré River to Fort Johnston,
which was reached on January 8, he, through the kindness of Sir Harry
Johnston, was enabled to embark his men and goods on the gunboat
‘Pioneer,’ on which he proceeded up Lake Nyassa, arriving at Karonga
on February 28. There a further delay occurred, owing to the necessity
for collecting men for the march across the plateau. On reaching
Mweinwanda’s village, 40 miles N.W. of Nyassa, delay arose from fever.
On recovery, Mr. Moore proceeded to Fwambo, which was reached on
March 16. Leaving that place on the 17th, a day’s journey brought
him to the Chartered Company’s new station at Fort Abercorn, from
which, after a long day’s march, the south end of Tanganyika was reached
on March 19. The remainder of Mr. Moore’s time was passed on or
near the shores of Lake Tanganyika, in visiting places favourable for
dredging, and in making observations on the topography of the district.
Several excursions were undertaken into the surrounding country, east
and west, especially with a view to the study of the remarkable geology
of the Loofu Valley, the river of which reaches Tanganyika through a
precipitous gorge, near the south end of Cameron Bay. Mr. Moore
left Kituta on September 7, 1896, and returned by the same route as he
went up, reaching Europe on New Year’s Day, 1897.
Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.—Tenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. ScLaterR (Chairman), Mr.
GEORGE Murray (Secretary), Mr. W. Carruruers, Dr. A. C. L.
GtnTuer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. Du Cane Gopmay, Professor A.
Newton, and Sir GeorGE Hampson, on the Present State
of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and on taking Steps to investigate ascertained
Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora.
Tuis Committee was appointed in 1887, and hag been reapppointed
each year until the present time.
During the past year the following papers have been published :—
1, On the Diptera of St. Vincent (West Indies), by Professor S. W.
Williston (‘Trans. Ent. Soc.,’ London, 1896, pp. 253-446, plates 8-14).
2. On the Heteromerous Coleoptera of St. Vincent, Grenada, and the
Grenadines, by G. C. Champion (‘Trans. Ent. Soc.,’ London, 1896, 54 pp.
and 1 plate).
3. On West Indian terrestrial Isopod Crustaceans, by A. Dollfus
{‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ London, 1896, pp. 388-400).
The Committee hope during the ensuing year to complete their under-
takings. All the plants collected have either been published or are now
in the hands of experts. There remain a few groups of Insects not yet
undertaken, and the Committee request reappointment, without a grant,
to enable them to finish their work, the following to be members :
Dr. Sclater (Chairman), Mr. G. Murray (Secretary), Mr. F. Du Cane
Godman, Dr. Sharp, and Sir George Hampson.
1897, BB
370 REPORT—1897.
Investigations made at the. Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. Bourne (Chair-
man), Professor E. Ray LaNKESTER (Secretary), Professor S. H.
Vines, Mr. A. Sep@wick, and Professor W. F. R. WELpDoN,
appointed to enable Mr. WALTER GARSTANG to occupy a table at
the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth
for an experimental investigation as to the extent and character of
selection occurring among certain eels and fishes, and to cover the
cost of certain apparatus.
THE Committee have received the following report from Mr. Gar-
stang :—
‘T occupied the British Association table at the Plymouth Laboratory
during the last Easter vacation, and found the large experimental tank,
which I had arranged to be built, ready for work. A number of pre-
liminary experiments upon the relations as enemies and prey between
certain small shore-crabs and shallow-water fishes were made during my
tenure of the table, and showed the feasibility of studying the process of
selection under the semi-natural conditions of a specially constructed
aquarium. A large number of coloured figures have been made under my
direction by Miss Willis, to illustrate the course and results of the
experiments.
‘My appointment, in May last, as naturalist at the Plymouth Labora-
tory compelled me, however, to resign my occupation of the British
Association table, and has temporarily interrupted the progress of the
work, This, however, will be resumed at an early date, and I hope to be
in a position to lay the results of the inquiry before the Association at
the Bristol meeting.’
The Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. J. MACKINDER
(Chairman), Mr. A. J. HerBeRTsSoN (Secretary), Dr. J. Scorr
Kewtig, Dr. H. R. Mitt, Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, and Mr. Eur
Sowersutts. (Prepared by the Secretary.)
Tue holding of the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London,
in 1895, forcibly drew attention to the position of geography in our educa-
tional system. Sir Clements Markham, im his eloquent presidential address, —
spoke most impressively of the inadequate manner in which geography
was treated in our country, and urged the need of altering this. In the
discussion on geographical education, the British members emphasised the
statements of the President, and a committee was appointed to draw up a
resolution on the subject of geographical education. The Committee de-
cided that any resolution proposed for adoption by an International Con-
gress should not reflect on the affairs of any country, but must deal with
general considerations applicable to all countries, and accordingly the
Committee proposed and the Congress passed the following resolution :—
‘The attention of this International Congress having been drawn by ~
the British members to the educational efforts being made by the British
Geographical Societies, the Congress desires to express its hearty sympathy
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 371
with such efforts, and to place on record its opinion that in every country
provision should be made for higher education in geography, either in the
universities or otherwise.’
At the meeting of the British Association at Ipswich in 1895, the
president of the Geographical Section, Mr. H. J. Mackinder, Reader in
Geography at Oxford, discussed the question of geographical education in
his address—contrasting British and German conditions—and pointed out
the deficiencies as well as the merits of British geographers and teachers
of geography. Ultimately the Committee responsible for this report was
appointed to inquire into the position of geography in the educational
system of the country.
No report on the position of geography in our educational system can
be adequate which does not take into account Dr. Scott Keltie’s well-
known Report to the Council of the Royal Geographical Society published
as a supplementary paper of the Royal Geographical Society in 1885 (vol. i.,
Part IV.). It has not been thought necessary to discuss fully manv
matters dealt with in detail in Dr. Keltie’s report, to which readers are
referred.
Unfortunately the Committee, owing to there being no funds at their
disposal, have not been able to undertake a personal inspection of various
educational institutions at home and abroad, such as that carried out by
Dr. Keltie. They have had to rely on their individual experiences as
teachers and examiners in geography, on a comparison of documents relat-
ing to geographical education published in this and other countries, and
on numerous correspondents, both at home and abroad, to whom they now
tender their best thanks for full and courteous replies to numerous
questions. In addition to those whose communications are printed in the
Appendix are Professors Kan of Amsterdam, Malavialle of Montpellier,
Neumann of Freiburg i. B., Penck of Vienna, Elisée Reclus of Brussels.
There are obvious disadvantages about this method. Programmes
reveal the intelligence of their compilers but not the efficiency of those
who follow them in teaching. A good teacher can succeed in obtaining
excellent results with a poor syllabus, while an inefficient one may fail to
educate even when he follows a well-planned course.
Examination papers show the conceptions of geography held by the
examiners, yet the teaching may be of a much better or much worse type
than the nature of the examiner’s questions would indicate. The personal
experience of members of the Committee as examiners has been of great
service in testing how far sound geographical instruction is given in
different institutions. The previous training of their own pupils is also
a valuable index of the work done in geography in our schools.
1. HLEMENTARY EDUCATION.
A, ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
Day Schools.—In Dr. Keltie’s report in 1885, it is stated that ‘ Geo-
graphy has been made compulsory, and must be taught according toa
generally prescribed method which, if carried out everywhere with intelli-
gence and enthusiasm, would be nearly all that could be desired.’
Geography unfortunately is now only an optional subject in the
elementary schools in Great Britain. It may be one of the two possible
class subjects chosen from a number. Geography is taught in two-thirds
BB2
-
372 REPORT—1897.
of the schools in England and Wales, and about 95 per cent. of those in
Scotland. In England and Wales in 1894-95, 15,250 schools took
geography out of 23,027; in 1895-96, 15,702 out of 23,075. In Scotland
in 1894-95, 2,990 schools out of 3,063 ; in 1895-96, 3,018 out of 3,094 chose
geography as a class subject.
The syllabuses of geography differ in the two countries. (See
Appendices I. and III.)
The English syllabus has not been altered materially since 1885 ; but
the pupils no longer need to learn the geography of extra-European
countries, except British Possessions and the United States of America.
Two alternative programmes are permitted by the Education Depart-
ment for England and Wales.
Course A differs little from the ordinary programme, but is better in
so far as it emphasises the study of climate and of industrial products.
Course B has nothing about the world as a whole, but home. geography
is taught in Standard II., and the geography of Asia and Africa in
Standard VIT.
A fourth programme is printed for a combined course in history and
geography. Geography is taught only in the first four standards—in L.,
II., and III., the syllabus is the same as in the normal course, but the
geography of Europe and Canada and Australia is prescribed for
Standard IV. A fifth scheme permits the teaching of geography in
Standard IV. and higher standards, when other class subjects have been
chosen in lower standards.
The Scottish syllabus does not differ greatly from the English ones,
but includes the ‘Geography of the World in Outline.’ Only one syllabus
is given in the Scottish Code.
The syllabus for Irish National Schools (Appendix TV.) lays more
stress on maps. It is taught in all but the two lowest classes. Physical
Geography forms a subject in the science programmes of the fifth and
higher classes, and may be one of two extra subjects for which results
‘payments can be claimed.
The chief fault of these programmes is that while they permit an
extension of topographical information they make little provision for an
increase of geographical power. In them the more advanced classes in
geography learn about distant lands, but do not necessarily progress in
their knowledge of geographical principles. This is more important than
an accumulation of additional facts, and in many of Her Majesty’s
Inspectors’ reports the lack of this grasp of principles is deplored.
The reports of Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools in England and
Wales lead us to infer that a gradual, if slow, amelioration is going on
in elementary school teaching of geography, but that, while ‘the ordinary
general facts in the text-books or manuals are generally well got up,’ ‘ the
information is often too bookish and not sufficiently practical,’ and that
‘the want of definite scientific training in some teachers often leads to
imperfect or erroneous instruction in the important physical aspects of
the subject.’
In Scotland Dr. Ogilvie reports the ‘schools in which mere strings of
names and disjointed facts are glibly repeated are getting fewer and
further between.’ The Scottish inspectors also point out, however, that
while sufficient attention is paid to topography, the other more educa-
tional and more practical branches of geography are often badly treated.
When the geography syllabuses for foreign elementary schools are
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 373
compared with those of this country, it is found that many recognise the
need for more advanced geographical teaching in the higher forms.'
Evening Continuation Schools—Geography is taught in many evening
continuation schools, and is reported to be an attractive subject. The
syllabus is given in Appendix VIII. The subject of elementary physio-
graphy is also taught, but it contains very little physical geography.
B. THE TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN
GEOGRAPHY.
The successful teaching of geography in our schools depends not so
much on sufficient syllabuses or efficient inspection as on properly trained
and enthusiastic teachers.
Primary school teachers have opportunities for studying geography,
after passing the standards (1) during their apprenticeship at school, and
(2) in the training colleges.
England and Wales.—Pupil teachers revise the geography of the world
in greater detail than in the school classes (Appendices IX. and X.).
This is the preliminary work necessary before attempting the training
college entrance examination, known as the Queen’s Scholarship examina-
tion, which is on a restricted syllabus.
In England and Wales this teaching is not of a very high standard,
judging from the examiners’ reports. ‘The answers to the general
questions showed that candidates had seldom been taught to group their
information upon any principle or to lay stress on the connection between
facts.’ That is to say, the candidates seldom know any geography.
Yet there are great inducements held out to those who know enough
geography to gain distinction in this examination. The best candidates
are rewarded by being ‘released from the obligation to take up the subject
again in the training colleges, and are also exempt from it in the
certificate examinations.’
The proportion of students who take geography in the resident
training colleges is very large, but this may be due to the enlightened
views of the principals of these colleges, who may realise the need for
thorough training in geography of all elementary school teachers, most of
whom will be called upon to teach it.
The following table shows the numbers taking geography in their
certificate examinations.
Total Total
Total of | Number Total Number Number Number
First Year| taking |First Year| taking Sec ond taking el taking
Year Year Year q
Male Geo- Female Geo- Male eo- Waals e0-
Students| graphy | Students| graphy erients graphy Seudents graphy
1894 704 663 1042 1034 710 22 1002 878
1895 686 668 1046 10387 709 29 1051 1012
In some of the Day Training Colleges the majority of those who have
gained distinction in the Queen’s Scholarship examination do not take up
geography again, but this may, perhaps, be altered, by the new regulations
admitting geography as an optional subject for the first degree examina-
tion in the colleges which form Victoria University (Appendix XX XIX.).
1 See Appendices V. to VIL., giving programmes in Austria, Belgium and France.
See also Professor Levasseur’s account of French programmes in the Report of the
Sivth International Geographical Congress, London, 1895.
374 REPORT—1897.
The syllabus for the certificate examination varies from year to year,
but the same paper is set for first and second year students. (See
Appendix XI.)
The inspectors’ reports show that the quality of the work depends
largely on the quality of the teaching in the training colleges.
In the certificate examinations the subject of physiography may also
be taken. The syllabus followed is that of the Science and Art Depart-
ment, which makes physiography equivalent to elementary physical
science, and therefore a most useful preparation for physical geography,
but by no means equivalent to it, and not to be confused with it.
Scotland.—In Scotland the Code for pupil teachers is much the same
as that in England, but the syllabus of the Queen’s Scholarship examina-
tion is more general. (See Appendices XII. and XIII.)
The Scottish inspectors report that the ‘attention given to climate and
productions is inadequate,’ and that the text-book apparently is still
the only geography book of many candidates.
The standard of this examination is much higher than that in England
and Wales, for the Royal Geographical Society continues to give prizes
and certificates to the best candidates in Scotland, but not in England
and Wales.
Perhaps this explains why the attention given to geography in the
Scottish training colleges is so perfunctory, and why a smaller percentage
of candidates take geography in their certificate examinations in Scotland
than in England, for the rule excusing the better geographical students
from a further study of geography is in force in both countries.
The Committee have been informed that the pupils in most Scottish
Training Colleges, whether they study geography necessarily or voluntarily,
do so by themselves. Their work, however, is prescribed by a master,
who sets an examination paper at intervals, and afterwards criticises the
work done by the students in these examinations.
In the Scottish Code the subject is called ‘Geography and Physio-
graphy,’ and physiography is regularly taught in the training colleges.
This is obviously inadequate geographical training. The syllabus is given
in Appendix XTV.
Lreland.—In Ireland monitors have to study additional geography to
that of the class in which they are enrolled (Appendix XV.). The entrance
examination to the Training Colleges contains little or no physical geo-
graphy. Geography must be studied during the first year at the Training
College, but is not a necessary subject of the second year’s jcourse for
those who make 60 per cent. in the examination in geography at the end
of the first year (Appendix XVI.).
In Ireland, even the Inspectors and their assistants must pass an
examination in geography (Appendices X VII. and XVIII).
Other Countries.—In foreign lands teachers are usually more syste-
matically trained in geography, and programmes of their course of study
are given in Appendices XIX. to X XI.
2. SHCONDARY EDUCATION.
A. SECONDARY SCHOOLS.!
England.—In England we do not possess the guides to the position of
geography in secondary schools which could be followed in the case of
primary schools. Secondary education is still in an unorganised condition,
1 The Public Schools are included in the term Secondary Schools. .
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 375
and every variety of geographical education can be met with, for geo-
grapby is actually not taught in some schools, while in a very few cases
it may be looked upon as the central subject of the curriculum.
Several members of the Committee have had considerable personal
experience in conducting examinations in geography for secondary school
pupils. The Geographical Association, founded by secondary school-
masters interested in the teaching of geography, has been good enough to
place at the Committee’s disposal the correspondence which was received
in a recent enquiry made by them concerning geography in secondary
schools. Selections from this correspondence show what different treat-
ment is meted out to geography in different schools. The brief and
pointed letter of one headmaster may be quoted here: ‘ Dear Sir,—-We
have no army candidates and I have no interest in geography, yours truly,
, and contrasted with that of another master, who wrote : ‘ Person-
ally, I found all my teaching, historic, literary, &c., on geography, and
the results are most encouraging.’
It is impossible, therefore, toform an accurate account of the position of
geography in secondary schools in England except by personal inspection.
In a few it is adequately recognised and admirably taught, in some it is
completely neglected, in the majority it is given to a master who has had
no training and often has no interest in the subject.
As there is no authoritative body dealing with~such schools in
England, the Geographical Association consider that the best way to
improve the position and teaching of geography in the existing conditions,
is to improve its position and quality in public examinations. Accordingly
a number of suggestions have been submitted to about three hundred
secondary schools for criticism, but only one-third have taken any notice
of them. (Appendix XXITa.)
These replies have furnished the basis of a series of recommendations
which have been sent to the examining bodies affecting secondary schools.
(Appendix X XTIs.)
The examinations affecting secondary schools are those admitting to
the universities, the professional colleges, or different branches of the
national service—amilitary, naval, civil—the University Local Examina-
tions and the Examinations of the College of Preceptors and the Society
of Arts.
In some of the university and college entrance examinations geography
has a place in the examination paper in English, but in most cases it is a
very unimportant part of it. (See Appendix XXIII.)
Geography has a prominent place in many of the examinations con-
ducted by the Civil Service Commissioners, but in some of the higher
examinations it should be awarded more marks; for instance in the
Army Entrance examination, as is mentioned in the memorial of the
Geographical Association, which points out, however, that the style of
questions set in these examinations is improving.
In the University Local Examinations ‘geography is a subject both
for the Junior and the Senior Certificate, and there has recently been
established a more ambitious scheme for the higher certificate.’
The Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board conducts the examinations of
schools such as the Public Schools and the Girls’ High Schools. ‘In the
Higher Certificate Examination, Geography only comes in as incidental
to the examination in History.’ Physical Geography and Elementary
Geology forms, however, an optional subject in this examination. Geo-
376 REPORT—1 297.
graphy may be taken as an independent subject of examination for the
Junior Certificate, but is not compulsory. (See Appendix XXIV.)
The College of Preceptors conducts examinations in schools either on.
a syllabus drawn up by the college or by the school. In the former case
no geography is required in the first and second grades, but for the third
and fourth grades a syllabus is given. (See Appendix XX Va.)
Schools may be examined in extra subjects, of which physical geo-
graphy may be one or the geography of two continents another.
It is an optional subject in the professional preliminary examination
conducted by the College of Preceptors (Appendix XX Vc.) ; but no com-
mercial geography is required for the commercial certificate.
In the certificate examinations of the College of Preceptors candi-
dates, in addition to other subjects, must choose one of the three—
English, History and Geography ; but all may be taken. The out-
line of requirements seems to indicate that topographical and _ political
geography is all that is necessary ; except for first-class certificates, where:
‘ Geography, Political, Physical and Mathematical,’ is the title employed.
The Society of Arts conducts examinations in geography which are
taken advantage of by many schools.
Wales.—Mr. F. W. Phillips, Headmaster of the Newport Intermediate
and Technical School, writes: ‘Geography is an obligatory subject in all
intermediate schools, to the extent that it must be introduced into the
curriculum somewhere or another. This does not necessarily imply that.
every form in the school will take it, for the letter of the regulation, though
perhaps not the spirit, would be complied with if but one form did so.
Generally speaking, it might be taken for granted that it will be attended
to in the lower school in all cases.
‘Its fate in the upper school will depend upon :—
‘(a) The extent to which the different departments of the upper school
are developed ;
‘(b) The ultimate attitude of the Universities towards the subject.
‘The development of departments will vary with the size of the school.
The final development would give at least three strong departments,
classical, science and commercial, each of which would be represented by at
least one form, called, say, the Classical Sixth, the Science Sixth, and the:
Modern Sixth. If the school be very strong there might be three corre-
sponding fifth forms. But, for the moment, take the three Sixths into
consideration. Will they do geography ?
‘The Modern Sixth. Yes, certainly, a course of commercial geography.
‘The Science Sixth. Hardly, unless there were some distinct encourage-
ment for scientific geography in the chief science scholarships.
‘The Classical Sixth. Not unless the subject be made a possible one:
for university matriculation, or unless it were allied with history in
scholarship examination.’
Scotland._Secondary education is somewhat better organised in
Scotland than in England. The academies and high schools prepare their
advanced pupils for the leaving certificate of the Scottish Education Depart-
ment or for the preliminary examinations of the Scottish Universities.
In the examinations both of the Education Department and of the
Universities geography occupies a subordinate place in the examination
in English.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 377
The position of the Scottish Education Department has been clearly
defined as follows :—
‘With regard to history and geography, my Lords have little to add to
the remarks which they have made in previous years. These subjects
enter largely into the curriculum of many schools ; they are required by
many of the bodies by whom the leaving certificate is recognised, and my
Lords are unwilling to do anything which would discourage the con-
tinuance of such instruction. They endeavour to give a wide option in
the questions set, and to afford opportunity to all who have not entirely
neglected the subjects to show a knowledge of them in some branch or
other. More than this they have not demanded, and do not propose to
demand, as a necessary condition of a pass, but more extensive knowledge
will receive ample recognition.’ !
Candidates must answer one question, and a second question may be
attempted, if desired, in the lower grade examination, while two ques-
tions must be answered, and three may be attempted, in the higher grade
examination. Full marks can be obtained for honours grade certificates.
without any question in geography being answered. (Appendix XX VII.)
‘The geography is in general faulty, and there is rarely evidence that.
this subject is taught in any methodical way, or presented to the pupils.
in such a manner as to make a vivid impression upon them.’ ?
In the preliminary examinations for the Scottish Universities two
questions in geography have to be answered in one of the papers in
English for Arts and Science students, but only one question is compulsory
for medical students. (Appendix X XVI.)
In the Edinburgh University Local Examinations elementary history
and geography form one compulsory subject in the preliminary, geography
and physical geography two optional subjects in the junior, geography an
optional subject in the senior, and commercial history and geography a
compulsory subject in the commercial certificate examinations,
Ireland.—Geography forms part of the paper set in the examinations
of Irish intermediate education. The reports of the examiners in recent:
years indicate that some knowledge of topography is taught, especially of
the British Isles, but questions on physical geography are rarely well
answered. (See Appendix XXVIII.)
Geography is also a part of the entrance and some Scholarship exami-
nations of Trinity College, Dublin (Appendix X XIX.) ; and one question.
is usually set in this subject in the entrance examinations of the Royal
University (Appendix X XX.).
Other Countries.—In Dr. Keltie’s report detailed accounts are given
of the position of geography in the secondary education system of foreign
countries. Since then some of the programmes have been modified, some
for the better, others for the worse.
In France geography is taught in every class of the Lycées, and the
new programmes are given in Appendix XXXII. Professor Levasseur’s
paper, read to the Sixth International Geographical Congress, gives a
useful comparison of old and new programmes.
In Prussia geographers complain of a retrograde movement in the last
' Report for 1895, by HmNRY CRAIK, Esq., C.B., on the ‘Inspection of Higher
Schools and the Examinations for Leaving Certificates,’ p. 192.
2 Tb. p. 182.
378 REPORT—1897.
programme, especially in placing political before physical geography ; and
the German philologists and schoolmasters have passed a resolution
demanding that geography should be taught in every form or class of the
Gymnasium. Other German States have not followed the Prussian
authorities in this.
In the United States of America a committee of ten appointed by the
National Education Association to enquire into secondary school studies
haye recommended that physical geography should receive three hours’
teaching per week in the first year of secondary schools (age 14-15). Inthe
fourth year, in all save the classical forms, physiography, in the American
sense of the word (i.e. geomorphology), is suggested as an alternative with
geology for three hours’ work per week. The committee which advised
the committee of ten about geographical education have unfortunately
neglected advanced geography, except in its physiographic or geomorpho-
logical and meteorological aspects.
B. TRAINING OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS
IN GEOGRAPHY.
United Kingdom.—Our secondary schools need trained teachers in
geography far more than elaborate programmes. If the training of ele-
mentary school teachers leaves much to be desired, it is due not so much
to lack of organisation as to deficiencies in the ideals of the responsible
authorities. The secondary school master and mistress have had very little
chance hitherto of learning any geography, except privately or by going
to foreign institutions. The most important educational work in the
immediate future is the provision of proper geographical training for
secondary school teachers, a training which will enable them to read maps
and think geographically, and not merely to read and reproduce the
words of a text-book, to regard geography as an interpretation of a living
world and not a catalogue of positions or definitions of directions.
Most secondary school teachers in this country and abroad are trained
in the universities. But only two universities in the United Kingdom
recognise geography as an optional subject for the ordinary degree, while
a third has made it a minor subject necessary for a degree in History. In
none has it the position it occupies in the majority of even the smaller
Continental universities. There are facilities for learning some geography
at Oxford and Cambridge, and, to a slight extent, at the University Colleges
of England and Wales, as is noted in the next section of this report.
But it is to be regretted that so few masters and mistresses in our second-
ary schools have been trained in modern geographical ideas and methods.
Other Countries—The German geographers, at their last biennial con-
gress at Jenain 1897, protest most strenuously against the deterioration of
geographical teaching in Prussia in recent years, owing to the new regula-
tions which permit masters untrained in geography to teach it—the normal
condition in the United Kingdom. On this matter Dr. H. Wagner, of Gét-
tingen, says in his report of the proceedings of this Congress in the ‘Scottish
Geographical Magazine’ (June 1897) : ‘Besides the fact that the weekly
lessons in geography in the upper classes have been curtailed, a greater
evil lies in the practice of the heads of educational institutions to intrust
the teaching of geography to masters who have never studied the subject
at the university, or submitted their knowledge of this branch of learning
to the test of an examination. Dr. Fischer gave ample proofs of this from
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 379
statistics relating to the numerous schools of Berlin. Being convinced
that the higher school boards are not fully acquainted with this untoward
state of matters, or do not properly realise its consequences, the Geo-
graphical Congress resolved that Dr. Fischer’s paper should be sent to all
the high schools of Germany.’ But it must be borne in mind, as Dr. H. R.
Mill points out in his report (‘Geographical Journal,’ June 1897), that
‘this does not mean that they [the teachers uncertificated in geography]
are not without a competent general knowledge of the subject, probably
better in all cases than that possessed by even the more intelligent
English teachers.’
The conditions have not gone backwards in all German States. The
syllabus of geographical studies necessary to teach geography in the
Gymnasia of Austria and Baden are given in Appendices XX XIII. and
XXXIV.
In Belgium the teacher of geography in an Athénée is a doctor in
history and geography (Appendix XXXV.).
In the French Lycées, too, the teacher is usually an agrégé in history
and geography. The syllabus for the agrégation for 1896 is quoted in
Appendix XXXVI.
3. HIGHER EDUCATION.
Universities and University Colleges.
England and Wales.—In the United Kingdom there is one professor
and two lecturers in geography. The professorship is in King’s College,
London. There has been a reader in geography at Oxford for ten
years, and a lecturer at Cambridge for eight years. In the Victoria
University geography is taught by the geologists and economists, while
for five years an independent lectureship in geography existed at the
Owens College, which was merged in that of political economy owing
to lack of funds, and not lack of interest. In the other university
colleges of England and Wales geography is taught to training college
students who have not done well in that subject in the Queen’s Scholar-
ship examination, usually by the Master of Method, and in Birmingham
by the Professor of Geology.
In Cambridge geography is now a compulsory part of the Historical
Tripos (Appendix XX XVII.).
After ten years’ experience of geographical teaching Oxford has
resolved to make the readership in geography permanent, and geography
is recognised as an optional subject in the B.A. degree (Appendix
XXXVIII.).
Victoria University now makes geography an optional subject in its
first (preliminary) examination for the B.A. and B.Sc. degrees. An
outline of the requirements of candidates will be found in Appendix
XXXIX.
Scotland and Ireland.—These institutions do not recognise geography
as a subject of university rank, and deal with it only in their entrance
examinations (and in the case of St. Andrews in the L.L.A. examinations,
for which, however, study at a University is not required).
In Scotland this is due to no indifference on the part of the Scottish
geographers, for the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, supported by
380 REPORT—1897.
several professors, have made strong representations to the University
Commissioners, who have recently remodelled the regulations of the
Scottish universities (Appendix XLII.).
University Extension Courses.
In England and Wales the university extension Jecture system has
done something to help teachers of geography in various centres. In
1896-97, 4 courses of 25 lectures by London University Extension Lec-
turers, 5 of 12 lectures by Cambridge University Extension Lecturers,
4 of 6 lectures by Oxford University Extension Lecturers, and 1 of 12
and 1 of 10 lectures by Victoria University Extension Lecturers—in all
206 lectures.
Other Institutions.
In the London School of Economics, in the Heriot-Watt (Technical
and Commercial) College, Edinburgh, there are lecturers in geography.
The London Chamber of Commerce and other bodies have aided in the
extension of geographical knowledge. The number of professional colleges
and schools teaching applied geography is small, although the specialised
branches of the subject ought to be dealt with in such institutions and
not in the ordinary schools. The absence of Commercial Geography
from the courses of many Higher Commercial Institutions is greatly to be
deplored.
Foreign.
In the April number of ‘Petermann’s Mitteilungen,’ there is a list of
classes held and lectures being delivered at the universities and higher
schools in the German Empire, and the German parts of Austria
and Switzerland, on geography and allied subjects during the summer
session of 1897. From this list it appears that 85 professors in the
German Empire, 20 in Austria, and 9 in Switzerland are engaged in such
work, and if we omit the courses in geology and meteorology, and general
courses in statistics, anthropology, and ethnology, we find 51 professors in
the German Empire, 11 in Austria, and 5 in Switzerland, giving courses
in subjects that may be held as belonging more strictly to the domain of
geography, the number of courses being 98, 17, and 16 respectively. .. .
It would shed an instructive light on the difference of the estimation in
which geography is held as a branch of the higher education in this
country if we had for comparison a similar list for the United Kingdom,
and in the absence of such a list it may be worth while to point out
that in the list of the University Extension summer courses, given in
the April number of the ‘ University Extension Journal,’ there are only
5 geographical courses, and even if we double this number so as to take
into account the classes held after lectures . . . we have only 10 summer
courses in England (in addition to any university courses that may be
going on), to compare with the 131 courses in German Europe.!
In the ‘Geographisches Jahrbuch’ for 1896, the following are the
numbers of geographical chairs and lectureships in the universities and
colleges of the chief countries :—France, 41 ; German Empire, 35 ; Austria,
16 ; Italy, 16; Russia, 15 ; Belgium, 7 ; Switzerland, 7; United Kingdom,
5, The lecturers in the university colleges should perhaps be added to the
1 Geographical Journal, June 1897, pp. 660, 661.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 381 |
number for the United Kingdom, which would then be raised. But it is
better to deduct every teacher in the foreign institutions who has
more than geography within his province, even though it be meteorology
or ethnography, geology or history ; then the figures are—for the German
Empire, 31 ; France, 28 ; Austria, 16 ; Italy, 11; and the United King-
dom, 5. These figures do not include geographers such as Professors de
Lapparent and Levasseur in France, Oberhummer in Germany, Boyd
Dawkins and Lapworth in England, whose chairs combine geography with
other subjects.
The position and nature of geographical work in Austrian and Belgian
universities is noted in Appendices XL. and XLI.
4. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES AND PUBLICATIONS.
Any report on the position of geography in the educational system of
the country would be incomplete if it omitted to notice the excellent work
being done by the five British geographical societies. All of these, by
their lectures and publications, have done much to spread an interest in,
and true knowledge of, geography throughout the country.
They have supported the better teaching of geography in our schools
and colleges, by giving awards, subscriptions, and other encouragement.
The Royal Geographical Society has trained many explorers. The lecture-
ships at Oxford and Cambridge are due to the initiative and hitherto
largely to the financial support of the Royal Geographical Society, and the
independent lectureship at the Owens College, Manchester, was main-
tained at the joint cost of the Royal and the Manchester Geographical
Societies.
Short statements of the educational work done by British geographical
societies are given in Appendix XLII.
In the last anniversary address to the Royal Geographical Society
(‘Geographical Journal,’ June, 1897), Sir Clements Markham, the Presi-
dent, outlined some of the educational schemes of the society :—
(a) The Training of Explorers.—‘ A diploma is to be granted to those
pupils of Mr. Coles who have gone through a complete course of instruc-
tion, and whose sufficiency is certified to by a committee, consisting of the
instructor and two members of our Council.’
(b) The Training of Teachers.—‘ The Council has now resolved to give
a large measure of support, out of the Society’s funds, to a London School
of Geography, if such an institution should be successfully established
under Mr. Mackinder’s auspices. Our plans have been altered, as we
acquired experience, but our aim has always been the same—to train
good geographical teachers, and to promote the teaching of geography on
a sound basis in our secondary schools and universities.’
The number of geographical societies in the United Kingdom is small,
5, when compared with 26 in France, 21 in Germany, 10 in Russia and
5 in Switzerland. The membership in the British societies is large,
but the Royal Geographical Society has more than half the total number
of members of the British societies. Of the 153 geographical publications
which appear regularly, 48 are in French, 42 in German, 15 in English
(6 American, 5 British, and 4 Australian), 12 in Russian, &e.
In Germany, France, Switzerland, and Italy, National Geographical
382 REPORT—1897.
Congresses are held. The Geographical Section of the British Association,
perhaps, may be compared with them, and it has undoubtedly helped
greatly in spreading an interest in geographical science.
5. CONCLUSION,
In this report the questions of methods of teaching geography, the
importance of good maps and appliances, the need of open-air and museum
teaching as well as of frequent excursions, are not discussed, although in
the improvement of our methods lies much of the hope for the future.
At present, in the minds of many people, including some of our educa-
tional authorities, there is a very vague conception of the scope of
geography and its educational value. We lack geographical traditions in
the British Isles, and will continue to be without them as long as our
teachers of geography are mainly self-taught or trained in different
foreign schools.
Elementary Education.—In all elementary schools geography should be
made a compulsory subject, and the syllabuses of the different standards
modified as has been suggested on page 372 ; while instructions to inspectors
(see Appendix II.) should be improved, and embody loftier educational
ideals, such as those so admirably outlined in the ‘ Instructions, Pro-
grammes et Reglements. Enseignement Secondaire,’ issued to teachers
by the French Education Department in 1890 (pp. 89 to 104).
But the position of geography in our elementary schools could be very
much improved, without altering the present syllabuses, if properly
trained teachers in geography and a satisfactory equipment of geographical
apparatus could be found in every school.
The first requirement for the progress of geography is that the teachers
themselves should be interested in the subject, and that they should be
given the means of a thorough geographical education in the training
colleges. Geography is, next to English, the most commonly taught sub-
ject under the present system, and therefore every elementary school
teacher should have a thorough grounding in modern geographical methods
and ideas. Its importance in the elementary school warrants its being
a compulsory subject in every year of the training college curriculum.
The spirit of the teaching, both in school and in college, should be
‘education through geography,’ the summary of the French work just.
mentioned.
Secondary Education.—The utilitarian as well as the educational
value of geography should ensure its being taught in every class and
form of our secondary schools, as is the case in France. Most subjects
taught in school have a geographical side, and are made more intelligible
by a knowledge of geography on the part of teacher and scholar ; and
geography should have an assured and independent place in every entrance
examination to universities or professional colleges.
All secondary school teachers, however, will not need to teach
geography, and so ali need not be geographers. Those who have charge
of the geography classes, however, should have had an adequate geo-
graphical training, preferably at one of our universities.
Higher Education.—In our universities geography should have its due
place, equivalent to that of any other university subject now fully recog
nised. For degree examinations it should be an optional subject, both in
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 383
arts and science. It should be compulsory for some students in a minor
standard, for instance, for students reading for honours in history, or
anthropology and ethnology, or economics or geology. Teachers of geo-
graphy in the lower classes of secondary schools should have passed in
geography in this lower standard, while those responsible for the teaching
of geography in the highest classes should have taken honours in
geography. The universities should therefore provide the skilled teaching
and efficient equipment that are necessary for a subject regarded as of
first-rate importance by nearly every first-class university outside the
English-speaking lands.
In all technical, commercial, and professional schools, general as well
as applied geography should have a more prominent place in the cur-
riculum than it occupies at present, both from an educational and
utilitarian point of view. This is of special importance in the case of com-
mercial colleges at a time when the competition for the markets of the
world is becoming very keen, and every little advantage of superior general
knowledge, such as economic geography, properly taught, can supply, counts
for much,
The Chairman of the Committee was unfortunately prevented from
attending the meetings of the Committee after the first one, and Mr.
Sowerbutts was unfortunately too ill to be present when the final report
was considered. Both members, however, have had. an opportunity of
revising the report. Mr. Sowerbutts wishes to lay even greater emphasis
on the importance of Commercial Geography for a commercial nation.
APPENDICES.
Norsr.—In addition to the appendices given here the reader is referred
to the numerous programmes, examination papers, and opinions on geo-
graphy printed with Dr. J. Scott Keltie’s Report on Geographical Educa-
tion.
An admirable account of the position of geography in the educational
system of France was given by Professor Levasseur to the Sixth Inter-
national Geographical Congress in 1895. See Report of Congress,
. 27-71.
* Professor du Fief gives a similar account, applicable to Belgium, in
the ‘ Bulletin de la Société royale belge de Géographie,’ xvi.
Professor H. Wagner’s papers on ‘Methodik und Studium der
Erdkunde’ in the ‘ Geographisches Jahrbuch’ should also be consulted.
Some recent papers on Geographical Education were reviewed, in the
‘Scottish Geographical Magazine’ for 1896, by Mr. A. J. Herbertson,
and those containing bibliographical notes were specially mentioned.
A small volume for the use of teachers, ‘ Hints to Teachers and Students
on the Choice of Geographical Books’ (Longmans, 1897) has been com-
piled by Dr. H. R. Mill.
384
REPORT—1897.
1. HLEMENTARY EDUCATION.
I.—Tuer Day Scuoon Cops,
GEOGRAPHY:
ALTERNATIVE COURSES :
Course A . .
Course B ho <
Course C. Geography
and History com-
bined.
Alternative Course in
Geographyfor Schools
which take other
class subjects in the
lowest three Stan-
dards.
Standard I.
A plan of the school
and playground. The
four cardinal points.
The meaning and use
of a map.
Plan of school and
playground. Mean-
ing and use of a map.
The cardinal points.
Plan of school and
playground. Mean-
ing and use of amap,
The cardinal points.
Plan of school and
playground, Mean-
ing and use of a map.
The cardinal points,
Standard IT.
The size and shape of
the world. Geogra-
phical terms simply
explained, and illus-
trated by reference
to the map of Eng-
land. Physical geo-
graphy of hills and
rivers,
Size and shape of the
world. Geographical
terms simply ex-
plained, Physical geo-
graphy of hills and
rivers, illustrated by
reference to the map
of England.
Home geography, e.g.
roads, rivers, and
chief buildings of the
district, illustrated
by a map, and by the
map of England.
The size and shape of
the world. Geogra-
phical terms simply
explained and illus-
trated by reference
to the map of Eng-
land. Physical geo-
graphy of hills and
rivers,
Standard III.
Physical and political
geography of Eng-
land, with special
knowledge of the dis-
trict in which the
school is situated,
Physical, political, and
industrial geography
of England, with
special knowledge of
the district in which
the schoolis situated.
General geography of
England and Wales,
and means of com-
munication by land
and water. Chief
industries and pro-
ductions of the dis-
trict in which the
school is situated.
Physical and political
geography of Eng-
land, with special
knowledge of the dis-
trict in which the
school is situated.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM.
A, ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
ENGLAND AND WALEs, 1897,
Standard IV.
Physical and political
geography of the
British Isles, and of
British North
America or Austra-
lasia, with know-
ledge of their pro-
ductions.
Physical and political
geography of Scot-
land and Ireland and
of the United States
of America. Day
and night. The air,
mists, fogs, clouds,
rain, frost, wind, and
the special circum-
stances which deter-
mine climate and
rainfall in the British
Islands,
General geography of
Scotland, Ireland,
Canada, and _ the
United States, with
special reference to
the interchange of
productions between
those countries and
England.
‘Geography of Europe
generally, and of
either Canada or
Australia,
Geographical terms
simply explained and
illustrated by refer-
ence to the map of
England, and to some
of the leading coun-
tries of the world
selected by the
teacher,
1897.
Standard V,
Geography of Europe,
physical and _politi-
cal. Latitude and
longitude. Day and
night. The seasons.
Physical and political
geography of Europe.
Industries and pro-
ductions of its several
countries. Latitude
and longitude. The
seasons.
General geography of
Europe, with special
reference to the com-
mercial relations be-
tween the countries
of the Continent and
Great Britain,
Physical and political
geography of the
British Isles.
Standard VI.
The British Colonies
and dependencies.
Interchange of pro-
ductions. Circum-
stances which deter-
mine climate,
Physical and political
geography of Aus-
tralia, New Zealand,
Canada, and_ the
South African
colonies, India and
Ceylon.
Climate as affected by
latitude, altitude,
rainfall,forests,
nearness to the sea,
ocean currents, and
prevailing winds.
General geography of
Australia and British
India, with special
reference to the in-
dustries of those
countries, and _ to
their commercial re-
lations with Great
Britain. Colonisation.
Physical and political
geography of Aus-
tralia, Oanada, and
South African colo-
nies, India and
Ceylon.
Four of the chief lines
of communication be-
tween Great Britain
and other centres of
commerce,
Latitude and longitude,
General
385
Standard VII.
The United States, Tides
and chief ocean cur-
rents,
The general arrangement
of theplanetary system.
The sun. The moon
and its phases. The
tides. Eclipses,
geography of
Asia and Africa, with
special reference to
their productions and
trade. Colonisation and
the conditions of suc-
cessful industry in
British possessions
generally.
The British Colonies and
dependencies, Theinter-
change of productions
between Great Britain
and her colonies and
the United States,
The seasons,
OO
cc
386 REPORT—1897.
II.—Revisep Instructions To H.M. Inspectors. ENGLAND AND
Watss, 1897.
32. To obtain the mark ‘good’ for Geography the scholars in Stan-
dard V. and upwards, not being half-timers, should be required to have
prepared three maps, one of which, selected by the Inspector, should be
drawn from memory on the day of inspection. Such maps, if of any part
of Great Britain and Ireland, should be accompanied by a scale of miles,
and if of large and distant countries by the lines of latitude and
longitude. Geographical teaching is sometimes too much restricted
to the pointing out of places on a map, or to the learning by heart
of definitions, statistics, or lists of proper names. Such details, if they
form the staple of the instruction, are very barren and uninteresting.
Geography, if taught to good purpose, includes also a description of the
physical aspects of the countries, and seeks to establish some associations
between the names of places and those historical, social, or industrial facts
which alone make the names of places worth remembering. It is espe-
cially desirable, in your examination of the Fourth and higher Standards,
that attention should be called to the English (sic /) Colonies and their
productions, government, and resources, and to those climatic and other
conditions which render our distant possessions suitable fields for emigra-
tion and for honourable enterprise. In order that the conditions laid
down for the geographical teaching of the lower classes may be fulfilled, a
globe and good maps, both of the county and of the parish or immediate
neighbourhood in which the school is situated, should form part of the
school apparatus, and the exact distances of a few near and familiar places
should be known, It is useful to mark on the floor of the schoolroom the
meridian line, in order that the points of the compass shall be known in
relation to the school itself, as well as on a map.
III.—Copr or ReauLations ror Day Scuoois 1n ScorztanD, 1897,
_ Standard I, | Standard II. | Standard III. | Standard IV.} Standard V. | Standard VI.
Geography | To explain a | The size and | Physicaland | The physical | The physical | The geo-
plan of the | shapeofthe | political | andpolitical| and politi- | graphy of
school and | world. Geo- | geography geography cal geo- | theworldin
playground.| graphical| ofScotland,| of the Bri-| graphy of] outline,and
The four} terms sim-| withspecial | tish Isles. Europe, in more de-
cardinal] ply ex-| knowledge withBritish | tail Europe
points. The | plained,and | of the dis- North Am-| and the
meaning illustrated trict in erica and| British Co-
and use of | byreference} which the Australasia, | lonies.Some
a map. to the map} school is elements of
of Scotland. | situated, physical
Physical geography.
geography
of hills and
rivers.
IV.—PrRoGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION AND EXAMINATION FOR PUPILS OF
Nationan ScHoois, IRELAND.
First AND Second Crass.—No geography.
TuirD Cuass.—6. Geography. To know the outlines and leading
features of the Map of the World.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 387
Fourtn Cxass.—6. Geography. (a) To know the ordinary geographi-
cal definitions of the physical divisions of land and water. (6) To be
acquainted with the Maps of the World and Ireland.'
Firta Cuass, First Stace.—t. Geography. (a) To understand longi-
tude, latitude, zones, &c. (b) To know the Map of Europe and Map of
Treland.
Firrn Crass, Seconp Stace.—6. Geography. (a) To understand longi-
tude, latitude, zones, kc. (6) To know the Maps of the Continents.
(c) To be acquainted with the geography of Ireland.
Sixtn Criass.—6. Geography. (a) To be acquainted with the elements
of mathematical and physical Geography. (b) To draw from memory an
outline map of Ireland. (c) To know the geography of Great Britain
and Ireland, India, and the British Colonies.
Science Programmes for Pupils of Fifth Class and Higher.
Physical Geography.
First Examination.—Distribution of land and water—zones—cli-
mates—temperatures, Mountains—table lands—plains—deserts.
Second Examination.—Rivers—lakes—tides and currents—atmo-
sphere, its properties and uses—reflection and refraction of light by atmo-
sphere—evaporation—clouds—rain—dew—hail—winds, three kinds of—
hurricanes—cyclones—typhoons—hot winds—distribution of plants and
animals—relation of horizontal and vertical distribution—different races
of men and how distributed.
V.—PROGRAMMES IN AUSTRIAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.
Elementary Schools with Five Classes,
Scheme ; Knowledge of the child’s Home Region and Native Land.
General knowledge of Europe and the Earth.
, III. Home lore, starting from the School. Fixing of the most
important geographical principles.
IV. Lower Austria, Survey of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.
Typical geographical character sketches. —
V. The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The essential and most useful
facts of the political divisions of Europe. The Globe and its surface.
Pertinent geographical character sketches from reading-book. Map
drawing.
Programme of Geography in the Austrian ‘ Biirgerschule’ with Three Classes.
General Idea of Cowrse-—Knowledge of the most important sections
of Mathematical and Physical Geography.
A general knowledge of Europe and the other Continents.
A special knowledge of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Industry,
Trade, while attention must be paid to the mutual movements of the
people and the characteristic products of the countries.
? The map of the county in which the school is situate may be substituted for the
map of Ireland in the Fourth Class.
cc2
388 REPORT—1897.
First Cxiass.—Elements of Mathematical Geography ; horizon ;
directions. Form and size of the earth. The Globe (meridians and
parallels, geographical longitude and latitude). Rotation of Earth.
Day and Night. Revolution of Earth. The Seasons.
Elements of Physical Geography.—General sketch of the different
parts of the Earth and their horizontal and vertical distribution, with
especial attention to Central Europe. The Native Land. Map drawing.
Seconp Cuass.—Revision of work done in Class I. The Moon.
Eclipses. General sketch of the world, its political divisions, especially
of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. ‘ Culturbilder.’ Map drawing.
Tuirp Cxrass.—Revisal of Mathematical Geography. The Solar
System. Thorough study of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and its
relationship to other lands, with special attention to industry and
commerce. General comprehension of Political Geography. ‘ Culturbilder.’
Map drawing.
VI.-—OrriciAL ProGRAMME FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS, BELGIUM
(FRom DecEMBER 28, 1884).
Elementary Course.
‘1. The cardinal points: method of orientation by observing the
“position of the sun. Exercises. The intermediate points.
2. Plans.—The class-room, the school, the street, the land covered with
buildings, the commune : (a) teaching how to read the plan ; (b) how to
‘draw it: lst, the chief parts of the plan ; 2nd, the cardinal and then the
intermediate points.
3. Conversations about the home region: geographical phenomena
and terms for them, natural productions, occupations of men, industry and
-commerce. Walks and excursions.
4, First idea of the canton.
5. The visible horizon ; the form of the earth ; the earth isolated in
~space ; first observations and simple explanations.
6. Show on the globe: (a) land and water ; (6) the five divisions of
the globe and the oceans.
7. Point out the position of Belgium and the surrounding countries on
the globe.
Intermediate Course.
1. Orientation.—Revision of what was learned in the elementary
course.
2. Plans and Maps.—(a) Make children draw plan of the playground,
and of the street, and orient the plans.
(b) Lessons in reading simplified maps of the commune.
c) Reading of the map of canton.
ta Drawing from memory different sketches relative to communal
and cantonal maps. Ideas of distance.
3. First notions of the globe.
4. General divisions of globe—the five parts of the world and the
oceans.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 389
5. Boundaries of the five parts of the globe. Some of the great world
voyages (Columbus, Magellan, &c.), in order to familiarise the pupils with a
knowledge of the great divisions of the globe.
Show on the globe and on maps the chief European States and their
capitals.
6. Belgiuwm.—(a) Boundaries, shape, area, population ; compare with
other States, people, and languages.
(6) Explanation of principal terms used in political geography—
commune, canton, arrondissement, province, &c.
(c) Division of Belgium into provinces. Boundaries and chief towns
of each province.
(d) Physical Geography. General aspect of country—plains, hills,
plateaux, and valleys. Water partings and river basins. Course of the
Scheldt and the Meuse and their chief tributaries.
(e) Detailed description of home region.
Map drawing from memory of the map of the province, and other
sketches.
N.B.—If time permits the teacher may begin the more advanced study
of Belgium given in the following programme :—
Advanced Course.
1. Belgiwm.—Revision of preceding course. More advanced study of
its physical geography ; the chief watercourses. Important productions
of the three kingdoms. Agricultural regions. Great industrial centres.
Commerce, transport routes by land and water, imports and exports.
Summary description of each of the nine provinces.
Sketches and maps drawn from memory.
Exercises in the use of Belgian railway time-tables.
2. Europe.—Summary description of coasts, seas, gulfs, straits, large
islands, and peninsulas.
Chief countries in Europe: boundaries, government, chief towns,
natural wealth, industry, most important commercial relations with
Belgium.
3. General ideas, very succinct, of Asia, Africa, America, and Oceania.
Accounts of some great explorations, the route being traced in chalk
on the black globe.
Optional.
4, Maps.—Reading a graduated series of maps of the commune, and
making sketches.
5. Cosmography.—Orientation by the compass, by pole star.
Latitude, longitude. Determination of a point on the surface of the
sphere.
Distances on a sphere. Dimensions of the earth.
Rotation and revolution of the earth.
The phases of the moon, eclipses and comets.
VII.—OrriciAL PrRoGRAMME FoR Primary SCHOOLS, FRANCE
(FROM JANUARY 18, 1887).
Infants (5-7 years).
Familiar talks and simple preparatory exercises, designed above all to
stimulate the habit of observation among children by making them look
390 REPORT—1897.
carefully at the most common phenomena and the chief features of the
land’s surface.
Elementary Course (7-9 years).
Continuation and development of the exercises of the previous stage.
The points of the compass, not learned by heart, but discovered in the
field, in the playground, during walks, and according to the position of
the sun.
Exercises in observation : the seasons, the chief atmospheric pheno-
mena, the horizon, the nature of the land’s surface, &c.
Explanation of geographical terms (mountains, rivers, seas, gulfs,
isthmuses, straits, &c.), always beginning from objects seen by the pupil
and proceeding by analogy.
Preparatory study of geography by intuitive and descriptive methods:
Ist. Local geography (house,’street, village, commune, canton, &c.).
2nd. General geography (the earth, its form and dimensions, its great
divisions and their subdivisions).
The notion of cartographic representation : the elements of plan and
map reading.
The terrestrial globe, continents and oceans.
Conversations about the home region.
Intermediate Course (9-11 years).
Geography of France and its colonies.
Physical geography.
Political geography, with more detailed study of the home canton
the département, and the region.
Exercises in map drawing on the blackboard, and on note books, with-
out tracing. ;
Advanced Course (11-13 years).
Revision and development of the geography of France.
Physical and political geography of Europe.
More summary treatment of the geography of the other continents.
French colonies.
Map drawing from memory.
VIII.—CopE or RecuLations AND Reports on Eventnc Conrinua-
TION SCHOOLS, ENGLAND AND WALES AND ScorTLanp, (1897).
Geography.
General geography of the British Isles, their chief industries and
means of communication by land and water.
General geography of Canada and the United States, or of Europe or
Australasia or British India, with special reference in each case to their
industries and to their commercial relations with Great Britain.
Colonisation and the conditions of successful industry in the British
possessions generally.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 391
B. TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.
IX.—Copr For Pupit TEACHERS BEFORE AND DURING ENGAGEMENT.
ENGLAND AND WALES, 1897.
Geography.
In Welsh districts, in the 2nd Division, one question will be set on
the physical and political geography of Wales at the present time, and
in the 3rd Division one question on the commercial geography of Wales
at the present time.
lst Division: Physical, political, and commercial geography of the
British Islands, British North America, and Australia.
Maps of British Isles.
Qnd Division: Europe and Asia (with special reference to British
India).
Maps of France, Italy, and British India.
3rd Division: Africa, America, Australasia, and Polynesia.
Maps of Australia, North America.
X.— REGULATIONS RELATING TO THE EXAMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR
ADMISSION INTO TRAINING COLLEGES AND FOR THE OFFICE OF
AssISTANT TEACHER, CALLED THE QUEEN’S SCHOLARSHIP EXAMINA-
TION. ENGLAND AND WALES, 1895 anp 1896.
Geography. [70] in 1895, [100] in 1896.
1. Physical, political, and commercial geography of the British
Empire.
2. Map drawing. The map set will be some part of the British Islands,
France, or Italy (1895). British Islands or Hindustan (1896).
In Welsh districts some of the questions set will relate to Welsh geo-
graphy and Welsh industries.
XI.—Traininc CoLtecEs, ENGLAND AND WALES. EXAMINATION FOR
TEACHERS’ CERTIFICATES, 1895-97.
First and Second Years. Male and Female Candidates.
Geography and History.—A candidate who has, at the Queen’s Scholar-
ship Examination in one of the two preceding years, passed with excep-
tional credit in geography or history, is released from the obligation to
take up the subject again at the first year’s examination, and may substi-
tute for each subject in which he has so passed a language or a science.
Geography.—[75.] 1. Elementary knowledge of physical geography,
with special reference to—
(a) Shape, size, and motions of the earth.
(6) The atmosphere, rain, clouds, and vapour.
(c) Winds, currents, and tides.
(d) Causes which affect climate.
2. General geography of Europe, with maps of any part of England.
In 1895-6. (e) Effect of climate on industry, productions, and national
392 REPORT—1897.
character ; (f) Distribution of plants and animals will be added to Sec-
tion 1, and ‘the British Empire, with maps of Australia, Hindostan, and
New Zealand, will be substituted for ‘ Kurope, with maps of any part of
England,’ in Section 2.
In 1897, general geography of Africa, with maps of British South
Africa and Egypt.
(Section 1 omitted from syllabus printed in Annual Report, 1895-96.)
XII.—Coprt or Purit TEACHERS BEFORE AND DURING ENGAGEMENT.
ScorLanp, 1897.
Geography.
First Year.—The British Isles, Australia, and British North America.
Elements of physical geography. (Maps to be drawn in this and the
following years.)
Second Year.—Europe and British India. Latitude and longitude.
Climate and productions of the British possessions.
Third Year.—Geography of the world generally, with special reference
to British Isles and British possessions. More advanced physical geo-
graphy.
XIII.— REGULATIONS RELATING TO THE QUEEN’s SCHOLARSHIP
EXAMINATION. SCOTLAND, 1896,
Geography. [50.]
Physical, political, and commercial geography of the world, with special
reference to the British Isles and British possessions.
Answers may be required to be illustrated by sketch maps.
Candidates who pass with credit in this subject at the Queen’s Scholar-
ship and Studentship Examination may, in the newt two examinations for
certificates open to them, omit the paper in Geography, and take an extra
Language or Science instead. Candidates who fail to pass in this subject
will be marked ‘G ’ in this class list.
Note.— With a view of encowraging the study of this subject, the
Council of the Royal Geographical Society offer three prizes of 2l. each with
certificates to male, and three to female candidates, and five certificates
without money prizes to male, and five to female candidates who obtain the
highest marks in Geography at the Queen’s Scholarship and Studentship
Examination.
XTV.—Traininc CoLLeces, ScoTnAnD. EXAMINATION FOR TEACHER'S
CrrtiFIcATE, 1895, 1896. First anp Seconp YrRARsS. MALE AND
FEMALE CERTIFICATES.
Geography and Physiography. [100] in 1895, [75] in 1896,
1. An elementary knowledge of physical geography, comprehending the
composition and phenomena of the earth’s crust; the motions of the
earth ; the seasons.
2. The general geography of Zurope in connexion with commercial and
industrial geography.
Candidates may be asked to illustrate their answers by sketch maps.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 393
1. In 1896 the Tides, Winds, and Ocean Currents will be added to
Section 1.
2. In 1896 the Physical Geography of Asia and the British Islands in
connexion with Commercial and Industrial Geography, will replace Section 2.
Norss (1896.)—(a) Candidates who passed with credit in this subject
at the Queen’s Scholarship Examination in July or December 1894 may
omit it at this Examination, and will be credited with the marks gained.
(6) Candidates who now—July 1896—pass with credit in this subject
may omit it at the Certificate Examination of 1897 or 1898, and may then
take an extra Language or Science instead.
(c) Candidates who now—July 1896—fail to pass with credit in this
subject will be marked ‘ G’ in the Class List, and will be required to take vt
again at any subsequent Examination for Certificates.
(d) Marks for success in this subject at this Examination will not be
carried forward to any future Examination for Certificates.
XV.—ProcrammE ror Monitors, Irevanp, 1897.
Extra geography is prescribed from Sullivan’s ‘Generalised Geography,”
in addition to that for the class in which monitor is enrolled.
XVIL—RevisEp ProGRAMME OF EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION TO
TRAINING COLLEGES, AND FOR THE CLASSIFICATION AND PROMOTION
or TEACHERS AND QUEEN’s ScHouars, IRELAND, 1897.
Subject Marks Entrance Marks First Year Marks} Second Year
GEOGRAPHY .| 70 | Elementary general | 70 | (a) The British Empire | 70 | Same course
geography (political (political and de- (optional |}
and descriptive) scriptive),with special for those
Mathematical geogra- reference to its com- who have
phy. Form, size,and mercial aspect passed in. |,
motions of the earth (b) Physical geography. Col, 2 with
To draw an outline map Mountains, plains, not _iless
of Ireland showing rivers, deserts, winds, than 60 per
the principal moun- climates, tides, and cent. of |:
tains and rivers currents marks)
(c) To draw an outline
map of Great Britain
or a certain portion
of it, showing princi-
pal mountains and
rivers
N.B.—An old programme may be chosen as an alternative in 1897 and
1898.
XVII.—PrRoGRAMME OF EXAMINATION OF CANDIDATES FOR ADMISSION TO
THE OFFICE OF INSPECTOR OF NATIONAL ScuHoo.s, 1890.
Obligatory Subjects.
Geography.—Sullivan’s ‘Geography Generalised,’ 500 marks,
XVIII.—ProGRAMME oF EXAMINATION FOR INSPECTORS’ ASSISTANTS.
Geography.—Sullivan’s ‘Geography Generalised,’ including chapters
on history, 400 marks.
394 REPORT—1897.
XIX.—PROGRAMME OF CouRSE IN GEOGRAPHY IN THE AUSTRIAN
TRAINING COLLEGES.
Elementary Teachers, ‘ Volkschule.’
Understanding of maps and globes. Knowledge of the earth’s surface,
physical and political, especially Europe, and more particulary Central
Europe. Map drawing, and geographical representation of the chief
elements of physical geography.
Teachers, ‘ Biirgerschule.’
Mathematical, physical, and political geography of the world, of
Europe, and especially of Central Europe, and a thorough knowledge of
geography of native land.
Knowledge of the Constitution and Organisation of the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy in general.
General knowledge of commercial geography.
Accuracy in dealing with comparative geography.
Skill in map-drawing, and in the graphic representation of physical
geography.
XX.—PROGRAMME OF CouRSE IN GEOGRAPHY IN THE TRAINING COLLEGES
OF THE GRAND Ducuy or BADEN.
First Course.—General geography. More detailed knowledge of
Germany.
SEconD CoursE.—The five continents, with more detailed treatment of
Europe.
Turrp CoursE.—Mathematical and physical geography. Knowledge
of the solar system.
In teaching geography emphasis is to be laid upon the intelligent
understanding of a map, and upon graphic descriptions of interesting
geographical incidents.
To this end globes and maps—without the political divisions—showing
the oro- and hydrographical relations, also the distribution of temperature
and of cultivated plants, should be selected for the earlier lessons.
Political geography comes later.
Whilst in the preparatory school attention is more directed to topo-
graphical relations, in the training colleges it is more important to keep
in view the nature of the countries, their climatic conditions, their
characteristic animal and plant forms, and the life and occupations
of the people who inhabit them and are dependent on the soil for their
livelihood.
The various countries will be treated with more or less detail according
to their importance.
Map-drawing is to be diligently practised. In map-drawing the pupils
are to be so far advanced that they can draw a map of the school district
on an enlarged scale, showing all the geographical features.
In the methodical introduction to geographical teaching liberal use is
to be made of atlases, wall maps, globes, telluria, and other apparatus in
illustration,
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 395
XXT.—OrDINANCE OF THE GRAND Ducat Ministry oF Justice, CULTURE,
AND EpucaTIon, Bapren, DECEMBER 19, 1884, RESPECTING THE EXAMINA-
TION FOR WOMEN TEACHERS.
Acquaintance with the most important points in physical and mathe-
matical geography ; general knowledge of the five continents, and special
knowledge of the native land in its physical and political aspects ; facility
in reading maps and in the use of globes and telluria.
2. SECONDARY EDUCATION.
A. SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
XXII.—Pustic EXAMINATIONS IN GEOGRAPHY AND THE SECONDARY
ScHOOLS.
A Report on the Answers received to a Circular sent out in 1894-5 by the
Committee of the Geographical Association.
In considering the best means of improving the teaching of geography
in Secondary Schools, the Committee was soon driven to the conclusion
that one of its earliest tasks must be to approach the various Boards of
Public Examiners.
For the schools are necessarily compelled to adapt their teaching to
the requirements of the examinations for which they prepare their pupils.
And it is felt by the Committee that geography can never take its proper
place among subjects that train and educate the mind, so long as the
teaching of geographical principles is neglected, and the subject treated as
a mass of isolated facts, to be acquired by unintelligent cramming.
They therefore addressed themselves in the first instance to the
Educational Committees of the Royal Geographical Society and the
Royal Colonial Institute ; and having received an assurance of their
sympathy and approval, they drew up four suggestions which they sent
out in the form of questions to about 300 Secondary Schools. To
these questions 92 answers have been received, including expressions of
opinions from nearly all the great Public Schools—a result that the Com-
mittee regard as satisfactory, considering the apathy that prevails on the
subject of geography in so many of our Secondary Schools.
The following are the suggestions, together with a summary of the
opinions elicited in reply :—
(i.) That papers in Geography should be set and looked over by
Geographical experts.
This meets with general approval, provided always that the examiner
has had experience in teaching and examining boys.
(ii.) That the principles of Physical Geography should form part of
every examination [in Geography].
This is almost universally accepted, but a general wish is expressed
that the term Physical Geography should be limited and defined.
(iii.) That the subject ‘Geography’ as set, especially in the Army Eu-
aminations, is too wide and too vague, and that a subdivision of it would
be a great advantage, so as to include, besides the principles of Physical
396 REPORT—1897.
Geography, the Physical, Political, Historical, and Commercial Geography
of some Continent.
All are agreed that the subject is at present too wide and vague, and
many express the wish that a syllabus or text-book should be issued by
authority for the guidance of teachers and examiners alike.
The suggestion that the Geography of some particular Continent should
be set for each examination finds many supporters, but the weight of
opinion is in favour of requiring a general knowledge of the Geography of
the earth, as well as a special study of some selected area, such as a
Continent, India, or the British Colonies, the subject to vary from time
to time.
It is also suggested that a larger choice of questions should be given,
of which the candidate should be allowed to attempt only a certain
number.
(iv.) That in Competitive Examinations Geography ought either to be
compulsory or to receive a sufficient number of marks to make it ‘ pay.’
As regards the Army Examinations, it is generally felt that Geography
ought to be a compulsory subject, and many think that the marks at
present assigned to it are insuflicient. Some regret the abolition of the
Army Preliminary Examination ; but a few declare themselves to be well
satisfied with the present arrangement.
As to other Examinations, opinion is divided ; and while many would
be glad to see more weight given to Geography, they point out that this
could only be done by sacrificing some other subject, and they deprecate
any action that would tend to increase the existing strain and pressure.
XXIIaA.—MeEmoranpDuM OF REFORMS IN EXAMINATIONS IN GEOGRAPHY
ADVOCATED BY THE COMMITTEE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIA-
TION.
1. That the main principles of Physical Geography should form the
basis of Geographical teaching at all stages, and should be fully recognised
in all Examinations in Geography.
2. That a general knowledge of Geography, based on Physical Prin-
ciples, should be required, together with a special study of some selected
region, e.g. India, a group of British Colonies, South America, Central
Europe.
3. That it is desirable that all Public Examining Bodies, such as the
Civil Service Commissioners, the Universities (in their Local and Certi-
ficate Examinations, and London Matriculation), and the College of Pre-
ceptors, should recommend a course of instruction in accordance with the
ideas suggested above. This would stimulate Geographical teaching in
Schools, ensure that Geography should be systematically taught through-
out the School, and do away with the need for separate classes to prepare
candidates specially for the various Public Examinations in Geography.
4, That in the Examinations above referred to, Geography and History
should be dealt with in separate papers, and that the maximum of marks
should be approximately the same for each.
XXIII.—GroGRAPHY IN THE ENTRANCE OR MATRICULATION EXAMINATIONS
oF ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES OR UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION BOARDS.
Cambridge.
No examination.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 397
Durham.
No geography
London.
No geography.
‘English History and the Geography relating thereto’ is one subject,
and in January 1897 ‘A map of England at the close of the reign of
Alfred’ was one of the questions that might be chosen.
Oxford.
No examination.
Victoria.
‘English Language and Composition, English History with Geography ’
is a subject ; the fifth section of the syllabus reads ‘ Elements of Political
Geography, especially of Great Britain and Ireland.’
XXIV.—OxrorpD AND CAMBRIDGE ScHoots EXAMINATION Boarp
REGULATIONS.
Higher Certificates.
Candidates who offer Physical Geography and Elementary Geology
shall be examined in—
(a) The outlines of Physical Geography : viz. the form of the earth
and variations in the earth’s surface ; the force of gravity ; the seasons ;
the atmosphere and climate, winds, clouds, rain and dew, the ocean, tides,
seas, lakes and rivers, glaciers and icebergs, volcanoes and earthquakes.
(6) The outlines of Geology : viz. the principal igneous, aqueous, and
metamorphic rocks, including recognition of specimens; denudation ;
deposition of stratified rocks, dip, strike, joints, cleavage, faults, dykes ;
unconformable stratification ; the principles on which the relative ages of
rocks are determined ; the outlines of stratigraphical geology ; the recog-
nition of the fossil genera found in the principal formations.
Examination for Lower Certificates.
[N.B.—This Examination is adapted for Candidates of sixteen years
of age. |
In Geography, questions shall be set on General Geography, and on
the Geography of the British Isles and of some other country to be
selected.
For the examination in 1898 the selected country shall be the German
Empire.
The questions shall be set on the assumption that the main principles of
Physical Geography form the basis of geographical teaching.
398 REPORT—1897.
XX V.—GEOGRAPHY IN THE EXAMINATIONS OF THE COLLEGE OF
Precerrors, 1897.
A. School Inspections.
A. ON SUBJECTS TAUGHT IN THE SCHOOL,
B. ON SYLLABUSES OF COLLEGE OF PRECEPTORS—ARRANGED FOR FOUR GRADES.
No geography in Grades I. or II.
Ill. 7. Geography.—(i.) A map—what is it? Divisions of the land,
divisions of the water ; (i1.) general description of England ; (iii.) Europe,
chief countries, chief cities, &c.
IV. 7. Geography.—l. The British Isles : (i.) England and Wales ;
(ii.) Scotland ; (iii.) Ireland. 2. Europe. 3. The names, positions, chief
towns, &c., of the British possessions.
EXTRA SUBJECTS,
6. Geography of (i.) Asia and Australasia, or (ii.) America and Africa.
7. Physical Geography.—(i.) Definitions ; (ii.) Form of the Earth ;
(iii.) Distribution of Sea and Land ; (iv.) Form of Continents; (v.)
Mountain Systems ; (vi.) Divisions of the Ocean ; (vii.) Currents ; (viii.)
the Atmosphere and Climate ; (ix.) Distribution of Plants; (x.) Dis-
tribution of Animals ; (xi.) Distribution of Man. [No. 7 may be divided
into two sections, A and B; Section A to include (i.)-(v.) ; Section B,
(vi.)-(xi.)]
B. Regulations respecting the Examination of Pupils in Junior Forms.
Geography is one of the optional subjects, and consists of the geography
of the British Isles, with very elementary physical geography, and the
meaning of simple geographical terms.
C. Certificate Examinations and Professional Preliminary Examinations.
First Class.—One of three English subjects (English, History, Geo-
graphy) forms a compulsory part of seven subjects necessary, but all three
may be taken.
The syllabus reads: Geography, including physical and mathematical.
Second Class.—History or Geography is one of six subjects which must
be passed, but both may be chosen.
Geography.—Candidates are required to show a general knowledge
of the chief mountain ranges, rivers, outlines and boundaries of conti-
nents ; names and general position of countries and their capitals, with
the meaning and use of ordinary geographical terms ; and a more detailed
knowledge of one of the following, at the option of the candidate :—
1894. (a) Asia ; (6) Europe, including British Isles.
1897. (a) Africa ; (b) North America and the West Indian Islands.
Third Class.—History or Geography is one of four subjects which must
be passed, but both may be chosen.
Geography.—Europe, especially the British Isles, and the meaning
and use of simple geographical terms.
=
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 399
D. Commercial Certificate.
Holders of first or second class certificates may receive the Commercial
Certificate on passing additional subjects of which Commercial Geography
is not one.
XX VI.—SyYLLABUS OF PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION ISSUED BY THE
ScorrisH UNIVERSITIES’ JoInt Boarp.
Geography forms part of the Examination in English. The Higher
Grade Leaving Certificate of the Scottish Education Department is
accepted as equivalent.
Arts and Science,
1. English will include Grammar, Composition, Literature, History,
and Geography.
d. Geography will include a general knowledge of the geography of
the world, and a special knowledge of the geography of the British
Empire.
N.B.—One paper of two hours to first two. One paper of two hours
for last three, half of which is literature. (Two questions in Geography
are to be answered.)
Medicine.
A single paper of three hours shall be set, containing an essay, a para-
phrase, two questions on history, two on geography, four on grammar
(... .), two of a literary and general kind. ight answers shall be
required. The essay, the paraphrase, one answer on history, and one
on geography shall be compulsory.
XXVII.—LeEAvine CertiFICATE oF ScorrisH EpucATION DEPARTMENT.
QUESTIONS IN GEOGRAPHY, 1895,
English.
LOWER GRADE,
Tuesday, June 18, 10 a.m. to 12.30 P.M.
NINE questions should be answered, and no more. Five of these must
be in Section I., rwo in Section II., one in Section III. The remaining
question may be taken from any Section. Questions 1 and 2 must be
attempted.
Secrion III.
14, What are the chief mountain systems of Great Britain? Where
are the chief plains? Give the names of the rivers that drain them.
15, Contrast the east and the west coasts of Scotland.
16. Describe the course of the Rhine (or of the Danube) ; mention
the siz largest towns on its banks ; and state in what the industry of each
consists.
17. What are the chief cities on the Mediterranean? State what you
know about jive of them.
18. Write a brief account of the commerce of Cape Colony.
400 REPORT—1897.
English.
HIGHER GRADE AND FIRST PAPER FOR HONOURS GRADE.
Tuesday, June 18, 10 a.m. to 1 P.M.
Every Candidate should answer TEN questions, and no more; and
every Candidate must take Questions 1 and 2, and, in addition, THREE
other questions in Section I.
Higher Grade Candidates must take, also, Two questions in Section II.,
end two in Section III. The remaining question may be taken from any
Section.
Honours Grade Candidates are not required to answer questions from
Sections II. and III., but may do so. The full number of marks can be
obtained in Section I.
Section III.
16. Explain, fully, the lines usually found on globes.
17. What countries border on the Baltic ? What are the chief Baltic
ports, and in what does their trade consist ?
18. What countries in Europe are (a) best supplied with railways and
telegraphs, and (+) what are most poorly supplied ? Give the reasons in
each case.
19. Write a short account of the build of South America, under the
heads of (a) plateaux, (6) mountain ranges, (c) plains. State what you
know about the Amazon and the Cassiquiare.
20. Write a short account of the geography of India ; and give the
names of the chief peoples, languages, and religions.
21. State what you know about the six chief trading cities of China.
N.B.—See Sir Henry Crark’s report on geography papers im this
examination.
XXVIII.—InNTERMEDIATE Epucation BoArD FOR IRELAND.
PROGRAMME,
Preparatory Grade.
Geography : The meaning and use of Maps; size and shape of the
arth ; Geographical terms simply explained and illustrated by special
reference to the Map of Ireland ; general outlines of the great divisions of
the Globe ; outlines of the Physical and Political Geography of Ireland.
200 marks (Greek and Latin 1200 each).
Junior Grade.
Geography: Outlines of the Geography of the World, including
Distribution of Land and Water, and their relative position and areas ;
Mountain Chains and Systems ; Seas and Oceans ; Rivers and Lakes.
Physical and Political Geography of Great Britain and Ireland, and
the Outlines of our Colonial Empire. 200 marks.
Middle Grade.
Geography: Ocean Currents, their origin and influence; Tides,
their origin and influence ; the Atmosphere, its constitution ; Winds ;
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 401
Rain ; Hail ; Snow ; the causes affecting Climate ; Day and Night; the
Seasons.
Physical and Political Geography of Europe, and outlines of the
remainder of the Eastern Hemisphere. An outline map of one of the
countries of Europe will be given to be filled up by inserting the chief
ranges of mountains, the chief towns, and the chief rivers. 150 marks.
Senior Grade,
Geography: Distribution of plants and animals; Man, as affected
by conditions of external nature ; distribution of races ; latitude, longi-
tude ; time, how measured ; the Earth’s position as a planet.
Physical and Political Geography of Canada and the United States ;
outlines of the remainder of the Western Hemisphere. 100 marks.
ComMMERCIAL EnGLIsH.— Maximum of marks, 400.
1. Commercial Geography, comprising (a) its general principles ; (b)
the chief products; and (c) the commercial geography of the various
countries. (Mill, ‘Elementary Commercial Geography’; or Chisholm,
‘Smaller Commercial Geography.’) 150 marks.
“XXIX.—GroGRAPHY IN THE ENTRANCE Examination, Trinity CoLLece,
Dustin, MicnHagetmas 1896.
History and Geography. (10 questions.)
1-5. Historical.
6. If you construct a triangle having its angles at Dublin, Londonderry,
and Cork, through what counties (in order) will the sides pass ?
7. In what counties are Glastonbury, Cromer, Spurn Head, St. David’s
Head, Coventry, Lichfield, Snowdon, Kirkwall, Paisley, Ben Nevis ?
- 8. Name, in order of size, the five largest islands in the Mediterranean
Sea. Give one town in each.
9. In which of the United States is the following: Yellowstone
Park, Boston, Denver, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Sacramento, Richmond, Salt
Lake City, Baltimore, Austin ?
10. Where are the Falkland Islands, Mount Cook, Batavia, Bloem-
fontein, Poona, Aleppo, Pondicherry, Caracas, Ispahan, Monte Video ?
XXX.—GEOGRAPHY IN THE ENTRANCE EXAMINATION OF THE RoyAL
UNIVERSITY OF JRELAND.
English, including Outlines of Modern Geography.
Summer, 1896.—One question in Geography.
Name the principal islands in the Indian Ocean, and also the European
nations within whose spheres of influence they are respectively situated.
Autumn, 1896.—One question in Geography.
6. (a) What lands and seas lie, westwards, between Cadiz and Cape
Gracias a Dios ?
(6) Describe the shortest course by which a ship could sail from the
' Thames to Yeniseisk.
1897. DD
402 , REPORT—1897,
XXXI.—OrrFic1AL ProGRAMME FOR INTERMEDIATE ScHOOLs, BELerum,
FROM 1888.
A. Intermediate Schools. (Three Years’ Course.)
I. General description of the Earth and its divisions, Elementary
Geography of Belgium.
II. Revision of Course I. More advanced Geography of Belgium.
General Geography of Europe.
III. Detailed Geography of Europe. General Geography of other
parts of the World.
B. Athénées Royaux. (Seven Years’ Course.)
(See Dr. Scott Keltie’s Report, pp. 150, 151.)
XX XTI.—PROoGRAMMES IN FRENCH LYCEES.
Classical Side. 14 hour per week in lower forms, 1 hour in higher forms.
Preparatory Class.
VIII. Elementary Geography of the five parts of the World.
VII. Elementary Geography of France.
VI. General Geography of the World. Geography of the Mediter-
ranean Basin.
V. Geography of France.
IV. General Geography. Study of the American Continent.
III. Africa, Asia, and Oceania.
II. Europe.
I. France.
Modern Side, 134 hour per week in lowest and highest forms, but only 1 hour
in 4, 3, and 2,
VI. Elementary Geography of France.
V. General Geography. Europe, America.
IV. Africa, Asia, Oceania.
III. Europe.—i. General Geography of the Continent ; ii. Descrip-
tion of the States ; iii, Summary.
II. Geography of France.
I. General Geography.—i. Europe, the Six Great Powers; ii. The
New World ; iii. Asia, Oceania and Africa.!
’ «The headings of the syllabus for’ the first class,’ says the official programme,
‘have appeared already in those of the preceding classes. The interest of this
course rests entirely in the questions the professor chooses to discuss, and the way
he puts the most important. They are of every variety. It is not enough to teach
the pupils, who are about to become men, what are the leading powers of the
present day by their agricultural and industrial products and their commercial
activity. No doubt these are important points; but these are not the only ones
that should be compared. An attempt should be made to distinguish the charac-
teristic traits of each of the States with which we have dealings, to determine in
what measure the land and the people and their racial characteristics have contri-
buted to the prosperity and power of a nation, to compare the part played in
history by a people with its present condition, to realise what is the actuality on
which we should fix our attention in each different part of the world: such are
the aims of this course. It should be looked upon as the last chapter in the history
of civilisation.’
——— ss ~~ vw
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 403
B, TRAINING OF SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS.
XXXIII.—Excrerpts FRoM THE REGULATIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION
or TEACHERS IN GyMNASIA AND REALSCHULEN IN AUSTRIA.
For gymnasia a teacher may choose geography and history as a chief
subject, for Realschulen geography as minor subject.
The programme in geography is—
A thorough knowledge of the earth in mathematical, topographical,
physical, and political aspects ; a satisfactory acquaintance with European
countries, together with the geography of Central Europe, especially that
of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.
The examinee must have made himself acquainted with the statistics
of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in relationship to other lands.
The present positions, conditions, and routes of international
commerce must be thoroughly known.
The examinee must show readiness and certainty in every sort of
graphic representation used in instruction.
XXXIV.— Excerpts FROM THE REGULATIONS FOR THE EXAMINA-
TION OF TEACHERS IN MiIppDLE SCHOOLS IN THE GRAND DvucHy oF
BADEN.
Candidates must have been at a German gymnasium or Realgym-
nasium (for certain candidates), and three years at a German University.
There are three grades of examination, 3, 2, and 1. Those passing in
the third grade can teach in the Sixth, Fifth, and Fourth Forms of gymnasia
and modern schools (Realanstalten) with a nine years’ course ; those
passing in the second grade, in the Lower and Upper Third and Lower
Second Forms ; and those passing in the first-grade, in the Upper Second
and the Lower and Upper First Forms.
Only those who receive a first-class certificate in the first grade can
teach in all classes.
Two major and two minor subjects must be chosen, and two major
and one minor subject must belong to the group of Languages and History,
or else to the group of Mathematics and Science. Geography is an
exception, and may be reckoned as a major subject in eather group.
Geography must be a minor subject if history is a major subject.
The programmes in Geography are as follows :—
1. For the certificate in Geography for the lower classes (third grade)
the candidate must show evidence of an elementary but sound knowledge
of mathematical, physical, and more particularly of topographical and
political geography ; he must also be able to illustrate the most im-
portant facts of mathematical geography with simple apparatus.
2. To obtain the certificate for the middle classes (second grade) the
candidate must possess a more thorough knowledge of the above-men-
tioned branches of geography, also an acquaintance with the history of
discovery, and with the historically most important highways of the
world’s commerce.
3. The candidate for a certificate to teach in the highest classes (first
grade) must be thoroughly familiar with the principles of mathematical
geography, so far as these are founded on elementary mathematics, and
DD2
404 REPORT—-1897.
with the proofs of the same, and be able to give an account of the
physical and most important geological conditions of the earth’s sur-
face. In addition he must have a comprehensive knowledge of the
political geography of the present day, and a wide view of the historical.
political geography of the chief civilised peoples, together with the main
facts of ethnography.
4, A readiness in map drawing is demanded from candidates in all
grades.
XX XV.—REQUIREMENTS OF A TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY IN A
BELGIAN ATHENEE ROYAL.
One professor teaches both history and geography. This professor,
except by personal dispensation, must have either the old diploma of
Professeur agrégé de Enseignement Moyen pour les Humamnités or the
diploma of Docteur en Philosophie et Lettres, the only one now given.
For the degree of Candidat en Philosophie et Lettres he must study
geography, and, for the doctorate, geography and the history of
geography.
See ‘L’Enseignement Supérieur de la Géographie en Belgique,’ by J--
du Fief (‘Bulletin de la Société Royale Belge de Géographie,’ xvi. No. 3).
XXX VI.—PROGRAMME FOR PROFESSORS OF GEOGRAPHY IN
Frencu Lychss, 1896.
In the secondary schools of France geography is taught by a professor
of history and geography . . . who must be an agrégé. The examination
consists of (a) a thesis, (6) explanation of a passage, (c) giving a lesson,
all of which are judged by the professors under whom the candidate has
studied. The second part of the examination takes place before speciak
examiners. The subjects for 1896 were :—
(I History.) II. Geography.
Ferm and divisions of globe.
Distribution of land and water.
Oceans and seas and marine currents.
Forms of terrestrial relief and the different types of mountains.
Influence of glaciers in the past on the present relief of the land.
Climates.
Vegetation zones.
Distribution of mankind.
Distribution of food products.
Configuration of Asia.
Vegetation zones of South America,
Hydrography of North America.
Ethnography of Eastern Europe.
Countries bordering the Mediterranean.
Physical geography of France.
Development of Russian colonisation in Asia.
African exploration from 1870, including Madagascar.
India. Indo-China and the Malay Peninsula.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 405
8. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.
XXXVII.—Excrerpt rrom Report spy Mr. Yute OxpHam, M.A.,
LECTURER IN GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, 10 THE
Roya GEOGRAPHICAL Socrery, May 1897.
‘Geography has received the practical recognition of being introduced
as an essential part of the new revised Historical Tripos.’
XXXVIII.—Excerrt From Communication By Mr. H. J. Mac-
KINDER, M.A., READER IN GEOGRAPHY, UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, ON
THE PosITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THAT UNIVERSITY.
‘In almost all the papers set in the Honour School of Modern History
at Oxford there are two questions on Geography, which, if well done,
count considerably, As a result, the greater number of the candidates
find it worth their while to attend the lectures of the Reader in Geo-
graphy.
‘Geography counts as an optional subject for a Pass degree, and is
taken by a few candidates,’
XXXIX.—ExcerPT FROM COMMUNICATION. BY Prorressor A. W.
Warp, LL.D., D.C.L., PrincipAL or THE OWENS COLLEGE, MAn-
CHESTER, ON THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THAT COLLEGE AND IN
THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY.
‘The new Regulations (Victoria University) substitute, for the old
optional Preliminary subject of Physiography, the following :—
‘ GEOGRAPHY.
‘(a) Physical Geography.—The agents at work on and beneath the
surface of the earth,
‘ Phenomena resulting from earth heat.
‘Distribution of land and water.
°(6) Political and Commercial Geography.—Political and economic
effects of Natural Features and conditions.
‘Outlines of Geography of the British Empire (including Historical
Geography), Political and Commercial Geography of the United Kingdom.
‘ You will perceive that this amounts to the inclusion of geography only
in the first year’s course ; but apart from the fact that it has been thought
wiser, in dealing with this subject, to begin with the foundations, we were
specially anxious to recognise it in the first instance as a university sub-
ject at the stage where school and university training came into contact.
‘The College remains without any endowment for the teaching of
geography, since both the Royal and the Manchester Geographical Societies
have discontinued the grants (of 50/. each) made by them during periods
of five and four years respectively.
‘The teaching of the subject will accordingly, in this College, be for
the present divided between Mr. Flux (Lecturer in Political Economy),
who has been appointed Lecturer in Political and Commercial Geography,
and Professor Boyd Dawkins, Professor of Geology’
SYLLABUS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
’ 1. The agents at work on and beneath the Surface of the Earth—
Water—Frost—Snow—Ice—The Atmosphere—Chemical Action in build-
406 REPORT—1897.
ing up and destroying—Organic Action—The Phenomena resulting from
Earth-heat— V oleanoes—Earthquakes—Elevation and Depression of .
Land—Mountain-making and Valley-carving—Hot Springs.
2. The Distribution of Land and Water.
3. The Distribution of the Mammalia and their evidence as to geo-
graphical changes.
4. The Distribution of Man and his Advance in Culture.
5. The Earth in relation to the Heavenly Bodies.
6. The Physical History of Britain.
SYLLABUS IN POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY.
The construction of Maps.
The influence of natural conditions on industry and commerce.
The Commercial Highways of the World.
The growth of the British Empire. Various forms of Government
within the Empire : the chief commercial centres and principal products :
the trade of the Empire.
The United Kingdom : its population, Government, industries, com-
merce, &e,
XL.—EXcERPTS FROM COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED FROM PROFESSOR
PENCK, OF VIENNA, ON THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN AUSTRIAN
UNIVERSITIES.
‘In the regulations for University examinations the word geography is
scarcely mentioned, and the syllabus in it is of the most general descrip-
tion, That, however, lies in the nature of German University organisa-
tion. The examiner has the right to specify the range of subject in which
he will examine, and thus he promotes individualisation. He can ask
more from the more talented and less from the less brilliant students ;
can go into details in the case of specialists, &c. The University examina-
tions are not meant to test the whole extent of the candidate’s knowledge,
but to prove its depth and thoroughness. .. .
‘The candidate for a degree in an Austrian University has two
examinations to pass, the minor one in Philosophy, the major one in two
subjects in one of which he must submit a thesis. If the subject of his
thesis be geographical, then he is examined in Geography, and another
science, such as Geology, Meteorology, Physics, Chemistry, or History.
The choice is great.’
XLI.—TueE Position or GrocrapHy IN BELGIAN UNIVERSITIES.
The entrance certificate involves having studied geography thoroughly
at school for six years.
Thereafter it enters into the work of candidates for the following
degrees :—
1. Candidat en Philosophie et Lettres. Preliminary to doctorate in
these subjects. Exercises in History and Geography.
2. Doctewr en Philosophie et Lettres. Geography and History of
Geography. :
3. Candidat en Sciences Naturelles. Elementary notions of Physical
Geography.
4. Doctewr en Sciences Naturelles. For group Sciences Minérales.
Physical Geography.
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 407
5. Ingénieur Civil des Mines. Industrial and Commercial Geo-
graphy.
6. Candidat en Sciences Physiques et Mathématiques. Physical Astro-
nomy.
See L’Enseignement Supérieur de la Géographie en Belgique, by
J. du Fief (Bulletin de la Société Royale Belge de Géographie, xvi.
No. 3).
4, HDUCATIONAL WORK OF GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES.
XLIIL— Reports on THE EpucarionAL Work OF THE BRITISH
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETIES.
Royal Geographical Society.
‘The Royal Geographical Society, in addition to providing systematic
training for intending explorers, has taken a leading part in improving
ordinary geographical education.
‘So far as can be traced, the first instance of encouragement given to
general geographical instruction was through the Society of Arts. In
1866 it was resolved that a prize of 5/1. be granted to candidates at the
Society of Arts Examination for Geography. This grant continued to be
made till 1873, when the Society of Arts intimated that they had discon-
tinued the award of a prize for geography.
‘ Prizes for geographical teaching in the great public schools were first
awarded by the Society in 1869 and continued to be awarded till 1883.
It is admitted that they had little or no influence in bringing about the
object in view, the recognition of geography as a regular subject in the
curriculum of our public schools.
‘In addition to this, in 1876 silver medals were awarded in connection
with the geography paper in the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examina-
tions. These medals continue to be awarded ; in these examinations
geography occupies a really important place, and the number of candi-
dates is very large.
‘In 1882 the Council instituted prizes to be awarded for geography
examinations to the cadets on board the training ships Worcester and
Conway. These continue to be awarded, with satisfactory results.
‘In 1884 the Society appointed Dr. Scott Keltie as an Inspector of
geographical education for one year, and authorised him to make a collec-
tion of books and appliances used in teaching geography.
‘The result of this action on the part of the Council was—(1) the
appointment of a Reader in Geography at Oxford for five years, in
February 1887, at a stipend of 300/., to be paid half by the Society and
half by the University. (2) The appointment in June 1888 of a Lecturer
in Geography at Cambridge, to whose stipend the Society would con-
tribute 150/. annually. As the Lecturer first appointed never entered on
his office, a new Lecturer was appointed in May 1889, the Council agree-
ing to pay its contribution to his stipend for five years from the date of
his appointment. This was renewed for five years in January 1893.
(3) A contribution of 50/. annually by the Society towards Travelling
Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge for four years from June 1891.
(4) A contribution of 60/. a year from 1886 to 1891 to the Oxford
University Extension. (5) Contribution of 50/. a year for three years
towards the stipend of a Lecturer on Geography at Owens College,
4.08 REPORT—1897.
Manchester (1891) ; renewed for three years 1894. (6) 50/. a year for
prizes to Training College Students. (7) 100/. a year for three years for
lectures in London by Mr. Mackinder, and 50/. for a fourth year in. con-
nection with the London University Extension. (8) A memorial to the
Gresham University Commissioners, urging the claims of geography in
connection with the proposed Teaching University in London ; the result
being a statement in the Commissioners’ Report that Geography should
have a place in the first rank in the new University.
‘The total sum spent by the Society in the last eleven years in the
endeavour to improve geographical education in this country amounts to
over 6,000/.
‘The Council have in 1897 agreed to contribute largely to the support
of the London School of Geography proposed by Mr. Mackinder.’
Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
‘One of the objects for which the Royal Scottish Geographical Society
was founded is stated as follows :—‘ To press for the recognition of geo-
graphy as a branch of higher education, and to encourage its study in the
Schools and Universities of Scotland by offering prizes or by other means.”
‘In pursuance of this object the Council, in June 1886, sanctioned a
scheme for the encouragement and improvement of the teaching of geo-
graphy in elementary Scottish schools by means of examinations and
prizes ; and through the courtesy of the Royal Geographical Society
they obtained the loan of its collection of appliances used in geographical
education, and exhibited them in the Museum of Science and Art, Edin-
burgh ; they also arranged for a series of lectures on the teaching of geo-
graphy, which were delivered at the same time in the Museum. The
scheme of examinations and prizes was abandoned in 1891 in favour of
courses of educational lectures for the benefit of teachers and others ; and
such courses have, with the exception of the year 1895-96, been delivered
annually since January 1891.
‘In October 1890 the Council, through its President, the Duke of
Argyll, petitioned the Universities Commissioners to recognise the claims
of geography as a department of higher education, urging that the subject
should be included in every University preliminary or entrance examina-
tion, and that it should be accepted as one of the optional pass subjects
qualifying for a degree in arts and in science ; also that provision should
be made for the systematic teaching of geography within the Universities,
or within one or more of them, by the foundation either of professorships
or of lectureships fully equipped with the necessary apparatus in maps,
charts, globes, and models.
‘The Council enurierated the beneficial results that would follow on
the adoption of their recommendations, and gave an account of what was
being done for the systematic study of geography in the Universities of
other countries.
‘In reply to the above petition the Council was informed, in January
1893, that by Ordinance No. 11 (“ Regulations for Degrees in Arts”) a
knowledge of geography was required of every candidate for the pre-
liminary examinations, and that a similar regulation affecting the
preliminary examinations in science had been issued ; it was also inti-
mated that no lectureship had yet been founded, but that the University
Courts had the power to institute them, though it seemed probable that
the necessary funds would have to be raised by private benefaction.’
Ta ers
THE POSITION OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 409
Manchester Geographical Society.
From its foundation the Manchester Geographical Society has done
much to aid the spread of sound geographical knowledge in Lancashire,
Cheshire, and Yorkshire by school examinations, popular lectures, and
subscribing half the stipend of the lecturer in geography at the Owens
College as long as there existed an independent lectureship in that subject.
The reports of the examination scheme are found in the volumes of the
<Journal.’ A full account of the popular lecture scheme of the society
was read at the Liverpool meeting of the British Association, 1896 ; an
abstract is published in the Report, and the full paper, under the title of
‘Practical Geography in Manchester,’ is given in the ‘Journal of the
Manchester Geographical Society,’ vol. xii. (1896), pp. 183-187.
Tyneside Geographical Society.
‘We have made several attempts here to press the special study of
geography in the local schools, both private and public, on some occasions
offering prizes for examination, but have experienced great difficulty,
owing to the apathy of teachers, who declare that the number of code
subjects already in force is so great that they hesitate to voluntarily take
up another special subject. We admit all teachers and pupils to our
Jectures at reduced charges—have even done it free, and they will not
come.’
Liverpool Geographical Society.
‘The Liverpool Geographical Society offers prizes for geographical
knowledge, to be awarded on the results of an examination of the
students at the Secondary Schools of Liverpool and district.’
The Climatology of Africa.—Siath Report of a Committee, consisting
of Mr. E. G. RavensTeIN (Chairman), Sir Joun Kirk, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Dr. H. R. Mitt, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Chairman.)
Instruments.—Your Committee in the course of last year granted a
set of instruments to Mr. G. W. Herdman, C.E., who until recently
resided. at Johannesburg, in the South African Republic. That gentle-
man, being at present engaged upon surveys in the Orange Free State, has
been unable to make the observations desired by your Committee. He
handed over his instruments to Mr. Hopwell J. S. Morrell, B.A. Oxon.,
who appeared to be well qualified for the work, but who has since left
Johannesburg, taking the instruments with him. A fresh set of instru-
ments has been ordered for Mr. Herdman, who has forwarded a draft for
10/. to defray its cost.
The Rey. Mr. Ormerod, of Golbanti, on the river Tana, has been
granted a rain-gauge.
The Committee have likewise been requested by the Foreign Office to pro-
cure suitable sets of instruments for Nyasaland. This has been effected at a
total cost of 667. 8s. 10d., for which two mercurial barometers, two maxi-
mum and two minimum thermometers, two hygrometers, twelve ordinary
thermometers, and fourteen rain-gauges have been procured. The two sets
410 REPORT—1897.
of instruments previously forwarded by the Committee to Nyasaland have
been made over to her Majesty’s Commissioner, subject to the condition
that the observers to whom they have been granted shall be permitted
to retain these instruments as long as they are willing to make good use
of them, and send the results to the Committee.
All the above instruments were inspected by our Secretary before they
were forwarded, and the usual Kew certificates have been obtained.
For this Foreign Office grant we are indebted to the interest taken in
scientific work by the Right Hon. G. Curzon, and to the advocacy of the
late Commissioner, Sir Harry Johnston.
Observations have been received from eighteen stations in Tropical
Africa.
Nyasaland.—The supply of instruments recently forwarded will make
it possible to equip a series of meteorological stations extending from
Chinde, on the coast, to the southern end of Tanganyika. Mr. Alfred
Sharpe, her Majesty’s Acting Commissioner, and Mr. J. McClounie, the
head of the scientific department of the Protectorate, take much interest
in the work, and have promised to promote the objects of your Committee
to the best of their power.
In the present report we are able to publish abstracts of two years’
observations made by our old and valued correspondent, Mr. J. M. Moir,
at Lauderdale. Mr. Moir is, after a holiday at home, about to return to
Nyasaland ; but his work has been continued during his absence by Mr.
Thomson. We are also enabled, through the courtesy of Mr. A. Sharpe,
to publish rainfall observations for ten stations. Earlier unpublished
observations for Livingstonia have been added from the note-book of the
late Mr. Stewart.
British East Africa.—The usual reports have only been received up to
June last, and we therefore defer their publication until the reports for a
full year shall have come to hand.
The Scottish missionaries at Kibwezi, to whom your Committee
granted a set of instruments last year, have regularly sent in their
registers since July last. They have been kept with much care, and
include hourly observations for sixteen term-days, the first of the kind
received from this protectorate.
A return of one year’s rainfall at Mumia’s, in Kavirondo, has been
received from Mr. C. W. Hobley, who also forwards a few observations
made with a Symons’s earth-thermometer.
Uganda.—Through the kindness of the Foreign Office, we hope to be
enabled to publish in our next report full meteorologieal records for a
number of stations. In the meantime we present abstracts of fourteen
months’ observations on the variations in the level of the Victoria
Nyanza, which have been made at three stations since January 1896.
Western Africa.—No observations whatever have been received from
Bolobo, on the Congo, and Lambarene, on the Ogowai. From Warri
(Benin) only one month’s record has come to hand.
We have learnt with regret that the Rev. Bonzon, at Lambarene, is
dead, and have taken steps to obtain his meteorological registers, and to
recover the instruments which were lent him.
The abstracts published have been made by the Chairman of the
Committee.
Your Committee have expended their grant. They propose that they
be reappointed, and that a grant be made of 101.
eo Se
ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 411
Nyasaland.
The following are the stations for which meteorological returns will be
found in this report :—
Chiromo (16° 31’ S., 35° 10’ E., 300 ft.) on the Shire. At Port Herald, 27 miles
lower down, 35 in. fell in 1893.
Chikwawa (16° 1' §., 34° 56’ E., 350 ft.) on the Shire, at the foot of the road
leading up to Blantyre.
Nyamteti Plantation, position uncertain, described as lying in the Cholo district,
which is to the east of the road leading up to Blantyre. Observer: J. N. Cox.
Mandala (15° 48’ §., 35° 2’ E.), 1 mile to the south of Blantyre. In 1890
54-9 in. fell on 82 days (F. J. M. Moir). At Blantyre 50°8 in. fell in 1882, 52-9 in. in
1883, and 55'9 in. in 1886.
Zomba (15° 23' S., 35° 20’ E., 2,970 ft.). In 1892 62°77 in. fell on 95 days, in 1893
38:06 in. on 79 days. At Namitembe, on the road to Mpimbi, on the Upper Shire,
82°32 in, fell in these two years (1892 and 1893) on 186 days.
Lauderdale Estate, Mlanje (16° 2' S., 35° 36’ E., 2,580 ft.). The observations for
1896 were made by Mr. Thomson, those for previous years by Mr. J. W. Moir,
The ‘ Crater’ is an old crater or a basin cut by the Mloza Stream. It lies 2 miles
to the N.E. of Lauderdale, at an elevation of about 4,500 ft.
Nyasaland Coffee Company's Estate, Mianje, 4 miles 8.E. of Lauderdale.
Dunraven, a Mianje plantation, 10 miles §.E. of Lauderdale, near Fort Anderson.
At Fort Anderson (16° 6’ S., 35° 43’ E.) 64°25 in. of rain fell on 164 days in 1893.
Fort Johnston (14° 40' S., 35° 12’ EH.) on the Upper Shire. The station of the
African Lakes Company lies to the north, at the southern extremity of Lake Nyasa.
Livingstonia (14° §., 34° 45’ E., 1,570 ft.).
Lihoma(12°8., 34° 40' E., 1,570 ft.),a station of the Universities’ Mission, on an island
near theeastern shore of thelake. The rainfall is considerably less than on the western
shore at Bandawe. In 1892-93 37°87 in. fell,as compared with 52°35 in. at Bandawe.
Bandawe (11° 55' S., 34° 5’ E.). The observations in 1896 were made by Mr.
R. 8S. Prentice. The mean annual rainfall for seven years amounts to 67:23 in.
(ranging from 50°53 to 92°59 in.). Rain fell on an average on 74 days (57 to 126),
but it seems that these earlier records were not quite complete, no account having
been taken of the lesser rains which fell between May and September. At Mjuyu,
on the plateau to the west, the rainfall is much less. The annual fall for four years,
for which we have synchronous records, amounted to 55:02 in. (on 67 days) at
Bandawe, and to only 24°46 in. (on 41 days) at Njuyu.
Tanganyika Plateau. The rainfall is considerably less than near the lakes.
At Malimanda the rainy season extends from November to April, and 36°19 in.
fell in 1882-83 (Mr. Stewart’s notebook).
At Ihawa 29°5 in. fell in i895 (according to Mr. Dewar, of the Mwenzo Mission),
and at /wambo the mean for two years (1893-95) was 39°5 in,
Rainfall in Nyasaland, 1896,
~ Mlanje Fort Johnston >
3 e Cholo 3 z s 5 SaaS 3 g Bandawe
3 GI ; c FS caer ate
_ 3 E | (Nyamteti | SS) 89/8, /¢00| » | 928/38 (Living
=| a at Co) S
| = Estate) aa|on|/dS/280/ & S98 ae stonia
é a|N2) ae bee! Pi 4 Mission)
{S) [o) a a & 3 oS Ba 8 & 5 3 z 5
In. In. In. | Days} In. In. In. In. Tn. In. In. In. | Days
January .| 871 | 11:20 |14°49 | 13 |12:10 | 6:74 | 16-29]10°72 | 7-40 | 14°81 | 14°38 |10°34 |] 23
February. | 9°39 | 6:05 | 898] 19 6°44 | 13-97 | 25°87 | 22°15 | 16-41 | 13°74 | 13:29 }12°01 | 24
March . "96 | 4:28 | 6:38 16 | 12°56 | 13°52 | 16°00}13:10 | 1°83 3°E2 9°93 | 24:20 22
April «| 1:48] 110} 2:78 :
May. .| 1:05 *89 | 1:34
June 4 00 00 00}; — a
July. ° 20 "25 | 2°99 3 “70 27 4:45| 2°40 “02 “00 “00 “00
3 . . . .
August . “00 15 | 177
September “00 “00 “00
October .| 1°47 | 1:22 | 3°40 4 . 1
November | 3°38 00 | 3°25 3 215 | 1:91 | 6°08] 6:99 | 1°55 1:35 °96 | 5°33 6
December | 8°30 | 3°64 | 9°88} 10 8
Year 1896 | 34°39 | 28°78 | 51:26 | 81 | 52-00 | 63°34 |108°15 | 78:54 | 42:20 | 45°74 | 50°58 | 92°59 | 126
REPORT—1897,.
412
Se ef 2 eo ne
— = — a 24S = = ——— —— _ — $e re
L1 9-0 |#1 |) [FL] $61] SL-TET] SL | TL | 28 |9-19|2-99|F-89 |ZoS. |0F9- |FEF-| O-F9 | 0-69 | 9-09 |S-TS|8-86 T-02 [0-29 |¥-82 |2-89 [2-92 [6-9 | 893-20| GS-28 296-26" * g6gT Tvo
LL /&-L |}6-0 | €8:% | 3 | 93ST | 28 | 6L | 6 |¥-29|Z-TL|T-99 |OL9- |Z9L- |TF9-| 9-89 | T-EL | 6-99 |T-€9 |T-68 \S-EL |2-29 |3-18 |F-LL |6-B82 6-89 | EST-L6/ 160-20) G9T-23) * * steqmedaq
£3 |€1 {2:0 | GL | SL |EL0L | 99 | 19 | FB [2-89 12-69 |0-€9 |88E- |FGL-|FLG-| 2:29 | LEL | 9-F9 0-19 |8-86 9-92 |F-L9 |€-L8 |9-G2 |€-F8 | 1-89 | 806-26) LOT-L6] 13-26) * * — JaqmaAoNy
GSI161L | | 69-0 | IL | 08-9 69 | #9 | 18 |&-19|6-€9 |0-09 |9FS- |Z68. |9IG-| L-S9 | F-69 | 0-Z9 |F-SS 6-26 |S-EL |F-F9 |9-F8 |€-GL |6-18 6-99 | 8FS-2G| L1G-26| £96-16) * £ 7aq0900
GS )LL)90L | 08-6 | L | ILS $9 | 19 | PL |Z-9G |9-F9 |9-FS |ZSP- |609- |PSF-| O-19 | 1-69 | LLG |€-E9 |€-68 |6-02 | 1-29 | [+18 |F-69 |3-62 |6-B9 | GOE-2G| PHS-LG| 96G-LG) * * Jaquiegdeg
9L/PL |S] 09L | 9 |89-E 89 | 09 | 08 |0-FS 9-8 |6-TS |9LF- |Z6F- |98E-| BSS | 99 | FFG |9-GE|1-G8 |L-G9 |P-LG |8-FL | 1-99 | 1-62 |1-8G | 688-26] 916-1) 6TE-L2) * - * qsnony
9T |31 |$-T | 90. 6 | 60- €L | 8S | 69 |F-GS |Z-89 |L-BF |68F- |S8PF- |9EE-| BSS | L89 | FSG |G-TG|E-B8 |6-29 |€-LG |F-G/ |F-P9 |L-FL [3-89 | 99E-LG| FIE-2G| SHE-LE) * 5 J Ame
HL /81/6-L | €6-0 | 8t | Le-6 18 | #2 | FL |T-S9 10-69 |9-6% |FEF- |S6F- |F9E-| FL9 | 6-19 | BHI [LFS |F-EL|2-39 |T-LE |0-69 | 1-19 |F-L9 [8-29 | ST F-LG| GBE-LG) T6E+2G) * 4 b, oun
GL |9L |3L] Z-L | Sl | 80-9 €8 | BL | $8 [6-69 |F-F9 | 2-96 |STS- |G09- |O9F-| 2-19 | 1:99 | FBG |0-GG|€-Z8 |€-99 |T-09 |§-E2 |1-S9 |9-TL |€-19 | SFE-2G) GIE-2G| SEE-LE) * a S Avy
81/91 1/9-L | 20-€ | 02 | 62-1 | $8} LL | [8 |0-€9]2-99 10-29 |9L9- |FS9- |F9F-| 9-F9 | 0.69 | 2:09 [0-89 |8-08 |6-89 |6-29 |F-9L 8-9 |E-FL |§-€9 | 986-16) GES-LG| 196-10) * 4 . tady
L1 {81 | | FLL | 92 | 20-1 | 88 | 08 | 88 |9-99 10-02 |6-G9 |6F9- |ZEL- |EL-| 9-29 | BIL | L-F9 |L-€9 |0-88 |F-LL |2-99 |6-82 |T-OL |F-9L |$-99 | 066-26} 981-26) 616-26) * , * yoreyy
FI |0-3 | LI | Seb | £6 | 08-91 | 88 | 8 | 98 |2-29[0-BZ|T-99 |2L9- |Z8L- |619-| 8-89 | GEL | F-99 [8-69 0-28 |9-8L |6-89 |F-18 FTL |L-LL 16-69 | $LT-L6| SET-L6) LLT-26) * . Arwnigeag
PI |0-G |3-1 | TF-3L| 83 | FE-8 | 68 | FS | 8B |1-L9]9-02 |9-89 |E99- [SFL |98G-| G89 | LBL | L:F9 |9-09 |8-G8 |L-TL |1-99 |L-BL |L-02 6-92 |G-L9 | GIT-2G) SLL-26| L112) * e * Avenuee
“ul ‘ul ‘ord ‘ord ord ° ° ° ‘ul ‘ul “ur ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ul ‘ul ‘ul CERT
a Iz |
‘Wd |'W'd |"N'V SE = B Wa [Wd [WV |Add | Wed WV | Wd ad | V | “Wd | OW'd | CONV Z mR e i= Ss Wd N'd | WV | ‘Wd | ‘Wd | ‘AY
Came on eeiem cori seven le) | 2h i Onmomias geo) G ieo.| SulesGerl @ i) nQbale tN irr ie sted: Gh Ca One Go tenes ole
Q =a a | @ qo
(1-0) PULA Apr aanssad, ng 42 soumaaqxq ;
JO d010,7 ued OATPEIOYW quyod MoT mode = ae haere ‘duo y, ergeradire, Ween rN
*ponulyu09—ayvpapnvyT
— | — | FF /SE-F| 102) €F-FOT] 08 | EL | 68 |6-F9 |F-99 0-19 129- |299-|FFS-| O-L9 | F-69 | BO |L-19] T-OOT |2-69 6-59 8-62 |L-TL j8-9L F-69 OfT-22| 8ST-LG} LST-L3) * * — -F68T 1v9X
—.| 8.1] 6¢/88-9| 6t | 16-22 | 28 | LL | £6 |S-69 |S-69|8-C9 |OGL- OGL: |FE9-| STL | BTL | #99 [0-29] L-16 [LL |6-G9 [8-18 |F-SL |9-LL |2-L9 | GFL-L2] S6T-26| FEL-LG) * ‘ taquieoa(T
— | GL] 8F/ILT| ST | 99- T9 | G¢ | 8 9-99 |9-29 |0-G9 |ZG9- |G19- |9T9-| 6-02 | LBL | $-99 |0-69| F-L6 |G-LL |$-89 |9-68 3-18 F-S8 |8-69 | 99T-LG) 966-22) TLT-L8) * * — 1aqulaA0 N
— |& | FT /0G- | b | 96. 19 | &¢ | LL |F-F9|9-89 |F-09 |G09- |G69-|FSS-| G-69 | 6-EL | 6-49 |9-09| T-OOT |2-92 |9-29 |&-G6 |0-18 /6-L8 |8-29 | G60-2G) GET-2G] OTT-20) * 7 * 1340900,
— | GL) 8-L/@L-3} OL | 68-F c9 | 6¢ | I8 |§-6¢ |9-29 |3-S¢ |G0G- |29G- |GeF-| 2-9 | G29 | GL |0-E9| €-06 |L-89 |3-6S |Z-28 |L-ZZ |0-8L |€-19 | €81-26] GOZ-2G| B1G-L6) * * — gaqmayzdag
SS GSC IFE Oe | Te. 08 | £9 | 28 |¥-09 |T-09 |G-9¢ |FZg- ISIS. |IPF-| 9-29 | 9-FO | OLE [8-89] G-FB [2-99 |F-6E |O-L2 [6-99 |9-EL |F-69 | F1G-LG) 190-16) EES-26) * i * qsnsny
— | 9-1] &-|T9-L] GT | 36-¢ 18 | IZ | 16 |&89 |¢-09 |8-FS |GgP- |9S¢- |62F-| $-09 | 8-89 | BSS |L-19]| L6L |9-Z9|F-9G |9-GL |L-F9 |€-0L |F-LG | 6FG-LG| 69G-L6) 116-10) * 5 y 4qne
— | Le | 9€/68 | GT | L2. 08 | ZZ | 98 |¢-2¢ [8-89 2-89 |PLF |GGF- |SIF-| 8-69 | 1-29 | G9 |L-GG] T-GL |G-G9|T-99 |G-TL |L-€9 |€-89 [2-29 | GPS-LG) GLE-LG) GEG-LG) * : - oun
— | 91] ¢-F(28-T| 8T | 9¢9-€ 98 | 18 | 96 |¢-29 |2-F9 |0-6S |99¢- 166- |00S-| 8-9 | 0-99 | 9-69 |9-FS| 3-18 |6-F9 |F-6S |E-82 |€-99 |6-69 |9-09 | 69T-2G] 061-26] 98T-20) * . “ Avy
— | 2%] 0.9 |ee-F| 92 | ¢6.et | 16 | #8 | $6 [0-29 |6-29 18-29 |T99- |T89- |OLG- | 8-29 | #69 | E69 |-89] 6-F8 |1-89/0-€9 |9-G2 |9-69 |0-E2 |F-F9 | FOT-LG GILG) 61-26) * F; . Tady
— | — | 0.8 |0F-3| 82 | 66-FT | Z6 | 98 | 86 |G-02 |S-TL 9-29 |SFL: B22. |FL9-| GIL | OGL | 8-29 |S-E9] B-E8 [L-TL|8-99 [1-82 [6-62 |6-92 £-89 | L10-2G| 60-26) O€0-23) * : * Yoreyy
— | — | 2.9]¢6-| 92 | 12.91 | 06 | $8 | 68 |FTL |F-€L 6-99 |SOZ- [G8 |9E9-| GGL | LAL | O-L9 |G-F9| 8-G9 |P-EL|T-89 |L-18 |6-PL |E-B2 2.69 | P66-96 FG0-L6) OF0-L8) * : Srvn1gayy
— | —] Lz|Ts-€] 83 | OL-6L | 88 | 98 | 6 [902 |F-G2 8-99 |9FL- |G62-|999-| D1L | VEL | 9-L9 |-F9] 8-88 [O-EL \€-L9 /5-18 |E-PL 0-22 |6-69 F86-92| PLO-L3) FLO-LG) * ; Arvnuee
‘ul “Ul ‘ord |ro'd |'o'd ° ° ° ‘uy | ‘uy ‘Ul ° ° ° ° ° ° ° fe) °o ° ° ‘Ul ‘ul ‘uy T68L
Zz e E A ail el er Z
Wd) 6! /Wwv| se g B Wd| ot PWV Wd Za WV "Wd Zz WV) WE | goon ‘N'Y q R | =] 5 Wad A WY| ‘Wd oon ‘Wy
feeds! ~
915/99 |Fsla] € }9)/B}9/9)/E, 9) 9] eB] 9] 8 po gel ae ee ar ee Bee tees 9 Bauo
co co
= AqipranyL oanssalg qing 79M. somlolg xy Py
(OI-0) pnolo Urey BATIUIAYL qulog Mag mode a ‘duray, weaTy _ dura, aanqersdmay, URaTL plo1any
peoma tenets 1! pA NR te Na, lee lg a eae a | kg Re el a ee eee eee
“UT *M UYyor :saavasgQ "70a 08'S “M 98 oGe “SuoT “gs ,Z 91 HVT ‘alunpyy ‘ayppsopnvT
413
ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA.
“uetayry 0 sessud | oot | yot| 313, os | 9 | os | 8 | get] 6 | e|r jogs} *}/—|/—|—|—|—|—]or|t |° ‘avon
ano spel, 94} Ora ysnorqz wor |———|———j— | | | |] | | —_ | —_| —__|
-soidep oy} ySnory9 1eque AoyT, “ave oqy | +s si gz | 0% I ime I = — |—|—Ilo9/ ¢)/—/]—|]—|—|—|—| — |] — | ‘z2qmeooq
JO UOTyBMOIID 943 Jo Quad Jed O9 ATAvou ZI IZ 1G — = — = 0-8 I —}—]—|) — J —} —) — ye} ol a od od] Ccequieaon
qosye spurm Ajqtoqsva-yynos 04} ‘yo0r | ¢ 8 Se ina: Tt i eon at 4 I —{/—J/—}—};-—J|-—}—J]—|]-—]—}|—]—] * 2290990
-109 8q 0} SeVUII}se 9say SuluMssy IL rat 81 a ae = — = — |—|—|/—|—} —} — | — |} — | — | — | — | | c32qmojdag
‘G1 Spurm Aprayqnos aq4 JO | ct | of | ¢2 | — | — | & I Sf a a a ae cy a cy clo ev
qeqy pue ‘6.9 A[uo st sparta ATI04sv0 919 91 SI 02 =: — — — = SS a SS | Ane
JO QdIOJ OY} ASTNPAL ‘¢.[ Buteq ‘ao107 sty 0% Z1 LT ate «<4 = — GT 4 a a i fel a | ng aS, a eune
pevoxe spura A[ioqsve-qQnos Surreaord GI cL SI G. It — = Be me lS eh | — | — ee CO
eayL “g-1 ATuo st 9fqez sty} UI papnfo | TT II et) i het | ee et
“Ul SPUIA OY} [[@ JO ed10J Uva ot J, OL 6 8 = ~ G. I 0-2 4 —!—Jor} r}—J—l—l—|—}—l| cl oreyy
Sd i Se 5 cl Po a De ea MN ery | a ea | el me ye
0} petnsse st o1njeiodmay uvout auL FL S SL 0-1 I G1. S 0-3 rd —|—/01 } eS ee eS oe Ayenuve
“PEST TeQuIsAON |———- ——$ ——_ | —_ — |———_ FP a EC | Sm P| Sy ce
UI aSn OJUI 9MIvO QUeTINIYsUI Mou VW ole} Lol] iH ol | ole ‘} os .
*papiooed sv UOATS orev pus ‘anfeaoaneper lea glwazlwy 9 && | ‘0 SS] oy | SS) con [8 Sleon!S Siow Slow | 8 Sl-ow | 8 Son] 3 S| con].
e Ajuo ssossod sSarpver pipe st E y ae | ee ms os ieee Nee ee $= Nise ‘
“TOW “AM ayor eo. o|t ee nee | er Peta ie SORT
“IW Jo Arqsnput oy} 04 poqyqepul are aM ‘Nd 6 "WdZ ‘NV 9 “Wd 6 WdZ | ‘NV9 | ‘Nd6 WdZ | WV9
FL-3lP “dd uo usatd st yovrjsqe ue ory erste}
Jo ‘SUOT}VAIASQO JO SOLAS B[OYA. 944 10,7 4Sa.M-1]4.10 NT qso.M qsaM-q4n0g
€-L1 | #1 0-66 | $3 0-81 | 61 | G8LT| ETT] &80T| 88 | &-TOT| 99 |¢-99] ¢e | 0.62] TZ | G28] TG | 0-21] ZT 10-6 | |O-F | F |O-LT| LT | G-2T| SL | 9-31} ST | * *tvoX
= | Otk I = — WOR Vr Or “|r Ot tT polo y ne ya ed cd cd cod ol ol ol co loe } to log | & | — | mm | reaatesed
ae ace mee ae Nee |) Ss LOO SUS ENOD) Og Ore ee gOle lk {sees een melee Creel nie (Qu Kart) eam mea tioe= Tso Rohs) S| eral | el a ca
ah — =. x = — |O€8&L |S | OF b | O€ & |0-91/8 |0-91] 6 |0-119 |0-01)8 |OL}/T |03]% |0€|)€ |OT}]T |06)% 1940300,
—~ |] —] =] = |. Jost | s [eer | 6 jour | 6 jostis jos) t joe|t |—|—|—|—|—|—|9e]F {or | & | — | — | eamendes
oo =) 1 OT oT oar OE} ge. | 8 | oon |" fools oe |e fom) |S | | |) oe | | i ay
0-1 I 0% T = — | 080 | 2 | 0S 9 | O€ 6106/8 |06|%3 |OT/T |06|% | —|—/00|)% |02)8 |OT] 6 |00)¢& - Ayu
Or | T | OF | € OL 6 E OSE ol) Lan OBE We LM eaer = |S) 1 Ose 1 Cee Nseries eo NCQ] tent en anf | dH
—~!}—-—]—|]-]|]— |] — |s6 |9 | est | trjom|s jes|/9 jorle joo}s |—|—|—}/—|—|—|—|—-|—|-|I-]—- AoW
0-8 id 0-9 g rd g 0-83 | ST | 0-8 LV Otte oie" |S | | — oe ee | a = eS Se Se eS a eS eS Se Indy
OBB) mf SO | G1 OB fk GL PE OSE NTE | igeke 1g iif mee | 1 | aa cm aa ee | |
ee | € | os | 2 | 08 | & [air |arjoos |9 |o9 |s jor} 1 jot} rt |—|=|—|—|—|—|—|—|e {1 jos] s ja] |: Seemed
Or | T OF | & O€ | F | O9L | BL] OSE | orl sz “|orjos|s |—|—jor|t |—|—|—|—|—|—|=—|—joe|t |& |r | * Arenas
beh | Coie] le] ol | oh | by" ole] bf bf Coll in| Loe] | Lele] ope] :
RES hell ee os < oso oo =) cl, oo},
g6| ON | gs | ON | BE | on | Be Jon 8s | ON 8 ./"ON |B EON) 8 Sl on |S Blow |/8 Bln] 8 Sl-on| 8 Sl on |S Blon| 3 B)"on| g Bl "ON
-_ — -_ _ om om oO or oO
Me eel Se hose ot heen | Te.) A ecu all ee eeee | ae Meena sind 68T
“Wd 6 ‘WdZ “NV 9 Wd 6 ‘Wad Z ‘WV 9 Wd6 | ‘Waz | ‘WV9 | ‘Wag | ‘WAS | “WV | ‘Wade ‘Wd @ WY 9
qynog qsva-4y4n6g qseq 4sva-qq10Ny HON
‘spuiy f0 90107 Pun uo1IaLYT
*‘ponutu00—aTVaaadnVvyT
REPORT—1897,
414,
G68I ‘auousdyp) G68 ‘“a2nup
“MOAT *M “f 2 4anwasqQ ‘sumLof-pnojg quajnaaig puv pnoyg “penuyu0co—aIyauTanaV'T
= ee ae eee
Z ‘ 2 \° Axenuee |! eg, 4 : “LG |IST-28 | F681
: eS oc ee! — lo.gz'o. ' 8G S180 0-89 | 884 |* sestdxenuee |! ¢¢.z9 | 62.62 logt.z¢ S9T-2
ee he Psp Sale ee — jeer joe-zs | — | — |* — pe81 20x | zo.29 | or-8z lgoauz EOEL6 WSELG) S68T
2 So 5 mes g Sa i ——|——_ = 69-29 | 96-08 |F08-22 |0FS-26 [808-24 | 968T 4
So g 3 T=) | ‘
So a 4s f Sis 4 4 F.8Z | *Taquiaoaq 0-0L | 8-88 aaqutaoa(T — SS =
2 3 a Bae en parolees antes cra il i a — | — |* — xequeaox |! 00.59 | 06-¢8 [008-22 lost-22 * xaquia9aq,
a ¢ 33 9 38 LL. | — (0-08 |9-22] 08-82 | 82-82] * 240300 0.0L | 868 |* * 4040390 } 68.¢9 | 98-16 |TeT-22 [OST -1z ToqMeAoN
B Bo ee pa: & |.co lees slogstoert yee | orcs): squmbtiag €9 | L18 |* soqmagdag | ¢g.49 | ze.sg loog.2z 086.22 1990390
Boo eo aS ben —-loee mer leeE homer 19g] * gsndny 069 | O82 |* * 4gsndny | qz.19 | 26.98 loaF-2z lo9z.22 qaquiaydeg
EC ES — joesle, .g6|1¢9c|* *Ame ¥SS | 469 |* * Aue | gee |etos lorF-2z loge-2z * qsndny
a 8 gk $3 06 9-81 |9-02| 0F-82 | 19-86 gens
3° S g 8 is o ga 3 00- — |0-62|¢-69! ZF-82| 0¢-82| * "oun FG | GIL | ° ? sung | PP-SS | 8F-0L |69F-L6 |82F-L6 : Ing
Bw aye £8 23 84/00 | — leszlogs| geez| seecl* * Sen 868 | O82 |" .* ABW || T9.99 | 00-2 |60F-22 \S¢e-22 : my
# gasses 28 S/o. | — loosless| cesc| eescl* tdy 8-29 | OGL tady | 20.09 | 98-¢2 |228-22 |o18-26 oN
8 Bcbnes oH Ss Ss hiicalo, 82 | €8-8¢|° Yoav — | = |t * uoxepr | $469 | ze.22 {190-22 loze-ze * Tady
S gge8As oF & | 66:2 0-28 |0-08 | $¢-8z 6 ee JES Arenaiqag || Z |FST-LZ * Yoreyy
q Sreceehs™ of | cart $.08 |$-62 | Tr-86| ¥4.86 | * Srentqeq = [2 Agemraa | 2¢.99 | 1-08 |Fra-20 8 18 are
8 -B Men fog zg Sa | 93.9 0-84 /0-8L] 3-831 31-82 Arenuep ea 53 L || 11-29 | 98-08 |F03-26 ee «Smee
sie es 3 Bess g a feur |cur|.o|o | cu | ar 02-99 | 09-62 ee 0 at
S SOS" Seaad Cs) —_—_-——__
a wanes epea 8 =
SuBeeoegze” #4 | sor LUST 9281] L281 | 9281 E mn . | xen) S| We
amass Psfcae ea | 2 | g | um | xem . Seal Vat
Zack ats Sw. 98 ———
Bea 3.3 3 | He gg FI t peau & F681 rae 9681
lope sie! ES2c aaay ainynia (sueoyy) “HEE Wet pro10uy
sagrPyoyusSoegg 33 Treyureyy “WaT, plorony aanqered
SSESSa 2e2eehs Ueda : “may, UvayT
BBs paggeseges : ‘UwOsmMoys, “TT
SSEeSHT RS OSC GS “op “tyr fh : t
S6$S54 oS u“un~ sng |. ne ; : Loy “WT 29 1 .Lautas alunyy ‘ayppwapno'yT
Sgog" 3 5S gh = 3 RMUIIS “pT ¢tawwasqQ ‘vuozshurarT pamowunuwoy ‘atunpy ‘uoavaung 70
Pe 4S ris ££ S.n . .
means : : ' <2 Bax:
-|-|- a1 | 691 || 0 | 0 |90t] ee] ¢ |ost] ee}r |o | oz 46/18} | 8 | 69 | se | 19 |Zor| v6 [9] 1 | oF | * a
a ya) mane cls le oe ae he eo eo i 6 18.2168 | ° ° taqma0a(T
0-2 | 00-9 | OFS fF O8-1 | 02-3 | 08-2 LO (SS AC i SC Cf WY WY Ng mA a. |eg.l° © zaquibadks
06-3 | 0z8 oF | 08. | og Cs Sel Oe WGele8) WOs Op | cOns em |kOn |Sei|Kee WIOk Oe lore ulng Bs = ee
OL- | 08- 02-1 | OF | 00-2 0 |st}% |0 }8 |& fo jo jo |s Jo | Ft] orfo |t jor}s |e |e |9 |er Oren: * saqmesdag
OLT | 00-3 09-T | 09 | OLT O /6t/T jo |z2 |¢ Jo jo {e |r Jo |% letts |s joris |e le lz lor lsrlre pase sacri
01-3 | 60. o8-T | Zo. | 80- OBE s Te Qe OL OPE Oe foe es O0 OT k= fO~ 10) ¢=1 0-1 OT 1/89] O- he" ae Sellen tomes rey
00: | 00 00- | #0. | £0 0 |8/0 |0 |/8 |tT Jo jo Jjerjo jo |8 |e fo Jo jutlo }s |e |e Joe lo. oe + 8 © oun
OLS | 03:6 LS | 9LT | OLS 0 | OT} jo | st) s Fo Jo |e Jo Jo josle fo jo {8 Bl | a eel ealleceal era ease leet
00% | 08 09-T | 08-1 | 09-1 0/9 1% |0 |03/0 Jo jo Jo |o Jo | og}o fo |z |e O | iro| cel eapiee te < Soca
—-}- 06-8 | 06-3 | 062 0/6 |% |T | 9t/o fo }o jo | zs Jo js} Jo jo |e |F | + oF eel —|pacipesle— is. 2 aaaate
-}- 08-8 | 06-€ | 06-T OSS eae ear TAMO) js Om) e Heo 4| ses] Of Or |oOsI-r I ‘ aio |—leeleele: *. érenaqdy
—-}- O-£ | 008 | 08-2 0 |t |9 |0 | 9t1¢ Jo Jo |o | t Jo Jer\t fo : if Br al dap eee eda ee He = AT
Ot | o1t OLT | 02-3 | 00-8 0/0 |r | |) F-fo | 0 | o-)9 }o | ale Jo 0 eset Mee ew
: Q Q
P 2 2 4] 2 ¢ Q | 2 2 Z 2 g g dH) 2 c # es 5 E
ene Pea “Thr. We, "WW" Le | * yey
Wd Wd ce oe As eB 5 B 3 8 5 2 e 5 B ee E 3 £ B elie 5 E. A fwd) Wwal‘wy Sest
ph “ele El ayFl "yale e]elEpe Fie eye] ele ele]
sate _" ‘(0 T-0) pnolo
(OT-0) pnoip (01-0) pnorp Wd 6 WV 9 (0 T-0) P
415
ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA.
PEE PF £1-96 = FEST = SLT 91-89 " * sTe70L [‘sornqvredure, y4.180
89:3 06 IL-€& - S681 Se ———] eseyy Jo sottas ovureqyshs v pasturoid o18 9M, “WSIq 004
£9-T 18 89-16 . 968T 189K 60-T OL £9-E * Lest Arenas Aree] St s,etuInp, 4B yeY9 f wah oy Jo ornyvieduIe7 UvSUT
= oe L9- 9 £9-T f Jaquisoa(T | 944 soqzvurxordds s,morsuoyy ye peuteqyqo y[nset oy]
80-T cI Goh * * daqureoeqT 98-1 13 €L-8 * — TaqulaAo NT “d old 2q 09 panos sua
OF-T 9% 09:8 * "JequiaAoN G0-T LI 19-F * — * +4990990 | ‘ga0y ¢ Jo yadep vB 4B ‘ammygeiodua, yJAva aY4 UETTAA ‘Qo0q
aE. ¥ £¢. * * 48q0300 99-T 61 Lg * areqmazdesg | o90'¢ Jo uoeaata ue 4 ‘UOSTY yUNO;, Jo edojs ureY4QNOS
10. & OT. * Jaquiaydag 66-1 06 19.9 c * qgsnsny | 0x9 uo ‘sayorhuojyy 98 opeul svA quUoUIIJedxe Iv[IUIs ¥
60- td lac ‘ * gsnsny OF-T LT 01-9 ez 4me | “7 off Jo oanqesodte} v oyvorpUT 07 PUNO; SBA PUL ‘UAvID
£00- = $00- : : sme 89-T 8T FI1-9 ‘ : oUNL | -YQIM SBA\ JoJOMMOUTIOY} WII1ve 9N4 “WZ oS Suteq oanyesed
T0- I 10- ‘ a sun IL ST 63-1 y ? ‘ABW | -w194 ave 04g “Wd ¢ 9B ‘ZEST ‘E YOUVW UO ‘Ss, ceqomoulzeyy
LL ¥ Gg. o e * AV 98-1 91 96-€ Y < Tidy | ygrve a9 Jo vy] pus \y oT 2 BUTE BUTT, 944 4B ATE 9] Jo o1N4
90-T IL 18-3 - hs Tady GE-L Ir 8LF : * yore, | -eradure, 079 ‘sovjans 04} MOlaq Yea} g JO YWdep B 04 SioqouT
68: Ll 18-1 . 8 Gorey GF € 61: 9681 Arenaqey | -ourzay4 y4.189 s,suoMIAG Jo aU pasoMoy AoTQOH “APY “W'd 0E"g
£9-1 ba 61-1 = Arenigay youy your 42 “2681 ‘L Wore Uo swing yyY—'sainjosedway yjLvq
GF. g £6. * + Arenuee |}——_———— ——— ——. “($98 ‘O'W)
your yout SIMOH #3 DOO [VoLs0TOIloajzay~_ 949 YAno1yy poanooid useq pey pus
a a UL TIP sho qunouly ‘JoJUIVIP UI soyour g ‘e[jeseg Aq Sv OSNVS-ureI ONT,
Tea skeq qunoury qsolavayy 16-9681 ‘OYR] 84} JO WOTJOOIIP 9Y9 UI spuL[ysIY 94 WoIy
qsoravay BUIMOT PUIM ATJO4Sva UG TATA SIN900 UTeI Oy} JO 4SOT
968T Treyarery ‘rapunyy Aq perusdmoooe sAvaye Aprvat Sea UTeI OTT,
Tleyarery d a L puss
“77 *Q9UT * ‘ uaaAjoq aovjd yoo} [[eyUIBI ay4 JO afOYM oY3 ATIvANT
299 )G6'S “M9 $ baawasqy a A sar ne me ae ‘aSBIOAT OY} MOTO ALJ SBAL 9681, Ul 8,eIManyy
. - f < ; Wet 106 o 8 ][@JUIVl 943 SaTyIIOyANe peoo, oy} 04 Zutps0od
“TT OG olf buoT “S 8% 0% 9VT “wauquy Buoy “A 0% 00 3°T 4% ITB} {4 WALOUINS [BOOT oY} OF pro00y
“opuomnny ‘Ss vvuUunyr
"YSTY 00} G.oG 10 OS-o82 24 PIMOM (*UIMI+"XvUT) F WoIy poonpep ULE Y *0.oTL SI SYJWOUL XIs OY} Joy Uva oT, “(6+6+G+1) F = 04 07 poumnsse st ornywIeduIe UAT ay,
“oS “FBT 0) pus “WT OZ 0} poonpat Useq VAL SUOTFVAIASO [vOLI}OMMOILq OT,
80-[| ¢t | ¢¢-F| 96 | OL | 86 | S89. | BL | E99- | 8S9 | 9-69 | T-L9 |3-99 9-62 |E-L9} 9-99 | 128 |] 9-0L | T-€9 | 8-48 | 3-29 | €-08 1-19! 086-92| 168.92] FF6-92] *“LequIedeT
UF-T| 9% | 09-8] €6 | 89 | L6 | £99- | 089- | GF. 1-99 | 8-49 | 8-99 |$-L9|T-TL|$-99| 3-19 | 168 | 6-02 | T-F9 | G88 | 4-89 | T-6L | 3-L9) 806-92) 928-92] 16-93} JOQmaAON
oe | & ec. | 29 | ZF | 06 | Gee. | 89S. | BLE | 0-29 | 9:39 | G9 |0-99 19-02 |3-F9} O-F9 | L216 | ESL | 619] 9-86 | 8-82 | 9-88 | Z-99| 896-96| F06-92| 200-26) “ 1040300
Lo. |% | Ot | OL | IF | $8 | 90% | ETS. | S9F- | F-6¢ | 86S | ZL |0-€9 |F-89|0-6] O-TS | 0-96 | T-3L | 0-29 | 9-16 | 6-69 | $-98 | T-Z9| 186-92| 626-92] STO-22] Tequieydag
60. | @ FI. | 9L | 8% | 06 | S6F | OGF | 68% | 0-69 | S-8S | F8S |8-19]299|9-69| 26> | 0-16 | 889 | 6-99 | 8-48 | T-19 | 8-62 | F-L9} 980-26) 686-92] 290-2] * qsusny
£00- | — | #00. | £2 | 6F | 88 | E8F | SLR | SOF T-89 | 8-29 | 0-29 |§-19 |0-$9|F-89| 0-09 | 9-I6 4.89 GSS | €-F8 | T-L9 | 8-8L | £09] PS0-26| F10-22| 60-26] * 4mme
‘ul ‘ul ‘od | ‘ard | ord ‘ul ul "ul ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ul “ul “Ul
fly e r |g
by 5 ‘Wad|'Wd|"WV| ‘Wd | ‘Wd | ‘WV | ‘Wa | “Wd | ‘WV |‘Wd|‘W'd)"W'v) 2 7 | avenr| ur 4 ‘Nd | ‘Wd [WV] ‘Wd | ‘Wd | ‘NV
Be Sle grleG- [8c 2a) 6 | 6 fb fh Gel Bi) fede et | Boledeomuel Be FA | PUD oer | SP eel tet SPR (OREN) 9 ok
B =e Ef ct 968T
|
Aqrpram yy qing 99M SOULIIGX ‘ : erlaydsouyy
Urey DATIELOY oansseig anode, quiog Meg rduwey, way ‘dma, einjzeradmay weap jo Hs wmssetd
‘uosLaynd uyor pun worm uayzmpr fg pagsrssn ‘uoszyy °f “aay + suaasasqQ *200f 066'S “A 199 LE “FuoT “S GZ oS WT “eager
LEO.
REPORT
416
: "B68L “4Ipe W4¢
‘8aTqQVq, [BoLBoTo10dz0 py UvtosyyIUg , 9} Ul ZF 09 OF SOQ’, WioIy pogndmoo udaq adby Aqrprmny dA1QR[O2 pire ‘yuiod Mop ‘aanssoad tnode A ‘jeAaT Vos at} 09 you 4uq “qe, fa a 2
0} PUB WT oBF OF PIONpar Usaq aAVY SUOIVAISGO JOJOULOIEA BYT, “UOIVIOOSsY YS!IIg ay} Jo aaq91MIUI0D oY4 Aq parddns asoyy are AUPE sols Pasn syMOMINAASUT ey —paNgGry
eS a a a a Te ne (a pr es ree ce
&6 |£L9- | £-89) T-0L) 168-92) 8 |8#9- | 0-89] L-TL| 606-98) L9 |FFS-| 9-69] S-FL| 096.96] £9 |OSF- | B-19] 6-01] £66-92| GZ |RTS- | 0-29] 9-89] 8E0-26| OL |S9F-| 8.09]8-29| Z60-2c|° *° * uray
$6 /FZ9.| 6-99) 0.29) £26-92] $6 |0F9- | 9-99) 1-29] 126-98] LL |ESS- | ¥-F9| 2-69] 886-93] 18 |96F-| 6-09] 2-F9| F10-22| ZB |80S- | ¥-19] 6-F9| 290-22] 18 |26F-| 0-19] 6-F9|GETL3|° °° “Wa TT
86 |6£9- | 6-99) 1-99) 816.92) G6 |FE9- | €-99] F-49| 06-93] 92 |19S-| B-G9| $.01| 986-96] LL |88F-| I-19] 1-99] #10-22| 08 |90¢- | 9-19| 2-99] 90-22] 92 \@eF-|G-19|¢-99| ZeT2z|° ° ° ‘Wa OL
16 |8P9- | 2-99) 8-29) 916-96) 26 |SP9- | 8-99| 6-29] 266-92] 89 |6FS- | €-G9) 1.3L] $26.92] 89 |9LF-| 9-19] 2-89] €00-L6| 22 |BEF- | G-19| Z-99| SFO-2Z| L9 |GLF-|G.19|¢-89| L0T-2¢|° ° *° ‘Ka 6
L6 |T99- | ¥-29) T-89) 206-9] #6 |6F9- | 0-29) Z-89| E16-9) 09 |1ZG- | Z-£9| Z-S1| BF6-9G| £9 |I8F-| 9-29] 3-12| F96-92] FL |208-| I-29] T-29| ZE0-22| 09 \geF-|¢-19| Z-0L|60-22;" * *° ‘Wd g
¥6 |1L9- | 6-89) 6-69) 006.96) G6 |1L9- | 3-89] £-69| 168-92] 8g |OFS- | ¥-99] T-L2| I16.92] So |O9F-| 8-29] 6-81] 166-92] 2 |EsG- | E-£9| 1-69| 200-22] 09 |S9F-| ZZ9] 9-TL| 220-40)" ° * ‘Wap
16 |9G2- | ¥-02) 6-14) €88-92/ 18 |299- | 0.89) 2-04) L88-92] 19 |6TS- | 2.99) 3-08] 268-92] 8F |8FF- | 9-69) 4-21] 6F6-92| 9 |208- | 2-€9| 6-TL| 986-92] 09 |SBF-| F-£9| 6-GL| 990-22," ° * ‘Wag
98/962. | 0-TL) L-F4) 288-92 92 |999- | 3.69) 8-F2| $18-94| EF |STS-| 1-29] Z-F8| €68-92| GF |SSF- | Z-S9] 8-18] OF6-96| G9 |ETE- | G-F9| 8-EL| 126-92| Go |S9F-| F-E9| 6-FL|190-2G|° °° ‘Wa
£8 |TGL-| T-T2) 0-82) €88-9| ZL |8S9- | 1.69} #-91| 628-96] SF |FSS- | 8-89] 2-98] 118-92] 1h |O6F- | Z-29] L-F8| 16-92| 2¢ |90G. | 6-F9| Z-G2/ 066-96] ZG |O9F-| ¢-E9| 0-92/ eco.2z|* °° ‘Wa F
LL |669- | 2-04) 0-94) £88-92) 8¢ |FT9- | 2-69) 8.08] 098-96] BF |FEG- | F-69| 1-28] €88-9G| LE |ZLF-| Z-29| ¢-98| 216-92] 2¢ |9TS- | ¢.¢9] 9-92) 186-92] Tg \69F-|0-F9|¢-9//S¢0.2z;° ° ° ‘Wa e
82 |069-| F-02| $-S2) T88-96) 99 |F89- | 9-TZ} $-08] 898-98] ZF |69S- | 2-02| 8-88) £06.92] SE |F9F- | F-29) 0-88] 1£6-92| 6g |FTG- | I-99] ¢-¢2/ ¥66-92| GF |LGF-| 2-69] 6-92/ 8904c|° ° ° ‘Wa Z
£8 |999- | 1-89) €.64) €88-96| ¢9 |L29- | 2.04) 0-08) 068-98) EF |OLS- | 9-02) €-88] #26-9G| 9 |6LF-| 2-29] ¢.28/ 086-92] 6S |LTS.| 6.9] S-G2| $10.22] GF |E9F-|0-F9| GLL|aa0Le]* ° ° ‘WaT
LL |GOL-| 0-TL) $-92) €88-98| $9 |9G9- | 1.02] T-08] 016-98] Gh |gLS- | GOL) 9-98] 96-98] BE |Z8F-| F-29| 3-98] 266-92] ¢¢ |R9F- | Z-G9| E-FL| ZFO-LG| OG |G6F-| G-C9| 2-8//8OT-24|° °° woON
08 |9EL- | 0-B2} 2-94) 88-96} 29 |LE9-| €-0L) $81] $16-92| 6H |T09- | 9-04] Z-£8] 266-92| IF |FSF-| ¢-¢9] -28| 80-22] E9 \zzs. | 2-F9] G-E2| 690-26] Ig |FSF-| 6-F9| G-LL/GL-22|° ° * ‘WY IL
48 |60L-| 6-02) T-€2) 888-96) O2 |999-| €-04) 9-12] ZF6-98| GS |EEG- | T-29] 1-08) 810-22) Sh |69F-| $-S9| 1.08] ¢F0-24] 89 |ces. | 2-49] Z-ZL| Z80-L2| 9¢ |TSF-| 2-29] G-F2|¢eT-2¢/° ° ° “IY OT
G6 |8L9- | $-89] Z-02| 688-96) G1 |FS9- | Z-69| 0-G2| 176-98] 99 |LLG-| 6-99] 0-SL| ZE0-2Z| 8S |20S-| L-F9| -G4| ZG0-24] FL |TFS- | 0-F9| 8-69] ¢80-26| 99 |24¢-| 9.79] Lo|2eT-2Z1° °° WV G
¥6 |LL9-| 6-89! $-69) 168-9] 68 |PFE9- | 8.19] €-0L| LF6-98) BL |EBS-| 2-99] ¢-04] 610-22] 29 |Z6F-| 9-29] T-O2| ZE0-22| FS |9FG. | G-E9) 8-99] G60-2| 9g |20¢-| O-I9| 6-29] 6ZT-2Z|° ° * “WY 8
66 |L89-| 6-99} 0.49) 168-96] 96 |SF9- | 8.99) 6.19] 226.98] 88 |LES- | €-29| 2-9] 800-22] FL |898-| 0-F4] 6-86] Te0-22| Ze |FSe- | £-19| 0-€9| 840-21 28 |IZF| 299] 0-19|FOL-2Z]° 9° YZ
OOT 8E9- | 0-99) 0.99) 688-98) 26 /ZZ9- | 9.¢9| €.99| L16-9Z| Z6 |90S- | Z-09] 2-19] 000-2] 16 |89E- | 2-T¢| Z-€S| 600-22] 6 |L0¢- | Z-09| 9-19] 1F0-22] 26 |OLF| aFel gel sgouzl: °° <° Iwv 9
OOT|/6F9- | 2-99) $-99) 688-98) 26 |2Z9-| 1-49] €-99] 606-98] 16 |60S- | G-09| G-Z9| Z66-92| 16 |I8E-| 9-26] T-FS| 8L0-22| g6 |9ZG- | Z-19| ¢.9] SFO-LZ| 6 IGTF-| F-Fel ¢-cel egouz]* ° * WY ¢
66 _|8F9: | 2-99) 9-99) 688-98) 26 |1Z9- | ¢-G9| T-99/ 406-9] 16 |8TS- | 6-09] $-29) ¢86-92| 06 |FGEE- | -6| G-G¢| 166-92] g6 [BEG-| 8-19] L-£9) 6FO-LZ| ze \ZTF-| 9.F¢] 0.9¢| 60-221 °° YF
O0T|6F9- | ¥-99) 7.99) 888-92) 46 |ZE9- | 0-99) 9.99] F06-92| #6 |OES- | €-9] ¥-69| 046-92] 98 |90F- | 6-FS| F-29| 166-92] SB |9z4-| 2-19] 0-F9| FE0-22| 06 |9BF-| 2-96] F-zG| e80-22/° ° ° “WY ¢
OT 6F9- | $-99/ $-99) 888-9) G6 |SE9-| g.99/ €-29] 206-92] 68 |9ES- | 1-29] Z-F9] 996.92] 8B |SIF-| €-49] ¢.2¢| ¢66-92| gg \zee. | 0-29] €-F9| 620-22] OG \OFF-| F941 6-26] FL02z|° °° * WY &
86 |9P9- | 9-99) 6.99) 888.92) 96 |1F9- | 9.99] 9-29] 16-92] LB |8PS- | 6-Z9| F-99| GF6-93| 28 |SEF-| 2-9) Z-6S| 800-22] 28 logs. | 0-29| ¢-F9] 960-22 BB |9FF-| Z-2G| F-6G| C8O.2Z° °° IVT
66 |LP9-| &-99) 1.99) €88-93) G6 |G99-| ¢.19/ $89] 616-92] 98 |6GG- | L-€9| 1-99] 10-22] FB |ZSF-| 1-8S) Z-19| 920-2] 88 |2e¢-| ¢.29] L-F9| 990-22 2g |e9F-| F-8¢] 2-09/8TL-22/° ° gustUpry
‘ord ‘ul ° ° “ul ‘ord ‘ul ° ° ‘uy ° ‘al ° ° “ul ‘ord ‘ul ° ° ‘ul ‘ord ‘ul ° ° “uy ‘ord ‘ul ° °o ‘Ul
90.\|f1q 99. |Aaq 99M | SI 99M |41q 99M | 410 90.M|41q
fe, w =| re] ] rl = tb ie = to Z rs)
celgs) g | 8 lbegs| 2 [ce \Belgsl| 2 | 2 (EES 2 | 2 Fev § | 2 [Pes § | &
Begs| & B |EEIe3| ¢ g |Belgs| & B |Belgs| & a Be ge| 8 & |Beles 3 g sno,
ume S oO ae oO Bae oO as = Bele oO eae oO
ess" 2 | a gels5) 2 | # \Bsee) & | & [23/85 2 | £ sia5| & | & \Es|g5] & | &
La] Led a | iad A } ba]
IT pue T raquieoaqg Tg pue ‘TT ‘Treqmoaon | 1g puv ‘TTT 10qoq0Q | Tg pue ‘TT ‘{ zeqmaydeag | zg puv {1 ‘, ysndny 12 pue 11 Ame
ee ee a 2 ee se Se ee) oe el
‘968T “aquasag” 07 Apne ‘suorwasasgg Apunozy fo sunapy : auqry
Ce ee ies i aa ee ee ee ee
ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF AFRICA. 41?
Variations in the Level of Victoria Nyanza.
Lake Level | Rain Notes.
The observations on the rise and fall of the
Port | level of Victoria Nyanza were begun in January
baa i Port || Port Alice | Vic-| 1896 by direction of Sir Ernest J. L, Berkeley,
Port Tubwa| Vic- | toria) H.M.’s Commissioner, who placed this work
Alice toria ——_| under the charge of Mr. R. J. D. Macallister.
| f 3 | There are at present three stations :—
} pez || a Port Alice, or Ntebe, the Lake Port of the
Tale thn ite capital. The observations are made daily at
Renter oT 73| — Tn. || eae noon. The observers were Major A. E. Smith
a I. alle “ ~— | — | = | Ganuary), Mr. Alex. Geo. Boyle (February to
tl. Balle os 6 — | — | = | September), and Mr. Fred. Pordage.
February. iil 57 44 63 we. ae Lubwa, near the outlet of the Victoria Nile.
me IL. 46| 33 ye re ~ | — | Observer, up to the beginning of February 1897,
Tit. 9:9| 92:5 ae |) = |) | Mow. Grant;
March L 19| 9:2 as ai =a Port Victoria, on Berkeley Gulf, in the N.E.
? IL 4 353 28 por Se |) er |comner of the lake. Observer, up to the end of
Tit. 29! 3:9 oe — | = | = | 1896, Mr. R. J. D. Macallister ; since that time
Aa ih 2-7| 23 9 |lts40] 4 Mr. C. W. Fowler.
Ries IL 3-2| 3:9 aa 3-90 | 8 ns At Lubwaand Port Victoria the observations
Til. 39| 3-4 4 3471 6 — | are made at 9.30 A.M. Observations on the rain-
" ; : 34 rE — | fall are made at Port Alice only, no gauges being
May, |) e850 ies 85 | 6 | — | available.
a a2 aA a aan F aa Care has been taken, when fixing the gauges,
frane L. 11| 29 4 a-46| 5 — | to prevent a subsequent settlement.
v IL. y2| 22 2:5 96 | 1 Sa On beginning their work the observers were
IIL. 21) 2:3 21 46 | 9 — | of necessity compelled to choose an arbitrary
July id 90| 1-2 19 0g | 2 — | datum level. In our abstract the datum levelac-
ys on at aig a “p0uleng ; cepted is the mean level of the lake during 1896.
IL. 0| —1-2 _17 03 | 1 0 In the accompanying tables the results are
Aenst L |~ o6| —24 s 2-3 2-041 6 5 given by decades, and also by months.
pee im | Sas aa, i 206 | 6 In examining this interesting record it will
Mere te Ba ogi he a be found that the influence of the rainfall
September. T |~ 3:8| 98 rr 41 90 | 2 upon the level of the lake is not so immediately
P * oi srl era 5D 7 | 2 2 | apparent as might have been expected. Thus,
Tiree ol] eee 67 130 | 1 ‘A a rainfall of 2°36 in. on November 14, 1896, only
October TE h7-8il| aze0 73 38] 9 0 caused a rise of the lake to the extent of 0°75 in.,
Se ET (1.070887 m 38 134 | 3 and the heavy rains during October and Novem-
TIL, |~ 9:8| —8-8 9:7 2371 6 | 2 | ber (16°64 in.) influenced the lake level to the
Buayemiber es (2186 |.=8°7 _76 3-66 | 10 6 | extent of only about 5 in. Evaporation, no
ae eel ae 27 7211 8 9 | doubt, as also the irregular distribution of the
UL — 93| 1-7 1-0 iis | 7 6 | rains over a lake covering an area of 25,000 sq.
iaedesiher ries 0:9 |g <8 Sir 3:46 | 4 2 | miles, go far to explain this.
~ ogi |S ool ee 97 97 | 3 2 The winds exercise a decided influence upon
Il, ios 34 vE 4 21 3 0 | the level. They are regular land and lake breezes,
¥ a 3: 0 | plowing off-shore (from the E. or N.E.) in the
morning, andchanging about noon to W. or S.W.
Yeur (Mean) ./ 0:0) 0-0 0-0 — | — | — | The lake breezes are more especially important,
a —— ——__|____]____| and Mr. Macallister remarks that a strong S.W.
1897 breeze will cause a rise in the level of the lake
January, I. |— 3:0) —35 | —3°5 08 | 2 1 | to the extent of from 1 to 3 in.
: II, |— 2°7|—2°5 | —21 47 | 2 5 As the observations at two of the stations are
i III. |— 1:9| —26 | —1'9 120! 2 Q | made in the morning the actual mean level
February, I. |— 3:0| —1:50 | —1°55 || 1:21 | 7 g | is probably a little higher than it is made to
II. |— 2:0) —0°80 | — °17 59 a g | appear from ovrabstract. In order to trace the
III. |— 1:7) —1:96 | — 44 || 1:82] 3 j | influence of the wind upon the lake level it would
| be necessary to establish a self-registering
Mean Lake Level Fluctuations Sear eee can.
Months Post 7 = = Rain Fall ; Taking the mean of the
or - ‘or ort |. 3 ort i three stations we find that
Alice Lubwa Victoria | Alice Lubwa, Victoria ae ee on January 1 thelevelstood
eee a 7-8 in. above the datum,
1896 In. In. In, ae In. In. In. |days| Whilst on December 31 it
January. . 71 56 66 3-0 25 3:7 es 4 | Was 3'3 in. belowit, a differ-
February. ie 4°4 3°5 4°4 3-0 55 55 — | —|/ence of 1l1in. The level
March . . 22 2°9 3°3 3:5 56 67 __ | __ | was highest in the begin-
April : 3-1 32 3:0 20 57 35 3:61 | 1g | ning of the years, lowest
May. . 30 37 32 2-0 50 2-0 445 | 15 | (—9°2 in.) during the 2nd
June 15 2°5 24 2-0 7 40 3:18 | g | decadeof October. The ex-
July ‘niet 09] —O1 | —02 3:0 50 4:0 6:31 | 5 | treme range amounted to
August . ./—10] #15 | —22 2-0 3:0 3:0 4-10 | 12 | 182in. (Port Alice 19:0 in.,
Septembe -|—49] —43 | —5:3 45 6-2 5:0 9-37 |. 5 | Lubwa 17‘5in., Port Vic-
October . .|—84|) —82 | —86 40 55 3:5 4:59 | 11 | toria 18'2 in.)
November .]|—51] —48 | —3-7 77 | 10:5 85 12:05 | 25 It is desirable that simi-
December .| —18| —2‘6 —2:3 27 4:2 3-0) 4-69 | 10 | lar observations should be
a | Y made ye bee i and W.
Year (Mean) . : shores of thelake, The con-
: ) oe ad | oe aS ve 44 || — | — | nection of thesestations by
1897 ay id bac o nalts decreed on
January. .| —2:0| —98 Bae Ihe are we oie ey de vardly be looked for for
February 5) Seco Beg 07 20 £0 3-00 || 262 | 13 many years to come.
TTT? kk eo eee
1897. EE
418 REPORT—1897.
Haperiments on the Condensation of Steam. By H. L. Cauuenpar,
M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics, and J.'T. Nicouson, B.Sc., Pro-
fessor of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Part I.—A New Apparatus for Studying the Rate of Condensation of
Steam on a Metal Surface at Different Temperatures and Pressures.
By Professor H. L. CauLenpar, and Professor J. T. Nicotson.
As the result of some experiments by electrical methods on the measure-
ment of the temperature changes of the walls and steam in the cylinder of
a working steam-engine, which were made at the McDonald Engineering
Building of McGill University in the summer of 1895, the authors arrived
at the conclusion that the well-known phenomena of cylinder condensation
could be explained, and the amount of condensation in many cases
predicted from a knowledge of the indicator card, on the hypothesis that
the rate of condensation of steam, though very great, was not infinite, but
finite and measurable. An account of these experiments was communi-
cated to the Institution of Civil Engineers in September 1896, and will, it
is hoped, be published in the course of the ensuing session. In the mean-
time, the authors have endeavoured to measure the rate of condensation
of steam under different conditions by a new and entirely different method,
with a view to verify the results of their previous work, and also to estimate
the influence, if any, of the film of water adhering to the walls of the cylinder.
In considering the condensation of steam on a metal surface, it is usually
assumed that the surface exposed to the steam is raised up to the
saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of the steam, and
that the amount of condensation is limited by the resistance of the water-
films to the passage of heat from the steam to the metal and from the
metal to the water. If the steam contains air, there may also be a
considerable resistance due to the accumulation of a film of air on the
surface, but it is comparatively easy to exclude this possibility in
experimental work.
In the steam-engine experiments above referred to, it was practically
certain that the water-film due to the cyclical condensation never
exceeded one-thousandth of an inch in thickness, and that the resistance
offered by it was unimportant. At the same time, it appeared clear that
the temperature of the surface of the metal at its highest was considerably
below the saturation temperature of the steam, a condition which could
only be explained by supposing the rate of condensation of steam on a
surface to be limited by some physical property of steam itself, apart from
the resistance of the condensed film of water. Interpreted in this manner,
the experiments led at once to the conclusion that the rate of condensation
at any moment was simply proportional to the difference of temperature
between the saturated steam and the surface on which it was condensing.
The limit thus found was shown to be capable of explaining many of
the phenomena of cylinder condensation in a rational manner, but the
method by which it was establisaed was of an indirect and somewhat
intricate character, and appeared to require some simpler and more direct
confirmation.
If the rate of condensation of steam were really infinite, it should be
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONDENSATION OF STEAM, 419
possible, by a suitable modification of the surface-eondenser method, to
obtain values of the condensation considerably in excess of those given by
the formula deduced from the temperature cycle observations.
To accomplish this, it is necessary to eliminate as completely as possible
the resistance to the passage of heat of the water-films between the steam
and the metal, and between the metal and the circulating water, and at
i STEAM INLET
Cc
J ae 2s 3a aa mere
ae SS SSSee: it
patel ans ots oe eee 2
SS: jae
— 1
WATER (NLET
_ ib
~~ 7O STEAM THERMOMETER BS
| 70 serararor
the oie time to measure as accurately as possible the temperature of the
metal.
These considerations led to the form of apparatus shown in the figure.
The resistance to the passage of heat from the metal to the condensing
water in this apparatus is practically eliminated by employing a thick
cylinder, 5 in. diameter and 2 ft. long, with a screw thread cut on its outer
surface, Water from the high-pressure mains is forced to circulate round
_ this surface with a very high velocity, in:'the narrow space between the
EE2
420, REPORT—1897.
cylinder and the surrounding tube. In this manner it is possible to obtain
a very uniform temperature for the external surface, differing but little
from that of the circulating water.
If the cylinder is made sufficiently thick, its temperature may be
approximately determined at any depth by inserting mercury thermometers.
It was intended at first to use thermo-couples for this purpose, but the
apparatus in this form would have been unsuitable for students’ use in the
ordinary course of laboratory, work, which was one of the primary objects
in view in the construction. It would also have been desirable to make
the cylinder of copper, which would have reduced the resistance of the
metal to the lowest point. The authors were compelled, however, to
content themselves for the time with cylinders of cast iron and of mild
steel.
The internal surface of the cylinder, upon which the steam was
condensed, was a hole one inch in diameter, drilled in the solid metal. In
order as far as possible to minimise the resistance of the surface film of
condensed water, a revolving brush-was constructed of very thin strips of
steel to wipe the surface five or six times a second. This wiper was found
to wear in a very short time to so perfect a fit, and the water-film must
have been so energetically stirred, that its resistance to the passage of
heat must have been far less than that of the best conducting metal.
Under these conditions, if the rate of condensation of steam were
infinite it should have been possible to obtain a rate of condensation many
times greater than the limit deduced from the cylinder condensation
experiments above mentioned.
On making the experiment, however, it was found that the wiper
made very little difference to the amount of condensation. With the
wiper revolving at the rate of 160 per minute, the condensation was
increased by about 5 per cent. on the average of several experiments. It
may be concluded from this that the drops of condensed water with which
the surface is partially covered are in such rapid motion that they do not
appreciably obstruct the passage of heat from the steam to the metal.
A film of the same average thickness, if it were absolutely quiescent, and
if its conductivity, as generally estimated, were only one-hundredth of
that of cast iron, would no doubt prove a serious obstacle, but, as a matter
of fact, the viscosity of water at these temperatures is so small, and the
motion so rapid, that the drops cannot be treated as a quiescent film.
The temperature at various distances from the inner surface of the
cylinder was determined by means of mercury thermometers inserted to a
depth of 8 or 9 inches in holes drilled parallel to the axis. From the
temperatures so observed, the conductivity of the metal and the tempera-
tures of its inner and outer surfaces could be approximately inferred. It
was found, however, that the presence of the holes interfered materially
with the flow of heat through the metal, and that the readings of the
thermometers under these conditions were not altogether trustworthy.
From a number of observations on the cast-iron cylinder, a conductivity
of 5:3 thermal units (pound degree) Fahr. per square foot per minute was
deduced for a gradient of one degree F. per inch ; a result which agrees
very closely with the authors’ previous determination by a different
method. For the steel cylinder a conductivity of 5:8 was similarly
deduced. These results apply to a mean temperature of about 140° F.,
and are much lower than the values generally assumed for iron.
In order to verify the authors’ previous result as to the rate of
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONDENSATION OF STEAM. 421
condensation of steam, the temperature of the inner surface of the metal
was calculated on the assumption of a rate of condensation equivalent to
0-74 T.U.F. per second per square foot per degree F. difference of
temperature. The values so found agreed with the observed temperatures
within the limits of error of the observations. Owing to the inferior
conductivity of the iron, the test was not altogether satisfactory, as the
difference of temperature between the steam and the surface rarely
amounted to as much as.30 degrees. With a cylinder of pure copper, and
using thermo-couples for determining the temperature at a given depth, it
should be possible to obtain a more certain confirmation by this method.
In performing the experiments, a number of variations in points of
detail were introduced from time to time. The flow of the circulating
water was varied in velocity, and directed in different ways. In order to
secure uniformity in the distribution of temperature measured in different
directions from the centre, the spiral circulation was found to be essential.
In the second apparatus, the screw thread was at first replaced by a baffle
plate, which was intended to direct the water into a spiral course, but the
results found were unsatisfactory.
In some cases steam was admitted from the top of the apparatus, and
in other cases from the bottom. With the steam supply at the bottom, it
was found that the condensed water refused to drain down the vertical
1 inch tube in opposition to the current of steam, although the maximum
velocity of the steam could not have exceeded 10 feet per second.
The following set of observations, each of which represents the mean
of several taken on different days under similar conditions, will sufficiently
indicate the general nature of the results,
Condensation Resulis Summary. Mild Steel Bar. Wiper Removed.
Temperature in Metalat Distances | Con- |
Sos Steam | Surface | Difference | duc-
T a a) Temp. | Temp. | Steam and 1 in. 15 in. | 2 in.) tivity |
: ft. P Obs. Cale. Surface
ae ate Hee: Cale. | Obs. | Calc. | Obs. |Obs.| K
| 7 a | \3 = |
20:0 330° 302° 27° 208° || 214° || 154° | 152° ae) 5°84
17-2 300° Fie Io 193° | 198° | 143° | 142° |109°| 5°66
15-4 274° 2bor 21° 179° | 184° | ‘136° | 184° (105°) 5°81
The temperatures of the metal at distances of 1 inch, 1°5 inch, and
2 inches, from the axis of the bar, were observed by means of mercury
thermometers which were very carefully centred by small iron washers
in holes filled with mercury. The hole fitting the bulb of the 1 inch
thermometer was 4°; inch in diameter. The other holes were 5; inch.
It will be observed that in this particular set of experiments, the
temperatures at 1 inch in the metal, when calculated to agree with the
assumed rate of condensation, are all too low as compared with those
observed, whereas the temperatures similarly calculated at 1:5 inch are all
too high. This might at first sight appear to indicate a very rapid
diminution of the conductivity with rise of temperature, but, after making
various tests, the effect was traced partly to the disturbance of the heat
flow caused by the presence of the holes, and partly to differences of
density of the bar in directions at right angles. The latter differences
avere not observable in the case of the cast iron.
422 REPORT—1897.
The observations taken at different pressures do not indicate any
marked difference in the rate of condensation per degree-second. These
results, so far as they go, are in agreement with the authors’ previous
work, but they hope to be able to obtain more conclusive evidence.
Part II.—An Llectrical Method of Measuring the Temperature of a Metal
Surface on which Steam is Condensing. By H. UL, Cattenpar, I.A.,
L.RS., Professor of Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
The object of the following experiments, which were made at the
McDonald Physics Building with a different apparatus, was the measure-
ment of the temperature of the metal surface itself by a more direct and
accurate method. It was also desired to verify as exactly as possible
whether the rate of condensation of steam at atmospheric pressure were
the same as at the higher temperatures and pressures at which most of the
preceding experiments were made.
The condenser used for these experiments was a very thin platinum
tube, a quarter of an inch in diameter and sixteen inches long. The
thickness of the tube was only six-thousandths of an inch, and the greatest
difference of temperature between its inner and outer surfaces at the
maximum rate of condensation observed in the experiments could not have
been. greater than a quarter of a degree Centigrade.
The mean temperature of the metal itself was determined in each case
by measuring the electrical resistance of that portion of the tube on which
the steam was condensing. The author has had considerable experience
in the application of this method, which, moreover, is very easily applied
if suitable apparatus is available.
The platinum tube was enclosed in an outer tube of brass or glass, and
steam was admitted to the space between the twotubes. A steady current
of condensing water was maintained through the platinum tube. The
amount of condensation could be inferred by measuring the flow of water,
and observing the difference of temperature between the inflow and the
outflow. In many cases the condensed water was also measured.
Applying a small correction for radiation, the two methods always agreed
within one-half of one per cent. The pressure of the steam in the outer
tube, which was never far from the atmospheric, was observed by means
of a mercury column.
The conditions of the experiment as to flow of water and steam, size
and length of the external tube, &c., could be varied within certain limits.
The following is a summary of some of the more interesting results ob-
served.
1. With a short length of condenser and a very free escape of steam,
the condensation observed was equivalent to 22:2 thermal units F. per
square foot per second, for a difference of temperature of 28°°5 F.
between the steam and the metal surface. This is equivalent to a rate of
condensation of 0:78 T.U.F. per degree-second, reckoned per square foot
of the surface of the metal. This was the smallest value of the rate
observed. The platinum tube was vertical, and the current of steam
downwards, conditions which tended to keep the surface of the metal
comparatively clear of condensed water.
2. With the same conditions, but with a length of tube nearly twice
as great exposed to the steam, the condensation observed was 22°3 T.U.F.
per square foot per second, for a difference of temperature of 25°°3 F.
EXPERIMENTS ON THE CONDENSATION OF STEAM. 423
This gives a rate of 0°88 per degree-second. The lower half of the tube
was more thickly covered with water than the upper half, the steam also
"was full of flying spray, which may have assisted in conveying heat to the
metai, and in maintaining the same rate of condensation on the lower half
of the tube as on the upper half, in spite of the somewhat higher tempera-
ture of the circulating water in the lower half.
3. With the same arrangement, but with the steam current reversed
and reduced until the escape was as gentle as possible consistently with
keeping the tube full of steam and entirely excluding air, a somewhat
larger rate of condensation was observed, namely, 23-6 T.U.F. per square
foot per second. The pressure throughout the tube was very nearly
atmospheric, and the gentle upward current of steam tended to keep the
tube very thickly covered with drops and rivulets of water. The difference
of temperature was only 22°0 F., giving a rate of condensation of 1:07
T.U.F. per degree-second. This is equivalent to 2°25 watts (joules per
second) per square cm. per 1° C., and was the largest value observed
throughout the work. It would appear probable that the surface exposed
by the drops is so much greater (in the present instance about twice as
great) than the surface of the metal, and that the drops themselves are in
such rapid motion, that the increase of surface by facilitating condensation
more than compensates for any resistance which the water-film may offer
to the passage of heat to the metal.
4, To verify this view, the outer glass tube was replaced by a much
smaller tube, so as to leave very little space for the steam current. The
pressure of the steam was thus raised to nearly four inches of mercury
above the atmospheric at the entrance of the tube, and the surface of the
platinum was violently scoured by a spiral rush of steam and spray.
Under these conditions, the condensation observed was reduced to 19:2
‘T.U.F. per square foot per second, instead of being increased as might
naturally have been expected with so strong a current of steam. The
effect of the energetic scouring of the metal surface was shown by a slight
rise of temperature of the metal as compared with the previous experi-
ments. The observed difference of temperature between the metal and
the steam in this case was 19°°8 F., giving a rate of condensation of 0:97
T.U.F. per degree-second.
From these and similar observations, in which the conditions of the
experiments were varied to a certain extent in points of detail, it may be
concluded that the presence of water on a metal surface may tend to
increase rather than diminish the amount of condensation. The rate of
condensation of steam at 212° F., allowing for the fact that in these
experiments the surface was unduly increased by the presence and motion
of the water drops, would appear to be at least of the same order of
magnitude as the value deduced from experiments on the cyclical con-
densation in the cylinder of a working steam-engine in which the
temperature of condensation varied from 290 F. to 330° F., and the rate
deduced was 0°74 T.U.F. per square foot per degree-second. Since, how-
ever, it is possible that the latter value was diminished to an uncertain
extent by a slight film of grease on the hot and dry surface, and since the
value deduced from the surface-condenser method is perhaps a little too
large owing to the presence of the water-film, it would be unsafe to
conclude that the rate of condensation is the same at different tempera-
tures, although the evidence so far as it goes appears at present to point
in that direction.
424, REPORT—1897.
Comparing the three different methods of experiment, which all lead
to a similar result, it may be regarded as highly probable that the old
‘view of an infinite rate of condensation requires revision, and that the
value of the rate of condensation of steam on a metal surface, as determined
by the author’s previous experiments, is at least a first approximation to
the truth. The question at issue is one of fundamental importance in the
theory of the steam-engine, and the authors have shown in the Paper
already quoted that, if the law of condensation there proposed be admitted,
a number of interesting practical deductions can be made, and problems
may be solved which have not hitherto been regarded as amenable to other-
than empirical treatment.
Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories.—
Appendix to Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. B.
W. Kennepy, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor J. A. Ewine, F.R.S.,.
Professor D. S. Capper, Professor T. H. Beare, and Professor
W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. (Secretary).
TuE Committee obtained measurements of the elongations under tension.
of a set of test bars made by different instruments and observers. A
comparison of the results was given in the Report for 1896, pp. 538-548.
The Committee applied to Professor A. Martens, of the Technische
Hochschule, Charlottenburg, to make some similar measurements with
the instruments at Berlin, for comparison with the measurements made
in this country. Professor Martens very kindly consented to make these:
measurements, but his report was not received till February this year.
The measurements at Berlin appear to have been made with the
greatest care, and with three different testing machines. The variation
in the extensions with different loads is less than that in most of the
measurements made in this country.
The following is a general comparison of the average result obtained.
at Berlin, with the average of all the results by different observers in this.
country for corresponding bars :—
Coefficient of Elasticity. (Tons per square inch.)
Ms f Average of
Bars B ee i results in this
erlin results country
FH, F, 1} inch diameter A : ; 7 5 13264 13249
K, L, ? inch diameter , : A 2 , 13373 13245
A,B,2inchesbyZinch . : . 5 : 13041 13193
The tables of details are appended :—
Results of Tensile Tests made with Rod E.
Diameter : j é if . . d=31'8 millimetres.
Section . : ; é ; : 5 . F=794:2 square millimetres
Measured Length . : : c - L=200 millimetres.
Elongation-measurer_ . a . - Martens’ Mirror Apparatus.
Machine . ; : : c . 2 . Werder’s System.
Temperature of room . . ‘ - t=16° to 17° Centigrade.
—_—_--
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 425
Increment of Elongation in 0:0001 mm. for every
2,540 kilos.
Load 2
P. f 2 Remarks
Kilos In series of experiments
= Average
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7, 8
2,540 | (306+2) | (305°5) | (3067) | -- | — | — | — | — | (8065) | The experiments on
5,080 301 309 308 307 |308 |306 |309 | 309 3071 | the ‘ Werder’ machine
7,620 308 308 306 306 |304 |307 |309 | 306 306°8 | were commenced with
10,160 310 306 307 307 | 305 305 307 | 308 306°9 | an initial load of 2,540
12,700 308 303 305 303 | 303 [303 | 306 | 304 3044 | kilos,
15,240 307 305 303 305 |304 |306 | 306 | 306 305°3 The elongations in
17,780 | 309 309 307 |309 |306 |304 |307 |307 | 307-3. |brackets () per 2,540
20,320 306 308 305 304 |307 |307 |306 | 305 3060 | kilos were determined
on the 50 tons Pohl-
meyer machine.
Average. | 307°0 3069 305°9 | 305°9 | 305°3 | 305°4 | 307-1 | 306-4 | 306-2
2,540 —4 +9 +2 £0 }) +1 |) +4) +1 +) +4 | _- Residual readings on
| taking off the load.
2540 . 200 . 10000
icity Ea woe ee: HUOU9
Modulus of elasticity 794-2 . 306-2
= 20,890 kilos per sq. millimetre.
= 13,249 tons per sq. inch.
Results of Tensile Tests made with Rod K.
Diameter é . : . . : . d=19°0 millimetres.
Area of Section . : : ¢ ; . F=283-5 square millimetres.
Measured Length (length between marks) . L=200 millimetres.
Apparatus used for measuring elongation . Mirror Apparatus by Martens.
Temperature of room . : 4 : - t=17° Centigrade.
Increment of Elongation in 00001 mm. per 1,270 kilos determined on :
‘Martens’ Machine. ‘Werder ’ Machine. oe Pohimeyer
achine, f
Load P.
Kilos. een EL
: - é a Aver-
In series of experiments. In series of expmts. In series of expmts. age.
Aver- Aver- Aver-
age, age. age.
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 1 | 2 3
+ oe —S | =—_ — fT | ——_
1,270 | 424 | 424 | 427 |(431) | 425-0| — — as — | 432 | 424 | 496 | 427-3 (426-2)
2,540 | 425 | 424 | 424 | 425 | 494°5| 431 | 426 | 497 | 428°0| 495 | 496 | 497 | 426:0| 426°2
3,810 | 425 | 424 | 423 | 423 | 493-8] 493 | 428 | 497 | 426°0/ 496 | 423 | 495 | 424:7| 4248
5,080 | 430 | 424 | 433 | 422 | 497-3] 494 | 426 | 498 | 426-0) 492 | 495 | 424 | 423-7] 425°7
6,350 | 427 | 431 422 | 426 | 4265) 495 | 425 | 496 425°3| 425 | 425 | 425 | 425°0} 425°6
7,620 | 426 | 425 | 426 | 426 | 425°8|) 493 | 426 424 | 4243) 419 | 420 | 424 | 421-0} 423°7
Average! 426°2| 425°3| 425°8| 424-4) 425°5 | 425-2] 426°2) 426-4 | 425°9| 424-8] 495-8| 425:2 | 424°6 425-4
0 = —1/ +5] 42] — — _ _— = +1} +0 | 40 | — | Resi-
1,270 | +5 | +5 +2 | (+2) +1 +0 | +1 = —1 | +2 | +2 — | dual
1270 . 200 . 10000
1 f elasticit = —ssae OE
Modulus of elasticity E 9835. 425-4
= 21,061 kilos per sq. mm.
= 13,373 tons per sq. in.
4.26 REPORT— 1897.
Results of Tensile Tests made with Rod B.
Width ‘ 3 , : : - . 6=650-4 millimetres.
Thickness . 3 : : : : : . @=12°9 millimetres,
Section . - c C : : : . F=650-2 square millimetres.
Measured Length . : : : : - L=100 millimetres.
Elongation-measurer : : - - - Martens’ Mirror Apparatus.
Machine . 5 : 7 é - Werder’s System.
Temperature of room < : : - - t=17° Centigrade.
Increment of Elongation in 0:0001 mm. for every 2,540
kilos,
oe i In series of experiments oases
i > : 4 5 Average
5470 — — — _ — — &
5080 | 192 192 192 192 191 191°8 ee
7620 189 190 185 191 189 188°8 ST
10160 | 190 192 191 188 191 190-4 seg
12700 190 188 191 192 188 189°8 Siles
Sa
Average | 1903 | 1905 | 1898 | 1908 | 1898 | 1902 | lees
itil, fe — o|-s2
AIN Ss
Residual] = |S" 3,
readings wlio BM
2540 +0 +2 +0 +1 +0 on tak- Sh lah
ing off u Bia
the load a ae 8
~
Screw Gauge.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
W. H. Preece (Chairman), Lord Ketyiy, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL,
Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen. WEBBER, Col. WATKIN, Messrs.
ConraD W. Cooke, R. E. Crompron, A. Strou, A. Le NEvE
Foster, C. J. Hewirt, G. K. B. Evpurnsrone, T. Buckyey,
EK. Rigg, and W. A. Price (Secretary), appointed to consider
means by which Practical Effect can be given to the Introduction
of the Serew Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884.
At the meeting in Liverpool in 1896 your Committee reported that
sufficiently accurate gauges of the British Association screw threads were
not generally procurable. They described methods of exactly measuring
male threads, and proposed a form of gauge for male threads which they
anticipated could be more accurately produced, and more easily verified
than the forms in common use.
In continuation of this course they have been in correspondence with
some of the principal tool-makers in England and America, with a view
to procuring accurate gauges of the different screw threads of the British
Association system constructed on the lines indicated in their last
report.
The Pratt and Whitney Company of Hartford, Connecticut, had
already begun to construct tools for these threads, when the Secretary of
the Committee wrote to them, and are giving close attention to their
accurate production. The Company have kindly promised to communicate
with the Committee as soon as the work is sufficiently advanced to allow
INSTRUMENTS USED IN ENGINEERING LABORATORIES. 427
them to make proposals for the supply of the gauges, and the Committee
hope that exact gauges will soon be obtainable from this source.
In the meantime they ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 20/.,
including the 10/. granted last year but not drawn.
Linguistic and Anthropological Characteristics of the North Dravidian
and Kolarian Races.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. E. Swyey Hartianp (Chairman), Prof. A. C. Happon,
Mr. J. L. Myres, and Mr. HuGH Raynsirp, Jun. (Secretary).
Tue Committee invited Mr. William Crooke, late of the Indian Civil
Service, the author of ‘The Tribes and Castes of the North-West Pro-
vinces,’ recently issued by the Indian Government, and other important
works on the populations of India, to join them. Mr. Hugh Raynbird,
jun., whose materials the Committee were appointed to examine, has,
however, been prevented by various engagements during the current year
from continuing and completing the laborious work of transcribing and
translating his collections. The Committee are therefore unable to make
any further report this year to the Association ; and they deem it un-
necessary to ask for reappointment at present. The grant has not been
drawn from the Treasurer.
Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Public Elementary and other Schools—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir DouGcLas Gatton (Chairman), Dr. FRANcIsS
Warner (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Mr. EK. WHITE WALLIS. (Report drawn up by the Secretary.)
PAGE
APPENDIX.—Sia Tables shoning for each inquiry the children who appear to
require special care and training on mental or physical grounds. The
classes of children are presented in sub- oe arranged in Oe seine and
according to the schoob stondards . : 5 5 = . 431
Tue Committee reappointed to act in conjunction with the Committee
appointed for the same purpose by the Congress of Hygiene and Demo-
graphy continued to act with that body in the study of conditions of
childhood. Last year we referred to a report! published on 100,000
children examined. Following the circulation of that report, it was
decided to establish a society to continue inquiry and research. This has
been effected under the title of ‘The Childhood Society : for the Scientific
Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Children,’ of which the
Earl of Egerton and Tatton is president, and Sir Douglas Galton chair-
man. ‘This society now possesses all the records of inquiries conducted
since 1888, and we have received from them full means of access to these
valuable records and substantial assistance in preparing this report.
' Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Child-
hood, with particular reference to children of defective constitution, and with
recommendations as to education and training, based on 100,000 children examined.
Published at Parkes Museum, Margaret Street, London, W., the office of the
Childhood Society.
428 REPORT— 1897.
In presenting our fifth annual report we now give an account of
1,120 children who appear to require special care and training as being
sub-normal in their mental or physical status. The cases dealt with are
derived from three sources :—(1) Records of children seen in public
elementary schools, 1888-91 ; (2) children similarly examined, 1892-94 ;
(3) cases collected by the Charity Organisation Society in various parts of
London and presented for report as to mental and physical status. These
were examined and individually reported on by Dr. Francis Warner.
This portion of the work is new, and was specially selected, as evidence
concerning these children was asked and obtained from these inquiries
by departmental committees of the Local Government Board, the Home
Office, and the present Committee of the Education Department on
Defective Children. The evidence is published in their parliamentary
reports, and some of the recommendations made have been adopted.
The class ‘children who appear to require special care and training’
includes all cases given as ‘exceptional children’ (see Group 5), and in
addition ‘all children mentally dull, with defects in development, abnormal
nerve-signs, and low nutrition,’ 7.e., Group 27.
ExcrprionaL CHILDREN.—This includes all children whose physical or
mental conditions show them to be obviously at a permanent disadvantage
therefrom in social life. This group includes: Idiots (76) ; imbeciles
(77) ; ‘children feebly gifted mentally’ (78); children mentally excep-
tional (79); epileptics and children with history of fits during school
life (80); dumb children (81); and all children crippled, deformed,
maimed, paralysed. All these exceptional children need to be considered
individually as to their special requirements.
Idiots includes all children who on account of their bodily and
brain defects and the absence of mental power might be certified as.
idiots under the Idiots Act and sent to an asylum.
Imbeciles.—This includes all children who might be certified as men-
tally imbecile and transferred to an asylum. Speaking generally, these
are less hopeless cases than the idiots, and more educable under industrial
training. Some of these cases were the result of disease, not of congenital
defect of brain.
‘Children feebly gifted mentally.—These children are distinctly
deficient in mental power, but might not be certified as imbeciles, and
are therefore not fit for such medical certification. No child was regis-
tered in this group unless it was believed upon evidence observed and the
teacher’s report combined to be incapable of school work in the ordinary
classes. Jt is difficult to define what physical conditions seen, as apart
from mental tests, indicate the child as unfitted in mental capacity for the
usual methods of education, and an arbitrary attempt to do so has not
been made. There appears, however, to be a large class of ‘children
feebly gifted mentally’ with defect of mental power short of imbecility,
but still with some deficiency.
Children mentally eaceptional.—These children, while not necessarily
mentally dull, and without brain power, appeared deficient in certain
mental characteristics and in moral sense, such as habitual liars, thieves,
and incendiaries ; others were liable to attacks of total mental confusion,
or periods of total mental ineptitude or violent passion, or were moral
imbeciles. Some of these children were the offspring of insane parents
or criminals. It is quite possible that some of these children were really
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. A429
epileptic or subject to petit-mal. Some of these children while thus men-
tally exceptional were not ordinarily dull pupils in schools.
Epileptics and children with history of fits during school life-—In
every school, inquiry was made for children subject to fits, whether
occurring in school or alleged to occur at home during school life and
given as a reason for absence from school. A report given as to history
of fits was recorded, and the case was entered in this group, but at the
inspection of a schoo] facts could not be usually observed proving the
child to be epileptic.
Children crippled, maimed, deformed, or paralysed.—Any child
crippled, maimed, deformed, or paralysed was included in this group.
Conditions of disease and paralysis were in various stages, but in all cases
the child appeared to be at some permanent disadvantage. The condi-
tions causing crippling were in various stages: many of these children
were quite capable of work and play, some were mentally defective ; they
varied greatly in brain power and in physical health.
A card was specially prepared for each of these cases, showing the
defects present. The tables were prepared by sorting and classifying
such cards :—
School Card No.
St Reg. No. BOYS.
Age Spl. Rep*
A DEVELOPMENT DEFECTS. | 47 O- oculi lax.
a 1 CRANIUM. 48 Eye movements.
2 Large. 49 Head balance.
3 Small. 50 Hand weak.
4 Bossed. 51 Hand nervous.
5 Forehead. 52 Finger twitches.
6 Frontal ridge. 53 Lordosis.
i 54 OTHER NERVE-SIGNS.
6 11 EXTERNAL EAR. Cc NUTRITION.
¢ 12 EPICANTHIS. D DULL.
a@13 PALATE. ‘ E EYE-CASES.
14 Narrow. 64 Squint.
15 V-shaped. 65 Glasses plus.
16 Arched. 66 Glasses minus.
AN Cleft. 67 Myopia, no glasses.
18 Other types. 68 Cornea disease.
e¢ 19 NASAL Bonzs. 69 Hye, lost accident.
f 20 GROWTH SMALL. 70 Eye, lost disease.
g 21 OvHER DEVELMT. DFTs.
F RICKETS.
B NERVE-SIGNS. G EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN.
43 General balance. ~ 82 CRIPPLES.
44 Expression.
45 Frontals overact.
46 Corrugation. ABCD EF G
430 REPORT—1897.
Tt is obvious that different educational arrangements are needed for
the children ‘feebly gifted mentally,’ according as they are or are not
blind or dumb, while the epileptics form a particularly difficult class to
deal with. Again ; crippled children who are not mentally deficient or
paralysed, are not to be grouped with those so defective.
Following the experience gained in giving evidence before the depart-
mental committees and those responsible for the care of exceptional
children, the cases have been grouped as given in Tables A. The total
numbers feebly gifted mentally are easily obtainable by addition of the
eleven sub-groups.
In the tables the boys and girls are arranged in age-groups, and as to
the educational standards.
In Tables B the cases are arranged as in our report presented last
ear.
Standard O contains children too old for the infant school and too
dull or backward for Standard I.
The primary main classes of defect are indicated in the tables by
symbols :—
A. Defect in development only ; not in combination with other class of
defect.
B. Abnormal nerve-signs only ; not in combination with other class of
defect.
C. Pale, thin, or delicate only.
D. Reported as mentally dull or backward only.
Six other primary groups are arranged by taking cases with two main
classes of defect only.
Four primary groups present three main classes of defect only.
One primary group presents the four main classes of defect combined
in each case.
The remainder—groups E, F, and G—contain the cases with defects
not classed above as main classes ; such as eye cases, children maimed or
crippled, «&e.
To obtain the total number of cases with any class of defect, whether
combined with other class of defect or not, the numbers representing all
the primary groups containing such defect must be added together. The
total or compound group AB=primary AB+ABC+ABD+ABCD.
The Committee desire to be reappointed, to act in conjunction with
the Childhood Society, for the scientific study of the mental and physical
conditions of children, and ask a grant of £20 in aid of this work.
431
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.
a toa
a
no
ai
|
ot nF FN
sare
onl
a)
roa)
TaquIn yt
1230.
jooyos wapun hypuosas ‘sdnosh-abo ur ysl paynguysrp ap sasnd ay J,
|
|
“y | -g
prepurys
oN
9)
|
|
‘a
‘III pre
-purig 12AQ |prepurig
9)
‘a
‘III
os Aprvott
S| Pees NLS AS a Nh asa ear eee a al SORDITTC. pure! <= ae % = 00182
Ajao
S| SS ie tS Sa = = _ _ — |qunp pue “* oe oe aroy
Ajuo
—f— tt | —|— | ee eee el Fg — |r 6 | pyddio pue “ & * * (8 2) 82
paddi10
9) eh | | =— = = _ — | pue oydende * ¢ * (882) 08 gL
ATMO, “c “
a8 ||, A = — I ordejtdea puv : J 08 8L
I IT 4 T G 5 Penance
pus “ory
-dapida ‘yooy
ee | ee a a a mT eal ci(26 5) 0aeiey
orqdeyida
pue 4oeyz
—1— fm] celery etc led _ _ _ _ — | -2p of9 qin = * ui a * 08 382
quinp
pus = yoas
te et et cee tee teat Ree rn _ _ — _ — |-op efa yam @ ° * 18382
pelddrao
pue = 4oay
Nc a Ve | ST | a Eyota gegdn s * (82) 381
wre aor “ “ q
a Gel ea a € c & I — | ep e490 ATK eee 9 BSE)
= T | Aquo ATrequeut pays Ajqeag |* * 8
hs dey is vs — Fe “i a if vt RE or ws wl . Aya0 peddr1o pues “ . . (z8 2) LL
Fell Die eee] eng ea 4 Lp da id I = I — | 4juo onderide pu ss . * 08 LL
quip pue
I eV a eee cina — | — | q0e~p of wy | * * 183 LL
patddi1o pue
Samm | Somme |e (ts [ce |e | Se oe ee Pay aeaye ea ui, * sau
vane)
Same | eee OLN eee be arg = I I G — I qooyop ofo ITA ae ee fy ALL
eee liu fatty icc ie | li A = g g € T iid * A[Wogorpr puvopoaqmy | * + + yy
DO} Eh) D5) EE SO ela Oy earl a a9) ‘a =2) a
“ 'T 0 = Japun 5 aad
ae peat loaner prepuryg| SHUT | Joao paw LL} steof 01-8 | noe caval 7 7)
"Sp.LOpuUngs
"auyy 9sn) 2y7 UL UaaArb sr Uses Uauppryo fo waqunu
7710} ay, “hjuo pownu poofop fo sassnjo wo sswjo ayy burguased ‘sossnjo-qns we pabun.wwn Sburuw.y pun aio powads awanbat
07 paswaddn oyn uauppyo 0y2, Buamoys ‘Tg-gggl paununaa spooyoy hing hunyuowayy oyqgng wr waes sasvg—"] W adv,
eo
REPORT—1897.
4.32
en SPY OCS ee ee ete) es ee ee A ee eee ees
o9z°ZT) Sg9°8T!] —| — | — — ye ee ey et cr dt cd et cd ed _ — _- — — |°* teas uarprryo Jo zeqminyy
; (aI
dnow)) suraway yerods
aambot 09 avadde oy
LEG || S864) = | TS cg | #8 | 8& | & | #F | 89 | 09/1 |8 | 09) 82] 2g ¢8 06 SIL | 06 08 | UeIplyo Jo zoqmunu [vzoT, | * : ST
Warpyyo
yeuordeoxa9 = se aAoqge
[ papnpour you gnq ‘:aqvo
lap 10 ‘aryg ‘aed pus
SUSIS - DATO = [VUILOUqB
osTe ‘quamidopaAep Ul 4oay
st | 2IL || —|—| 9 | 93 | GL] zt} es] os}ce|Fa)1t | 9 | se] ec| 92 | 0 | Sb | GF | 99 | SE | -ep cmos YAM stidud tmd|* * * 26
| AOE SV VAAPTIMTO [BU0l}
LOT | 99E i = | == | ST O& | SL} 16 | 02} #2 | 63} 98 | —| zs | 8] eo] TE aq (ag 69 iad Gp | -daoxo jo Jequimu [vyOF, | * 5 ooo
— _— —|-—| — — |— J — | — | —| — J — J — J Hs — ss er — = — — a 4 * — asvasIp y.lvay | * : * g0T
_ — —|— —- _ —| — | — | — |] — | — | — | — |] — I Ke — — ae — — _— . 2 G “waloyy | * : TtOr
I if 4 | al Sa Sah Wises cma eel econ (RLY el | I = s I — = is * os A[Avaut 10 pure | * : * O01
_ I —|— _ — —|/—/}-—-|}—);-|}—-|—!|-—-|—-|1 — —_ — —_ — IL * s 0 * Ayao quing | * s = 18
yuo
€ ei i ms al a ea Sate elle — | qoajop oo yn * i ae)
68 poF b=") 6 TSE | Pet) | ETI le NEC) O72 fel meal Sarl Hl GL SD UL 1G ae 1g et | ar | 80 2 kino perddmp ||) 2 = Ga8)
‘oa sit ee S|) ys |, | | gl Ua atc | ee Pe | Ceci || — = — — — Ajuo qmup pue ed q ¢ 18 08
= z pe =a ae I |) aes Sa Sli = it = = = I Ajuo poiddwo pus = * + (%8 2) 08
-pajddiao pure
= as | eet) ees | ee Pe Te | eR ee | | a ee ay | Se | eee £. = = = — | 0ep oefo WIA 8 * (%g2) 308
Ajuo
— z —|-|; - T —}—}]—}]—}—I|r}—li—-t—-J|-|] — T — — _— if goajop ofo YIM = ae, a 08
tL 61 Sal |W a | 8 {Pll Mc Sgn | 3 Tigen BB) 1 Hae (cea) Ma L L if 8 ty v . : * Aquo oqdoyrdgy | * , aos
— _— —|—| — — j—/—f}—J—J}—-}—} -J-}-y- tl Ke — — — — |°* yuo qunp pus My y : 18 62
= — —|/—/| — | meth || eset eee | cee fee | teeeeee meet cee | meet | ements — — — — — | Ajuo oydozido pus sf $ 08 62
| | Ayuo
4 ie —!—!| @ — j—J|—}—}]—|—ITrl/—-l—-!|—l|-| «| — I — — | qoejop ofa YyqIAr ef 5 : 3 6L
p z —-|-| — — le —/|r j/—|—!|—!|—|—|—|2 rs _ I _ —_ rd + A[Wo [wuoTydeoxa ATjvpUTY | * : © By
ae) Ech) Wiss oh Vie Wal ies 3) oe Ge as Dil ets Wop OPA eases el Past oad ars tay (SS ONG cay 2) Vers ty 2) ‘a m9) a m2) at
qaquinN = |/pawpueys) “[IT piv ‘III sift aii 0 qepun
1890L ON | -Putag 140 |paupurys| prwpuLys paps pxepuris squvjuy | 19A0 pu EL) sive O1-8 | poy fe L = dno
"PNUINOI—T VY IA YI,
433°
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.
OFL‘L1| 88981} — | — | — —-|—- - _ = = ray = he |e set OPEL TSES ST fe | an) Se — | ues 1aquiny
Sa AN YY ha a a = i || | |p| |G eo [a oe “
28a | 86 || —|—]| Te cg | +E 8¢ ey | tr] 89 | 09 T 8 | 09] 82 || Lea} 82] 29 | $8 | 06} sit] o6 0s |* *° gr dnorp [ez07, | &
ost} ztr |] —|—] ot o% 61 LI ee | 03 6g | ¥3 T 9 Zé | GZ || ost | LIL | 9%] 0€ | SF] GF] 96 sg | \dnory urqoug 0g V
2or| got |] —}|—]| et 0g cI 1Z 0% | ¥2 6 se | — | &@ | 88] €S}} 2oL} 991 | Ie | oa | ZF] 69] Fe a |* * 9 dnory reqoy,
&I 6 =e lg 4 L 3 I g T z == A iCall | T, &L 6 Saas eee hg g T ‘— dg hs
SI 8I elt lt se _ if — g T g 6 = T eel 4 SI ST +E) re | SSialeg 9 9 ‘adogv S
ie 9 ee T =) || = I 3 S|) epee T 9 qe ee | = ¢ ‘* aog s
9 ¥ a a ale T z = z a T g = Saxe al AL 9 ¥ 64¢ |8 | I I - "a'o'v. “3
LI oe i — |} — | — (a I b ¢ L 6 € = T SEs) 2E | 08) || eo eel ceancel ae 9 ‘ aay Ms
= ¢ =) z = _- _ _ _ T = allie = S —|—T |—|2% _ 3 " Oa Vv, S
G — |}—-;—-}| -—-] -— — ||- — T = a See | sel ee) tale == |) "| a en Rea timer me |e ao iB
LI % || —|—| F Ei if T P P F 9 = oe || nace Na 7 | £ 146 coves } 8 ‘aq ss
I T SS SH) Ae T — = = = = = = es |e | ae if t/try—|—-] — — |: og we
$ 9 3 Sora laa I | Ne eames z I g ae lees esl laa al aa Oo) Eh Sia | 8a Sse me ee AS ot
L T —|— | & - _— = IT = = = > a lie AE L T Go| 5 ale eee eee T ¥ OV ue
€ 6 ae OG € Tt id — = = rd — =F ie & 6 — 5" les = g gv *
8 1 | — = ¢ I 6 =_ I g z = =e oak 8 Fe | — | agee 3 P : a
I & =) I —- | — I I = =e) |! i I € = ES Pal Sal oe lie lee ) Me
L 92 fi —=|—] I 6 I D € g = z = anise WG L 8S. 18) 16 | See ea eee 9 9 q 2
ia 8 ip at t — i = I I T = tie | i 8 a sa (et Sta fa rd T : V pue 5 dnoay |
» ‘a | Dl‘al| “ ‘a » "a ‘De | a 43) ‘a *) ‘@ 1) -a@ || “p ep a] Da | wD a |
Pere eee | one | “areteag | Ge ree \iaantoe, |e aren oe ee ae womra |
‘spLopums jooyos wapun hypuooas ‘sdnosb-abo wre ysuif paynquiysep alo
SasDo ay], ‘Aur 98D) BY? UW wWaarh sv SJooYyos Asay) UL Woes Ua“ppLYyD JO WaquENnU 70709 aY,T, "70x92 BYR UL pournjpdxa pun Urban
ay7 ur sjoquhs ha payoopur yoafap fo ssnjo ayy hyuo buyuasaud ‘sdnowb havursd wr pobuvssv ‘burunuy pun avo yoroods
atunbat 07 waddn oy uauppyo oy, bunoys ‘[E-Bgg] pausuwnuxa sjooyoy hog hunpuowapy vgn Wr Uses sospy—'| | WAVY,
1897,
ee cr t—™
REPORT—1897,.
434.
, -_ om _ A
| | a a es ean a ta i Dc | eR Cherie pos * u:
Ajo
td A eae tee Cee | eS | | ON eed fee a eeealh De Pees) ese fea I ead — | paddyo pue “© * (68 2) 8L
porddrio
Lh cae Memos MR P12! LN WS eg fae AS fd Dm me (am SE Td Re (28 2) 08 82
Ajao
Slee lms | | me See ||) 0: |] Se ai mse ee ae ee ne * 0882
polddr.10
pue ode,
-1da = ‘qoay
medilcee:, {nae nel ASE SHUM [shes |e feeb elim i ee een |e eee Se ‘og is * (682) 08 38h
o1yda|1da
pues qooy
— — —|-| -— SSeS | SSS SS Sh | ee _ _ _- _ — |-ap esa wm « * 08 382
quip
pus = 4yoay
_ = ||) MV | Va A al | _ _ _ — — |p of qa “ WG * Ig 48h
porddr10
pus 4youg
Pe Sy ee hE Pee ce We i fe fim ne Hee ie Sen, | ener | IE ee irae th me = aie a aT § ¥ (282) 3 8h
Ayo yoay
am ees Nace met acme Ui mee emai tes RE SN alm Brel Tot Be e | 3 | & |p ef qa “ Ce Rip
OF JA | fi Mma RS TI 6 1s Sg Ze 20 Se er |) aE 6 €1 ae 91 9T | Aquo Atrequeur pogy13 ATqQo2,7 » SL
I — —|-| -— yer a ace | bo a _ _ _ _— — | Ajuo paddr1o pus ck * (682) LL
= || | | ee Se i mag a OT | - _ - — — | sjuo oydepide pus =f . 08 LL
quinp pus
_— | el | Fa a LA ay Ta DP i | ad - _ _ _ — | qo0jop ofo ym * 18 LL
patddi1o pue
SE PH ae | cee Re NR a sa Hs | ae | as eit Tee ome AI me ah Spe Ome cere |e) dD ee aS ¢ (282) ALL
Ayuo0
= 9 Ra pe) eee Ne mem Neng er Heel ae (ee Re eee yh — | — | qoajyop ofa wm “ > ay
T g SS = SS a OS tk T =e a ig = T * — ATWO FOrpT puw atloaquiy OL LL
a) ESE 9 ff an DM banks at be a9) ‘ad | || | || Del a | DES |) aD ‘a a9) ‘a 9) ‘a
qequny ||prepueqs| “IIT pre ‘III ‘Il Tr 0 JaAO pues Japun pus
18101, ON |-pueyg 10AQ |prepueyzg|prepueyg| prepueys| prvpuLys UU, LL sivak O1-8 savak ee dnory
Lee eee ee ee eee ee ee ee eee eee Ee Se a ak DE a SS 5S Le
“spLvpunys
jooyos wapun Appuooas ‘sdnowb-abo ur ysuif pagngrijsrp a9 sasMo ayf, aur) 780) a4) U2 uanbh sr. wuaes Uaspprys fo sequnu
70907 ey, “Aywo pawnu qoafep fo sassn]9 10 ssv]0 ay) burguasard ‘sossnpo-qns ur pobuvsin “Luvs, Puy aio ppwods asnbas
07 wwaddo oy uarppryo ay), Sumoys ‘FE-GE8T paumunxa ‘s00yog hing hunjuowmalgy oyqnd Wt Uses sosvg—G YW a1aVvy,
435
IN
CHILDRE
TS OF
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFEC
SE |FSS |PLG9/S¢02
SILEZ| £8Z9c|| — | — | 9209 | 9682 |FEFS|1PSE|G9FEIOILZE| L6TF|LEcr
81g} 926 || —|—| 92 | | ZL] 12] 92] 02 | 22 | 9
OL | e2 || —|—]| + EAS 8 alka! S| ae | egal ue
|
SFL] esr] —|]—!] i | ze | ot] et] 12] ot] eF | ze
|
ee lies ee eee
I — =i — | — FF — | —] — Tt |
¢ Sp | Ps | |e | eae eee ee ees Fe ee
I ? —!—] — | — |—-J]tl}—|—l—Je
rd ce N= |e lege T Ne hie Leo ba Cat
¥g IZ 1—|—| 6 66 4) Saat) lebeeGr | Ope eE
I — }or-yrt} om] em pomp om yt yey ce
it I SS | Slt Niel tel a ie
8. °2E l= =| 2 @ ie’ |e ey S| ie aler
SS RE ee eee ee eee (eee ee te
g ¥ —) | ay tT j—|ry—yt jaye
6r | OF | ¥9 | 29
S$ |G | 6L | Ié
FI] ¢ | ge | oF
—_ — ¢ —
sr Vines VA Gel!
ey fa us nL
a a
vail era are:
me | TA) elie
=| Se
risliealemeas ict
oo
a
68
FL
* aas WeApTIyO Jo Jaquinyy
(2
dnorp) Sure yeroeds
almnbet 07 weoadde oy
udIp|Iyo JO Jequinu [vq0z,
uarpiyo yenowydeoxe
SB eAOgB’ papnjour you
qnq : e4volTap 40 ‘uy9 ‘ayed
pues ‘sud|s-aArou [eur0uge
osl® “Quemdojaaap ur 4oaz
-op emos q4IA syidnd quq
aAOqB SB UdIp[Iyo
[euor4daoxe Jo zaquinu [v40I,
asvasip qlvay{
o -onel Dw) de
* Bal0yD
os Ayvau IO purtg
C Cy ee. * ATWO quing
AyTuo
qoajop afd YqIAN us
Aja0 paddy
* Tao qump pus MU
AYao payddiso pus S
porddi1o pus
qoajop ofo YQIAN si
‘ ATU0
qoojop ofa qyIM =“
. * * £ja0 odaridsy
* IMO quinp pus )
Ajuo odetide pus =
Ajuo
qoajap ofa YQTAL My
* S[uo peuondeoxe ATpeyueTy
os AJaveu
| 40 puyq pus “
13
* (3282)
* (82)
ipo.
* (68 2) 08
(28 2) 308
a 308
: 08
re 18 62
Y, 08 62
e192 | 28292 || — | — | 9209 | geez | Pere | I¥¢e | sore | OLZe | ToTr | Tear | ese | Foe | FLG9} 9902] — | — |—~|—-]7}|T}] 7 | 7 | * Uads 1OqUIn N
812 | 923 ||— | —]| 92 ¥F || LE 4 9% 02 LL +9 | GT Or | #9 19 | 816] 926] 09] 89 | 69] #8 | 68 PL |° ° &T dnorg jeq07,
OL Fy |e po he L £ 8 S ¢ 8 LG g g 61 Tz) || sO eZ |8 | OL] 83] Fe] 6g 63 | ODdnorpurgongqdoagy
SP eat || | Tes” eh eT 14 eT ey | 2 | FT ¢ og or | 8hL| SI} 2S] 8g] 9h] 0g | Os ce |* * 9 dnory peqoy,
11 8 | ear eeiieag &I id $ t T = 9 = = L 9 | AT o¢ |8 | FT/€& | OL] 9 9 it Dab ee |= fs
6 ii —|-|-|/+- —-;|}-|]- I 17 z == | oS Sg $ 6 L Te ie Orie | 9 % ‘doaqgv mR
¢ z me | yf et | I ae ¢ I T —-/|—- 1 ¢ fa jal Se i ye I T "> (old t
P t j—-l|—-|} ~| -—-]— |] 1 —/|—| +s PS elas ee eal De Whigs ate |e Coa | pale = malay
ise 61 Scan) = I rd z P L 9 g rd S 6 61 SG aD Nee WZ OTa eS: 9 |* aagv a
ee | ea es eel «
- 3 = tet} —~ ley net el — _ Pe a z _ 3 z ogy R
— I ef YN | = — I lf Va | T Se (a Dh Cl Le pea lo)
ce Sf cle") oF I g fa 9 z Or raf 4 — 1/8 6 og 96 | SE | 9" | IL | en) 1 8 Ceara: a
es Tt —f—jo—-l}m—- tl} mee ye et rl — _ it —-|- - T S| se ||| peel eae le | od ue
2 g te 1 |e € = —-/|/~-}]-— td t 3 = I i g UT aan eal eee a 3 S : av a
ica) = ¢ S|} ac I aa ie - t _ =e _ — I a || |e | TE | ean AT eo T oe OW My
ma et gy epee tess Weceteolp oem fee elf Seeger femoral ae cee ol ar olla it) G00] ol areca eh ME eta ihe ga
st 6G i=) (Fa <9 8 t I 9 ¢ S g I I £ 9 8T CGia| 24 Wal Leal eam | ee iy treed uf
i 7 4 "|e fem T = — T i! = T = I ¢ i Gell =" eT | ec | eee cc | se
(ti ih aah | |] G2 9 i - 9 € I fd Tt — P € 03 HE | Gil 8: Aly S. neste ees $ ~ 39
¢ P —|-| - € I —-/|— — £ _ I -|- I S i 16 tame Pee aE i T ‘ * vy pue 5 dnorp
m9) FG iab || se |} 59) espe » "a » ‘a Soe) oes) 3 el He Ts Meso )a eas B |hy dayatrstal|. 3) ‘a
Stites aes aa cas ip erecuere aaneas eae Ss BAUEOL OL pus It Ae “areek 2 ACCME
‘spunpunys ooyos wapun fiypuosas ‘sc’'no.tb-abn ua gsuyf paynqrijsyp ain
saspo 9y,J, aur) 98D) 9Y2 UL UWaarh sr spooYyos asay, UL UIEs UaLp]LYD fo LAQUNU 7910} aY,T "792 BYR U2 paumjdxa pun urbhanw
ayz ur sjoquhs fq poyworpur qoofop fo ssnjo ayy hyuo buryuasaud ‘sdnowb hanursd ur pobuntio (buruw.y Eup ano jproads
aunbat 07 waddon oym uaupiryo oy), bunoys ‘FG-ZERT peurmnmae *sjooyog hog hanjucwmaygy 9Ujgnd ut Uses sasvj—'% q ATAVY,
436
437
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.
T = ES)
& G Beale
9 8 € | 8
ing 16 OT | &T
id T a |p!
§ G & |G
5) "7 “|g
mon Pm
07, burmoys ‘kyyonprarpur uo pezdoden pun ‘uopuoT ur hyoroog wornsrunbigy hgumyQ ayp fig pazoazj00 sw saspg
(ete aa I
1 |
a9)
Su
“III pre
-puvyg 1aAQ |paspuyg
| Aaa
tits
a9)
‘III
Pikes =
|
|
ar
prepuvyg
a
pavpuryg
m9)
‘a
[Broads 0
paeparyg
Fra rates ey emesef
CS} de Ye
a beet ae Pa ghee oe
Si | | Sere ee
SS) ae
St | ai ea eel
ese Nee cellu) Se | ht
(ELSE ie metal pea | sm |=
call (ee ee aie lo
Bo EPSON ee 0) ety
a eee beta a
peace (he ene] sonal
ram ess Re, ae ale
mi moll e| SAl eonll O a
ia Oo a are
SJUPJUT | TOAO pus LL | sxvod OL-B
——_ —
rc
|
bgt A)
9] ‘a
Japun pus
svat £
os ATAvOU
qo‘puyq pus “ 4
Ajuo
qump puv “ “
A uWo
peddizo pus “ 4
palddia19o
puv ondaide A
AyTuo :
oijdejido pue “ g
paddtaso
pus ‘ory
-dayida ‘yoaz
-ap ofa yy = Ss
oiqdarida
pue qooy
-ap ofo qq = ne
quinp
pues qoay
-ap efa yg = of
petddio
pur 40a »
-ep of0 yy“ “
Ayo 4ooyz
-op ofo yin =“ ee
Ayao ATyequeut pears A; qoa,iq
* AJuo payddi10 puv a
Ajuo odode pus UW
quinp pue
qoejop ako YIU ee
poddr10 pus
qoajop aXe YqIAr Ki
Ajuo
qooyop ofo0 yg
* — ATWO FOrpT puv sploaqury
‘ * 001 82
Pert 9)
* * (682) 82
* (68 2) 08 82
oS ORs By
*(68 2) 08 3 82
i cosa 82
5. TS 1gsey
* (82) HSL
paste
5 Chee 4)
* @ey) ALL
. . “au
. . OL
dno
‘spLnpunjs Jooyos epun hijpuores
‘sdnowb-abo ur ysuaf payngrsjsip au sasno ay,t, aur) 98D) aY2 Ur Uaarb sr Uaas Wauppryo fo Laqunw 70}0) ay,J, “hjwo pawnu
goafep fo sassvjo 10 ssnj0 9y) Buyuasord ‘sassnjo-qns ur pobuniwwn ‘buoy puv avno yorads avnbas 02 powwaddy oyn uaupywyo
ee as Ss
= 6
Y avavy
ee ee ee
REPORT-—1897.
68 | Gr || co | ez] + 9 |9 |z |8 |st}|et|9s]}* |or}s |e | #9 | 99 | | oF | tr | te
s9 | 98 ||| sc] T Te! ian EME | eA NOTAINET yhoo | Oh tC sem Seal eee ee eloee lees 16
g 6 ia |¢ |} — | — |—|—|}—|—|]—|]2¢ ]/t]e}/-—|]-| —] ¢ rd é if P
o9 | oL || oF | oc| Tt SOG e) a aige OTM CE a eP@aleeeice eel ge: loge | eaalle'g LT
I le per = |—}-—}—J}]-—}-}-}—-l-}]-J]-1| 1 = lean ee
iG T fia }t} — | — |—}—}—}—/—-]}]-—|]—]—-]—-]—] 2 —}—-]=~)]—- | 1
I — Ht }—J] — | — JH—l—y— fH tH ft Ht Ht Ht Hy Hy} HH] Kt AK do =
=~) es Hr-si)e}— ] me fH HH fH eH ft eH ft aH KH eK Kt Kt KH} KH] Hd
I if Ty—-}] =] tr jJ—}—}—}—-}—-}—-}—-J-J—-J/=| 1 T a a era tl
z 9 TL }¢ |} — | — }—]—/r }/—l—}r}/—|—|—-—|—] z z —|1I —|e
I — tr J—t] — | — J—-f—-}—|—} =} =] —- | H—-}-—J-1 1 —-/—-};—-—-]—-]-
—]} ur f-it} — | — }H—fH—-f—-}—}—-J—-}H—f H fy Hd eH aH KH KH Hl
if I Tyt} — |} — }H—f}—}—}—}—-}—}—J—-J—-}-}] -— |} -— J] 21 ik =- |=
—-|tT SS = NS SS SS aS a a a = SS =) i=
g G T yt] — |] — Jrfiry—j—|t}/—|—|/—-!|—|]—|] ¢ rd —-/|/—-/]-]-
— |r fj—-tr} — | — J—}—-f—-f}—-}—}]-J}—-!|—-}-/|-] -—|]—]-— | 1 — |=
I — it |=) — | — J—f =F =| —f = P= | — | — |---| it —/—-]|—-{/-]-—-
I I —~}tT}— }] — }—-}—-l—-}—-}1 J-}—-|-]-!-] - | 1 I =| sl =
—|/ es }—-l}e | — } —f—)—/—|—} =| =| — | —- |---| — KH] Hd —|1
Se eele F | i DP See a se Dee |S see (AB eee seal) Oe Weare PS | te Hse) oer
prepurys) “TIT pre ‘IIT ‘II ‘T — |rewedg 0 _g | Jopun pus
TOL ong -pueyg 19AQ |prepueyg) prepuryg|prepuys| prvpusys squByT] | Jodo pus tL | srvek O1-8 savod
a a i ee a eee ee re ee”
‘panurjuoo—e YW HIAVL
UdaS UdAPTPI[O JO TaquNNy
(él
dnory) Sayarer yeroads
eunbet 0} Iwadde oy
UarpIq® Jo Jaquimu yeqo7,
warpyryo
Tettordaoxa = sv oaoqu
papnyour you ynq ajo
-Tep 10 ‘uy ‘aed pus
‘SUSIS -@ATOU = eUTIOUqE
os[e ‘queudofaAap Ut qooz
-op emos yQIa spidnd {nq
9A0QB SB UaIp[Ifo
Teuordeoxe Joraquinu jeyog,
z * — 9svaSIp 4.vOFL
x : * BaLOUO
© os ApLTvau IO pure
3 . * ATuo qung
Ajuo
qoojop ofd YITAL a
5 5 * — ATuo payddiag
* Tuo qunp pus ce
Ajuo poyddtao pue ge
paddizo pus
qoojop ofa YT ne
Aj{ao
qoojop ofo QIK 4
* — £puo o1gdartdor
* Al[Uo quinp puv AL
Ajuo ordaide pus As
Ayuo
qoayop ofa ITA as
* ATWO TeuoTydeoxe AT[eyUaTT
eeee
‘18 08
* (28 2) 08
(28 2) 308
? 18 6L
eae
439
ON THE MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.
68 | SFL} 3a | 82 | + 9 9 L 8 st | &1 9 | F OL |3 16 68 | GPL | #28] 99! Fo) oF] IT Te ahs meee taas toqminyy
g9 | 88 | FF] Soo] T ¢ z ¢ g ¢ OL |} &f i Pee Goel 18 89 | 88 | 68] IF] a] 90] 2 1% |* * 6 dnory 12407,
g 6 C ug _ loi et i aeal| Ss 3 T z at [all oe 6 Speicher al T b 5) dnorp uryougd Og V
9 6L | oF] 0g] T ¢ 3 g g ¢ Or Ieee ¢ o. 16 co | 62 | 6&/] 88] 0c] %] 9 A |* * 9 dor 1207,
T I aL i =e SS oe a Sw ee ee ee It 1S ett os le = Hie tala €
£o | Sh |eODewete t=) or = dear td ayia ahi & Tea Gr | Go. ST. MGR Ou Gm cy ilekg 6 |*aqogv a
3 Cy (Ere (okra Pe mae] || IBm— Vs——|H— Y MUl— | TO —i L o— B 4 g els |S @ |* aog ss
—. ~—— —— a ~= —= — a — _ a — = — — — a> —, = — — = i —s . aov at
91 Ge) | OT Sia) = | — a T I ¢ t g T j = leh 9 ee 16 |e)2 18 = ra - aay bi
= — — a — = = — —_ — a = c=, — = = a STS | = = — . ogv “ec
Tt Sa | ee | reat Peat | eae he el 1 dF hal — a Ee [ts ee a ees | me GS €
ST 9b Vetter Or — i T T ta = T $ = == |) er OT Ge oe S ics = L ° = ag S
T aE ei eal set me ee te ee eae th op a oa We | | aR | 2
¢ Ce | ae) = he—t ae IG fe See eh at te Sa [GR tee RP — ET ah Seon ot |e cir =
= a =, — — — =, —— —a — 9 = — —_= eth ioe: — a eh Is —— ley =, . Le) v “
id td T 20% oon = i= ss T | | mf es IM td TS eal Te RE a T edt oy
I CSI Paes a | a st a me ee Se elie € gan 8 a * BS qd ¢
— — om ae =< a = — —= a = = = pa, _—, — Pee Ss — == = one! — . . fe} ce
= I —S py oe I — S = — a — = a AY lie 7 I =. I a, — = —*, . . a “
— I —I|I _ _— os — — —_ — — —_ — -—|]— — I —|—|—|T — — |° * YW pue 5 dnory
| PEA! 9) il Ser oe oes a (ei 9 ats eel ee 2 at Ga i ain rs | Meo yes Us 3 ol ot se ese Nosy alge Te Gy I) mci
wequnN |prlepueqs)TIT prvpuryg "III ‘IL tir 0 aqua NT IOA0 savot Jepun pue
1890], Ng IOAQ prepuryg prepurys prepuryg parpuryg syuByuy R107, puv i] ol-8 siv0k J Areuig
‘spimpunys jooyos wapun hypuosas ‘sdnowh-abo wr ys.1of payngrijsyp aL Saspo ayy, ‘aur? 78D)
ay? UL wach s1 was wauppryo fo waqunu 70107 ay, “yxan ayn wr paurnjdxa pun mbm oy) ur soquhs ha payworpur yoofap
fo ssopo ayn fiyuo buyuasoud ‘sdnowb hununsd ur pobunsw ‘Burund puo evo yoroads aunbas 07 wvaddy oyn wauppryo
ayn, Guymoys ‘ijyonpuapur uo pasoder puw ‘uopuoT fo hyovo0g woynsunbig hpunyg ey2 hg pajoepoo sv sasvpyp—'g q ATAVL,
440 REPORT—1897.
An Ethnological Survey of Canada.—First Report cf the Committee,
consisting of Dr. GEORGE Dawson (Chairman and Secretary), Mr.
E. W. Brasroox, Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. E. 8. Hartrianp,
Dr J. G. Bourrnor, Asseé Cuoa, Mr. B. SuLte, ABBE Tanetay,
Mr. C. H1tu-Tout, Mr. Davip Boyte, Rev. Dr. Scappine, Rev.
Dr. J. MACLEAN, Dr. NEREE BEAUCHEMIN, Rev. Dr. G. PATrERsoy,
Professor D. P. PENHALLOw, and Mr. C. N. BELL.
APPENDIX PaGu
1.—The Growth of Toronto Children, by Dr. FRANZ BOAS . : Frege 05}
Il.—The Origin of the French Canadians, by B. SULTE A : : 5 . 449
Tuis Committee was nominated at the Liverpool meeting last year, with
the object of initiating an ethnological survey of Canada on lines cor-
responding with those already followed by the Committee for the Ethno-
graphical Survey of the United Kingdom, as well as to continue, so far as
may be possible, work of the kind carried on since the Montreal meeting
(1884) by the Committee on the North-Western Tribes of Canada. It
comprises three members of the Committee for the Ethnographical Survey
of the United Kingdom, including the Chairman and Secretary of that
committee. Fourteen members resident in Canada were also nominated,
but one of these, Mr. Horatio Hale, has since died.
In nominating the Canadian members some regard was given to geo-
graphical position, so that the principal regions of the Dominion would be
represented. This, while necessary under the circumstances, has to some
extent prevented an interchange of ideas as complete as might be desired.
Some correspondence and discussion on the general scope of the work and
the plans to be followed have, however, taken place. Messrs. E. W.
Brabrook and E. 8. Hartland have contributed valuable information and
suggestions respecting the work of the similar committee for the United
Kingdom, and several Canadian members have evinced a strong interest
in the survey now to be undertaken.
Tt has not yet, however, been found practicable actually to initiate
any systematic observations, to print and distribute the necessary schedules,
or to provide sets of instruments for physical measurements, no funds
being available for these purposes. It is believed that a number of
observers may be enlisted in several of the numerous lines of inquiry
which appear to be open to the Committee, embracing both the immigrant
European population of Canada and its aborigines.
Of suggestions received from members of the Committee the following
general considerations presented by Professor D. P. Penhallow, of McGill
University, may be quoted :—
‘The very unstable character of our population and the extensive
mixture of races to be met with in a given community require that we
should adopt somewhat different lines of procedure from those employed
by the Committee for the United Kingdom. Therefore, while we might
wisely adopt the main lines of investigation employed by the Committee
for Great Britain, as embodied in their report for 1893 (“ B.A. Report,”
1893, p. 621), and while these lines of investigation might be applied to
ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 441
both Indians and Europeans, they should be conducted with reference
to—
‘(a) Indian communities.
‘(1) Displacement of tribes from their original locations through the
intervention of Europeans.
‘(2) The absorption of tribal remnants into existing tribes.
‘ 3) The infusion of French or other European blood.
‘(6) European communities or families.
*(1) The precise European locality whence they originated.
«(2) The American locality of most continuous residence and of first
settlement.
‘(3) The environment at date of investigation.
‘For the treatment of folklore as ethnological data, I do not think we
can do better than adopt methods suggested by Mr. Gomme in his very
valuable paper as embodied in the Report on Ethnographical Survey,
Great Britain (B.A. Report,” 1896, Section H, p. 626, &c.).
‘The great extent of country to be dealt with and the great length of
time required to reach anything of the nature of complete results would
seem to make it desirable that we proceed in the most systematic manner.
The results might therefore be collated by—
*(1) Families or tribes.
‘(2) Parishes.
*(3) Towns or villages.
*(4) Provinces and, as far as possible, a given locality should be
studied exhaustively before another is undertaken.’
After some consultation with the members of the Committee who
could most easily be communicated with, the following letter was ad-
dressed to the Committee generally :—
‘Sir,—You have doubtless received some time ago from Mr. G.
Griffith, Assistant General Secretary of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, a notification of your nomination as a member
of the committee to organise an ethnological survey of Canada. It is
hoped that you will be willing to take an active part in this important
work, and, although it may not be possible to do much more than establish
some plan of operations before the date of the forthcoming meeting of the
Association in Toronto in August next, that you will now assist and
atlvise in the perfecting of such plan.
‘The project is based upon that being carried out by another com-
mittee of the Association nominated some years ago to “organise an
ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom.” This committee has
already made several valuable and interesting reports, and has enlisted
various local scientific societies and a number of individuals in the work.
‘The chief objects of investigation in the United Kingdom are set out
as follows :—
‘(1) Physical type of the inhabitants.
‘(2) Current traditions and beliefs ;
‘(3) Peculiarities of dialect ;
*(4) Monuments and other remains of ancient culture ; and
*(5) Historical evidences as to continuity of race.
‘It has been sought to discover, in the first place, the most suitable
AA2 REPORT— 1897.
localities for investigations; 7.e., those which are in large measure
secluded from the change and mingling of population incident to large
cities, and to select those villages and places where the people have
remained for some generations, at least, comparatively undisturbed and
homogeneous in character. In this way it is believed that the ethno-
graphic elements going to make up the population of the United Kingdom
may be traced, and the changes induced by the mingling of the various
elements under different local conditions may be advantageously studied.
‘As applied to Canada, it is obvious that an inquiry of the kind
cannot be conducted on exactly the same lines. It resolves itself, in the
first instance, into two distinct branches :—
‘(1) That dealing with the white races, and
(2) That dealing with the aborigines or Indians. Both are important
and likely to yield results of great interest ; but, while the second has
already been recognised and pursued to some considerable extent, the
first has remained almost untouched.
‘In regard to the first, it is obvious that it includes two specially
fruitful. fields, one relating to the older centres of French colonisation
in Quebec and Acadia, and the other to the half-breed population of
Manitoba and the North-West, where French and Scottish immigrants
have mingled with the native races.
‘In Quebec and in the Acadian Provinces the researches of Abbé
Tanguay have already placed on record the origin and descent of most of
the old French families, and the basis thus established is an excellent one
on which to build up a knowledge of any changes, whether physical or in
language, customs and beliefs, due to the new environment in which the
original French colonists have lived and increased. With that object it
is desired to make, in the first place, a list of those localities in which
development of the kind has been most uninterrupted and continuous,
and in these to obtain the co-operation of some local observers who may
be willing to devote time to special inquiries along fixed lines, of which
the details may be subsequently elaborated.
‘There are also, it is believed, many places in the older provinces of
Canada in which English, Scottish, Irish, and other settlers have been so
long established as to give rise to special peculiarities worthy of note.
‘Respecting the aborigines or Indians of the eastern part of Canada,
it may be stated that their language is now fairly well understood,
while their customs, folklore and traditions, where these have not already
been recorded, have largely passed away. But much remains as a profit-
able subject of investigation, particularly in respect to the location of
ancient settlements and places of resort, burial places, routes of travel,
&e. There are also many events connected with their early intercourse
with the whites of which traditional accounts might yet be gathered with
advantage.
‘In the western part of Canada the investigation of all matters
relating to the Indian tribes constitutes the most important branch of the
work proposed ; and although in most places great changes have occurred
in recent years a vast amount of valuable material yet remains to be
recorded, connected not only with their language, but also with their
traditions, art, customs, mode of life, and physical characteristics. The ©
time is rapidly passing away in which investigations of the kind may be
made to advantage, and no effort should therefore be spared to collect
ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 443
everything connected with these people. It may confidently be stated
that no actually observed fact respecting them is without some definite
value.
‘With slight verbal changes the same main heads of investigation as
have been already cited appear to be applicable to the native races ; but,
in addition, many other special lines of inquiry might be followed, such
as the displacement of native tribes by the whites, the coalescence of
diminished tribal communities in later years, and the absorption of the
weaker of these by the stronger. Photographic records of all kinds will
in connection with the native races possess great importance.
‘The above suggestions of a general and preliminary kind are offered
_to the members of the Committee with the object of eliciting an expres-
sion of opinion, and further and more detailed plans such as may appear
to be best for the objects in view. As no money grant is at the disposal
of the Committee, the work must in the meantime, at least, be carried on
entirely by the efforts of volunteers ; but some means may, it is hoped,
be found of obtaining a small fund applicable to the purposes of the
Committee.
‘In the meantime it is hoped that every member of the Committee
will assist with advice in regard to the best organisation, not only for the
collection, but also in respect to the collation and eventual publication of
the facts.
‘Yours faithfully,
(Signed) ‘Grorce M. Dawson.’
The Committee have been so fortunate as to obtain from Dr. Franz
Boas and Mr. B. Sulte respectively the subjoined valuable contributions
in the line of its investigations. ‘The Growth of Toronto Children,’
by Franz Boas ; ‘ Origin of the French Canadians,’ by B. Sulte. The first
constitutes an interesting example of the importance attaching to accurate
physical measurements. The second explains the nature of the founda-
tions upon which further study of the French element of the Canadian
population must rest.
APPENDIX I.
The Growth of Toronto Children. By Franz Boas.
In 1891, when active preparations for the World’s Columbian Expo-
sition were being made, Professor F. W. Putnam, director of the Peabody
Museum of American Archeology and Ethnography, and then chief of the
Department of Anthropology of the Exposition, placed me in charge of
the Section of Physical Anthropology. At an early time during the
preparation of the exhibits we agreed upon a plan to represent as fully
as possible the growth and the development of American children.
Valuable material was available, but it seemed desirable to extend the
investigations over regions in which heretofore no observations had been
collected. I submitted our plans to Mr. James Hughes, superintendent
of public schools in Toronto, Ont., and to Professor Earl Barnes, of
Leland Stanford, Jr., University. Through the interest taken by these
gentlemen I have been enabled to obtain series of measurements of the
school children of Toronto and of Oakland, Cal. The former series
was taken under the supervision of Dr. Alexander F. Chamberlain ; the
444 REPORT—1897,
latter, under the direction of Professor Earl Barnes. In both of these
series the same plan, excepting details, was followed.
The measurements embrace the following data : Stature without shoes,
finger-reach, height sitting, weight. A series of special measurements of
the head were taken, which, however, include only a few hundred indi-
viduals. The following statistical data were collected: Age, in years and
months ; place of birth ; nationality of grandparents ; place of birth of
parents ; occupation of parents ; number and ages of brothers and sisters ;
order of birth of the child measured ; and the mental ability as judged
by the teacher.
In treating this material I have endeavoured to exclude a certain
series of errors. The number of children of various ages which have been |
measured is not equal. Theseries begins with comparatively few children.
The number increases from year to year, until, beginning with the ninth
year, it decreases again. It follows from this fact that among the six-
year-old children, for instance, there are more of the age six years and
eleven months than of six years and no months ; and that, on the other
hand, among the fifteen-year-old children there are more of the age
fifteen years and no months than of fifteen years and eleven months. In
treating the various series of observations all children between six and
seven, seven and eight, &c., have been grouped together, and usually the
series is assumed to represent sizes for the average ages ; that is, for
six and a half, seven and a half, &e. On account of the varying fre-
quency for the several months, this is not quite correct. Among the
younger children the average will be a little more than six and a half,
seven and a half, &c., while among those near the upper limit I judge it
will be a little less than fourteen and a half, fifteen and a half, de. By
tabulating the various frequencies of various months for the children of
Toronto the following results were obtained :-—
Average Ages.
|
YRS. M. |YRS. M.
/YRS. M. |YRS. M. |YRS. M. YRS. M. |/YRS. M. YRS. M, |YRs. M. |YRS. M. |YRS. M.
Boys . .| 567] 662] 756] 8 5:7 | 9 5:7 | 10 5:8/ 11 5°5| 12 5:8] 13 5:7! 14 51} 15 49
Girls . .| 661) 761) 8 57] 9 51/10 5:8 | 11 5-7) 12 5:5) 13 5-5) 13 53) 15 52] 16 4:3
The error resulting from this series may be very easily corrected by
adding to the average a correction proportional to the deviation of period.
While the average may be corrected in this manner without much
difficulty, the variability of the series for the whole year is affected in a
much more complex manner. (I call the variability the square root of
the mean of the squares of the individual deviations.) We will suppose
that the variability did not change much in the course of one year, which,
at certain periods of life is, however, not the case. Since the values of
the average increase from month to month, it is clear that the range of
variation for the early periods must begin at a lower point than for the
later periods, so that the variation for the total year covers a wider series
than the variations at a given moment do. It is possible to make the
necessary reduction by a consideration of the number of individuals
measured for all the different periods, and of the varying amount of varia-
tion. The amount of reduction due to this cause is shown in the fol-
lowing table, which refers to the measurements of American children, the
series including measurements taken in Boston, Milwaukee, Toronto,
Worcester (Mass. ), St. Louis (Mo.), and Oakland (Cal.).
ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 445
Variability of American Boys.
Age. | 55 65 | 75 85 95 | 10° | 115 | 12°5 198 | 149 15°5 | 165 | 17°5 | 185
+ 6°80
Variability |+4°80)44°92)+ sl
Corrected |
variability |+4°40)+ Sh mit
+ 5°53) 4+ 5°66) + 5°90) + 6°32 47-71) + 8°66) + 8°87) + 7°75) 47°23) 46°74
sss1! 2049] 4575 so aoe ars4 ied iG ali ea
I have preferred to calculate in the Toronto series the reduced
amounts of variabilities in a different manner. I have grouped the obser -
tions according to quarterly periods, and calculated the variabilities for
each of these periods. A comparison of the variabilities of these periods
and of the full year periods are shown in the following tables :—
Boys.
Variability for Ages
|
= 55 6°5 | 75 85 | 95 | 10°5 [11s 125 ten 145 | 15°
2615/4615 Cpealnnns 48:55 |+9°00
46-02 £608 46°61 27°63 +8:22|4+8:91%
1. The whole year |+5:12|}44°82
2. Quarterly periods + 4°70 | + 4°65
+5°08 | +5°58
+477 | 45°38
+5°59
+535
* Six-monthly periods.
Girls.
Variability for Ages
_ 5°5 65 75 85 95 125 | 13°65
145 | 3s 16°5
1. The whole year .}/+4°80/+44°80
2. Quarterly periods | + 4°62 jeer
2 |46:52
4021/2534 /4518 4589 2638
In the following tables I give the averages of our series, with the cor-
rections due to the considerations outlined in the preceding remarks. In
interpreting these averages it must be understood that the average sizes
do not represent the typical values of the measurement, because during
childhood the distribution of the measurements is asymmetrical. Owing
to the fact that children do not all grow at the same rate, but that some
are retarded in development, while others are advanced beyond their age,
the rate of growth differs in such a manner that the general distribution
of the measurements does not follow the law of probabilities. I will ex-
plain this by considering the growth of sixteen-year-old girls. A great
many of these girls will have reached the adult stage, and will have ceased
growing, while others are not developed according to their age, and con-
tinue to grow. If we consider fora moment only those girls who as adults
will have a certain stature, we recognise that many will have this stature,
while others will still be shorter ; that is to say, the distribution of their
statures will be asymmetrical. The same is true of all the other statures,
and it will be seen for this reason that the whole distribution will be
asymmetrical. On account of this peculiarity of the distribution of sta-
tures during the years of growth, the average values of the measurements
must not be considered as the types of development for the various ages,
+6°96 2717/2695 | 4588 45°35
+6°90 |+6°85 Fae alii +5°63
446 REPORT—1897.
but as the nearest indices which can be obtained of the typical values,
The following table shows the statures of Toronto children as compared
to those of American children :—
Statures of Boys.
Ages . . st | ero: 65 75 85 9:5 | 105 | 115 | 125 | 135 | 145 | 155 | 165
Toronto . * « | 1062 | 111°1 | 116°8 | 121°8 | 126°7 | 131°5 | 135-9 | 140-1 | 145-4 | 151-5 | 157°6
American « « | 105-9 | 111°6 | 116°8 | 122-0 | 126-9 | 131°8 | 136°2 | 140°7 | 146-0 | 152-4 | 159°7
Statures of Girls.
Ages . . . 55 6°5 T5 85 95 | 10% | 115 | 125 | 135 | 145 | 155 | 16%
141°9 | 148°0 | 153°3 | 156*0 | 156°7
142°5 | 148°7 | 153°) | 156°5 | 158°0
Toronto . . « | 1052 | 110°4 | 116-0 | 120°7 | 125°3 | 130°9 | 13671
American . « | 104°9 | 110°1 | 11671 | 121°2 | 126-1 | 131°3 | 1366
Variability of Boys’ Statwres.
Ages ° . | 55 65 75 85 95 | 10 | 115 | 12°5 | 135 | 145 | 15:5 | 165
Toronto . . « [4512/4482 |4+
5 5°58 | 45°59 |46°15 |46°15 | +6°80 | 47°79 | 48°55 |+9°00} —
American . . (44°80 } 44°92 /45
0;
"2! 5°53 | + 5°66 | + 5°90 | 46°32 | + 6°80 | 47°71 | +866 | 48°87 | 47°75
oie)
HH
Variability of Girls’ Statures.
Ages . . . 55 65 75 85 95 | 10% | 115 | 125 | 135 | 145 | 155 | 165
Toronto . . - |44°80 | 44°80 | 45°30 | 45°53 | 45°32 | 46°20} 46°52 | 46°96 | 47°17 | 46°35 | 45°86 | + 5°35
American . « | 44°64 | 45°07 | 45°25 | 45°58 | 45°73 | + 6°18 | 46°83 | + 7°57 | 47°37 | 46°69 | 5°96 | 45°79
T have classed the material collected in the Toronto schools according
to the order of birth of the children, in order to investigate if there is any
difference between the first-born children and later-born children. An
investigation of this subject, based upon material collected in Oakland,
Cal., showed that a difference of this character exists, the first-born
children, beginning with the sixth year, being taller and heavier than
later-born children. The following table contains the results of this in-
vestigation, based on the Toronto material :—
Differences between Average Statures of Boys and Statures of Children of
Various Orders of Birth, and their Mean Errors (mm.).
Age First- | Second- | Third- Fourth- Fifth- Sixth- | Seventh- | Eighth- | Ninth-
Years | born born born born born born born born born
55 +6472] 40461] —3466 +6478) —249°0|—16411'8 |—144127 |—13414°0 —
65 +7447] —3444| —445°0 +2456] +1462) —4483| —134+89/—164102| —4411'5
75 +3440] +2444) +0450 #0455] —5466) +2469) 4+1485| —649°8|—13412-4
8:5 +2442) +4445) —244'8 40456] —10466|) 402472) —8472| —649°6 |—19412°3
95 +4441] —7446} +0451 +0456} —1346°3} —11469| —10483]} 4349°5|—13411°3
10°5 —3447) +5455) —145°6 —6462| —8471] +6474] —549°5/—154108) +64143
115 | —145°0] +3454] —245°9 —8463| —2469| —8476| +64101) —54+11'8|—154155
125 | —245°7) +1463) +246°5 —6479} +34101} —4481] —1149°6|—16412:2| —2415°8
13°5 +7463 |4+1147°8|—13491 —149°3| +2412'1 |—14411°6 |—31415°9 | 4184166 | +9422°6
145 |4+5410'2}414108/4+54111 | +2413°6 |—14412°7 |—12416°8/—15420°6| —5424'1 _
155 |—1414'2|—1+20°0 |—32420°6 | —84184| +2421: — —_ _ _
— pretense +0°841°7 _ _— — — — —_ —
ee
ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 44.7
It appears, therefore, that the result is not quite certain, since the
error is great as compared to the average difference. Since for later-born
children the errors of the average are very great, I have not carried out
the calculation. I have calculated the same differences, and their mean
errors, for the statures of girls :—
Differences between the Average Statures of Girls and the Statures of
First-born Girls, and their Mean Hrrors.
Ages Age3
6°5 * + 34 47 13°5 ‘ ; - + 94 67
75 . A . + 84 45 14:5 A ; - + 44 72
8:5 3 “ . +144 46 15°5 : ; - — 84 83
9°5 3 F . + T+ 46 165 Z ‘ . + 44103
10°5 ; - »- +14 51 poseeer 2
115 + 64 51 Average. . . +534 19
12°65 + 64 61
This result is much more certain than that obtained by means of the
measurements of boys. When we combine both we find that the difference
of stature between the average of all the children and the average of the
first-born children is in favour of the latter. The amount is 3°6 mm.,
with a mean error of 1:2mm. It is therefore certain that first-born
children are somewhat taller than later-born children, but the amount of
the difference is not definitely known.
It is of interest to investigate the constitution of families. I have
done so by recording for each year the number of children according to
the order of their birth.
Total Number of Children examined according to the Order of Birth.
3 lade |alalaieleielala
ome |2}2|2|2|2|/2|2| 2] 2) 2] 8 28 |2 SS EE
bcoz la,a00 2,385 |1,858 |1,368 |1,021| 790 | 511 | 360 | 226 | 116 | 60 | 29|)14/5)1]2/—}1 {15,019
Per :
cent, | 22°6| 19°2| 15°9| 12-4) 91] 68] 53] 34] 2:4) 15] 08) 04/02 071 |—j|—j|—|—|—
Mean
From these data we can obtain an insight into the constitution of
families in Toronto. The difference hetween the number of first- and
second-born children shows the numbers of mothers having one child
only ; the difference between the second- and third-born children gives
the number of mothers who have two children, &c. In this manner the
following table has been obtained :—
error |/+0°3|}+0°3|+0°3 |+0°3 Schall <5 +0°2|+0°1|4071 |+01/401) — |—
Number of Number of
Children Children
ay ° . » 15:140°6 Ont. - A . 39403
2 ; : . 146406 it ae . , - 322403
3 = : . 155406 4 lt ee ej i - 17402
4 . - 145406 12M; : A »- 09402
5 . ° 10°2 + 0°5 13. 4 : » 04401
6 : = 68 4+0°5 14. 6 C - O38
1 ® a » 82405 15 is + 3 eek:
8 A . » 452404 Je" G ; - Fe il
It is of interest to compare the number of chiidren according to the
order of their birth in various cities. I have tabulated for this purpose
44.8 REPORT—1897.
the number of children in Oakland, Cal., according to the order of their
birth, and found th2 following result :—
pes 2S Toronto Oakland, Cal.
r
per cent, per cent.
Number of first-born children . : : : ; 22°6 26°4
35 second-born children . A . : 19:2 22'3
A third-born peat 5 F 4 : 15:9 17:0
. fourth-born an ae c 5 - - 12-4 12:3
3 fifth-born and later . - - - - 30-0 22°0
It appears from this table that families in Toronto are much larger
than those in Oakland, Cal. There are 26-4 per cent. of first-born children
in Oakland as compared to 22°6 per cent. of first-born children in Toronto,
while fifth- and later-born children form only 22 per cent. of the total
population in Oakland, and in Toronto they form 30 per cent. This
indicates that the size of the families is considerably smaller in Oakland
as compared to those in Toronto. It is difficult to judge what the social
causes of this phenomenon may be. The general conditions of life and
the nationalities composing the population certainly have a great influence
upon the size of the families. In order to investigate this question I
have tabulated the Toronto girls according to their order of birth and the
nationalities to which they belong. The results of this tabulation are
given in the following table :—
Nationalities of Grandparents of Toronto Girls.
A ere Eng- : Cana- | Ameri-| Ger- Miscel-
Order of Birth lish Scot, Trish Ramil eal (aan Frencb laneons| C28eS
1st 39:0 |, 16°5 | 23°9 | 12-4 | 35 2:0 0-4 2:3 | 6,753)
2nd 41:0 |. 15:1 | 23°38] 11:4] 3:3 2°4 0-6 2°4 | 5,878}
3rd 40°8 | 16°7 | 23:5 | 105) 30 2°8 0-9 2:5 | 4,883 |
4th and 5th 44-4 | 17:1] 23°6 wo || 227% 2°0 0-4 24 | 6,728 |
6th and later 47:3 | 16-4 | 23:0 DW SOM) Tel 03 2-7 | 6,388 |
Total . : .| 425 | 164 | 23:6 9:3.) 31 2:3 0-5 2°5 |30,630
That is to say, the percentage of Scotch, Irish, American, German,
French, and miscellaneous grandparents remains the same for all the ©
children, no matter what the order of their birth may be. There is,
however, a fundamental difference in the distribution of English and
Canadian children. Among the first-born children 39 per cent. of the
grandparents are of English birth. Among the later-born children 47
per cent. are of English birth. This indicates that in families whose
grandparents are of English birth we find a greater number of children
than among the other nationalities. The reverse is the case among the
Canadians. There is a decided decrease in the number of grandparents
of Canadian birth among the later-born children. This indicates that
the families of Canadian descent are small. It is very peculiar that
these differences are found only among the English and Canadians, and
that there are no differences in distribution among all the other nation-
alities.
ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 449
This table is of importance also as showing that the difference in
stature of first-born children and of later-born children cannot be ascribed
tw the influence of differences in nationalities. 'The change of proportion
of English and Canadian blood in the grand total is so slight that we
cannot possibly assume that it will materially modify the average stature
of the people We may therefore safely say that the difference in
stature of first-born and later-born children is not influenced by compli-
cations resulting from the influence of nationalities.
APPENDIX II.
Origin of the French Canadians. By B. Sure.
We intend to explain the formation of a certain number of French
people into settlers on the St. Lawrence during the seventeenth century,
and from which has sprung the present French Canadian population.
(1) Acadia was peopled without any kind of organisation between
1636 and 1670, or thereabouts. No one has yet satisfactorily demon-
strated where the French of that colony came from, though their dialect
would indicate their place of origin to be in the neighbourhood of the
mouth of the river Loire. They are distinct from the French Canadians
in some particulars, and not allied by marriages with the settlers of the
St. Lawrence.
Brittany never traded with Canada, except that, from 1535 to 1600,
some of the St. Malo navigators used to visit the Lower St. Lawrence and
barter with the Indians, but there were no European settlers in the whole
of that pretended New France. Afterwards the régime of the fur com-
panies, which extended from 1608 to 1632, was rather adverse to colonisa-
tion, and we know by Champlain’s writings that no resident, no ‘habitant,’
tilled the soil during that quarter of a century. The men who were
employed at Quebec and elsewhere by the companies all belonged to Nor-
mandy, and, after 1632, twelve or fifteen of them married the daughters
of the other Normans recently arrived to settle for good. Brittany
remained in the background after, as well as before, 1632. This is con-
firmed by an examination of the parish registers, where seven or eight
Bretons only can be found during the seventeenth century.
(2) The trade of Canada remained in the hands of the Dieppe and
Rouen merchants from 1633 to 1663. It consisted solely in fish and fur,
especially the latter. ‘Therefore any man of these localities who wished
to go to Canada to settle there was admitted on the strength of the charter
ot the Hundred Partners, who were bound to send in people brought up
to farming in order to cultivate the soil of the colony, but who did
nothing of the kind, except transporting the self-sacrificing emigrants.
There is even indication that the transport was not free. The other sea-
ports of France having no connection with Canada before 1662, five or
six families only came from these ports.
(3) When the business of the Hundred Partners collapsed about 1660,
Paris and Rochelle came in for a certain share of interest, as they were
the creditors of the expiring company, and soon we notice immigrants
arriving from the neighbouring country places of those two cities.
ne settlers (1633-1663) came, as a rule, individually, or in little
(. GG
450 REPORT— 1897.
groups of three or four families related to each other, as many immigrants
from various countries do at the present day.
From an examination of family and other archives, extending now
over thirty years of labour, we make the following deductions :—
Perche, Normandy, Beauce, Picardy, and Anjou (they are here in
their order of merit) contributed about two hundred families from 1633 to
1663, the period of the Hundred Partners’ régime. By natural growth
these reached the figure of 2,200 souls in 1663.
In 1662-63 there came about one hundred men from Perche and 150
from Poitou, Rochelle, and Gascony, with a small number of women.
This opens a new phase in the history of our immigration by introducing
Poitou and Rochelle amongst the people of the northern and western
Province of France, already counting two generations in the three dis-
tricts of Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal.
(4). After 1665 the city of Paris, or rather the small territory en-
circling it, contributed a good share. The whole of the south and east of
France had no connection with Canada at any time. Normandy, Perche,
Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Poitou, Saintonge, Angoumois, Guienne, and
Gascony-—on a straight line from north to south—furnished the whole of
the families now composing the French Canadian people.
(5) From 1667 till 1672 a committee was active in Paris, Rouen,
Rochelle, and Quebec to recruit men, women, and young girls for Canada.
This committee succeeded in effecting the immigration into Canada of
about four thousand souls. Half of the girls were from country places in
Normandy, and the other half were well-educated persons, who did not
go into the rural districts, but married in Quebec, Three Rivers, and
Montreal.
Since these people were brought to Canada by the organised efforts of
a committee, we might expect to find some detailed record of their arrival
and origin, but as yet no such information is known to exist. We are
merely told by contemporary writers of that period how many arrived at
such and such a date, and the port of embarkation—that is all. Happily,
the church registers, notarial deeds, papers of the courts of justice, and
several classes of public documents show abundantly the places of origin
of those who actually established their families here.
(6) In 1673 the King stopped all immigration, and this was the end
of French attempts to colonise Canada. The settlers, of course, remained
as they were, and in 1680 the whole population amounted only to 9,700
souls. Double this figure every thirty years, and we have the present
French population of the Province of Quebec, Ontario, and that of the
groups established now in the United States.
(7) The bulk of the men who came during 1633-1673 were from rural
districts, and took land immediately on their arrival here. It is notice-
able that a large number of them had besides a trade of their own, such
as that of carpenter, cooper, blacksmith, so that a small community of
twenty families possessed among themselves all the requirements of that
kind that could be useful.
No land was given to those who did not show qualification for agri-
cultural pursuits, and they were placed for three years in the hands of an
old farmer before the title of any property was signed in their favour.
(8) In regard to troops disbanded in Canada at various dates much
misunderstanding exists. The real facts are as follows :—Before 1665 no
soldiers, therefore no disbandment; from 1665 to 1673 a few isolated -
ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. A451
cases ; the regiment of Carignan came to Canada in 1665 and left in 1669,
with the exception of one company, which eventually was disbanded here ;
from 1673 to 1753 the garrisons of Canada consisted, as a rule, of about
three hundred men in all, under an infantry captain, sometimes called
the Major when no longer young.
Besides that ‘detachment,’ as it was called, an addition of six or seven
companies was sent in the colony during the years 1684-1713, on account
of the war. From 1753 to 1760 the regiments sent under Dieskau and
Montcalm (seven-year war) do not seem to have left any number of men
in the country. Therefore the ‘military element’ had very little to do
in the formation of our French population.
(9) The date of the arrival of most of the heads of families will never
be ascertained accurately. In order to face that difficulty with chances
of success I have resorted to the following plan :—Prepare an alphabetical
list of all the heads of families, and afterwards, when consulting the old
archives and various sources of information, be careful in comparing your
list with any date or other indication you may find. In this manner it
turns out that a man was married in 1664 in Quebec, was a witness before
the court in 1658, made a deed in 1672, in which he states that ‘before
leaving Alengon in 1652 to come to Canada.’ ... The date of ‘1652’
and ‘ Alencgon’ are the very things I want ; therefore I erase ‘1664’ and
£1658,’ previously entered, and keep the oldest date, with the name of
the locality. This process is slow but not the surest, but still it is the best
yet found to reach a fair approximate estimate. Finally, I hope to publish
that tabular statement in a couple of years from now.
(10) On the subject of uniformity of language, which is so remarkable
amongst the French Canadians, we may observe that it is the best
language spoken from Rochelle to Paris and Tours, and thence to
Rouen. Writers of the seventeenth century have expressed the opinion
that French Canadians could understand a dramatic play as well as the
élite of Paris; no wonder to us, since we know that theatricals were
common occurrences in Canada, and that the ‘Cid’ of Corneille was
played in Quebec in 1645, the ‘ Tartuffe’ of Moliére in 1677, and so on.
The taste for music and love for songs are characteristics of the French
Canadian race. The facility with which they learn foreign languages is
well known in America, where they speak Indian, Spanish, and English
as well as their own tongue. :
Anthropometric Measurements in Schools—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor A. MAcaLIsTER (Chairman), Professor B.
WINDLE (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor J. CLELAND,
and Dr. J. G. GARSON.
Tue work done by this Committee during the past year has consisted
solely in the distribution to applicants of the Rules for Measurement
drawn up by the Committee, and in advising those responsible for physical
measurements in schools as to points respecting which they had written
for advice. A further supply of printed directions has been procured, the
first set having become exhausted.
The Committee ask for their reappointment and for a further grant
for printing and postage of 5/., the grant for that sum received several
years ago having been exhausted.
@ a2
452 REPORT—1897.
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—Fifth Report of the
Commuittee, consisting of Mr. EH. W. BRaBrook (Chairman), Mr. E
SipnEy Hartuanp (Secretary), Mr. Francis Gatton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Happon, Dr. JosepH ANDERSON, Mr. J.
Romitty ALLEN, Dr. J. BEDDOE, Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM,
Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. Artaur J. Evans, Mr. F. G.
Hitton Price, Sir H. Howorrs, Professor R. MELDOLA, General
Pirr-Rivers, and Mr, HE. G. RavensTern. (Drawn up by the
Chairman.)
APPENDIX PAGE
I. Further Report on Folklore in Galloway, Scotland. By the late Rev.
WALTER GREGOR, LL.D. : 456
Il. Report on the Ethnography of Wi igtonshire ‘and Kirkeudbrightshire . 500
III. Report of the Cambridge Committee for the Ethnographical Survey of East
Anglia . 503
IV. Observations on Physical Char acteristics of Children and Adults taken at
Aberdeen, in Banffshire, and in the Island of Lewis. 506
V. Anthropometric Notes on the Inhabitants of Cleckheaton, Yorkshire . . 507
VI. Report of the Committee on the Ethnographical Survey of Ireland . . 510
1. Tu1s Committee was first appointed at the Edinburgh Meeting in 1892,
upon the joint recommendation of the Society of Antiquaries, the Anthro-
pological Institute, and the Folklore Society, for the purpose of organ-
ising local anthropological research, with the ultimate aim of establishing
an ethnographical survey of the United Kingdom. In the paper in which
the views of the three Societies were laid before the Association, it was
acknowledged that so large and ambitious a scheme must take many years
to perfect, and could only be proceeded with in detail. It was indeed
hinted that in other countries no power short of that of the State would
attempt to carry it out, and that in time it might be right to ask for
State aid to do so in this country.!
2. It will be convenient, on the present occasion, to recapitulate the
steps which the Committee has taken towards the fulfilment of the duty
entrusted to it. The first was to invite the co-operation of delegates of
the Royal Statistical Society, the Cambrian Archeological Association,
the Royal Irish Academy, and the Dialect Society, in addition to those of
the Societies already represented on the Committee. This invitation was
readily acceded to, and the Committee has derived much help from the
learned gentlemen nominated by the several bodies in question. Sub-
Committees for Wales and for Ireland were formed.
3. The Committee next proceeded to consider and define the plan of
its operations, which was to observe and record for certain typical villages,
parishes, or places, and their vicinity—(a) the physical types of the
inhabitants, (>) their current traditions and beliefs, (c) peculiarities of
dialect, (¢) monuments and other remains of ancient cultur e, (e) historical
evidence as to continuity of race.
4, Such simultaneous observation and record appeared to the Com-
mittee to be the best means by which the object desired—that of studying
the whole man and ascertaining what man is in any district—is to be
obtained. It is necessary, not ‘only to measure his skull and record his
physical characters, but also to look up the history of his descent, find out
1 Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii. 262.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 453
from the remains of their workmanship what sort of people his forbears were,
and ascertain what superstitions and beliefs they have transmitted to him.!
5. In the business of forming a list of places in the United Kingdom
which appear specially to deserve ethnographic study, the Committee
sought the assistance of a great number of persons possessed of local
knowledge, and the substance of the correspondence is digested in the first
and second reports of the Committee. They contain a large amount of
interesting local information, and specify the names of more than 300
places as suitable for the survey.
6, It became the duty of the Committee, as a next step, to condense
into a small and convenient pamphlet the instructions necessary to enable
observers to conduct the survey on a definite and uniform plan. The
volume of ‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology,’ prepared by another
Committee of the British Association ; the ‘Handbook of Folklore,
published by the Folklore Society ; the directions for the Archeological
Survey, formulated by the Society of Antiquaries ; and other publications,
afforded ample material for this, but they were too voluminous for
general use. The Committee has succeeded in reducing the necessary
hints and instructions into a pampblet of twelve pages, which has been
found by experience sufliciently to indicate what is required.
7. Individual members of the Committee have rendered it excellent
service by contributions to the study of the branches of the subject, which
have been printed in appendices to its reports, viz.. Mr. E. Sidney Hart-
land, the secretary, in his notes explanatory of the schedules, appended to
the third report ; and Mr. Laurence Gomme, in his paper on determining
the value of folklore as ethnological data, appended to the fourth report.
8. The foundation having thus been laid, the Committee proceeded to
take observations in detail, some of which have been published in the
Reports, others in the transactions of local and other Societies, and others
are reserved for examination and digest when further information has
been obtained.
9. The following is a brief summary of the returns actually received
from various parts of the United Kingdom up to the date of the Com-
mittee’s last Report :—
England.—Suffolk (Miss Layard and others) ; Hertfordshire (Professor
Haddon) ; Cambridgeshire (Professor Haddon); Lancashire (Rev. F.
Moss); Yorkshire (Dr. E. Colley and others).
Wales.—Pembrokeshire (Mr. H. Owen and Mr. E. Laws).
Scotland.—Galloway (Dr. Gregor) ; Aberdeen (Mr. Gray).
Ireland.—The Aran Islands (Professor Haddon and Dr. Browne) ;
Dublin (Dr. Browne); Inishbofin and Inishshark, co. Galway (Dr.
Browne) ; Mayo (Dr. Browne).
10. A preliminary report on folklore in Scotland, by the Rev. Dr.
Walter Gregor, formed Appendix III. to the Committee’s fourth Report.
Dr. Gregor had undertaken, at the request of the Committee, to make a
special visit to certain districts of Scotland for the purpose of the survey.
The remainder of his collections of folklore (items 168 to 734) are
appended to this Report, and also an abstract of his measurements of
the inhabitants.
11. In arranging the folklore for the Appendix to the present Report,
all headings that could be dispensed with have been omitted, and where
1 Archeological Journal, liii, 227.
AHA: REPORT—1897.
consecutive items were collected at the same place the name of the place is
only mentioned in the first instance instead of before every item, as in the
previous Appendix, with the view of economising space as much as possible.
12. The Committee much regrets to record that Dr. Gregor, who was
an accomplished observer, died on February 4th last, while actually engaged
in his work on its behalf. The special qualifications which he possessed
for that work, and the manner in which he set about and performed it,
have impressed the Committee with a deep sense of the loss it has
sustained. The Committee has endeavoured to express this in a communi-
cation which has been addressed to Dr. Gregor’s family.
13. The collections contained in the Appendix to the present Report,
added to those published in that to the fourth Report, will supply an
excellent model for observers as to the manner of making and recording
collections of folklore, and they are accordingly printed in extenso. It is
not intended in future to print all such collections in the same manner, but
to reserve them for digest and comparison as the work progresses towards
completeness, and probably for publication either in local sources of infor-
mation or in such combined form as may hereafter be found to be desirable,
and be adopted with the approval of the Council of the Association.
14. The Committee has endeavoured to fill the place left vacant by the
death of Dr. Gregor by the appointment of the Rev. H. B. M. Reid to
carry on the work initiated by him, and it has also appointed the Rey.
Elias Owen in Wales and Dr. Colley March in Dorsetshire as special
observers in the same manner, these gentlemen having very kindly
consented to devote their time to this work without remuneration, being
guaranteed only the expenses they incur.
15. The Committee has also to acknowledge communications from Mr.
F. W. Hackwood of observations taken in Wednesbury ; from Dr. Andrew
Dunlop, Dr, O. C. Powell, Mr. E. K. Cable, C.E., Mr. Nicolie, Mr. A.
Collenette, and Mr. J. Le Bas, of observations relating to the Channel
Islands ; and from Mr. M. 8. Hagen of observations in Ropley, Hampshire.
16. The Committee has also to thank the Hampshire Field Club for
reprinting and circulating among the members of that club an extract from
the pamphlet of questions issued by this Committee, and for passing a resolu-
tion to promote as far as possible in that county the work of this Committee.
17. Numerous other local societies have also shown a desire to
co-operate with the Committee, which gladly and gratefully accepts
their assistance.
18. It may be convenient, for the guidance of such workers as kindly
volunteer their services in this manner, to mention some of the limitations
of the work of the Committee.
19. With regard to the physical observations and measurements, and
to photographs, it is not desired to obtain other than those which are
typical of the district, and answer the rough test of having been free
from intermixture with the inhabitants of other districts for at least
three generations.
20. With regard to current traditions and beliefs or folklore, it is not
considered necessary for this Committee to undertake the work on which
the Folklore Society has embarked, of collecting and digesting for each
county the folklore which is scattered over the numerous published works
relating to the district. It will be sufficient if original observations are
made and recorded upon the plan adopted by Dr. Gregor. .
21. With regard to dialect, the Committee cannot better define its
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 4955
limitations than by reference to the brief code of directions drawn up for
the Committee by Professor Skeat and contained in the Committee’s
pamphlet.
22. With regard to monuments and other remains of ancient culture,
the work of the Committee has been in some places anticipated, and in
others is being carried on concurrently by the Archzological Survey set on
foot by the Society of Antiquaries, and by that undertaken by the
Cambrian Archeological Society. Where such survey has not been com-
menced, the Committee suggests that the method adopted by the Society
of Antiquaries should be followed.
23. With regard to.the historical evidences of continuity of race,
where they exist in any publication, it will only be necessary to give
a reference to that publication ; but there will be great value in a full
record of any that exist only in unpublished sources of information.
24. The duty which is entrusted to this Committee, and which is
undertaken by those local bodies that have kindly interested themselves
in its work, is necessarily so laborious, that the Committee is anxious that
such local bodies should not burden themselves with any labour that can
be avoided in the discharge of it.
25. The Committee would be glad if this intimation should have the
effect of inducing other local bodies, that may possibly have been deterred
from offering help by a feeling that the requirements of the Committee
involve greater labour than such bodies are prepared to devote to the
matter, to reconsider the position and undertake the essential portion of
the work in the respective localities.
26. The Committee is prepared to provide any such local body and
competent individual observers in any district with the necessary instru-
ments for the physical measurements by way of loan, and with a proper
equipment of forms of return, &c.
27. The whole of the grant appropriated to the Committee at the
‘Liverpool meeting has not been expended, and the Committee asks to be
reappointed and permitted to use the unexpended portion, with a further
grant, so as to have placed at its disposal the sum of 50/. in all during the
coming year.
28. A small amount of the sum allotted to Dr. Gregor for his
expenses having been returned to the Committee. unexpended has been
surrendered to the Association.
29. The Committee has been glad to observe the commencement in
Switzerland of an ethnographic survey under the management of the Swiss
Folklore Society, upon lines very similar to those of this Committee.
30. In addition to the appendices already referred to, the following
reports and tables are appended :—
A report by the Cambridge Committee, including statistics on the
Physical Characters of the inhabitants of Barley, Hertfordshire, and the
villages of Barrington and Foxton, Cambridgeshire ; Tables of Physical
Observations taken at Aberdeen, in Banffshire, and in the Island of
Lewis; Tables of Physical Observations taken at Cleckheaton, York-
shire; and a report by the Irish Committee relating to the valuable
observations taken by Dr. C. R. Browne on Clare Island and Inishturk,
co. Mayo. For all of these the Committee takes this opportunity of
rendering its best thanks to the various gentlemen whose names appear
in the appendices in question, and who have devoted much time and
care to the collection and preparation of the statistics.
456 REPORT—1897.
APPENDIX I.
Further Report on Folklore in Scotland.
By the late Rev. WattEer Grecor, LL.D.
The Months.
168. Kirkmaiden.—If Feberweer be fair an clear,
There'll be twa winters in the year.
169. Laurieston.—If Feberuary blow fresh and fair,
The meal will be dear for a year and mair.
170. Balmaghie.—It is a custom to gather May dew (lst May) and@
wash the face with it.
171. Kirkmaiden.—Witches gathered May dew that they might work
their incantations with it.
172. Witches were believed to make butter from May dew.
173. An old man named David Bell used to tell that going home early
one May-day morning he saw three sisters, that had the reputation of
being witches, drawing pieces of flannel along the grass to collect the dew.
When the flannel was soaked, the moisture was wrung out. This took
place about seventy years ago at a place called Thornybog.
174, Dalry.—Kittens brought forth in May are looked on as unlucky...
They are commonly put to death.
174a, Kelton.—Miss —— of Dunmure House was found one May
morning gathering the dew in a small tin jug. She intended to wash her
face with it ‘to make her bonnie.’ (Told in Rerrick.)
Days of the Week.
175. Kirkmaiden.—It is unlucky to cut ‘hair or horn’ on Sunday.
176. Borgue.—lIf a child showed itself disobedient on Sunday, it was
told it would be taken to ‘The Man o’ Moon.’
177. Dalry.—Any piece of work, as harvest, must not be begun on
Saturday. Any work begun on that day will not be finished within the
year.
The New Year.
178. Kirkmaiden.—It was a custom to cream the well at 12 o'clock
at night on Hogmanay.
179, Dalry.—Some would not allow fire to be given out at any time:
180. Kirkmaiden, Lawrieston.—A peat on fire would on no account:
be given out on the morning of New Year’s Day.
181. Ayrshire.—It is accounted unlucky to give a live coal out of the
house on the morning of New Year's Day to kindle a neighbour’s fire.
My informant’s aunt did this one New Year’s morning, and before the:
year was finished she lost a son. A second time she gave a live coal, and
during the course of that year a daughter died.
182. Kells.—On Hogmanay great care was taken to keep the fire alive
over night, as a neighbour would not give a live peat on New Year's.
morning to rekindle it.
182a. Kirkmaiden.—On Hogmanay the fire was ‘happit’ with more
than ordinary care to keep it from ‘ going out,’ as such a thing would be
most unlucky, and also because no neighbour would give a live peat to
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 457
kindle it. On the same evening everything was made ready for the fire of
the morning of the New Year.
183. Kirkmaiden.—Particular care was used to have everything pre-
pared for the fire of the morning of the New Year.
184. No ashes were cast out on the morning of New Year’s Day.
185. My informant’s mother would not allow any water of whatever
kind to be taken out of the house on New Year’s Day. Others followed
the custom.
186. Lawrieston.—Nothing was put out of the house on the morning:
of New Year’s Day.
187. Kirkmaiden.—My informant’s husband, a farmer, would on no
account give anything away on New Year’s Day.
188. Balmaghie.—Nothing would be given in loan by some on New
Year’s Day.
189. Portlogan.—Some would not sell even a halfpenny-worth of milk
on New Year’s Day.
190. Kirkmaiden.—Something is brought into the house on the morn-
ing of New Year’s Day before anything is taken out.
191. It was the custom till within twenty or twenty-five years ago for
some member of the household to lay a sheaf or a small quantity of un-
threshed grain on the bed of the father and mother on the morning of
New Year’s Day.
192. Portlogan.—It was the custom to throw a sheaf of grain on the
farmer’s bed on the morning of New Year's Day.
193. Kirkmaiden.—Some member of the family took a sheaf of grain
and put a ‘pickle’ of it on each bed any time after 12 o'clock on the
morning of New Year’s Day.
194. My informant’s father had the custom of throwing a ‘pickle
corn,’ 7.¢., a small quantity of unthreshed grain, on each bed on the morn-
ing of the New Year.
195. My informant’s father was in the habit of bringing whisky with
bread and cheese into each sleeping apartment and of giving each one a
‘dram,’ z.e., a little of the whisky, along with some of the bread and
cheese. He then went and gave a small ouantity of unthreshed grain to
each of the horses and cattle on the farm. After doing this he came back
to the dwelling- house with a sheaf of unthreshed grain, and laid a ‘ pickle”
of it over each bed.
196. Portlogan.—My informant was in the habit of giving a small
quantity of unthreshed grain to each of the horses and cattle of the farm
on the morning of New Year’s Day, and wishing each a happy New Year,
and saying to each as the fodder was given : ‘That’s your hansel.’
197. Kirkmaiden.—For the entertainment of the ‘first fit’ on the
morning of New Year’s Day and of other friends that may call during
the day, is prepared ‘chittert,’ 7.c., pressed, and cooled so as to be fit to be
cut in slices. This, along with bread and cheese, is placed on a table all
ready for use. ;
198. Fish in some form or other used to be served up as part of the
breakfast on the morning of New Year’s Day.
199. On the morning of New Year's Day the boys used to go in com-
panies to catch wrens. When one was caught its legs and neck were
decked with ribbons. It was then set at liberty. This ceremony was.
called ‘the deckan o’ the wran.’ My informant has assisted at the
ceremony.
458 REPORT—1897,
First Foot.
200. Kirkmaiden.—The fishermen of Drumore do not like a woman to
enter their houses as ‘first fit’ on the morning of New Year’s Day.
201. It is accounted unlucky to meet a barefooted woman as ‘ first
fit’ when one is going to fish.
202. My informant saw a fisherman of Portlogan meet his wife one
morning as he was setting out for the fishing. He returned to the house
and then set out again for his work.
203. Kells.—A man that lived in the parish of Kells used to say that,
if in going to fish he met a certain woman that lived in Dalry, he might
as well turn, for he would have no luck that day. My informant knew
the man.
204. Kirkmaiden.—It is accounted unlucky to meet a woman as ‘first
fit’ when one is going to shoot. It is especially unlucky if she is bare-
footed.
205. Balmaghie.—It is unlucky to meet a woman with flat feet as
‘first fit.’
206. Port Patrick.—It is unlucky to meet as ‘first fit’ one with a
squint-eye. It increases the unluck if there is red hair.
207. Lawrieston.—A W ,an old woman that lived in Lauries-
ton was reputed a witch. No one liked to meet her as ‘ first fit.’
208. Dalry.—A man that lived at the Ford House, Dalry, had the
repute of having an ‘ill fit.’ One day he entered a house in Glenlee as a
woman was churning cream. When he left the house she cast some salt
into the fire.
‘Canlesmas Bleeze,’
209. Laurieston.—The scholars assembled in the schoolroom. The
roll was called, and as each one’s name was called out, he or she went
forward to the teacher’s desk and laid down a piece of money. There was
a contest between a boy and a girl who was to be king or queen, and the
teacher knew beforehand who were to contend for the honour. Their
names were called out last. They went to the teacher’s desk as the others
did and laid down a shilling (about). The one that laid down for the
longest time was king or queen as the case might be. Whisky toddy,
weak and sweet, was then given to each scholar. Sometimes oranges and
other good things were added. Then followed a dance. My informant,
when a scholar, used to supply the music from a fiddle, and for years after
he left school. Parents, scholars, and friends were at times entertained at
a dance in the evening. Next day was generally given as a holiday to
the scholars. When the custom fell out of use a present was made to the
teacher about Christmas. The custom of making a present at Christmas
continues.
[The Rev. H. M. B. Reid notes upon this :—‘ The arrangements were
made a few days before February 2 (Candlemas). If February 2 fell on a
Sunday, the next day after was kept. In Glenlochar School (Balmaghie)
the king and queen were noé known beforehand (schoolmaster’s widow,
aged 79).’
210. Balmaclellan.—As each scholar came into the schoolroom he or ske
went to the teacher’s desk, and laid down his or her gift. The scholar’s
name and the amount of the gift were recorded. When all had brought
their gifts, the teacher called out the name of the girl that had given the
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 499
largest sum among the girls. She was styled queen. He also called out
the name of the boy that had given the highest sum among the boys.
He became king. Whisky toddy was then prepared. The teacher then
gave a glass of it to the king and queen—each. The king then poured
into glasses from a jug the toddy and handed them to the other scholars,
whilst the queen kept the jug filled from the bowl in which it had been
made. There might be one hundred and twenty scholars at Balmaclellan
school, and the quantity of whisky used was a bottle, so that the toddy
was weak. It was made very sweet. (Told by one who was a scholar at
this school, and who has been treated to the toddy.)
211.* After the drinking of the toddy the scholars engaged in various
kinds of games. In later times a ‘bake’ or biscuit was given, in addition
to the toddy, to each scholar. (Told by one who was a scholar and had
taken part in the feast.)
212. A ‘bake’ was given to each scholar in addition to the toddy.
Sometimes the scholars engaged in dancing. (Told by one who has been
an actor.)
213. Corsock.—My informant attended a small school at Merkland,
Corsock. The same custom was observed at it. Each scholar, as he or
she entered the schoolroom, laid down his or her gift. When all had
presented their gifts, a glass of weak toddy was served to each scholar.
Toasts were at times given by some of them. My informant gave the
following :—
‘ Here’s health, wealth, wit t’ guide it,
Ower my throat I mean t’ guide it.’
214. Kirkmaiden.—It was a custom not long ago to bring something
into the houses on the morning of Candlemas Day before taking anything
out.
Hallowe'en.
215. Balmaghie.—The following mumming-play is performed by the
school children at Hallowe’en :—
There are seven actors, three of whom carry sticks or swords.
(1) Bauldie, wearing a ‘fause face’ (a mask), commonly black, dressed
in a big coat, and carrying a stick as a sword ; ordinary cap on head.
(2) The Captain, dressed in the same way. ;
(3) The General, dressed in the same way.
(4) The Doctor, wearing a mask, black with red spots on chin, cheeks,
and brow, with a big ‘ tile’ hat on head, a stick in one hand, and a-bottle
of water in the other.
(5) Peggy—face painted white—wearing an old dress down to her
heels, an old mutch, with an old umbrella in hand.
(6) Policeman—face painted black, with no red spots, wearing a big
black coat, a big brown paper bag on his head, with a stick in his hand.
(7) Weean—face painted white, wearing a small frock, and ordinary
hat with ribbons.
All except the Doctor enter the kitchen. They are asked ‘What do
you want?’ They answer by singing ‘Gentle Annie’ or any other school
song. Then speaks—
Bauldie; Here comes J, Bell Hector ;
Bold Slasher is my name.
My sword is buckled by my side,
And I am sure to win this game.
460
General :
Bauldie:
General :
Bauldie -
All:
Doctor :
All:
Doctor :
All:
Doctor:
REPORT—1897.
This game, sir! This game, sir!
It’s far beyont your power.
Tl cut you up in inches
In less than half an hour.
You, sir !
I, sir!
Take out your sword and try, sir !
[They fight ; the GENERAL 1s killed.
The Doctor.
[One runs and calls the Doctor.
The Doctor enters.
Here comes I, old Doctor Brown,
The best old Doctor in the town.
And what diseases can you cure !
I can cure all diseases, to be sure.
What are they ?
Hockey-pokey, jelly-oakey,
Down amongst the gravel.
[The Docror gives the GENERAL a draught from the bottle, and he starts
to his feet. |
216. Lawrieston.—The following version is played here :—
Hector, SiasHer, the Doctor, Beryzesus. Three of the actors enter
the house and say :
Hallowe’en, Hallowe’en comes but once a year,
And when it comes we hope to give all good cheer.
Stir up your fires, and give us light,
For in
LTector :
Slasher :
Hector :
Slasher:
Hector .
Hector:
Doctor :
Hector:
Doctor :
this house there will be a fight.
Here comes I, bold Hector ;
Bold Hector is my name.
With my sword and pistol by my side
I’m sure to win the game.
The game, sir! The game, sir !
It’s not within your power ;
For I will cut you up in inches
In less than half an hour.
You, sir !
I, sir! [They draw swords and fight.
Do, sir ; die, sir ! [SrasHER falls.
Oh, dear ! what’s this I’ve done !
I’ve killed my brother’s only son.
A Doctor! A Doctor ! Ten pounds for a doctor !
What! No doctor to be found ?
Doctor enters.
Here comes IJ, old Doctor Brown,
The best old Doctor in the town.
What diseases can you cure ?
All diseases, to be sure.
T have a bottle by my side,
All mixed with polks (1) and eggs ;
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 461]
Put it in a mouse’s blether,
Steer it with a cat’s fether ;
A drop of it will cure the dead.
[Some of the medicine administered to SLASHER
Hector : Get up, old Bob, and sing a song.
[SLASHER jumps up.
Slasher: Once I was dead and now I’m alive ;
God bless the old Doctor that made me survive.
Beelzebub :
BEELZEBUB comes forward.
Here comes I, old Beelzebub,
And over my shoulder I carry my clogs,
And in my hand a frying-pan ;
So don’t you think I’m a jolly old man ?
And if you think I am cutting it fat,
Just pop a penny in the old man’s hat.
217. Another version :—
Hector, SLAsHER, the Doctor, JoHNNY Funny.
ETector :
Slasher :
Hector:
Slasher :
Hector :
Slasher :
Doctor :
Slasher -
Doctor -:
Slasher -
Hector :
Johnny Funny:
Here comes I, bold Hector ;
Bold Hector is my name ;
A sword and buckler by my side,
And I’m sure to win the game.
Here comes I, bold Slasher ;
Bold Slasher is my name ;
A sword and buckler by my side,
And I shall win the game.
You, sir !
I, sir!
Take out your sword and try, sir !
[The two fight, and Hecror falls,
Oh dear! Oh dear ! what’s this I’ve done ?
T’ve killed my brothers all but one.
A doctor, a doctor, ten pounds for a doctor !
The Doctor enters.
Here comes I, old Doctor Brown,
The best old Doctor in the town.
What diseases can you cure ?
All diseases, to be sure—
Gout, skout, bully gout, and the carvey.
| Administers medicine to Hector.
Rouse up, sir ; sing us a song.
Hecror rises.
Once I was dead, and now I’m alive ;
God bless the Doctor that made me survive ;
Up and down the mountains, underneath the ground,
Eating bread and biscuits all the year round.
Jounny Funny enters.
Here comes I, wee Johnny Funny,
The very wee boy to gather the money ;
Pouches down to my knees,
And I’m the boy to gather the bawbees.
462 REPORT—1897.
218. Balmaghie——At Hallowe’en the children carried one lantern
made of a hollowed-out turnip, and called at the houses and got apples,
hazel-nuts, money (which was divided), potatoes, mashed, with a sixpence
among them (this last at a cotman’s house). The sixpence was divided.
[It may be mentioned that in Forfarshire the children sang, swinging
the hollow neip, or turnip :—
Hallowe’en, a night at e’en,
A candle an’ a kail-runt!! ]
The visits lasted from 7 to 9 P.M., and covered a dozen houses. Some
locked the door, but usually the people were glad to see them.
The Moon.
219. Kirkmaiden.—‘ Faul’ is a name for a halo round the moon. The
weather proverb is, ‘ A far-aff faul is a near-han’ storm.’
220. A halo round the moon is called a ‘broch.’ There is commonly
an opening in it, which is called the ‘door.’ The weather proverb is, ‘A
far-off broch, a near shoor.’
221. Borgue, Dalry, Kirkmaiden.—The spots on the moon are formed
by the man that gathered sticks on the Sabbath. He was transferred to
the moon, with his bundle of sticks on his back, as a punishment for
Sabbath-breaking.
222. Portlogan.—The mairt used to be killed when the moon was on
the increase. ’
223. Kirkmaiden.—lfé a hen is set when the moon is on the increase it
is believed that the birds are hatched a day earlier than if she is set
during the time of waning.
224. Portlogan.—A sow brings forth as many pigs as the moon is old
at the time she conceives. ;
' 225. Kirkmaiden.—Flax had to be steeped at such a time as that the
moon would not change while it lay in the ‘dub,’ or ‘lint-dub.’ It was
believed that if a change did take place the mucilage became thick and
the fibre was injured. To counteract this evil a piece of iron was thrown
into the ‘dub’ among the flax.
226. On seeing the new moon for the first time an unmarried woman
repeats the words :—
All hail to the muin, all hail to thee!
I pray thee, guid muin, come, tell to me
This night who my true love’s to be.
Without speaking a word [afterwards] she goes to bed. She dreams of the
lover that will wed her.
227. Dalry.—The first time a woman sees the new moon, she has to
curtsey to her.
228. Mochrum, Dalry.—It is unlucky to see the new moon for the
first time ‘through glass,’ 2.e., through a window.
229. Balmaghie.—lf the new moon is lying on her back ‘the rain does
not get through,’ and so there will be fair weather. If she stands straight
up and down all the rain runs off, and so the weather will be wet.
? Kail-runt = cabbage-stalk.
——
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 463
230. Rerrick.—The circle round the moon is called a ‘ring.’ It indi-
cates a change of weather. The saying is—
The farder oot the ring
The narder han’ the storm.
231. Corsock.—The halo round the moon is called a ‘faul’ (fold). It
is an indication of a coming storm. The open space in it lies in the
direction from which the storm will blow.
232. Rerrick.—The circle round the moon is called a ‘broch.’ It is
looked on as an indication of a change of weather.
233. Corsock.—When one sees the new moon for the first time, let the
money in the pocket be turned and three wishes formed, and they will be
fulfilled.
234. Dundrennan.—-Cabbage-seed must be sown in the wanmg of the
moon, else the plants will run to seed.
The Sun.
235. Corsock.—lf at sunrise the sky becomes red, and the red extends
far over the sky, the day will be fine ; but if the red remains low, and
disappears soon after sunrise, rain follows in a short time.
236. Kirkmaiden.—A mock sun is called a ‘ dog.’
237. Dundrennan.—A glassy glittering sunset is an indication of a
breeze.
Thunder. —
238. Minnigaff, Balmaghie.—During a thunder-storm some are in the
habit of opening the door and windows of the dwelling-house, with the
idea of allowing the lightning to escape if it enters the house.
239. Balmaghie.—The fire is taken out of the grate. Sometimes it is
extinguished with water.
240. Kirkmaiden, Minnigaff, Balmaghie.—It is usual to cover up all
looking-glasses.
The Dwelling-house.
241. Kirkmaiden.When the foundation of a house is laid, the work-
men are entertained with whisky. This whisky is called the ‘funin pint,’
i.e., foundation pint.
242. When the carpenters begin to put on the roof of a house, they
receive at times whisky. This is called the ‘reefin pint,’ 2.e., roofing pint.
(Informant a carpenter.)
243. Dalry.—lIt is unlucky for one to build a house to live in.
244, Kirkmaiden.—My informant has heard it said that it is unlucky
for one to build a house to live in.
245, Dalry.—lIt is not lucky for one to enter for the first time by the
back-door a house he (she) is to live in.
246. Balmaghie, Kirkmaiden.—The floor of the dwelling-house must
never be swept towards the door, but towards the hearth.
247. Kirkmaiden.—The hearthstone is accounted the most sacred part
of the dwelling-house.
248. Kells—When Kirkdale House, in the parish of Anwoth, was
built, the man that laid down the first load of stones for the building
of it was hanged for the murder of a woman whom he had led astray, and
the mason that laid the first stone of it was killed in the course of its
45 4. REPORT—1897.
erection. The common explanation of these fatalities was that the owner
of the house had gained his fortune by unjust means.
249. Kenmure Castle, in the parish of Kells, was planned to be built
on an island in Loch Ken, and a quantity of stones was laid down for its
building. During one night before the work was begun, they were all
taken away and laid down on the site the Castle now holds. (Told in
Balmodellan.)
250. In a holm on the river Ken near Kenmure Castle there is a
large block of stone. It was thrown from Cairne Edward by the devil to
destroy Kenmure Castle. He put too much force into his cast, and the
xock went over the Castle and fell on the holm beyond it.
251. Rerrick.—When the old church of Rerrick was being taken
down, the aunt of the wife of the man that had contracted to do so
remonstrated with her for allowing him to undertake the work. He or
another of the workmen, she said, would be killed. A beam fell upon
him and injured him.
252. Kirkmaiden.—In flitting into a house that has been left vacant
by another, no one enters it without first casting into it a living creature,
commonly a cat ora hen. If ‘ill has been left on the house,’ it falls on
the animal that is thrown into it. It dies, and the lives of those that
sire to dwell in the house are spared.
253. A family at Aachliach, when removing, bore a grudge against
those that were to occupy the house after them. They swept the hearth
and the house clean, and put on ‘a stone fire.’ Something had been for-
gotten in the house, and a daughter returned to fetch it. The ‘ill that
ihad been left on the house’ fell on her. She became a cripple, and for
many years was able to walk only on crutches.
254, Rerrick.—In going into a house from which another person or
family has removed, it was usual to cast into the house a living creature,
as a cat or hen, before any of the family entered.
255. If one, on leaving a house, had a grudge against those that were
to live in it, the house was swept clean and a fire of stones and green
thorn was placed on the hearth.
256. A family of the name of Burnet went into a house at Holehouse,
from which had gone out another family that bore an ill-will against the
new tenants for putting them from the house. The fire of stone and
green thorn had been placed on the hearth. The usual precaution of
casting in a living creature had been omitted. The youngest son was
the first to enter the house. ‘He did nae guid aifter,’ i.e., he fell into
weak health. My informant has heard the young man’s brother tell the
story.
357. My informant’s daughter was removing from a house. To leave
the house as neat as she could for those that were to occupy it after her,
she swept the floor of the house, lifted the sweepings, and cast them out.
The man that was to inhabit the house was present. Seeing what she
did, he called out, ‘Ye bitch, why did ye soop awa ma luck ?’
Meal.
258. Balmaghie.—The ‘kist,’ or box in which the meal is kept, is
called the ‘ ark’ or ‘meal-ark.’
259. Lawrieston.—Said a woman aged eighty-five, ‘The meal is beetlt
aoon i’ the meal-ark till it is firm an’ sad.’
.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 465
Bread.
260. Z’ungland.—The whisk used for brushing the dry meal off the
cakes is called ‘the sooper,’ and is made of the wing-feathers of domestic
fowls.
261. Kirkmaiden.—In rolling out a cake, if a hole broke open in it,
it is augured that strangers will eat of it.
262. Minnigaf—tIf the cake breaks in the rolling out, it is an omen
that strangers will turn up to have a share in eating ‘ the bakan.’
263.—In baking a cake, if the ‘ crown of the farle’ breaks, it indicates
that strangers will eat of that bread.
264. Galloway generally.—The cake is commonly cut into three ‘ farles.’
265. Kirkmaiden.—To find out whether the cake is sufficiently ‘fired,’
it is usual to lift the ‘crosn o’ the farle.’ If it breaks when lifted, it is
taken as an omen that the death of a near relative is at hand.
266. When the crown of the ‘farle’ breaks during the course of
baking, the death of a friend will be heard of before the ‘ farle’ is eaten.
267. Balmaclellan, Rerrick, Laurieston, Dalry.—If the crown of the
‘farle’ breaks in the course of baking, it is regarded as a portent of a
death at no distant period.
268. Tungland.—If the crown of the ‘farle’ breaks when taken off
the ‘girdle,’ a death will soon be heard of.
269. Dalry.—When the ‘girdle’ is taken off the fire and laid on the
floor after baking is finished, and before being laid aside, a scone or
‘farle’ is left on it to keep off ill-luck.
270. Minnigaf/.—The hollow side of the ‘ farle’ is placed uppermost.
271. Kirkmaiden.—It is considered by some to savour of bad ‘ farle”
to ‘nip the croon o’ the farle’ in eating it, i.e., to begin to eat the manner
from the top or crown,
272. Minnigaffi—By many it is accounted bad manners to break off
the crown of the ‘farle’ first when one begins to eat it.
273. Rerrick.—It is accounted unlucky to begin to eat from the:
‘croon o’ the farle.’
274. Lawrieston.—Said an old woman to me: ‘A “melder bannock ”
was made for the wee yins.’
275.—A kind of bannocks, called ‘treacle bannocks,’ used to be made
for use about the New Year. They were composed of oatmeal with
treacle added. Sometimes carraway seeds were added.
Mills.
276. Kells.—It is unlucky to pull down a meal mill.
277. My informant’s uncle was a miller. He was put out of his mill
by a family of Maxwell. J. McQueen, a neighbour, said that ‘they widd
a’ gang like braxy sheep. Nae boddie widd doe ony guid that knockit
doon a mortart (moultert) mill.’ The family afterwards went to ruin.
The meal-mill was turned into a saw-mill.
278. ‘ They never thrive that middle wi’ kirk or mill.’
279. There was no milling on New Year’s Day, ‘except when thrang.’
Trades.
280. Balmaghie.—When an apprentice to the shoemaking trade ‘ sat
doon,’ ‘ he paid his fittan’—i.e., he gave a quantity of whisky to the
tradesmen in the shop.
1897. HH
4.66 REPORT—1897.
281. When the apprenticeship was finished, there was ‘the prentice
lowsan ’—i.e., there was a feast, a ‘high’ tea with a little drinking of
whisky. A dance completed the festivity. What money was left over
was given to the young man to help him to make a start in life. Till
lately this was quite a common custom.
282. Shoemakers were, at one time, in the habit of going to the
houses of their customers to exercise their calling. This was called ‘tc
boag.’
283. The higher that a plum-tree grows,
The richer grows the plum ;
The harder that a poor snob works,
The broader grows the thum’.
(All told by a shoemaker.)
284. Dundrennan.—It was the custom, when a shoemaker finished
his apprenticeship, for his companions and friends to give a ball. It was
called ‘the lousin ball.’ My informant has seen such balls. i
285. Balmaghie.—Saddlers were, at one time, in the habit of going to
the houses of their customers to do their work.
286. Portlogan.—A bottle of whisky was always carried to the smithy
when a horse was to receive his first set of shoes.
287. Kirkmaiden.—A bottle of whisky was given to the blacksmith
when he put on the first set of shoes of a young horse. Part was drunk
when the first nail was driven.
288. Mochrum.—When a young horse was brought to the smithy to
be shod for the first time, the blacksmith, before driving the first nail,
‘sounded ’ the foot by striking it with the hammer. ma
289. Portlogan.—_In welding two pieces of iron, if they ‘misst the
heat,’ and did not weld, some barley-straw was got, laid on the ground
round the ‘studdy,’ and burned. The two pieces of iron were again laid
in the fire to ‘ tack the heat again’ for welding. My informant has seen
this done.
290. No regular blacksmith could be induced to make the nails for the
crucifixion of our Saviour. <A travelling blacksmith did so, The tinkers
have wandered ever since. (Communicated chiefly by two blacksmiths.)
291. Corsock.—It was the custom to drink whisky on the occasion of a
young horse getting the first set of shoes. If the first nail driven went
straight, the blacksmith used to say: ‘The whisky’s win.’ If the nail
did not go straight, it was thought the blacksmith had not fairly won his
‘dram,’ for it might be refused. Though the custom has, for the most
part, been given up, the blacksmith will sometimes say when he drives
the first nail straight : ‘The whisky’s win.’
292. Girthon.—When an apprentice blacksmith finished his appren-
ticeship, his companions and friends sometimes gave a ball, called ‘the
lousin ball.’ The apprentice gave no money for its expenses, and if there
was any money over, after paying the expenses, it was given to the
apprentice.
293. Mochrum.—When a toast is proposed to a carpenter, a form of
words :—
‘Here’s to pottie, paint, and glue.’
294. Portwilliam.—lt takes nine tailors and a bull-dog to make a
man. Here is one explanation of the saying. Nine tailors that in
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 467
common harassed a bull were asked for alms by a tramp. Each gave
him a little. The tramp turned from his begging, entered into some sort
of business, and made a fortune, and so became a ‘ man.’
295. Another explanation, differing in some respects from this, was
communicated by a tailor.
296. Kirkmaiden.—When an apprentice gardener completed his
apprenticeship, his companions gave him a ball called the ‘lowsan ball.’
297. Dundrennan, Parish of Rerrick.—Weavers did not weave on
New Year’s Day.
The Clergy.
298. Borgue.—It is unlucky to speak ill of a minister.
299. Balmaghie.—It is unlucky to speak ill of a minister, or to do him
any harm. Once a few men would play a trick on a minister, and they
contrived to induce him to take strong drink till he was overcome. This
act caused a scandal, and the minister was charged with drunkenness
before the Presbytery by libel. The men that had been the cause of his
slip were summoned as witnesses. All of them were ill and confined to
bed when the trial came on, so that not one of them was able to appear at
the court to give evidence.
300. ‘Nae boddie it conters a minister comes t’ a guid en’.’
501. ‘ Ministers are black craws t’ sheet at.’
302. ‘ Hae yea dog, Maister Reid ?’ asked aman one day of Mr. Reid.
‘No. Why do you ask ?’
‘It’s an aul story here, the minister’s dog aye barks at them it dinna
come aften t’ the kirk.’
303. Kells.—‘It is unlucky t’ middle wi’ craws an’ ministers.’
Cattle.
304, Dalry.—tIn spring the cattle of a farm used to be bled. Part
of the blood was baked into a kind of bread (oaten) called ‘bleed
scones.’
305. Kirkmaiden.— About sixty years ago all the cattle were bled in
spring. The blood was preserved, and cooked as food. <A little was
mixed with it. ,
306. Balmaghie, Crossmichael—A stone whorl or ‘bort stone’ is
placed by some over the byre door inside, to keep off witches.
307. Crossmichael.—Cattle were rubbed over with a ‘ bort stone’ to
ward off disease.
308. Penninghame.—A ‘holt stone,’ 2.e., a stone with a natural hole
or cavity in it, or ‘ bort stone,’ z.e., a stone whorl, was kept in the water-
ing trough of the cattle. Sometimes the guidwife took a besom, whisked
it round and round the trough, and then sprinkled some of the water over
the cattle as they stood round the trough.
309. In the cattle-watering-trough on the farm of Garchew, in the
parish of Penninghame, a ‘holt stone’ was kept for the protection and
luck of the cattle. It was called ‘Old Nanny’s mother’s trough stane.’
Old Nanny Wilson died about 1891, at the age of ninety years.
310. Corsock.—Sometimes the nose of a cow, stot, or calf will swell.
The animal is said to be ‘weasel-blawn.’ It is supposed the swelling is
caused by the bite of an adder. If there are any feathers in the house,
they are taken and placed under the animal’s nose, and set on fire. The
HH2
468 REPORT—1897.
smoke is supposed to effect a cure. If there are no feathers available at
the time, a fowl is killed without delay and plucked, and the feathers
are used.
311. Kirkmaiden.—Before the cows were put forth to grass for the
first time in spring, some had the custom of sprinkling over them a
mixture of salt and urine that has been long kept, and thus smelt
strongly.
312. Dalry.—Sixty years ago my informant has seen fire put down
in the byre-doorway on Beltane, and the cows were made to pass
over it.
313. Corsock.—It is the belief that, if a cow or a ewe, immediately
after coition, gets a fright from any object, the offspring is of the same
colour as the object that causes the fright. John McKie at Drumhuphry,
Kirkpatrick-Durham, was one day ieading a black Galloway cow from
the bull, when a white animal jumped a hedge near the cow. She took
fright. The offspring of the cow was white.
314. Kirkmaiden.—aA little salt used to be put by some on a cow’s
back when bought.
315. If a cow began to tremble, it was believed she had been struck
with a fairly shot. A wise woman was sent for, and she carefully groped
over the animal’s body for the hole made by the shot. A cure was a
quantity of soot, salt, and butter made up into three balls, and put down
the animal’s throat.
316. A man’s cow became ill and fell down. A ‘skeely’ woman was
sent for. She came and rubbed the animal all over with an ‘elf-shot.”
The animal jumped up as if nothing had been the matter.
317. Corsock.—If{ a cow did not give her milk, some feathers were
taken from a pillow or bolster, placed before her, right under her nose,
and set fire to, so that she might inhale the smoke.
318. Kirkmaiden.—A byre-girl sprinkles her urine over a cow’s
back when she is going to calve. This is done to keep off witches
and ill-luck. Not long ago a farmer’s widow ordered her byre-girl to
do this.
319. When a cow dropped the calf, a little salt was placed on her
back.
320. Tungland.—Some salt or oatmeal was put on the cow’s back
over the ‘ neers,’ 2.¢e., kidneys, when she dropped the calf.
321. Kells.—My informant’s mother used to put a little oatmeal on
the cow’s back after the calf was dropped.
322. Tungland.—When a cow calved, oatmeal and salt mixed together
were sprinkled along the cow’s back and over the calf.
323. Balmaghie.—A mixture of oatmeal and salt was put on the cow’s
back over the kidneys when she dropped the calf.
324. Tungland, Kirkmaiden.Beesnan is the name of the milk first
drawn from the cow after calving. Part of it is at times given to the
cow.
325. Kirkmaiden.—When the cow calved, a little salt was, and is
still, put by some into the pail into which the milk is drawn. (From
more than one informant.)
326. My informant has seen a sixpenny piece put into the pail into
which a cow was milked the first time after ‘calving. (More than one
informant. )
327. Part of the milk of newly-calved cows is cooked into a dish:
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 469
called ‘Beesnan cheese.’ Pancakes, called ‘Beesnan pancakes,’ are at
times made of it.
328. A little salt was put into the churn when butter was being made
to keep off witch-spells. (Informant eighty-one years of age.)
329. When cream was long in coming, some had the custom of putting
a sixpenny piece into the churn or under it.
330. Some had the custom of drying a newly calved calf with ‘ shillin-
sids,’
331. Balmaghie.—A little of the cow’s droppings was put into the
calf’s mouth when it came from the cow.
332. Kirkmaiden.—Some put an egg into the calf’s mouth when
dropped from the cow.
333. Tungland.—The calf gets part of the ‘ beesnan.’
The Horse.
334, Kirkmaiden.—A mare was always foaled outside if possible. If
foaled inside, the foal when grown would lie down when passing through
a ford, or break a man’s leg.
335, It was accounted unlucky if a mare foaled inside the stable.
336. Portlogan.—Twa white feet you may buy,
But three never try.
337. Corsock.—Mares are still foaled outside, except in early spring if
the weather is too cold.
338. Some keep whistling during the time a young horse is being shod
for the first time. It is thought the whistling keeps the animal quiet.
338a.—Some farmers had the custom of carrying a sheaf of oats to the
smithy when they took a young horse to receive the first set of shoes.
‘When the shoes were being put on they kept feeding the animal with
handfuls of the grain, under the idea that this kept it quiet.
339. A young horse commonly gets its name when it is between two
and three years old, when one begins to train it to work. (My informants
are blacksmiths in Corsock.)
340. Kelton.—My informant in 1894 went into a cot-house in the
parish of Kelton. As he was entering he observed a horse-shoe placed
on the ground at each side of the door. He askéd the cot-man’s wife
what she meant by having them there, and where she got them. She said :
‘We brocht them frae oor last place in Borgue, and they are a pair o’ the
shoes o’ the pair o’ horse my man drove, an’ as lang as they are there,
we'll keep oor place.’ ‘ But if one was t’ steal them, what would happen ?’
said my informant. ‘Then we'll no be lang here,’ was the answer.
341. Kirkmaiden.—An old horse-shoe is sometimes nailed to the inside
of the byre-door to bring luck.
342. Rerrick.—The skeleton of a horse’s head was found below the
pulpit when the old parish church was pulled down.
Sheep.
343. Kirkmaiden.—About forty years ago it was the custom to put a
little salt in the mouth of the lamb when it fell from the ewe. This was
supposed to cleanse the mouth.
344. Sheep before a change of weather always leap and frisk, and box
(butt) each other.
470 REPORT— 1897.
Pigs.
345. Z'ungland.—A sow, when she farrows, gets a farle of bread (oaten)
and butter.
346. Kirkmaiden.—Some would allow only one with dark eyes to look
for the first time on a young pig when brought home. One woman would
not permit any one to look on the young pig she brought home till Betty
McMaster with her black eyes looked on it.
The Cat.
347. Balmaghie.—A black cat not belonging to the house coming in. is
looked upon as unlucky.
The Hedgehog.
348. Balmaghie.—To meet a live hedgehog in the morning is regarded
as an omen of good luck.
349. To come across a dead hedgehog is deemed unlucky.
The Hare.
350. Balmaclellan.—It is unlucky to meet a hare.
351. Balmaghie, Rerrick.—It is deemed unlucky if a hare crosses the
path in front of one.
352. Corsock.—A man of the name of McGeorge, if he had been going
to fetch home a young pig to rear and had met a hare, was wont to turn
back. He believed the pig would not thrive if brought home that day.
353. Port Patrick.—A fisherman accounts it unlucky to meet a hare
when he is going in the morning to ‘fish his net’ (salmon). ‘We needna
gang, boys, there she is,’ says a fisherman to his companions, if such a
thing happens. He does not utter the word ‘ hare.’
354. Rerrick.—A hare running along the street of the village of
Dundrennan is looked upon as very unlucky. Some years ago a hare ran
along the street. Not long after an epidemic broke out, but my informant
did not remember what epidemic it was.
355. Borgue.—It is deemed unlucky to meet a hare in the morning.
356. Kirkmaiden.—lf a fisherman in going to the fishing meets a hare
he will turn and go back, as there will be no luck that day.
The Wild Rabbit.
357. Balmaghie.—Some account it unlucky to meet a wild rabbit.
Domestic Fowls.
358. Rerrick, Kirkmaiden.—A cock crowing at the door forebodes the
coming of a stranger.
359. Kirkmaiden.—It was at one time a belief that if a cock reached
the age of seven years he laid an egg, which, when hatched, produced
a cockatrice.
360. Kirkmaiden.—It is an indication of a coming misfortune if a
cock crows at night.
361. Balmaclellan.—If the cock goes crowing to bed, he'll rise wi’ a
watery head.
362. Crossmichael.—When a cock crowed at what was looked upon as
an untimely hour, the guidwife rose from bed, went to the hen-house,
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 471
opened the door, and light in hand looked in what direction the bird was
looking. That direction indicated the direction from which some piece of
bad news was to come.
363. Kirkmaiden.—When a hen crowed she was killed at once. Such
a thing was accounted very unlucky. ‘A crawin’ hen’s no sonsey’ and
‘ A crawin’ hen an’ a whisslin’ lass is no sonsey ’ and ‘ Whisslin’ maidens an’
crawing hens are no lucky aboot ony man’s hoose,’ are three saws.
364. Kirkmaiden.—The small egg a hen sometimes lays bears the
names of a ‘nocht’ and ‘a mock.’ Such an occurrence is regarded as the
forerunner of some piece of misfortune.
365. Minnigaff:—The first egg a hen lays is called a ‘maiden egg.’
366. Kirkmaiden.—A hen is set in the evening after sunset.
367. Portlogan.—A hen is not set during the month of May. The
saying about chickens hatched in May is:
Come oot in May
Moom for aye.
368. Portlogan.—A hen hatches as many chickens as the days of the
moon’s age when she is set.
369. Kirkmaiden.—A hen is set with an odd number of eggs,
commonly thirteen.
370. Kirkmaiden.—IE the tread is right on the top of the egg, a cock-
bird is hatched, if it is towards the side a hen-bird comes forth.
371. Kirkmaiden.—lf a black spot is painted on the egg of a white
hen before it is placed for hatching, the bird hatched will have a black
spot. ,
372. Balmaclellan.—It is considered unlucky if a hen lays a very
small egg. Guidwives did not like to get such an egg.
373. Balmaclellan.—A hen is set in the gloaming with the number of
thirteen eggs.
374. Laurieston.-—It is unlucky to have a crowing hen about the
house.
Sea-birds.
375. Kirkmaiden, Balmaghie.—When sea-birds fly inland, a storm is
approaching.
376. Mochrum.—The cormorant bears the name of Mochrum Elder.
377. Rerrick.—The cormorant is called Colyend Elder.
378. Itis accounted unlucky by some to shoot a cormorant.
The Swallow.
379. Balmaghie.—IE swallows come to a house it is accounted lucky.
380. Kirkmaiden.—It is unlucky to do harm to a swallow’s nest.
381. Dalry.—It is unlucky to injure swallows in any way.
382. Kirkmaiden.—
Sit and see the swallow flee,
Gang and hear the gowk gell,
The foal afore its mither’s ee,
An that ‘ill be a guid year for thee.
383. Borgue.—It is unlucky to shoot a swallow.
472, REPORT—1897.
The Wren.
384. Kirkmaiden, Balmaghie.—It is unlucky to kill a wren.
385. Balmaghie.—It brings ill luck to harry a wren’s nest.
The Robin.
386. Balmaghie, Kirkmaiden.—It is accounted unlucky to kill a robin
387. Balmaghie.—
The robin and the wran
Sits at God’s richt han’.
388. Balmaghie.—It is accounted unlucky to harry a robin’s nest.
The Lark.
389. Balmaghie.—‘ Geed the laverack’s heicht, I cudna follow.’
The Peewit.
390. Kirkmaiden.—The Peeweet is called Tappitie-wheet.
391. Balmaghie.—
Peeweet, peeweet,
I built my nest in a coo’s fit,
An I rue it, I rue it.
The Cuckoo.
392. Dalry.—The first time of the season one hears a cuckoo, the
number of times the bird utters its note indicates the number of years till
marriage or death, according as the one that hears may be married or
unmarried.
393. It is unlucky to hear the cuckoo for the first time of the season
when one is in bed or before breakfast.
394, Borgue.—It is unlucky to shoot a cuckoo.
395. Corsock.—The first time one hears the note of the cuckoo, let her
or him turn three times round, and below the foot will be found a hair of
the colour of the hair of the future husband or wife.
The Rook.
396. Mochrum.—It is regarded as lucky to see crows (rooks) about the
dwelling-house.
397. When crows fly low, rain is not far off.
398. Dalry.—It is unlucky to destroy a rookery.
399. Borgue.—In days gone by it was accounted unlucky to shoot
crows.
400. Rerrick.— Rooks ‘ diving,’ é.e., flying up and down and wheeling, is
an indication of a breeze.
The Magpie.
401. Kirkmaiden.—The magpie is regarded as a bird of ill omen.
402. Mochrum, Dalry.—lt is unlucky to see a single magpie.
403. Minnigaff:—It is considered unlucky to see a single magpie when
one 18 going a journey.
_ 404, Borgue.—The appearance of three magpies near a dwelling-house
1s an indication that a funeral will soon go from that house.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
405. Minnigaffi—It is accounted unlucky to shoot a magpie.
informant’s father
would on no account shoot one.
406. Airkmaiden.—
Yin’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a beerial,
Fowr’s a birth.
407. Minnigaf:—
408. Kells.—
409. Forfar.—
Yin’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a funeral,
Fowr’s a birth,
Five’s a ship on the sea,
or,
Five’s a message from over the sea,
Six is a letter coming to me.
Yin’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a beerial,
Fowr’s a birth,
Five’s rain,
Seven’s frost,
The worst 0’ a’.
Ane’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a weddan,
Fowr’s a birth,
Five’s a cirs’nan.
Six is hell
Saiven’s the deevil himsel’.
473
My
410. Ayrshire-—The formula regarding the magpie when seen by a
woman great with
child is :—
Yin’s joy,
Tway’s grief,
Three’s a girl,
Fowr’s a boy.
411. Minnigaff-—When one sees a magpie the words : ‘Sorrow to you
and none to me’ are called out.
412. Balmaghie.—
Yin’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a beerial,
Fowr’s a birth,
Five’s a waddin’,
Six is a ship sailin’.
474 REPORT—1897.
413. Rerrick.—
Yin’s sorrow,
Twa’s mirth,
Three’s a funeral,
Fowr’s a birth,
Five’s a shipwreck,
Six is a waddin,
Seven’s a death.
Peacock.
414. Corsock.—It is unlucky to have peacock’s feathers in the house.
The Adder.
415. Kirkmaiden.—If one meets with an adder and tries to kill it, but
fails to do so by its escaping, a ‘tryst’ is made to meet with it next day
at a fixed hour and place, and it will keep the ‘tryst,’ so that another
opportunity is given to put it to death. The uncle of one of my in-
formants actually did this. It was a common thing to do this when one
of my informants was a boy.
416. A farmer of the name of Milnmine occupied the farm of Myroch.
One day he went to an uncultivated hillock that was covered with whins
to cut some. Near it was a hollow, and looking down into it from the
hillock, he saw a great number of adders—as many as would fill ‘the box
of a cart—all squirming through each other,’ with a white one in the
middle of them. He threw among them the axe with which he was to
cut the whins, and turned and fled. Next day he returned to search for
his axe. In his search he found an adder-stone—a white stone with a
hole through the centre of it. He preserved it carefully by putting it
into his ‘kist.’ He was never without money afterwards.
417. Minnigaffi—My informant’s husband had an adder-stone. It
was a small round stone with a hole in the centre.
418. Kirkmaiden.—If a fire is kept burning for seven years con-
tinuously, a serpent issues from it.
419. Corsock.—A cure for the sting of an adder is for the one stung
to drink new milk to vomiting.
420. A cure is to drink new milk and to rub the wound with a salve
made by boiling ash leaves with new milk.
421. Borgue.—A decoction of ash leaves boiled in milk is applied to
the wound caused by the bite of an adder. My informant saw this
applied to the cure of a calf stung by an adder about 1850.
The Wasp.
422. Rerrick.—It is the belief that wasps do not sting during the
month of September.
The Black Snail.
423. Dalry.—In going on a journey if you meet a black snail, take it
by the horns, throw it over the right shoulder without looking behind,
and money will be got before the journey is finished.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 475
Caterpillar.
424, Girthon.—The caterpillar of the Nettle Butterfly (Vanessa urtice)
bears the name of ‘Grannie.’ When one meets one crossing the path or
otherwhere, it is spit upon. If this is not done, it is believed that some
misfortune will befall the grandmother, if she is alive.
The Spider,
425. Balmaghie.—It is accounted unlucky to kill a spider.
Trees and Shrubs.
426. Borgue.—The Boortree, z.¢., the elder, used to be planted round
kailyards and near dwelling-houses as a protection against witches.
497. Kirkmaiden.—There are old-fashioned folk that will not allow a
domestic animal to be struck with a ‘boortree’ stick.
428. Corsock, Kirkmaiden, Balmaghie.—A branch or piece of rowan
tree used to be placed over the byre-door inside to keep off witches.
429, Kirkmaiden.—My informant has seen pieces of rowan tree laid on
the mantel-piece to protect the house from witches.
430. Portlogan.—The thowl] pins of a boat, or at least some of them,
are always made of rowan tree. .
431. Kirkmaiden.—Fishermen tie their lines to a rowan stick to keep
the witches at a distance.
432. Borgue.-—Rowan tree was used as a protection for unbaptized
children against witches.
433. Balmaghie.—Our Saviour always carried in one hand a staff of
holland, z.¢., the holly tree, and in the other a rod of rowan tree.
434, Corsock.—The farmer of Grogo Mill had in the byres some of the
stakes to which the cattle are fastened, made of rowan tree, as a safeguard
from witches. He died about ten years ago.
435. Rerrick—My informant saw an old woman bring a piece of
rowan tree into the byre of one of her neighbours on the occasion of a cow
falling ill.
436. Balmaghie.—About twenty years ago my informant saw at Loch-
inbreck a woman milking her cow tied to a rowan tree.
437. Corsock, Kells.—In houses built some time ago, it was quite com-
mon to have some of the lintels made of rowan tree.
438. Corsock.—It was customary to plant rowan tree in the garden.
438a. Kells.—It was a custom to plant rowan tree as well as elder,
near the dwelling-house and byres, as a protection against witches.
439. Corsock.—‘ Binnans,’ 1.e., bindings for cattle, were formerly made
of bent rods of wood. It was not uncommon to have some of them in each
byre made of rowan wood as a safeguard against witches.
440. Kirkmaiden.—In Claish Glen, near Portlogan, grow fairy trees,
2.e., blackthorn bushes, which no one will cut, and some will not even
touch them.
441. A blackthorn bush growing in a field is sometimes called a
‘fairy thorn.’ It is not removed, though it stands in the way.
442. Dundrennan.— Many haws
Many snaws.
Haws are in most abundant profusion this season, and my informant
476 REPORT—1897.
has often heard the saw repeated within the last months (September
1896).
143, Kells.—A puppy poisoned by eating a skin that was being pre-
pared with arsenical ointment, salt dissolved in warm water was at once
poured over its throat. A decoction of ash leaves boiled in milk was
afterwards administered. The dog recovered. (Told by the gamekeeper
who did so. Cf Wo. 421.)
Diseases.
Whooping-cough.
444, Kirkpatrick, Durham.—My informant has talked with a woman
whose maiden name was the same as that of her husband’s, who used to
give a ‘piece’ to children labouring under whooping-cough that were
brought to her for cure.
445, Kells——My informant has seen children labouring under whooping-
cough brought to receive a ‘ piece’ from his wife, whose maiden name was
the same as his own. When the child was unable to eat the whole of the
‘piece’ that had been given, the remainder was carefully wrapped in the
child’s pinafore and taken home.
446. Rerrick—A_ cure for whooping-cough is to put the patient
through under the belly of an ass.
447. Corsock.—It was a custom to take children having whooping-
cough away in carts four or five miles to the hills, to cure them of the
disease.
Warts.
448. Corsock.—Put ivy leaves steeped in vinegar over warts as a cure.
My informant has tried,this cure.
449. A cure for warts is to rub them with green bean-leaves. My
informant has done this.
450. The juice of Dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum) is used as a cure
‘for warts.
451. Swine’s blood rubbed over warts dispels them.
452. Kells.—Take a potato, make a hole in it, fill the hole with salt,
and allow it to melt. Rub the warts with the lotion.
453. Crossmichael.—Take a pebble for each wart, roll them in a piece
of paper, and lay the parcel on a public road. Whoever picks up the
parcels gets the warts.
Whitlow.
454. Corsock.—Kill a fowl, rip it up, and tie it round the affected
finger or thumb.
The Mumps.
455. Corsock.—lhe Mumps (?) is called ‘Branks.’ The mode of cure
is to put a horse’s branks over the patient’s head and lead him or her to
water as one does a horse.
Jaundice.
456. Balmaghie—Strip off the inner bark or fell from the wych elm,
boil it, and drink the juice. There is one of these trees about a quarter
of a mile from Laurieston. It is quite a practice for folks to come to it
for a few branches to get the bark. Sometimes they come from a distance,
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 477
as it is the only tree of the kind in the district. It has been cut down
oftener than once, but new shoots have sprung up.
The Hair.
457. Portlogan.—If one’s hair when cut is burned, it will make him
‘that cross that there is nae leevan in the hoose wi’ ’im.’
458. When one’s hair is cut, it is carefully gathered up, twisted
together, and pushed into the thatch of the dwelling-house.
459. Kirkmaiden.—When one’s hair is cut, it is gathered up, put into
a hole of a dyke, so that the birds may not get it.
460. Portlogan.—lf birds get one’s hair and build their nests with it,
the late owner of it will have headache as long as the female bird remains:
‘ clocking.’
Birth.
461. AKirkmaiden.—-The Bible was put below the pillow of a woman
in travail. (Informant eighty-one years of age.)
462. Minnigaffi—After the birth of a baby there is a feast called
‘The Blythe Meat.’ A kebback always forms part of the good things.
The father cut a big piece off it, put it on a plate along with a knife, and
handed it to the mother in bed. She cut the cheese into small pieces and
gave each of the guests a piece.
463. Kirkmaiden.—At ‘The Blythe Meat’ there is always a kebback
or cheese, called ‘the cryin-out cheese.’ The father always cuts it. The
first piece cut was always given to the nurse. It was larger than the
pieces given to the others present at the feast. (Informant eighty-one
years of age.
464. Kirkmaiden.—It was the custom for the mother to fetch water
from the well for the first time after her confinement in a very small vessel,
most commonly in her thimble. This was done to keep the baby from
‘sliveran.’ My informant (eighty-one years of age) was told to do this.
465. Kirkmaiden.—It is unlucky to put the first-born child intoa new
cradle. (Informant eighty-one years of age.)
466. A cradle, when taken into a house, is not taken in empty.
(Informant eighty-one years of age.)
467. Balmaghie-—A cradle is always taken into.a house with its foot
foremost.
468. When a cradle is borrowed, something is always put into it.
469. Kirkmaiden.—The cradle is rocked across the floor with its head
towards the door. (Informant eighty-one years of age.)
470. Laurieston.—The cradle is always placed across the floor.
471. Kirkmaiden.—A Bible was usually put into the cradle till the
child was baptized.
472. Dalry.—Sometimes a piece of bread and cheese is tied under the
baby’s dress when about to be baptized. After baptism the bread and
cheese are given to the unmarried present at the baptism, who put them
under their pillows to ‘dream on.’
473. Kirkmaiden.—On the occasion of a baptism, when the minister:
left the house, sometimes an elderly woman would sprinkle part of the
baptismal water over the other children of the family, and ask God to
bless them. This custom is sometimes followed at the present time.
474. Kirkmaiden.—The one that saw a baby’s first tooth had to make
the present of a dress. (Informant eighty-one years of age.)
A478 REPORT—1897.
Marriage Divination.
475. Kirkmaiden (1).—Two stalks of a plant beginning to flower,
but without bloom, are taken, one to represent the ‘lad’ and the other
the ‘lass,’ and laid beside each other under a stone. Next morning the
diviner makes an examination of the stalks. If both stalks are in bloom,
the love will be mutual ; but if only one is in bloom, all the love is on the
side of the one whose stalk is in bloom.
476. (2) The first egg of a ‘ yearack,’ 2.e., a hen that begins to lay the
year she is hatched, is taken and broken, and the white of it is dropped
into a glass filled with water. From the forms made by the white of the
egg in the water omens of coming events are drawn.
477. (3) Take a snail on the morning of May Day and shut it up in
any kind of dish. Omens are drawn from the figures made by the slime.
The diviners tried to detect the form of letters in the slime marks.
478. Portlogan (4).—The young woman that divines takes a mirror
and stands with her back to the moon, and holds up the mirror to the
moon so as to let the moon strike’on it. As many images of the moon as
are reflected in it, so many years will pass before she is married.
479. Minnigaffi—lf a young unmarried woman eats on Hallowe’en a
whole herring, z.¢., with scales, bones, entrails, and fins, without speaking
a word, and then goes to bed also without speaking, she will seein a dream
the man that is to be her husband. My informant has known of this
being done.
480. If an unmarried woman on Hallowe’en goes through the
barn, entering by the one door and going out by the other, with a
stocking on the wires, she will ‘ meet her fate,’ z.¢., she will meet her future
husband. My informant knew a young woman who did so. Her master
met her. The young woman thought some one had sent him. She went
to the dwelling-house and told her mistress, who was lying very ill. All
that the mistress said was : ‘Mary, be kind to my wee ones.’ She died
next day. In course of time Mary was married to her master.
481. Ayrshire-—The first time a young woman sees the new moon
she takes her garter and begins to cast knots on it, and without stopping
to keep in mind the number of them, she repeats this formula :—
This knot I knit
To see the thing I ne’er saw yet,
To see my love in his array
As he walketh every day.
If that he appears in green,
Better his face I ne’er had seen ;
If that he appears in blue,
His love is ever true.
If at the end of repeating the formula nine knots have been cast, the
wooing will end in wedlock ; but if not, the wooing will end in failure.
482. Balmaghie.—If an unmarried man or woman is asked to take
the last piece of food on the dish, it is an indication of getting a handsome
wife or husband.
483. It is accounted unlucky to hear one’s own proclamation of
banns of marriage made in church.
484, Mochrwm,.—lIt is unlucky to have the bridal dress fitted on.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 479
485. Dalry.—It is not lucky for a bride to put on the bridal dress
before the marriage day.
486. Mochrum.—A bride ought on no account to look in a looking-
glass after being dressed.
487. Dalry.—If the bridegroom enters the marriage-house before the
minister, the married pair will not live together.
488. Kirkmaiden, Mochrum.—The minister must always be in the
bridal house before the bridegroom enters. If this is not the case the
bridegroom and his party wait till the minister enters. I have seen this.
489. Mochrum.—lIt is considered unlucky if the minister shakes hands
with the bride or bridegroom before they are joined in marriage.
490. A mother should not see her daughter married.
491. It is accounted unlucky if the bride-cake is broken or chipped.
492. It is unlucky to be married to a bride who is with child at the
time of marriage.
493. Lawrieston.—It is accounted unlucky for a marriage party to
meet a funeral. A farmer with his party was driving to be married.
A funeral was seen approaching along a road that joined the road
leading to the church and churchyard. The marriage party drove quite
quickly so as to get in front of the funeral procession, but did not
make out to do so. The bridegroom took the matter much to heart.
After marriage, things did not go well on the farm. This misfortune, as
well as every mishap that befell, was attributed to the funeral cortége
‘meeting the marriage party. The farmer brooded so much on the
matter, and spoke so constantly on it, that his wife’s life was made
miserable. My informant knew the farmer.
494. Rerrick.—It is accounted unlucky for the bride and bridegroom
to meet during the time between the proclamation of banns and the
meeting before the minister to be joined in marriage. In the parish of
Rerrick a marriage took place between a pair that lived in the same house.
On the afternoon of the Sunday on which the proclamation of banns
was made, the bride and bridegroom took a walk together along the
sea-shore. This act excited no small attention, and called forth many
remarks about how improper it was to do such a thing.
495. Crossmichael.—It is unlucky to finish a bridal dress and then
put it on to see how it fits or looks. Some little bit, such as sewing on a
hook or button, is left unfinished. After trying on the dress it is finished.
This was done in the case of my informant’s daughter on the occasion of
her marriage in August 1896.
496. It is considered lucky if the dressmaker accidentally let slip
from her hand the bridal dress she is making. My informant’s
daughter was married in August 1896, when the dressmaker who lived
in the house of the bride’s father to prepare the bride’s outfit told this
* fret.’
Marriage Customs.
497. Kirkmaiden.—In the days when hand-spinning was part of the
employment of the women of the household, the young women spun the
thread and yarn for their own sheets and blankets.
498. The bride’s mother sometimes went to invite her guests to the
marriage. The bridegroom invited his own guests.
499. Minnigaffi—At the feet-washing, the feet, both of the bride
480 REPORT—1897.
and bridegroom, were put into the bine [hooped tub (c7. bin)] at once.
The water was mixed with cinders and soot.
500. Mochrum, Dalry.—A bride must always wear something
borrowed.
501. Kirkmaiden.—An oatmeal cake used to be thrown at the bride’s
head as she was entering her future home. It was accounted lucky if it
struck her and broke.
502. Dalry.—My informant has seen a farle of oatmeal cake broken
on the bride’s head as she entered the door of her own house.
503. Ayrshive-—When the bride came to the door of her new home,
an oatmeal cake was thrown over her head. It was accounted lucky if it
broke in falling, or when it fell on the ground.
504. Crossmichael, Kirkmaiden.—The bridegroom’s mother, if alive,
often was the one to give the bride the welcome to her own house.
505. Laurieston.—In villages, as the bridal procession is passing, the
children have a custom of calling out ‘Ba! Ba!’ Coppers are thrown
among them. When the bridegroom’s party is approaching, the bride’s
party at times rushes out and meets it. Both parties meet each other with
much shouting.
506. Balmaclellan.—lt was not long ago the custom, when the bride-
groom’s party was within a mile or so of the abode of the bride, fora few of
the young men to set out to ‘run the broose.’ The bride gave a silk
handkerchief to the one that reached the house first, and so ‘won the
broose.’
507. Laurieston.—The mother is never present at the marriage of
any of her children.
507a. Crossmichael.—The minister commonly cuts the bride-cake. In
doing so he hands the ‘ toorack ’—1.e., the top, to the bride. The part below
is given to the bridegroom, and the remainder is cut up for the guests.
This custom was followed at the marriage of my informant’s daughter in
August 1896.
508. The door is thrown wide open when the bride is entering her
new home.
509. Old folks have told my informant that it was at one time the
custom, when the bride presented herself at the door of her future home,
for one to take a besom and to sweep the floor of the apartment ; the bride
entered towards the sweeper (?), all the time repeating the words—
‘Soop the hoose tiil the bride comes in,’
till the bride reached the hearth.
510. Balmaclellan.—Sometimes it was an aged woman who welcomed
the bride to her own home. She broke bread over her head. This bread
was taken by the unmarried folks and placed below their pillows ‘to
dream on.’
511. Crossmichael.—When the bride entered her own house it was the
custom at times to go right up to the hearth and touch the ‘ crook.’
Death Omens.
512. Corsock, Borgue.—A dog howling at night is a portent of death.
513. Kirkmaiden.—Some years ago one of the gamekeepers at Logan
House took ill, lingered for some time, and died. For a good many days
before his death the dogs kept up a great howling, generally in the gloam-
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 481
ing. A day or two before the death took place, one dog in particular
gave way to extraordinary howling. It all ceased after the death.
514. Balmaghie.—Chairs cracking in a house is a portent of death in
the family.
515. Dalry.—Doctor Trottar was one day called to visit a patient.
When setting out, the horse stumbled and fell. Those who saw what
took place said the patient would die. The patient died. (Told by his
daughter. )
516. Kirkmaiden. —My informant’s grandfather, a carpenter, said he
always heard the noise of a saw during the night before he got the order
to make a coffin.
517. My informant’s father, a carpenter, said he always heard one
knock on the end of his own bedstead before he got an order to make a
coffin.
518. Kells.—If one dies, and lies unburied over Sunday in a parish,
another will die within the week.
519. Rerrick.—A dog howling at night is an omen of death. A young
woman at a farm in Rerrick was seized with inflammation of the lungs.
After she fell ill, the dog began to howl, and no means could be found “to
stop the animal while she was lying ili. She died, and after the death the
dog ceased his howling.
°520. My informant at Burnfoot was one afternoon entertaining a
friend or two at tea. As they were making ready to leave three extra-
ordinary knocks were heard in a room on the other side of the lobby. The
guests and she immediately went into the room to try to find out the
cause of the knocks. One of the guests searched all round and under the
table from which the knocks seemed to proceed. Nothing could be seen.
A post or two after brought intelligence of the death of a very intimate
friend, who had died about the time the knocks had been heard.
521. A man named James Whyte died at Burnfoot. On his death his
son went to the house of my informant’s father, tapped on the window,
and said his father had just died. Immediately before the news of the
death was given, a very loud crash, as if something had fallen and been
smashed to pieces, was heard in one of the rooms.
522. My informant’s grandmother told her that when a child of hers,
twenty-one months, was lying ill in the cradle, a most sweet sound was
heard to begin near the door of the apartment in which the cradle stood,
and move round the apartment, past the fireplace, to the cradle, where it
stopped. When the mother looked into the cradle, the child was dead.
523. Balmaclellan.—When one of the ministers of Balmaclellan was
lying very ill and low, his niece was one night watching him. All at once
the sweetest music she had ever heard began. Her uncle heard it too,
and said: ‘That’s a call for me. I will not be long here.’ He died not
long after. (Told by the minister’s niece to my informant.)
524. Lawrieston.—If a dead body lies unburied over Sunday, there will
be ‘other tway deaths within the week,’ or if not within the week within
a short time.
Death Customs.
| 525. Kirkmaiden.—All the doors and windows of the house in which
one lay dying used to be thrown open. My informant has seen her sister
do so.
1897. rk
482 REPORT—1897.
526. Portlogan.—When one was dying, it was the custom to keep the
door of the house wide open.
527, Kirkmaiden.—It is the custom to stop the clock when one dies.
My informant has seen this done within three years.
528. When the eyes of a dead person do not close, penny pieces are put
over them.
529. Balmaghie.—To ‘straucht a corpse’ is to lay out a dead body.
530. Kirkmaiden.—The dead body always lies on the bed on which
the death takes place, till it is dressed and put into the coffin.
531. It was not an unusual thing for a woman to spin the thread of
her own grave-clothes.
532. My informant, a carpenter, is in the habit of washing his hands
after putting the dead body into the coffin, It was at one time the usual
custom to do so.
533. A plate containing a little salt was till lately placed on the
breast of the dead body.
534. The dead body, except for some special reason, is usually kept
unburied for five or six days.
535. Till about twenty years ago it was the usual custom that a few
neighbours, both men and women, met at the house of death about 10
o'clock at night. Refreshments were usually served as they arrived, and
when they leftinthe morning. For these refreshments some brewed their
own beer. A good deal of time was spent in reading the Bible, in singing
psalms, with prayer occasionally.
536, Balmaghie-—One ought never to refuse to ‘see a boddie’s dead”
when asked to look on a dead body.
537. Mochrum.—Invitations to a funeral used to be given till within
a few years ago by a messenger. A common form of invitation was :—
‘ Your company is requested to the funeral of at
o'clock.
538. Kirkmaiden.—The messenger that called the people to a funeral
almost never entered the house of those invited, but stood outside the
door and gave the message. If he did enter the house, he did not sit
down. On finishing his round, he returned to the house of death.
539. Refreshments till within a few years ago were given to those
that attended a funeral. In the case of a farmer or any of his family the
guests assembled in the barn. Men were appointed to hand round the
refreshments, and they were called ‘service men.’ There are generally
four or five, and at times as many as six ‘services.’ Commonly a ‘service
man’ stood at the door and profiered a glass of whisky to each one on his
arrival. When all were assembled, the ‘service men’ began their work.
First came a ‘service’ of whisky with bread and cheese— funeral bread,’
i.e., oaten cakes baked for the funeral. The second consisted of sherry
and port wine with short-bread, or small ‘ bakes,’ 2.e., biscuits, or ‘ dollar
biscuits.’ The third might be of rum or brandy, and the fourth of gin, or
whisky, or beer.
When the custom fell into disuse, many of. the old-fashioned folk
expressed their displeasure, and said that ‘a beerial was na worth
going to.’
540. Mochrum.—Ata funeral sometimes whisky and a bake were given
at the church door.
541. Kirkmaiden.—After the funeral, some of the relatives, a few
friends and near neighbours, with the one that had invited the people to
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 483
the funeral, return to the house of the departed and partake of a meal,
commonly ‘high tea.’ The joiner who makes the coffin commonly gets a
list of those that are wished to be so entertained.
542. Kirkmaiden, Minnigagi—It was till not long ago a custom to
eut off a piece of the grave-clothes immediately before the coffin was closed,
and to preserve it.
543, Kirkmaiden.—The coffin is taken out by the door and not by a
window, except in rare cases when it cannot be taken through the door-
way. The body must be taken out by the door the deceased came iti.
544. Balmaghie.—At a funeral the women of the house never go out-
side, but shut themselves up.
545. Kirkmaiden.—The coffin is usually carried to the graveyard. To
take the coffin to the graveyard in a cart, which is sometimes done, is
accounted a less honourable mode of burial than to be carried.
546. Fifty years ago there was very little conversation carried on by
those that formed the funeral procession ; and if any was carried on, it was
in subdued tones. It is quite different nowadays. There is conversa-
tion, and it runs on all kinds of subjects.
547. Mochrum.—In tolling the church-bell at a funeral, three tolls in
succession are given, and then an interval.
548, My informant, a gravedigger, has sometimes seen each of the
relatives of the deceased throw a handful of mould on the coffin after it was
lowered into the grave.
549. Kirkmaiden.—A man of somewhat bad character died at Logan.
When the coffin was being carried to the grave many extraordinary diffi-
culties came inthe way. At last one old man called out, ‘In God’s name,
lay ’im doon, an’ lat the deil tack ’im.’
550. Crossmichael.— When one’ dies the room is darkened.
551. When one dies the clock is stopped. My informant has heard
the order given ‘ Stop the clock.’
: 552. On the occasion of a death it is the custom to burn the chaff of
the bed and the bed-straw.
553. Balmaclellan.—Between forty and fifty years ago, Fanny Ireland
or Macmillan, an old woman that lived in Balmaclellan, fell ill. The aunt
of my informant’s wife went to ask how she was. She found she had not
long to live. She stayed a long time. When she returned home, her
mother asked her why she had stayed so long. She said she had been
helping to carry the dying woman ‘ weathershins’ round her house, and
‘was jist worn oot’ doing so. The women had taken the dying woman
from bed and carried her ‘weathershins’ round the house ‘to keep awa’
evil spirits.’
554. Mochrwm.—Unbaptized children used to be buried under the wall
of the graveyard or of the church. My informant has done this.
555. The church bell was rung at the funerals of children that had
been baptized, but not at those that had not been baptized.
| 556. Kirkmaiden.—Still-born as well as unbaptized children are, or
_ were till lately, buried in the gloaming and under the walls of the church.
Tt is unlucky to step over the graves of such.
Suicides.
if 557. Corsock.—The ridge of the Lowther or Lead Hills, along which
; runs the boundary between the counties of Lanark and Dumfries, was
» ; 112
484 REPORT—1897.
a common place where the bodies of suicides were buried. (Told in
Corsock.)
558. Kirkpatrick-Durham.—A woman in this parish, not very many
years ago, committed suicide. Her body was buried in the churchyard.
During the night after the funeral, the coffin was dug up and placed ;
outside, against the door of the house in which she had lived. The sheriff
made his appearance to settle the matter. The coffin was interred outside
the churchyard wall, near the gate, just off the public road.
559. Kirkmaiden.—The body of a suicide was buried close under the
wall of the churchyard, outside. Sometimes the wall was taken down to
allow the coffin to be placed below the wall. When the grave was filled,
the wall was rebuilt.
560. Mochrum.—If there was a tree in the churchyard, the body of a
suicide was buried under it.
561. Dalry.—A suicide at Knockman was being carried to the grave-
yard at Dalry. After the procession had gone about a mile, a crow
alighted on the coffin. Those that were carrying the coffin set out to run
as fast as they could. They could neither stop nor let go their hold of the
bier and give it to others. The race continued as long as the crow sat on
the coffin. At the village of Dalry the crow flew off, and the procession
went on at leisure to the churchyard. This took place about a hundred
years ago.
562. Kirkmaiden.—In one case the mother of a suicide went to
America. The body of her son had been, according to custom, buried
outside the wall of the churchyard. The churchyard was afterwards
enlarged, and the suicide’s grave came within the walls. The mother
came to know the fact, and in writing home to a friend said how thankful
she was that her son’s grave was now within the walls of the churchyard.
The Drowned.
563. Balmaghie.—It is accounted unlucky for the one that is the first
to touch the body of one that has been drowned or has perished.
564. Dalry.—After a time a light appears over the spot where the
body of one that has been drowned lies.
565. Balmaghie.—A blue light appears over the spot where the body
of one that has been drowned lies on the ninth day after death, when the
gall-bladder breaks.
566. Kirkmaiden.—The one that saves another from drowning runs
the risk of being drowned.
567. Newton Stewart.—My informant, an ex-policeman, in his investi-
gation into a case of drowning in the river Cree, heard old people say,
‘She has not got her complement yet.’
568. My informant, an ex-policeman, saw in 1889 a loaf hollowed out
and a little mercury put into the hole. The loaf was then laid into the
river Cree, at the point where the young man that had been drowned fell
into the water, and allowed to float down.
Other Superstitions relating to Death.
569. Kirkmaiden.—A grave is not opened till seven years after the
last interment.
570. Rerrick.—It is believed that if the windows of the room in which
a dead body lies are opened, the decay of the body is hastened.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 485
571. Balmaghie.—It is accounted unlucky to meet a funeral.
572. It is looked on as unlucky to stand on the threshold and look on
a passing funeral.
573. Kirkmaiden.—When the master of the house dies, if bees are kept,
they die or leave. My informant said he knew of such cases in the parish.
Farming Customs.
Sowing.
574, Kirkmaiden.—-When once the bags containing the seed-grain are
taken to the field to be sown, if rain come so as to prevent the sowing
from being carried out, they are not lifted from the field and carted back
to the barn, but left till the weather permits the seed to be sown.
575, The grain used to be sown from a sheet knotted up and hung
from the neck. This sheet had always to be taken clean out of the fold
for the grain that was first sown.
576. If the knot by which the sheet from which the seed-grain was
sown was tied undid itself, the sower would not live to sow another spring.
W. Morrison, farmer in East Muntlock, was sowing one spring when the
knot of the sheet unloosed itself. He died before the next spring.
Reaping.
577. Galloway (general).—Reaping was at one time done by the
hook.
578. Rerrick.—The reaper on the first ‘rig,’ who was always supposed
to be the best workman, was called ‘The Pintsman’ (pointsman), and the
one on the last ‘rig’ ‘The Heel.’ There was a binder and stooker to
each four ‘shearers.’ Breakfast was between five and six o’clock in the
morning, and consisted of oatmeal porridge and milk. The porridge was
always made the night before in a big boiler, and poured into small
wooden tubs called ‘ gones.’ These ‘gones’ were then covered up with
the grain sack, to keep the porridge warm. The steam got condensed, and
fell down all round the inside of the ‘gones,’ making the outside of the
porridge cold and unpalatable ; so that, as my informant said, ‘ We suppit
as fast as we cud, till we got to quhaur they were warm.’ For sixteen
reapers and four binders there might be three of these ‘ gones.’ They were
placed along a big table. A basin to hold milk was placed for each two,
and not one basin for each.
Instead of milk what is called ‘crap’ was sometimes used. This
‘crap’ is boiled whey. When curd for making cheese is separated from
the whey, small lumps of curds are left in the whey. When all the curd
that can be got is separated from the whey, the whey is boiled. This
boiling causes all the small particles of curd to coagulate still further, and
then to float. When the whey cools, they sink to the bottom.
:
Dinner, which consisted of broth made of swine-flesh along with
_ potatoes, was served at noon. Work was resumed almost as soon as
dinner was finished, and was carried on without stop till 8 or 8.15, if
daylight permitted. Supper consisted of porridge and milk, the same as
breakfast. This was the course followed about fifty years ago on the
farm of Baligue, parish of Rerrick: (Told by one that did harvest work
on the farm for one harvest.)
579. Balmaghie——The ‘pint’ (point) rig was shorn by the ‘ first man’
in the kitchen, and the second rig by the byre-woman.
486 REPORT—1897.
580. Kirkmaiden.—The one that cut ‘the Hare’ at times got five
shillings.
581. Whisky was given to all the workers when ‘the Hare’ was cut.
582. ‘The Hare’ was commonly placed over the kitchen door.
583. ‘The Hare’ was often kept over the ‘ door-head_’ till the following
harvest. (Informant eighty-one years of age.)
584. Portlogan.—‘ The Hare’ was kept by some as long as it would
hang together.
585. Kirkmaiden.—When ‘the Hare’ was cut, no more work was done
that day.
586. About forty years ago, some had the custom of hanging up ‘ the
Maiden’ in the best room of the house.
587. Balmaghie, Girthon, Kells, Dalry, Corsock.—‘ The Hare’ is called
‘the Kirn.’
588. Balmaghie.—‘ The Kirn’ was placed over the kitchen door, and
the Christian name of the first man that entered would be the name of
the husband of the byre-woman, and the Christian name of the first woman
that entered would be that of the wife of the ‘ pint rig man.’
589. Dalry—aA fancy ‘ Kirn’ was made, decked up, fixed to the
wall of one of the apartments, and kept till the following year.
590. Kells.—In cutting the ‘ Kirn,’ it was the aim of the reapers to
cut it below the plaiting of the earsof grain. The one that cut it carried
it home.
591. Corsock.—When scythes came into use, the ‘Kirn’ was cut by
the reaper blindfolded. The quantity of grain left for it was divided into
three, plaited, and the ears twisted together. The one that was to cut it
was blindfolded, and led to a distance from it. He then set out to find
it and cut it.
592. Lawrieston.—A small quantity of grain was left for the ‘ Kirn.’
Each reaper got a chance of cutting it. Blindfolded, he or she was led
some distance from it, and then sickle in hand proceeded to find it out
and cut it. When it was cut, a cheer was commonly raised. It was carried
home.
593. Kirkmaiden, Balmaghie, Kells, Kirkmaiden.—There is a feast after
harvest, which is called ‘ the Kirn.’
594. Balmaghie, Kirkmaiden.—The Kirn’ is sometimes given after
all the crop has been secured in the stackyard.
595. Kirkmaiden.—‘The Kirn’ is at times given when the crop is
all cut.
596. Lawrieston.—The sheaf last cut was finely plaited and twisted.
A branch of rowan tree with the berries was generally tied into the
middle of it as a protection against witches. This was laid on the table
at the ‘Kirn’ feast. After the feast was finished, dancing was begun
either in the barn or granary.
597. Kirkmaiden—A dish at the ‘Kirn’ feast is ‘beetlet praties ’
(mashed potatoes), which are always stirred in the form of the figure 8 in
being made ready. Into this dish were put a ring, a thimble, and a button.
The ring signified marriage. The one that got the ring ‘slept on it’ that
night.
598. Corsock.—Dirty water of various kinds used to be thrown over
the one that brought the last load of grain from the field into the stack-
yard, This custom at times led to rough action in retaliation against
te
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 487
the one that threw the water. My informants have seen this custom
carried out.
599. Kirkmaiden.—Women and boys were always lurking about
corners with pails of water to throw over the one that brought from the
field the last load of grain into the stackyard.
600. If whisky had not been given to the reapers when ‘the Hare’ was
cut, the one that took the last load of grain into the stackyard objected to
the throwing of water on entering it.
Fishing and Bathing.
601. Kirkmaiden.—Fishermen in turning their boats always do so
sunwise.
602. Fishermen account it unlucky to take a lythe (a species of cod)
for the first fish into the boat.
603, Fishermen put a few white stones into their boats to secure luck.
604 Mochrum.—Bathing in the sea is done when the tide is ebbing.
It is believed that, if there is any disease, the rising tide brings it in, and
one bathing at that time may catch it.
Lead-miners’ Customs and Superstitions at Minnigaff.
Omens.
605. Miners count it unlucky to meet a woman as ‘first fit’ when
they set out to work in the mine.
606. Meeting one with black hair, whether man or woman, is accounted
lucky.
607. Before an accident took place, noises of various kinds were heard.
Sometimes the noises resembled the voices of men speaking, sometimes like
the sound of the miners ‘ travellin’ the laither,’ 7 ¢., going up and down the
ladder, and sometimes knocks were heard on the Sock.’
608. Certain among the miners were looked upon as carrying ill-luck
with them. If such a one, when a lode of lead was found, made his
appearance in the section, the lode gave out in a short time.
609. There was no whistling inthe mine. J. Moffat, a miner, whistled
one day. Not long after a stone fell on him and killed him.
610. It was believed that no metal would be got if there was any
profane swearing. An oath or profane word of any kind was therefore
seldom heard in the mine.
611. It was usual for the miners to sing to bring luck, They sang
either songs, hymns, or psalms.
612. Some men were accounted more co than others in finding
metal.
613. Some men would not work for months near a spot where one
had been killed.
Customs.
614. In sinking a shaft, when ore was struck, a barrel of beer was
given by the mine-owners. It was drunk on the spot.
615, Every time a ‘bunch’ of ore was come upon, a barrel of beer
was consumed.
616. The mine was divided into sections, and these were divided by
lot among the different companies that wrought in the mine. At the
head of each company was a foreman called ‘the ‘bargain-tacker.’ He
488 REPORT—1897.
was responsible for the working of the section, and to him the wages of
the company that wrought the section were paid in the gross. He paid
each of his company his share.
617. The first time the ‘ bargain-tacker’ received his pay after receiv-
ing a new section and after choosing his own company, he had to ‘ pay his
fittan,’ .c., treat the men of his company.
618. When a young man of a company got married, the men of his
company ‘stood treat,’ and often made a present besides.
619. When a miner was buried the working of the mine was generally
stopped. The master and all the miners attended the funeral.
620. There was a good deal of eating, and more drinking, at a miner’s
funeral. Hence arose the saying: ‘A Mines funeral is as guid’s a Mines
waddin’.’ [‘ Mines’ is the local name for Blackcraig Mines. |
621. ‘Short-bread’ was commonly used as part of the entertainment
at a miner’s funeral. It was commonly baked by neighbours and presented
by them.
622. Any frogs that might have been found in the mine were carefully
tended. They were carried to a place of safety, and food was given them.
Mining Terms.
623. Back-end was the place where all the rubbish of the mine was
cast.
Black Jack, sulphur.
Gump o’ lead, a pocket of lead.
Vogg-hole, a hole that is full of water. The lead hangs all round it
‘like paps.’
The lead mines are not now wrought.
My informant was a miner from boyhood.
Omens—Luck and Unluck.
624. Dalry.—It is unlucky to put a pair of shoes on a table.
625. It is unlucky to lay the tongs on a table.
626. Mochrum.—It is unlucky to break a looking-glass.
627. It is unlucky if a looking-glass falls and is broken.
628. Kirkmaiden.—lIt is unlucky to give fire out of the house.
629. Dalry.—lIt is unlucky to stumble when going upstairs.
630. In going a journey on horseback, if the horse stumbles in start-
ing, there will be no luck in the journey.
631. In setting out on a journey, if the left foot is placed first, there
will be luck.
632. Sneezing in the afternoon is accounted unlucky.
633. Balmaghie.—To spill salt is unlucky. To do away with the un-
luck, a little of the salt is thrown over the left shoulder. ;
634. At the Communion in the Church of Balmaghie, one very wet
Sunday an old man laid his dripping head on the Communion Table. He
left the impress of his head on the white cloth. He died within the year.
Leaving the impress was looked upon as very unlucky.
635, Dalry.—Sneezing in the morning indicates luck.
636. In setting out on a journey, if one puts the right foot first, luck
attends the journey.
637. If one puts on any piece of dress inside out, luck follows as long
as the piece of dress is worn as put on.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 489
638. Balmaghie.—If one puts on a piece of dress inside out, it must:
not be changed. Changing puts away the luck:
639. Dalry.—lIf one sees a wraith in the morning, it indicates long life.
It is not a good omen to see one at night.
640. Galloway (general).—It is accounted lucky to have the toes
webbed or partly webbed.
641. Dalry.—Certain persons are considered as having a ‘lucky hand.’
‘You have the lucky hand,’ is the saying.
642, A film of carbon hanging from a bar of the grate foretokens the
arrival of a stranger.
643. If the black films that appear on the bars of a grate fall off at
once when blown, strangers will soon arrive. If they require two or three
puffs, it will be two or three days before they make their appearance.
644. If the youngest or the eldest of a family sneezes before breakfast,
a stranger will arrive during the course of the day.
645. If the right hand becomes itchy, it is an indication that money
will be received in no long time. If it is the left hand that itches, money
will be paid away.
646. If the left ear becomes hot, one is speaking evil of you; if the
right ear, good things are being said of you.
647. Crossmichael.—lf the ‘girdle,’ or a pot, or any cooking utensil
that may be hung over the fire, slips in the ‘ crook,’ a stranger will arrive.
Giants.
648. Balmaghie.—At Barstolick there lived three giants that were the
terror of the whole neighbourhood, and no one was bold enough to meet
and fight them. At last a man of the name of McGhee undertook to do
battle against them. He fell upon them unawares at night, and succeeded
in killing them. For this deed he got a grant of the lands of Waylard.
649. A giant and his wife lived in a cave now called the Giant’s Cave
at Aldequhat. One day the giant fell asleep in his cave whilst a big
kettle of fish was cooking. A man that was fishing in the loch went into
the cave, found the giant asleep and his wife away. He overturned the
boiling kettle over the giant’s face, and blinded him. He jumped up in
his pain and tried to catch the author of his misery. It was in vain. He
‘could not see him. He asked his name in hopes that he might in after
times have an opportunity of exacting justice from him. ‘I mysel’ is my
name,’ was the answer. After chasing the man to no purpose he roared :
‘A’ burnt, a’ burnt.’ The roar was heard by his wife, and she called
back: ‘Quha did it? Quha did it?’ He answered: ‘I mysel’ did it,
Her reply was: ‘I thysel’ can blaw thysel’.’ The man, dreading the wife’s
return, meantime made his escape from the cave with all speed, mounted
his horse and fled, as the wife was coming to the cave. When she found
out what had taken place, she set out in pursuit of the man that had done
the evil deed. It was a hard race, but she overtook him. She seized the
horse by the tail. The man turned round in the saddle and struck out
with his sword and cut off her arm, and so escaped.
650. Dalry.—There was once a giant sived in Carsphairn, <A family
in the parish incurred his ill-will. He resolved to take his revenge. He
went to the top of a hill called Dundeuch, seized a big rock, and threw it.
on the house in which the family lived. It fell on the house, crushed it,
and killed all in it. The stone has been taken and made into gateposts.
4.90 REPORT—1897.
The Devil.
651. Kells.—There was a large rock near the Old Bridge over the Ken,
between Carsphairn and Dalry. The devil, looking from a hill called
Dundeuch at some distance from the river, resolved to destroy the bridge.
He seized a huge rock, but fearing that he might overshoot the bridge if he
threw it with the force of his whole hand, poised it on his little finger
and threw it. He misjudged the weight of it, and it fell short. The rock
has been very much broken up for building purposes. It is known as
‘The Deil’s Finger-stane.’
652. Dalry.—A funeral was proceeding to the churchyard of Dalry
along the road between Dalry and Moniave. When the procession reached
a certain ‘straun,’ i.e., Stream, a stranger joined. No sooner had he done
so than the cortege ‘set up speed’ ‘and ran with great haste to the
churchyard. The stranger disappeared suddenly, no one knew where.
He was the devil. The deceased had made a compact with the devil and
sold himself to him, and was to be claimed at the spot the stranger joined
the funeral procession. He came to the appointed spot to ‘claim his
own.’ When he got his own he disappeared. Hence the stream got the
name of the Bargain Straun. (Told in Corsock.)
653. Kirkcowan.—The farmer of Balaird, part of which lies on the
river Bladenoch in the parish of Kirkcowan, had a field of hay on
the banks of the ‘burn.’ He and his servants were busy amongst it
when a violent torrent of rain fell, and the burn came down suddenly
in great flood, so that it overflowed its banks, and was sweeping away
quantities of the hay. Seeing the crop floating away in spite of all their
exertions to secure it, the farmer lost all control of himself, and gathering
together the forks and rakes, &c., they were using, threw them into the
rushing water, and cried out: ‘B’ the Lord! if ye (the devil) tack
the hey, tack a’ wi’ you.’
654. Girthon.—The farmer of Culreoch, which lies on the banks of the
river Fleet in the parish of Girthon, was a ‘twisty aul’ carle.’ One very
windy day he was carrying a bundle of fodder to give to some of his
cattle. He had to go round a corner particularly exposed to the force of
the storm. The wind caught the bundle of fodder as he tried to round the
corner, and he was driven back oftener than once. At last he planted
down his foot with force, bent his body against the storm, and burst out:
‘Na, nor yet yir fayther aither.’
Brownie.
655. Borgue.—The Brownie is looked upon as a helpful being. Food
used to be set in convenient places for the brownies to eat during night.
656. Dalry.—At Borgue the aunt of my informant’s father used to
lay out food for the brownies during night. For this kindly act they did
all sorts of heavy work, as threshing.
657. Brownies did during the night the work of those that treated
them kindly. At Bogue, in the parish of Dalry, there is a well called
Kitty Ramsay’s Well. Beside this well those who wished to have their
services placed food for them. They ate the food, drank the water of the
well, and did the work of their benefactors.
Fairies.
658, Kirkmaiden. —Some were in the habit of placing a basin of
meal or a bowl of water on the dresser for the use of the fairies during
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 491
night. This act of kindness kept them on good terms with the household
and from interfering with the cows.
659. Dalry.—On Halloweven the fairies rode on cats at the Holme
Glen, Dalry. On that night considerate housekeepers shut up their cats,
to prevent them from being laid hold of by the fairies.
660. Kirkcowan.—A man had a cow and a goat which he pastured in
his little field. In this field was a knoll, and it was the abode of some
fairies. They took to riding on the goat round and round the knoll. The
man was at last under the necessity of selling the goat, so fond had the
fairies become of riding the animal. He bought another and placed it on
the field in the thought that it would be free from the attention of the
fairies. Some time after his wife asked to go and see how the new goat
was faring. He saw the fairies riding ‘time aboot’ round the knoll on
the goat’s back. (Thirty two years ago.)
661. Dalry.—About seventy-five years ago there lived a woman at
the Brough, in the parish of Kells, in an old house about a mile from New
Galloway. In front of the house door there was a slab over the drain
that carried off the house dirty water. One day a fairy woman, dressed
in green, appeared to her and asked her to throw her slops not on the
slab but a little further off. She made a promise to her that if she did
so, she would never come to want. The woman did so. Some time after
she fell ill. Every morning a quantity of new pins was found on a small
table that stood beside the patient’s bed. The pins were sold, and the price
of them was sufficient for the support of the woman. Dr. Trottar of
Dalry came into possession of one of them. From that time forth money
matters prospered with him.
662. Kirkmaiden.—My informant told me that he has heard of the
site of a byre being shifted, because it had been built over fairy dwellings,
and thus the water of the byre dropped down into it, and caused annoyance
to its inmates.
663. When the new house at Greenan was being founded, a woman
appeared and asked the masons and others taking a hand in the work to
change the site. She told them that the house on that site would be
right over her dwelling, and in consequence much annoyance and incon-
venience would be caused to her and her household.
664. My informant’s father used to say that he has heard the fairies
singing in Glenlee.
Witcheraft.
665. Kirkpatrick-Durham.—An old woman used to say to my in-
formant, when a boy, that the witches were all abroad on Halloweven,
and that they would seize him if he went out of the house after dark.
666. Rerrick.—Mrs. G of Dundrennan Cottage, Rerrick, had a
garden and sold the potatoes reared in it. Mrs. W: who was looked
on as ‘ uncanny,’ wanted from her some of a particular kind as seed. She
went to the cottage to buy them. When she entered, the female servant
was ‘kirnin.’ She asked Mrs. G to sell her a stone of this particular
kind of potatoes. She was told she could not have them, as they were all
sold. She appeared not to believe this, and as she was leaving the house
she looked back at the ‘kirn.’ No butter was got from that churnful.
667. Crossmichael.—A witch that commonly went by the name of
Nanny lived in Crossmichael parish. One day a neighbour's cow fell ill
and fell down. Nanny was known to have a grudge against the owner,
492 REPORT—1897.
and was suspected as the cause of the illness. Several of the folk around
assembled to give what help they could, and among them was Nanny.
They tried to lift the animal, but were unable to do so. The minister
made his appearance. When he saw how things stood, he said : ‘ Nanny,
you an’ me ‘ill try t’ lift her.’ Nanny made her excuse: ‘ Hoot awa’, hoo
cudd an aul’ boddie like me help t’ lift her?’ ‘We'll try ’t,’ said the
minister. Nanny could no longer refuse. So the minister and Nanny
laid their hands on the cow to lift her. The hands had hardly touched
her, when up jumped the animal as if nothing had been the matter.
Nanny had witched her.
668. Rerrick.—A woman named Mrs. Williamson lived on a point
called The Scaur, in the parish of Colvend. Sailors and fishermen were
always most attentive in making gifts to her. If she was neglected, some
misfortune befell the ship or boat.
669. Mrs. W—— was one day nursing for a short time the child of a.
neighbour against whom she had a grudge. In dandling the child, ‘she
gave it a twist.’ The child grew up hunchbacked.
670. Corsock.—A herd named McQueen was one day out with a gun to
killa hare. He put up one, fired, and struck her hard without killing
her. He ran after her, and was again and again on the point of putting
his foot on her, but she always got off. At last she disappeared. It was
a witch in shape of a hare.
671. Kells.—Witches used to meet and hold orgies. A woman on one
occasion was going to one of these, and to be able to contribute something
to it she required some money. She churned her cream except a small
quantity, sold the butter in Dalry and bought a bottle of whisky. To
conceal from her husband what she was going to do, she took the small
quantity of cream she did not put into the first churning, churned it, and
showed the butter to her husband as if that was all the butter made.
672. Kirkmaiden.—My informant has seen a reputed witch and a
descendant of one of the noted Galloway witches riding on a stone dyke.
673. Dalry.—My informant one day engaged Jennie Mainsie, a reputed
witch, to cut some seed potatoes for her. She treated the woman welk
and paid her full wages. Before leaving she asked to be shown round the
garden. This was done. She then requested to be allowed to look into
the coal-house. Her request was granted. After all this she said,
‘Noo, I’ve dune ye a’ the ill I can.’ Next morning my informant went
into the coal-house to bring in coals for the fire. A big lump of coal fell
on her foot and crushed it.
674. Kirkmaiden.—If one went to a witch’s house, took a little straw
from the thatch of it, and burned it, all power to harm the one that did
this was taken from her.
675. Lawrieston.—When a cow’s milk was taken away by a witch, as
much of the animal’s milk as could be drawn from her was put into a pot
with a quantity of pins. The pot was hung over the fire to boil, and the
door of the house was bolted. The witch in due time came to the door
and asked admission. Her request was denied. If she were admitted,
the milk would not be restored, but if kept out the milk would return.
676, Kirkmaiden.—On the farm of Kilstay, tenanted by Mr. Kerr, a
grass-witch at one time wrought evil among the cows, so that no butter
could be got from the cream taken from their milk. A man that had
wide fame for his skill in such cases was called from Ireland. The man
came. The first step he took was to go into the byres and count the
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 493
animals, and to examine them. He then ordered all the wickets or holes
in the walls of the byres to be opened, so that whatever of evil influence
was in them might get out. He next ordered all the members of the
household to go into the dwelling-house, shut the door, cover all the
windows, fall on their knees, and pray to God that what he was going to
do would have the effect he wished, and not stir or open the door till three
knocks were heard on it. He went into the byre, and did something no
one knew, but the bellowing of the animals was terrible to be heard.
After a time the three knocks on the door were heard, and the door was
opened. The man had accomplished his work. When the cows were
examined, each had a piece of vervain tied into the hair of the tail. The
man then made a rope of hair, and tied it threefold round the bottom of
the churn, and at the same time gave orders that it should not be
removed. Things now went on all right, so that it was at last deemed
gafe to remove the rope. This was done with the result that no butter
was got as formerly. The rope was replaced and Mr. Kerr, who was a
handy man, made a sort of shallow tub to put over it and preserve it.
Butter was again got. Vervain stitched into a band of silk was after
this worn round the waist next the skin by the folk of Kilstay Farm.
Evil Eye.
677. Balmaghie.—There once lived at the Waukmill, Balmaghie, a
woman named Mrs. Melroy, who had the evil eye. The power was so
strong that if when milking her cow, she had looked on the milk in the
pail, it would have been sour before she reached the dwelling-house. Her
husband was a dyer, and he would not allow her to look into the dye-vat,
for if she did so the dye would not take.
678. Dalry.—If one carrying milk meets one with the evil eye, the
milk becomes sour.
679. Kirkmaiden.—The fishermen of Dromore, when returning from
gathering bait, do not care for one looking into the ‘bait dish’ on the
bait.
Place Legends.
680. Corsock.—A diamond is believed to exist in Criffle Hill. Sailors
see it glittering at night as they are sailing in the Firth. It cannot be
found during the day, though search has been often made for it.
680a. Kirkmaiden.—There is a large boulder in a field on the farm of
Aueabrick, parish of Kirkmaiden. The present tenant wished to remove
it, and one day, without telling his father, went to remove it. He had
gone so far with the work as to have a chain fixed round the stone and
the horses attached to the chain. His father saw what was going on.
He made all haste to the spot, and reached it in time to stop his son in
his work. The stone is still standing in the field.
681. Xells.—In Carsphairn there is a place called Whanny Knowes,
from the fact that there is a number of knowes or knolls all scattered
about, popularly said to number 365. The rhyme is—
Every knowe
Would grass a yowe (ewe).
682. Carsphairn.—There is a narrow gorge in the river Deuch, parish
of Carsphairn, a little above the Old Brig of Deuch, called ‘The Tinker’s
494, REPORT—1897.
Loup.’ This is one tradition of the origin of the name. A tinker that
was passing along the road entered a house in which ‘bleedy puddins’
were being cooked for supper. No one was in the house. He seized the
puddings and made his escape from the house. He was seen and pursued.
He was on the point of being caught. To save himself he leapt the river
at the spot that bears his name, and then sat down on the opposite side
to rest and to enjoy his feast of ‘ bleedy puddins.’
683. Corsock.—There is an island in Loch Urr. A shepherd, accom-
panied by his dog, one day waded across the shallow part of the loch.
Having reached the island, he laid himself down under some bushes as
the day was warm. He began scratching the ground with his stick. He
turned up a piece of turf, and under it he saw a pot of gold. He looked
behind him, and near him stood a creature in shape of a man with eyes
as ‘big as a broth plate an’ legs as thick as a corn sack.’ He held a paper
in his hand. He asked the shepherd to sign it, and said to him that the
gold would be his if he did so. The dog in the meantime had taken to
flight in complete terror. When the shepherd heard the terms of getting
the gold, and noticed how the dog had behaved, he turned and ran. The
dog in fright fled to the house, rushed below the bed, and would not leave
his place of refuge for some days. Search was afterwards made for the
treasure, but in vain. Another version of the tradition states that the
shepherd dreamed that there was a pot of gold hidden on the island,
and thus was led to search for it.
684. There is a well called the Lag Wine Well in the parish of
Carsphairn. The tradition is that there is in it a lump of gold which is
guarded by the devil. On one occasion some men resolved to lead away
the water from the well to dry it so as to reach the gold. They met and
began cutting a trench. They had not been long at work till the sky
grew black as night, and a thunderstorm, accompanied with torrents of
rain, burst over them. At the same time such swarms of ‘mowdies,’
i.e., moles, came out of the ground that the diggers were put to flight.
685. Kirkpatrick-Durham.—When St. Patrick left Kirkpatrick-
Durham, he blessed a well close beside the churchyard. On March 17
the one that was suffering from any disease that first went to the well,
drew water from it, and drank it was healed of the ailment. A woman
drowned a child in it, and the healing virtue departed from its water.
(Told in Kells.)
686. Kirkcudbright—When the branches of an ash-tree growing
out of the old castle wall, and the branches of a berry-bush growing
out of the wall of the old school meet, the town of Kirkcudbright and
the district of the country ten miles round it will sink below the level
of the sea. The branches of the ash tree have been cut several times.
Caves.
687. Kirkmaiden.—In the parish of Kirkmaiden, at the Mull, there is a
cave, and in the cave there is a stone. My informant saw about thirty
years ago buttons, pins, pieces of iron and rags lying on it and around it.
688. Kirkmaiden.—In the parish of Kirkmaiden there is on the
edge of the public road on the east side of the parish a cave called
the Grenan Cave. A dog on one occasion entered it on the east side,
and came out on the west side of the point at a place called Slockmona.
689. Parton.—There was a time not long ago when a field on the farm
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 495
of Dullarg, parish of Parton, lay unploughed. The saying was: ‘The
man that ploughed the ley would never cut the crop.’ Peter McCutcheon
the farmer ploughed the field and sowed it. He died before the crop was
reaped, The field has been cropped since. (Told in Kells by an old
man.
40. Tungland.—On the farm of Balannan, Tungland, there are two
fields adjoining each other, the one called The Drum, and the other The
Croft, which have never been cultivated. The belief is that if cultivated,
the death either of proprietor or tenant will be the consequence. Both
fields were reserved during the last lease. They are not now reserved,
but they still lie untilled.
691. Kelton.—It is the belief that Carlinwark Loch, near Castle
Douglas, must have a victim yearly. (Told in Kells by an old man.)
Place Rhymes, &c.
692. Balmaghie.—
The mealpoks of Girthon,
The bannocks of Borgue,
The puir boddies of Balmaghie.
693. Dalbeattie.—
The men of Kelton,
The Redshanks of Balmaghie.
694. Mochrum.—The Mochrum Scarts
695. Balmaghie.—The town of Kirkcudbright is called Whisky Jane.
696. Mochrum.—
There’s Cairnsmohr o’ Fleet (Kirkcudbright)
There’s Cairnsmohr o’ Dee,
And Cairnsmohr o’ Deuch (or Carsphairn),
The highest o’ the three.
697. Mochrum.—
When Cairnsmohr puts on his hat,
The Mochrum Lochs may lauch at that.
698. Corsock.—
When Mochrum hill puts on her hat,
Millhairy hears word o’ that.
699. Kells —
When Louran’s broo (Kells) gets on its cap,
The river Dee lauchs at that.
700. Rerrick.—
When Cairnharrow (Anwoth) puts on her cap,
Cairnsmuir may leuk at that.
4.96 REPORT—1897.
701. Corsock.—
When Skiddaw pits on her hat,
Criffel soon hears word o’ that.
702. Crossmichael.—
To Dee said Tweed
‘What gars ye rin sae slaw
While I rin wi’ speed ?’
To Tweed said Dee,
‘Though ye rin fast,
And I rin slaw,
Whaur ye droon ae man
I droon twa.’
?
Lhymes on parts of the body.
The Fingers.
703. Balmaghie.—
This is the yin that broke the barn,
This is the yin that stelt the corn,
This is the yin that tellt a’,
An’ puir Pirlie Winkie paid for a’.
704.—Kirkmaiden.—
There’s the yin that broke the barn,
There’s the yin that stole the corn,
There’s the yin that ran awa’,
Peer wee Peerie Winkie paid for a’.
705. Minnigaff, 80 years ago.—
This is the man that broke the barn,
And this is the man that stole the corn
And this is the man that sat and saw,
And this is the man that ran awa’,
And this is Peerie Winkie paid for a’,
b]
706. Portlogan.—
Here’s the yin that broke the barn,
Here’s the yin that stole the corn,
Here’s the yin that stood an’ saw,
Here’s the yin that tellt a’,
An’ peer wee Weerie Winkie paid for a’,
707. Kirkmaiden.—
This is the yin that broke the barn,
This is the yin that stole the corn,
This is the yin that ran awa’,
This is the yin that sat an’ saw,
An’ peer Peerie Winkie paid for a’.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
708. Rerrick.—
This is the yin that broke the barn,
This is the vin that stole the corn,
This is the yin that sat and saw,
This is the yin that tellt a’,
Wee Pirlie Winkie.
The Legs.
709. Kirkmaiden.—
Twa wee dogs geed t’ the market,
An’ they fell oot aboot a bane,
An’ he ower him an’ he ower him.
710. Minnigaf.-—
Twa wee dogs, they geed t’ the mill,
They opent their pokes an lickit their fill,
An’ the yin said : ‘Gee me a lick oot 0’ your poke,
An’ I'll gee you a lick oot 0’ mine ;’
An’ up the street they ran, they ran.
711. Kirkmaiden.—
There wiz twa wee dogs geed t’ the mill,
An’ the twa wee dogs lickit their fill,
The yin took a lick oot o’ yin man’s poke,
An’ yin oot o’ the ither,
An’ hame they cam, an’ hame they cam.
712. Twa wee dogs geed t’ the mill,
Waik an feeble, waik an feeble,
They geed to the hopper an lickit their fill,
An they cam hame stoot an’ able, stoot an’ able.
713. Portlogan.—
Twa wee dogs went t’ the mill,
They opent a bag an lickit their fill,
Ae aul’ woman gya them a lick,
Anither aul’ woman gya them a lick,’
An they cam hame fit for fit.
The Face.
714. Rerrick.—
Broo brentie,
E’e winkie,
Nose nentie,
Mooth merry,
Chin cherry.
1897. KK
497
498 REPORT—1897.
715. Kirkmaiden.—
There’s where the cat sat (brow),
There’s where the cat lay (nose),
There’s where she broke her bone (chin).
Knees—when dandling a child.
716. Kirkmaiden.—
Ladies, ladies, into the yate (gently),
Gentlemen, gentlemen, into the yate (more rapidly), -
Creel-cadgers, creel-cadgers, after a’ (roughly).
The Feet,
717. Corsock.—
‘ Johnny Smith, a fellow fine,
Can ye shee this horse o’ mine }’
‘ Yes, indeed, and.that I can,
Jist as weel as any man.
Here’s the hammer, here’s the nails,
Ca tee, ca tee.’
718. Balmaclellan.—
‘ John Smith, a fellow fine,
Can ye shee this horse o’ mine ?’
‘ Yes, indeed, and that I can,
Here’s a hammer, here’s a shoe,
Ca too, ca too.’
719. Rerrick.—
‘ John Smith, a fallow fine,
Can ye shue this horse o’ mine 2’
‘ Yes, indeed, and that I can,
Jist as weel as ony man ;
Here’s a nail upon the tae
T’ make the horse climb the brae
Here’s a nail upon the heel
T’ make the horse gallop weel ;
Then pay me, then pay me, sir.’
720. Minnigafi—
‘Jock Smith a fallow-mine (7)
Can ye shoe this horse o’ mine 2’
‘Yes, indeed, and that I can
As weel as ony other man.
Here’s the hammer, here’s the brod ;
Gentleman, yer horse is shod.’
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
721. Portlogan.—
‘John Smith a fulla fine,
Could you shoe this horse o’ mine ?’
‘Yes, indeed, an’ that I could
As weel as ony boddie.
Here’s a nail, and there’s a prod,
Ca too, ca too,
Gentleman, yer horse is shod.’
722. Kirkmaiden.—
‘John Smith o’ Manybole,
Can ye shee a wee foal ?’
‘Yes, indeed, an’ that I can,
Just as weel as any man.
Here’s the hammer an’ here’s the shod,
Ca it on, ca it on.’
General.
723. Kirkmaiden.—
Saw-see, cut a wee tree,
An’ big a wee boat,
An’ sail awa’ t? Donaghadee
For sugar an’ tea,
To (child’s name) an’ me.
724. Saw-see, cut a wee tree,
T’ big a wee boat,
T’ sail on the sea,
T’ catch a wee fish,
T’ put in the dish
For wee (child’s name) an’ me.
725. Forfar.—
Aul John Reid
Was chockit t’ deed
Wi eatin’ a piece o’ butter an’ breed ;
it was na for need
Bit jist for greed
That aul’ John Reid
Was chockit for deed.
~1
bo
a
rells.—
Hoot awa’, North win’,
Mack the windows shiver,
Hoot awa’, enjoy your play,
I shall be warm as ever.
727. Balmaghie.—
Hush ye, baby, do not fret ye,
The Black Douglas shall not get ye.
KK2
499
500 REPORT—1897.
728. Portwilliam.—
. is my name,
And Scotland is my nation,
Wigton is my dwelling place,
And Christ is my salvation.
[Copied from a book, and dated 1802.]
729, Rerrick.—During a hail shower the following words are‘repeated :
Rainie, rainie, rattle stanes,
Dinna rain on me ;
Rain on Johnnie Grant’s house,
Far ayont the sea.
730.—The following lines were observed written on a gate near
Auchincairn House, Rerrick :
Be ye man or be ye woman,
Be ye gun or be ye cannon,
Be ye early or be ye late,
Don’t forget to shut this gate.
Counting-out Rhyme.
731. Portlogan.—
Seetum, peetum, potum, pie,
Paper, lotum, jinkun, jye,
Stan’ ye there oot bye.
When all are counted out except two—
Two an’ two’s a tippenny loaf,
Two an’ two’s oot.
732. Georgetown.— ;
Eerie, orie, aikerie, ann,
Fill ma pock an’ lat me gang ;
Black fish, white troot,
Eerie, orie, ye’re oot.
733 Rerrick.—
Eetum, peetum, penny pie,
Ye’re a fool as well as I.
APPENDIX II.
Report on the Ethnography of Wigtonshire and Kirkcudbrightshire.
The data for this Report were collected with great care by the late
Dr. Walter Gregor, and the Committee regret that our esteemed colleague
did not live to receive the congratulations which they feel are due for
this valuable piece of work. The schedules have been tabulated and the
indices recorded by Dr. A. C. Haddon, who desires to express his thanks
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 501
to Mr. E. W. Brabrook for assistance rendered. The following is the
record of the work done in 1896 by Dr. Gregor in his own words :—
‘On April 14 I went to the parish of Kirkmaiden as the guest of
James McDonall, Esq., of Logan. By his help personally, and through
him, by the help of the Rev. Mr. Cavan, Free Church minister at Dro-
more, and the Rev. Mr. Guttridge, Episcopalian clergyman at Logan,
twenty-one sets of measurements were obtained, fifteen of males and six
of females. On Monday, April 20, I proceeded to the Manse of Minnigaf,
where I was again cordially received by Mr. and Mrs. Reid. As on my
former visit, Mr. Reid afforded me every assistance he could, and eleven
sets of measurements were taken, five of males and six of females. On
Friday, April 24, I went to the Manse of Mochrum, and had the help of.
Mr. Allan and his daughter. In that parish were got eleven sets of
measurements, seven of males and four of females. On the kind invita-
tion of Mr. Reid, minister of Balmaghie, I went to his manse on April 28,
My stay in that parish produced seven sets of measurements, six of
males and one of a female. The Manse of Kells was my next destination,
which I reached on May 6. There I had the help and influence of
Mr. Philip. In that and the neighbouring parish of Dalry only three
sets of measurements were taken as my schedules were exhausted. Fifty-
three sets of measurements form the result of this second visit, thirty-six
of males and seventeen of females.
‘As on my former visit I tried to find out those whose ancestors have
lived for the longest period in Galloway in the line both of father and
mother.
‘In all the districts I visited every opportunity of collecting the folk-
ore was laid hold of, and a good deal of it, some of which will prove
of interest, was gathered. It may be stated that when natives of other
‘districts were met with, they were questioned, and what information was
obtained was noted down, and the county it comes from was stated. It
will take a considerable time to make ready my notes, but the work will
be carried out as speedily as I can.
‘The Committee are again under great obligation to all those who have
exerted themselves to carry out this investigation.
‘I have to state that everywhere I was received with the utmost’
cordiality, and the hospitality and true kindness accorded to me by my
hosts and their families are beyond all thanks.
‘T have the honour to send to the Committee the fifty-three schedules.’
Dr. Gregor has filled up schedules for 46 Wigtonshire and 36 Kirkcud-
brightshire men (total 82), and for 21 Wigtonshire and 13 Kirkcudbright-
shire women (total 34), making a gross total of 116 Galloway folk.
These observations have been tabulated according to counties and sexes.
As there is no appreciable difference between the inhabitants of the two
counties, at all events so far as the men are concerned, we may describe
the Galloway type in the following terms :—
Men,
The average height of the men is 1733 mm. (5 ft. 8} in.), the maximum
being 1853 mm. (6 ft. 3 in.) and the minimum 1587 mm. (5 ft. 24 in.).
The average height sitting is 905 mm. (2 ft. 114 in.).
The skin is ruddy; it is not stated whether there is a tendency to
freckle. The hair usually is darkish brown and straight ; the actual
502 REPORT—-1897.
figures are red 6, fair 16, brown 32, dark brown 24, black 3. (51 out of
82 are credited with straight hair, but the proportion is probably greater.)
The eyes are as follows :—blue 35, light grey 25, dark grey 8, green 1,
light brown 5, dark brown 8. Only a few (15) are stated to have
prominent cheek bones. The nose is straight, with a slight tendency to
sinuosity. The ears are flat with distinct lobes.
The average cephalic index is 77-4, varying between 70°3 and 82:6. No
deduction has been made to reduce it to the cranial index of the skull.
The average length-height index is 66°8, and the breadth-height index
86:9. The average upper facial index 49, and the nasal index 60°4,
Women.
The average height of the women is 1600 mm. (5 ft. 3 in.), the maximum
being 1710 (5 ft. 74 in.) and the minimum 1423 mm. (4 ft. 8 in.) The
Kirkcudbrightshire women are somewhat shorter (1578 mm,—5 ft. 2in.) than
the Wigtonshire women (1621 mm.—5 ft. 34), though this is not the case
with the men, but the numbers are insufficient to lay any stress on this fact.
The skin is usually ruddy. The colour of the hair varies more than
among the men. Thus for Wigton the figures are—red 3, fair 5, brown 4,
dark brown 5, black 4 ; and for Kirkcudbright, red 1, fair 1, brown 8, dark
brown 3, black 0. It is generally straight. The eyes are as follows :—
Wigton : Blue 6, light grey 2, dark grey 3, green 0, light brown 2, dark
brown 8. Kirkcudbright: Blue 3, light grey 5, dark grey 1, green 0, light
brown 2, dark brown 1. Thus the Wigtonshire women are somewhat
darker than those of Kirkcudbrightshire. The other facial features
resemble those of the men.
The average cephalic index is 78-4, varying between 71:5 and 88:5,
The average length-height index is 68, and the average breadth-height
index 87; that of the Wigtonshire women is 88°4, and that of the
Kirkcudbrightshire is 85-7, as the breadth is precisely the same in both
instances (147 mm.) ; the difference in the index is due to the average
height of the cranium being greater in the Wigton (130 mm.) than in the
Kirkcudbright (126mm.) women. The upper facialindex is 47, andthe nasal
index 61:2. Thus, besides being slightly more brachy-cephalic, or rather
less dolicho-cephalic than the men, the Galloway women have relatively
broader faces and wider nostrils.
The tables upon which this abstract is based have been handed to the
Anthropological Institute for publication.
The district surveyed by Dr. Gregor is of especial interest, as it is
included in the country of the ancient Picts, a people concerning whose
affinities various theories have been made. When the Ethnographical
Survey of Great Britain and Ireland was originated, it was intended that
this should be one of the first problems to be attacked. A comparison
with the results obtained from other areas formerly inhabited by the Picts
will show whether the above-described type is mainly that of the Picts,
or whether it is a composite type, which will require a finer analysis.
However this may be, we have at least advanced a definite stage towards
the solution of this important historical and anthropological problem. Dr.
Beddoe’s ‘The Races of Britain,’ p. 249, should be consulted on this sub-
ject. ;
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 503
APPENDIX III.
Report of the Cambridge Committee for the Ethnographical Survey of
East Anglia.
The Committee present the reports on the physical characters of the
inhabitants of two districts in the neighbourhood of Cambridge.
Last year Professor Macalister gave a course of lectures on Anthro-
pology at Aberdeen, which excited a good deal of local interest. Several
members of his audience were stimulated to study the subject, and some
of their personal observations on the hair and eye colours of the inhabit-
ants of Aberdeen and elsewhere are here appended.
Professor Macalister also interested Mr. J. J. Taylor, M.B., of
Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in making anthropometrical observations.
Mr. Taylor took the opportunity of a bazaar to measure and note the
characters of 66 natives of Yorkshire. The following tables give details
of 31 of these who came from a restricted area.
Some former students of Professor Haddon’s took a similar oppor-
tunity in Belfast in 1894 and measured a large number of people. In
both cases the visitors to the bazaars paid a small sum to be measured,
and they received a printed form on which was entered a copy of their
measurements. This method of obtaining measurements and other
anthropological data might very well be employed elsewhere.
On the Physical Characters of the Inhabitants of Barley, Herts,
By A. C. Happon.
In the 1895 Report of the Association a reference was made (p. 510)
to observations I made, with the assistance of some of my students, on
the physical characters of the inhabitants of the parish of Barley. Though
situated in Hertfordshire this village is on the borders of Cambridgeshire
and Essex. ‘The rector, the Rev. J. Frome Wilkinson, afforded me every
facility in his power, and induced several of his parishioners to, be
measured.
The families of thirteen of the men measured at Barley have been
established in the district for some two or three hundred years. The
parents of No. 8 came from Braintree in Essex, and those of No. 14 from
Suffolk, where, in both instances, their families had been for generations.
I have included them in the totals, as they do not appreciably affect the
averages ; No. 8 is, however, less typical.
The average Barley man may be described as having a ruddy skin,
which does not freckle ; brown hair, with a tendency to fair or red, though
dark hair is by nomeans uncommon. The hair is as often straight as
wavy. Eight have blue eyes, two each light and dark grey, one green,
and two light brown. The face is in an equal number of cases of medium
breadth, or long or narrow. Nos. 12 and 15 have broad faces. The
cheek bones are inconspicuous. The nose is most usually straight—two
had turned-up noses. The lips are thin or of medium thickness. The
ears are, as a rule, fairly prominent, but they are not of a coarse type.
The average stature (excluding No. 15) is 1,695 mm., or 5 feet 6% inches.
The more important head measurements and indices will be found in
the table. Full face and profile photographs were taken of the fifteen
individuals measured ; copies of these are deposited with the schedules
containing the detailed information.
1897.
REPORT
0-49
9:82 | 88 | SF
9-0L | 98 | Tg
G68 | LE | Gt
T-69 | 8§ | gg
$08 | LE | oF
LIL | 88 | &¢
¢-6L | SS | FF
Wes WoL gr
9-SG | O€ | #g
6-19 | §€& | 2g
T-99 | 6€ | 6g
9-69 | #8 | Lg
0-09 | €§ | ¢¢
€-09 | S€ | sg
GI | F§& | $G
Beale ick!
elelé
F ae |e
LING
gipwety
Iv[nd019307
SGTS | aa B08 ape
FGF | 09 | $-F9 | IFT] 16
-8P | 19 | €-S8 | 8ST | SIT
€1> | €9 | 0-98 | ST] SIT
9-6F | TL | 0-6L | SFI} SII
8-FP | 19 | 2-28 | 981] 6IT
T-1G | 89 | 0-06 | $81] 6IT
G-9F | 99 | §-08 | GFL} FIT
GGG | GL | 1-68 | SST | gar
1-09 | 29 | 0-06 | 0ST] 9IT
O-L9 | 82 | 0-26 | LET] 981
8-1¢ | 31 | §-98 | 681 | OZT
L1G | §1 | 1-8 | TFL) Oat
IL-9 | FL | 8-06 | ZF | 621
v-IG | ZL | ¥-98 | OFT] IZI
2-19 | OL | 8-08 | 98ST] OZT
Bie | 9 eth alee
a = a ee 5
Tepe addy} yerneg 1840],
9-88 | #99 | —| $62 | —| —
78 | L0L | OST] L€8 | FSI] FET
¥-18 | 8-9 | L2T| #82 | 99T| BET
F-FS8 | ¥-89 |oT| T-18 |F9T/ O6T
0-08 | &-#9 | Oat] Z-08 | ost] Z8T
€-88 | 2-69 | 9¢T| 0-62 | FST! S6T
0-28 | 1-89 |ogT| 1-08 | st] T6eT
¥-98 | 9-29 |Get] 0-62 | 891] 00z
8-eL | $99 | 8IL] 9-92 |o9T| 60a
G18 | L-0L | OST] 0-18 | 6FI| FST
T-6L | +69 | 12t| #18 | est sgt
€-98 | 1-29 | 8st] 8-2 | ost| 902
1-62 | 0-19 | get] ¢92 | egt| 00%
€98 | 89 | est] 0-08 | 991] ser
@-98 | 6-89 | est] 8-82 | 991] 86T
1-88 | 83L | FET] L-28 | 191] $81
eerie | | a | ee
Sealers! se) & | | we
WE ee a i] =| 5
Teraeig
en{q
used
ent
fois yep
UMOIq JYSIT
fais yy SI,
enTq
UMOIq FYSTT
anid
fai8 4ySty
fais yep
on[q
ey
bibs
— |eSerioay
67 ST
6P FI
ef &1
OF GI
Tg IT
Lt or
66 6
lor}
s
ae NO HHO Oo D
"CN
omgi rami eee a | ee ee ee Ee ee wi Fo he ed
Ye)
|
3B F09 (38/89) 66 8.OF $9 1-18 BFL 91 = = SLT | O19'T a uaa13 yep ‘ pal eg (a2 - iid
829 |9]/E9| EE 3-FF +9 6-LL SPL SIL | 0.08 rane O6L | 0€9'T aniq aMorq = Sea Sete s 4
0-39 |T€}0g| LLY £9 $.66 osL 961 ESL 8ST 30 | OFLT - wao13 MB ‘Wwi°* ° uozxXog | 2B
a 0-69 |ze|Fs| og ZFS *9 9-96 SIL FIL | ¥-92 88 SE | F8c°T “ ford Wat He 4 (0 ae x 13
e G99 |Og}9F} Te ¥.09 9 9-98 LBL OIL L-38 FL €LU | SIs‘L | Wnrpemt | waor1q yep | Jrep = “E|* ‘"woxsuraieg | 02
=| 0:09 \9¢|09| 22 G-6¢ SL F-IIL Isl 9FL | SFL IST z06 | SSLT . fais 9431 = = «| * *moqyrequimg | 6T
0-82 |9g|oF| €¢ 9-6F 89 £-88 LET IeL G.o) ISL 006 «| 209‘, urq TAMO1G “ “|* -uoysunaeg | gt
= 0-99 |82/0S|} 62 1-88 OL 8-18 EL OIE | 8-92 FPL 06 | sso°r y ant be Appur | “ |* * axemnog | ZT
4 0-28 |IF|0¢| 9¢ F-9P $9 ¥-18 OFT FIL LLL OST €6L | O02‘, | wnrpam) ord y1ep yiep | yep | “|° ue 9
ge ¥-9F |92/99| 22 9-67 99 3-18 esl SOT 6.1L SFL O6T | O89 | Hor antq be aed | “ |* *° uojxog | oT
g 8-89 |og|I¢| 6T 6-G¢ 92 ¥-6L 981 80 8.94 1S 006 «| FLT i UAMOoIg FSI] | WAOI a Sh i Me FI
q L6S |ce|Fs| 0g F-9S a) $-26 ee1 LEI 6-92 €PT 98T | 999° | UINIpaut Ye arey | Appnt| “ |* + u0zSutrzeg | gy
z L6r |93/eS| 8% 1-19 TL 8-68 SIL 831 0-22 FFL 181 =e XO uaa13 umoiq | y1ep | “ |* * wapmy | or
x 1-99 |83\2¢ 8s 9.9F €9 6-63 SSL 9IT PLL LPL 061 OF9'T & S013 yep rep & «|. . “ Il
be 818 |98|FF| 86 0-F9 19 6-96 FOL SIL | P82 og FOL | 96ST uly? G por ||) Sppria|| otis) ae “ Or
a 9-89 |F8|8¢| Ze 0.89 bL ¥-96 FEL Ost L8L bias gsI | sso°L s ford yay] | uMoIq | yep | “ js * a 6
=] Ea | oil a eer 0-99 el 6-86 ost FOL 6-82 OST OGLE | eeZ‘T Aois yep Arey yen | ian ele et as 8
a 002 |s8|os| ge L1G 10) £-F8 OFL SIL 6-82 Ost O6T | OF9'T w 3 (a « | + +uoqSutareg | 1
S) SIL | 28/38) 68 0-08 GL §-18 FPL LIL F-6L ost 68L | O6LT ce antq a yrep | “© |* + apodmrm | 9
a 079 |38)0S| +2 g.¢¢ el 6-98 Sel SIL 8-61 8s 86r | OFL‘T Ye “ uaorq |. Appnt}| “ |* ° “ ¢
q TLS |3E/99] 93 6-9F 9 «| «0-88 ssl SIL 0-08 rane OGL | 309'T - fois ys | 4t2p SPEC asi oem 7
= 0-79 |38)0S| 62 6-67 ol 6-68 6&1 FEL 5-68 SSL est | sot Mg ant qyoy | Appnt| “ | * * . €
fon] 299 |*E/TS| Te P89 oL | 9-16 Ist OZ | F-8 rah Ost | 089°T . uaa1d - =) le BP seo ee ue S
S 1:99 |98|FS| 28 6-6 lL 9-88 oPL S31 8-28 LST est | 8g9°L | mmipemt| uMorq qyst, | xrep | Appna| yy | * *wopsupeg | [
Zz = ss —
5 oe gong, | SOREL | wabuote yqsuey | xepuy | wypverg | y9Su9T
xapuy aeqno0 | xopuy add. qysiay| sdry EERNG § mexyl ulryg | xag qoLqsiq ‘ON
a -19}UI qqaueT
el as0N yer yeluvip
a eee a ee ae eae eee eS eee ee eee ee ee eee
ial
°
‘abo Apu “pig ‘Wovannuy ‘JT ‘A ‘OAT
‘annysabprqung ue ‘uojzrog pun uozburumg fo sabnyr, ayz fo syunzrqnyuy ayz fo siazovinyg qunowhyg ay2 UQ
—_ ———————————— ee ee
506 REPORT—1897.
None of the people in the neighbourhood of Barrington and Foxton
had projecting cheek-bones; the ratio, however, between length and
breadth of face varied widely, as seen under the Facial Indices in the
table.
The complexion varied, 15 being ruddy, 5 dark, and 4 pale ; dark hair
predominated, 10 individuals possessing it of that shade, 9 brown, | red,
and 3 fair.
The colour of the eyes was chiefly light: 7 blue, 6 light grey, 2 light
brown, 5 green, 3 dark grey, and | dark brown.
Lips were mostly of medium thickness, 4, however, having thin and
2 thick lips.
Height of men variable, from 1,533 to 1,744 mm.
The cephalic index would show by itself that the people are a very
mixed production, and this is corroborated by the rest of the indices.
From a cursory study of the table, it seems impossible to separate the
people into any series of types, or to determine any common type.
Photographs of most of the individuals accompany the table, along
with further details not mentioned above.
APPENDIX IV.
Observations on Physical Characteristics of Children and Adults taken at
Aberdeen, in Banffshire, and in the Island of Lewis.
1. Table of the Colour of the Hair and Eyes of 720 School Children attending the
Skene Street Public School, Aberdeen. Collected by the Headmaster, ALEXANDER
Forsers, Esq. January 1896.
Standards . i Infant Ti Il. IIL. IV. Wi nae Total
Average Ages. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 She
, (Dark. 42 93 32 30 26 16 14 183
‘S + Medium . 74 55 43 40 46 56 18 332
ce | Pair iD ’.. 63 38 | 28 28 | 19 21 8 205
DSi aleens nk 179 116 || 103 98 91 93 40 720
ah Datks 4 e 51 16 30 20 16 22 10 165
2) Medium . 67 61 25 32 49 39 19 292
| Light 3 61 39 48 46 26 32 ll 263
Total, vw 179 116 | 103 98 91 93 40 720
2. Table of the Colour of the Hair and Eyes of 184 Inhabitants of Aberdeen.
By Mr. James W. Duncan.
Hair
Fair Medium Dark
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 507
8. Table of the Colour of the Hair and Eyes of 120 Inhabitants of Aberdeen.
By Mr. J. Cooper.
Hair
Total
Fair Medium | = Dark
Biieiaphte ss 17 8 1 26
24 Medium . 3 25 21 8 54
A Dark . F 12 16 12 40
Total . . , 54 45 21 120
4, Table of the Colour of the Hair and Eyes of the Inhabitants of Cullen,
Banffshire. 104 observations, exclusive of the Fishing Population, by Mr.
Joun Smirx. 149 observations on the Fishing Population, by Mr. J. B.
GARDINER.
Hair Hair
a | otal Total
Fair Med. Dark Fair Med. Dark
» { Light . 20 28 9 57 47 29 11 87
2< Medium 6 18 12 36 12 13 24 49
FB Dark 1 if 9 11 —_ 4 5 13
Motall 37 47 30 104 59 46 Ad 149
5. Table of the Colour of the Hair and Eyes of 283 Inhabitants of Luirbost,
Stornoway, Lewis, Hebrides, By Mr. K. 8. Macunay.
Hair
Total
Fair Medium | Dark
= Blue . 47 60 23 130
£4 Medium 32 35 15 82
| Dark 25 22 2 71
Total 104 117 | 62 283
APPENDIX V.
Anthropometric Notes on the Inhabitants of Cleckheaton, Yorkshire.
By J. J. Tayyor.
The following tables embody the results of a series of measurements,
made in November 1896, in connection with a bazaar at Cleckheaton, a
manufacturing town about six miles south of Bradford, Yorkshire.
In compiling the tables only persons over the age of twenty, and born
within a radius of two miles, have been included.
It has resulted from the method of obtaining the data that the
number of the working-class measured was small, comprising among
1897.
REPORT
9 | 2-08 | 191 | L8T 8-901 | ZIT | ar |‘ar | ‘Ww issot |ezo't | ‘a }38] a] ‘a |* peeusweH | —| “ | IL
—— —— ideal = ae ye as id se “W = a ‘a 49 ‘a er . “c — “ OT
—— = Pr. & —— a. = pest ‘ul ‘W 88c‘T = ‘a "49 ‘a “ay . “ec —< “ 6
—— wes ee ss eT cea peaacud ‘ul “WH 909'T sole ‘a "49 ‘a ‘ad . i) — “ce 8
0S | G18 | SEI | OLT #82 GSI | 86 ‘Ul |W |6s9'T | F99T | 'W | 3S] ‘a}| a] * = GG RA ee
79 | T-6L | OFT | LLT 9-18 | 6ZL | SIL }‘UL |W | Shot | 209°C |"W | 43S | A] ‘ad | ° ~ GG |e saleo
SF | 8-18 | OST | S8T $68 |62L | OIL |‘UL |W |619‘T |999'T |W] "M] ‘a | WH] ss Tec [ecole
6F | 9:68 | LIT | SLT DLL Gta 9 BE sda est pO Pablo se Peie eee eaten cain lho ” AWW Sp
I¢ | 89L | FL | S8T eo) 9CE OTL WU | S89 | 2oo Tn aA aa cd | <3 Toe was
gG | 1-18 | SPI | 9LT F-18 63I | SOT |‘OL | ‘1 |2E9'T | F99'T | ‘WW | °M| ‘A |] ‘ad | * 2 OGbleuens lee
ce = = 1-96 | 2~ | GIT | UL] “I | 929'T |F2S'T | “a |°M| | ‘d | * WOyBOqAETO | OS | “A | T
6% | ¢-S8 | LST | F8T Gay | ore | TIE | "On | “aalO29% | STO 98" a | ae | Ss 09 | “ | 02
gg | 1-08 | SSI | Z6T S16 (Gey Pee \2aL | Salil | SFOE | Ge) eA a a | ys CG laa PGE
97 | 1-68 | 9ST | 96T Z-6L | Stt | Sit |'ar| ‘a |se9'r |9c9't | ‘a l|3g9 | ‘a | “a ]* reszemon | e3 | “ | 8T
G9 | G8L | PST | L6L 0-06 OSl | ZIT |‘UL | ‘A | F89'T 1929 T | W939 | “a | “a | - a QE ui tres | Pe
8F | 2-82 | SST | L6L 8-98 yet | BIL |‘ar |W | Fen‘ |629T | W398 | ‘a | ‘a | * espeszeary | 03 | “ | 91
$9| F-18 | SSL | F6L 6-98. | Ge~ | 911 | ‘a |W /229'T | 269. | Wi 3S | a} “aT ] ° og | ‘* | ST
09 | 6-22 | Z9T | 80% P16 | eae | Sst eon er PIE NOSeel ja | SS -aald & er} “ | #1
Ig | ¢-I8 | 691 | S6T 1-96 WI | Gl |UL| ‘a& | 689'T |099'T | ‘a | 3S | ‘a ] “A | ° . Gaye Seer
Ig | 3-92 | OOL | OTZ 9-18 OF Ole aera es Sy ale tN Sia oreten esti | a cepts bal lara
LG | ¢-08 | SSI | O61 £26 | 9ST | 920 |\-d-) a |9S2'T |90LT | *@ |) 98 | ‘a | “H |~ = ORFS aT
LG | G-6L | ISL | O6T €-68 THE OSE SE eI GPL Ts Tolan ial AST eGhe! sae | i. 0g | = | OF
Gg | c-LL | 6FL | S6I L-&8 66T | SOL | ‘SL | "LT | 992'T | FIZT | a} 3S | a | ‘ad | ss Ree |e SS
Gg | t-9L | GST | 66L 8-00 | 22E | 82 |‘UL | "I | aPett | S22‘ | “A |*M | A] “d | * ef GENS S58
€9 | €-08 | S9T | S0z Gee (68h MOSh= (ead | VOGSE SPE Ei a.) S81 sa |) cd “ Gig |e
Qg¢ | Z-G8 | 99L | Z8T 9:89 a Ce TORE | | Ta maelie GG aD ee ea li || Sehr) et) Cee eect ties | “ 19
eg | 6-92 | LFL | T6L LeG. LS Sct (eee eS GL GOL bel) ih | eAkel Seis) “ai ies 5 fal eral)
eg | 1-08 | 9ST | Z6I 9-18 LET | OSL | ‘UL |W | 162‘. |F89'T | ‘IW | 3S | ‘a | ‘a | ° - (Shep eng
0G | T-9L | LIL | Z6I 1-16 CEL Wek |cUn Ta TO6T |9E8iI-| | 3S) way cd | s (ae aS
eg | ¢-62L | GFL | 88ST T-68 620 | SLE) (SaL | Pes 9F 89ST | SG 38h) 1a ee *~ Tie Wee
€¢ | 0-62 | OSL | 002 G46 LEL | OGL | ‘OL | ‘W | FSL‘T |8e2‘'T | ‘W | 3S |} A | Ad | * woyeaqHeTO | 06 | ‘W | T
Hy mice cae SMles} HH hy TS hy leas] Q by p joo) 9 m
S2|/ a5 | So | Be Be ge |/Se |sis re ag (ea A an go8dyqgar Pie | 2
RE RE | Be | Re | Re | Se | Se | ea eee) Bal es |e ae Po oap ani |?
508
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 509
the men Nos. 7, 9, 10, 11, and 20, Nos. 4, 6, and 13 being doubtful ; and
among the women we get Nos. 6 to 11. All the men of this class, with
the exception of No. 20—who is a gardener—are engaged in indoor work,
and most probably all the women likewise are, or have been, employed in
factories.
Tables I. and II. (see p. 508) show the various individual measure-
ments, indices, cc.
The skin colour being divided into pale, ruddy, and dark.
The hair colour being divided into fair, red, brown, dark, and black.
The hair into straight and wavy.
The eyes into light, medium, and dark.
The face was divided, according to the general impression given by a
full-face view, into long, medium, or broad.
The cheek-bones were divided according as they appeared to be
inconspicuous or prominent.
The profile of the nose was divided into straight (St.), hooked (1),
and sinuous (2).
All measurements were taken in millimetres.
Tables III. and IV. give the mean indices of all the men and women
respectively, and also their mean indices when grouped according to their
eye colours.
Tables V. and VI. are arranged in a similar way for their hair colour.
Tables VII. and VIII. give the relations of hair colour to eye colour.
Tapes III. anp IV.
: F cial Cephalic Nasal
Sex No. Index No. Index No. Index
Mean 3 A M. 20 89:3 20 795 20 64:7
Light Eyes j “ 1 91:7 1 766 1 70:0
Medium Eyes . oF 8 87:0 8 79°2 8 66°4
Dark Eyes 4 f 11 90°8 11 80:0 ik 61:8
Mean ; : F, 8 87:1 Zi 80:5 8 59'5
Light Eyes : Ps — _ — — — —
Medium Eyes . ff 5 81:3 5 81:2 5 61°8
Dark Eyes ‘ < 3 96:9 2 78:8 3 5671
TABLES V. AND VI.
Facial Cephalic = Nasal
Sex No. Index No. Index No. Index
Mean x : M. 20 89:3 20 79°5 20 64:7
Fair Hair . : Pa 2 93°1 2 763 2 6671
Brown Hair os 9 85:3 9 79°2 9 66°6
Dark Hair a 9 91-1 9 80-1 9 62:0
Mean. |) a ei ert 7 805 ; 8 | 595
Fair Hair . ; “3 2 92°1 1 ook 2 551
Brown Hair HS 4 81:9 4 80°6 4 61:2
Dark Hair i 2 92°6 2 80:9 2 61:2
510 REPORT—-1897.
Tastes VII. anp VIII.
Sex No. Light Eyes | Medium Eyes| Dark Eyes
Fair Hair . M. 2 1 1 0
Brown Hair + 9 0 6 3
Dark Hair . cz 9 0 1 8
IRON 4G - ” 20 i 8 11
Fair Hair . F. 2 0 il 1
Brown Hair ts 4 0 3 1
Dark Hair . 5 0 1 4
NiOina ue 5 a 11 0 5 6
Thirteen per cent. have fair hair, 42 per cent. brown hair, and 45 per
cent. dark hair ; the nigrescence index of Beddoe is 10 for the total of 31,
or 32°2 per cent.
APPENDIX VI.
Report of the Committee on the Ethnographical Survey of Ireland, consist-
ing of Dr. C. R. Browne, Professor D. J. Cunnincuam, Dr. S.
Haveuton, Professor E. Percevan Wriaut, and Professor A. C.
Happon (Secretary).
Last summer (1896) Dr. Browne visited Clare Island and Inishturk, co.
Mayo. Until lately both these islands have been greatly cut off from the
outer world ; indeed, the latter is still without a postal service ; but Clare
Island has recently been bought by the Congested Districts Board, and so
great changes may be expected in the people.
The population of Clare Island belongs largely to the Clan U’Maille
(O'Malley). Inishturk is populated by the O’Tooles. Some think this is
a branch of the Leinster sept of that name, but the people claim that they
are a branch of the O’Malleys.
Dr. Browne measured 56 adult males, and noted the eye and hair
colours of 206 individuals. The people are fairly good-looking, brown-
haired and blue-eyed, and of rather slender build. The average height is
1,696 mm. (5 ft. 6} in.), somewhat below the average Irish stature ; the
cephalic index is 79-4. The face is very broad; the nose is often short
and upturned, and is broad across the nostrils, giving a high nasal index
(69-1 for Inishturk). The physical proportions differ a good deal from
those of other districts in co. Mayo. The people of Inishturk are taller
(1,716 mm.), stouter, darker, and of lower cephalic index (77-9) than those
of Clare Island (1,693 mm. and 79°7 respectively).
The mode of life is somewhat similar to that in Inishbofin.! - The
greater part of the islands is held in commonage, and all land when not
actually in crops is common land. Very little land is cultivated, and all
of it by spade labour. A good deal of kelp is burnt.
In his paper, which was read before the Royal Irish Academy in June,
1 Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 3rd series, vol. iii. 1894, p. 317.
ss
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 511
Dr. Browne gives numerous other details of the physical and mental
characteristics of the people, their dress, habitations, and mode of life,
together with interesting items of folklore.
The account of the work of the previous year (1895) was published
by the Royal Irish Academy last December, ‘The Ethnography of
Ballycroy, co. Mayo.’!
Silchester Excavation.—leport of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
A. J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. Joun L. Myres (Secretary), and
Mr. E. W. Brasroox, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in their Explorations.
Tur Committee beg leave to report that the excavations on the site of the
Roman City at Silchester during the year 1896 were begun on May 1
and continued, with the usual break during harvesting operations, until
October 26.
The area selected for excavation included two insula (XV. and XVI.),
immediately south of inswle XIII. and XIV., which were excavated in
1895. The result was, on the whole, satisfactory, and as usual ended in
some curious and totally unexpected discoveries.
Insula XV. appears, like insule IX., X., XI., XII., and XIIT., to
have been given up to the dyeing industry, of which traces were found in
1894 and 1895, and a large area in the northern part of the insula was
perhaps used as a bleaching ground. Two wells were discovered, one
with a wooden framing at the bottom, the other with a large wooden tub,
which will be added with other antiquities to the Silchester Loan
Collection in the Reading Museum.
Insula XVI. contained a large and important house of the courtyard
type in the north-west angle, and two other houses of the corridor type,
as well as an isolated square building. Traces were also found of other
structures, which were probably of wood. A large number of pits were
met with in the trenches, and from these some good vessels of pottery
and other antiquities were recovered. A pit of unusual size near the
south-east angle yielded a large quantity of bladebones of sheep ; the
numerous perforations in these showed that they had been used in the
manufacture of counters.
Besides the operations in insule XV. and XVI., a small area was
trenched to the south of the parish graveyard, which is within the walls,
in view of its immediate inclosure as an additional burying ground. The
area is close to the two square temples uncovered in 1890. The founda-
tions of a small house of the corridor type were disclosed, near which was
found a lump of worked porphyry.
It will be seen, therefore, that the results of the year’s work in no
way fall behind those of former years, and that further progress has been
made in the systematic excavation of the site of the Roman city, which
has now been carried on by the Committee of the Excavation Fund for
seven successive seasons.
A special exhibition of the antiquities, &c., found was held at Bur-
lington House during the month of May, and a detailed account of all
1 Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. iv. 1896, p. 74.
§12 REPORT—1897.
the discuveries has been published by the Society of Antiquaries in
‘ Archeologia,’ lv. pp. 409-430.
It is proposed during the current year to excavate the two insule
(XVI. and XVII.) extending from insula ILI. as far as the south wall.
Although more than half of the area (100 acres) within the walls has
now been systematically excavated, and with most important results, the
Committee desire to point out that there is still several more years’ work
to be done before the Romano-British city can be regarded as completely
disclosed. They therefore ask to be reappointed, with a further grant of
40/. The whole of the grant made in 1896 has been expended.
Functional Activity of Nerve Cells.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. W. H. GaskELL (Chairman and Secretary), Mr. H. K.
AnpeERSON, Professor F. GorcH, Professor W. D. HALiisurton,
Professor J. B. Haycrart, Dr. J. N. Lana rey, Professor J. G.
McKenprick, Dr. Mann, Professor BuRDON SANDERSON, Professor
KB. A. ScHAFER, Professor C. 8. SHERRINGTON, and Professor A.
WALLER, appointed to investigate the changes which are associated
with the Functional Activity of Nerve Cells and their Peripheral
Extensions.
APPENDIX fist 3 - PAGE
I. On the Origin, Course, and Cell-connections of the Viscero-motor Nerves of
the Small Intestine. By J. L. BUNCH, M_D., B.Sc. A F 3 . 613
Il. Llectromotive Changes in the Spinal Cord and Nerve Roots during Activity.
By Professor FRANCIS GoTcH, /.2Z.S., and G. J. BURCH, M.A... . 514
Ill. The Activity of the Nervous Centres which correlate Antagonistic Muscles
in the Limbs. By Professor C. 8. SHERRINGTON, M_D., F.RS. . . 516
IV. On the Action of Reagents wpon Isolated Nerve. By A. D. WALLER, I.D.,
F.R.S., and 8. C. M. SowTon . i ? 2 é c r 7 . 518
V. Histological Changes in Medullated Nerve after Treatment with the Vapours
of Ether and Chloroform, and mith Co, By A. D. WALLER, ILD.,
ER.S., and ¥, SEYMOUR LLOYD 520
VI. An Investigation of the Changes in Nerve-cells in ‘various Pathological
Conditions. By W. B. WARRINGTON, WD., ILR.C.P. . H z 2525
Tr was felt by the Committee that the most hopeful chance of the dis-
covery of the changes which the nerve cell and nerve fibre undergo during
activity was by means of investigations in two directions, viz., the changes
in histological appearance and in electrical reactions. In furtherance of
this object the Committee requested Dr. Mann to investigate the histo-
logical appearances in nerve cells after long continued activity ; Professor
Boyce to investigate the histological changes in nerve cells resulting from
the action of drugs ; and Mr. Lloyd, the histological changes in nerve
fibres under the influence of reagents. For the investigation of the
electrical phenomena Professor Waller undertook the electro-physiology
of isolated nerve ; and Professor Gotch, the investigation of the electrical
changes in the spinal cord and roots during activity.
In addition to these two main branches of the inquiry there were
numerous other important questions which required an answer ; among
these the meaning of the medullation of nerve fibres and its relation to
their functional activity. Theinvestigation of this problem was entrusted
to Mr. Anderson. Again, the cells of the sympathetic nervous system
——.
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 513
form a group requiring investigation apart from those of the central nervous
system, and it is especially important to know whether one cell and
one only is situated on the course of these efferent visceral fibres,
as appears to be the case from Langley’s experiments with nicotine ;
Mr. Bunch, therefore, at the suggestion of Professor Schafer, was en-
trusted with the investigation of the position of cell stations on the
course of sympathetic nerves. Finally the state of activity in a nerve
centre owing to the activity of neighbouring or specially correlated nerve
centres is a very important question in connection with the functional
activity of nerve cells ; Professor Sherrington, therefore, was requested to
contribute to the report the results of his investigations into the
activity of the nervous centres which correlate antagonistic muscles in
the limbs.
These different investigations have been carried out by the different
observers as far as has been possible in the time, and the results obtained
up to the present have been embodied in a series of reports sent in to the
Committee. Of these reports it is advisable at present to publish only
those in which the investigation has reached a fairly complete stage ; this
comprises the reports of Dr. W. B. Warrington, of Dr. J. L. Bunch, of
Professor Gotch, of Mr. F. Seymour Lloyd, of Professor Sherrington, and
of Professor Waller. All these were brought before the Physiological
Section at Toronto, and are hereto appended. As regards the researches
of Dr. Mann and Mr. Anderson, though considerable progress has been
made the results are not yet ready for publication. The Committee
are of opinion that what has already been done affords strong evidence of
the value of further investigation on the same lines, and therefore request
to be reappointed.
APPENDICES.
I. On the Origin, Course, and Cell-connections of the Viscero-motor
Nerves of the Small Intestine. By J. L. Buncu, ID., B.Sc.
{From the Physiological Laboratory, University College, London.]
My investigations into the origin, course, and cell-connections of the
viscero-motor nerves of the small intestine have been continued with the
aid of a portion of the grant made to the Committee.
About forty experiments in all have been performed, the animals
employed being dogs and cats.
The following points have been made out :—
1. In no case has excitation of the vagus either in the neck, after
administration of a small dose of atropine, or in the thorax, with or with-
out atropine, caused any contraction, or any increase of the normal
rhythmic contractions of the intestine. The action of the vagus isin every
instance confined to the stomach. In one case (dog) there appeared to be
a diminution in the extent of the movements and a tendency to their
inhibition. It is possible that this result may have been produced by a.
pull exerted upon the small intestine by contraction of the stomach, but
it does not seem that this was the cause. It is noteworthy that on post-
mortem dissection in this case the vagi were found to be distributed mainly
to the celiac plexus, a small proportion only of the nerves passing directly
to the stomach.
1897. LL
514 REPORT—1897.
2. Excitation of either great splanchnic nerve has always caused diastolic
tone in the intestine of the ca‘, with a tendency to diminution of the
extent of the normal rhythmical contractions ; these, however, do not, as
a rule, cease during the excitation. ,
3 Excitation of either splanchnic almost always causes systolic tone in
the intestine of the dog. The normal rhythmic contractions are usually
continued during the excitations, but their diastole is incomplete. The
effect is often followed by diastolic tone. In a few dogs experimented on
the effect produced was similar to that in the cat. Varying the rate of
excitation produced no difference in the result in either dogs or cats.
4. It is concluded that the vagi contain usually mo viscero-motor fibres
for the small intestine, and that the splanchnics contain both viscero-
dilator and viscero-constrictor fibres ; the result obtained depending upon
the preponderance of one or other kind.
5, The effects of stimulating the anterior nerve roots from the 8th to the
13th post-cervical, or of the cut spinal cord between these roots, are
similar to those obtained on stimulating the splanchnic nerves.
6. Intravenous injection of nicotine produces the same effect, but to
much more marked degree, as stimulation of the splanchnics in the same
individuals—z.e., in cats always strong diastolic tone ; in dogs usually
strong systolic tone, but in a few cases diastolic tone.
7. After intravenous injection of about 3 mgr. nicotine in cats, or
about 5 to 7 mgr. in small dogs (7 to 10 kilos.) the effects of nerve-root
and splanchnic excitation are abolished, but excitation of the mesenteric
nerves still produces marked contraction of the intestine.
8. It is concluded, therefore, that there is probably no cell station
between the nerve roots and the ganglia of the solar plexus—z.e., that
the fibres pass through the ganglia of the sympathetic chain without
interruption.
The contrary statement, which I made in a paper presented last year
to the Section of Physiology, was based upon the results of two experi-
ments only, and the tracings of these were unsatisfactorily recorded ; it
has not been confirmed in any of my later experiments.
The nerves to the small intestine appear, therefore, to conform to the
general law laid down by Langley regarding viscero-motor fibres, viz. : in
having no cell station in the ganglia of the sympathetic chain, and but
one cell station between the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves.
II. Report upon Electromotive Changes in Nerve during Activity. By
Professor Francis Goren, F.R.S., and G. J. Burcu, M.A. (Oxon.).
The main object of the present investigation is to ascertain how far
the capillary electrometer can be utilised for determining the true rela-
tions of the electromotive changes of nerve. Previous observations by
many investigators have shown that excitatory electrical changes are
propagated along the tissue at a rate closely resembling that of the exci-
tatory process itself—7.e., 30 metres in one second in the sciatic nerve of
the frog, at 15°C. The rate of propagation of polarisation electromotive
changes is variously stated to be 6 to 12 metres per second in nerve
(Bernstein), 30 to 40 metres in polarisable schemata (Hermann), 60 to
120 metres (Borruttau). Since the relationship of the so-called excitatory
changes to the polarisation ones must, from the nature of things, be
ae ae
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 515
extremely intimate, the above discrepancies suggest an inquiry as to the
efficiency of the methods hitherto employed in the investigation. These
have consisted in using repeated electrical currents as the exciting or
polarising agencies, and noting the galvanometric effects produced by their
summation. The authors were led by some preliminary experiments to
infer that the time relations of such multiple effects differ from those of
a single change. In order to obtain the necessary record of a single
change, a new projection electrometer was constructed and fitted up in
connection with a photographic recording arrangement, in a room set
apart for the purpose in the physiological laboratory at Oxford.
The new capillary electrometer is of the improved form referred to by
one of us (G. J. B.).1 It is less fragile than the older instruments, and
gives better definition with high magnifying power. In sensitiveness
and rapidity of action it is superior to those which we have hitherto
used. Great difficulties were met with at first owing to the transmission
of vibrations through the concrete floor to the pillar, which, although
placed in a well sunk 7 feet below the ground, did not furnish a satis-
factory base for our very sensitive instrument. These difficulties were
finally got rid of by the adoption of a special form of support. Since it
was essential to eliminate all vibration errors, a considerable part of the
grant allotted to this branch of the research has been devoted to the »
construction of the stand just referred to.
The experiments are still in progress, but a large number of photo-
graphic records have been already made, particularly of polarisation effects
and after-effects. These have been obtained in the following polarisable
objects: (1) Schema on Hermann’s model—z.e., platinum wire core in
saturated solution of zine sulphate; (2) sciatic nerve; (3) sartorius
muscle.
1. Schema.—The capillary records of the extrapolar polarisation
effects produced by a single polarising current give on analysis results
which show that the propagation rate is not the same as that obtained
from similar experiments carried out by the authors by the repeating
rheotome and galvanometric record. The differences between the two sets
of results seem to indicate that the rheotonic effects are confused by the
presence of a complexus of electrical states.
2. Nerve.—The records with nerve exhibit several suggestive charac-
teristics, but this part of the investigation is still in progress, and further
reference to it would at present be inadvisable.
3. Muscle-—The sartorius muscle was utilised to determine the cha-
racters of the capillary records of the two classes of anodal after-effect, the
polarisation anodal positivity and the excitatory anodal negativity. These
records show, among other facts, that when the excitatory effect is pro-
duced it not only swamps the polarisation one, but increases in extent for
some little time after the cessation of the polarising current. The records
of the excitatory after-effect are further remarkable in showing no indica-
tions of oscillation ; it would therefore appear that this anodal excitatory
change is not a rapid series of states but a single prolonged change. It is
thus distinguished from other excitatory changes of similar duration, and
cannot be regarded as a response of the same order as that produced by
successive stimuli.
1G. J. Burch, ‘The Electrometer in Theory and Practice,’ The Elects tctam, 1896.
LL2
516 REPORT—1897.
IIT. The Activity of the Nervous Centres which correlate Antagonistic Mus-
cles in the Limbs. By Professor C. 8. Suerrineron, I.D., FR.S.
The recent results of histology in regard to the nervous system have
brought with them the view that the physiological continuity between
nerve cell and nerve cell does not involve anatomical continuity of the
nerve cells. The theory of cellular contact put forward by Forel and
Golgi has received a large amount of confirmation from subsequent
workers, as Cajal and Kélliker. The place of linkage between nerve cell
and nerve cell—the synapsis as it is termed by Professor Foster—is a
place where the conduction of nervous impulses is supposed to occur
across an intervening substance. This character in the construction of
the chain of conductors has given rise to speculation as to possibility of
increase or decrease of difficulty for conduction along a given line due to
alteration at the gap between adjacent links in the chain.
Various histologists (Renaut, Demoor, Duval, Solvay, Lepine, &c.)
assert that the cells of the nervous system possess, to a certain degree, the
power of contractility of their processes. Cajal thinks that the neuroglia
cells are certainly contractile, probably more so than the nerve cells
proper. These authors speak of the expansion and retraction of the
branches of the nerve cell. Certain drugs which depress nervous action,
such as chloroform and chloral, and certain conditions such as fatigue
and sleep, are described as producing or being accompanied by retraction
of cell branches in the nerve cells of cortex cerebri, cerebellum, and
elsewhere. The retraction of the cell processes is supposed to withdraw
the cell from its connections with its neighbours. Interruptions in the
chains of conduction for impulses can thus be brought about. There is
much that is at any rate simple in this view, and I have attempted to
apply a test to it in the case of a certain place of linkage in the spinal
cord.
A place of linkage as well known perhaps as any in the central
nervous system is that between the afferent fibre of the sensory spinal
root and the motor nerve cell of the ventral horn of the spinal cord. I
have attempted to examine what happens when the conduction across this
link becomes under certain circumstances difficult. It is well known that
to judge by their reflex effects afferent nerve fibres are more easily
excitable through their end organs than from their cut ends ; in other
words, reflexes are more easily elicitable from the surfaces of the skin
than from the cut ends of cutaneous nerves. The depression of function
in this case seems to occur at the synapsis between the spinal end of the
afferent fibre and the motor cell of the ventral horn with which it is
usually in facile connection. It may be because the severance of the
nerve fibre breaks that tonic action (postulated in it as the basis of
muscular tonus) which streams along it inwards from its peripheral
sensifacient endings. Some peculiar depression of conductivity does seem
to be produced between it and the motor horn cells, for the section of
the afferent roots to a spinal region renders extremely difficult the obtain-
ing of a reflex from the ascending stem of the root-fibres that have been
transected—that is, the connection between the afferent spinal fibre and
the motor spinal cell becomes more difficult in consequence of mere sever-
ance of the afferent spinal fibre from its own parent cell. The question I
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 517
would raise is the following : Is this increase of resistance in the neural
conduction due to change in the mutilated afferent nerve cell—e.y., retrac-
tion of its cell-processes withdrawing them from their normal apposition
against the motor cell—or is it due to change in the motor cell or its pro-
cesses—e.g., retraction of its dendrites.
The subjoined observations throw, I think,some light on this point.
1. In the monkey and cat after spinal transection atthe top of the cervical
region flexion of the hind limb can be elicited by stimulation of the skin
of the fore limb of the same side—e.g., forepaw. Section of the afferent
spinal roots of the hind limb, sets aside this reaction.
2. Similarly, in monkey and cat excitation of the pinna of the ear
elicits flexion in the hind limb of the same side of the body, but section
of the afferent roots of the nerves of the hind limb sets the reaction aside.
3. When, after transection on the cerebral side of the pons in cat, the
condition of extensor rigidity which I have described elsewhere (Proc.
R. S. 1896), and termed ‘decerebrate rigidity,’ has set in, severance of the
afferent roots of the nerves of the limbs immediately abolishes this rigidity.
It would appear from these observations, therefore, that the severance
of the afferent roots exercises an effect upon the motor nerve cell itself.
The effect is such as to cause some change in the motor nerve cell that
makes it less accessible not only to the afferent fibres which have been
ruptured from their own parent nerve cells, but also to various other
afferent fibres.
An objection may be raised against this conclusion on the ground that
the mere operation of section of a number of afferent nerve roots involves
necessarily the opening of the vertebral canal and the laying bare of a
portion of spinal cord, and that that may of itself depress all the functions
of all the elements in the spinal cord thus treated. This consideration
appears to me a very valid one, and I believe that as a necessity the
operative procedure does tend to depress the activities of the cord where it
is exposed. But the following observations, I think, show that the depres-
sion of conduction cannot be explained in the above cases by the mere
influence of the operation.
1. The excitation of the pyramid tract becomes rather more effective
after the section of the afferent roots than it was before ; that is, the
connection between the endings of the pyramid tract fibres and the motor
cells of the ventral horn are more easy and patent than previously ; that is,
an exaltation of function instead of a depression has occurred in this
nexus.
2. In the monkey and cat, after spinal transection at the top of the
cervical region, although it is easy to obtain flexion of the hind-limb by
excitation of the fore-limb of the same side of the body, or of the pinna of
the ear of the same side as the hind-limb in which the reflex movement
occurs, it is extremely difficult—in my experience often altogether impos-
sible—to obtain from one fore-limb or pinna any movement of the hind
limb of the crossed side. After section of the afferent roots of the nerves of
a hind-limb it becomes comparatively easy, however, to elicit in the crossed
hind-limb movements by excitation of fore-limb and pinna of the same
side of the body as that upon which the afferent roots have been severed.
But to cut the afferent roots both sides of the spinal cord were in the
preliminary operation laid bare.
It seems, therefore, that severance of the afferent fibres to a limb, pro-
bably by interrupting a normal continuous conduction along those fibres,
518 REPORT—1897.
induces a change in the motor nerve cells upon which normally the con-
tinuous afferent activity plays in such a way as to render the connection
of the motor nerve cell closer with some afferent endings and less close
with others.
If increase of resistance to conduction at a synapsis, that is at a place
of neural linkage, be due, therefore, to greater separation of nerve cell
from nerve cell by retraction of cell branches, I would urge that it occurs
in a very marked degree in the dendrite branches of the motor-cell of
the ventral horn of the spinal cord.
IV. On the Action of Reagents upon Isolated Nerve. By A. D. WALLER,
M.D., F.RS., and 8. C. M. Sowron.
A preliminary general account of the experiments we have made
during the past year in prosecution ! of the investigation of the Action of
Reagents upon Isolated Nerve, may be given under the following heads :—
§ 1. The influence of acids and alkalies upon currents of action.
§ 2. The influence of acids and alkalies upon electrotonic currents.
§ 3. The influence of carbonic acid and of tetanisation upon electro-
tonic currents.
§ 4. The influence of alterations of temperature upon electrotonic
currents. ;
§ 5. The action of some anesthetics and of some alkaloids upon elec-
trotonic currents.
§ 1. The influence of acids and alkalies upon currents of action.—
Experiments under this head were undertaken at an early stage of our
investigation. We soon realised, however, that it would be desirable to
postpone the prosecution of this branch of the subject until we should have
examined the more fundamental problems concerning the action of acids
and alkalies upon electrotonic currents (§ 2). The following summary
statement will, however, serve to convey an idea of the scope and tenor
of this first group of experiments :—[M=Molecular, N=Normal]
Dilute acid solutions (M/40 to M/10) cause primary augmentation,
followed by secondary gradual diminution of the negative variation.
Stronger acid solutions (M/10 to M/5) cause primary diminution and
abolition of the negative variation.
Alkaline solutions at all effective strengths (M/50 to M/5) cause
primary diminution and abolition.
The effect of an acid solution is not in proportion with its ‘ avidity.’
Approximately equal effects are produced by decinormal acetic, nitric and
sulphuric acids.» But in the case of some other acids, equinormal solu-
tions give markedly unequal effects. Thus phosphoric acid is less active,
and lactic acid is more active than nitric acid ; approximately equal effects
being produced by N/5 phosphoric acid, by N/10 nitric acid, and by N/20
? An account of previous observations is given in the Phil. Trans. R.S. for 1897,
and in three papers published in ‘ Brain’ during 1896 and 1897.
Avidity
Sulphuric acid
pane | se Strength
* Acetic acid . ; N/10 or M/10 0:60 per 100 4
Nitric acid . N/10 or M/10 0-62 per 100 100
N/10 or M/20 | = 0-49 per 100. 25
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 519
lactic acid. Lactic acid is more active than oxalic acid. Caustic potash
is more active than caustic soda {and potassium salts are more active than
sodium salts]. Approximately equal effects are produced by N/50 potash
and by N/15 soda.
§$ 2, 3, and 4. Influence of acids and alkalies, of carbonic acid and of
tetanisation, and of temperature, upon electrotonic currents, have formed
the chief subject-matter dealt with during the past year.
Short accounts of these investigations have been given by one of us in
the Proceedings of the Physiological and of the Royal Societies ;! and
the significance of the results obtained is considered in some detail in the
5th and 6th of a series of ‘Lectures on Animal Electricity,’ delivered at
the Royal Institution (advance proofs of which are presented with this
Report, together with copies of the papers mentioned in it). A short
paper, published in the Proceedings ‘of the Physiological Society,” con-
cerning the action of CO, upon muscle, arose from and is connected with
our investigation on nerve.
The general lines of our inquiry and its results have been as follows :—
Electrotonic currents are extrapolar effects aroused in living medul-
lated nerve. They are assuredly physiological as well as physical, inas-
much as they are temporarily suppressed by a rise of temperature to a little
above 40°, and by the action of anzesthetic vapours.
Normally, in frog’s nerve, the A current (7.¢., on the side of the anode)
considerably exceeds the K current (7.¢., on the side of the kathode).
The ordinary magnitude of A is, to that of K, as 4 or 5 to 1.
In consequence of a rise of temperature to 40°, the A current is
diminished, the K current is increased. In any case the A/K quotient is
decreased. In some cases it is reduced below unity, K being greater than A.
The typical effect of moderate acidification is a diminution of the A
current and an augmentation of the K current (diminution of A/K).
With acidification below the degree termed ‘moderate’ the A current
may be increased. With acidification above the degree termed ‘moderate’
the K current may be diminished.
The typical effect of moderate basification is diminution of the K current.
It thus appears that the K current is favoured by acidification, dis-
favoured by basification, and that alterations of the A current are less
uniform and characteristic.
The effect of prolonged tetanisation upon the K current is similar to
that of acidification, viz. the K current is increased.
The effects of tetanisation upon the A current are less uniform, viz.
the A current may be increased, unaltered, or diminished.
There is a close resemblance between the effects of carbonic acid and
those of prolonged tetanisation upon the A and K currents. his resem-
blance (which is commented upon in some detail in the 6th of the ‘ Lec-
tures on Animal Electricity’) may be admitted to rank as confirmatory
evidence of the principal conclusion previously arrived at from an exami-
nation of currents of action, to the effect that ‘the tetanisation of isolated
nerve gives rise to a production of CO,,.’
§ 5, Action of anesthetics and of alkaloids.—The scope of inquiry
under this head is very extensive, and we are not yet prepared to give a
* Action of temperature on electrotonic currents, Proc. Physiolog. Soc., November,
1896; Proc. R.S., December, 1896. Action of acids and alkalies on electrotonic
currents, Proc. Physiolog. Soc., January, 1897.
? Action of CO, on voluntary and on cardiac muscle, Proc. Physiolog. Soo.,
November, 1896.
520 REPORT—1897.
detailed and systematic report on any given portion of this extensive field.
All that we think desirable at this stage is to offer evidence of the physio-
logical character of the electrotonic currents under our study, by showing
that these currents are subject to modification by anesthetic and other
drugs. We have selected for this purpose reagents, the effects of which
upon the currents of action were most familiar to us, viz. ether, chloro-
form, and aconitine.1
Electrotonic currents are temporarily diminished under the influence
of ether (about 50 per cent. vapour in air), permanently diminished under
the influence of chloroform (about 10 per cent. vapour in air). As regards
the expression ‘ permanently,’ it should be remarked that it implies ‘during
an observation of reasonable length, generally one hour,’ for we have more
than once observed partial recovery at the end of several hours, and with
a new transverse section to the nerve.
[The question of structural disorganisation of nerve by ether and chloro-
form vapour is dealt with in a separate report (Waller and Lloyd).]
Aconitine hydrochloride in weak solution (1 in 1,000 saline) gives an
augmentation of A and K ; in stronger solution (1 in 100) it gives a
gradual] diminution ending in abolition of A and K ; in solutions of inter-
mediate strength it gives augmentation followed by diminution. In all
the experiments upon which these statements are based the nerve was
left to soak for one minute in the test-solution.
V. Histological Changes in Medullated Nerve after Treatment with the
Vapours of Ether and Chloroform, and with CO, By A. D. WALLER,
M.D., F.BR.S., and F. Seymour Luoyp.
§ 1. Introductory Note by Dr. WALLER.
The following observations form part of an investigation of the action
of anesthetic vapours on the electro-mobility of isolated nerve. A brief
preliminary account of that investigation was given at the Liverpool
meeting of the British Association (1896). The following fuller account
deals principally with the practical bearings of the investigation.
The question whether the alterations of electrical response effected by
various re-agents depend upon gross and visible alterations of nerve
substance presented itself to my mind at the outset of my observations,
more especially in connection with the more or less pronounced toxic
action of different anesthetics, and has subsequently been urged upon me
from several quarters ; together with the question whether the nerves
under observation have been really living, and whether their alterations
of response in consequence of re-agents has not possibly been due to gross
physical disorganisation.
This group of questions may be understood in two senses, one needing
only a very brief and clear answer, the other requiring some little reason-
ing, and probably further microscopic investigation. The answers I am
about to give refer only to nerves submitted to volatile. re-agents and to
three re-agents in solution, viz. KBr, NaBr, and Aconitine.
(«) Briefly, there is under the conditions of my observations no visible
alteration in structure of the nerve-fibre, but on prolonged exposure to
reagents there are more or less distinctly visible alterations. Judged by
the only sign available, viz., the negative variation the nerves have been
1 The effects of ether, chloroform, aconitine, &c., upon currents of action are
described in ‘ Brain,’ 1896, p. 43. Those of the two first-named reagents are also
described in the first two ‘ Lectures on Animal Electricity.’
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 521
living, and the alteration of response has not been due to visible disorgani-
sation ; moreover, where a recovery of response after more or less prolonged
suppression was commonly observed or not observed in cases where it was
to be expected, for example, after ether, rarely after chloroform, after
carbonic acid, not after aconitine. I have attached importance to the
fact of recovery after temporary suppression as being evidence of an effect,
which, though no doubt physico-chemical in last resort, may nevertheless
be characterised as physiological. And the same remark is applicable to
all those cases where there is a temporary augmentation of response.
(6) A priori it may reasonably be supposed that any alteration of
response depends upon some physico-chemical alteration of substance,
visible or invisible. The degree to which we are able to extend our know-
ledge of such material change de visu varies, and we may never draw the
distinction between organic and functional, or material and immaterial, to
correspond with the distinction that may happen to exist for us between
visible and invisible. As regards the present investigation, it was sufficient
at the outset to be assured of the physiological nature of the observed
alterations of response ; the limit of visibility of the material alterations
upon which these symptoms depended became a matter of secondary
interest, that might or might not be of sufficient interest to excite histo-
logical investigation. I have been too fully occupied with the purely
physiological aspect of the subject to be able to give due time and care to
its histological prosecution, and all that I have learned in this direction, in
particular the fact that temporary alterations are visible in nerve under
the temporary influence of anesthetics, has been obtained from the careful
observations of Mr. F.S. Lloyd. From his report it appears that under
conditions of experiment considerably more severe than those obtaining
in my galvanometric investigation, alterations of structure so slight as.
hardly to be detected without the closest examination, and in some
particulars difficult to distinguish from artifacts, are all that can be
observed. The permanent and a fortiori the temporary abolitions of
electrical response produced in my experiments have therefore not been
due to gross disorganisation.
§ 2. The Microscopic Changes noticed in Isolated Nerve, after treatment with
Ether and Chloroform Vapour and with CO, By Mr. Lioyp.
The nerves of the frog were invariably employed, especially the sciatic
and popliteal nerves, also the dorsal cutaneous nerves. For ordinary
Fic. 1. Work a simple glass thimble was employed, in which a
tightly-fitting cork was placed. The tube being half filled
with ether or chloroform, as desired, a frog was pithed and
a nerve dissected out as quickly and with as little injury
as possible. This was lightly stretched on the under surface
of the cork, and this replaced in the tube. The nerve
thus having been exposed to the concentrated vapour
(Et,0, 50 per cent. ; CHCl;, 12 per cent.) for as long or
short a time as desired, the cork was withdrawn, and
1 per cent. osmic acid solution substituted for the chloro-
form or ether, the cork replaced, and the nerve ‘fixed’ by
exposure to the osmic vapour for half to one hour.
When, however, it was desired to study the microscopic
ia change in the nerve simultaneously with the passage of the
required vapour over it, the following apparatus was
employed :—
522 -REPORT—1897.
AB represents a cell composed of two parts, AA and BB, and made
of wood or glass. The square BB is firmly fixed on to a flat glass basis,
and through two of its sides run and are firmly fixed glass tubes CC’,
opening into the space enclosed by the four sides of the cell.
The movable top AA has a central circular aperture of about an inch
diameter, and to its wnder surface is fixed by some adhesive a large
Fig. 2.
coverslip (see line in diagram), so that when AA is placed on BB and
clipped down we have a cell into which the tubes CC open.
The following sketch (fig. 3) will show how it is used in conjunction
with the required vapour :—
The nerve is dissected out and lightly stretched on the wnder surface
of the cover glass on the cover AA, which is then placed on BB, so that
the nerve comes to be inside the cell. One tube C is then connected by
rubber tubing with a wash-bottle containing water, the purpose of which
is to keep the vapour moist as it passes over the nerve. The wash-bottle
is connected with a Woolft’s bottle containing ether or chloroform, and
Fie. 3.
WASH ETHER OR
BOTTLE. * CHLOROFORM asta
fitted with the bellows commonly supplied to freezing microtomes, ‘to
vaporise the ether.
In studying the effect of CO, a Kipp’s apparatus is fitted on in place
of the ether bottle and bellows. The cell can be placed under a low or
high power of the microscope, and the changes observed simultaneously
with the passage of the vapour.
For the observation of the fresh nerve simultaneously with the passage
of the vapour, it is convenient to employ nerves as small as possible. The
nerves chosen for this purpose were usually the long slender cutaneous
filaments seen on opening up the skin of the frog’s back. They possess
the advantages of being small, and are removable in considerable lengths
for observation with a minimum of damage, as they lie comparatively free
in the subcutaneous lymph space.
— ——s »-’”™
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 523
In such a case, the changes in the nerve, as a whole, are readily ob-
servable, and moreover it is often possible to find fibres optically isolated
at the extreme edge of the bundle, so that individual- appearances may be
studied.
At other times, however, one of the popliteal nerves was taken, and
after placing it in position on the slip, one end was quickly and lightly
separated with mounted needles. In nearly every nerve thus treated
were visible one or more fibres separated from their fellows for a short
distance, rendering individual observation easier, the only drawback being
that in this case the nerve must of necessity be more or less injured.
When treating nerves for examination, after fixation, by the ‘thimble’
method described above, obviously the size of the nerve was not a matter
of importance, provided that the vapour was given sufficient time to
penetrate the bundle.
After medullated nerve fibres have been exposed in either of the above
ways to the vapour of ether, or chloroform, or to carbon dioxide gas, for
periods varying from 2-5 minutes (according to the size of the nerve
chosen) certain slight microscopical changes may be observed to have taken
place in them. In most cases these changes are but slight, and the fibres
are not all equally affected. Some may show little or no change from the
normal, while the rest show a more or less distinctly visible change.
In observing a preparation, therefore, it is advisable to search it
throughout for any of the differences from the normal state, to be subse-
quently described, for it is not uncommon to only find a few fibres
typically affected throughout a whole nerve trunk.
The ‘ effects’ produced by ether vapour and by carbon dioxide are very
similar, and usually slight, but the chloroform effect is generally marked
in the majority of cases, and is a more thorough change, affecting most of
the fibres of a nerve trunk.
‘These effects are not easily visible in the fresh specimen, but are
usually recognisable in tissue subsequently fixed and darkened by osmic
vapour, which was found tv be the most satisfactory of several fixing
agents tried.
The histological changes fall under two headings :—
(a) Changes in the appearance and consistency of the medullary
sheath ;
(b) Changes at the nodes.
Either Vapowr.—The earliest effect is noticeable as soon as twenty
seconds after the commencement of administration, a faint granularity
appearing in the medullary sheath and slowly increasing for about thirty
seconds. It is not an invariable result of the action of ether vapour, and
is not always visible in the fresh specimen, but is usually present in the
osmic preparation. It must be borne in mind that the myelin tends to
become granular after death, and that granularity is often caused by
manipulation, thus :—Granularity is invariably present at the cut ends of
a nerve.
Another change common to etherised nerve, which is made evident by
the blackening action of the osmic acid, is the increased distinctness of
the medullary segments or incisures, which appear rather more distinctly
than in normal nerve, as light V-shaped markings on a darker ground.
The most distinctive change, however, is at the nodes of Ranvier.
(As has been before remarked, the change may be but slight, and does not
524 REPORT—1897.
necessarily show in every fibre.) At some nodes there may be seen a
slight approximation of the myelin on each side towards the centre of the
node. Besides this, in several fibres, instead of the medullary sheath end-
ing in a rounded extremity at the node, it seems to flow along the axis
cylinder from one side to meet the myelin of the opposite side, producing
an appearance fitly described by the term ‘the waist effect.’ In specimens
fixed in osmic vapour, and subsequently treated with carmalum, the axis
cylinder is seen to traverse the node, and to be apparently there ensheathed
by a delicate darkened covering continuous with the medullary sheath on
each side of it. This would seem to indicate that there is actual fusion of
the myelin of opposite sides across the node. In the smaller fibres the
change may be so marked as to almost obliterate the appearance of the
node. The ‘ waist effect’ is seen in many fibres usually, the approxima-
tion perhaps in but few.
The nodal effect becomes visible after 1-2 minutes of administration,
and is usually marked after 24-3 minutes.
Etherised fibres do not reduce osmic acid so readily as normal fibres—
7.¢., they do not colour so deeply.
Carbonic acid produces appearances in nerve very similar to etherised
nerve, but rarely to such a marked extent. We find much the same
appearances in the nodes ; granularity may be entirely absent. When
present, it is usually coarse ; the incisures are even more distinct than
in etherised nerve. In one or two cases the appearance has been so
marked as to give distinct prominence to the myelin opposite the
incisures, the fibre having a knotted appearance comparable to that of a
bamboo cane.
The CO, effect is usually visible after two minutes’ administration.
CO, nerves stain readily with osmic vapour. The consistence of the
myelin seems to be somewhat altered by action of the CO,, the medullary
sheath tending to break up under manipulation rather more than a
normal nerve would under similar treatment.
Chloroform Vapour.—As in etherised nerve, granularity may be
observed. It is of a somewhat finer nature than the granulation due to
ether, and appears somewhat later.
On examination of a fresh preparation, simultaneously with the
administration of the vapour, there is sometimes seen comparatively early
a slight approximation of the medullary sheaths at the nodes, followed by
a gradual separation commencing shortly after, and reaching its height in
about two to two and a half minutes.
On fixing with osmic vapour, the darkening of the myelin shows at the
nodes a distinct gap, visible plainly even under the low power. The
medulla seems to taper along the axis cylinder for some distance on either
side, and terminates in a ragged edge, which seems to suggest fusion with
subsequent separation. Other nodes may, however, show no such tapering
appearance, the medulla merely being retracted from the node.
Provided that time has been given for the vapour to penetrate, the
majority of fibres in a chloroformed nerve show the change, which is
usually far more marked and more constant than the change in etherised
or ‘ carbonised’ nerve.
The chloroformed nerve does not stain quite so deeply with osmic
vapour, as a normal fibre exposed for a similar time.
The consistence of the myelin seems to be altered, it seems to become
ON THE FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NERVE CELLS. 925
more brittle, tending, even under careful manipulation, to break up into
short lengths at irregular intervals.
The incisures are visible, but are usually not nearly so prominent as in
etherised or CO, nerve. The identification of specimens from a number
of mixed slides is generally fairly simple, provided that the whole speci-
men is thoroughly examined, and all the general appearances noted.
If, however, the change is ill-marked, the identification may be a
matter of great difficulty. Chloroformed nerve is the easiest to identify,
as the change is readily visible, when present, in several fibres.
It is sometimes hard to distinguish between etherised and CO, nerve,
the appearances being very similar. CO, nerveis not usually very granu-
Fig. 4.
Normal. Ether.
lar, like etherised nerve, and the incisures are usually much more
prominent.
VI. An Investigation of the Changes in Nerve-cells in Various Pathological
Conditions. By W. B. Warrineton, I.D., U.R.C.P.
Professor Sherrington and Dr. Mott, in the ‘Proceedings of the
Royal Society,’ vol. lvii., have given an account of the influence which the
sensory nerves have upon the movements of the limbs. From studying
the conditions of the spinal cord in such cases I have been able to find
marked changes in the anterior coronal cells.
Thus, the altered functional state of the motor-cells, which occurs
when the afferent impulses impinging on them are cut off, is accompanied
by a structural change.
:
526 REPORT—1897.
The roots cut were those of the cauda equina, and the cells most
affected were found in the postero-lateral group.
The typical picture of alteration in the cells is very characteristic.
Using the methylene blue and erythrosin stain, as described by
H. Held, the affected cell is somewhat enlarged, is stained red with a
small amount of blue chromophilic granules at its periphery. The nucleus
remains well marked, and gradually assumes an eccentric position.
Finally, the cell is reduced to a hyaline-looking mass, and the nucleus
entirely disappears.
Nissl and some others state that changes similar to those described
above constantly occur in a cell after division of its axis cylinder. This has
been especially investigated in the case of the oculomotorius and faciales
nuclei after section of the corresponding nerve-trunk.
In several instances in which I divided the facial nerve at the stylo-
mastoid foramen and the oculomotorius nerve intracranially, and made a
subsequent examination of the nuclei, I was unable to find changes in
the cells corresponding to the descriptions of these observers.
Some of the cells certainly showed alteration in structure, but these
were only a very small proportion, while similar cells were seen on the
intact side. An account of this investigation will shortly be published
in the ‘Journal of Physiology.’
Physiological Applications of the Phonograph.—Report by the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor Joun G. M‘Kenprick (Chairman),
Professor G. G. Murray, Mr. Davip 8. WinGATE, and Mr. JoHN
S. M‘Kenprick, on the Physiological Applications of the Phono-
graph, and on the Form of the Voice-curves made by the Instrument.'
1. Tue work of the Committee has, during the past year, been still
directed to improving the method by which the curves of the phonograph
may be transcribed. The improved Phonograph-Recorder is fully described
in the ‘Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh’ for session
1896-7, and in the ‘Science Lecture’ delivered by Dr. M‘Kendrick to the
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, and published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of
that society for session 1896-7.
2. The main results obtained by the Committee during the past year
are contained in the following extracts from the lecture above referred
COG
(1) Physical Constitution of Words.—First, with reference to speech, I
wish to point out that when the record of a word is examined it is found
to consist of a long series of waves, the number of which depends (1)-on
the pitch of the vowel constituents in the word, and (2) on the duration
of the whole word, or of its syllables individually. There is not for each
word a definite wave form, but a vast series of waves, and, even although
the greatest care be taken, it is impossible to obtain two records for the
same word precisely the same in character. A word is built up of a suc-
cession of sounds, all usually of a musical character. Each of these
sounds, if taken individually, is represented on the phonograph-record by
1 See also Brit. Assoc. Reports for 1895 and 1896; and Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, 1896.
ON PHYSIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 527
a greater or less number of waves or vibrations, according to the pitch of
the sound and its duration. The pitch, of course, will depend on the
number of vibrations per second, or per hundredth of a second, according
to the standard we take, but the number of the waves counted depends on
the duration of the sound. As it is almost impossible to utter the same
sound twice over in exactly the same fraction of a second, or in the same
interval of time, the number of waves counted varies much in different
records. The rate per unit of time determines the pitch, the number the
duration of the sound. In a word, these successive sounds blend into
each other, and, in many records, the passage from one pitch to another
can be distinctly seen. The speech sounds of a man vary in pitch from
100 to 150 vibrations per second, and the song sounds of a man from 80
to 400 vibrations per second. The sounds that build up a word are chiefly
those of the vowels. These give a series of waves representing a varia-
tion in pitch according to the character of the vowel sound. In the
record of a spoken word the pitch is constantly moving up and down, so
the waves are seen in the record to change in length. It is also very
difficult to notice where one series of waves ends and where another
begins. For example, in the word Con-stan-ti-nople, the predominant
sounds are those of o-a-7-o-ill, and the variation in pitch is observable to
the ear if, in speaking the word, we allow the sound of the syllables to be
prolonged. If we look at the record of the word, we find these variations
in pitch indicated by the rate of the waves, or, as the eye may catch this
more easily, by the greater or less length of wave, according to the pitch
of the sound. The consonantal sounds of the word are breaks, as it were,
in the stream of air issuing from the oral cavity, and these breaks (I am
not discussing the mechanism at present) produce sounds that have also
often the character of vowel sounds. Thus, at the beginning of ‘Con-
stantinople,’ we have, as will be observed on pronouncing the syllable very
slowly, the sound w#kkd. This sound is represented in the record by a series
of waves. Then follow the waves of the vowel o. Next we have the
sound mn (driving the air through the nose), also represented by a series
of waves. Next the hissing sound ss, which has first something in it of
the vowel e or 2, and then the zss-s. This sound also is shown by a series
of waves. Then there is éa, which has a double series of waves—(1) those
for it or t, and the next for a. This passes into the prolonged vowel a,
this into 7m, then a long 0, then a sound like op, and, lastly, the sound il/,
a sort of double-vowel.sound. As so many of these sounds have the
character of vowels, it is impossible, by an inspection of the record, to
say where one set of waves begins and another ends. There are no such
breaks corresponding to the consonants ; the vibrations of the consonants
glide on as smoothly as those of the vowels. The nwmber of waves pro-
ducing a word is sometimes enormous. In ‘Constantinople’ there may
be 500, or 600, or 800 vibrations. A record of the words ‘ Royal Society
of Edinburgh,’ spoken with the slowness of ordinary speech, showed over
3,000 vibrations, and I am not sure if they were all counted. This brief
illustration gives one an insight into Nature’s method of producing speech
sounds, and it shows clearly that we can never hope to read such records
in the sense of identifying the curve by an inspection of the vibrations.
The details are too minute to be of service to us, and we must again fall
back on the power the ear possesses of identifying the sounds, and on the
use of conventional signs or symbols, such as letters of the alphabet,
vowel symbols, consonant symbols, or the symbols of Chinese, which are
528 REPORT—1897.
monosyllabic roots often meaning very different things according to the
inflection of tone, the variations in pitch being used in that language to
convey shades of meaning.
(2) Remarks on Analysis of Curves.—When human voice sounds are
produced in singing, especially when an open vowel sound is sung on a
note of definite pitch, the record is much more easily understood. Then
we have the waves following each other with great regularity, and the
pitch can easily be made out. Still, as has been well pointed out by Dr.
R. J. Lloyd, of Liverpool, a gentleman who has devoted much time and
learning to this subject, it is impossible by a visual inspection of the
vowel curve to recognise its elements. Thus two curves very similar,
possibly identical to the eye, may give different sounds to the ear—that is
to say, the ear, or ear and brain together, have analytical powers of the
finest delicacy. No doubt, by the application of the Fourierian analysis,
-ve may split up the periodic wave into a fundamental of the same period,
and a series of waves of varying strength vibrating 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., times
faster than the fundamental, and the relative amplitude of each of these
may be determined. If all these waves of given amplitude and given
phase acted simultaneously on a given particle, the particle would
describe the vibration as seen in the original curve. Dr. Lloyd, however,
is of opinion that even a Fourierian analysis may not exhaust the con-
tents of a vowel, as it does not take account of inharmonic constituents
which may possibly exist. Hermann! and Pipping? have also been
investigating the analysis of vowel tones, and their investigations have
revealed many difficulties. Hermann experimented with the ordinary
phonograph, and obtained photographs of the movements of the vibrating
glass plate. His curves are small, not unlike those seen in Keenig’s flame
pictures. In many cases they have sharp points. This, however, may
not interfere with analysis. Pipping’s curves were not obtained from the
phonograph, but from the vibrations of a minute membrane made to
represent the drum-head of the ear. His curves show large periodic
waves with minute waves on their summits, and they suggest that the
large waves may be vibrations due to the membrane itself. Not having
seen the apparatus, and as the observations have been made by one well
aware of the possibility of this error, I do not venture to do more than
suggest this difficulty, especially as I now show you a series of tracings
on a glass plate very similar to those in Pipping’s figures. These were
obtained by singing a vowel into a receiver furnished with a small mem-
brane, to which a recorder was attached. The glass plate (smoked) moved
rapidly across in front of the marker. Alongside of these you will see
curves obtained directly from the recorder attached to the glass disc of a
phonograph. In the second you see waves more like those of Hermann.
The larger waves in the tracing, like that of Pipping, are, I believe, due,
in my experiment, to the vibrator, and do not represent the glottal
vibrations. This conclusion is strengthened by noting the pitch of the
sound, as made out by counting, not the larger, but the smaller waves,
which corresponds to that of the vowel sound. I therefore think that
’ Hermann, ‘Ueber das Verhalten der Vocale am neuen Edisonschen Phonographen,’
Pjliiger’s Archiv, vol. xlvii., 1890; also ‘ Pnonophotographische Untersuchungen,’ op.
eit., ii, and ili.
* Pipping, Om Klangfargen hos sjungna Vokaler. Discussed in Dr. Lloyd's
paper on the ‘Interpretation of the Phonograms of Vowels.’ Jl. of Anat. and
Physiolog., 1896.
ON PHYSIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF THE PHONOGRAPH. 529
argument should be based only on records obtained from the phonograph
itself, which is furnished with a vibrator that will not record its own
periodic vibrations unless the sound be remarkably intense. In ordinary
voice production and in ordinary singing the vibrator of the phonograph
faithfully records only the pressures falling upon it—no more and no
less.
(3) Recording Intensity of Tones.—I shall now show you another
method of recording, not the individual vibrations of the phonograph, but
the variations in intensity of the sounds of the phonograph—the inten-
sities of individual notes and chords. I was led to use this method by
becoming acquainted with an instrument devised by Professor Hiirthle,
of Breslau. He has succeeded in recording the vibrations of the sounds
of the heart. I saw that his instrument was very useful, and I adapted
it to the particular purpose in hand. Hiirthle’s instrument is an electro-
magnet acting on a metal plate connected with the elastic membrane of a
tambour. Another drum is connected with the first by an india-rubber
tube. The metal plate of the first tambour is pulled down by the electro-
magnet ; thus the air is rarefied in the tube and in both tambours, and
the lever of the second tambour moves. The next instant the lever flies
back. We shall now connect Graham’s variable resistance apparatus with
the phonograph. As sound waves fall on it a change is produced in the
current passing through the electro-magnet ; the latter acts on its tam-
bour ; a variable pressure is communicated to the other tambour ; and if
the lever of the latter is brought against a revolving drum, a tracing is
obtained. Each note and each chord are recorded, so that you get a
mechanical tracing of the variations of intensity.
(4) Electrical Stimulation of the Fingers by the Rhythin and Varying
Intensity of Tone.—Now this experiment suggested another of a different
kind. Suppose I send the current not only through the variable resist-
ance apparatus above the disc of the phonograph, but also through the
primary coil of an induction machine. The wires from the secondary coil
pass to two platinum plates dipped in weak salt solution. I now set the
phonograph going ; and when I put my fingers into the beakers contain-
ing salt solution, I feel the intensity of every note. The variation of
intensity, the time, the rhythm, and even the expression of music, are all
felt. I shall now place on the mandril of the phonograph a cylinder on
which has been recorded another piece of music, which is much quicker.
I now feel a series of electrical thrills corresponding to every variation of
intensity of sound coming from the phonograph. That method shows that
the nerves of the skin can be stimulated by irritations coming to it at
the rate of the notes and chords of rapid music. Some of the notes pro-
duced by the phonograph do not last longer than the five hundredth or
six hundredth part of a second, but they are quite sufficient to stimulate
the nerves of the skin, and, as I have pointed out, you can appreciate the
variations of intensity. You can feel the long-drawn-out notes from the
saxhorn or trombone. You feel the crescendo and diminuendo of
rhythmic movement, and you can estimate the duration of the note and
chord. You feel even something of the expression of the music. It is
rather a pity to say that even expression is mechanical. It is undoubtedly
mechanical when you deal with the records of the phonograph. A number
of interesting questions of a physiological nature are suggested by this
experiment. The skin is not a structure that can analyse tone or distin-
guish pitch ; it cannot tell you the number of vibrations, although there
1897, M M
530 REPORT—1897.
is a curious approach to it. While it is not by any means accurate, you
can distinguish tone of low pitch—very low tones—by a feeling of ‘inter-
mission.” Experimenting in this way, you may stimulate by interrupting
this circuit at the rate of 30 or 40 or 50 breaks per second, and yet the
skin will tell you the individual breaks ; but when you get above that
number you lose the consciousness of the individual breaks, and you have
a more or less continuous sensation. ‘The phonograph does not necessarily
give you 50 or 60 stumuli to produce a sensation of a tone ; you do not
require that number. I found that 8 or 10 per second may give you the
sensation for a tone of any pitch. In the same way, you may be able to
notice a slight difference up to perhaps 50 or 60, but above that the sen-
sation seems continuous. It is not the number of stimuli that determines
pitch, but the rate at which the stimuli affect the sense organ, whether it
be ear or skin. Then the question arises, What is it in the skin that is
irritated ? It is not the corpuscles. They have to do with pressure.
There is no organ, so far as we know, for the sense of temperature. You
may say that the feeling is muscular. Possibly it may be so ; but the
effect is mest marked when the current is so weak as to make it unlikely
that it passes so deep as to reach the muscles.
(5) Mode of Communication with the Deaf.—This experiment suggests
the possibility of being able to communicate to those who are stone-deaf
the feeling, or at all events the rhythm, of music. It is not music, of
course, but, if you like to call it so, it is music on one plane and without
colowr, There is no appreciation of pitch, or colour, or of quality, and
there is no effort at analysis, an effort which, I believe, has a great deal to
do with the pleasurable sensation we derive from music. In this experi-
ment you have the rhythm which enters largely into musical feeling. On
Saturday last, through the kindness of Dr. J. Kerr Love, I had the
opportunity of experimenting with four patients from the Deaf and Dumb
Institution, one of whom had her hearing up till she was eleven years of
age, and then she became stone-deaf. This girl had undoubtedly a recol-
lection of music, although she does not now hear any sound. She wrote me
a letter, in which she declared that what she felt was music, and that it
awakened in her mind a conscious something that recalled what music
was. The others had no conception of music, but they were able to
appreciate the rhythm, and it was interesting to notice how they all,
without exception, caught up the rhythm, and bobbed their heads up and
down, keeping time with the electrical thrills in their finger-tips.
3. Specimens of the curves may be seen in two plates appended to the
Science Lecture of the Philosophical Society above referred to.
4. As the research will in future be prosecuted with the aid of a grant
from the Government Grant Fund of the Royal Society, the Committee
does not desire to be reappointed.
Es
.
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. ddl
The Physiological Lfects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced.
into the Circulation.—Interim Report of a Committee, consisting of
Professor E. A. Scuirer, I°.2.S. (Chairman), Professor C. S.
SHERRINGTON, F’.2.S., Professor R. W. Boyce and Professor W. H.
THOMPSON (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
THE present report is to be regarded as a continuation of work the first
results of which were communicated by the Secretary of this Committee
to the British Association (Section I) at its meeting in Liverpool last
year, and afterwards published in the ‘Journal of Physiology,’ vol. xx.,
December 1896, p. 455."
The chief conclusions then arrived at concerned the effects of Witte’s
*peptone,’ and were—(1) That this substance in small doses—below
0:02 grm. per kilo—hastens the coagulation of blood in the dog, while in
larger doses retardation is brought about, as other investigators have
found, (2) That the well-known fall of blood-pressure produced by this
substance when injected into the circulation is due to a peripheral influ-
ence upon the neuro-muscular apparatus of the blood-vessels. No
influence on the vaso-motor centre was detected. (3) That the vaso-
dilating influence of Witte’s ‘peptone’ is not confined to vessels of the
splanchnic region, but extends to other vessels also.
This last conclusion was arrived at in an indirect way by observing the
effects of Witte’s ‘peptone’ on carotid blood-pressure when injected during
excitation of the spinal cord (after complete section), at the level of the
third cervical vertebra, the great splanchnics on both sides having been
previously divided. Neither time nor circumstances had then permitted
the checking of this result by similar injections made during excitation
of the sciatics, nor of the observation of plethysmographic variations of
limb volume under similar conditions of experiment.
Accordingly, in the work carried out during the past year which has
been entrusted to the Secretary, this was the first point to which attention
was given. <A similar method of observation was then applied in turn to
the effects of Witte’s ‘peptone’ on the blood-vessels of the kidney and
spleen. This was succeeded by an analysis of the effects (a) on blood-
coagulation, (b) on general blood-pressure and peripheral vaso-motor
mechanism, (c) on local vascular areas (limb, kidney, spleen) of the follow-
ing substances—pure peptone, anti-peptone, deutero-albumose, proto-
albumose and hetero-albumose. The investigation as regards the latter two
substances is as yet too incomplete for publication, nor indeed can it be
looked upon as more than preliminary for any of the substances mentioned.
The contents of the present abstract may therefore be summarised as
follows :— :
I. Effects of Witte’s peptone—
(a) On the blood-vessels of the limb ;
{b) On the blood-vessels of the kidney ;
(c) On the blood-vessels of the spleen.
1 Thompson, ‘ Contribution to the Physiological Effects of “‘ Peptone” when in-
jected into the Circulation,’ Journ. of Physiviogy, vol. xx. December 1896, p. 455.
MM 2
582 REPORT—1897.
Il. Effects of pure peptone—
(a) On blood-coagulation ;
b) On blood-pressure and peripheral vaso-motor irritability ;
(3 On the blood-vessels of the limb, kidney, and spleen respectively.
III. Lffects of anti-peptone—
(a) On blood-coagulation ;
(6) On blood-pressure and vaso-motor irritability.
IV. Effects of deutero-albumose dealt with in the same way as have
been the effects of pure peptone.
I. Effects of Witte’s Peptone.
(a) On the blood-vessels of the limb.—Plethysmographic observations of
the volume of the limb were taken by Mosso’s method and compared with
a simultaneous tracing of carotid blood-pressure. One or both sciatic
nerves were divided and excited by a faradic current. In the earlier
experiments an injection of Witte’s ‘peptone’ was made during this
excitation, the excitation being also repeated subsequent to the injection.
Later it was found more suitable to compare the results of an excitation
of definite strength, made after the injection, with the results of an excita-
tion of the same strength made before the injection.
Five experiments were performed, on dogs varying from 7:6 to
10:8 kilos in weight, and employing Witte’s peptone in doses of 0:1, 0°15,
and 0-2 grm. per kilo of body weight.
The conclusions arrived at by this method support those expressed
last year, viz., that Witte’s peptone produces a decided dilating effect on
limb blood-vessels by lowering the irritabilizy of the peripheral neuro-
muscular apparatus, to centrifugal impulses. The effect, however, does
not appear to be so pronoiinced on these blood-vessels as upon those of the
splanchnic area. A dose of Witte’s peptone which is sufficient to com-
pletely abolish the effect of vaso-constrictive impulses on abdominal blood-
vessels is only able to weaken their effect on blood-vessels of the limb.
(b) On blood-vessels of the kidney.—A record of kidney volume was
taken by means of Roy’s oncometer and oncograph. This was accom-
panied by a tracing of blood-pressure. A solution of Witte’s peptone was
injected into the saphenous vein. In the earlier experiments one or both
splanchnic nerves, or occasionally the spinal cord, was faradically excited
during, and after the injection. This procedure was subsequently modified,
and the effects of an excitation of certain strength made before the injec-
tion, were compared with the results of the same strength of excitation
made after the injection.
Seven experiments were performed. The dogs employed varied in
weight from 7°8 to 16-4 kilos, and the dose used in most cases was 0:1 grm.
per kilo. In a few experiments double this dose was employed.
The conclusions arrived at from these experiments are similar to those
deduced concerning the influence of Witte’s peptone on limb blood-vessels.
This substance produces a vaso-depressing influence on the blood-vessels of
the kidney to a considerable degree, especially in the larger doses employed.
The degree to which this influence extends is probably even less than
that upon the blood-vessels of the limb, certainly less than that upon other
vessels in the abdomen.
(c) On the blood-vessels of the spleen.—A spleen curve was taken by
:
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 533
means of Schiifer’s spleen box, or by a modification of it, made for the
writer of this report, which allowed the organ to be surrounded by a
layer of warmed oil, and thus prevented a loss of heat, otherwise liable to
occur. This method of recording splenic undulations of volume was found
to be much more satisfactory than that of Roy, and fully merits all that
Professor Schifer has elsewhere said about it. Side by side with the
spleen curve a tracing of carotid blood-pressure was recorded.
Six experiments were performed, the dogs varying in weight from
7 to 11:7 kilos. In most of the experiments a dose of 0°15 grm. per kilo
wasemployed. In one this was increased to 0°2grm. The left splanchnic
nerve in two of the experiments was divided and excited during the injec-
tion. In the remainder either the spinal cord or the splanchnic nerves
were excited, before and after the injection, with the same strength of
stimulus, and the results compared.
The results showed that the effects of Witte’s peptone on the blood-
vessels of the spleen were somewhat different from the effect of the same
substance on renal and limb blood-vessels.
In the first place it was noted that the spleen volume suffers less of a
diminution from the fall of blood-pressure which immediately succeeds
an injection of Witte’s peptone, and that this fall of the lever was soon
replaced by a return to its ordinary level.
Agreeing with this, it was found that the early effects of this substance
on the peripheral irritability of splenic blood-vessels was very slight,
decidedly less than the same effect on splanchnic vessels generally. Later,
however, the contrary result was observed ; the splenic blood-vessels
seemed then to be more influenced by Witte’s peptone than other vessels
in the abdominal cavity. This was shown in the later stage by a decided
rise of carotid blood-pressure on excitation of the spinal cord, unaccom-
panied by any effect on spleen volume, while the contrary obtained at an
earlier part of the same experiment.
IL. Effects of Pure Peptone.
(a) On blood coagulation.—This was observed in four experiments,
the peptone used being prepared according to the directions of Grosjean '
and supplied to me by Dr. G. Griibler. The dogs used weighed from
8:5 to 18:45 kilos, and in each case a dose of 0:2 grm. per kilo was
employed.
In all four cases coagulation was delayed from two to severai hours.
In one case coagulation occurred at the end of the former period ; in two
others it had supervened next morning, the experiments having been per-
formed in the afternoon. In the fourth case the onset of coagulation was
not observed.
These results agree with those of Grosjean, who found that pure pep-
tone delayed but never wholly destroyed the coagulability of blood.
Previous to Grosjean, Pollitzer had obtained inconstant results with
ampho-peptone—sometimes no effect, sometimes a variable amount of
_-delay, on the whole his experiments leading to the conclusion that ampho-
peptone exerts but slight influence on blood-coagulation.
Whether peptone in smaller doses is capable of producing hastening of
coagulation has not as yet been investigated.
1 Grosjean, ‘ L’action physiologique de la propeptone et de la peptone,’ Travaux
du laboratoire de Léon Frédericg, tome iv. 1891-92, p. 45.
584 REPORT—1897.
One other noteworthy effect appeared in the samples of blood
drawn in three of the above four experiments—viz., an unusually rapid
sinking of the red corpuscles, leaving a perfectly colourless and clear
plasma above. Within half-an-honr, plasma to the extent of one-third of
the whole blood drawn appeared above the corpuscles, and within one
hour this was increased to almost half, after which very little further sub-
sidence was observed. It was in this condition that the blood and plasma.
coagulated.
In the exceptional case curare had been administered ; the other dogs
were not curarised.
(b) On blood-pressure and vaso-motor irritability.—Seven experi-
ments, involving a record of blood-pressure, were made with Grosjean’s
peptone. The dose employed was in all cases 0:2 grm. per kilo, and the
weights of the dogs varied from 7-4 to 18°45 kilos. |
The general results obtained were the same in all, and showed that
pure peptone causes a considerable fall of blood-pressure, and with this a
lowering of vaso-muscular irritability to central impulses. The degree
and duration of the fall were neither so great nor so lengthened as with
corresponding doses of Witte’s peptone, nor was the peripheral vaso-motor
irritability depressed to the same degree. Thus, after a dose of 0°2 grm.
per kilo of pure peptone, blood-pressure had usually returned to its normal
level, and with it the response to vaso-motor excitation had likewise,
almost, if not fully reappeared.
These results are in accord with those of Grosjean.
(c) On blood-vessels of the limb, kidney, and spleen respectively.
In three of the above experiments a record of the volume of each of one
of these organs was taken, with the object of noting the effect of peptone
on its blood-vessels.
In all three organs it was found that the dose employed produces a
distinct lowering of peripheral vaso-motor irritability immediately follow-
ing the injection. This, however, soon commenced to pass off, and within
a short period the response, by a gradual return, assumed its normal
proportions.
With regard to any difference shown by the blood-vessels of these
organs, little positive can be said based on a single experiment for each.
So far, however, as this justifies remark, it would appear that limb blood-
vessels are more affected by pure peptone than either renal or splenic.
III. Lffects of Anti-peptone.
(a) On blood coagulation.—This was observed in seven experiments
on dogs which varied in weight from 8°7 to 23-95 kilos. The doses em-
ployed per kilo were 0:1 grm. in one experiment, 0:2 grm. in four, and
0:3 grm. in two experiments.
In all of these, with one exception, blood coagulation was hastened, in
some markedly so. Thus, in one experiment with a dose of 0:2 grm. per
kilo, coagulation time was reduced from 9 m. 30 sec. to 2 m. 0 sec. ; in
another, with a dose of 0-3 grm. per kilo, from 3 m. 0 sec. to 1 m, 15 see. ;
and ina third, with a dose of 0-1 grm. per kilo, from 5 m. 10 sec. to 2m. 45sec.
In the exceptional case, with a dose of 0:3 grm. per kilo., blood-coagu-
lation-time was practically unaltered ; before injection time 3 m. 30 sec.,
after 3 m. 55 sec..
This result stands in marked contrast to those published last year in
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 535
the paper before referred to, concerning Witte’s peptone.’ It was then
found that this substance, in doses of 0°1 grm. per kilo, retards coagula-
tion almost invariably, and the same effect was observed to be the rule
with doses as low as one-fifth this quantity. Grosjean? had also found
coagulation to be delayed from one to ten hours by propeptone in doses of
0-1 grm. per kilo. Below 0:02 grm. per kilo a hastening of blood-coagu-
lation was the rule.
The result, however, is corroborated by those of Spiro and Ellinger,*
published during the course of this research. These observers found a
reduction of coagulation-time from eight to four minutes with a dose of
0-6 grm. per kilo. With regard to former investigators, it is to be remarked
that Pollitzer‘ did not find that anti-peptone (tryptone) produced any effect
on the rapidity of coagulation, agreeing in this with Fano.’ It is pro-
bable that neither of these experimenters used very pure products.
Nor can the hastening effect of Witte’s peptone on blood-coagulation,
in small doses, be attributed solely to an admixture with anti-peptone, since
deutero-albumose in certain doses, as will be shown later, has been found
to hasten this process, while in other doses coagulation is markedly
retarded.
(b) On blood-presswre.—Pollitzer evidently had noted that the effect
of anti-peptone (tryptone) on blood-pressure was different from that of
albumoses, since he makes an exception of it, stating that its effect is
doubtful. In the present research it has been found that anti-peptone
in its action on blood-pressure likewise contrasts with other products
of proteid digestion. In doses of 0-2 grm. per kilo, after a very tran-
sient fall immediately following the injection, blood-pressure returns to a
level, as a rule, somewhat higher than before the injection. This was ob-
served also in one of two experiments with doses of 0°3 grm. per kilo each.
In the other, the fall lasted somewhat longer, but even here the duration
of lowered blood-pressure was very temporary when compared with that
of Witte’s peptone, minutes as compared with hours.
Spiro and Ellinger ° also state that they have found essential differences
in the effects of this substance, amongst other things, on blood-pressure as
contrasted with albumoses. They, however, reserve their results for future
publication. It is interesting, as these observers point out, to note the
contrast of this substance with that of the albumoses, out of which it
arises, in view of the possibility that toxins and anti-toxins are similarly
related as to origin.
(c) On peripheral vaso-motor irritability As might be anticipated,
this substance was not found to possess any depressing action on the tone
of blood-vessels, either abdominal or general. On the contrary, in many
cases a decided increase of irritability was shown.
1 Thompson, op. cit.
2 Grosjean, ‘ L’action physiologique de la propeptone et de la peptone,’ Travaux
du laboratoire de Léon Frédericg, tome iv. 1891-92, p. 45,
8 Spiro and Ellinger, ‘ Der Antagonismus gerinnungsbefordender und gerinnungs-
hemmender Stoffe im Blut, &c.’ Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift f. physiologische Chemie,
Bd. xxiii. (1897), Hft. 2, p. 121.
4 Pollitzer, ‘On the Physiological Action of Peptones and Albumoses,’ Journ.
of Physiology, vii. (1886), p. 283.
5 Fano, ‘Das Verhalten des Peptons und Tryptons gegen Blut u. Lymphe,
Archiv f. Physiol., 1881, p. 277. ‘
6 Spiro and Ellinger, op. cit.
536 REPORT— 1897.
Plethysmographic observations on the blood-vessels of the limb, spleen,
and kidney in this respect gave concordant results.
IV. Effects of Deutero-Albwmose.
(a) On blood coagulation.—With regard to influence on blood-coagu-
lation, this substance has been found to produce a marked hastening in
certain of the experiments, while in others a marked retardation was
observed. Nor can the difference be attributed to the amount of dose.
So far this has proved irregular.
Thus hastening has been obtained as follows :—
Dose per kilo Coagulation Time
Before After
M. S. M. 3.
0:05 grm. 12 0 Ko)
0:20 ,, 5 0 1 30
0:20 ,, 4 40 4.5
0:30 ,, 9 30 p19
While retardation has been obtained as under :—
Dose per kilo Coagulation Time
Before Afver
M. 8
0:075 grm. 28 0 Several hours
01 ” 10 0 ” ”
0-1 ’ 6 30 ” ”
O1 H 7 30 Not after 1 hour
02 5 50 i) 4 as
0-2 3 4 { Notafterthree hours. Coagu-
= \ lated next morning.
In the first two of the latter group of experiments there is reason to
believe a somewhat overdose of curare had been administered, and also
that this substance produces an effect on blood-coagulation. A new
supply of this substance had just been obtained which proved to be very
active. In these two experiments, with dogs 9:4 and 8:5 kilos respectively,
the dose actually given was only two cubic centimetres of a 1-per-cent. -
solution.
Further experiments are in progress which it is hoped will throw
light on the want of uniformity in the effects of the above doses.
(b) On blood-pressure and vaso-motor irritability.—Ten experiments
were made in blood-pressure and recorded. The dogs varied in weight from
7 to 18-1 kilos, the doses employed being 0-2 grm. per kilo in four experi-
ments, 0:1 grm. in three, 0°3, 0-075, and 0°05 in one experiment each
respectively.
The general conclusion arrived at is that this substance produces a
more profound and enduring influence on blood-pressure than pure
peptone, but less than the same dose of Witte’s peptone. Deutero-
albumose cannot therefore be regarded as the most potent constituent of
Witte’s peptone. The experiments here recorded are in agreement with
those of other observers on this point.
(c) On blood-vessels of the limb, kidney, and spleen respectively.—
Observations were made on the effect of deutero-albumose on limb blood-
vessels in two experiments, using Mosso’s plethysmograph ; on those of the
kidney also in two, employing Roy’s apparatus ; and on those of the
spleen in four, with the modified Schafer’s spleen-box.
The results showed that the vaso-motor mechanism of these organs
ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF PEPTONE. 537
is without doubt affected by doses of 0-1 grm. per kilo and upwards.
The influence is not very marked, and is probably less than that on
splanchnic blood-vessels other than those of the spleen or kidney. Nor
did the effect last long ; as a rule it had begun to disappear within five
minutes, and had almost if not wholly disappeared at the end of half an
hour.
In all the foregoing experiments the animals were fully anzsthetised
during the whole experiment by means of morphine and atropine
administered hypodermically prior to its commencement. Afterwards,
when necessary, a mixture of ether and chloroform was employed to main-
tain the anesthesia. Curare was given when the spinal cord or nerves
other than the splanchnics were excited.
The products employed were furnished to me by Dr. George Griibler,
Dresden, and were with few exceptions injected into the external
saphenous vein, dissolved in 50 to 60 c.c. of normal saline.
It will be apparent that a considerable amount of work has yet to be
done to make even the part of this research now reported upon complete ;
while a large extent of the research has not as yet been carried sufficiently
far for publication owing to want of time. When this is finished it is pro-
posed to publish the whole, includiug the present part more fully written,
with tracings, tables, and protocols of experiments.
Fertilisation in Phceophyceee.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Prof. J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Prof. R. W. PHILLIPs
(Secretary), Prof. F. O. Bower, and Prof. Harvey Gisson.
THE Committee beg to report that the work in contemplation is progress-
ing favourably. From its nature, however, it is best pursued in the
summer months. They are not, therefore, in a position to make more
than an interim report, and beg to apply for a renewal of the grant for
another year.
Preservation of Plants for Exhibition.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. D. H. Scorr (Chairman), Professor BAYLEY BALFour,
Professor HERRERA, Mr. W. Garpiner, Professor J. R. GREEN,
Professor M. C. Potter, Professor J. W. H. Train, Professor F. E.
Wess, and Professor J. B. FaRMER (Secretary), appointed to report
on the best methods of preserving Vegetable Specimens for Exhibition
in Museums.
Tue Committee since presenting their interim report (see B.A. Report,
1896) have continued their inquiries and investigations on the various
matters referred to them. The result of these has been largely to confirm
the statements already (loc. cit.) presented, to which reference may be
made for details. Thus for preserving specimens in a liquid medium
alcohol on the whole yields the best results, in spite of its decolourising
action. Rapid killing and in some cases special methods of bleaching
the specimens before immersion in the alcohol are additional precautions
which it is desirable to observe.
538 REPORT—1897.
Experiments have been made to obviate the excessive transparency
which the more delicate parts (petals and the like) often assume when
preserved in spirit by precipitating salts in the tissues, but they have not
hitherto been attended with satisfactory results.
For bulky objects, or for others in which flaccidity occasions no dis-
advantage, formalin may be used in 5 per cent. to 15 per cent. of the com-
mercial solution. It is cheaper than spirit, and in some cases preserves
the colour of the specimen in a more or less natural condition for many
months. This retaining of the colour, especially in the case of green
tints, is usually more effective if the specimen, rapidly killed by steam or
short submergence in strong alcohol, be treated for twenty-four hours or
longer with a strong bath of copper acetate.
Further details of experiments with other liquids will be found in the
appendices of last year’s report. Where the specimens are not intended to
be handled, drying in sand (vide appendix 1, loc. cit.) gives admirable
results, and in many cases the natural colours are preserved. The extreme
fragility of the specimens thus treated constitutes, however, a serious
drawback when the objects are intended to be examined and handled by
students.
No better methods of mounting specimens for exhibition purposes have
been devised than those in use in the Museum of the Royal Botanical
Gardens in Edinburgh, an account of which is included in the interim
report already referred to.
The Committee desire to express their thanks to those who have
kindly given them assistance by communicating such results of their own
observation and experience as were connected with the matters now under
consideration.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
EE Oe
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor A. R. Forsyru, M.A.,, D.Sc., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The President delivered the following Address :-—
One of the most important events of the past year, connected with the affairs of
this Section, has been the reception by the Prime Minister, Lord Salisbury, of 2
deputation to represent the need for the establishment of a National Physical
Laboratory to carry out investigations of certain definite types. Such institutions
exist in France and Germany, and have proved of the highest usefulness in a field
of work that includes the wide range from pure research to the most direct appli-
cations of science to industry. The desire for such an institution in England has
long been felt, and as far back as 1891 Professor Oliver Lodge, when presiding
over our Section at the Cardiff meeting, argued in its favour. It has frequently
been discussed since that date, particularly in 1895, when Sir Douglas Galton
dealt with it so ably in his presidential address at Ipswich, and also in a communi-
cation to our Section. The subject was then formally referred to a committee of
physicists, who, at last year’s meeting in Liverpool, presented a report containing
a working scheme for developing the Kew Observatory into an institution of the
desired character. The recommendations of the report were approved by a unani-
mous vote of this Section; and were subsequently adopted by the Association.
‘Thereupon a joint committee, representing the various scientific bodies throughout
the United Kingdom interested in the matter, was constituted to further the plan:
in particular, to urge upon the Government the establishment of such a Laboratory,
and, if possible, to obtain from them the funds which are a preliminary necessity
for that purpose. It was a deputation from this joint committee which, headed
by Lord Lister, waited upon the Prime Minister on February 16 last. His reply
to the deputation was manifestly sympathetic with the request; and it is a satis-
faction to be able now to say that the Government have appointed a Committee of
inquiry, which will also consider whether standardizing and other work, already
undertaken partially or wholly at the public cost, can fitly be associated with the
new institution.
After having said, by way of preface, thus much upon the chief event of the
past year arising partly from our direct action, I wish to turn to the main line of
my address, and to ask, for a brief time, your attention and your consideration for
the subject of pure mathematics. If, remembering the brilliant address made
at the Montreal meeting, you regret that Lord Kelvin is not again now
occupying this position: or if, remembering the interest aroused by Professor
J. J. Thomson’s address last year, you regret that the fascinating tale then opened
is not being resumed by some one with imagination enough and knowledge enough
to continue it: I can, not unselfishly, share your regret.
542 REPOkT—1897.
It appears, however, from the practice of the Council and the General Committee,
to be their policy that mathematicians belonging to the extreme right (if the phrase
may be used) shall from time to time be nominated to the presidency of the Section.
It is, I think, the case that this Section has always had assigned to it the subjects
of Mathematics and Physics. In their development, pure mathematics has con-
tinued to be associated with applied mathematics, and applied mathematics with
physics. So far as I know, there is no substantial reason why any change should
be made, and so far as I have been able to observe, there is a strone consensus
of opinion that no change by way of separation need be tried. Wide as is the
range of our discussions, distracting as is the occasional variety in the matter of
the papers we receive, the complexity of our Section, if in any respect a disadvantage,
does not appreciably discount the advantages it otherwise secures. Specialisation
in all our subjects has become almost a necessity for progress; but excessive
obedience need not be paid to that necessity. On the one hand, there will be
danger of imperfect appreciation if a subject is so completely restricted to a few
specialists that it is ignored by all but them ; and, on the other hand, there will be
danger of unsound growth if subject and thinkers alike become isolated, and cease
to take an active interest in the methods, the processes, and the results other than
those which directly concern them. Accordingly, I think that our group of
sciences, which form a continuous range, are better united than divided.
Aristotle declared that it is unbecoming to praise the gods. Observing his
canon, I shall say nothing as to the wisdom and the justice of our Executive in
sometimes selecting a pure mathematician to preside over this Section. I shall
only appeal to your indulgence in accepting the opportunity they have thus given
me of speaking more specially about my own subject.
I make this appeal the more earnestly, for two particular reasons. One of
these is based upon the conflicting views, popularly held and sometimes summarily
expressed, about the subject and those who are addicted to it. It is true that the
day has gone by, when it is necessary to give serious consideration to attacks upon
mathematical studies, and particularly upon analysis, such as were made by
the metaphysician Hamilton : attacks no longer thought worthy of any answer,
Feelings of hostility, if ever they were widely held, have given way to other
feelings, which in the mildest form suggest toleration and acquiescence, and in the
most extreme form suggest solemn respect and distant wonder. By common con-
sent, we are allowed without reproach to pursue our aims; though those aims
sometimes attract but little sympathy. It is not so long since, during one of the
meetings of the Association, one of the leading English newspapers briefly de-
scribed a sitting of this Section in the words, ‘Saturday morning was devoted to
pure mathematics, and so there was nothing of any general interest’: still, such
toleration is better than undisguised and ill-informed hostility. But the attitude
of respect, 1 might almost say of reverence, is even more trying: we mathema-
ticians are supposed to be of a different mould, to live far up the heights above
the driving gales of controversy, breathing a rarer intellectual atmosphere, serene
in impenetrable calm, It is difficult for us to maintain the gravity of demeanour
proper to such superior persons; and perhaps it is best to confess at once that we
are of the earth, earthy, that we have our differences of opinion and of judgment,
and that we can even commit the Machiavelian crime of making blunders,
The other of my reasons for claiming your indulgence is of a graver character,
and consists in the difficulty of framing general explanations about the subject.
The fact is that mathematics do not lend themselves readily to general exposition.
Clifford, it is true, could lecture and enchant his audience: and yet even his
lectures ranged about the threshold of the temple of mathematical knowledge and
made no attempt to reveal the shrines in the sanctuary. The explanation of this
initial difficulty is, however, at hand. Our vocabulary is highly technical, per-
haps as technical as is that of moral philosophers: and yet even the technicality
of a vocabulary can be circumvented by prolixity of statement. But the ideas
and the subject-matter in any branch of our study, when even only moderately
developed, are so abstract as to demand an almost intolerable prolixity of state-
ment if an attempt is made to popularise them, Moreover, of the many results
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 543
obtained, there are few that appeal to an unprofessional sympathy. Adams could
discover a new planet by subjecting observations made of the known planets to the
most profound calculations; and the world, not over curious about the process,
could appreciate the significant result. But such instances are rare; for the
most part, our particular results must remain somewhat intangible, somewhat
incomprehensible, to those who dwell resolutely and completely outside the range
of mathematical knowledge.
What then am I to do? It would be pleasant to me, though it might not
prove satisfying to you, to discourse of the present state of one branch or of several
branches of mathematics, and particularly to indicate what seem to be lines of possi-
ble and probable growth in the future. Instead of pursuing this course, I shall keep
my remarks of a general character as far as possible, and shall attempt, not merely
to describe briefly some of the relations of pure mathematics to other branches of
science, but also to make a bold claim that the unrestricted cultivation of pure
mathematics is desirable in itself and for its own sake. Some—I should like to
believe many—who are here will concede this claim to the fullest extent and
without reservation; but I doubt whether this is so in general. And yet the
claim is one which needs to be made before an English-speaking audience. For it
is a curious fact that, although the United Kingdom has possessed some of the very
greatest of pure-mathematicians in the second half of this century, the subject has
there received but a scant share of attention as compared with that which it has
found in France, in Germany, in Italy, in Sweden and Norway, or in the United
States. Iam not oblivious of the magnificent contributions to other parts of our
science made alike by British leaders and British followers; their fame is known to
the world. But apathy rather than attention has been the characteristic feature of
our attitude towards pure mathematics; and it seems to me a misfortune, alike for the
intellectual activity of the nation and for the progress of the subject, that English
thought has had relatively so small an influence uponits vast modern developments.
Now it is not enough for my purpose to be told that the British Association
includes all science in its scope, and consequently includes pure mathematics. A
statement thus made might be framed in a spirit of mere sufferance ; what 1 wish
to secure is a recognition of the subject as one which, being full of life and over-
flowing with a power of growth, is worthy of the most absorbing devotion. The
most cursory examination of the opinions of scientific men leads at once to the
conclusion, that there are two views of the subject, both accurate so far as
they go, both inadequate whether alone or combined, which to some extent
explain if they do not justify what may be called the English attitude in the past.
Let me deal with these in succession.
One of these estimates has been framed by what is called the practical man;
he regards the subject as a machine which is to provide him with tables, as far
as tables can be calculated ; and with the simplest formule and the most direct
rules, whenever tables cannot be calculated. Results, not methods, are his want ;
it is sufficient for him that an authoritative statement as to a result shall be made;
all else is ignored. And for what is beyond, in the shape of work that does
nothing to meet his special wants, or of the processes that. have led to the results
he uses, he cares little or nothing. In fact, he would regard mathematics as a
collection of formule and an aggregate of processes to grind out numerical results;
whatever else there is in it, may be vain and is useless. In his view, it is to be
the drudge of the practical sciences.
Now it is undoubtedly an advantage in any case that labour should be saved
and time economised ; and where this can be done, either by means of calculations
made once forall, or by processes that lead to results admitting simple formulation,
any mathematician will be glad, particularly if his own work should lead to some
such issue. But he should not be expected to consider that his science
has thus fulfilled its highest purpose; and perhaps he is not unreasonable if, when
he says that such results are but a very small part, and not the most interesting
Ber, of his science, he should claim a higher regard for the whole of it. Indeed,
rather suspect that some change is coming ; the practical man himself is changing.
The developments in the training for a profession, for example, that of an
544 REPORT—1897.
engineer, and the demands that arise in the practice of the profession, are such as to
force gradually a complete change of view. When I look into the text-books that
he uses, it seems to me a necessity that an engineer should now possess a mathe-
matical skill and knowledge in some directions which, not so very long since,
could not freely be found among the professional mathematicians themselves.
And as this change is gradually effected, perhaps the practical man will gradually
change his estimate of the scope of mathematical science.
I pass from the practical men to some of the natural philosophers. Many of
them, though certainly far from all of them, expound what they consider proper
and economical limits to the development of pure mathematics. Their wisdom
gives varied reasons ; it speaks in tones of varied appreciation ; but there can be
no doubt as to its significance and its meaning, Their aim is to make pure mathe-
matics, not indeed the drudge, but the handmaid of the sciences. The demand
requires examination, and deserves respectful consideration, There is no question
of giving or withholding help in furthering, in every possible fashion and with every
possible facility, the progress of natural philosophy ; there is no room for difference
upon that matter. The difference arises when the opinion is expressed or the
advice is tendered that the activity of mathematicians and all their investigations
should be consciously limited, and directed solely and supremely, to the assistance
and the furtherance of natural philosophy.
One group of physicists, adopting a distinctly aggressive attitude in imposing
limits so as to secure prudence in the pursuit of pure mathematics, regard the
subject as useful solely for arriving at results connected with one or other of the
branches of natural philosophy ; they.entertain an honest dislike, not merely to
investigations that do not lead to such results, but to the desirability of carrying out
such investigations; and some of them have used highly flavoured rhetoric in express-
ing their dislike. It would be easy—but unconvincing—to suggest that, with due
modifications in statement, they might find themselves faced with the necessity of
defending some of their own researches against attacks as honestly delivered by
men absorbed in purely practical work. But such a suggestion is no reply, for it
does not in the least touch the question at issue ; and I prefer to meet their con-
tention with a direct negative.
By way of illustration let me take a special instance : it is not selected as being
easier to confute than any other, but because it was put in the forefront by one of
the vigorous advocates of the contention under discussion—a man of the highest
scientific distinction in his day. He wrote: ‘Measured [by the utility of the
power they give] partial differential equations are very useful, and therefore stand
very high [in the range of pure mathematics] as far as the second order. They
apply to that point in the most important way to the great problems of nature
and are worthy of the most careful study. Beyond that order they apply ti
nothing. This last statement, it may be remarked, is inaccurate ; for partial
differential equations, of an order higher than the second, occur—to give merely a
few examples—in investigations as to the action of magnetism on polarised light, in
researches on the vibrations of thick plates or of curved bars, in the discussion of
such hydrodynamical questions as the motion of a cylinder in fluid or the damping
of air-waves owing to viscosity.
Putting this aside, what is more important is the consideration of the
partial differential equations of the second order that are found actually to occur
in the investigations. Each case as it arises is discussed solely in connection with
its particular problem ; one or two methods are given, more or less in the form
of rules; if these methods fail, the attempt at solution subsides. The result
is a collection of isolated processes, about as unsatisfactory a collection as is the
chapter labelled Theory ot Numbers in many text-books on algebra, when it is
suppesed to represent that great branch of knowledge. Moreover, this method
sutlers from the additional disadvantage of suggesting little or no information about
equations of higher orders.
But when the equations are considered, not each by itself but as ranged under
a whole system, then the investigation of the full theory places these processes in
their proper position, gives them a meaning which superficially they do not
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 545
exhibit, and indicates the way in which each solution satisfies the general’ con-
ditions of existence of a solution. For the full theory of partial differential
equations of the second order in, say, two independent variables establishes the con-
ditions of existence of a solution, the limitations upon the conditions which make
that solution unique, the range of variation within which that solution exists, the
modes of obtaining expressions for it when it can be expressed in a finite form, and
an expression for the solution when it cannot be expressed in a finite form. Of
course, the actual derivation of the solution of particular equations is dependent
upon analytical skill, as is always the case in any piece of calculating work; but
the general theory indicates the possibilities and the limitations which determine
the kind of solution to be expected. But not only does the general theory effect
much by way of co-ordinating isolated processes—and, in doing so, lead to new
results—but it gives important indications for dealing with equations of higher orders,
and it establishes certain theorems about them merely by simple generalisations,
In fact, the special case quoted is one more instance, added to the many
instances that have occurred in the past, in which the utilitarian bias in the
progress of knowledge is neither the best stimulus nor in the long run the most
effective guide towards securing results. It may be—it frequently is—at first
the only guide possible, and for a time it continues the best guide, but it does not
remain so for ever. It would be superfluous, after Cayley’s address in 1883, to
show how branches of mathematical physics, thus begun and developed, have
added to knowledge in their own direction; they have suggested, they have even
created, most fascinating branches of pure mathematics, which, when developed,
have sometimes proved of reciprocal advantage to the source from which they
sprang. But for proper and useful development they must be free from the
restrictions which the sterner group of natural philosophers would lay upon
them.
Now I come to another group of natural philosophers who will unreservedly
grant my contention thus far; who will yield a ready interest to our aims and
our ideas, but who consider that the possibility of applying our results in the
domain of physical science should regulate, or at least guide, advance in our work,
Some of these entertain this view because they think that possibility of early appli-
cation is, in the last resource, the real test of useful development; some, because
they fear that the profusion of papers annually published and the bewildering
specialisation in each branch, are without purpose, and may ultimately lead to
isolation or separation of whole sections of mathematics from the general progress
of science.
The danger arising from excess of activity seems to me unreal; at any rate
there are not signs of it at home at the present day, and I would gladly see
more workers at pure mathematics, though not of course at the expense of attention
paid to any other branch. . But for results that are trivial, for investigations that
have no place in organic growth and development, or in illustration and elucidation,
surely the natural end is that they soon subside into mere tricks of ‘curious pleasure
or ingenious pain.’ However numerous they may be, they do not possess intrinsic
influence sufficient to cause evil consequences, and any attempt at repression will,
if successful, inevitably and unwisely repress much more.
More attention must be paid to the suggestion that mathematicians should be
guided in their investigations by the possibility of practical issues. That they are
so guided toa great extent is manifest from many of the papers written in that
spirit ; that they cannot accept practical issues as the sole guide would seem
sufficiently justified by the consideration that practical issues widen from year
to year and cannot be foreseen in the absence of a divining spirit. Moreover, if such
a principle were adopted, many an investigation undertaken at the time for its in-
trinsic interest would be cast on one side unconsidered, because it does not satisfy
an external test that really has nothing to do with the case, and may change its
form of application from time to time.
To emphasise this opinion that mathematicians would be unwise to accept
practical issues as the sole guide or the chief guide in the current of their investiga-
tions, it may be sufficient to recall a few instances from history in which the
1897. NN
546 REPORT—1897.
purely mathematical discovery preceded the practical application and was not an
elucidation or an explanation of observed phenomena. The fundamental properties
of conic sections were known to the Greeks in the fourth and the third centuries
before the Christian era; but they remained unused for a couple of thousand
years until Kepler and Newton found in them the solution of the universe. Need
I do more than mention the discovery of the planet Neptune by Adams and
Leverrier, in which the intricate analysis used had not been elaborated for such
particular applications? Again, it was by the use of refined analytical and
geometrical reasoning upon the properties of the wave-surface that Sir W. R.
Hamilton inferred the existence of conical refraction which, down to the time
when he made his inference, had been ‘ unsupported by any facts observed, and
was even opposed to all the analogies derived from experience.’
It may be said that these are time-honoured illustrations, and that objec-
tions are not entertained as regards the past, but fears are entertained as regards
the present and the future. Very well; let me take one move instance, by choosing
a subject in which the purely mathematical interest is deemed supreme, the theory
of functions of a complex variable. That at least is a theory in pure mathematics,
initiated in that region and developed in that region; it is built up in scores of
papers, and its plan certainly has not been, and is not now, dominated or guided
by considerations of applicability to natural phenomena. Yet what has turned
out to be its relation to practical issues? The investigations of Lagrange and others
upon the construction of maps appear as a portion of the general property of
conformal representation ; which is merely the general geometrical method of
regarding functional relations in that theory. Again, the interesting and important
investigations upon discontinuous two-dimensional fluid motion in hydrodynamics,
made in the last twenty years, can all be, and now are all, I believe, deduced from
similar considerations by interpreting functional relations between complex vari-
ables. In the dynamics of a rotating heavy body, the only substantial extension
of our knowledge made since the time of Lagrange has accrued from associating
the general properties of functions with the discussion of the equations of motion.
Further, under the title of conjugate functions, the theory has been applied to
various questions in electrostatics, particularly in connection with condensers and
electrometers. And, lastly, in the domain of physical astronomy, some of the most
conspicuous advances made in the last few years have been achieved by introducing
into the discussion the ideas, the principles, the methods, and the results of the
theory of functions. It is unnecessary to speak in detail of this last matter, for 1
can refer you to Dr. G. W. Hill’s interesting ‘ Presidential Address to the American
Mathematical Society’ in 1895; but without doubt the refined and extremely
difficult work of Poincaré and others in physical astronomy has been possible only
by the use of the most elaborate developments of some pure mathematical subjects,
developments which were made without a thought of such applications.
Now it is true that much of the theory of functions is as yet devoid of explicit
application to definite physical subjects; it may be that these latest applications
exhaust the possibilities in that direction for any immediate future; and it is also
true that whole regions of other theories remain similarly unapplied. Opinion
and divination as to the future would be as vain as they are unnecessary; but my
contention does not need to be supported by speculative hopes or uninformed
prophecy.
If etki range of human endeavour after sound knowledge there is one subject
that needs to be practical, it surely is Medicine. Yet in the field of Medicine it
has been found that branches such as biology and pathology must be studied for
themselves and be developed by themselves with the single aim of increasing
knowledge; and it is then that they can be best applied to the conduct of living
processes. So also in the pursuit of mathematics, the path of practical utility is
too narrow and irregular, not always leading far. The witness of history shows
that, in the field of natural philosophy, mathematics will furnish more effective
assistance if, in its systematic development, its course can freely pass beyond the
ever-shifting domain of use and application.
What I have said thus far has dealt with considerations arising from the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 547
outside. J have tried to show that, in order to secure the greatest benefit for
those practical or pure sciences which use mathematical results or methods, a
deeper source of possible advantage can be obtained by developing the subject
independently than by keeping the attention fixed chiefly upon the applications that
may bemade. Evenif no more were said, it might be conceded that the unrestricted
study of mathematics would thereby be justified. But there is another side to this
discussion, and it is my wish now to speak very briefly from the point of view of
the subject itself, regarded as a branch of knowledge worthy of attention in
and for itself, steadily growing and full of increasing vitality. Unless some
account be taken of this position, an adequate estimate of the subject cannot
be framed; in fact, nearly the greater part of it will thus be omitted from
consideration. For it is not too much to say that, while many of the most
important developments have not been brought into practical application, yet they
are as truly real contributions to human knowledge as are the disinterested
developments of any other of the branches included in the scope of pure science.
It will readily be conceded for the present purpose that knowledge is good in
and by itself, and that the pursuit of pure knowledge is an occupation worthy of
the greatest efforts which the human intellect can,make. A refusal to concede so
much would, in effect, be a condemnation of one of the cherished ideals of our
race. But the mere pursuit or the mere assiduous accumulation of knowledge is
not the chief object ; the chief object is to possess it sifted and rationalised : in
fact, organised into truth. To achieve this end, instruments are requisite that
may deal with the respective well-defined groups of knowledge; and for one
particular group, we use the various sciences. There is no doubt that, in this
sense, mathematics is a great instrument; there remains for consideration the
decision as to its range and function—are they such as to constitute it an inde-
pendent science, or do they assign it a position in some other science ?
I do not know of any canonical aggregate of tests which a subject should satisfy
before it is entitled to a separate establishment as a science ; but, in the absence of a
recognised aggregate, some important tests can be assigned which are necessary, and
may, perhaps, be sufficient. A subject must be concerned with a range of ideas form-
ing aclass distinct from all other classes; it must deal with them in such a way that
mew ideas of the same kind can be associated and assimilated ; and it should derive
a growing vigour from a growing increase of its range. For its progress, it must
possess methods as varied as its range, acquiring and constructing new processes in
its growth ; and new methods on any grand scale should supersede the older ones,
so that increase of ideas and introduction of new principles should lead both
to simplification and to increase of working power within the subject. As a sign
of its vitality, it must ever be adding to knowledge and producing new results,
even though within its own range it propound some questions that have no answer
and other questions that for a time defy solution; and results already achieved
should be an intrinsic stimulus to further development in the extension of know-
ledge, Lastly, at least among this list, let me quote Sylvester’s words: ‘It must
unceasingly call forth the faculties of observation and comparison; one of its
principal methods must be induction; it must have frequent recourse to experi-
mental trial and verification, and it must afford a boundless scope for the highest
efforts of imagination and invention.’ I do not add as a test that it must
immediately be capable of practical application to something outside its own range,
though of course iis processes may be also transferable to other subjects, or, in
part, derivable from them.
All these tests are satisfied by pure mathematics: it can be claimed without
hesitation or exaggeration that they are satisfied with ample generosity. A
complete proof of this declaration would force me to trespass long upon your time,
and so I propose to illustrate it by references to only two or three branches.
First, I would refer to the general theory of invariants and co-variants. The
fundamental object of that theory is the investigation and the classification of all
dependent functions which conserve their form unaltered in spite of certain genera!
‘transformations effected in the functions upon which they depend. Originally it
began as the observation of a mere analytical property of a particular expression,
NN2
548 REPORT—1897.
interesting enough in itself, but absolutely isolated. This then suggested the
inverse question: What is the general law of existence of such functions if they
exist as more than mere casual and isolated occurrences? and how can they all be
determined ? The answer to these questions led to the construction of the alge-
braical theory of invariants for linear transformations, and subsequently to the
establishment of co-variantive forms in all their classes. Next came the question
of determining what is practically the range of their existence: that is, is there a
complete finite system of such functions in each particular case? and if there is,
how is it composed, when in a form that ought to admit of no further reduction ?
These questions, indeed, are not yet fully answered.
While all this development of the theory of invariants was made upon
these lines, without thought of application to other subjects, it was soon clear that
it would modify them greatly. It has invaded the domain of geometry, and has
almost re-created the analytical theory; but it has done more than this, for the
investigations of Cayley have required a full reconsideration of the very foundations
of geometry. It has exercised a profound influence upon the theory of algebraical
equations; it has made its way into the theory of differential equations; and the
generalisation of its ideas is opening out new regions of the most advanced and
profound functional analysis. And so far from its course being completed, its questions
fully answered, or its interest extinct, there is no reason to suppose that a term
can be assigned to its growth and its influence.
As one reference has already been made to the theory of functions of a com-
plex variable, in regard to some of the ways in which it is providing new methods
in applied mathematics, I shall deal with it quite briefly now. The theory was, in
effect, founded by Cauchy ; but, outside his own investigations, it at first made slow
and hesitating progress. At the present day, its fundamental ideas may be said
almost to govern most departments of the analysis of continuous quantity. On many
of them, it has shed a completely new light; it has educed relations between
them before unknown. It may be doubted whether any subject is at the present
day so richly endowed with variety of method and fertility of resource ; its activity
is prodigious, and no less remarkable than its activity is its freshness. ALI this
development and increase of knowledge are due to the fact that we face at once
the difficulty which even the schoolboy meets in dealing with quadratic equations,
when he obtains ‘impossible’ roots; instead of taking the wily x as our subject of
operation, we take the still wilier « + y./—1 for that purpose, and the result is a
transfiguration of analysis.
In passing, let me mention one other contribution which this theory has made to
knowledge lying somewhat outside our track. During the rigorous revision te
which the foundations of the theory have been subjected in its re-establishment by
Weierstrass, new ideas as regards number and continuity have been introduced.
With him and with others influenced by him, there has thence sprung a new
theory of higher arithmetic ; and with its growth, much has concurrently been
effected in the elucidation of the general notions of number and quantity. I have
already pointed out that the foundations of geometry have had to be re-considered
on account of results finding their origin in the theory of invariants and co-
variants. It thus appears to be the fact that, as with Plato, or Descartes, or
Leibnitz, or Kant, the activity of pure mathematics is again lending some assist-
ance to the better comprehension of those notions of time, space, number,
quantity, which underlie a philosophical conception of the universe.
The theory of groups furnishes another illustration in the same direction. It
was begun as a theory to develop the general laws that govern operations of substi-
tution and transformation of elements in expressions that involve a number of
quantities : it soon revolutionised the theory of equations. Wider ideas succes-
sively introduced have led to successive extensions of the original foundation, and
now it deals with groups of operations of all kinds, finite and infinite, discrete and
continuous, with far-reaching and fruitful applications over practically the whole
of our domain.
So one subject after another might be considered, all leading to the same
conclusion. I might cite the theory of numbers, which has attracted so
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 549
many of the keenest intellects among men, and has grown to be one of the most
beautiful and wonderful theories among the many in the wide range of pure
mathematics ; or without entering upon the question whether geometry is a
pure or an applied science, { might review its growth alike in its projective,
its descriptive, its analytical, and its numerative divisions; or I might trace the
influence of the idea of continuity in binding together subjects so diverse as
arithmetic, geometry, and functionality. What has been said already may,
however, sutlice to give some slight indication of the vast and ever-widening
extent of pure mathematics. No less than in any other science knowledge gathers
force as it grows, and each new step once attained becomes the starting-point for
steady advance in further exploration, Mathematics is one of the oldest of the
sciences; it is also one of the most active, for its strength is the vigour of perpetual
youth.
In conclusion, a few words are due to the personal losses caused since -
eur last meeting. It is but little more than two years since Cayley passed
away; his life had been full of work, unhasting and unresting in the almost
placid course of his great mental strength. While Cayley was yet alive, one name
used to be coupled with his when reference was made to English pure
mathematics; the two great men were regarded as England’s not unworthy
contribution to the exploration of the most abstract of the sciences. ‘These fellow-
workers, diverse in temperament, in genius, in method, were bound by a friendship
that was ended only by death. And now Sylvester too has gone; full of years
and honours; though he lived long, he lived young, and he was happily active
antil practically the very end. Overflowing with an exuberant vitality alike
in thought and work, he preserved through life the somewhat rare faculty of
instilling his enthusiasm into others. Among his many great qualities, not
the least forcible were his vivid imagination, his eager spirit, and his abundant
eloquence. When he spoke and wrote of his investigations, or of the subject to
which the greater part of his thinking life had been devoted, he did it with the
fascination of conviction; and at times—for instance, in his presidential address to
this Section at Exeter in 1869—he became so possessed with his sense of the high
mission of mathematics, that his utterances had the lofty note of the prophet and
the seer.
One other name must be singled out as claiming the passing tribute of our
homage; for, in February last, the illustrious and venerable Weierstrass died.
He was unconnected with our Association; but science is wider than our body,
and we can recognise and salute a master of marvellous influence and unchallenged
eminence.
Thus, even to mention no others, pure mathematics has in a brief period lost
three of the very greatest of its pioneers and constructors who have ever lived.
We know their genius; and the world of thought, though poorer by their loss, is
richer by their work.
Tho’ much is taken, much abides, and tho’ .
We are not now that strength which in old days
Moved earth and heaven ; that which we are, we are:
One equal temper of heroic hearts,
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.
Knowledge cannot halt though her heroes fall: the example of their life-long
devotion to her progress, and the memory of their achievements, can inspire us
and, if need be, can stimulate us in realising the purpose for which we are banded
together as an Association—the advancement of science.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Seismological Investigations
See Reports, p. 129.
550 REPORT—1897.
2, Report on Electrolysis and Elec'ro-chemictry.
See Reports, p. 227.
3. On the Unification of Time. By Joun A. Paterson, JILA.,
President of the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto.
(1) Time reckoning, as at-present conducted, presents curious anomalies. The
civil day begins at midnight and euds at the following midnight. The nautical
day begins at noon and concludes at noon of the next civilday. The astronomical
day begins at noon and ends at the following noon; it is therefore apparent that
any given date may extend over or into three different days.
(2) Principally through the efforts of members of the American Society of
Civil Engineers and Mr. Sandford Fleming, now Sir Sandford Fleming, an inter-
national conference was convened at Washington to consider the whole question
of time reform. The representatives of twenty-five nations, as well as the
Canadian representative named above, met accordingly in Washington in 1884 at
the invitation of the President of the United States, and after a conference extend-
ing over a month passed seven resolutions, the first five of which have been prac-
tically and generally accepted by the civilised world. The sixth resolution of that.
yemarkable conference was carried unanimously, and is as follows: ‘That the
conference expresses the hepe that as soon as may be practicable the astronomical
and nautical days will be arranged everywhere to begin at mean midnight.’
(8) The question of time reform remained in this position until the year 1893,
when the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, in co-operation with the
Canadian Institute, appointed a joint committee, with Sir Sandford Fleming as
chairman, to suggest the best means of ascertaining the views of astronomers.
throughout the world. This committee accordingly addressed by circular letter:
the following question to astronomers and other scientific men throughout the
world :—
‘Is it desirable, all interests considered, that on and after January 1, 190],
the astronomical day should everywhere begin at mean midnight ?’
The replies received were in number 171, of which 108 were favourable to the
change, and 63 unfavourable. In classifying the replies from astronomers accord-
ing to the countries from which they were received, 18, including England and the
United States, were in favour of the change, and 4 were unfavourable to the
change. Classifying the results according to the shipping, the countries favouring”
the change represent 65 per cent. of the world’s marine.
(4) Captain W. Nelson Greenwood, of Lancaster, England, ably assisted the
Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto in obtaining the opinion of ship-
masters on the question. The result was that 98 per cent. of those heard from
were in favour of the change, representing a total tonnage of 455,810,
(5) An effort towards securing unanimity amongst the nations of the world
has been put forth by the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto and the
Canadian Institute by communications addressed to the Lords Commissioners:
of the Admiralty through his Excellency the Governor-General. In June 1897
the American Society of Civil Engineers passed a resolution in favour of the reform,
and on June 28, 1897, the Royal Society of Canada passed a resolution to request
the British Association to co-operate with the Royal Society and other Canadian
societies to influence her Majesty's Government to adopt the proposed change.
(6) Hipparchus, the father of astronomy, counted his hours from midnight to
midnight. Ptolemy changed this and counted from noon to noon. The present:
system is a Ptolemaic error. In 1804 La Place proposed to unify astronomical
time with civil time, and it was so done until Le Verrier retrograded to the old
system. Le Bureau des Longitudes in 1894 reported in favour of the sixth
resolution of the Washington Conference.
(7) Very many. high authorities can be quoted, such as Sir John Herschel,
Cleveland Abbé, Burckhalter, Comstock, J. E. Gore, Hadden, Garrett P. Serviss,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 551
Captain Abney, Lewis Swift, Trouvelot, Dr. Max Wolf, Mendenhall, Mr. Christie,
the English Astronomer Royal, and Commodore Franklin, who wrote these words
from the United States Naval Observatory, Washington:—‘It seems to be
eminently proper that the nation which called the conference should be among
the first to adopt its recommendations.’ The large shipping firm, Lloyds, are much
in favour of unification.
(8) If shipping interests, upon which the Empire so much depends, desire
unification, the nautical astronomers, even though not a unit, should be asked to
accommodate their practice to suit navigators. The nautical astronomer was
made for the navigator, and not the navigator for him.
(9) It is therefore hoped that the British Association for the Advancement of
Science will lend its aid in bringing this subject before the nations of the world for
final consideration.
4, Preliminary Note on Photographic Records of Objective Combination
Tones. By A. W. Ricker, £.2.S., R. W. Forsytu, and R. Sowrer,
The method of detecting the combination tones by the resonance of a fork was
the same as that used by Riicker and Edser (‘ Phil. Mag.’ 39, p. 341, 1895). The
interference bands were thrown upon an opaque screen pierced with a narrow slit,
behind which was a revolving cylinder covered with photographic paper. When
the bands were undisturbed, the traces were parallel straight lines, but these
became wavy when the fork was set in vibration. Ail the principal results
obtained by Riicker and Edser were confirmed, and some new experiments were
made with Konig’s wave-siren.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Determination of the Surface Tension of Water, and of certain
Dilute Aqueous Solutions by means of the Method of Ripples.! By
N. Ernest Dorsty, Ph.D.
The method employed is a development of that used by Lord Rayleigh. But
by mounting the mirrors on arms rigidly attached to the carriage of a dividing
engine, and by viewing the light reflected from the surface of the liquid with a
telescope mounted on the carriage and provided with a spider line, I have succeeded
in measuring the length of the waves directly with the dividing engine, and with
considerable accuracy.
By means of a small lens the horizontal beam of light is rendered parallel
before reflection from either mirror. The surface of the liquid was cleaned by
means of a flexible brass hoop, as in Lord Rayleigh’s work. In reducing the results
L have used Lord Kelvin’s complete formula. 1
In a series of twenty-one determinations of the surface tension of water the
average was 73:24 dynes per centimetre at 18° C., or 75'98 dynes per centimetre at
0° C.; and the average departure of a single result from the mean of the entire
series was only one-fifth of 1 per cent. This value differs from the one found by
Lord Rayleigh by about 1 per cent., which is his estimate of the accuracy of his
determination, and it agrees with the value found by an entirely different method by
M. Sentis in February of this year.
The concentration of the solutions was varied from one-tenth normal to normal, but
most of the work was on solutions more dilute than one-half normal, and hence these
results are not strictly comparable with those obtained by others who have worked
on solutions not so dilute; but, on the whole, the values here found are in accord
1 Published in the Physical Review, vol. v,, Nos. 27 and 28, Sept. and Oct. 1897.
552 REPORT—1897.-.
with those obtained by others. At these great dilutions the surface tension is a
linear function of the concentration in every case studied.
to
On a New Method of Determining the Specific Heat of a Liquid in
terms of the International Electrical Units. By H. L. CatLenpar,
MA. F.RS., Professor of Physics, and H. T. Barnes, IA.Sc.,
Demonstrator of Physics, of McGill University, Montreal.
In view of the probable adoption of the Joule or Watt-second as the absolute
unit of heat, it becomes of special interest at the present time to make direct
determinations of the natural thermal units in terms of the electrical standards
now universally adopted.
In recent years the specific heat of water has been very carefully determined in
this manner by Grifliths, and also by Schuster and Gannon. These observers
employed the usual calorimetric method, in which a mass of water is heated
through a carefully observed range of temperature by means of a measured
quantity of electrical energy. Although their methods differed widely in points
of detail, their results agreed to within one part in a thousand with each other,
But, as Schuster points out, the result so obtained by the electrical method for the
specific heat of water differs by one part in 400 from the result obtained by direct
mechanical measurements of Joule, Rowland, and Miculescu.
Whatever the cause of this discrepancy, it seemed desirable to repeat the
electrical comparison by an entirely different method, to avoid any possible source
of constant error which may have remained unsuspected in the calorimetric method
as usually practised.
The method which we have adopted consists in passing an electric current
through a fine tube, through which a steady current of liquid is flowing. The
electrical measurements required are the current and the difference of potential
between the ends of the tube. The thermal measurements are the steady difference
of temperature and the quantity of liquid flowing in a given time.
The electrical measurements are all made on one potentiometer, preferably a
Thomson-Varley slide-box, and present no difficulty, as it is easy to keep the
current steady to one part in a thousand for an hour or more, and there is no
change in the resistance of the circuit. :
The difference of temperature between the inflowing and outflowing liquid,
which is also very nearly constant throughout the duration of the experiment, is
measured by means of a differential platinum thermometer. The instruments used
for this purpose, consisting of a compensated slide-wire resistance box and pair of
thermometers, are the same as were exhibited by Prof. Callendar at the con-
versazione of the Royal Society in 1893, on which occasion the instruments were
used for demonstrating the lowering of the melting-point of ice under one
atmosphere of pressure. Readings can be taken to the ten-thousandth part of a
degree on a rise cf temperature of ten degrees.
The current of liquid is kept steady by means of an automatic electromagnetic
device, and the quantity flowing in a given time, the interval being also
automatically recorded on an electric chronograph, is determined by weighing.
It will be observed that in this method, as compared with that usually employed,
since the temperature distribution is exceedingly steady, it is not necessary to
determine the thermal capacity of the calorimetric tube with any degree of accuracy.
The rate of external loss of heat is also much more steady and more easily
determined, and there is no question of lag of the thermometers.
The external loss of heat, which is generally the largest and the most uncertain
correction in all calorimetric experiments, can, in the present instance, be made
extremely small and regular by the expedient of enclosing the calorimetric tube, &c.,
in a glass jacket, which is exhausted as perfectly as possible and then hermetically
sealed, so that the vacuum cannot suffer further change. The loss can also be
measured and eliminated in a very simple manner. - If observations are taken with
Se —eeEEeeeE—e—EeEEEeEeEeeee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 553
different values of the electric and liquid currents, the values in each case being
adjusted to give the same rise of temperature, it is clear that the temperature
distribution, and therefore the external loss of heat, will be very nearly the same.
The total loss can be reduced to two or three per cent. of the heat supply on a rise
of temperature of 1U° C., and the residual differences in any set of observations are
but a small fraction of the total loss, and are easily corrected.
We have so far applied the method only to the cases of water and mercury,
which present most interest. There is no difficulty, however, in extending the
method to the case of other Jiquids. We have made special arrangements for
applying the method to the determination of the variation of the specific heat with
temperature, for which purpose it is peculiarly suited, and was, in fact, originally
devised. The apparatus may be inspected at the McDonald Physics Building.
The essential parts were exhibited at the meeting.
In applying the method to water we have found no difficulty in obtaining
steady readings over the range 0° to 50°, and we hope to extend the result to 75°.
Special arrangements, which have proved perfectly effective, are made to avoid
loss by evaporation.
The results of the observations cannot as yet be published, as they are not
sufficiently numerous to merit attention, and still require the application of certain
final corrections. The variation to be measured is so small that many of these
corrections may considerably alter the result.
3. On the Behaviour of Argonin X Ray Tubes. By H. L. CAutenvar, JLA.,
F.R.S., Professor of Physics, and N. N. Evans, M.A.Sc., Lecturer in
Chemistry, of McGill University, Montreal.
In continuation of some experiments made by Professor Callendar in the early
part of 1896, the authors have studied the behaviour of argon and some other
gases in X Ray tubes of various types. The phenomena presented by a tube
filled with carefully dried and purified argon are in many respects peculiar. Under
certain conditions the gas appears to be absorbed with extreme rapidity, and with
intense sputtering and heating of the kathode. The phenomena appear to depend
on the complete elimination of hydrogen from the electrodes, as well as on the
degree of vacuum in the tube and the intensity of the current. From experiments
on other gases the authors conclude that hydrogen is the most suitable gas for
X Ray tubes, and that as a rule the residual gas present is hydrogen. It is possible
that the observed absorption of the argon is apparent merely, and corresponds to a
sudden increase of the resistance of the tube at a certain stage of the exhaustion,
and not to an actual disappearance of the gas.
4. On the Fuel Supply and the Air Supply of the Earth.
By Lord Ketvin, LR. -
All known fuel on the earth is probably residue of ancient vegetation. One ton
average fuel takes three tons oxygen to burn it, and therefore its vegetable origin,
decomposing carbonic acid and water by power of sunlight, gave three tons oxygen
to our atmosphere. Every square metre of earth’s surtace bears ten tons of air, of
which two tons is oxygen. The whole surface is 126 thousand millions of acres, or
510 million millions of square metres. Hence there is not more than 340 million
million tons of fuel on the earth, and this is probably the exact amount, because
probably all the oxygen in our atmosphere came from primeval vegetation.
’ The surely available coal supply of England and Scotland was estimated by
the Coal Supply Commission of 1871, which included Sir Roderick Murchison and
Sir Andrew Ramsay among its members, as being 146 thousand willion tons.
This is approximately six-tenths of a ton per square metre of area of Great Britain.
To burn it all would take one and eight-tenths of a ton of oxygen, or within two-
554 REPORT—1897.
tenths of a ton of the whole oxygen of the atmosphere resting on Great Britain.
The Commission estimated fifty-six thousand million tons more of coal as probably
existing at present in lower and less easily accessible strata, It may therefore be
considered as almost quite certain that Great Britain could not burn all its own
coal with its own air, and therefore that the coal of Britain is considerably in
excess of fuel supply of rest of world reckoned per equal areas, whether of land or
sea.
5. A Canadian and Imperial Hydrographic Survey. By ALEXANDER
Jonnson, J0.A., DL.D., Professor of Mathematics, Vice-Principal,
McGill University.
In 1884, at the Montreal meeting of the Association, a paper was submitted to
Section A by the present writer, in consequence of which a Committee was
appointed for the ‘ Promotion of Tidal Observations in Canada.’ The writer was
made Secretary, and subsequently Chairman. This Committee, supported by the
Royal Society of Canada and by those specially interested in navigation, succeeded,
after many delays, in getting the Canadian Government, in 1890, to make a grant
for tidal observations, which were to include, not only the rise and fall of tide, but
also the tidal currents. The grant was continued from that time until the present
year, when it was reduced, so that the survey of the currents could not be con-
tinued this summer, although an investigation of the utmost importance for the
navigation of the St. Lawrence, more especially when the ‘ Fast Atlantic Line’ is
going to be established. Possibly the entire grant is imperiled.
It is believed that this reduction would probably not have taken place had
there been in existence a fully organised Hydrographic Survey for Canada to
advise the Government. The Royal Society of Canada had some time ago recom-
mended the creation of such a department, and at its recent meeting in Halifax
appointed a deputation to present its views to the Government.
The work of such a department can probably be most effectively carried out
with the co-operation of the Admiralty.
The object of the present communication is to seek the advice and aid of the
British Association in inducing the Imperial and Canadian Governments to act
together in making the necessary arrangements, which, if found satisfactory, might
possibly be extended to other colonies, and thus the basis of an ‘ Imperial Hydro-
graphic Survey’ might be laid.
6. On the Specific Heat of Superheated Steam.
By Professor J. A. Ewine, /.2.S., and Professor Stantey DUNKERLEY,
The authors measure the amount of heat required to heat steam above its tem-
perature of saturation by allowing dry saturated steam to pass through a porous
plug and observing its temperature and pressure before and immediately after the
passage. The total heat of the steam before passing the plug is known from the
experiments of Regnault, and this is equal to the total heat of saturated steam at
the pressure beyond the plug plus the amount of heat required to heat steam at
that (constant) pressure from the temperature of saturation up to the observed
temperature. Hence the second of these two quantities of heat is found. In pre-
liminary experiments the pressure beyond the plug was atmospheric, and the
observations consequently related to the superheating of steam under atmospheric
pressure. The experiments have not yet been carried far enough to determine
with certainty what happens during the very first stages of superheating, but it
appears from the preliminary observations that the mean specific heat for the first
ten degrees of superheating is less than the mean specific heat for larger amounts
of superheating. At higher temperatures of superheating under this pressure the
specific heat approximates to the value 0:48, as determined in the direct measure-.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 555
ments of Regnault. It is the authors’ intention to continue the experiments, and
extend the method to higher temperatures and to higher pressures in order to
obtain results that will be applicable to present engineering practice.
7. New Varieties of Kathode Rays. By Sttvanus P. Tuompson, #.2.S.
8. On the Spectra of Oxygen, Sulphur, and Selenium.
By C. Runce and F. PAscHen.
The spectrum of oxygen when an electric current is passed through a vacuum
tube containing that body, and when no spark gap or Leyden jar is interposed in
the circuit, closely resembles the spectrum of helium. It consists of six ‘ series’ of
lines forming two sets of three each. Each set of lines is very similar to the whole
spectrum of any one of the alkali metals. There is therefore no more spectroscopic
evidence in favour of the supposition that helium consists of two elements than
there is for oxygen. Under similar circumstances sulphur and selenium give out
each a spectrum closely resembling one of the sets of three series. But we are not
sure whether the other set does not find its analogy also. The three sets in the
spectra of oxygen, sulphur, and selenium, which are analogous to one another, all
consist of triplets of a very marked character, the difference of wave numbers
increasing as we pass from oxygen to sulphur and from sulphur to selenium in
roughly approximate proportion to the squares of their atomic weights. Thespec-
trum of each of the three bodies, as a whole, is situated further to the side of the
smaller wave numbers—that is to say, it consists of slower oscillations the greater
the atomic weight of the body.
9. The Influence of Pressure on Spectral Lines.
By J. Larmor, F.2.S.
A definite picture of the relations of the «ther. and matter is obtained by
assuming the material molecule to be made up of electrons or intrinsic strain-
centres in the ether.? A system of electrons describing steady orbits round each
other, after the manuer of the bodies of a solar or stellar system, would represent
a molecule ; any disturbance of this steady motion would induce radiation across
the zther, which would last until it had reduced the motion again to a state of
steadiness. The natural configuration of a molecule would, however, be the
unique one of minimum energy corresponding to its intrinsic constant rotational
momenta, for the influence of radiation would set towards this configuration, and
would not allow much departure from it.
The wave-lengths of luminous radiation are about 10° times the linear dimen-
sions of the molecules; thus the intrinsic luminous periods are those of rather
slow periodic inequalities (in the sense of physical astronomy) in the orbital
motions. This circumstance allows us to roughly appreciate the order of magni-
tude of the influence of the surrounding medium on these free periods. On account
of their slowness the zthereal oscillations which are governed by the inequalities.
of the orbits of the electrons are sensible over the space occupied by some thousands
of molecules each way, and this number is so great as to tempt us to form an idea
of the influence of these imbedded molecules by considering them to form a con-
tinuous medium. If now the moiecules were vibrating in a homogeneous medium,
say, surrounded by simple ether, the free periods would vary inversely as the square.
root of the elasticity of this ambient medium, provided we could assume that
change of the medium did not involve change of type of the steady intramolecular
orbits. This latter circumstance, however, will also operate to alter the periods,
" 1 See Wiedemann, Annalen, 61, p. 641, 1897.
2 Cf, Phil. Trans., 1895, pp. 695-743.
556 REPORT—1897.
and will be of the same order of importance as the other. Now the effective elas-
ticity of the gaseous medium surrounding the vibrating molecule, when thus
treated as continuous, varies inversely as its dielectric constant. We should thus
expect on the above hypothesis that increase of pressure would lower the free
periods roughly in the same ratio as it raises the square root of the dielectric
constant. To reduce to figures: a shift of #; of the distance between the D lines
would correspond to 6A/A=3.10-*, while the dielectric constant of air at 0° C.
and atmospheric pressure is 10006. Thus this shift towards the less refrangible
end would.indicate a change of density of the surrounding air of the order of
that due to a pressure of ;4, of an atmosphere at 0° C.
This would make the effect about 10° times too large for the observations :
thus the main seat of the ether strain maintaining the vibrations of the molecule
is the free ether immediately surrounding it, and the loss of stiffness due to the
other molecules which are some way off diminishes the free periods only about
10-? times as much as if it were averaged right up to the vibrator. With
similarly constituted lines, it is the relative shift d5\/A that is proportional to the
ehange of density of the medium.
10. Changes in the Wave-frequencies of the Lines of Emission Spectra of
Elements. By W. J. Humpureys.
For more than two years the best spectroscopic equipment of the Johns Hopkins
University has been devoted chiefly to the study of changes in the wayve-frequencies
of the lines of emission spectra. {t was found, soon after the investigation was
begun, that a change in atmospheric pressure about an electric are, in which a
substance was being volatilised, caused a change in the wave-frequencies of the
spectral lines so produced. In studying this pheuomenon a concave Rowland
grating of the largest size was used, and the electric arc was formed in a closed
cylinder provided with a quartz window, the pressure being obtained by pumping
air into this cylinder to any extent desired—usually till the gauge registered trom
six to twelve atmospheres.
Besides a number of eye observations several hundred photographs were taken,
and a large number of lines carefully measured. In fact, the spectrum of almost
every known metallic element has been examined at various pressures.
No lines were found to shift more than a fraction (usually less than the tenth)
of an Angstrém unit, but the shifts are of such regularity that as the work pro-
gressed several interesting relations between the shifts of the lines, the conditions
under which the lines are produced, and the elements producing them hecame
evident. Some of these relations (given below) may be more or less accidental,
while doubtless others of as great importance have been overlooked. However
the labour of the investigation was spent in determining the facts in regard to the
lines examined, and not in hunting after empirical relations.
It is impossible, of course, in a mere abstract to enter into details of any
description, and I shall therefore confine myself to the following summary of
results, These are :—
1. Increase in pressure around the are causes all isolated lines to shift towards
the red end of the spectrum.
This is entirely independent of the manner of the lines spreading out, and is
the same for a line when reversed as when it is fine and sharp. Even those lines
which, like the sodium lines \3302 and A3303, spread to the violet give reversals
that shift to the red.
2. The shift is directly proportional to the increase of pressure about the arc.
3. It does not depend upon the partial pressure of the gas or vapour producing
the lines, but upon the total pressure. In other words, it is not affected by
quantity of material in the arc.
4, The shift of the lines seems to be nearly or quite independent of tem-
perature, :
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 557
5. The lines of bands, at least those of cyanogen and of aluminium oxide, are
not | ae 4 shifted.
6. The shifts of similar lines of a given element are to each other as the wave-
lengths of the lines themselves.
7. Different series of lines (as described by Kayser and Runge) of a given ele-
ment are shifted to different extents. When reduced to the same wave-length
these shifts are to each other approximately as one to two to four for the
principal, first, and second subordinate series respectively.
8. Similar lines of an element, though not belonging to a recognised series, are
shifted equally (when reduced to the same wave-length), but to a different extent
than are those unlike them.
9. Shifts of similar lines of different substances are to each other, in most
cases, inversely as the absolute temperatures of the melting points of the sub-
stances that produce them.
10. The shifts of similar lines of different elements are to each other approxi-
mately as the products of the coefficients of linear expansion and cuhe roots of the
atomic volumes of the respective elements (in the solid state) to which they are
due.
11. Elements belonging to the same half of a Mendelejeff group give lines which
shift proportionately to the cube roots of their respective atomic weights.
12. The lines produced by those substances which, in the solid form, have the
greatest coefficients of linear expansion have the greatest shifts. The converse is
also true.
13. The shift of similar lines is a periodic function of atomic weight, and
consequently may be compared with any other property of the elements which
itself is a periodic function of their atomic weights.
A portion of this investigation was conducted jointly with Dr. J. F. Mohler,
and the whole of it under the direction of Professor Rowland and Dr. Ames,
Directors of the Physical Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University.
11. An Experiment with a Bundle of Glass Plates.
, By Professor Sirvanus P. THompson, £.2.S.
12. A Tangent Galvanometer.
By Professor Sirvanus P. Tuompson, FR.
13. On the Constitution of the Electric Spark.
By Artuur Scuuster, LPS.
ff the spark of a Leyden jar discharge is examined by means of a spectroscope
it is found that the metallic lines are not confined to the immediate neighbourhood
of the poles, but are sometimes seen several millimetres away from the electrodes,
from which they must have been projected with considerable velocity.
How to measure the velocity of projection has always seemed to me to bea
problem of interest. Apart from the information a knowledge of that velocity
might give us concerning the mechanism of the spark discharge, it isnot impossible:
that light might be thrown on some important points in spectrum analysis
which are at present under discussion. Thus, for instance, if the speed with which
a molecule is pushed forward into the centre of the spark depends on molecular:
weight, we might hope to separate from each other those lines of a spectrum which
belong to different molecular combinations.
At various intervals during a number of years I had made unsuccessful
attempts to deal with this problem, when I became acquainted with the elegant
558 REPORT—1897.
method used by Professor Dixon in some of his recent experiments, in which a
photograph is taken on a film fixed to the rim of a rapidly revolving wheel.
On trial it was found that the molecular speed is sufficiently small to be
measured by this method.
The experiments were conducted by M. Gustav Hemsalech, to whose care
and skill their success is largely due. Without entering into a detailed descrip-
tion of the apparatus it will be sufficient to say that the photographs exhibited
to the Section were taken on a film moving with a linear speed of about 80 metres
in a direction at right angles to the slit of the spectroscope. While the air lines
appear perfectly straight, though slightly broadened, the metallic lines are
inclined and curved. The spark was taken from five Leyden jars, charged by
means of a Voss machine, the distance between the electrodes being about
lem. A single spark produces a good spectrum, reaching approximately from
A = 5000 to A = 4000.
Photograph I. is that of a spark taken between zinc poles on a stationary film.
It serves to show the sharpness of the lines in a spectrum of zinc and air.
Photograph II. was taken immediately after Z., but on the moving film; the
curvature of the zinc lines shows that the velocity of the molecules is gradually
diminishing away from the poles. Close to them it must be very large. The
average velocity up to a distance of one millimetre from the electrode is
2000 ms, and at a distance of four millimetres. This is reduced to something
like 400.
Photograph III. The upper pole is still zinc, while in the lower pole a piece
of metallic bismuth has been substituted. The three most refrangible ones, that
at 4259, being the strongest of them, are decidedly more inclined than the zine
lines, while the line 4560 seems almost straight.
Photograph IV. The poles are again zinc and bismuth, but both poles are
moistened with a solution of calcium chloride. The photograph reveals the
curious fact that Bi 4259, which was very much curved on J/J., is now much
less so. The comparison with Ca 4226 clearly shows the greater inclination of
the calcium line. The latter is more inclined than H and K,and ifthe difference
in molecular velocity is due to differences in molecular weight, this would show
that H and K belong to a simpler molecule than 4226,
I do not desire to express any opinion respecting the bearing of these experi-
ments on the hypothesis of dissociation, as some of the photographs reveal rather
puzzling appearances which must first be cleared up before any certain conclusions
can be drawn.
All the photographs show clearly that the luminosity of the metallic particles
is a phenomenon subsequent to the discharge proper which takes place through the
air. Even close to the pole the brightest parts of the metal lines are displaced, as
compared with the brightest part of the air line. If we could fix our attention
on a point halfway between two zinc poles we should see this point flash out
twice with a dark interval between the luminosities. At the moment the spark
passes, the air becomes luminous, and remains so for a period, which, in our
experiments, did not exceed 5555,5 of a second. After an interval of about
soyo0 part the zinc molecules arrive at the centre of the spark, and remain
Tuminescent for an appreciable time with diminishing intensity. The numbers
are of course approximate, as they must depend on the intensity of the spark.
The photographs submitted had been enlarged about five times, but a few
prints taken from the original negatives were also shown.
The experiments were made with comparatively rough appliances, and the
optical arrangement was defective in several respects. A more perfect apparatus
is in course of construction, and I hope to continue the research in conjunction
with M. Hemsalech. The preliminary results which have been described are suf-
ficient to show that the method is likely to furnish interesting information.
ms
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 559
14. A Reduction of Rowland’s Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
to the Paris Hydrogen Scale. By Wm. 8. Day, Ph.D., Columbia
University.
The measurement of the mechanical equivalent of heat made by Professor
Henry A. Rowland at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore in 1877-79 }
is probably the best one that has thus far been made in which the heat was pro-
duced by the expenditure of mechanical energy. Later careful determinations
by electrical methods, however, give results higher by about one part in four
hundred. The discrepancy may be due to errors in the measurement of energy or
in the measurement of temperature. Rowland’s measurement of temperature was
based on comparisons made between an air thermometer and three Baudin
mercurial thermometers, by which he reduced his measurements to the absolute
thermo-dynamic scale. It was the object of the investigation described here to
compare these thermometers with the hydrogen scale of the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures at Sévres, near Paris, and make a recalculation of his
value of the mechanical equivalent accordingly.
For this purpose three Tonnelot thermometers, which had been carefully studied
at the International Bureau, and compared with their standards at several points
of the scale, were obtained and compared with the three principal thermometers
used by Rowland in his experiment. These comparisons were made in a horizontal
comparison tank, designed and constructed for the purpose. Rowland’s thermo-
meters were originally compared and used in a vertical position, but the horizontal
position was chosen for these comparisons for several reasons of a practical nature.
The pressure coefficients of the thermometers were measured, however, and a
pressure correction was applied to each reading. In all] other respects the attempt
was made to use Rowland’s thermometers in the way in which he used them,
The zeros of the Tonnelot thermometers were determined immediately after
each measurement at any given temperature. The ice used in taking the zeros was
artificial ice, and was very pure. The thermometers weve always read in taking
zeros, and in the comparison tank, by means of a reading telescope and micrometer.
From the comparisons made, corrections were obtained for each of Rowland’s
thermometers, which, when applied to their indications reduced to the absolute
scale by the tables given in his paper on the mechanical equivalent, would make
them agree with the Paris hydrogen scale. From these corrections, Rowland’s
value of the mechanical equivalent was recalculated, taking into account each
individual experiment, the thermometers used in it, and the number of observations
made with each thermometer. The original values and the corrected values found
in this way are compared at several temperatures in the following table. The
numbers are in the C.G.S. system and hydrogen scale, and represent the number of
ergs required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree on the
hydrogen scale.
Temperature Old Value Corrected Griffiths Schuster andGannon?
% 4209 x10! | 4203 x 10! 2 cr.
10 4200 x 10* 4196 x 10* — _
15 4189 x 10! 4188 x 10* 4200 x 10# —
20 4179 x 10* 4181 x 10* 4193 x 10* 4191 x 10*
25 4173 x 10! 4176 x 10' 4187 x 10* —
30 4171 x 10" 4174 x 10* _— —
35 4173 x 10* 4175 x 10* = —
These values give the same variation for the specific heat of water between 15°
and 25° as Griffiths’ experiment does ; since if we divide Rowland’s corrected values
1 Proc. Am. Acad. (15), 1879, p. 75,
2 Phil, Trans., 1895, 186A, p. 458.
560 REPORT—1897.
at 15°, 20°, and 25°, by his value at 15°, and do the same for Griffiths’ values, we
get in each case as quotients the numbers 1, 0:998, 0:997.+
This seems to indicate that the discrepancy between Rowland’s results and those
obtained electrically is not one of thermometry, but an error in the measurement of
energy, possibly in the standards of electrical resistance, or of electromotive force.
[A note concerning these comparisons appeared in the Johns Hopkins University
Circular for June 1897. The corrected values for the mechanical equivalent given
in it differ a little from those given above, owing to a slight error in the method
used at first in reducing the comparisons. |
15. A Comparison of Rowland’s Mercury Thermometer with a Griffiths’
Platinum Thermometer. By F. Mautory and C. W. WarpnNer.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The Section was divided into two Departments.
The following Reports and Papers were read :-—
DEPARTMENT J.—MATHEMATICS AND Puysics.
1. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions.
See Reports, p. 127.
2. On the Solution of the Cubic Equation. By ALEXANDER MACFARLANE.
In a paper recently contributed to the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers” the author showed that the two roots of a quadratic equation may
always be viewed as a pair of conjugate complex quantities, either circular or
hyperbolic. The real roots can be viewed as hyperbolic complex quantities. In
this paper it is shown how the two binomials which occur in Cardan’s formula
may be treated as complex quantities, either circular or hyperbolic; and a general
method is given for deducing all the roots of the cubic, whether the formula is
reducible or apparently irreducible. The trigonometrical meaning is shown of the
two non-real roots in the reducible case: they involve the cosine of an angle,
which is partly circular, partly hyperbolic.
3. The Historical Development of the Abelian Functions.
By Dr. Harris Hancock.—See Reports, p. 246.
4. On a Notation in Vector Analysis. By Professor O. Hennrict, 7.R.S.
The notations in use to denote the different products of vectors are not suf-
ficiently expressive, and not conyenient in use. The anthor therefore proposes
1 Griffiths, Phil. Trans., 184 A, 1893, p. 361; Phil. Wag., 40, pp. 437, and 447, 1895.
2 * Application of Hypérbolic Analysis to the Discharge of a Condenser.’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 561
to inclose each product in brackets, and to indicate the nature of the products by
the kind of bracket used, viz., round brackets for the scalar-product, square brackets
for the vector-product. Thus, if small Greek letters denote vectors
(a8) =scalar-product,
[a8 } = vector-product.
Then is
(a8) = (Ba); [a8}= — [8a].
If neither a nor B vanishes, then is
(a8) =0 the condition that a L8,
[a8] =0 ” ” ” af/B.
The product (aa) is denoted by a’.
If sums of vectors are tq be multiplied, the factors are separated by a vertical
line |. Thus the products of a+ into y are written (e+ | y), &c. Then is
(2+8 | y)=(ay) + (By); [¢+8 | y]=[ay]+ [By].
For these factors we have the products (a[@y]}) and [a[Sy]]. In the former the
law of association holds, and the square brackets may be left out, so that
(ay) = (a[By]) = (a8 ]y).
This is the volume of the parallelepiped, with a, 8, y as edges. “ (a8y) =0 is the
condition that a, 8, and y lie in a plane.
There is, besides, the formula
[a[Py]] = (ay)8— (a8).
These formule contain the whole of the algebra of vectors as far as products
are concerned. Division may be altogether avoided. But it is sometimes con-
venient to introduce the reciprocal to a vector a, viz., by a7! (not se is under-
a
stood a vector of the same direction and sense as a, but of reciprocal length.
Then is
a-t=" and (aa-) =1.
a
The author adopts Oliver Heaviside’s proposal of calling a vector whose magni-
tude or tensor is the number 1,an ‘ort’ (from orientation). Hence if a is an
ort, then is a?=1, not the wait of length, but the nwmber 1.
The author also adopts Maxwell’s right-handed system: u@y, taken in cyclical
order, form a right-handed system if standing in a and looking towards @, the
third vector y points to the /eft. The thumb, index-finger, and middle-finger,
when spread out so as not to lie in a plane, form on the right hand a right-handed
system, but on the leit a left-handed.
A right-handed system of three vectors mutually at right angles is called a
sight system. :
A right system of ‘orts’ he denotes generally by ¢,, t, ¢;. The position
vector of a point is denoted by p. If wys are the rectangular coordinates (right-
handed), then is :
PHUCtQY tbs.
Here xyz are lengths, not numbers.
Another notation found convenient is in connection with Hamilton’s differential
operator V (called zabla by Maxwell). Being of the nature of a vector, it com-
bines with a vector-function n, according to scalar- or to vector-multiplication,
forming (v7) and[vn}. In the former the brackets can often be left out. For
the latter it is convenient to use a special symbol, viz., 7, with an arrow-head put
on top of it. As this requires a special type, formule involving it are given on a
sheet reproduced from writing. This new symbol is culled the vector-nabla. It
is a symbol for Maxwell’s curl.
1897, 00
562 REPORT—1897.
5. New Harmonic Analyses.
By Professor A. A. Micnetson and 8. W. STRATTON.
6. The Multipartite Par titions of Numbers which possess Symmetrical
Graphs in three Dimensions. By Major P. A. MacManon, F.B.S.
7. On the Quinquisection of the Cyclotomic Equation,
By J. C. GuasHan, Ottawa.
If 7 be a primitive root of the prime number p=5¢+1,
(x?=1)/(x-1)=0
n= x” +ynts ~ aoe + x" 15 et ee
s—OnlnorS ; 5
No =F No + 91 + ny + Ms +94
NN = Kno + Igy + My + Ms + 94
z=6n+1,
and
2° —10pz? — 5pAs? — 5pBs—pC =0,
then will
A=25(h+n)—2(p+1)
4(B +p) =A?—125(h—n)?
{2C — A(B—p)}? = 125(A—n)*{(B + 5p)? —4pA*}.
If
(®—1)/(x-1) =0
a=A+5(h—n)V/5
B=A-5(h—n)J5
y’ =a*—16p
=p?—
64y,° = p(a + y)*(B—9)
64y,° = p(a—y)(8—9)?
64y,° = p(a + y)(B +8)"
64y,° =p(a—y)*(8 +8),
then will
=3(—14+y,6-* + y,0-™ + 4,0 + y,6)
s=0, 1, 2, 3,
Two tables followed the paper, Table 1 giving the values of f, 9, h
9) enon Tp
Table 2 giving the values of the coefficients of the quintic in 7, for all values of P
from 11] to 641 inclusive.
8. A Kinematic Representation of Jacobi’s Theory of the Last
Multiplier. By J. Larmor.
Consider steady flow, in a region defined by Cartesian coordinates (1, 2, Xs),
of fluid whose density M varies from point to point, but remains constant at the
same point. If (u,, u,, us) denote the velocity, the equations of the stream lines
are the integrals of the differential system
Cai OE Syl
Suppose that one integral is known in the form
P (21, Xg, X53) =C,
Pe eee errr er r——
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 563
then the flow takes place between surfaces represented by this equation. Thus
we can consider separately the flow in the two-dimensional sheet between consecu-
tive surfaces C and C +80; and on the understanding that the equation of con-
tinuity is satisfied, the lines of this flow will be obtained by equating a stream func-
tion ¥ to a constant. For, take any two points P and Q on the sheet; the steady
flow per unit time across any curve PAQ on the sheet must be equal to that across
any other curve PBQ, provided there is no sink in the region between these curves
into which fluid can disappear. Thus the flow across any curve connecting P and
Q must bea function of the coordinates of these points, say F (P, Q) ; further, since
the flow across PQ is the sum of those across PB and BQ, this function must be of
the form ¥(Q)-y(P). If therefore r denote at each point the thickness of the
sheet, and v the component velocity at right angles to the element of arc ds on it,
[-Murds=4(Q)- VP);
that is Murds, which is of the form G,de,+G,dx,+G,dx, is the exact differen-
tial of a function W(2,, 2, 2’). Thus if one integral of a linear differential system
Mee. Wha) athe
is known the remaining one can be found by a quadrature whenever a value of
M is known which satisfies the equation of continuity
d(Mu,) " d(Mu,) ip d(Mu;) =0
dx, diy dx, ;
This argument admits of immediate extension to hyper-space involving any
number x of Cartesian coordinates. In that case a knowledge of n—2 integrals
determines an equal number of systems of hyper-surfaces along which the flow
takes place; these divide the region into two-dimensional sheets, the flow in each
of which takes place independently and is determined by a stream function, as above,
whose general form can be determined by a quadrature.
This is Jacobi’s proposition. The conditions of its application are satisfied by
the special value M = 1 in the case of the differential equations of isoperimetrical
problems, including the general equations of dynamics.
In all cases of course values of M exist, but it is only sometimes that they can
be analytically expressed. One method of trial is to express the determining
equation, after Jacobi, in the form
oM__ 1 du, 4 Mey + Wn)
GHEY id th Node Bay: a3) lank ual ee
in which 6 represents a total differentiation. If then by means of the n—2 known
integrals the quantity on the right-hand side can be expressed as a function of x,
alone which is capable of integration, its integral is a form of M.
In three dimensions the flow across a ditferential are PQ, say ds on the sheet,
is equal ato Fi lamellar element of volume whose projection on the plane
av, dx,
u
2,2 18
"2 U,
and whose height parallel to the axes of 2, is dx,, where
2
ao= © ae, thus it is J +2? (ud, = u,d0,)8C, which is accordingly an
es ma
exact differential in dx, and dz,. In x dimensions it is similarly
dx, dx,
U, Uz
Mda,dx,... dv
a
that is M(u,@r,—,dv,)90,80, . . 80,9 Prbe ++» bn—a)_
MS, «Dia ee
which is thus an exact differential when expressed in terms of 2’, and w,.
002
564 REPORT—1897.
9. Increase of Segmental Vibrations in Aluminium Violins.
By Dr. A. SPRINGER.
Continued experiments made with aluminium sound boards have verified the
statements made by the author five years ago, that aluminium possesses acoustical
properties more closely allied to those of wood than those of metals. Metals in
general give rise to comparatively continuous and uniform maintenance of higher
upper partial tones, frequently inharmonic to the prime, making the tone ex-
tremely penetrating and unmusical. In wood the mass is small, the natural
structure irregular, being full of countless interstices, the elasticity comparatively
imperfect causing the higher proper tones to rapidly die away. Aluminium not
only possesses the latter property, but to a much more marked degree; on
account of its lightness and probably intermolecular friction the higher upper
partials require special construction of a sound board to become audible. In wooden
_ Instruments provision must be made to prevent the bass notes from’ entering into
segmental vibrations detrimental to upper partials, thereby giving a dull purity of
tone, lacking in brilliancy. To avoid this effect the author was obliged to depart
from the fixed rules adopted by violin makers and work in a manner diametrically
opposed to them.
Thbe‘author showed by means of open model an aluminium cross section under
the bridge instead of bass bar and a reinforcement of centre of the belly and back,
by which means the segmental vibrations are produced.
After the paper was read a violinist played on one of the instruments exhibited,
illustrating the various points discussed.
DEPARTMENT [I.—MeETEOROLOGY.
1. Report on Observations at the Ben Nevis Observatory.
See Reports, p. 219.
2. Report on the Application of Photography to the Elucidation of
Meteorological Phenomena.—See Reports, p. 128.
3. Monthly and Annual Rainfall in the British Empire, 1877 to 1896.
By Joun Hopkinson, F.R.Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.L.
Nearly twenty-four years ago there appeared in ‘The Colonies’ a letter from
Mr, W. Sowerby suggesting that residents in the British Colonies should be
invited to contribute notes and queries on natural objects. This was followed by
a letter from Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., adding a similar plea on behalf of
Meteorology. These suggestions met with the approval of the Editor of ‘The
Colonies, and he invited the Directors of the principal Colonial Observatories to
supply monthly reports of meteorological observations, and arranged with Mr.
Symons to supervise them.
The first table published was for January 1874, and contained reports from
sixteen meteorological stations in the British Empire. The tables were continued
to June 1881, after which date they have appeared in Symons’ ‘Monthly
Meteorological Magazine.’ In the table for December 1896 are records from
eighteen stations, but only seven of these are survivals from January 1874. The
rainfall at ten of these stations can be carried back for at least twenty years, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 565
that at two for at least ten years. The ten stations with a twenty years’ record
are Jondon, England (Camden Square); Port Louis, Mauritius; Calcutta and
Bombay, India; Colombo, Ceylon; Adelaide and Melbourne, Australia ; Welling-
ton, New Zealand; and Toronto and Winnipeg, Canada; the two with a ten years
record are Malta and Kingston, Jamaica.
In a series of tables are given the mean monthly and annual rainfall and
number of days on which at least 0:01 inch of rain fell at these twelve stations,
and also the maximum and minimum monthly and annual rainfall and number of
daysof rain. A summary of these twelve tables is then given, The means in
this table are those of the ten stations with records for twenty years, but the
extremes are those for the whole of the twelve stations. This table is followed by
a summary of the yearly rainfall at the twelve stations.
It must not be inferred that the rainfall at the places selected represents the
mean rainfall of the countries in which they are situated. These places are in
most cases the principal towns in those countries. Nor are the extremes of the
rainfall in the British Empire represented. But it is believed that no previous
attempt has been made to ascertain the mean rainfall at nearly so many as ten
widely distributed places in the British Empire for nearly so long a period as twenty
consecutive and concurrent years. The observations, moreover, have been taken
in an entirely uniform manner, and are believed to be thoroughly trustworthy, the
results being strictly comparable one with another.
A few observations are then made on the rainfall at the various places, and
finally a summary of the principal results is given.
Throughout the British Empire, so far as appears from these observations, the
mean rainfall is least in February and greatest in July, increasing every month
from February to July, and decreasing every month from July to February. There
may be no rain at some one or more of these rainfall stations in any month in the
year up to six months in succession. The heaviest fall in any month was 47°64
inches at Bombay, in July 1878, and only here has there been rain on every day
in any month. In Malta, in 1895, the rainfall was only 11°38 inches; at Colombo,
in 1878, it was 139°70 inches. In Malta, in 1888, there were only 59 days of
rain; in Mauritius, in 1893, there were 241 wet days.
If the twenty years be divided into four periods of five years each it will be
found that the mean annual rainfall at the ten stations has been as follows :—In
the first period 47:15 inches on 150 days; in the second period 44°67 inches on
147 days; in the third period 44:21 inches on 155 days; in the fourth period
44°15 inches on 151 days. ‘'Lhis does not show much deviation except in the first
period (1877-81). This was an exceptionally wet period in England, and now
appears to have been generally wet. The mean annual rainfall for the first ten
years was 45:92 inches on 149 days, and for the last ten years 44°67 inches on 153
days. For the whole period it was 45:29 inches on 151 days.
In this account of the rainfall at a few meteorological stations in the British
Empire, the effects of the seasons have been altogether neglected. Six of the
stations with records for twenty years are north of the equator and four are south
of it, not a very great inequality. In England the wettest period is nearly the
same as in New Zealand, but it happens to be in the summer and autumn in
England when in New Zealand it is winter and spring. And taking each place
individually there seems to be very little correspondence between the rainfall and
the season. It does not appear to be the succession of the seasons which causes
the rainfall to increase generally each month from February to July and to
decrease each month from July to February, although the very heavy rainfall at
Bombay in June and July tells much in making those months appear to be so wet
on the average throughout the Empire.
With a larger number of stations any such disturbing influence as this would
be neutralised, and it may be worthy of consideration whether it might not be
well to appoint a small Committee of the British Association to collect and digest
statistics of the rainfall from a large number of places in the British Empire,
566
REPORT—1897.
Mean Rainfall and Number of Days on which at least 0:01 inch of Rain fell at
Ten Stations in the British Empire, and Extremes at Twelve Stations.
Mean Maximum Minimum
Inches | Days | Inches | Days | Inches | Days
January : 2-28 9 14:58 25 “00 0
February . eee 08 9 30°06 27 00 0
March 2°64 10 24-11 26 ‘00 0
April 3:29 11 28°78 27 “00 0
May. 3°89 13 22:28 28 “00 tv)
June 6:04 16 43°45 28 00 0
July . 6:48 Ur 47°64 31 “00 0
August 5:06 17 36°56 31 00 0
September 4-23 15 25:08 | 26 “00 0
October 3°84 13 35°28 30 “00 0
November 3°00 1L 28°78 27 “00 0
December 246 | 10 17°72 24 “00 0
Year 45°29 | 161 139°70 | 241 11°38 59
Mean and Extreme Yearly Rainfall, and Number of Days of Rain at Ten
Stations tn the British Empire for Twenty Years, and at Two for Ten Years.
1877-96.
London
Mauritius .
Caleutta .
Bombay
Colombo .
Adelaide .
Melbourne
Wellington
Toronto
Winnipeg.
1887-96.
Malta
Jamaica
40°81 97 19°01
Mean Maximum Minimum
Inches | Days | Inches | Days| Inches | Days
|
25°76 164 34:09 195 19°21 137
50°38 203 68:17 | 241 29°74 | 174
59-20 |, 116 85°23 143 39°38 74
76°71 LU.) 111-93 124 57°82 | 102
91°82 LCDS || 139 WO e216 60°55 126
20°56 135 30°87 164 14:01 113
24°52 132 32°39 153 17:06 116
51°22 170 67°68 191 31°37 137
31:49 177 48-51 206 24°83 143
21:22 127 29°33 159 14:64 88
20°50 79 26:04 90 11°38 59
29°16 85 78
4. On the Temperature of Europe.
By Dr. VAN RiJCKEVORSEL.
The material to which the following remarks refer consists of a large number
of temperature curves deduced from observations at places scattered over the whole
of Europe. They were obtained by smoothing down in the very simplest fashion
the mean temperature for each day of the year.
glance at those curves one is forcibly struck at once by two facts.
The first is that the climate of Europe is divided between two different types,
the one being the eastern type, prevailing in Russia and some parts of adjacent
countries, the other the western one, covering the rest of our continent.
The second fact is that in each of these two large divisions all the curves are
strikingly similar.
On throwing even a passing
I think that the most interesting thing in those curves is, not their general
appearance, but the irregularities, the secondary maxima and minima.
These may
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 567
indicate a way to detect and explain a great muny peculiarities of our climate.
Many of these have hitherto either not been paid attention to, or have been con~
sidered as slight anomalies ; yet they seem to be most permanent and important
features.
A few of these anomalies—for instance, one consisting of two unimportant
maxima, separated by a more or less apparent minimum in April—spread over the
whole of Europe. Is it altogether impossible that one or more of such features
are not confined within the limits of Europe? Should any of them be found to
prevail over a whole hemisphere, or farther still, ought we not to look beyond the
earth for their origin ?
Other anomalies, however, have a smaller range. ‘Two remarkable instances of
this are two very pronounced mimima which characterise the summer in western
Europe. The more important one at the end of July, separating two nearly equal
maxima in the middle of June and the middle of August, is strongly prominent on
the coasts of the Atlantic and the North Sea, and slowly decreases in the centre of
Europe, dying out at the Russian frontier. The other one, a similar minimum,
about a month earlier, is also strongest on the north-western shores of our continent,
but dies out much sooner: it can hardly be detected beyond the eastern frontier of
France. Here we have, I venture to affirm, two effects of causes which, whatever
they may be, must lie to the west of us, in the Atlantic or beyond.
Another feature, on the contrary, a minimum in the second half of December,
with a very decided rise of temperature towards the end of the year, which is very
characteristic for the extreme east of our continent, dies out long before it could
reach the middle of Russia. We owe this effect apparently to something in Asia,
or beyond,
I forego to discuss in this short abstract some other advantages arising from
a systematic discussion of temperature curves. Such are a possible indication of
something being wrong in the exposures of thermometers; the possibility of getting
very good results with what would hitherto have been considered absolutely
insufficient material; the possibility of giving a near approximation to normal
temperatures for any station @ prior, &e.
But what I think is principally shown is—
(1) That it is not so much the general knowledge of the temperature of a place
that is interesting as the irregularities, even such small ones as one is tempted at
first to ascribe to errors of observation or such like causes ;
(2) That here is an excellent way to find out, not indeed what the ultimate
causes of such irregularities are, but in which direction to look for them. One
glance at the diagrams generally instantly shows that some interesting anomaly,
such as I gave a few instances of, originates to the west, the east, or the south of
our continent.
5. The Climatology of Canada. By R. F. Srupart.
6. The Great Lakes as a Sensitive Barometer. By F. Napier DENIson,
Toronto Observatory.
For many years fishermen and sailors upon the great lakes have noticed with
intense interest the rapid rise and fall of the water, most. marked at the head
of shallow lagoons or bays. The phenomenon is not uncommon, having been
ably studied upon the Swiss lakes by Professor Forel and his predecessors,
Duillier, De Saussure, and others, where it obtained the name of ‘ Seiche,’ and also
by Mr. Russell, F.R.S., upon Lake George, New South Wales. The writer’s
attention was first drawn to this subject last summer, while in the vicinity of Lake
Huron, where a set of observations were taken. Upon returning to Toronto, by
permission of Mr. Stupart, Director of the Meteorological Service, a simple instru-
ment was devised for automatically recording these oscillations, and was set up at
the mouth of the Humber River, near Toronto. Shortly afterwards a similar
568 REPORT—1897.
instrument was placed at the west end of the lake at the Burlington Canal. The
records from these two instruments, when studied in conjunction with the Obser-
vatory synoptic weather charts and barograph traces, have revealed many interest-
ing points. Last January, tc obtain a better knowledge of the smaller barometric
movements, a simple form of self-recording air barometer was constructed, seven-
teen times more sensitive than the mercurial. This again has recently been super-
seded by a combined self-recording water-level instrument and air barometer—that
is, both pens record upon the same time-sheet where an hour equals one inch and
one complete revolution of the cylinder equals twenty-four hours.
The following are some of the results deduced from the records :—
1. That the longitudinal and transverse ‘Seiche’ movements are very marked
preceding and during storms primarily due to differences of atmospheric pressure
over the extremities of the lake, but greatly augmented when the gale strikes the
water curface. The mean time interval of longitudinal ‘Seiche’ is four hours and
forty-nine minutes; the transverse, forty-five minutes.
2, There is a marked agreement between the time intervals of the smaller lake
undulations and those found upon the corresponding sensitive barograph traces,
both showing a predominance of twenty-minute intervals.
3. These smaller lake undulations are due to atmospheric waves which are set.
up along the boundary surfaces of different air strata when travelling in opposite
directions, the existence of which have been so clearly demonstrated by the late
Professor von Helmholtz in his mathematical papers read before the Royab
Prussian Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1889 and 1890.
4, The action of these atmospheric ‘waves upon the surface of the water tends
to form minute undulations, which increase in amplitude as they move into bays,
&c., where the water becomes shallower, until finally they assume the proportions
as recorded upon the instrument.
5. It appears, from a careful study of the Canadian ocean tidal records, placed
at the writer’s disposal through the kindness of Mr. W. Bell Dawson, Director of
the Tidal Survey, in conjunction with the synoptic weather charts, that the
secondary undulations found upon them may also be due to similar atmospheric
action.
6. Marked rapid and large undulations often occur during the autumn and
winter months upon both instruments when the barometer is actually rising and
fine weather prevails throughout Ontario. At such times an area of low pressure,
or cyclone, is situated over the south or south-western States, which usually moves
over or near to the lake region. In such cases the recorded atmospheric waves are
due to the lower, denser air of the anticyclone, moving towards the south-western
cyclone, along whose upper boundary surface huge waves, extending to the earth,
are set up by the rapidly opposing upper poleward current. The mean velocity of
this upper current in summer is sixty miles per hour, and in winter one hundred
and ten miles per hour. On the other hand, during the approach of an anticyclone,
attended by fine weather and westerly winds, these lake undulations become
extremely small, because the lower air moves in approximately the same direction
as the upper poleward current.
7. The direct action of these air waves upon the surface of the lake is clearly
shown during the passage of a thunder shower. As an instance, on March 8 last,
during the passage of several successive huge atmospheric ‘ billows,’ the water rose
84 inches in ten minutes, then fell 10} inches in fifteen minutes, followed by the
phenomenal rise of 114 inches in fifteen minutes.
8. These records graphically explain the cause of those erroneously termed
‘tidal waves’ which occur upon the lakes, and also tend to solve the problem
respecting the larger waves encountered at apparently regular intervals. From
information obtained from fishermen on Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron a twenty-
minute interval appears to have been frequently observed between these waves.
As these peculiar undulations occur upon all waters it is hoped the study of
them will become more universal, and the time not far distant when instruments
similar to those described will be adopted throughout the scientific world.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 569
7. Slow Refrigeration of the Chinese Climate. By Dr. J. Epxiys.
8. Progress of the Exploration of the Air with Kites at Blue ITill
Observatory, Mass., U.S.A. By A. Lawrence Rorcn, S.B., 4.1L,
F.R.Met.Soc., Director.
A preliminary report on the subject was presented to this Section at the
Liverpool meeting of the British Association, and, in consequence of the successful
results which had been obtained at Blue Hill, this method of exploring the free
air was endorsed by the International Meteorological Conference which met in
Paris last September.
Many improvements in the kites and apparatus have been effected during the
past year, and, through the aid afforded by a grant from the Hodgkins Fund of the
Smithsonian Institution, the first steam-reeling apparatus for kites has been con-
structed. Since August 1894, when an instrument recording continuously and
graphically its indication was for the first time lifted by kites, 130 records of
barometric pressure, air temperature, and relative humidity, or of wind velocity,,
have been obtained up to the extreme altitude of 8,740 teet above Blue Hill.
This height, which was attained last October, is believed to be the greatest to
which a meteorograph has been raised by kites (see ‘ Nature,’ December 17, 1896).
Nine records have been obtained more than a mile above the hill at all seasons of
the year, both in fine and in stormy weather.
The data have been discussed and are about to be published in the ‘ Annals of
the Harvard College Observatory.’ They furnish some important facts concerning
the changes of temperature, relative humidity and wind in the free air, under
varying atmospheric conditions, and constitute the most thorough exploration of
the lower mile of free air ever made in any manner. Since warm and cold waves
appear to commence in the upper air it seems probable that daily observations with
kites would aid in weather forecasting, and the experiment is to be tried by the
- United States Weather Bureau at several stations. Meanwhile the investigation
is being continued at the Blue Hill Observatory, with the hope of obtaining data.
two or three miles above the earth, and kites are serving to supplement the
measurements of the heights of clouds made by the methods prescribed by the
International Cloud Committee.
9. Kites for Meteorological Uses. By C. F. Marvin.
The author gave an account of the initiation of the investigation by the Weather
Bureau at Washington of the availability of kites for making daily observations,
in the free air.
He then described and showed a full-sized model of the improved kites as now
employed by the Weather Bureau, and referred to methods of bridling the kite to
secure approximately constant pull upon tbe string under wide variations in the
wind force; also to the use of a ‘safety line’ upon the kite, corresponding in.
function to the well-known fusible plug in electrical circuits.
A brief outline of the mechanics of the kite was given, and remarks were made
upon the flying of kites in tandem.
In conclusion the results thus far attained were discussed.
10. Meteorites, Solid and Gelatinous. By Dy. Orro Haun.
‘The author gave an account of bodies found in the meteorite of Kinyahinga,
which fell on June 6, 1866. These he considers to be organic, sponges, &c.
11. November Meteors and November Flood Traditions.
By R G. Harrsurton.
570 REPORT—1897.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The Section was divided into two Departments.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
DEPARTMENT J.—ELECTRICITY.
1. Demonstrations on the Form of Alternating Currents.
By Professor Dr. F. Braun, Strassburg.
Kin Kathodenstrahl wird in einem Magnetfeld, welches durch einen Wechsel-
strom erzeugt ist, abgelenkt. Der vom Kathodenstrahl auf einer fluorescirenden
Fliche erzeugte Fleck macht daher Schwingungen, welche in einem rotirenden
Spiegel analysirt werden konnen. Wirken auf den Kathodenstrahl zwei unter
eimem rechten Winkel gekreuzte Felder, so entstehen Lissajous’sche Curven,
welche gestatten Phasenverschiebungen der Felder in Folge von Selbstinduction,
Capacitat, Polarisation, u.s.w., nachzuweisen und zu messen. Eine Trigheit des
Kathodenstrahles konnte nicht gefunden werden; den Schwingungen von Ley-
dener Flaschenentladungen folgt er noch. Eine magnetische Wirkung von Licht-
strahlen wurde aber vergebens gesucht. Ein dem Kathodenstrahl mit seiner
Axe parallel gestellter Magnet breitet denselben zu einem Gebilde aus, wie es
entstehen miusste, wenn der Kathodenstrahl ein beweglicher Stromleiter wiire;
ob aber dieses Gebilde entsteht durch eine ausserordentlich rasche Rotation oder
ob es ruht, ist unentschieden. Von Interesse ist es, dass das Magnetfeld der Erde
schon hinreichend stark das Ende des Kathodenstrahles ablenkt, so dass jeden-
falls angenaherte Bestimmungen der Inclination damit méglich sind.
2. Note on an Electrical Oscillator. By Nicoua Testa,
The instrument exhibited belongs to a novel class of electrical transformers, the
primary of which is operated by the oscillatory discharge of a condenser. The
above name seems, therefore, particularly appropriate.
The condenser is charged from any suitable, direct or alternating, current
source.
By observing the well-known conditions governing the oscillatory discharge of
the condenser, which have been established by Lord Kelvin, and selecting properly
the physical constants of the primary or “ discharge circuit,” extremely rapid oscilla-
tions in this circuit are obtained, which set up, by inductive action, corresponding
high-frequency current impulses in the secondary circuit.
The fundamental disturbances in the primary circuit are produced either by
simply adjusting the quantities concerned, so that the average rate of supply of
energy to the condenser shall be inferior to the average rate of discharge, or else
positively-acting mechanical means, irrespective of such adjustment, are employed
to periodically open and close the circuit.
The circuit connections in the instrument exhibited are indicated in a diagram,
while a photograph showed the actual arrangement of the parts in the instrument.
Referring to these illustrations, the condenser is contained in a box, upon
which is mounted in front the circuit controller, consisting of spring contacts, and
a self-induction coil. The latter, designated asa “ charging coil,” serves at the
same time to raise the pressure of the source to any value desired for charging
the condenser. This is an important practical advantage, as it enables the
capacity of the latter to be reduced, so that it need not be more than a few
per cent. of that otherwise required for an equivalent conversion of energy.
Besides, the smaller the capacity, the quicker is the oscillation, and the shorter need
be the high-tension secondary wire.
The primary or discharge circuit surrounding the secondary coil or coils is
formed of a few turns of copper ribbon mounted on the top of the box behind the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 571
“charging coil,” all connections being as short as possible, so as to reduce, as much
as it is practicable, both the resistance and self-induction of this circuit.
On the front side of the box containing the condenser there are mounted two
binding posts for connection with the lines, two small fuses, and a reversing switch.
In addition two adjusting screws are provided for raising and lowering the iron
core within the charging coil as a convenient means for varying within consider-
able limits the current of supply, and regulating thereby the discharge of the
secondary circuit. In adjusting the core the left-hand screw should be unscrewed
first, as it performs merely the function of a check-nut.
The mode of operation may be explained in current language as follows :—
At the start the spring contacts being closed and the condenser practically
short-circuited, a strong current passes through the “ charging coil,” attracting the
armature fastened to the lower spring, and separating the contacts. Upon this the
energy stored in this coil, assuming the form of a high-tension discharge, rushes
into the condenser, charging the same to a high potential. The current through
the coil now subsiding, the attraction exerted upon the armature ceases, the spring
reasserts itself and again closes the contacts. With the closing of the latter the
condenser is discharged through the primary, and simultaneously a strong current
from the source of supply again rushes through the charging coil, and energy is
stored for the next charge of the condenser, this process being repeated as often as
the spring opens and closes the contacts.
By means of this simple arrangement certain advantages over ordinary coils
are secured, the chief being the absence of fine wire in the secondary, the quality
of the effects produced, and efficiency.
The photograph, showing the instrument in action with two loops of cotton-
covered wire attached to the discharge rods, conveys an idea of the pressures
obtained. The outer wire loop was in the experiment only 22 inches in diameter,
to enable its being properly shown in the print, but it could have been much
larger, since two parallel wires, 15 feet long, may be stretched from the secondary
terminals of the instrument, and practically the entire space between them, 3}
inches wide, is seen in the dark covered with fine streamers—that is, a surface of
over 4 square feet—and yet the energy taken from the supply circuit during the
performance is less than 35 watts. It is practicable, by the use of the principle
described, to obtain sparks of 1 foot in length with an expenditure of energy of
less than 10 watts.
3. An Electric Curve Tracer. By Professor E. B, Rosa.
One of the most interesting and fruitful methods of investigation of alternate
current phenomena is the tracing of the forms and phases of current and electro-
motive force waves. But the practicability of this method of investigation and
testing has been seriously limited by the great labour of obtaining the curves, and
the insufficient accuracy of the curves when obtained. Although various methods
are employed for determining the quantities from which to plot the waves of
current and electromotive force, yet in nearly every case an instantaneous contact-
maker is used, and the contact brush is advanced by hand, step by step, settings
being made on a graduated circle. Readings are taken on a voltmeter, electro-
meter, or galvanometer, and subsequently points are plotted out on cross-section
aper, and a smooth curve drawn through them. Because of the great labour
involved, comparatively few points are usually found, and hence the curves are
only approximately determined. To reduce the labour and increase the speed of
working would enable a greater number of points to be determined, and so give
more faithful representations of current curves, This could be accomplished by
some arrangement that would do the most laborious part of the work mechani-
cally, and, if possible, automatically. Hence, if successive settings of the brush of
the contact-maker could be made quickly and easily, and the curve printed out
automatically, so as to eliminate the necessity of taking readings and plotting the
points, the thing would be done. It was to accomplish this end that I had an
572 REPORT—1897.
instrument constructed last year in our college machine shop, The instrument
worked well and gave some very elegant results. But there appeared in its use
several practical defects which experience showed how to remedy, and this year I
have constructed a new instrument, which may be called an Electric Curve
Tracer, and which will now be briefly described.
The instrument consists of three parts: (1) the Contact-Maker, (2) the
Measuring Selenoid, and (3) the Recording Cylinder. The Contact-Maker is
joined by a rod and flexible couplings to the shaft of the dynamo, which produces
the current to be delineated, or to a synchronous motor which is driven by that
current. Hence the shaft of the contact-maker, and with it a hard rubber disc
six inches in diameter, revolves with the speed of the armature of the alternator.
The brush which, once in every revolution, makes contact with a knife-edge let
into the edge of the hard rubber disc, is carried by an arm which is advanced step
by step by a ratchet wheel and gearing. The pawl of the ratchet is actuated by
an electro-magnet, and the step of the brush is half of one degree for each tooth
of the ratchet wheel. Any number of teeth from one to six may be taken at each
step, according to the position of the stop. The current through the electro-
magnet, which advances the brush, is made by the operator at the measuring and
recording apparatus, which may be at a distance.
The Measuring Solenoid consists of a single layer of insulated wire wound
Fie. 1.
—
upon a hard rubber rod 80 centimeters in length; along one element of this
solenoid the insulation is removed. A current from two or three storage cells
passes through the solenoid from A to B, and by means of a voltmeter and
rheostat the difference of potential between A and B is kept constant. This
spiral has so much greater length of wire than a single wire, such as that ona
slide wire bridge, that it can maintain a much greater difference of potential, and
serves the purpose better than a single wire would do, Let the current to be
delineated pass through the non-inductive resistance C D. We measure the instan-
taneous difference of potential at the terminals of C D by matching it against the
known difference of potential of a portion of AB. This is done by joining Q,
the middle point of A B to D, and P, a sliding contact on A B, to C, through the
instantaneous contact-maker and a sensitive, dead-beat D’Arsonval galvanometer.
‘When P is so adjusted that there is no deflection of the galvanometer, the poten-
tial difference between C and D is the same as that between P and Q, and the
latter is proportional to the distance PQ. If the current at the instants of con-
tact is from C to D, then the potential of C is higher than D, and P will be on the
left of Q; if the current is from D to C,P is on the right of Q. In either case
the strength of the current is proportional to the difference of potential between
C and D, and therefore to the distance PQ. At each step of the brush contact is
made ata later instant in the period of the wave; the current has a different
value, and hence P must be moved to keep the galvanometer deflection zero. The
spiral being of constant diameter, and uniformly wound, these distances P Q give
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 573
accurate values of the current. Using these distances as ordinates, and the
corresponding angular positions of the brush on the revolving contact-maker as
abscissas, a curve of current can be plotted, its scale being, of course, determined
by the value of the constant resistance C D through which the current passes,
and the value of the constant potential difference between the ends of the
solenoid.
But to eliminate the labour of taking scale readings and plotting the curves it
Fig. 2.
is arranged to plot them out automatically as the successive settings of P along
the solenoid are made. A pantagraph has one end fixed at P’, and the other
attached to the sliding contact P. The bar E G of the pantagraph carries a
printing point F. As P is moved to and fro upon the solenoid, F travels to and
fro along a 6, parallel to A B. And since P’fis one-fifth of P’P, the excursions
of F are one-fifth of those of P. When each setting of P has been made, the
printing point F is depressed by an electromagnet, and a dot is made upon a sheet
of cross-section paper underneath. Between the successive settings the paper is
advanced a step perpendicularly to ad. In this way a current curve is plotted to
a known scale, and by repeating the process with other currents through C D (as,
for example, the secondary current, due to the induction of the first one, or an
electromotive force current) several waves may be delineated on the same sheet,
each to a known scale, and their relative phases shown by their relative positions.
In order to advance the paper conveniently by equal steps it is wrapped upon
a cylinder, which is advanced step by step by aratchet wheel and gearing, actuated
by an electromagnet, precisely as the contact-maker is operated. These two
electromagnets, and that on the pantagraph, are controlled by the same key, and
all work together. Closing the key causes the steel point F to be thrown down
upon a type-writer ribbon, which prints a point on the paper beneath; it also
causes the armatures of the two driving magnets to be attracted, and the pawls to
slip back over one or more teeth of the ratchet, until the armatures strike their
respective stops. Breaking the circuit allows the printing point to be lifted by a
spring, and the armature of the driving magnets to be drawn back to their initial
positions by their springs. The two pawls at this time advance their respective
ratchets; one advancing the brush of the contact-maker, and the other the
cylinder carrying the record sheet, ready for a second point. The sliding contact
P is moved by means of a cord passing over pulleys at the ends of A B, and wound
over a small drum underneath the solenoid, the drum being turned by means of a
large milled head. The operator turns this drum with one hand, and closes the
key with the other, keeping his eye constantly on the galvanometer scale. With
a quick, dead-beat galvanometer the settings are made very rapidly, and it is no
unusual performance to print off a curve at the rate of twenty or more points per
minute.
If the curve closely approximates to a sine curve, and there are no high
harmonics present, the points may be further apart, and the ratchet of the record-
ing cylinder advanced four or six teeth atatime. If there are upper harmonics,
i
574 REPORT—1897,
and one wishes a faithful representation of the curve, two teeth are taken at a
time, and 180 points plotted in one single wave-length, which extends half-wave
around the recording cylinder.
If the generator is a two-pole machine, four teeth will be taken at one step on
the contact-maker and two on the recording cylinder. If it is a four-pole machine,
an equal number of teeth will be taken on each. If it is an eight-pole machine,
one tooth is taken on the contact-maker and two on the recording cylinder, and
so on. In each case the resulting curves will be drawn to the same horizontal
scale.
Special attachments are provided for printing copies of original curves, for
making curves of magnetisation and hysterisis curves, and also for taking power
curves—in the latter case not by multiplying corresponding ordinates of current
and electromotive force curves, but plotting directly from the settings of the
contact piece P.
The accuracy of the work of the instrument is illustrated by curves, representing
the current flowing into a condenser from the secondary of a transformer (which
were exhibited). The capacity of the condenser for the second curve is double
that of the first, other circumstances being the same. The curves show a little
more than a wave length and a half of the fundamental, but the character of the
curves is determined by their upper harmonics, the natural period of the condenser-
transformer circuit being such as to amplify very small upper harmonics in the
electromotive force of the dynamo, which had a toothed armature. In the second
curve the period is larger (because the capacity is greater), and the free vibrations,
which are superposed on the fundamental, are accordingly fewer in number.
Comparing one half-wave with another, it is evident that the curve-tracer has
done its work faithfully, Without a large number of points in the space of one
wave we should fail'to apprehend the true character of such curves. The instru-
ment lends itself to a great variety of purposes. One can study the actions and
reactions in dynamos and motors, of single and polyphase varieties ; in transformers
of all types, and of special devices in practical or abstract research. By means
of a two-part commutator on the shaft of the contact-maker the oscillating cur-
rents of condenser charges and discharges can be delineated, and the period
measured. Curves showing the rise and fall of current in inductive circuits when
the current is made and broken can be drawn, and the self-induction thereby
measured.
I wish to express my obligations to Mr. O.S. Blakeslee, the accomplished
mechanician of the college, for his assistance in designing the mechanical features
of the Curve Tracer, and for his skill in constructing the instrument.
The equations of the two curves are as follows :—
Ist. I=8-79sin («— 18°50’) — 1:02 sin (82 — 44°18’) + 2°55 sin (5x + 84°31’)
—°41 sin7v —2-95sin (9x — 5°43’) + 1-88sin (117 + 84°36’) + 8:08sin
(182 + 10°7’) + 5°45 sin (15x — 59°56’).
2nd. I=18°75 sin (a —21°6’) — 2°18 sin (382 —70°1’) — 6°86 sin (Sx + 61°48’)
— 1-56 sin (7x — 84°7’) + 5:30 sin (9x + 66°14’) + 0:98 sin (11.2 — 83°30’)
+ 4:15 sin (13x — 43°80’) + 3°59 sin (152 — 86°30’).
The 17th and higher harmonics not present to an appreciable extent.
4. On the Use of the Interferometer in the Study of Electric Waves.
By G. F. Hur, University of Chicago.
An interferometer for electric waves, constructed after Michelson’s form, was
used to analyse electric radiation. A Branly receiver (small nails in oil) and
different forms of Righi’s vibrators were used. The following conclusions were
arrived at :-—
1. The interference curve depends on both vibrator and receiver, and the
influence of each of these varies.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 575
2. The logarithmic decrement of the receiver is of the same order of magnitude
as that of the vibrator.
8. The chief component of the radiation and the period of the receiver may be
determined by a number of interference curves.
4, The receiver could be used to analyse the radiation, where the oscillations
are but slightly damped.
5. The error in determining the wave-length and the index of refraction need
not exceed 1 per cent.
5. An Instrument for Recording Rapidly Varying Potential Differences
and Currents.! By W. DuDDELL.
The methods and instruments generally employed for this purpose may be
divided into two classes, viz. ‘contact or point methods’ and ‘continuous
methods.’
This latter class may be subdivided according to the nature of the moving
part acted on by the varying current.
The present instrument belongs to that division in which the moving part
consists of wires carrying the current to be measured, and in its present form was
first suggested by Blondel.
The instrument consists essentially of a pair of phosphor bronze strips stretched
tight in a strong magnetic field, to the middle points of which a small mirror is
fixed.
The current flows up one strip and down the other, causing one tomove forward
and the other to move back, and thus turning the mirror through a small angle.
The source of light used is an arc lamp and a system of lenses, the motion of the spot
being recorded on a falling photographic plate, or observed in a rotating mirror.
The necessary damping is obtained by immersing the strips in oil and adjusting
the temperature until it is correct.
Tn the instrument shown two pairs of strips and a fixed mirror were used, so-
that both the current and P.D. curves, as well as the zero line, were traced on the
plate at the same time, thus giving, as well as the two curves, their phase ditlerence
and the periodicity from the known velocity of the plate.
The free periodic time of the strips and mirror is about 37/55 sec., and a current
of 54; cm. amp. gives a deflection of 1°53 cm. at a screen distance of 136 cms.
The chief advantages of the instrument are the low self-induction and resistance,
as well as the critical damping.
6. Report on Electrical Standards. See Reports, p. 207.
7. On the Calculation of the Coefficient of Mutual Induction of a Circle
and a Co-axial Helix. By Professor J. Virtamu Jonss, F.R.S.
8. On a Determination of the Ohm made in Testing the Lorenz Apparatus
of the McGill University. By Professor W. E. Ayrron, F.R.S., and
Professor J. Virtamu Jones, /.R.S. Appendia to Electrical Standards
Report.—See Reports, p. 212.
9. On the Relations between Arc Curves and Crater Ratios with Cored
Positive Carbons. By Hertua Ayrton.
When an arc is burning between a solid negative carbon and a positive of given
diameter, the P.D. between the carbons varies according as the pcsitiye carbon is
cored or solid.
1 Published in the Electrician, Sept. 10, 1897.
576 REPORT—1897
When the Length of the Arc is kept Constant and the Current is varied.
1. The P.D, is in all cases higher with the solid than with the cored carbon.
2. With a solid carbon the P.D. continually diminishes as the current increases ;
with a cored carbon the P.D. either diminishes much less than witha solid carbon,
or remains constant for all currents above a given value, or actually increases with
the current after falling to a minimum.
Current ts kept Constant and the Length of the Are is Varied.
1. The P.D. is always higher with solid carbons than with a cored positive car-
bon, but the difference between the two diminishes asthe arc increases in length.
2. The rate of change of P.D. with change of length is constant with solid
carbons, but diminishes as the length of the arc increases with a cored positive
carbon.
38. This rate of change becomes smaller and more nearly constant for all lengths
of arc as the value of the constant current increases.
4, The P.D. corresponding with length of are 0 diminishes as the current in-
ereases with solid carbons, but increases with the current witha cored positive
carbon.
These differences can all be accounted for on the hypothesis that with a given
solid negative carbon and a positive of a given diameter the P.D. required to send a
given current through a fixed length of are depends principally, if not entirely, on
the nature of the surface of the crater, being greater or less according as the carbon
of which this surface is composed is harder or softer.
By the term ‘area of the crater’ is meant the area of the mouth of the crater, or,
still more accurately, the plane area of that region of the end of the positive carbon
which is sharply cut off from the rest by its peculiar brilliance and whiteness. The
area of the soft carbon in the surface of the crater is taken to be the projection on
the mouth of the crater of that area of the crater that is composed of soft carhon,
and the proportion of soft carbon in the surface of the crater is measured by the
ratio of the area of the soft carbon to the total area of the crater. This ratio for
each current and length of are will be called its ‘ soft crater ratio,’
The ratio of the area of the hard carbon in the surface of the crater to the area
of the crater will be called the ‘hard crater ratio,’
Ares of Constant Length.
The area of the crater is known to increase as the current increases. With a
constant length of arc, therefore, when the current is very small the whole of the
erater will be in the core; as the current increases some hard carbon will be em-
braced by the crater, and the P.D. will therefore, by the hypothesis, be higher than
if the whole crater were of soft carbon. The larger the current the greater will
be the area of the crater, and consequently the greater will be the amount of hard
carbon in its surface; there will be a tendency of the P.D. to rise on account of
this increasing amount of hard carbon in the crater, which will struggle with its
tendency to fall on account of the increase of the current. According as the one
or other of these tendencies gets the upper hand, or as they exactly counterbalance
one another, will the P.D. increase, diminish, or remain stationary as the current
‘increases.
Constant Currents.
It has not hitherto been known how the area of the crater varied with the
length of the are. Hence a very good way of testing the accuracy of my hypo-
thesis suggested itself. The hypothesis was used in conjunction with the curves
‘connecting P.D. with length of are for constant currents, to determine what should
‘be the form of the curves connecting the area of the crater with the length of the
arc when the current was constant. If these curves were the same as those obtained
from actual measurements of the crater, the presumption would be that the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 577
hypothesis was correct. The comparison was made with very satisfactory results,
the form of the curves being exactly the same in both cases.
From the hypothesis and the curves connecting P.D. and length of are for
constant currents it was deduced that—
1. When a cored positive carbon is used and a constant current is flowing the
area of the crater must increase as the length of the arc increases.
2. The change that takes place in the ratio of the soft carbon to the total amount
of carbon in the surface of the crater with a given change of length must diminish
ws the are increases in length.
3. The change that takes place in the ratio of the soft carbon to the total amount
of carbon in the surface of the crater with a given change of length must be smaller,
and the rate of change must become more nearly constant for all lengths of arc as
the value of the constant current increases.
Remembering that the ratio of the area of soft carbon to the area of the crater
is called the ‘ soft crater ratio,’ these three conditions may be put thus:—
1, With a cored positive carbon, and with a constant current flowing, the area
of the crater must zncrease, and consequently the soft crater ratio must diminish as
the length of the arc increases.
2. The change of soft crater ratio with change of length must diminish as the
Jength of the arc increases.
3. The change of soft crater ratio with change of length must be the smaller,
and the rate of change must become the more nearly constant the larger the
current.
To test the accuracy of these conclusions, and therefore of the hypothesis upon
-which they were founded, measurements of the crater, made on the enlarged image
of the arc in 1893, were used. It was found that straight line laws were obtained
in two ways: (1) by plotting the P.D. for each length of arc, with the correspond-
ing area of the crater with various constant currents; (2) by plotting the current
with the corresponding area of the crater with various constant lengths of arc.
From these two sets of straight lines corrected areas of crater were obtained, from
which the laws connecting the area of the crater and the soft crater ratio with the
length of the arc could be seen more clearly than with the uncorrected areas of
erater.
These laws were exactly what had been predicted. It was found that with a
cored re and solid negative carbon, and with a constant current flowing—
1, The area of the crater did increase, and consequently the soft crater ratio
diminished as the length of the arc increased ; and
2. The change of soft crater ratio with a given change of length did diminish
as the length of the arc increased ; and
3. The change of soft crater ratio with a given change of length was smaller,
and the rate of change was more nearly constant the larger the current.
From the parallel straight lines connecting the area of the crater with the
eurrent for constant lengths of arc three facts were deduced, viz—
1. That with constant lengths of are the area of the crater, minus a constant
<lepending on the length of the arc, is proportional to the current.
2. That the change of area of crater with a given change of length of arc is
independent of the value of the current flowing.
3. That the change of area of crater with a given change of current is inde-
pendent of the length of the arc.
10. On the Source of Luminosity in the Electric Are.
By H. Crew and O. H. Basquin.
Three possible causes of luminosity were considered, viz. heat alone, chemical
action, the electric current. The problem set was to determine the parts which
thermal, chemical, and electric cause, respectively, plays in the electric arc.
1897. PP
578 | REPORT—1897
Chemical effects were practically excluded by working the arc in an air-ticht
metallic hood, filled with a gas which exercised no chemical action upon the
electrodes. An air-tight glass window in this hood enabled the observer to
examine the arc either with the naked eye or with the spectroscope.
To exclude the electric current for an instant, and to examine the arc imme-
diately afterwards, the following device was used :—
A high-speed, 100-volt, alternator was employed to feed the arc. But, in
series with the armature and the arc, were placed two interrupters, which cut out
either all the positive or all the negative parts of the alternating current. In
Fig. I.
either case the current was broken just as the current curve crossed the axis of X.
In case the positive currents were cut out, the break occurred at A, A’, A”, &c.,
the make at B, B’, &c., as indicated in the figure.
By cutting the current off just as the curve crosses the axis, self-induction
effects are practically avoided.
The intervals of time indicated by the shaded portion of the current curve were
employed to photograph the arc or to-examine it with the eye. This examination
was made through openings in a large steel disc of the form indicated in the figure.
This occulting screen and the two large interrupter rings were
Fig. 2. placed ona common shaft with the armature of the dynamo.
The interrupter rings were insulated from the shaft; each
had two slate sectors keyed into it, and each carried two brushes
set 90° apart.
It was found that, in the case of the iron arc, in an atmos-
phere of air, oxygen, coal gas, or hydrogen, there are two
distinct luminosities having very different properties.
Of these luminosities one is a cloud of light, strongly
coloured with yellow, and floating at a distance of some milli-
meters from the electrodes, one of which was an iron rod, the
other a rotating iron disc.
This is apparently the ‘ flame’ of the ordinary carbon arc.
This yellow cloud persists from one one-hundredth to one two-hundredth of
a second after the current has been brolien.
The other luminosity is the blue sheet of light which most impresses the eye on
looking at the ordinary iron are.
This light disappears in less than one five-thousandth part of a second after the
current is cut off. One is certain that the interval during which the blue light
persists is, however, still less than this. For the actual instant at which the
current is shut off is not the instant at which the brush passes on to the slate
sector, but an instant later than this, on account of the spark which remains at
break of current.
So that, after the are is broken, practically the only light that remains is this
yellow cloud.
The light from the red-hot iron poles, giving a continuous spectrum, is, ot
course, here not considered.
[Photographs of the two parts of the arc shown to the section. ]
On making the current the first light to appear is an intense blue right at the
point of contact of the two electrodes. The yellow cloud, the ‘flame,’ comes later.
We have succeeded in photographing the blue arc of one current before the yellow
cloud of a previous current had died out, thus obtaining the two kinds of are on
one plate with a single exposure.
——————————————
_ Engineer (New York), Sept. 2, 1897.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 579
In hydrogen the luminosity is very much less than in any of the other gases
when the current has been shut off as long as one-thousandth of a second.
In oxygen the floating cloud is very brilliant. In coal gas it is barely visible,
and of a decidedly reddish hue. In this case the interior of the hood is lined with
a deposit of carbon. Query, Is this red light due to carbon incandescent at the
moment of dissociation from the hydrogen ?
The spectrum of the blue arc is the ordinary iron-arc spectrum.
The spectrum of the yellow cloud which persists is also a linear spectrum of
iron ; but the distribution of intensities among the lines is very different indeed
from that of the ordinary iron arc. The investigation of the difference between
these two spectra when separated in this way is a comparatively easy matter.
This investigation is already under way.
11. On some New Forms of Gas Batteries and a New Carbon-consuming
Battery... By Wiuuarp E. Case.
In 1889 Grove announced his invention of the gas battery; he considered it the
most simple arrangement to produce electricity, but not a practical way to generate
electrical energy. He used platinum sponge or platinum black as the absorbent
to facilitate the combination of the gases. The following experimental determina-
tions by the author show, as far as they extend, that platinum or its compounds
are not necessary to produce the combination of the gases in the production of
electrical energy, so doing away with one of the most expensive drawbacks to the
gas battery. The experiments also prove that carbon is oxidised to CO, at
normal temperature without the application of heat, with the production of
electrical energy.
The Chiorine-Carbon Cell.
A porous carbon tube-electrode, into which chlorine gas was passed, opposed
to a carbon rod, which had been heated red hot, were placed in hydrochloric acid,
of specific gravity 1:10, An E.M.F. of from 0°50 to 0°54 volt was obtained,
depending on the condition of the carbons.
The carbon electrodes, after being heated, were placed in distilled water. With
no chlorine gas passing through they had no difference of potential. When gas
was passed into the carbon tube, at slightly above atmospheric pressure, the
E.M.F. gradually increased to 0°44 of a volt at the end of twenty-six hours. On
short circuit, 0:04 of an ampére was obtained, but it dropped rapidly to 0:02. The
internal resistance was very high. The solution was analysed, and found to con-
tain hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide. -The same experiment was repeated in
a dark case, to see if the action took place in the absence of light. The chlorine
gas was made in the dark and passed though the electrode. The electromotive
force gradually increased, as in the first case, showing that the action took place
in the dark. ;
A carbon electrode, through which chlorine was passed, and a negative plati-
num electrode opposed to it, in dilute hydrochloric acid, gave 0°40 of a volt, but
the electromotive force did not hold up through the voltmeter circuit. Both
electrodes were covered with gas after short-circuiting, and the E.M.F. dropped
to 0:24 ofa volt. On shaking the voltage jumped to 0°40,
A negative carbon electrode was substituted for the negative platinum. It had
been heated red hot and was very porous, the surface soft and rough. The
E.M.F. reached 0:58 of a volt, and gave on short circuit 1:24 ampére, but
dropped slowly to 0°30. The negative carbon electrode was oxidised.
A platinum electrode in a paper envelope was opposed to powdered carbon in
the bottom of a glass jar in hydrochloric acid, chlorine being passed into the solu-
1 Published én eatenso in the Electrician, Sept. 17,1897, and in the Llectrical
PP2
580 REPORT—1897.
tion near the platinum. An E.M.F. of 0:60 of a volt, and on short circuit
0:90 ampére, were obtained. The current remained fairly steady. The surface
of each electrode was about forty-five square inches.
A cell made up as above, but with graphite instead of carbon, gave 0:54 of a
volt, but dropped rapidly on short circuit, the graphite not oxidising fast enough
to give a steady current.
A dense carbon rod opposed to powdered carbon gave 0:40 of a volt, and on
short circuit 0:20 of an ampére. The rod was encased in filter paper to protect it
from floating particles of powdered carbon, and the chlorine passed into the
solution near it.
Two small glass beakers with a carbon rod in one and a platinum plate in
the other, and containing hydrochloric acid, were connected by an inverted U tube.
When chlorine was passed into the vessel with the platinum, an E.M.F. of
0°48 volt was obtained. When chlorine was passed into the beaker containing
the carbon rod, an E.M.F. of 0:14 was obtained, but it dropped almost immedi-
ately to zero, When chlorine was passed into both beakers, no E.M.F. was
obtained.
The chemical reaction of the chlorine-carbon cell was as follows:
H,0 + Cl, = 2HCl1+ 0,
the oxygen of the decomposed water attacking the carbon, and hydrochloric acid
and carbon dioxide being formed.
Carbon Monoxide-Chlorine Cell.
Cell made as follows: a glass tube, 2:25-inch bore and G inches long, corked
at each end, with a porous tube, 1 inch outside diameter, passing through the
glass tube and corks, and corked at each end; carbon rods and gas inlet and outlet
tubes let into each chamber, which were filled with dry animal charcoal previously
treated with hydrochloric acid. The porous tube was saturated with concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Chlorina gas was passed through the outer tube. An E.M.F.
of 0:18 volt was obtained. When carbon monoxide gas was passed through the
inner tube the voltage increased to 0:33 volt. A slight increase of the pressure
of the gases increased the voltage. The glass tube became hot. This reaction
would produce carbon oxychloride.
Marsh Gas-Chlorine , Cell.
Two carbon tube electrodes, three-fourths of an inch in diameter and four inches
long, opposed to one another in a solution of hydrochloric acid, with chlorine
passed into one and marsh gas into the other, gave an E.M.F. between 0:60 and
0°70 volt, varying with the condition of the carbon. A current of 0-70 ampére
was obtained on short circuit, but the cell rapidly polarised. Afterwards fresh
carbon electrodes, with the gases passing through them, were placed in distilled
water, and the E.M.F, gradually increased from 0:00 to 0:14 in twelve hours.
On testing the solution hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide were found to be
present. The chemical reaction of this cell is as follows:
CH, +4Cl, + 2H,0= CO, + 8HCl.
The calculated E.M.F, of this cell is 0°65 volt.
In these experiments it will be noted that platinum is not essential to the
reactions. Both electrodes in each case can be carbon tubes or plates.
In making these determinations of electromotive force and current, a Weston
direct-reading voltmeter and mil-ammeter were used. Resistance of voltmeter,
352 ohms, reading from 0:01 to 8:00 volts, The ammeter read from 0:01 to
2:00 ampéres,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. O81
In all the experiments the gases used were but slightly above atmospheric
pressure. Owing to limited time, the author is not able to furnish further data.
Experiments to determine the many interesting questions involved are being
conducted.
r. C. E. Timmerman, of Cornell University, has assisted the author in carry-
ing out the experiments.
12. On the Determination of the State of Ionisation in Dilute Aqueous
Solutions containing two Electrolytes. By Professor J. G. MacGrecor,
D.Sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S.
The object of this communication is to draw attention to the possibility of
determining, in some cases, what, according to the dissociation conception of
electrolytic conduction, the coefficients of ionisation must be in the case of two
electrolytes present in the same solution, the electrolytes either having, or not
having, one ion in common, but being such as undergo no chemical change other
than double decomposition.
When the two electrolytes (1 and 2) have one ion in common, they are the
only electrolytes present in the solution. For determining the ionisation co-
efficients (a,, a,) we have then the following equations’ :—(a) a,/ V,= 434 Vig
where V,, V, are the regional dilutions of 1 and 2, ¢.e. the quotients of the volumes
of the regions of the solution which may be imagined to be occupied by 1 and 2
respectively, by the numbers N, and N, of gramme-equivalents of these electro-
lytes present, the equation being obtained from the conditions of kinetic equili-
brium; (4) N, V,+N, V,=, obtained from the equality of the volume (v) of the
solution to the sum of the volumes of the regions referred to; (¢) a4,“ V,=/; (Vi)
and a,/V, =f, (V.), the functions f, and f, being determined by means of measure-
ments of the conductivity of simple solutions, the concentrations of ions in the
regions occupied by the respective electrolytes being assumed to be the same as
they would be in simple solutions of the same dilution. A mode of solving these
equations by a graphical process is described in the papers cited above.
That the values of the ionisation coefficients obtained by solving these equations
are those which the dissociation theory demands is borne out by the fact that,
in the case of solutions containing NaCl and KCl (see papers cited above) or NaCl
and? HCl, when these values are substituted in the expression of the dissocia-
tion theory for the conductivity of a complex solution, the calculated values agree
with those observed within a fraction of 1 per cent.
The following results of the observations made on the above solutions, with
respect to the relation of the ionisation in such solutions to the concentration, may
be stated :—(1) In the case of dilute solutions (containing no more than about 0°5
grm.-equiv. per litre of either electrolyte), the rate at which the common concen-~
tration of ions increases with the concentration of either electrolyte is practically
constant; (2) for solutions of greater concentration, this rate diminishes as the
concentration of the solution with respect to either electrolyte increases.
When the electrolytes, 1 and 2, added to water in forming the solution, have
no common ion, other two, 3 and 4, are formed by double decomposition, and there
are thus four present in the solution. For determining the ionisation coefficients,
we have then the following equations *:—(a) a,/V,=a,/ V.=4;/ V3=%4/ Vas
and N,V,N,V,=N,V,'N,V,, obtained from the conditions of equilibrium ;
(6) N,V, +N,V,+N,V,+N,V,=, from the volume relation; (c) a,/V\=
Fi (V3), @&/V.=f2 (Vo), &e., from the relation of concentration of ions to dilu-
tion, the V’s having the same signification as above; and (d) from the conser-
vation of mass, x, and z, being the numbers of grm.-equivalents of 1 and 2
\ Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9,101; Phil. Mag. [5], 41, 276 (1896).
2 McIntosh, Trans. N.S. Inst. Sci., 9,120; Phil. Mag. [5], 41, 510 (1896).
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. [2], 2, Sec. III, 65 (1896).
582 REPORT—1897.
added to water in forming the solution, »,=N,+N,, n,=N,+N, N,=N,.
The solution of these equations, even by the aid of a graphical process,
seems to require more accurate values of the conductivity of simple solutions
than we possess. But with the measurements available, we may readily prepare
a solution having any desired concentration of ions, and therefore having one of
the electrolytes present with any desired degree of ionisation. For this purpose
draw curves for simple solutions of 1, 2, 3, 4, giving the relation of concentration
of ions to dilution. Read off from these curves the dilutions, V,, V,, &c., of simple
solutions of 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively, having the desired common value of the con-
centration of ions. If simple solutions of these dilutions are mixed in proper pro-
portions as to volume, there will be no change of ionisation on mixing. To find
the proper proportions, select any arbitrary value, v,, of the volume of 4 which is
to be mixed with the others. It will contain N, = v, /V, grm.-equivalents of 4.
From equations (d) above we must have N, = N,. Hence the volume of 3 to be
mixed with the others will be v, = V,v,7V,. Next select arbitrarily any value
of v,. Then from the second of equations (a) we have v, = 2, ¥, 72, = V3 02/V, v.
The volumes of the simple solutions of dilutions V,, V., V;, V,, which must be
mixed, in order to form a complex solution having the desired concentration of
ions, are thus known. The solution may therefore be prepared. Moreover, as the
concentrations of the simple solutions and the volumes of them which are mixed
are known, the numbers of grm.-equivalents of the four electrolytes present may
be determined ; and as the common concentration of ions and the dilutions are
known, the ionisation coeflicients may be determined. The conductivity of the
solution may therefore be calculated. -
That the values of the ionisation coefficients obtained in this way are those
demanded by the dissociation theory is borne out in this case also by the agree-
ment between the observed values of the conductivity of solutions of the kind
under consideration and the values calculated hy the aid of these coefficients.
Mr. E. H. Archibald, working in my laboratory, has recently both observed (by
Kohlrausch’s method) and calculated the conductivities of solutions containing
NaCl and K,SO,, and therefore also KCl and Na,SO,. I am indebted to him for
the following statement of his results so far as he has gone :—
Solution, 1 litre of which contains Conductivity
= ay Concentra-
tion of
NaCl 3K,SO KCl 3Na,SO Ions a Difference
grm.,-equiv. grm.-equiy. grm.-equir. grm.-equiv. Observed | Caleulated per cent.
2041 1537 1851 1851 4541 5217 5183 —0°65
1158 0971 ‘1091 1091 +2878 3311 3288 07
*1087 “0927 “1035 “1035 "2744 3160 3139 —07
03683 03241 03549 03550 1039 1192 1188 —03
03077 “02710 02987 02988 0887 1047 1044 —03
These results go to show that the ionisation coefficients of the electrolytes in the
above solutions have been fairly accurately determined. They are interesting in
themselves also as showing that the dissociation theory enables us to calculate the
conductivity of a solution containing two electrolytes with no common ion.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 583
DEPARTMENT IJ.—GENERAL Puysics.
1. An Apparatus for Verifying the Law of Conservation of Energy in the
Human Body. By Professor W. O. Atwater and Professor E. B,
Rosa.
The authors undertook their investigation at the Wesleyan University in 1892,
under the patronage of the University and the Storrs Experiment Station of Con-
necticut. In 1894 the United States Department of Agriculture inaugurated an
investigation of the foods and nutrition of the people of the United States, and
appropriated some funds for the research. The investigation has been continued
for five years, during which time the apparatus has been gradually developed to a
comparatively high degree of perfection.
The general plan of the work is to determine the potential energy of the food
eaten by the person under investigation, by burning samples in a bomb calorimeter;
to analyse other samples and determine the chemical composition of the food; to
analyse and burn samples of the waste products of the body; to measure the
heat evolved by the subject and the mechanical work done; then to balance the
ae net energy taken into the body against the energy given off as heat and
work.
The heat was measured by placing the person under investigation in a large
calorimeter, especially designed and constructed for this work, where he was her-
metically sealed, and where he lived for periods of from one to twelve days. The
calorimeter was 7 feet long, 6 feet 4 inches high, and 4 feet wide. Its walls were
double and made of sheet copper and sheet zinc, and this chamber was enclosed
in eer wooden walls, to shield the calorimeter from change in temperature
without.
The two metal walls were maintained at exactly the same temperature, 80
that no heat was gained or lost through the walls, and the heat generated
within was carried away by a stream of water flowing through a copper pipe,
called an ‘absorber.’ Tests of the calorimeter were made by passing an electric
current through a known resistance, and measuring the heat generated ; and also
by burning alcohol in a lamp and calculating, from the amount of aleohol burned,
its composition, and the heat of combustion of pure alcohol determined by the
bomb calorimeter, the amount of heat that should be given, and measuring the
heat actually evolved by the respiration calorimeter. These tests showed that
the calorimeter is a very accurate instrument.
This investigation is followed up with studies in the metabolism of matter and
energy in the human body.
2. The Rate of the Decrease of the Intensity of Shrill Sounds with Time.
By A. Wier Durr, Purdue University, Indiana.
Stokes has investigated theoretically the effect of viscosity in dissipating the
energy of vibration of shrill sounds, and also, in another paper, the effect of radia-
tion’ Rayleigh has extended his method to thermal conduction, and Kirchhoff
has investigated the effect of both viscosity and conduction, arriving at results in
agreement with ‘the investigations of Stokes and Rayleigh. In the present Paper
the question is for the first time approached experimentally.
The distance at which eight very shrill whistles sounded simultaneously under
a definite pressure just become inaudible is observed, and also the distances at
which they become inaudible when sounded in pairs. From these observations
the modulus of decay of amplitude is found, and for the case of a note of vibration
frequency of 10,600 the modulus of decay turns out to be ‘66, Comparing this
result with the theoretical investigations, the effect of radiation only is deduced,
and hence a value of.*1485 is found for the constant in Newton's law of cooling in
the case of air. These seem to be the only values ever found experimentally for
the modulus of decay and for the Newtonian constant of radiation.
584 REPORT—1897.
3. A New Instrument for Measuring the Intensity of Sound.
By A. G. WessTER and B. F. Suarpe.
The instrument consists of a spherical resonator, to which is attached a thin
glass diaphragm, the excursions of which are measured by the displacements of
interference fringes in a Michelson interferometer. The diaphragm carries at its
centre a small plane mirror about 4 mm. square, which is made the movable plane
of the interferometer, there being besides two fixed glasses and one movable in a
slide by a slow-motion screw. The apparatus is solidly fastened to a bronze base,
and is completely enclosed by a felt-covered box, leaving exposed only the resonator
with a hole opposite the diaphragm. The apparatus is adjusted so that the fringes
are parallel and vertical, using first monochromatic and then white light. When
a sound is made, the fringes become blurred, so as to disappear, and must accord-
ingly be observed stroboscopically. Accordingly for the source of sound is chosen
a tuning-fork electrically maintained, while the fringes, reduced by a horizontal
slit to a line of points moving horizontally, are observed by a small telescope
whose objective is carried by the prong of a second independently maintained
tuning-fork vibrating synchronously with the source of sound, the lens moving:
vertically. The fringes are accordingly seen as inclined lines, the inclination of
which is measured by a graduated circle and rotating cross-hair in the eyepiece.
The excursion is proportional to the tangent of the angular displacement. This
was found more convenient than counting the number of fringes displaced.
The chief difficulty after that of securing absolute freedom from extraneous
noises is in maintaining the constancy of the source of sound. This was finally
accomplished by making the break of the fork which interrupted the circuit for the
source proper a large mercury surface, the controlling fork being placed upon a
solid pier, and boxed in, so as to emit no sound. The source proper was a fork
mechanically connected to a diaphragm mounted upon a spherical resonator, all
being boxed in except a circular orifice in the resonator, so that the sound pro-
ceeded from a definite point. This could be moved about the room without the
intensity changing.
Observations were made in the middle of the night. The following data will
give an idea of the constancy of the conditions :—
w= width of one fringe in micrometer divisions.
h=vertical height of stroboscopic image.
a=angle of fringes with vertical.
I=intensity of sound.
¢= time of observation.
t w h a I
H. M. ° r)
1 15 ‘947 11:78 19> 8 18°69
1 30 *950 11°81 19 52 19:06
1 650 "946 11-80 19 22 19°22
2 & "924 11°81 19 37 20°72
2 25 920 11°84 19 30 20°63
3 15 945 11:77 19 22 . 19-27
3 25 938 11°83 19 ny, 19:02
3 45 *923 (2) 11:79 18 22 18:02
In these observations the source was a fork of 256 complete vibrations, sound-
ing as if rather gently bowed. Observations of the displacement for a certain
steady pressure were made, and from observations on the inertia of parts of the
apparatus it is intended to reduce them to absolute measure.
Gt
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 58:
4, Atmosphere in its Effects on Astronomical Research.
By PrercivaL Lowe tt.
In every astronomical observation the rays of light which give us our know-
ledge of things beyond the earth have to traverse three media—the air, the lens,
and the eye. Though much attention has been given to the lens, and not a little
to the observer, almost none has been paid to the atmosphere, which on investiga~
tion turns out to be the most important factor of the three.
For the purpose of applying and studying this neglected and practically
unknown factor, the first work in which we owe to Professor W. H. Pickering at
Arequipa, the Lowell Observatory was put up at Flagstaff, Arizona. The practical
results on Mars, Venus, Mercury, Jupiter’s Satellites, and Uranus were both sur-
prising to observers generally and revolutionary of previous ideas of these bodies.
Mr. Douglas then discovered that the cause of bad seeing could itself be seen,
and that it was due to distorting refraction produced by waves of condensation and
rarefaction in the air currents, which waves could be rendered visible as shadow
bands crossing the field of view. He determined the size of these waves, their
respective refractive powers, and the kind, speed, direction, and height of the
currents. He thus found (1) that the seeing depends upon the absence of certain
currents ; (2) that the effectiveness of the object glass depends upon the size of
the waves prevailing at any given time and place; (8) that the visibilities of limb
and detail are different; (4) that the noxious currents can already, more or less,
be predicted.
To minimise the harmful currents is, therefore, the object from a practical
point of view. To do this the locality must be as free as possible from
moisture, since water vapour is an unsettling element, and be as little as possible-
subject to change of any kind. These conditions are best satisfied by a large
oasis in the midst of a desert, which is the case at Flagstaff.
Lastly, there is an absolute test of seeing, due to the laws of light, which can
and should be generally applied—the condition of the spurious disk and rings of
a star seen through a telescope. The scale is as follows :—
Seeing 10.—Disk perfectly defined, rings the same, both motionless in field.
: cd 9.—Disk perfectly defined, rings the same, both moving slightly together
in field.
Seeing 8.—Disk well defined, rings complete but moving, no bodily motion.
Seeing 7.—Disk well defined, rings complete but moving, slight bodily motion.
Seeing 6.—Disk well defined, rings tolerably complete, some bodily motion.
Seeing 5.—Disk well defined, rings tolerably complete, bodily motion.
Seeing 4. Disk well defined, rings broken into lines and dots, more bodily
motion.
Seeing 3.—Disk well defined, rings broken into lines and dots, much bodily.
motion.
Seeing 2.—Disk tolerably defined, no evidence of rings.
Seeing 1.—Disk and rings in one confused mass, motion, slight increase in size,
Seeing 0.—Disk and rings in one confused mass, violent. motion, image greatly,
enlarged.
5. Automatic Operation of Eclipse Instruments.
By Professor Davin P. Topp.
6. The Cause of the Semi-annual Inversions of the Type Solar Curve in
the Terrestrial Magnetic Field. By Professor Frank H. Bicetow,
U.S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C.
This paper gives a brief outline of the computation leading to the type curve,
the phenomenon of semi-annual inversion, and the explanation of the same. This
conclusion is then used to criticise certain views of the origin of the diurnal and
586 REPORT—1897.
secular variations of the magnetic needle, widely held, and to advocate another
working theory which seems to harmonise the system of magnetic observations in
a suitable manner,
7. Observations at Toronto with Magnet Watch Integrator.
By Professor Frank H. Bicetow.
8. The Yerkes Observatory. By GrorcE E. Hate, Director.
The author gave an account of the buildings and instruments of the Yerkes
Observatory, with a statement regarding the first observations made with the
40-inch telescope.
9. The Effects of Tension and Quality of the Metal upon the Changes in
Length produced in Iron Wires by Magnetisation. By B. B. Brackett,
10. On the Susceptibility of Diamagnetic and Weakly Magnetic
Substances. By A. P. WILLS.
In the paper the author describes in detail a new method, applicable in the
experimental study of the magnetic properties of those substances in which the
coefficient of magnetic susceptibility is very small, and either positive or negative.
The method is based upon the property which all bodies have to a greater or
less degree—namely, that they experience a mechanical force when placed ina
non-homogeneous magnetic field. This force acts to impel the body towards
stronger or weaker parts of the field, according as the body is magnetic or
diamagnetic.
By means of a large electromagnet a practically uniform field is obtained,
at least sufficiently uniform to suit the purpose to which it is put. The magnet
is so designed that the pole pieces face each other. They are prismatic in form,
and the surfaces are about 1} x 8 cm., and there is a space of about 14 cm. between
them. The long edges of the pole pieces are placed horizontally. The body to be
investigated is made in the form of a thin slab, The dimensions of the slab are
about $x 4}x8em. It is suspended, by means of a long wire, from one end of
the beam of a delicate balance, and with the 4} cm, edges horizontal and parallel
to the pole faces and the 8 cm. edges vertical. The vertical direction is called Z;
the horizontal direction parallel to the pole faces Y, and that perpendicular to
the plane of these two X. The lower Z face of the slab is placed in the horizontal
plane of symmetry of the pole pieces.
The conditions of symmetry show that there will be no mechanical force
acting upon the slab save in the Z direction. The balance serves to determine
this force, which is called P. Theoretical considerations show
kAp 2 2
P= "SFE _H,%),
where A is the area of one of the Z surfaces, H is the strength of field at lower
Z surface, H, that at upper Z surface, x the coefficient of susceptibility, defined hy
Poe (8 oe
‘Aa\ py
where p, is permeability of air, and », that of slab. H,? in comparison with H? is
found in practice to be negligible. If , is put equal to unity, then
2P
K=
AH”
H is determined by measuring the force exerted by the field upon a conductor of
known length when placed in the field at the proper position, and through which
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,
a known current is flowing.
is used.
587
For this purpose the same balance mentioned above
A few of the numerous determinations of the susceptibility coefficients are
given below. The middle column gives the field strengths at which the determi-
nations are made.
Substance. H K
Italian marble P ° . . . 8,080 —'945 x 10-6
Optical glass pes, oops. SyLZO — 578 x 10°
White wax 5 - 2 - 8,220 — ‘560 x 10-*
White wood . ‘ : “ - 3,700 —'176 x 10-6
Sulphur . “ - - : . §,220 —'765 x 10-6
The question as to whether the coefficient « is constant when the field strength
The following determinations were made upon bismuth.
' His varied is discussed.
Substance, H K
Bismuth ‘ ‘ ° ‘ : » 1,640 — 12°55 x 10-¢
Bismuth F 2 - : - » 3,680 — 12°22 x 10-5
Bismuth Z s - . 8,220 —12:27 x 10-*
Bismuth E : - ~ . 8,830 — 12°50 x 10~°
Bismuth : 3 F - 5 . 10,490 —12'34 x 10
ll. On Magnetic Periodicity as connected with Solar Physics.
By Artuur Harvey,
The author advances as a connected theory of solar physics that the sun’s
true body is within the envelope of which we see the surface ; that it rotates more
slowly than the luminous (photospheric) cloud-layer, from the spots on which the
sun’s rotation has been calculated ; that spots and prominences are symptoms of
disturbances which have their seats on the inner sun; that these loci of intense
chemical action occupy large areas, and are intermittent and recurrent in their
activity.
a the arguments respecting periodicity in the cases of sun spots and
of waves of heat and cold, and seeks to establish, from the records of magnetic
observations at Toronto, beginning in 1841, that there is a periodicity in magnetic
disturbances of 27:24575 days, which the author thinks is the synodical rotation
period of the true body of the sun, with which the recurrences of sun spots, of
solar protuberances, of hot and cold waves upon the earth, and other phenomena
dependent on solar action must harmonise.
From thermal considerations Mr. Carlos Honoré, of Montevideo, arrives at a
result almost identical with that of this paper.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
l. On the Refractivity of Certain Mixtures of Gases. By Professor
Ramsay, £.2.8., and Morris W. Travers.
The authors found that the refractivity of air being taken as unity, that of
Oxygen was . . . . 0:9243
Nitrogen ,, i 5 : 1:0163
Argon fe : . 0:9596
Hydrogen _,, 4 ° 0:4733
Helium . - 0:1255
They investigated the ratio of t
and compared them with that of air.
”
he refractivities of oxygen, nitrogen, and argon,
It was found that the sum of the refrac-
988 REPORT—1897.
tivities of the constituents, taken in the proportions in which they occur in air,
differed from that of air by being 0:35 per cent. too small. Similar experiments
made with a mixture of hydrogen and helium gave the result that the sum of the
refractivities of these gases, taken separately, differed from that of the mixture by
no less than 8 per cent. in excess. It is thus probable that gases are not without
influence on each other, but that in some cases the refractivity is diminished, in
others increased by mixture.
2. Note on the Use of the Trifilar Suspension in Physical Apparatus.
Sy Sitvanus P. Toompson, /.R.S.
The author advocated the use of trifilar suspensions in certain forms of
apparatus, as having the advantage over bifilar in not being liable to be thrown
into lateral pendular motion. He instanced the case of a differential D’Arsonval
galvanometer, of a moment-of-inertia apparatus designed by Professor Daiby, and
of an apparatus designed by himself for illustrating mechanically the transmission
of transverse vibrations and of Hertz waves, in which model the part corresponding
to the Hertz resonator (a metal ring) was hung by a trifilar suspension.
3. On Zeeman’s Discovery of the Effects of Magnetism on Spectral Lines.
By Professor O. J. Lopar, F.R.S.
4. On the Use of a Constant Total Current Shunt with Ballistic Galvano-
meters. By Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., and J. Maturr.
5. Lhe Sensibility of Galvanometers. By Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S.,
and J. MaTuEr.
6. Short versus Long Galvanometers for Very Sensitive Zero Tests.
By Professor W. E. Ayrton, /.2.S., and J. Maruer.
7. Ona Research in Thermo-electricity by means of a Platinum Resistance
Pyrometer. By H. M. Tory, M.A., Lecturer in Mathematics and
Demonstrator in Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
[Communicated by Prof. H. L. CALLENDAR, M.A., F.R.8.]
The paper is an account of some experiments carried cn in the McDonald
Physics Building of McGill College, with a view to applying the electrical resist-
ance pyrometer to the phenomena of thermo-electricity.
The method was suggested by Professor Callendar, whose work, with that of
Messrs. Griffiths, Heycock, and Neville, has fairly well established the formulas
for calculating temperature by this means.
The object of the investigation was to give a more rigid verification of Tait’s
parabolic formula.
The research, as conducted, naturally divides itself into three parts :—
1, The study of the usual form of copper-iron junction.
2. The study of a cast-iron wrought-iron junction. In conducting some experi-
ments on the cyclical variation in the cylinder wall of a steam-engine, Professor
Callendar found a couple of this type most suitable.
3. A direct comparison of the electrical resistance pyrometer with the platinum-
platinum-rhodium couple.
In all cases the compensation method was used for measuring the E.M.F.,
the junction being balanced against a storage cell, which in turn was continuously
balanced against a Clark cell kept at constant temperature. A carefully calibrated
rheostat and a resistance box, both of the same material, were used.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 589
The copper, cast-iron, and wrought-iron were tinned together at one end and
heated in an oil bath, in which also was inserted the tube containing the pyro-
meter. The observations were taken only at perfectly steady temperatures. The
direct reading galvanometer, devised by Professor Callendar for the purpose, was
used in taking temperatures with the pyrometer. A carefully calibrated resistance
box of the standard type was also used.
The platinum temperatures were calculated from the formula
(ee #0)
pt i BO oe ay ei? sauna)
and the air thermometer temperatures by means of the difference formula
t — pt = 8((755) -zh0) . . . ~ 2
The object being to show the relation between the experimental curve and Tait’s
parabola, it is quite obvious that the ordinary method of plotting the temperature
and the E.M.F. is not sufficient. A difference method similar to that above—equa-
tion (2)—was therefore adopted. The values of ¢ were taken as abscissas, and the
corresponding values ¢—¢, as ordinates, ¢, denoting the couple temperature, where
=m is the temperature coefficient.
The relation to the parabolic formula may be shown thus :—
If
FE, = at + Bt? (Tait’s formula)
e~¢ = (155) ~T00),
where 5 is a constant depending on the nature of the metals. The value § was
calculated from the observed difference, ¢—¢ , at 200°. With this value for 6 the
parabola was plotted, passing therefore through three points on the experimental
eurve, those corresponding to 0°, 100°, and 200°. The accompanying curves show
the differences from this parabola plotted along the axes.
In order to compare the Le Chatelier couple directly with the resistance pyro-
meter, the couple and the pyrometer were placed in the same porcelain tube. The
couple was the usual form, a pure platinum wire coupled with another of platinum
containing 10 per cent. rhodium. The wire was obtained from Messrs. Johnson,
Matthey & Co. The junction was placed so as to be directly under the pyrometer
coil, from which it was separated by strips of mica.
The temperatures, as before, were taken only at steady points. These points
were obtained by varying the gas supply under a vessel containing molten tin, and
by taking the melting point of tin, the boiling point of sulphur, and the melting
point of silver. The curve in this case was also plotted against the parabola, the
value 6 being calculated from the observed difference of temperature, ¢ —t,, at 979°.
then
The temperature coefficient of the junction was in this case taken as 500 so as to
?
give the nearest parabola throughout the whole range.
Curve I. shows the differences for the copper wrought-iron couple. The ab-
scissas are temperatures by the air thermometer, the ordinates as before stated the
differences from the parabola, The difference is —1°1 at 50° and about + 1°1
at 150°.
If the temperature of the neutral point be calculated from the difference equa-
tion, using for 6 the value found at 200, namely, 23:25, then T, (the neutral
point) = 265°. The experimental curve shows it to be somewhat lower than this.
Curve II. shows on the same scale the differences for the junction of cast-iron
and wrought-iron. The differences are smaller in this case, and the curve more
regular. The neutral point, calculated as before, is 917°, which lies entirely
beyond the limits of the experiments. The value of 6 is 5°765,
By reference to the thermo-electric diagram it will be seen that the line for
590 REPORT—1897.
cast-iron lies on the same side of the copper line as that of wrought-iron, but a
little lower down.
Curve ITI. shows the differences as before for the platinum-platinum-rhodium
couple. The scale here for the abscissas is just one-fifth that in the other two cases,
and that of the ordinates one-tenth. ‘The greatest difference will be seen to be at
150°, the differences being much greater below the 500° point than above.
Temperature by Thermocouple (Difference from Tait’s Formula).
i SA
RC
COC lebel BETTESS
SRC era Te CT ae
CO Caen
shad ssid eLsk tek bok halal
; a
WO Faded |e
bas
© Observations of H.and W. + Observations by Plat. Pyr. :
The curve representing the formula of Holborn and Wien! has been plotted,
and the differences from the same parabola are shown by the dotted line, Their
observations are necessarily much less accurate than those taken by the resistance
pyrometer, as is shown by the points marked ©, along the difference curve. This
is owing, in the first place, to the difficulties in air thermometry work, and also to
the fact that the temperature was changing when the observations were taken.
Their curve, though similar, shows the E.M.F. for the same difference of tempera-
ture to be considerably higher than in the present case, due probably to a difference
in the composition of the alloy. Various other empirical formulz have been sug-
gested, but as they have no theoretical basis, they have not been considered. It
is obvious that a straight line does not fulfil the conditions unless it be between
points not very far separated.
Tait’s formula, as far as it holds, perhaps simply amounts to drawing the nearest
parabola, as the differences found in the present observations are quite beyond the
limits of possible experimental errors. There seems to be no reason, however, to
conclude that the formula may not represent the physical explanation of the effect,
at least to a first approximation.
1 Wied. Ann., 1892, p. 107.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 591
8. On a Simple Modification of the Board of Trade Form of the Standard
Clark Cell. By H. L. Catuenpar, WA., F.R.S., Professor of
Physics, and H. T. Barnes, IA.Sc., Demonstrator of Physics, of
McGill University, Montreal.
The authors have been engaged for some years past in experiments on the
variation of E.M.F. of the Clark cell under the most exacting conditions of tem-
perature change. They have studied the behaviour of various types of the cell,
and have recently devised a very simple form, in many respects closely resembling
that described in the Board of Trade Memorandum, but somewhat easier to con-
struct, and also entirely free from diffusion-lag in the changes of its E.M.F.
consequent on the most sudden variations of temperature.
The cell is set up in a test-tube, but the materials are filled in the inverse of
the usual order. First zinc amalgam, to which connection is made by means of a
wire sealed into a glass tube. Next a layer of crystals of zinc sulphate, followed
by a layer of paste of mercurous sulphate prepared in the usual manner, in which
is coiled a fine amalgamated platinum wire, which serves in place of the mercury.
The whole is sealed either with a cork and marine glue, or better hermetically, by
sealing the glass tube on to the platinum electrodes.
With this method of construction, both the elements are always in contact
with crystals, and there can be no diffusion-lag. The cells are at least equal to
the H form in this respect, and are much easier to make, and more convenient to
use, especially for immersion in a water-bath.
The same method of construction has also been applied with success to the
cadmium cell. These cells appear to be as reliable as the Clark cells at tempera-
tures above 10° C., but the E.M.F. is dependent upon the proportions of the amal-
gam. Below 10° C., there appear to be two possible rates of variation of the E.M.F.,
corresponding to different hydrates, as shown in a recent communication to the
Royal Society to be the case with the Clark cell between the temperatures 30°
and 50°.
9. On the Cyclical Variation with Temperature of the E.M.F. of the
H Form of Clark’s Cell. By F.S. Spiers, F. Twyman, and W. L.
WATERS,
10. On the Disruptive Discharge in Air and Dielectric Liquids.
By T. W. Epmonpson.
The object of the experiments described was to determine, if possible, the
relation existing between the spark-length and the potential at which the dis-
ruptive discharge takes place in air and a number of insulating oils, when the
electrodes used are spheres. The measurements in air were made by direct
readings of a guard-ring electrometer and a spark micrometer, connected in parallel
with a Wimshurst machine.
The curves for air, in which the ordinates represent potential differences, and
the abscissas the corresponding spark-lengths, are found to be hyperbolic and are
represented by equations of the form— :
V?=ad +bd?,
where V is given in C.G.S. units and d in millimetres,
The values of @ and 6 obtained were—
Diam. of Spheres in Cm, a b
2D os . - ° A aan. 83°25
TO are a = - - 186°36 99°42
2:0) “6 ° ° ° A » 144-41 114-49
30. : ; ° . - 49°42 144-71
The differences between the calculated and observed values of V are in
general, not more than 1 per cent., and there is also good agreement with the
results previously obtained by Baille, Bichat and Blondlot, Paschen and Freyberg.
592 REPORT—1897.
In the case of the insulating oils it was found impracticable to make direct
readings, on account of the dense deposit of carbon on the electrodes, which
materially altered the conditions of the discharge.
The method of Macfarlane and Pierce was therefore adopted, and a pair of
spheres of 1 cm. diam. were used as a subsidiary electrometer, the results previously
obtained being used for the reduction of the results now obtained. At high
potentials it was found impossible to get a consistent set of readings, on account of
the violent agitation of the liquid, especially in the case of the lighter oils, like
kerosene, in which the convection effects were very pronounced.
It was found that, while a smaller difference of potential is necessary to pro-
duce a discharge through a given distance for large spheres than for small ones,
when they are close together, for longer distances the air is dielectrically stronger
for large than for small spheres. For spark-lengths of more than 3 mm. the curves
are practically straight, and the dielectric strength is therefore constant.
The values of the dielectric strength of air, at ordinary pressures, are as follows:—
Dielectric Strength.
Diam. of Spheres C.G.S. Units Kilovolts
in Cm. per Cm. per Cm.
5 . . ° . . 95 28°5
1:0 - 4 . 7 . 102 30°6
2:0 ° : : 2 : 108 32°4
30 : . - : : 120 36:0
All of these values are considerably higher than that obtained by Macfarlane
for planes, viz. 23'8 kilovolts per cm.
The results for the insulating oils are not as uniform as those for air, but the
same general characteristics were found, except in a few cases. In all cases the
curves for the spheres of 3 cm, diam. are fairly straight, and it would appear that
Macfarlane’s conclusion that the dielectric strength of liquids is constant for plane
electrodes is warranted.
The following estimates for the dielectric strength of the oils experimented
upon are given :—
x C.G.S. Units Kilovolts
per Cm. per Cm.
Kerosene : : 7 4 : A ; 8372 112
Water white distillate . t : ; 528 108
Paraffin oil . ; A ; 2 - ‘ 422 127
Export distillate . ° . : : 319 96
Natural sperm oil ° : 5 3 : 201 60
Mineral sperm oil ‘ . : . 5 231 69
Raw linseed oil . : = c 4 : 223 67
Boiled linseed oil ‘ : : : f 222 67
Olive oil s 5 5 , A j = 169 51
Neatsfoot oil . - F a _ . : 172 52
Castor oil 5 is c 3 : 5 347 104
Lard oil . i 5 5 = 5 é 90 27
Turpentine . : : ° : : A 233 70
Xylol . 5 . : H 5 ‘ 164 49
In the experiments with the alternating current the source of potential was a
large induction coil, through the primary of which an alternating current of
E.M.F. 50 volts and frequency 125 was passed, the electrometer and the spark
micrometer being connected in parallel with the secondary of the coil. A variable
yesistance was used to regulate the potential. The results were not very satis-
factory, but the values of the spark-length for the largest spheres were situated
between those obtained by Steinmetz and Siemens, the frequencies of the alter-
nating currents used by them being respectively 150 and 100. In fact the results
appear to bear out Taumann’s contention that the more rapidly the potential is
changed the less will be the potential required to spark across any given distance.
“a eo
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 593
Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Professor W. Ramsay, Px.D., F.R.S,
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The President delivered the following Address :—
An Undiscovered Gas.
A SECTIONAL address to members of the British Association falls under one of
three heads. It may be historical, or actual, or prophetic; it may refer to the
past, the present, or the future. In many cases, indeed in all, this classification
overlaps. Your former Presidents have given sometimes a historical introduction,
followed by an account of the actual state of some branch of our science, and,
though rarely, concluding with prophetic remarks. ‘To those who have an affec-
tion fox the past, the historical side appeals forcibly ; to the practical man, and to
the investigator engaged in research, the actual, perhaps, presents more charm;
while to the general public, to whom novelty is often more of an attraction than
truth, the prophetic aspect excites most interest. In this address I must endeavour
to tickle all palates ; and perhaps I may be excused if I take this opportunity of
indulging in the dangerous luxury of prophecy, a luxury which the managers of
scientific journals do not often permit their readers to taste.
The subject of my remarks to-day is a new gas. I shall describe to you later
its curious properties; but it would be unfair not to put you at once in possession of
the knowledge of its most remarkable property—it has not yet been discovered.
As it is still unborn, it has not yet been named. The naming of a new element is
no easy matter. For there are only twenty-six letters in our alphabet, and there
are already over seventy elements. To select a name expressible by a symbol
which has not already been claimed for one of the known elements is difficult, and
the difficulty is enhanced when it is at the same time required to select a name
which shall be descriptive of the properties (or want of properties) of the element.
It is now my task to bring before you the evidence for the existence of this
undiscovered element.
It was noticed by Débereiner, as long ago as 1817, that certain elements could
be arranged in groups of three. The choice of the elements selected to form these
triads was made on account cf their analogous properties, and on the sequence of
their atomic weights, which had at that time only recently been discovered. Thus
calcium, strontium, and barium formed such a group ; their oxides, lime, strontia,
and baryta are all easily slaked, combining with water to form soluble lime-water,
strontia-water, and baryta-water. Their sulphates are all sparingly soluble, and
resemblance had been noticed between their respective chlorides and between their
nitrates. Regularity was also displayed by their atomic weights. The numbers
then accepted were 20, 42°5 and 65; and the atomic weight of strontium, 42°5, is
1897, QQ
594 REPORT—1897.
the arithmetical mean of those of the other two elements, for (65 + 20)/2 =42°'5.
The existence of other similar groups of three was pointed out by Dobereiner, and
such groups became known as ‘ Dobereiner’s triads.’
Another method of classifying the elements, also depending on their atomic
weights, was suggested by Pettenkofer, and afterwards elaborated by Kremers,
Gladstone, and Cooke. It consisted in seeking for some expression which would
represent the differences between the atomic weights of certain allied elements.
Thus, the difference between the atomic weight of lithium, 7, and sodium, 23, is 16;
and between that of sodium and of potassium, 39, is also 16. The regularity is
not always so conspicuous; Dumas, in 1857, contrived a somewhat complicated
expression which, to some extent, exhibited regularity in the atomic weights of
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine ; and also of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic,
antimony and bismuth.
The upshot of these efforts to discover regularity was that, in 1864, Mr. John
Newlands, having arranged the elements in eight groups, found that when placed
in the order of their atomic weights, ‘ the eighth element, starting from a given one,
isa kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note of an octave in music.’ To
this regularity he gave the name ‘ The Law of Octaves.’
The development of this idea, as all chemists know, was due to the late
Professor Lothar Meyer, of ,Tiibingen, and to Professor Mendeléett, of St. Peters-
burg. It is generally known as the ‘ Periodic Law.’ One of the simplest methods
of showing this arrangement is by means of a cylinder divided into eight segments
by lines drawn parallel to its axis; a spiral line is then traced round the cylinder,
which will, of course, be cut by these lines eight times at each revolution. Holding
the cylinder vertically, the name and atomic weight of an element is written at
each intersection of the spiral with a vertical line, following the numerical order
of the atomic weights. It will be found, according to Lothar Meyer and Men-
deléeff, that the elements grouped down each of the vertical lines form a natural
class; they possess similar properties, form similar compounds, and exhibit a
graded relationship between their densities, melting-points, and many of their
other properties. One of these vertical columns, however, differs from the others,
inasmuch as on it there are three groups, each consisting of three elements with
approximately equal atomic weights. The elements in question are iron, cobalt,
and nickel; palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium; and platinum, iridium, and
osmium. There is apparently room for a fourth group of three elements in this
column, and it may be a fifth. And the discovery of such a group is not unlikely,
for when this table was first drawn up Professor Mendeléeff drew attention to
certain gaps, which have since been filled up by the discovery of gallium, ger-
manium, and others. ,
The discovery of argon at once raised the curiosity of Lord Rayleigh and
myself as to its position in this table. With a density of nearly 20, if a diatomic
gas, like oxygen and nitrogen, it would follow fluorine in the periodic table ; and
our first idea was that argon was probably a mixture of three gases, all of which
possessed nearly the same atomic weights, like iron, cobalt, and nickel. Indeed,
their names were suggested, on this supposition, with patriotic bias, as Anglium,
Scotium, and Hibernium! But when the ratio of its specific heats had, at least
in our opinion, unmistakably shown that it was molecularly monatomic, and not
diatomic, as at first conjectured, it was necessary to believe that its atomic weight
was 40, and not 20, and that it followed chlorine in the atomic table, and not
fluorine. But here arises a difficulty. The atomic weight of chlorine is 35°5, and
that of potassium, the next element in order in the table, is 39:1; and that of
argon, 40, follows, and does not precede, that of potassium, as it might be expected
to do. It still remains possible that argon, instead of consisting wholly of
monatomic molecules, may contain a small percentage of diatomic molecules; but
the evidence in favour of this supposition is, in my opinion, far from strong.
Another possibility is that argon, as at first conjectured, may consist of a mixture
of more than one element; but, unless the atomic weight of one of the elements in
the supposed mixture is very high, say 82, the case is not bettered, for one of the
elements in the supposed trio would still have a higher atomic weight than
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 995
potassium. And very careful experiments, carried out by Dr. Norman Collie and
myself, on the fractional diffusion of argon, have disproved the existence of any
such element with high atomic weight in argon, and, indeed, have practically
demonstrated that argon is a simple substance, and not a mixture.
The discovery of helium has thrown a new light on this subject. Helium, it
will be remembered, is evolved on heating certain minerals, notably those contain-
ing uranium; although it appears to be contained in others in which uranium is
not present, except in traces. Among these minerals are cléveite, monazite,
fergusonite, and a host of similar complex mixtures, all containing rare elements,
such as niobium, tantalum, yttrium, cerium, &c. The spectrum of helium is
characterised by a remarkably brilliant yellow line, which had been observed as
long ago as 1868 by Professors Frankland and Lockyer in the spectrum of the sun’s
chromosphere, and named ‘ helium’ at that early date.
The density of helium proved to be very close to 2:0, and, like argon, the ratio
of its specific heats showed that it, too, was a monatomic gas. Its atomic weight
therefore is identical with its molecular weight, viz., 4:0, and its place in the
periodic table is between hydrogen and lithium, the atomic weight of which
is 7°0.
The difference between the atomic weights of helium and argon is thus 36, or
40—4. Now there are several cases of such a difference. For instance, in the
group the first member of which is fluorine we have—
Fluorine . E = : : 5 2 wat 165
Chlorine . 3 fe 3 s E OAD ise
Manganese shia 55 ’
In the oxygen group—
Oxygen. = P : 2 : 3 a 16 16
Sulphur. : : - : 4 . 32 20:3
Chromium . ° 3 F J 5 ‘ Hy OSes
In the nitrogen group—
Nitrogen . 2 3 . 4 5 - lt 17
Phosphorus - : 5 : : . i 20-4
Vanadium . = : é . é é . ol
And in the carbon group—
Carbon : : 3 : D F ¥ ey ee :
Rn. ed ngs cuirt lickatedy We bani cate
Titanium . : § a : 5 c - 481
These instances suffice to show that approximately the differences are 16 and 20
between consecutive members of the corresponding groups of elements. The total
differences between the extreme members of the short series mentioned are—
Manganese — Fluorine . : 4 é . 36
Chromium —Oxygen . c . . ‘ . 86:3
Vanadium — Nitrogen - 3 . . . 374
Titanium—Carbon , - i . A a oOud
This Bgrmeriosigly the difference between the atomic weights of helium and
argon, 35,
_ There should, therefore, he an undiscovered element between helium and argon,
with an atomic weight 16 units bigher than that of helium, and 20 units lower
_ than that of argon, namely 20, And if this unknown element, like helium and
_ argon, should prove to consist of monatomic molecules, then its density should be
half its atomic weight, 10, And pushing the analogy still farther, it is to be
expected that this element should be as indifferent to union with other elements
as the two allied elements.
QQ2
596 REPORT—1897.
My assistant, Mr. Morris Travers, has indefatigably aided: me in a search for
this unknown gas. There is a proverb about looking for a needle in a haystack ;
modern science, with the aid of suitable magnetic appliances, would, if the reward
were sufficient, make short work of that proverbial needle. But here is a supposed
unknown gas, endowed no doubt with negative properties, and the whole world to
find it in. Still, the attempt had to be made.
We first directed our attention to the sources of helium—minerals, Almost
every mineral which we could obtain was heated in a vacuum, and the gas which
was evolved examined. The results are interesting. Most minerals give off gas
when heated, and the gas contains, as a rule, a considerable amount of hydrogen,
mixed with carbonic acid, questionable traces of nitrogen, and carbonic oxide.
Many of the minerals, in addition, gave helium, which proved to be widely dis-
tributed, though only in minute proportions. One mineral—malacone—gave appre-
ciable quantities of argon ; ard it is noteworthy that argon was not found except
in it (and, curiously, in much larger amount than helium), and in a specimen of
meteoric iron. Other specimens of meteoric iron were examined, but were found
to contain mainly hydrogen, with no trace of either argon or helium. It is probable
that the sources of meteorites might be traced in this manner, and that each could
be relegated to its particular swarm.
Among the minerals examined was one to which our attention had been
directed by Professor Lockyer, named eliasite, {rom which he said that he had
extracted a gas in which he had observed spectrum lines foreign to helium. He
was kind enough to furnish us with a specimen of this mineral, which is exceed-
ingly rare, but the sample which we tested contained nothing but undoubted
helium.
During a trip to Iceland in 1895, I collected some gas from the boiling springs
there ; it consisted, for the most part, of air, but contained somewhat move argon
than is usually dissolved when air is shaken with water. In the spring of 1896
Mr. Travers and I made a trip to the Pyrenees to collect gas from the mineral
springs of Cauterets, to which our attention had been directed by Dr. Bouchard,
who pointed out that these gases are rich in helium. We examined a number
of samples from the various springs, and confirmed Dr. Bouchard’s results, but
there was no sign of any unknown lines in the spectrum of these gases. Our quest
was in vain.
We must now turn to another aspect of the subject. Shortly after the
discovery of helium, its spectrum was very carefully examined by Professors Runge
and Paschen, the renowned spectroscopists. The spectrum was photographed,
special attention being paid to the invisible portions, termed the ‘ ultra-violet’ and
‘infra-red.’ The lines thus registered were found to have a harmonic relation to
each other. ‘They admitted of division into two sets, each complete in itself.
Now, a similar process had been applied to the spectrum of lithium and to that of
sodium, and the spectra of these elements gave only one series each. Hence,
Professors Runge and Paschen concluded that the gas, to which the provisional
name of helium had been given, was, in reality, a mixture of two gases, closely
resembling each other in properties. As we know no other elements with atomic
weights between those of hydrogen and lithium, there is no chemical evidence
either for or against this supposition. Professor Runge supposed that he had
obtained evidence of the separation of these imagined elements from each other by
means of diffusion; but Mr. Travers and I pointed out that the same alteration of
spectrum, which was apparently produced by diffusion, could also be caused by
altering the pressure of the gas in the vacuum tube; and shortly after Professor
Runge acknowledged his mistake.
These considerations, however, made it desirable to subject helium to system-
atic diffusion, in the same way as argon had been tried. The experiments were
carried out in the summer of 1896 by Dr. Collie and myself. The result was
encouraging. It was found possible to separate helium into two portions of
different rates of diffusion, and consequently of different density by this means.
The limits of separation, however, were not very great. On the one hand, we
obtained gas of a density close on 2:0; and on the other, a sample of density 2°4
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 597
or thereabouts. The difficulty was increased by the curious behaviour, which we
have often had occasion to confirm, that helium possesses a rate of diffusion too
rapid for its density. Thus, the density of the lightest portion of the diffused gas,
calculated from its rate of diffusion, was 1874; but this corresponds to a real
density of about 2-0. After our paper, giving an account of these experiments,
had been published, a German investigator, Herr A. Hagenbach, repeated our
work and confirmed our results.
The two samples of gas of different density differ also in other properties.
Different transparent substances differ in the rate at which they allow light to pass
through them. Thus, light travels through water at a much slower rate than
through air, and at a slower rate through air than through hydrogen. Now Lord
Rayleigh found that helium offers less opposition to the passage of light than any
other substance does, and the heavier of the two portions into which helium had
been split offered more opposition than the lighter portion, And the retardation
of the light, unlike what has usually been observed, was nearly proportional to the
densities of the samples. The spectrum of these two samples did not differ in the
minutest particular; therefore it did not appear quite out of the question to hazard
the speculation that the process of diffusion was instrumental, not necessarily in
separating two kinds of gas from each other, but actually in removing light
molecules of the same kind from heavy molecules. This idea is not new. It had
‘been advanced by Prof. Schiitzenberger (whose recent death all chemists have to
deplore), and later, by Mr. Crookes, that what we term the atomic weight of an
element is a mean; that when we say that the atomic weight of oxygen is 16,
we merely state that the average atomic weight is 16; and it is not inconceivable
that a certain number of molecules have a weight somewhat higher than 32, while
a certain number have a lower weight.
We therefore thought it necessary to test this question by direct experiment
with some known gas ; and we chose nitrogen, as a good material with which to
test the point. A much larger and more convenient apparatus for diffusing gases
was built by Mr. Travers and myself, and a set of systematic diffusions of nitrogen
was carried out. After thirty rounds, corresponding to 180 diffusions, the density
of the nitrogen was unaltered, and that of the portion which should have diffused
most slowly, had there been any difference in rate, was identical with that of the
most quickly diffusing portion— e., with that of the portion which passed first
through the porous plug. This attempt, therefore, was unsuccessful; but it was
worth carrying out, tor it is now certain that it is not possible to separatea gas of
undoubted chemical unity into portions of different density by diffusion. And
these experiments rendered it exceedingly improbable that the difference in density
of the two fractions of helium was due to separation of light molecules of helium
from heavy molecules.
The apparatus used for diffusion had a capacity of abont two litres. It was
filled with helium, and the operation of diffusion was carried through thirty times.
There were six reservoirs, each full of gas, and each was separated into two by
diffusion. To the heavier portion of one lot, the lighter portion of the next was
added, and in this manner all six reservoirs were successively passed through the
diffusion apparatus. This process was carried out thirty times, each of the six
reservoirs having had its gas diffused each time, thus involving 180 diffusions.
After this process, the density of the more quickly diffusing gas was reduced to
2:02, while that of the less quickly diffusing had increased to 2°27. The light
portion on re-diffusion hardly altered in density, while the heavier portion, when
divided into three portions by diffusion, showed a considerable difference in density
between the first third and the last third. A similar set of operations was
carried out with a fresh quantity of helium, in order to accumulate enough gas to
obtain a sufficient quantity for a second series of diffusions. The more quickly
diffusing portions of both gases were mixed and rediffused. The density of the
lightest portion of these gases was 1°98; and after other 15 diffusions, the density
of the lightest portion had not; decreased. The end had been reached ; it was not
possible to obtain a lighter portion by diffusion. The density of the main body
of this gas is therefore 1-98; and its refractivity, air being taken as unity, is
598 REPORT—1897.
0:1245. The spectrum of this portion does not differ in any respect from the
usual spectrum of helium.
As re-diffusion does not alter the density or the refractivity of this gas, it is
right to suppose that either one definite element has now been isolated; or that
if there are more elements than one present, they possess the same, or very nearly
the same, density and refractivity. There may be a group of elements, say three,
like iron, cobalt, and nickel; but there is no proof that this idea is correct, and
the simplicity of the spectrum would be an argument against such a supposition.
This substance, forming by far the larger part of the whole amount of the gas,
must, in the present state of our knowledge, be regarded as pure helium.
On the other hand, the heavier residue is easily altered in density by re-diffu-
sion, and this would imply that it consists of a small quantity of a heavy gas
mixed with a large quantity of the light gas. Repeated re-diffusion convinced us
that there was only a very small amount of the heavy gas present in the mixture.
The portion which contained the largest amount of heavy gas was found to have
the density 2-275, and its refractive index was found to be 071338. On re-dif-
fusing this portion of gas until only a trace sufficient to fill a Plucker’s tube was
left, and then examining the spectrum, no unknown lines could be detected, but,
on interposing a jar and spark gap, the well-known blue lines of argon became
visible; and even without the jar the red lines of argon, and the two green groups
were distinctly visible. The amount of argon present, calculated from the density,
was 1:64 per cent., and from the refractivity 1:14 per cent. The conclusion had
therefore to be drawn that the heavy constituent of helium, as it comes off the
minerals containing it, is nothing new,.but, so far as can be made out, merely a
small amount of argon.
If, then, there is a new gas in what is generally termed helium, it is mixed
with argon, and it must be present in extremely minute traces. As neither
helium nor argon has been induced to form compounds, there does not appear to
be any method, other than diffusion, for isolating such a gas, if it exists, and that
method has failed in our hands to give any evidence of the existence of such a gas.
It by no means follows that the gas does not exist; the only conclusion to be
drawn is that we have not yet stumbled on the material which contains it. In
fact, the haystack is too large and the needle too inconspicuous. Reference to
the periodic table will show that between the elements aluminium and indium
there occurs gallium, a substance occurring only in the minutest amount on the
earth’s surface; and following silicon, and preceding tin, appears the element
germanium, a body which has as yet been recognised only in one of the rarest of
minerals, argyrodite. Now, the amount of helium in fergusonite, one of the
minerals which yields it in reasonable quantity, is only 33 parts by weight in
100,000 of the mineral; and it is not improbable that some other mineral may
contain the new gas in even more minute proportion. If, however, it is accom-
panied in its still undiscovered source by argon and helium, it will be a work ot
extreme difficulty to effect a separation from these gases.
In these remarks it has been assumed that the new gas will resemble argon
and helium in being indifferent to the action of reagents, and in not forming com-
pounds. This supposition is worth examining. In considering it, the analogy
with other elements is all that we have to guide us.
We have already paid some attention to several triads of elements, We have
seen that the differences in atomic weights between the elements fluorine and
manganese, oxygen and chromium, nitrogen and vanadium, carbon and titanium,
are in each case approximately the same as that between helium and argon, viz., 36.
If elements further back in the periodic table be examined, it is to be noticed that
the differences grow less, the smaller the atomic weights. Thus, between boron
and scandium, the difference is 33; between beryllium (glucinum) and calcium,
31; and between lithium and potassium, 32. At the same time, we may remark
that the elements grow liker each other, the lower the atomic weights. Now,
helium and argon are very like each other in physical properties. It may he
fairly concluded, I think, that in so far they justify their position. Moreover, the
pair of elements which show the smallest difference between their atomic weights.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 599
is berylliwm and calcium; there is a somewhat greater difference between lithium
and potassium. And it is in accordance with this fragment of regularity that
helium and argon show a greater difference. Then again, sodium, the middle
element of the lithium triad, is very similar in properties both to lithium and
potassium ; and we might, therefore, expect that the unknown element of the
helium series should closely resemble both helium and argon.
Leaving now the consideration of the new element, let us turn our attention to
the more general question of the atomic weight of argon, and its anomalous posi-
tion in the periodic scheme of the elements. ‘The apparent difficulty is this: The
atomic weight of argon is 40; it has no power to form compounds, and thus
possesses no valency; it must follow chlorine in the periodic table, and precede
potassium ; but its atomic weight is greater than that of potassium, whereas it is
generally contended that the elements should follow each other in the order of their
atomic weights. If this contention is correct, argon should have an atomic weight
smaller than 40.
Let us examine this contention. Taking the first row of elements, we have :
Li=7, Be=9°8, B=11, C=12, N=14, O=16, F=19, ?=20.
The differences are:
2:8, 1-2, 1:0, 2:0, 2:0, 3:0, 1:0.
It is obvious that they are irregular. The next row shows similar irregu-
larities, Thus:
(2=20), Na=23, Mg = 24°3, Al=27, Si=28, P= 81, S=32, Cl=35°5, A=40.
And the differences:
3:0, 1:3, 2°7, 1:0, 3:0, 1:0, 3°5, 4°5.
The same irregularity might be illustrated by a consideration of each succeed-
ing row. Between argon and the next in order, potassium, there is a difference of
—0-9; that is to say, argon has a higher atomic weight than potassium by 0:9
unit; whereas it might be expected to have a lower one, seeing that potassium
follows argon in the table. Farther on in the table there is a similar discrepancy.
The row is as follows:
Ag =108, Cd =112, In=114, Sn=119, Sb=120°5, Te = 127-7, 1 =127.
The differences are :—
4:0, 2:0, 5:0, 1:5, 7:2, —0°7.
Tiere, again, there isa negative difference between tellurium and iodine. And
this apparent discrepancy has led to many and careful redeterminations of the
atomic weight of tellurium. Professor Brauner, indeed, has submitted tellurium
to methodical fractionation, with no positive results, All the recent determina-
tions of its atomic weight give practically the same number, 127-7.
Again, there have been almost innumerable attempts to reduce the differences
between the atomic weights to regularity, by contriving some formula which will
express the numbers which represent the atomic weights, with all their irregulari-
ties. Needless to say, such attempts have in no case been successful. Apparent
success is always attained at the expense of accuracy, and the numbers reproduced
are not those accepted as the true atomic weights. Such attempts,in my opinion,
are futile. Still, the human mind does not rest contented in merely chronicling
such an irregularity ; it strives to understand why such an irregularity should
exist. And, inconnection with this, there are two matters which call for our con-
sideration. These are: Does some circumstance modify these ‘combining propor-
tions’ which we term ‘ atomic weights’? And is there any reason to suppose that
we can modify them at our will? Are they true ‘constants of Nature,’ unchange-
600 REPORT—1897,
able, and once for all determined ? Or are they constant merely so long as other
circumstances, a change in which would modify them, remain unchanged ?
In order to understand the real scope of such questions, it is necessary to
consider the relation of the ‘ atomic weights’ to other magnitudes, and especially
to the important quantity termed ‘energy.’
It is known that energy manifests itself under different forms, and that one
form of energy is quantitatively convertible into another form, without loss. It is
also known that each form of energy is expressible as the product of two factors,
one of which has been termed the ‘intensity factor,’ and the other the ‘ capacity
factor.’ Professor Ostwald, in the last edition of his ‘ Allgemeine Chemie,’ classi-
fies some of these forms of energy as follows:
Kinetic energy is the product of Mass into the square of velocity.
Linear 3 5 Length into force.
Surface x “p Surface into surface tension.
Volume or 3 Volume into pressure.
Heat + 7 Heat-capacity (entropy) into temperature.
Electrical ,, iy Electric quantity into potential.
Chemical ,, ‘ Atomic weight ’ into affinity.
In each statement of factors, the ‘capacity factor’ is placed first, and the
‘intensity-factor ’ second. :
In considering the ‘ capacity factors,’ it is noticeable that they may be divided
into two classes. The two first kinds.of energy, kinetic and linear, are zndepen-
dent of the nature of the material which is subject to the energy. A mass of lead
offers as much resistance to a given force, or, in other words, possesses as great
inertia as an equal mass of hydrogen. A mass of iridium, the densest solid,
counterbalances an equal mass of lithium, the lightest known solid. On the other
hand, surface energy dezls with molecules, and not with masses. So does volume
energy. The volume energy of two grammes of hydrogen, contained in a vessel of
one litre capacity, is equal to that of thirty-two grammes of oxygen at the same
vemperature, and contained in a vessel of equal size. Equal masses of tin and lead
have not equal capacity for heat; but 119 grammes of tin has the same capacity as
207 grammes of lead, that is, equal atomic masses have the same heat capacity.
The quantity of electricity conveyed through an electrolyte under equal difference
of potential is proportional, not to the mass of the dissolved body, but to its
equivalent, that is, to some simple fraction of its atomic weight. And the capacity
factor of chemical energy is the atomic weight of the substance subjected to the
energy. We see, therefore, that while mass or inertia are important adjuncts of
kinetic and linear energies, all other kinds of energy are connected with atomic
weights, either directly or indirectly.
Such considerations draw attention to the fact that quantity of matter (assum-
ing that there exists such a carrier of properties as we term ‘ matter’) need not
necessarily be measured by its inertia, or by gravitational attraction. In fact, the
word ‘ mass’ has two totally distinct significations. Because we adopt the con-
vention to measure quantity of matter by its mass, the word ‘mass’ has come to
denote ‘ quantity of matter.’ But itis open to anyone to measure a quantity of
matter by any other of its energy factors. I may, if I choose, state that those
quantities of matter which possess equal capacities for heat are equal; or that
“equal numbers of atoms’ represent equal quantities of matter. Indeed, we regard
the value of material as due rather to what it can do, than to its mass; and we
buy food, in the main, on an atomic, or perhaps, a molecular basis, according to
its content of albumen. And most articles depend for their value on the amount
of food required by the producer or the manufacturer.
The various forms of energy may therefore be classified as those which can be
referred to an ‘atomic’ factor, and those which possess a ‘mass’ factor. The
former are in the majority. And the periodic law is the bridge between them ;
as yet, an imperfect connection. For the atomic factors, arranged in the order of
their masses, display only a partial regularity. It is undoubtedly one of the main
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 601
roblems of physics and chemistry to solve this mystery. What the solution will
be is beyond my power of prophecy ; whether it is to be found in the influence of
some circumstance on the atomic weights, hitherto regarded as among the most cer-
tain ‘constants of Nature’; or whether it will turn out that mass and gravita-
tional attraction are influenced by temperature, or by electrical charge, I cannot
tell. But that some means will ultimately be found of reconciling these apparent
discrepancies, I firmly believe. Such a reconciliation is necessary, whatever view
be taken of the nature of the universe and of its mode of action; whatever units
we eel choose to regard as fundamental among those which lie at our dis-
osal.
: In this address I have endeavoured to fulfil my promise to combine a little
history, a little actuality, and a little prophecy. The history belongs to the Old
World; I have endeavoured to share passing events with the New; and I will
ask you to join with me in the hope that much of the prophecy may meet with its
fvlf!ment on this side of the Ocean.
The following Paper and Reports were read :-—
1. Reform in the Teaching of Chemistry.
By Professor W. W. AnpREws, Mount Allison University, Sackville, NB.
The reform here proposed may be set forth under the following heads :—
1. A more complete reorganisation of our subjecf-matter, a different order, a
more constant correlation of the results obtained by different methods, and a larger
use of the ideas of physics.
2. Methods of research by means of simple apparatus, thereby economising
money, material, and time, and making laboratory hours more fruitful in results.
8. A method of writing equations denoting changes in energy and state of
ageregation.
I. It goes without saying that any modern teaching makes large use of the
Periodic Law as the basis of classification. In many excellent text-books this has
been done to a certain extent. We should proceed farther in the same direction.
Mastery of a greater number of facts is possible, and the educational and culture
value of the study is increased.
It is well to introduce the law as soon as the idea of a difference between the
reacting masses of the elements is made clear and some knowledge of acid and
alkaline properties has been attained, and to do so by arranging the elements in
linear order. Periodicity at once becomes evident, and a completion of the curves
shows that all belong to one system. Mendeléefi’s second table comes by section-
ing this line. At first the periodicity should be shown in the case of one property
of the elements only, and gradually the periodic system built up. Table 1., which
was exhibited to the Section, showed the periodicity of basic and acid properties
in a diagrammatic form.
As in botany a plant, so in chemistry every element is to be studied as a repre-
sentative of its family. Eight elements so discussed and experimented with are
enough for an elementary course. The student should always be asked to reach
some results of his own to earn the right to use the work of others.
Should we not begin with the well-known heavy metals, with their sensible
properties and very marked reactions, instead of the intangible, odourless, and
tasteless gases O, H, N, and so forth? It is easier to pass from them to the idea of
atomic mass. Gram atoms of the different metals can be kept for illustration
and experiment. To this order the cleanliness and simplicity of the plaster-of-
ahs aes lend themselves admirably. Besides, this is the true historical
method.
Later on in the work the gases and the laws of gases and solutions may be profit-
ably taken up. Indeed, study of the gases arises naturally from the experiments in
602 REPORT—1897,
volatilisation before the blow-pipe, for the effect of environing vapors on the changes
soon attract attention.
Chemistry is rapidly becoming a branch of physics. Physical methods and
values may well be used, with this difference, that while in physics we deal with
sensible volumes and molar masses, in chemistry we deal with atomic masses and
volumes. It is very easy to pass from one to the other, as in atomic yolume,
atomic heat, and similar values.
When some atomic volumes have been computed and graphically illustrated as
in Table II., which was exhibited at the meeting, at once the students will be
ready to make certain deductions which future experiment will put to the test.
Those elements which exhibit large atomic volumes may be expected to be com-
paratively soft, light, fusible, volatile, soluble, poor conductors of heat and electricity,
chemically intense, exhibiting a constant valency, and are found to readily decom-
pose water, liberating either O or H. Their compounds will be hard to reduce,
show great heats of formation, are white or light-coloured, easily soluble, and of
few types, eg., Na, K, Cl, Br, O, 8, Ca, Sr, Ba. The elements which exhibit
small atomic volume will be the opposites in every particular; for example, Cu,
Ag, Pb, Mn, Cr, Fe, Ni, Co, &c. Table II. shows the effect of greater or smaller
attraction between like atoms. So much of chemical knowledge may be based on
the physical computations of specific gravity, united with the chemical idea of
reacting masses. The pericdic variation of atomic volume should then be exhibited,
and the resulting chemical properties tested in the laboratory work. To prove or
disprove a theory or a law is as valuable an exercise in research methods as the
discovery of new truth. It has the advantage of giving some direction to the
student’s search. E
We have in these physical values an explanation for the division of each family
into two groups, which, along with family likenesses, exhibit marked differences,
as Cu, Ag, and Au in Family I., and Zn, Cd, and Hg in Family II. The chemical
relations of the members of any family to each other may be illustrated by two
lines, coalescent at the top, but separating as we descend to the elements of greater
atomic mass.
Dulong and Petit’s law may be used for the computation of some atomic
masses, for if we have a few blocks of different metals, of masses in grams pro-
portional to their reacting masses, it can easily be found by experiment with small
calorimeters that they all have the same capacity for heat, and the value 6-4 has a
definite meaning, as the number of small calors or therms required to heat such
masses 1 degree. The idea of atomic heat becomes easily so clear and definite that
it may be tested in the laboratory and used in atomic mass determinations.
The most striking physical property used in chemistry is that of colour. The
hint of any colour law at once awakens the spirit of research. It is easy so to
grade experiments that the class readily make their own deductions. Carnelley’s
Jaw may be stated in this form. Given the following chromatic scale,
White, colourless, violet ;
Indigo, blue, green ;
Yellow, orange, red ;
Brown and black: then
Depth of shade on htomic Mass, Temperature, and Valency
Atomic Volume, and Hydration
The reactions on gypsum tablets give many examples of this.
The general condition is that condensation of matter tends to move the shades
toward the less refrangible end of the spectrum from white to black. Hydration
generally has the effect of dilution, and rise of temperature the same effect as con-
centration, as Ostwald has shown to be the case in aqueous solutions, and as is
found to be the case in solutions in borax and metaphosphoric acid.
The question of valency is one troublesome to the student, chiefly on account of
the variation among the elements and variations in the behaviour of the one
element. This may be reduced to order, and variations in valency are seen to be
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.
| | | a wa
OH
ace On On 0H son Zou Pape fou
Splou-oyWo | Oo=s0 OF I0—0H 8 O=d—OF: IB, IV—- OH WA |
| WA é NG OH S
eae 0 Gr NOH OH aaa oH au |
| ~ |
| HO OH HO HO | 900) |
Hons, Zon | BON 7 OES eno 702 Ce = POSS | | ,
sutiog wopt | soc | Pwo on YsCon Ya “oH | HO—!'S—OH | HO—-IV—OH|HO—%)—-OH| HO-2
| HO OB HOAs mo’ Ho” \ i |
soe I or OH OH iy
HO OH es 2 a
|
saplpsy 10H SH Vo OH
CITA “mur
ul ydaoxe) OIOH oa an a
«od "OIOH *OS*H ‘Od°H
« sno Lb ; °OIOH ‘OS"HL Od H wuts Pint, Fa
SPIOV Of—0y210 rom *Ol0H OS*H Od"H os" Ov" ouz"H
fi |
(oy—) saprapaqry | ‘ome | *OTUN "Os *O'd “OIs ‘O'a OUz ox
aqv “ | | a
© o1—eygaqy | | “OdH OsH | “Od
its a18 “ ad . i i F
sproy Peete | ‘O'S H ‘O'd"H ‘ols =| Co'aA)
syugaqww = my Bc rjone ee nate tngé tony x
Sploy oI—OUIO | "oso OWH os" 0d°H OIs"H om" ouz*H HOM
| é OH = | *(HO)N “CHOYIN ras
Gtge— O° H6— HON “HON |
td | q v .
sprov-fxorpfyp | aes 1 *CHO)IT CHO) |
puL saprxorp<qT CHO)IN - ,
SANQOdNOD AUVNUDT UOT AKTHIS
rs |
SapIxO ‘ON | ‘ON | 0° | ‘on "ON | ‘OW ‘ON | oN
SOPHO | ‘ION "OW “TOW TOIL ION TN 1OIt
Saxn0dNOD AUVNIC,
| |
| TIA | TTA | TA | “A | *AT | Ir 1 | ‘1
‘aInpnus pun howev4A—'TIT WAVY,
| soprxoapAyT Jo
so[Moaypoyy Jo aanjouaysg
woTeprxoog
a)
|
uoreap {aq
LN
: yuo [vroMIEy
Ajrareg Jo jaqunyy = u
| Ayyure,y Jo toqurey, = TK
604 REPORT—1897.
part of a system. The rise and fall of valency in the linearly arranged elements
follows this form :—
in general terms, therefore, the valency for the eight families is the same as the
number of the family. General formule can be written for the chlorides, oxides,
and hydroxides, MCI,, M,O,, M(OH),, where M stands for any member of a family,
and m for the number of the family. The derivation of the ortho acids and salts,
the pyro and meta salts and acids, is shown in Table III., which exhibits the
ideal system of compounds which the elements tend to form. The gist of this is
not new; but is not the whole system, exhibited en bloc, more easily comprehended
than as usually presented, and would not a chart of this form in the lecture-room
and laboratory simplify the matter of naming compounds and reduce a chaos of
symbols and names into impressive order P
Isomorphism is another physical phenomenon easily shown and appreciated.
It is of value because it gives an optical demonstration of the fact that when
elements act with similar valency, they show other chemical likenesses, even when
they are widely separated in the natural classification, e.g., Ca, Sr, and Ba and
dyad manganese ; aluminium, and triad chromium, &c. The table of isomorphism
becomes much more suggestive if, instead of being arranged in the form in which
it is copied from text-book to text-hook, it is set in the following form :—
TABLE IV.
I. Li, Na, Rb, Cs; Tl', Ag; Cui, Ag; Aui,
IT. Ca, Sr, Ba, Pht; Mg, Zn, Mn*, Feit; Ni‘, Coit, Cut; Cd, Be, In with
Zn.
Ce, Lai, Di, Eri, Y with Ca; Cu, Hg with Pb; Tl with Pb.
TAL, Pelt, Crit Mint Cet U's Gas BN Ta; NY OPES imoreaaie
bases ?)
IVC siya 2a Dh, ome be teins
V. As, Sb, Bi; P and V (in salts) ; N and P (in organic bases).
VI. S, Se, Te (in tellurides); Cr, Mn’, Te; Cr, Mo, W; As and Sb in the
glances.
VIL. Cl, Br, 1; Mn‘,
VIII. Os, Ir, Pt, Ru, Rh, Pd; Fe, Ni, Au; Sn, Te. See Ostwald’s Outlines.
A table of solubility may be constructed of such symmetry that it is but a
slight act of memory to carry all the more important cases used in analysis (see
Table V.). After half an hour’s practice with this table the student can pick cut
the soluble and insoluble salts from a page of formule.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.
*SOTTBH[B 94 JO
Saprydins Ur AALOSSIp atoyoroy} pur “] ‘wT JO Sfyvs ouToOS Woy saplydins ploy ‘SOolIUMIvy otf] [[v Uy sPUOUMOT [OA “FV TlvUls Jo soprydins ‘soprxo oxw opqujosut Ayeroodsy »
i
a7qnjos
-u, sayeqd
-soyg pue
soyeuoqieg
é ‘soplleH
a ‘soprydiug
a *SOpIxO
«VI . | “S *‘spemoul sv
‘wR jo ydeoxg 9 5 ny ‘sy ‘nO Jo s}eg
“hL ‘SOpmnyl[aL £13 OIQNIOSUy.
pue ‘oqg ‘sapluajeg | ‘soyeydsoyd at a
‘old, ‘ny ‘sopiyd vPW-ML *SOPlorlls oe ae *‘pusosop OM SB
‘qa ‘SH ‘SV -[ng 27 sopryding *saqeqjia ‘sopiqien ‘sopuog ste ig ms AqITIquyjos ul esBeIO
‘mg 4deoxq ‘sopIxQ | UOTIMOD TLV ; ® -op sunie pue
"SOpIPOT | ‘IQNyosuy “a1qnyoy 3 Ug ‘$07 B1418y‘saptIo]yo
*soprmoig ‘Vy wey aftas -ouryeTd pure ‘asva10
| “SOpMorgO ITV "eg “Ig ‘VI wey jo 4dooxq m4 | 7B -ul saqyeuoqivo
| ‘eq ‘qq ydeoxm | jo qdooxy *SOJVUOOIIZ ‘VT ‘meg z Si pue sayeydsoyg
*soyepoT ‘soqVInypay, | ‘Seyeaowunn1y ‘soqvuryty, | jo qdaoxq 8 | oq ®o0*rT
‘soyemoIg ‘soqeuspag ‘soyvuos.Ly *so}eaT[IG ‘sayeulunyty | ‘soprydrus pue | pure 'og*ry ydeoxe
| *SdzBIOTUO ITV ‘soqeyding | ‘seyeydsoyd ‘saquuoqieg | ‘soy eI0g seprxoipAyT | ‘ammo, “Fy yvord
jo syueuaza jo
‘aqqnjoy aqrqnjoy | *agqnjosuy *a]qQnqosuy ‘O)QNyosuy “ojqnjoy anqnzos
SHS ILV Sz[BQ smog SPS SOW sqTeg SqTBS ISON SITES oul0g ses ITV
‘TIA TIA TA “A ‘AI ‘III ‘II | ‘T
‘spunodwoy fo hppqnjoy—'A ATAV I,
606 REPORT—1897.
General Conditions of Solubility.
1. Substances dissolve each other better the more closely they resemble each
other in structure.
*,* Hlements dissolve elements, e.g., Pd in H; Fe, Mn, Ni, and Al in C; U, Cr,
Ni, V, and W in Fe; O in Ag, &c.
Organic substances, like paraffins, containing only C and H, and _ bodies like
sulphides, free from O, are insoluble in H,0O.
The richer they are in O the more soluble they are in water, e.g., the sulphates.
Simple bodies dissolve in water, complex bodies in the complex alcohol, benzene,
and ether (Belonbex).
2. In most cases where there is an imitative valency there is like solubility, as
AgCl, HgCl, TIC], CuCl, and AuCl.
3. The presence of a common ion reduces solubility.
4. Solubility generally increases with temperature, and decreases with atomic
volume.
By making use of the kinetic theory of solutions under the head of equilibrium
when the study of gases is entered upon, evaporation, diffusion, yapour and osmotic
pressure, solution pressure, dissociation, tension, and ionisation may be treated
together most advantageously. Clearer ideas are obtained, time is greatly econo-
mised, and living interest is added to the subject. Where chemistry is taken up
subsequently to a course in experimental physics, or concurrently, the two courses
may be made to supplement each other. In the descriptions of a family and the
tabulation of values, the same principle of classification may be extended, and
graphical curves will prove abundantly useful. Dr. M. M. Pattison Muir's articles in
‘ Watts’s Dictionary ’ on the groups of elements are fine examples of what I mean,
and my plea is for a larger use of this method in elementary classes.
II. Simpler Apparatus for more fruitful Research Methods.—The substitution
of plaster tablets for charcoal, as a blowpipe support, has made possible for elemen-
tary and high schools a clean and cheap method for studying a wide range of
chemical changes, without gas pipes and Bunsen burners, water pipes and pneu-
matic troughs, rubber and glass tubing, stills, retorts or sinks, gas generators, or
hoods. These need be at the hand of the teacher only. On an ordinary school
desk, with a two-cent blowpipe lamp as shown upon the table, a blowpipe,
some paraffin wax for fuel, three or four ounce and one half-ounce bottles for re-
agents, and a supply of tablets, all of which can be kept in a box the size of an
ordinary crayon box, experiments can be made testing the fusibility, volatility,
oxidisability, and reducibility of the metals. The oxides, sulphides, chlorides,
bromides, and iodides may be formed, and their colours and volatility and solubility
noted.
The effect of coloured ions in solutions at high temperatures can be observed in
borax and meta-phosphoric glasses without any expenditure for platinum wire.
The quantity of chemical material needed is comparatively a negligible quantity.
Within three minutes after a class has entered the laboratory, they have reached
results and are recording their observations. In no other form of laboratory
work do the compelled acts of judgment follow each other so rapidly. Research
methods may be rigorously followed.
The following problems may be illustrated and studied by means of simple
manipulations of this meagre apparatus: The changes which take place in a
burning match and the products of combustion; the effect of mass action on
chemical affinity ; the energy changes which take place in fusion and volatilisa-
tion, and the effect of cold surfaces on the precipitation of sublimates; and the
conditions of equilibrium between layers of heated gases, besides the formation of
a very large number of compounds and exhibition of their properties. All results
reached by the dry way should be correlated with analogous results reached in
the wet way and the corresponding equations written.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 607
Ill. Energy values are becoming of greater importance in science, and
especially in chemistry. Changes of state of aggregation should always be noted.
Therefore I have used a horizontal arrow to indicate a fused or dissolved sub-
stance, an upward pointing arrow to denote a gas, and a downward pointing arrow
to denote a precipitate or solid. A common equation becomes, therefore,
AgNO, +HCl=AgCl) + HNO,
—> =
ate
For the volatilisation of lead we would have in its simplest form
Pb) + heat =Pb
—
+heat=Pbt.
Or, if we wish to make it still more definite, as we may to great advantage, use
h.l., h.v., and h.s. to represent respectively the heats of liquefaction, vaporisation,
and sublimation ; sp.h|, sp.h and sp.h} to represent the specific heats in the solid,
—
liquid, and gaseous states, /.diss for heat of dissociation, and %.f. for heat of
formation. Then the equation for the raising of lead from 18°C. to 2,000° C.
will be
Pht at 18° C.+sp.h) x (M.P.—18) therms = Pb at melting-point
+h.l=Pb at MP.
+sp.hx (B.P.—MP.) =Pb at boiling-point,
Ph at BP.+h..=Pbtat BP. bi,
4; + sp.ht x (2,000—B.P.) = Pht at 2,000° C.
All equations are better written for atomic quantities. The above equation
does not note any heat of dissociation of the gas, nor the heat used up in expansion
against atmospheric pressure. These also may be indicated.
Practice in writing such equations leads to more thorough appreciation of the
conditions in which chemical changes take place. It is remarkable in how few
cases a work like Watts’s ‘ Dictionary of Chemistry’ gives all the numerical values
for the symbols used above. This method of writing equations is easily extended
to compounds.
In the plaster-of-Paris method results are reached so rapidly, and the method
of procedure in different cases is so similar, that a rapid form of note-taking is
allowable and necessary. By paragraphing in the following manner the note-books
are more easily examined by the teacher, and permit of readier comparison of metal
with metal :— :
Pb{ +0.F.=PbO) brownish red when hot, pale brownish yellow when cold,
fused oxide melts into the tablet.
+K,S=PbSJ| brownish black,
-—>
+ HCl = insoluble,
-—>
+ HNO, =soluble, or decomposed.
>
Selected equation. PbO|+K,S=PbS| +K,0.
— —>
The position of the K,S indicates that the solution is applied to the coating of
lead oxide, and the position of HCl that it is applied to the lead sulphide ; so
also the HNO,.
608 REPORT—1897,
opie heat = PbI,| chrome yellow, much more volatile than the oxide or sulphide.
teers black.
+K,S=PbS brownish black with red edges (Iodosulphide?)
ox + HCl= partly removed.
+ H,80, =changed to yellow.
Peon Sa inde ae
+ H,0 = coating removed.
+KCON= , ”
Selected equation. PbI,) +K,S=PbS| +2KI.
—- —— >
Heat toning of equation /.f. of PbS + 2 (80130) — (88900 + 101200) =2,f. of PbS +
19260 calories.
2. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 287.
3. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
See Reports, p. 75.
4. Interim Report on the Proximate Chemical Constituents of the
various kinds of Coal.
5. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.
See Reports, p. 286.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20,
The following Papers were read :—
1. Helium. By Professor W. Ramsay, /.2.S.
2. Contributions to the Chemistry of the Rare Earth Metals.
By Professor Bonustav Brauner, Prague.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 609
3. On the Chemistry and the Atomic Weight of Thoriwm.
By Professor Bonustav Brauner, Prague.
The author finds that the reaction which forms the basis of the separation of
thorium from other Rare Earth Metals, is due to the formation of a new complex
salt containing for one molecule of thorium oxalate, two molecules of ammonium
oxalate, and four or seven molecules of water. The salt is decomposed by water,
but it can be kept in solution by the presence of one additional molecule of
ammonium oxalate. He shows how this behaviour may be used for the prepar-
ation of pure thorium salts. The thorium oxalate prepared in this way was
analysed by determining the ratio of thorium oxide to oxalic acid (by means of
permanganate), and the number 232°5 (0 =16) was obtained. The author shows
that Meve’s number, Th = 2845, is too high, the oxalate being easily decomposed
(basic salt is formed) by the action of hot water.
‘
4, The Atomic Weights of Nickel and Cobalt.1 By Professor THEODORE
W. Ricuarps, A. 8S. Cusuman, and G. P. Baxter.
Four samples of the pure bromide of each metal were made and analysed. Two
of the nickel preparations were freed from cobalt by ordinary processes, and two
were purified by Mond’s process. Fractional crystallisation of the ammonia-
bromide was adopted as a means of further purification, after all known impuri-
ties had been removed; and the fourth sample of nickel was also precipitated
fractionally by electrolysis. Each specimen was precipitated as hydroxide from
the ammonia-bromide by boiling its aqueous solution in a platinum dish, thus
insuring the absence of alkalies and silica, The hydroxide was ignited, the oxide
reduced, and the bromide formed by the action of bromine vapour at a red heat.
Sample I. was the least carefully treated, Sample IV. the most.
In the case of the cobalt, similar precautions were taken. The first sample
was purified by fractional precipitation as the double nitrite with potassium; the
second sample by successive conversions into a cobaltamine compound ; the third
by a combination of both of these methods; and the fourth by the resublimation
of the third specimen.
All the samples of both bromides were sublimed as anhydrous crystals in a
stream of hydrobromic acid gas; the specific gravity of the nickel salt was found
to be 4-64, and that of the cobalt salt 4:91. The bromides were ignited, bottled,.
and weighed by means of the Richards-Parker drying apparatus;* and having
been dissolved in water, they were decomposed by argentic nitrate. In the later
analyses, the weight of the silver taken, as well as of the argentic bromide.
obtained, was determined.
Atomic Weight of Nickel.
Sample Preliminary Sample Series II Sample Series lII
Ue 58-646 III. 58691 II. 58-700
I, 58°708 III. 58686 II. 58-709
Il. 58°716 III. 58696 III. 58688
II. 58°650 Ill. 58°670 Ill. 58689
Ill. 58°651 EV: 58693 ibe 58698
III. 58-700 IV. 58690 IV. 58°675
III. 58-693 IV. 58°706 IV. 58676
_ 58°680 — 58690 _ 58689
1 Am. Acad. Proc., xxxiii. pp. 95-128,
2 Am, Acad. Proc., xxxii. p. 59.
1897. RR
610 REPORT—1897.
Atomie Weight of Cobalt.
Sample Preliminary Sample | Series II Sample Series III
I. 58°951 it 58975 I 59-002
I. 58:975 Jie 58:998 I. 58-955
i 59:025 I, 59-009 I. 58977
ae a= I. 59001 If 59-992
re as I. 59:997 I. 59-969
os = IL. 59-982 — —
= — II. 58-997 II. 58999
es =e IIL. 58988 III. 59-003
ae —_— IV. 59-010 IV. 58999
— 58-984. — 58°995 = 58:987
The preliminary series in each case is of little consequence. The second series
in each case represents results obtained from the weighing of the argentic bromide,
while the third represents those obtained from the weighing of the silver. It is
evident that the four samples of each bromide gave results essentially consistent
with one another, and hence that the atomic weights of cobalt and nickel cannot
be far from 58:99 and 5869 respectively, if oxygen is taken as 16-000.
5. On the Occurrence of Hydrogen in Minerals. By M. W. TRAveErs.
6. The Spectrographic Analysis of Minerals and Metals. By Professor
W. N. Harttiry, /.42.S., and HucH RaAMAGeE.
The steps by which the authors were led to this method of analysis were
described and illustrated by lantern slides. After discovering the presence of
gallium in the crude iron smelted at Middlesbrough, and tracing it to the Cleve-
land ironstone, it became necessary to examine other iron ores for this rare
element. A combination of chemical and spectrographic methods was first used
on 100 grammes of sample. The results were satisfactory as far as the detection
of gallium was concerned, but the process occupied too much time.
A simple method, in which 0°5 gramme of the ore was rolled in filter paper
and heated in the oxyhydrogen flame, the spectrum of which was meanwhile
photographed, was tested with very satisfactory results. Not only could gallium
be detected, but many other elements also at the same time. A large number of
minerals and meteoric bodies have been examined by the method, and tabulated
statements of the results were exhibited on the screen, Attention was directed to
the wide distribution of the elements sodium, potassium, calcium, copper, silver,
iron, manganese, and lead, and to the facts that every specimen of magnetite,
bauxite, and meteoric iron examined contained gallium, as also did many specimens
of blende and ironstone, and that siderite and the tin ores examined all contained
the metal iridium.
Photographs of oxyhydrogen flame spectra of some of the elements were
exhibited, and their simple character contrasted with the complex spark spectra
cf the same elements. One plate contained the flame spectra of the alkali metals,
a second plate contained those of copper, silver, and gold; another plate those of
iron, cobalt, and nickel, Similarities in the spectra of similar elements were
indicated in these,
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
The Section did not meet.
:
j
'
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 611
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Demonstration of the Preparation and Properties of Fluorine.
By Professor E, MEsians.
M. Meslans, after some introductory remarks referring to the researches of M.
Moissan on the preparation of free fluorine, gave a demonstration of the properties
of fluorine, and showed experiments illustrating its action on various elements and
compounds.
He carried out these experiments with the aid of a new apparatus, made
entirely of copper, except, of course, the lower ends of the electrodes, which, as
usual, consisted of platinum. After having remarked that M. Moissan was the
first to show that copper vessels may be employed in the preparation of fluorine, M.
Meslans went on to describe the apparatus which he had just used, and which was
now being utilised with the object of producing comparatively large amounts
of fluorine, and for experiments on the possible industrial application of the
element, which it is hoped may now become of easy attainment.
2. The Properties of Liquid Fluorine.
By Professor H. Moissan and Professor J. Dewar, /.2.S.
3. Demonstration of the Spectra of Heliwm and Argon.
By Professor W. Ramsay, J.2.S.
4. The Permeability of Elements of Low Atomic Weight to the Réntgen Rays.'
By Joun WavveE 1, B.A., D.Sc.
The paper is partly a discussion of data obtained by Gladstone and Hibbert
and by myself, and already published, and partly an account of a reinvestigation
of the points at issue.
I have maintained that there is no great difference between the permeability of
lithium and sodium, and that it is hardly correct to say that lithium has next to no
absorbent action on the Réntgen rays.
Beryllium and magnesium and boron and aluminium have been also compared
as to absorbent power and found to be nearly equal, so that among the elements
of low atomic weight (all below aluminium) there is no sudden or rapid rise of
absorbent action with atomic weight.
Experiments intended to elucidate the peculiar granular appearance of coarse
powders are also described. .
5. Continuation of Experiments on Chemical Constitution and the Absorp-
tion of X Rays. By J. H. Guapsrone, D.Sc., F.RS., and W. Hipsert.
In the work recorded last year the authors sometimes introduced an alu-
minium scale into their photographs for the purpose of giving quantitative com-
parisons of the amount of absorption of X rays due to various substances, They
have now endeavoured to estimate the absorption by means of a Lummer-Brodhun
photometer. The aluminium scale, when thus examined, showed that the rays
absorbed by different thicknesses varied nearly in a logarithmic ratio.
Determining the absorption of different negative radicles of lithium salts, when
the comparison is so made that the amount of substance traversed by the rays is
) Published in the Chemical News, October 1, 1897.
RR2
612 REPORT—1897.
in the proportion of the chemical equivalents, the following was found to be the
order :
0, 0,0,, PO,, NO, SO,, Cl, C10,, Br.
Experiments made to determine whether an element has the same absorptiom
in the metallic and the combined condition showed that in the case of copper (and
perhaps other instances) the metal absorbed more than its oxides.
The change of atomicity of a metal between one series of its salts and another
does not seem to be followed by any clearly marked difference in absorption.
In the case of carbon, the authors have been told by Sir William Crookes that
the absorption of colourless diamond and the black forms of carbon are alike. In
their own experiments it would appear that the absorption of carbon, when com-
bined with hydrogen in amyl hydride, turpentine, benzene, naphthalene, and
anthracene, differs little from that of charcoal or graphite, notwithstanding the
addition of varying proportions of hydrogen, and the different manner of carbon
linking. But benzene appears to be about 15 per cent. less absorbent than the
others.
6. On the Action exerted by certain Metals on a Photographic Plate.
By Dr. W. J. Russewn, /R.S.
7. Photographs of Explosive Flames.—By Professor H. B. Dixon, 7.2.5.
8. Distribution of Titanic Oxide upon the Surface of the Earth.
By F. P. Dunninaton, £.C.S., University of Virginia.
In the ‘ American Journal of Science’ for December, 1891, the author published
an article under the above title, which presented estimations of titanic oxide in the
soil from many quarters of our globe. Since that date he had secured a number of
samples from portions of the earth not then represented. These include specimens
from Australia, New Zealand, Africa, South America, and (ten from) British
America; also samples taken from a depth of nearly a mile beneath the earth’s
surface.
Determinations of each of these are now presented, showing a range of figures
from ‘18 to 3°0 per cent. of the soil.
9. Deliquescence and Efflorescence of certain Salts.
By ¥F. P. Dunnineton, F.C.S., University of Virginia.
The affinity for water which results in deliquescence is considered as accom-
panied by the evolution of heat. The deliquescence of a solid is accompanied
with an alteration of temperature which is the algebraic sum of the heat evolved
by the chemical union of the body with water and of the cold produced through
the liquefaction of the solid.
A series of determinations were made of the water absorbed from a moist
atmosphere by certain salts during a period of twelve weeks, from which are
selected the figures for 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 weeks,”
One part of each of the anhydrous salts ultimately absorbed of water as
follows :—Lithium chloride, 15°5 parts; Calcium chloride, 7:4 parts; Calcium
nitrate, 4:7 parts; Magnesium chloride, 9°3 parts; and Magnesium nitrate,
6:4 parts.
Fic which it is calculated that one molecule of each of these bodies respect-
ively has combined with: 86:8; 45°8; 43:1; 49:2; and 52:7 molecules of water.
! Printed in full in the Chemical Nens, Nov. 5, 1897.
2 See American Chemical Journal, March 1897, pp. 227-232.
)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 613
It is proposed to seek to ascertain the limit of the absorption of water by a
salt by observation of the rise of temperature upon mixing a solution of the salt
with more water.
Estimations were also made of the amounts of water lost in the efflorescence of
certain salts upon prolonged exposure to the atmosphere. Figures are given
showing the losses which took place after seven weeks’ exposure of sodium car-
bonate, sodium sulphate, sodium phosphate, borax, ferrous sulphate, zinc sulphate,
and copper sulphate. The sodium sulphate shortly became anhydrous.
10. Some Notes on Concentrated Solutions of Lithiwm and other Salts.'
By Joun Wavve 1, B.A., D.Sc., Ph.D.
The paper is a description of some incorporation experiments, in which lithium
choride, sulphate, and nitrate are compared with other chlorides, sulphates, and
nitrates.
The work was undertaken because in some experiments, already described in
the ‘Chemical News,’ it was found that lithium nitrate absorbed more water than
the calculated amount as compared with calcium nitrate. The experiments de-
scribed in these notes show that the phenomenon observed before was accidental,
as some chlorides are more absorbent than lithium chloride, and sodium nitrate, at
all events, is more absorbent than lithium nitrate.
11. On the Formation of Crystals. By W. L. T. Appison.
12. Note on a Compound of Mercury and Ozone.
By E. C. C. Baty.
Tha curious action of ozone on mercury has long been noticed. In some experi-
ments on ozone lately made by the author it was necessary to treat mercury with
large quantities of ozone, and he found that the change in the state of the mercury
is due to the formation of a paste. ‘This paste consists of a mercurial solution of a
solid substance, which may be separated from the paste by filtration through
chamois leather. The solid is then obtained as a hard metallic substance, having
every appearance of an amalgam. This amalgam is a very stable compound at
ordinary temperatures, but, on heating, changes to the black oxide of mercury,
which, on further heating, gives mercury and the yellow modification of HgO.
The substance is not attacked to any extent by hot or cold HCl or H,SO,, but is
converted into HgO by HNO,.
The author is at present engaged in investigating this substance with the view
of determining its composition.
15. The Reduction of Bromic Acid and the Law of Mass Action.
By James WAuLLAcE WALKER, PA.D., M.A., and WiNIFRED JUDSON.
Many chemical reactions take place so rapidly that an experimental determination
of the rate at which change is taking place is as yet an impossibility ; others are
of such long duration that the difficulty of keeping the external conditions constant
during their whole course renders their accurate investigation also impossible ; but a
darge number have already been examined in which the time required for a measur-
able amount of change varies from seconds to weeks with the nature of the reaction,
and from a study of these the law connecting the mass of the substance with the
time required for its transformation has been deduced. It is called the Law of
Mass Action.
To take the simplest case, when one molecule of one substance is being trans-
formed into one molecule of another substance, as expressed in the chemical equation
1 Published in the Chemical News, October 8, 1897.
614 REPORT—1897.
A=A’, it is found that if the reaction proceeds entirely to an end, the velocity is
directly proportional to ¢, the concentration of A. But since all reactions of this
nature do not go on at the same rate when their concentrations are the same,
another factor must be introduced which is distinctive for each reaction. The
velocity is therefore V = X.c, where & is a constant for each separate reaction. It is
called the velocity constant. The concentration of ¢ of course diminishes as the
reaction proceeds, and therefore the velocity V also diminishes; but if we start
with a known concentration a, and determine the amount x, which has been
changed after a definite interval of time ¢, the concentration will now be a—xX,
and the amount changed in the next very small interval of time dt is called dz,
and is proportional to the concentration at that point, so that the velocity is
Ot =Ma-a) 5 x of course varies between the values 0 and a, so that the above
equation gives on integration & = log —*
a—x
This is the equation for a mono-molecular reaction, and it can be employed to
discover whether a particular reaction is mono-molecular or not. For this purpose
experiments are made with several different values of the initial concentration a,
and from each of these a large number of observations of x and its corresponding
time ¢ are obtained. When these experimental values for a, x and ¢ are substituted
in the equation
1 a
Bag 108 ear
if the reaction be really mono-molecular they will all give the same value for &.
If they do not it is not a mono-molecular reaction.
When the reaction is b2-molecular—for example,
A+B=A’+B’
it is found that the velocity is proportional to the product of the concentrations of
A and B, ae.,
WV i= 0, ¢,0F “2 =k(a—-—2)(b-2);
and if it is poly-molecular, e.g.,
Ae Oe ta A BO a
the velocity is proportional to the product of the concentrations of A, B, C, &c.,
dey
Ver plt C6 t05| meyilsOF = = k(a—x) (6-2) (c-2)...
If, in this last case, A and B are the same, the expression for the velocity becomes
LenS (a—2)*(C—2) . 26
which shows that when ¢wo, or generally », molecules of a substance take part in
the reaction, the concentration of that substance must be raised to the nt" power
in the expression for the velocity of the reaction, e.g., in the reaction
mA + 7B = pA’ + qb’
V — ke,” c," or a =k@—«£)™(a—2z)”,
on substituting the observed values of a, 6, x, and ¢ in the integrated form of this
equation it can be found by trial and error what the correct values of m and » are
which always give a constant value for x. :
A mono-molecular reaction ought to give a constant with the equation of the first
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 615
order, a bi-molecular with the equation of the second order, &c. Sometimes the
orders so found are in agreement with what we should expect from the chemical
equations, and sometimes they are not so, showing that the chemical equations do
not always represent fully the mechanism of a reaction. For example, we should
expect to find that both the inversion of cane sugar, in which one molecule of
sugar is changed into one of glucose and one of laevulose, and the change of ammo-
nium cyanate into urea
ZNH,
NH,CNO = CO are reactions of the first order,
\NE,
The determination of the reaction velocity shows in the manner above described
that this is true of the former, but that the latter is a reaction of the second
order. We must therefore assume that the two ions of ammonium cyanate NH, and
ONO react as two molecules.
Our object in this investigation was to determine the nature of the reaction
between bromic and hydrobromic acids. According to the chemical equation
5 HBr + HBrO, = 3H,0 + 3 Br, since there are in all 6 molecules on the left
side of the equation, we should expect that only the equation = =K(a-z)?®
would give a constant value for %. This expectation is, however, not borne out
by the experimental results, they show that the reaction, whose velocity is being
measured, is only one of the second order instead of the sixth. We must therefore
assume that the first stage of the reduction is expressed by the chemical equation
HBr + HBrO, = HBrO + HBrO,, and that these acids when formed are instantly
decomposed by the hydrobromic acid present, thus:
HBr + HBrO = H,0 + Br, and
8 HBr + HBrO, = 2 H,O + 2 Br,.
The reaction consists in the formation of bromine and water, and the experimental
method employed consists in titrating the liberated bromine by a standard solution of
sodium thiosulphate. In the first set of experiments the free bromic and hydro-
bromic acids were liberated from the solution of their salts by addition of a
definite large excess of sulphuric acid, the conditions being so arranged that its
concentration was the same in each experiment. The duration of an experiment
was noted from the time of addition of the sulphuric acid which started the
reaction. In the first series the solution was 4,th normal with respect to KBr,
and ;4,th normal with respect to /BrO, and the mean value of & obtained from
the integrated form of = k (5a—5z) (a—«) was 0:00423. <A second series of
experiments, in which the concentration of ABrO, was the same, but that of
KBr doubled, z.e., 4; normal, gave as the mean value of * 0:00451; and when
the concentration of the KBrO, was also doubled the mean value of / was 0°00427.
These results are obtained by employing an equation of the second degree, so that
the reaction whose velocity is being measured must be looked upon as bi-molecular.
It consists in the production of HBrO and HBrO, according to the equation
given above, viz., HBr + HBrO, = HBrO + HBrO,.
This leads us to expect that the reaction which, in the presence of a large
excess of sulphuric acid—or of hydrogen ions—is bi-molecular, in its absence is of a
higher order, probably tetra-molecular. Because, in the light of the ionic theory,
+ — —
the equation must be written thus—2H + Br+BrO,=HBr0O+HBrO,, bromous
and hypobromous acids being, from analogy with the corresponding chlorine com-
pounds, very weak acids—z.e. very slightly ionised. This expectation was fully
verified by an examination of the reaction between hydrobromic and bromic acids
in the absence of sulphuric acid.
We performed two series of experiments, in the first of which the bromic acid
616 REPORT—1897.
was z4,th and the hydrobromic acid jth normal, in the second th and ¥,th
normal respectively, When the equation of the second order, viz.—-
aes pes
ak x)
was employed for calculation with these experimental results, it gave no approach
to a constant value for 4; but when they were substituted in the integrated form
of oak (a—«x)*—the equation of the 4th order—the first series gave a mean
value of 0:00118+-10', and the second series 0:00119+-10'. The agreement is as
close as could be expected from the experimental method.
These experiments confirm the conclusion that the reduction of bromic acid
takes place in stages, the first of which consists in the formation of bromous and
hypobromous acids. It further shows that these acids, which have never been
isolated, are excessively unstable in presence of hydrobromic acid, and points to a
method for their preparation which we intend to investigate.
TUESDAY, AVGUST 24,
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Composition of Canadian Virgin Soils By Frank T. Suvtt,
M.A., F.LIC., F.CS., Chemist, Dominion Experimental Farms.
The soil investigations carried on in the laboratories of the Dominion Experi-
mental Farms at Ottawa have included the chemical and physical examination of
certain typical virgin (uncropped and unmanured) soils. The samples were carefully
eollected in the various provinces of the Dominion, and may be regarded as types
or representatives of areas of fair uniformity and considerable magnitude.
Data respecting all the soils analysed are not included in this Paper, and only
the more important elements of fertility of these here presented have been dis-
cussed. The majority of the samples considered are surface soils, but in a large
number of instances the results obtained upon their respective sub-soils have been
inserted.
The exact value of an ordinary soil analysis in ascertaining the fertility or
productiveness of a soil is considered, and while it is admitted that hot hydro-
chloric acid (sp. gr. 1:115) dissolves larger amounts of mineral plant food than are
of immediate availability to crops, it is pointed out that a knowledge of the
‘maximum ’ amounts shows decisively deficiencies, if any exist, and thus indicates
lines for rational and economic treatment of the soil with fertilisers. Further,
it is held that soils possessing large ‘maximum’ amounts will in all proba-
bility prove more fertile than those showing smaller percentages, the climatic
influences in both cases being equally favourable.
The diagnosis of a soil as regards productiveness cannot be made from chemical
analysis alone, even if such includes a determination of the so-called ‘ available’
plant food. The physical condition of the soil, drainage, rainfall, mean tempera-
ture, sunshine, &c., are factors that must receive careful consideration.
Pot or plot experiments with various fertilisers are at present the only means
of gaining reliable or accurate knowledge of a soil’s needs, but the incentive given
by Dr. Dyer in 1894, in publishing his results by the 1 per cent. citric acid solution,
has resulted in many agricultural chemists on this continent directing their atten-
tion to this important subject, and the probabilities are that, ere long, laboratory
methods will be agreed upon for determining available plant food in soils.
The standards of fertility, as suggested by Dr. Hilgard, of the California Experi-
' Published im extenso in the Chemical News 1897, Oct. 15, et seq.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 617
ment Station, are stated, and deductions made from Canadian data given. The
latter show that good agricultural soils possess usually between ‘25 per cent. and
*5 per cent. of potash—less than ‘15 indicating the need of potassic fertilisers:
phosphoric acid is usually between °15 per cent. and ‘25 per cent., but the adequacy
of the element depends largely on the amount of lime associated with it. In lime,
less than 1 per cent. in clay soils indicates that their productiveness will be in-
ereased by an application of a calcareous fertiliser. Peaty soils have always
responded well toa dressing of lime. Richness in nitrogen invariably indicates,
in Canada, loams of excellent productiveness. The larger number of our good
soils contain between ‘125 per cent. and ‘225 per cent, of nitrogen; many, however,
reach ‘5 per cent., and some exceed 1‘0 per cent. From the standpoint of chemical
composition the richest soils of the samples examined comprise those collected on
the prairies of the North-West and those of alluvial origin.
British Columbia,
As far as our investigations have carried us, the soils of this province fall into
three well-marked groups: (a) Deltaic, asat the mouth of the Fraser and Pitt Rivers,
very rich in plant food ; (6) Valley soils, of alluvial origin and of more than average
fertility ; and (c) Bench and plateau soils at varying altitudes, frequently light and
sandy, ranging from very poor soils to those of medium fertility.
Table I. presents data from twenty-nine samples, collected in the districts of
Vancouver Island, New Westminister, Yale and Cariboo. The amounts of plant
food and the chief physical character of these soils receive consideration, and
deductions are made therefrom as to their relative fertility,
North-West Territories and Manitoba.
The prairie soils of these regions present considerable uniformity in character.
They are justly noted for their productiveness, for analysis has shown them to
contain, as a rule, large percentages of the essential constituents of plant foad.
Especially are they rich in humus and nitrogen. The prevailing prairie soil is a
black or greyish-black loam, in which nitrification proceeds rapidly when the soil
is tilled.
Attention is drawn to the fact that alkali soils are almost invariably found to
contain an abundant supply of plant food. Thorough drainage and irrigation
would convert them into fertile soils. Such methods, unfortunately, are not
always feasible.
Table II. gives analytical data of eight typical surface soils from these pro-
vinces, those of a sample from the prairie soil of the Red River Valley being dis-
cussed in detail. The results demonstrate clearly that it may be classed among the
richest of known soils.
Ontario.
Data are presented in Table III., obtained from soils collected in this district of
Muskoka only. These soils are characterised by a preponderance of sand, being
such as would be classed as light loams. Clay loams, however, are occasionally
met with. The chief deficiencies are in humus and nitrogen (frequently resulting
from destructive forest fires), and in lime. Speaking of them as a class, the Mus-
koka soils are scarcely heavy enough for wheat. Good yields of oats, potatoes,
and root and fodder crops generally, are, under a good system of culture, readily
obtained in favourable seasons.
Quebec.
The analytical results of sand and clay loams obtained from widely different
areas in this province are contained in Table 1V. Much variation, as might be
expected, in composition is to be observed ; but, though some show inadequate
618 REPORT—1897.
quantities of certain elements for best results, all the surface samples come well
within the ascertained limits of fertility, and many of the soils are seen to
compare most favourably with those of recognised productiveness.
The Maritime Provinces,
The analyses of several typical soils in the Maritime Provinces are given in
Table V. Prominent among these is one from the Sackville Marsh, N.B., at the
head of the Bay of Fundy. The tides of this bay are phenomenally hich, carrying
with them vast amounts of detritus. Large deposits of this so-called marsh mud
consequently form, and this material is highly prized by most farmers as an im-
prover, being applied at the rate of 100 to 200 loads per acre. Reclaimed marsh
lands are found to be exceedingly fertile.
Particulars are presented of a typical soil from Prince Edward Island. It is
seen to be inferior in several particulars to many of our Western soils, and it would
seem, therefore, that this province, justly known as a fertile one, owes its reputa-
tion rather to good soil texture and favourable climatic conditions than to large
percentages of food constituents.
Averages and Deductions.
Table VI. shows the averages of the results from the soils examined, taken
province by province, The data, however, are only to be interpreted as represent-
ing the composition of soils of large areas in the respective provinces.
General conclusions are drawn whieh indicate that in all the provinces large
tracts of untilled land exist that would rank with the fertile soils of other coun-
tries, and, further, it is shown that many Canadian soils are possessed of most
abundant stores of plant food, stores so vast as to allow of their most favourable
comparison with the richest soils of which we have any knowledge.
TaBLE I.— Analyses of Soils (Water-free), British Columbia.
a]
Pot. E Nit Hy
P Surface or 1% ‘ot- itro-| 7. on
No. Locality Subsoil Character of Soil ash| @ | gen Lime Ipni-
r= tion
Ay
1 | Victoria, Vancouver surface Valley soil, black loam. |°23 |*19 | °594 | 1:29 | 15°69
Island F si ‘
2 z 5s» | depth 12 to 18in. = 23 |-19 | -506 | 1-12 | 13°61
3 a tees ,, 18to 24in, a 26 |-12 | +146 | 1-01 | 4:63
4 | Alberni is r surface Dark red clay loam . |°32 |:08 | °127 | 1:14 | 10°79
5 ad == r a » sandy loam . | 17 | 34 | °163 | 1.00 | 11°32
6 | Cowichan 5 a » sandy loam, |*39 |-32 | *102 | 1:37 | 7-10
bench soil
7 | Ladners. New Westmr. s Alluvial, grey blk. Ioam | °52 |:28 | 610 “50 | 17°25
8 | Squamish : - Valley soil . 3 - |°38 |:20 | 091 | 168] 3:38
9 | Pitt Meadows ,, (i a Alluvial black loam... | ‘36 | 52 | 1:050 32 | 31:14
10 ~ = fs subsoil Greyish yel. sandy loam |°45 |*13 | °895 33 | 6:37
11 | Agassiz = 5 surface First bench . O . |°32 |°24 | °159 *86 | 6°87
12 = > ; Second bench . .|°35 |*14] °101 78 | 4°34
13 = Aged § Valley. . . .(|'39/|18| -154] -96| 6-92
14 4 Gel Us) - ie ee ra eid edd by Ay
15 | Chilliwack Es * sy » Soil, alluvial . |°63 |:21 | °166 "98 | 7°72
16 a 2 a subsoil - 51 | -23 | 108 “90 | 5:90
17 | Mission, Yale 2 ~ surface Light grey, clay loam . |*45 |*28 | +124 | 1°86 | 3:96
18 ) ~) - : subsoil — “62 |°33 | -076 | 1:90 | 3°35
19 | Guisachan ,, S surface L. grey, sandy loam. | ‘32 |*30 | -077 | 1:22 | 2°66
20 + 4 5 oo D. grey = - |*53 1°30 | +236 | 170] 618
21 A 4 i 3 > 4 . |°65 |-38 | +255 | 1°76 | 6:59
22 ie Hs gs ¥ 3 - . (755 [34] 259 | 1:25 | 7-13
23 Ee Es Shad: x L. grey zs . |°45 [27 | -045 | 1-61 | 2°02
24 | Quesnelle, Cariboo 3 25 D. grey a) - |°39 |*22 | -399 |17°77 | 12°01
25 a < 5 subsoil — 53 |*19 | -108 | 3:80 | 4°60
26 | Cottonwood River D surface Yellowish sandy loam . |°32 |°34 | +234 | 114] 828
27 Se sy F subsoil Very sandy . . - |°16 |*29 | *057 99 | 3:03
28 | Cottonwood House : surface D. grey, sandy loam .|°57 |*24 | °412 | 1:07 | 13°04
29 > is A subsoil Yellowish grey .
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.
619
Taste II.—Analyses of Soils (Water-free), North-west Territories
and Manitoba.
3
i) Loss
. Surface or ‘ Pot-| © |Nitro-),. on
No. Locality Subsoil Character of Soil ash} 4% | gen Lime Igni-
a tion
A
30 | Yorkton, N.W.T. . surface Black, sandy loam e | °49]°21 | -501 “06 | 14:01
31 Pf + subsoil = 42|-09 | -130 | -75 | 818
32 | Saltcoats % < surface Black, sandy loam » | °384]°21 | 571] 2°90 | 13°54
33 | Moosomin =, f és Black loam . 4 . | 386] °11 | °479 *95 | 11:79
34 | Calgary i es = +4417 | +447] -92 | 12:93
35 | Tilley Tp. Ss a = 271-18 | 398 | 37 | 11-33
36 | Vermilion Hills ,, er — 17 |°17 | °354 "50 | 10°43
37 | Red River Valley, Man, - _ 1:03 | :29 faces 1:89 | 26°29
sett
TaBLE IIT.—Analyses of Soils (Water-free), Ontario.
; a = Loss
s Surface or « ‘ot-| & |Nitro- on
No. Locality neal! Character of Soil ash | # | gen Lime Igni-
=| tion
f A
38 | Sinclair Tp., Muskoka. surface Sandy loam . . - | 11) °27 | °186 12 | 874
39] Chaffey Tp, 4, . 3 x » «| 08) 12 | 139 | ° 40 | 6-79
40 LF a 5 subsoil Sand é ‘s « | 08] °18 | *074 "20 | 3°53
41 | FranklinTp., ,, . surface Light grey 1c loam o + | 61} °18 | 103 “76 | 6°31
42 a BS ° subsoil *02|*08 | trace} ‘66 | 3°70
43 | Perry Tp., Bs : surface Sandy loam e - | 04] °18 | -296 “08 | 9°40
44 °F = = subsoil _— “06 | "18 | °119 13 | 510
45 | Brunel Tp., a a surface Clayloam . . - | 46] °17 | 084 | 1:28 | 2:94
46 5 a ; subsoil - 29/09 | 064 | 1°07 | 2°39
Taste IV.—Analyses of Soils (Water-free), Quebec.
co
3 Loss
. Surface or . Pot- Nitro-| ;- on
No. Locality Subsoil Character of Soil ash| ¢ | gen Lime Teni-
f= tion
Ay
47 | Arthbaska . a surface Sandy loam . . « | 16] °17 | :296 35 | 868
48 * Ss tapts subsoil = 17-18 | 184 | -29 | 5-46
49 | St. Adelaide de Pabos, surface Red sandy loam . . | *44)°07 | -215 16 | 7°85
Gaspe
50 | Soulanges, Gaspe . 3 a Grey sandy loam . - | °39/°33 | *198 47 | 776
51 = § A subsoil —_— 47 | 30 | *049 73 3°67
52 | Lievre River,, . . surface Clayloam . . .|*11/‘19 | ‘179 | 1:23 | 5-77
53 is FAO 7 subsoil = 10°19 | 271 | 117 5°62
54 | Joliette its P surface Black clay loam . - | 40-28 | -218 82 | 8:06
55 a areca Fi subsoil _ 44:29 | 030 | 1:05 | 2°09
66 | Bonaventure ,, . a surface oes a ales 19 | :249 10 | 12°37
TABLE V.—Analyses of Soils (Water-free), Maritime Provinces.
Locality
Restigouche a
Serberlant, NS.” i
S.-W. Mabou, or &
King’s County, P.E.I. .
Surface or
Subsoil
Pot-'
Character of Soil att
Phos. Acid
Yellow sandy soil” :
Sandy loam . 5 - | 16) °09
‘ z .
7 . 5 Fi
Loss
on
Lime Igni-
tion
57 | Sackville Marsh, N.B. . surface Clay loam . 16 |°16 | ‘131 | ‘13 | 5:83
620 REPORT—1897.
Taste VI.—Analyses of Soils—Averages. Surface Soils (Water-free).
nuance Province Potash EDOauNO- Nitrogen Lime
21 British Columbia . . 5 ° 5 . “42 “OF 262 117
7 North-west Territory and Manitoba . ci “44 19 537 1:08
6 Ontario (Muskoka only) . . . ° 22 15 135 “44
6 Queber'¢ nts Sees ye eee ene ee “44 *20 +226 52
5 Maritime Provinces . fe . 6 . “44 obit "130 ‘ll
45 Average ° . ° . . . . 39 18 *258 66
2. Analyses of Some Precarboniferous Coals.
By Professor W. Hopeson E Lis.
The occurrence of anthracite in cavities of the calciferous sand-rock of New
York, near the base of the Lower Silurian, was recorded in 1842 by Vanuxem.?
Sterry Hunt* subsequently described a similar substance filling veins and fissures
in rocks of Silurian age in Quebec and on Lake Superior. Chapman ‘ proposed
the name anthraxolite for this substance, to distinguish it from the anthracite of
the coal measures, from which it differs chiefly in its mode of occurrence. Under
this name Hoffmann ® has given proximate analyses of samples from the Cambrian
strata of Labrador.
In the neighbourhood of Sudbury a very considerable deposit of this mineral
has been recently discovered, and has been described by Coleman.°
Mr. William Lawson and the author have published” an analysis of this
Sudbury anthraxolite, and also of another specimen from Kingston, Ontario. Since
then the author has had the opportunity, through the kindness of Dr. George
Dawson, of analysing three other specimens. One of these is from Cap Rouge,
Quebec, and is alluded to in the Report of the Geological Survey for 1863. The
other two were collected by Mr. A. P. Low—one at Lake Mistassini, Quebec, and
the other from Lake Petitsikapau, Ungava, Labrador.
The results of analysis were as follows:—
— Cap Rouge Mistassini Petitsikapau
Moisture . : A . 0-19 1:75 0°81
Ash . 5 5 3 ° 5 9:02 1:07 48°37
Carbon - - : c : 82:90 92:71 49°39
Hydrogen . 2 : = 5°50 1:02 0:67
Oxygen and Nitrogen. c : 2°39 3°45 0-76
100 00 100-00 100:00
Taking these with our previous results, it appears that the composition of these
Precarboniferous coals varies as widely as that of the coals proper. In the an-
mexed table these analysesare compared with those of the author’s and Mr. Lawson
of the Sudbury and Kingston minerals, and also with the analyses given in Dana’s
“ Mineralogy’ of a mineral from Lake Onega, Russia, described by Inostranseff, and
1 Published 2m eatenso in the Chemical News, 1897, p. 76, 186.
2 Geology of New York, iii. 33. * Geology of Canada, 1863, p. 524.
* Minerals and Geology of Central Canada, p. 143.
5 Geological Survey of Canada, 1894, p. 66 R.
‘6 Bulletin No. 2, Ontario Bureau of Mines.
” Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, February 1897.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 621
one from the Saxon Erzgebirge given by Sauer. These seem to complete the
transition from asphalt to graphite.
Composition of Precarboniferous Coals calculated on the Dry Substance free from
Ash,
— Carbon Hydrogen ae
Cap Rouge . ° . : - 91°30 6:20 2:50
Kingston . ee F ‘ 90°50 4:20 5°50
Mistassini . ‘ 5 : : 95:20 1:20 3°60
Sudbury . = - “ : 96°40 0°50 3°10
Petitsikapau . ; : 97°12 1:32 1:56
Lake Onega i 3 99:20 0°40 0:40
Erzgebirge . ~ : ; : 99°80 0:20 0:00
3. The Constitution of Aliphatic Ketones. By Professor P. C. Frerr.
4, The Chemistry of Methylene. By Professor J. U. Ner.
5. Formation of a Benzene-Ring by Reduction of a 1:6 Diketon.
By A. LEHMANN.
The 1:6 diketon was formed by condensation of benzil with two molecules of
acetophenon, the former partially dissolved in the latter, and condensed with
alcoholic solution of sodium hydrate (yield 80 per cent.),
C,H; C,H,
c:0 C : CH.CO.C,H,
C:0 Seite us C : CH.CO.C,H,
| |
C,H; C,H,
This by reduction with HI gave, together with other substances, a small
yield (1 per cent.) of tetraphenyl-benzene. A ring formation therefore took place
to some extent. Much better results were, however, obtained by reduction with
zine dust and acetic acid, and treating one of the products with phosphor-oxy-
chloride.
The zinc-dust reduction gave a butylen derivative (diphenyl-dibenzoyl-butylen),
a pinakon, a ‘ pinakolin,’ and several other products. The butylen derivative gave
with POCI, 40 per cent. of tetraphenyl-benzene. The latter reaction is a very
interesting one—so far as I know without a direct parallel. The ‘pinakolin,’
strictly speaking, does not belong to this class. It is not a keton, but, most likely,
a derivative of a compound standing in the same relation to benzene as ethylen to
ethylen-oxide. -
©
©
ono” ager
No
C.H,—C Log,
4
qa
622 REPORT—1897.
6. Condensation Products of Aldehydes and Amides.
By Cuarres A. Koun, Ph.D., B.Sc.
The products obtained originally by Roth by heating together benzaldehyde and
acetamide or other aliphalic amides, or benzaldehyde and benzamide, are only
formed in comparatively small quantity when the two substances are heated to
incipient boiling, very many recrystallisations being necessary in order to get the
resulting product pure, owing to the presence of by-products. After trying various
condensing agents it was found that by passing dry hydrochloric acid gas:into a
boiling benzene solution of benzaldehyde and benzamide in the’ proportion of one
molecule of the former to two of the latter, a yield of 75 per cent. of the pure
product, which crystallises in long needles melting at 220°, is obtained. Analysis
confirms Roth’s formula, the condensation taking place according to the equation:
C,H,.CHO + 2C,H,.CO.NH, = C,H.;.CH(NH.CO.C,H.), + H,O
Benzylidene dibenzamade.
The reaction, however, when carried out under similar conditions in the case of
acetamide and benzaldehyde, yields the hydrochloride of acetyl-benzylidene-imide
or acetyl-benzalimide as a beautifully crystalline compound, which is decomposed
by all hydrolytic agents.
The reaction is best effected in a benzene solution containing equi-molecular
proportions of acetamide and benzaldehyde into which the dry hydrochloric acid gas
is passed. A yield of 70 per cent. of the hydrochloride is obtained, which begins
to melt with decomposition at 180° to 131°. Both analysis and the quantitive
decomposition of the substance by water point to the formula C,H,NO.HCl. Its
formation is represented as follows:
C,H,.CHO + CH,.CONH, + HCl
= C,H,.CH : N.CO.CH,.HOl +H,0.
It is decomposed by water according to the equation:
2 C,H,.CH : N.COCH,.HCl+H,0
= (C,H,CHO + CH,.CONH, + HCl.
This substance, therefore, appears to be the acetyl derivative of the benzalimide
prepared by Busch, and presents similar conditions of instability to the latter. Itis
not attacked by cold water at once, but if gently warmed, and then allowed to cool
immediately after solution has taken place, the analogous product to that obtained
with benzaldehyde and benzamide results, a body previously prepared by Roth. It
forms acicular needles, and melts at 233°. The change may be represented thus,
one molecule of aldehyde being separated :
O,H,.CH : N.CO.CH,.HC1
+ ('H..CH : N.CO.CH,.Ho] + 4:0
= C,H,.CHO + C,H..CH(NH.COCH,), + 2HCI,
Benzylidene diacetamide.
A good yield of this substance is obtained directly by passing dry hydrochloric
acid gas into a melted mixture of the two constituents in suitable proportions.
Analogous decompositions by alcohols are under investigation ; also the con-
densation products of other aldehydes, ketones and allied bodies both with amides,
nitriles, thioamides and sulphamides.
By the action of sodium amide on benzaldehyde in benzene solution the sodium
salt of benzalimide is obtained as a voluminous white gelatinous precipitate,
which when dry forms an amorphous white powder, immediately decomposed by
water with evolution of ammonia.
The equations representing these reactions are :
C.H,.CHO + NaNH, = C,H,.CH : N.Na+H,0
C.H..CH : N.Na + 2H,0 =(,H,.COH + NH, + NaOH.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 623
Ketones react similarly. The properties of these bodies and the reaction with
ketonic and aldehydic bodies, as well as with simple ketones and aldehydes, are
being studied.
A further object of the investigation is the preparation of the theoretically
possible stereo-isomers of these imido-compounds, In addition, the therapeutic
value of benzylidene-diacetamide and benzylidene-dibenzamide is being studied in
conjunction with Dr. A. Griinbaum,
7. A New Form of Bunsen Burner. By Huan Marsuart, D.Sc.
The ordinary form of Bunsen burner has several drawbacks. One of these,
which makes itself especially felt in a large practical class, is the liability of the central
gas jet to become choked by matters falling down the tube: fused beads of borax,
&c., are particularly troublesome in this way. Various modifications were experi-
mented with, in order, if possible, to obtain a form of burner which would over-
come this difficulty. None of these were satisfactory until the expedient was
adopted of abolishing the central jet altogether and introducing the gas through
lateral openings. Burners on this principle were found to be superior to the old
ones in several ways.
The base consists of a star-shaped gun-metal tripod, with an opening and short
tube in the centre; at one side of the opening, below the tube, is a small rectangu-
lar block, This block carries the horizontal gas supply tube. A hole of suitable
diameter is drilled through the block from the end of the gas tube to the central
tube. This serves as a jet for the introduction of the gas. Into the central tube
is screwed a vertical brass tube of convenient length, as in an ordinary burner.
The new style of burner therefore differs from the old in having an inclined
lateral opening in place of a central gas jet; in having the bottom of the tube
open right through to the bench, and in having no lateral air holes.
It is found that the flame can be turned down very low without requiring any
regulation of the air supply, and, so far as that is concerned, an air regulator is
almost superfluous. In order to obtain a luminous flame, however, a regulator is
fitted on the under side of the base. It consists simply of a pivoted diaphragm of
sheet brass, with anarm projecting beyond the base to admit of easy manipulation.
Further improvements are contemplated with regard to this part of the
mechanism, however.
A considerable number of burners have been made on this plan, and have been
in use for several months. They work very satisfactorily.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Molecular Movement in Metale:
By Professor W. C. Roserts-Austen, C.B., F.R.S.
2. The causes of Loss incurred in roasting Gold Ores containing Tellurium.
By Dr. T. K. Ross,
It is a common experience that when ores containing tellurium are roasted
considerable losses of gold occur. It has been generally believed that the losses
a ae to volatilisation, although little direct evidence of this has been brought
orward.
In the paper experiments are described which point to a different conclusion.
Samples of an alloy of gold and tellurium, containing 78-0 per cent, of the former,
624 REPORT—1897.
were heated in a porcelain boat, inclosed in a porcelain tube, through which a
glass tube was passed, kept cool by acurrent of cold water (hot and cold tube). The
alloys were treated for different periods of time up to one hour, at temperatures
between 500° and 1100° C., in currents of different gases, air, carbonic oxide,
hydrogen, and water gas (carbonic oxide and hydrogen in about equal volumes)
being used in successive experiments.
In each case the whole or a part of the tellurium was sublimed and condensed
on the cold tube, but the sublimates in only one case contained a trace of gold, in
the other cases the whole of the gold being found still to remain in the boat. The
exception was when air was used as the atmosphere, the oxide of tellurium con-
densed on the cold tube in that case being found to contain 0:03 per cent. of the
total gold originally present.
A second series of experiments on a tellurium ore from Western Australia con=
taining over 1,000 oz. of gold per ton gave similar results,
The heavy losses incurred in roasting tellurides appear to be due in reality to
liquation, the entectic of gold and tellurium having a very low melting point, so
that some of it passes through the mass and soaks into the furnace bottom at tem-
peratures below a red heat.
3. The Behaviour of Lead and of some Lead Compounds towards Sulphur
Dioxide. By H. C, JENKINS.
4. The Vapour Tensions of Liquid Mixtures.
Ly Dr. W. L. Mittrr and T. R. Rosesroueu.
5. The Electrolytic Determination of Copper and Iron in Oysters.
By Dr, C. A. Koun,
6. The Nitro-Alcohols.1 By Louis Henry, Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Louvain.
The method of preparation used by the author consists in the condensation of
aldehydes with nitro-paraffins. The condensation takes place in the presence of
water and of an alkali. A noticeable disengagement of heat accompanies the
reaction. He found that the condensation of the nitro-paraflin with aldehyde is
dependent upon the presence of hydrogen atoms linked to the carbon atom holding
the nitro group, and it does not occur with the tertiary nitro-paraffins. The
capacity of condensation also varies with the number of hydrogen atoms existing
in the nitro-carbon chain. This capacity for condensation can be exercised either
completely or incompletely and gradually, replacing but one of the two hydrogen
atoms available at atime. The intensity of the reaction depends on the number
of hydrogen atoms and on the molecular weight not only of the aldehydes but of
the nitro-paraffins. It is greatest with formic aldehyde; it is at its maximum
also in nitro-methane.
All nitro-alcohols are colourless, and cannot be distilled at ordinary pressure ;
most of them are liquid, those are solid which are derived from poly-acid alcohols,
H,NO,
The existence of the grouping an oy determines in these alcohols a special and
intensely disagreeable odour; the haloid derivatives of the nitro-paraffins possess,
1 See the Author’s communications published in the Bulletin de V Académie royale
de Belgique, 1895, 1896, and 1897.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 625
in a like manne, the power of combining with aldehydes except those containing
’
the grouping C Cao free from hydrogen. The author has not been able to es-
| 2
CH
tablish this condensation with acetone or with ethylene oxide such as | »
CH.
It also appears not to take place with the aromatic aldehydes, notably with benzoic
aldehyde. The basic hydrogen in the nitro-paraffins seems to behave in a manner
similar to the hydrogen in hydrocyanic acid. He concludes also that these con-
densations are but particular cases of a general rule. All compounds containing the
|
chain —C—H with basic hydrogen, such as—
CO(OCH,) CO(OCH,) CO(OCH,) fe HC:(CO(OCH,)),
|
- CH, CH, CH, co
| | | | &e., ke.
CO(OCH,) CN co CH,
|
CH, co
|
CH,
are capable of condensation more or less easily with aldehydes, less with those
where the aldehyde character exists with greatest intensity. The author sub-
mitted also a list of the nitro-alcohols which he has prepared up to the present
time. The three possible nitro-propy! alcohols, together with a triclor-nitro-propyl
alcohol were included, also five nitro-butyl alcohols and four nitro-hexy] alcohols.
Of the halo-nitro-alcohols three were described, having formulee—
CH,OH CH,0H CH,OH
| |
CBrNO, CClrO and Br
‘ 4 C<HO,*
CH,OH CH,OH |
CH,
The author has been unable to obtain as yet a nitro-nitrile such_as ON-CH,NO,.
A student in his laboratory however has prepared CN-CH,'CH,'CHrO,. The
author is now engaged in studying the effect of the nitro group upon the intensity
of the alcoholic character of these bodies, as well as the products of the oxidation
of the nitrated primary and secondary alcohols, with the view of obtaining from
them nitrated aldehydes and ketones, and the products of reduction of the nitro-
alcohols leading to the preparation of corresponding alcoholic amines,
7. The Plaster of Paris Method in Blowpipe Analysis.!
By Professor W. W. ANDREWS.
In a paper published in the October number of the ‘ Journal of the American
Chemical Society,’ entitled ‘Some Extensions of the Plaster of Paris Method in Blow-
pipe Analysis,’ the author gave some account of the development of this method since
Dr. Eugene Haanel first proposed this new support.? The new composition of the
tablets, the new easily prepared and portable reagents, and the reactions they yield
with the metals were there described. The author now gives some new applica~
tions of this support and some new reactions, The iodide coatings of the metals
are shown.
The addition of boric acid to the calcium sulphate in the manufacture of the
1 Published in eatenso in the Chemical News, January 1898.
2 This paper was republished in the Chemical News, November 1896.
1897. ss
626 REPORT—1897.
tablets so fortifies them that they form a substitute, not only for charcoal, but also
for platinum wire and bone ash. They resist the action of the fluxes, borax and
metaphosphoric acid, and instead of beads in platinum loops we may with advan-
tage produce coloured glassy films on the surface of the white tablets. Oxidation
and reduction take place very readily in these films. All degrees of saturation
may be observed at once. The colour changes due to change of temperature may
be more accurately observed on account of the slower rate of cooling.
In assay work, if a fragment of a tablet be heated to redness for a few seconds
and then pulverised, we have a material which may be moulded into a smooth cupel
which does not blister, and which very readily absorbs the lead oxide in cupellation.
Potassium sulphocyanate, metallic iodine, potassium cyanide, potassium sul-
phide, and potassium cadmium cyanide are all easy to carry. With water they
easily dissolve, and therefore solutions may be prepared anywhere. In the labora-
tory more rapid and better work can be done with the solutions. Potassium sulpho-
cyanate is not always kept by the druggists, and its preparation by crystallisation
in the laboratory is tedious. The simplest way to prepare the iodine solution is to
mix fragments of potassium cyanide and sulphur, the latter a little in excess of
the molecular proportions, in a test tube and fuse together, adding water while yet
warm, and then adding metallic iodine to saturation. Dr Wirt Tassin, of Wash-
ington, uses a solid reagent made by fusing iodine and the sulphocyanate together
with a little sulphur, and then powdering. This, if stable, ought to prove very
satisfactory.
Here is a very effective portable blowpipe lamp which costs less than two
cents. It consists of an ordinary druggist’s tin salve box, with a piece of tin
bent to form a wick-holder. The cover is bulged so as to shut down over the
wick, The fuel is paraffin wax or stearin. The flame is smokeless, very hot, and
with great reducing power and free from sulphur. Once filled, it burns for more
than an hour. A test tube can be readily boiled over it. In private laboratories,
and in schools in towns, where the electric light has supplanted gas, and afield,
this little piece of simple apparatus has proved itself very useful.
Some reactions, not hitherto published, are those obtained by using the tablets
as infusible filters. Films are obtained, for which I propose the name ‘solution
films,’ to distinguish them from the sublimation films.
If to a solution of a lead salt a little potassium sulphocyanate be added, a pre-
cipitate of lead sulphocyanate tends to form. When, however, no precipitate is
visible, if a drop be let fall on a tablet, instantly a bright-yellow spot is seen. The
delicacy of many tests may be greatly increased by making use of this property of
the tablets. It seems to be somewhat catalytic. Not only one, but as many as
fifty or one hundred drops may fall upon the same spot, each drop deepening the
coloration. Various confirmatory tests by wet or dry methods may then be made.
The iodine solution shows a remarkable power of dissolving gold. Gold leat
dropped on its surface almost instantly dissolves. If the solution containing gold
be dropped on a tablet and the spot touched with the blowpipe flame, a fine pink
film appears. It is better to add ammonium hydrate to the solution till de-
colorised. One drop of solution containing one part golds in thirty thousand
will show a fine pink. Fifty drops will show gold present in one part in six hun-
dred thousand and one hundred drops, one part in one million of solution, The
test, therefore, may be made quantitative.
Platinum yields a slate-coloured film, chromium a film dark-green hot, and fine-
green cold Copper yields a purple film, which, treated with sulphuric acid, dis-
appears and darkens in oxidising flame. From some solutions the copper film is
black. If a copper solution be dropped on a tablet and heated vapours of hydro-
bromic acid be blown over it, the purplish-brown of cupric bromide will appear.
This will reveal copper, when present, one part in two million parts of solution.
Iron gives a brownish film, which sulphuric acid turns to Venetian red, and
other acids remove. A little metaphosphoric acid added to the solution will pre-
vent the formation of the film. Cobalt yields a pink film, which becomes, on
hydration, a beautiful blue, and more strongly heated a black, which a drop of
strong acid potassium sulphate removes,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 627
Nickel yields a pale-green film, which, dehydrated, becomes a brownish-yellow
and then a black. Ammonium hydrate turns the solution a fine blue.
Nickel may be detected in the presence of cobalt. The solution will probably
be colourless, unless iron be present, when it will be amethystine. If a drop of
the iodine solution be added to the section of the tablet, wetted by the metallic
solution, and heated, the centre will be black, showing nickel, for in such circum-
stances the cobalt tends to leave a white centre, forming a black ring with
sometimes a blue ring separating it from the centre, outside that a brownish yellow
showing nickel, and farther out a spreading blue showing cobalt. The thio-
cyanate heated in the presence of an acid yields a yellow spot, which must be
distinguished from the nickel film. The salts experimented with were the nitrates
and sulphates, and when cobalt was six times as abundant as the nickel, the reac-
tions of the latter were well marked.
Manganese, vanadium, molybdenum, ruthenium, and osmium also yield solu-
tion films.
Potassium cadmium cyanide has been found to be a reagent which affords a
very delicate and ready test for sulphur even in the presence of selenium and
tellurium.
Potassium sulphocyanate solution was added to a cadmium solution and
dropped on a tablet and heated, and the scarlet of hot cadmium sulphide showed
itself. Sixteen drops revealed the presence of cadmium in a ;4; normal solution,
and this test was not interfered with by the presence of two hundred times as
much zine.
Zinc in the cobalt test responded with great delicacy, but aluminium gave no
very delicate results, on account of the calcium reaction of the tablet itself.
Another extension of this method is to the compounds of organic chemistry.
Carbon gives a sooty coating which metaphosphoric and sulphuric acids in-
crease. Tars and asphalts give a black tinged with green.
The phenols with the same reagents yield a black edged with a pinkish red.
Picric acid is the only exception found so far. It gives a yellow. The following
were among the phenols treated—carbolic acid, pyrogallol, salicylic acid, oils of
coniine and wintergreen, Canada balsam, Burgundy pitch, resin, phenol phthalein,
hydroquinone, and creolin. Many of the phenols when dropped on a tablet pre-
viously heated before the blowpipe show very brilliant and characteristic colours.
The paraffins yield no red, but heavy sooty, films. We have therefore group
and individual tests.
8. Some Experiments with Chlorine.—By R. RANsForm,
9. Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.
See Reports, p. 295,
10. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives,—See Reports, p. 292.
11. Report on the Direct Formation of Haloids from Pure Materials.
See Reports, p. 295.
12. Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
113, Report on the Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws.
See Reports, p. 294.
628 REPORT—1897,
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Dx. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19,
The President delivered the following Address :—
THE nature and relations of the more ancient rocks of North America are problems
particularly Canadian, for these rocks in their typical and most easily read develop-
ment either constitute or border upon the continental Protaxis of the North. The
questions involved are, however, at the same time, perhaps more intimately con-
nected with a certain class of world-wide geological phenomena than any of those
relating to later formations, in which a greater degree of differentiation occurred
as time advanced. A reasonably satisfactory classification of the crystalline rocks
beneath those designated as Paleozoic was first worked out in the Canadian region
by Logan and his colleagues, a classification of which the validity was soon after
generally recognised. The greatest known connected area of such rocks is em-
braced within the borders of Canada, and, if I mistake not, the further understand-
ing of the origin and character of these rocks is likely to depend very largely upon
work now in progress, or remaining to be accomplished here.
This being the case, it seems very appropriate to direct such remarks as I may
be privileged to make on the present occasion chiefly to these more ancient rocks,
and the subject is one which cannot fail to present itself in concrete form to the
visiting members of this Section. Personally I cannot claim to have engaged in
extended or close investigations of these rocks, and there is little absolutely new
in what I can say in respect to them; but work of the kind is still actively in
progress by members of the staff of the Geological Survey, and the classification
and discrimination of these older terranes present themselves to us daily as im-
portant subjects of consideration in connection with the mapping of vast areas;
so that, if still admittedly imperfect in many respects, our knowledge of them
must be appraised, and, at least provisionally, employed in a practical way in order
to admit of the progress of the surveys in hand.
Although it is intended to speak chiefly of the distinctively pre-Cambrian rocks
of Canada, and more particularly of the crystalline schists, it will be necessary
also to allude to others, in regard to the systematic position of which differences
of opinion exist. Of the Cambrian itself, as distinguished by organic remains,
little need be said, but it is essential to keep in touch with the paleontologically
established landmarks on this side, if for no other reason than to enable us to
realise in some measure the vast lapse of time, constituting probably one of the
most important breaks in geological history, by which the Cambrian and its allied
rocks are separated from those of the Huronian and Laurentian systems.
In attempting to review so wide a subject andone upon which so much has already
been written, the chief difficulty is to determine how much may be legitimately
TRANSAC'BIONS OF SECTION C. 629.
eliminated while still retaining the important features. This must be largely a
matter of individual judgment, and I can only hope to present what appear to me
to be the essential points, with special reference to the geology of Canada. The
useful object of any such review is, of course, to bring out what may now actually
be regarded as established respecting these older rocks, and in what direction the
most hopeful outlook exists for improving our knowledge of them. For this pur-
pose, the best mode of approaching the subject, in the first place, and up toa
certain point, is the historical one, and it will thus be desirable to recapitulate
briefly the first steps made in the classification of the crystalline schists in Canada.
This is the more appropriate, because of the substantial accuracy of these first
Observations, and the fact that they have since been largely buried out of sight by
a copious controversial literature of later growth.
Soon after the Geological Survey of Canada was begun, now more than fifty
years ago, Logan (who in the earlier years of the work may almost be said to
have alone constituted the staff) found himself confronted with the great areas of
crystalline rocks forming the continental Protaxis. The existing geological edifice
has been so largely the result of the past half century of work, that it is not now
easy to realise the elementary condition in which its foundations lay at that time.
Tt was then but ten years since Sedgwick and Murchison had given form to their
discoveries in regard to the Cambrian and Silurian, and a still shorter time since
the definitive publication of the classification of the Cambrian and the appearance
of the ‘Silurian System, while Hall, Emmons and others, working upon these
lines, were actively engaged in building up a similar classification of the Paleozoic
rocks of the Eastern States of the American Union. The Silurian and Cambrian
had, in fact, but just been reclaimed from what Murchison speaks of as the ‘ vast
unclassified heaps of greywacke’ or ‘ transition limestones.’
It would have been quite appropriate at this date to relegate all underlying and
more or less completely crystalline rocks to the ‘Primary,’ or ‘ Primitive,’ or
* Azoic,’ but such a solution fortunately did not recommend itself to Logan.
It was along the Ottawa Valley, in 1845, that the rocks subsequently classed
under the Laurentian and Huronian systems were first examined in some detail.
In that year Logan met with and accurately described, severally, rocks which we
now refer to (1) The Fundamental Gneiss; (2) The Grenville Series; and (3)
The Huronian. He speaks of the rocks of the first class as being in the main
syenitic gneisses ‘of a highly crystalline quality, belonging to the order which, in
the nomenclature of Lyell, is called metamorphic instead of primary, as possessing
an aspect inducing a theoretic belief that they may be ancient sedimentary forma-
tions in an altered condition.’ In what we now call the Grenville Series, he de-
scribes the association of crystalline limestones and interbedded gneisses, adding
that it appeared to be expedient to consider this mass as a separate metamorphic
group, supposed to be newer than the last. Of the Huronian, the relations were
at that time left undetermined, although it is observed that its beds hold pebbles
of the underlying rocks, here the Fundamental Gneiss.
The following season was spent by Logan, and by his assistant Murray, on the
north shore of Lake Superior, Thunder Bay and its vicinity being one of the regions
especially examined. Without enumerating particular localities, it may be stated
that Logan there grouped the rocks met with as follows, beginning with the
lowest; the column added on the left giving the present nomenclature of the
several series defined :—
1. Granite and syenite.
“| 2. Gneiss.
Huronian , . . 38, Chloritic and partly talcose
and conglomerate slates
Laurentian . 5
(schists. ]
Animikie . : . A. Bluish slates or shales inter-
stratified with trap.
Keweenawan . . 5. Sandstones, limestones, in-
durated marls and conglo-
* merates, interstratified with
trap.
630 REPORT—1897
It is not distinctly stated that No. 3 rests unconformably on the older rocks,
but the observation that granitic boulders were found in it, leads to the belief
that such unconformity was assumed. Murray, however, supposed the junction
as seen on the Kaministiquia to be conformable, and unites the first three subdivi-
sions, as above given, in one series.
Logan further states, still referring to the same region, that the ‘ chloritic
slates [schists] at the summit of the older rocks on which the voleanic formations
rest unconformably, bear a strong resemblance to those met with on the upper
part of Lake Temiscaming on the Ottawa, and it appears probable that they will
be found to be identical.’
It will thus be observed thai the progress in classification made, up to this date
at least, entirely accords with the results of the latest investigations. The identity
of the rocks placed third in the table with those of the Upper Ottawa was
more than conjectured, and the existence of a great stratigraphical break at the
base of what isnow known as the Animikie was clearly recognised. The several
formations were merely described. No specific names were given to them at this
time by Logan, and it is further stated that the age of the highest formations
(Animikie and Keweenawan) was in doubt, although some reason was found to
support Houghton’s! view (or what was believed to be his view), that these
formations are lower than the Potsdam, or ‘lowest fossiliferous formation.’
In 1847 and 1848, investigations were continued along the north shore of Lake
Huron, of which the characteristic rocks are, it is stated, believed to form a single
system. They are described as in part sedimentary (quartzites, conglomerates,
&c.), and in part igneous (greenstones), the latter being both interposed between
the sedimentary beds and intrusive. The ‘slates’ are particularly characterised
by Murray as often chloritic, epidotic, and micaceous, and would now, of course,
be more specifically termed schists.
Writing in 1849,” however, and later, in a communication presented to this
Association in 1851, Logan, although still recognising the manifest unconformity
at the base of the Animikie, speaks collectively of the ‘ Copper-bearing Rocks’ of
Lake Superior and Huron, including under this general term what are now known
as the Huronian, Animikie, and Keweenawan series, and adds that it is ‘highly
probable’ that all these are approximately equivalent to each other, and to the
Cambrian of the British Islands.
In the Report for 1852-53 (published 1854), the name Laurentian was adopted
for what had been previously designated merely as the ‘ metamorphic series,’ and
in the geological sketch printed in Paris in connection with the Exhibition of
1855 (which follows next in order of publication), this system is stated to consist
almost exclusively of much altered and disturbed sedimentary beds. It is also,
however, made to include some recognised intrusives, such as granite and syenites,
forming parts of the mass, as well as the Labradorite rocks, which were after-
wards for a time named Upper Laurentian, and to which further allusion will
be made in the sequel. The name Laurentian is here therefore first employed
exactly in the sense of the term ‘Basement Complex,’ introduced long afterwards,
but under the distinct idea that most of the rocks are altered sediments, from
which certain intrusive masses were not clearly separable.
In the same publication, the overlying series of Lakes Huron and Superior,
including the Huronian proper, the Animikie and the Keweenawan, were collec-
tively spoken of as the *Huronian or Cambrian system.’ These rocks are
described as lying discordantly on the Laurentian, and as intervening between it
and the lowest known fossiliferous strata. There being no other recognised place
for such rocks in the scheme of the day, they are consequently supposed to
represent the Lower Cambrian of Sedgwick.
It is unnecessary to follow in order the investigations carried on for a number
of subsequent years, but reference may now be made to the ‘ Geology of Canada,”
of 1863, in which all previous results of the Survey to that date were collected and
1 Then State Geologist of Michigan.
2 Report on the North Shore of Lake Huron.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 631
systematised. In this volume, after stating that Hall’s nomenclature of the
Paleozoic rocks in the State of New York had been adopted unchanged for the
adjacent Canadian territory, ‘in the interests of unity of plan for future
researches,’ Logan writes:—‘To the Azoic rocks no local names have yet been
applied in any part of America except in Canada,’ and adds:—‘ The names of the
Laurentian and Huronian systems or series, which we have been accustomed to
apply to them, are allowed to remain unchanged, particularly as they have been
recognised abroad, and have been made by other geologists a standard of com-
parison both in America and Europe.’
In Chapter V. of this volume the ‘Upper Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake
Superior’ are separately treated, and are recognised as comprising two groups
which are stated to overlie the Huronian unconformably. These groups are those
now known as the Animikie and Keweenawan.
There can be no doubt about the classification intended at this time, and the
rocks are correctly laid down on the atlas prepared to accompany the volume, but
in consequence of an unfortunate error in the geographical description of the
distribution of the Huronian about Thunder Bay, that arose in 1846 and was
repeated in 1863, several later investigators have been led to regard the rocks of
the ‘Upper Copper-bearing Series’ as those of Logan’s typical Huronian, and to
suppose that when examining these rocks they were dealing with those intended
to be classed as Huronian. Irving, Winchell, and others have adopted this mistaken
view, which it is particularly necessary to refer to here, as it has been the chief
cause of all subsequent misapprehension in regard to the ‘ Original Huronian.’ *
The temporary grouping of the Huronian proper with the ‘ Upper Copper-
bearing Series’ (Animikie and Keweenawan), on the grounds already explained,
as ‘ Huronian or Cambrian, together with the employment (proper enough at the
date) of the term ‘slates’ for rocks that would now he named schists, further
assisted in giving colour to the erroneous view just referred to.
In a second geological sketch of Canada, printed in Paris at the time of the
International Exhibition of 1867, the same classification is maintained, but to it
is added the Upper Laurentian or Labradorian. This sketch was actually written
by Hunt, but it was an official publication, correctly representing the views held
1 As already stated, the relations of the principal rock-series of the vicinity of
Thunder Bay had been correctly outlined in 1846, although the series had not at that
time been named. The Kaministiquia River section had been examined by Murray,
who also correctly described the distribution of the series there, stating that the
‘ granite, syenite, gneiss, micaceous and chloritic schist’ (Laurentian and Huronian)
find their southern limit on a line running from the falls on that river to the ‘head
of Thunder Bay,’ while the ‘ Upper Slates (Animikie) rest upon them and occupy the
country between such a line and Lake Superior’ (Report of Progress, 1846-47, p. 51).
In combining his own results with those of Murray, Logan describes the southern
line of the ‘granite, gneiss, and chloritic slates as ‘commencing in the vicinity of
Fort William,’ or at the mouth of the Kaministiquia, although the falls, at which
this line had been determined by Murray, are some twenty miles up the river. Pro-
ceeding (op. cit. p. 25) to describe the extent of the ‘superior trappean formations’
(Animikie and Keweenawan), he then reverts to the line previously stated, making
these rocks to terminate locally where he had said the older rocks began. In
recasting the earlier observations for the volume of 1863 (no further work having
meanwhile been done at this place), Logan is thus naturally led to state that the
Huronian (i.e. the ‘Chloritic Slates’) occupies the coast east of the Kaministiquia,
whereas this coast, for ten or eleven miles, is actually occupied by Animikie rocks.
Subsequent investigators, inspecting this coast-line with the volume of 1863 as a
guide, very naturally thus assumed that they were examining Logan’s ‘typical
Huronian,’ or a part of it. It is in consequence only of a too consistent adhesion to
this misunderstanding, that it has been found necessary to speak of an ‘ Upper
Huronian,’ and refer to an ‘inter-Huronian’ unconformity. The so-called Upper
Huronian is no part of the system as understood by the Canadian Survey. One
cannot fail to note, in reading much that has been written on this subject, that the
importance of the great unconformity at the base of the Animikie was realised only
after a new classification had been adopted, in which it had practically been ignored.
6382 REPORT—1897.
at that time, and may be accepted as Logan’s last word on the subject. As thus
defined and established, he left the Laurentian and Huronian systems.
In so far as the stratigraphical relations of the Laurentian, Huronian, and
‘Upper Copper-bearing Series’ are concerned (leaving out of consideration the
Labradorian), it is thus manifest that the conclusions originally formed from
actual study on the ground were those finally held by Logan. The reference for
a time of the Huronian proper and the ‘ Upper Copper-bearing Series’ together to
the Lower Cambrian, meant only that, as then understood, there was no other
systematic position recognised to which they could be assigned. That a great
unconformity existed between these two systems was never doubted, but for some
years Logan was not prepared to take the bold position of constituting a separate
Huronian system beneath the lowest Cambrian; he was, on the contrary, anxious,
if possible, to bring the Canadian section within the lines established in the classic
region studied by Sedgwick and Murchison. The introduction of new systematic
terms was at that time considered somewhat seriously. When eventually com-
pelled to take this step (in 1857), he confined the name Huronian to rocks ante-
dating the great break at the base of the ‘ Upper Copper-bearing Series’ (Animikie),
embracing those first seen by him on the Upper Ottawa and on Lake Huron, with
their representatives elsewhere, under this new system.
In so far as nomenclature goes, Logan thus certainly modified his original
application of the name Huronian ; it was not, however, as has been contended, to
create an ‘extended Huronian,’ but on the contrary to restrict the name to rocks
beneath the great unconformity at the base of the Animilkie. The change was
necessitated by the progress of investigation and by the recognition of an upper
division of the ‘ Azoic,’ beneath anything that could legitimately be classed as
Cambrian. It was made by the author himself, and involved no departure from
the law of priority or from any other acknowledged rule. In finally eliminating
these upper rocks from his Huronian system, he was no doubt influenced by
Whitney’s criticisms of 1857,! which were in part correct, although largely devoted
to the very conservative contention that all stratified rocks below the great break
were inseparable, and should be included in an ‘ Azoic System.’ This influence
may be traced in an important paper, of but three pages, communicated to the
American, Association for the Advancement of Science a few months later than the
date of that above referred to, in which, while the name Huronian is reaffirmed
for the rocks of Lake Huron and Lake Temiscaming, which are taken as typical of
the system, nothing further is said of those now known as Animikie and
Keweenawan.
In the summary volume of 1863, to which allusion has already been made, the
existence of an Upper Laurentian, Labradorian or Norian Series was first tentatively
indicated in a supplementary chapter, It is unnecessary to follow here the history
of the rocks so classed, for the supposed series has not stood the test of later
discussion and research, due chietly to Selwyn and Adams. The apparently
stratified rocks often included in it are now understood to be foliated eruptives.
The recognition achieved by this and by other more or less hypothetical series
about this time may be traced to the brilliant chemico-geological theories
advanced by Hunt, previous to the general acceptance of modern petrographical
methods.
In a similar manner, and very justly so, Logan, as a field geologist, was in-
fluenced by the views held by Lyell in the early editions of his ‘ Principles, to
accept without reservation the foliation of crystalline rocks as indicative of original
bedding. This was, at the time of his early researches and thereafter for many years,
the accepted view, although Dana, in a paper read before the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science in 1843, had already held that the schistose
structure of gneiss and mica-slate was insufficient evidence of sedimentary origin ;
and Darwin, a few years later, had published his ‘ Geological Observations,’ includ-
ing a remarkable chapter on cleavage and foliation, in which he advocated a similar
view. No such doctrine, however, achieved general recognition until long after-
wards, while that class of facts remaining to be determined chiefly by the micro-
1 Am. Journ. Sci., vol. xxili. May, 1857
:
|
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 633
scope, which may be included under the term ‘dynamic metamorphism,’ were
wholly unknown and unforeseen,
In admitting that chemical, metamorphic, and uniformitarian hypotheses were
thus given, in turn, undue weight, it is not to be assumed that the advances made
under these hypotheses have been entirely lost; it has been necessary only to retreat
in part in each instance, in order to fall again into the more direct road.
In late years, modern microscopical and chemical methods of research have
been applied to the ancient crystalline schists of Canada—the older work has been
brought under review, and new districts have been entered upon with improved
weapons. Here, asin other parts of the world, investigations of the kind are
still in active progress; finality has not been reached on many points, but the ex-
planation of others has been found. One advance which deserves special mention
is the recognition of the fact that a great part of the Huronian is essentially com-
posed of contemporaneous volcanic material, effusive or fragmental. This was
first clearly stated by Canadian geologists, but has only become generally admitted
by degrees, in opposition to prevalent theories of metamorphism and cosmic
chemistry. ‘
The first opportunity of studying these Archzean rocks in detail, under the new
conditions, fell to Dr. A. C. Lawson, then on the staff of the Canadian Survey, in
the vicinity of the Lake of the Woods and elsewhere to the west of Lake Superior.
In that part of the Protaxis, the Laurentian appears to be represented only by the
Fundamental Gneiss, and the Huronian, by a series to which a local name
(Keewatin) was appropriately given,' but which is now known to differ in no
essential respect from many other developments of the same system. The
Huronian stands generally in compressed folds, and along the line of junction the
gneisses are related to it in the manner of an eruptive, penetrating its mass and
containing detached fragments from it. The same or very similar relations have
since been found to occur in many other places.
Arguing from observations of the kind last mentioned, it was too hastily assumed
by some geologists that the Laurentian as a whole is essentially igneous, and later
in date than the Huronian. The conditions are, however, not such as to admit of
an unqualified belief of this kind, even in regard to the Fundamental Gneiss. We
may go so far as to assume that these rocks (occupying as they do much the
larger part of the entire Protaxis) constitute a great ‘ batholitic’ mass of material
at one time wholly fluent ; but even on this hypothesis some primitive floor must
have existed upon which the Huronian and the similarly cireumstanced Grenville
Series were laid down, and no such enormous substitution can have obtained as to
result in the replacement of the whole of this floor by exotic material.2 It seems
much more probable that but limited tracts of the Fundamental Gneiss have
passed into a fluent condition when at great depths in the earth’s crust, and
various arguments may be adduced in favour of a belief that the observed lines of
contact might be those along which such fusion would be most likely to occur.*
Moreover, the Huronian in many and widely separated localities is found to con-
tain water-rounded fragments of syenitic, granitic and gneissic rocks, forming
“conglomerates, which may often be observed to pass into schists, but still plainly
indicate that, in these places at least, materials not unlike those of the Funda-
mental Gneiss and its associates were at the surface and subject to denudation.
Such materials cannot be regarded as parts of any primeval superficial crust of the
earth in an original condition. They represent crystalline rocks formed at great
depths, and under conditions similar, at least, to those under which the Funda-
mental Gneiss was produced. They imply a great pre-Huronian denudation, and
show that the Huronian must have been deposited unconformably either upon the
1 In the Archzan, local names are particularly useful, inasmuch as correlation
must proceed on lithological and stratigraphical data, more or less uncertain when
_ extended to wide areas, even in the case of the older and more homogeneous strata
_ of the earth’s crust.
J
]
* For analogous phenomena of much later date geologically, see Annual Report
Geological Survey of Canada, 1886, p. 11 RB.
* Hypotheses on this subject are well summarised by Van Hise. Annual Report
qs. Geol. Survey, 1894-95, p. 749.
634 REPORT—1897..
Fundamental Gneiss itself, or upon rocks occupying its position and very similar
to it in character. There can be no reasonable doubt that the mass of what now
constitutes the Fundamental Gneiss originally existed as the floor upon which the
Huronian was deposited.
The name Archean has been adopted and employed by the Geological Survey
of Canada in the sense in which it was introduced (in 1874), and consistently
maintained by Dana—z.e. to include all rocks below the great hiatus of which
evidence was first found in the Lake Superior region. The author of the name
never assented to its restricted application as proposed by Irving and followed by
Van Hise and others, and as a synonym for the Fundamental Gneiss or ‘ Base-
ment Complex’ it is not only unnecessary but is scarcely etymologically correct, if
we admit that a part of the ‘Complex’ is of comparatively late date.
We have reached a point at which we may ask what is now our conception of
these Archzean rocks in Canada, and more particularly in the great Protaxis, as
resulting from the most recent investigations of a critical kind. The reply may
be given briefly from the latest reports of those still at work on the problems
involved as follows :—
The Laurentian comprises (1) the Fundamental Gneiss or Lower Laurentian
(also referred to as the Ottawa Gneiss or Trembling Mountain Gneiss in older
Reports), and (2) the Grenville Series. An important part of the gneisses of the
Grenville Series has been shown by chemical analysis to be identical in composition
with ordinary Paleozoic argillites, and they are interbedded with quartzites and
massive limestones, also evidently of aqueous origin, and in some places abounding in
graphite. These beds are, however, closely associated with other gneisses in which
orthoclase largely preponderates that have the composition of igneous rocks. The
Fundamental Gneiss consists chiefly, if not exclusively, of rocks of the last-named
class, the banding or foliation of which, though now generally parallel to that of
the Grenville Series, has probably beenyproduced mainly or entirely by movements
induced by pressure, in a mass originally differing more or less in composition in
its different parts. The two series are sometimes separable on the ground locally,
but with difficulty ; in other places they cannot be clearly defined.!
The Upper Laurentian, Labradorian, Norian or Anorthosite group, maintained
for a number of years on the evidence already mentioned, is found to consist
essentially of intrusive rocks, often foliated by pressure, later in age than the
Grenville Series, but in ail probability pre-Paleozoic.
The Huronian comprises felspathic sandstone or greywacke more or less
tufaceous in origin, quartzites and arkoses passing into quartzose conglomerates
and breccia conglomerates, often with large fragments of many different varieties
of granite, syenite, &c., diorite, diabase, limestones, and shales or slates chang-
ing to phyllites in contact with the numerous associated igneous masses.
Over wide areas altered greenstones and their associated tufis preponderate,
often with micaceous, chloritic, sericitic and other schists, many of which are
of pyroclastic origin, although some may represent ordinary aqueous deposits, and
all have been much affected by subsequent dynamic metamorphism.
The Huronian rocks have not yet been found in distinct relation to those of
the Grenville Series, but are generally in contact with the Fundamental Gneiss, in
the manner previously alluded to. Where not composed of volcanic material it
appears to be largely of a littoral character, while the Grenville Series seems
rather to indicate oceanic conditions.
No reference has so far been made to the development of Archean rocks, known
as the ‘ Hastings Series.’ The rocks thus named occupy considerable tracts to the
south of the Ottawa River, west of the City of Ottawa. They were originally
classed by Logan and Murray with the Grenville Series of the Laurentian, although
Murray soon after insisted on their peculiar features, and they came to be recog-
nised by the above geographical name during subsequent discussions as to their
systematic position, by the authors above referred to, and by Hunt, Vennor, and
Macfarlane. These rocks are particularly alluded to now, because later work
seems to show that both the Grenville Series and the Huronian are represented in
1 Cf. Adams, Annual Report Geological Survey of Canada, 1895.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 635
the district—in so far, at least, as lithological characters may be depended on.
They include a preponderance of thinly bedded limestones and dolomites, finer in
grain and usually less altered than those of the typical Grenville Series, associated
with conglomerates, breccias and slates still retaining complete evidence of their
clastic origin.
Itis in this Hastings region that careful investigation and mapping are now
in progress by several members of the Canadian Survey, with the prospect of
arriving at definite results respecting the relations of the Grenville Series and the
Huronian. It is too early to forecast what these results may be, for the question
is one which must be approached with an open mind; but the work already com~
pleted by Messrs. Adams, Barlow, and Ells, appears to sustain the suggestion that
both series occur, and to indicate that they may there be so intimately connected
as to render their separation difficult. It must be borne in mind that, although
the relations of the Grenville Series and those of the recognised Huronian to the
Fundamental Gneiss are very similar, they characterise distinct tracts, to which
the Hastings district is to some extent geographically intermediate, although most
closely connected in this respect with the Grenville region.
Reverting to the original classification of the Archean of the Canadian Survey,
as developed in the field by Logan and his assistants, we may now enquire—In
how far does this agree with the results of later work above outlined? In the
main, this classification still stands substantially unaltered, as the result of all
honest work carefully and skilfully executed must. The nomenclature adopted is
still applicable, although some of our conceptions in regard to the rocks included
under it have necessarily undergone more or less change.
The Laurentian is still appropriately made to include both the Fundamental
Gneiss and the Grenville Series; although at first both were supposed to represent
‘metamorphic’ rocks, it was even then admitted (1855) that these embraced some
plutonic masses practically inseparable from them. Later investigations have
increased the importance of such plutonic constituents, while at the same time
demonstrating the originally supposed sedimentary origin of the characteristic
elements of the Grenville Series ; but the admission of so Jarge a plutonic factor
necessarily invalidates in great measure the estimates of thickness based upon the
older reasoning, under which any parallelism of structure was accepted as evidence
of original bedding.
Whatever views may be held as to the propriety of including rocks of the two
classes under a single name, the necessity of so doing remains, because of the
practical impossibility of separating them over any considerable area for the pur-
pose of delineation on the map. No advance in knowledge is marked in substi-
tuting for Laurentian, with its original concept of a stratified time-series, such a
name as ‘ Basement Complex.’ It may, indeed, yet prove that the homogeneity of
the Laurentian is greater than is at present supposed, for a mass of strata
_ that included ordinary sediments, arkoses, and contemporaneous volcanic deposits
' of certain kinds, in which the arkose and volcanic constituents preponderated in
the lower beds, might, under metamorphism at great depths, produce just such a
combination as that of the Grenville Series and the Fundamental Gneiss, the latter
representing an aggregate result of the alteration of that part composed chiefly of
voleanic material or of arkose—in fact, under the conditions assumed, the lower
mass could not now well exist under any other form than that actually found in
the Fundamental Gneiss. In his address at the Nottingham Meeting of this
Association, Teall has clearly pointed out that, in such cases, the chemical test
must necessarily fail, and that the character and association of the rocks them-
selves must be given a greater weight. _
The Huronian proper, under whatever local names it may be classed, still
remains a readily separable series of rocks, with peculiar characters, and econo-
' mically important because of the occurrence in it of valuable minerals.
The subsequently outlined Labradorian has been eliminated as a member of
_ the time-series, and the rocks of the so-called ‘Hastings Group’ remain yet in a
_ doubtful position, but with the promise that they may afford a clue to the true
_ relations of the Grenville Series of the eastern and the Huronian of the western
_ province of the Protaxis.
t
636 . «© REPORT—1897.
To what extent the above subdivisions of the Archean may be legitimately
employed in other parts of the continent, more or less remote from the Protaxis,
remains largely a question for future investigation. In the southern part of New
Brunswick, however, the resemblance of the Archean to that of the typical region
is so close that there can be little risk of error in applying the same classificatory
names to it. The Fundamental Gneiss is there in contact with a series comprising
crystalline limestones, quartzites, and gneissic rocks, precisely resembling those of
the Grenville Series. Later than this is a great: mass of more or less highly altered
rocks, chiefly of volcanic origin, comprising felsites, diorites, agglomerates, and
schists of various kinds, like those of the typical Huronian. The existence of this
upper group correlatively with that representing the Grenville Series, constitutes
an argument, so far as it goes, for the separateness of these two formations in the
general time-scale. All these Archean rocks of New Brunswick are distinctly
unconformable beneath fossiliferous beds regarded by Matthew as older than
Cambrian.
In the Cordilleran region of Canada, again, a terrane is found lying uncon-
formably beneath the lowest rocks possibly referable to the Cambrian, evidently
Archean, and with a very close general resemblance to the Grenville Series. To
this the local name Shuswap Series has been applied, and a thickness of at least
5,000 feet has been determined for it in one locality. It consists of coarsely
crystalline marbles, sometimes spangled with graphite and mica, quartzites,
gneisses, often highly calcareous or quartzose, mica schists, and hornblendic
gneisses. With these is a much greafer mass of gneissic and granitoid rocks, like
those of the Fundamental Gneiss of the Protaxis, and the resemblance extends to
the manner of association of the two .terranes, of which, however, the petro-
graphical details remain to be worked out.!
While it is true that a resemblance in lithological character, like that existing
between the Grenville and Shuswap Series, far remote from each other geographi-
cally, may mean only that rocks of like composition have been subjected to a
similar metamorphism, both the series referred to are separated above by an un-
conformity from the lowest beds of the Paleozoic, and there is thus sufficient
vidence to indicate at least a probability of their proximate identity in the time-
scale. In Scotland, an analogous series, and one apparently similarly cireumstanced,
seems to occur in the rocks of Gairloch and Loch Carron.”
Particular attention has been directed throughout to the southern part of the
continental Protaxis in Canada. In this region it happened that the Archean
rocks and those resting upon them were originally studied under exceptionally
favourable conditions, for ever since the great revolution which succeeded
Huronian time, the region is one which has remained almost stable. Selwyn and
IN. H. Winchell have particularly insisted on the importance of the stratigraphical
break which here defines the Archean above. It isnot everywhere so well marked,
for in the Appalachian province and in the country to the south of the great lakes,
in Wisconsin and Michigan, repeated subsequent earth-movements have flexed and
broken the older strata against the base of the table-land of the Protaxis. It is not
from these districts, subjected to more recent and frequent disturbance, that the
ruling facts of an earlier time may be most easily ascertained. Much careful and
conscientious work has been devoted to them, but it is largely, I believe, because
of the attempt to apply, for purposes of general classification, the still unsettled
and ever-changing hypotheses derived from such more complicated tracts that so
much confusion has been introduced in regard to the Archean and early Palzozoic
rocks.
If the unconformity closing Archwan time in the vicinity of the Great Lakes
had been observed only in that region, it might be regarded as a relatively local
phenomenon ; but subsequent observations, and more particularly those of the last
few years, due to Bell, McConnell, Tyrrell, and Low, show that rocks evidently
tepresenting the Animikie and Keweenawan, and practically identical with those
‘ Cf. Annual Report Geol. Sur. Can., 1888-89, p. 29 B.
2 Cf. Geikie, Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 115.
.
.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 637
of Lake Superior in general lithological character, recur in many places almost
throughout the whole vast area of the Protaxis, on both sides of Hudson Bay, and
northward to the Arctic Ocean, resting upon the Archean rocks always in com-
plete discordance, and lying generally at low angles of inclination, although often
affected by great faults. The surface upon which these rocks have been deposited
is that of a denudation-plane of flowing outline, not differing in any essential
respect from that characterising parts of the same great plateau where there is no
evidence to show that any deposition of strata has occurred since Archean time.
Mr. Low, indeed, finds reason to believe that even the great valleys by which the
Archean plateau of Labrador is trenched had been cut out before the genera}
subsidence which enabled the laying down of Animikie rocks upon this plateau to
begin. The area over which these observations extend, thus in itself enables
us to affirm that the unconformity existing between the Animikie or Keweenawan
(as the case may be) and the Archean is of the first order.1 It may be compared
with that now known to occur between the Torridonian of Scotland and the under-
lying rocks there, and is evidenced by similar facts.
If the structural aspects of the Archean rocks of the Protaxis are considered,
the importance of this gap becomes still more apparent. We find long bands of
strata referable to the Huronian and Grenville Series, occupying synclinal troughs,
more or less parallel to each other and to the foliation of the Fundamental Gneiss,
the strata, as well as the foliation, being in most cases at high angles, vertical, or
even reversed. This structure is precisely that which would be discovered if a
great mountain system, like that of the Alps, were to be truncated on a plane
sufficiently low. Analogy thus leads to the belief that the Protaxis was originally,
as Dana has suggested, a region of Appalachian folding, differing only from
more modern examples of mountain regions of the same kind in its excessive width,
which is so great as to render it difficult to conceive that crustal movements of
sufficient magnitude to produce it could have occurred at any one period. It is
thus, perhaps, more probable that successive and nearly parallel flexures of the
kind, separated by long intervals of rest, piled range upon range against the central
mass of the protaxial buttress subsequent to the Huronian period. In any case,
the rugged mountain region brought into existence when the corrugation still
evidenced by its remaining base occurred, was subsequently reduced by denudation
to the condition of an undulating table-land such as has been named a ‘ peneplain”
by W. M. Davis—a surface approximating to a base-level of erosion. All this was
accomplished after the close of the Huronian period, and before that time at which
the firat beds of the Animikie were laid down correlatively with a great subsidence.
It would be difficult to deny that the time thus occupied may not have been equal
in duration to that represented by the whole of the Paleozoic.
If we approach this ruling unconformity from above, in the region of the
Protaxis, we find the Animikie and Keweenawan rocks uncrystalline, except when
of voleanic origin, and resembling in their aspect the older Paleozoic sediments,
but practically without characteristic organic remains, so far as known. In order
to bring ourselves into relation with the ascertained paleontological sequence, it is
necessary to go further afield, and in so doing we lose touch, more or less com-
pletely, with the stable conditions of the Archean platform, and are forced to
apply indirectly such facts as it may be possible to ascertain in regions which
have suffered more recent and complicated disturbance. It is thus not curprising
that the taxonomic position of the Animikie and Keweenawan have been the sub-
ject of much controversy. It is not germane to the present discussion to enter at
any length into this question, nor into the value of the unconformity which appears
to exist between these two series. They have been classed collectively by Selwyn,
N. H. Winchell, and others as Lower Cambrian, and are provisionally mapped as
such by the Canadian Survey. It is believed to be more in accordance with the
general principles of geological induction to refer these rocks above the great
unconformity to the Cambrian, for the time being at least, than to unite them
with the Huronian under any general term, or to erect a new system in which to
_ place them. In so doing it has been assumed that the Cambrian is the lowest
1 Cf. Selwyn, Science, Feb. 9, 1883.
638 REPORT—1897.
system of the Paleozoic, but of late years the position has been taken by good
authorities that the true base of the Cambrian is to be found at the Olenedlus
zone; ard while it appears very probable that, when fossils are found in the
Animikie, they may be referable to this zone, the adoption of such an apparently
arbitrary line certainly, for the time, must be considered as placing the Cambrian
reference of the beds in question in doubt; but it does not interfere with a belief
that if they should be found to be lower than Cambrian as thus defined, they may
at least be considered as still in all probability Paleozoic.
The definition of the horizon of Olenellus as that of the base of the Cambrian
is a question almost entirely paleontological, into which it is not proposed here
to enter, further than to point out that it is only partially justified by what is
known of North American geology. In the Atlantic “province, and in the
Appalachian region, there appears to be a very general physical break at about
this stage, which it seems likely may correspond with the great unconformity at
the base of the Animikie ; but in the Rocky Mountain or Cordilleran region the
Olenellus zone has been found high up in a series of conformable and similar sedi-
ments, coinciding with no break, and from these lower sediments some organic
forms have been already recovered, but not such as to indicate any great diversity
in fauna from that of the recognised Cambrian. Similarly, in one part of eastern
Canada, Matthew has lately described a fauna contained in what he names the
Etcheminian group, regarded by him as earlier than the Olenellus zone, but still
Paleozoic. Recent discoveries of a like kind have been made in other parts of
the world, as in the Salt Range of India. These facts have only last year been
“particularly referred to by Mr. Marr in his address to the Section.
The general tendency of our advance in knowledge appears, in fact, to be in the
direction of extending the range of the Paleozoic downward, whether under the
old name Cambrian, or under some other name applied to a new system defined,
or likely to be defined, by a characteristic fauna ; and under Cambrian or such new
system, if it be admitted, it is altogether probable that the Animikie and Kewee-
nawan rocks must eventually be included.
In other words, the somewhat arbitrary and artificial definition of the Olenedlus
zone as the base of the Cambrian, seems to be not only not of world-wide appli-
cation, but not even of general applicability to North America; while, as a base
for the Paleozoic Aton, it is of still more doubtful value. In the Cambrian period,
as well as in much later geological times, the American continent does not admit of
treatment as a single province, but is to be regarded rather as a continental barrier
‘between two great oceanic depressions, each more or less completely different and
self-contained in conditions and history—that of the Atlantic and that of the
Pacific. On the Atlantic side the Olenellus zone is a fairly well-marked base for
the Cambrian; on that of the Pacific it is found naturally to succeed a great
consecutive and conformable series of sediments, of which the more ancient
fauna is now only beginning to be known.
In thus rapidly tracing out what appears to me to be the leading thread of the
history of the pre-Cambrian rocks of Canada, and in endeavouring to indicate the
present condition of their classification, and to vindicate the substantial accuracy of
the successive steps taken in its elaboration, many names: and alternative systems
of arrangement proposed at different times, by more or less competent authorities,
have been passed without mention. This has been done either because such
names and classifications appear now to be unnecessary or unfounded, or because
they relate to more or less local subdivisions of the ruling systems which it is not
possible to consider in so brief a review. This has been particularly the case in
regard to the much-disputed region to the south of Lake Superior, out of which,
however, after some decades of complicated and warring nomenclature, a classi-
fication, trending back substantially to that originally established and here
advocated, is being evolved (albeit under strange names) by the close and skilful
stratigraphical work in progress there.
It has also been my object, in so far as possible, by omitting special reference
to divergent views, to avoid a controversial attitude, particularly in respect to
matters which are still in the arena of active discussion, and in regard to which
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 639
many points remain admittedly subject to modification or change of statement.
But in conclusion, and from the point of view of Canadian geology, it is necessary
to refer—even at the risk of appearing controversial—to the comparatively recent
attempt to introduce an ‘ Algonkian System,’ under which it is proposed to include
all recognisable sedimentary formations below the Olenelius zone, assumed for this
purpose to be the base of the Cambrian. If in what has already been said I have
been able correctly to represent the main facts of the case—and it has been my
endeavour to do so—it must be obvious that the adoption of such a ‘system’ is a
retrograde step, wholly opposed, not only to the historical basis of progress in
classification, but also to the natural conditions upon which any taxonomic scheme
should be based. It not only detaches from the Paleozoic great masses of con-
formable and fossiliferous strata beneath an arbitrary plane, but it unites these,
under a common systematic name, with other vast series of rocks, now generally
in a crystalline condition, and includes, as a mere interlude, what, in the region
of the Protaxis at least, is one of the greatest gaps known to geological history.
Tn this region it is made to contain the Keweenawan, the Animikie, the Huronian,
and the Grenville Series, and that without in the least degree removing the diffi-
culty found in defining the base of the last-mentioned series. It thus practically
expunges the result of much good work, conducted along legitimate lines of
advance during many previous years, with only the more than doubtful advantage
of enabling the grouping together of many widely separated terranes in other dis-
tricts where the relations have not been even proximately ascertained. It is in
eilect, to my mind, to constitute for geology what was known to the scholastic
theologians of a former age as a limbo, appropriate as the abode of unjudged souls
and unbaptized infants, that might well in this case be characterised as ‘a limbo
large and broad.’
It is not intended to deny that there may be ample room for the introduction
of a new system, or perhaps, indeed, of an entire Geological on, between the
Huronian, as we know it in Canada, and the lowest beds which may reasonably be
considered as attaching to the Cambrian, or even to the Paleozoic as a whole.
On the contrary, what has already been said will, I think, show that in the region
of the Protaxis we might very reasonably speak of an‘ Algonkian hiatus,’ if we
elect so to call it. Elsewhere it will undoubtedly be possible, sooner or later, to
designate series of rocks laid down during the time represented only by orogenic
movements and vast denudation in the province here more particularly referred
to, but before any general systematic name is applied to such terranes they
should be defined, and that in such a way as to exclude systems already established
as the result of honest work.
It seems very likely, for instance, that the Grand Caiion Series, as last delimited
by Walcott, separated by unconformities from the Tonto Cambrian above and the
probably Archzean rocks below, may be referable to such an intermediate system ;
but here it may be noted, in passing, that the attempt to apply the new term
‘ Algonkian’ in this particular Western region, has led to the inclusion under that
name of a great unconformity below the Grand Caiion Series, much resembling
the post-Huronian break in the Lake Superior district.
For such unclassed rocks, wholly or in large part of sedimentary origin, the
Canadian Survey has simply employed the term pre-Cambrian, involving for certain
regions a frank confession of ignorance beyond a certain point. Indefinite as such
a term is, it is believed to be more philosophical than to make an appearance of
knowledge not borne out in fact, by the application of any systematic name not
properly defined.
Although it would be unsuitable, at the close of this address, to introduce the
old controversy respecting the Cambrian and Silurian, it may be noted that the
ethical conceptions and many of the principles involved in that discussion still
apply with undiminished value, and much of its literature may be re-read to-day
with advantage. More particularly I would allude to Sedgwick's inimitable and
now classic introduction to McCoy’s ‘Paleozoic Fossils,’ one passage in which,
paraphrased only by the change of names involved in that and in the present dis-
cussion, may be read as follows:—‘“ Est Jupiter quodcunque vides” was once said
640 REPORT—1897.
by Dean Conybeare in mockery of the old despotic rule of the name Greywacké. A
golden age of truth and reason, and slow but secure inductive logic, seemed to
follow, but the jovial days of a new dynasty are to spring up, it seems, under a
new name not less despotic than the one which had ruled before it. If all the
[sedimentary] rocks below the [Olenellue zone] are to pass under one name, let us
cling to the venerable name Greywacké. It can do no mischief while it describes
things indefinite, simply because it is without meaning. But the name [Algonkian],
if used in the same extended sense, is pregnant with mischief. It savours of a
history that is fabulous; it leads us back to a false type; it unites together as one
systems that nature has put asunder.’
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Some Typical Sections in South-western Nova Scotia.
By L. W. Battey, Ph.D., University of New Brunswick.
The sections figured and described in this paper are intended to represent, in
summary form, the results of recent investigations, made under the direction of
the Geological Survey of Canada, into the geological structure of South-western
Nova Scotia.
They are five in number, the first being in Queen’s County, along the course of
the Port Medway River, showing the succession and foldings of the Cambrian
rocks in their ordinary form, together with their relations to the great granite
axis of the Province, and the occurrence of auriferous deposits. The second is in
Yarmouth County, exhibiting the rocks of the same system in a more meta-
morphosed condition, and showing also that the rocks about the city of Yarmouth,
formerly regarded as Archean, are also a portion of the Cambrian system. The
third section is in Digby County, exhibiting the parallelism of the Cambrian suc-
cession north of the granite axis, with the same on its southern side. A fourth
section, in Annapolis County, illustrates the relation to the Cambrian rocks, and to
the granite, of the fossiliferous and iron-bearing Eo-Devonian rocks of Bear River,
Nictau, and Torbrook. A fifth section may also be given, showing the structure
and relations of the stratified and igneous rocks, usually regarded as Triassic, of
the Annapolis Valley.
All the sections are diagrammatic, but based on actual surveys.
2. Problems in Quebec Geology.
By BR. W. Exits, LL.D., FRS.C., of the Geographical Survey of Canada.
This paper is a brief review of the geological work done in the province of
Quebec since the appearance of Dr. Bigsby’s first paper on the geology of the
province in 1827. It contains a short statement of the conclusions arrived at from
time to time by the various workers in this field regarding the structure of the
rock formations east of the St. Lawrence, as well as of the Laurentian complex to
the north of that river. A summary of the latest views reached from the detailed
study of these areas during the last fifteen years, which has appeared in the last
volume of the Geological Survey’s report, is also presented.
In regard to the structure of the older crystallines north of the St. Lawrence
and Ottawa Rivers, it may be said that the opinion once held, that these rocks
were originally of sedimentary origin, has now been greatly modified. The
Laurentian rocks of Logan are now divided into two great groups. Of these, the
lower is essentially a gneiss formation, and may be styled, for the sake of distinction,
the Fundamental Gneiss. This is clearly older in point of time than the series of
crystalline limestones, quartzose grey gneisses, and quartzite with which they are
often so intimately associated as to render the determination of their true relations’
in the field difficult, but which at other points are clearly situated above the lower
gueiss formation. |
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 641
These newer gneisses and limestones which have been styled by Logan the
_ ‘Grenville Series’ are, without doubt, for the most part of sedimentary origin,
though they are invaded in all directions by masses of granite, greenstone, and
other forms of igneous rock. As for the Fundamental Gneiss, also once supposed
to be largely of sedimentary origin, it has been very conclusively demonstrated,
chiefly through the agency of the microscope, that this is for the most part at least
an altered igneous rock, and that the supposed bedding planes owe their existence
to other causes than those of sedimentation.
The original upper Laurentian division, which included the great area of the
Anorthosite rocks, also supposed at one time to represent altered sedimentary
deposits, has been removed from the position it once occupied, since it has been
proved, both by the evidence in the field and in the laboratory, to be of igneous
origin and subsequent to the deposition of the limestone and quartzite series with
which it is associated, so that the Grenville Series, according to the earlier view as
to the succession of strata, may now be taken to represent the upper portion of the
Laurentian system.
It may also be assumed to represent the lowest division of the clastic or sedi-
mentary rocks in Canada. The relations of these to the rocks which have been
Styled the ‘ Hastings Series’ in Ontario are such that they may, in part at least,
be regarded as portions of the same series which have been described in different
ortions of the field under different names; but whether these be regarded as
elonging to the Laurentian or Huronian systems is of small moment so long as
their true relationship to each other and to the underlying Fundamental Gneiss is
clearly understood.
To the east of the St. Lawrence the old dispute asto the age of the fossiliferous
rocks near the city of Quebec, as well as of their relations to the crystalline schists
of the mountain area in the interior of the province, may now be considered as
satisfactorily settled. The former hypothesis by which the crystalline schists were
regarded as the equivalents, in point of time, of the fossiliferous sediments of the
St. Lawrence Valley has been clearly shown to be unfounded, and the schists of
the Sutton Mountain area are now assigned to the Huronian system, or are at
least beneath the lowest Cambrian of the district. The relative position of the
several divisions of the fossiliferous Quebec group has also been ascertained, and
it is now established that the Sillery division is situated stratigraphically beneath
the Lévis, instead of being, as was at one time supposed, above it. As regards the
age of the several divisions of the Quebec group (fossiliferous) it may be said that
the Lévis is the apparent equivalent of the Calciterous formation, and that in its
_ upper portion it approaches the Chazy; while the upper portion of the Sillery is
_ the apparent equivalent of the Potsdam Sandstone formation. Between the Upper
Sillery and the great mass of the rocks which have been referred to this division,
there is a fault of considerable magnitude, so that the lower portion of the Sillery
presumably includes rocks which have been elsewhere classed as Cambrian, and
these may extend as low as the Paradoxides zone or division of that system.
The areas of black slate and limestone, which, in the General Report for 1863,
were regarded as beneath the crystalline schists, and referable to the Potsdam
formation, have been determined, on the evidence of the contained fossils, to be
much newer, and to be in fact the equivalents of the lower portion of the Trenton
formation ; and to this horizon may also now be assigned the greater portion of
the strata in the city of Quebec. Here, however, there are a number of anti-
clinal folds, and the presence of certain fossils, similar to those obtained from
the Lévis beds, indicates that along some of these folds beds of that horizon may
be found. The same age may be assigned to the great extension of the black slates
and limestones which occur at intervals along the south shore of the St. Lawrence,
_ nearly to the extremity of the Gaspé Peninsula, and which appear to dip beneath
the strata of the Sillery formation at many points.
In regard to the use of the term Potsdam a distinction must now be made be-
_ tween the Potsdam formation and the Potsdam Sandstone. The latter has been
_ clearly proved in Canada to be the lower portion of the Calciferous formation, and
_ is not separable from it, while there is a manifest break between this and the
» - 1897. TT
642 REPORT—1897.
lower beds, or the Cambrian proper. The term Potsdam formation in Canadian
geology was a comprehensive one like the term Cambrian, and like it included all
between the Calciferous formation and the Huronian. The indiscriminate use of
the terms has led to much confusion, and as the divisions of the Cambrian have
now been properly determined the expression Potsdam formation has practically
no meaning in Canadian geology.
3. Report on Life-Zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.
See Reports, p. 296.
4. The Stratigraphic Succession in Jamaica.
By Rosert T. Hit, Geologist, United States Geological Survey.'
This paper gives results of a series of stratigraphic, petrographic, and topo-
graphic studies made in the island in the years 1895, 1896, and 1897, under the
auspices of Professor Alexander Agassiz, for the purpose of determining a typical
West Indian section which would serve as a basis for comparison with the other
West Indian localities.
The work of the officers of the British Survey and other previous observers was
taken as a basis and advanced by critical studies and correlations of other type
localities, and by observations upon the new exposures revealed in the recent
highway and railway improvements. A new classification and nomenclature of
the rocks is proposed, and the sequence of the geologic events in Jamaica history
is outlined and interpreted. Petrographic data by Cross and paleontologic deter-
minations by Agassiz, Dall, Vaughan, and others are incorporated in the paper.
5. Preliminary Notice of some Experiments on the Flow of Rocks.
By Frank D. Apams and Joun T. Nicotson, McGill University, Montreal.
These experiments aim at ascertaining whether it is possible, by subjectine
rocks artificially to pressure under the conditions which obtain in the deeper parts
of the earth’s crust, to produce in them the deformation and cataclastic structures
exhibited by the folded rocks of the interior of mountain ranges or of the older
formations of the earth.
Three factors contribute toward bringing about the conditions to which rocks
are subjected in the deeper parts of the earth’s crust: (1) Great pressure from
every direction; (2) high temperatures; (8) action of percolating waters, In the
present experiments the attempt has been made to reproduce only the first of these
conditions, in subsequent experiments the endeavour will be made to reproduce all
three of them.
The experiments have been made chiefly with pure Carrara marble. Oolumns
of the marble 2 centimetres, and 2} centimetres in diameter, and about 4 centi-
metres in length, were very accurately turned and polished. Heavy wrought iron
tubes were then made, imitating the plan adopted in the construction of ordnance,
by rolling long strips of Swedish iron around a bar of soft wrought iron and
welding the strips to the bar as they were rolled around it. The core of soft iron
composing the bar was then drilled out, leaving a tube of welded Swedish iron
6 millimetres thick, so constructed that the fibres of the iron run around the tube
instead of being parallel to its length. This tube was then very accurately fitted
on to the column of marble. This was accomplished by giving a very slight taper
to both the column and the interior of the tube, and so arranging it that the
marble would pass only about halfway into the tube when cold. The tube was
1 By permission of Professor Agassiz, under whose auspices the researches were
made.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645
then expanded by heating, so as to allow the marble to pass completely into it, and
leave about 3 centimetres of the tube free at either end. On allowing the tube to
cool a perfect contact between the iron and marble was obtained, and it was no
longer possible to withdraw the latter. Any very slight failure to tit at any point,
if such a failure existed in any case, was rendered harmless by the fact that undera
comparatively low pressure the limestone is found to be sufficiently elastic not only
to fill up any such minute space, but even to stretch the tube, and, on the pressure
being relieved, to contract again to its original form, so that it will drop out of
the tube which has been thus enlarged. Into either end of the tube containing
the small column an accurately fitting sliding steel plug was inserted, and by
means of these the marble was submitted to a pressure far above that which would
be sufficient to crush it if not soinclosed. The machine employed in obtaining
the pressure was so arranged that the pressure might be maintained for weeks, or
even months, if required. Under these circumstances the conditions of pressure to
which the marble is subjected are those in the ‘zone of flow’ of the earth’s
crust—those, namely, of a pressure above that of its elastic limit, while
yet unable to break in the ordinary manner owing to the tube which confines
it having a still higher elastic limit. Under the pressure, which was applied
gradually and in some cases continued for several weeks, the tube was found to
slowly bulge until a very marked enlargement of the portion surrounding the
marble had taken place. The tube was then cut through longitudinally by means
of a milling machine along two lines opposite one another.
The marble within, however, was still firm, and held the respective sides of the
iron tube, now completely separated, so tightly together that it was impossible
without mechanical aids to tear these apart. By means of a wedge, however, they
could be separated, splitting the marble through longitudinally. The column in
one experiment was reduced from 40 millimetres to 21 millimetres in height. The
deformed marble differs from the original rock in having a dead white colour, the
glistening cleavage faces of calcite being no longer visible, and although not so
hard as the original rock, it is still firm and compact, and especially so when its
deformation has been carried out very slowly. No accurate measurements as to
its strength have yet been made, but it will withstand a sharp blow, and fragments
of it, weighing 10 grams, have been allowed to fall through a height of over
2} metres (8 feet) on to a wooden platform, from which it rebounded without
breaking. Thin sections of the deformed marble, when examined under the micro-
scope, show that the calcite individuals composing the rock have in many cases
been twisted and flattened, and in the majority of cases a very fine polysynthetic
pressure-twinning has been induced in them, with movement along gliding planes,
as well as several other structures seen in nature in highly deformed rocks.
The experiments therefore show that limestone, even when dry and at ordinary
temperatures, does possess a certain degree of plasticity, and can be made to
‘flow,’ the movements set up developing many structures which are characteristic
of rocks which have been squeezed or folded in the deeper portions of our earth’s
crust,
6. The Former Extension of the Appalachians across Mississippi, Lowis-
tana, and Texas.' By Joun C, Brannur, Ph.D., Professor of Geology,
Stanford University.
I. The Ouachita anticline is the structural equivalent of the Cincinnati-
Nashville arch: this fold continues westward through the Arbuckle Mountains in
Indian Territory and to the Wichita Mountains in Southern Oklahoma Territory.
Il. The Coal Measures drainage of the Ilinois-Indiana-Kentucky basin flowed
westward through the Arkansas valley into a Carboniferous mediterranean sea.
Il. The drainage of the Coal Measures region south of the Ouachita anticline
flowed westward, and entered this sea north of the Texas pre-Cambrian area,
_ } Published in extenso in the American Journal of Science,, November 1897,
iy. 357-371. ;
TT?2
644 REPORT—1897.
IV. The drainage of both the Arkansas and Texas Carboniferous areas was
reversed about the end of Jurassic times, when orographic movements over South-
east Arkansas, Eastern Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi submerged the former
extension of the Appalachian watershed, and admitted the early Cretaceous sea
across the Paleozoic land as far north as Southern Illinois.
V. This depression was not a deep one (Hilgard') and did not all occur at one
time, for there have been subsequent disturbances of a more or less similar nature
in the same region.
VI. The evidences of this depressions are—
1. The reversed drainage of the Arkansas valley.
2. The reversed drainage over the Carboniferous area of Central Texas.
3. The submerged eastern end of the Ouachita uplift of Arkansas.
4, The eastern slope of the peneplain of the Ouachita region.
5. The direction of the faults and folds near the eastern exposure of the Lower
Coal Measures in Arkansas,
6. The great fault through Texas near the Tertiary border having adown-throw
of 1,000 to 1,500 feet on the south and east side.
7. Eruptive rocks accompanying the Texas fault and the Tertiary border
through that State and Arkansas to the Arkansas River.
8. Hot springs near the same line.
9. Faults in Alabama with a down-throw of 10,000 feet or more on the north-
west side.
10, The thickness of the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments over the depressed
area—from 4,000 to 10,000 feet.
VII. The south-western or Central Texas end of the Appalachian land areas was
formerly covered by Cretaceous sediments, but it has since been uncovered by
erosion ; further east it is still concealed.
VIII. The Carboniferous beds uncovered in Texas all belong to the Upper
Coal Measures, except at the edge of the synclinal trough; it is inferred that a
greater thickness is still covered.
IX. The character of both the Silurian and Lower Coal Measures sediments of
the Ouachita uplift show that they came from the south, so that the land area
must have heen in that direction during Paleozoic times.
X. The sea occasionally invaded both the Arkansas and Texas synclinal troughs
during Coal Measures times, but coal-forming conditions obtained in the Texas
syncline later than in the Arkansas basin.
XI. The Tertiary depression was probably more marked on the Arkansas than
on the Tennessee side of the embayment: this is suggested by the Cretaceous
border being concealed by thin Tertiary deposits in Arkansas, while in Tennessee,
Mississippi, and Alabama it is exposed in a broad belt.
7. Report on the Investigation of a Coral Reef. See Reports, p. 297.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Papers were read :—
1. A Group of Hypotheses bearing on Climatic Changes.?
By T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Professor of Geology in the University of Chicago.
A computation of the several constituents of the atmosphere and of the rate at
which they are being consumed in the alteration of the surface rocks indicates that
in a comparatively few thousand years the carbonic acid of the air will be exhausted
if there is no compensating source of re-supply. The ocean contains about 18 times
' Amer. Jour. Sct., 1874, vol. cii. p. 394. ? Jour. of Geol. (Chicago), vol. v, p. 653.
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645
as much carbonic acid as the air, but even if this were all available the main-
tenance of conditions congenial to life would still be geologically short. A broad
comparison between the atmospheres of the paleeozoic and the cainozoic times fails
to give clear proof of radical differences. The magnolia flora in North Greenland
in tertiary times indicates scarcely less wide distribution of warm climate than the
life of the same region in paleozoic times. The glaciation of India, Australia, and
South Africa at the close of the paleozoic era is even more marvellous than that at
the close of the more recent era. The salt deposits of middle latitudes, especially
of Michigan and New York, imply as great aridity as we find at any time since,
The early life does not give clear proof of more carbonic acid in the air than the
later life. The tardiness of land life may be accounted for otherwise.
But the amount of carbonic acid taken from the air by carbon-bearing deposits
is estimated variously at 12,000 to 150,000 times that now in the air. At least
8,000 or 10,000 times the present amount of carbonic acid has quite certainly
been taken out since air-breathing life began. This forces the question whether all
this carbonic acid, or any major part of it, was ever in the air at any one time.
The alternative is to suppose the air to have been fed as well as robbed during
all the geological ages. The current view of a former vast, dense, hot and moist
atmosphere has, however, been derived more from theories of the earth’s origin
and primitive state than from computation of the material removed from it. The
belief in the gaseous origin of the earth naturally carries with it the doctrine of a
primitive hot atmosphere. The belief in a molten condition naturally led also to
the view that the ocean was once all in the atmosphere. This does not, however,
rigorously follow. Much of the ocean may have been accumulated since, but I
venture to question both the primitive molten state and the inferences drawn from
it. There is still some ground to doubt the nebular hypothesis, and to entertain
some phase of the meteoroidal hypothesis, but even if the nebular theory be
followed as far as the separation of the earth-moon ring, a molten state of the
earth may not necessarily follow. The vast size, the tenuity and the high tempera-
ture of the supposed gaseous ring suggest its speedy cooling to the form of a ring
of discrete soiid particles like the rings of Saturn. Moreover, a study of the
velocity of the gaseous molecules and the limitations of the power of celestial
bodies to hold them, makes it extremely doubtful whether such a ring could
control its own hot gases. The same line of study even makes it doubtful whether
a molten earth could hold to itself a vast vaporous atmosphere such as the ocean
would form. The great velocity of the gaseous molecules at the temperature of
a molten earth, and the reduction in the influence of gravity by the high centri-
fugal force, combine to render the case a somewhat critical one.
If the matter of the supposed earth-moon ring became cooled to solid particles
while in the ring form, or if the earth were formed by the collision of meteoroidal
matter, the temperature of the surface of the earth at any given time would depend
on the rate and violence of the infall. A cold earth is theoretically as possible as
a hot one. Reasons may be assigned why the temperature was likely to be low.
A sketch was given of the hypothetical growth of the earth by the ingathering
of the solid particles of the supposed earth-moon ring, in the course of which it
was shown that the peculiar constitution of such a body, when it reached the size
of the moon, would be favourable to explosive eruptions and liable to give rise to
craters like those of the moon. The internal heat necessary would come from the
self-condensation of the growing globe. Computations were cited to show that
this was adequate. The gases and vapours involved were attributed to atmospheric
material carried in by the ingathering particles. When the mass reached a size
large enough to hold an atmosphere, this size being probably about that of Mer-
cury, or a little larger, it would pick up atmosphere from without and would hold
the gases and vapours emanating from within, and thus the atmosphere as an
envelope would begin. As soon as it acquired sufficient extent to retain the heat
of the sun, the modern phase of the history of the earth would begin, and in time
the conditions for the presence of life would be reached. This makes the intro-
duction of life possible at a very much earlier stage than the current hypotheses, and
gives ample time for the most strenuous demands of theoretical biology. The
646 REPORT—1897.
shrinkage of the earth gradually, owing to its own gravity, would give a sufficient
amount of contraction to explain not only the phenomena of mountains and archzean
crumplings, but of plateaux, continents, and ocean basins. Computation shows that
the internal heat generated by the time the earth reached its maturity would be
ample to explain the present internal heat, and account for much loss during
geological ages.
This is a departure from the common view of the history of the atmosphere in
supposing it to begin as a tenuous envelope, and be subject both to enrichment and
depletion during all its subsequent history. The supply from within is very imper-
fectly known, The airand ocean together are only about one-fiftieth of 1 per cent.
of the earth’s mass. The increase of the atmosphere from without is almost wholly
a matter of conjecture. ;
The emanations from within would doubtless be more abundant at times of
igneous extravasation and of the disruption of the crust than at other times, so
that the supplies to the atmosphere would vary according as the average of these
conditions varied. The impoverishment of the atmosphere, particularly in respect
to its carbonic acid, was probably dependent very largely upon topographic states.
Whenthe land was elevated the underground water-level was relatively deep beneath
the surface, and the penetration of aerated waters below was also deep, and the
alteration of the rocks went on relatively rapidly, When the land was depressed
or cut down to an approximate base-level the underground water surface was
shallow, and the penetration of aerated waters below that was also shallow, and
the change of the rocks was slow. Whenever, therefore, the land on an average
stood high, the impoverishment of thé atmosphere went on rapidly ; whenever it
was low, slowly. Combining this with the irregularities of supply, it appears
that enrichment and impoverishment would generally run together and give, on
the whole, a somewhat uniform atmosphere ; but in the nature of the case the two
were not strictly concurrent, and-as a result at times there was enrichment, and at
times depletion of the atmosphere. From these it is held that great climatic
changes would arise. Scantiness of carbonic acid would be correlated with cold
temperatures, as maintained by Tyndall and others. The great periods of cold
temperature should therefore follow at some distance the great periods of elevation
of the crust of the earth. The recent great glaciation followed at a notable in-
terval the great uplifts of the tertiary era. ‘The great glaciation of India, Aus-
tralia, and South Africa came at about the time of the great disturbances closing
the palzeozoic era, but the precise relation cannot be positively stated. There
seem to be other correspondences between the laws here laid down and the great
climatic episodes of past geologic times.
Another source of atmospheric loss arises from the removal of carbonie acid by
plants, and the failure of this to be returned by decay or the action of animals.
It is estimated that the present annual growth of vegetation is sufficient to con-
sume all the carbonic acid in the air in one hundred years if there were no return.
It is believed that cold temperature would check the decay of vegetation and pre-
vent, in part, the return of the carbon to the atmosphere, and this would tend to
impoverish it,
Tyndall suggested, fifty years ago, that the glacial periods might be due to
scantiness of carbonic acid in the atmosphere. Dr. Arrhenius has recently made
elaborate computations on the subject, and has reached the conclusion that the
removal of from 88 to 45 per cent. of the carbonic acid would bring on sucha
glaciation as occurred in the ice age, and that an increase of two and a half to three
times the present carbonic acid would bring on a mild temperature, like that of
tertiary times. This view leaves the oscillations of the glaciation to be accounted
for. It is suggested that a rhythmical movement in the feeding and robbing of the
atmosphere would result from the action of the ocean and of the organic cycle.
The ocean, when cold, absorbs more carbonic acid than when warm, and hence,
instead of coming to the rescue of the atmosphere when robbed of its carbon
dioxide by the rocks, it was disposed to hold its carbonic acid, and perhaps even
turn robber itself. At the same time, the vegetation was less subject to decay.
and a smaller part of the carbon was returned to the air. By the combination of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 647
these agencies the impoverishment of the atmosphere was hastened, and the epoch
of cold precipitated.
But when glaciation spread over the crystalline areas whose alterations were
the chief source of depletion, the abstraction of the carbonic acid was checked, and
if the supply continued, the re-enrichment would begin and warmth return, With
returning warmth the ocean would give up its carbonic acid more freely, and the
accumulated vegetable matter would decay, adding its contribution of carbonic
acid and accelerating the re-enrichment of the atmosphere. But when again the
ice disappeared and the crystalline areas were exposed to alterations the depletion
would be renewed, and so the rhythmical movement would continue until the land
was lowered or the general conditions changed.
2. Distribution and Succession of the Pleistocene Ice Sheets of Northern
United States. By T. C. CuamBeruin, Professor of Geology in the
Oniversity of Chicago.
In this communication the author presented a synopsis of the leading events in
the history of the Pleistocene as determined from studies of Glacial deposits
throughout Northern United States from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic
Coast, and from the mouth of the Ohio northward to the Canadian border. The
several ice sheets determined from their products were defined, and the extent of
each was indicated ; while the effect of Glacial action on topographic contiguration
and the geographic features of the country was developed.
3. On the Glacial Formations of the Alps. By Professor A. Pencx.!
The former glaciation of the Alps resembled very much that of British Colum-
bia and Alaska of to-day. The valleys were filled with glaciers, which poured into
the Piedmont region, forming here large ice-lobes. The borders of these ice-lobes
are formed by terminal moraines; in the interior occur drumlins with a radial
direction, and depressions filled with water forming lakes, or with alluvial deposits
forming peat-mosses or gravel-fiats,
The glacial formations consist of true moraines and fluvioglacial deposits, Three
different formations of this kind can be distinguished, the older being weathered below
the younger. Judging from the thickness of the decomposed parts, the relation of
the duration of the postglacial and the two interglacial epochs may be estimated as
1:4:6. The duration of the postglacial time cannot have been less than 20,000
years ; the duration of both interglacial epochs, therefore, appears to have exceeded
200,000 years ; the total length of the great ice age, with its glacial and interglacial
epochs was, judged by the deposits of the Po plain, 500,000 years. Interglacial
sections prove that in the interglacial epochs the glaciers retired to the remote
corners of the mountains. The loess is the characteristic formation of the Alpine
interglacial epochs. Its development is in favour of Baron v. Richthofen’s «olian
hypothesis, for the loess is confined to ihe central European districts of the Alps,
and is wanting in the Mediterranean climate. But it is also probable that the
material of the loess is of fluvioglacial origin. The older glacial deposits of the
Alps have experienced a slight folding; parallel to the strike of the Western Alps
they describe a succession of synclines and anticlines.
All Alpine lakes lie within the limits of the last glaciation ; their origin, how-
ever, is a very complex one. They are, in general, deformed valleys, deepened and
widened by the ice, and dammed by its moraines.
The postglacial epoch appears short in comparison with the interglacial epochs,
and if there occurred times of readvance of the ice, which are probably indicated by
terminal moraines in the valleys, they were less than tke three glacial epochs.
There is abundant evidence for the existence of man during the last glacial and
the last interglacial epoch; its antiquity in Europe can be estimated as about
150,000 years.
? The paper will be published in the Journ. of Geology, Chicago.
648 REPORT—1897.
4, On the Asar of Finland. By P. Kroporxin.
These observations on the fsar, or eskers, of Finland were made in 1871.
Many researches have been made since by Finnish geologists; but although the
glacial origin of the fsar is now firmly established, their mode of formation in
connection with the ice-sheet still remains uncertain.
The chief point which appears in regard to the sar of Finland and Sweden is
that they follow the same lines as were followed by the ice-cap in its southward
and south-eastward movement. While taking no heed of important orographical
features, they take into account, like glacial strize, minor depressions and eleya-
tions, showing that the ice always followed the lines of least resistance.
The main Swedish dsar descend from the highlands ; they spread next upon an
elevated plain, 100 to 200 feet high ; then they descend to the Malar depression,
cross it, and finally creep over the hilly tracks in the south of Lake Malar.
At the time of the author’s visit to Sweden, the &s of Upsala was cut through
its whole width at Upsala, for making a new road. It consists of a core, made up
of totally unstratified, unwashed, and unsorted gravel, composed of round, angular,
and sub-angular stones, from a few inches to several feet in diameter, mixed with
sand and finest mud. This gravel is exactly similar to the bottom moraine in the
neighbourhood, only containing a slightly greater proportion of limestone boulders
brought from Gefle. This core is covered with a mantle of washed, stratified, and
sorted gravels, sands (ripple-marks), and clays, with Baltic shells.
The asar of Finland, represented on an orographic map, all run N.W. to S.E.
One of them, the Pungaharju, was described, to show the orographic features of «
big fs. The Kangasala 4s, in West Finland, occupies a position which makes of it
a sister as to the Swedish dsar on the western shore of the Gulf of Bothnia. I¢ is
a typical ds, ninety-five miles long (twenty-two miles explored). It has all the
characters of a longitudinal moraine, partly destroyed by the lakes and covered
with sands and gravels which were washed by water and were deposited on the
old shores of a lake which reached a higher level than is now reached by Lake
Pajiine. The morainic core consists of a typical kross-stensgrus, in which immense
scratched boulders are scattered.
Of later Finnish explorers, Wiik (1876), Gylling (1881), and Lederholm (1889)
consider it also as a moraine, modified by water in its superficial layers; while
Berghell (1892) is inclined to consider it as the produce of a glacial river.
The &s of Yviiskyli bears the same character; while along the Tammerfors-
Helsingfors railway the fs of Ryttilé was found to have been largely digged out
as a ballast-pit. The washed and sorted gravel was taken away as ballast; but the
till (which gives bad ballast owing to its contents of fine glacial mud) was left
intact at the bottom, thus showing that the core of the 4s is of morainic origin.
The same was observed in the ds at Dickursby.
The conclusions to be drawn from these facts, taken out of many others ob-
served by the author, are :—A strict distinction must be made between the core of
an ds and its mantle. They are of distinct origin. The latter is always due to
the action of water (rivers, lakes, or the sea), while the core, whenever access could
be found to it, was invariably of morainic origin. Always it was found to consist
of unwashed and unstratified till, and never of fluviatile deposits. This core is
often buried under a thick sheet of water-deposits, and occasionally it lies even
beneath the level of the surrounding plains. It must have the same origin as the
drumlins, horse-backs, cames, &c., which are elongated hillocks formed in the bottom
moraine, parallel to the motion of ice, and always accompany fsar. From the
geological survey of Sweden it appears that the b2-dsar (small tributaries of the
big fsar) often are such drumlins (A7oss-dsar) ; and while the Rongedala fs is de-
scribed as a rudlsten-iis in its lower parts, it is represented as of morainic origin in
its upper parts.
We cannot say yet in which way these morainic ridges were formed, whether
under, or within, or on the surface of, the ice-cap ; but the asar can safely be taken
as longitudinal moraines, superficially modified by water. Itis also very possible that
the main Swedish dsar and the Kangasala as were side morainic deposits of the lobes
—— se
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 649
of the ice-cap. But it is equally possible that similar morainic ridges may arise
under the ice-cap, or within it.
At any rate, it seems almost impossible to explain the formation of dsar by river
action. The cores of the Kangasala and Yviskyla asar, with their immense scratched
boulders, certainly have not been deposited by rivers. Nor the unstratified, un-
washed, and unsorted core of the Upsala fs. This latter, which runs from a level.
of 500 feet to 120 feet, next raises to a level of 207 feet, descends to Lake Milar
in the level of the sea, and creeps again to a level of 180 feet, cannot have been
made by a river. Even under the ice a river would mine its channel in the line of
least resistance (eastwards in this case), instead of running uphill. No river could,
moreover, have so steady a channel, a few hundred feet wide, as to make such a
ridge; it would have changed its channel in the course of time in the ice as well,.
just as it does it in a rocky bed.
The latest researches of Finnish geologists, showing the existence of two fron-
tal moraines of the ice-cap, nearly parallel to the northern shore of the Gulf of
Finland, and probably of a third further north (about Kuopio) were next referred
to, as a parallel to the frontal moraines discovered in America,
5. The Chalky Boulder-clay and the Glacial Phenomena of the Western-
Midland Counties of England.| By H. B. Woopwarp, I. 2.8.
The general distribution of the Chalky Boulder-clay is first stated, and its
limits in Southern and Western England defined. The author then deals with
certain phenomena of especial interest, such as the wide dispersal of the chalky
detritus in the drifts, the disturbance of the underlying strata, the occurrence of
large blocks or ‘cakes’ of the local formations among the glacial deposits, and
the intercalation of sand and gravel with the boulder-clay.
In the West-Midland counties, the glacial phenomena of which have not yet
been thoroughly examined, there is a marginal area bordering the strongly
glaciated regions to the east and north-east. This has not been affected by the
later stages of the Glacial period, as the Chalky Boulder-clay is succeeded by
modified drift in the form of valley gravels and loam, with the remains of
mammoth and associated fossils, which merge into the estuarine and marine
deposits of the Severn Valley. In sketching the probable southern and western
limits of the Chalky Boulder-clay in this region, the author remarks on the absence
of drift from certain elevated tracts as indicating that the land-ice may have been.
loeally arrested by them and divided into lobes and tongues which invaded the
lower ground, Previous to this glaciation the main features of the country seem
to have been as at present, but there was no doubt a thick covering of
weathered rock and rubble on the surface, and this material would be readily
frozen into the base of a sedentary ice-sheet. In general the chief effect of the
ice has been to degrade the surface features rather than to efface them.
The glaciation does not seem to have affected the Cotteswold Hills, which are
flanked with thick accumulations of local rubble, explicable as the result of the
disintegration and redistribution of the surface layers during alternate frost and
thaw, as suggested by Witchell and Lucy; Edgehill also appears locally to have
arrested the land-ice.
Although the chalky ingredients of the Chalky Boulder-clay are present over
wide areas, there is much local variation in the other material, according to the
nature of the underlying rocks. The new railway cuttings of the Midland branch
Railway east and west between Bourn and Saxby, and those of the Manchester,
Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway north and south between Catesby and Quain-
ton Road, near Aylesbury, have furnished good examples of this variation.
If the weathered soil and subsoil were frozen into the sedentary ice, the dis-
turbance of the underlying rocks, of which many instances are cited, might be
produced during the movement and shearing of these basal layers. The débris
thus removed might rise by overthrusts into higher horizons in the ice, and be
! Geol. Mag. Dec. 4, iv. p. 485,
650 REPORT—1897.
then carried forward and widely distributed and commingled with local detritus
during alternate recessions and re-advances of the ice-margin, the boulder-clay
being deposited, to a large extent, by the melting of the ice, as indicated many
years ago by J. G. Goodchild in his account of ice-work in Edenside.
The degrading action of the ice has differed widely in different localities. It
is where this action has been most marked, as around the Fenland border, that the
large transported masses of Secondary strata have been most frequently observed.
Among examples of such masses are the disturbed sheets of chalk of the Norfolk
Coast and Trowse, the huge mass at Roslyn Hole, Ely, and that at Catworth de-
scribed by Mr. A. C.G. Cameron, Other well-known examples are the masses of
Lincolnshire Limestone at Great Ponton, and the mass of Marlstone 200 yards
across at Beacon Hill, described by Professor Judd; while recently Mr. C. Fox
Strangways has observed ‘a mass of Lincolnshire Oolite at least 300 yards long
and 100 yards broad,’ to the north-west of Melton Mowbray. All these occur in
connection with the Challcy Boulder-clay.
The author then draws attention to the singular absence of Jurassic outliers
along the western margin of the great Lincolnshire ‘ Cliff and he suggests that
these huge cakes and boulders were, in some cases, dislodged from outliers which
had become frozen to the base of the ice-sheet and were then shifted to higher
levels along planes produced in the ice by its movement over an irregular surface.
The abundant chalky detritus was no doubt carried along minor planes of move-
ment in the ice, the chalk lumps being scored by fractured flint, and the material
being transported far and wide at hicher levels in the ice than the bulk of the more
Jocal material. In certain instances the soil frozen to the base of the ice-sheet was
little, if at all, moved, being overridden by subsequent ice-movements.
The intercalation of sand and gravel with the Chalky Boulder-clay is, he thinks,
best explained as a marginal phenomenon produced at different stages in the advance
and retreat of the ice-sheet. The author acknowledges his indebtedness to Messrs.
Chamberlin, Crosby, and Upham, whose studies have thrown so much light on
glacial phenomena.
6. Glacial and Interglacial Deposits at Toronto.
By A. P. Coteman, Ph.D., Toronto University.
The ravines of the river Don at Toronto and the lake cliffs of Scarborough
Heights, a few miles to the east, provide exceedingly interesting sections of the
drift, from 100 to 350 feet in thickness, displaying three or more sheets of till and
a varying number of interglacial beds.
The most important section, at Taylor’s brickyard in the Don Valley, shows a
lowest till overlying Cambro-Silurian shale of Hudson River age. Upon this rest
18 feet of sand and clay, containing many unios and other shells, as well as leaves
and pieces of wood. Some of the unios do not now live in Canadian waters, but
are found in the Mississippi; and several species of trees now belonging to the
States to the south occur with them, indicating a climate decidedly warmer than
the present. Above this come stratified clay and sand, with a caribou horn and
remains of insects and plants belonging to a colder climate than the present. This
set of clays and sands is best shown at Scarborough, where the series rises 148 feet
above Lake Ontario, and contains many species of extinct beetles, as well as shell-
fish, mosses, and wood of hardy trees.
A complicated middle till overlies these beds, which were deeply eroded before
the advance of the ice. Another less important fossil-bearing interglacial bed
occurs above the middle till at elevations up to 240 feet above the lake, and is
followed by a third till.
Great changes in the level of the water occurred in connection with these
climatic changes, the lake being much lower than at present, before the first
glacial advance and after the first intergiacial time.
During the deposition of the middle till, and also while the last sheet of till was
being deposited, the water stood from 250 to 300 feet above the present level of
the lake, which stands 247 feet above the sea.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 651
The retreat of the last ice sheet was followed by the Iroquois episode, leaving a
well-marked elevated beach.
The length of time required for the first interglacial period is probably to be
estimated at thousands of years; and during this time, at the beginning of which
the climate was very warm, the ice sheet of the Laurentide glacier must have com-
pletely disappeared.
The correlation of the series of events described with those of the drift of the
United States and of Europe is difficult, but probably the chief interglacial period
corresponds to Geikie’s Neudeckian, or the interva] between the Iowan and
Wisconsin glacial advances.
7. On the Continental Elevation of the Glacial Epoch.'
By J. W. Spencer, PA.D., F.GS,
At the last meeting of the British Association, held in Liverpool, Professor
Edward Hull presented a paper upon ‘ Another Possible Cause of the Glacial
Epoch,’ in which the phenomena of the drowned valleys described by the present
writer in the ‘ Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent’? are also accepted by
Professor Hull as due to river erosion, thus furnishing yardsticks for measuring
the recent elevation of the region.
In that paper the writer described a large number of drowned valleys, often
extending from the mouths of the great modern rivers across the submarine
plateaus at various depths, reaching to even 12,000 feet or more. The writer now
submits evidence showing that similar drowned valleys and amphitheatres are
recognisable as far northward as Labrador, beyond which latitude surveys have
not been made.
The submarine valleys radiating from the American Continent are no greater
than many observable upon the surface of the land, and are particularly comparable
to the valleys and caiions traversing the plateaus of Mexico and the Western States
both in magnitude and in the declivity of the various steps which indicate the
pauses in the elevation of the land.
Upon tracing northward the deposits occupying the great valleys, the writer
has found that glacial accumulations occur in New Jersey between the Lafayette
formation, which is the latest horizon dissected by the great valleys, provisionally
regarded as of late Pliocene age, and the Columbia formation, which is mid-Pleis-
tocene. From all these considerations the writer concludes that the eastern
portion of North America stood more than two miles above the sea during the
earlier Pleistocene epoch.
From the occurrence of certain fossils, and of many cajions of recent date incising
the borders of the tablelands, it appears that the Mexican plateau was, at least
in part, depressed to near sea level during the times of the high elevation of the
eastern portion of the continent; and that, with the subsidence of the eastern
region, the western side of the continent was elevated from 6,000 to 10,000 feet
Ms more, The separation of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans is only of recent
te.
The soundings in the eastern Atlantic have not always been along the lines
which show the best development of the submerged valleys, but the amphitheatres
and other valley-features in the subcoastal margin of Europe show some of the
a of elevation, after studying their characteristics off the American coast.
‘hile a submarine bridge exists between Europe and Greenland, there appears
to be no similar connection between Greenland and America. Under these
circumstances, the epochs of elevation on the two sides of the Atlantic cannot be
shown as simultaneous. On the other hand, it is suggested that the elevation upon
the two sides alternated similarly to the terrestrial waves between the eastern
region of America and Mexico.
The theory of the Antillean ridge is strongly supported by the distribution of
' Geol. Mag., Dec. 4, v. p. 32. 2 Buli. Geol. Soc. Amer., iv, 1894-95, 103-140.
652 REPORT—1897.
certain mammals of that time over North and South America, as shown by some
of Professor Cope’s last work, and by the occurrence of eliptics in Guadeloupe.
If the physical phenomena be correctly interpreted, the changes of levels of
land and sea, and the dependent variations of currents, &c., seem to be sufficient
cause for the Glacial period, as advocated by Lyell and many others, while the
writer has only pointed out where changes have occurred.
Since the epoch of great elevation there have been extensive subsidences in
America, so that much of the region, where not actually submerged, stood near
sea level. The subsequent elevation has been unequal and most pronounced in the
mountain regions, as of New England, New York, &c., where tilted beaches,
deltas, and terraces occur on all sides of the high mountains in such locations as
would require the base levels of erosion to be reduced to near sea level, while the
subsequent rise of the land has lifted them to a height of at least 2,700 feet.
Between the phenomena of great elevation and depression there are many
others not yet assigned to their proper places, which possibly accounts for
various explanations of the surface features.
8. The Champlain Submergence and Uplift, and their Relations to the
Great Lakes and Niagara Falls. Ly Frank Burstry Tayor, of
Fort Wayne, Indiana.
There is much evidence that the disappearance of the Champlain submergence
was a recent event in geological time. ‘The skeletons of whales and seals found
within the submerged area are not petrefactions, but bones; its marine shells are
fresh in appearance. Many of the species found live now in the Gulf of the
St. Lawrence. The river channels traversing the old sea bottom betray their
youth by many signs. Its soil shows less oxidation than that of the adjoining
unsubmerged drift area.
A remarkable abandoned beach surrounds a large portion of the upper Great
Lakes. It leads to a low col at the east end of Lake Nipissing, and is hence
called the Nipissing beach; and the lake which it bounded, and which was nearly
coterminous with the present Lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron, is called the
Nipissing Great Lake. It lies in a very even plane which diverges from the
present lake level at the rate of nearly seven inches to the mile in a direction
about N 27° E. Its maximum elevation is 110 to 115 feet above Lake Superior,
and this at Peninsular Harbour; at North Bay it is about 120 feet above
Georgian Bay. It meets the present surface of Lake Huron at points nearly
opposite the mouth of Saginaw Bay ; of Lake Michigan near Traverse and Green
Bays, and of Lake Superior not far east from Duluth. Its plane projected would
pass about 25 feet under the present lake levei at Duluth, 40 feet at Port Huron,
and 100 feet at Chicago.
The land exposed between the Nipissing beach and the present water margin is
in some places a number of miles in width. It exhibits the same evidences of
newness as those found in the uplifted area of the Champlain submergence.
Shells found in it are ina similar state of preservation. River channels which
cross it are manifestly in the early stages of erosive work. Notable among these
is the Nipigon. The inference is strong that the Nipissing Great Lake period was
contemporaneous with the Champlain submergence, and that during that time the
upper Great Lakes had their outlet by way of the Nipissing pass and Ottawa
river.
If this is true there remained only the discharge of Lake Erie to occupy the
Niagara. This is at present about one-ninth of the total volume of the river.
As the work of this feeble stream we can account for the narrow and shallow
gorge of the Whirlpool rapids.
The Champlain Uplift simultaneously uncovered the floor of the Champlain
sea, raised the Nipissing beach at the north-east and submerged it at the south-
west, closed the Nipissing outlet and opened that at Port Huron, turned the
entire discharge of the Great Lakes into the Niagara river, and inaugurated the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 653
cutting of its upper great gorge. Taking the ascertained rate of recession of the
Florseshoe fall as the principal datum, the time occupied in that work may have
been from 5,000 to 10,000 years, which thus becomes the measure of the time
which has elapsed since the emergence of the Champlain area. The measure of
the duration of the Champlain submergence is the time occupied in the cutting of
the gorge of the Whirlpool rapids. No data exist for its statement in years that
would be more than a guess. Such merely conjectural estimate as can be based
on the action, or inaction, rather, of the American fall would lead to figures not
less than twenty or twenty-five thousand years.
9. Remarks introductory to the Excursion to Niagara Falls and Gorge.
Ly G. K. Giperr.
10. Drift Phenomena of Puget Sound and their Interpretation.
Sy Bayury WI1LIs.
The area from which the facts for this discussion were collected is the Tacoma
quadrangle of the United States topographical survey, comprising the district east
and south of Seattle and Tacoma. The major topographic features are the
channels of the Sound and the strictly homologous valleys now filled with
alluvium. These divide, and in some instances surround, plateau-like elevations
composed of stratified and unstratified drift that rise about 500 feet above the sea.
On the slopes of the adjacent foot hills of the Cascade Range drift deposits
occur up to and beyond 1,700 feet above the sea. Various features of the Glacial-
derived topography have been traced out in detail, including characteristic till
surfaces, morainic zones, kames, and overwash plains. The distribution of these
features indicates that at least the latest Glacial advance was along the valleys and
channels of the Sound, and that glaciers rose above and overflowed the margins
of the plateaus. The materials of the drift are to a large extent granite, and bear
evidence of prolonged water transportation. A distinct variety of till, containing
numerous erratics of Tertiary volcanics, was found in localities to which it was
probably brought from the local centre of glaciation, Mount Rainier. The rela-
tion of these local Glacial deposits to the general drift indicates that the prevailing
drift phenomena were due to glaciers which penetrated from the north as far south
as the foot hills of Mount Rainier, 80 miles south-east of Tacoma.
The detailed examination of the various features of the drift suggests the
hypothesis that the channels of the Sound are the hollows remaining after
repeated Glacial occupation of a wide valley formerly diversified by the valleys
and ridges of pre-Glacial topography. In the course of repeated Glacial advance
and retreat the earlier divides were built upon and transformed into plateau-like
eminences of Glacial drift, whereas the occupation of the valleys by Glacial icc,
particularly in the stagnant stages of retreat, prevented their being permanently
filled ; with the final retreat of the ice the molds of glaciers remained as the
channels of the Sound. This hypothesis is to be contrasted with that of erosion,
due to repeated uplift and subsidence.
ll. The Southern Lobe of the Laurentian Ice Sheet.
By Professor C. H. Hircucocx.
The ice-sheet of eastern North America had its gathering grounds in the
Laurentian highlands, east of Hudson’s Bay. Glaciers flowed from it in all
directions. Perhaps the most conspicuous discharge was to the south through
1 For a fuller account of this lobe see American Geologist, July 1897, vol. xx.,
‘The Eastern Lobe of the Ice-sheet.’
654 REPORT—1897,.
the Champlain and Hudson valleys to a point eighty miles out to sea. The study
of the striz shows a series directed southerly through the lowest line of this
depression, nowhere much elevated above the sea-level.
On the west the strie point S.W., and stones have been transported in the
same direction. Thus fragments of Potsdam sandstone are strewed over the
Adirondack mountains even to their very summits, as proved in 1896 by the
writer. All through middle New York and into Pennsylvania, boulders of the
Adirondack granites may be seen.
On the east of the central line the strie point S.E. on the summits of all the
Green and White mountains, and boulders from the N.W. have everywhere been
carried up to and beyond these summits. Laurentian boulders are found in
northern Vermont and New Hampshire, and, in one place at least, over the height
of land into Maine.
On examining this area it seems to be a broad lobe, with striz diverging from
the central line, much like the barbs of a feather from the central shaft.
Studies of the Erie, Michigan, and Superior lobes show a similar arrangement
of strixe, but the lobes themselves are more acuminate.
This southern lobe is remarkable for its movement from a plain near the sea-
level over the highest mountains in New England and New York, 6,000 and
5,000 feet.
The terminal moraines of this great glacial lobe correspond to the two sets of
striz, being rudely at right angles to the direction of the movement in both cases.
Those of central New York run meridionally, and then follow down the west side
of the Hudson valley. Those in New England are parallel to the margin in the
outer portions, and those in N. H. and Vt. run more nearly N.E. and 8. W.
As portrayed on the map, the line of junction between this southern lobe and
the one coming from Lake Ontario is near Salamanca, N.Y. An angle is made
there, which is the most northern part of the unglaciated country outside of the
limits traversed by the ice known in the United States.
The moraines of the Ontario lobe are arranged in parallel looped lines, and
those in the immediate vicinity of Toronto belong to this series.
If this great lobe had its origin in the Laurentian hills, it is difficult to under-
stand how the ice can have been accumulated at a lower level sufliciently abun-
dantly to move over a higher level, probably three thousand feet. It is easy to
see how the Ontario lobe could have made its way, as the greater altitude of the
rim of the basin in Ohio is comparatively slight.
The fact that the area of the southern lobe is greater than that of any other,
reminds one of the map of the Great Baltic glacier given us by Professor James
Geikie.
12. On the Origin of Drumlins.
By N. S. SHarer, Professor of Geology in Harvard University.
History of previous studies of drumlins—The question of their origin still
undetermined—Method of inquiry—Geographic distribution of phenomena in
relation to ice-sheets—Distribution of phenomena by series of forms—Importance
of studying drumloidal forms occurring in bed-rock and in morainal hills—Rela-
tion of drumlins to moraines—Evidence that drumlins are due to locally intense
deposition of detritus—Evidence that they have been subjected in most, if not all,
cases to glacial erosion—Analysis of the conditions of local deposition—Reasons
for believing that pressure-melting occurring at the base of a glacier induces the
formation of drumlins—Relation of drumlins to moraines formed upon previously
existing ridges—Phenomena of disappearance of drumlins towards the margin of
the ice-sheet—Probable history of drumlin growth as shown by an analysis of the
phenomena—Revision of the evidence in relation to the theory.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 655
13. The pre-Glacial Decay of Rocks in Eastern Canada.
By Rosert Cuarmers, [.G.S.A., of the Geological Survey of Canada,
Although the question of the subaérial decay of rocks has been before geologists
for many years, it does not appear to have received much attention in glaciated
countries, One reason of this may be the prominence given to the action of
Pleistocene ice in the production of the superficial deposits, the origin of the
boulder clay, moraines, kames, &c., being apparently quite readily explained by
such action, while the sedentary beds beneath, due to rock decay, are often so
thin and fragmentary that they seem to have been overlooked. It is, nevertheless,
becoming more and more evident in the detailed study of the superficial deposits
that the materials of rock decay, from which all others have been derived, form a
very important constituent of the series.
In Eastern Canada a wide field for the study of the products of rock decay
exists, in which, so far, but few workers have been found. Sir J. W. Dawson
described beds of this kind occurring at Les Eboulements, Quebec, where Utica
slates have been changed to a great depth into a sort of clay. Dr. T. Sterry
Hunt also observed instances of the similar decomposition of rocks in the vicinity
of Montreal, especially at Rigaud Mountain.*? The writer has been investigating
phenomena of this kind since 1884, and has noted beds of decayed rock beneath
the boulder clay in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and in
South-Eastern Quebec, while in the Magdalen Islands the whole of the superficial
deposits consist of rock débris, some portions of which are, however, more or less
stratified by marine and atmospheric action, no glaciation having taken place
there.
In the present paper the question of rock decay during the geological ages
which preceded the Tertiary is not considered.
Beds of decomposed rock of variable thickness and more or less modified occur
wherever the surface of the rocks has not been abraded by Pleistocene ice, though
the evidence of ice action may be present and boulder clay often found overlying
them. In South-Eastern Quebec the hilly, broken country along the northern
slopes of the Notre Dame range appears to have protected these in some measure
from glacial erosion, and hence they occur in thick sheets in certain places,
especially in river valleys. The stratified and indigenous pre-Glacial beds met
with in the valley of the Chaudiére, for example, taken together, are not less.
than 45 feet thick. In New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island
the glaciation has been comparatively light in many districts, and consequently
remnants of these materials are found there also, though in a greatly denuded
state.
A general section of these beds, as recognised in Eastern Canada, may be given,
showing briefly in descending order their character and sequence as noted in
different places beneath the boulder clay :—(1) Transported and stratified water-
worn gravel with beds of fine sand and clay. (2) Coarse, stratified gravels, usually
yellow and oxidised, the materials wholly local. (8) Sedentary rotted rock,
passing into solid rock beneath. ;
' Certain portions of the region, as, for example, the eastern extremity of the
Gaspé Peninsula, the Magdalen Islands, and some localities in Prince Edward
Island, exhibit no abrasion from Pleistocene ice, and the surface, therefore, presents
nearly the same appearance as it probably did in the later Tertiary period. y
The mineralogical character and consistency of the decayed rock materials are,
of course, different upon each geological formation, varying from coarse and
angular, upon the older crystallines, to clay, with scaly fragments in districts
occupied with slates, and changing into sand and gravel where sandstones prevail.
The products of rock decay as observed beneath the boulder clay are, therefore,
of two kinds, indigenous and modified, the latter thickest in the ancient, river
+1 Notes on. the Post-Pliocene Geology of Canada, Canadian Naturalist, vol. vi.
1872.
2 American Journal of Science, vol. xxvi. 1883, pp. 208, 209.
656 REPORT—1897.
valleys, but often eroded, or entirely swept away by the rivers since the Glacial
period in clearing out their channels anew. From the facts at hand it is evident
that a mantle of these materials of variable thickness must have occupied the
-whole region in the later Tertiary period, however, and that denudation from the
Pleistocene ice and fluviatile action before and since has left only remnants of it
to the present day. ,
In reference to the precise age of these beds in Eastern Canada, no evidence
seems yet to be available. At the western base of the Green Mountains, near
Brandon, Vermont, certain beds were discovered many years ago closely resembling
those of the Chaudiére valley of pre-Glacial date. Lequereux, who studied the
vegetable remains which they contained, referred them to the Miocene.*
The manner in which the rocks decompose and yield these indigenous products
is a question which requires fuller treatment than can be accorded to it in this
paper. Decomposition seems, however, to be mainly of two kinds—mechanical and
chemical. The most important is doubtless that due to precipitation and to the
action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. Changes of temperature have also
had a very great influence, especially in Eastern Canada, producing contraction
and expansion of the rocks, and thus causing numerous joints and fissures into
which water and disintegrating agents would find access. Decomposition cannot,
however, have proceeded at as rapid a rate in this country as in tropical regions.
The mantling of the earth’s surface with snow and the freezing up of the super-
ficial deposits for five or six months every year would have a conservative effect,
and check the action of the disintegrating forces.
The general aspect of the dry land’in Eastern Canada previous to the Glacial
period must have been nearly similar to that of the region south of the glaciated
zone in North America, though the superficial beds may not, for the reasons stated
above, have been as deep. The facts show, however, that rock decay has been in
progress for long ages in this country as in other parts of the earth, though
apparently with diminished effect.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21,
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Note on certain Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian Fossils supposed to be
related to Hozoon. By Sir W. Dawson, F.R.S.
This note relates to fossils referred to in the discussion of the author’s paper
on Eozoon at the Liverpool meeting last year, and subsequently re-examined by
him. It relates to the genera Cryptozoon of Hall, Arch@ozoon of Matthew, and
Girvanella of Nicholson (Streptochetus of Seeley). All three are now known in
their structures, and have been found in beds ranging from the Lower Cambrian
downward. They all seem to be animal forms of low and generalised structure,
and probably Protozoa. The specimens referred to can be seen in the Peter
Redpath Museum of McGill University, Montreal.
2. Note on a Fish Tooth from the Upper Arisaig series of Nova Scotia.
By J. F. WuITEAvVEs.
The only indication of the existence of vertebrate animals in the Silurian rocks
of Canada, that has yet been recorded, is a single specimen of a Pteraspidian fish
discovered by Dr. G. F. Matthew in the Nerepis hills of southern New Brunswick
in 1886. This specimen, which consists of the rostrum, the lateral cornua, the
dorsal and ventral scutes, and some other plates of the anterior armature of the
1 Geology of Canada, 1863, p. 929.
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 657
fish, was subsequently described by its discoverer as the type of a new genus,
under the name Diplaspis Acadica, though Mr. A. Smith Woodward claims that
it should be referred to Lankester’s genus Cyathaspis.
However this may be, in the Museum of the Geological Survey at Ottawa
there is a well-preserved fish tooth from the Upper Arisaig series at McDonald’s
Brook, near Arisaig, N.S., collected by Mr. I. C. Weston in 1869. On the
evidence of large numbers of other kinds of fossils, the upper portion of the
‘ Arisaig series’ is still held to be of about the same age as the Lower Helderberg
group of the State of New York and the Ludlow group of England, but no
Devonian rocks are: known to exist at McDonald’s Brook.
The tooth itself, which is not quite perfect at either end, is about eleven
millimetres in height, by about five in breadth at the base. It is conical, slightly
curved, and somewhat compressed, the outline of a transverse section a little
below the mid-height being elliptical. It is entirely covered with a thin coat of
enamel, which is finely and longitudinally striated.
Judging by its external characters, this specimen seems to be what is usually
¢alled a dendrodont tooth, and therefore probably that of a crossopterygian, per-
haps allied to Holoptychius, though its fore and aft edges are not trenchant. Only
one specimen of it has been obtained, so that no thin sections of it have been made,
to show its microscopical structure. As it does not seem referable to any known
Species, it may be convenient to call it provisionally Dendrodus Arisaigensis.
If the limestones from which this tooth was collected are, as there is every
reason to believe that they are, of Silurian age, a second species can be added to
the vertebrate fauna of that system in Canada; but if not, the tooth is still of
interest as indicating the possible existence of Devonian rocks at a locality where
such rocks have not previously been recognised.
3. On some new or hitherto little known Paleozoic Formations in
North-Eastern America. By H. M. Amt, JLA., F.GLS.
Leaving out of consideration the Cambrian formations of the north-east part of
America, which have received careful attention at the hands of Dr. G. F. Matthew
and the late Mr. E. Billings, the author discusses the little-known formations or
faunas of Ordovician (Cambro-Silurian) age of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
This is followed by an attempt to subdivide the Silurian formations of the Acadian
provinces according to faunas, and by a correlation of these faunas with similar or
homotaxial faunas in Northern Europe.
The subdivisions of the Devonian system are then considered, and their faunal
relations in the district in question, as well as to areas more to the south and west,
in the State of New York and in Ontario.
The paper closes with a synoptical view of the phases which characterised the
Carboniferous period of North-Eastern America, a subject of special interest from
an economic as well as from a scientific standpoint.
4. Some Characteristic Genera of the Cambrian.
By G. F. Marruew, LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S.C.
The paper gives in brief the history and use of several generic names and the
distribution of certain species to which they have been applied. These genera
have an important bearing on the antiquity of the Olenellus Fauna—Bathyuriscus,
Meek, known as a Middle Cambrian genus in Montana and Nevada, occurs in the
Olenellus Fauna of Eastern North America. It is nearly allied to the following
genus—Dolichometopus, Angelin, of the Upper Paradoxides Beds of Sweden, is
found in beds of similar age in Eastern Canada. With it is associated Dorypyge,
Dames (=Olenoides in part of Walcott), which is a Middle Cambrian genus in
- Montana, and is found also in the Olenellus Fauna of Eastern North America.
Microdiscus, a genus of small trilobites, extending in Eastern Canada up to the
1897. UU
658 REPORT—1897.
Upper Paradoxides Beds, is found in the Olenellus Fauna. Agnostus has a peculiar
development in the Upper Paradoxides Beds in the appearance at that horizon of
the section Levigati; the Brevifrontes also abound there. These two sections
appear to be present in the fauna with Olenellus.
If we accept the view that there has been a regular development of the faunas
through Cambrian time, it is difficult to understand how Olenellus can be at the
base of the Cambrian succession and yet found in company with so many genera and
sub-genera which are known members of the Middle Cambrian fauna, or that of
the Upper Paradoxides Beds, Olenellus has not yet been found below the Para-
doxides Beds, and the evidence adduced indicates that it extended above rather
than below this part of the Cambrian system.
5. Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.
See Reports, p. 343,
6. Report on the Secondary Fossils of Moreseat, Aberdeenshire.
See Reports, p. 333.
7. Influence Pun éboulement sur le Régime @une riviere.
Par Mgr. J.-C. K. Lartamme, de l'Université Laval.
Il s’agit d’un éboulement arrivé sur la riviére Ste-Anne, province de Québec,
en avril 1894. Le cours de cette riviére, dans la partie dont il est ici question,
se divise en deux sections bien distinctes. Dans chacune la riviére coulait, avant
l’éboulis, dans un terrain d’alluvion, ou elle avait creusé de longs et nombreux
méandres. La section d’amont était peu profonde, mais l’autre, placée prés de
Yembouchure dans le St-Laurent, était trés profonde et & courant trés faible.
Entre ces deux parties, la riviére traverse une formation calcaire (Trenton), dans
laquelle elle a creusé, en certains endroits, une gorge trés profonde qui existe encore,
mais méme la ow la gorge n’existe pas, le courant est trés rapide.
Un éboulis de plusieurs millions de pieds cubes s'est produit tout & coup dans
la section supérieure. L’ancien lit de la riviére a complétement disparu. Elle
coule maintenant sur de nouveaux bancs d’argile mis 4 nu, dans lesquels elle se
creuse un chemin. La masse de terre de |’éboulement a été transportée 4 10 miles
de distance prés de l’embouchure, comblant ainsi en partie le chenal profond qui
existait 14 auparavant, augmentant par conséquent la vitesse du courant et
provoquant en cet endroit des éboulements riverains, lesquels se continuent encore
et ont déji emporté des surfaces considérables de terres cultivées. On a di faire
des travaux trés dispendieux pour sauver le pont du Pacifique, qui était menacé
par cette altération du régime de la partie inférieure de la riviére, et le dernier mot
n'est pas encore dit, Cette riviére va mettre des années avant de retrouver sa
tranquillité primitive.
Cet Sboulement est, sans contredit, le plus considérable qui se soit produit de
mémoire d’homme dans la province de Québec, et peut-étre que l’exposé des prin-
cipales causes qui l’ont amené et des effets qui l’ont. suivi ne sera pas sans intérét
pour la section géologique de l’Association Britannique pour l’avancement des
sciences.
8. Report of the Coast Erosion Committee of the East Kent and Dover
Natural History Societies. By Captain G. McDaxin.
9. Report of the Fauna of Caves near Singapore. See Reports, p. 342.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 659
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.
See Reports, p. 349.
2. On the Relations and Structure of certain Granites and associated Arkoses
on Lake Temiscaming, Canada. By A. E. Bartow, I.A., and W. F.
Ferrier, B.A.Sc., Geological Survey of Canada.
The rocks to which the following facts relate outcrop on both the eastern and
western shores of Lake Temiscaming immediately north of the ‘Old Fort ’ Narrows
on the upper Ottawa river, the deep channel of which forms the boundary line
between the Provinces of Ontario and Quehec. ,
On the eastern side of the lake the granite forms a strip along the shore half a
mile wide, and extending from a point three-quarters of a mile north of The Narrows
on which is situated the now abandoned Fort Temiscaming, a fur-trading post be-
longing to the Hudson Bay Company, to the steamboat wharf near the village of
Baie des Péres. It also constitutes the rocky promontory known as Wine Point
to the west of Baie des Péres, extending inland in a north-easterly direction for
about one mile and a quarter. On the western side of the lake the first outcrop is
noticed about half a mile west of ‘The Narrows,’ continuing along the shore for
about four miles as far as Paradis Point, and varying in breadth from half a mile
to one mile, The whole area thus underlaid by the granite is approximately about
six square miles,
Macroscopically the fresh rock is a rather coarse, though very uniformly even
grained aggregate of felspar, quartz, and a dark coloured mica, probably biotite.
Felspar is by far the most abundant constituent, and the abundance of red oxide
of iron disseminated through all the cracks and fissures of this mineral gives to
the rock its beautiful deep flesh-red colour. The quartz is, as usual, allotriomor-
phic, but a decided tendency is noticed to segregate in more or less rounded areas
or individuals which, especially on surfaces worn and polished as a result of glacial
action, gives to the rock a porphyritic or pseudo-conglomeratic appearance ; a fact
first made note of by Sir William Logan in 1844 on his manuscript map of this
portion of the Ottawa river.
The microscope shows the rock to be composed essentially of orthoclase, micro-
cline, plagioclase (oligoclase?), quartz, and biotite almost completely altered to
chlorite. The microline has evidently been derived from orthoclase as a result of
pressure, and all the gradations of this change may be noted, from the ‘ moire
structure’ characteristic of the imperfectly or only partially developed mineral, to
the fine and typical ‘cross-hatched structure’ peculiar to this mineral. The fel-
spar shows only incipient alteration to sericite, and scales and flakes of this mineral
are developed especially abundantly in the central portion of the individuals, leaving
a penencotivaly fresh periphery almost altogether free from such decomposition
products.
The arkose with which this granite is associated and surrounded is a beautiful
pale or sea-green quartzite or grit, passing occasionally into a conglomerate, the
pebbles of which are chiefly grey and red quartz with occasional intermixed frag-
ments of a hiilleflinta-like rock.
Under the microscope the finer-grained matrix appears to be almost wholly
composed of pale yellowish-green sericite in the form of minute scales and flakes,
although occasional individuals are macroscopically apparent. Most of thissericite
has originated from the decomposition in situ of felspar originally present, and
irregular portions or areas of the unaltered felspar may be occasionally detected. -
The line of junction between this granite and arkose shows a gradual and dis-
uv2
660 REPORT—1897.
tinct passage outward or upward from the granite mass. The series of thin sections
examined, as well as the hand specimens themselves, show every stage in the pro-
cess, which has been carefully studied.
In the first place, as a result of dynamic action, the orthoclase is converted
into microcline with the incipient development of sericite, which gradually
increases in those specimens where the greatest perfection of the ‘ cross-hatched ’
microcline structure is reached. In these the individuals of quartz and felspar
have undergone rather extensive fracturing, but with little or no movement apart
of the fragments. This breaking up of the original larger individuals is, as usual,
much more apparent in the quartz than in the felspar, and beautiful examples of
‘ strain-shadows’ may frequently be seen in those quartz areas which have not
yielded altogether to the pressure. A further stage in the process is reached
when the sericitisation of the felspar has proceeded so far as to permit of the
‘shoving apart’ of the fragments by the various forces which have acted in
bringing about the degradation of the whole rock mass. This gradual decom-
position of the felspar and movement of the rock constituents can be perfectly
traced in the series of thin sections examined until the rock cannot be distinguished
from an ordinary arkose, while the arrangement on the large scale, and the more
or less parallel alignment of rounded and waterworn quartzose fragments amply
testify to the final assortment and rearrangement of the disintegrated material as
a result of ordinary sedimentation.
The relations between this granite and arkose are of rather unusual scientific
interest, showing, as they do, the pre-Huronian existence of a basement or floor
upon which these sediments were laid down, and which in this portion at least
has escaped the movements to which the Laurentian gneisses have been subjected.
The granite is also somewhat different, both in composition and appearance, from
the granites and gneisses classified as Laurentian, and which are so frequently
referred to as the Fundamental Gneiss or Basement Complex, although during
recent years the assumption implied in these terms has been considerably weakened
‘by the fact that the contact between such rocks and the associated clastics is,
wherever examined, one of intrusion. On the other hand, the composition of the
Huronian strata furnishes indubitable evidence of a pre-existing basement or floor
essentially granitic in composition, while the abundance of red granite pebbles and
fragments, which are so pre-eminently abundant in the breccio-conglomerate
lying at the base of the Huronian system, are very similar in composition and
‘appearance to the granite described above. This granite is, therefore, regarded
by the authors as the only instance at present known in which the material com-
posing the Huronian clastics can be clearly and directly traced, both macroscopi-
cally and microscopically, to the original source from which it has been derived.
3. Report on the Irish Elk Remains in the Isle of Man. See Reports, p. 346.
4. On some Nickeliferous Magnetites.. By Witter G. MILiEr.
An examination has recently been made of the ore from some of the larger
deposits of titaniferous magnetite in eastern Ontario. These magnetites have all
been found to be nickeliferous, the amount of nickel (and cobalt) present in some
being over 0:8 per cent. The non-titaniferous magnetites of the district have so
far as examined been found not to contain nickel.
The titanium-nickel holding magnetites are considered to be of igneous origin,
while the other magnetites of the district are thought to be of aqueous or
mechanical origin.
The fact that iron produced from titaniferous ores is of a very high quality
may have some connection with the occurrence of nickel in these ores. The
‘ A short paper on this subject will appear in the next Annual Report of the
Ontario Bureau of Mines, Toronto.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 661
superior quality of such iron has been thought by some metallurgists to be due to
the presence of titanium in it,
Even a very small percentage of nickel in an iron ore would be of value if the
nickel could be extracted along with the iron in smelting, as the resulting alloy
might be used directly in the production of nickel-steel.
There is reason to believe that magnetites will be found containing a higher
percentage of nickel than those already examined, just as some of the Canadian
pyrrhotites, which are also considered to be of igneous origin, contain amounts of
nickel which make them valuable as ores, while others contain the metal in lesser
amounts.
5. Differentiation in Igneous Magmas as a result of Progressive
Crystallisation. By J.J. H. Teatr, MA, FBS.
Crystal building in an originally homogeneous igneous magma necessarily
produces differentiation into portions of different chemical composition, a fact the
importance of which was first impressed upon the author sixteen years ago in study-
ing the andesitic lavas and their associated quartz porphyry dykes in the Cheviot
district.
As is well known, Professor Rosenbusch has classified the common constituents
of igneous rocks into (1) the ores and accessory constituents (including magnetite,
&c.), (2) the ferro-magnesian constituents, (3) the felspathic constituents, (4) free
silica, and has maintained that members of group (1) are the first to form in the
process of crystallisation, and that while there are irregularities of order between
members of group (2) as compared with those of group (8), yet the members of
these groups separate out inter se in the order of increasing acidity. This order of
crystallisations has been emphasised by many writers, though it has also been
clearly recognised that the law is not constant in different magmas and under
different conditions. The object of the present communication is to call attention
to what is at least an important exception to this law.
Among an extensive series of rocks and fossils collected by the Jackson—
Harmsworth expedition in Franz Josef Land, recently examined by the author and
Mr. E. T. Newton, are many basalts essentially composed of labradorite, augite, and
interstitial matter, in which labradorite formed first, then augite, and last of all
the interstitial matter either with or without further differentiation. The main
interest of these rocks lies in the composition and relations of the interstitial
matter. This is occasionally present as a deep brown glass, but more often is
represented either by palagonite or by a turbid and more or less doubly refracting
substance crowded with skeleton-crystals of magnetite. In many specimens it is
only in this form that magnetite occurs, the labradorite and augite being free from
inclusions of this mineral. These facts prove that magnetite may belong to a very
late stage of consolidation, and that progressive crystallisation may lead to a con-
centration of iron oxides in the mother liquor. ‘
The palagonite has undoubtedly been formed by the hydration of a deep brown
glass. An analysis was made of it with the following results :—
its II.
Silica . s ‘ ? F . . 35°48 42°88
Titanic acid . : { j c ee nili —
Alumina y 5 : 3 ‘ - 8:30 10:03
Ferric oxide . ¢ . : : - 12:30 14:87
Ferrous oxide , F ; . 1460 17°65
Lime . ‘ - ; 3 . 1:04 1:26
Magnesia . ‘ : ; 3 me SCSLO 8°58
Soda . . 5 - : S we Ho92 4°73
Potash . ‘ ‘ ‘ 5 x . trace —
Loss on ignition . : c : . 16:80 —
99°54 100°00
662 REPORT—1897,
In the second column the water is neglected and the percentage composition of
the remaining substances indicated. The analysis confirms the view that a great
concentration of iron oxide has taken place, and suggests the further conclusion
that there has been a concentration of magnesia and a reduction of the lime, silica,
and alumina, thus agreeing with the results of the microscopic examination.
Several observers are quoted by the author as having established the fact that
magnetite is not always one of the earliest minerals to form, and in basalts of the
Franz Josef Land type there is clear evidence that a basic magma may consolidate
without any separation of this mineral, although the mother-liquor may contain
30 per cent. of iron oxides.
Brogger, Vogt, and others have observed a tendency in certain dykes for the
molecular groups, of which the first-formed minerals are built to migrate towards
the cooling margins, The cases examined are mostly those of intermediate rocks,
in which the basic minerals are the first to form, so that the margins are more basic
than the central parts But it appears probable that cases occur in which the
opposite is true. If the magma of the Franz Josef Land basalts had cooled slowly
in a fissure, we should expect to find the central portion of the dyke richer in iron
oxide than the margin. Professor Lawson has described two basic dykes from the
Rainy Lake region where this is actually the case, and a more striking illustration
is seen in the Taberg iron-ore mass, described by Sjégren and Térnebohm, where
the marginal portion of an eruptive mass about one square kilometre in area is formed
of olivine-hyperite containing only small quantities of magnetite and olivine,
which passes inward by gradual stages into a magnetite-olivinite without plagioclase.
In conclusion, it is asked whether the metallic iron which occurs as interstitial
matter in some of the Greenland basalts may not have been formed by the reduc-
tion, by included organic matter, of the iron oxides previously concentrated by
progressive crystallisation.
6. Lhe Glaciation of North-Central Canada. By J. B. Tyrrext.
In the region immediately west of Hudson Bay the earliest glaciation, of which
any traces were recognised, flowed outwards from a gathering-ground which lay
north or north-west of Doobaunt Lake. Subsequently this gathering-ground
moved south-eastward, until it centred over the country between Doobaunt and
Yath-kyed Lakes. From one or other of these centres the ice seems, to the writer,
to have flowed westward and south-westward to within ashort distance of the
base of the Rocky Mountains ; southward, for more than 1,600 miles to the States
of Iowa and Illinois ; eastward into the basin of Hudson Bay; and northward into
the Arctic Ocean.
No evidence was discovered of any great elevation of this central area in
Glacial, or immediately pre-Glacial, times, and, in the absence of such evidence, it
would seem not improbable that the land then stood at about the same height
above the sea as it stands at present. In this case the moisture giving rise to
the immense precipitation of snow would have been derived from the adjacent
waters of Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean.
The name Keewatin glacier has been applied to this central continental ice-
sheet. In general character it appears to have been somewhat similar to the great
glacier of North-Western Europe, with a centre lying near the sea-coast, a steep
and short slope seaward, and a very much longer and more gentle slope towards
the interior of the continent. But there was this difference between the two, that
the centre of the latter was over a high rocky country, from which the ice naturally
flowed outwards towards the surrounding lower country; while the centre of
the former was over what is now, and was probably also then, a low-lying plain,
on which the snow accumulated to such depths as to cause it to flow over country
very considerably higher.
After the Keewatin glacier had reached its full extent, it began gradually to
decrease in size. As it disappeared from the Northern States, and the North-West
Territories of Canada, it left a series of moraines, many of which can be readily
traced across the unwooded country, as ridges of rounded stony hills. While
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 663
retiring down gradually descending slopes, many temporary extra-Glacial lakes
were formed in front of it, and were drained one after another as it retired to still
lower country. Before it had withdrawn from the Winnipeg basin, it was joined
by an advancing glacier from the east, and in front of the two, Lake Agassiz, one
of the largest of the extra-Glacial lakes, was formed.
Tn its final stages the general gathering-ground of the Keewatin glacier seems
to have moved still farther eastward, or nearer to the coast of Hudson Bay, and
to have broken into several separate centres, one of which lay over the country
- south-east of Yath-kyed Lake, while another was probably located north of the
head of Chesterfield Inlet.
After the retirement of the Keewatin glacier the land in the vicinity of
Hudson Bay stood from 500 to 600 feet below its present level, and gradually rose
to its present height.
7. The Geological Horizons of some Nova Scotia Minerals.
By E. Guin, Jr., LL.D., FRSC,
The principal geological horizons of Nova Scotia are ‘the typically developed
divisions of the Carboniferous, followed by interrupted representations of the
succeeding divisions down to measures referred by the Geological Survey to the
Laurentian.
The Carboniferous affords copper, coal, iron, manganese, barytes, galena, gypsum,
grindstone and building stone. The Devonian and Silurian are noted for beds of
magnetite and hematite, principally in the Oriskany and Clinton horizons
respectively.
The Cambro-Silurian (Longmynd) in one section contains extensive deposits of
auriferous quartz worked to some extent.
The Laurentian exposed in Cape Breton has as yet received little attention
from a mineralogical point, but is known to contain gold, copper, iron ore, mica,
graphite, marble, &c.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On the Possible Identity of Bennettites, Williamsonia, and Zamites gigas.
By A, C. Sewarp, JLA., £.G.8S., Cambridge.
The author brings forward evidence in support of the organic connection
between Williamsonia and the Cycadean fronds known as Zamites gigas, L. and H.,
and in favour of the close relationship, if not identity, of Carruthers’ genera
Bennettites and Wrlliamsonia. :
In the earliest descriptions of the Jurassic inflorescence known as Williamsonia
Williamson and other authors regarded the genus as the fructification of the plant
which bore the leaves known as Zamites gigas. In 1875 Saporta expressed himself
strongly against the generally accepted view as to the union of Welliamsonia and
Zamites. A recent examination of a series of specimens in the Paris Natural
History Museum and elsewhere has convinced the author that Walliamsonia and
Zamites gigas are parts of the same plant.
Evidence has been previously brought forward of the practical identity of
Williamsonia and Bennettites. More recently acquired information leads to the
conclusion that we are now familiar, not only with the nature of the Bennettitian
type of inflorescence, but also with the character of the fronds which were, in some
instances, associated with this Jurassic fructification.
In view of the facts before us, it is advisable that the genericname Welliamsonia
should be substituted for the provisional and comprehensive term Zamites as the
more suitable generic name of Lindley and Hutton’s species Zamites gigas.
664 REPORT—1897.
2. Glacial Geology of Western New York.'
By Herman LeRoy Farrcuip, B.Sc.
The glacial and glacio-lacustrine phenomena of Western New York are
remarkable for range and variety as well as for their excellent and typical develop-
ment. ‘The relation of the stratigraphy, topography and altitude of the area, with
the effects of static waters and the retreating ice sheet have produced various
interesting features. The retreatal moraines lie in two systems, conforming to
the ice bodies in the Erie and the Ontario basins. Drumlins are displayed in
profusion and of great variety. They are mostly of elongated form, and support
the theory of their origin as constructional forms of the ground moraine. Eskers
are few, but of typical character, while kames are well developed, some of the
kame areas being of great extent and mass.
The pre-Laurentian glacial waters have left an interesting series of well-developed
shorelines. These belong to the stages known as Lake Warren and Lake Iroquois
and the intermediate falling waters. A differential post-glacial uplift of the
region has produced deformation of the shore lines. The remarkable series of
parallel valleys holding the several lakes known collectively as the ‘ Finger’ lakes
produced a lobing of the retreating ice front, a localising of the moraines, and
other significant modifications of the several phenomena.
The paper was especially intended to give the non-American glacialists a brief
general view of the various phenomena of the interesting region. The topics,
briefly treated, are as follows :—Physical features, ice invasion, glacial deposits,
glacio-aqueous deposits, glacial lakes, morainal lakes, channels of glacial drainage,
post-glacial stream erosion.
3. Second Report on Seismological Investigation. See Reports, p. 129.
4, Earth Strains and Structure. By O. H. Howartu.
If we consider the case of any small suspended body subjected to external forces
and maintained in its position and motion by the resultant of those forces as we
can observe them, it is safe to draw at least parallel conclusions in the case of the
earth as to similar effects on an extended scale. It cannot follow that because, in
the case of a planetary body revolving in its orbit, we have to regard those forces
as enormously greater in degree, and their action as extended over enormously
greater periods of time, we must therefore attribute their results to a class of
mechanical principles of which we have no cognisance. And amongst the causes
whose operation we find recorded in the structure of our earth, there seems obvious
reason to assume that the main feature, and by far the most potent, is the constant
variation in the balance of external strains to which such a body is subjected. If,
as has been admitted by several authorities, these forces bear any part at all in the
operations of planet-moulding, surely it follows that it must be immeasurably the
greatest. That they operate often silently and in a manner only observable to us
by indirect means, is a necessary consequence of our limited powers of perception.
Yet it is surprising to note how large a number of visible effects—seismic,
volcanic and structural—seem to be clearly accounted for if we apply on the
greater scale of creation those conceptions of dynamic action which we derive
from the smaller. It is because these vast developments of force are continually
balancing and counteracting each other, and hence create no general cataclysm,
that the continuity of their action may escape our observation. But if we realise
proportionately the tremendous pressures and the no less tremendous relaxa-
tions of pressure under which this ceaseless ‘kneading’ action proceeds, we must
see that the parallel results obtained in a small-scale experiment, however
inexact the imitation may be in detail, offer a comparison by no means so
} Published tx extenso in the Geological Magazine, 1897, Dec. 4, iv. p. 529.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 665
imaginary as may be thought at first sight. Such forces, exerted under like
conditions upon the mass of the earth, ever struggling, as it were, for
supremacy, and meeting with all the varying resistances due to widely differing
qualities of material, are necessarily sources of an enormous generation of heat
wherever a readjustment of that material, even to the slightest extent, ensues.
If we conceive such a movement of compressed matter upon itself at a depth of,
say, two or three miles within the substance of the earth, a development of heat
must occur which, on the release of the strain, will result in the fusion of those
particles around large areas of disturbance.
Amongst the many indications of such actions, instances can be quoted where
the maxima and minima of chronic volcanic eruption are demonstrably concurrent
with those of the tidal strain. In the same manner we can trace to this constant
variation of strains many of the more permanent evidences in geological structure,
such as the formation of fissure veins and the lamination of igneous rocks—a
process wholly distinct from that of sedimentary strata deposited by the action of
fluctuating currents of water. The columnar structure of basaltic rocks caused
by a gradual release from compressive strain acting equally in all directions may
also be illustrated by a small scale experiment.
5. Paleozoic Geography of the Eastern States.
By E. W. Cuaypotz, B.A., D.Sc., London.
An attempt to sketch in outline the general course of the geographical and
hydrographical changes which marked the mid-Palzeozoic eras in the eastern part
of the United States. The subdivision of the Silurian and Devonian eras is carried
as far as attainable data allow, and the extinct geography shown by a series of
lantern-slides.
6. On the Structure and Origin of certain Rocks of the Laurentian System.
By Frank D. Avams, PA.D., F.BS.C., McGill University, Montreal.
The paper presents the results of recent and somewhat extended studies of
several areas of the Laurentian of Canada, and deals more particularly with the
origin of certain members of this system as indicated by their structure or com-
position. While it is impossible in the present state of our knowledge to arrive at
any definite conclusions concerning the origin of many, or perhaps even of the
majority, of the rocks composing the Laurentian, the origin of certain members of
the system can be determined. Some of these, although now possessing a more or
less distinct and even highly pronounced foliation or stratiform appearance, can be
proved to be igneous or intrusive rocks, while it can be shown that others are of
aqueous origin.
To the former class belong the anorthosites and many of the orthoclase
gneisses. These rocks, although frequently distinctly foliated, can in many places
be traced into perfectly massive varieties, and form great intrusions, interrupting
and cutting off the older members of the system. The foliation and stratiform
appearance which led the older geologists to class them as altered sediments is due
to movements induced by pressure, and they show protoclastic or cataclastic
structure in great perfection.
To the aqueous rocks, on the other hand, belong the crystalline limestones and
certain gneisses usually associated with them. These rocks not only differ in
structure from those above referred to, but have a chemical composition not
possessed by any igneous rock. The cataclastic structures are very subordinate,
and the rocks are characterised by a very extensive recrystallisation, accompanied
by the development of new minerals,
It may therefore be said, without going beyond that which the facts warrant,
that there are in the Laurentian at least two distinct sets of foliated rocks. One
of these, comprising the limestones, some quartzites, and certain garnetiferous or
sillimanite gneisses, represents, in all probability, highly altered and extremely
666 | REPORT—1897.
andient sediments. The other set, intimately associated with these, is of igneous
origin, and comprises numerous and very extensive intrusions, both acid and basic
in character, which were probably injected at widely separated times. Those
masses which were first intruded, and have been subjected to all the subsequent
squeezing and metamorphism, are now represented by well-defined and apparently
interstratified augen-gneisses and granulites; others, intruded at later periods,
though showing the effects of pressure, retain more or less of their massive _
character ; while still others, which have been injected since all movements ceased,
are recognised by all as undoubted igneous intrusions,
7. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest. See Reports, p, 298,
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1. Joint discussion with Section H. on ‘The First Traces of Man in
America.’
2. Exhibition of the Ferrier Collection of Minerals
in the Biological Museum.
3. Exhibition of the Collection of Canadian Fossils in the
Museum of the School of Practical Science.
4. Exhibition of a Collection of Devonian Fossils from Western Ontario
in the Section Room. By Dr. 8. Wootverton, London, Ontario,
5. Exhibition of a Collection of British Geological Photographs
in the Section Room.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 667
Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor L. C, Miatt, F.R.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The President delivered the following Address :—
Ir has long been my conviction that we study animals too much as dead things.
We name them, arrange them according to our notions of their likeness or
unlikeness, and record their distribution. Then perhaps we are satisfied, forgetting
that we could do as much with minerals or remarkable boulders. Of late years
we have attempted something more; we now teach every student of Zvology to
dissect animals and to attend to their development, This is, I believe, a solid and
lasting improvement; we owe it largely to Huxley, though it is but a revival of
the method of Déllinger, who may be judged by the eminence of his pupils and
by the direct testimony of Baer to have been one of the very greatest of biological
teachers. But the animals set before the young zoologist are all dead; it is much
if they are not pickled as well. When he studies their development, he works
chiefly or altogether upon continuous sections, embryos mounted in balsam, and
wax models. He is rarely encouraged to observe live tadpoles or third-day chicks
with beating hearts. As for what Gilbert White calls the life and conversation of
animals, how they defend themselves, feed, and make love, this is commonly passed
over as a matter of curious but not very important information; it is not reputed
scientific, or at least not eminently scientitic.
Why do we study animals at all? Some of us merely want to gain practical
skill before attempting to master the structure of the human body; others hope to
qualify themselves to answer the questions of geologists and farmers; a very few
wish to satisfy their natural curiosity about the creatures which they find in the
wood, the field, or the sea, But surely our chief reason for studying animals ought
to be that we would know more of life, of the modes of growth of individuals and
races, of the causes of decay and extinction, of the adaptation of living organisms to
their surroundings. Some of us even aspire to know in outline the course of life
upon the earth, and to learn, or, failing that, to conjecture, how life originated.
Our own life is the thing of all others which interests us most deeply, but every-
thing interests us which throws even a faint and reflected light upon human life.
Perhaps the professor of Zoology is prudent in keeping so close as he does to the
facts of structure, and in shunning the very attempt to interpret, but while he wins
safety he loses his hold upon our attention. Morphology is very well; it may be
exact; it may prevent or expose serious errors. But Morphology is not an end in
itself. Like the systems of Zoology, or the records of distribution, it draws
whatever interest it possesses from that life which creates organs and adaptations.
To know more of life is an aim as nearly ultimate and self-explanatory as any
purpose that man can entertain.
an the study of life be made truly scientific? Is it not too vast, too inacces-
sible to human faculties? If we venture into this alluring field of inquiry, shall
668 REPORT—1897.
we gain results of permanent value, or shall we bring back nothing better than
unverified speculations and curious but unrelated facts P
The scientific career of Charles Darwin is, I think, a sufficient answer to such
doubts. I do not lay it down as an article of the scientific faith that Darwin’s
theories are to be taken as true; we shall refute any or all of them as soon as we
know how; but it is a great thing that he raised so many questions which were well
worth raising. He set all scientific minds fermenting, and not only Zoology and
Botany, but Paleontology, History, and even Philology bear some mark of his
activity. Whether his main conclusions are in the end received, modified, or
rejected, the effect of his work cannot be undone. Darwin was a bit of a sports-
man and a good deal of a geologist; he was a fair anatomist and a working
systematist; he keenly appreciated the value of exact knowledge of distribution.
i hardly know of any aspect of natural history, except synonymy, of which he
spoke with contempt. But he chiefly studied animals and plants as living beings.
They were to him not so much objects to be stuck through with pins, or pickled,
or dried, or labelled, as things to be watched in action. He studied their diffi-
culties, and recorded their little triumphs of adaptation with an admiring smile.
‘We owe as many discoveries to his sympathy with living nature as to his exact-
ness or his candour, though these too were illustrious. It is not good to idolise
even our greatest men, but we should try to profit by theirexample. I think that
a young student, anxious to be useful but doubtful of his powers, may feel sure
that he is not wasting his time if he is collecting or verifying facts which would
have helped Darwin. ,
Zoologists may justify their favourite studies on the ground that to knew the
structure and activities of a variety of animals enlarges our sense of the possi-
bilities of life. Surely it must be good for the student of Human Physiology, to
take one specialist as an example of the rest, that he should know of many ways in
which the same functions can be discharged Let him learn that there are animals
(star-fishes) whose nervous system lies on the outside of the body, and that in
other animals it is generally to be found there during some stage of development ;
that there are animals whose circulation reverses its direction at frequent intervals
either throughout life (Tunicata) or at a particular crisis (insects at the time of
pupation); that there are animals with eyes on the back (Oncidium, Se et
on the shell (some Chitonide), on limbs or limb-like appendages, in the brain-
cavity, or on the edge of a protective fold of skin; that there are not only eyes of
many kinds with lenses, but eyes on the principle of the pin-hole camera without
lens at all (Nautilus) and of every lower.grade down to mere pigment-spots; that
auditory organs may be borne upon the legs (insects) or the tail (Mysis); that
they may be deeply sunk in the body, and yet have no inlet for the vibrations of
the sonorous medium (many aquatic animals). It is well that he should know of
animals with two tails (Cercaria of Gasterostomum) or with two bodies per-
manently united (Diplozoon) ; of animals developed within a larva which lives for
a considerable time after the adult has detached itself (some star-fishes and
Nemertines) ; of animals which lay two (Daphnia) or three kinds of eggs (Rotifera) ;
of eggs which regularly produce two (Lumbricus trapezoides) or even eight
embryos apiece (Praopus'); of males which live parasitically upon the female
(Cirripedes), or even undergo their transformations, as many as eighteen at a time
in her gullet (Bonellia) ; of male animals which are mere bags of sperm-cells (some
Rotifera, some Ixodes, parasitic Copepods) and of female animals which are mere
bags of eggs (Sacculina, Entoconcha). The more the naturalist knows of such
strange deviations from the familiar course of things, the better will he be prepared
to reason about what he sees, and the safer will he be against the perversions of
hasty conjecture,
If a wide knowledge of animals is a gain to Physiology and every other
branch of Biology, what opportunities are lost by our ignorance of the early stages
of so many animals! They are often as unlike to the adult in structure and
? Hermann von Jhering, Sitz. Berl. Akad., 1885; Biol. Centralbdl., Bd. Evi,
pp. 532-539 (L886).
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 669
function as if they belonged to different, genera, or even to different families.
Zoologists have made the wildest mistakes in classifying larvee whose subsequent
history was at the time unknown. The naturalist who devotes himself to life-
histories shares the advantage of the naturalist who explores a new continent. A
wealth of new forms is opened out before him. Though Swammerdam, Réaumur,
De Geer, Vaughan Thompson, Johannes Miiller and a crowd of less famous
naturalists have gone before us, so much remains to be done that no zealous
inquirer can fail to discover plenty of untouched subjects in any wood, thicket,
brook or sea.
Whoever may attempt this kind of work will find many difficulties and many
aids. He will of course find abundant exercise for all the anatomy and physiology
that he can command. He will need the systems of descriptive Zoology, and will
often be glad of the help of professed systematists. The work cannot be well
done until it is exactly known what animal is being studied. For want of this
knowledge, hardly attainable 150 years ago, Réaumur sometimes tells us curious
things which we can neither verify nor ‘correct; at times we really do not know
what animal he had before him. The student of life-histories will find a use for
physics and chemistry, if he is so lucky as to remember any. Skill in drawing is
valuable, perhaps indispensable.
If by chance I should be addressing any young naturalist who thinks of attend-
ing to life-histories, I would beg him to study his animals alive and under natural
conditions. To pop everything into alcohol and make out the names at home is
the method of the collector, but life-histories are not studied in this way. It is
often indispensable to isolate an animal, and for this purpose a very small habita-
tion is sometimes to be preferred. The tea-cup aquarium, for instance, is often better
than the tank. But we must also watch an animal’s behaviour under altogether
natural circumstances, and this is one among many reasons for choosing our subject
from the animals which are locally common. Let us be slow to enter into con-
troversies. After they have been hotly pursued for some time, it generally turns
out that the disputants have been using words in different senses. Discussion is
excellent, controversy usually barren. Yet not always; the Darwinian controversy
was heated, and nevertheless eminently productive; all turns upon the temper of
the men concerned, and the solidity of the question at issue. One more hint to
young students. Perhaps no one ever carried through a serious bit of work without
in some stage or other longing to drop it. There comes a time when the first
impulse is spent, and difficulties appear which escaped notice at first. Then most
men lose hope. That is the time to show that we are a little better than most
men. I remember as a young man drawing much comfort from the advice of a
colleague, now an eminent chemist, to whom I had explained my difficulties and
fears. All that he said was: ‘Keep at it,’ and I found that nothing more was
wanted.
I greatly believe in the value of association. It is good that two men should
look at every doubtful structure and criticise every interpretation. It is often
good that two talents should enter into partnership, such as a talent for description
and a talent for drawing. It is often good that an experienced investigator should
choose the subject and direct the course of work, and that he should be helped by
a junior, who can work, but cannot guide. It seems to me that friendly criticism
before publication is often a means of preventing avoidable mistakes. I am sorry
that there should be any kind of prejudice against co-operation, or that it should
be taken to be a sign of weakness. There are, I believe, very few men who are
so strong as not to be the better for help. One difficulty would be removed if
known authors were more generous in acknowledging the help of their assistants.
They ought not to be slow to admit a real helper to such honour as there may be
in joint-authorship.
Among the most important helps to the student of life-histories must be
mentioned the zoological stations now maintained by most of the great nations.
The parent of all these, the great zoological station at Naples, celebrated its
twenty-fifth anniversary last April, so that the whole movement belongs to our
own generation. How would Spallanzani and Vaughan Thompson and Johannes
670 REPORT—1897.
Miiller have rejoiced to see such facilities for the close investigation of the animal
life of the sea! The English-speaking nations have taken their fair share of the
splendid work done at Naples, and it is pleasant to remember that Darwin sub-
scribed to the first fund, while the British Association, the University of Cambridge
and the Smithsonian Institution have maintained their own tables at the station.!
The material support thus given is small when compared with the subsidies of the
German Government, and not worth mention beside the heroic sacrifices of the
Director, Dr. Anton Dohrn, but as proofs of lively interest in a purely scientific
enterprise they have their value. Marine stations have now multiplied to such a
point that a bare enumeration of them would be tedious. Fresh-water biological
stations are also growing in number. Forel set an excellent example by his in-
vestigation of the physical and biological phenomena of the Lake of Geneva. Dr,
Anton Fritsch of Prag followed with his movable station. There is a well-
equipped station at Plon among the lakes of Holstein, and a small one on the
Miiggelsee near Berlin. The active station of Illinois is known to me only by the
excellent publications which it has begun to issue. France, Switzerland, Sweden
and Finland all have their fresh-water biological stations, and I hope that England
will not long remain indifferent to so promising a sphere of investigation.
Biological work may answer many useful purposes. It may be helpful to in-
dustry and public health. Of late years the entomologist has risen into sudden
importance by the vigorous steps taken to discourage injurious insects. I have
even known a zoological expert summoned before a court of law in order to say
whether or not a sword-fish can sink a ship. I would not on any account run
down the practical applications of Biology, but I believe that the first duty of the
biologist is to make science, and that science is made by putting and answering
questions. We are too easily drawn off from this, which is our main business, by
self-imposed. occupations, of which we can often say nothing better than that they
do no harm except to the man who undertakes them. There are, for example, a
good many lists of species which are compiled without any clear scientific object.
We have a better prospect of working to good purpose when we try to answer
definite questions. I propose to spend what time remains in putting and answering
as well as I can a few of the questions which occur to any naturalist who occupies
himself with life-histories. Even a partial answer—even a mistaken answer is
better than the blank indifference of the collector, who records and records, but
never thinks about his facts: F
The first question that I will put is this:—Why do some animals undergo
transformation while others do not? It has long been noticed? that as a rule
fresh-water and terrestrial animals do not go through transformation, while their
marine allies do. Let us take half-a-dozen examples of each :—
Flwiatile or terrestrial. Marine.
Without transformation. With transformation.
Crayfish. Crab.
Earthworm. Polygordius.
Helix. Doris, Aolis.
Cyclas. Oyster.
Hydra. Most Hydrozoa.
&e. &e.
We get a glimmer of light upon this characteristic difference when we remark
that in fresh-water and terrestrial species the eges are often larger than in the
allied marine forms. A large egg favours embryonic as opposed to larval develop-
ment. An embryo which is formed within a large egg may feed long upon the
food laid up for it, and continue its development to a late stage before hatching.
But if there is little or no yolk in the egg, the embryo will turn out early to shift
for itself. It will be born as a larva, provided with provisional organs suited to
its small size and weakness. Large eggs are naturally fewer than small ones.
1 To this list may now be added the University of Oxford.
2 Darwin, Origin of Species, chap. xiii.; Fritz Miller, Wir Darwin, chap. vii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 671
Does the size depend on the number, or the number on the size? To answer in
a word, I believe that the size generally depends on the number, and that the
number is mainly determined by the risks to which the species are exposed. At
least so many eggs will in general be produced as can maintain the numbers of
the species in spite of losses, and there is some reason to believe that in fresh waters
the risks are less than in the shallow seas or at the surface of the ocean. In most
parts of the world the fresh waters are of small size,and much cut up. Ever
river-basin forms a separate territory. Isolation, like every other kind of artificial
restriction, discourages competition, and impedes the spread of successful competi-
tors. In the shallow seas or at the surface of the ocean conquering forms have a
free course; in lakes and rivers they are soon checked by physical barriers.
A large proportion of animals are armour-clad, and move about with some
difficulty when they have attained their full size. The dispersal of the species is
therefore in these cases effected by small and active larvae. Marine animals (whether
littoral or pelagic) commonly produce vast numbers of locomotive larve, which
easily travel to a distance. Floating is easy, and swimming not very difficult. A
very slightly built and immature larva can move about by cilia, or take advantage
of currents, and a numerous brood may be dispersed far and wide while they are
mere hollow sacs, without mouth, nerves or sense-organs. Afterwards they will
settle down, and begin to feed. In fresh waters armour is as common, for all that
I know, as in the sea, but locomotive larve are rare.2_ There is no space for effec-
tive migration. Even a heavy-armoured and slow-moving crustacean or pond-
snail can cross a river or lake, and to save days or hours is unimportant. Inrivers,
as Sollas has pointed out, free-swimming larvee would be subject to a special risk,
that of being swept out to sea. This circumstance may have been influential, but
the diminished motive for migration is probably more important. At least an
occasional transport to a new area is indispensable to most freshwater organisms,
and very unexpected modes of dispersal are sometimes employed, not regularly in
each generation, but at long intervals, as opportunity offers,
Early migration by land is nearly always out of the question. Walking, and
still more flying, are difficult exercises, which call for muscles of complex arrange-
ment and a hard skeleton. A very small animal, turned out to shift for itself on
land, would in most cases perish without a struggle. There might be just a
chance for it, if it could resist superficial drying, and were small enough to be
blown about by the wind (Infusoria, Rotifera, and certain minute Crustacea), or
if it were born in a wet pasture, like some parasitic worms.
We can define two policies between which a species can make its choice. It
may produce a vast number of eggs, which will then be pretty sure to be small
and ill-furnished with yolk. The young will hatch out early, long before their
development is complete, and must migrate at once in search of food. They will,
especially if the adult is slow-moving or sedentary, be furnished with simple and
temporary organs of locomotion, and will generally be utterly unlike the parent.
ie majority will perish early, but one here and there will survive to carry on
the race.
Or the parent may produce a few eggs at a time, stock them well with yolk,
1 Indications are given by the survival in fresh waters of declining groups, ¢.7.,
Ganoid Fishes, which, when dominant, maintained themselves in the sea; and by the
not uncommon case of marine animals which enter rivers to spawn. I do not at-
tempt to count among these indications the supposed geological antiquity of fluvia-
tile as compared with marine animals. Some marine genera are extremely ancient
(Lingula, Nucula, Trigonia, Nautilus); a perfectly fair comparison is almost impos-
sible; and great persistence does not necessarily imply freedom from risks. In the
Mollusca, which afford a good opportunity of testing the effect of habitat upon the
number of the eggs, marine species seem to produce more eggs as a rule than fluvia-
tile, and these many more than terrestrial species.
2 Dreyssensia and Cordylophora are examples of animals which seem to have
quite recently become adapted to fresh-water life, and have not yet lost their loco-
motive larva. Many instances could be quoted of marine forms which have become
fluviatile. The converse is, I believe, comparatively rare.
672 REPORT—1897.
and perhaps watch over them, or even hatch them within her own body. The
young will in such cases complete their development as embryos, and when
hatched, will resemble the parent in everything but size.
Which policy is adopted will largely depend upon the number of the family
and the capital at command. There are animals which are like well-to-do people,
who provide their children with food, clothes, schooling, and pocket-money.
Their fortunate offspring grow at ease, and are not driven to premature exercise of
their limbs or wits. Others are like starving families, which send the children,
long before their growth is completed, to hawk matches or newspapers in the
streets.
In Biology we have no sooner laid down a principle than we begin to think of
exceptions. The exceptions may be apparent only; they may, when fully under-
stood, confirm instead of disturbing the general principle. But this rarely
happens unless the principle is a sound one. aceptio probat regulam; it is the
exception which tests the rule, to give a new application to an old maxim.
Parasites form one group of exceptions to our rule. Whether they pass their
free stages in air, water or earth, whether their hosts are marine, fluviatile or
terrestrial, they are subject to strange transformations, which may be repeated
several times in the same life-history. The change from one host to another is
often a crisis of difficulty; many fail to accomplish it ; those which succeed do so
by means of some highly peculiar organ or instinct, which may be dropped as
quickly as it is assumed, The chances of failure often preponderate to such an
extent that an enormous number of eggs must be liberated. Even a brief para-
sitism may produce a visible effect upon the life-history. The young Unio or
Anodon attaches itself for a short time to some fish or tadpole. To this temporary
parasitism is due, as I suppose, the great number of eggs produced, and a degree of
metamorphosis, unusual in a fresh-water mollusk.
The Cephalopoda, which are wholly marine, and the Vertebrates, whatever
their habitat, very rarely exhibit anything which can be called transformation.
Scme few cases of Vertebrate transformation will be discussed later. Cephalopods
and Vertebrates are large, strong, quick-witted animals, able to move fast, and
quite equal in many cases to the defence of themselves and their families. They
often produce few young at a time, and take care of them (there are many
examples to the contrary among Cephalopods and Fishes). They are generally
able to dispense with armour, which would have indirectly favoured trans-
formation.
Echinoderms, which are all marine, develop with metamorphosis. There is
an interesting exception in the Echinoderms with marsupial development, which
develop directly, and give an excellent illustration of the effect of parental care.
Insects, which as terrestrial animals should lay a few large eggs, and develop
directly, furnish the most familiar and striking of all transformations, I have
already discussed this case at greater length than is possible just now.’ I have
pointed out that the less specialised insect-larvee, e.g. those of Orthoptera, make a
close approach to some wingless adult insects, such as the Thysanura, as well as
to certain Myriopods. Fritz Miiller seems to me to be right in saying that the
larvee of non-metamorphic insects come nearer than any winged insect to primi-
tive Tracheates. The transformation of the Bee, Moth, or Blow-fly is transacted
after the stage in which the normal Tracheate structure is attained, and I look
upon it as a peculiar adult transformation, having little in common with the
transformations of Echinoderms, Mollusks, or Crustaceans.
In the same way I believe that some Amphibia have acquired an adult trans-
formation. Frogs and toads, having already as tadpoles attained the full develop-
ment of the more primitive Amphibia, change to lung-breathing, tailless,
land-traversing animals, able to wander from the place of their birth, to seek
out mates from other families, and to lay eggs in new sites.
Medusz furnish a third example of adult transformation, which seems to find
its explanation in the sedentary habit of the polyp, which probably nearly
approaches the primitive adult stage. But here the case is further complicated,
! Nature, Dec. 19, 1895.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 673
for the polyp still proceeds from a planula, which is eminently adapted for loco-
motion, though perhaps within a narrower range. We have two migratory stages
in the life-history. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, The planula,
from its small size, is less liable to be devoured, or stranded, or dashed to pieces,
but it cannot travel far ; the medusa may cross wide seas, but it is easily captured
and is often cast up upon a beach in countless multitudes.
Adult transformation may be recognised by its occurrence after the normal
structure of the group has been acquired, and also by its special motive, which is
egg-laying and all that pertains to it ; the special motive of larval transformation
is dispersal for food.
The reproduction of the common Eel has been a mystery ever since the days of
Aristotle, though a small part of the story was made out even in ancient times.
It was long ago ascertained that the Eel, which seeks its food in rivers, descends
to the sea in autumn or early winter, and that it never spawns, nor even becomes
mature in fresh waters. The Eels which descend to the sea never return, but
young eels or Elvers come up from the sea in spring, millions at a time. The
Elvers have been seen to travel along the bank of a river in a continuous band or
eel-rope, which has been known to glide upwards for fifteen days together. It
was of course concluded that spawning and early development took place in the
sea during the interval between the autumn and spring migration, but no certain
information came to hand till 1896. Meanwhile this gap in our knowledge was a
perplexity, almost a reproach to zoologists. The partially-known migration of the
Eel could not be harmonised with the ordinary rule of migratory fishes. We tried
to explain the passage of marine fishes into rivers at spawning time by the supposi-
tion (a true supposition, as I think) that the river is less crowded than the
shallow seas, and therefore a region in which competition is less severe. The river
is to some migratory fishes what the tundras of Siberiaare to some migratory birds,
places comparatively free from dangerous enemies, and therefore fit for the rearing cf
the helpless young. But the Eel broke the rule, and cast doubt upon the explanation.
The Salmon, Sturgeon and Lamprey feed and grow in the sea, and enter rivers to
spawn. The Eel feeds and grows in rivers, but enters the sea to spawn. What
possible explanation could meet cases thus diametrically opposite ?
This was the state of matters when Grassi undertook to tell us that part of the
history of the Eel which is transacted in the sea. When it leaves the river, it
makes its way to very deep water, and there undergoes a change. The eyes.
enlarge, and become circular instead of elliptical ; the pectoral fins and the border
of the gill-cover turn black; the reproductive organs, only to be discovered by
microscopic search before this time, enlarge. The Hels, thus altered in appearance
and structure, lay their eggs in water of not less than 250 fathoms’ depth. The
upper limit of the spawning-ground is nearly three times as far from sea-level as
the 100-fathom line which we arbitrarily quote as the point at which the deep sea
begins. The eggs, which are large for a fish (2°7 mm. diam.), float but do not
rise. The young which issue from them are quite unlike the Hels of our rivers;
they are tape-like, transparent, colourless, devoid of red blood and armed with
peculiar teeth. A number of different kinds of such fishes had been previously
known to the naturalist as Leptocephali. Giinther had conjectured that they were-
abnormal larve, incapable of further development. Grassi has, however, suc-
ceeded in proving that one of these Leptocephali (L. brevirostris) is simply a
larval Eel; others are larvee of Congers and various Murenoid fishes. He has
with infinite pains compared a number of Leptocephali, and co-ordinated their
stages, making out some particularly important ones. by the direct observation of
live specimens.
You will not unnaturally ask how Grassi or anybody else can tell what goes
on in the sea at a depth of over 250 fathoms. His inquiries were carried on at
Messina, where the local circumstances are very fortunate. Strong currents now
and then boil up in the narrow strait, sweeping to the surface eggs, larva, and a
multitude of other objects which at ordinary seasons lie undisturbed in the tran-
quil depths. Further information has been got by dredging, and also by opening
the body of a sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mola), which at certain times of the year is
1897. =x.=
674 REPORT—1897.
taken at the surface, and is always found to contain a number of Leptocephali.
When a Leptocephalus has completed its first stage of growth, it ceases to feed,
loses bulk, and develops pigment on the surface of the body. At the same time
the larval teeth are cast, and the larval skeleton is replaced. Then the fish begins
to feed again, comes to the surface, enters the mouth of a river, and, if caught, is
immediately recognised as an Elver or young Eel. It is now a year old, and about
two inches long.
This history suggests a question. Are the depths of the sea free from severe
competition? The darkness, which must be nearly or altogether complete,
excludes more than the bare possibility of vegetation. A scanty subsistence for
animals is provided by the slowly decomposing remains of surface-life. When the
dredge is sunk so low, which does not often happen, it may bring up now and
then a peculiar and specially modified inhabitant of the dark and silent abyss.
There cannot, we should think, be more than the feeblest competition where living
things are so few, and the mode of life so restricted. Going a step further, we
might predict that deep-sea animals would lay few eggs at a time, and that these
would develop directly—i.e. without transformation. The risk of general reason-
ing about the affairs of living things is so great that we shall hold our conjectures
cheap unless they are confirmed by positive evidence. Happily this can be sup-
plied. The voyage of the ‘Challenger’ has yielded proof that the number of
species diminishes with increasing depth, and that below 300 fathoms living things
are few indeed! Dr, John Murray gives us the result of careful elaboration of all
the facts now accessible, and tells us that the majority of the abyssal species
develop directly.*
We seem therefore to have some ground for believing that the depths of the
‘ gea resemble the fresh waters in being comparatively free from enemies dangerous
to larvee. The Eel finds a safe nursery in the depths, and visits them for the same
reason that leads some other fishes to enter rivers. It may be that the depths of
the sea are safer than rivers, in something like the same degree and for the same
reasons that rivers are safer than shallow seas. But we must be careful not to go
too fast. It may turn out that deep recesses in the shallower seas—holes of
limited extent in the sea-bottom—enjoy an immunity from dangerous enemies not
shared by the great and continuous ocean-floor.*
After this short review of the facts I come to the conclusion that the general
rule which connects the presence or absence of transformation with habitat is well-
founded, but that it is apt to be modified and even reversed by highly special
circumstances. The effect of habitat may for instance be overruled by parasitism,
parental care, a high degree of organisation, or even by a particular trick in egg-
laying. The direct action of the medium is probably of little consequence. Thus
the difference between fresh and salt water is chiefly important because it prevents
most species from passing suddenly from one to the other. But the abyssal and
the fluviatile faunas have much in common, as also have the littoral and the
pelagic faunas. Relative density and continuity of population seem to be of vital
importance, and it is chiefly these that act upon the life-history.
In Zoology, as in History, Biography, and many other studies, the most inter-
esting part of the work is only to be enjoyed by those who look into the details.
To learn merely from text-books is notoriously dull. The text-book has its uses,
but, like other digests and abridgments, it can never inspire enthusiasm. It is
the same with most lectures. Suppose that the subject is that well-worn topic,
the Alternation of Generations. The name recalls to many of us some class-room
of our youth, the crudely coloured pictures of unlikely animals which hung on
the walls, and the dispirited class, trying to write down from the lecture the irre-
ducible minimum which passes a candidate. The lecturer defines his terms and
1 Challenger Reports. Summary of Scientific Results (1895), pp. 1430-6.
2 Nature, March 25, 1897.
* I am aware that other things affect the interests of animals, and indirectly
determine their structure, besides danger from living enemies. So complicated a
subject can only be discussed in a short space if large omissions are tolerated.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 675
quotes his examples; we have Salpa, and Aurelia, and the Fern, and as many
more as time allows. How can he expect to interest anybody in a featureless
narrative, which gives no fact with its natural circumstances, but mashes the
whole into pemmican? What student goes away with the thought that it would be
good and pleasant to add to the heap of known facts? The heap seems needlessly
big already. And yet every item in that dull mass was once deeply interesting,
moying all naturalists and many who were not naturalists to wonder and delight.
The Alternation of Generations worked upon men’s minds in its day like Swam-
merdam’s discovery of the butterfly within the caterpillar, or Trembley’s discovery
of the budding Hydra, which when cut in two made two new animals, or Bonnet’s
discovery that an Aphis could bring forth living young without having ever met
another individual of its own species. All these wonders of nature have now
been condensed into glue. But we can at any time rouse in the minds of our
students some little of the old interest, if we will only. tell the tale as it was told
for the first time.
Adalbert Chamisso, who was in his time court-page, soldier, painter, traveller,
poet, novelist, and botanist, was the son of a French nobleman. When he was
nine years old, he and all the rest of the family were driven out of France by the
French Revolution. Chamisso was educated anyhow, and tried many occupations
before he settled down to Botany and light literature. In 1815 he embarked with
Eschscholtz on the Russian voyage round the world commanded by Kotzebue.
The two naturalists (for Chamisso is careful to associate Eschscholtz with himself,
and even to give him priority) discovered a highly curious fact concerning the
Salpse, gelatinous Tunicates which swim at the surface of the sea, sometimes in
countless numbers. There are two forms in the same species, which differ in
anatomical structure, but especially in this, that one is solitary, the other compo-’
site, consisting of many animals united into a chain which may be yards long.
Chamisso and Eschscholtz ascertained that the solitary form produces the chain-
form by internal budding, while the chain-form is made up of hermaphrodite animals
which reproduce by fertilised eggs.1_ There is thus, to use Chamisso’s own words,
‘an alternation of generations. ... It is as if a caterpillar brought forth a
butterfly, and then the butterfly a caterpillar.’ Here the phrase bring forth is
applied to two very different processes, viz. sexual reproduction and budding.
Chamisso’s phrase, ‘ alternation of generations,’ is not exact. Huxley would sub-
stitute alternation of generation with gemmation, and if for shortness we use the
old term, it must be with this new meaning. Subsequent investigation, besides
adding many anatomical details, has confirmed one interesting particular in
Chamisso’s account, viz. that the embryo of Salpa is nourished by a vascular
placenta.? The same voyage yielded also the discovery of Appendicularia, a
permanent Tunicate tadpole, and the first tadpole found in any Tunicate.
Some ten years after the publication of Chamisso’s alternation of generations
in Salpa, a second example was found in a common jelly-fish (Aurelia). Not
a few Hydrozoa had by this time been named, and shortly characterised.
Some were polyps, resembling the Hydra of our ponds, but usually united into
permanent colonies ; others were meduse, bell-shaped animals which swim free in
the upper waters of the sea. It was already suspected that both polyps and
medusz had a common structural plan, and more than one naturalist had come
very near to knowing that medusze may be the sexual individuals of polyp-
colonies,
This was the state of matters when an undergratuate in Theology of the
University of Christiania, named Michael Sars, discovered and described two new
polyps, to which he gave the names, now familiar to every zoologist, of Scyphis-
toma and Strobila, In the following year (1830) Sars settled at Kinn, near
1 Brooks maintains that the solitary Salpa, which is female, produces a chain of
males by budding, and lays an egg in each. These eggs are fertilised while the
chain is still immature, and develop into females (solitary Salpw). The truth of
this account must be determined by specialists.
? Cuvier had previously noted the fact.
x x2
676 REPORT—1897.
Bergen, as parish priest, and betook himself to the lifelong study of the animals of
the Norwegian seas. He soon found out that his Scyphistoma was merely an
earlier stage of his Strobila. Scyphistoma has a Hydra-like body, less than half
an inch long, and drawn out into a great number of immensely long tentacles.
It buds laterally like a Hydra, sending out stolons or runners, which bear new
polyps, and separate before long, the polyps becoming independent animals. In
the midst of the tentacles of the scyphistoma is a prominence which bears the
mouth. This grows upwards into a tall column, the strobila, which is supported
below by the scyphistoma. When the strobila is well nourished it divides into
transverse slices, which at length detach themselves, and swim away.! These are
the Ephyre, which had been found in the sea before Sars’ time, and were then
counted as a particular kind of adult meduse. They are small, flat discs with
eight lobes or arms, all notched at the extremity. A pile of ephyre is produced
by the transverse constriction and division of the strobila in a fashion which
reminds us of the rapid production of the animals in a Noah’s ark by the slicing
of a piece of wood of suitable sectional figure. It was thus ascertained that the
scyphistoma, strobila, and ephyra are successive stages of one animal, but for a
time no one could say where the scyphistoma came from, nor what the ephyra
turned to. At length Sars, aided by the anatomical researches of Ehrenberg and
Siebold, was able to clear up the whole story. The ephyra is gradually converted
by increase of size and change of form into an Aurelia, a common jelly-fish which
swarms during the summer in European seas, The Aurelia is of two sexes, and
the eggs of the female give rise to ciliated embryos, which had been seen before
Sars’ time, but wrongly interpreted as parasites or diminutive males. These
ciliated embryos, called planule, swim about for a time, and then settle down as
polyps (scyphistomata). There is thus a stage in which Aurelia divides without
any true reproductive process, and another stage in which it produces fertile eggs.
There is alternation of generations in Aurelia as well as in Salpa, and Sars was
glad to fortify by a fresh example the observations of Chamisso, on which doubts
had been cast.
It was not long before the alternation of generations was recognised in Hydro~
meduse also, and then the ordinary Hydrozoan colony was seen to consist of at
least two kinds of polyps, one sexual, the other merely nutrient, both being formed
by the budding of a single polyp. Thesexual polyp, or medusa, either swims away
or remains attached to the colony, producing at length fertilised eggs, which yield
planule, and these in turn the polyps which found new colonies.
Those of us who are called upon to tell this story in our regular course of
teaching should not forget to produce our scyphistoma, strobila and ephyra; the
interest is greatly enhanced if they are shown alive. It is not hard to maintain a
flourishing marine aquarium even in an inland town, and a scyphistoma may be
kept alive in an aquarium for years, budding out its strobila every spring.
Alternation of generations, when first announced, was taken to be a thing
mysterious and unique. Chamisso brought in the name, and explained that he
meant by it a metamorphosis accomplished by successive generations, the form of
the animal changing not in the course of an individual life, hut from generation to
generation (forma per generationes, nequaquam in proie seu individuo, mutata).
‘Sars adopted Chamisso’s name and definition. Steenstrup a little later collected
and discussed all the examples which he could discover, throwing in a number
which have had to be removed again, as not fairly comparable with the life-
histories of Salpa and Aurelia. He emphasised the alternation of budding with
egg-production, and the unlikeness in form of the asexual and sexual stages. Like
Chamisso, he carefully distinguished between development with metamorphosis
1 Leuckart (Zits. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. III. p. 181) remarks that elongate animals
tend to divide transversely or to bud axially, while broad animals tend to divide
longitudinally or to bud laterally. The question has been raised more than once
whether the division of the strobila is not really a case of budding. Leuckart shows
that budding and fission cannot be separated by any definition; they pass insensibly
into one another. (Wugner's Handb. d. Physiol., art. ‘ Zeugung.’)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 677
and alternation of generations. All three naturalists, Chamisso, Sars and Steen-
strup, laid stress on this point. In an insect, they would have said, there is de-
velopment with metamorphosis. The same animal passes from larva to pupa, and
from pupa to imago. In Aurelia or Salpa, however, the animal which lays eggs
is not the animal which buds, but its progeny. The cycle of the life-history
includes two generations and many individuals.
This view has spread very widely, and if we were to judge by what is com-
monly taught, I think that we should recognise this as the doctrine now prevalent.
It is however, in my opinion, far inferior as an explanation of the facts to that
adopted by Leuckart, Carpenter and Huxley, who regard the whole cycle, from
ege to egg, as one life-history. Huxley and Carpenter, differing in this from
Leuckart, do not shrink -from calling the whole product of the egg an animal,
even though it consists of a multitude of creatures which move about and seek
their food in complete independence of one another. Rather than ignore the unity
of the life-history of Aurelia or Salpa, they would adopt the most paradoxical
language. This attitude was forced upon them by the comparative method. They
refused to study Aurelia, for example, as an animal apart; it had its near and its
remoter relatives. Among these is the fresh-water Hydra, which develops with-
out transformation, buds off other Hydras when food is plentiful, and at length
becomes sexually mature. Budding is here a mere episode, which may be brought
in or left out, according to circumstances. The same individual polyp which buds
afterwards produces eggs. The life-history of Salpa cannot be traced with equal
facility to a simple beginning, for it presents points of difficulty, on which the
learned differ. In the Polychet Worms, however, we find a beautiful gradation
leading up to alternation of generations. We begin with gradual addition of new
segments and increasing specialisation of the two ends of the body, the fore end
becoming non-reproductive, and the hinder end reproductive. Then we reach a
stage (Syllis) in which the reproductive half breaks off from the fore part, and
forms (after separation) a new head, while the fore part adds new segments behind.
In Autolytus the new head forms before separation, and many worms may cohere
for a time, forming a long chain with heads at intervals. In Myrianida the worms
break up first, and afterwards become sexually mature. We should gather from
these cases that alternation of generations may arise by the introduction of a
budding-stage into a development with transformation. The polyp or worm buds
while young and lays eggs at a later time. The separation of the two processes of
reproduction often becomes complete, each being restricted to its own place in the
life-history. As a rule the worm or polyp will bud while its structure is uncom-
plicated by reproductive organs. It is easy to propagate some plants by cutting
one of the leaves into sections, and making every section root itself, and grow into
a new plant; but we can seldom do the same thing with a flower. There may
therefore be a distinct advantage to particular animals and plants in dividing the
life-history into two stages, an earlier budding, and a later egg-laying stage.
The advantage to be drawn from budding is easily seen in those animals which
find it hard to gain access to a favourable site. Thus a Tzenia? is very lucky when
it establishes itself in the intestine. Once there, it goes on budding indefinitely.
It is harder to trace the advantage in the case of many polyps, though some
(Cunina, &c.) admit of the same explanation as Tzenia. There are yet other cases
(some Worms, Salpz, &c.) in which our ignorance of the conditions of life renders
a satisfactory explanation impossible at present.
The budded forms often differ in structure from the budding forms which
produce them, and many writers and teachers make this difference part of tho
definition of alternation of generations. I think that Leuckart has suggested a
probable explanation in his essay of 1851,” which is still thoroughly profitable
1 This case is quoted by Leuckart.
2 *Ueber Metamorphose, ungeschlechtliche Vermehrung, Generationswechsel,’
Zeits. f. riss. Zool., Ba. III. Equally important is the same author’s treatise, Ueber
den Polymorphismus der Individuen oder die Erscheinung der Arbeitstheilung in der
Natur, Giessen, 1851.
678 REPORT—1897.
reading. He attributes the peculiarities of the larva mainly to the circumstance
that it is turned out at an early age to shift for itself. In the budded forms there
is no such necessity. The parent has established itself on a good site which com-
mands a sufficiency of food. Until it has done this, it does not bud at all.
The young which it produces asexually need not disperse in infancy, at least until
crowding sets in. The tradesman who has founded a business puts his elder boys
into the shop; perhaps the younger ones may be obliged to try their luck in a
distant town. The budded forms, reared at the cost of the parent, may therefore
omit the early larval stages at least, and go on at once to a later or even to the
final stage. Thus the head of Tzenia, when it has fixed itself in the intestine, pro-
duces sexual segments; the redia of Distomum produces cercariz or more rediz,
omitting the locomotive embryo; the scyphistoma produces ephyre. ‘The saying
of time must often be great, and the days saved are days of harvest. Think how
much a tree would lose if in the height of summer it were unable to bud, and
could only propagate by seeds. If the budded forms are sexual, while the budding
forms are not, there is an obvious explanation of the difference in form. Even
where there is no such fundamental difference in function, the circumstances of
early life are very different, and may well produce an unlikeness upon which
Natural Selection may found a division of labour.
No one who tries to trace origins can rest satisfied with Steenstrup’s account
of alternation of generations. He makes no effort to show how it came about.
Instead of considering alternation of generations as a peculiar case of development
with metamorphosis, complicated by asexual reproduction,' he considers asexual
reproduction as a peculiar case of alternation of generations.” He ignores all the
facts which show that the alternation may have been gradually attained, an
omission which is only excusable when we note that his treatise is dated 1842.
He asserts dogmatically that there is no transition from metamorphosis to alterna-
tion of generations.
It is impossible to think much on this subject without falling into difficulties
over the word generation. For my own part I believe that such words as gencra-
tion, individual, organ, larva, adult cannot be used quite consistently in dealing
with a long series of animals whose life-histories vary gradually and without end.
Ordinary language, which was devised to meet the familiar and comparatively
simple course of development of man and the domestic animals, is not always
appropriate to lower forms, with complex and unusual histories. If we are
resolved at all hazards to make our language precise and uniform, we either fall
into contradictions, or else use words in unnatural senses.
Certain recent discussions render it necessary to point out that there can be no
alternation of generations without increase by budding. If a single larva produces
a single sexual animal, as when a pluteus changes to an Echinus, there is develop-
ment with transformation, but not alternation of generations.
It is, I think, of importance to be able to resolve so peculiar a phenomenon as
alternation of generations into processes which are known to occur separately, and
which may have arisen imperceptibly, becoming gradually emphasised by the
steady action of the conditions of life. Every startling novelty that can thus be
explained extends the application of that principle which underlies the theory of
Natural Selection—I mean the principle that a small force acting steadily through
a long time may produce changes of almost any magnitude.
The Hydrozoa yield innumerable and varied examples of development with
transformation and also of budding. They yield also the most admirable examples
of division of labour. We have Hydrozoan colonies, such as a budding Hydra, in
which all the members are pretty much alike, but we soon advance to differentiation
of the feeding and the reproductive members. In the Siphonophora the colony
becomes pelagic, and floats at the surface of the sea. Then the meduse no longer
1 This is a convenient short account of Alternation of Generations, but it will not
apply to every case. In Hydra, for instance, there is an ill-defined alternation of
generations, but no metamorphosis.
2 Cf. Leuckart, loc. cit., p. 183.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 679
break off and swim away, but are harnessed to the colony, and drag it along. The
colony may contain feeding polyps, which procure and digest food for the rest;
swimming bells, which are attached meduse; perhaps a float, which is a peculiar
kind of swimming bell; defensive polyps (which may be either batteries of nettling
cells or covering organs) ; and reproductive individuals. As the individuals become
subordinated to the colony, and lose essential parts of the primitive structure, they
pass insensibly into organs.
The life-histories of Invertebrates abound in complications and paradoxes.
Thus Eucharis, one of the Ctenophors, becomes sexually mature as a larva, but
only in warm weather. This happens just after hatching, when the animal is of
microscopic size. Then the sexual organs degenerate, the larva, which has already
reproduced its kind, grows to full size, undergoes transformation, and at length
becomes sexually mature a second time. There is often a striking difference
between the early stages of animals which are closely related, or a strong adap-
tive resemblance between animals which are of very remote blood-relationship.
In the Hydrozoa similar polyps may produce very different medusz, and dissimilar
polyps meduse that can hardly be distinguished. There are insects so like in
their adult state that they can only be distinguished by minute characters, such as the
form and arrangement of the hairs on the legs, and yet the larvee may be con-
spicuously different. Annelids and Echinederms yield fresh examples of the same
thing. In Lepidoptera and Saw-flies the larvee are very similar, but the winged
insects quite different.2 New stages may be added in one species, while closely
allied species remain unaffected. In Cunina and the Diphyidz we get combina-
tions which strain the inventive powers of naturalists even to name. Natural
Selection seems to act upon the various stages of certain life-histories almost as it
acts upon species.
But the history is not always one of growing complexity. Sometimes for
example a well-established medusa-stage is dropped. First it ceases to free itself,
then the tentacles and marginal sense-organs disappear, then the mouth closes. In
the fresh-water Cordylophora the medusa is replaced by a stalked sac filled with
reproductive elements or embryos. The Lucernariz present a single stage which
seems to be polyp and medusa in one. Hydra has no medusa. It is not always
clear whether such Hydrozoa as these are primitive or reduced. Even the hydroid
polyp, the central stage in the normal Hydrozoan life-history, may be suppressed,
and certain meduse in both of the chief groups develop direct from the egg or
planula (Pelagia, Geryonia, AXgina, Oceania). There is no stage common to all
Hydrozoa except the egg. The same thing may be said of the Tunicates.
The life-history of many Arthropods is to all appearance quite simple. There
emerges from the egg a spider, scorpion, or centipede (in most Chilopoda) which
merely grows bigger and bigger till it is adult. But if, as in most Crustacea, the
circumstances of the species call for a migratory stage, such a stage will be added.
In certain Decapod Crustacea (Penzeus, Leucifer) a nauplius and as many as five
other stages may intervene before the final or adult stage. Some of these
larval stages are common to a great many Crustacea, but none, as we now
think, belong to the original phylogeny. If a resting or a winged stage is
wanted, it is supplied just as easily, witness the holometabolic insects. Here
again, so far as we know, there is nothing absolutely new.* The stages which
seem new are merely exaggerations for special purposes of sections of the life-
history, which were originally marked out by nothing more important than
a change of skin and a swelling out of the body. Let us not suppose for a
moment that it is a law of insect-development that there should be larva, pupa,
and imago, or that it is a law of Crustacean development that there should be six
? Chun, Die pelagische Thierwelt, p. 62 (1887).
? Some species of Chironomus are referred to.
% Baron Osten Sacken (Berl. Hntom. Zeits., Bd. xxxvii. p. 465) gives two cases
of Diptera, in which ‘almost similar larve produce imagos belonging to different
families.’
4 «Nirgends ist Neubildung, sondern nur Umbildung.’—Baer,
680 REPORT—1897.
distinct stages between the egg and the adult. Any of these stages may be
dropped, if it proves useless—either totally suppressed, or telescoped, so to speak,
into the embryonic development. Lost stages are indicated by the embryonic
moults of some centipedes and spiders, Limulus, many Crustacea, and Podura.
The parthenogenetic reproduction of some immature insects, such as Miastor,
shows a tendency to suppress later stages. Perhaps the wingless Thysanura are
additional examples, but here, as in the case of Hydra and Lucernaria, we do not
certainly know whether they are primitive or reduced. It seems to be easy to add
new stages, when circumstances (and especially parasitism) call for them. Meloe,
Sitaris, and Epicauta are well-known examples. In some Ephemeride the moults,
which are potential stages, become very numerous, but as a curious exception to a
very general rule, the last moult of all, which is usually so important, may be
practically suppressed. The fly of an Ephemera may mate, lay eggs, and die,
while still enveloped in its last larval skin.
Among the many cases of what one is inclined to call rapid adaptation to
circumstances (the chief indications of rapidity being the very partial and isolated
occurrence of remarkable adaptive characters) are those which Giard ! has collected
and compared, and which he refers to a process called by him Peecilogony. A
number of very different animals” produce according to habitat, or season, or some
other condition closely related to nutrition, eggs of more than one sort, which
differ in the quantity of nourishment which they contain and in the degree of
transformation which the issuing larva is destined to undergo. The analogy with
the summer and winter eggs of Daphnia, &c. cannot escape notice, and Giard
connects with all these the peedogenesis of Miastor and Chironomus, and many
cases of heterogony. For our immediate purpose it is sufficient to remark that the
reproductive processes and the course of development are as liable to vary for
motives of expediency as the form of a leg or fin. The supposed constancy (the
necessary constancy according to some naturalists) of the embryonic stages
throughout large groups, would not be hard to break down, if it were to be again
asserted. Probably the doctrine is now totally abandoned; it belongs to that
phase of zoological knowledge in which Meckel could declare that every higher
animal passes in the course of its development through a series of stages which are
typified by adult animals of lower grade, and when an extreme partisan, far
inferior to Meckel both in experience and caution, could affirm that the human
embryo omits no single lower stage.
The tadpole-larva, which is common in lower Vertebrates and their allies,
shows the influence of adaptation as strongly as any larva that we know. We
may describe the tadpole as a long-tailed Chordate, which breathes by gills and
has a suctorial mouth-disc, at least during some part of its existence. Itis a cheap
form of larva, when reduced to its lowest terms, requiring neither hard skeleton,
nor limbs, nor neck, yet it can move fast in water by means of its sculling tail.
Such a tadpole appears in many life-histories, and plays many parts. The tadpole
is the characteristic Tunicate larva, and in this group commonly ends by losing its
tail, and becoming fixed for life. But Salpa, w hich is motile when adult, has lost
its tadpole. Appendicularia has lost the normal adult stage if it ever had one, and
its tadpole becomes sexually mature. The same thing seems to have happened to
many Amphibia, whose tadpoles acquire legs, become sexually mature, and consti-
tute the normal adult stage. The Lamprey,as Balfour and others have recognised,
is another kind of sexually mature tadpole. Thus the tadpole may act as larva to
a sea-squirt, fish (Acipenser, Lepidosteus, Amia), or frog; it may also constitute
the only remaining stage in the free life-history.
The lower and smaller animals seem to show beyond others the prevalence of
adaptive features. They offer visible contrivances of infinite variety, while they
are remarkable for the readiness with which new stages are assumed or old ones
dropped, and for their Protean changes of forms, which are so bewildering that
1 C. R. 1891, 1892.
* Hg. Crustacea (Palzemonetes, Alpheus), Insects (Musca corvina, some Lepidoptera
and Diptera), an Ophiurid (Ophiothrix), a Compound Ascidian (Leptoclinus), &c.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 681
many Worms, for instance, cannot as yet be placed at all, while many larve give
no clue to their parentage. These lower and smaller animals show beyond others
a tendency to multiply rapidly, and to break away from one another in an early
stage. The tendency is so strong in the microscopic Protozoa that it enters into
the definition of the group. Fission, budding, alternation of generations, and
spore-formation (as in Gregarina) are ultimately due to the same tendency.
Weak animals are almost inevitably driven to scatter, and to make up by their
insignificance, their invisibility, and their powers of evasion for the lack of power
to resist. It is a great thing to a Hydrozoan colony that if one polyp is bitten off,
others remain, that no enemy can possibly devour all the medusze liberated from
one colony, or all the planulz liberated from one medusa. Low organisation gives
very special facilities for extreme division. There are animals and plants which
multiply greatly as a consequence of being torn to pieces or chopped small. (Chigoe,
some Fungi, &c.)
Small animals are usually short-lived. Many complete their life-history in a
few weeks. Those which last for so long as a year are often driven, like annual
plants, to adapt every detail of their existence to the changing seasons. The
naturalist who explores the surface waters of the sea with a tow-net soon learns
that the time of year determines the presence or absence of particular larve. It
is probably as important to an Aurelia as to a butterfly that it should tide over the
storms of winter by means of a sedentary and well-protected stage. Any one who
keeps scyphistoma in an aquarium will remark how small it is, how it creeps
into crevices or the hollows of dead shells. But when the depth of winter is past,
it pushes out its strobila, which in spring liberates ephyre. These rapidly enlarge,
and by August have grown from microscopic discs to jelly-fishes a foot across.
The intelligence of many small animals is very low. They go on doing the
thing that they have been used to do, the thing that has commended itself to the
experience of many generations. They are governed by routine, by that inherited
and unconscious power of response to external stimulus, which we call instinct.
But there are some notable exceptions. Of all small animals, insects seem to show
the greatest flexibility of intelligence.
There is one large group of animals which is in striking contrast to nearly all
the rest. Vertebrates, and especially the higher Vertebrates, are usually big and
strong. They rely upon skill, courage, or some other product of high organisa-
tions, rather than upon numbers and fertility. Vertebrates swallow many other
animals, together with their living parasites, but are rarely swallowed alive or
fresh by Invertebrates. This fact of nature has led to many consequences, among
others to this, that many parasites which pass their earlier stages in the bodies of
Invertebrates only attain sexual maturity in a Vertebrate host. The complexity
of the structure of a Vertebrate precludes the possibility of multiplication by
breaking-up or budding, and they multiply only by egg-laying or strictly analogous
processes. The higher Vertebrates live so long that the accidents of a par-
ticular year or a particular season are not of vital importance. Hence seasonal
transformation is almost unknown; the quadruped or bird may choose the warm
months for rearing the family, or celebrate the pairing season by getting a new
suit of feathers, or grow a thicker coat against the cold of winter, but that is all.
No Vertebrates perish regularly at the approach of winter, leaving only batches
of eggs to renew the species in spring, nor is their structure profoundly modified
by the events of the calendar (the frog is a partial exception). One minor cause
of transformation, which affects the life-history of many polyps, worms and insects,
is thus removed. Vertebrates often take care of their young, and the higher
Vertebrates bring forth few at atime. For this reason among others they rarely
aiford examples of free larvee. Such Vertebrate larve as we do find, conform to
the Vertebrate type. It is often impossible to predict what adult will develop
from an Invertebrate larva, but no one could hesitate to rank an Ammocoetes, a
Leptocephalus, or a tadpole among the Vertebrates.
It accords with this strength and mastery that Vertebrates, and especially the
higher Vertebrates, should be more stable, more conservative, less experimental
than other animals, They retain ancient structures long after they have ceased to
682 REPORT—1897.
be useful. The gill-clefts, gill-arches, and branchial circulation are good examples.
Though not functional in Sauropsida and Mammalia, they never fail to appear in
the course of the development. Yet the Sauropsida and the Mammalia are posi-
tively known to go back to the earliest secondary and late paliozoic times. Ever
since the beginning of the secondary period at least, every reptile, bird, and
mammal has continued to pass through a stage which seems obviously piscine, and
of which no plausible explanation has ever been offered, except that remote pro-
genitors of these animals were fishes. Could not Natural Selection, one is tempted
to ask, have straightened the course of development during lapses of time so vast,
and have found out less roundabout ways of shaping the tongue-bone and the
ossicles of the ear? Lither it costs nothing at all to pursue the old route, or it
costs nothing which a higher Vertebrate will ever miss. The second alternative
seems to me the more likely. The Sauropsida and Mammalia, in comparison with
other animals, are particularly well off, and like wealthy housekeepers, they do not
care what becomes of the scraps. It is, I fancy, different with many fishes, which
show by their numerous eggs, the occasional presence of peculiar immature stages,
and some other slight hints, that their life is a hard one.
The presence in the developing reptile, bird, or mammal of piscine structures
which are no longer useful has been ascribed to a principle called Recapitulation,
and Haeckel lays it down as a fundamental biogenetical law that the development
of the individual is an abbreviated recapitulation of the development of the race.
If I had time to discuss the Recapitulation Theory, I should begin by granting
much that the Recapitulationist demands—for instance, that certain facts in the
development of animals have an historical significance, and cannot be explained by
mere adaptation to present circumstances; further, that adaptations tend to be
inherited at corresponding phases both in the ontogeny and the phylogeny. I am
on my guard when he talks of Jaws, for the term is misleading, and ascribes to
what is a.mere general statement of observed facts the force of a command. The
so-called laws of nature (a phrase to be avoided) may indeed enable us to predict
what will happen in a new case, but only when the conditions are uniform and
simple—a thing which is common in Physics, but very rare in Biology. I diverge
from him when he says that ‘ each animal is compelled to discover its parentage in
its own development, that ‘every animal in its own development repeats this
history, and climbs up its own genealogical tree.’ When he declares that, ‘ the
proof of the theory depends chiefly on its universal applicability to all animals,
whether high or low in the zoological scale, and to all their parts and organs,’' I
feel persuaded that, if this is really so, the Recapitulation Theory will never be
proved at all. The development, so far as it has yet been traced, of a Hydra,
Peripatus, Beetle, Pond-mussel, Squid, Amphioxus, Chick or Mammal tells us
very little indeed of the history of the races to which they belong. Development
tells us something, I admit, and that something is welcome, but it gives no
answer at all to most of the questions that we put. The development of a
Mammal, for instance, brings to light what I take to be clear proof of a piscine
stage; but the stage or stages immediately previous can only be vaguely described
as Vertebrate, and when we go back further still, all resemblance to particular
adult animals is lost. The best facts of the Recapitulationist are striking and
valuable, but they are much rarer than the thorough-going Recapitulationist
admits ; he has picked out all the big strawberries, and put them at the top of the
basket. I admit no sort of necessity for the recapitulation of the events of the
phylogeny in the development of the individual. Whenever any biologist brings
the word must into his statement of the operations of living nature, I look out to
see whether he will not shortly fall into trouble.
This hasty review of animal transformations reminds me how great is the part
of adaptation in nature. To many naturalists the study of adaptations is the
popular and superficial side of things; that which they take to he truly scientific
1 The quotations are from the late Professor A. Milnes Marshall’s Address to
Section D., Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1890, which states the Recapitulationist case with great
knowledge and skill.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 683
is some kind of index-making. But we should recognise that comparatively
modern adaptations may be of vital importance to the species, and particularly
luminous to the student because at times they show us nature at work.
I am accustomed to refer such adaptations to the process of Natural Selection,
though if any one claimed to explain them by another process, I should, for present
purposes, cheerfully adopt a more neutral phrase. ‘There are, I believe, no limits to be
assigned to the action of Natural Selection upon living plants and animals.
Natural Selection can act upon the egg, the embryo, the larva, and the resting
pupa, as well as upon the adult capable of propagation. It can even influence the
race through individuals which are not in the line of descent at all, such as adults
past bearing or the neuters of a colony. The distinction between historical and
adaptive, palingenetic and ccenogenetic, is relative only, a difference not of kind
but of degree. All features are adaptive, but they may be adapted to a past rather
than to a present state of things; they may he ancient, and deeply impressed upon
the organisation of the class.
In Biology facts without thought are nothing; thought without facts is
nothing ; thought applied to concrete facts may come to something when time has
sorted out what is true from what is merely plausible. The Reports of this
Association will be preserved here and there in great libraries till a date when the
biological speculations of 1897 are as extinct as the Ptolemaic Astronomy. If
many years hence some one should turn over the old volumes, and light upon this
long-forgotten address, I hope that he will give me credit for having seen what was
coming. Except where the urgent need of brevity has for the moment been too
much for scientific caution, I trust that he will find nothing that is dogmatic or
over-confident in my remarks.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1, Report on Investigations made at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 353.
2 Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine
Biological Station, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 370.
3. On the Naples Marine Station and its Work.
By Dr. Anon Dourn.
4. On a proposed Lacustrine Biological Station for Canada.
By Professor R. Ramsay WRIGHT.
5. Origin of Vertebrata. By Professor C. 8. Minor.
684 REPORT—1897.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Reconstruction and Model of Phenacodus primevus, Cope.
By Professor Henry FarrFIELD OsBORN.
The famous skeleton of Phenacodus, belonging to the Cope Collection, which
came into the possession of the American Museum of Natural History in 1895, has
been entirely freed from the matrix and remounted in such a manner that every
part can be removed for study. This remounting gives quite a different conception
of the animal from that presented in the original mounting, as illustrated before
the Section in an enlarged photograph of the fossil skeleton and a wax model
by Charles Knight. Phenacodus is digitigrade as the tapir. Its proportions are
very peculiar and widely different from those of any modern ungulate, consisting
of an extremely small head, short neck, short fore-limbs, long hind-limbs,
powerful hind-quarters and tail, and upwardly arched back. Phenacodus is not
ancestral to any of the modern Ungulata because its ancestor Euprotogonia is
similarly specialised, although found in the basal Eocene. These animals, how-
ever, give us a picture of the true ancestral ungulate type and forcibly demon-
strate the derivation of the hoofed from the clawed animals. The model of
Phenacodus shows its many points of likeness to the general build of the Creodonta
or ancient Carnivora.
2. On Skeletons and Restorations of Tertiary Mammalia.
By Professor Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN.
This paper, illustrated by numerous photographs of the mounted skeletons and
of Charles Knight’s restorations, set forth the special methods instituted by the
author in the American Museum of Natural History. The field work which
began six years ago is planned as a complete faunal survey of the ancient Tertiary
lakes, the Eocene and Oligocene being now nearly complete, and future work
extending into the Miocene and Pliocene and back into the Mesozoic. Careful
records of horizontal distribution of species are preserved and numerous new
faunal subdivisions have already been clearly defined. ‘Two other features of the
field work are the extremely skilful and thorough methods of collection and the
efforts made to secure complete skeletons suitable for mounting, the ultimate object
being to secure and exhibit every stage in the development of the more important
types. Ten complete skeletons have already been mounted as follows: Protoro-
hippus, Hyrachyus, Paleosyops, Titanothertum, Phenacodus, Coryphodon, Acera-
thertum, Metamynodon, representing the ungulates; Patriofelis and Hoplophoneus,
representing the unguiculates, The special features of the museum work are the
immediate catalogumg of the collections, which now include upwards of 10,000
individuals, and their division into a study and exhibition series, both of which are
readily accessible to investigators. The mounting of the skeletons vastly increases
their interest to the general public. Each skeleton, as exhibited, will be accom-
panied by a model representing its former muscular proportions and by a large
coloured restoration giving an idea of its appearance when alive, its habits and
environment. A double set of labels will also be adopted, separating the popular
from the purely scientific information. The methods of field collection are
popularised by means of large coloured transparent photographs hung in the
windows, taken in the field especially for this purpose.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 685
3. Oysters and the Oyster Question.
By Professor W. A. Herpman, /.2.S.—See Reports, p. 363.
4, The Amblyopside, the Blind Fish of America.
By Dr. C. H. E1GENMANN.
The underground regions of North America are inhabited by a number of
blind aquatic vertebrates.
These are Typhlomolge from Texas, Typhlotriton from Missouri, Gronias
nigrilabris from Pennsylvania, Amblyopsis speleus from Kentucky and Indiana,
Typhlichthys subterraneus from Kentucky, Alabama, and Indiana, and an
undescribed species, Typhlichthys rose, from Missouri.
A considerable area of South Central Indiana is drained entirely by under-
ground streams in which Amblyopsis is abundant.
It has the general appearance of skinned catfish, is well balanced in the water,
and has broad fins.
The chief points of interest in Amblyopsis are the eyes, the skin, and the
tactile organs. Since, however, all the published accounts concerning this fish are
more or less worthless, some other points of interest may be mentioned.
Amblyopsis has been recorded as a surface feeder, but it securesits food at the
bottom. Its abundant tactile organs about the head enable it to exactly locate a
crawling or moving object if a short distance from its head. A rod held in the
hand is readily perceived by the slight vibrations when the fish is about an inch
away. A young one reared in the light was able invariably to perceive the direc-
tion a rod was approaching it, and to swim intelligently away.
Although the eyes are entirely incapable of receiving impressions, the fish reacts
negatively to light, This reaction is not caused by any particular colour of the
spectrum. It is not a matter of heliotropism, for the direction of the light has
nothing to do with the reaction.
The eye in the adult has no connection with the brain. The lens is composed
of a few inconspicuous cells. The vitreous humour is gone, and the eye, in conse-
quence of the absence of a hyaloid, vitreous body, and practically the total absence
of a lens, has collapsed, so that the ganglionic layer forms a solid core of cells. The
inner reticular layer is well developed. The layers outside of this to the external
limiting membrane have been reduced to a layer of cells about two deep. The pig-
ment has in some of the best eyes retained its normal thickness, Cones are pre-
sent. The sclera is represented by one or more cartilaginous masses.
In the number and arrangement of the tactile organs it is not materially different
from Chologaster, which can certainly see. 4
The steps of degeneration can be followed by comparing the eyes of Zygonectes,
Chologaster, Typhlogobius, and Amblyopsis. The lens is the last to be affected, but
when it once begins it degenerates very rapidly, disappearing in some cases during
the life time of an individual, e g., Typhlogobius.
Amblyopsis is universally considered as viviparous. This it is not. The female
lays the eggs under her own gill-covers, which are very wide. Here the young
are reared through their larval stages. When the female at this time is handled
the young will squirm out. This fact has given rise to the supposition that the:
fish is viviparous.
The absence of pigment causes the blood to give Amblyopsis a yellowish tint in
the thinner parts, such as the fins, while in the thicker parts the colour is pink.
Pigment cells are abundant in the larva, and are not at all rare in the skin of
the adult, but they contain little pigment.
It is a matter of general observation that the pigment diminishes in the absence
686 REPORT—1897.
of light in many fishes. A striking instance is the lower side of flatfishes. It is
also Inown that Proteus, when exposed to the light, becomes dark (Osborn), and
that the lower side of a flounder, if exposed to the light, may become pigmented
(Cunningham).
Now, since pigmentation cannot be of any selective value in dark places, the
disappearance of pigment cannot be attributed to natural selection; nor can the
matter of economy have given selection a chance to remove the pigment. Is the
lack of pigment, then, a characteristic reacquired with each individual? It is not,
for in a young fish kept for ten months in the light the absence of pigment was
as marked as in the adult.
We apparently have here an acquired characteristic, the depigmented condi-
tion of the chromatophores hereditarily established.
5. The Origin of the Mammalia.
By Professor Henry FAIRFIELD OSBORN.
The Tertiary and Recent placentals have been divided by the author into Cen-
eutheria and Meseutheria.
The former include the higher types, progressive and specialised, mainly during
the Eocene and Oligocene periods. The latter include the lower types, persistent
and primitive, specialised mainly during the Mesozoic period, and with the excep-
tion of the Lemaroidea, Insectivora, and Ganodonta, dying out early in the Ter-
tiary. Among these Meseutheria are included the Creodonta, Tillodontia, Insec-
tivora, Lemuroidea, Condylarthra, and Amblypoda. The most distinctive feature
of their evolution is the retarded brain development, the zmertia or persistence of
many primitive characters lost among the Ceneutheria, as well as the fact that they
appear substantially in their fully specialised form in the base of the Eocene, and
are thus distinctively the Mesozoic placentals. The known upper Cretaceous
mammals are substantially of the same Eocene Meseuthere type, and contain also
certain Multituberculata (which may be regarded as Prototheria) and possibly als
certain marsupials.
The Lower Cretaceous or Upper Jurassic (Purbeck) Mammalia embrace also Mul-
tituberculates (? Prototheria), Triconodonts (Metatheria), and Insectivora primitiva
(Meseutheria). The latter may have given rise to the later Meseutheria, and thus
indirectly to the Ceneutheria, although no absolute links are as yet established
connecting the Ceneutheria with the Meseutheria, and the latter are even more
primitive than the known forms of Metatheria or Marsupialia.
The combined characters of the three above-mentioned types of Jurassic mam-
mals led the author in 1891 to the conclusion that the Hypotheria or Promam-
malia would be found to possess a heterodont dentition, consisting of I. 4, C. 1,
Pp. 4-5, M.8. Also that all the Mammalia, multituberculate as well as trituber-
culate, would be found to be originally derived from a trituberculate type of molar
dentition.
In the meantime Baur has shown that Cope’s Pelycosauria, a division of the
Theromorpha, which Cope believed to be ancestral to the mammals, must be en-
tirely removed from this position. The discoveries of Seeley in the Permian of
South Africa (Karoo Beds) show that the Theriodontia possess most of the charac-
ters which we may expect to find in the ancestors of the Mammalia, mingled with
many distinctively reptilian characters. Among these Theriodonts the herbivorous
division, or Gomphodontia, presents many analogies to the Multituberculata, while
the carnivorous Cynodontia are similarly analogous both to the Protodonta (Os-
born) of the American Triassic and to the Triconodonta, or ancestral tritubercu-
lates, the specialised dental formula agreeing closely with that postulated for the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 687
Hypotheria. The Gomphodontia, however, with the exception of Tritylodon,
show a marked tritubercular pattern in their superior molars (especially Diade-
modon mastacus) and tend to confirm the author’s hypothesis that the multituber-
culates are of tritubercular origin.
The general conclusion is that the Theriodontia stand nearer the ancestral
mammalia Prototheria, Metatheria, and Meseutheria than any other known division
of the Reptilia.
6. Description of Specimens of Sea-trout, Caplin, and Sturgeon from
Hudson Bay. By Professor Epwarp E. Prince, Ottawa.
The author referred to the special interests attaching to specimens illustrative
of the fish fauna of Hudson Bay, the faunistic resources of which are almost wholly
unknown.
Distinguished explorers like Dr. R. Bell, Mr. J. Burr Tyrrell, Mr. A. P. Lowe,
and others, chiefly members of the staff of the Geological Survey of Canada, have
gathered information regarding the fish in the remote northern areas referred to ;
their special work, of a geological and geographical character, prevented systematic
zoological investigations. The specimens described by the author were placed in
his hands by Dr. Bell and Mr. Lowe.
The salmon-trout from Ungava Bay is the Salmo Hearnit, originally described
in Franklin’s first journal. It is really a Salvelinus, and is no doubt the Salve-
linus alpinus stagnalis of Jordan and Evermann. It must be noted, however, that
the Salmo stagnalis of Fabricius (1780), inhabiting small lakes in Greenland, is
non-migratory. If it be non-migratory, or if it does migrate to the sea, and then
becomes, as is stated, of a plain silvery colour, the specimen under review is not
identical with it. At any rate, the present specimen, taken, as Mr. Lowe states, on
the east coast of Hudson Bay to the north of Cape Jones, and very abundant in
the streams entering Ungava Bay and along the northern coast of Labrador, is
characterised by the three features mentioned below. First, it is migratory and
captured in vast numbers in tidal waters in Ungava Bay and other localities.
Secondly, it exhibits large disc-like spots of a pale flesh tint, rather larger than a
pea in circumference, and extending from the shoulder to the tail, and slightly above
the lateral line. Thirdly, the scales are exceedingly small, somewhat deeply im-
bedded in the integument, and numbering at least 250 along the lateral line.
The typical alpinus (Sailling) exhibits about 200scales along the lateral line,
has twelve rays in the anal fin, and shows a white anterior margin on the paired
fins. In these three points the present specimen differs, nor is it like Salvelinus
alipes, which has twelve or thirteen rays in the first dorsal’ fin, 126 scales in the
lateral line, according to Dr. Suckley. Giinther regards S. alzpes as identical with
S. stagnalis. It may be added that the present specimen has the following fin-ray
formula :—P. 14, D. 18, V.11, A. 10, the fins are plain, the dorsum of a dark
olive green tint, and the tail truncate or very slightly forked. The weight is from
3 lb. to 18 1b. The specimen of caplin is a somewhat diminutive dried example,
but a careful examination showed that it differed in no respect from the caplin
(Mallotus villosus) which abounds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The presence of
caplin in Hudson Bay might be taken as an indication that cod occur there. It
is the favourite food of the cod at certain seasons.
The specimen of sturgeon from Hudson Bay is Acipenser sturio, L., though the
. specimen is very young, less than six inches in length, and the external features
are known to change materially with the attainment of maturity. In young
sturgeon the snout, as a rule, is long and attenuated, the body slender, the enamel
plates highly developed, and the spines prominent and hooked. This example has:
dorsal plates 14, lateral 35, ventral 11 ; and the fin-rays are: dorsal fin 36, anal 20.
These details in other species are as follows :—
688 REPORT—1897.
Shields Fin-rays
D. L. Vv. D. A.
Acipenser transmontanus .| 11-12 36-50 10-12 45-48 28-30
A. medirostris . : 9-11 26-30 7-10 33-35 22-28
A, rubicundus : : 11-16 30-39 8-11 35 26
A. brevirostris : : ; 8-11 22-33 6- 9 41 22
A. stwrio ; 3 . | 10-14 27-36 8-11 38 27
The specimen agrees, therefore, with Acipenser sturio, L.
7. On the Esocide (or Luciide) of Canada.
By Professor E, E. Prince, Ottawa.
The author stated that a few weeks before the date of the meeting of the British
Association he had the good fortune to receive a specimen of a pike from Dr.
Coutlee, of Sharbot Lake, Ontario. It appeared to be a new and undescribed
species, and differed in many features from the recognised species found in the waters
of the Dominion, which were five in-number, Briefly stated, these features are
respectively—
Branchio- | Dorsal Anal Scales of
stegals | Fin-rays | Fin-rays Lengel Lat. Lite
Esox americanus,Gmelin . METS Ue NOS Vga Ut Ys 122 12 in. 105
EF. vermiculatus, Le Suer : 11-13 i LS feats 2 12 in. 105
E. reticulatus, Le Suer . ‘: 14-16 14 13 30 in. 125
E. lucius, Linn. . ; : 14 16-17 13-14 | 30-50 in. 123
E. nobilior, Thomp. : s 17-19 17 15 96 in. 150
It may be added that in the three first-named species the cheeks and gill-cover
are completely clothed with scales; but in Esox lucius the lower half of the gill-
cover is bare, and in the Maskinonge (£. nobilior) both the cheek and gill-cover are
scaleless over the lower half.
The fish now described for the first time agrees with Z. Jucius in having the
lower half of the gill-cover scaleless; but it differs from all the above species in
other features. Thus the branchiostegals are 15, the dorsal fin-rays 19, the anal
fin-rays 16, and the scales are small, viz., 130 or more in the lateral line. This
line is deeply pigmented, in contrast to ZH. ductus, in which it is indistinctly
marked. The colouration is very distinctive. Unlike the whitish spotted colour-
ation upon a grey or dark green ground of F. ductus or the blackish spotted marking
upon a light grey or green ground colour as in the Maskinonge, or the barred or re-
ticulated pattern upon Z. americanus and EL. reticulatus respectively, this fish
exhibits upon the back and down the sides a bright metallic green, almost of an
emerald tint, finely mottled with black, All the fins are plain grey, with a brick
red tint towards the margin. A glistening purple blue colour forms six or seven
striking patches on the head and gill-cover ; viz., one below the eye, one above the
eye, one above the eye posteriorly situated, one on the cheek, one at the upper
posterior corner of the gill-cover, one just above the upper edge of the branchio-
stegal membrane, and one on the flattened portion of the maxillary. The chin
is jet black. The fish is somewhat restricted in range, and is locally called the
blue pike.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 689
8. Recent Additions to the Fish Fauna of New Brunswick.
By Dr. Puiuip Con,
9. Theories of Mimicry as illustrated by African Butterflies.
Sy Evwarp B. Poutton, I.4., £.R.S., Hope Professor of Zoology, Oxford.
H, W. Bates, in his epoch-making paper (‘ Trans. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. xxii.
1862), first gave an intelligible theory of mimicry, and accounted for the superficial
resemblances which had been known for so long by supposing that the most
dominant, well-defended, and conspicuous forms in a country become the models
towards which natural selection leads many of the weaker hard-pressed species
in the same locality. The material on which Bates’ theory was formed was con-
fined to tropical America, and his generalisation remained incomplete until it
could be applied to the other great tropical regions. This want, however, was
soon supplied by A. R. Wallace for the East (‘ Trans. Linn. Soc.,’ vol. xxy. 1866),
and by Roland Trimen for Africa (‘Trans, Linn. Soc.,’ vol. xxvi. 1870).
In Bates’ original paper a certain class of facts—frequently mentioned and
abundantly illustrated—cannot be explained under his theory of mimicry. This is
the strong resemblance which is apt to exist between the dominant forms them-
selves, and which is as minute and as remarkable as the resemblance of the weaker
for the stronger species. Bates pointed out that this was unsolved by his theory,
and both he and Wallace were compelled to suggest the direct action of some
unknown local influence as the possible cause. There the matter rested until
Fritz Miiller, in a paper published in ‘ Kosmos’ for May 1879, suggested an explana-
tion, viz., that the dominant forms gain an advantage by this resemblance, inasmuch
as it facilitates the education of their enemies by giving them fewer patterns to
learn, The necessary waste of life by which the education of young birds, &c., is
brought about is here divided between the various species of a closely convergent
group, instead of being contributed by each member independently. The chief
sub-families of butterflies which in tropical America appear to be specially dis-
tasteful to insect-eating animals, and which are specially mimicked by others, are
the Danaine, Ithomiine, Heliconine, and Acreine. Of these the second and
third are confined to this part of the world. The resemblances which Fritz Miiller
explained are those which occur very commonly between the Danaine, Ithomiine,
Heliconine, and less commonly the Acreine of any locality. In order to complete
this theory it was necessary to test its application in other parts of the world.
In the East the butterflies which take the place of the four above-named sub-
families belong almost exclusively to the Danazne, the Acreine being represented
by very few species. The Danaine are, however, extremely rich in species, and
F’. Moore first pointed out in ‘ Proc. Zool. Soc.,’ 1883, p. 201, that there is the same
relationship between the species of this dominant group that obtains between those
of tropical America, Not only do Danaine of very different genera closely re-
semble each other, but there is often a strong likeness between the species belonging
to the two chief divisions of the sub-family—the Danaina and Eupleina. As in
America, these resemblances are always between the species of the same locality.
While, however, Miiller’s theory received full confirmation from the facts observed
in India and the tropical East generally, no attempt has been made until now to
apply it to the African lepidopterous fauna. I have therefore examined this
fauna from the Miillerian standpoint, and find that in it too the same relationships
can be traced,
The dominant distasteful groups of Africa are the Acreine, which have their
metropolis here, and the Danaine. The latter are chiefly represented by the
species of the peculiar African genus Amauris, and by the abundant and wide-
spread Danais (Limnas) chrysippus. I first looked for evidence of convergence
between the Acreine and Limnas chrysippus, and soon found what appeared to
be evident traces of it. Such species as Planema esebria (certain forms of), Acrea
petrea (female), A. oppidia, and, above all, A. encedon (/ycia) bear a consideralle
1897, eS
690 REPORT—1897.
resemblance to L. chrysippus, inasmuch as all of them possess a dark tip to the
fore wing crossed by a white bar, as in the Danaine butterfly. Looking at the
near allies of these species and at the Acreine as a whole, we may feel confident
that this black-and-white tip is not an ancestral character of the group, but a
comparatively recent modification. Again, the fact that this character is some-
times more strongly developed in, and sometimes confined to, the female sex agrees
with the corresponding relationships in other parts of the world, and furthermore
supports the conclusion as to the recent acquisition of the markings.
Convergence between the Acreine and Danaine of the genus Amauris was
next looked for and many examples found. Thus dAerea johnstoni of East Central
Africa certainly suggests the appearance of one of the echeria group, such as
A. hanningtonz, found in the same locality; while in West Africa Acr@a lycoa
resembles the black-and-white Amauris damocles and A. egialea. Similar resem-
blances in the West are to be seen between the large black-and-white females of
the numerous species of the Acreine genus Planema and other Acrzeas in the
same locality, such as A. carmentis (female) and A. jodutta (female), while the
species referred 10, of both Acrzine genera, bear some considerable resemblance to
an abundant West African black-and-white Danaine—Amazris mavius. Similar
relationships occur in the South-East, where Acrzeas, such as Planema esebria
(white form of female) and P. aganice bear considerable resemblance to the abun-
dant black-and-white Danaines—Amauris ochlea and A. dominicanus.
It was of great interest to prove that the members of these convergent groups
oceur, net only in the same place, but at the same time. Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall
has kindly done this work, sending me several groups captured at one place in a
single day. At Malvern, near Durban, Natal, on March 6, and again on March
30, 1897, he captured Limnas chrysippus and several species of Acr@a, with the
black-and-white tip to the wing. On March 27 he captured, in the same locality,
the black-and-white Planemas (Acrine) P. esebria and P. aganice, together with
an abundant black-and-white Neptis (NV. agatha) and a closely similar day-flying
moth, Nyctimeris apicalis. It is very probable that these latter forms do not
mimick in the Batesian sense, but are themselves specially defended and fall into a
Miillerian group. Mr. Marshall did not, on that day, capture any of the black-
and-white Danaine. My. D. Chaplin, however, on April 5, 1896, obtained at
Berea, a suburb of Durban, Amauris ochlea and Planema aganice, as well as
Limnas chrysippus, with two species of convergent Acreeas (A. encedon and A.
petrea). Mr. F. D. Godman and Mr. O. Salvin have kindly presented these
specimens to the Hope Collection at Oxford.
I think it must be admitted that there is now strong evidence for the same
convergence between specially protected abundant African species from the same
locality as that which is already well known in the tropical East and in tropical
America. Various degrees of perfection exist, and it is in every way probable
that the resemblance of some members to the standard of their group is not of
long standing, and will improve in the future.
Other facts in the colouring of African Lepidoptera also support this interpret-
ation. Thus certain Lycenide of the genera Pentila and Alena are known to
fly very slowly, and in the case of the latter to feign death when captured—cha-
racteristics of unpalatable forms. While they thus differ in habits from Lyczenids
generally, they also differ entirely in their appearance, which rather suggests that
of an Acrea. The same is true of moths belonging to many groups, and perhaps
of the abundant butterflies of the genus Byblia. Similarly the large group of
Lepidoptera, which has for its centre the abundant day-flying moths of the genus
Aletis, appears to be moulded upon the colouring and pattern of Limnas chry-
sippus, differing only in an even greater conspicuousness, due to the white spots or
rings on the black body, and the highly developed black-and-white border to the
hind wing. It is probable that the common species of the genus Zuphedra, which
form some of the most conspicuous members of this group, are themselves specially
protected. To take one more example, certain species of the Pierine genus Mylothris
are rendered specially conspicuous by the interrupted black border to the hind
wings, the interruptions extending along the hind margin of the fore wings. A
Le — eS
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 691
white butterfly with such a border becomes an extremely conspicuous object, and
this appearance of Mylothris is mimicked, more or less perfectly, by species from
a number of Pierine genera, such as Nepheronia, Belenois, Callosune, &c. This is
usually explained as an example of true Batesian mimicry, but it is, perhaps, more
probable that the Pier’ne are very largely a specially protected group, many of
the genera of which, so to speak, combine their advertisements, and thus share
between them the loss of life which must necessarily ensue during the education
of each generation of their enemies.
I think sufficient, evidence has been brought forward to show that the theory
of mimicry, or rather of common warning (synaposematic) colours, which will
always be associated with the name of Fritz Miiller, may claim abundant examples
in Africa as well as in the other parts of the world in which it has already been
proved to hold.
10. On the Surface Plankton of the North Atlantic.
By W. Garstanc, IA,
11. Remarks on Branchipus stagnalis. By A. HAauKert,
12. Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication. -
See Reports, p. 359.
13. Report on the Index generum et specierum Animaliun.
See Reports, p. 367.
14. Report on the Zoology and Botany of the West Indian Islands.
See Reports, p. 369.
15. Interim Report on Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 362.
16. Report on African Lake Fauna.—See Reports, p. 368.
17. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.
See Reports, p. 358.
Yer 2
692 REPORT—1897.
18. Report on the Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biologa
of Oceanic Islands.—See Reports, p. 352.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
The Section did not meet..
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—
Protective Mimicry as Evidence for the Validity of the Theory of Natural
Selection. By Epwarp B, Poutron, J/.A., /RS., Hope Professor of
Zoology, Oxford.
Several suggestions have been put forward to account for the superficial
resemblances between animals, especially insects, occupying the same geographical
area. It has been suggested, and indeed strongly maintained, that food, climate,
or some other chemical or physical influence of the localitv may have supplied
the cause. On the other hand, many naturalists consider that the facts cannot be
interpreted by any of these suggested causes, and only receive an intelligible and
probable explanation in the theory of natural selection. This theory supposes
that the resemblance is advantageous in the struggle for existence, the weaker
forms being shielded by their resemblance to the strong and well-defended species
(mimicry of H. W. Bates), or the latter gaining by a resemblance which enables
their local enemies more easily—and thus with a smaller waste of life—to recognise
and avoid them (mimicry of Fritz Miiller), The present paper directs attention
to certain facts commonly associated with mimetic resemblance which receive a
ready explanation upon the theory of natural selection as the efficient cause, but,
on the other hand, constitute a serious difficulty in the way of any other theories
as yet brought forward.
Natural selection, as is well known, acts upon any variations, whatever they
may be, which are in the advantageous direction, and are at the same time not
injurious in themselves. When the end to be gained (in this case the attainment
of a superficial resemblance) is common to a variety of distantly related species
possessing entirely different constitutional tendencies, we may feel confident that
an approach brought about by natural selection will be by extremely diverse paths
of variation. Under natural selection we might predict that such a common end
would be reached by great diversity of means, while under the other hypotheses
mentioned above a result of the kind is inexplicable. Heuce the facts of the case
should act as a convenient test between these rival suggestions.
First as to colour. We know but little of the chemical nature of the pigments
made use of in mimetic resemblance. One case, however, has been investigated
by Gowland Hopkins—viz., the bright tints by which certain S. American Piertne
have come to resemble Heliconine and Ithomiine im the same locality. Gowland
Hopkins has shown that these close resemblances in colour and pattern are
produced by pigments which are characteristic of the Pierine, and of an entirely
different chemical nature from those of their models.
Another very interesting case is that of resemblance to ants, Ants are
mimicked more or less closely by a great variety of insects and by spiders. In
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 693
some cases we find the resemblance brought about by actual alterations in the
shape of the body (spiders and many insects), which is modified into a superficial
resemblance to the Hymenopteron, In an Acridian—Myrmecophana fallax—the
shape of an ant is, as it were, painted in black pigment upon the body of the
insect, which is elsewhere light in colour and, as it is believed, inconspicuous in
the natural environment. In a certain group of Homoptera—the Membracidae—
some of the S. American species closely resemble ants. The Membracide are
characterised by an enormous growth from the dorsal part of the first thoracic
segment (pronotum), which spreads backwards and covers the insect like a shield.
In these insects the form of an ant is moulded in the shield beneath which the
unmodified body of the insect is concealed. These facts are only explicable by
supposing that some great advantage is to be gained by resembling an ant, and
that very different species have attained this end, each by the accumulation of
those variations which were rendered possible by its peculiar ancestral history and
present constitution—in other words, by the theory of natural selection.
A more elaborate case, which I have recently investigated, is afforded by a
large group of tropical American Lepidoptera—moths as well as butterflies—which
closely resemble certain common wide-spread species of the Ithomiine genera
Methona and Thyridia.. The appearance thus produced consists of a transparent
ground with a black border to both wings, the fore wing being also divided by
black transverse bars into three transparent areas—the hind wing usually into
two. From a comparison with other species of the various families, &c., not
altered in this direction, we know that the transparent wings are not ancestral.
When we investigate the manner in which transparency has been attained, it is
found to be by different methods in the different constituents of the group. Among
the numerous genera of Ithomiinze (Methona, Thyridia, Dircenna, Eutresis, Ithomia,
&c.) the result has been attained by the reduction of the scales to a very minute
size, so that they hardly interfere with the passage of light. This reduction
affects the two kinds of scales which alternate with each other in the rows upon
the wings of this sub-family, a common result being (e.g., in Methona and Thyridia)
the alteration of the more slender scales into hairs, and of the broader ones into
minute bifid structures, still retaining scale-like proportions in spite of their
extremely small size. In others, again, the two kinds of scales are reduced
respectively to simple and Y-shaped hairs, which regularly alternate along the
rows. In the Danaine proper, represented by the genus Jtuna, the transparency
is chiefly due to the great diminution in the number of the scales, and those
which remain are neither much reduced in size nor altered in shape. In the
Pierine, represented in this group by only a single species, Dismorphia orise, the
scales are greatly reduced in size, but are neither greatly altered in shape nor
diminished in numbers.
Hence in these three sub-families of butterflies transparency is attained in
three different ways, viz. (1) by reduction in size and simplification in shape ;
(2) by reduction in number ; and (3) by reduction in size alone.
When we examine the moths which fall into the group, we find a much
greater difference in the methods, corresponding to the wider divergence in
affinity. In the several species of the genus Castnia the scales lose their pigment,
although undiminished in size, while they are at the same time set vertically upon
the wing, so that light can freely pass between their rows. In the widely sepa-
rated genus JZyclosia the arrangement is nearly the same, except that the vertical
scales are much attenuated. In the genus Anthomyza, which furnishes the group
with many species, the scales retain the normal size, shape, and overlap, but
become so completely transparent that the light freely passes through them.
In all the numerous constituents of this large group of Lepidoptera a very close
resemblance has been produced by entirely different methods; a result which, it
has been argued above, is only consistent with the view that natural selection
alone, among all the explanations which have been suggested, has been the cause
of the observed phenomena.
I owe to the kindness of Mr. Godman and Mr. Salvin the opportunity of
studying all the butterflies of this large transparent-winged group, while Mr.
694 REPORT—1897.
Herbert Druce kindly lent me those moths which are not represented in the Hope
Collection in the Oxford University Museum.
2. Eeonomic Entomology in the United States. By L. O. Howarp, Ph.D.
The author described, with some detail, the successive steps in the development
of the science of economic entomology in America, and showed that the necessity
for work against injurious insects is much greater in America than in Europe.
He stated that about sixty persons are now officially engaged in this work in the
United States, and that their salaries amount to about 90,000 dollars. Of these
sixty persons thirty-three are attached to the State Agricultural Experiment
Stations and seventeen to the Department of Agriculture at Washington. A
general 7éswmé of the character of the work done in these several offices was given,
that done in the Department at Washington being described at length.
3. On some remains of a Sepia-like Cuttle-fish from the Lower Cretaceous
rocks of the South Saskatchewan. By J. F. Wurrnaves.
In 1889 four rather remarkable fossils, which probably represent the dorsal
side of the internal shell, or sepiostaire, of a new species of an apparently new genus
closely allied to Sepia, were collected by Mr. T. C. Weston, of the Geological
Survey of Canada, from the Montana or Pierre-Fox Hills formation of the Later
North American Cretaceous at the South Saskatchewan, opposite the mouth of
Swift Current Creek.
Each of these fossils is imperfect posteriorily, and not a trace of the mucro is
preserved in any. of them. The most perfect of the four is about six inches and a
quarter in length by about three inches and a quarter in its maximum breadth,
It is elliptical or elliptic-ovate in outline, slightly convex, but marked with five
narrow, acute, but not very prominent longitudinal ridges, with rather distant
faint depressions or shallow grooves between them. One of these ridges is median,
but the two lateral ones on each side are slightly divergent, and a bilateral sym-
metry is very obvious,
A considerable portion of the surface of each of these fossils is obscured by a
blackish and apparently bituminous substance, so that: it is difficult to trace any of
the lines of growth continuously, though they are remarkably well preserved in
patches. Near the lateral margins the incremental strie are simply concentric,
but in the median region (whe:+ they are fine, extremely numerous and densely
crowded) each one is produced anteriorly into an angular and acutely pointed lobe,
with its apex upon the summit of the median ridge. From this fact it may be in-
ferred that the anterior margin of the dorsal side of the shell was pointed in the
middle when perfect.
So far as the writer has been able to ascertain, there is no known genus of
Sepiidee, fossil or recent, to which these fossils can be satisfactorily referred. They
bear, no doubt, a certain general resemblance to the internal shells of Sepia itselt ;
but in the sepiostaires of all the recent species of that genus which the writer has
been able to examine the radii of the dorsal surface are broad, flattened, and almost
obsolete. As already suggested, they seem to indicate a new genus and species of
Sepiide, for which the name Actinosepia Canadensis may not be inappropriate.
In any case these specimens, if correctly interpreted, are the first well-marked re-
mains of sepiostaires that have been found in a fossil state in Canada.
4. The Statistics of Bees. By Professor F. Y. Epanwortu.
Applying to bees one of the methods which he applied to wasps last year, the
author has found for the species Bombus hortorum that a voyage, from and back
to the nest, made in the later afternoon, lasts on an average from thirty to thirty-
five minutes. For hive-bees the corresponding length of time appears to be less
than ten minutes.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 695
5. The Appearance of the Army Worm in the Province of Ontario during
1896. By Professor J. Hoyes Panton, J/.A.
The author gives in this paper the results of his observations upon the army
worm (Leucania unipuncta) during the summer of 1896, when it appeared in
large numbers throughout Ontario, As it infested the fields at the Ontario Agri-
cultural College, he was favourably situated to collect much valuable information.
A sketch accompanying the paper showed very distinctly the infested districts—
39 counties and 118 townships. A number of experiments were conducted to
ascertain the principal food plants of this insect. The results showed that its food
is largely restricted to the Graminee, and that it will not feed upon plants from
the Leguminosa and other orders unless pressed by hunger. When no food was
given in twenty-four hours the insects began to devour one another. Many natural
enemies were found to prey upon this caterpillar, insectivorous birds, toads, pre-
daceous beetles, and parasitic flies. The Tachina fly (Nemorea leucanie) was one
of the principal insect foes that kept it in check.
Beneath a windrow of green oats sprinkled with Paris green (a pound to
75 gallons of water) thousands of dead caterpillars lay. This was spread along the
ground so as to stop their march into the adjoining field.
Several artificial remedies were referred to, the chief being to plongh a furrow
with its perpendicular side next the field to be protected, or a ditch may be dug in
the same position. Holes dug at intervals of 10 to 15 feet in the furrow or ditch
will be useful in catching the worms which fail to climb the sides and wander
aimlessly along the furrow. The worms collected in the furrow or ditch may be
destroyed as follows :—(a) Ploughing a furrow so as to bury them; (4) sprinkling
coal oil upon them; (c) scattering straw over them and firing it ; (¢) dragging a
heavy pole along the ditch.
6. On a Supposed New Insect Structure.
By Professor L. C. Mian, /.2.S.
7. On Recapitulation in Development, as illustrated by the Life History
of the Masked Crab (Corystes). By W. Garstane, IA.
8. On Musculo-glandular Cells in Annelids.
By Professor GusTavE GILSON.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Plankton collected continuously during a traverse of the Atlantic
in August 1897.1 By Professor W. A. HerpMaN, ERS.
Through the kindness of the owners and of the captain of the Allan liner
‘ Parisian,’ I was enabled to run sea-water through four silk tow-nets of different de-
urees of fineness continuously day and night during the voyage from Liverpool to
Quebec. I used two nets (a coarser inside a finer) on the port side, tied to a tap
through which about 3,600 gallons ran in twelve hours. On the starboard side the
two nets were attached to an overflow pipe, delivering about 21,600 gallons in
the twelve hours—six times as much as on the other side. The nets were
emptied and the contents examined morning and evening, so_ that each gathering
was approximately twelve hours’ catch, and each day, and each night, of the voyage
1 This paper will be published in full in the Zransactions of the Biological
Society of Liverpool during the session 1897-98, vol. xii., p. 33.
696 REPORT—1897.
was represented by a gathering. The water was taken in from the sea about
14 feet below the surface, All the material collected was rapidly examined
with the microscope while in the fresh condition, and was then preserved in solu-
tions of formaline or alcohol for future detailed study.
The fauna of the area traversed may, from the preliminary examination of the
material, be divided into four sections :—
I, The British Coast fauna—through the Irish Sea and round the north coast
of Ireland.
II. The Oceanic North Atlantic fauna, including Globigerina, Radiolaria, and
other characteristic forms.
IIL. The Labrador Current fauna, with quantities of large northern Copepoda
and Amphipoda.
IV. The North American Coast fauna—somewhat like that of the first section.
[Further details in regard to the characteristic forms in the various gatherings
were given at the meeting ; but that preliminary account will now be replaced by
the fuller description of the material to be published shortly. ] ;
This method of collecting samples of the surface fauna in any required quantity
per day or hour from an ocean liner going at full speed was first practised, I
believe, by Dr. John Murray, of Edinburgh. The method is simple, effective, and
inexpensive. It requires no complicated apparatus, there is no difficulty in the
manipulation, and no trouble to speak of need be given to any of the ship’s com-
pany. It is not even necessary that the naturalist should himself go the voyage.
‘The ship’s surgeon or any other officer ‘interested in science can readily carry out
the work ; and so, at very slight expense, series of gatherings can be obtained across
the great oceans in every direction traversed by passenger or cargo steamers.
Addendum.—During the return voyage, at the end of September, the same
process was repeated; but in addition to the four nets used previously a fifth was
tied periodically over the tap in the bath-room, and the sea-water was allowed to
flow through it for stated periods. This gave intermittent gatherings for com-
parison with those taken continuously. The hath-room gatherings simply showed
small samples of the fuller (twelve-hour) day or night gatherings.
2. The Determinants for the Major Classification of Fish-like Vertebrates.
By Professor THEopoRE GIL.
There is much difference of opinion still respecting the limits of the branch of
vertebrates or chordata as well as the classes which compose it. Those which, in
the present state of our knowledge, seem to belong to it are the Tunicates
Leptocardians, Marsipobranchs, Ostracophores, Selachians, Teleostomes (Pisces),
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. The least widely separated of all are
the Reptiles and Birds, and if they are retained as distinct classes the others should
also be retained. The division into Ichthyopsida, Sauropsida, and Mammalia fails
to express the natural relations of the constituent classes. These relations may
be exhibited in the following genealogical diagram :— 4
sovoruny,—
suvipivooydey—
qourriqodisieyy—
saroydoovrysQ——
sUBIqOR[IG
samojsoala,—
suviqryduy—
pig—setydey— |—
s[eurueyy—
-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 697
The gaps between the lower classes are very great. The least differences
between the Selachians and Teleostomes are manifest in the Xenacanthini and
Dipnoi of the Paleozoic; the least between the Teleostomes and Amphibians in
the Crossopterygians and Stegocephals, The differences between the Amphibians
and Reptiles are minimised in the Paleozoic. From a generalised stock of the later
Paleozoic or earlier Mesozoic the Mammals were doubtless derived.
3. On the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in Terrestrial
Vertebrates. By Professor THEODORE GILL.
All attempts at the homologisation of the chiropterygium or anterior limb of
the pentadactyle or terrestrial vertebrate with the ichthyopterygium or pectoral
fin have been more or less unsatisfactory. The most important hint seems to be
furnished by Polypterus. Attention was called to the homologies by the author in
his Arrangement of the families of Fishes (1872) and the Standard (or Riverside)
Natural History. Similar conclusions have since been reached by others. The
chief objection to the derivation of the chiropterygium from the pectoral member
of such a form as Polypterus is that at present no extinct representatives are
known. Probably future research will reveal such, as the genus belongs to a very
archaic type, and has numerous not very distantly related precursors in the past.
The homologies in question are justified by the facts of individual development of
the fore-limb in the Reptiles and Mammals.
4. The Morphological Significance of the Comparative Study of
Cardiac Nerves. By Dr. W. H. Gasken, P.R.S.
5. Observations upon the Morphology of the Cerebral Commissures in
the Vertebrata. By Dr, G. Exuior Smirx, JfA.
6. Some points in the Symmetry of Actinians.
By Professor J. P. McMurricnu.
7. The Natural History of Instinct.
By Professor C. Luoyp Morean, Jf.A.
8. On the Hematozoon Infections in Birds. By W. G. MacCatium, B.A.
Several varieties of birds—crows, owls, sparrows, blackbirds, &c.—have_ been
found infected with organisms resembling the malarial organisms of man. These,
like the malarial parasites, develop within the red corpuscles, transforming the
hemoglobin into. pigment granules. They reproduce by segmentation, although
this process does not occur simultaneously for great groups of individuals, so as to
make the length of the cycle of development easy of determination, as is the case
in the malarial parasites. The young hyaline forms are not actively motile.
Two types of organism are recognised. In one (the Proteosoma of Labbé)
the irregularly shaped body is situated at one end of the nucleated red corpuscle,
displacing the nucleus toward the opposite end. This form segments in the peri-
pheral circulation. In the other type, which corresponds to the Halteridium of
Labbé, the body of the organism is elongated and curved about the nucleus of the
corpuscle. Segmenting forms are found in the bone marrow, but not in the circu-
lating blood. There is in this type a certain variation in form in different hosts.
698 REPORT—1897.
Flagellation is readily observed in both forms, the organism in freshly prepared
slides being seen to burst from the corpuscle and almost immediately throw out
flagella. Other organisms extruded from the corpuscle degenerate without
flagellation.
The tissues of these birds show characteristic changes, resulting from the
destruction of blood corpuscles and the deposition of pigment. The spleen and
liver are the organs most markedly affected, the pigment being taken up along
with infected corpuscles, shrunken parasites, and other débris by large makro-
phages, which probably originate from endothelial cells. These occur in the
capillaries and small vessels in these organs. The endothelial cells still attached
to the vessel wall are also sometimes syollen and crowded with pigment, &ce. In
the spleen the large endothelial cells of the pulp bands take on the characters of
makrophages. The leucocytes are only exceptionally phagocytic.
The pigment is partly formed by the organisms, partly the result of the
breaking down of the hemoglobin set free in the blood on the rupture of the
corpuscle, and there are corresponding variations in its colour.
The other organs, including the bone marrow, are in general very slightly
affected. Certain foci of necrosis which occur in various organs have not as yet been
definitely associated with the presence of these organisms.
9. The Post-embryonic Development of Aspidogaster conchicola.
By Josepy STarrorD, Ph.D.
The author, after mentioning the ways in which this animal differs in form,
structure, development, and life history from other Trematodes, and the conse-
quent difficulties in classifying it, gave a brief sketch of the origin of the embryo,
and then turned in detail to the life of the young animal after it leaves the egg,
during all the time it is undergoing a change in form and developing new organs
until it reaches sexual maturity.
Its morphological transformations were represented by eight drawings made to
the same scale, and its anatomical structure was represented by a few transverse
sections of each stage. The first of these is the just liberated embryo, which now
begins to live a free life, and is accordingly, following the suggestion of Brown,
called a Miracidium. The lengths of the animal at these different periods are
0:16, 0°33, 0:45, 0°8, 1, 1:2,1°5 mm. The change in external form was described,
and then the origin and change in structure of each organ until it has reached
maturity were discussed.
10. On a particularly large Set of Antlers of the Red Deer
(Cervus elaphus). Sy G. P. Hueues.
11. On the Evolution of the Domestic Races of Cattle, with particular Refer-
ence to the History of the Durham Short Horn. By G. P. Huauss.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 699
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SectIon—J. Scorr Kettre, LL.D., Szc.R.G.S8.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The President delivered the following address :—
We meet this year in exceptional circumstances. Thirteen years ago the British
Association met for the first time in a portion of the Empire beyond the
limits of the British Islands. During these thirteen years much has happened of
the greatest interest to geographers, and if I attempted to review the progress
which has been made during these years—progress in the exploration of the globe,
progress in geographical research, progress in geographical education—I could not
hope to do it to any purpose in the short time during which it would be right for
a president to monopolise the attention of the Section. But we have, at the same
time, reached another stage in our history which naturally leads us to take stock
of our progress in the past. We have all of us been celebrating the 60th year of
the glorious reign of the Sovereign, of whose vast dominions Canada and the United
Kingdom form integral parts. The progress made during that period in our own
department of science has been immense; it would take volumes to tell what
has been done for the exploration of the globe. The great continent of
Africa has practically been discovered, for sixty years ago almost all but its rim
was a blank. In 1837 enormous areas in North America were unexplored, and
much of the interior of South America was unknown. In all parts of Asia vast
additions have been made to our knowledge; the maps of the interior of that
continent were, sixty years ago, of the most diagrammatic character. The
Australian interior was nearly as great a blank as that of Africa; New Zealand
had not even been annexed. Need I remind you of the great progress which has
been made during the period both in the North and South Polar areas, culminating
in the magnificent achievement of Dr. Nansen? It was just sixty years ago that
the great Antarctic expedition under Sir James Ross was being organised ;
since that, alas, little or nothing has been done to follow up his work. Sixty years
ago the science of Oceanography, even the term, did not exist; it is the creation
of the Victorian era, and may be said almost to have had its origin in the voyage
of the ‘ Challenger,’ which added a new domain to our science and opened up
inexhaustible fields of research. I have thought then that the most useful and
most manageable thing to do on the present occasion will be to indicate briefly
what, in my estimation, are some of the problems which geography has to attack
in the future, only taking such glances at the past as will enable us to do this
intelligibly.
It has been customary for the occupants of this chair to try to define the
field of geography, and on occasions, in somewhat too apologetic language, to
justify its existence as a section of a. scientific association. I do rot think this 1s
700 REPORT—1897,
any longer necessary. Even in England and America, during the last thirteen
years, geography has done work enough to prove that she has a mission which no
other department of research can fulfil. I say thirteen years, because that not
only carries us back to the last Canadian meeting of the British Association, but
to the year when the Royal Geographical Society undertook an inquiry into the
position of geography at home and abroad, mainly with a view to the improve-
ment of geographical education in England. During that time a good deal has
been written as to the field and scope of geography, and a good many definitions
given. But we really did not require to go to Germany to teach us as to the field
and functions of geography. Sixty years ago, the then President of the Royal
Geographical Society, Mr. William R. Hamilton, delivered the first presidential
address ever given at that Society, and his conception of the field and aims of
geography was as exalted and comprehensive as the most exacting German
geographer could wish. It is too long to quote here.’
It would be difficult to improve upon Mr. Hamilton’s definition, and it shows
that a correct conception of the wide and important field of geography is no new
thing in England. He proceeded to indicate what remained to be done in
the field of exploration, and I commend his address to anyone desirous of forming
a conception of the vast progress that has been made since it was delivered,
sixty years ago. Since I am dealing with definitions, I may be permitted
to quote that given by one so severely scientific as General Sir R. Strachey
in a course of lectures which he gave at the University of Cambridge in 1888, in
connection with the establishment of a lecturership in Geography in that University.
‘The aim of geographical science,’ he says, ‘is to investigate and delineate the
various features of the earth; to study the distribution of land and sea, the con-
figuration and relief of the surface, position on the globe, and so forth, facts
which determine the existing condition of various parts of the earth, or which
indicate former conditions; and to ascertain the relations that exist between
these features and all that is observed on the earth. . . . I claim for geography,’
Sir R. Strachey says, ‘a place among the natural sciences as supplying the
needful medium through which to obtain a connected and consistent conception of
the earth and what is on it.’ He gives a list of the various matters which,
in his conception, it is the business of geography to deal with, and they are
varied and important .enough to satisfy the demands of the most exacting.
‘These are,’ he says, ‘the studies through which scientific geography will lead
you, teaching you to view the earth in its entirety, bringing together the great
variety of objects seen upon it, investigating their connection, and exploring their
causes; and so combining and harmonising the lessons of all the sciences which
supply the key to the secrets of Nature.’ *
{ think we may briefly define geography as the science of the topographical
distribution of the great features of the earth’s surface and of all that it sustains—
mineral, vegetable, and animal, including man himseif. In fact, man is the ulti-
mate term in the geographical problem, the final object of which is to investigate
the correlation between humanity and its geographical environment.
I may be pardoned for dwelling at some length on the function and field of
geography. It is a subject that has been occupying the attention of geographers
in England for some years, and it may not be without interest to our colleagues
on this side of the Atlantic to know the conclusions which we have come to.
Moreover, it seems necessary to arrive at some clear conception on the matter,
with a view to the researches of the future. I say that the subject has been
occupying our attention in England for some time; it has done so, I may say, as
a result of the inquiry by myself on the part of the Royal Geographical Society
to which I have referred. The object of that inquiry was mainly to collect in-
formation as to the position of geography in education at home and abroad. The
report which I presented to the Society attracted some attention, and whether as
1 Journal R.G.S. vol. viii. 1838.
2
2 ‘Lectures on Geography delivered before the University of Cambridge.’
London, 1888.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF. 701
a result of that or not it is hardly for me tosay, but certainly since that inquiry
some twelve years ago the position of geography in England has considerably
improved both in education and as a field for research. Better methods have been
introduced in our schools; a much wider scope has been given to the subject ; in
many quarters teachers have shown themselves anxious to be guided in the right
direction; and, above all, both Oxford and Cambridge at length consented to
the establishment of lectureships in geography. A school of young geographers
has grown up, consisting of men who have had a thorough university training in
science and letters, and who are devoting themselves to the various branches of
geography as a speciality. In this way the arid old text-books and characterless
maps are being supplanted by others that will bear comparison with the best pro-
ductions of Germany. Photography and lantern slides illustrating special geogra-
phical features are coming into use in schools; and in other directions appliances
for use in education are being multiplied and improved. A British geographical
literature is growing up, and if, as I hope, the progress be maintained, we
shall be able to hold our own in geography with any country. The interest in the
subject has been extended by the foundation of geographical societies in various
large centres; whereas thirteen years ago the only geographical society was
that of London, there are now similar societies in Manchester, Newcastle, Liver-
pool, and Edinburgh, the last with branches in Glasgow, Dundee, and Aberdeen.
{f this progressive movement is maintained, as there is every reason to hope it will
be, the scientific and educational aspects of geography in Britain will be more
nearly on a par with exploration in which our country has so long held the lead.
In the United States I found that the position of the subject in education was
not much more satisfactory than it was in England. Since then there is reason
to helieve considerable progress has been made, One of the best text-books on
physical geography, Hinman’s ‘Kclectic Physical Geography,’ is of American
origin ; while in the States, as in England, a school of scientific geographers has
arisen which bids fair to give the subject a high place in that country. I fear,
from what I can learn, that the position in Canada is not as satisfactory as it ought to
be. It seems to me, then, that one of the great problems which geographers have
to face in the future is the place which this subject is to hold in education, both
as a body of information and as a discipline. We have been making progress,
and if we persevere with intelligence and firmness, and maintain the subject at
the highest standard as a field of research, there can be little doubt of our success.
There is a prevalent belief that geographers have nothing more to learn in Europe,
that that old continent has been thoroughly explored. It is true that nearly every
country in Europe has been, or is being, trigonometrically surveyed. Except some
parts of the Balkan Peninsula and North of Russia, the topography of the continent
has been accurately mapped on scales and by methods sufficient at least for the pur-
poses of the geographer. Yet there are districts in the Balkan Peninsula—for -
example, Albania—which are as vaguely known as Central Africa. Butit is a delu-
sion to think that because a country has been fully mapped the occupation of the
geographer is gone. It is only when a region at large is adequately mapped that
the work of geographical research begins, The student, with a satisfactory map of a,
definite district as his guide, will find on the spot abundant occupation in working
out its geographical details, the changes which have taken place in its topography,
and the bearing of its varied features upon its history, its inhabitants, its indus-
tries. This kind of work has been in progress in Germany for over ten years,
under the auspices of the Central Commission for the Scientific Geography
(Landeskunde) of Germany, with its seat at Stuttgart. Under the collective title
of ‘ Forschungen zur Deutschen Landes- und Volkskunde,’ a long series of mono-
graphs by specialists has been published, dealing in minute detail with one or
more aspecis of a limited district. Thus we have such memoirs as ‘ The Plain of
the Upper Rhine and its Neighbouring Mountains,’ by Dr. Richard Lepsius; ‘The
Towns of the North German Plain in relation to the Configuration of the Ground,’
by Dr. Hahn ; ‘The Munich Basin: a Contribution to the Physical Geography
of Southern Bavaria,’ by C. Gruber ; ‘The Mecklenburg Ridges and their Relation
to the Ice Age,’ by Dr, E. Geinitz; ‘The Influence of the Mountains on the
702 REPORT—1897.
Climate of Central Germany,’ by R. Assmann; ‘The Distribution and Origin of
the Germans in Silesia,’ by Dr. K. Weinhold; ‘Mountain Structure and Surface
Configuration of Saxon Switzerland,’ by Dr. A. Hettner; ‘The Erzgebirge: an
Orometric-Anthropogeographical Study,’ by Dr. J. Burgkhardt ; ‘The Thuringian
Forest and its Surroundings,’ by Dr. H. Préscholdt, and so forth. Thereis thus an
inexhaustible field for scientific geography in its most comprehensive sense, a series
of problems which may take generations to work out. In a less systematic way
we have similar monographs by French geographers. One or two attempts, mainly
by teachers, have been made in England to do similar work, but the impression
generally produced is that the authors have not been well equipped for the task.
I am glad to say that in England the Royal Geographical Society has initiated a
movement for working out in a systematic fashion what one may call the regional
geography of the British Islands on the basis of the one-inch maps of the
Ordnance Survey. It is a strange thing that the geography of the Mother Country
has never yet been systematically worked out.
Taking the sheets of the Ordnance Survey map as a basis, it is proposed that
each district should be thoroughly investigated, and a complete memoir of moderate
dimensions systematically compiled to accompany the sheet, in the same way that
each sheet of the Geological Survey map has its printed text. It is a stupendous
undertaking that would involye many years’ work, and the results of which
when complete would fill many volumes. But it is worth doing; it would
furnish the material for an exact und trustworthy account of the geography of
Britain on any scale, and would be invaluable to the historian, as well as to others
dealing with subjects having any relation to the past and present geography of the
land. The librarian of the Society, Dr. H. R. Mill, has begun operations on a
limited area in Sussex. When he has completed this initial memoir, it will be for
the Society to decide whether it can continue the enterprise, or whether it will
succeed in persuading the Government to take the matter up. T refer to work of
this kind mainly to indicate what, in my conception, are some of the problems of
the future which geography has to face, even in fully surveyed countries. Even
were the enterprise referred to carried out, there would be room enough for special
researches in particular districts.
But while there is an inexhaustible field in the future for geographical work in
the direction I have indicated, there is no doubt that much still remains to be done
in the way of exploring the unknown, or little known, regions of the globe. Let
us briefly refer to the problems remaining to be solved in this direction. Turning
to the continent of Asia, we find that immense progress has been made during the
past sixty years. In the presidential address given sixty years ago, already
referred to, Mr. Hamilton says of Asia:—‘ We have only a very general know-
ledge of the geographical character of the Burman, Chinese, and Japan empires;
the innumerable islands of the latter are still, except occasionally, inaccessible to
European navigators. Geographers hardly venture on the most loose description
of Tibet, Mongolia, or Chinese Tartary, Siam, and Cochin China.’ Since then the
survey of India, one of the greatest enterprises undertaken by any State, has been
completed, and is being rapidly extended over Burma. But I need not remind you
in detail of the vast changes that have taken place in Asia during these years, and
the immense additions that have been made to our knowledge of its geography.
Exploring activity in Asia is not likely to cease, though it is not to be expected
that its mhospitable centre will ever he so carefully mapped as have been the
mountains of Switzerland.
The most important desiderata, so far as pioneer exploration in Asia is con-
cerned, may be said to be confined to two regions.! In Southern and Central
Arabia there are tracts which are entirely unexplored. It is probable that this
unexplored region is in the main a sandy desert. At the same time it is, in the
south at least, frmged by a border of mountains whose slopes are capable of rich
cultivation, and whose summits the late Mr. Theodore Bent found, on his last and
? For part of what follows with reference to Asia, I am indebted to a valuable
Memorandum on the subject drawn up by the late Mr. Ney Elias.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 703
fatal journey, to be covered with snow. In exploration, as in other directions, it
is the unexpected that happens; and if any traveller eared to face the difticulties—
physical, political, and religious—which might be met with in Southern and Central
Arabia, he might be able to tell the world a surprising story.
The other region in Asia where real pioneer work still remains to be done is
Tibet and the mountainous districts bordering it on the north and east. Lines of
exploration have in recent years been run across Tibet by Russian explorers like
Prejevalsky, by Rockhill, Prince Henry of Orleans and Bonyalot, by Bower, Littledale,
Wellby, and Malcolm. From the results obtained by these explorers we have formed
a fair idea of this, the most extensive, the highest, and the most inhospitable plateau
in the world. A few more lines run in well-selected directions would probably
supply geography with nearly all she wants to learn about such a region, though
more minute exploration would probably furnish interesting details as to its
geological history.
The region lying to the north of the Himalayan range and to the south of the
parallel of Lhasa is almost a blank on the map, and there is ample room here for
the enterprising pioneer. The forbidden city of Lhasa is at present the goal of
several adventurers, though as a matter of fact we cannot have much to learn in
addition to what has been revealed in the interesting narrative of the native Indian
traveller, Chandra Das. The magnificent mountain region on the north and east
of ‘Tibet furnishes a splendid field for the enterprising explorer. Mrs. Bishop
recently approached it from the east, through Sze-chuen, and her description of the
romantic scenery and the interesting non-Mongolian inhabitants leaves us with
a strong desire to learn more. On the south-east of Tibet is the remarkable moun-
tainous region, consisting of a series of lofty parallel chains, through which run
the upper waters of the Yangtse, the Mekong, the Salwin, and the Irawady. This
last-named river, recent exploration has shown, probably does not reach far into
the range. But it will be seen by a glance at a map that the upper waters of the
other rivers are carried far into the heart of the mountains. But these upper river
courses are entirely conjectural and have given rise to much controversy. There
is plenty of work here for the explorer, though the difficulties, physical and
political, are great.
But besides these great unexplored regions, there are many blanks to be filled
up in other parts of Asia, and regions which, though known in a general way,
would well repay careful examination. There is the mountain track between the
upper Zarafshan river and the middle course of the Sarkhab tributary of the Oxus,
and the country lying between that and the Oxus. There is the great Takla-
Makan desert in Chinese or Kastern Turkistan, part of which has recently been
explored by Russian expeditions and by that young and indefatigable Swedish
traveller, Dr. Sven Hedin. It is now one of the most forbidding deserts to be
found anywhere, but it deserves careful examination, as there are evidences of its
once having been inhabited, and that at no very remote period. It is almost
surrounded by the Tarim, and on its eastern edge lies Lob-nor, the remarkable
changes in which have been the subject of recent investigation. As readers of
Dr. Nansen’s ‘ Voyage of the Fram’ will remember, the Siberian Coast is most
imperfectly mapped; of course, it is a difficult task, but it is one to which
the Russian Government ought to be equal. China has on paper the appear-
ance of being fairly well mapped; but as a matter of fact our knowledge of its
mountain ranges and of its great river courses is to a large extent extremely
vague. All this awaits careful survey. In North-eastern Manchuria and in many
parts of Mongolia there are still blanks to be filled up and mountain and river
systems to he surveyed. In the Malay Peninsula and in the great array of islands
in the east and south-east of Asia—Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines—much work
still remains to be done. Thus for the coming century there will be abundance
of work for explorers in Asia, and plenty of material to occupy the attention of
our geographical societies. }
Coming to the map of Africa, we find the most marvellous transformation
during the last sixty years, and mainly during the last forty years, dating from
_ Liyingstone’s memorable journey across the continent. Though the north of Africa
704 REPORT—1897.
was the home of one of the oldest civilisations, and though on the shores of the
Mediterranean, Pheenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans were at work for
centuries, it has only been within the memory of many of us that the centre of the
continent, from the Sahara to the confines of Cape Colony, has ceased to be an
unexplored blank. This blank has been filled up with bewildering rapidity. Great
rivers and lakes and mountains have been laid down in their main features, and the
whole continent, with a few unimportant exceptions, has been parcelled out among
the Powers of Europe. But much still remains to be done ere we can form an
adequate conception of what is in some respects the most interesting and the most
intractable of the continents. Many curious problems still remain to be solved.
The pioneer work of exploration has to a large extent been accomplished ; lines
have been run in all directions; the main features bave been blocked out. But
between these lines the broad meshes remain to be filled in, and to do this will
require many years of careful exploration. However, there still remain one or two
regions that afford scope for the adventurous pioneer.
To the south of Abyssinia and to the west and north-west of Lake Rudolf, on
to the Upper Nile, is a region of considerable extent, which is still practically
unknown. Again, in the Western Sahara there is an extensive area, inhabited
mainly by the intractable Tuaregs, into which no one has been able to penetrate,
and of which our knowledge is extremely scanty. Even in the Central Sahara
there are great areas which have not been traversed, while in the Libyan desert
much remains to be done. These regions are of interest almost solely from the
geographical and geological standpoints. But they deserve careful investigation,
not only that we may ascertain their actual present condition, but in order, also,
that we may try to discover some clues to the past history of this interesting
continent, Still, it must be said that the great features of the continent have
been so fully mapped during the last half century that what is required now is
mainly the filling-in of the details. This is a process that requires many hands
and special qualifications. All over the continent there are regions which will
repay special investigation. Quite recently an English traveller, Mr. Cowper,
found not far from the Tripoli coast miles of magnificent ruins and much to correct
on our maps. If only the obstructiveness of the Turkish officials could be over-
come, there is a rich harvest for anyone who will go to work with patience and
intelligence. Eyen the interior of Morocco, and especially the Atlas Mountains,
are but little known. The French, both in Tunis and Algeria, are extending our
Imowledge southwards. All the Powers who have taken part in the scramble for
Africa are doing much to acquire a knowledge of their territories. Germany,
especially, deserves praise for the persistent zeal with which she has carried out
the exploration of her immense territories in East and West Africa. The men
she sends out are unusually well qualified for the work, capabie not simply of
making a running survey as they proceed, and taking notes on country and
people, but of rendering a substantial account of the geology, the fauna, the flora,
and the economic conditions. Both in the French and the British spheres good
work is also being done, and the map of Africa being gradually filled up. But
what we especially want now are men of the type of Dr. J. W. Gregory, whose-
book on the Great Rift Valley is one of the most valuable contributions to African
geography ever made. If men of this stamp would settle down in regions like
that of Mount Ruwenzori, or Lake Rudolf, or the region about Lakes Bangweolo:
and Tanganyika, or in the Atlas, or in many other regions that could be named,
the gains to scientific geography, as well as to the economical interests of Africa,
would be great. An example of work of this kind is seen in the discoveries made
by a young biologist trained in geographical observation, Mr. Moore, on Lake
Tanganyika. There he found a fauna which seems to afford a key to the past history of
the centre of the continent, a fauna which, Mr. Moore maintains, is essentially of a salt-
water type. Mr. Moore, I believe, is inclined to maintain that the ancient connection
of this part of Africa with the ocean was not by the west, as Joseph Thomson surmised,
but by the north, through the Great Rift Valley of Dr. Gregory ; and he strongly
advocates the careful examination of Lake Rudolf as the crucial test of his theory.
It is to be hoped that he, or someone equally competent, will have an opportunity
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 705
of carrying out an investigation likely to provide results of the highest import-
ance,
But there are other special problems connected with this, the most backward
and the most repellent of continents, which demand serious investigation, problems
essentially geographical. One of the most important of these, from the point of
view of the development of Africa, is the problem of acclimatisation, The matter
is of such prime importance that a committee of the Association has keen at work
for some years collecting data as to the climate of Tropical Africa. In a general
way we know that that climate is hot and the rainfall scanty ; indeed, even the
geographers of the Ancient World believed that Central Africa was uninhabitable
on account of its heat. But science requires more than generalities, and therefore
we look forward to the exact results which are being collected by the Committee
referred to with much hope. We can only go to work experimentally until we
know precisely what we have to deal with. It will help us greatly to solve the
problem of acclimatisation when we have the exact factors that go to constitute
the climate of Tropical Africa. At present there is no doubt that the weight of
competent opinion—that is, the opinion of those who have had actual experience
of African climate, and of these who have made a special study of the effects of
that climate on the human constitution—is that though white men, if they take
due precautions, may live and do certain kinds of work in Tropical Africa, it will
never be possible to colonise that part of the world with people from the temperate
zone. This is the lesson taught by generations of experience of Europeans in
India. So far, also, sad experience has shown that white people cannot hope to
settle in Central Africa as they have settled in Canada and the United States
and in Australia, and make it a nursery and a home for new generations.
Even in such favourable situations as Blantyre, a lofty region on the south of
Lake Nyasa, children cannot be reared beyond a certain age; they must be sent
home to England, otherwise they will degenerate physically and morally. No
country can ever become the true home of a people if the children have to be sent
away to be reared. Still, it is true our experience in Africa is limited. It has
been maintained that it might be possible to adapt Europeans to Tropical Africa
by a gradual process of migration. Transplant Southern Europeans to North
Africa; after a generation or two remove their progeny further south, and so on,
edging the succeeding generation further and further into the heart of the conti-
nent. The experiment—a long one it would be—might be tried ; but it is to be
feared that the ultimate result would bea race deprived of all those characteristics
which have made Europe what it is; An able young Italian physician, Dr. Sambon,
has recently faced this important problem, and has not hesitated to come to con-
clusions quite opposed to those generally accepted. THis position is that it has
taken us centuries in Europe to discover our hidden enemies, the microbes of the
various diseases to which Northern humanity is a prey, and to meet them and
conquer them. In Africa we have a totally different set of enemies to meet, from
lions and snakes down to the invisible organisms that produce those forms of
malaria, anzemia, and other diseases characteristic of tropical countries. He
admits that these are more or less due to heat, to the nature of the soil, and other
tropical conditions, but that if once we knew their precise nature and_ modes of
working we should be in a position to meet them and conquer them. It may be
30, but this is a result that could only be reached after generations of experience
and investigation; and even Dr. Sambon admits that the ultimate product of
European acclimatisation in Africa would be something quite different from the
European progenitors. What is wanted is a series of carefully-conducted experi-
ments. I have referred to the Blantyre highlands; in British East Africa there
are plateaus of much greater altitude, and in other parts of Central Africa there
are large areas of 4,000 feet and over above sea-level. The world may become so
full that we may be forced to try to utilisé these lofty tropical regions as homes for
white people when Canadaand Australia and the United States become over-popu-
lated. As one of my predecessors in thischair (Mr. Ravenstein) tried to show at the
Leeds Meeting some years ago, the population of the world will have more than
doubled in a century, and about 180 years hence will have quadrupled, At any rate,
1897. ZZ
706 REPORT—1897.
here is a problem of prime importance for the geographer of the coming century to
attack; with so many energetic and intelligent white men all over Africa, it should
not be difficult to obtain the data which might help towards its solution.
I have dwelt thus long on Africa, because it will really be one of the great
geographical problems of the coming century. Had it been as suitable as America
or Australia, we may be sure it would not have remained so long neglected and
despised by the European peoples as it has done. Unfortunately for Africa, just
as it had been circumnavigated, and just as Europeans were beginning to settle upon
its central portion and trying to make their way into the interior, Columbus and Cabot
discovered a new world, a world as well adapted as Europe for the energies of the
white races, That discovery postponed the legitimate development of Atrica for
four centuries. Nothing could be more marked than the progress which America has
made since its re-discovery 400 years ago, and the stagnation of Africa which has
been known to Europe since long before the beginning of history. During these 400
years North America at least has been very thoroughly explored. The two great
nations which divide North America between them have their Government surveys,
which are rapidly mapping the whole continent and investigating its geology,
physical geography, and its natural resources. I need hardly tell an audience like
this of the admirable work done by the Survey of Canada under Sir William Logan,
Dr. Selwyn, and his successor, Dr. George Dawson; nor should it be for-
gotten that under the Lands Department much excellent topographical work
has been carried out by Captain Deville and his predecessors. Still, though much
has been done, much remains tobe done. There are large areas which have not as
yet even beenroughly mapped. Within quite recent years we have had new regions
opened up to us by the work of Dawson and Ogilvie on the Yukon, by Dr. Bell in the
region to the south of Hudson’s Bay, by the brothers Tyrrell in the Barren Lands on
the west of the same bay, by O’Sullivan beyond the sources of the Ottawa, and by
Low in Labrador. But it is not so long since that Dr. Dawson, in reviewing what
remains to be done in the Dominion in the way of even pioneer exploration, pointed
out that something like a million square miles still remained to bemapped. Apart
from the uninhabitable regions in the north, there are, as Dr. Dawson pointed out,
considerable areas which might be turned to profitable agricultural and mining
account of which we Imow little, such areas as these which have been recently
mapped on the south of Hudson's Bay by Dr. Bell, and beyond the Ottawa by
Mr. O'Sullivan. Although the Eastern and the Western Provinces have been
very fully surveyed, there is a considerable area between the two lying between
Lake Superior and Hudson’s Bay which seems to have been so far almost
untouched. A very great deal has been done for the survey of the rivers and lakes
of Canada. I need hardly say that in Canada, as elsewhere in America, there
is ample scope for the study of many problems in physical geography—past and
present glaciation and the work of glaciers, the origin and régime of lake basins,
the erosion of river-beds, the oscillation of coast-lines. Happily, both im Canada
and the United States there are many men competent and eager to work out pro-
blems of this class, and in the Reports of the various surveys, the Transactions of
American learned Societies, in scientific periodicals, in separate publications, a
wealth of data has already been accumulated of immense value to the geographer.
Every geologist and geographer knows the important work which has been
accomplished by the various surveys of the United States, as well as by the various
State Surveys. The United States Coast Survey has been at work for more than
half a century, mapping not only the coast but all the navigable rivers. The Lake
Survey has been doing a similar service for the shores of the great lakes of North
America. But it is the work of the Geological Survey which is best known to
eeographers—a survey which is really topographical as well as geological, and
which, under such men as Hayden, King, and Powell, has produced a series of
magnificent maps, diagrams and memoirs, of the highest scientific value and in-
terest. Recently this survey has been placed on a more systematic basis; so that
now a scheme for the topographical survey of the whole of the territory of the
United States is being carried out. Extensive areas in various parts of the States
have been already surveyed on different scales. It is to be hoped that in the future,
bp ae *
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 707
as in the past, the able men who are employed on this survey work will have oppor-
tunities of working out the physiography of particular districts, the past and present
geography of which is of advancing scientitic interest. Of the complete exploration
and mapping of the North American continent we need have no apprehension; it
is only a question of time, and it is to be hoped that neither of the Governments
responsible will allow political exigencies to interfere with what is really a work
of national importance.
It is when we come to Central and South America that we find ample room
for the unofficial explorers In Mexico and the Central American States
there are considerable areas of which we have little or only the vaguest knowledge.
In South America there is really more room now for the pioneer explorer than
there is in Central Africa. In recent years the Argentine Republic has shown a
laudable zeal in exploring and mapping its immense territories, while a certain
amount of good work has also been done by Brazil and Chili. Most of our
knowledge of South America is due to the enterprise of European and North
American explorers. Along the vreat river courses our knowledge is fairly satis-
factory, but the immense areas, often densely clad with forests, lying between the
rivers are almost entirely unknown. In Patagonia, though a good deal has re-
cently been done by the Argentine Government, still in the country between Punta
Arenas and the Rio Negro, we have much to learn; while on the west coast range,
with its innumerable fjord-like inlets, its islands and peninsulas, there is a fine
field for the geologist and physical geographer. Indeed, throughout the whole
range of the Andes systematic exploration is wanted, exploration of the character
of the excellent work accomplished by Whymper in the region around Chimborazo
There is an enormous area lying to the east of the Northern Andes, and including
their eastern slopes, embracing the eastern half of Ecuador and Colombia, Southern
Venezuela, and much of the country lying between that and Northern Bolivia,
including many of the upper tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoko, of which our
knowledge is of the scantiest. Even the country lying between the Rio Negro
and the Atlantic is but little known. There are other great areas, in Brazil and
in the Northern Chaco, which have only been partially described, such as the
region whence the streams forming the Tapajos and the Paraguay take their rise,
in Mato Grosso. A survey and detailed geographical and topographical descrip-
tion of the whole basin of Lake Titicaca is a desideratum. In short, in South
America there is a wider and richer field for exploration than in any other con-
tinent. But no mere rush through these little-known regions will suffice. The
explorer must be able not only to use his sextant and his theodolite, his compass,
and his chronometer. Any expeditions entering these regions ought to be able to
bring back satisfactory information on the geology of the country traversed, and
of its fauna and flora, past and present; already the revelations which have been
made of the past geography of South America, and of the life that flourished there
in former epochs, are of the highest interest. Moreover, we‘have here the remains
of extinct civilisations to deal with, and although much has been done in this
direction, much remains to be done, and in the extensive region already referred
to, the physique, the traditions, and the customs of the natives will repay careful
investigation.
The southern continent of Australia is in the hands of men of the same origin as
those who have developed to such a wonderful extent the resources of Canada and
the United States, and therefore we look for equally satisfactory results so far as
the characteristics of that continent permit. The five colonies which divide among
them the three million square miles of the continent have each of them efficient
Government surveys, which are rapidly mapping their features and investigating
their geology. But Australia has a trying economic problem to solve. In none
of the Colonies is the water-supply quite adequate; in all are stretches of desert
country of greater or less extent. The centre and western half of the continent is
covered by a desert more waterless and more repellent than even the Sahara; so
1 Tam indebted for much of the information relative to South America to a
valuable Memorandum by Sir Clements R. Markham and Colonel G. E. Church.
ZZ2
708 REPORT—1897.
far as our present knowledge goes one-third of the continent is uninhabitable.
This desert area has been crossed by explorers, at the expense of great sufferings,
in various directions, each with the same dreary tale of almost featureless sandy
desert, covered here and there with Spinifex and scrub, worse than useless. There
are hundreds of thousands of square miles still unknown, but there is no reason to
believe that these areas possess any features that differ essentially from those
which have been found along the routes that have been explored. There have
been one or two well-equipped scientific expeditions in recent years that have col-
lected valuable data with regard to the physical characteristics, the geology and
biology of the continent; and it is in this direction that geography should look
for the richest results in the future. There remains much to be done before we
can arrive at satisfactory conclusions as to the physical history of what is in some
respects the most remarkable land area on the globe. Though the surface water
supply is so scanty there is reason to believe that underneath the surface there
is an immense store of water. In one or two places in Australia, especially in
Western Queensland, and in New South Wales, this supply has been tapped with
satisfactory results ; millions of gallons a day have been obtained by sinking wells.
Whether irrigation can ever be introduced on an extensive scale into Australia
depends upon the extent and accessibility of the underground water-supply, and
that is one of the geographical problems of the future in Australia. New Zealand
has been fairly well surveyed, though a good deal remains to be done before
its magnificent mountain and glacier system is completely known. In the great
island of New Guinea both the British and the Germansare opening up the interiors
of their territories to our knowledge, but the western and much larger portion of
the island presents a large field for any explorer who cares to venture into its
interior.
The marvellous success which has attended Dr. Nansen’s daring adventure into
the Arctic seas has revived a widespread interest in Polar exploration. Nansen
may be said to have almost solved the North Polar problem—so far, at least, as
the Old World side of the Pole is concerned. That some one will reach the Pole
at no distant date is certain; Nansen has shown the way, and the legitimate
curiosity of humanity will not rest satisfied till the goal be reached. But Arctic
exploration does not end with the attainment of the Pole. Europe has done her
share on her own side of the Pole; what about the side which forms the Hinter-
land of North America, and specially of Canada? To the north of Europe and
Asia we have the scattered groups of islands Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land,
Novaya Zemlya, and the New Siberian Islands. To the north of America we have
an immense archipelago, the actual extent of which is unknown. Nansen and
other Arctic authorities maintain that the next thing to be done is to complete
exploration on the American side, to attempt to do for that half of the North
Polar region what Nansen has done for the other half. It may be that the
islands which fringe the northern shores of the New World are continued far to
the north; if so they would form convenient stages for the work of a well-equipped
expedition. It may be that they do not go much farther than we find them on
our maps. Whatever be the case it is important, in the interests of science, that
this section of the Polar area be examined; that as high a latitude as possible he
attained ; that soundings be made to discover whether the deep ocean extends all
round the Pole. It is stated that the gallant Lieutenant Peary has organised
a scheme of exploring this area which would take several years to accomplish.
Let us hope that he will be able to carry out his scheme. Meantime, should
anada look on with indifference? She has attained the standing of a great and
prosperous nation. She has shown the most commendable zeal in the exploration
of her own immense territory. She has her educational, scientific, and literary
institutions which will compare favourably with those of other countries; her
Press is of a high order, and she has made the beginnings of a literature and an art
of her own. In these respects she is walking in the steps of the Mother Country.
But has Canada not reached a stage when she is in a position to follow the
maternal example still further? What has more contributed to render the name
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 709
of Great Britain illustrious than those great enterprises which for centuries she
has sent out from her own shores, not a few of them solely in the interests of
science? Such enterprises elevate a nation and form its glory and its pride.
Surely Cenada has ambitions beyond mere material prosperity, and what better
beginning could be made than the equipment of an expedition for the exploration
of the seas that lie between her and the Pole? I venture to throw out these
suggestions for the consideration of those who have at heart the honour and
glory of the great Canadian Dominion.
Not only has an interest in Arctic exploration been revived, but in Europe at
least an even greater interest has grown up in the exploration of the region around
the opposite pole of the earth of which our knowledge is so scanty. Since
Sir James C. Ross’s expedition, which was sent out in the year 1839, almost
nothing has been done for Antarctic research. We have here to deal with
conditions different from those which surround the North Pole. Instead of an
almost landless ocean, it is believed by those who have given special attention
to the subject that a continent about the size of Australia covers the south
polar region. But we don’t know for certain, and surely, in the interests of our
science, it is time we had a fairly adequate idea of what are the real conditions.
We want to know what is the extent of that land, what are its glacial conditions,
what is the character of its geology, what evidence exists as to its physical and
biological conditions in past ages? We know there is one lofty, active volcano;
are there any others? Moreover, the science of terrestrial magnetism is seriously
impeded in its progress because the data in this department from the Antarctic are
so scanty. The seas around this continent require to be investigated both as to
their depth, their temperature, and their life. We have here, in short, the most
extensive unexplored area on the surface of the globe. For the last three or
four years the Royal Geographical Society, backed by other British societies, have
been attempting to move the Home Government to equip an adequate expedition to
complete the work begun by Ross sixty years ago, and to supplement the great workof
the ‘Challenger.’ But though sympathy has been expressed for Antarctic exploration,
and though vague promises have been given of support, the Government is afraid
to enter upon an enterprise which might involve the services of a few naval officers
and men. We need not criticise this attitude. But the Royal Geographical
Society has determined not to let the matter rest here. It is now seeking to
obtain the support of public-spirited men for an Antarctic expedition under its
own auspices. It is felt that Antarctic exploration is peculiarly the work of
England, and that if an expedition is undertaken, it will receive substantial support
from the great Australasian Colonies, which have so much to gain from a know-
ledge of the physical condition of a region lying at their own doors, and probably
having a serious influence on their climatological conditions. Here, then, 1s one of
the greatest geographical problems of the future, the solution of which should be
entered upon without further delay. It may be mentioned that a small and well-
equipped Belgian expedition has already started, mainly to carry out deep-sea
research around the South Polar area, and that strenuous efforts are being made in
Germany to obtain the funds for an expedition on a much larger scale.
But our science has to deal not only with the lands of the globe; its sphere is
the whole of the surface of the earth, and all that is thereon, so far at least as dis-
tribution is concerned. The department of Oceanography is a comparatively new
creation ; indeed, it may be said to have come definitely into being with the famous
voyage of the ‘Challenger.’ There had been expeditions for ocean investigation
betore that, but ona very limited scale. It has only been through the results obtained
by the ‘ Challenger,’ supplemented by those of expeditions that have examined more
limited areas, that we have been able to obtain an approximate conception of the
conditions which prevail throughout the various ocean depths—conditions of move-
ment, of temperature, of salinity, of life. We have only a general idea of the
contours of the ocean-bed, and of the composition of the sediment which covers
that bed. The extent of the knowledge thus acquired may be gauged from the fact
that it occupies a considerable space in the fifty quarto volumes—the ‘ Challenger
Publications ’—which it took Dr. John Murray twenty years to bring out. But
710 REPORT— 1897.
that great undertaking has only, as it were, laid down the general features of the
oceanic world. There is plenty of room for further research in this direction. Our
own surveying ships, which are constantly at work all over the world, do a certain
amount of oceanic work, apart from mere surveying of coasts, and islands, and
shoals. In 1895 one of these found in the South Pacific soundings deeper by 500
fathoms than the deepest on record, that found twenty years earlier by the
‘Tuscarora’ to the north-east of Japan. The deepest of these new soundings was
5,155 fathoms. In the interests of science, as well as of cable-laying, it is
desirable that our surveying ships should be encouraged to carry out work of this
kind more systematically than they do at present. This could surely be arranged
without interfering with their regular work, We want many more observations
than we now have, not only on ocean depths, but on the nature of the ocean-bed,
before we can have a satisfactory map of this hidden portion of the earth’s surface,
and form satisfactory conclusions as to the past relations of the ocean-bed with
what is now dryland. I believe the position maintained by geologists, that from
the remote period when the great folds of the earth were formed the present
velations between the great land-masses and the great oceans have been essentially
the same; that there have no doubt been great changes, but that these have been
within such limits as not to materially affect their relations asa whole. This is a
problem which further oceanic research would go a long way to elucidate. That
striking changes are going on at the present day, and have been going on within
the human period, cannot be doubted. Some coast-lines are rising; others are
falling. Professor John Milne, our great authority on Seismology, has collected
an extremely interesting series of data, as to the curious changes that have taken
place in the ocean-bed since telegraphic cables have been laid down. The
frequent breakages of cables have led to the examination of the sub-oceanic
ground on which they have been laid, and it is found that slides and sinkings
have occurred, in some cases amounting to hundreds of fathoms. These, it is im-
portant to note, are on the slopes of the Continental Margin, or, as it is called, the
Continental Shelf, as, for example, off the coast of Chili. It is there, where the
earth’s crust is peculiarly in a state of unstable equilibrium, that we might expect
to find such movements; and therefore soundings along the Continental Margins,
at intervals of say five years, might furnish science with data that might be turned
to good account.
As an example of what may be done by a single individual to elucidate the
present and past relations between land and sea, may I refer to an able paper in
the ‘ Geographical Journal’ of May, 1897, by Mr. T. P. Gulliver, a pupil of Professor
Davis, of Harvard, himself one of the foremost of our scientific geographers? » Mr.
Gulliver has made a special study on the spot, and with the help of good topo-
graphical and geological maps, of Dungeness Foreland on the south-east coast of
Kent. Mr. Gulliver takes this for his subject, and works out with great care the his-
tory of the changing coast-line here, and in connection with that the origin and
changes of the English Channel. This is the kind of work that well-trained geo-
graphical students might undertake. It is work to be encouraged, not only for
the results to be obtained, but as one species of practical geographical training in
the field, and as.a reply to those who maintain that geography is mere book-work,
and has no problems to solve. Professor Davis himself has given an example of
similar practical work in his elaborate paper on ‘The Development of Certain
English Rivers’ in the ‘Geographical Journal’ for February, 1895 (vol. v. p. 127),
and in many other publications.
Another important problem to attack, and that in the near future, is that ot
Oceanic Islands. I say in the near future, because it is to be feared that very
few islands now remain unmodified by contact with Europeans. Not only have
the natives been affected, both in physique and in customs, but the introduction of
European plants and animals has to a greater or less extent modified the native
fauna and flora. Dr. John Murray, of the ‘Challenger,’ has set a good example in
this direction by sending a young official from the Natural History Museum
to Christmas Island, in the Indian Ocean, one of the few untouched islands
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 711
that remain, lying far away from any other land, to the south-east of the
Keelings.
What islands are to the ocean, lakes are to the land. It is only recently that
these interesting geographical features have received the attention they deserve.
Dr. Murray has for some time been engaged in investigating the physical con-
ditions of some of the remarkable lakes in the West of Scotland. Some three
years ago my friend and colleague Dr. Mill carried cut a very careful survey of the
English lakes, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society. His sound-
ings, his observations of the lake conditions, of the features on the mergins of and
around the lakes, when combined with the investigation of the régime of the rivers
and the physical geography of the surrounding country, conducted by such accom-
plished geologists as Mr. Marr, afford the materials for an extremely interesting
study in the geographical history of the district. On the Continent, again, men
like Professor Penck, of Vienna, have been giving special attention to lakes, that
accomplished geographer’s monograph on Lake Constance, based on the work of
the five States bordering its shores, being a model work of its kind. But the
father of Limnology, as this branch of geography is called, is undoubtedly Pro-
fessor Forel, of Geneva, who for many years has been investigating the conditions
of that classical lake, and who is now publishing the results of his research. Dr.
Forel’s paper on ‘Limnology: a Branch of Geography,’ and the discussion which
follows in the Report of the last International Geographical Congress, affords a
very fair idea in short space of the kind of work to be done by this branch of the
science. In France, again, M. Delebecque is devoting himself to a similar line
of research; in Germany Ule, Halbfass, and others; Richter in Austria, and the
Balaton Commission in Hungary. I may also here refer appropriately to Mr.
Israel C. Russell’s able work, published in Boston in 1895, on ‘The Lakes of
North America, in which the author uses these lakes as a text for a discourse on
the origin of lake basins and the part played by lakes in the changes studied by
dynamic geology. One of the best examples of an exhaustive study of a lake basin
will be found in the magnificent monograph on Lake Bonneville, by Mr. G. K.
Gilbert, and that on Lake Lahontan by Mr. Israel Cook Russell, published by the
United States Geological Survey; the former is indeed a complete history of the
great basin, the largest of the interior drainage areas of the North American
continent. In the publications of the various Surveys of the United States as
well as in the official reports of the Canadian Lake Surveys, a vast amount of
material exists for any one interested in the study of lakes; in addition, the
elaborate special Reports on the great lakes by the Hydrographic Department.
Indeed, North America presents an exceptionally favourable field for limnological
investigation ; if carried out on a systematic method the results could not but be
of great scientific interest.
Rivers are of not less geographical interest than lakes, and these have also
recently been the subject of special investigation by physical geographers. I have
already referred to Professor Davis’s study of a special English river system. The
work in the English Lake District by Mr. Marr, spoken of in connection with
Dr. Mill’s investigations, was mainly on the hydrology of the region. Both in
Germany and in Russia special attention is being given to this subject, while in
America there is an enormous literature on the Mississippi alone, mainly, no doubt,
from the practical standpoint, while the result of much valuable work on the
St. Lawrence is buried in Canadian official publications.
But time does not admit of my going farther. I might have pointed out the
wide and vastly interesting field presented by what the Germans call Anthropo-
geography, dealing with the interrelations between humanity and its geographical
environment. Geography, Mr. Mackinder has said, is the physical basis of history ;
it is, indeed, the physical basis of all human activity, and from that standpoint
the field for geographical research is unbounded. But I can only hint at this. I
have endeavoured to indicate what are some of the leading geographical problems
of the future, first in order to show at this somewhat critical epoch how very
much yet remains to be done, how many important lines of inquiry are open to the
VA2 REPORT— 1897.
geographical student, and that the possibilities of our science: are, like those of
other departments of research, inexhaustible. My aim has also been to indicate
by actual examples what, in the conception of British geographers at least, is the
field of our subject. We need not trouble greatly about any precise definition so
long as there is such a choice of work for the energies of the geographer. I trust
I have been, to some extent at least, successful in the double object which I have
had in view in this opening address in a country which presents so splendid a field
to the practical geographer.
The following Papers and Report were read :-—
1. Kafiristan and the Kafirs. By Sir Guorce Scorr Rosertson, K.C.S.L-
The paper began with general remarks upon the geographical position of
Kafiristan—the origin of the name, which means the Land of the Infidel par ev-
cellence, according to Muhammedan conceptions. Attention was then drawn to the
dissimilarity this country bears to India in climate, vegetation, and in physical
characteristics. Kafiristan was described as a highland region with a fairly
equable temperature, in spite of great summer heat and heavy snowfall accompanied
by severe cold in the winter. It is made up of an intricate network of mountain
spurs and ridges, without roads, unless hillside tracks, impassable for horses, and
even for dogs in many places, may be so termed. The limited cultivable area is
fairly productive. The scenery varies from tiny sloping fields and orchards, from
luxurious tangles of wild vines and pomegranates to magnificent pine forests,
according to altitude, but invariably includes a large view of profitless hillside and
rock, Some of the higher elevations, where villages are to be found, are strangely
bleak and inhospitable, and the people have a hard struggle to live. Of the inhabit-
ants many interesting details were given, while their manners and habits were
illustrated by a numerous series of lantern slides, made from photographs and
drawings. In feature the Katfirs are distinetly Aryan. They seem to be brave
after the fashion of the North American Indians, shunning for the most part
the open combat, and relying chiefly upon ambushes, night attacks, and surprises.
Of course the poorness of their Weapons compels these modes of warfare. For
the rest, their cupidity, jealousy of one another, and proneness to quarrel make
them difficult folk to live amongst. Their political organisation is feeble, each
valley being the home of a particular tribe, and sometimes of more than one.
Many different languages and dialects are spoken, and internecine strife was rarely
intermitted. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Amir of ‘Kabul made an easy
conquest of Kafiristan as soon as the disturbances all along the border in 1895
left no chief strong enough to fight for a balance of power against the redoubtable
Abdul Rahman. Although no one could say whether the Afghan conquest would
be permanent or not, it seemed fairly certain that the Kafir change of religion from
paganism to Islam, which has now been enforced , would remain. The alteration
could not be for the worse. On the other hand the position and morals of the
women, both deplorable, would be improved, the traffic in children as slaves would
cease, the endless bloodshed on this frontier might be stopped. Nevertheless the
old wild, picturesque life of the Kafirs, terrible and cruel as it was in many respects,
was full of the elements of romance. It gave forth, at times, bright instances of
bravery, devotion, and personal sacrifice. No one could reflect, without sorrow,
on the substitution of self-righteousness, spiritual pride, and austerity, too often
hypocritical, for an ancient faith which, degraded as it was, taught its votaries to
be masterful and free.
2. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa.—See Reports, p. 409.
3. Novaia Zemlia and its Physical Geography.
By E. Detmar Moraan, F.R.G.S.
In this paper recent Russian investigations in Novaia Zemlia are summarised.
In 1895 an expedition commanded by M. Chernysheff visited this island continent
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 713
and passed two months in the southern island, crossing it for the first time from
west to east. *
The views of von Baer ard other earlier explorers that Novaia Zemlia is
veologically connected with the Pai-hoi are correct only as regards the southern
part and Vaigats; the northern part of the southern island, including both sides of
Matotchkin Strait, show a north-westerly strike of the strata, therefore conform-
able, not with the Pai-hoi, but with the Ural.
The folding process in Novaia Zemlia coincided with the Palzeozoic epoch, and
from that time denudation forces have been at work. In this way the system of
cross valleys has been developed and the well-known Matotchkin shar formed.
The glacial period in Europe was contemporaneous with that of Novaia Zemlia.
This was followed by its submergence beneath the ocean, together with vast tracts
of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. This submergence reduced the extent of
the glaciers in the north or mountainous region, entirely obliterating them in the
south, while the formation of deltas dates from the same period.
Novaia Zemlia is now undergoing a new process of glaciation, which will
convert it into an icy wilderness.
Various observations concerning other points of interest are contained in the
paper.
4, Sea Temperatures North of Spitsbergen. By B,. Leicu Situ.
The author in his schooner yacht ‘ Samson’ left Grimsby on May 16, 1871, with
the object of following the Gulf Stream northward. On June 15 he left Tromso,
landed on Bear Island on the 30th, and cruised along the west and north coasts of
Spitsbergen, until the middle of September. In 1872 and 1878 these expeditions
were repeated, and numerous observations of temperature were made by means of
a Miller-Casella thermometer. The result was to prove for the first time the
undoubted existence of warm water beneath the cold surface layer. These facts,
although communicated to ‘Petermann’s Mitteilungen’ and to Professor Mohn by
the author’s Norwegian sailing master, have not until this year been published
by him.
Lat. N. Long. E. | Surface temp. Depths fms. Temp. (max.)
fo} 4 ° / ° fA ° y TV
81 20 18 0 oo 300 42°5
80 10 6 55 34°5 600 39
80 1 6 36 34 50 8 if
80 1 6 36 34 200 / 40
78 34 | 8 8 37 600 poo
77 16 | 4 38 34:5 25 | 32
77 16 4 38 34:5 250 395
76 36 214 31 150 39'5
76 21 0 21 36 150 39°5 |
76 20 0 21 Sil 200 39°5 |
76 20 0 54 33 50 40 |
76 20 O 54 33 200 485
75 50 12 55 40°5 106 345
75 50 12 55 40°5 250 33°5
75 0 13) 15 41°5 100 34
15 0 13 15 41°5 250 42°5 |
74 39 26 16 32°5 30 34 }
74 39 26 16 32°5 100 35D
73 27 20 21 38 100 35
73 27 20 21 38 230 44
714: REPORT —1897:
PRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. Scientific Geography for Schools. By Ricuarp E. Dopeer, Professor of
Geography, Teachers’ College, New York City, U.S.A.
This paper is a plea for the assistance of geographers in the improvement of
geography teaching in America, and particularly the United States. It opens
with a general statement of the present condition of geography teaching and of
the lines of weakness. The aim of geography teaching being to make the pupils
able to gain geographic information for themselves as well as to train their minds
and store them with useful facts, the question arises as to how this aim is to be
secured. The writer pleads for scientifie geography based on a knowledge of the
home conditions. He urges that problems in geography be early introduced in
the school work, that the pupils may be trained, not only in observation and
inference, but in the proving of their inferences. He describes the work in
geography done by pupils of eight and nine years of age at the Teachers’ College,
New York City, the work being carried on by teachers not specially trained in
geography.
In no study can scientific training be introduced as early as in geography, and
the value is inestimable. The need of the improvement is very apparent, and
scientific men should aid in the work.
Assistance can be given by publications of such a character and in such a place
that the teachers may come in contact with them and gain from them. There is
orveat need of lectures, and excursions for teachers under the care of scientific
geographers. Geographical appliances are in many cases poor and scanty. The
aid of the scientitic geographer is needed in carrying out and elaborating in other
parts of the world the excellent plan of the Geographical Association of Great
Britain.
There is also a great need of more publications showing the relation of geography
to history and culture, such publications being particularly applied to the needs of
teachers.
In these and other ways scientific men can, if they will, assist the teachers to a
great extent. The writer urges the co-operation of all in this important work.
2. Report on Geographical Education.—See Reports, p. 370.
3. Forestry in India. By Lieut.-Col. Frep. Bainey, late RL.
In early times the greater part of India was covered with forest, but the land
not cleared for cultivation was, for the most part, denuded by over-cutting and
over-grazing with burning. If denudation has not affected the climate gene-
rally, it has without doubt resulted in the drying up of springs and streams
rising within the areas deprived of the shelter of a crop of trees; and this isa
serious matter in connection with the question of irrigation by canals led from
rivers which are not snow-fed, as well as in localities where damage has resulted
from the formation of ravines and torrents. The permanence of the supply of
timber and other forest produce for the use of the native population and for State
purposes has also been endangered.
‘When the Government wished to take action its powers were found to be
uncertain, for the destructive usages of the people had come to be regarded as
inalienable rights ; and it was necessary to pass a special Forest Law, which, among
other things, provided for the formation of reserved forests, after a full inquiry
had been made into claims, and for the regulation of proved rights within limits
which would not endanger the permanent maintenance of the forests. The work
of ‘settlement’ is now approaching completion in several provinces.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 715
In order to secure the forests from over-felling, and to ensure that all
work done may tend towards the production of the largest quantity of wood of
the kind most desired, working plans are a necessity; and considerable progress
has been made in their preparation. During the dry weather the forests become
extremely inflammable, and vast areas have been annually burnt over from time
immemorial, with the result that the crop is reduced to the poorest possible
condition, or entirely destroyed. Measures have been taken to meet this great
evil, and large areas are now successfully protected.
The controlling staff of the Forest Department is trained in England, but the
candidates follow a course of practical instruction in Continental State forests.
The native executive officers are trained at the Imperial Forest School at Dehra
Dun.
What has been done could not have been accomplished by private enterprise.
The Government has set an example which has been followed by several of the
more important Native States. Much more remains to be done, but forest con-
servancy in India has reached a stage at which its steady progress cannot be
arrested.
4. A Scheme of Geographical Classification.
By Hucu Roserr Mint, D.Se., RSL.
A classification of any branch of knowledge is necessary for the purpose of
recording the several contributions of specialists, and the following scheme of
geographical classification has been worked out practically during the elaboration
of a subject catalogue of geographical literature. The essential primary division -
is into general and special geography. The former, which might equally well be
termed pure or abstract geography, includes all general considerations which do not
depend upon particular places; the latter reduces itself to an index of positions.
It would be served most completely by employing latitudes and longitudes; but
practically political subdivisions must be used.
The first principle in the classification of each great division is to group together
facts of approximately the same order ; thus, e.g., we might take the continent as the
first order of classification in the second division, the country as the second, and
the province and county as the third and fourth. It would be fatal to the logical
completeness of any scheme to mix up the three orders in one category. The
number of orders to be adopted would depend to some extent on the detail
required, but practically four would suffice, and in many cases three. A con-
venient notation would facilitate classification, and one is suggested in the paper
whereby the various orders are distinguished by letters of different type and by
numerals.
Outline of Classification.
GEOGRAPHY, GENERAL. [To the second order. |
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY in gene- | Climatology.
ral :— Oceanography.
Geodesy. | Bro-GzroGRAPHY in general :—
Surveying. | Distribution of plants.
Cartography. Distribution of animals,
Globes and models. | ANTHROPO-GHOGRAPHY in general :—
Geographical instruments.
PuystcaL GrogRaPHy in general :— Historical geography.
Geomorphology. Political geography.
| Ethnography.
|
Mountains in general, Commercial geography.
Earthquakes. Geographical education.
Glaciers. Place names.
Lakes. Geographers’ biographies.
Rivers.
716 REPORT—1897.
GEOGRAPHY, SpectAL, [Divisions of the first order only. |
The Earth as a whole.
THE Lanpd as a whole. THE OcnAN as a whole.
HUROPE. ATLANTIC OcEAN (seas and islands as
ASIA. subordinate divisions).
AUSTRALASIA. Iyp1an Ocran (seas and islands as
Paciric Istanps. subordinate divisions).
AMERICA as a whole. Paciric Ocran (seas only),
NortH AMERICA. SoUTHERN OCEAN.
CENTRAL AMERICA AND West INDIEs.
SourH AMERICA.
AFRICA.
Poxtar Reerons.
5. On the Distribution of Detritus by the Sea.
Sy Vaueuan Cornisu, W.Sc., £.R.GS., FCS.
The object of this investigation is to explain the processes which distribute the
detritus that enters the sea at its margin. ‘The processes can be deduced from the
observed mode of occurrence of terrigenous materials on the foreshore and on the
sea bottom, from the mode of occurrence of the rocks, from the motions of sea
water, from the circumstances of attrition, from the behaviour of dust, and from
the motions of individual pebbles and grains of sand.
The author deals in considerable detail with the motions of water due to tides
and waves, and the transporting effects of these motions.
It is shown that the transport of fine mud downhill from the coast seawards is
not due to the action of gravity.
Shoals and beaches (persisting structures of changing material) are dealt with
in a manner similar to that employed by the author in the study of sand dunes
(‘ Geographical Journal,’ March 1897).
It is shown that the usual reasoning from the behaviour of individual pebbles
and sand grains to the behaviour of beaches is vitiated by the neglect to take
account of the fact that the variation in the proportion of the ingredients greatly
exceeds the variation in the mobility of the individuals.
The paper, which will appear zz extenso in the ‘Geographical Journal,’ com-
prises the following heads: viz., The Motions of the Sea, Mud Flats cf the Deep
Sea, The Sifting of Sand from Shingle, The Formation of a Shingle Beach, The
Origin of the Ridge and Furrow Structure of a Shingle Ness, The Grading of
Beach Material (under which heading the case of the Chesil Beach is discussed),
Sandy Beaches, The Origin of the ‘Low’ and ‘Ball’ of a Sandy Shore, The
Accumulation of Sandy Forelands and Sandbanks, and The Contours of Coasts.
6. On certain Submarine Geological Changes.
By Joun Mitnzg, F.RS., F.GS.
This communication was largely an epitome of a lengthy paper on ‘ Suboceanic
Changes’ published in the July and August numbers of the ‘Geographical
Journal.’ To this, however, a few new but important observations were
added.
The author pointed out that the general result of denudation on the land was
to bring materials to a lower level, and by gradually wearing away excrescences
like mountain heights to render such forms more stable. Beneath the sea these
materials are accumulated in slopes, which, being formed largely under the
influence of gravity, are unstable. As the deposits grow, from time to time facial
slidings take place from weight alone, and from the escape of fresh water from
subterranean springs. The most important cause of submarine landslides are the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. Ga
shakings accompanying submarine earthquakes, these disturbances resulting in
effects at least equal to, but probably greater than, those we see produced upon the
land. Observations conducted over many years have shown that earthquakes,
which are announcements that adjustments in strain or isostasy of rock masses are
in progress, are much more frequent along the submerged slopes of the con-
tinental plateau than they are on land, which leads to the conclusion that the
districts of greatest secular movements on the surface of our planet are to be found
beneath the ocean. The best evidence for these facts is furnished by submarine
eables.
Besides interruptions due to waves, the borings of teredo, and other operations
in shallow water, we have a class of interruptions at comparatively great depths,
in some instances exceeding 2,000 fathoms. In almost all these instances, which
do not occur in the flat plains of ocean beds, but along the edge of submarine
banks and the edges of the submerged continental frontier, the cables are
apparently buried by the sliding downwards of large bodies of materials from
higher levels. The result of this is that it has often happened that two or three
abiss 10 or 15 miles apart, have been destroyed simultaneously. Many examples
were given where an earthquake, more or less severe, has keen felt on land, and
af the same moment a cable has been broken. In some instances when this has
occurred, an impulse has been given which has thrown an ocean like the Pacific
into a state of agitation for a period of one or two days.
When these submarine disturbances have been great the resultant earth
movement has been such that, with suitable instruments, it might be recorded at
any point upon the surface of the globe.
The most remarkable observations connected with submarine earthquakes are,
however, those which have resulted in changes of depth up to at least 200 fathoms
over considerable areas. To study these submarine dislocations, and to determine
whether cables have been interrupted by artificial operations such as accompany
war, or by natural means, horizontal pendulums which will record the unfelt
movements of the earth’s crust should be established round the shores of all our
continents and on oceanic islands. The importance of these observations to our
colonies must be apparent.
Another set of phenomena which promise to throw light upon the fluctuations
in the enormous strains within the rocky envelope of our planet, which sometimes
culminate in fractures, 100 or more miles in length, are the records of magneto-
meters. The effect of torsional and other strains on the magnetic conditions of
iron and nickel is well known, and it may reasonably be supposed that kindred
effects may be induced by strain in rock-masses. At all events, at three magnetic
stations on the coast of Japan, commencing in one case a week, and in another
about two weeks, before the great earthquakes of 1896 in that country, the instru-
ments showed marked but abnormal movements, these being greatest at the
station nearest to the seismic foci. They reached a maximum some hours before
the shocks took place, after which unusual displacements ceased.
Should future observations confirm that which is here noted, we shall then
have at our disposal another method of gaining information of changes in opera-
tions, the scene of which is hidden from our view not only by the oceans but by
the solid rock.
7. The Congo and the Cape of Good Hope, 1482 to 1488.
By E. G. RAvENstEIN.
The discovery of the Congo and of the Cape of Good Hope constitutes two of
the most interesting episodes in the history of geographical exploration. Apart
from the legends on Behaim’s globe, which must be accepted with caution, not a
single original report by one of those who took part in these voyages has reached
us, and hence the information given even in the best accredited histories of geo-
graphical exploration is erroneous in several important particulars. Recently,
however, the inscriptions upon some of the columns set up by the early Portuguese
navigators have been deciphered ; several ancient manuscript maps have become
718 REPORT—1897.
available, and even one or two contemporary documents bearing upon the subject
have seen the light. ‘I'his enables us to give a more trustworthy account of these
early voyages,
‘When King Alfonso died in 1481 the whole of the western coast of Africa, as
far as Cape Catherine, had been discovered. King John, his successor, entered
heart and soul into the business of exploration so successfully carried on by his
ancestors. In 1482 (and not 1484) he despatched Diogo Cao on his first voyage,
which led to the discovery of the Congo and of the coast to the south of that river
as far as lat. 18° 27’S. After his return, on April 14, 1484, the explorer was
knighted, and figures of the two columns which he had erected were introduced
into the coat of arms which was granted him. He set out again almost imme-
diately, and succeeded in revealing the coast as far as Cape Cross in lat. 21° 53’ S.
Tfa legend on Germano’s old chart can be trusted, he never returned from this
expedition, but died near the last column erected by him. Martin Behaim claims
to have commanded one of the ships of this expedition ; and although it is possible
that he was a member of it, he certainly did not play the important part as captain
or ‘cosmographer’ which he claimed. His reputation is based upon a globe the
manufacture of which he superintended at the request of the town council of his
native town, Nurnberg (1492), and a passage in Barros’ ‘ Asia,’ which mentions
him as a member of a board of mathematicians, instituted by King Jobn to devise
a method of determining latitudes by means of meridian altitudes of thesun. This,
however, is alla myth. Long before the time of Behaim, and even before Regio-
montanus, his alleged teacher, such tables had been prepared by Zacuto, a learned
Spanish Jew, and these tables, as also the astrolabe, were in use among Portuguese
mariners long before Behaim first came to Lisbon, in 1484, and there is no reason
to assume that Behaim ever took an interest in scientific work. His globe shows
that he was thoroughly incompetent, for in laying down the part of the coast
which he claims to have personally visited he errs to the extent of 24 degrees in
latitude.
In 1486 an expedition from Benin brought news that there resided, at a con-
siderable distance in the interior, a powerful Christian king, who was at once
identified with ‘Prester John’ of Abyssinia. King John forthwith despatched two
expeditions, both of which started in 1487, the one, including Paiva and Covilhao,
by land, the other, under Bartholomew Dias, by sea. Covilhao reached India,
journeyed along the east coast of Africa as far south as Sofala, and ultimately
entered Prester John’s country. Dias doubled the Cape of Good Hope, probably,
at the beginning of 1488, and followed the coast as far as the Great Fish River,
when his crews insisted upon being taken home. Thus the possibility of reaching
India by sailing all round Africa had been demonstrated, and the realisation of the
far-reaching plans of Henry the Navigator only became a question of time.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Institutions engaged in Geographic Work in the United States.
By Marcus Baker, Vice-President of the National Geographic Society.
The paper, written at the suggestion of the Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard, is a
summary account of the principal Federal and State organisations which have con-
ducted important geographical explorations and surveys in the United States
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 719
during the century: it is designed to give such an account of these institutions, of
their history and of their methods and results, as will bring out the relations
among the institutions and introduce a somewhat more detailed account of the
work of particular surveys and bureaus presented by other American repre-
sentatives.
2. A Brief Account of the Geographic Work of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. By T. C, MENDENHALL, formerly Superintendent of
the Survey.
This paper begins with a summary sketch of the history of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey since its creation in 1807, and proceeds to describe the
development and improvement of methods, as well as the extension of the work
from the bays and harbours of the middle Atlantic slope to all portions of the
American coast. The methods, purposes, and results of the transcontinental
triangulation are set forth, together with leading features of the work in the
measurement of gravity for the purpose of determining the figure of the earth and
controlling the detailed surveys. The precise determination of latitudes and
longitudes is also described, and the methods and extent of mapping are indicated.
Reference is made also to the preparation of the coast pilots and to the deter-
mination of terrestrial magnetism, \c.
3. The Hydrography of the United States. By F. H. Newenn, Chief of
the Division of Hydrography of the United States Geographical Survey.
This is an account of the development of hydrographic surveys in the United
States up to the present date. All of those surveys are relatively recent, and it is
shown that the period of exploratory work has passed—already the locations of
streams and lakes are known. The second stage of progress in which the volume
and fluctuations of the water are ascertained has been entered upon; the study of
the applications of these determinations to welfare is just beginning, The field of
inyestigation is first outlined, and the purposes of the investigation are set forth ;
then the investigations are described in some detail for the purpose of indicating
methods and suggesting applications; and the paper closes with a summary state-
ment of results.
4, The Coastal Plain of Maine. By Professor Witutam Morris Davis.
Southern Maine is bordered by a narrow and irregular coastal plain, dissected
by numerous small valleys. It is ordinarily the case that coastal plains are limited
by sub-parallel lines marking the former and present shore line of the region, as
may be seen in the typical example that skirts the eastern margin of the Deccan
in India. But the coastal plain of Maine has a most irregular inner and outer
boundary, and its surface is interrupted here and there by ridges and hills of
rugged rocky surface, similar to that of the oldland further inland. The inner
boundary or former shore line is irregular, because it marks the edge of a partly
submerged hilly region at the time the clayey strata of the plain were accumu-
lating. The outer boundary is irregular, because the period of submergence and
deposit did not endure long enough to produce a smooth sea-bottom ; hence, when
the plain was revealed by elevation, the new shore line was little less ragged than
the old shore line, and time enough has not yet passed for its simplification, even
by the strong Atlantic waves. The streams and rivers, extended from the oldland
across the plain, have incised valleys along their consequent courses, Thus the
surface of the plain is to-day of moderate inequality of form, At many points the
_ streams have cut down their channels upon buried ledges, and thus falls are
_ developed. In coastal plains of simpler form such falls occur only near the inner
Pi border of the plain; here they may occur close to the outer border, and this is no
f
720 REPORT-—1897.
small advantage, as it gives the largest possible volume to the fall and places it
near sea transportation.
Although of small area and modest relief, the coastal plain of Maine between
the oldland behind it and the sea in front exercises a manifest control on the
distribution and occupation of the people. The irregular shore line affords many
harbours ; here fishermen and boatbuilders are found. The numerous waterfalls
define the sites of manufacturing villages and cities. The smoother parts of the
plain are occupied by farmers, who utilise the adjacent ridges and hills of the old-
land for pasture and woodland. The oldland itself, unless well sheeted with glacial
drift, is rugged and inhospitable, and the sad little farms in occasional clearings
there are in marked contrast to the thrifty and well-to-do houses and barns on the
plain itself,
5. The Unification of Time at Sea. By C. E. Lumspen.
6. The Barren Lands of Canada, By J. B. Tyrretr, IA., B.Sc.
The ‘Barren Lands,’ or more properly the Northern Plains and Prairies of
Canada, cover an area of about 400,000 square miles between the Mackenzie River
and Hudson Bay, extending from the coast line of the Arctic Ocean down to the
general northern limit of the forest. On the west coast of Hudson Bay they reach
southward to north latitude 59°, and thence their southern boundary extends in a
north-westerly direction, roughly at right angles to the magnetic meridian, to
within a short distance of the mouth of the Mackenzie River, crossing the Kazan at
Ennadai Lake, the Telzoa River at Boyd Lake, and keeping some distance back
from the shore of Great Slave Lake.
In general character the country is a vast undulating, stony plain, thinly
covered with short grass, while rounded rocky hills rise here and there through
the stony clay. It can be divided into two fairly distinct portions, viz., the
‘Coastal Plain,’ which rose from beneath the ocean in post-Glacial times, and the
“Tnterior Upland, with a somewhat more pronounced topography, just as it was
left at the close of the Glacial epoch.
The whole country slopes gently towards the north-east, and the three main
streams which drain it have a more or less parallel course in that direction. These
streams are the Back or Great Fish River, with a total length of 650 miles; the
‘felzoa or Doobaunt River, with a length of 750 miles; and the Kazan River, with
a length of about 490 miles.
The author showed illustrations, drawn from photographs, exemplifying the
general character of the country, its herds of reindeer, and its native inhabitants.
7. Geographic Work of the United States Geographical Survey.
By Cuartes V, Watcort, Director of the Survey.
The paper begins with the summary sketch of geographic surveys in the
United States prior to the organisation of the United States Geographical Survey
in 1879, and then sets forth the methods and progress of the geographic surveys
conducted by this bureau. The surveys are designed for mapping on scales of
1: 62,500 and 1: 125,000; and the work is drawn and engraved on copper in the
office of the survey ; the mapping is in sheets, each covering a quarter of a square
degree for the larger scale and one-sixteenth of a square degree for the smaller
scale, and each is engraved on three copper plates for printing in three colours—
black for the projection and culture, &c., blue for the hydrography, and brown for
the hypsography or vertical relief (which is expressed in contours), The purpose
of these maps is to form a basis for the geographical surveys and the general
geological maps of the United States, which it is the primary function of the survey
to execute. The geographic surveys have already extended over about 760,000
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 721.
square miles, and are represented on nearly a thousand map sheets. The author
proceeds finally to point out some of the various uses of the survey and resulting
facts in addition to the purely geologic applications.
8. The Topographical Work: of the Geological Survey of Canada.
by J. Waite.
This paper treats of the topographical work of the Geographical Survey from
its inception in 1841 to the present time.
In the absence of anything like a general geodetic survey of the Dominion the
Geological Survey, as the only organisation charged with the mapping of the
country as a whole, has been forced to undertake extensive surveys and explora-
tions.
The operations in the field may be divided under two heads :—
1. The reconnoissance and exploratory surveys of the unexplored and the less
accessible areas of Northern and Western Canada.
2. The detailed surveys, for mapping on regular scales, of the more accessible
and the settled portions.
9. The United States Daily Weather Survey. By Professor Wiis L.
Moorsz, LL.D., Director of the United States Weather Bureau.
It is the purpose of this paper to present a summary sketch of the work of the
Weather Bureau in ascertaining the various features controlling climate in the
United States and in adjacent territory. To this end the growth of the bureau is
sketched and the methods pursued in various stations and offices, extending from
the Pacific to the Atlantic, are described. Special note is made of recent extensions
in the service into Mexico on the south-west and Canada on the north, and plans
for extending the work into the West Indies are developed. Special attention is
given also to the recent improvement in forecasting through the use of kites, by
which the condition of the air is determined at altitudes of one to two miles above
the land surface.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Economic Geography of Rhodesia. By F. C. Szxovs.
The author traces the history of the British occupation of South Africa, and
goes on to discuss the economic geography of the country, mainly with regard to
agriculture.
The form of the land, an elevated plateau, insures a generally healthful climate,
and avoids the most serious drawback to European colonisation in tropical Africa.
Fever is still common in many parts, but may be confidently expected to disappear
in the more elevated regions when the land is cultivated and the swamps are
drained. The superior healthiness of Western Matabeleland is attributed to the fact
that for sixty years the land has been cultivated by a relatively dense population.
With regard to agriculture and cattle-rearing, the present visitation of rinder-
pest is an epidemic, and not the usual condition of the country. Locusts, which
have recently wrought much damage to crops, come periodically, but in ordinary
times Rhodesia is healthy for cattle and fertile for grain. Irrigation will achieve
much in many parts of the country. There may never be a great export of agri-
cultural produce, but Rhodesia bids fair to be self-supporting and to supply the
whole population drawn into the country by its mineral wealth,
Details are given in the paper drawn from the author's residence in South
Africa for twenty-five years,
1897, oA
722, REPORT—1897.
2, A Journey in Tripoli. By J. L. Myrus, IA.
3. On the Direction of Lines of Structure in Eurasia.
By Prince Kroporkin.
The aim of this paper is to put in evidence the importance of certain directions
which prevail in the main lines of orientation of plateaus and chains of mountains
in Asia and Europe. The very important part played by erosion and denudation
in the shaping of the orographical features of the continents is well known; but
even after that agency has been fully taken into account, we find in Eurasia two
main directions which are followed by the chains of mountains and the plateaus;
namely, ae 8.W. to N.E., and from N.W. to S.E., or rather from N.W. by W.
to S.E. by E.
In Asia, the prevalence of these two directions is quite evident. Of the two
great plateaus which make the backbone of Asia—the Asia Minor plateau and
the great plateau of East Asia—one runs N.W. to S8.E., and the other runs 8.W.
to N.E, The border ridges of these plateaus, as well as the ridges which are
situated on the plateaus, and the Alpine tracts which fringe them all follow the
one or the other direction. And the better the orography of Central Asia is
known the more distinctly these two directions appear on our maps.
The broad features of the orography of East Asia which were mapped out by
the author in 1876 were extended by Petermann to the south-western parts of
Central Asia, and were embodied into his map of Asia for Stieler’s Atlas. They
seem now to be pretty generally accepted. The Stanovoi Khrebet, which ran W.
to E. on our older maps, has disappeared; the high plateau with its lower terrace
and the Great Khingan bordering that lower terrace, as well as the series of
parallel ridges running N.E., parallel to it, which he ventured to indicate then, are
by this time figured on most of our maps. It may be said that the investiga-
tions which were made within the last twenty-five years further and further
confirmed this conception of East Asia’s orography. The Nan Shan system, the
Altyn-tagh, and the several chains of the Kuen-lun; the mountain ridges of the
Darvaz ; the high chains of the Khan-Tenzri system ; the Great or Ek-tag Altai;
and the mountain ridges on the middle Hoang-ho, which all were traced twenty
years ago in all directions, take now on modern maps the orientations 8. W. or
N.E., or N.W. to S.E. And we see more and more distinctly appearing on the
maps of Asia that immense plateau—extremely similar to the great plateau of
Western North America, though directed N.W. instead of N.E.—which divides
Asia into two parts, entirely differing from each other in their climate, vegetation,
and al] general geographical characters; so much so that the vegetation on the
S.E. slope of the great plateau (Amur region) is much more like to the vegetation
of British Columbia than to the vegetation of West Siberia.
Professor Mushketoff’s researches in the Tian Shan have revealed another fact
of very great importance; namely, that the upheavals running towards the N.E.
are the oldest ones (Archzan or Paleozoic), while those chains of mountains
which run S.E. to N.W. are more recent—that is, belong to the Mesozoic times.
In Europe the same two directions have the same prevalence. The Urals
appear now to consist of upheavals, or rather of mountains and plateau slopes
running alternately N.E.and N.W. The leading feature of Scandinavia’s oro-
graphy are: lines of high plateaus running N.E. into the peninsula of Kola, and
a lower terrace running also N.E., from Scania to Finland. In Russia the
dominant feature (altered here and there by erosion) is the central plateau, which
runs from the Carpathians to the Middle Urals, all physical and even economical
features of the country (fertility of the soil, crops, &c.) being subordinated to this
leading feature. In Caucasia and Asia Minor the plateau which stretches from
West Armenia to Daghestan (S.W. to N.E.) and the main chain running N.W.
to 8.E. are the dominant features.
In Bosnia, Montenegro, Albania, and Macedonia the N.W. direction prevails,
while the north-eastern prevails in the Alps. In the Pyrenees we find (as in the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 7238
Urals) a complex of two chains running N.W. in the centre (Schrader’s Map), and
two chains running N.K. on both ends of the main massif; while the Sierras de
Estrella, de Gata, de Gredos, and Guadarrama, and the chains of Sierra Morena of
Murcia and Granada assume the N.E. direction. The central plateau of France
and the mountains of Scotland are again instances in point.
Of course these two directions are not exclusive. The eastern Tian Shan,
some mountains of Minusinsk, and, may be, the Balkans are instances of the W. to
E. direction, and faint traces of meridional upheavals (which may continue even now
to be going on) may be indicated. Chains en échelon (Spain, North Asia) must also
be mentioned ; as also curved border ridges grown on the edges of plateaus, espe-
cially along the N.W. border of the high plateaus of Asia, where the deepest
depressions lie at its borders (southern shore of Caspian, Lake Baikal). Various
causes may contribute to produce this growth of mountains along the edges of
plateaus, especially if these chains have originated at a period when the
plateaus were continents surrounded by the ocean.
The fact that the two great plateaus of Asia and North America—the two
oldest backbones of the two continents—converge towards Behring Strait, in the
same way as at the present time the continents have their narrow extremities
pointing towards the South Pole, deserves a special attention. This ‘fact may be
one more confirmation of the hypotheses which look for general telluric, or even
perhaps cosmical causes in order to explain the origin of mountains altogether,
4, Potamology as a Branch of Physical Geography.
By Professor ALBRECHT PEeNcK, Vienna.
The paper shows the necessity of a profound study of rivers as a department of
physical geography, equivalent to oceanography and limnology. This branch may
be called potamology. It can be treated under five different heads—
. The physics of running water.
. The bulk of water and its fluctuations.
. The action of water on its bed.
. The distribution of rivers on the earth.
. The rivers as a scene of organic life.
Or 09 Lo
The author points out that the physics of running water are not known to such
a degree that a formula for the mean velocity could be established, the existing
ones being in general incorrect. He farther gives an account of some new results
obtained by him concerning the bulk of water of Central European rivers and its
relation to precipitation; he expresses the wish that measurements of the quantity
of water of the larger rivers should be undertaken, and that the results of gauge-
observations should be published in a regular way, as are the results of meteoro-
logical observations. He proves the necessity of studying the movement of river
grayels, and of publishing maps of river-bottoms. He shows that there is still a
want of exact knowledge of the magnitude of river-basins and river-lengths of
European and North American rivers, and refers to some difficulties in determining
those quantities. As to rivers which by climatic causes are not constantly
running, he agrees that extreme values of their catchment basins and lengths
should be determined. While acknowledging what had been already done for the
study of ‘rivers for practical purposes (irrigation, floods, navigation), he holds that
much remains to be done in order to establish a scientific potamology,
5. Geographical Development of the Lower Mississippi.
By E. L. Corruiny.
342
724 ‘ REPORT—1897.
6. South-eastern Alaska Geography and the Camera.
By Orro J. Kiorz.
7. The First Ascent of Mount Lefroy and Mount Aberdeen.
By Professor H. B. Dixon, /.4.S.
8. Mexico Felix and Mexico Deserta. By O. H. Howarts.
The physical structure of the region comprised in the Mexican Republic, viz.,.
that of a high plateau of some 550,000 square miles in area, fringed by a narrow
belt of low-lying lands on either coast, has led to its being usually described
under three climatic divisions—the Tierra Caliente, or Hot Lands, the Tierra
Templada, or Temperate Lands, and the Tierra Fria, or Cold Lands. For practical’
purposes such a description can hardly be said to afford any strict geographical
definition, inasmuch as the climatic conditions of any particular locality are not
dependent only on temperature, but also on altitude, rainfall, evaporation, forest
growth, proximity of ocean waters, and other modifying causes, all of which
operate in varying degrees at different latitudes. Omitting the coast levels, which
are essentially tropical in character, though not wholly within the tropical
limits, and the higher mountain ranges of the interior, it isto be observed that the
general characteristics of that portion of Central America are still subject to much
misapprehension in the minds of those unacquainted with Mexico. Regarding
the conditions of human life and prosperity, it occurs to me that the general
distinction into ‘ Mexico Felix’ and ‘ Mexico Deserta’ is somewhat more to the
purpose; and it will be seen that those conditions have little to do with mere
temperature by itself—still less with actual latitude.
From a breadth of some 1,200 miles at the United States frontier, on about the
30th parallel, the continent narrows gradually throughout its south-easterly trend
to one of only 120 miles at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, widening again at the
borders of Guatemala, some 14 degrees further south, before it contracts finally
to a 45-mile strip at Panama. From the general altitude of 3,000 to 4,000
feet, extending through the south of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas (U.S.A.),
there is a further gradual rise beyond the course of the Rio Grande, and a
general level of 5,000 feet and upwards is maintained for 1,200 miles, until, south
of the city of Mexico, it declines again by a series of terraces to under 2,000 feet,
mounting up once more in the States of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Chiapas. Yet the
mean temperatures and evaporation are considerably higher, and the rainfall lower,
in the northern portion of this tract than in the south, which is commonly supposed
to belong to the torrid regions of the earth. While the mean temperature during
last year in the city of Mexico was slightly under 60° (Fahr.) that of Monterey, in
the State of Nuevo Leon, was over 74°; whereas at the city of Oaxaca, 300 miles
further south than Mexico City, and at 2,000 feet less elevation, it was no more
than 67°, The northern States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon preserve
largely the characteristics of Nevada and Arizona, comprising vast arid plains of
sage-brush, mosquite, and cactus, intersected by treeless mountain ranges, and
forming a zone between the regions of winter and summer rains upon which the
latter intrude but sparsely and only in occasional seasons. Hence it is that in the
southern States of North America the higher rainfall, together with the altitude and
approximation of the oceans, has developed a climate both healthier and more
equable, and a vegetation which in the north is only found in patches or amongst
the heights of the coast ranges.
Perhaps the evidences of this peculiarity which possess the most direct interest
for us are those bearing upon the population of these southern regions in remote
ages, the study of which is rapidly leading us to assign to them an antiquity at
least as great as any of which the world holds any record.
~I
ho
cr
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Material Conditions and Growth of the United States.
By Henry GANNETT.
2. Geographical Pictures. By Hucu Ropert Mit, D.Sc., PRS L,
(With Lantern Illustrations.)
In view of the prominent place now taken by photography in the work of all
travellers it is necessary to urge the importance of taking pictures which are
geographically as well as photographically ‘good.’ Such pictures must be truth-
ful and representative, the utmost care being taken to avoid distortion, to supply
some indication of scale, and to bring out the characteristic features. General
views comprehending a considerable area are desirable for showing types of land-
forms or sites of towns. Pictures on a larger scale are desirable for showing the
detail of special features, such as varieties of architecture, means of transport, or
agricultural processes related to certain geographical conditions. As far as possible
every geographical picture should show something distinctly illustrative of a natural
feature or a local condition peculiar to the place where it was made, or at least
characteristic of it. The handsomest house in a village, the rarest foreign tree in
a park, or the prettiest view in a district, represents the sort of subject most often
photographed, and they are precisely those of least geographical value. The
paper was illustrated by numerous lantern views of typical scenery, people, and
processes of geographical significance.
3. Geographical Wall-pictwres. By Professor ALBRECHT PENCK.
Geographical education needs means of representation. The student should not
have only the knowledge of facts, he must be enabled to represent to himself the
features of the earth’s surface. There cannot be any doubt that lantern slides
afford a very good means for helping to get such clear representations as are needed,
but, on the other hand, other means of geographical representation may not be
neglected. The projections of lantern slides are of a mere temporary character,
excellently fitted to illustrate the spoken word, but education needs also means for
impressing deeply the most important features of the earth’s surface into the minds
of the students.
At Vienna we use for this purpose with the greatest advantage the geographical
pictures issued by the establishment of Edward Hobsel. ‘These are printed in
different oil-colours, the size of each being 32:24 inches. The whole collection
embraces now thirty-seven pictures (the price of each being 4s. = $1.00) ; the greater
part (twenty-three) indeed represent European features, but more than one-third
wepresent sceneries of other continents, and six give American views. The high
educational value of the collection concerns the morphology of the earth. Five
pictures represent different types of vegetation forms, the tropical virgin forest,
as well as the Hungarian steppes; nine the forms of the highest mountain ranges
in Europe, North America, and Asia, with their glaciers; four show the different
actions of water; seven pictures illustrate the formation of valleys and the whole
cycle of land-destruction ; four show volcanoes in different parts of the world ; eight
represent types of coastal formation.
The Hobsel collection of the geographical character pictures is now completed
by a set of geographical city pictures of larger size. The pictures of London,
Paris, and Vienna have already appeared. There is also a very good collection of
historical wall-pictures edited by the establishment of Hobsel. The collection
embraces sixty-two sheets, executed after drawings of Professor Lang].
/
726 REPORT—1897.
4, Geography in the University. By Professor Witt1AM Morris Davis.
Geography is inherently of sufficient interest, importance, and disciplinary
value to Ceserve a place in the university on an equal footing with history.
Without such recognition the scientific development of the subject must languish,
as would that of any other subject not represented in higher education. A full
development of geography as a university study requires due attention to its two
parts—the physical environment of man on the one side and his way of responding
to environment on the other side. After due preparation on these fundamental
subjects, the geography of continental or other areas may be taken up.
Two advantageous results may be expected from the full recognition of
geography as a university subject. ‘The first is an advance in the status of
geography in the lower schools, where it is now too often in an unfortunately
degraded condition. The second is a more thorough and scientific record of
travellers’ observations, which are now too often merely personal narratives of
adventure, with little of serious geographical matter.
J
bo
~T
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEecrtion—E. C. K. Gonner, M.A., Professor of Economic
Science in University College, Liverpool.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
In the absence of the President the following Address was read by the Hon. Sir
C. W. Fremantle :—
In the selection of the subject on which I propose to offer, according to custom, a
few remarks to-day, I have been influenced by the wish to choose one which is
not only of present importance, but such that it may provide occasion for the
discussion of the advance which economic study has made, and of the methods
whereby that advance has been achieved. The position of the Labour Question
in modern thought and its economic treatment is a matter well worth attention
from these various points of view. In addition, its consideration cannot fail
to throw light on the connection which exists between the economic growth of a
country and the main developments of Economics asa study. Whatever their
view of the subject itself, few will deny the curiously emphatic position occupied.
by Labour and the various questions relating to it and ite conditions at the present
day. Illustrations present themselves on many sides. Evidence may be adduced
from almost all quarters of literature, even from those seemingly unlikely. To the
novel writer and the novel reader working-class life has formed a continent almost
as newly discovered as that sighted by Columbus and others, or rather by others
and Columbus, in the fifteenth century ; and even when the novelist is chastened
into unnecessary discretion and distant allusiveness in his description of detail and
habits by the fear, perhaps the unnecessary fear, that his audience is less ignorant
than himself, Labour Problems and Labour Difficulties brood like a nightmare in
his mind and leave their mark on his pages. It is the same in other literature,
where they reign in almost undivided monopoly. The ‘working man’ button-holes
the reader in the library and at the news-stall, and stays beside him in the very
discomforting guise of a problem when he sits by the fireside in the evening. And
as in literature so in life, as in life so in public discussion. On all sides there is
the same feature. In all directions there has grown up the same tacit habit of
regarding each question as hardly worth discussion till it has passed the pre-
liminary test not only of its effect on the position of the working class, but of the
view they are likely to take of it; rightly, no doubt, inasmuch as it implies the
consideration of their interests, often neglected in the past; wrongly when con-
strued into the conclusion that all measures or changes which they resent are
necessarily evil. A similar tendency is shown in recent economic literature,
and particularly in that of the past quarter of a century, which treats of the con-
ditions and remuneration of manual labour with force just as undeniable as the
length of the chapters and the number of the books devoted to the subject. What
may be termed the bias of economic studies is very evident. Just as at one time
728 REPORT—1897.
the balance of trade and commercial relations with foreign countries, and at
another currency schemes and currency iniquities, pervaded the atmosphere, so now
Labour and the Labour Question, and writer after writer struggles beneath its
fascination, helpless in his efforts to avoid its introduction in every part of his
work, suitable or unsuitable. Like the reference to the head of a departed
English monarch, it forces an entrance page by page and chapter by chapter.
What a revenge time has brought with it for former neglect! How great the
present prominence is and how recent is shown by a comparison between the sub-
jects discussed to-day and those discussed at the beginning of the present or
during the past century, between the general trend of an economic treatise now
and that of those of the past. Then Labour itself was the subject of bare refer-
ence as an agent of production, and as one, but by no means the chief, factor
requiring payment, and in only a few cases were there traces that its condition
and its environment were even regarded as matters for economists to discuss, while
now there is the risk of other elements escaping attention. It is not the way in
which the subject is dealt with that is insisted on here, but the bare prominence of
the subject, though the former in its turn has changed greatly, the somewhat rigid
impassiveness of the earlier date yielding to expressions of a vivid and personal
sympathy.
On turning to what is the first portion of our task—the consideration of
the causes which have made thus conspicuous one agent in production and one
economic element—the identification or rather the confusion of labour with labour
of one grade calls for remark. Labour is the term used to denote either the work
of one class, the class, that is, which monopolises the title of the working-class,
or all human work necessary to production. In some instances the term is
stretched so far as to include all effort, direct or indirect, involved in production.
But though instances of these different meanings are found in abundance, and
though the second of them is the most strictly consistent, as it expresses the dis-
tinction between personal effort and that which is not personal, Labour when
used emphatically and spelt with a capital initial is almost invariably, so far as
popular usage is concerned, taken as implying some particular reference to the
grade of manual labour. Other labour, skilled labour or labour of management,
if included at all, is treated as comparatively insignificant. To all intents and
purposes by labour, especially when conditions and remuneration are referred to,
is meant manual labour. ‘This restriction in definition is significant and unfortu-
nate. Associations centring round labour in the wider sense come almost imper-
ceptibly to be conceived of as relating to labour in the more narrow meaning of
the word. Coincident with its growth in popular favour, the tendency to restrict the
term has increased. It is true, of course, that in economic writings labour,
when defined, is applied to personal action of all grades and of all degrees of skill,
but even there laxity finds entrance in the frequent unguarded use of slipshod
popular expressions, as the difficulties of labour, the labouring classes, conflicts
of labour and capital, and the like, when by these are meant the difficulties and
interests of one class of labour only. Such, then, is the aspect which confronts
the student of social phenomena in the present day. Considerations respecting
Labour have acquired, and that comparatively recently, an unusually large share
of attention at the very time when the term, in popular usage at any rate, has
been shorn of some part of its meaning and severely restricted in definition.
The causes of the new prominence of this class of labour form a subject of
much importance, for on our knowledge of them largely rest the conclusions as
to the true significance of the problem and the meaning of such results as we
discern. Such knowledge also provides the means of discriminating between
changes due to direct economic movements and those arising out of nothing more
than an altered attitude on the part of society brought about by general causes.
_ To some, no doubt, the explanation of this particular change, and of the pro-
minence of this question, lies in the greater humanity which characterises the
economic thought of the present as contrasted with the past ; to others, in the wide
extension of the franchise, and the admission to political power of the classes
whose interests lie in the above direction ; while others again believe that they
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. ' 729
find it in the subtle changes in the general conceptions of a restless and singularly
receptive society. But these various impulses, important though no doubt
their influence has been, are very general in character, and seem hardly definite
enough to account for a change in thought so distinctive and so unrelieved
in its nature, while all of them are open to the pertinent criticism that they them-
selyes may be due in part, and in large part, to modifications in economic circum-
stances. Were they, or any of them, the sole or even the principal cause, it is
hardly necessary to add that the alteration which hastaken place has been in the way
of looking at things, and not in things which are looked at. Others, again, have
found their answer in the greater degree of certainty and assurance with regard to
economic elements which in earlier times constituted difficulties in the way of
progress and menaced considerable dangers, and it is true that much that may be
urged in this direction is well founded. Capital which, at the beginning of the
present century, was in imminent demand and vastly insufficient for the develop-
ment of industry, has grown, not by any slow if certain increase, but by leaps and
bounds just as certain, and its accumulation under the most varying vicissitudes
has removed the constant apprehensions as to its supply which confront the reader
in early literature. The relation between population and its food supply, which
left an indelible mark on one period of economic thought, has temporarily, at
any rate, retreated into the background with the opening up of new countries, the
discovery of new natural forces, and the observed conditions of the more settled
nations. Again, so far as England is concerned, the adoption—and for the time,
at any rate, the successful adoption—of a Free Trade Policy, led to a lull in the
controversies which raged with regard to tariffs, the balance of trade, and protec-
tion. Less importance, too, has been attached to difficulties involved in the
ownership of the land and the conditions of its cultivation, partly through
measures of economic reform, partly, so far as the older and more settled countries
are concerned, by reason of the subordination of agricultural interests to the grow-
ing and giant industries of manufacture and commerce. Indeed, the only questions
which remain conspicuous by reason either of agitation or intrinsic urgency relate
to currency, a matter which, however pressing, suffers under the popular disad-
vantage that its discussion is seen to require actual knowledge, because of its use
of technical terms, and one which to all of us is of increasing interest, the
economic relations which should exist between the various portions of a widespread
empire, with its aspirations after greater cohesion and co-ordinated though distri-
buted strength. .
But the very fact that in these respects the various nations differ largely,
and that despite these differences the position of the manual labour classes
uniformly impresses itself, though perhaps in varying degree, upon the plastic
mind of the public, suggests the existence of some positive and active force as a
cause for this prominence; and such we find in the alterations in the conditions
of labour, which have led naturally, positively and necessarily to a change in the
estimation in which it is held.
Though the course of economic development during the past century and a half
has differed greatly in various countries, being largely affected both by the par-
ticular stage of progress to which they have attained and by the varying relative
importance of the two great branches of agriculture and manufacture, a change in
the method of employment is common to all. In England this feature is displayed
in stronger and more definite relief, less embarrassed than elsewhere by extraneous
influences ; and it is in England that its nature has been most attentively studied.
There the period has been one of undoubted change. The revolution in the
methods of industry, of which much has been said, had its counterpart in agricul-
ture, less noticed, perhaps, but hardly less important. While in the former the great
mechanical inventions, with the introduction of water and steam power, accelerated
the change already in progress from a system of small and local industries to a
system of great national industry, the agricultural classes were the witnesses of
alterations as vital to their interests, and which were to co-operate in producing a
remarkable alteration in the general conditions of employment. Owing partly to
improvements in agriculture itself, partly to the sweeping effects of the inclosures
730 : REPORT—1897.
and the abolition of common rights, partly to the greater opportunities afforded for
the use of capital by these and other causes, farming came to be carried on in
greater separation from proprietorship, and both the average size of farms and of
properties would seem to have increased. Agricultural labour became more and
more the occupation of a class of agricultural labourers, disassociated from capital
and severed more decisively than before from the ownership of the soil, or the
prospect of independent cultivation. But this was the very change which
took place at much the same time in manufacture. Here, too, the powerful
progress of change was sweeping into the distant past the small master craftsman
with his one or two apprentices and his three or four journeymen. Here, too, in
ever increasing number throng those who are employed with small hope or prospect
of ever employing either themselves or others. The development of the means of
communication and locomotion, at first by road-making and canalisation, and
afterwards by the laying and extension of the vast railway system, set free demand
from those bonds of restriction which had confined it to seek its satisfaction in the
products of the district, and by delocalising demand localised industry. Here and
there, indeed, local industries continued to survive, here and there special circum-
stances stood in the way of the establishment of factories, but elsewhere and in
general there emerged into view the colossal growth of the nineteenth century,
the system of Great Industry. And one feature, and that the most important
feature so far as we are concerned, in industry as in agriculture, was the demar-
cation of those engaged into the classes of Employer and Employed.
This tendency to horizontal cleavage, to borrow an expressive term, which may
be studied in the contrast between the existing systems and those of the past, as
well as in the history of the actual movement, was greatly accentuated by the
blurring of those lines of vertical division which had left districts and local groups
partially self-subsistent and separate ; and, in England and certain other countries,
by the disproportionate increase of the urban population, more closely knit and
more sensitive to sentiments of union and the possibilities of common action.
Non-competing grades have been substituted for non-competing groups. Though
these former are more than two, being many in number and capable of extension
so far as some degree of non-competition is concerned, there are, however, cir-
cumstances inherent in our system which make the separation between the class
of manual labour and the others more complete, and restrict within the most
rigid limits the competition which can take place. It has been said, indeed, that
the leading feature of modern times is the substitution of the cash nexus for the
personal nexus, but it may be doubted if itis really the most important. Pecuniary
payments connect the employers and those who under the more skilled labour of
superintendence control direction and invention, and yet these latter classes rank
themselves and are ranked in general estimation with the employers rather than
with the employed. They are not included popularly, at any rate, under the term
Jabour when labour difficulties are spoken of. We must look somewhat deeper for
wn explanation. There are some three or four characteristics which may serve to
distinguish labour in its popular sense from the other industrial grades.
In the first place, the work is different. Manual labour has to do what is set
before it, the others have to devise what is to be done. Their work is one con-
cerned largely with management and with organisation as a whole, and this quality
not only enables them to realise the entire circumstances of the industry, but in
many cases relieves them from the narrow and unsatisfying consequences of
specialisation or restriction to the performance of particular portions of the com-
mon task. In the second place, the needs of the manual labour class are particular.
Specialisation, and particularly manual specialisation, with its blunting effects on
the mind, requires a powerful corrective. In the third place, the highly-skilled
labour which directs and invents is less decisively removed from the chance of at-
taining to the employing class, and even if few prove successful in this to the full
extent, the functions they exert are closely akin. It is, no doubt, true that no posi-
tive barrier is placed in the way of indefinite rise on the part of those engaged in
Jabour of any kind, however unskilled; but in point of practice the obstacles to be
overcome amount well-nigh to prohibition. In the fourth place, the dependence
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 73L
of several millions of men for their existence on a weekly wage apportioned by
others, and dependent on vicissitudes which they not only cannot control, but do
not foresee, is a very striking fact. A miserable insecurity attaches to their posi-
tion. But a weekly or daily wage and uncertainty are ill companions. Riglitly
or wrongly, the responsibility is attributed to those who pay the wage, and the
inculeation of thritt, with all its good effects, only increases the confusion and
sharpens the censure. The influences thus described have, no doubt, rarely been
operative all to the same effect, and frequently have not been all present at the
same time; but shorn though it be, in one case of one, in another case of anvther,
the change which has passed over the lower and more numerous classes of labour
is substantially the same. Owing to it labour is subject to the condition of
employment by others, and is less responsible in feeling and partly in fact for its
own direction, and for the continuance of the means of earning its own mainten-
ance. To the restrictions of society with some reason, and to those who represent
to him the restrictive influences without reason, the working man vaguely, if not
definitely, attributes want of work, slackness of work, and change of work. Limi-
tations of some kind have always existed, and it would be wrong to ignore the fact
that the condition of the classes in question was far worse when these were the
incidents of custom and external nature than at present; but then in those cases.
the limitations on the action of individuals were both inevitable and impersonal.
In many ways they seem to have interfered less with the innate conviction on the
part of those who were self-employed that failure and success rested on themselves.
But now the whole bulk of the nation is employed by others, Anotheraspect too.
People often resign themselves to the inevitable, but they do not recognise the
inevitable in the actions and opinions of others.
Moreover, there are other influences besides those purely economic which have
added prominence to this important separation into the two classes of Employers
- Employed, a very small class of Employers and a very large class of Em-
ployed.
The extension of political power and political privileges, which has affected the
operative class most of all, has had consequences in more than one direction :
men who become voters exercise a greater influence on public opinion and on the
opinions of their would-be leaders, than is the case when logic and argument
form their only weapons or means of persuasion; and though at times this
may take unpleasant forms, in the main it is a perfectly sound political result.
People are not made voters in order to act as jurors in an abstract question. They
are representative of particular feelings, and are responsible to themselves as
to the whole State for bringing into view the interests which are theirs, and the
amelioration of which forms part of the problem of government. But even more
important in this connection than the influence thus summoned into being for the
redress of much that is ill, is the nature of the relation between political equality
and social equality. No one nowadays, or, to speak accurately, hardly anyone,
believes in the vague and fantastic doctrines which embraced physical and mental
equality, as if the time had come for mankind to be cast in one mould, and for
identity of condition and accomplishments, But still the extension of political
equality may be held to promise something. If not, what can be more vain than
the cry for the extended franchise? A vote by itself is no precious possession if
we consider it mainly as the right to give abstract decisions on matters of more or
less general interest, and as carrying with it no social assurances. Surely a thing
such as this would not have formed the motive of the great enthusiasms, and made
death itself a thing of nought to those who sought it in tumultuous times. But it is
just because it seemed to them to be something more than this that it won its
mastery over their life, and because it is taken to be more than this that the more
recent extensions of the franchise are so significant. They are construed as ration-
ally involving a greater equalisation, so far as human opportunities are concerned,
and as conveying an assurance that there shall not be, so far as society can help
it, any one class condemned to bear from generation to generation the burden and
toil devolving on the lowest ranks of labour. But whether the feeling be rightly
defined, whether it be in itself right or wrong, a belief in such a connection is
732 REPORT—1897.
powerful in making more conspicuous the subject of Labour, especially the position
of Employed Labour.
In another way this subject gains additional prominence, as has been suggested,
by the temporary abeyance of other causes of economic embarrassment, and
insufficient though this might be as a substantive cause, it is impossible to under-
rate its effect as subsidiary in the cause of a change already accomplished and
capable of attracting more interest with each fresh access of attention bestowed
upon it.
i But even these do not exhaust the number of subsidiary causes to which so
much is due. There are others, and though many of them are comparatively
unimportant this is far from being the case with one. The age itself and the
character of the age has much to do with the attention, and especially with the
sympathetic attention, patiently yielded to the problem. To characterise an age is
never easy. It is dificult even when the age is far distant and the human
memory so far kind as to refuse to retain more than one or two pieces of informa-
tion, letting the others slip through and fall into a deep and unrecovered oblivion.
How much more difficult when the epoch is our own? But in this instance
there are some few features so marked and so capable of identification, that one
pauses to ask in amazement if the age of the Renaissance has not dawned upon us
again in an altered guise. The resemblance is the more striking if we take the
general characteristics and aspect of the two periods as distinct from the particular
direction in which the respective movements trend. A renaissance is twofold. On
the one hand it is a time of unrest; due, indeed, to the breaking down of old
ideals and the decay of former springs of conduct and life, but due also to the
magnificent new life quivering to its birth. On the other hand, the meaning of
the particular renaissance is to be found in the nature of its own ideals and the
fresh direction and impetus imparted to life. Briefly, it is not only a change but
a particular change. What the new ideals are and what the new direction, will be
determined by the past history and the present needs of the nation passing through
its time of stress, and groping blindly after the truth which is to give meaning to
its actions, and which it must struggle to express in art and literature and by every
means at its command. Analogies between this present period and that of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries present themselves in different ways. Then, as
now, the time was one of discovery, for the great geographical discoveries of the
earlier epoch find a counterpart in the scientific discoveries which, like them, have
had effects both destructive and constructive; destroying, that is, convictions and
opinions resting on certain narrow conceptions of the sphere of life, but giving
opportunity on the other hand for new ideas and vaster conceptions. Both are
times of a new learning, and though the causes giving rise to the enthusiasm for
knowledge may differ, in both cases knowledge has been sought in a return from
theories rigid and out of consonance with life to life itself and the facts of life, In
the sphere of religion and morals the likeness is strangely evident. In both cases
the particular form of religion was found inadequate, in both cases there was
failure to distinguish between the fleeting form and the abiding reality, and in
both cases there were particular tendencies, largely by way of result, affecting
morals and conduct. In the fifteenth century, as now, these latter were not so
much in the direction of that coarseness which somehow or other is often called
immorality, but rather in that of a lack of moral discrimination and will.
Prejudices are to be put on one side, prejudices as to morals, prejudices as to
the relations of sexes, prejudices as to one thing and the other. What does it
mean? Partly, perhaps, a positive uncertainty—sometimes a pretended un-
certainty—as to right and wrong; partly, again, a wanton and curious desire
to experiment on all sides and everywhere, to gain emotional experience irrespective
ef the means and the cost whereby it is gained. Novelty is allowed to cover a
multitude of sins. Some such impulse reveals itself in the literature and life of
the Renaissance. Do we recognise nothing like it in the present day ?
This peculiar moral attitude has its bearing on the subject of our consideration.
Each age works out its own salvation. The medieval Renaissance found its
salvation in the emphasis of individuality, alike in religion, in the State, and in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 730
industrial activity. Atthe present we seem tending in another direction, and in
response to our needs and our circumstances seeking a positive moral guidance in an
enlarged conception of social duty and solidarity ; and the position which employed
labour occupies with regard to them is sufficient to insure it attention, and not
attention only, but sympathetic attention. Those who have lost their means of
faith in the first commandment of the New Testament turn with feverish haste
to work out their salvation by a stricter attention to the second, and those whose
faith is unimpaired but spiritual vision enlarged perceive that the one is imperfect
without the other. Social regeneration, socialisation, collectivism, social duty,
social action, are phrases which occur in profusion, and, though they disfigure the
language, mark the attitude and give distinction to the actions of the present. In
England, at any rate, the imagination of the people has been struck and its feelings
stirred with regard to this particular problem, which stands out before other
matters sharply marked and conspicuous. ‘
But though it*is true that many general influences have combined to increase
this prominence, its main and original cause lies in the vast economic change which
has swept mankind into two opposite, though not necessarily opposed, classes. To:
realise the history of that change is a first step towards understanding its nature:
and its consequences. But for it it would be possible to interpret present com-
plaints as but:the repetition of those of the past, and as finding prototypes in the
’ outeries which have arisen from time to time from those who brooded over the
contrasts between the poor and the rich. They would mean nothing more than
did many an early pamphlet bearing such a title as ‘England’s Crying Sin with
Regard to the Poor. Or, again, the opposition might be construed as an
antagonism between Labour and Capital, in disregard of the union existing between
labour of a certain kind and capital, and of the confusion which such a distinction
involves between profits and interest.
Of equal importance is the light which history throws upon the present con-
dition of the masses affected by this graye economic change. Its effects might
well have been experienced in two ways. Not only did the power of directing
their lot pass from them to others, resulting in somewhat subtle consequences as
regards the burden and pride of feeling the full responsibility for action, but in
addition it would not have seemed unnatural had they experienced considerable
material injury from a competition against an employing class with a practical
monopoly of capital ; and it is true that the conditions of that competition, which,
be it remembered, determines the division of the product between wages, profits,
and interest, were in one respect altered to their disadvantage. But in another
way, and due to the self-same causes, new opportunities were offered for the
development of organisations which were to turn the balance in their favour.
Till the change of which we have been speaking, till the breaking down of
local divisions which held separate those in like circumstances and of like
interest in different places, till the simplification into one class of employed of so
large a number of those whose means were small, common action for common
ends, as, indeed, any definite control and direction by a central authority, were
impossible. Thus the very forces occasioning change provided the means for its
beneficial regulation. The narrowness of view attributed to a too rigidly
specialised labour has been met by educational advantages which, in England at
any rate, found their occasion in the factory organisation which began to spread
through the country at the close of the eighteenth century. Factory development
has given rise to a control which fails of its effect when called on to penetrate into
the small workshops and the seats of home industries. Dependence on wages finds
a corrective in the growth of benefit societies and the insurance clauses of trade
associations ; separation from management and capital has in some instances been
stayed by schemes for co-operation and profit-sharing ; while the greatest defect of
all, the weakness of employed labour in competition with the allied and resourceful
forces of capital and management, has led to the marvellous organisation of trade
unions and kindred associations. In face of these remedial agencies, and despite
the mismanagement and abuses which have attended many of them, the ill-fate
which seemed at one time to menace the condition of those whose strength lay in
734 REPORT—1897.
manual exertion has not been realised. On the contrary, these classes have shared
to the full in the increased results attending production. According to the most
reliable estimates, their condition has undergone not only absolute but relative
improvement; and this is due largely, if not altogether, to the opportunities con-
cealed in the bosom of the economic causes which affected employment so ominously.
The true remedies are those which arise out of the historical circumstances of
the complaint.
The points which have demanded attention are these. Firstly, the causes,
primarily economic, which have made labour difficulties so prominent; secondly,
the nature of the great economic change resulting in the separation of the labour
under employment from that determining and directing industry ; and thirdly, the
extent to which this has furnished opportunities for the formation of labour
associations, and the development of a State policy for regulating the conditions of
employment. With regard to the latter point much has been said. It has, for
instance, been argued by some that the great modern interdependence of labour of
different kinds, the growth of State control, and the supersession in many directions
of the private employer by large companies, trusts, and syndicates, are indications
of the necessity and possibility of the monopoly and entire management of industry
and commerce by the State. But the simplicity of this remedy, which has proved so
attractive to many who dwell in a world of ideas as far removed as possible from
fact, is an indication of weakness in the eyes of the student of social and historical
phenomena. As he examines the varying moods and forces which unite in the
tangled complex of modern industry and society, as he traces from their growth
the tendencies which have made them what they are, interweaving, counteracting,
modifying and coalescing in the pages of history, he grows aware of the intricacies
of the economic constitution and mistrustful of simple theories based on the
confident recognition of some elements and the neglect, equally confident, of
many others. The one-sided solution is no solution at all. Similarly insufficient
is the reading which finds a confirmation of unrestricted individualistic competition
jn the increased social demand for enterprise and individual energy. The careful
study of the past two centuries enforces several conclusions as to economic tenden-
cies all of which require recognition. In the first place, with the growth of intricacy
and the extension of the area of production and distribution, the free exchange of
commodities has become more and more the one effective means of ascertaining
what is wanted and what are the requirements of the community. In the second
place, so far from there being a diminution, there has been an increase in the
urgent need for eliciting and stimulating individual ability. While, in the third
place, the necessity for State regulation has been enforced and new cpportunities
for it provided.
In turning to the second matter for consideration, the treatment by economists
and in economic writings of Labour and the circumstances of employment,
and its results in providing better means of forming correct judgment and
judiciously guiding action, will occupy our attention. On the importance, in
this respect, of researches into economic history, little need be added. Its
value is felt in every direction. Not only does it discountenance premature
generalisation based on insufficient, and, if I may use the expression, fleeting
data, but it guards us against the still greater danger of first forming con-
clusions on hypotheses, and then forgetfully assuming that these conclusions are
based on observed facts. Viewed more positively, it adds the conception of
organic development and furnishes a large share of the knowledge which forms a
preliminary to judgment, and which should form a preliminary to social action.
But the point to be insisted on here is the enormous recent advance achieved in
this direction. Again, the abstract theory of distribution, dealing with the relation
between various classes of payments, as rent, profits, interest and wages, has
undergone considerable change, owing to the labours of the mathematical school
and other economists, who, starting from the qualitative conceptions first promi-
nently employed by Ricardo, have dealt with the inter-relation of these and their
connection with value. But by far the most notable progress has been in
matters involying quantitative, as well as, or in place of, qualitative admeasurement.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, Vista
Here rank the elaborate and important researches into the effects produced by
alterations in the rate of wages and the hours of labour, into the causes which
condition interest and govern its rate, into the effect of royalties and rents in
various industries and under varying conditions. While as regards general well-
being a vast mass of material has been accumulated, and many careful and sug-
gestive treatises published. We know infinitely more than was known even a
short time back about the effect of occupations on health; the character of working-
class expenditure and the relation between such expenditure and receipts; the
different modes of payment for labour with their respective consequences; the
experiments in co-operation, in profit-sharing, in socialism, in communism, in
municipal and State management, and other different directions; more about
the effect of charity in relation to earnings; about attempts at arbitration, and
the like. We have histories of trade unions, of co-operation, of benefit societies,
and of other associations depending on working men’s efforts for their maintenance
in the various industrial countries. The effects of monopolies and partial mono-
polies resting either on legislative grant or perpetrated in practice have been
carefully examined. Modes of trading, with their almost invariable fringe of
speculation, have been treated of, with the view of ascertaining their influence
on the standard employments of the nations. These are but illustrations, but
they are sufficient for the purpose. They point to active growth in Economics in
regard to this particular subject. On the other hand, they are painfully insuffi-
cient in themselves. We may know more,. but we want to know more still.
Concurrent with the advance in knowledge, the general conceptions of labour and
with reference to its treatment have undergone alteration most marked in three
directions, Labour power is no longer viewed as a mere aggregate of hard and
disconnected units which can be sifted out or increased under the stress or stimulus
of unhindered competition. We recognise that the labour which survives may be
so affected in and by reason of the very process of its selection as to be widely
different from the forces contemplated and required. In social evolution de-
generation, or at any rate variation in the surviving factor, is an almost regular
phenomenon. In the second place, the effects of conditions on efficiency have
been established in a variety of directions, a matter of peculiar importance when
we pass from the contemplation of the working powers available at any given
time to questions of their permanence and their future. In the third place, the
economic change in the circumstances of employment has served to introduce tothe
notice of economists the necessity of certain agencies to counterbalance the lack of
self-direction and responsibility, agencies, that is, of education and combination.
In view of such and other developments, the great need of the present, apparent
nowhere more forcibly than with regard to the matter occupying our attention,
is on the one hand the careful modification of the general body of economic
reasoning in their light, and, on the other hand, continued close inductive study
into the circumstances of both the past and the present. This latter is indeed
necessary. To recognise this does not imply any disparagement of other methods
required in other stages. In many of the subjects already singled out for notice
preliminary deductions have been made and have proved of the highest value.
The theory of non-competing groups, the earliest refutation of the wage-fund
theory, the theory of the effect upon productivity of altered hours and wages, afford
admirable instances of the way in which truths afterwards established on a wide
inductive basis were foreshadowed, and an estimate of their importance attempted
by writers proceeding along the lines of partial observation and large use of
assumption ; but these in common with other like attempts must be regarded as
preliminary. They do not indicate, for instance, the extent to which the element
of which they treat is important. Surely it is just here that we see the necessary
relation and mutual importance of the different methods of study which have some-
times been treated as antagonistic. Preliminary and working theories are neces-
‘sary to the wise conduct of inductive inquiries, but these in their turn are
necessary to formulate a theory which may be something more or something other
than that which it supplants, which is to be representative in place of being
suggestive. But itis a grievous mistake to take the working theory for the necessary
736 , REPORT—1897.
substance, and to assume that the importance of all subsequent researches lies in
their connection with it, and that their function is its general verification and
further development, whereas they may bring about its actual subversion.
A survey of the results achieved in a particular branch of Economics affords
an excellent opportunity for examining the mutual interaction of various methods
of study, and their combined progress. The work of the economists of the
period extending over the close of last century and the earlier portion of the
present one, a period which, as a living economist has well said, has been in-
aptly and unfortunately termed classical, was mainly occupied in preliminary
discussion and in its formulation of theories, some of which dealt with quali-
tative relations, and many of which must be viewed as working theories only.
They dealt, among other matters, with such questions as the connection between
the various classes of remuneration and their relation with value, the distinction
between utility and material, the causes necessitating payment, and the effect of
condition upon the agents of production; but in nearly every one of these
respects very much was left for subsequent generations of students to accomplish,
and the way for inductive research was but prepared. And much has been
accomplished. Theories have been modified, theories have been recast, and new
theories have been formulated.
But this gradual advance in study, necessary though it be and common though
it is to all sciences and subjects, stands at a peculiar disadvantage in the case of
social science, and, to take our particular case, in that of Economics. Here every-
thing is claimed, not only as a working theory for the investigator, but as one for
practical people and the statesman, and error is invested with grave, positive con-
sequences. Incorrect theories as to taxation led to the separation between England
and those colonies which now form the United States of America; unsound eco-
nomic and social theories lit throughout Europe the cleansing if devouring fires of
the French Revolution ; unsound economic theories threatened to sap the vigour
of England in the third and fourth decade of the present century, and, to take a
specific instance, embodied themselves in the opposition to Factory Reform. This
eculiar gravity is at once the difficulty and the importance of economic study.
ut when the mistakes of Economics, thus sadly illustrated, are cited in its dis-
paragement, does it never occur to those kindly anxious to enforce the salutary
lesson, how grave would have been the result had like importance been attached
to other sciences in their earlier stages? Have they not had their working
theories and made their mistakes? A review of the course of any one of these
shows that the difference between such a one and Economics is not in greater
immunity from error, but in the degree of importance attaching to the error. This
in its turn has its lesson, or rather its lessons. We in this generation have to pay
for the wrong attitude assumed in previous times by those who confused working
and tentative theories applicable to one time and one place with truths of universal
application, proclaiming their belief with a trying absence of misgiving and hesita-
tion. On the other hand, the immense importance of sound economic knowledge,
the danger of that which is unsound, coupled with the fact that all legislation and
every person must have and will proceed on some economic theory, emphasises
the need of stimulating economic research and economic teaching. Other sciences
are needed by those training for particular professions; this is needed by all those
who, either by action, word, or vote, have a part in the direction of the destinies
ofa country. It has been suggested with cheap cynicism that differences among
economists disprove the utility and need of the study. What a pitiable con-
fusion between the spheres of physical and social science. The majority of men
are none the worse in their daily life for a general ignorance of chemistry or
biology, but in the case of Economics matters are far otherwise. An average
citizen can do and does without a knowledge of theories of chemistry; but some
economic theory he will have and some basis for economic action he has or assumes
that he has. The only point at issue is whether he should form his opinions after
study or in ignorance. Differ though they may on many points of detail and
method, economists at any rate will agree in the belief that study is a better
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 737
preliminary for economic action than neglect. Knowledge must be sought by the
study both of economic method and of economic facts.
The particular question which has occupied our attention illustrates very
wividly the great advance made in economic knowledge of recent years. Taken by
itself as a type of the general progress which has taken place, a review of its
course should serve to reassure those who are tempted in moments of depression
to believe that the want of adequate recognition of the study is in some way or
other a symptom of its backwardness or failing vitality. The reverse is true. It
is the living character of Economics which leads to the demand that its importance
should be duly recognised. The advance has been remarkable. The spirit which
animates inquiry is as vigorous in the field of Economics as anywhere else. But
this much must be remembered. In Economics, as elsewhere, the attainment
to anything approaching a perfected theory is very far distant, for a complete
theory implies not only full knowledge of facts, but their correct treatment.
How distant such a goal is the hardest worker in the field knows best of all, for
the circumstances of his inquiries teach him how slow progress is, and how great
the continent into which his enthusiasm as a pioneer has enabled him to penetrate
some little distance. A few generalisations which may endure, a somewhat
mixed mass of material, a brief influence, constitute the work of the foremost.
And yet in the history of any science there come times when things moye more
vapidly than is their wont, as when waters chafing in a narrow passage suddenly
burst down all obstacles, and establish themselves once and for ever in a wider
channel. It is possible, it seems even probable, that some such moment of advance
is before Economics. Materials have been accumulated with singular diligence,
critical sagacity has discriminated and classified, and some great constructive
advance seems not far distant. The atmosphere of economic thought is instinct
with expectation. With a new realisation of the economic elements and motives
of society, in the light of some conception perhaps little taken into account as yet,
we shall stand nearer to the problem one part of which we strive to unravel—
the forces which govern action and constitute society.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The History of Trade Combination in Canada. By W.H. Moors.
There have been trade monopolies in Canada since the first settlement of the
country. The present movement toward trade combination began in the years of
depression caused by the low prices of agricultural products and the excessive
amount of capital invested in manufacturing industries. The latter, in part, the
result of the introduction of a system of high protection. The result of the com-
petition has been destructive, and with the development of machinery the economies
which give to a large business an advantage over a small business have had the
effect of increasing the size of the factories, mills, and shops, and decreasing the
number of producers. The natural end of this destructive competition is monopoly
in the hands of one producer. This result has been hastened in some instances by
voluntary amalgamations of the businesses of different producers, and in others
deferred by a combination of independent producers for the regulation of matters
in which they have a common interest. This latter form of union is most common
in Canada. The agreements usually contain provisions for the arrangement of
uniform price-lists, the diminution of the output, or the division of the market.
Combinations of this kind exist, or have existed, in the production or sale of the
following goods :—alkali, agricultural tools, biscuits, baking powders, blacklead,
blacking, blues, buckwheat flour, building paper, bolts and nuts, barbed wire,
binder twine, cigars, cheese (certain brands), cottolene, cocoas, chocolates, con-
densed coffee, canned salmon, cut nails, coal, canned vegetables and fruits, cotton
threads, cordage, dyes, drugs, flour, gelatine, grain, hides, horseshoes, horseshoe
nails, ice, lead pipe, linseed oil, matches, oatmeal, petroleum, pickles, prepared
1897. 3B
738 REPORT—1897.
soups, pressed tinware, rope, salt, soaps, starches, spikes, shovels, sugars, tobaccos,
varnishes, wire, wire nails.
The manufacture of cotton goods, cigarettes, glass goods, watch cases, agri-
cultural implements, sugar, and other goods, is influenced by the existence of
monopolies formed by the union of producers, in which the individual interests are
merged in a common undertaking. The rebate plan is the method by which most
of the combinations attempt to enforce their objects. It is alleged on behalf of
the combination of independent producers, with some degree of truth, that they
have developed trade in foreign markets, improved the quality of the goods, and
prevented speculation. Against them it is urged they have increased the costs of
goods to consumers, and discriminated against the trade interests of certain dis-
tricts. The ‘trust’ method is the more economical, and in several instances
businesses which were, previous to the formation of the ‘trust,’ almost bankrupt,
have been placed on a paying basis without an advance in the cost of goods to the
consumers.
2. Recent Aspects of Profit Sharing.’ By Professor N. P. Giimay,
Meadville Theological School,
1. The reasonableness of giving a dividend to labour is shown when we con-
sider that human nature is the same in the working man as in the employer. If
a share in the variable profits of business is held out as an inducement, the wage-
earner will be very apt to take more.interest in his work, and will help to make a
larger profit than under the usual conditions.
2. Experience has shown that this reasoning is borne out by facts of record.
The case of the Bourne Cotton Mills at Fall Run, Mass., was taken to illustrate
the working of profit-sharing under unfavourable conditions. In the eight years
1889-97 the Bourne Mills paid bonuses amounting to 54 per cent. on wages, and
there was a great improvement in the quantity of the work done.
3. There are now some 120 cases of profit-sharing houses in France, 20 in
Germany, 100 in the British Empire, 50 in other parts of Europe, and 30 in the
U.S.A., making some 320 in all.
4, This method is not to be recommended as a finality or a panacea, but, as the
treasurer of the Bourne Mills says, ‘it is worthy of a trial by any fair-minded
business man as a modest attempt to improve upon the present wages system.’
3. A Consideration of an European Monopoly as a Contribution to the
Theory of State Industries. By 8. M. Wickert, Ph.D., Toronto University.
The great Austrian tobacco monopoly is the oldest of all existing tobacco
monopolies, and as regards the population to which it applies and the number of
its employés also the largest. Dating from 1670, it nets the Government at present.
about 5,000,000/. yearly, or 14 per cent. of the total budget.
This form of taxation has become very popular in Europe, for eight out of the
seventeen European countries, embracing 38 per cent. of the population of Europe,
have incorporated it into their financial system. Financial writers, too, have
supported it, e.g. Lorenz von Stein, Wagner, Roscher, and Leroy-Beaulieu.
The first point to consider is the effects of concentration on the general condi-
tions of labour. The very satisfactory conditions of labour in the Austrian tobacco
factories, notwithstanding the great labour concentration there (on the average
1,181 in each factory); and, on the other hand, the highly unsatisfactory conditions
under a system of scattered manufacture, as in Germany, point to the conclusion
poe a monopoly, in so far as it controls or reforms these latter, confers wide
enefits.
As to incentives to an economic administration under State control, the
Austro-Hungarian administrative system is suggestive. For by its administrative
unification under one central authority—the Ministry of Finance—it excludes
1 Published in The Christian Register, Boston, Novemb2r 11, 1897.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 739
all undue inter-state competition as to price and as to the quality of the manu-
factures; but by its divided technical management it preserves a healthy rivalry
as to satisfactory conditions of manufacture, and as to financial results to be credited
each half of the Empire at the end of the year.
This inter-state or ‘federal’ monopoly organisation offers a new idea for State
activity—control by central authorities, but technical management by provincial
officials for provincial credit. Eyen where the system of provincial credits does
not exist, the same principle of organisation will hold good for the general details
of manufacture.
As to the effects of the monopoly on export trade there are two features to be
considered: the danger of State monopolies being affected in their sales abroad by
international relationships, a factor of direct influence on exportation, and seemingly
quite overlooked in financial treatises ; and secondly, the fact that State monopoly,
by increasing home manufacture, renders the question of actual export of relatively
small importance. Germany, for instance, for 1893, had a surplus of imports over
exports of sixty-one tons; Austria of exports over imports of sixty-seven. And
although this year is exceptional, the fact will serve to emphasise the point which
the foregoing years have sufficiently shown. This is in direct contradiction to
Roscher’s opinion, and sets the question of monopoly export in a new light.
With regard to the actual weight of monopoly taxation, the enormous revenues
from tobacco would seem to indicate a high rate, that is, a decidedly high price
tariff. Austro-Hungary’s tobacco revenue for 1895 was 34} million dollars ;
Ttaly’s 30 millions, and that of France reached the high figure of 61 millions.
‘Yet everywhere we find cheap tobaccos for the small pocket-book. In Austria
in 1893, for instance, 50 per cent. of the cigarettes sold (retail) were at 2 c. per
package of ten; 50 per cent. of the monopoly cigars sold (retail) were at 2 c. each
and under; 54 per cent. of the imported Havanna cigars were at 4# c. each;
73 per cent. of the smoking tobaccos were at 22 grammes for 1 c.
This surprising condition of affairs largely explains itself by savings through
avoiding unnecessary competition, and by increased earnings otherwise going to
different classes of capitalists (box-makers, lithographers, etc.), And in fact, the
actual results of a close comparison of monopoly and competition tobacco prices
give results relatively not unfavourable to the former. Monopoly taxation does
not appear, therefore, to be at all as high as the large revenues would lead us to
suppose.
Pie inally, as to the question of a progressive indirect tax, a tax said to be possible
only under a State monopoly. An investigation of the direction of tobacco con-
sumption under a monopoly shows such a tax to be primd facie improbable, since
the consumption tends so strongly to concentrate itself, as indicated, on very few
grades, these being, moreover, mainly of the cheaper qualities. On the other hand,
these latter qualities, representing machine work, leave a larger tax margin than do
the finer qualities consisting mostly of handwork. :
The assumption then supporting the possibilities of a progressive rate, viz.,
. that the tobacco consumption will show a gradation as to quality somewhat like
the schedules of a progressive income tax, cannot stand. And, on the other hand,
given the condition of a large revenue, for the same reasons the tax prices must be
set simply according to fiscal principles, that is, according to what each quality
will bear—a good principle for fiscal manipulation, not for the realisation of the
idealised gradation. In fact, between such a principle and the latter there is no
direct connection. And in face of the above-mentioned tendency of the consump-
tion to the cheaper qualities, a progressive rate will be in general possible only
under a very low revenue tariff.
These conclusions, the author hopes, will be found to possess a more or less
_ general validity making for a better understanding of the peculiar position of State
industries. For fuller details see the author’s paper in Schanz’s ‘ Finanz-Archif,
1897, i., p. 198 et seg.
_ 4, Statistics of Deaf-Mutism in Canada. By G. JOHNSON.
3 B2
740 REPORT—1897.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Some Fallacies in the Theory of the Distribution of Wealth.
Ly Professor A. T. Hap ey.
2. Canada and the Silver Question. By Joun Davinson, D.Phil.
The similarity of conditions existing in the United States and Canada renders
it remarkable that while the United States was being-convulsed by the movement
for free silver, Canada was peacefully conducting an election on a mixed tariff and
educational issue. The reason is not to be found in any lack of interest in Canada,
but in forces partly political and agricultural, but mainly financial.
Canada has been developed later than the Western States, and in consequence
neither has the burden of mortgages been so heavy nor has the fall of prices
affected the farmer so seriously, The development of the West has taken place
in Canada largely since 1880, and Canadian competition has contributed to the
fall in prices.
The political causes of Canada’s immunity are partly derived from the constitu-
tion which allows the Federal Government a larger field for its activity, because
provincial issues can be transferred to the Federal arena; and are partly due to
the long period during which one party has held the reins of office. ‘The result of
this latter force has been that a not vitally important issue has been kept before
the public mind as the universal panacea, As a remedy for depression the
Government party has demanded more protection, while the opposition has de-
manded freer trade.
These, however, are simply contributory causes. The real reason lies in almost
perfect adaptation of the banking system of Canada to the needs of a new country,
and in the consequent absence of any soft money tradition. The greatest banking
necessity in a new country is elasticity in the issues; the greatest danger is that
security will be sacrificed to elasticity. The supervision of banking legislation in
the colonies by the Imperial authorities, who were devoted adherents of the
principles of the Bank Charter Act, prevented the sacrifice of security when the
character of the system was being formed, and created a tradition of sound banking
which has permitted financial questions to be regarded as problems for experts
and not for decision at the polls. Although now the Imperial authorities do and
could exercise no supervision, there is an efficient substitute for that supervision
in the wide-spread respect for English precedent and example.
The banking system has been a gradual growth, and has by successive amend-
ments been moulded to suit the needs of the community. With almost perfect
security there is still such an elasticity in the issues that the volume of the
circulation fluctuates in perfect harmony with the fluctuations in the volume of
business, not only over long periods but from month to month. The practice of
branch banking, which is the most striking characteristic of the system, greatly
facilitates this automatic correspondence, besides favouring the development of the
newer parts of the country by furnishing them with banking facilities as good as
-can be obtained in the cities, and equalising the rate of discount throughout the
country, and thus providing farmers with capital at practically the same rate as it
can be obtained even in the commercial centres, provided they have equally good
security to offer,
3. The Origin of the Dollar. By Professor W. G. SumMNER.
4. Silver and Copper in China. By Dr, J. Epxrys.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 741
5. Characteristics of Canadian Economic History,
By Professor A. SHorrr.
6. Economic History of Canada. By J. CasteELtt Hopkins.
The author traced the various experimental policies in force through the days
of the fur trade and French rule ; the period of preferential British tariffs and the
colonial restrictions of the Navigation Laws; the effect of the abrogation of the
Corn Laws upon Canada; the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 and the effects of its
abrogation in 1866; the period from 1867 to 1872 of a nominal revenue tariff
policy which, through extraneous causes, was one of practical protection ; the
revenue tariff years of 1873-79 in which American manufactures swept Canadian
competitors out of their own field ; the years of positive protection which followed
from then to the present time.
The influences of free-trade and protection, or alternate dependency upon the
_ American market, and upon the British fiscal system, up to the development of
Canadian fiscal independence, and the ability to reculate the Dominion tariff in
accordance with the wishes of its own people, and in harmony with its obligations
to the Empire, were traced at length. Some time was also given to a consideration
of the efforts made after confederation in 1867 to obtain reciprocity with the
United States.
The conclusion drawn was that Canada’s true policy was one of closer com-
mercial relations with the Empire and the steady development of public opinion
in favour of a preferential tariff system within its bounds. As to the past, the
author believed that Canada had practically run the whole gamut of fiscal
experiment and experience, and had tried every form of fiscal arrangement known
to theory or practical government.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21,
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. National Policy and International Trade. By Epwin Cannan, IA.
The most widely followed and most generally approved policy in the civilised
world is still undoubtedly, as it has been for two or three centuries, the encourage-
ment of exportation and the discouragement of importation. This policy is no
longer founded on the idea that it is necessary in order to secure a large stock of
the precious metals; that notion is completely obsolete. Nor is it founded on the
wish for diversification of industries; this is shown by the popularity of the
Zollverein idea, which evidently sets no value whatever on local diversification of
industries even in an Empire consisting of enormous and scattered territories.
Nor, finally, is it founded on the idea of maintaining national security, or the host
of other reasons of a particularist, local, and consequently contradictory character
alleged by its more ingenious advocates in various countries, Its true source is to
be looked for in the fact that exports are supposed to give employment, and
imports to take it away, so that encouragement of exports and discouragement of
imports tends to increase employment. The usual free-trade answers that exports
only balance imports are unsatisfactory, and left a loophole for the entrance of the
742 REPORT—1897.
pernicious notion that ‘ artificially cheap’ imports, such as the products of prison
labour, or of ‘ bounty-fed trades,’ diminish employment. The elementary economic
text-books have scarcely furnished any answer since the doctrine that ‘industry
is limited by capits]’ was abandoned. The truth of the matter is that industry is
limited by labour, t.e., the amount of employment-depends on the population. A
policy of protection cannot increase population, and consequently employment,
except temporarily and under very special circumstances. It is doubtful, however,
whether ‘increase of employment’ has not come to be used in a metaphorical
sense, as simply equivalent to increase of pay for the same work. But if this is
granted, the protectionist argument falls to pieces, as there was no reason for sup-
posing that the advantages of division of labour cannot be obtained by territorial
groups co-operating as well as by groups on other than a territorial basis and by
separate individuals.
The true national policy is to take as much advantage of the division of labour
as possible. The individual who gets most advantage from it is the one who is
able to do the most skilled work in the best way, and the same thing is true of a
nation. What statesmen ought to do, therefore, is to aim at improving the finest
industrial qualities in the population. There are many ways of promoting this
aim, but one of the most important is to allow free importation of the most
ingenious and most cheaply produced products of other countries.
2. On Public Finance, chiefly in relation to Canada.
By J, L. McDoveart, W.A., CMG, Auditor-General of Canada.
Account of the several operations in the receipt and disbursement of public
money.
Practically only two sources of revenue—Customs and Excise.
Security for collectors of revenue should not be taken from friends, but from
a guarantee company.
All receipts belong to Parliament. No part of them may be paid out without
its direct order. Here the directions are given,
Method of preventing officials being governed by routine.
Expenditure.
Advantage of direct connection of Auditor-General’s office with Parliament.
Importance of full public accounts.
National Debt.
Expenditure on interest of debt. Two debts cannot be compared accurately
by considering the principals alone; you must take into account the rate of
interest also,
Excess of Dominion note issue over specie reserve, viz., $12,000,000, costs
nothing, but outlay for engraving and redemption.
Proofs that the whole of the debt and more were spent on permanent improve~
ments of a national character.
Mode of separating what is paid for the use of money from what is exacted
for the probability of the debtor failing to pay the principal.
Difference between annual interest on our debt due in England and on that of
the Imperial Government has decreased between 1874 and 1897 from 14 per cent.
to 3 per cent., making our debts, when they come to be renewed, $183,000,000
instead of $250,000,000, looking to the interest charges.
3. Crown Revenues in Lower Canada (1763-1847). By J. A. McLEAN.
The ‘financial difficulties’ that arose in the Government of Lower Canada,
between 1791 and 1841 were not, in the last analysis, financial, but constitutional,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 743
They may be regarded as forming the pounds, shillings, and pence side of the
struggle for self-government. The Assembly of Lower Canada, desiring self-
government as an end, endeavoured to gain control of the Crown revenues as a
means. From 1791 to 1831 these Crown revenues consisted of (1) The casual
and territorial revenues; (2) The revenues arising under the Quebec Revenue
Act of 1774; (8) A permanent grant of $5,000 made by the Legislature in 1795,
to which may be added another small aid, granted in 1801.
In 1831, on the recommendation of the Canada Committee of 1828, the pro-
ceeds of the Quebec Revenue Act were surrendered without reserve or condition
to the control of the Provincial Legislature. This surrender weakened the Pro-
vincial Executive, and encouraged the House of Assembly to hope that consti-
tutional reforms might be obtained by withholding supplies. From October 1832
to the suspension of the Constitution no supplies were voted by the House. In
1836 the Home Government finally decided to apply the provincial moneys to the
payment of arrears without the sanction of the Provincial Legislature. Their
constitutional weapon being thus wrested from their grasp, the thoughts of a
large number of the French Canadians turned towards separation from England,
republicanism, independence.
By the Union Act of 1840 the casual and territorial revenues were surrendered
with some reservations and conditions to the Provincial Legislature. Most im-
portant was the deduction of 75,0007. for a Civil List. In 1847, at the request
of the Canadian Parliament, the appropriation clauses of the Union Act were
repealed, and the Civil List was made to rest upon provincial enactment. Since
1847 all expenditures of the Government have been made under the authority of
the Canadian Parliament, consequently, since 1847, it has been necessary for a
Canadian Governor-General, entirely apart from his own opinions on the subject
of colonial self-government, to choose as his constitutional advisers those who,
possessing the confidence of the Lower House, can induce Parliament to vote
supplies.
ischemsibis government became necessary the moment that the Legislature
gained full control of the Provincial Treasury. The political situation compelled
the solution, and credit is due not only to the great British statesmen who were
able to realise the political situation, but also to the great Canadians who
created it.
4. The Evolution of the Metropolis, and Problems in Metropolitan
Government. By Wu. H. Hatz, Ph.D. Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A.
A brief statement is made of the development of Greater New York, otherwise
ealled the city of New York, as it will be constituted on and after January 1,
1898, by the consolidation of the cities of New York, Brooklyn, and Long Island
city, the county of Richmond (Staten Island), anda part of the county of Queens.
The new consolidated city of New York will be second only to London in popula-
tion, and will contain a population estimated at 3,480,000, being more than that
of the United States when the Government of that country was founded, and
greater than that of any other State of the Union at the present time except Penn-
sylvania, Ohio, and Illinois; or nearly equal to the combined population of the
provinces of Ontario and Quebec.
The government of the vast aggregation of heterogeneous elements drawn from
all quarters of the globe presents new and difficult problems in American juris-
prudence, which the writer hoped would receive elucidation at this meeting.
The charter of Greater New York provides for the novel and interesting
experiment of a bi-cameral municipal government, the municipal assembly being
composed of two Houses—the common council of twenty-nine members, of whom
the president is elected by the city at large, and the other members by districts ;
and the board of aldermen of sixty-one members, elected one from each district.
The mayor of the city has a seat and voice, but no vote in the Upper House, and
heads of departments in the Lower,
744: REPORT—1897.
The reservation to the city of ownership of all public franchises was charac-
terised as the most notable reform in municipal government. The charter limits
the term for which such franchises may be leased to individuals to twenty-five
years, with renewal for the same period.
The extension of the elective system to all the judiciary was recommended by
the writer, in lieu of the system of appointment by the mayor, which is now the.
case with police justices.
5. Local Differences in Discount Rates in the United States.
By R. M. Brecxenripes, Ph.D.
The annexed table of discount statistics for forty-three leading commercial cities:
of the United States shows:
(a) That there is no such regularity or generality in the prevalence of low rates
in the large cities, or of high rates in the smaller cities, as to permit the explana-
tion of local differences in discount rates by differences in population between the
cities appearing in the reports ;
(6) That a similar lack of uniformity in the emergence of low rates in towns
where clearings are large, and vice ver'sd, prevents the establishment of any close
connection between cheap discounts and heavy exchanges, as indicated by clearing
returns; :
(c) That rates of interest upon loans on the security of urban and suburban landed
property show a tendency, in their varying heights as between localities generally,
though not exactly or always at the same distance, to follow the movements of
discount rates ;
(ad) That discount rates appear to be high in proportion as the cities for which
they are quoted are remote in western or southern direction from the States onthe
North Atlantic seaboard of the United States, more particularly from the foremost
commercial and financial centres of that region; the cities with heaviest clearings
and largest population in each of the other great divisions of the country, in other
words, the chief money markets of each section, show, however, somewhat lower:
rates than places of less consequence in such sections.
Result (d) appears more clearly in the following tables.
Show average
: Where
afin discount rates for
Sasepaape 1893-1896 of from Save Se Mla
per cent. per cent.
North Atlantic 7) 3 rad { Buffalo 6:029
division.! leet ee (eee a | Portland, M. 6-000
South Atlantic } as i { Baltimore 4685
division i we eee | Richmond, Va. | 6-000
| Cincinnati 5°237
“pesca ey | 6340 ,, 8-000 | St Louis 5:875
} | Chicago 5-894
South Central | 6-857 8-497 . _{ New Orleans 5°817
division Ft Pe a | Memphis 6-403
Western division . 7:072 ,, 10-000 San Francisco 6:230
1 The several divisions include the following States :—North Atlantic—Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,
New Jersey and Pennsylvania. South Atlantic—Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. North Central—
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North.
Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraskaand Kansas. South Central— Kentucky, Tennessee,,
Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, Okeohama and Indian Territories.
Western—Montana, Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, Washing-
ton, Oregon and California.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 745
TABLE SHOWING
A, The average Rate of Discount per cent. in forty-three leading commercial cities
of the United States for the four years, 1893-96 ;
B. The same for the years 18938, 1894, 1895 and 1896 ; compiled from Bradstrect’s ;
c. The rank of the same cities according to population as reported in the eleventh
census of the United States, 1890;
D. The rank of the same cities according to the total clearings in each during the
year 1896;
BH. The total clearings in each of the same cities which had clearing houses in
1896, in millions and tenths of millions ;
F. The average rate of interest per cent. on mortgages made upon lots in the
counties in which the cities are situate, during the decade 1880-89 ;
G. The same, during the year 1889.
B
E A | Sale Pas
o|D — - Se Spall 2a iG
1896 1893-96} 1893 1894 1895 | 1896
5 2/$ 4.4981 1 | Boston, Mass. . . . | 4.046 | 5.298 | 2.769 | 3.206 | 4.913 | 5.18 | 5.03
1 1 28.870.7 2 | New York,N.Y. . . | 4653 | 6.778 | 2.904 | 3.596 | 5.336 | 5.40 | 4.18
6 ff 720.0 3 | Baltimore, Md. . . | 4.685 | 6.115 | 4.625 | 4. 4, 5.82 | 5.78
28 | 25 118.5 4 | Hartford, Ct. . 6 . | 4.823 | 6.106 | 3.432 | 3.947 | 5.807 | — —
3] 4 3.161.7 5 | Philadelphia, Pa. . n 4.923 | 6.115 | 3.452 | 4.317 | 5.807 | 5.42 | 5.38
20 | 16 256.2 6 | Providence, R.I. . - | 5.170 | 6.134 | 3.817 | 4.654 | 6.076 | 5.78 | 5.72
8 9 585.8 7 | Cincinnati, Ohio . - | 5.237 | 5.884 | 4.605 | 4°846 | 5.615 | 6.02 | 5.95
12) 6 745.4 | 8 | Pittsburgh, Pa. . . | 5.800 | 5.942 | 5.298 | 5.961 | 6. 5.87 | 5.75
11} 11 466.5 9 | New Orleans, La. . - | 5.817 | 7.038] 4.98 4.75 6.50 | 7.28 | 7.13
4 5 1.158.6 | 10 | St. Louis, Mo. C - | 5,875 | 6.634 | 5.404 | 5.250 | 6.211 | 6.21 | 5.92
2 3 4.413.0 | 11 | Chicago, Ill. . A - | 5.894 | 6.452 | 5.240 | 5.336 | 6.548 | 6.43 | 6.33
36 | 30 66.0 | 12 Portland, Me. . «| 6 6. 6. 6. 6. — |—
23 | 26 114.1 | — { Richmond, Va. . «6s 6 6. 6 6. _— _—
10} 19 219°3 | 13 | Buffalo, N.Y.. 2 » | 6,029 | 6.11b-1 6. 6 6. 5.73 | 5.73
7| 8 684.9 | 14 | San Francisco, Cal. «| 6.230 | 7.115 } 5.807] 6 6. 6.88 | 6.61
14 | 17 230.8 | 15 | Milwaukee, Wis. . . | 6.340 | 6.977 | 6.115 | 6. 6.269 | 6.32 | 6.19
26 | 27 104.6 | 16 | Memphis, Tenn. . - | 6.403 | 8. 5.98 5.384 | 6.25 | — | —
22 | 21 204.1 | 17 | Indianopolis, Ind. . - | 6.461 | 7.153 | 6.692 | 6 6. 6.38 | 6.23
9 | 14 299.3 | 18 | Cleveland, Ohio . . | 6.471 | 7 6.884 | 6. 6. 6.37 | 6.24
13] 13 300.1 | 19 | Detroit, Mich. . - | 6.519 | 7. 6.230 | 6. 6.846 | 6.76 | 6.64
16 | 15 286.3 | 20 | Louisville, Ky. ‘ . | 6.857 | 7.066 | 6.596 | 6.788 | 6.980 | 6.01 | 5.93
24 | 34 29.9 | 21 | Nashville, Tenn. . - | 6,903 | 8. 7-653 | 5.961 | 6. = Ss
18 | 18 228.8 | 22 | St. Paul, Minn. -| 6.913 } 7.615 | 7-692 | 6. 6.346 | 7.37 | 7.07
19 | 10 503.7 | 23 | Kansas City, Mo. . - | 6.988 | 6.913 | 6.269 | 6.769 | 8. 7.68 | 7.22
27 | — _ 24 | Charleston, 8. Ca. . of) C029") F115 -) 7. qe te —-|-
30 | 33 57.2 | 25 | Los Angeles, Cal. seh eOtore ly TeeBey W ve te 7. _ _—
15 | 12 392.9 | 26 | Minneapolis, Minn: - | 7.077 | 7.577 | 6.980 | 6.5 7.250 | 7.47 | 7.04
40 | — _ 27 | Galveston, Texas - Cn A SEM lea | Eis Vie 7.538 | —
29 | 32 62.4 | 28 | St. Joseph, Mo. . . | 7.221 | 6.884 | 7. 7 8. _— _—
38 | — —- 29 | Duluth, Minn. . - | 7.341 | 7.961 | 7.019, | 7, 7.384 | — ae
39 | — — 30 | Mobile, Ala. . . - | 7.697 | 6.788 | 8. 8 8. — |—
17 | 20 210.8 | 31 Omaha, Neb. eigen 8. 8. 8 8. 7.71 | 7.28
25 | 28 69.0 | — Atlanta, Ga. . re 8. 8. 8 $. == _
33 | 23 124.7 | — Savannah, Ga. . miles 8. 8. 8. 8, ia
42 | 37 20.6 | — Birmingham, Ala. ./| 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. — —
41 | — _ —_ Houston, Texas . 8 8. 8. 8. 8, ie ines
43 | — — -- Little Rock, Ark. 8. 8. 8. 8 8. = |=
31 | 31 62.6 | — Portland, Ore. . lhe Gs 8. 8. 8 8. — |-
32 | 29 68.5 | 32 | Salt Lake City, Utah .| 8,234] 8, 8.038°| 9 8. — —
35 | 22 131.7 | 33 | Dallas, Texas . - . | 8427 | 8.788 | 7.576 | 8.423 |} 8.923 | — =
37 | 36 27.0 | 34 | Tacoma, Wash. s -| 9.341 | 10. 9.365 | 10 10. = nae
21 | 24 121.3 | 35 | Denver, Col. . z Pallant 10. 10. 10 10. 8.34 | 7.71
34 | 35 27.9 | 36 | Seattle, Wash. ‘ -| 10. 10. 10, 10. 10. —- |-
It is believed that such extraordinary local differences are not explained, (@) by
the ‘disinclination of capital to migrate,’ as considerable movements of loanable:
capital occur as the result of arbitrage business between the foremost money
markets of various European States and of the United States, with a much
smaller difference in prospective return as the sole inducement; nor (0) by the
‘difference in the security of the paper offered for discount on the markets of
the various cities considered, as the averages have, in all cases, been calculated
746 REPORT— 1897.
from the lowest rate quoted weekly for such cities, and may consequently be held
to represent the price paid for discount of the best paper which was made in those
localities.
Differences in the rate of discount charged upon the best paper brought to
market so greatly to the disadvantage of districts remote from the chief money
markets of the land, do not emerge in countries where a number of large banks
extend their activity into every considerable district by means of numerous branches
and agencies, e.g., as in Scotland and Canada; nor where a great central bank, in
observance either of the law or of its own interest, provides identical facilities to
discount customers in every market of consignment, e.g., as in France, Germany,
Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium and Japan.
It is submitted, therefore, that differences in discount rates as between the
various cities and geographical divisions of the United States are chiefly to be
explained by the peculiarities of the banking system of that country. It consists of
nine thousand odd ‘ National,’ ‘States’ and private banks, each confined in the
main to one locality, and the neighbourhood immediately thereto adjacent, as
well in its borrowing as in its lending business. But 38,600 banks, in round
numbers, enjoy privileges of issue, and these are extremely restricted in character.
Just as there exists no adequate machinery for gathering up loanable capital from
the older and accumulating groups of the population and applying it further west
and south, to the exploitation of natural resources and of other undertakings, the
development of which is in progress, or awaits the beginning, so is there no
efficient system of domestic arbitrage, nor even an approximate equalisation of
discount rates.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Economic Geography of Rhodesia. By F, C. SELous.
(Joint meeting with Section E. See p. 721.)
2. Economic Aspects of the Workmen’s Compensation Bill.
By J. BR. Macponap.
8. The Relation of the Employment of Women and Children to that of Men.
By Carroiu D. Wricut.
4. Recent Reaction from Economic Freedom in the United States.
By R. R. Bowker.
5. The Theory of Economic Choices. By Professor F. H. Gippines.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Some Economic Notes on Gold Mining in Canada.
By Professor J. Mavor,
2. Theory of Railway Rates. By W. M. Ackwortu.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 747
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEctTION—G. F. Duacon, M.Inst.C.E.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The President delivered the following address :—
In this ever-memorable year of the Victorian Age, it is not unnatural that
anyone called to fill the chair I occupy to-day should experience a sense of oppres-
sion, when contemplating the fruits of mechanical science during the last sixty
years, and the tremendous vista, fading in the distance to a dream, of the fruits it
is destined to produce before such another period shall have passed away.
There would be no possibility, in the time at my disposal, even if I were
qualified to attempt it, of adequately reviewing the past ; and however fascinating
the thought may be, it would ill become my office to venture far along the vista
before us, lest a too airy imagination should break the bonds of that knowledge
and that truth to which she must ever remain, in our rightful speculations, a
helpful, if not always an obedient, handmaiden.
In the year 1831, two places, the one ancient and memorable, the other young,
but destined to become memorable, bore the name of York. At the first of these,
amid relics of ancient Rome and lasting memorials of the better phases of Britain’s
medieval history, were met together in that year the earliest members of the
British Association. And as the sun at noonday shone on that ancient York, it
rose upon the other York—a little town, scarcely more than a village, of 1,700
people, fast springing from a plain on the shores of Ontario, where the wigwam
of the Chippewa had lately been; and between the two lay the Atlantic and a
distance of 3,800 miles.
Sixty-six years later, the British Association meets in that other York, dis-
tinguished under the name of Toronto, and grown into a noble city. Painfully, in
stage coaches, must many of the founders of this Association have travelled to that
ancient York; peacefully and amid all comfort and luxury have we from the
mother country reached, at her invitaticn, this great city—chiefest, in her people,
her commerce, and her University, of the cities of Western Canada.
Neither at the meeting in York of 1831, nor elsewhere, until many years later,
was there any expectation of the possibility of these things. Six years later,
about the beginning of that glorious reign of which the sixty-first year is now
passing—although two or three vessels had already crossed the Atlantic under
steam, it was still seriously doubted whether, without the aid of a Government
subsidy of considerable amount, a line of steamers, even for the New York service,
could be permanently maintained. It was not, indeed, until 1838 that the Great
Western inaugurated the attempt on a commercial basis, and she performed in
fifteen days the voyage which is now regularly performed with complete com-
mercial success in five,
748 REPORT—1897.
Would not the suggestion of such a change, of such a spanning of great dis-
tances, of such a consequent growth of prosperity and of culture, within the reign
of a princess then approaching womanhood, have been received as the wildest of
forecasts by the British Association of 1831?
Yet this is but one of a multitude of results, no less startling, which the same
agencies have brought about. We are now holding the second meeting of the
Association in Canada, and at the first such meeting, held thirteen years ago in
Montreal, some hundreds of miles nearer home, Sir Frederick Bramwell told you
from this chair, in his own inimitable way, the causes of so great a change, and he
pointed out to you, as I venture to point out again, that the visible instruments of
that change have been forged by the men whoare, or were, or ought to be, the mem-
bers of Section G. To such encouragement as Section G has given is largely due
the progress and triumph of applied mechanics as the natural outcome of theoretical
investigation and physical research. Finally, and with no reserve in the minds of
reasonable men. the old fallacy of a discord between theory and practice has been
swept away. For centuries that fallacy held apart, as it were, the oxygen and
the nitrogen of that atmosphere in which alone the new life could exist. It limited
the philosopher who examined the laws of nature almost entirely to the study of
phenomena external to the earth on which he dwelt, and it stamped the practical
man as a lower being, the possessor of certain necessary knowledge, having no
relation to the studies of the schoolmen, and which it would be beneath their
dignity to pursue. And notwithstanding the great names which have stood out in
opposition to these views, the popular idea of discord between theory and practice
took long to die, and only within the Victorian Age has the complete truth been
generally recognised, that if one fails to account for the result of any physical
combination, the cause is to be found not in any discord with theory, but in the
fact that the observer has failed to discover the whole of the theory.
We English-speaking people, alone, I believe, among civilised nations, use this
word, theory, with unpardonable looseness—as almost synonymous in effect with
hypothesis, and the result is fruitful of error. Until the truth of any hypothesis is
placed beyond all manner of doubt it is not, and should never be called, the
theory.
Within these walls, the genius loci impels me to thoughts which have not
often entered into discussions of Section G; and, perhaps, if this address were to
be discussed, I should choose subjects and premises, the proof of which, to the
satisfaction of cthers than myself, it would probably be less difficult to maintain.
In this University of Toronto under whose egis all that was best in the older
schools of thought is cultivated by the side of those practical applications of
science which in bygone days were distinguished as the unworthy uses of philo-
sophy, one’s thoughts insensibly turn to the marvellous change in the opportunities
afforded for acquiring a knowledge of applied science—for beginning, in short, the
career of an engineer.
It is not proposed to discuss the progress and prosperity which mechanical
science has brought about in the Victorian Era, much less that which the suc-
ceeding years will yield; but I venture to think that a proper subject for con-
sideration from this chair, if not for discussion in this Section, is to be found in
any unnecessary waste of energy which may occur in the process of mental
development of the men who are to succeed us in the great work to which
we devote our lives. Obviously it is to the interests of our calling, and conse-
quently of the nation at large, that such waste should be reduced to a minimum,
and therefore I make no apology for mentioning certain points in which its presence
is particularly striking. There may be waste of potential, as well as of actual
energy, and if we fail to expend energy on certain subjects because our time
is occupied with others which are less useful, it is waste of energy only differ-
ing in degree from its expenditure on useless subjects. There is assuredly no lack
of potential energy in the coming race. In spite of any training, whether well or
ill directed, a Jarge proportion will become actual and useful energy ; but guidance
and direction being given, the mode of that guidance and direction should be the
one best calculated to secure the highest possible proportion of useful effect.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 749
If we look back at the greatest names among the engineers and inventors of the
latter part of the eighteenth century and the first half of this, we find that the
majority were brought up in pursuits quite distinct from the work of their after
lives, and by which they have become so familiar to us. There were scarcely any
means whatever, beyond the original thought and dogged perseverance of the
worker, by which those men could attain the knowledge they used with such
effect. Men of no less exceptional parts are among us now, but the whole environ-
ment of their early work has changed. We have given to the exceptional man a
starting-point of knowledge which, wisely used, lifts him as high above our heads
as of old, but we have given to the average man a comparatively easy means of
attaining the same knowledge. We cannot ensure the wise use of that knowledge,
but we can at least endeavour to impart it in such a manner that the sense of
right proportion shall be acquired and maintained. We have made it more
difficult to distinguish between the exceptional and the commonplace—between
the gold and the silver, if not between the silver and the brass; let us be careful,
so far as early guidance can control it, that the knowledge imparted to the average
mind gives to that mind a fair start concerning the relations, undivided and
indivisible, between true theory and sound practice.
Having myself passed as an ordinary apprentice through workshops of
mechanical engineering in the old days when working hours were longer than
they now are—from six in the morning till six in the evening, and that, too, on the
banks of the Clyde, where no special indulgence was given to what was sometimes
called the ‘gentleman apprentice,’ and feeling convinced, as I still do, of the
immense and permanent advantage derived from that experience, I shall not be
judged to underrate its value in the case of others who have yet to choose the
details of the career by which they expect to gain a place in the profession or
business of an engineer.
On the other hand, as a student thirty-four years ago under the late Professor
Macquorn Rankine and the present Lord Kelvin, I shall not be prone to under-
estimate the advantages of academical training in its proper application to the
profession to which I am proud to belong.
In the pursuit of that profession it has fallen to my lot to observe the training
as engineers of many younger men—men of variously constituted minds, but one
and all bent on learning some portion of ‘the art of directing the great sources of
power in nature for the use and convenience of man,’ words wisely chosen, sixty-
nine years ago, and set out as the object of the profession in the Royal Charter of
the Institution of Civil Engineers. It is a noble object, this direction of the great
forces of nature for the use and convenience of man; it is an ambitious object, and
one which I yenture to think demands for its right performance the best energies
of well-balanced minds working upon a store of knowledge which nothing but years
of untiring study and observation can give. Yet there is no hesitation shown to
enter the lists. The number of candidates is appalling. ‘In the old country, at
least, there certainly is not work for all, but when one points this out, anxious
parents only reply that the difficulty is as great in connection with any other
profession, Whether this be so or not I cannot judge, but I am persuaded that of
those who do enter the business or profession of the engineer, the enormous majority
are not born engineers, and cannot, in the nature of things, hope for success unless
they take advantage of the best facilities open to them—the best facilities;
here is the difficulty: from the multitude of facilities how are we to choose ?
Do not suppose that I think the training of the born engineer should not be
controlled.. He will stand head and shoulders above the rest of us whatever we
may do with him; but in order that his exceptional parts may not wreck him as
an engineer, and in order that his energies may be rightly directed at the start,
he, too, should have the advantages of that systematic training which to his less
gifted brethren is becoming more and more absolutely essential to success.
At the time I began practice the large majority of young engineers were left
entirely to their own devices so far as the attainment of any scientific knowledge
was concerned, As pupils or apprentices, articled or not, they entered an engineer’s
works or office ; for a certain number of years they had the run of the place and
750 REPORT—1897.
some encouragement if they worked well, but it could not, in the nature of things,
amount to much more. This was a very necessary, perhaps the most necessary,
element of their training ; but except to the few who were so constituted that with
little or no guidance they could supplement their practical knowledge with the
study of principles elsewhere, it was entirely ineffectual in the production of that
well-balanced attitude of mind which any person who properly assumes the name
of an engineer must hold towards every engineering problem, great or small, which
he is called upon to solve. And so strongly have I felt this, that in the earlier
days, when there were fewer schools of practical science, and when their utility
was little understood, I required, wherever the matter was under my control, the
insertion into the articles of apprenticeship of a clause by which, at some incon-
venience to the office, the pupil was required to attend two sessions at the science
classes of Glasgow University, or at some other approved school of practical
science ; and without this condition I declined to take the responsibility attaching
to the introduction into the profession of men who, in their earlier careers, from no
fault of their own, had not even acquired a knowledge of what there was to learn,
much less of how to learn it.
More recently this course has generally become unnecessary; for in West-
minster, at least, the young engineer rarely enters an office until he has acquired
some knowledge of what he has to learn. He enters, in short, ata much more
advanced age than formerly. When it is essential that he should be earning
something soon after he comes of age, anything like a complete training is an
impossibility ; his work ceases to be general, and his practice is more or less con-
fined in a much narrower sphere than need be the case if the pursuit of further
knowledge continues to be his chief duty.
But whatever course his circumstances may permit him to adopt, the difficulty
of gaining the required knowledge in the time available is a serious one. This is
not the place to inquire whether public school education in the mother country
is, or is not, the best for the general purposes of after life, or to discuss what
improvements may be made in it; and of higher education in Canada I unfortu-
nately know little or nothing. Personally I admit the possibility of improvement
in the English system, and slowly but surely improvement is creeping in, as such
changes rightly find their way into institutions which have done so much for
Englishmen. ‘In this particular I lean to the conservative side, and whatever our
individual views may be concerning the time spent on the study of Latin and
Greek, we should all probably agree that the school education of an engineer
should be as thorough and liberal as for any other profession. But for the sake of
a technical training to follow, this school education is often unduly curtailed, to
the great after-grief, in very many cases, of the successful engineer, and not
infrequently also of the less successful engineer who, in some phases of his pro-
fessional career, has been only too keenly alive to the self-reproach and sense of
inferiority which want of thoroughness or of time, or of both, at school has.
brought upon him.
But at some time the boy must leave school. Let us hope that he does not
aspire ‘to control the great forces of nature’; but if he does we must ,make the
best we can of him,
It is not desirable, at least so it appears to me, that even at this stage his
training should be specialised in view of the particular branch of the profession
or business he is likely to follow. The fundamental principles of any branch of
mechanical engineering are broadly the fundamental principles of any branch of
the profession. I hesitate to speak of civil engineering as if it were a separate
branch, instead of being, as it really is, the generic name of the profession; but
the training demanded for the various branches of civil engineering in its narrower
sense is precisely the same as that required in its earlier stages for mechanical
engineering pure and simple.
I shall make no attempt to review the large number of excellent courses which
are now available for the teaching of applied science in relation to engineering.
Experience of the results as judged by the students who have come directly under
my notice, and examination of many calendars, has aroused various thoughts con-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 751
cerning them, and this thought is perhaps uppermost: are we not in some cases
attempting at too early a stage the teaching of subjects instead of principles ?
Complete subjects, I mean, including the practical working of details which will
become the regular study of the student in the office or works of an engineer. It
certainly seems to me to be so. I do not say that subject training of this kind
at college may not be useful; but we have to consider whether it does not, for the
sake of some little anticipation of his office work, divert the attention of the student
from the better mastery of those principles which it is so essential for him to grasp
at the earliest possible time, and which do not limit his choice in the battle of life
to any branch whatever of the profession or business of an engineer, but which,
on the contrary, qualify him better to pursue with success whatever branches his
inclination or his opportunities or his means may suggest. Not one in a hundred
of us can hope to emulate the careers of exceptional men in our profession, but it
is sometimes useful to observe those careers, and whenever we do so we find the
very reverse of specialisation. The minds of such men are impregnated with the
fundamental principles which we may call the common law of our art; it has
happened that their practice has been large in certain branches, and small or
wanting in certain others; but in any it would have been equally successful. Of
no class of men can it be said with greater truth than of engineers that their
standard should be sound knowledge of the principles of many things and of the
practice of a few.
There is some danger in the usual limitation of compulsory subjects in examina-
tions for certificates and degrees. When an examination has to be passed subjects
not made compulsory are too often entirely neglected, however important to the
engineer they may be. A little learning is certainly not a dangerous thing if
within its limits it is sound, and every engineer will in after life be grateful to
those who in his student days insisted upon his acquiring some Inowledge of the
principles of such subjects as electricity and chemistry. . At present it too often
happens that, unless an engineering student is predestined to practise electrical
work or some chemical industry, he begins life as an engineer with little or no
knowledge of the principles of either the one or the other, and chiefly as a result
of their neglect for the sake of certain subjects made compulsory for the test he has
had to pass, which subjects too often include highly specialised details which, I
venture to think, cannot be rightly mastered in schools. It is natural and right
that each professor of a principal subject should seek to make the best, from his
own particular standpoint, of every student who attends his lectures or his labora-
tories; and the professor of a compulsory subject cannot be expected to encourage
the inclusion, in a course already overcrowded, of secondary or collateral subjects
which are dealt with by other professors; while, on the other hand, the pro-
fessors of secondary subjects, such as electricity or chemistry, not unnaturally
value chiefly the students who make those subjects their principal work.
For these reasons it appears to me that a certain very moderate standard in all
such subjects should be made compulsory if a certificate of proficiency, whether by
degree or otherwise, is to be given to students of engineering.
In the teaching of mathematics within the Victorian age a considerable change
has taken place, and I plead for still a little more change in the same direction where
the training of the engineer is concerned. Mathematics, as taught in our public
schools—let us say for the Cambridge University Tripos—may be all that is
claimed for it as a mode of mental culture; but of kindred mental culture the
engineer must necessarily have more than most men, and much might therefore
be omitted which, to him at least, has only an abstract value, to the great advan-
tage of his mastery over those branches which at once train his mind and give
point and direct utility to his solutions.
In America I understand that a college course of engineering generally includes
workshop practice designed to supersede the old system of apprenticeship to a
mechanical engineer, This fact and other important differences between the
English and American practice have only lately come to my knowledge, and before
they did so the substance of this address had been written. It might, in some
particulars, require modification as applied to Canada, but it remains the result of
752 REPORT—1897.
my observations concerning the conditions of engineering education which obtain
in the mother country.
A few words now in relation to that physical and mental training gained
laboriously, and somewhat wastefully as I think, at the joiner’s bench, in the fitting
and turning shops, the foundry and the forge, during the old course of mechanical
engineering apprenticeship. I am convinced that the kind of knowledge which
comes of thoughtful chipping and filing and turning and forging, though only
applied to a few of the materials with which in after life the engineer has to deal,
are quite as important as tables of density and strength to his future sense of
rightness in constructive design. The use of such work is not merely to teach one
the parts and combinations of any particular machine; in a still higher degree it
is the insensible mastery of a much more subtle knowledge or mental power, the
application of the senses of sight and touch and force, it may be of other senses
also, to the determination of the nature of things. (I am not going to apologise
for referring to the sense of force. The vexed question of its separate existence
appears to me to have been settled fourteen years ago by Lord Kelvin in his
address at Birmingham on ‘the six gateways of knowledge,’ and I may well leave
it where he left it.) I should altogether fail to describe adequately what this
mastery means. It appears to me to be inscrutable. The value and nature of the
power can only be appreciated by those who have experienced it, and who have
felt its defect in those of their assistants or in others who do not possess it.
But the great workshop training has still further advantages. The apprentice
is surrounded by skilled workers from whose example, if he is wise, he learns a
great deal; and apart from this it is no small profit to have rubbed against the
British workman, to have discovered what manner of man he is, and to compre-
hend how little the world knows of his best parts. The whole time spent in large
engineering works cannot, however, be uniformly beneficial; the apprentice must
take the work as it comes; the most interesting or instructive portions cannot be -
veserved for him, and he often feels that some of his time is being well-nigh
wasted.
A few years ago I should not have thought it practicable usefully to substitute
for such a course anything that could be undertaken in a student’s workshop, how-
ever organised; but the impossibility, in many cases, of including such experience
without neglecting something equally important has led me to view with satisfac-
tion the introduction of workshop training into certain schools of applied science in
England. Such a change cannot of course carry with it all the advantages of
experience in the great workshop and of contact with its workers, but those
advantages which it does retain may be secured in a shorter time where there is
no commercial interest to be served.
In Canada and the United States, as I have already said, the principle of the
student’s workshop has been carried considerably further. Compared with the
old country, I believe the number of young assistant engineers who in proportion to
the number of their chiefs can find employment in America is much greater, and that
it would be practically impossible for the British system of pupilage to be generally
employed. Here, therefore, the whole college training of an engineer is designed
to fit him for immediate employment in some specific branch of the profession,
and up to this point his training is, necessarily no doubt, more academic than in
Jingland, where the application of the principles he has acquired at college is still
generally left for the office or works of the engineer. With this difference I am
not at present concerned, but I desire to reiterate what I have already said to the
effect that where, as in England, the student of engineering has the opportunity of
continuing his training in the office or works, it is better that his limited college
course should cover all that is possible of the principles of those sciences which
may prove useful or necessary to him in after life, rather than that any of them
should be omitted for the sake of anticipating the practical application of certain
others,
The compulsory inclusion of the principles of all such subjects as chemistry,
electricity, geology, and many others, in science courses intended for a future
engineer is desirable not only because a fundamental knowledge of them leaves
iad
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 753
open a very much wider field from which the engineer may, as opportunity offers,
increase his knowledge and practice in the future, but because many of such sub-
jects are inseparable from an intelligent understanding of almost any great
engineering work. ‘Nothing so difficult as a beginning’ may be a proverb of
rather too far-reaching a nature, but it contains the suggestion of a great truth,
increasing in weight as we grow older, and the beginnings of such collateral
sciences should therefore find a place in every engineering student's store of early
knowledge.
But after all, when these things have been done in the best manner—when the
scientific and practical training of the engineering student has been all that can be
desired, it is a matter of general experience among engineers who have closely
watched the rising generation that the most successful men in after life are not
roduced exclusively from the ranks of those whose college course has been most
successful. No doubt such men have on the average been nearer the top than the
bottom, but it is an undoubted fact that when we class them according to their
earlier successes or failures we find the most remarkable disparities. We find
many who in academic days gave but little promise, and we miss large numbers
who promised great things. These facts are not confined to the profession of the
engineer, but they seem to me to be accentuated in that profession. We shall no
doubt be right in attributing the disparity to differences of mental temperament
and of opportunity ; but does it follow that there are no faculties which may be
cultivated to reduce the effect of such differences? I venture to think there are.
I will instance only one, but perhaps the most important of such faculties, and which
in my experience among young engineers is exceptionally rare, I refer to the power
of marshalling facts, and so thinking, or speaking, or writing of them that each
maintains its due significance and value.
In the minds of many young engineers exceptional mathematical powers often
have the effect of making it extremely difficult to avoid spending an amount of time
upon some issues out of all proportion to their importance; while other issues
which do not readily lend themselves to mathematical treatment, but which are
many times more important, are taken for granted upon utterly insufficient data,
and chiefly because they cannot be treated by any process of calculation. I
believe that nothing but well-directed observation and long experience can enable
one to assign to each part of a large engineering problem its due importance ;
but much may be done in early training also, and I think ought to be done,
to lead the mind in broader lines, to accustom it to look all round the problem,
and to control the imagination or the natural predilection for one phase from
disguising the real importance of others. In the practical design and execution of
important works the man will sooner or later be recognised who has the power so
to formulate his knowledge, and on the same principles has succeeded in so
marshalling and expressing his thoughts, as to convey to those by whom he is
employed just so much as may be necessary and proper for their use.
Such considerations are not, it is true, a branch of mechanical science, but
being essentially important to the attainment of maximum usefulness in the
application of any science to the various branches of engineering which are the
chief ends and aims of mechanical science, they are, I think, worthy of mention
from this chair.
In proportion as the engineer possesses and exercises such powers he will avoid
those innumerable pitfalls to which imperfectly instructed ingenuity is so particu-
larly liable, and to which the Patent Office is so sad a witness; and in the same
proportion must always be the useful outcome of the great schools of science
which haya become so striking a feature of the later Victorian age.
In relation to the results of applied science, I have spoken only of the steam-
ship; add the telegraph, and I think we have the most important tools by which
the present conditions of modern civilisation have been rendered possible. And
more than this, I think we have, in the lessening of space, and the facility for
intercourse they give, the chief secret of that marvellous development of the
empire which this year has so pleasantly and so memorably signalised. Is ‘Our
1897, 3c
754. REPORT—1897.
Lady of’ the Sunshine and ‘the Snows’ no nearer to the mother land than
sixty years ago? Are the Australias—New Zealand—no nearer to both?
Assuredly they are. Would British Africa, would the Indian Empire have been
possible to Britain on the principles and the methods of Imperial Rome? Un-
questionably not. Then let me say again that I claim for the objects and the
work of Section G a magnificent record, an abiding power for the peace of the
world, and for the unity and prosperity of the great empire to which we belong.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Soulanges Canal, a Tymcal Link of the 14-foot Inland Naviga-
tion of Canada between Lake Erie and Montreal. By J. Monro,
M.Inst.C.E.
The paper contained a short history of canal construction in Canada from
its beginning in 1779, under General Haldimand, to the present time. Also some
remarks on the growth of population and commerce, together with a comparison
of the chief characteristics of the rival routes for the western trade; and the
reasons why it is probable that the St. Lawrence will eventually obtain a large
share of it.
This was followed by a description of the Soulanges Canal—its location—
together with the various modifications introduced into its construction and by
which it is believed navigation for large propellers and consorts will be rendered
safer and more expeditious than heretofore.
The paper was accompanied by maps, plans, and photos, illustrative of the
subject.
2. On the Hydraulic Laboratory of McGill University.
By Professor Henry T. Bovey, M.Jnst.C.L., and J. T. Farmer, Ma.£.
This paper commenced with a general description of the equipment in the Hy-
draulic Laboratory, McGill University, Montreal, and then discussed in detail the
rincipal pieces of apparatus. Amongst these, especial reference was made to the
foligartag — ;
The valve arrangement in the experimental tank by which the orifice plates
can be easily taken out and replaced by others, with the loss of not more than a
pint of water, whatever the head over the orifice might be.
A jet-measurer, by which the sectional dimensions of a jet at any point of its
path can be rapidly and accurately determined.
An impact machine for measuring the force with which water issuing from
orifice nozzles or pipes strikes buckets or vanes of different forms and sizes.
A pressure chamber which defines more accurately the mean pressureat any point
of a mass of water flowing through a pipe. The main feature of this chamber is
the substitution for the small holes usually adopted of a continuous opening less
than ‘005 inch in width, around the bore.
A self-adjusting dynamometer giving the drag in a single reading. One half of
the brake-band is of leather and one half of copper, the angle of contact for each
material being very approximately 180°. The frictional resistance of the leather
is greater than that of the copper. Thus, if the band friction should increase, the
drag would also increase, a portion of the leather would be unwrapped, an equal -
portion of the copper would be brought into contact so that the frictional resistance
would be less, and the drag would continue to diminish until dynamical equilibrium
had again been established. If the band-friction should diminish, a reverse process
would be the result.
A triple-throw single-acting eaperimental pump, designed for a maximum speed
of 150 revolutions per minute against a pressure of 120 lb. per square inch. The
pump has interchangeable valves, and is also provided with a specially designed
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 755
continuous triple indicator apparatus which autographically records during a trial
the speed, variation, and duration of the valve chamber pressure at any point of
the stroke. :
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Supplementary Report on the Calibration of Instruments in
Engineering Laboratories—See Reports, p. 424.
2. The Strength of Columns. By Professor GAETANO Lanza.
An attempt to compute the strength of any given column by the various rules
and formule commonly found in different handbooks, and books written by so-
called authorities, will speedily reveal considerable discrepancies, not only in the
formulz, but also in the results.
Hence it becomes a matter of importance to make a careful study of the tests
that have been made, under practical conditions, on columns of such sizes and
proportions as are used in construction; for, whether we desire to adopt empirical
formule or to endeavour to obtain rational ones, the final tests of all theories and
formulz must be whether they agree with the facts as shown by the results of
such tests.
A summary is therefore given of the principal experiments that have been
made of columns of practical sizes.
The greater part of the tests contained in this list were made on the United
States testing machine of eight hundred thousand pounds capacity, located at the
arsenal at Watertown, Massachusetts. The details of these tests are published in
special yearly reports issued by the Ordnance Department of the United States
Government.
The following is the summary :—
Cast-iron Columns.
1. Tests of Metals, Watertown Arsenal, Reports of 1887 and 1888.
2. Bauschinger, ‘ Mittheilungen aus dem Konig]. Mech. Tech. Lab., Miinchen,’
Heft 12, 1885, and Heft 15, 1887. _
The Watertown reports contain tests of eleven old and of five new cast-iron
mill columns.
Bauschinger tested the relative ability of cast and of wrought iron columns to
hold their otherwise safe load when heated to redness and sprinkled with cold
water,
Wrought-tron Columns.
1. Bouscaren, ‘Report of Progress of Work on the Cincinnati Southern
Railway,’ 1875.
2. ‘Transactions Am. Soc. Civil Engineers,’ 1882.
. ‘Transactions Am. Soc. Civil Engineers,’ 1884.
‘Exec. Doc. 12,’ 47th Congress, 1st Session, House.
. ‘Exec. Doe. 1, 47th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate.
‘Exec. Doc. 5,’ 48th Congress, Ist Session, Senate.
. ‘Exec. Doc. 35,’ 49th Congress, 1st Session, Senate.
. ‘Exec. Doc. 36,’ 49th Congress, Ist Session, Senate.
. ‘Tests of Metals, Watertown Arsenal,’ 1888.
10. ‘ Technology Quarterly,’ vol. ix., Nos. 2 and 3, June and September 1896.
Of these Nos. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 were made at Watertown Arsenal;
No. 3 contains a few tests where the columns were of practical sizes, together
302
COMI CrP CO
756 REPORT—1897.
with many where they were not; No. 10 contains a few tests of wrought-iron
pipes used as columns.
In the tests made at Watertown Arsenal we have a long series on wrought-
iron built up bridge columns.
Timber Columns.
‘Exec. Doc. 1,’ 47th Congress, 1st Session, House.
Report of tests on full-size wooden mill columns, by G. Lanza, 1882.
‘Exec. Doc. 1, 47th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate.
. Journal Assoc. Engineering Societies,’ Nov. 1889.
. echnology Quarterly,’ vol, viii., 1895.
. Bauschinger, ‘ Mittheilungen aus dem Kénigl. Mech. Tech. Lab., Heft 9
and Heft 16.
7, ‘Transactions Canadian Soc. Civil Engineers,’ vol. ix., 1895.
on coho
The tests cited in Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 were made at Watertown Arsenal,
and comprise a very extensive series of tests of full-size timber columns; those
cited in No. 5 were made at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, those in
No. 6 by Professor Bauschinger at Munich, and those in No. 7 by Professor
Bovey at McGill College, Montreal.
In order to represent to the eye the results of these tests, and therefore to
enable us to discuss them, the following diagrams are presented :—
1. A diagram showing the results of the tests of cast-iron mill columns.
2, A series of four diagrams showing the results of the tests of wrought-iron
bridge columns, and also empirical formule representing in each case the right-
hand portion of the curve, which is concave upwards.
3. A series of four diagrams showing the results of the tests of timber
columns cited in Nos, 1, 2, 3, and 5.
In 1 and 2 the abscissee represent the ratio of length to least radius of
gyration, and in 3 the ratio of length to least diameter, while the ordinates
represent, in all the diagrams, the breaking loads per square inch of sectional
area.
A study of these diagrams, and of the details of the tests which they represent,
cives us the facts in regard to the strength of full-size columns, and shows that
neither the experiments of Eaton Hodgkinson upon small samples nor the usual
¥iq. 1.—Cast-iron Columns from Pacific Mills.
60000 60000
50000 50000
40000 : 40000 —
30000 i : 30000
ereesty 4 ty:
20000 20000
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 05 HO HS, £20 125 430 135 HO 145 150
Abscisse, length divided by radius of gyration of smallest section.
Ordinates, breaking strengths per square inch of smallest section.
Euler or Gordon theories (so commonly quoted in the handbooks) are borne out by
the facts.
A perusal of all the diagrams show that, whenever the load on a column is SO
applied that its resultant acts along the axis of the column, the breaking load per’
square inch of sectional area is practically constant up to a certain ratio of length
to radius of gyration, which in wrought-iron bridge columns varies from sixty to
eighty, and in a corresponding way to timber columns,
»
*
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 797
(The apparent exception occurring in the diagram for the Phcenix columns is
clearly due to the effect of the friction of the platforms of the testing machine on
the columns of very small ratio of length to radius of gyration.) _ i
For higher values of the ratio of length to radius of gyration the breaking
Ss
g
S
le
X
NS
as
ai
& 8
S an
re
5 S
R
§ x
fe 8
Bp S
i=}
fo}
5 ©
<<
4 Na
o
n
3 9
r= 5
a
°
n
2 3
n
S
S
3S Bhs
nm
8
2 8
~
=|
2 9
o
5, 8
Oo
a le
° 98
= xs
3S
~
c 8
|
N
5 g
g
ge tale 8) SO “SRG Sass S$
RE OE I a NS eo
S s s Q ¥-
ee Sree oS at eee
Ee RR See a ee,
strength per square inch decreases, and the law of decrease can only be expressed
empirically in each case.
When, on the other hand, the load on the column is eccentric, we should not
fail to take this into account in our calculations, and should always compute the
758 REPORT—1897.
greatest fibre stress by adding the direct stress per square inch to the greatest
fibre stress arising from the bending moment due to the eccentricity of the load;
and we should then so proportion the column that the total greatest fibre stress
shall not exceed a certain allowable fibre stress, which last must be a sufficiently
small fraction of the breaking strength per square inch corresponding to the ratio
of length to radius of gyration of the column, as shown by the diagrams.
In the paper itself the results of the tests and the modes of computation, both
for central and for eccertric loads, were treated more in detail , and then a discus-
Fig. 3.—Diagrams of Results of Tests of Timber Columns.
YELLOW PINE.
WHITE PINE.
7] 40 @0 80 40 50 60 70
sion was given of the theories and formule commonly found in the handbooks
which are, for the most part, based on the results of Hodgkinson’s tests on small
samples, and fuller attention was also called, in the paper, to the disagreement of
these latter with the facts.
3. Results of Experiments on the Strength of White Pine, Red Pine,
Hemlock, and Spruce. By Professor H. T. Bovey, I. Inst.C.£.
This Paper contained 10 Tables giving the results of experiments on the trans-
verse strength of 29 beams: of these, nine were of white pine, eight of red pine,
seven of hemlock and jive of spruce; while mime were kiln-dried, fous were
saturated and frozen, and sivteen were wore or less air-dried.
The Paper also contained seventeen tables giving the results of experiments on
the direct tensile and compressive strength and of the shearing strength of speci-
_?
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 759
mens prepared from the beams tested transversely. The following inferences were
drawn :—
(a) The tensile strength does not seem to be much affected by kiln-drying, but
in the majority of cases it is diminished.
(b) Kiln-drying invariably and greatly increases the compressive strength.
(c) Kiln-drying invariably and greatly diminishes the shearing strength, and
therefore increases the tendency of beams to fail by longitudinal shear.
(d) The transverse strength is increased by kiln-drying, in consequence of the
increased strength given to the portion of the timber in compression.
(e) Kiln-drying increases the co-efficient of elasticity, and with liln-dried
specimens the changes of deflection and length are practically directly proportional
to the changes of load, whether the specimen is being loaded or relieved of load.
(f) The last (viz. e) is also true of specimens in a normal state, z.e. specimens in
which the moisture is in equilibrium with the moisture present in the atmosphere.
g) Timber is extremely sensitive to variations in the hygrometric condition of
the atmosphere.
(h) The development of shakes and the tendency to longitudinal shear are
much less in specimens which have been air-dried than in those which have been
kiln-dried.
4. A New Apparatus for Studying the Rate of Condensation of Steam on a
Metal Surface at Different Temperatures and Pressures. By H. L.
Cauttenpar, J.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics, and J.T. Nicouson,
B.Sc., Professor of Mechanical Engineering, of McGill University,
Montreal.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. See Reports,
p. 418].
As the result of some experiments by electrical methods on the measurement
of the temperature changes of the walls and steam in the cylinder of a working
steam-engine, which were made at the McDonald Engineering Building of McGill
University in the summer of 1895, the authors arrived at the conclusion that the
well-known phenomena of cylinder condensation could be explained, and the
amount of condensation in many cases predicted, from a knowledge of the indicator
card, on the hypothesis that the rate of condensation of steam, though very great,
was not infinite, but finite and measurable. An account of these experiments was
communicated to the Institute of Civil Engineers in September 1896, and will, it
is hoped, be published in the course of the ensuing year. In the meantime the
authors have endeavoured to measure the rate of condensation of steam under dif-
‘ferent conditions by a new and entirely different method, with a view to verify the
results of their previous work, and also to estimate the probable effect of wetness
or superheating of the steam, and the influence, if any, of the film of water adhering
to the walls of the cylinder.
5. Tests on the Triple-expansion Engine at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. By Ceci H. Peasopy, Professor of Marine Engineer-
ing and Naval Architecture.
The experimental engine is a horizontal three-crank triple-expansion engine,
built by the E. P. Atlis Company of Milwaukee. The diameter of the high-
pressure cylinder is 9 inches, that of the intermediate cylinder is 16, and that
of the low-pressure cylinder is 24 inches. All these pistons have a stroke of
30 inches. The high-pressure and intermediate cylinders have Corliss valves of
the ordinary type, moved by eccentrics with a small angular advance. The
valves for the low-pressure cylinder are moved by two eccentrics, each working
its own wrist plate; one of the eccentrics has a small angular advance, and
760 REPORT—1897.
works the exhaust valves, which, as usual, have a small lap; the other eccentric
has a large negative angular advance, and controls the admission valves, which
are set with 3-inch clearance. This separation of the admission and exhaust
valve gear allows the cut-off to be prolonged to about 4 stroke without changing
the action of the exhaust valves.
A single powerful bail governor is given control of the cut-off valves for al!
three cylinders; but any set of valves may be disconnected from the governor,
and then the cut-off by those valves may be raised by hand while the engine is
running. It is the practice in the laboratory to allow the governor to retain con-
trol of the high-pressure admission valves only, those for the other cylinders
being adjusted for each test by hand. This arrangement throws a very light duty
on the governor, so that with the aid of a heavy fly-wheel it regulates the
engine very closely, and successive indicator diagrams from the several cylinders
are very nearly identical.
Intermediate receivers, each several times as large as the cylinders connected
to it, are placed between the high and intermediate and between the intermediate
and low-pressure cylinders. In each receiver there is placed an efficient reheater,
made of copper tubing.
The several cylinders are provided with steam jackets on the heads and the
bands. <A proper system of pipes and valves allows steam to be supplied to or
excluded from any steam jacket or either receiver reheater. The condensed water
from the jackets of any cylinder, or from either reheater, is collected in a closed
receptacle and measured by displacement, five such receptacles being provided.
The steam-piping is arranged so that boiler steam may be supplied to any
cylinder independently ; and the exhaust pipes from the several cylinders are so
connected that various combinations of compounding can be made. For example,
steam may be exhausted from the middle cylinder into both receivers, and may
then pass into both the small and the large cylinders, which then act as low-
pressure cylinders. The exhaust steam in any case is finally condensed in a
surface condenser, and is collected and weighed in two tanks on scales.
Tests on this engine are made as a part of the regular class work in the steam-
engineering laboratory, all observations and calculations being made by the
students. But the work is all under the careful supervision of competent instruc-
tors, who also calculate all the results to give a standard with which the students’
calculations are compared. It is our experience that this method gives at once
the best instruction to the students and very reliable results, which have been
published from time to time for the information of engineers. The paper of whick
this is an abstract gives a 7éswmé of all the tests that have thus far been made.
The standard time for an engine test is one hour, which has been found to be
abundant, provided the engine has been running a sufficient time under constant
condition when the test is begun. When steam is supplied to the jackets of the
cylinders during the test fifteen or twenty minutes’ preliminary running is enough,
but when steam is not admitted to the cylinders one hour is required, it being the
habit to start the engine when cold by first warming all the cylinders by aid of
the steam jackets.
Tests have been made on the engine running as a triple-expansion engine, and
also running compound, using sometimes the small cylinder and the large cylin-
der, and sometimes the intermediate and the large cylinders. The several com-
binations have been tested, both with and without steam in the jackets. The
best results have been attained when the engine is run triple-expanding, with
steam supplied to the jackets on the heads and the barrels of all three cylinders.
With a boiler pressure of 150 pounds, and with cut-off at one-third stroke for the
high-pressure cylinder, the engine develops 150 horse-power at 90 revolutions per
minute, and uses 13:7 pounds of steam per horse-power per hour, or 238 B.T.U.
per horse-power per minute.
When no steam is supplied to the jackets of any of the cylinders the engine
runs 270 B.T.U. per horse-power per minute, so that the ratio of the heat con-
sumption with and without steam in the jackets is
233 : 270=1: 1:16.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 764
When steam is supplied to the jackets on the heads of the cylinders, but not to
those on the barrels, the heat consumption is 262 B.T.U. per horse-power pe
minute, giving 4 ratio of
238 ; 262=1: 112,
which shows an appreciable but not a large effect from using steam in the jackets
on the heads of the cylinders.
It is to be remarked that this engine under its most favourable conditions
shows a very good efficiency, z.c., 0°188. This is 0-736 of the efficiency of Camot’s
cycle for the same range of temperatures, and is 0'813 of that of a non-conducting
engine having the same range of pressure.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Small Screw Gauges.—See Reports, p. 426.
2. Montreal Electric Tramway System. By G. C. CUNNINGHAM.
3. The Present Tendencies of Electric Tramway Traction.
By J. G. W. Auprivce, A.MW.Inst.C.Z£.
Tramway work is at the present time, and has been for some years past,
characterised by an increasing use of mechanical traction systems. The reasons
for this are obvious and self-evident. It is, however, worth while to look into the
considerations that, so far as electric traction is concerned, have caused one system
or another to grow into favour, noting also the inherent qualities or attributes of
each, which must have an effect on future developments.
The United Kingdom has practically 130 miles of electric tramway at work or
under construction; of this length 1034 miles are operated on the trolley or over-
head wire system, 153 miles by means of a third rail conductor, 6 miles by means
of storage batteries, and only 4 miles on the underground conduit system.
These proportions may be taken as fairly representative of other countries also,.
as far as can be ascertained.
They seem likely to be maintained or even increased in favour of the overhead
wire system, unless radical improvements can be made in the direction of a cheaply
built and maintained conduit method, cr more durable and light accumulators for
placing direct upon the car. Objections to the overhead trolley wire system are
almost entirely <esthetic, but at the same time have such great weight and force that
every incentive is offered to the genius of invention to make improvements in
other directions.
The ordinary underground conduit with open slot is most expensive to instal
and troublesome to maintain efficiently ; it cannot be built for less than 10,000/. or
12,0007. per mile. Even its latest form (consisting practically of an underground
trolley wire) must require an outlay of nearly double the cost of an overhead wire
system.
Closed conduits with surface contacts usually operated by means of electro-
magnetic switching devices in boxes under the street level are complicated, and it
is to be feared are unreliable. The great weight of lead required on each car for
accumulator traction means practically that the live paying load can never reack
25 per cent. of the gross weight of loaded car; whilst the combinations of trolley
wire and battery, attempted on systems like those of Hanover and Dresden, are
obviously ill-designed, the dead weight of battery being carried throughout the
entire journey, though it is only required for part thereof.
762 REPORT—1897.
The overhead trolley wire system therefore appears likely to come into still
greater use than has already been the case, if only on the ground of economy ; but
in view of its admitted defects, the author has worked out an alternative method
which avoids the erection of trolley wires along the streets above the tracks,
4. On a New Method of Measuring Hysteresis in Iron.
By J. L. W. Gun, B.A.Se., of McGill University, Montreal.
[Communicated by Professor CALLENDAR, M.A., F.R.S.]
‘When a specimen of iron is passed to and fro through a magnetic field without
any motion of rotation, the direction of the field being reversed each time the
specimen passes out of the field, the iron passes through a complete magnetic
eycle for each cycle of motion, and a definite amount of energy is lost, due to
hysteresis in the iron. Since energy is supplied only in the form of mechanical
work upon the specimen, the hysteresis loss is, by the law of the conservation of
energy, numerically equal to the resultant mechanical work expended.
The instrument described below is based upon the above principle, and its
function is to measure the work so expended.
The magnetic field is obtained by the use of a solenoid wound on a brass tube.
This solenoid is arranged vertically and has a vertical motion, the ends of the
solenoid being fitted with collars, which slide on two rigid vertical rods. An
arm is fastened rigidly to the solenoid, and extends out on one side. To this arm
is fastened a cord, which passes over a grooved pulley vertically above. A
balance-weight is attached to the other end of the cord. By rotating the grooved
pulley the solenoid may be moved up and down, and will remain in any desired
position. The specimen to be tested is placed in a stirrup, which is sufficiently
small to pass through the solenoid, and is suspended by a helical spring, the point
of suspension being vertically above the centre of the solenoid. Another helical
spring extends from the bottom of the stirrup to a point vertically below. This
serves to keep the stirrup steady. The stirrup is suspended so that when the
solenoid is in its owest position the specimen is out of the magnetic field, being
above the solenoid. As the solenoid is moved up the stirrup and specimen pass
through it, and when the solenoid is in its highest position the specimen is prac-
tically out of the field. If the solenoid be moved once up and down, the field
being reversed when the specimen is out of it, the specimen passes through a
complete magnetic cycle, provided the specimen has been once through the field
and is initially in that particular cyclic state.
As the solenoid is moved up, the specimen is attracted down, the force of
attraction increasing until it reaches a maximum when about one-half of the
specimen is inside the solenoid. The attraction then decreases and becomes zero
when the specimen is in the centre of the solenoid. Up to this point work is
being done by the magnetic force. As the solenoid is moved up to its highest
position the specimen is attracted upward, and work is done against the magnetic
force ; the attracting force becomes a maximum when the specimen is about one-
half out of the solenoid on the lower side, and becomes zero when the solenoid is
in its highest position. The maximum force in the second half of the motion is
greater than the maximum force in the first half. The work done in the second
half of the motion is also greater than that done in the first half, the difference
being the work expended in taking the specimen through half a cycle. When the
field is reversed and the solenoid moved down, the action is similar to that which
takes place when the solenoid is moved up, and the resultant work done will he
the same, provided the specimen is homogeneous.
The resultant work done on the specimen may be determined by observing the
attracting force when the solenoid is in different positions, and then drawing a
distance-force curve. The integral of this curve gives the resultant work done on
the specimen. The force at different points can be determined by calibrating the
springs which support the stirrup, and then observing the extension of these
springs. The author has determined the hysteresis loss in different specimens at:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 763
different inductions by this method, the extension of the springs being observed
with the aid of a microscope.
To make this method practical, a simple integrating apparatus is attached to
the instrument above described, by which the work done 1s integrated automati-
cally. A glass dise is connected rigidly to the pulley which moves the solenoid,
so that when the pulley rotates, the glass disc rotates in its own plane, which is
vertical, the axis of rotation passing through its centre. The motion of the glass
dise is therefore proportional to the motion of the solenoid. An arm is fastened
to the stirrup which supports the specimen, and extends up to the glass disc.
This arm supports a graduated steel disc, which is free to rotate in its own plane
about a vertical axis through its centre. This steel disc presses lightly on the
glass disc, the point of contact being at the centre of the glass disc. When the
solenoid is moved up, the specimen is attracted down, taking the stirrup with it.
This causes the steel disc to recede from the centre of the glass disc. A motion of
rotation is then communicated to it by the glass disc, the speed of rotation
depending on its distance from the centre; since its distance from the centre at
any instant is proportional to the attracting force, and the motion of the glass
disc is proportional to the motion of the solenoid, the speed of rotation of the disc
is proportional to the work being done at that instant. The total amount of
rotation is therefore proportional to the total work done. Consequently all that
is necessary to test a specimen with this instrument is to place the specimen in the
stirrup, move the solenoid up and down to get the specimen in a cyclic state, then
take it through a cycle, and observe the amount of rotation communicated to the
steel disc. ‘I'his is a direct measure of the work expended.
The constant of the instrument is determined by placing a known weight in
the stirrup, and observing the amount of rotation communicated to the dise when
the solenoid is moved through a known distance.
The specimen may be taken through a number of cycles and the readings
allowed to accumulate. The average of a number of cycles is thus obtained.
5. A New Method of Investigating the Variation of the Magnetic Qualities
of Iron with Temperature. By ¥. H. Pircner, I.A.Sc., Demonstrator
of Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
[Communicated by Professor H. L. CALLENDAR, M.A., F.R.8.]
Owing to the apparent lack of exact knowledge on the subject of the variation
of hysteresis in iron with temperature, and as it is of some importance in the work-
ing of transformers, it was thought well to investigate the subject: further.
At the same time it was intended to repeat the experiments of Hopkinson and
others on magnetism at high temperatures, by a different method and with higher
fields. For this purpose a new method, devised by Professor Callendar, was
employed.
? Description of the Method.
The specimen of iron in question was in the form of a wire, and was tested by
the direct magnetometric method in-the broad side-on position. The first intention
was to insulate the specimen in a small:and very-thin: platinum tube, heated by
having a current passed through it. The temperature of the specimen was to be
inferred from the resistance of the platinum tube over the length occupied by the
iron wire specimen. The resistance was to be measured by the fall of potential
between the terminals of very fine platinum wire leads, attached to the platinum
tube at the ends of the above length.
In this way, if the tube were made considerably longer than the wire, the
middle portion occupied by the wire would be very uniformly heated, and very
exact values of the mean temperature could be obtained. The slack of the
platinum tube when heated was arranged to be taken up by copper springs. To
prevent oxidation of the iron wire specimen, and at the same time to promote a
764 REPORT—1897.
steady temperature throughout the length of the platinum tube, the whole was
inclosed in a vacuum tube. The vacuum was maintained by a five-fall Sprengel
pump, which was kept running during the experiment and was assisted by a water-
pump in the early stages of exhausting the tube.
With this method in view, a platinum tube was constructed from a strip of
foil 20 em. long, 2°95 em. wide, and 0:00254 cm. thick. It was rolled around a
mandrel 0'438 cm. diam., and after annealing kept its dimensions without necessi-
tating binding wires. The fine platinum leads were attached by winding their
ends once around the tube and twisting up tight. A specimen of iron wire was
threaded through mica wads of the same diameter as the mandrel, and slipped
into position inside the platinum tube. The ends of the platinum tube were bound
with bare copper wire to 40 copper rods, and the whole carefully centred in a
glass tube.
The tube was exhausted, and a preliminary test for uniformity of heating made
before placing it in the solenoid. It was seen to be heated very uniformly up to
2cm. from each end. The apparatus was then fixed in position in the solenoid,
and the whole placed in position with respect to the magnetometer. It was found,
however, that platinum tubes constructed in this manner from thin foil would not
stand at high temperatures. Two others were tried, which, on account of not
having thicker foil of sufficient length, had to be constructed out of foil of one-half
the thickness—one being wound three times around the mandrel and the other five
times. These shared the same fate as the first one, giving way in circular cracks
running sometimes over one-half the width of the foil.
The initial extension of the copper springs was not more than 2 mm. in any
case, and the ends of the tubes made as square as possible so as to equalise the
tension. This method was therefore abandoned until drawn tubes of suitable
thickness could be obtained. In the meantime the platinum tube was replaced by
the iron wire specimen itself, and in this way chservations were obtained, and, by
making the specimen its own thermometer, very exact values of its temperature
could be obtained.
By heating the specimen in this manner there would be a strong circular field
due to the heating current. The curves plotted from the temperature and magneto-
meter readings would therefore have to be corrected for this circular magnetism.
This was effected in the manner explained, which, however, limited the temperature
to which the wire could be raised. A set of observations was taken with the
specimen in air and another in a high vacuum. The true magnetic behaviour of
the iron with temperature could then be obtained from these two sets.
Description of Apparatus.
The Solenoid.—The magnetising coil as made in the laboratory was wound on
a brass tube about 70 cm. long and having an outside diameter of 2:°23cm. The
tube was fairly straight, and previous to winding was filed up and polished in a
lathe and then carefully lacquered.
Winding.—
Length of winding : " : ° ° 4 . - - 60°25 cm.
Depth i (4 layers double silk covered {24 B. and 8.) 0-245 ,,
Whole number of turns : F ‘ . a ° 2 - 4079°0 ,,
Total resistance . 3 . : ‘ 2 % 5 - ¢ ee Bless
This winding was fed on by hand in a lathe and was very fairly uniform. Each
layer was carefully paraflined before winding the next. The insulation resistance
when finished, as tested on 100 volts, was over a megohm. The winding was
backed up at the ends by square ebonite washers which were fixed to the tube by
brass set screws.
The Water-circulation.—A water-circulation was arranged for dissipating the
heat when large magnetising forces were used. A thin brass tube was chosen, so
that if it were slipped into the solenoid tube the annular space between them
would be about 2mm. The smaller tube was centred by brass rings fitted at the
ends to the annular space between the tubes, The joint was made tight by solder-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 765
ing. The water-circulation was effected by two small brass tubes, about 0°75 em.
diameter, entering laterally through the solenoid tube beyond the ebonite end into
the spaces between the tubes.
Combined Galvanometer and Magnetometer.—This instrument was simply a
mirror galyanometer, mounted on levelling screws, and with two coils of copper
wire fitted closely on each side of the needle. The instrument was made fairly
dead beat by employing a large thin aluminium vane, just fitting the needle
chamber, to carry the mirror and needle. The resistance of the coils was found to
be 100-3 ohms at 18°7C. It was used for measuring currents and resistances by
the fall of potential method. The direct effect of the solenoid was balanced in the
usual way by a balancing coil.
The Mounting for the Iron Wire Specimen.—The iron wire specimen was
26:1 em. long and 0°127 cm. diam. Its ends were fused to copper wires 10-5 cm.
long and 0:40 cm. diam., an arrangement intended to conduce to a constant tem-
perature throughout the length of the iron wire when the heating current was
passed through the circuits. The ends of the copper wire were riveted and tin-
soldered to two tt 0B. & S. copperrods, which were brought out at both ends of the
containing tube. - The rods were at about 6 cm. from their inside ends, and copper
springs, 3 strands ¢ 18 B. & S., wound oppositely, were introduced to take up the
slack of the specimen and copper wires when heated. The springs fitted the inclosing
glass tube fairly well, but better centring was obtained by brass washers soldered
on the G cm. segments at about 5 cm, apart and turned up to fit the tube.
Two fine platinum wires, for potential leads, were attached at 15 cm. apart to
the iron wire specimen. They were brought out in glass capillary tubes running
through diametrically opposite holes in the washers and inside the springs to one
end of the glass containing tube. The ends of the capillary tubes were allowed to
protrude about 5 cm. beyond the containing tube, and were fused at both ends to
the platinum wires.
The diameter of the platinum leads was 0:005 cm.; total length, 98:0 cm.;
resistance, 8:06 ohms.
The glass containing tube was made tight at the ends in the following manner.
At the end where the capillary tubes were brought out a large brass cup, 2 cm.
deep and 2 cm. internal diameter, drilled through the bottom to fit the rod and
capillary tubes, was threaded over into position and soldered to the rod. This
tube just fitted the inner solenoid tube, and had an internal diameter
of about 1:27 cm. It was slipped over the apparatus till its end reached the
bottom of the cup. The cup was then filled with melted fusible alloy, and to
make tightness doubly sure a mixture of beeswax and resin was run around all the
joints. The other end of the glass tube was drawn down so as nearly to fit the
copper rod, and a similar but, on account of having to go through the solenoid
tube, smaller cup soldered to the rod, after putting a small initial extension of
about 2 mm. in the springs.
The seal was made in the same way as before. The connection to the pump
was made by means of a small copper tube entering through the bottom of the
brass cup and sweated in with solder. It was bent up at a right angle to facilitate
a mercury immersion joint. The length of glass tube between the cups was
61 cm., which was about 2 cm. longer than the inner brass tube of the solenoid.
When the apparatus was in place so that the specimen was symmetrical with
respect to the solenoid, the small brass cup was just at the end of the inner solenoid
tube. Three brass set screws, ranged symmetrically, were tapped through this end
of the solenoid tube and screwed down hard on the cup. At the other end of the
solenoid tube a brass binding screw was soldered. This, with a similar screw on
the adjacent end of the copper rod, formed the heating current terminals. By
making the heating current return around itself in this way, its direct effect on the
magnetometer was minimised,
‘A compressed fibre block was screwed to the copper rod near the ends of the
capillary tubes, and vertical holes drilled side by side in it, to form mercury cups
for the platinum leads. Twin wire leads of approximately equal resistances were
brought from the terminals of the standard resistances in the magnetising and
766 REPORT—1897.
heating current circuits, together with a similar pair from the mercury cups at the
ends of the platinum potential leads, to three pairs of mercury cups on the table
near the telescope and scale. The readings for magnetising current, heating
current, and E.M.F. over the specimen could be very conveniently and quickly
obtained by dipping the ends of the galvanometer leads into each pair of cups in
turn.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24,
The following Papers were read :—
1. Some Tests on the Variation of the Constants of Electricity Supply
Meters with Temperature and with Currents. By G. W. D. Ricks.
2. Roller Bearings. By W. B. Marsnatn.
3. Analysis of Speed Trials of Ships.
By W.G. Wauxer, Inst. ME, A.M Inst.C.£.
Only about 50 per cent. of the indicated horse-power of the engines of a ship is
absorbed in actually propelling the vessel, the other half being wasted in the fric-
tion of the machinery and the resistance and slip of the propeller. The indicated
horse-power developed by the engines may be divided into the following five con-
stituent parts :—
1. The power necessary to overcome the friction of the unloaded engines.
2. The power to overcome the friction due to the working load.
3. The power to overcome the skin friction of the propeller blades.
4, The power expended in the slip of the propeller.
5. The power necessary for the propulsion of the vessel.
The power necessary for the propulsion of the vessel can be subdivided into
two parts.
1, The power required to overcome the skin friction of the ship.
2. The power due to the formation of waves.
The author had carried out a series of progressive speed trials on a river steamer
60 feet long. The steam pressure necessary to overcome the friction of the un-
loaded engine was equal to about 9b. per square inch. The friction due to
working load was taken at 7} per cent. of the net power, the net power being
obtained by subtracting friction of unloaded engine from the total power, the blade
friction was taken at °465 lb. per square foot of blade surface when moving in its
helical path at a velocity of 10 feet per second, and for other speeds in the ratio of
the square of those speeds to the square of 10. If the first three quantities are
subtracted from the indicated horse-power there remains a quantity the sum of the
power spent in the action and reaction of the propeller; from this remainder was
subtracted the slip, and the final remainder was the power required to propel the
vessel. This final power divided by the net power is a measure of the efficiency of
the screw. Taking the results for speed of vessels at seven miles per hour, which
was the working speed we have, initial friction equals 15 per cent. of the L.H.P.,
friction of load 6 per cent. of I.H.P., friction of screw 3-4 per cent. of I.H.P.,
slip of screw 25 per cent. of I.H.P., propulsion 50 per cent. of I.H.P., skin friction
of vessel 27 per cent. of ILH.P., power lost in wave formation 23 per cent. of I.H.P.
The general shape of the efficiency curve of the propeller is almost the same for all
screws; being zero at zero speed, it rises to a maximum at a certain speed, and
afterwards falls off with further increase of speed. The object is to design a pro-
peller so that its maximum efficiency occurs at the working speed of the vessel.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 767
Having carried out a progressive series of experiments on a steamer, it becomes an
easy matter to modify the design of the existing propeller so that its maximum:
efficiency shall occur at the working speed of the ship. The maximum efficiency
of a serew-propeller is about 70 per cent.; in the experiment carried out, it was
70 per cent. at 4 miles per hour, and 59 at 7 miles per hour,
4. A Modern Power Gas Plant Working in a Textile Factory.
Ly H. Aen.
5. Effect of Vemperature in Varying the Resistance to Impact, the
Hardness, and the Tensile Strength of Metals. By A. Macpuatt,
768 REPORT—1897.
Secrion H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Sir Wittr1aMm Turver, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E.
The President delivered the following Address on Friday, August 20 :—
Some Distinctive Characters of Human Structure.
Wuen the British Association for the Advancement of Science held its first
Canadian meeting at Montreal in 1884, the subject of Anthropology, or the
Science of Man, attained on that occasion for the first time the rank of an
independent Section.
It was presided over by the accomplished writer and learned anthropologist
Dr. E. B. Tylor, who selected as the subject-matter of his opening address several
prominent questions in Anthropology, with special reference to their American
aspects. For example, the question of the presence of a stone age in America;
whether the aborigines are the descendants and representatives of man of the post-
glacial period; the question of the Asiatic origin of the American Indians, and the
arguments derived from anatomical structure, language, and social framework,
bearing upon this theory. The traces of Asiatic influence in the picture writings
of the Aztecs, correspondences in the calendar cycles of Mexico and Central
America with those of Eastern Asia, and the common use of certain games of
chance were also referred to.
It is not my intention, even had I possessed the requisite knowledge, to enlarge
on the topics so ebly discussed by my eminent predecessor. As my own studies
have been more especially directed to the physical side of Anthropology, rather
than to its archeological, historical, philological, moral and social departments, I
naturally prefer to call your attention to those aspects of the subject which have
from time to time come within the range of my personal cognizance. I have selected
as the subject of my address ‘Some Distinctive Characters of Human Structure.’
When we look at man and contrast his form and appearance with other
vertebrate creatures, the first thing probably to strike us is his capability of
assuming an attitude, which we distinguish by the distinctive term, the erect
attitude. In this position the head is balanced on the summit of the spine, the
lower limbs are elongated into two columns of support for standing on two feet, or
for walking, so that man’s body is perpendicular to the surface on which he stands
or moves, and his mode of progression is bipedal. Asa consequence of this, two
of his limbs, the arms, are liberated from locomotor functions ; they acquire great
freedom and range of movement at the shoulder-joint, as well as considerable move-
ment at the elbow and between the two bones of the forearm; the hands also are
modified to serve as organs of prehension, which minister to the purposes of his higher
intelligence. The erect position constitutes a striking contrast to the attitude
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 769
assumed by fish, amphibia, and reptiles when at rest or moving, in which verte-
brates the body is horizontal and more or less parallel to the surface on which
they move. Birds, although far removed from the erect attitude, yet show a
closer approximation to it than the lower vertebrates or even the quadrupedal
mammals, But of all vertebrates, those which most nearly approximate to man
in the position assumed by the body when standing and walking are the higher
apes.
’ The various adaptations of structure in the trunk, limbs, head, and brain
which conduce to give man this characteristic attitude are essential parts of his
bodily organisation, and constitute the structural test which one employs in
answering the question whether a particular organism is or is not human. :
These adaptations of parts are not mere random arrangements, made at hap-
hazard and without a common purpose; but are correlated and harmonised so as
to produce a being capable of taking a distinctive position in the universe, superior
to that which any other organism can possibly assume. If we could imagine a fish,
a reptile, or a quadruped to be provided with as highly developed a brain as man
possesses, the horizontal attitude of these animals would effectually impede its full
and proper use, so that it would be of but little advantage to them. It is essential,
therefore, for the discharge of the higher faculties of man, that the human brain
should be conjoined with the erect attitude of the body. The passage of a verte-
brate organism from the horizontal position, say of a fish, in which the back, with
its contained spinal column, is uppermost, and the head is in front, to the vertical
or erect position of a man, in which the back, with its contained spinal column, is
behind, and the head is uppermost, may be taken as expressing the full range and
limit of evolution, so far as the attitude is concerned, of which such an organism is
capable. Any further revolution of the body, as in the backward direction, would
throw the back downwards, the head backwards, and would constitute a degrada-
tion. It would not be an advance in the adaptation of structure to the duties to be
discharged, but rather an approach to the relation of parts existing so generally
in invertebrate organisms.
At an early period in the evolution of the human mind and intelligence an
Se sepomorphic conception of the Deity arose, to whom were ascribed the posses-
sion of the bodily form and attitude of man, and even human affections and
passions. This idea took so firm possession of the imagination that, in the course
of time, it obtained objective expression in the statues of ancient Greece and Rome
and in the masterpieces of Christian art. In one of the most ancient of all books,
in which is embodied the conception entertained by the Jewish writers of the
Genesis of the world, and of all creatures that have life, we read that ‘God created
man in his own image, in the image of God ereated he him, male and female
created he them.’ By the association, therefore, of the human form with the idea
of Deity, there was naturally present in the minds of these writers, although not
expressed in precise anatomical language, a full recognition of the dignity of the
human body, of its superiority to that of all other creatures, and that the human
form was the crown and glory of all organic nature.
This conception of the dignity of man in nature is not confined to those writings
which we are accustomed to call sacred. The immortal Greek philosopher and
naturalist, Aristotle, in his treatise ‘On the Parts of Animals,’ composed at least
three hundred years 8B.¢., refers more than once to the erect attitude of man, and
associates it with his ‘God-like nature and God-like essence.’ In the second .
century of our present era lived another Greek author, Claudius Galen, whose
writings exercised for many centuries a dominating influence in medicine and
anatomy, comparable to that wielded by Aristotle in philosophy. Although Galen,
as has been shown by Vesalius and other subsequent anatomists, was often incorrect
in his descriptions of the internal parts of the human body, doubtless because his
opportunities of dissection were so scanty, he had attained a correct conception of
the perfection of its external form, and he thoroughly understood that in its con-
‘struction it was admirably fitted for the sentient and intelligent principle which
animated it, and of which it was merely the organ. In his treatise on the use of
‘the various parts of the body he associates the hand with the exercise of the gift
1897. 3D
770 REPORT—1897.
of reason in man, and he speaks of it as an instrument applicable to every art and
occasion, as well of peace as of war. It is, he says, the best constructed of all
prehensile organs, and he gives a careful description of how both the hand asa whole
and the individual digits, more especially the thumb, are brought into use in the
act of grasping.’ Galen does not indeed enter into the minute anatomical details
which have been emphasised by more recent writers on the subject, but by none
of these has the use of the hand and its association with man’s higher intelligence
been more clearly and more eloquently expressed than by the Greek physician and
philosopher seventeen centuries ago,
By the publication in 1859 of Charles Darwin’s ever-memorable treatise ‘On
the Origin of Species,’ an enormous impulse was given to the study of the anatomy
of man in comparison with the lower animals, more especially with the apes. By
many anatomists the study was pursued with the view of pointing out the
resemblances in structure between men and apes; by a more limited number to
show wherein they did not correspond. I well remember a course of lectures
on the comparative characters of man delivered thirty-five years ago by my old
master, Professor John Goodsir, in which, when speaking of the hand of man and
apes, he dwelt upon sundry features of difference between them.2 The human
hand, he said, is the only one which possesses a thumb capable of a free and
complete movement of opposition. It may be hollowed into a cup and it can
grasp a sphere, It is an instrument of manipulation co-extensive with human
activity. The ape’s hand again is an imperfect hand, with a short and feeble .
thumb, and with other clearly defined points of difference and inferiority to that
of man. It can embrace a cylinder, as the branch of a tree, and is principally
subservient to the arboreal habits of the animal. Its fingers grasp the cylinder in
a series of spirals.
Here then is an important difference in the manipulative arrangements of the
two hands, the advantage being with the hand of man, in regard to the greater
variety of movement and adaptability, to co-ordinate it with his reasoning
faculties. As showing the acuteness of perception of Galen and his complete
recognition of a fundamental feature of the human hand, he also dwells on the
hand being able to form a circle around a sphere, so as to grasp it on every side,
and to touch it with every part of itself, whilst it can also securely hold objects that
possess plane or concave surfaces. So impressed was the old Greek writer with
the fitness of the hand to discharge the duties imposed on it by the higher intelli-
gence of man that, pagan though he was, he regarded its construction as evidence
of design in nature, and as a sincere hymn to the praise and honour of the Deity.
It is not my intention to dwell upon the multitudinous details of those features
of structure which distinguish man from other vertebrates, for these have been
considered and described by numerous writers. The leading structural differentize
constitute the merest commonplaces of the human anatomist, and are already
sufficiently imprinted on the popular mind. But it may not be out of place to
refer to certain aspects of the subject which are not so generally known, and
the significance of which has been brought into greater prominence by recent
researches.
If we compare the new-born infant with the young of vertebrates generally,
we find a striking difference in its capability of immediately assuming the
characteristic attitude of the species. A fish takes its natural posture and
moves freely in its element as soon as it is hatched. A chicken can stand
and walk when it is liberated from the egg, though, from its wings not
being developed, it is not at once able to fly. A lamb or calf can assume
the quadrupedal position a few minutes after its birth. But, as we all know,
the infant is the most helpless of all young vertebrates, and is months before it
can stand on two feet and move freely on them. During the period of transition,
_ | See passages translated in Dr. Kidd’s Bridgewater Treatise, 1833, and Dr. J.
Finlayson’s Essay on Galen, Glasgow, 1895.
* ‘On the Dignity of the Human Body,’ in Anatomical Memoirs, by John Goodsir,
vol. i. p. 238, Edinburgh, 1868.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 771
from the stage of absolute dependence on others to the acquisition of the power of
bipedal progression, important modifications in the structural arrangements both
of the spine and lower limbs have to take place. At the time of birth the infant’s
spinal column exhibits only two curves; one, corresponding to the true vertebre,
extends from the upper end of the neck to the lowest lumbar vertebra, and the
concavity of its curve is directed forwards; the other and shorter corresponds to
the sacro-coccygeal region and also has its concavity directed forwards. In the
number and character of the curves, the new-born infant differs materially from
the adult man, in whose spine, instead of one continuous curve from the neck to
the sacrum, there are alternating curves, one convex forwards in the region of the
neck, succeeded by one concave forwards in the region of the chest vertebra,
which again is succeeded by a marked convexity forwards in the vertebre of the
loins. The sacro-coccygeal region continues to retain the forward concavity of the
new-born child. The formation and preservation of this alternating series of
curves is associated with the assumption of the erect attitude, and the development
of the lumbar convexity is correlated with the straightening of the lower limbs
when the child begins to walk."
When the child is born, the curvature of its spine in the dorso-lumbar region
approximates to that of an ordinary quadruped in which there is no lumbar con-
vexity, so that the spine in that region presents one continuous curve concave
forwards. For some time after its birth the infant retains the quadrupedal
character of the spinal curve in the dorso-lumbar region, and, as it acquires nervous
and muscular power and capability of independent movement, its mode of pro-
gression in the early months by creeping on hands and knees approximates to that
of the quadruped. It is only after it has attained the age of from a year to sixteen
months that it can erect its trunk, completely extend the hip and knee joints, and
draw the leg into line with the thigh, so as to form a column of support, which
enables it to stand or move about on two feet. Hence there is this great difference
between the young of a quadruped and that of a man, that whilst the former is
born with the dorso-lumbar curve proper to its attitude, and which it retains
throughout life, the child does not possess, either when born, or for some months
after its birth, the characteristic spinal curves of the man. These curves are there-
fore secondary in their production; they are acquired after birth, and are not
imprinted on the human spine from the beginning, though the capability of
acquiring them at the proper time is a fundamental attribute of the human
organism.”
- It has sometimes been assumed that the acquisition of the erect attitude by the
young child is due to the fostering care of the mother or nurse; that it is a matter
of training, encouragement and education, without which the child would not
raise itself upon its feet. I cannot, however, agree with this opinion. If one
could conceive an infant so circumstanced that, though duly provided with food
fitted for its nutrition and growth, it should never receive any aid or instruction in
its mode of progression, there can, I think, be little doubt that when it had gained
sufficient streneth it would of itself acquire the erect attitude. The greater growth
in length of the lower limbs, as compared with the upper, would render it incon-
venient to retain the creeping or the quadrupedal position.
We cannot lose sight of the important influence which, altogether independent
of education, is exercised by parents on their offspring. The transmission of
hereditary qualities, through the germ from which each individual organism is
derived, is one of the fundamental and most striking properties of the germ plasm.
Characters and peculiarities which appertain not only to the family of which the
individual is a member, but also to the species to which he belongs, are conveyed
through it from one generation to another. Hence, as the capability of assuming
the erect attitude and of thus standing and moving on two feet have been attri-
1 Professor Cleland, in Reports of British Association, 1863, p. 112.
2 In his work on the Origin and Progress of Language (vol. i. p. 173, Edinburgh,
1773), Lord Monboddo held that the erect position in man is an acquired habit, and,
like speech, is acquired with difficulty and as the result of training,
3 D2
772 REPORT—1897.
putes of the human form from its beginning, there can be little doubt that this
power is potential in the human organism at the time of birth, and only requires a
further development of the nervous and muscular systems to become a reality,
without the aid of any special training.
The spinal column in the region of the true vertebree consists of numerous bones
jointed together, and with discs of soft fibro-cartilage interposed between and
connecting the bodies of adjoining vertebree with each other. It is to their
presence that the spinal column owes its flexibility and elasticity, These dises
are larger and thicker in the region of the loins, where the lumbar convexity is
situated, than in other parts of the column, and there can be no doubt that the
acquisition of this convexity is intimately associated with the presence of these
discs,
It is a matter for observation and consideration to what extent the bodies of
the vertebre contribute to the production of this curve. A few years ago Professor
Cunningham, of Dublin,! and I? undertook much about the same time researches
into the form and dimensions of the bodies of these bones, Our observations were
made independently of each other and on two different series of skeletons, and 2s
we arrived at practically the same conclusions, we may, I think, infer that, in their
main features at least, these conclusions are correct.
The method followed in the investigation was to measure the diameter from
above downwards of the body of each of the five lumbar vertebre, both in front
and behind. If the upper and lower surfaces of the bodies of the vertebree were
parallel to each other, it is obvious that, so far as they are concerned, the column
formed by them would be straight, as is the case in a column built of hewn stones
possessing similar parallel surfaces. But if the surfaces are not parallel the hody
of the vertebra is wedge-shaped ; should the front of the collective series of bones
have a greater vertical diameter than the back, it is equally obvious that the
column would not be straight, but curved, and with the convexity forwards. From
the examination of a considerable number of spinal columns of Europeans, we found
that, although the vertical diameter of the bodies of the two highest vertebrae was
greater behind than in front, in the two lowest the anterior vertical diameter
so greatly preponderated over the posterior that the anterior vertical diameter of
the bodies of the entire series of lumbar vertebra in each spine was collectively
greater than the corresponding diameter of the posterior surface. In twelve
European skeletons I observed that the mean difference was between 5 and 6 mm.
in favour of the anterior surface. If we are to regard the collective vertical
diameter anteriorly of the five bones as equal to 100, the same diameter posteriorly
is only equal to 96, which may be regarded as the lumbar index in Kuropeans.
Dr. Cunningham obtained a similar index from the examination of a much larger
number of European skeletons, and he further showed that in women the lumbar
convexity forwards ismore pronounced than in men. It follows therefore, from
these observations, that when the broad end of the wedge-shaped bodies is in front
the bones themselves would by their form give a forward convexity to the spine in
the lumbar region. But a similar wedge-shaped form is also possessed by the
lower intervertebral discs in this region, and especially by that interposed between
the last lumbar vertebra and the sacrum. Hence it follows that both vertebral
bodies and intervertebral discs contribute in the white races to the production of
the lumbar convexity.
When we pass to the examination of the corresponding region in the spines of
those races of men that we are accustomed to call lower races, we find a remarkable
and important difference. Let us take as a characteristic example of a lower race
the aborigines of Australia. In their skeletons our observations have proved, that
the vertical diameter of the bodies of the five lumbar vertebrae was collectively
deeper behind than in front. In my series of skeletons the mean difference was
between 6 and 7 mm. in favour of the posterior surface, so that they possessed the —
opposite condition to that which prevails in Europeans. Hence if the spine had
‘ «The Lumbar Curve in Man and the Apes,’ Cunningham, Memoirs of the Royat
Irish Academy, Dublin, 1886.
? «Report on Human Skeletons,’ Challenger Reports, Part XLVIL., 1886.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION JZ. 773
been constructed of vertebra only, instead of a lumbar convexity, the column would
have possessed a forward concavity in that region. For this character, as shown
in the skeleton only, I have suggested the descriptive term ‘ Koilorachic.’
We know, however, that elastic discs are intercalated between the bodies of the
osseous vertebrze in the black races as well as in Europeans. It is necessary,
therefore, to examine their spinal columns, when the intervertebral discs are in
osition, in order to obtain a proper conception of the character of the curve in the
iving man.
A few years ago Professor Cunningham had the opportunity of studying the
spinal column of an aboriginal Australian,’ in which the intervertebral discs had
been preserved in their proper position, in relation to the bones, without losing their
flexibility, or their natural shape and thickness, He found that, whilst the bodies
of the lumbar vertebrze were longer than in Europeans, the proportion of inter-
vertebral disc to vertebral body was distinctly less, so that the disc appeared to be
reduced in depth, in relation to the greater vertical diameter of the vertebral body.
Notwithstanding this difference, as compared with the white man, the Australian
spine had a marked lumbar convexity which showed no material difference from
that seen in Europeans. As the lumbar curve was not due to the wedge-shaped
form of the bodies of the vertebra, it was therefore produced solely by the strong
wedge-shape of the intervertebral discs, and was not, as in Europeans, a product of
a combination of both these factors. The spinal column, when complete, is not
therefore koilorachic in the lumbar region.
The greater vertical diameter of the bodies of the lumbar vertebre behind than
in front, as compared with Europeans, is not limited to the Australians, but is
participated in by other black races, as the now extinct Tasmanians, the Bushmen,
Andaman Islanders, and Negroes, which, if tested solely by the measurements of
the skeleton, would also be koilorachic. But in these races intervertebral discs
are also present, and there can be no doubt that through the compensating
influence of the wedge-shaped discs, with their deeper ends in front, the lumbar
curve is in them also convex forwards. It is clear, therefore, that in the black
races the intervertebral discs play relatively a more important part in the produc-
tion of the lumbar curve than in Europeans.
One of the requirements of civilisation is the wearing of clothes, and fashion
frequently prescribes that they should be tight-fitting and calculated to restrict
motion in and about the spinal column. In savage races, on the other hand,
clothing is often reduced to a minimum, and when worn is so loose and easy as in
no way to hamper the movements of the body. The spinal column retains there-
fore in them much more flexibility, and permits the greater measure of freedom in
the movements of the trunk, which is found in savage man, and has often been
referred to by travellers.
It used to be considered that the possession of a lumbar convexity in the spinal
column was the exclusive privilege of man, and was shared in by no other verte-
brate. There can be no doubt that it attainsa marked development in the human
Spine, and as such is associated with the erect posture. But the observations of
Cunningham on the spinal column of apes, more especially the anthropoid group,
made in fresh specimens, in which the intervertebral discs were in place, have
proved that in the Chimpanzee the lumbar convexity is probably as strongly pro-
nounced asin the adult man. In a Chimpanzee, two years old, the development
is more advanced that in a child of the same age. The lumbar convexity is
established at an earlier age than in the child, for it would seem as if the Chim-
anzee attained its maturity at a younger period of life than the human being.
n the Orang the lumbar curve is more feeble than in Man and the Chimpanzee,
and in the specimen described by Cunningham resembled that of a boy six years
old. Ina fresh specimen of the Gibbon, examined by the same anatomist, the
Jumbar curve was intermediate between the Chimpanzee and the Orang.
In 1888, I purchased the bones of an adult male Gorilla, in which the vertebrae
' Proc. Roy. Soc. London, January 24, 1889, vol. xlv.; also see Journal of Anatomy
and Physiology, vol. xxiv. 1890.
774 REPORT—1897.
were in position and connected together by the dried intervertebral discs. This
condition is of course not so satisfactory, for the study of the spinal curves, as if
the specimen had been fresh, and with the discs retaining their natural flexibility
and elasticity. But it was quite obvious that the spine possessed an alternating
series of convex-concave curves from above downwards. The cervical and lumbar
convexities, more especially the latter, did not project so far forwards as in man,
and the dorsal concavity was not so deep. The most projecting part of the lumbar
convexity was at the junction of the bodies of the third and fourth lumbar verte-
bree and their intermediate disc. A vertical line drawn downwards from the most
prominent part of this convexity fell in front of the coccyx. When prolonged
upwards it passed in front of the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae, and intersected the
body of the sixth cervical vertebra, so that the bodies of the vertebre, higher than
the sixth, were directed obliquely from below upwards and forwards in front of
the vertical line.
The dried state of the discs did not enable one to determine precisely the
proportion in which they entered into the formation of the length of the column,
but the vertical diameter of the interlumbar and lumbo-sacral discs was obviously
not as great as in the human spine. On the other hand, the vertical diameter of
the bodies of the lumbar vertebree was greater than in man, so that the length of
the lumbar spine, and possibly its degree of convexity, were due more to the bodies
of the vertebre than to the elastic discs interposed between them. The Gorilla
corresponds with the Chimpanzee in having longer vertebral bodies and shorter
intervertebral discs than in man.
Without going into the question whether a lumbar convexity exists in the
tailed monkeys, the determination of which with precision is a matter of some
difficulty, it must be obvious that the presence of this convexity can no longer be
regarded as the exclusive prerogative of man. It undoubtedly forms an important
factor in the study of theerect attitude; but in order that man should acquire and
be able to retain his distinctive posture, something more is necessary than the
possession of a spinal column with a curve in the lumbar region convex forwards.
Our attention should now be directed to the lower limbs, more especially to
the two segments of the shaft, which we call thigh and leg.
If we look at a quadruped we see that the thigh is bent on the trunk at
the hip joint, and that the leg is bent on the thigh at the knee joint; whilst
the foot forms more or less of an angle with the leg, and the animal walks either
on the soles of its feet or on its toes. In the Anthropoid apes there is also distinct
flexure both of the hip and knee joints, so that the leg and thigh are set at an
angle to each other, and the foot is modified, through a special development of the
great toe, into an organ of prehension as well as of support. When we turn to
the human body we find that in standing erect the leg and thigh are not set at an
angle to each other, but that the leg is in line with and immediately below the
thigh, that both hip and knee joints are fully extended, so that the axis of the
shaft of the lower limb is practically continuous with the axis of the spine. The
foot is set at right angles to the leg, and the sole is in relation to the ground. The
vertical axis of the shaft of the lower limb, the extended condition of the hip
and knee joints, and the rectangular position of the foot to the leg are therefore
fundamental to the attainment of the erect attitude of man.
In narratives of travel by those who have studied the Penguins in their native
habitats, you may read that these birds may be seen standing on the rocks on the
coasts which they frequent, in rows, like regiments of soldiers, and the idea has become
implanted in the minds of many that they can stand erect, Even so accomplished
a writer and acute a critic as the late Mr. G. H. Lewes thought that the Penguins
had the vertical attitude when standing, and that some mammals, as the Jerboa
and Kangaroo, very closely approached to it. The attitude of man was, he con-
sidered, merely a question of degree, and did not express a cardinal distinction.’
In arriving at this conclusion, however, only the external appearance of the
birds and mammals referred to by him can have been looked at. If the skin and
2 Aristotle, A Chapter from the History of Science, p. 309, London, 1864.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 775
flesh be removed, and the arrangement of the constituent parts of the skeleton be
studied, it will be seen that the axis of the spine in them, instead of being vertical,
is oblique, and that there is no proper lumbar convexity ; that the hip and knee
joints, so far from being extended, are bent; that the thigh is not in the axis of
the spine, and that the leg, instead of being in a vertical line with the thigh, is set
at an acute angle to it. The so-called vertical attitude therefore in these
animals is altogether deceptive. It does not approximate to, and can in no sense
be looked upon as equivalent to, the erect attitude in man.
We may now consider what agents come into operation in changing the curve
of the spine from the concavity forwards, found in the new-born infant, to the
alternating series of curves so characteristic of the adult. The production of the
lumbar convexity is, without doubt, due to structures associated with the spine,
the pelvis and the lower limbs, whilst the cervical convexity is due to structures
acting on the ae and the head.
There can, I think, be little doubt that muscular action plays a large part in the
production of the cervical and lumbar convexities. The study of the muscles,
associated with and connected to the spinal column, shows that large symmetrically
arranged muscles, many of which are attached to the neural arches and transverse
processes of the vertebrae, extend longitudinally along the back of the spine, and
some of them reach the head. On the other hand, those muscles which lie in
front of the spine, and are attached to the vertebree, are few in number, and are
practically limited to the cervical and lumbar regions, in which the spine acquires
a convexity forwards.
It has already been pointed out that the formation of the lumbar convexity is
correlated with the power of extending the hip joints and straightening the
lower limbs. When these joints are in the position of extension, an important
pair of muscles called the ‘psoz,’ which reach from the small trochanter of the femur
to the bodies and transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, are ina state of
tension. In the act of extending the hip joints so as to raise the body to the erect
position, the opposite ends of these muscles are drawn asunder, and the muscles are
stretched and elongated, so that they necessarily exercise traction upon the
lumbar spine. Owing to its flexibility and elasticity, a forward convexity is in
course of time produced in it in this region. By repeated efforts the convexity
becomes fixed and assumes its specific character,
Along with the changes in the spinal column, a modification also takes place
in the inclination of the pelvis during the extension of the hip joints and the
straightening of the lower limbs. The muscle called ‘iliacus’ is conjoined with
the psoas at its attachment to the small trochanter, but instead of being connected
to the spinal column by its upper end, it is attached to the anterior surface of the
ilium. It exercises traction therefore on that bone, draws it forwards and increases
the obliquity of the pelvic brim. This in its turn will react on the lumbar spine
and assist in fixing its convexity.
By some anatomists great importance has been given to the ‘ilio-femoral band,’
situated in the anterior part of the capsular ligament of the hip joint, as causing
the inclination of the pelvis, and in promoting the lumbar curve. This band is
attached by its opposite ends to the femur and the ilium. As the hip joint is being
extended, the ends are drawn further apart, the band is made tense, and the ilium
might in consequence be drawn upon, so as to affect the inclination of the pelvis.
As the ligament has no attachment to the spinal column, it cannot draw directly
on it, but could only affect it indirectly through its iliac connections. It can
therefore, I think, play only a subordinate part in the production of the lumbar
curve.
Contemporaneous with the straightening of the lower limbs and the extension
of the hip joints, the spinal column itself is elevated by muscles of the back,
numed ‘erectores spine, which, taking their fixed points below, draw upon the
vertebree and ribs and erect the spine. The lumbar convexity is the form of stable
equilibrium which the flexible spinal column tends to take under the action of
the muscular forces which pull upon it in front and behind. It is probably due to
the fact that the average pull, per unit of length, of the psom muscles attached in
776 REPORT—1897.
front is greater than the average pull, per unit of length, of the muscles attached
behind in the same region.
The muscles which lie on the back of the neck and which are attached to the
occipital part of the skull, when brought into action, will necessarily affect
the position of the head. The new-born infant has no power to raise the head,
which is bent forward, so that the chin is approximated to the chest. As it
acquires strength the head becomes raised by the muscles of the back of the neck,
and the flexible spine in the cervical region loses its primary curve, concave
forwards, and gradually assumes the cervical convexity. The formation of this
curve is, I believe, assisted by the anterior recti muscles, the lower ends of which
are attached to the front of the vertebree, whilst their upper ends are connected to
the basi-occipital. In the elevation of the head the opposite ends of the muscles
are drawn apart, which would exercise a forward traction upon the cervical
vertebr. The production of the cervical convexity precedes the formation of the
lumbar curve, for an infant can raise its head, and take notice of surrounding
objects, months before it can stand upon its feet.
We shall now look at the bones in the thigh and leg, which possess characters
that are distinctively human, and which are associated with the erect posture.
These characters can be more clearly recognised when the bones are contrasted
with the corresponding bones of the large Anthropoid apes.
As compared with the ape, the shaft of the human thigh bone is not so broad
in relation to its length; when standing erect the shaft is somewhat more oblique,
it is more convex forwards and generally more finely modelled, and it has three
almost equal surfaces, the anterior of which is convex. But, further, a strong ridge
(linea aspera) extends vertically down its posterior surface; so that a section
through the shaft is triangular, with the two anterior angles rounded and the
posterior prominent. In the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and Orang, the shaft is flattened
from before backwards, and the linea aspera is represented by two faint lines,
separated from each other by an intermediate narrow area. A section through the
shaft approximates to an ellipse. In the Gibbon the femur is greatly elongated,
and the shaft is smooth and cylindriform. The linea aspera is for the attachment
of powerful muscles, which are more closely aggregated in man than in apes, so
that the human thigh possesses more graceful contours.
In the human femur the shaft is separated from the neck by a strong anterior
intertrochanteric ridge, to which is attached the ilio-femoral ligament of the hip
joint, which, by its strength and tension, plays so important a part in keeping the
joint extended when the body is erect. In the Anthropoid apes this ridge is faint
in the Gorilla, and scarcely recognisable in the Orang, Gibbon, and Chimpanzee, and
the ilio-femoral ligament in them is comparatively feeble. It may safely therefore
be inferred that in apes, with their semi-erect, crouching attitude, the ilio-femoral
band is not subjected to, or capable of sustaining, the same strain as in man.
The head of the thigh bone is also distinctive. Inthe apes the surface covered
by cartilage is approximately a sphere, and is considerably more than a hemi-
sphere. It is sharply differentiated from the neck by a definite boundary, and it
has a mushroom-like shape. In man the major part of the head is also approxi-
mately a sphere; but, in addition, there is an extension outwards of the articular
area on the anterior surface and upper border of the neck of the bone. The form
of this extended area differs from the spherical shape of the head in general, The
curvature of a normal section of its surface has a much larger radius than the
curvature of a normal section of the head, near the attachment of the ligamentum
teres.
The amount of this extended area varies in different femora, but as a rule it
is larger and more strongly marked in Europeans than in the femora of some
savages which I have examined. When the joint is in the erect attitude, the
area is in contact with the back of the iliac part of the ilio-femoral ligament. It
provides a cartilaginous surface which, during extension of the joint, is not situated
in the acetabulum, but, owing to the centre of gravity falling behind the axis of
movement, is pressed against that ligament, and contributes materially to its
tension. It is associated with the characteristic position of the human hip joint in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 777
standing, and may be called appropriately the extensor area. When the femur is
abducted it passes within the acetabulum. The head of the femur in man is not so
sharply differentiated from the neck as in the Anthropoid apes, especially in the
region of the extensor articular area.
Both man and apes possess at the lower end of the femur a trochlear or pulley-
like surface in front for the patella, and two condyles for the tibia. In the apes
the trochlea is shallow, and the concave curve from side to side is a segment of an
approximate circle, with a large radius. In man the trochlea is much deeper, and
the inner and outer parts of the curve deviate considerably from a circle, and
are not symmetrical; the outer part is wider and extends higher on the front of
the bone than the inner part, whilst the direction of the curve changes towards
the edges of the trochlea.
In the apes the articular surface of the inner condyle is very markedly
larger than that of the outer condyle, both in breadth and in the extent of its
backward curve, which winds upwards on the posterior part of the condyle, so
that the articular surface is continued on to its upper aspect. The curve of the
outer condyle is much sharper, and the condyle does not project so far backwards ;
its articular surface is not prolonged so high on the back of the bone. In the
apes, therefore, the inner is the more important condyle in the construction of the
Imee joint, and the marked extension of its articular area backwards and upwards
is associated with the position and movements of the knee in flexion. In the ape
the thigh is more rotated outwards than in man, and the inner condyle is directed
to the front of the limb.
In man there is not nearly the same disproportion in the size of the two con-
dyles as in the apes. I have occasionally seen in man the articular area of the
inner broader than that of the outer condyle, but more usually the outer is appre-
ciably the wider. The backward curve of the outer condyle is also prolonged
somewhat higher than that of the inner, and thus the condition of the two con-
dyles is the reverse of that found in the ape. It should, however, be stated, as has
keen shown by Dr. Havelock Charles,' that in persons who habitually rest in the
squatting position, an upward extension of the articular area of the inner condyle
exists, which is associated with the acute flexion of the mee whilst squatting.
In man, the outer condyle, when seen in profile, is, as compared with the inner,
more elongated antero-posteriorly than in the Gorilla. The approximate equality
in the size of the two condyles in man is, without doubt, associated with the ex-
tension of the kmee joint in the erect attitude, and with the more equable distribu-
tion of the weight of the body downwards on the head of the tibia. In the ape
the intercondylar fossa, in relation to the size of the bones, is wider in front than
in man; but it is wider behind in man than in the ape, for in the latter the inner
condyle inclines nearer to the outer condyle than in man.
In man, when the knee joint is extended, the tibia is slightly rotated outwards
on the femoral condyles, and the joint is fixed, partly by the tension of the lateral
and posterior ligaments and the anterior crucial ligament, and partly by the gene-
ral tension of the muscles and fascie around the joint. So long as these structures
remain tense, the joint cannot be bent, and no lateral movement, or rotation, is
permitted. The fixation of the joint is of fundamental importance in the act of
standing. Free rotation of the human kmee can only take place when the joint is
acutely bent,
In apes, the joint cannot be fully extended; its natural position, when the
animal is standing, is partial flexion, and in this position a limited rotation is per-
mitted, which can be greatly increased when the joint is more completely bent.
‘In rotating the leg on the thigh the inner condyle is apparently the pivot. The
rotation facilitates the use of the foot as an organ of prehension, and assists the
ape to turn the sole inwards and forwards when holding an object. These move-
ments produce results, which approximate to those occasioned by pronation and
supination of the radius on the ulna, in the movements of the forearm and hand.
In the Anthropoid apes, the head of the tibia slopes very decidedly backwards
at the upper end of the shaft, so that its axis forms an angle with that of the shaft,
1 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xxviii.
778 REPORT—1897.
and the head may be described as retroverted. If the shaft of the tibia were held
vertically, the articular surface for the inner condyle would also slope downwards
and backwards, and to a greater degree than that for the outer condyle. But in
the natural semiflexed position of the ape’s knee the condylar articular surfaces of
the tibia are essentially in the horizontal plane.
In the human tibia the axis of the head is, as a rule, almost in line with that
of the shaft, and the backward and downward slope of the inner articular surface
is not so great as in the ape. In some human tibie, however, well-marked
retroversion of the head has been seen. In skeletons referred to the Quaternary
period of the geologist, this character has been noticed by MM. Collignon,
Fraipont, and Testut, and the inference has been drawn that the men of that period
could not extend the knee joint and walk as erect as modern man. It has,
however, been shown by Professor Manouvrier? and Dr. Havelock Charles? that
this condition of the tibia is not uncommon in some races of men, in whom there
can be no question that the attitude is erect when standing. Dr. Charles has
associated the production of retroversion to the habit in these races of resting on
the ground in the position of squatting. I have found in the tibiz of the people
of the Bronze Age that retroversion of the head of the tibia is not uncommon.
In five specimens the backward slope of the head formed with the vertical axis
of the shaft an angle which ranged in the several bones from 20° to 30°. But
when these tibiee were put into the erect position alongside of similarly placed
modern European bones, the condylar articular surfaces were seen to approximate
to the horizontal plane in all the specimens. In order, therefore, that retroversion
of the head of the tibia should be associated with inability to extend the knee
joint, it is obvious that the articular surfaces should have a marked slope down-
wards and backwards, as is the case in the Anthropoid apes, when the shaft of the
tibia is held in a vertical plane.
I shall now proceed to the examination of the human foot (pes), and in order
to bring out more clearly its primary use as an organ of support and progression,
I shall contrast it with the human hand (manus) and with the manus and pes in
apes. In man, while standing erect, the arched sole of the foot is directed to the
ground, and rests behind on the heel and in front on pads, placed below and in line
with the metatarso-phalangeal joints, the most important of which is below the
joint associated with the great toe. It is therefore a plantigrade foot. The great
toe (hallux) lies parallel to the other toes, and from its size and restricted move-
ments gives stability to the foot.
The ape’s foot agrees with that of man in possessing similar bones and almost
similar soft parts; but it differs materially as to the uses to which it can be
put. Some apes can undoubtedly place the sole upon the ground, and in this
position use the foot both for support and progression ; though the Orang, and te
some extent other Anthropoid apes, rest frequently upon the outer edge of the foot.
But in addition these animals can use the foot as a prehensile organ like the hand.
The old anatomist Tyson, in his description of a young Chimpanzee,’ spoke of the
pes as ‘liker a hand than a foot’ and introduced the term ‘quadrumanous,’ four-
handed, to designate this character. This term was adopted by Cuvier and applied
by him to apes generally, and has long been in popular use. The eminent French
anatomist was, however, quite alive to the fact that though the pes was capable of
being used as a hand, yet that it was morphologically a foot, so that the term was
employed by him to express a physiological character.
In the ape, the great toe, instead of being parallel to the other toes as in man,
is set at an angle to them, not unlike the relation which the thumb (pollex) bears
to the fingers in the human hand. It is able, therefore, to throw the hallux
across the surface of the sole in the prehensile movement of opposition. As it can
at the same time bend the other toes towards the sole, it also has the power of
encircling an object more or less completely with them. By the joint action of
1 Mémoires de la Société d Anthropologie de Paris, 1890.
2 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xxviii.
5 Anatomy of a Pygmie, 1699, p. 13.
SOF cee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 779
all the toes a powerful grasping organ is produced, more important even than its
hand, in which the thumb is feebly developed.
It has sometimes been assumed that the human foot is also a prehensile instru-
ment as well as an organ of support. In a limited sense objects can undoubtedly
be grasped by the human toes when bent towards the sole. In savages, this power
is preserved to an extent which is not possible in civilised man, in whom, owing
to the cramping, and only too frequently the distorting influence, exercised by
badly fitting boots and shoes, the proper development of the functional uses of the
toes is impeded and their power of independent movement is often destroyed.
Even in savages who have never worn shoes, the power of grasping objects by
the toes cannot be regarded as approximately equal in functional activity and
usefulness to the range of movement possessed by the ape. The four outer toes
are so short and comparatively feeble, that they cannot encircle an object of any
magnitude. But, what is even more important, the great toe cannot be opposed to
the surface of the sole, in the way that an ape can move its hallux or a man his
thumb. Savage man can no doubt pick up an object from the ground with the
great toe. Many of us have doubtless seen, among civilised men, persons who have
had the misfortune to be born without arms, or who have accidentally lost them
in early life, who have trained themselves to hold a pen, pencil, brush, or razor
with the foot, and to write, draw, paint, or even shave. But in these cases the
object is held between the hallux and the toe lying next to it, and not grasped
between the great toe and the sole of the foot by a movement of opposition.
If we compare the anatomical structure of the human foot with that of the foot
of the ape, though the bones, joints, and muscles are essentially the same in both,
important differences in arrangement may be easily recognised, the value of which
will be better appreciated by first glancing at the thumb. Both in man and apes
the thumb is not tied to the index digit by an intermediate ligament, which, under
the name of ‘transverse metacarpal,’ binds all the fingers together, and restricts
their separation from each other in the transverse plane of the hand. The great
toe of the ape, similarly, is not tied to the second toe by a ‘ transverse metatarsal
ligament,’ such as connects together and restricts the movements of its four outer
toes in the transverse plane of the foot. The hallux of the ape is therefore set
free. It can, like the thumb of man and ape, be thrown into the position of
opposition and be used as a prehensile digit. Very different is the case in the
human foot, in which the hallux is tied to the second toe by a continuation of the
same transverse metatarsal ligament which ties the smaller toes together. Hence
it is impossible to oppose the great toe to the surface of the sole in the way in
which the thumb can be used, and the movements of the digit in the transverse
plane of the foot are also greatly restricted.
The development of a connecting transverse band, for the restriction of the
movements of the great toe in man, is not the only anatomical structure which
differentiates it from the hallux of an ape, or the thumb in the hand. In the
manus both of man and apes the joint between the metacarpal bone of the thumb
and the bone of the wrist (trapezium) is concavo-convex, or saddle-shaped, and
permits of a considerable range of movement in certain directions, and notably the
movement of opposition. A joint of a similar configuration, permitting similar
movements, is found in the pes of the ape between the metatarsal of the hallux and
the tarsal bone with which it articulates. In the foot of man, on the other hand,
the corresponding joint is not saddle-shaped, but is almost plane-surfaced, and con-
sequently the range of movement is slight, and is little more than the gliding of
one articular surface on the other.
One of the chief factors in the production of the movement of opposition in the
manus of man and apes is a special muscle, the opponens pollicis, which, through
its insertion into the shaft of the metacarpal bone of the thumb, draws the entire
digit across the surface of the palm. In the foot of the Anthropoid apes there is
not complete correspondence in different species in the arrangement of the muscles
which move the great toe. In the Orang the abductor hallucis, in addition to the
customary insertion into the phalanx, may give rise to two slips, one of which is
inserted into the base and proximal part of the first metatarsal bone, and the other
780 REPORT—1897.
into the radial border of its shaft for a limited distance; these slips apparently
represent an imperfect opponens muscle, which acts along with the adductor and
short flexor muscle of the great toe. In the other Anthropoid apes, the muscle
seems to be altogether absent, and the power of opposition is exercised solely by
the adductor and the flexor brevis hallucis, the inner head of the latter of which is
remarkably well developed.1. In the human foot there is no opponens hallucis,
and the short flexor of the great toe is, in relation to the size of that digit,
comparatively feeble, so that no special provision is made for a movement of
opposition.
The character and direction of the movements of the digits both in hand and
foot are imprinted on the integument of palm and sole. In the palm of the human
hand the oblique direction of the movements of the fingers towards the thumb,
when bent in grasping an object, is shown by the obliquity of the two great grooves
which cross the palm from the root of the index to the root of the little finger.
The deep curved groove, extending to the wrist, which marks off the eminence of
the ball of the thumb from the rest of the palm, is associated with the opponent
action of the thumb, which is so marked in man that the tip of the thumb can be
brought in contact with a large part of the palmar surface of the hand and fingers.
Faint longitudinal grooves in the palm, situated in a line with the fingers, express
slight folds which indicate, where the fingers are approximated to or separated
from each other, in adduction and abduction. In some hands a longitudinal groove
marks off the muscles of the ball of the little finger from the rest of the palm, and
is associated with a slight opponent action of that digit; by the combination of
which, with a partial opposition of the thumb, the palm can be hollowed into a
cup—the drinking-cup of Diogenes.
These grooves are present in the infant’s hands at the time of birth, and I have
seen them in an embryo, the spine and head of which were not more than 90 mm.
(three and a half inches) long. They appear in the palm months before the infant
can put its hand to any use; though it is possible that the muscles of the
thumb and fingers do, even in the embryo, exercise some degree of action, especially
in the direction of flexion. These grooves are not therefore acquired after birth.
It is a question how far the intra-uterine purposeless movements of the digits are
sufficient to produce them ; but even should this be the case, it is clear that they
are to be regarded as hereditary characters transmitted from one generation of
human beings to another. They are correlated with the movements of the digits,
which give the functional power and range of movement to the hand of man.
In the palm of the hand of the Anthropoid apes grooves are also seen, which
differ in various respects from those in man, and which are characteristic of the
group in which they are found. In these animals the palm is traversed by at least
two grooves from the index border to that of the minimus. In the Gibbon they
are oblique, but in the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and Orang they are almost transverse,
which implies that in flexion the fingers do not move so obliquely towards the com-
paratively feeble thumb as they doin man. The curved groove which limits the
ball of the thumb is present, but on account of the less development of that
eminence, it is not so extensive asin man. The longitudinal grooves in the palm
are deeper than in the human hand, and in the Gorilla and Orang a groove
differentiates the eminence associated with the muscles of the little finger from the
adjoining part of the palm. The character and direction of these grooves are
such as one would associate with the hand of an arboreal animal, in which the
long fingers are the chief digits employed in grasping an object more or less
cylindrical, like the branch of a tree, and in which the thumb is a subordinate
digit. I have not had the opportunity of examining the palm of the embryo
of an Anthropoid ape, but in that of an embryo Macaque monkey I have seen both
the groove for the ball of the thumb which marks its opposition, and the transverse
and longitudinal grooves in the palm which are correlated with the movements of
1 For a comparative description of the muscles of the hand and foot of the
Anthropoid apes consult Dr. Hepburn’s memoir in Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,
vol. xxvi,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 781
the fingers. In apes, therefore, as in man, these grooves are not acquired after
birth, but have an hereditary signification.
We may now contrast the grooves in the skin of the sole of the human foot
with those which we have just described in the palm. For this purpose the foot
of an infant must be selected as well as that of an older person in which the toes
have not been cramped and distorted by ill-fitting shoes.’
The toes are marked off from the sole proper by a deep diagonal depression,
which corresponds with the plane of flexion of the first and second phalanges.
Behind this depression, and on the sole proper, is a diagonal groove, which com-
mences at the cleft between the great and second toes, and reaches the outer border
of the foot. It is seen in the infant, but disappears as the skin of the foct becomes.
thickened from use and pressure. This groove marks the plane of flexure of the
first phalanges on the metatarsal bones of the four smaller toes. Associated with
its inner end is a short groove which curves to the inner border of the foot, and
marks off the position of the joint between the first phalanx and the metatarsal
bone of the great toe. The groove indicates the movements of the great toe in
flexion, and in adduction to, or abduction from, the second toe, It has sometimes
erroneously been regarded as the corresponding groove in the foot to the deep
curved groove in the hand, which defines the muscles of the ball of the thumb
and is associated with the movement of opposition. This is not its real character,
for the chief joint concerned in opposition is that between the metacarpal bone and
the corresponding carpal bone, and not that between the metacarpal bone and
the phalanx. In addition, one, or it may be two faint grooves run from
within outwards near the middle of the sole. In the infant’s foot a groove also
extends longitudinally in the centre of the foot. The grooves on the integument
of the sole are in harmony with the inner anatomy of the foot, and confirm the
statement, already made, that the great toe in man cannot be opposed to the
sole, as the thumb can to the palm, for the great curved groove expressing the
movement of opposition is wanting.
In the apes, the condition of the tegumentary grooves in the sole is very
different from the human foot. In the Anthropoid group, the ball of the great toe,.
with its muscles, is marked off by a deep curved groove, which extends from the
margin of the cleft between it and the second toe, backwards along the middle
of the sole almost as far as the heel. Its depth and extent are associated with the
powerful opponent, or grasping action of the hallux. Two other grooves, in front
of that just described, pass obliquely across the sole, from the cleft between the
hallux and the second toe, and reach the outer border of the foot. They are
associated with the movements of the four smaller toes, and their obliquity shows.
that, when the foot is used as a prehensile organ, the object is grasped not only by
the great toe being moved towards the sole, but by the smaller toes being moved
towards the hallux. From these arrangements it is obvious that the pes of the
ape is, physiologically speaking, a foot-hand, it is pedimanous. Though anatomi-
cally a foot, it can be used not only for support and progression, but for prehen-
sion, and, for the latter-named office, the hallux is a more potent digit in the foot
than is the pollex in the hand. The external rotation of the thigh at the hip joint,
and the power of rotating the leg inwards on the thigh at the knee joint, contribute
to make the foot of the ape a more important prehensile instrument, and enablg
the animal to use it more efficiently for this purpose when sitting, than would have:
st the case if there had been no contributory movements at the hip and
ee.
The power of assuming the erect attitude, the specialisation of the upper limhs
1 These grooves have been described generally by the late Professor Goodsir
(Anatomical Memoirs, vol. i. 1868); by myself in a lecture on hands and feet,
Health Lectures, Edinburgh, 1884; and by Mr. Louis Robinson, the last named of
whom has called especial attention to their arrangement in the feet of infants
(Nineteenth Century, vol. xxxi. 1892, p. 795). The integumentary grooves in both
hands and feet of men and apes have also been described and figured in detail by
Dr. Hepburn in Jowrnal of Anat. and Phys., vol xxvii. 1893, p. 112.
782 REPORT—1897.
into instruments of prehension, and of the lower limbs into columns of support and
progression, are not in themselves sufficient to give that distinction to the human
body which we know that it possesses. They must have co-ordinated with them
the controlling and directing mechanism placed in the head, known as the brain
and organs of sense.
The head, situated at the summit of the spine, holds a commanding position.
Owing to the joints for articulation with the atlas vertebra being placed on the
under surface of the skull, and not at the back of the head, and to the great reduc-
tion in the size of the jaws, as compared with apes and quadrupeds generally, the
head is balanced on the top of the spine. The ligaments supporting it and connected
with it are comparatively feeble, and do not require for their attachment strong
bony ridges on the skull, or massive projecting processes in the spine, such as one
finds in apes and many other mammals. The head with the atlas vertebra can be
rotated about the axis vertebra by appropriate muscles. The face looks to the
front, the axis of vision is horizontal, and the eyes sweep the horizon with com-
paratively slight muscular effort.
The cranial cavity, with its contained brain, is of absolutely greater volume in
man than in any other vertebrate, except in the elephant and in the large whales,
in which the huge mass of the body demands the great sensory-motor centres in
the brain to be of large size. Relatively also to the mass and weight of the body,
the brain in‘man may be said to be in general heavier than the brains of the lower
vertebrates, though it has been stated that some small birds and mammals are
exceptions to this rule.
We have abundant evidence of the weight of the brain in Europeans, in whom
several thousand brains have been tested. In the men, the average brain-weight
is from 49 to 50 oz. (1,390 to 1,418 grm.). In the women, from 44 to 46 oz.
(1,248 10 1,283 grm.). The difference in weight is doubtless in part correlated
with differences in the mass, weight, and stature of the body in the two sexes,
although it seems questionable if the entire difference is capable of this explana-
tion. Itis interesting to note that even in new-born children the boys have
bigger heads and heavier brains than the girls. Dr. Boyd gives the average for
the girl infants as 10 0z., and for boys 11°67 oz, A distinction in the brain
weight of the two sexes is obviously established, therefore, before the child is born,
and is not to be accounted for by the training and educational advantages enjoyed
by the male sex being superior to those of the female sex.
The brains of a number of men of ability and intellectual distinction have been
weighed, and ascertained to be from 55 to 60 oz. In a few exceptional cases, as
in the brains of Cuvier and Dr. Abercrombie, the weight has been more than 60 oz. ;
but it should also be stated that brains weighing 60 oz. and upwards have occa-
sionally been obtained from persons who had shown no sign of intellectual eminence.
On the other hand, it has been pointed out by M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam,
that if the brain falls below a certain weight it cannot properly discharge its
functions. They place this minimum weight for civilised people at 37 oz. for the
men, and 82 oz. for the women. These weights are, I think, too high for savage
men, more especially in the dwarf races. We may, however, safely assume that if
the brain-weight in adults does not reach 30 oz. (851 grm.), it is associated with
idiocy or imbecility. There would seem, therefore, to be a minimum brain-weight,
which is necessary in order that the mental functions may be actively discharged.
We have unfortunately not much evidence of the weight of the brain in the
uncultivated and savage races. The weighings made by Tiedemann, Barkow,
Reid, and Peacock give the mean of the brain in the negro as between 44 and
45 oz., a weight which corresponds with that of European women; whilst in
the negress the mean weight is less than in the female sex in Europeans. In two
Bush girls from South Africa—representatives of a dwarf race—the brain is said
to have been 84 and 38 oz. respectively.t
From the weighings which have been published of the brains of the Orang and
1 Sir R. Quain in Pathological Transactions, 1850, p. 182, and Messrs. Flower and
Murie in Journal of Anatomy and Phys., vol. i. p, 206.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 783
Chimpanzee, it would seem that the brain-weight in these apes ranges from 11 to
15 oz. (812 to 426 grm.),and the brain-weight appears to be much about the same
in the Gorilla. These figures are greatly below those of the human brain,
even in so degraded a people as the dwarf Bush race of South Africa. They
closely approximate to the weight of newly born male infants, in whom, as has just
been stated, the average weight was 11°67 oz, For the purposes of ape-life, the
low brain-weight is sufficient to enable the animal to perform every function of
which it is capable. Its muscular and nervous systems are so accurately co-ordi-
nated that it can move freely from tree to tree, and swing itself to and fro; it can
seize and retain objects with great precision, and can search for and procure its
food. In all these respects it presents a striking contrast to the infant, having an
almost similar brain-weight, which lies helpless on its mother’s knee.
Another line of evidence, of which we may avail ourselves, in order to test
the relative size of the brain in the different races of men and in the large
apes is to be obtained by determining the internal capacity of the cranium.
xamples of the brains of different races (except Europeans) are few in number in
our collections, but the crania are often well represented, the volume of the
cavity in which the brain is lodged can be obtained from them, and an approximate
conception of the size and weight of the brain can be estimated. In pursuing this
line of inquiry, account has of course to be taken of the space occupied by the
membranes investing the brain, by the blood vessels and the cerebro-spinal fluid.
A small deduction from the total capacity will have to be made on their behalf.
There is a general consensus of opinion amongst craniologists that the mean
internal capacity of the cranium in adult male Europeans is about 1,500 c.c.
(91'5 cub. in.), The mean capacity of the cranium of fifty Scotsmen that I have
measured by a method, which I described some years ago,! was 1,493 cc.
(91:1 cub, in.). The most capacious of these skulls was 1,770 c.c., and the one
with the smallest capacity was 1,240 ec. Thus, in a highly civilised and
admittedly intellectual people, the range in the volume of the brain-space amongst
the men was as much as 530 cc, in the specimens under examination, none of
which was known or believed to be the skull of an idiot or imbecile, whilst some
were known to be the crania of persons of education and position. In twenty-
three Scotswomen the mean capacity was 1,325 c.c., and the range of variation was
from a maximum 1,625 to a minimum 1,100 c.c.—viz., 525 ¢.c.
Again I have taken the capacity, by the same method, of a number of crania
of the Australian aborigines, a race incapable apparently of intellectual improve-
ment beyond their present low state of development. In thirty-nine men the
mean capacity was only 1,280 c.c. (78:1 cub. in.), The maximum capacity was
1,514 ¢.c., the minimum was 1,044 c.c. The range of variation was 470 cc. In
twenty-four women the mean capacity was 1,115°6 c.c., the maximum being 1,240
and the minimum 930, and the range of variation was 310 c.c. It is noticeable
that in this series of sixty-three Australian skulls, all of which are in the
Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh, eight men had a smaller
capacity than 1,200c.c., and only four were above 1,400 c.c. Of the women’s skulls
ten were below 1,100 c.c., four of which were between 900 and 1,000 c.c., and only
three were 1,200 c.c. and upwards.
Time does not admit of further detail on the cranial capacities of other races
of men. Sufficient has been said to show the wide range which prevails, from the
maximum in the Europeans to the minimum in the Australians, and that amongst
persons presumably sane and capable of discharging their duties in their respective
spheres of activity; for we must assume that the crania of the Australians,
haying the small capacities just referred to, were yet sufficiently large for the
lodgment of brains competent to perform the functions demanded by the life of a
savage. From a large number of measurements of capacity which I have made of
the skulls of the principal races of men, I would draw the following conclusions:
First, that the average cranial capacity, and consequently the volume and weight
of the brain, are markedly higher in the civilised European than in the savage
races; second, that the range of variation is greater in the former than in the
* Human Crania, Challenger Reports, Pt. xxix. 1884, p. 9.
784 REPORT—1897.
latter; third, that in uncivilised man the proportion of male crania having &
capacity equal to the European mean, 1,500 ¢.c., is extremely small; fourth, that
though the capacity of the men’s skulls is greater than that of the women’s, there
is not quite the same amount of difference between the sexes in a savage as in a
civilised race.
It may now be of interest to say a few words on the capacity of the cranium
in the large anthropoid apes. I have measured, by the method already referred to,
the capacity of the skulls of five adult male Gorillas, and obtained a mean of
494 c.c., the maximum being 590 c.c. and the minimum 410 e.c., the range of
variation being 180 c.c. Dr. Delisle found the old male Orang (Maurice),! which
died a:short time ago in the Jardin des Plantes, to have a capacity of 3865 c.c.,
whilst the younger male (Max) had a capacity of 470 c.c.? The mean of eleven
specimens measured by him was 408 c.c., which is somewhat less than the
measurements of males recorded by M. Topinard and Dr. Vogt; but it should be
stated that in some of Dr. Delisle’s specimens the sex could not be properly dis-
criminated, and possibly some of them may have been females. The cranial
capacity of seven male Chimpanzees is stated by M. Topinard to be 421 c.c,
The determination of the mass and weight of the brain as expressed in ounces,
and of the capacity of the cranial cavity as expressed in cubic centimetres, are
only rough methods of comparing brain with brain, either as between different
races of men, or as between men and other mammals, Much finer methods are
needed in order to obtain a more exact comparison.
The school of Phrenologists represented in the first half of the century by Gall,
Spurzheim, and George Combe, whilst recognising the importance of the size of
the brain as a measure of intellectual activity, also attached value to what was
called its quality. At that time the inner mechanism of the brain was almost
unknown, for the methods had not been discovered by which its minute structure
could be determined. It is true that a difference was acknowledged, between the
cortical grey matter situated on the surface of the hemispheres and the sub-
jacent white matter. Spurzheim had also succeeded in determining the presence
of fibres in the white matter of the encephalon, and had, to a slight extent, traced
their path. The difference between the smooth surface of the hemispheres of the
lower mammals and the convoluted surface of the brain of man and the higher
mammals, and the influence which the development of the convolutions exercised
in increasing the area of the cortical grey matter, were also known.
A most important step in advance was made, when, through the investigations
of Leuret and Gratiolet, it became clear that the conyolutions of the cerebrum,
in their mode of arrangement, were not uniform in the orders of mammals which
possessed convoluted brains, but that different patterns existed in the orders
examined. By his further researches Gratiolet determined that in the anthropoid
apes, notwithstanding their much smaller brains, the same general plan of arrange-
ment existed as in man, though differences occurred in many of the details, and
that the key to unlock the complex arrangements in man was to be obtained by
the study of the simpler disposition in the apes. ‘These researches have enabled
anatomists to localise the convolutions and the fissures which separate them from
each other, and to apply to them precise descriptive terms. These investigations
were necessarily preliminary to the histological study of the conyolutions, and to
experimental inquiry into their functions.
By the employment of the refined histological methods now in use, it has been
shown that the grey matter in the cortex of the hemispheres, and in other parts of
the brain, is the seat of enormous numbers of nerve-cells, and that those in the
cortex, whilst possessing a characteristic pyramidal shape, present many variations
in size.. Further, that these nerve-cells give origin to nerve axial fibres, through
which areas in the cortex become connected directly or indirectly, either with
other areas in the same hemisphere, with parts of the brain and spinal cord
situated below the cerebrum, with the muscular system, or with the skin and
other organs of sense.
1 Nouvelles Archives du Muséum d@’ Histoire naturelle, 1895.
? The stature of Maurice was 1 m."40; that of Max 1 m.'28.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 785
Every nerve-cell, with the nerve axial fibre arising from and belonging to it,
is now called a Neurone, and both brain and spinal cord are built up of tens of
thousands of such neurones, It may reasonably be assumed that the larger the
brain the more numerous are the neurones which enter into its constitution. The
greater the number of the neurones, and the more complete the connections which
the several areas have with each other through their axial fibres, the more complex
becomes the internal mechanism, and the more perfect the structure of the organ.
We may reasonably assume that this perfection of structure finds its highest
manifestations in the brain of civilised men.
The specialisation in the relations and connections of the axial fibre processes
of the neurones, at their termination in particular localities, obviously points to
functional differences in the cortical and other areas, to which these processes
extend. It has now been experimentally demonstrated that the cortex of the
cerebrum is not, as M. Flourens conceived, of the same physiological value
throughout; but that particular functions are localised in definite areas and con-
volutions. In speaking of localisation of function in the cerebrum, one must not
be understood as adopting the theory of Gall, that the mental faculties were
definite in their number, that each had its seat in a particular region of the
cortex, and that the locus of this region was marked on the surface of the skull
and head by a more or less prominent ‘ bump.’
The foundation of a scientific basis for localisation dates from 1870, when
Fritsch and Hitzig announced that definite movements followed the application of
electrical stimulation to definite areas of the cortex in dogs. The indication thus
given was at once seized upon by David Ferrier, who explored not only the hemi-
spheres of dogs, but those of monkeys and other vertebrates.!. By his researches
and those of many subsequent inquirers, of whom amongst our own countrymen
we may especially name Beevor, Horsley, and Schafer, it has now been esta-
blished that, when the convolutions bounding, and in close proximity to the fissure
of Rolando are stimulated, motor reactions in the limbs, trunk, head and face
follow, which have a definite purposive character, corresponding with the volitional
movements of the animal. The Rolandic region is therefore regarded as a part of
the motor apparatus; it is called the motor area, and the function of exciting
yoluntary movements is localised in its cortical grey matter.
By the researches of the same and other inquirers it has been determined that
certain other conyolutions are related to the different forms of sensibility, and are
sensory or perceptive centres, localised for sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
Most important observations on the paths of conduction of sensory impressions
in the cortex of the convolutions were announced last year by Dr. Flechsig,? of
Leipzig, so well Inown by his researches on the development of the tracts of
nerye-fibres in the columns of the spinal cord, published several years ago. He
discovered that the nerve-fibres in the cord did not become myelinated, z.e. attain
their perfect structure, at a uniform period of time, so that some acquired their
complete functional importance before others. He has now applied the same
method of research to the study of the development of the human brain, and has
shown that in it also there is a difference in the time of attaining perfect structural
development of the nerve-tracts. Further, he has discovered that the nerve-fibres
in the cerebrum become myelinated, subsequent to the fibres of the other divisions of
the cerebro-spinal nervous axis, When a child is born, very few of the fibres of its
cerebrum are myelinated, and we have now an anatomical explanation of the
reason why an infant has so inactive a brain and is so helpless a creature. It will
therefore be of especial interest to determine, whether in those animals which are
active as soon as they are born, and which can at once assume the characteristic
attitude of the species, the fibres of the cerebrum are completely developed
at the time of birth. Flechsig has also shown that the sensory paths myeli-
nate before the motor tracts; that the paths of transmission of touch, and
the other impulses conducted by the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves, are
1 West Riding Asylum Reports, 1873.
2 Die Localisation der Geistigen Vorgdnge, Leipzig, 1896.
1897. 3E
786 REPORT— 1897.
the first to become completely formed, whilst the fibres for auditory impulses are
the last.
Flechsig names the great sensory centre which receives the impulses
associated with touch, pain, temperature, muscular sense, &c., Korperfiihisphare,
the region of general-body-sensation, or the somesthetic area as translated by
Dr. Barker.1 The tracts conducting these impulses myelinate at successive
periods after birth. They pass upwards from the inner and outer capsules and the
optic thalamus as three systems.” Some enter the central convolutions of the
Rolandic area, others reach the paracentral lobule, the inferior frontal convolution,
the insula, and small parts of the middle and superior frontal convolutions ; whilst
considerable numbers reach the gyrus fornicatus and the hippocampal gyrus,
which Ferrier had previously localised as a centre of common or tactile sensibility.
*The Rolandic area, therefore, is not exclusively a motor area, but is a centre
associated also with the general sensibility of the body. The motor fibres in it
are not myelinated until after the sensory paths have become developed. As the
motor paths become structurally complete, they can be traced downwards as the
great pyramidal tract from the pyramidal nerve-cells in this area, from which they
arise, into the spinal cord, where they come into close relation with the nerve-
cells in the anterior horn of grey matter, from which the nerve axial fibres
proceed that are distributed to the voluntary muscles.
Flechsig’s observations agree with those of previous observers in placing the
visual centre in the occipital lobe; the auditory centre in and near the superior
temporal convolution; and the olfactory centre in the uncinate and hippocampal
convolutions. Of the position of the taste centre he does not speak definitely,
although he thinks it to be in proximity either to the centre of general sensation,
or to the olfactory centre.
The centres of special sense in the cortex, and the large Rolandic area, which
is the centre both for motion and general sensation, do not collectively occupy so
much as one-half of the superficial area of the convolutions of the cortex. In all
the lobes of the brain—frontal, parietal, occipito-temporal, and insula—convolutions
are situated, not directly associated with the reception of sensory impressions,
or as centres of motor activity, the function of which is to be otherwise
accounted for. These convolutions lie intermediary to the sensory and motor
centres. Flechsig bas shown that in them myelination of the nerve-fibres does
not take place until some weeks after birth, so that they are distinctly later in
acquiring their structural perfection and functional activity. As the nerve-fibres
become differentiated, they are seen to pass from the sense-centres into these inter-
mediate convolutions, so as to connect adjacent centres together, and bring them
into association with each other. Hence he has called them the Association
centres, the function of which is to connect together centres and convolutions
otherwise disconnected.*
We have now, therefore, direct anatomical evidence, based upon differences in
their stages of development, that, in addition to the sensory and motor areas in the
1 Johns Hopkins Bulletin, No. 70, January 1897.
2 Drs. Ferrier and Aldren Turner communicated to the Royal Society of London
a few weeks ago (Proc. R.S. June 17,1897) an account of an elaborate research on the
tracts which convey general and special sensibility to the cerebral cortex of monkeys.
Their results were obtained by the aid of destructive lesions and the study of the
consecutive degenerations in the nerve-tracts. From the brief abstract in the Pro-
ceedings, their research, though conducted by a different method, harmonises with the
observations of Flechsig on the human brain, in regard to the course and connections
of the great thalamic cortico-petal sensory fibres. They have also traced association
fibres in connection with both the visual and auditory systems.
3 The term association fibres was introduced a number of years ago to express
fibres of the cerebrum which connect together parts of the cortex in the same hemi-
sphere. Flechsig’s fibres belong to this system.
4 The Associetion centres had previously been referred to by other observers as
‘silent portions’ of the cortex, not responding to electrical stimulus. Their possible
function had been discussed by Professor Calderwood in Relations of Mind and
Brain, 2nd edit., 1884.
> PS
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 787
cortex of the human brain, a third division—the association centres—is to be
distinguished.
If we compare the cerebrum in man and the apes, we find those convolutions
which constitute the motor and sensory centres distinctly markedin both. An ape,
like a man, can see, hear, taste, smell and touch; it also exhibits great muscular
activity and variety of movement. It possesses, therefore, similar fundamental
centres of sensation and motion, which are situated in areas of the cortex, resembling
in arrangement and relative position, though much smaller in size than, the corre-
sponding convolutions in the adult human brain. It is not unlikely, though the
subject needs additional research, that the minute structure of these centres
resembles that of man, though, from the comparatively restricted area of grey
matter in the ape, the neurones will necessarily be much fewer in number.
In the cerebrum of a new-born infant, whilst the motor and sensory conyolu-
tions are distinct, the convolutions for the association areas, though present, are
comparatively simple, and do not possess as many windings as are to be seen in
the brain of a chimpanzee not more than three or four years old.
Again, if we compare the brain of the Bushwoman, miscalled the Hottentot
Venus, figured by Gratiolet and by Bischoff, or the one studied by Mr. John Marshall,
with that of the philosopher Gauss, figured by Rudolph Wagner, we also recognise
the convolutions in which the motor and sensory areas are situated. In all these
brains they have a comparative simplicity of form and arrangement which enables
one readily to discriminate them. When we turn, however, to the association
areas in the three tiers of convolutions in the frontal lobe, and in the parieto-
occipital and occipito-temporal regions where the bridging or annectant convolu-
tions are placed, we cannot fail to observe that in a highly-developed brain, like
that of Gauss, the association convolutions have a complexity in arrangement, and
an extent of cortical surface much more marked than in the Bushwoman, and to
a still greater degree than in the ape. The naked-eye anatomy of the brain there-
fore obviously points to the conclusion that these association areas are of great
physiological importance.
The problem which has now to be solved is the determination of their function.
Prolonged investigation into the development and comparative histology of the
brain will be necessary before we can reach a sound anatomical basis on which to
found satisfactory conclusions. It will especially be necessary to study the suc-
cessive periods of development of the nerve-fibre tracts in the cerebrum of apes and
other mammals, as well as the magnitude and intimate structure of the association
areas in relation to that of the motor and sensory areas in the same species.
Flechsig, however, has not hesitated to ascribe to the association centres func-
tions of the highest order. He believes them to be parts of the cerebral cortex
engaged in the manifestations of the higher intelligence, such as memory, judgment,
and reflection ; but in the present state of our knowledge such conclusions are of
course quite speculative.
It is not unlikely, however, that the impulses which are conveyed by the inter-
mediate nerve-tracts, either on the one hand, from the sense centres to the associa-
tion centres, or on the other, from the association centres to the sensory and motor
centres, are neither motor nor sensory, impulses, but a form of nerve energy,
determined by the terminal connections and contacts of the nerve fibres. Itis possible
that the association centres, with the intermediate connecting tracts, may serve to
harmonise and control the centres for the reception of sensory impressions that
we translate into consciousness, with those which excite motor activity, so as to
give to the brain a completeness and perfection of structural mechanism, which
without them it could not have possessed.
We know that an animal is guided by its instincts, through which it provides
for its individual wants, and fulfils its place in nature. In man, on the other
hand, the instinctive acts are under the influence of the reason and intelligence,
and it is possible that the association centres, with the intermediate association
fibres which connect them with the’ sensory and motor centres, may be the
mechanism through which man is enabled to control his animal instincts, so far as
they are dependent on motion and sensation.
3E2
788 REPORT—1897.
The higher we ascend in the scale of humanity, the more perfect does this
control become, and the more do the instincts, emotions, passions and appetites
become subordinated to the self-conscious principle which regulates our judgments
and beliefs. It will therefore now be a matter for scientific inquiry to determine,
- as far as the anatomical conditions will permit, the proportion which the associa-
tion centres bear to the other centres both in mammals and in man, the period of
development of the association fibres, in comparison with that of the motor and
sensory fibres in different animals, and, if possible, to obtain a comparison in these
respects between the brains of savages and those of men of a high order of
intelligence. : ; i
The capability of erecting the trunk ; the power of extending and fixing the
hip and knee joints when standing; the stability of the foot; the range and
variety of movement of the joints of the upper limb; the balancing of the head
on the summit of the spine; the mass and weight of the brain, and the perfection
of its internal mechanism, are distinctively human characters. They are the
factors concerned in adapting the body of man, under the guidance of reason,
intelligence, the sense of responsibility and power of self-control, for the discharge of
varied and important duties in relation to himself, his Maker, his fellows, the
animal world and the earth on which he lives.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Scalp-lock : a Study of Omaha Ritual.
By Miss Auice C, FLETCHER.
[Published in Jow'n, Anthrop. Institute, No. 102, February 1898. ]
2. The Import of the Totem among the Omaha.
By Miss Auice C. FLETCHER.
[Published separately Salem, Mass., 1897. ]
3. Squaktktquaclt, or the Benign-faced Oannes of the Ntlakapamugq,
British Columbia. By C. Hitu-Tovur.
Squaktktquacit, or Benign-face, the mythological hero of the Ntlakapamuq,
B.C., is the youngest son of the red-headed woodpecker by his favourite wife, the
black bear woman. The grizzly woman, his other wife, became jealous of the
black bear, and killed both her and her husband by treachery, and would have
also killed the black bear’s three sons, but they ran away. They were pursued by
the grizzly, who met her death in the pursuit. The three boys wandered about
the country, the youngest, Sguaktktquacit, becoming a powerful but kind-hearted
shaman, who used his power in alleviating the misery and misfortunes of the
people and in punishing by metamorphosis the evildoers. He also teaches the
people many useful arts, and otherwise instructs them. He is to the Ntlakapamuq
what Skildp is to the Shushwaps, and seems indeed to be the same personage. He
also recalls the ‘ Great Transformer’ of the Kwakiutl.
4. The Blackfoot Legend of Scar-face. By R. N. W11son.
The legend of Uk-ske, or Scar-face, is believed by the Algonquian Blackfeet to
explain the origin of their principal sacred ceremonies and beliefs. So much ritual
has reference to this myth, and so many observances are founded upon it, that the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 789
student of Indian religious thought may accept it as one of the most significant and
instructive legends possessed by these tribes.
A very beautiful young Indian woman refused all her suitors, but promised a
young man, who was distigured by a scar, that she would marry him when the
scar disappeared from his face. After a long journey to the Kast he came to
where the Sun lived with his wife, the Moon. Their son, the Morning Star, took
pity on Scar-face, and they ultimately became great friends. The Sun cured
Scar-face and kept him for a year in order to teach him religious ceremonies.
Eventually Scar-face returned home and married the girl. The great religious
ceremonies of the Blackfeet, having first been performed under the direction of
Scar-face, were practised every year after that, and the Sun, as he had promised,
was kind to the people and heard their prayers.
5. Blackfoot Sun-offerings. By R. N. WI1tson.
In the neighbourhood of Indian camps and reservations a familiar sight is an
article of clothing, such as a coat, shirt, or blanket attached to a stick and placed
in a conspicuous position, or tied to the trunk of a prominent tree. These are
sacrificial offerings to the Sun, which in former times consisted of the rarest and
most highly valued articles possessed by the Indians. Of the numerous objects of
worship the Sun is the one which receives the greatest amount of adoration.
More prayers are addressed to this principal deity than to all of the others com-
bined, and the most important of the religious rites and ceremonies are devoted to
him in particular. When a Blackfoot is asked why such rites are practised in
worship of the Sun, he replies, ‘Because Scar-face taught us so.’ Although the
Sun is now, and has doubtless for centuries been, pre-eminently the Blackfoot
divinity, it may be that they have or had more ancient deities. The Sun is then
the principal deity. Every middle-aged Indian in the three tribes knows that the
‘Creator’ was never heard of by them until the advent of the missionaries.
Equally erroneous is the view that they addressed prayers to, or in any manner
worshipped, ‘ Napi,’ the Old Man of the legends, the blunderer, the immoral mis-
chief-maker. The details of the rites of sacrificing to the Sun cannot, do not,
readily admit of condensation. It is to be hoped that these two papers of
Mr. Wilson’s will be published in full by the Anthropological Institute.
6. Star-lore of the Micmacs of Nova Scotia. By Sranspury Hacar.
7. The Lake Village of Glastonbury and its Place among the Lake-
dwellirigs of Europe. By Dr. R. Munro.—See Reports for 1893-96.
8. Report on the Silchester Excavations.—See Reports, p. 511.
9, Some Old-world Harvest Customs, By F. T. Exwortuy.
The author described and illustrated examples of corn charms, harvest
trophies from Egypt and Thessaly, of the oaten Clyach, or corn-baby, and the
Kirnmaiden from Aberdeen, Elgin, East Lothian, and Forfarshire ; the Casez Ved
from Cardiganshire; and of the Neck from Devonshire, and discussed their
significance as suryivals of an animistic corn-cult.
10. Report on the North Dravidian and Kolarian Races of Central India.
See Reports, p. 427.
790 REPORT— 1897.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The President’s Address was delivered.—See p. 768.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. A Demonstration of the Utility of the Spinal Curves in Man.
By Professor ANDERSON STUART.
2. The Cause of Brachycephaly. By Professor A. MacauistTer, 7.2.8.
3. Notes on the Brains of some Australian Natives.
By Professor A. MAcatisTER.
4, On some Cases of Trepanning in Early American Skulls.
By Dr. W. J. McGez.
5. A Case of Trepanning in North-Western Mexico.
Ly W. Cart Lumuoutz and Dr. A. Hrpuicka.
The trepanned skull! was found in a burial cave known to the Tarahumare
Indians of the Pino Gordo section of the Sierra Madre, about one and a half days
north of Guadalupe y Calvo. Three skeletons were found, lying in Tarahumare
fashion, on their backs, with the faces to the east, and accompanied bya few crude
native clay vessels. ‘The trepanned skull is that of an aged female, a little more
massive than the native average, to all appearance not pre-Columbian, but at the
same time not recent, for a spindle wheel found with it is not of recent type The
skull presents no deformity or fracture, but signs of an old superficial injury at
about the middle of the junction of the right parietal with the occipital.
The opening in the skull lies in the anterior and superior part of the right
parietal bone, 1‘3 cm. behind the coronal and 2:3 cm. below the sagittal suture.
It is almost exactly round, measuring 2 cm, in diameter: the outer edge is smooth
and somewhat sunken, the inner obscured by a lamella of thin bone from all parts
of the inner edge to the centre, and whose free edge is very sharp and irregular.
Seen from within this skull the lamella appears smooth and directly continuous with
the inner skull surface. There seems no doubt that part, at least, of this lamella
remained after the wound had been made.
The walls of the opening are quite smooth, and covered with a compact bony
tissue. This fact, in connection with the smooth and slightly sunken external
edge, shows that the wound had been made a long time—several years before the
death of the person.
The almost circular form of the opening and its perpendicular walls, which
show no signs of bevelling, do not admit of the supposition that it was produced
by scraping, One is forced to believe that it was produced by a kind of flint
wimble with three teeth, very much like the instruments of iron used to-day in
trepanning by the Berbers of l’Aurés,? At present the Tarahumares have no
such tool, and, moreover, no knowledge of the operation of trepanning.
Norr.—Since the above was read another instance of trepanning in the same
» Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. (New York), Lumholtz Coll., No. 22.
* Drs. Malbot and Verneau, ‘ Les Chaouias et la trépanation du crdne dans
VAurés,’ Revue @ Anthropologie, 1897, ii. figs. 1-3.
ed
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 791
region has come to the notice of the authors. This second skull (which also is in
the Lumholtz Collection, and is deposited at the Museum of the University of
Pennsylvania) is in many respects similar to the first described specimen. It is
also a female skull, and the trepanning is situated in almost the identical spot as
in the first case. The two specimens will be described in detail in one of the
coming numbers of the ‘ Amer. Anthropologist’ published at Washington.
6. Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations in Children from
the Normal.—See Reports, p. 427.
7. Report on Anthropometric Measurements in Schools.
See Reports, p. 451.
8. An Experimental Analysis of certain Correlations of Mental
Physical Reactions. By Professor LightNER W1ItTMER.
9. The Growth of Toronto School Children. By Dr. Franz Boas.
See Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada, p. 443.
10. The Physical Characteristics of European Colonists born in
New Zealand. By Dr. H. O. Forbes.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada.
The publication of this Report is deferred until next year, when the
final Report of the Committee will be presented.
2. The Seri Indians of the Gulf of California. By Dr. W. J. McGee.
3. Historical and Philological Notes on the Indians of British Columbia.
By C. Hitt-Tovur.
792 REPORT—1897.
4, The Kootenays and their Salishan Neighbours.
By Dr. A. F, CoamBerzain, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
The chief results of the investigations carried on amongst the Kootenays of
South-eastern British Columbia by the writer in 1891 have appeared in the
Report of the British Association for 1892, but the material then obtained is still
being studied, especially the linguistic data. An ethnological sketch of the
Shushwaps, neighbours of the Kootenays on the west, who belong to the Salishan
linguistic stock, was published by Dr. G. M. Dawson, in the ‘ Transactions’ of the
Royal Society of Canada for 1891, and another brief account of them, by Dr.
Franz Boas, appeared in the Report of the British Association for 1890. It is
upon these that the comparisons here made are based. In respect of languages
these adjacent peoples show marked differences: the Kootenay makes very little
use of reduplication (none, seemingly, for grammatical purposes), possesses incor-
poration in a manner similar to the Nahuatl of Mexico, and verbal composition
like the Sionan and the Athapascan languages. The Shushwap employs reduplica-
tion extensively and has ‘substantivals’ like the Algonkian tongues. The general
linguistic affinities of the Kootenay seem to lie, perhaps with the Shoshonian
stock, though nothing definite has yet been made out, and it still remains an
independent family of speech. The general affinities of the Shushwap are more
with the Kwakiutl-Nootka. Of borrowings between Kootenay and the Salishan
languages there have been few. Statlem, ‘a dug-out,’ hdéztltsin, ‘a dog, kdtltsa,
‘four,’ finding cognates in Salishan dialects; also, perhaps, the words for ‘ four,”
and ‘eight.’ In certain arts, implements, &c., sweat-houses, fire-baking of roots,
pine-bark fuel, root-foods games, the likeness between the two peoples, even in
detail, is very close, the affinity lying, however, sometimes with peoples north of
them, sometimes with those to the south, the Kootenays favouring the latter, the
Shushwap the former. A peculiar pipe figured by Dawson, and ‘ differing inshape
from any hitherto seen by me in British Columbia, closely resembles one found
among the Kootenays, who also possess the pestle-shaped hammer of the Shush-
waps and coast tribes. By far the most noteworthy coincidence, however, is the
possession by the Kootenays and the Shushwaps of the peculiar double (down-
wards) pointed bark-canoe, of the kind which Professor O. T. Mason calls the
Amoor type, since it is found also on that Asiatic river. The Kootenay name
yaktsomitl differs entirely from the Salishan names, and its use with them is
much more common than with the Shushwaps. Hence one might reasonably
argue that the borrowing here has been from the Kootenays on the part of the
Shushwaps, and not vice versa. The fish-traps and fish-weirs of the two peoples
are practically identical. In their social organisation the two peoples resemble
each other in their lack of gentes and complicated secret societies. More evidences
of sun-worship are found with the Kootenays than with the Shushwaps. In
mythological fond there are striking resemblances especially in the animal tales,
where the coyote (indicative of southern affinities) performs a chief réle, though
with the Kootenays he is not tie hero as with the Shushwaps.
5. Kootenay Indian Drawings.
By Dr. A. F. CaamBeruain, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.
The author exhibited some 300 drawings of natural objects, animals, imple-
ments, human beings, &c., which he obtained in the summer of 1891 from certain
members of the Kootenay tribe of South-eastern British Columbia, to whom he
had given, for the purpose, paper and pencils. None of the Indians whose genius
the drawings represent had ever, so far as known, received any instruction in the
art from the whites, and the skill displayed is even more noteworthy, when we
consider the fact that no rock carvings or picture-writings are on record from the
region in question,
_In the delineations of celestial and terrestrial phenomena the most remarkable
points are the depicting of the clouds as masses dependent from the arch of the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 793
sky, or resting on the mountains, and the ability shown in map-drawing, the
course of the Kootenay and Columbia Rivers, the lake expansions, and the tributary
streams being properly indicated. These Indians readily recognise on a map the
chief topographical features of their country. Of 188 figures of animals, birds,
reptiles, fish, &c., all but two (both owls) are in profile, while of thirty-five human
figures, seven only are in profile, and of these four are by one Indian and three by
another. Of the animal figures eighty-three distinctly face the right, ninety-two
the leit ; of the seven human profiles two are right, tive left. The characteristic
attitudes of such creatures as the buffalo, the bear, the coyote, the rabbit, the otter,
the beaver, the horse, squirrel, salmon, swallow, humming-bird, woodpecker, owl,
are represented, and the distinctive marks of the male and female horned animals,
tails and beaks of birds, and the like denoted. The same is the case with the
figures representing men and women of various Indian tribes.
As the drawings represent the efforts of Indians of various ages from eighteen
to sixty, there is a great range of difference in the merit of the productions, some,
especially those of the oldest artist, being made almost to caricature, while some
drawings of buffaloes, bears, horses, and especially steamboats by the younger
Indians evidence marked ability, and compare favourably with the efforts of very
many adult whites. In complexity the drawings range from the simple delinea-
tion of a fish-hook or an arrow-point to the depicting of a steamboat at anchor in
the river, or a buffalo hunt—this last a remarkable piece of work—and a gambling-
scene, in the delineation of which conventionalising appears. Another interesting
picture is that of a war-dance; and it may be worth noting here that when the
old Indian artist who drew it had concluded his work the force of association
was too much for him, and holding the paper aloft in his hand he exemplified for
a few moments what the picture represents.
The marked abilities of the Kootenays in drawing go with their noticeably
high mental character, which has been noted by all observers from De Smet to the
present time. As compared with the drawings of children these Indian pictures
emphasise the difference between the art of primitive races, with their sharp
observation gift, and the self-scribblings, imperfect copyings, and crude imaginings.
With the savage art is beginning to be an art; with the child it lingers long as an
amusement.
6. A Rock Inscription on Great Central Lake, Vancouver Island.
By J. W. MacKay.
7. Blackfoot Womanhood. By Rev. Joun Mactman, .A., Ph.D.
The imperfection of woman and her position of inferiority are emphasised im
the legends of the Blackfeet. Girls are trained by the women in the duties of
camp life. The loose style of dress worn begets freedom of motion, and influences
the physical form. The outdoor life induces health, yet early marriage, harsh
treatment, the use of tobacco, the smoke of the lodges, and the lack of ambition
bring premature physical and mental decay. The women prepared the hides af
the buffalo for sale, pitched the lodges and took them down, and the first wife
retained supremacy in the lodge. The internal arrangements of all the lodges are
similar. Log houses have replaced the lodges of buffalo-skin since the people
settled on reservations and the buffalo has disappeared. Civilisation has intro-
duced cooking utensils and modified methods of cooking materially affecting the
health of the people. The women gather the berries, pound them between stones,
and put them up in skin-bags for winter use. They wash themselves by filling
their mouths with water, squirting it into their hands, and rubbing their faces
and hair with their hands, Striking the hair with the hands supplies the place
ofacomb. The artistic skill of the women is shown in making moccasins, tire-
bags, leggings, and leather shirts, the designs being wrought with beads, dyed
porcupine quills, and silk thread of various colours. The Blackfoot women are
794 REPORT—1897.
not as expert as uhe Northern Cree women at this kind of work. There isa
natural division of labour between the sexes. Agriculture is a new occupation
for these hunting tribes. The ordinary costume of the women consists of a loose
gown of equal width from top to bottom without fastenings of any kind, having
wide sleeves, a pair of leggings and moccasins, and an outer blanket or skin.
Brass rings on each finger of both hands, earrings, and necklace and painted face
serve as ornaments. Napioa instituted marriage. The females are married early,
sometimes at eleven or twelve years of age. Marriage is by purchase. War
between tribes destroyed the men and left a large majority of women, and polygamy
arose. Nature is putting an end to polygamy through an equalising of the sexes.
Divorce is an easy matter. Adultery is punished by cutting off the woman’s
nose. Twins are considered a calamity. There are medicine-women who are not
members of the medical priesthood. The women are modest, love their children
intensely, obey their husbands, quarrel with the other members of the lodge, ride
horseback in the same fashion as men, smoke as men, but use common pipes and
smoke separately, not in unison as the men; are good swimmers, throwing the
hands in dog fashion; mourn deeply when one of their dogs is killed, drink tea
incessantly, are inveterate gamblers. Since coming in contact with civilisation
many of the women have become immoral. Cree and Kootenay women are
sometimes found married to Blackfoot husbands. The women are sweet singers.
In the native dances they dance separately. The females prepare the corpses of
their deceased relatives for burial, are the chief mourners at funerals, prepare the
sacred tongues for the sun-dance.
Mythology affects the status of woman. Harsh treatment, early marriage,
and poverty induce premature physical and mental decay. Cooking exerts a
strong influence on the health and longevity of individuals. Totemism affects the
modes of life and thought of the people. Polygamy is dependent on tribal wars.
Civilisation injures the morals of the aborigines.
8. On the Hut-burial of the American Aborigines. By E. SiwNEY HARTLAND.
James Adair, whose ‘History of the American Indians’ was published in
1775, describes the burial of natives belonging to the Cherokees and allied tribes as
taking place in their own huts. The deceased was buried within his own house,
under the widow’s bed. The same custom was found by the Spaniards among
certain tribes of South America, and it has continued to the present day in Brazil.
Traces also remain of it among the Zufiis. Nor is it peculiar to the American
continent; at one time it was even the practice of the ancestors of the European
peoples, Its origin must be sought for in the savage idea of kinship, and in the
desire to retain within the kin the deceased, with all his power and virtues. As
civilisation developed, however, the inconveniences of keeping the dead, either
above or below ground, in the hut which continued to be the dwelling of the
survivors began to be perceived. Various expedients were devised to obviate
these inconveniences, Many people preserved the desiccated bones of the dead,
which were often, as among many of the North American tribes, finally deposited
in gentile ossuaries.
WORKS CITED ON THE AMERICAN TRIBES :—.
The History of the American Indians ; particularly those nations adjoining to the
Mississippi, Hast and West Florida, Georgia, South and North Carolina, and Vir-
ginia. By JAMES ADATR, Esq., London, 1775.
The Problem of the Ohio Mounds. By Cyrus THOMAS [Bureau of Ethnology],
Washington, 1889.
Lhe Travels of Pedro de Cieza de Leon, A.D. 1532-50, contained in the first part of
his Chronicle of Hern. Translated and edited by CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F.S.A.,
F.R.G.S. London [Hakluyt Soc.], 1884.
The Indian Tribes of Guiana: their Condition and Habits. By the Rev. W. H.
BRETT, London, 1868.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 795
A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, with an account of the
Native Tribes [&c.]. By A. R. WALLACE, LL.D., London, 1853, reprinted 1889.
Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral-Brasiliens, Reiseschilderung und Ergebnisse
der zweiten Schingt-Expedition, 1887-1888. Von Karl von den Steinen, Prof. Dr.,
Berlin, 1894.
The Origin of Primitive Superstitions and other Development into the Worship of
Spirits and the Doctrine of Spiritual Agency among the Aborigines of America. By
RusHton M. DoRMAN, Philadelphia, 1881.
The Natwral and Moral History of the Indies. By Father JoSEPH DE ACOSTA.
Reprinted from the English translated edition of Edward Grimston, 1604, and
edited by Glements R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S., 2 vols. [paged continuously], London
[Hakluyt Soc.], 1880.
Outlines of Zuni Creation Myths. By FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING in 13th
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896.
A List of the Tribes in the Valley of the Amazon, including those on the Banks of
the Main Stream and of all its Tributaries. Attempted by CLEMENTS R. MARK-
HAM, C.B., F.R.S., Pres. R.G.S. (2nd edit.), in xxiv. Jowrn. Anthrop. Inst. G. Brit.
and Ireland. Uondon, 1895,
Missionary Labours in British Guiana: with remarks on the Manners, Customs,
and Superstitious Rites of the Aborigines. By the Rev. J. H. BERNAU. London,
1847.
Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American
Indians. With Letters and Notes. By GEORGE CATLIN. 2 vols. London, 1876.
Ancient Society ; or, Researches in the Lives of Human Progress from Savagery
through Barbarism to Civilisation. By Lewis H. Morgan, LL.D. London, 1877.
Die Gebriuche und religidsen Anschauungen der Kekeht-Indianer. Von Dr. CARL
SAPPER, Guatemala. In viii. Internat. Archiv fiir Ethnographic. Leiden, 1895.
Tribes of the Extreme North-West. By W.H. DAL ini. Contributions to N. Am.
Ethnology. Washington, 1877.
9. Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada.—See Reports, p. 440.
10. The Origin of the French Canadians. By B. Suits.
‘See Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada, p. 440.
11. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.
See Reports, p. 452.
12. The Evolution of the Cart and Irish Car.
By Professsor A. C. Happon.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Jesup Expedition to the North Pacific.
By Professor F. W. Putnam.
2. Discussion of Evidences of American-Asiatic Contact.
796 REPORT—1897.
3. Why Human Progress is by Leaps. By Grorce Ixzs.
We are accustomed to regard the decisive triumphs of man as he wins each
one of them as simple additions to his resources, material and mental, whereas in
truth they are multipliers of high potency, entering as they do into wide and
fruitful union with the talents and powers they find already in the field. The
introduction of every invention or discovery of prime dignity at once tends to
quicken the pace of progress to a leap. It would appear that the distinction
between a multiplier and an addition, as each supreme victory comes to human
wit, sheds light on three cardinal facts regarding man. First, his comparatively
rapid development from animality. Second, his separation to-day from his next of
kin by a gulf more profound and wide than that between any two other allied
families in all nature. Third, his advance, when civilised, in power and faculty at
a@ pace ever accelerated.
4. On the Transmission of Acquired Characters.
By Professor J. Cossar Ewart, /.R.S.
5. On the Kafirs of Kafiristan... By Sir Gtorce Rosertson, K.C.S.I.
6 On the Mangyans and Tagbanuas of the Philippine Isles.
Sy Professor Dean C. WorcEsTER.
7. Report on the Necessity of the Immediate Investigation of the Anthro-
pology of Oceanic Islands.—See Reports, p. 352.
| WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
A joint discussion with Section C (Geology) on the first Traces of Man in the
New World was introduced by the reading of the following Papers :—
a. The Trenton Gravels. By Professor F, W. Putnam.
b. Human felics in the Drift of Ohio. By Professor E. W. CLAYPOLE.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On some Spear-heads made of Glass from West Australia.
By the President of the Section, Sir W. Turner, F.R.S., F.RSEL.
In July of this year I received from Dr. G. Archdall Reid three specimens of
spear heads, which had recently been brought by Mr. Robert Grant from Roebuck
Bay, West Australia. They had been made by the natives from glass bottles
thrown into the bush by the English settlers in that locality. Two were made of
coloured glass, as if from beer bottles, and one from white glass. That from white
glass was 96 mm. long and 30 mm. in its widest part, whilst the others were
91 mm. and 81 mm. long respectively. They were sharply pointed at one end,
whilst the opposite erid was in two instances finished with a convex border and
in the third with a straight base. The margins were serrated, and the surfacesshowed
the marks where flakes of glass had been removed during the manufacture of the spear
head. Mr. Grant has seen the natives engaged in the manufacture of these imple-
ments. He states that the piece of glass rests during the process on the operator's
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 797
knee, who takes a stone adze about 2 inches long, with which he strikes the glass,
The adze is a smooth stone, not a flint. The natives had made, prior to the visits
of Europeans, spear heads of flint, which are still manufactured in the back
districts of the country, and the glass implements are of the same pattern.
Mother-of-pearl shell is sometimes used for making spear heads, but it is apparently
ground, and not chipped to the required shape.
2. The Genesis of Implement-making. By F. H. Cusuiye.
3. Adze-making in the Andaman Islands. By Professor A. C. Happon.
798 REPORT—1897.
Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY, including ExperimenTaL PaTHoLoey and
EXPERIMENTAL PsYCHOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor MicHaEL Foster,
M.D., Sec. B.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The President delivered the following Address :—
We who have come from the little island on the other side of the great waters
to take part in this important gathering of the British Association, have of
late been much exercised in retrospection. We have been looking back on the
sixty years reign of our beloved Sovereign, and dwelling on what has happened
during her gracious rule. We have, perhaps, done little in calling to mind the
wrongs, the mistakes and the failures of the Victorian era; but our minds and our
mouths have been full of its achievements and its progress; and each of us, of
himself or through another, has been busy in bringing back to the present the
events of more than half a century of the past. It was while I, with others,
was in this retrospective mood that the duty of preparing some few words
to say to you to day seemed suddenly to change from an impalpable cloud in the
far distance to a heavy burden pressing directly on the back; and in choosing
something to say I have succumbed to the dominant influence. Before putting
pen to paper, however, I recovered sufliciently to resist the temptation to add one
more to the many reviews which have appeared of the progress of physiology
during the Victorian era. I also rejected the idea of doing that for which I find
precedents in past presidential addresses—namely, of attempting to tell what has
been the history of the science to which a Section is devoted during the brief
interval which has elapsed since the Section last met; to try and catch physiology,
or any other science, as it rushes through the brief period of some twelve months
seemed to me not unlike photographing the flying bullet without adequate appara-
tus; the result could only be either a blurred or a delusive image. But I bethought
me that this is not the first, we hope it will not be the last, time that the
British Association has met in the Western Hemisphere; and though the events
of the thirteen years which have slipped by since the meeting at Montreal in 1884
might seem to furnish a very slender oat on which to pipe a presidential address,
T have hoped that I might be led to sound upon it some few notes which might be
listened to,
And indeed, though perhaps when we come to look into it closely almost every
period would seem to have a value of its own, the past thirteen years do, in a
certain sense, mark a break between the physiology of the past and that of the
future. When the Association met at Montreal in 1884, Darwin, whose pregnant
ideas have swayed physiology in the limited sense of that word, as well as that
broader study of living beings which we sometimes call biology, as indeed they
have every branch of natural knowledge, had been taken from us only some two |
years before, and there were still alive most of the men who did the great works ©
of physiology of the middle and latter half of this century, The gifted Claude
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 799
Bernard had passed away some years before, but his peers might have been present
at Montreal. Bowman, whose classic works on muscle and kidney stand out as
peaks in the physiological landscape of the past, models of researches finished and
complete so far as the opportunities of the time would allow, fruitful beginnings
and admirable guides for the labours of others. Brown-Sequard, who shares with
Bernard the glory of having opened up the great modern path of the influence of
the nervous system on vascular and thus on nutritional events, and who, if he made
some mistakes, did many things which will last for all time. Briicke, whose
clear judgment, as shown in his digestive and other work, gave permanent value
to whatever he put forth. Du Bois Reymond, who, if he laboured in a narrow
path, set a brilhant example of the way in which exact physical analysis may be
applied to the phenomena of living beings, and in other ways had a powerful
influence on the progress of physiology. Donders, whose mind seemed to have
caught something of the better qualities of the physiological organ to which his
professional life was devoted, and our knowledge of which he so largely extended,
so sharply did he focus his mental eye on every physiological problem to which
he turned—and these were many and varied. Helmholtz, whose great works on
vision and hearing, to say nothing of his earlier distinctly physiological researches,
make us feel that if physics gained much, physiology lost even more when the
physiologist turned aside to more distinctly physical inquiries, Lastly, and not
least, Ludwig, who by his own hands or through his pupils did so much to make
physiology the exact science which it is to-day, but which it was not when he
began his work. I say lastly, but I might add the name of one who, though
barred by circumstances from contributing much directly to physiology by way of
research, so used his powerful influence in many ways in aid of physiological
interests as to have helped the science onward to no mean extent, at least amone
English-speaking people—I mean Huxley. All these might have met at
Montreal. They have all left us now. Among the peers of the men I have
mentioned whose chief labours were carried on in the forties, the fifties and the
sixties of the century, one prominent inquirer alone seems to be left, Albert yon
Kolliker, who in his old age is doing work of which even he in his youth might
have been proud. The thirteen years which have swept the others away seem to
mark a gulf between the physiological world of to-day and that of the time in
which most of their work was done.
They are gone, but they have left behind their work and their names, May
they of the future, as I believe we of the present are doing, take up their work
and their example, doing work other than theirs but after their pattern, following
in their steps.
In the thirteen years during which these have passed away physiology has not
been idle. Indeed, the more we look into the period the more it seems to contain.
The study of physiology, as of other sciences, though it may be stimulated by
difficulties (and physiology has the stimulus of a special form of opposition unknown
to other sciences), expands under the sunshine of opportunity and aid. And it
_ may be worth while to compare the opportunities for study of physiology in 1884
with those in 1897. At this meeting of the British Association I may fitly confine
myself I was going to say to British matters; but I feel at this point, as others
have felt, the want of a suitable nomenclature. We who are gathered here
to-day have, with the exception of a few honoured guests from the Eastern
Hemisphere, one common bond, one common token of unity, and, so far as
I know, one only; I am speaking now of outward tokens; down deeper in
our nature there are, I trust, yet others. We all speak the English tongue.
Some of us belong to what is called Great Britain and Ireland, others to
that which is sometimes spoken of as Greater Britain. But there are others
here who belong to neither; though English in tongue, they are in no
sense British. To myself, to whom the being English in speech is a fact of far
deeper moment than any political boundary, and who wish at the present moment
to deal with the study of physiology among all those who speak the English
tongue, there comes the great want of some word which will denote all such. I
_ hope, indeed I think, that others feel the same want too. The term Anglo-Saxon
800 REPORT—1897.
is at once pedantic and incorrect, and yet there is none other; and, in the absence
of such a better term, I shall be forgiven if I venture at times to use the seemingly
narrow word English as really meaning something much broader than British in
its very broadest sense.
Using English in this sense, I may, I think, venture to say that the thirteen
years which separate 1884 from to-day have witnessed among English people a
development of opportunities for physiological study such as no other like period
has seen, It is not without significance that only a year or two previous to this
period, in England proper, in little England, neither of the ancient Universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, which, historically at least, represent the fullest academical
aspirations of the nation, possessed a chair of physiology ; the present professors, who
are the first, were both appointed in 1883. Up to that time the science of physi-
ology had not been deemed worthy, by either university, of a distinctive professorial
mechanism. The act of these ancient institutions was only a manifestation of
modern impulses, shared also by the metropolis and by the provinces at large.
Whereas up to that time the posts for teaching physiology, by whatever name
they were called, had been in most cases held by men whose intellectual loins
were girded for other purposes than physiology, and who used the posts as step-
ping-stones for what they considered better things, since that time, as each post
became vacant, it has almost invariably been filled by men wishing and purposing
at least to devote their whole energies to the science. Scotland, in many respects
the forerunner of England in intellectual matters, had not so much need of change ;
but she, too, has moved in the same direction, as has also the sister island.
And if we turn to this Western Continent, we find in Canada and in the
States the same notable enlargement of physiological opportunity, or even a still
more notable one. If the English-speaking physiologist dots on the map each
place on this Western Hemisphere which is an academic focus of his science, he may
well be proud of the opportunities now afforded for the development of English
physiology ; and the greater part of this has come within the last thirteen years,
Professorial chairs or their analogues are, however, after all but a small part of
the provision for the development of physiological science. The heart of physiology
is the laboratory. It is this which sends the life-blood through the frame; and in
respect to this, perhaps, more than to anything else, has the progress of the past
thirteen years been striking. Doubtless, on both sides of the waters there were
physiological laboratories, and good ones, in 1884; but how much have even these
during that perod been enlarged and improved, and how many new ones have
been added? In how many places, even right up to about 1884, the professor or
lecturer was fain to be content with mere lecture experiments and a simple course
of histology, with perhaps a few chemical exercises for his students! Now each
teacher, however modest his post, feels and says that the authorities under whom
he works are bound to provide him with the means of leading his students along
the only path by which the science can be truly entered upon, that by which each
learner repeatsfor himself the fundamental observations on which the scienceis based.
But there is a still larger outcome from the professorial chair and the physio-
logical laboratory than the training of the student; these are opportunities not
for teaching only, but also for research. And perhaps in no respect has the
development during the past thirteen years been so marked as in this. Never so
clearly as during this period has it become recognised that each post for teaching
is no less a post for learning, that among academic duties the making knowledge
is as urgent as the distributing it, and that among professorial qualifications the
gift of garnering in new truths is at least as needful as facility in the didactic
exposition of old ones. Thirteen years has seen a great change in this matter,
and the progress has been perhaps greater on this side of the water than on the
other, so far as English-speaking people are concerned. We on the other side
have witnessed with envy the establishment on this side of a university, physio-
logy having in it an honoured place, the keynote of which is the development of
original research. It will, I venture to think, be considered a strong confirmation
of my present theme that the Clark University at Worcester was founded only
ten years ago.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 801
And here, as an English-speaking person, may Ibe allowed to point out, not
without pride, that these thirteen years of increased opportunity have been
thirteen years of increased fruitfulness. In the history of our science, among the
names of the great men who have made epochs, English names, from Harvey
onwards, occupy no mean place; but the greatness of such great men is of no
national birth ; it comes as it lists, and is independent of time and of place. If
we turn to the more everyday workers, whose continued labours more slowly
build up the growing edifice and provide the needful nourishment for the greatness
of which I have just spoken, we may, I will dare to say, affirm that the last
thirteen years has brought contributions to physiology, made known in the
English tongue, which, whether we regard their quantity or their quality, signifi-
cantly outdo the like contributions made in any foregoing period of the same
length. Those contributions have been equally as numerous, equally as good on
this side as on the other side of the waters. And here I trust I shall be pardoned
if personal ties and affection lead me to throw in a personal word. May I not
say that much which has been done on this side has been directly or indirectly the
outcome of the energy and gifts of one whom I may fitly name on an occasion such
as this, since, though he belonged to the other side, his physiological life was passed
and his work was done on this side, one who has been taken from us since this
Association last met, Henry Newell Martin?
Yes, during these thirteen years, if we put aside the loss of comrades, physiology
has been prosperous with us and the outlook is bright; but, as every cloud has its
silver lining, so shadow follows all sunshine, success brings danger, and something
bitter rises up amid the sweet of prosperity. The development of which I have
spoken is an outcome of the progressive activity of the age, and the dominant note
of that activity is heard in the word ‘commercial.’ Noblemen and noblewomen
open shop, and every one, low as well as high, presses forward towards large or
quick profits. The very influences which have made devotion to scientific inquiry
a possible means of livelihood, and so fostered scientific investigation, are creating
anew danger. The path of the professor was in old times narrow and strait, and
only the few who had a real call cared to tread it; nowadays there is some fear
lest it become so broad and so easy as to tempt those who are in no way fitted for
it. There is an increasing risk of men undertaking a research, not because a
question is crying out to them to be answered, but in the hope that the publication
of their results may win for them a lucrative post. There is, moreover, an even
greater evil ahead. The man who lights on a new scientific method holds the key
of a chamber in which much gold may be stored up; and strong is the temptation
for him to keep the new knowledge to himself until he has filled his fill, while all
the time his brother-inquirers are wandering about in the dark through lack of that
which he possesses. Such a selfish withholding of new scientific truth is beginning
to be not rare in some branches of knowledge. May it never come near us!
Now I will, with your permission, cease to sound the provincial note, and ask
your attention for a few minutes while I attempt to dwell on what seem to me to
be some of the salient features of the fruits of physiological activity, not among
English-speaking people only, but among all folk, during the past thirteen years,
When we review the records of research and discovery over any lengthened
period, we find that in every branch of the study progress is irregular, that it ebbs
and flows. At one time a particular problem occupies much attention, the peri-
odicals are full of memoirs about it, and many of the young bloods flesh their
maiden swords upon it. Then again for awhile it seems to lie dormant and
unheeded, But quite irrespective of this feature, which seems to belong to all
lines of inquiry, we may recognise two kinds of progress. On the one hand, in
such a period, in spite of the waves just mentioned, a steady advance continually
goes on in researches which were begun and pushed forward in former periods,
some of them being of very old date. On the other hand, new lines of investiga-
tion, starting with quite new ideas or rendered possible by the introduction of
new methods, are or may be begun. Such naturally attract great attention, and
give a special character to the period.
1897. 3 °F
802 REPORT—1897.
In the past thirteen years we may recognise both these kinds of progress. Of
the former kind I might take, as an example, the time-honoured problems of the
mechanies of the circulation. In spite of the labour which has been spent on these
in times of old, something always remains to be done, and the last thirteen years
have not been idle. The researches of Hiirthle and Tigerstedt, of Roy and Adami,
not to mention others, have left us wiser than we were before. So again, with the
also old problems of muscular contraction, progress, if not exciting, has been real ;
we are some steps measurably nearer an understanding what is the exact nature of
the fundamental changes which bring about contraction and what are the relations
of those changes to the structure of muscular fibre. In respect to another old
problem, too, the beat of the heart, we have continued to creep nearer and nearer
to the full light. Problems again, the method of attacking which is of more
recent origin, such as the nature of secretion, and tke allied problem of the nature
of transudation, have engaged attention and brought about that stirring of the
waters of controversy which, whatever be its effects in other departments of life,
is never in science wholly a waste of time, if indeed it be a waste of time at all,
since, in matters of science, the tribunal to which the combatants of both sides
appeal is always sure to give a true judgment in the end. In the controversy
thus arisen, the last word has perhaps not yet been said, but whether we tend at
present to side with Heidenhain, who has continued into the past thirteen years
the brilliant labours which were perhaps the distinguishing features of physiolo-
gical progress in preceding periods, and who in his present sufferings carries with
him, 1 am sure, the sympathies if not the hopes of all his brethren, or whether
we are more inclined to join those who hold different views, we may all agree
in saying that we have, in 1897, distinctly clearer ideas of why secretion gathers
in an alveolus or lymph in a lymph space than we had in 1884.
I might multiply such examples of progress on more or less old lines until I
wearied you; but I will try not todo so. Iwish rather to dwell fora few minutes
on some of what seem to be the salient new features of the period under review.
One such feature is, I venture to think, the development of what may perhaps
be called the new physiological chemistry. We always are, and for a long time
always have been, learning something new about the chemical phenomena of living
beings. During the years preceding those immediately recent, great progress, for
which we have especially, perhaps, to thank Kiibne, was made in our knowledge
of the bodies which we speak of as proteids and their allies. But while admitting
to the full the high value of all these researches, and the great light which they
threw on many of the obscurer problems of the chemical changes of the body,
such, for instance, as the digestive changes and the clotting of blood, it could not
but be felt that their range was restricted and their value limited. . Granting the
extreme usefulness of being able to distinguish bodies though theirsolution or precipi-
tation by means of this or that salt or acid, this did not seem to promise to throw
much light on the all-important problem as to what was the connection between the
chemical constitution of such bodies and their work in the economy of a living
being. For it need not be argued that this is an all-important problem. To day,
as yesterday and as in the days before, the mention of the word vitalism or its
equivalent separates as a war-cry physiologists into two camps, one contending
that all the phenomena of life can, and the other that they cannot, be explained as
the result of the action of chemico-physical forces. For myself, I have always felt
that while such a controversy, like other controversies as I ventured to say just
now, is useful as a stirring of the waters, through which much oxygen is brought
home to many things and no little purification effected, the time for the final
judgment on the question will not come until we shall more clearly understand
than we do at present what we mean by physical and chemical, and may perhaps
be put off until somewhere near the end of all things, when we shall know as fully
as we ever shall what the forces to which we give these names can do and what
they cannot. Meanwhile the great thing is to push forward, so far as may be,
the chemical analysis of the phenomena presented by living beings. Hitherto the
physiological chemists, or the chemical physiologists as perhaps they ought rather
to be called have perhaps gone too much their own gait, and haye seemed to be
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 803.
constructing too much a kind of chemistry of their own. But that, may I say, has
in part been so because they did not receive from their distinctly chemical brethren
the help of which they were in need. May I go so far as to say that to us physio-
logists these our brethren seemed to be lagging somewhat behind, at least along
those lines of their science which directly told on our inquiries? That is, however,
no longer the case. They are producing work and giving us ideas which we can
carry straight into ligsiotiniaeal problems, The remarkable work of Emil Fischer
on sugars, one of the bright results of my period of thirteen years, may fully be
regarded as opening up a new era in the physiology of the carbohydrates, opening
up a new era because it has shown us the way how to investigate physiological
problems on purely and distinctively chemical lines. Not in the carbohydrates
only, but in all directions our younger investigators are treating the old problems
by the new chemical methods; the old physiological chemistry is passing away ;
nowhere, perhaps, is the outlook more promising than in this direction ; and we
may at any time receive the news that the stubborn old fortress of the proteids has
succumbed to the new attack.
Another marked feature of the period has been the increasing attention given
to the study of the lower forms of life, using their simpler structures and more
diffuse phenomena to elucidate the more general properties of living matter.
During the greater part of the present century physiologists have, as a rule, chosen
as subjects of their observations almost exclusively the vertebrata; by far the
larger:part of the results obtained during this time have been gained by inquiries
yestricted to some half a dozen kinds of backboned animals; the frog and the
myograph, the dog and the kymograph have almost seemed the alpha and the
omega of the science. This has been made a reproach by some, but, I cannot help
thinking, unjustly. Physiology is, in its broad meaning, the unravelling of the
potentialities of things in the condition which we call living. In the higher animals
the evolution by differentiation has brought these potentialities, so to speak, near
the surface, or even laid them bare as actual properties capable of being grasped.
fm the lower animals they still lie deep buried in primeval sameness; and we may
grope among them in vain unless we have a clue furnished by the study of the
higher animal. This truth seems to have been early recognised during the progress
of the science. In the old time, observers such as Spallanzani, with but a mode-
rate amount.of accumulated Inowledge behind them, and a host of problems before
them, with but few lines of inquiry as yet definitely laid down, were free to choose
the subjects of their investigation where they pleased, and in the wide field open
to them prodded so to speak among all living things, indifferent whether they
possessed a backbone or no. But it soon became obvious that the study of the
special problems of the more highly organised creature was more fruitful, or
at least more easily fruitful, than that of the general problems of the simpler
forms ; and hence it came about that inquiry, as it went on, grew more and more
limited to the former. But an increasing knowledge of the laws of life as exempli-
fied in the differentiated phenomena of the mammal is increasingly fitting us
for a successful attack on the more general phenomena of the lowly creatures
possessing little more than that molecular organisation, if such a phrase be per-
mitted, which alone supplies the conditions for the manifestation of vital activities.
And, though it may be true that in all periods men have from time to time laboured
at this theme, I think that I am not wrong in saying that the last dozen years or
so mark a distinct departure both as regards the number of researches directed to
it, and also, what is of greater moment, as regards the definiteness and clearness of
the results thereby obtained. One has only to look at the results recorded in the
valuable treatises of Verworn and Biedermann, whether obtained by the authors
themselves or by others, to feel great hope that in the immediately near future a
notable advance will be made in our grasp of the nature of that varying collection
of molecular conditions, potencies and changes, slimy hitherto to the intellectual
no less than to the physical touch, which we are in the habit of denoting by the
more or less magical word protoplasm. And perhaps one happy feature of such an
advance will be one step in the way of that reintegration which men of science
fondly hope may ultimately follow the differentiation of studies now so fierce and
3 F2
804 REPORT—1897.
attended by many ills; in the problems of protoplasm the animal physiologist
touches hands with the botanist, and both find that under different names they are
striving towards the same end.
Closely allied to and indeed a part of the above line of inquiry is the study of
the physiological attributes of the cell and of their connection with its intrinsic
organisation, This is a study which, during the Jast dozen years, has borne no
mean fruits ; but it is an old study, one which has been worked at from time to
time, reviving again and again as new methods offered new opportunities. More-
over, it will probably come directly before us in our sectional work, and therefore
I will say nothing more of it here.
Still another striking feature of the past dozen years has been the advance of
our knowledge in regard to those events of the animal body which we have now
learnt to speak of as ‘internal secretion.’ This knowledge did not begin in this
period. The first note was sounded long ago in the middle of the century, when
Claude Bernard made known what he called ‘the glycogenic function of the liver.’
Men, too, were busy with the thyroid body and the suprarenal capsules long before
the meeting of the British Association at Montreal. But it was since then, namely
in 1889, that Minkowski published his discovery of the diabetic phenomena result-
ing from the total removal of the pancreas. That, 1 venture to think, was of
momentous value, not only as a valuable discovery in itself, but especially, perhaps,
in confirming and fixing our ideas as to internal secretion, and in encouraging
further research.
Minkowski’s investigation possessed this notable feature, that it was clear,
sharp and decided, and, moreover, the chief factor, namely sugar, was subject to
quantitative methods. The results of removing the thyroid body had been to a
large extent general, often vague, and in some cases uncertain; so much so as to
justify, to a certain extent, the doubts held by some as to the validity of the con-
clusion that the symptoms witnessed were really and simply due to the absence
of the organ removed. The observer who removes the pancreas has to deal with
a tangible and measurable result, the appearance of sugar in the urine. About
this there can be no mistake, no uncertainty. And the confidence thus engendered
in the conclusion that the pancreas, besides secreting the pancreatic juice, effects
some notable change in the blood passing through it, spread to the analogous
conclusions concerning the thyroid and the suprarenal, and moreover suggested
further experimental inquiry. By those inquiries all previous doubts have been
removed ; it is not now a question whether or no the thyroid carries on a so-called
internal secretion ; the problem is reduced to finding out what it exactly does and
how exactly it does it. Moreover, no one can at the present day suppose that this
feature of internal secretion is confined to the thyroid, the suprarenal, and the
pancreas ; it needs no spirit of prophecy to foretell that the coming years will add
to physiological science a large and long chapter, the first marked distinctive verses
of which belong to the dozen years which have just passed away.
The above three lines of advance are of themselves enough to justify a certain
pride on the part of the physiologist as to the share which his science is taking in
the forward movements of the time. And yet I venture to think that each and all of
these is wholly overshadowed by researches of another kind, through which
knowledge has made, during the past dozen years or so, a bound so momentous
and so far-reaching that all other results gathered in during the time seem to
shrink into relative insignificance.
It was a little before my period, in the year 1879, that Golgi published his modest
note, ‘Un nuovo processo di technica microscopica.’!_ That was the breaking out
from the rocks of alittle stream which has since swollen into a great flood. It is
quite true that long before a new era in our knowledge of the central nervous system
had been opened up by the works of Ferrier and of Fritsch and Hitzig. Between
1870 and 1880 progress in this branch of physiology had been continued and rapid.
Yet that progress had left much to be desired. On the one hand the experimental
_| Rendiconti del reale Istituto Lombardo, vol. xii. p. 206. My friend Professor
Minot has called my attention to the fact that Golgi really published his method
before this, viz, in his ‘ Ricerche sulla fina struttura dei bulbi olfattorii,’ 1875,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 805
inquizies, even when they were carried out with the safeguard of an adequate psychical
analysis of the phenomena which presented themselves, and this was not always
the case, sounded a very uncertain note, at least when they dealt with other than
simply motor effects. They were, moreover, not unfrequently in discord with
clinical experience. In general the conclusions which were arrived at through
them, save such as were based on the production of easily recognised and often
measurable movements, were regarded by many as conclusions of the kind which
could not be ignored, which demanded respectful attention, and yet which failed
to carry conviction. It seemed to be risking too much to trust too implicitly to
the apparent teaching of the results arrived at ; something appeared wanting to give
these their full validity, to explain their full and certain meaning by showing their
connection with what was known in other ways and by other methods. On the
other hand, during nearly all this time, in spite of the valuable results acquired by
the continually improving histological technique, by the degeneration method, and
by the developmental method, by the study of the periods of myelination, most of
us, at all events, were sitting down, as our forefathers had done, before the intricate
maze of encephalic structure, fascinated by its complexity, but wondering what it
all meant. Even when we attempted to thread our way through the relatively
simple tangle of the spinal cord, to expect that we should ever see our way so to
unravel out the strands of fibres, here thick, there thin, now twisting and turning,
and anon running straight, or so to set out in definite constellations the seeming
milky way of star-like cells, so to do this as to make the conformation of the cord
explain the performances of which it is capable, appeared to be something beyond
our reach. And when we passed from the cord to those cerebral structures the
even gross topography of which is the despair of the beginner in anatomical studies,
the multiple maze of grey and white matter seemed to frame itself into the letters
graven on the gateway of the city of Dis, and bid us leave all hope behind.
What a change has come upon us during the past dozen years, and how great
is the hope of ultimate success which we have to-day. Into what at the meeting
at Montreal seemed a cloudy mass, in which most things were indistinct and
doubtful, and into which each man could read images of possible mechanisms
according as his fancy led, the method of Golgi has fallen like a clarifying drop,
and at the present moment we are watching with interest and delight how that
vague cloud is beginning to clear up and develop into a sharp and definite picture,
in which lines objectively distinct and saying one thing only reveal themselves more
and more. This is not the place to enter into details, and I will content myself
with pointing out as illustrative of my theme the progress which is being made in
our knowledge of how we hear and how sounds affect us. A dozen years ago we pos-
sessed experimental and clinical evidence which led us to believe that auditory
impulses sweeping up the auditory nerve became developed into auditory sensations
through events taking place in the temporo-sphenoidal convolution, and we had some
indications that as these passed upward through the lower and middle brain the
strize acusticee and the lateral fillet had some part to play. Beyond this we knew
but little. To-day we can with confidence construct a diagram which he who
runs can read, showing how the impulses undergoing a relay in the tuberculum
acusticum and accessory nucleus pass by the striz acustice and trapezoid
fibres to the superior olive and trapezoid nucleus, and onwards by the lateral
fillet to the posterior corpus quadrageminum and to the cortex of the temporo-
sphenoidal convolution. And if much, very much, yet remains to be done even
in tracking out yet more exactly the path pursued by the impulses while they are
still undeveloped impulses, not as yet lit up with consciousness, and in understand-
ing the functional meaning of relays and apparently alternate routes, to say
nothing of the deeper problems of when and how the psychical element intervenes,
we feel that we have in our hands the clue by means of which we may hope to
trace out clearly the mechanisms by which, whether consciousness plays its part
or no, sounds affect so profoundly and so diversely the movements of the body,
and haply some time or other to tell, in a plain and exact way, the story of how
we hear. I have thus referred to hearing because the problems connected with
this seemed, thirteen years ago, so eminently obscure ; it appeared so pre-eminently
806 REPORT—1897.
hard a task, that of tracing out the path of an auditory impulse through the con-
fused maze of fibre and cell presented by the lower and middle brain. Of the
mechanism of sight we seemed even then to have better knowledge, but how much
more clearly do we, so to speak, see vision now ? So also with all other sensations,
even those most obscure ones of touch and pain; indeed, all over the nervous
system light seems breaking in a most remarkable way.
This great and significant progress we owe, I venture to say, to Golgi, to the
method introduced by him; and I for one cannot help being glad that this impor-
tant contribution to science, as well as another contingent and most valuable one,
the degeneration method of Marchi, should be among the many tokens that Italy,
the mother of all sciences in times gone by, is now once more taking her right
place in scientitic no less than in political life. We owe, I say, this progress to
Golgi in the sense that the method introduced by him was the beginning of the
new researches. We owe, moreover, to Golgi not the mere technical introduction
of the method, but something more. He himself pointed out the theoretical signifi-
eance of the results which his method produced; and if in this he has been out-
stripped and even corrected by others, his original merit must not be allowed to
be forgotten. Those others are many, in many lands. Among the first was one
Frithiof Nansen, whose brilliant though brief memoir makes us selfish physio-
logists regret that the icy charms of the North Pole so early froze in him the
bubbling spring of histological research. From the rest two names stand
out conspicuous. If rejuvenescent Italy invented the method, another ancient
country, whose fame, once brilliant in the past, like that of Italy, suffered
in later times an eclipse, produced the man who, above all others, has showed us how
to use it. At the meeting at Montreal a voice from Spain telling of things physio-
logical would have seemed a voice crying out of the wilderness; to-day the name
of Ramon-y-Cayal is in every physiologist’s mouth. That is one name, but there
is yet another. Years ago, when those of us who are now veterans and see signs
that it is time for us to stand aside were spelling out the primer of histology, one
name was always before us as that of a man who touched every tissue and touched
each well. It is a consoling thought to some of us elder ones that histological
research seems to be an antidote to senile decay. As the companion of the young
Spaniard in the pregnant work on the histology of the central nervous system done
in the eighties and the nineties of the century, must be named the name of the
man who was brilliant in the fifties, Albert von Kélliker.
When I say that the progress of our knowledge of the central nervous system
during the past thirteen years has been largely due to the application of the method
of Golgi, I do not mean that it, alone and by itself, has done what has been done.
That is not the way of science. Almost every thrust forward in science is aresult-
ant of concurrent forces working along different lines; and in most cases at least
significant progress comes when efforts from different quarters meet and join hands.
And especially as regards methods it is true that their value and effect depend
on their coming at their allotted times. As I said above, neither experimental
investigation nor clinical observation nor histological inquiry by the then known
methods, had been idle before 1880. They had moreover borne even notable
fruits, but one thing was lacking for their fuller fruition. The experimental and
clinical results all postulated the existence of clear definite paths for impulses
within the central nervous system, of paths moreover which, while clear and
sharp, were manifold and, under certain conditions, alternate or even vicarious,
and were so constructed that the impulses as they swept along them underwent from
time to time—that is, at some place or other—transformations or at least changes
in nature. But the methods of histological investigations available before that of
Golgi, though they taught us much, failed to furnish such an analysis of the tangle
of grey and white matter as would clearly indicate the paths required. This the
method of Golgi did, or rather is doing. Where gold failed silver has succeeded,
and is succeeding. Thanks to the black tract which silver when handled in a cer-
tain way leaves behind it in the animal body, as indeed it does elsewhere, we can
now trace out, within the central nervous system, the pathway afforded by the
nerve cell and the nerve cell alone. Wesee its dendrites branching out in various
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1. 807
directions, each alert to dance the molecular dance assigned to it at ouce by the
more lasting conditions which we call structural, and the more passing ones which
we call functional, so soon as some partner touch its hand. We see the body of the
cell with its dominant nucleus ready to obey and yet to marshal and command
the figure so started. We see the neuraxon prepared to carry that figure along
itself, it may be to far-distant parts, it may be to near ones, or to divert it along
collaterals, it may be many, or it may be few, or to spread out at once among
numerous seemingly equipollent branches. And whether it prove ultimately true
or no that the figure of the dancing molecules sweeps always onwards along the
dendrites towards the nucleus, and always outwards away from the nucleus along
the neuraxon, or whatever way in the end be shown to be the exact differences in
nature end action between the dendrites and the neuraxon, this at least seems sure,
that cell plays upon cell only by such a kind of contact as seems to afford an
opportunity for change in the figure of the dance, that is to say, in the nature of the
impulse, and that in at least the ordinary play it is the terminal of the neuraxon
(either of the main core or a collateral) of one cell which touches with a vibrating
touch the dendrite or the body of some other cell. We can thus, I say, by the
almost magic use of a silver token—I say magic use, for he who for the first time
is shown a Golgi preparation is amazed to learn that it is such a sprawling thing
as he sees before him which teaches so much, and yet when he comes to use it
acquires daily increased confidence in its worth—it is by the use of such a silver
token that we have been able to unravel so much of the intricate tangle of the
possible paths of nervous impulses. By themselves, the acquisition of a set of
pictures of such black lines would be of little value. But, and this I venture to
think is the important point, to a most remarkable extent, and with noteworthy
rapidity, the histological results thus arrived at, aided by analogous results reached
by the degeneration method, especially by the newer method akin to that of Golgi,
that of Marchi, have confirmed or at times extended and corrected the teachings
of experimental investigation and clinical observation. It is this which gives
strength to our present position; we are attacking our problems along two inde-
pendent lines. On the one hand we are tracing out anatomical paths, and laying
bare the joints of histological machinery; on the other hand, beginning with the
phenomena, and analysing the manifestations of disorder, whether of our own
making or no, as well as of order, we are striving to delineate the machinery by
help of its action. When the results of the two methods coincide, we may be con-
fident that we are on the road of all truth; when they disagree, the very disagree-
ment serves as the starting-point for fresh inquiries along the one line or the other.
Fruitful as have been the labours of the past dozen years, we may richtly con-
sider them as but the earnest of that which is to come; and those of us who are
far down on the slope of life may wistfully look forward to.the next meeting of
the Association on these Western shores, wondering what marvels will then be told.
Physiology, even in the narrower sense to which, by emphasis on the wavering
barrier which parts the animal from the plant, it is restricted in this Section, deals
with many kinds of being, and with many things in each. But, somewhat as
man, m one aspect a tiny fragment of the world, still more of the universe, in
another aspect looms so great as to overshadow everything else, so the nervous
system, seen from one point of view, is no more than a mere part of the whole
organism, but, seen from another point of view, seems by its importance to swallow
up all the rest. As man is apt to look upon all other things as mainly subserving
his interests and purposes, so the physiologist, but with more justice, may regard
all the rest of the body as mainly subserving the welfare of the nervous system;
and, as man was created last, so our natural knowledge of the working of that
nervous system has been the latest in its growth. But, if there be any truth in
what I have urged to-day, we are witnessing a growth which promises to be as
rapid as it has seemed to be delayed. Little spirit of prophecy is needed to foretell
that in the not so distant future the teacher of physiology will hurry over the
themes on which he now dwells so long, in order that he may have time to
expound the most important of all_the truths which he has to tell, those which
have to do with the manifold workings of the brain.
808 REPORT—1897.
And I will be here so bold as to dare to point out that this development of his
science must, in the times to come, influence the attitude of the physiologist
towards the world, and ought to influence the attitude of the world towards him.
I imagine that if a plebiscite, limited even to instructed, I might almost say
scientific, men, were taken at the present moment, it would be found that the
most prevalent conception of physiology is that it is a something which is in some
way an appendage to the art of medicine. That physiology is, and always must
be, the basis of the science of healing, is so much a truism that I would not venture
to repeat it here were it not that some of those enemies, alike to science and
humanity, who are at times called anti-vivisectionists, and whose zeal often
outruns, not only discretion, but even truth, have quite recently asserted that I think
otherwise. Should such a hallucimation ever threaten to possess me, I should only
have to turn to the little we yet know of the physiology of the nervous system
and remind myself how great a help the results of pure physiological curiosity—I
repeat the words, pure physiological curiosity, for curiosity is the mother of
science—have been, alike to the surgeon and the physician, in the treatment of
those in some way most afflicting maladies, the diseases of the nervous system.
No, physiology is, and always must be, the basis of the science of healing; but it is
something more. When physiology is dealing with those parts of the body which
we call muscular, vascular, glandular tissues and the like, rightly handled she
points out the way not only to mend that which is hurt, to repair the damages of
bad usage and disease, but so to train the growing tissues and to guide the grown
ones as that the best use may be made of them for the purposes of life. She not
only heals, she governs and educates. Nor does she do otherwise when she comes
to deal with the nervous tissues. Nay, it is the very prerogative of these nervous
tissues that their life is above that of all the other tissues, contingent on the envi-
ronment and susceptible of education. If increasing knowledge gives us increasing
power so to mould a muscular fibre that it shall play to the best the part which it
has to play in life, the little knowledge we at present possess gives us at least much
confidence in a coming far greater power over the nervecell. This is not the place
to plunge into the deep waters of the relation which the body bears to the mind ;
but this at least stares us in the face, that changes in what we call the body bring
about changes in what we call the mind, When we alter the one, we alter the
other, If, as the whole past history of our science leads us to expect, in the coming
years a clearer and deeper insight into the nature and conditions of that molecular
dance which is to us the material token of nervous action, and a fuller, exacter
knowledge of the laws which govern the sweep of nervous impulses along fibre and
cell, give us wider and directer command over the moulding of the growing ner-
vous mechanism and the maintenance and regulation of the grown one, then
assuredly physiology will take its place as a judge of appeal in questions not only
of the body, but of the mind ; it will raise its voice not in the hospital and con-
sulting-room only, but also in the senate and the school.
One word more. We physiologists are sorely tempted towards self-righteous-
ness, for we enjoy that blessedness which comes when men revile you and persecute
you and say all manner of evil against you falsely. In the mother-country our
hands are tied by an Act which was defined by one of the highest legal authorities
as a ‘penal’ Act; and though with us, as with others, difficulties may have
awakened activity, our science suffers from the action of the State. And some
there are who would go still farther than the State has gone, though that is far,
who would take from us even that which we have, and bid us make bricks wholly
without straw. To go back is always a hard thing, and we in England can
hardly look to any great betterment for at least many years to come. But
unless what I have ventured to put before you to-day be a mocking phantasm,
unworthy of this great Association and this great occasion, England in this
ree at least offers an example to be shunned alike by her offspring and her
ellows.
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 809:
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Rhythm of Smooth Muscles. By Professor H. P. Bowpitcu.
Gaskell (‘ Journal of Physics, iv. 118) has called attention to the fact that the
three sorts of muscle fibre recognised by physiologists—namely, striped, smooth and
cardiac fibres—are each characterised by the special development of a particular
form of activity, but that each kind of muscle possesses to a certain degree the
forms of activity which specially characterise the other kinds. Thus the power of
rapid contraction, which is most highly developed in striped muscles to serve the
purpose of locomotion, is possessed in a lesser degree by the cardiac, and in a still
less degree by the smooth muscles, whereas the power of tonic contraction,
strikingly manifested by smooth muscles, is much less marked in the cardiac and
striped muscles, and rhythmical contraction, which is the special function of the
cardiac muscle, is a phenomenon of subordinate importance in the smooth and.
striped muscles. The following table represents the order in which the three
sorts of muscles stand with regard to the manifestation of the three forms of
activity.
| — Rapidity | Tonicity Rhythm
1 se es =
1. Striped | Smooth Cardiac
| 2. Cardiac | Cardiac Smooth
3. Smooth Striped Striped
It is evident, therefore, that the phenomenon of muscular contraction may be
conyeniently studied under the nine headings indicated in the table, and in this
communication the author desired to call attention to a few observations which he
has made under one of these headings—viz., that of the rhythmical contraction of
smooth muscle fibres. Many of the observations which are here referred to were
made ten years ago by K. W. Lovett, but have remained unpublished because the
complicated nature of the phenomenon rendered positive conclusions difficult to
draw. The material used was aset of three rings of muscular tissue, one or
more mm. in width, taken from the cardiac, the middle, and the pyloric portion
of the stomach of the frog by sections perpendicular to the axis of the organ.
These rings were attached to the recording apparatus by metal hooks, which served
at the same time as electrodes, though in the experiments to be reported no
electrical stimulation was used.'
The curves were traced upward on the smoked surface of a cylinder which
could be adjusted to revolve once in a hour, or once in twelve hours. The method
of procedure was in general to take the tracing during an hour with the more
rapid movement of the drum, and then to shift the cylinder on to the slower
movement.
The results of Dr. Lovett’s observations may be summarised as follows :—
1. About 50 per cent. of the preparations manifested spontaneous activity as-
soon as they were attached to the apparatus.
2. In about 13 per cent. of the observations the beginning of the activity
occurred after a period of 20 secs. to 3 hours.
3. In 7 per cent. of the cases the delay was more than 3 hours.
4, Thirty per cent. of the preparations remained inactive. ;
5. Cases of delayed activity and of total-inactivity were more frequent in the-
middie and pyloric than in the cardiac portion of the stomach.
! This method is the same as that employed by Morgen (Untersuchungen, a.d.
Phys. Inst. Univ. Halle Heft, ii. p. 139, 1890) in studying the irritability of smooth
muscles. It is to be noted, however, that in Morgen’s experiments spontaneous
movements of the stomach ceased after about twenty minutes, while in Dr. Lovett’s.
experiments they lasted many hours.
810 REPORT—1897.
G. The duration of the activity varied from 45 secs. to 24 hours. The average
duration was—
For the cardiac portion . : . . 103 hours,
As middle ,, Gs
- pyloric ,, E : : Bo) ee
7. The contractions of the middle and pyloric portions were, as a rule, more
simple and regular than those of the pyloric portion of the stomach. See also
Ducceschi (‘ Ar. It., de Biol.’ xxvii. 61), Experiments on dog’s stomach.
Quite recently (March, 1897), the apparatus being brought into use in a class
demonstration, the tracings of one of the pieces of stomach was observed to present
an appearance which suggested the idea that the curve was a compound one
formed by the superposition of two sets of rhythmical contractions differing from
each other slightly in rate. Diagrams were shown which illustrate two cases of
this phenomenon, in one of which there was a difference of 5 and in the other a
difference of 17 seconds in the rate of the constituent rhythms.
Another form of rhythm occasionally presented by smooth muscles studied in
this way is the repetition of a complicated set of contractions, the separate con-
tractions of each set differing from each other in appearance, but the set as a
whole being a repetition of the previous set.
It is evident that if two or more such complicated sets of contraction occur
simultaneously in the same preparation, the resulting curve will be of a nature to
almost defy analysis.
A few experiments directed to the determination of the influence of hunger
and digestion upon the nature of the gastric movements led to no definite result.
Neither was any connection to be observed between the width of the muscular
ring and the complication of the curve.
2. The Innervation of Motor Tissues, with especial reference to Nerve-
endings in the Sensory Muscle-spindles. By Professor G. Carn
Huser, W/.D., and Mrs. De Wirt.
The observations here recorded were made with the methylen-blue method, as
modified by Bethe. A 1 per cent. solution of methylen-blue was injected into
the blood-vessels ; the tissues to be studied were fixed in ammonium molybdate,
sectioned, and double-stained in alum carmine.
The results obtained were as follows :—
Nerve-ending in Striated Muscle (rabbit and frog). The neuraxis of the motor
neurons terminates, under the sarcolemma, in an end-brush, the fibrils of which
present the same structure as the neuraxis itself. The so-called ‘ sole’ is an accu-
mulation of sarcoplasma, at the place of ending of the motor nerve-fibre, which is
continuous with the sarcoplasma of the muscle-fibre. The ‘sole nuclei’ are
muscle-nuclei.
Nerve-ending in Heart-muscle (cat). Tleart-muscle receives its innervation
from sympathetic nerve-cells, The neuraxes of such nerve-cells terminate in
varicose fibrils which end on the heart muscle-cell in small bulbar enlargements
or in small clusters of such bulbar enlargements.
Nerve-ending in Involuntary Smooth Muscles (intestine of cat, frog, and tor-
toise). Involuntary smooth muscle receives its nerve-supply from sympathetic
nerve-cells. The neuraxes of the sympathetic neurons innervating involuntary
muscle end, after repeated branching, in small knobs which rest on the spindle-
shaped muscle cells, often near the nucleus.
Nerve-ending in Muscle-spindle. Muscle-spindles were described by Kolliker
(under the name ‘ Muskel-Knospen’) in frog’s muscle as early as 1862, They
were soon after found by Kihne in the voluntary muscles of other vertebrates.
Since that time they have been repeatedly described and variously interpreted.
ord
They were described as growth-centres by Kélliker, Bremer, Felix, y. Franqué, —
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. S11
Trinchese, Thanhoffer, and Volkmann ; as pathological structures by Friinkel, Eisen-
lohr, Millbacher, Eichhorst, Babinski, and Meyer; as physiological structures,
without however assigning any special function to them, by Mays, Roth, Bloc
and Marinesco, Pilliet, Christomanson and Stréssner; and finally, as sensorial
nerve-endings, by Kerschner, Ruffini, Sherrington, and Sihler: Sherrington having
shown conclusively by the degeneration-method that the spindle-nerves are spinal
root-ganglion nerves.
We were concerned more particularly with the ending of the spindle-nerves in
the muscle-spindles ; our observations were as follows :— ‘
In the frog the spindle-nerves terminate in fine, varicose fibrils, which run
along, outside of the sarcolemma, on the intrafusal fibres.
In the snake only one intrafusal muscle-fibre is found in the muscle-spindles.
The spindle-nerve enters the spindle from the pole, and breaks up into several
nonmedullated branches, which follow along by the side of the intrafusal fibres,
giving off in their course flat, band-like off-shoots, which partly or completely
encircle the intrafusal fibre.
In the tortozse the spindle-nerves end in nonmedullated branches, which flatten
ie into irregular, notched endings having a serpentine course on the intrafusal
fibres.
In the zd the spindle-nerves terminate in nonmedullated fibres, which have
the appearance of a repeatedly folded ribbon.
In mammalia the spindle-nerves terminate in ribbon-like endings, which are
often distinctly wound around the intrafusal fibre (dog, cat and rat) in the form of
‘a spiral—annulo-spiral endings; or may branch and have a zigzag course on the
intrafusal fibre, in which case few spirals are seen (rabbit and probably also man).
The ribbon-like nonmedullated fibres terminate by branching and ending in disc-
like expansion—flower-like endings of Ruffini.
Some few observations are at hand which go to show that the intrafusal fibres
have a motorial ending. In this respect we corroborate Kerschner.
We have regarded the muscle-spindles as sensorial end-organs.
3. The Muscle-spindles in Pathological Conditions. By O. F. F. Grinsaum.
4. The Ear and the Lateral Line in Fishes! By Freperic §. Ler, Ph.D.
The chief morphological facts upon which the theory of the origin of the ear
from the system of the lateral line is based are similarity in structure of the adult
organs, in innervation, and in ontogeny. Physiology seems able to present at least
circumstantial evidence in favour of this theory. ‘he author has investigated the
functions of the ear and the sense-organs of the lateral line in fishes.
1. The Ear.—The results may be tabulated as follows :—
Functions of the Ear Sense-organs
I. Dynamical functions in 21. Rotary movements. Cristze acusticz.
recognition of . .§ 2. Progressive movements. Macule acusticz.
me eee es } 3. Position in space. Maculz acusticz.
The above functions are divisions of the general function of equilibration : the
sense-organs of the ear deal with the equilibrium of the body under all circum-
stances, both in movement and at rest,
In vertebrates above the fishes we must add to the above:
TI. Auditory functions in) 4. Vibratory motions. Papilla acustica basi-
recognitionof . .f laris.
Experiments by the author and by Kreidl prove that fishes do not possess the
power of audition. Hence the ear in fishes is purely equilibrative in function.
? Published in the Am. Journ. of Physiology, Jan. 1898.
812 REPORT—1897.
2. The Lateral Line.—Simple cutting of the lateral nerve or destruction of
the lateral organs does not seem to affect equilibrium. But destruction of the
organs, combined with removal of the pectoral and pelvic fins, causes marked
lack of equilibrium, manifested by uncertain, ill-regulated movements; removal of
fins alone has no pronounced effect. Central stimulation of the lateral nerve
causes the same compensating movements of the fins as does stimulation of the
acoustic of the opposite side. These results make it probable that the organs of
the lateral line are equilibrative in function, and are employed in the recognition
of currents in the water and of movements of the body through the water. The
results of Bonnier and of Fuchs are in harmony with this.
This was probably the primitive function. By the inclosure within the skull
of a bit of the lateral line and the differentiation and refinement of its sense-organs,
a more perfect organ of appreciation of movement, and hence of equilibrium, was
evolved in the ear. Along with the appearance of land animals a portion of this
organ became still more differentiated and refined and, as the papilla acustica
basilaris, acquired the power of appreciating the movements that we call sound.
Thus equilibration and audition became associated in the same organ.
5. On the Effect of Frequency of Excitations on the Contractility of
Muscle. By Professor W. P. Lomparp.
6. A Dynamometric Study of the Strength of the Several Groups of
Muscles, and the Relation of Corresponding Homologous Groups of
Muscles in Man. By J. H. Kutuoae, M.D.
In the Paper the author describes a new dynamometer so constructed that it
may be conveniently employed in testing the strength of each of the important
groups of muscles in the body. By means of this apparatus charts have been pre-
pared whereby the strength of each muscular group in the individual may be com-
pared with the strength of those of the average man or the average woman, or the
average man or woman of the same height.
By a study of the tabulated results of several thousand examinations the
author has been able to formulate a series of new physical coefficients, the chief of
which are the following :—
_ 1. The strength-weight coefficient is obtained by dividing the total strength
in kilograms by the weight in kilograms, the result showing the number of kilo-
grams which a person is able to lift for each kilogram of his own weight. This
coefficient expresses the dynamic value or capacity of a person’s body.
_ 2. The respiratory-weight coefficient, obtained by multiplying the lung capa-
city in litres as shown by the spirometer, by the respiratory strength in kilograms,
and dividing the result by the body weight in kilograms, This coefficient expresses
the respiratory capacity for each kilogram.
3. The strength-height coefficient, obtained by dividing the total strength in
kilograms by the total height in millimetres. This coefficient expresses the number
of kilograms which an individual is able to lift for each millimetre in height.
._ 4, The respiratory-height coefficient, obtained by multiplying the lung capacity
in litres by the respiratory strength in kilograms and dividing by the height in —
millimetres. This coefficient represents the respiratory capacity of the individual
for each millimetre in height.
5. The coefficient of vital efficiency, obtained by dividing the respiratory-
weight coefficient by the strength-weight coefficient. ‘This coefficient combines
Im one expression the relations represented by the respiratory-weight and the
strength-weight coefficients, and represents the relation of a person’s respiratory
capacity to his working capacity.
_6. The coefficient of vital development, obtained: by dividing the respiratory-
height by the strength-height coefficient, which combines in one expression the
‘
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 813
yelations represented by the respiratory-height and the strength-height coefficient
respectively, and indicates at once whether a person’s respiratory development is
properly proportioned to his motor development.
The same data from which these several coefficients are deduced afford oppor-
tunity for the formulation of a coefficient relating to any individual group of
muscles.
The extended study of the strength of various muscular groups by comparison
with each other and with the strength of the body as a whole, or of distinct sec-
tions of the body, has developed numerous interesting relations. In this compara-
tive study chief attention has been given to the following points :—
' 1. The relative strength of each group of the muscles, and of each division of
the body, and also of the total muscular strength, as compared with the average
weight of the body.
2. The strength of each group of muscles, of the muscles of each of the principal
divisions of the body, and’ of the total strength of the body compared with the
average height in inches.
3. The strength of each group of muscles, and of the muscles of each of the
principal divisions of the body, as compared with the total strength.
4, The strength of each group of muscles (right and left together) as compared
with the strength of the corresponding division of the body.
5. The strength of the muscles of the left side of the body as compared with
those of the right side of the body.
6. The strength of each group of muscles, of the muscles of each division of
the body, and the total strength in women as compared with the same in men.
7. The strength of each group of muscles as compared with the antagonising
oup.
i & The strength of the muscles of the arms as compared with the homologous
or corresponding muscles of the legs.
9, A study of the muscular strength of men as compared with that of women
of the same height.
10. A study of the muscular strength in short men and short women as com-
_ pared respectively with that of tall men and tall women.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Output of the Mammalian Heart. By Dr. G. N. Stewart.
We possess at present very few data for the determination of the amount ot
blood thrown out by the left ventricle at each beat. The direct estimation of this
important physiological quantity by the introduction of a ‘Stromuhr’ in the
undivided aorta (according to the method of Tigerstedt, in the rabbit), or by the
insertion of a measuring cylinder in the course of the lesser circulation, after the
great systemic vessels have been tied (as Stolnikow has done in the dog), is not
only beset with experimental difficulties, but the results obtained under conditions
so highly artificial can hardly be applied with any confidence to the problems of
the normal and unobstructed blood-flow. The author of this paper has, accordingly,
re-examined the question by means of a new method, and by its aid has measured
the output of the heart in a series of dogs, more than twenty in number, and
ranging in weight from 5 to nearly 35 kilograms.
Method.—A solution of a substance which can be easily recognised and quanti-
tatively estimated in the blood (1°5 or 2 per cent. sodium chloride) is allowed to
flow for a measured time, not greater than the circulation time (usually 10-15 sec.)
into the heart. The solution is delivered from a burette connected either with a
catheter passed through the jugular vein down nearly to the right auricle (or into
814 REPORT—1897.
the auricle), or with a glass tube inserted through the carotid artery into the left
ventricle. In the latter case, a valve in the course of the connecting tube prevents
any back-flow of blood. Both femoral arteries (or sometimes both brachials) are
exposed. A cannula (collecting cannula) is inserted into a branch of one of the
arteries and the other is laid on two hook-shaped platinum electrodes connected
with the Wheatstone’s bridge, with which a telephone is connected in the usual way.
‘Weak induction shocks from the secondary of a du Bois coil are sent through the
arrangement, including the piece of artery on the electrodes, and the bridge is
balanced. When the mixture of blood and salt solution reaches the electrodes the
balance is upset, and the telephone announces the moment of arrival of the mixture.
A sample of blood is now drawn off by means of the’ collecting cannula, during
the passage of the salt solution, and immediately defibrinated. Then it can be
determined at leisure how much of the salt solution must be added to a sample
collected before the injection to make its resistance equal to that of the sample
collected during the passage of the mixture. Numerous observations can be made
in this way on one animal; and from these data the output of the heart for the
period of injection, and, therefore, the pulse-rate being known, for a single beat, can
be calculated.
Specimens of Results.—In a dog weighing 32:26 kilo. the average output (for
the first six observations) was 56’8c.c. per beat, equal to 2°71 c.c. per kilo. of body-
weight per second, with an average pulse-rate of 1:54 per second. In a dog of
body-weight 6:48 kilo., the average output was 14'8 cc. per beat, or 3°52 ¢.c. per
kilo. per second for an average pulse-rate of 1°61. In an animal of intermediate
size (182 kilo.) the average output for the first five observations was 41°6 c.c. per
beat, or 2°31 c.c. per kilo. per second for an average pulse-rate of 1-01.
In general it may be said that the results of these experiments go to show that
the more recent measurements of Tigerstedt and Stolnikow are too low, while the
older numbers of Volkmann and Vierordt are too high.
The animals were all completely anzesthetised with morphia and ether, or ACE
mixture, and were killed before recovering from the ansesthetic.
[Published in full in Journ. of Physiology, 1897, v. xxii., p. 159}.
2. Observations on the Mammalian Heart. By W.T. Porter.
Experimental evidence was offered in support. of the following propositions :—
A. On the cause of the heart-beat.
1, The cause of the rhythmic contraction of the ventricle lies within the
ventricle itself.
2. The cause of the rhythmic contraction is not a single, localised co-ordination
centre; the co-ordination mechanism, whatever it may be, is present in all parts
of the ventricle.
3. The integrity of the whole ventricle is not essential to the co-ordinated
contraction of a part of the ventricle.
4, The apex of the mammalian heart possesses spontaneous rhythmic contrac-
tility.
3. Assuming that the general belief in the absence of nerve-cells from the
apical part of the ventricle is correct, these experiments demonstrate that nerve-
cells are not essential to spontaneous, long-continued, co-ordinated contractions of
the ventricle.
B. Fibrillary contractions do not destroy beyond recall the power of normal
rhythmic, co-ordinated contraction of the heart muscle.
C. The influence of ventricular systole on the blood-flow through the heart
muscle.
1. The contraction of the heart compresses the blood-vessels in the substance
of the heart.
2. The systole aids the cireulation of the blood through the heart muscle.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 815
8. The ventricle acts on the coronary circulation as a force-pump, and not, to
any noticeable extent, as a suction-pump.
D. The circulation through the veins of Thebesius.
1. The nutrition of the mammalian heart may be maintained through the
vessels of Thebesius in a degree sufficient to give long-continued rhythmic contrac-
tions while the coronary arteries are empty.
2. The circulation through the veins of Thebesius is probably an important
source of nutrition in hearts in which the coronary arteries have been obstructed
by pathological processes.
3. On the Resistance of the Vascular Channels. By Professor K. Hiirtue.
For every scientific investigation of the flow of fluid through a tube or system
of tubes a knowledge of the three following factors is necessary :—
(1) The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the tube (difference = 6).
(2) The velocity of flow, or the quantity of fluid flowing through in an unit of
time =Q.
(3) The resistance offered to the flow.
Concerning the first two factors in the movement of the blood we have data
sufficient for most purposes, but of the third we have no clear conception, since we
‘possess no standard of resistance of the vascular channels,
The amount of this resistance depends on two factors :—
(1) The internal friction of the blood.
(2) The dimensions of the tubular system.
These two factors must therefore first be determined.
1, The method used to determine the internal friction of living blood consists
in allowing the blood from (¢.g.) the carotid of an animal to flow through accu-
rately calibrated capillary tubes for about thirty seconds, the quantity, the pres-
sure and the time of flow being accurately measured, the last to within ;}, second.
It was proved that this method, in spite of the short period of observation,
gives reliable results by determining with it the internal friction of distilled water.
The value obtained was the same as that by Poiseuille.
In the same series of experiments it was also shown tnat the internal friction
can be ascertained even when the pressure varies rhythmically, the outflow being
cue 3 proportional to the mean pressure, whether the pressure be constant or
variable,
The measurements of the internal friction of the blood of different animals by
this method gave the following results. The ratio of the internal friction of dis-
tilled water at 37° C. (/:=4700) to that of the blood is—
Inthe dog =1: 45 (K=1,045).
In thecat =1:41(K=1,140).
In the rabbit =1 : 3-2 (K=1,475).
2. Direct determination of the external resistance by measurement of the
dimension of the system of tubes is impossible, since the variation in tonus causes
considerable differences in the calibre of the blood-vessels. But if in any par-
ticular organ we know (1) the quantity of blood flowing through in an unit of
time (=Q), (2)) the arterial pressure (=), (3) the coefficient of internal friction
of the blood (=),
7,46
aaa vz
we can, by Poiseuille’s law, calculate the dimensions of a tube through which,
under the given conditions, the same quantity of blood would flow. Such a tube
where d is the diameter, and 1 the length of the tube,
816 REPORT—1897.
would represent a numerically expressible resistance. On this basis the following
calculations of resistances were made, using R. Tigerstedt’s measurements of
velocity :—
Arterial | Vol. of blood Resistance expressed
Vascular blood pres- flowing Coeff. of as tube of
channel sure through per internal -
(in mm. Hg.) |sec. (cub. mm.) friction (1) diameter] (2) length
in mm. inm. |
Dog’s kidney 75 1000 1045 4:6 35 m.
weighing 100 gr. (diam.of re-
normal nal artery)
The same af- 17 1617 1045 ; 22 m.
ter injection of
| diuretics |
| Aortic area of 98 2000 1475 8 300m. |
| rabbit weighing (diam. of |
| 1,500 grm. | aorta)
By this means the author proposes to measure the resistance through the
several organs and the entire vascular course. In this manner an idea can be
obtained not only of the amount of resistance in the various vascular paths, but
probably also several data for explaining the diameter of the blood-vessels, and
the thickness of their walls, For instance, for reasons into which it is not necessary
to enter here, it must not be concluded from the striking difference in length of the
aortic and renal path that the resistance of the aortic path is comparatively
greater than that of the renal path, The explanation is rather that the aorta has
a greater relative diameter than all the other organs, and is to be regarded not so
much as a pipe as an elastic reservoir with the function of an air vessel.
4. The Comparative Physiology of the Cardiac Branches of the Vagus
Nerve. By Dr. W. H. Gasket, F.R.S.
5. On Rhythmical Variations in the Strength of the Contractions of the
Mammalian Heart, By Arruur R. Cusuny.
Periodic variations in the force of the contraction of the auricle and
ventricle occur after the injection of helleborein, as Knoll has pointed out. I
have observed them after a number of other poisons, and occasionally during
electrical stimulation of the dog’s ventricle. ‘The movements of the heart were
registered by a modified form of the Roy Adami myocardiograph. These variations
seem independent of any inhibitory action, and occur only when the ventricle con-
tracts spontaneously in a different rhythm from the auricle, and so that during a
complete period the rhythm of the ventricle exceeds that of the auricle by one
complete contraction (Rv=Ra+1). When the idioventricular rhythm gives rise
to a regular auricular one, no periodic variations are observed. The ultimate cause
of the variations is the alteration of the relation between the auricular and ventri-
cular systoles. When the As occurs in its normal position—during Vd—both As
and Vd are very complete, because the blood enters the ventricle freely, and the
latter has not to dilate against a negative pressure, nor the auricle to con-
tract against resistance. When the As occurs during the Vs, on the other kand,
both are weakened, because the auricle has to contract against the systolic ventri-
cular pressure, and, on the other part, the ventricle contracts against the resistance
offered by the blood current entering it from the auricle. At the same time the
auricle fails to supply blood to the ventricle during its relaxation, and the latter
is therefore incomplete. The exit of the blood from the auricle is hindered, and it
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I, 817
therefore becomes much distended. Periods of large ventricular diastoles and
systoles and large auricular systoles thereof alternate with others of small ventri-
cular movements and weak systoles and great distension of the auricle.
These periods are best seen in the beginning of the irregular stage of poisoning
with substances of the digitalis group, where the irritability of the ventricle has
been increased just enough to cause a slightly more rapid rhythm than that supplied
from the auricle. As the irritability is further augmented, the periods become
shorter and less distinct. I have observed this periodic variation once (under
caffein), where Rv= Ra—1.
Occasionally another form of rhythmic irregularity occurs, in which Rv=
Ra-—2. In this case a secondary period occurs during the primary one, and the
whole period is distinctly less regular. When Rv =Ra-—8 the periodic variations
become still more difficult to trace, and when the divergence between Rv and Ra
is still greater all appearance of periodicity is lost.
In the normal heart the position of the As in the ventricular cycle varies from
the first third of the diastole to the extreme end of the diastolic pause, and may
even be prolonged into the ventricular systole. The efficiency of the heart must
be affected by this factor, least work being wasted when the auricular systole
corresponds with the first part of the ventricular relaxation, and a considerable
amount of energy being expended in the mutual opposition of the auricle and
ventricle, when the systole of the former overlaps into that of the latter.
6. Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors.
See Reports, p. 531.
7. Lhe Absorption of Serum in the Intestine. By E. Waymoutu Ret,
Professor of Physiology in University College, Dundee.
Heidenhain' demonstrated the fact that the water, organic and inorganic
solids of serum introduced into the intestine, are absorbed.
The experiment was devised in support of the theory that intestinal absorption
is possible under conditions in which osmotic transfer is excluded.
It was found that even inspissated serum is absorbed, and that at no time
during the course of the experiment is a serum with a lower’ percentage of solids
than that of the experimental animal found in the loop of gut, thus meeting the
objection (so far as the absorption of the solids is concerned) that in such cases
the serum introduced into the gut is diluted by water from the succus entericus,
Heidenhain omitted to measure the hydrostatic pressure on either side of the
intestinal membrane, so that the possibility of the result being due to filtration
was not excluded; and, indeed, the ancient filtration theory of Lreberhiihn®? has,
with the necessary modern histological modifications, been revived of late by
Hamburger.’ In the experiments now described, the animal’s own serum (obtained
by the centrifugal machine) was introduced into a loop of its intestine, and the hydro-
static pressure in the cavity of the experimental loop, and in a mesenteric vein
proceeding from a control loop, filled with ‘normal saline’ solution, observed
continuously during the course of the experiment.
As will be seen from the cases quoted, water, organic and inorganic solids, are
absorbed against considerable excess of hydrostatic pressure in the blood-vessels.
(Since the velocity of the blood stream in capillaries is low, it is taken for granted
that the pressure in the capillaries of the intestinal villi is not lower than that in
a mesenteric vein at the border of the gut.)
The experiment presents practically the same features when all the lacteals
1 Pfliiger's Archiv, 1894, Bd. lvi. s. 579.
2 De fabrica et actione villorum, 1757.
3 Du Bois-Reymond’s Archiv, 1896, s. 428,
1897, 3G
818 REPORT—1897.
leaving the experimental loop of intestine have been occluded by ligature. (See
Experiments III. and IV.)
ExrEeriment I.
Dog, 17'5 kilos. 80cm. loop of gut. Duration of experiment, 1 hour,
Organic Solids Inorganic Solids
Introduced 50 c.c. of own serum holding . 3°3500 grms. 4500 grm.
Recovered 22 ¢.c. of serum holding . . 2°3474 grms. 1870 grm.
Absorbed during the Hour.
Water . 5 ° - 5 : . 28. ¢.c. i.e. 56:00 per cent.
Organic Solids . 3 : 4 . 1:0026 grms.i.e. 29°92 per cent.
Inorganic Solids . : ; : . ‘2630 grm. i.e. 58°45 per cent.
Pressures in mm. of Mercury.
Time Vein Gut
12.0 Start <
25th 3 : : i 4 . 18-4 5:0
12.10 . 4 F 7 f : . 161 5-0
12.20. : 4 - - ; . 16-1 6:0
12.30. : : : : , - 15:0 55
12.40. : : 5 5 5 . 154 45
12.50. : : 5 - . 13°5 40
1.0 Stop
Lowerings of Freexing-point.
Introduced Serum Removed Serum Serum of Dog at end
ot Experiment
A ='598 A ='528 A ='608
Experiment IT.
Dog, 20 kilos. 80cm. loop of gut. Duration of experiment, 1 hour.
Organic Solids —_ Inorganic Soli’s
Introduced 50 c.c. of own serum holding . 34350 grms. 4550 grm.
Recovered 18°5 c¢.c. of serum holding . 2:0646 grms. 1628 grm.
Absorbed during the Hour.
Water. 5 5 3 . 315 cc. i.e. 63:00 per cent.
Organic Solids . z : : . 1°3704 grms. i.e. 39°89 per cent.
Inorganic Solids. 5 . . ‘2922 grm. i.e. 64:22 per cent.
Pressures in mm. of Mercury.
Time Vein Gut
12.5 Start
12.10 F 3 ; > ° LO 2:0
12.20 : : - ‘ “ Albis) 2-0
12300: : : : : Spoil igi 2-0
1240 . . 2 ; . . 115 3-0
12.50 ? 5 = 3 . 11-4 3°0
1.0 : : : : : . Clot 3:0
1.5 Stop.
Lowerings of Freexing-pownt.
Introduced Serum Removed Serum Serum of Dog at end
of Experiment
A = ‘693 A ="560 A =‘600
Exppriment III.
Dog, 22 kilos: 80 em. loop of gut. Duration of experiment, 1 hour.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 819
All Lacteals of Experimental Loop Ligatured,
Organic Solids Inorganic Solids
Tntroduced 50 c.c. of own serum holding . 3°6450 grms, 4500 grm,
Recovered 25 c.c. of serum holding » 2°6080 grms. 2220 grm.
Absorbed during the Hour.
Water. : : 2 : . 25 c.c. i.e. 50°00 per cent.
Organic Solids . : : : . 1:0370 grms, i.e, 28°45 per cent.
Inorganic Solids . : s . ‘2280 erm. i.e. 50°67 per cent.
Pressures in mun. of Mercury.
Time Vein Gut
12:20 Start
12°25 : ; : : - o Lb 3
12:35 : ‘ : : : - 16:9 25
12°45 - : : : : es} 25
12°55 - 4 3 , : A 25) 25
15 : - . : : . 169 2:0
115 : 6 ; : , . 17:3 2:0
1:20 Stop
Lowerings of Freezing-point.
Introduced Serum Removed Serum Serum of Dog at end
of Experiment
A ='615 4 ='580 A =°590
ExprerrmMent IV.
Dog, 20 kilos. 80cm. loop of gut. Duration of experiment, 1 hour.
All Lacteals of Experimental Loop Ligatured,
Organic Solids Inorganic Solids
Tniroduced 50 ¢.c. of own serum holding , 3°6830 grms. 4570 grm.
Recovered 22°5 c.c. of serum holding . . 26307 grms. 2043 grm.
Absorbed during the Hour.
Water : : : : A . 27°5 c.c. i.e. 55:00 per cent.
Organic Solids . ; : . . 1:0523 grms, ive. 28°57 per cent.
Inorganic Solids 2 ‘ r . ‘2527 grm. _ i.e.55°29 per cent.
Pressures in mm. of Mercury.
Time Vein Gut
12.20 Start,
12.23 . z 5 . . . evils: gb
12.30. ‘ . E - . - 17:7-18:4 = 15
12.40. : . - , . . 19-2 4:0
12.50. : : < : : . 21:9 3:5
1.0. : : : : : . '20°8 3-5
1.10. . 18-4 3-0
ste E . 16:9 3:0 ,
1.20 Stop.
Lowerings of Freezing-point.
Introduced Serum Removed Serum Serum of Dog at end
of Experiment
A ="600 A ='598 A =:603
No explanation of the above experiments is here attempted, but attention is
briefly called to the following negative points :—
Osmosis, filtration into the blood capillaries, or into the lacteals by the action of
Briicke’s ‘villus pump’ are, it is considered, excluded by the conditions of the
experiment,
That the disappearance of the serum from the cavity of the gut is simply a
3G2
820 REPORT—1897.
matter of imbibition is in the highest degree improbable, because the cells must be,
at the commencement of the experiment, soaked to the highest degree possible in
those constituents of the animal’s serum which they are capable of taking up.
Eleetro-osmotic action is again improbable, because secreting membranes pro-
duce ingoing electrical currents as well as absorbing membranes; and, to apply
such an hypothesis, it would be necessary to assume that the ingoing current of the
cells is active in one case (absorption), the outgoing return current in the other
(secretion) involving the further hypothesis of some valvular nature of protoplasm
with higher ‘ porosity’ in the ‘in-out’ direction in the absorbing, and the ‘ out-in’
direction in the secreting, membrane.
Finally, any aspirating action of the blood current in the capillaries of the villi
is negligible on account of the low velocity of the current in capillary districts of
the circulation.
8. The Function of the Canal of Stilling in the Vitreows Humour.
By Professor ANDERSON StTuaRT.
9. Description of some pieces of Physiological Apparatus.
Ly Professor ANDERSON STUART.
10. On the Phosphorus Metabolism of the Salmon in Fresh Water:
By D. Nort Paton, JIt.D., F.R.C.P. (Ed.).
The observations here recorded form part of an extended study on the meta-
bolism of the salmon in fresh water.
The method of investigation was to take for analyses sample salmon through-
out the spring, summer, and autumn from the mouths of certain rivers, and other
specimens from the upper waters of the same rivers, aud by comparing these to:
arrive at conclusions as to the extent of the changes going on.
Observations made by Drs. Gulland, Gillespie, Dunlop, and myself clearly show
that the fish do not feed during their stay in fresh water. The muscle substance
steadily diminishes, while the ovaries and testes grow at its expense. The fats
and proteids lost from the muscles are sufficient to supply these materials for the
growing genitalia, and to yield a very large amount of energy for muscular work.
The question here discussed is the Exchange of Phosphorus.
_ It is first shown that in muscle the phosphorus is chiefly in the form of
inorganic phosphates, though a comparatively large amount of lecithin and a small
amount of nuclein are also present.
_ In the ovary the phosphorus is chiefly combined in the pseudo-nuclein—ichthu-
lin; but it isalso present in considerable amounts in lecithin, and in very small
amounts as inorganic phosphates.
In the testis the phosphorus is chiefly in the form of true nucleins, but there are
also a considerable quantity of lecithin and a small quantity of inorganic phosphate.
As the season advances the phosphorus in the genitalia increases, while the
phosphorus of the muscle diminishes. The loss of phosphorus from the muscle
1s barely sufficient to account for the gain in the ovary, amply sufficient to yield
the increase of phosphorus in the testis. The lecithin lost from the muscle is
sufficient only to account for a small part of the lecithin gained by the ovary.
The lecithin and ichthulin of the ovary must thus be found by synthesis as these
structures grow. The nuclein of the testis must be formed in a similar manner.
The presence of considerable amounts of lecithin in the growing ovary and
testis would seem to indicate that this substance is one of the first stages in the
construction of nucleo compounds.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 821
11. Electrostatical Experiments on Nerve Simulating the effects of
Electric Rays. By Professor Jacques Lozs.
12. The Gastric Inversion of Cane Sugar by Hydrochloric Acids
By Professor GransaM Lusk.
For thirty-five years it has been shown upon the lecture table of Voit that a
03% hydrochloric acid solution at the temperature of the body has the power of
rapidly inverting cane sugar. After feeding an animal with cane sugar, that and
invert sugar are found in the stomach, while only invert sugar is to be detected in
the intestinal canal. No inverting enzyme has been found in the stomach similar
to that present in the small intestines. The question to be solved was this: is
the acid of the gastric juice a sufficient agent to accomplish such inversion of cane
sugar as takes place within the stomach? The following table shows in per cent.
the amount of cane sugar inverted after standing different lengths of time, with
different strengths of acid, at a temperature of 38-40° C.
091% 0:95% 0:91% 5% 091% =|
cane sugar sugar sugar / sugar sugar |
Time 01% HCl. | 0:2% HCl. | 02% HCE | 0:2% HCI. | 0:3% HCL.
1 hour 14:0 15°5 22°2
2 hours 25-4 29°9 376
Say 30:9 342 =| 495
i es 26'5 37-8 43:0 58:9
gre: 475 59-6 64:8
Tis, 40:0 768 69:2 79:3
10 ,, 81:7 ‘93:4 |
Die 63:8 | 864 94-1
The results show the stronger the acid the greater the inversion. In general
about the same percentage of inversion is obtained with a 5% sugar solution as
with a2 0:91% solution. The amount of cane sugar inverted by the same acid is
thus proportional to the strength of the sugar solution. Hence, as the sugar
solution becomes more and more changed by inversion, the quantity to be acted
on becomes smaller, and therefore the quantity inverted grows less, This is accord-
ing to Wilhelmy’s law of chemical change. It has also been determined that
proteid (white of eggs) and proteolytic digestive products in acid combination with
hydrochloric acid (?.e., when the solution gives no tropzolin reaction) have almost
the same inverting action as free hydrochloric acid. Comparing these experiments
with results already obtained from living animals, the conclusion is drawn that
the acidity of the gastric juice is itself sufficient to produce such inversion as takes
place in the stomach. Many of the analyses given above were made by Dr. 8. J.
Ferris,
SATURDAY, AUGUST 21.
The Section did not meet.
' ‘The Paper will be published in the 4m. Journ. of Physiology.
822 : REPORT—1897.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Paszers were read :—
1. Study of the Comparative Physiology of the Cells of the Sympathetic
Nervous System. By Professor G. Cart Huser.
The sympathetic neurons are multipolar in all vertebrates except the amphibia,
where the nerve cells are unipolar. The dendrites of the multipolar sympathetic
neurons form an intercellular plexus (between the cell-bodies of the sympathetic
neurons constituting the ganglion) and a general peripheral plexus’ under the
capsule of the ganglion. The neuraxes of sympathetic neurons terminate either in
involuntary muscle, in heart muscle, in glandular tissue, in the spinal root-ganglion,
and possibly also in other sympathetic ganglia.
Terminating in the sympathetic garglia are found small medullated nerve
fibres, first correctly described by Gaskell, then by Langley and others, which
leave the cerebro-spinal axis through the anterior or motor roots of the dorsal and
three or four upper lumbar nerves and ‘constitute the white rami communicantes.
That these nerve fibres end in the ganglia has been shown by Langley and others
by the nicotin-method.
They end by forming pericellular, intracapsular plexuses, which, while they may
show a slight variation in structure in the different vertebrates, may nevertheless
be regarded as similar in all vertebrates.
The sympathetic neuron forms, therefore, a terminal link in a neuron-chain of
which the second link is formed by a neuron the neuraxis of which constitutes the
neuraxis of a nerve-fibre in a white ramus.
2. Investigations in the Micro-chemistry of Nerve Cells.
Ly J. J. Mackenzie.
It was found that the Nissl granulations in nerve cells were distinctly iron-
holding, and consequently related to the iron-holding chromatins of the nucleus.
Pathological cells from rabbits, inoculated with rabies, were studied for com-
parison, and it was found that as long as basophil granulations were present in the
cell, it was possible to obtain an iron reaction in them. In the motor cells of the
cortex, in rabid animals, it was found that oxyphil granulations appeared in the
situations which the Nissl granulations had occupied, and that these oxyphilic
granules were very slightly iron-holding. It seemed probable that there was a
conversion of iron-holding basophil granules into oxyphil granules containing little
iron.
3. An Investigation of the changes in Nerve Cells in various Pathological
conditions. By W. B. Warrinaton, J.D. (Lond.), M.R.C.P..
See Reports, p. 525.
4, Action of Reagents on Isolated Nerve. By Dr. A. Warr, F.B.S.
See Reports, p. 518.
5. Action of Anesthetics on Nerve. By ¥.S. Luoyp.
See Reports, p. 520.
6. Action of Anesthetics on Cardiac Muscle. By Miss WELBY.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 823.
7. Période Réfractaire dans les Centres Nerveux.’
Par Professor Dr. C. RicHer.
J’ai pu, avec la collaboration d’André Broca, démontrer quil y a dans les
centres nerveux cérébraux et médullaires (chez le chien) une période réfractaire.
On ne connaissait jusqu’ici ce phénoméne que pour le cceur; il est important de
constater qu’il existe, avec une netteté plus grande encore que pour le cceur, dans
les cellules nerveuses.
Soit un chien, refroidi 4 30°, et, pour immobilisation et l’insensibilité, anes-
thésié avec du chloralose (0:10 grm. par kilogrm.); il répondra aux excitations
cérébrales électriques, si celles-ci ne sont pas trop fréquentes, par des réponses mus-
culaires isolées. La plupart des physiologistes n’ont étudié que les excitations
fréquentes. Voyons les effets des excitations isolées.
Si elles sont rythmées 4 1 par seconde, elles sont égales; mais, si elles sont
rythmées a 4 par seconde, il y en aura une grande et une petite, et enfin, si elles
sont rythmées 2 10. par seconde, il n’y aura plus de réponse a chaque excitation,
mais seulement 1 réponse sur 2. I] se fait alors un rythme qui est dans un rapport
simple avec le rythme excitateur }, 3, , selon les cas, suivant la rapidité des excita-
tions.
Ainsi, dans certaines conditions, sew deua excitations Vanimal ne répond qua
une seule, car la seconde tombe dans la période réfractaire.
Méme avec les excitations mécaniques le résultat est identique. Un chien
chloralosé répond 4 chaque excitation mécanique de ls table sur laquelle il repose
par une contraction convulsive soudaine. Mais s'il est refroidi, et si on fait des
ébranlements fréquents de la tabie, zd me répond plus qu’a une secousse sur deus.
On peut établir qu’il s’agit 14 d’un phénoméne analogue celui que les physiciens
ont appelé ’amortissement des vibrations et synchronisation, des oscillants. De
fait dans ’étude du syst8me nerveux on ne s’était pas préoccupé de |’élément
physique de la vibration nerveuse, et on avait surtout envisagé l’élément chimique.
Mais il est nécessaire qu’une vibration s’éteigne aprés qu'elle a eu lieu, de sorte que
cette période d’extinction de la vibration est la période réfractaire.
Pour amortir une vibration, il semble que le mode adopté par la nature soit
celui d’une courbe avec retour graduel 4 l'état d’équilibre, au lieu du retour par
une série d’oscillations de plus en plus petites. C’est le procédé que Lord Kelvin a
adepté pour l’amortissement des oscillations électriques dans la transmission des
dépéches par cable sous-marin.
La durée de cette période réfractaire est d’un diziéme de seconde chez ces chiens
normaux.
Chez les chiens refroidis 4 30° elle est de 0°5 sec.
On la mesure en saisissant le moment ou deux secousses consécutives sont
égales entre elles, Chez un chien refroidi 4 30°, il suffit que les excitations cérébrales
soient distantes de moins de 0°5 sec pour que les deux réponses musculaires soient
inégales.
On peut prouver qu'il y a chez l’bomme une période réfractaire, en ce sens.
que des excitations cérébrales (ou des volitions) isolées ne peuvent avoir um
rythme. plus fréquent que 10 on 11 par seconde. On peut s’en convaincre en
essayant de penser une gamme musicale, par exemple, ou une série de voyelles ou
de mots, avec le maximum de rapidité, et on verra qu’on ne dépasse pas 11, ou 12
tout au plus, par seconde.
Nous avons done par cette constatation et cette mesure de la période réfractaire
déterminé la durée de la vibration nerveuse; et par 1a établi en quelque sorte
Punité psychologique du temps.
La conscience, résultat de l’activité nerveuse, a donc une période élémentaire ;
et cette période élémentaire est d’environ un diziéme de seconde,
8. Ona Cheap Chronograph. By Professor W. P. LomBarp.
) Vois, pour plus de details, Archives de Physiologie, 1897, No. 4, p. 870, et Dict.
de Physiologie, art. cerveaus, t. iii., p. 17-44.
824 REPORT—1897.
9. Demonstration of the Pendulum Chronoscope and Accessory
Apparatus. By Dr. E. W. Scriprurz, Yale University.
The pendulum chronoscope contains, in the first place, an accurately adjusted
double-bob pendulum. This pendulum is held by a catch at the right-hand side.
In making an experiment this catch is pressed noiselessly and the pendulum starts
its swing. It carries along a light pointer held in position by a delicate spring.
At a definite moment it presses a delicate catch which releases the mechanism
beneath the base. This mechanism is adjusted to do several things: one of them
is to drop a shutter which covers an opening at the back of the chronoscope. The
person experimented upon is seated at the back; owing to the curtain he can see
nothing but the covered opening. He finds before him a rubber button like that
on a telegraph-key. He is to press this button as soon as he sees the shutter
expose the opening. He does so, and another mechanism releases a horizontal bar
running behind the scale. The pointer swings between this bar and the scale, and
is consequently stopped when the bar snaps against the scale. The zero-point is
passed at the moment the shutter starts to fall; the marks on the scale indicate
the number of thousandths that elapse till the button is pressed. The instrument
is built with the greatest accuracy. For reaction to light, coloured cards or pieces
of transparent celluloid are inserted into a holder just behind the shutter.
The reactions to light are not disturbed by noises, as the pendulum makes no
noise either at release or during its swing, and the shutter makes only a faint
sound.
For reactions to sound without further apparatus, the shutter is arranged to
strike with a noise. In this case a constant quantity is subtracted from the scale.
For these reactions it is generally preferable to insert a telephone with a battery in
circuit with the platinum contact about to be described. :
The shutter rests against a platinum point in such a way that its movement
can be used to break an electric circuit; this can be used for producing lights,
sounds, electric shocks, &c. A strong electro-magnet is placed beneath the base
in such a way that it can take the place of the button; thus the pointer can be
caught by the movement of a key in the hands of a distant person. An arrange-
ment is also provided whereby the pendulum itself is released electrically. Still
further mechanisms are added for various purposes.
Among the accessory apparatus are a newly invented lamp battery, a simple,
cheap and convenient arrangement which changes a high voltage dynamo current
into a low voltage current suitable for ordinary battery purposes—eg., to run
tuning forks, telegraph instruments, bells, &c.
[For a fuli account of the chronoscope see Scripture, ‘ New Psychology,’ p. 155,
London, 1897: and of the lamp batteries see ‘ Studies from the Yale Psychological
Laboratory,’ vol. iv., p. 76.]
10. The Tricolour Lantern for IUustrating the Physiology and Psychology
of Colowr-vision. By Dr. E. W. Scripture, Yale University.
By means of special triple slides and accessory apparatus, the fundamental laws
of colour-vision can be demonstrated. The newer theory of colour-blindness is
illustrated by some specially devised slides.
[A description of the lantern is given in the author's ‘New Psychology,’
p. 348,
11. Observations on Visual Contrast.
By C. S. Suerrineton, W.A., ID., F.RS., Liverpool.
1. On a parti-coloured disc let two concentric circular bands, each composed of
the same two colours alternately disposed, be inscribed, and the arrangement of the
component colours be such as to, in one band (A), minimise the contrast of the
~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 825
colours, and in the other (B) to accentuate it. On whirling the disc, it is found
that the rate of revolution required to fuse the component colours in ring-band A
is less than that required for ring-band B. In this way the heightened contrast
between the colours is found to take effect when all knowledge of the contrast
between their components and the background has been eliminated from conscious-
ness. Judgment is thereby eliminated from the effect, and the relation of judg-
ment to simultaneous contrast decided against the Helmholtz view and in favour
of the Hering view.
A measurement of the degree of simultaneous contrast may be obtained from the
rate of rotation required for fusion.
2. On a parti-coloured disc two concentric circular bands, each composed of the
same two component tints, are so inscribed that the darker component of one (A) istoa
certain extent deepened in tint by simultaneous contrast against the background. On
spinning the disc it is found that the ring-band (A) appears darker than its fellow
ring-band, although physically the intensity of the components are exactly equal in
the two. This visual darkening is apparent when all knowledge of the existence
of simultaneous contrast has been dismissed by fusion of the components of the
background by rapid translation of the surface.
3. On a dise half black half white let two short black ares jut from the black
into the white half, and at the opposite radius two counterpart white arcs jut into
the black half. These pairs are so placed as to compensate one for the other ;
throughout the entire disc the angular quantities of black and white are equal.
On spinning the disc the rate of intermission sufficient to extinguish ‘flickering’ in
the sensation obtained might be expected to be the same for all parts of the disc.
This is not the case. In one direction of spin, the rate of rotation required to fuse
the ring-bands possessing the jutting black arcs is higher than that required for
the intermediate ring-band on the disc; in the opposite direction the reverse.
Successive contrast is here adding its effect to simultaneous contrast: the latter is
here, as in the previous experiments, obviously taking effect, although rapid trans-
lation of the surface has removed all possibility of the observer being aware of its
existence on the disc.
4, Ona disc half white half black two short red arcs (A and B) are inscribed in
the black half at different radial distances, and two similar short arcs of black
(A’ and B’) are inscribed in the white half, A’ and A, B and B,’ being at the same
radial distances. On being whirled the tints of the two ring bands are found to differ
in brightness, even when in an ordinarily lighted room, the rate of intermission is
as rapid as 50 times a second. This difference seems explicable by successive
contrast, and indicates that even after a fiftieth of a second exposure to black, the
eye has been more sensitive to white, and conversely after a fiftieth of a second
exposure to moderate white.
5. On a disc of 160° white and 200° black, let some short and rather narrow arcs
ef red be placed on the white sector where it abuts on the black. Let half the
number of red arcs lie at one border of the white near the edge of the disc, the
other at the other border near the centre of the disc. When studied by lamp
light (yellowish illumination) one of the sets of arcs will, on spinning the disc
somewhat slowly, seem much less bright than the other set, and the grey of the
disc in the spaces between the arcs of visually darker red will appear bluish-green ;
in the spaces between the visually brighter red arcs will appear pale yellow.
This yellow appears due to a development of a positive after-image, the blue
chiefly to a negative image, but also in part probably to simultaneous contrast.
On whirling the disc at higher speed, the tints of the two red bands, also of the
intermediate bands, approximate, both the latter two becoming pale greenish-blue.
At still higher speeds the red bands become fully alike, and the intermediate bands
become completely similar pale green-blue bands. At this rate the intermittence
has become too frequent to permit the influence of rebound effects, and successive
contrast has been eliminated, simultaneous contrast alone remaining. But the rate
required todo this is higher in certain dises than one-fiftieth of a second. By
thus using the discs as rheotom for the visual sensations, it is found that a
perceptible after-image is formed after a very moderately intense stimula-
26 REPORT--1897.
tion in less than one-fiftieth of a second. The method shows also that from one-
fiftieth of a second up to a quarter of a second after its commencement this after-
image continues perceptibly increasing in intensity.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
A combined meeting of Sections I and KX for the discussion of the Chemistry
and Structure of the Cell was opened by the reading of the following Papers:—
1. On the Rationale of Chemical Synthesis.
Ly Professor R. Mrtpota, 7...
2. On the Existence in Yeast of an Alcohol-producing Enzyme.
By Professor J. R. Green, 7.2.8.
oo
. New Views on the Significance of Intra-cellular Structures and Organs.
By Professor A. B. Macatium, Ph.D.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1, Preliminary Accownt of the Effects upon Blood-pressure produced by the
Intra-venous Injection of Fluids containing Choline, Newrine, or
Allied Products. By F. W. Mort, ILD., F.R.S., and W. D. Hartt-
BURTON, JLD., ERS.
The experiments have been conducted as follows:—The animals used were
dogs anzsthetised with ether. The right external jugular vein and the left
carotid artery were exposed, and a cannula was introduced into each vessel. The
artery was connected with a mercurial manometer in the usual way for taking a
blood-pressure tracing. A simultaneous tracing of the respiratory movements
was taken by the tambour method.
The fluids were injected into the vein, and the results were, with certain
exceptions to be afterwards mentioned, in all cases similar—viz., no marked eflect
upon respiration, but a marked temporary fall in the blood-pressure, which begins
about 10 seconds after the commencement of the injection.
The fluids we used were—
(1) Normal cerebro-spinal fluid. This produced no effect.
(2) Cerebro-spinal fluid obtained post mortem from a considerable number of
cases of general paralysis of the insane, from one case of stuporose melancholia,
and from one case of cerebral hemorrhage owing to the giving way of a cortical
cerebral vessel.
To avoid fallacy of decomposition from microbie growth, it may be stated that
’ the bodies were placed in a cold chamber (0° C. or below that) within half an
hour of death, and cultures were in all cases made from the cerebro-spinal fluid
and blood of the frontal sinus, and in nearly all instances without result. This is
necessary, because many of these people die with bladder affection or ulcerative
eolitis, and microbic toxins might arise,
As a rule, 10 c.c. of the fluid were injected; and although the effect varied
somewhat in degree, yet in only one instance did no fall in the blood-pressure
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 827
occur, That instance was the cerebro-spinal fluid from the case of cortical
hemorrhage, an acute case with no naked-eye wasting of the brain substance.
(5) The cerebro-spinal fluid was boiled and filtered, and the filtrate gave the
same result. It could not, therefore, be due to proteid.
(4) The cerebro-spinal fluid was mixed with several times its volume of
alcohol, by which all proteids and proteoses would be precipitated. It was
filtered, and the filtrate dried at a temperature of about 40° C., and the residue
dissolved in saline solution, This, when injected, gave a similar fall in the blood-
pressure.
(5) Solution of neurine hydrochloride 0-1 per cent. solution. 2°5 c.c. gave a
similar fall ; but in most instances this was followed by a return to or even above
the original pressure and then a second fall’ which persisted to some extent, a
condition we never observed with the cerebro-spinal fluid. This result is similar
to that previously obtained by Schiifer and Oliver. Stronger doses produce marked
slowing of the heart, and slowing and deepening of the respiration. The fatal dose
is less than a decigramme, respiration ceasing before the heart.
(6) Solution of choline hydrochloride 0:2 per cent. solution. 5 c¢.c. gave a
result identical as far as we could observe with that obtained by the pathological
cerebro-spinal fluids. With stronger doses there is slowing of the heart.
(7) The blood obtained from patients suffering from pseudo-apoplectiform con-
vulsions of general paralysis obtained by venesection was mixed with several times
its volume of absolute alcohol, filtered, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness at
about 40° C. The residue was dissolved in saline solution and a quantity was
injected corresponding to 50 c.c. of the original blood in each case. The resvit
obtained corresponded entirely with that obtained with the pathological cerebro-
spinal fluids and with solution of choline. Normal blood similarly treated gave a
negative result.
It may be added that section of the vagi has no influence on the fall of blood-
pressure produced by the injection.
The substance in the pathological cerebro-spinal fluid which produces the effect
is precipitable by phosphotungstic acid; it is therefore probably alkaloidal in
nature. Normal cerebro-spinal fluid after removal of the proteid gives no precipi-
tate with phosphotungstic acid. The pathological cerebro-spinal fluids we have
examined are rich in coagulable proteid, contain no proteose or peptone, and are
usually free from reducing substance. The reducing substance of the normal fluid
was considered by one of us ‘o be allied to or identical with pyrocatechin. In
small doses pyrocatechin produces no effect on blood-pressure ;-in large doses it causes
a very slight fall.
The disintegration of the nerve-cells of the brain in the cases from which the
fluid was obtained can be demonstrated best by Nissl’s method.
We have also taken tracings of blood-pressure simultaneously with plethysmo-
graphic tracings of the limbs, and of the kidney, an air oncometer being used in
connection with the latter organ. There is no peripheral dilatation of the blood-
vessels, That the fall of blood-pressure is cardiac in origin was confirmed by
experiments on the frog’s and mammal’s heart. This conclusion fits in very well
with what is found in general paralysis of the insane; cardiac weakness and
enfeebled circulation are commonly observed ; and fatty degeneration of the heart
is very frequently discovered post mortem.
2. On the Distribution of Iron in Animal and Vegetable Cells.
By Professor A. B. Macatuum, Ph.D.
3. On the Presence of Copper in Animal Cells.
By Professor W. A. Herpman, /.R.S., and Professor Rupert Boyce.
' By the plethysmographic method this second rise and fall are found to be pro-
duced by a constriction followed by a dilatation of the peripheral blood-vessels.
828 REPORT—1897.
4, On Internal Absorption of Hemoglobin and Ferratin.
By F. W. G. Mackay.
5. On Secretion in Gland Cells. By R. R. Bensiey.
6. The Morphology and Physiology of Gastric Cells. By R. R Benstey.
%. Visual Reaction to Intermittent Stimulation. By O. F. F. Grinpaum.
The factors upon which fusion of intermittent retinal stimuli depends have
apparently been noted singly, and never collectively considered.
Schafhautl found that, on increasing the strength of the stimuli, increase in
frequency was necessary to produce fusion: speed of translation was observed by
Filehne to have an effect.
Charpentier and Baader pointed out that the size of the field of vision was an
important factor, and Sherrington has recently demonstrated the effects produced
by simultaneous contrast.
Experiments have been made, bearing in mind the above facts, along with the
necessity of guarding against fatigue.
It was found that if the field of vision were small, so that the image fell
entirely within the fovea, and the speed of translation great, it was impossible to
discern that the stimulus was intermittent above sixty-three alternations per
second,
It must be noted that when the source of light is within focal range, and of a
nature that can be focussed, there is no sudden transition from the recognised
-eoarse flicker to that of a smooth, steady sensation, but an intermediate stage of
fine flicker or tremor of the field is experienced.
If the stimulus be greatly increased, the maximum frequency at which discon-
tinuity of stimulation is observed may fall to forty-five alternations per second
before pathological phenomena ensue.
If the speed of translation be small, discontinuity of stimulation may be
‘observed at 500 alternations per second, with practice, but then only through a
short range of luminosity. On increasing the strength of stimuli, the frequency
must be rapidly diminished in order to discern discontinuity.
The effect of speed of translation is well shown by keeping the luminosity
constant, and using rotating discs with varying numbers of sectors: it is then
found that one with many sectors, and consequently a slow speed of translation,
will require a high frequency of alternation to produce fusion, while one with but
few sectors will fuse with a frequency of alternation of sixty-three per scond or
below. This is probably due to unconscious simultaneous contrast.
‘8. Functional Development of ‘the Cerebral Cortex in Different Groups of
Animals. By Wrstey Mits, J.A., &c., Professor of Physiology in
McGill University, Montreal.
The purpose of the research described in this Paper is to determine whether
the cerebral cortex is functional at birth, and, if not, then how soon afterwards in
several species of animals, those being selected that are most commonly employed
for physiological experiments and are best known.
The method of investigation was described, illustrated protocols of experiments
‘given, and inferences drawn for each species of animal the subject of experiment.
The paper concluded with a criticism of the work of other investigators, and
with some general deductions.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 829)
9. The Psychic Development of Young Animals and its Somatic Corre-
lation, with special reference to the Brain. By Westry MI1s,,
MA., M.D., &c., Professor of Physiology in McGill University,,
Montreal.
This Paper is founded on the previous one, and a series of investigations made
on the psychic development of young animals, and is an attempt to correlate the
results.
10. The Physiology of Instinct. By Professor C. Lutoyp Moraan, 7.G.S:.
11. The Nature and Physical Basis of Pain. By Professor L. WitmeEr..
12. The Action of Glycerine on the Tubercle Bacillus. By 8. Moncx'row
Copemayn, I.A., M.D. (Cantab.), and F. R. Buaxeny, ID. (Lond.).
(From the Bacteriological Laboratory of Westminster Hospital Medical School.)
At the last meeting of the Association, held at. Liverpool in 1896, a report on
the influence of glycerine on the vital activity of certain micro-organisms was pre-
sented to this Section. In that Paper we showed that the presence of glycerine to
the extent of 40 per cent. in culture media, such as peptone beef broth, sufficed to
Kill out, in various periods of time, certain pathogenic microbes, including the
Pyogenic cocci, Streptococcus Pyogenes, Streptococcus Erysipelutosus, Bacillus:
Tuberculosis, B. Typhosus and B. Diphtheria, the maximum resistance being over-
come in about three weeks. On the other hand, the spores of the common Hay
Bacillus were shown to be capable of resisting the action of glycerine considerably
longer, as also was the B. Coli Communis when kept at low temperatures.
Samples of small-pox and vaccine material, in the form of lymph and ‘ crusts,”
were also employed, and were found to have become freed from extraneous micro-
organisms within comparatively short periods, when exposed to the influence of
40 per cent. glycerine.
During the past year we have instituted further experiments in this direction,
working especially with the Bacillus Tuberculosis, with the object of determining
whether this micro-organism can survive and remain capable of further develop-
ment after a sojourn, for varying periods, in glycerinated vaccine lymph.
Mrrnop.— Vaccine material was rubbed up in the usual way with a mixture
of glycerine and water, the greater part of the resulting emulsion (containing
glycerine to the extent of 42 per cent.) being then filled into small tubes. To the
residue, amounting to about 4 c.c., was added a large quantity of growth from a
recently isolated and virulent culture of Tubercle Bacilli. This growth was
thoroughly mixed with the emulsion, and the whole was poured into two small
tubes, which were corked and placed in a cool, dark cupboard with the rest of the-
tubed emulsion, At the same time, from the tubercle culture, control inoculations
were made in tubes of 6 per cent. glycerine agar-agar, and in tubes of 6 per cent.
peptone beef broth. These were incubated part at body temperature, and part at
that which ordinarily obtained in the laboratory. At the end of a month the:
emulsion was demonstrated by the method of plate cultivation to be free from
extraneous microbes. Similarly plates poured from the small tubes containing the-
tubercle culture also showed no growth. Numerous inoculations were made on
the surface of 6 per cent. glycerine agar, and on solidified blood serums, the tubes.
being then incubated at 37° C. After a month’s incubation, no growth resulted
from any of these inoculations.
Lest traces of glycerine carried over by the inoculation needle should have:
retarded or prevented the growth of the Tubercle Bacillus, some of the emulsion
originally contaminated with tubercle was mixed with sterile beef-broth, and from
830 REPORT—1897.
this numerous inoculations were made and incubated at 37° C. These also, after
the lapse of a month, failed to show any sign of growth. Control tubes, inocu-
lated from the original tubercle culture employed in the whole series of experiments,
and incubated at 87°C., all exhibited a copious growth in a menth, and sub-
cultures from them were all, in turn, successful.
As the result of a lengthy series of experiments on the lines described, it has
been found impossible to recover Tubercle Bacilli after exposure for a month to
the action of an intimate admixture of glycerine to the extent of 40 per cent.,
either with sterile beef-broth or with fresh vaccine material.
13. Inhibition as a Factor in Muscular Co-ordination. By Professor
C. S. SuHerrineron; F.R.S.
14. A Movement produced by the Electric Current. By Professor F.
Brawn.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 801
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTIon.—H. Marsuatt Warp, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor
of Botany in the University of Cambridge.
The President delivered the following Address on Friday, August 20 :—
THB competent historian of our branch of science will have no lack of materials
when he comes to review the progress of botany during the latter half of the
Victorian reign. The task of doing justice to the work in phanerogamic botany
alone, under the leadership of men like Hooker, Asa Gray, Mueller, Engler,
Warming, and the army of systematists so busily shifting the frontiers of the
various natural groups of flowering plants, will need able hands for satisfactory
treatment. A mere sketch of the influence of Kew, the principal centre of syste-
matic botany, and of the active contingents of Indian and colonial botanists
working under its inspiration, will alone require an important chapter, and it will
need full knowledge and a wide vision to avoid inadequacy of treatment of its
powerful stimulus on all departments of post-Darwinian’ botany. The ‘ Genera
Plantarum,’ the ‘British Flora,’ the ‘Flora of India,’ suffice to remind us of the pres-
tige of England in systematic botany, and the influence of the large and growing
library of local and colonial floras we owe to the labours of Bentham, Trimen,
Clarke, Oliver, Baker, Hemsley, Brandis, King, Gamble, Balfour, and the present
Director of Kew, is more than merely imperial.
The progress in Europe and America of the other departments of botany has
been no less remarkable, and indeed histology and anatomy, comparative mor-
phology, and.the physiology and pathology of plants have perhaps advanced even
more rapidly, because the ground was newer. In England the work done at
Cambridge, South Kensington and elsewhere, and the publications in the ‘ Annals
of Botany’ and other journals sufficiently bear witness to this. A consequence has
been the specialisation which must soon be openly recognised—as it already is
tacitly—in botany as in zoological and other branches of science.
No note has been more clearly sounded than this during the past twenty-tive
years, as is evident to all who have seen the origin, rise, and progress of our modern
laboratories, special journals, and even the gradual subdivisions of this Association.
‘We may deplore this, as some deplore the departure of the days when a naturalist
was expected to teach geology, zoology, and botany as a matter of course; but the
inevitable must come. Already the establishment of bacteriological laboratories
and a huge special literature, of zymo-technical laboratories and courses on the
study of yeasts and mould fungi, of agricultural stations, forestry and dairy schools,
and so on—all these are signs of the inexorable results of progress.
832 REPORT—1897.
There are disadvantages, as the various Centralbldtter and special journals
show; for hurried work and feverish contentions for priority are apt to accompany
these subdivisions of labour; and those of us who are most intimately concerned
with the teaching of botany will do well to take heed of these signs of our times,
and distinguish between the healthy specialisation inevitably due to the sheer
weight and magnitude of our subject, and that incident on other movements and
arising from other causes. The teaching and training in a university or school
need not be narrow because its research-laboratories are famous for special work.
One powerful cause of modern specialisation is utility. The development of
industries like brewing, dyeing, forestry, agriculture, with their special demands
on botany, shows one phase ; the progress of bacteriology, paleontology, pathology,
economic and geographical botany, all asking special questions, suggests another.
In each case men are encouraged to go more and more deeply into the particular
problems raised.
Identification of flowers in Egyptian tombs, of pieces of wood in Roman
excavations, the sorting of hay-grasses for analysis, or seeds in the warehouses;
the special classifications of seedlings used by foresters, or of trees in winter, and
so on, all afford examples. It is carried far, as witness the immense labour it is
found worth while for experts to devote to the microscopic analysis of seeds and
fruits liable to adulteration, or to the recognition of the markings in imprints of
fossil leaves, or of characters like leaf-scars, bud-scales, lentfcels, and so on, by
which trees may be determined even from bits of twigs.
If we look at the great groups of plants from a broad point of view, it is
remarkable that the Fungi and the Phanerogams occupy public attention on quite
other grounds than do the Algi, Mosses, and Ferns. Algz are especially a
physiologists’ group, employed in questions on nutrition, reproduction, and cell-
division and growth ; the Bryophyta and Pteridophyta are, on the other hand, the
domain of the morphologist concerned with academical questions such as the
Alternation of Generations and the Evolution of the higher plants.
Fungi and Phanerogams, while equally or even more employed by specialists
in Morphology and Physiology, appeal widely to general interests, and evidently
on the ground of utility. Without saying that this enhances the importance of
either group, it certainly does induce scientific attention to them.
I need hardly say that comparisons of the kind Iam making, invidious though
they may appear, in no way imply detraction from the highest honour deservedly
aid to men who, like Thuret, Schmitz, and Thwaites in the past, and Bornet,
Wille, and Klebs in the present, have done and are doing so much to advance our
academical knowledge of the Algz ; and Klebs’ recent masterpiece of sustained
physiological work, indeed, promises to be one of the most fruitful contributions
to the study of variation that even this century has produced. Nor must we in
England forget Farmer's work on Ascophyllum, and on the nuclei and cell-divisions
of Hepatice ; and while Bower and Campbell have laid bare by their indefati-
gable labours the histological details of the Mosses and Vascular Cryptogams, and
carried the questions of Alternation of Generations and the evolution of these
plants so far, that it would almost seem little remains to be done with Hoffmeister’s
brilliant conception but to ask whither it is leading us; the genetic relation-
ships have become so clear, even to the details, that the recent discovery by Ikeno
and Hirase of spermatozoids in the pollen tubes of Cycas and Gingko almost loses
its power of surprising us, because the facts fit in so well with what was already
taught us by these and other workers.
Tt is impossible to over-estimate the importance of these comparative
studies, not only of the recent Vascular Cryptogams, but also of the Fossil
Pteridophyta, which, in the hands of Williamson, Scott, and Seward, are yielding
at every turn new building stones and explanatory charts of the edifice of Evolu-
tion on the lines laid down by Darwin.
All these matters, however, serve to prove my present contention, that the
groups referred to do not much concern the general public ; whereas, on turning to
the Fungi and Phanerogams, we find quite a different state of affairs. It is very
significant that a group like the Fungi should have attracted so much scientific
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 833
attention, and aroused popular interest at the same time. In addition to their
importance from more academical points of view—for they claim the attention of
morphologist and physiologist as much as any group, as the work of Wager,
Massee, Trow, Hartog, and Harper, and an army of Continental investigators, with
Brefeld, Von Tavel, Magnus, &c., at their head, has shown—the Fungi appeal to
wider interests on many grounds, but especially on that of utility. The fact that
Fungi affect our lives directly has been driven home, and whether as poisons or
foods, destructive moulds or fermentation-agents, parasitic mildews or disease
germs, they occupy more of public interest than all other Cryptogams together,
the flowering plants alone rivalling them in this respect.
A marked feature of the period we live in will be the great advances made in
our knowledge of the uses of plants. Of course, this development of Economic
Botany has gone hand in hand with the progress of Geographical Botany and the
extension of our planting and other interests in the colonies, but the useful applica-
tions of Botany to the processes of home industries are increasing also.
The information acquired by travellers exploring new countries, by orchid-
collectors, prospectors for new fibres or india-rubber, or resulting from the experi-
ences of planters, foresters, and observant people, living abroad, hasa value in money
which does not here concern us; but it has also a value to science, for the facts
collected, the specimens brought home, the processes observed, the results of analyses,
the suggestions gathered—in short, the puzzles propounded by these wanderers—all
stimulate research, and so have a value not to be expressed in terms of money.
The two react mutually, and I am convinced that the stimulus of the questions
asked by commerce of botanical science has had, and is having, an important
effect in promoting its advance. The best proof to be given of the converse—
that botany is really useful to commerce—is afforded by the ever-increasing
demands for answers to the questions of the practical man. At the risk of touch-
ing the sensibilities of those who maintain that a university should regard only
the purely academical aspects of a science, I propose to discuss some cases where
the reciprocal influences of applied, or useful, and purely academic or useless
kotany—useless because no use has yet been made of it, as some one has wittily
put it—have resulted in gain to both. In doing this, I wish to clearly state my
conviction that no scientific man should be guided or restricted in his investiga-
tions by any considerations whatever as to the commercial or money value of his
results: to patent a method of cultivating a bacillus, to keep secret the composi-
tion of a nutritive medium, to withhold any evidence, is anti-scientific, for by the
nature of the case it is calculated to prevent improvement—z.e, to impede progress.
It is not implied that there is anything intrinsically wrong in protecting a dis-
covery: all I urge is that it is opposed to the scientific spirit.
But the fact that a scientific discovery is found to have a commercial value
also—for instance, Wehmer’s discovery that the mould fungus, Citryomyces, will
convert 50 per cent. of the sugar in a saccharine solution to the commercially
valuable citric acid; or Matruchot’s success in germinating the spores of the
mushroom, and in sending pure cultures of that valuable agaric into the market
—is no argument against the scientific value of the research. There are in agri-
culture, forestry, and commerce generally, innumerable and important questions
for solution, the investigation of which will need all the powers of careful
observation, industrious recording, and thoughtful deduction of which a scientific
man is capable. But while I emphatically regard these and similar problems as
worthy the attention of botanists, and recognise frankly their commercial import-
ance, I want to carefully and distinctly warn all my hearers against supposing that
their solution should be attempted simply because they have a commercial value.
It is because they are so full of promise as scientific problems, that I think it
no valid argument against their importance to theoretical science that they have
been suggested in practice. In all these matters it seems to me we should recog-
nise that practical men are doing us a service in setting questions, because they set
them definitely. In the attempt to solve these problems we may be sure science
will gain, and if commerce gains also, so much the better for commerce, and
indirectly for us. But that is not the same thing as directly interesting ourselves
1897 . 3 1
834, ; REPORT—1897.
in the commercial value of the answer. This is not our function, and our
advice and researchesare the more valuable to commerce the less we are concerned
with it.
It is clear that the magnitude of the subject referred to is far beyond the
measure of our purpose to-day, and I shall restrict myself to a short review of
some advances in our knowledge of the Fungi made during the last three decades.
Little more than thirty years ago we knew practically nothing of the life-history
of a fungus, nothing of parasitism, of infectious diseases, or even of fermentation,
and many botanical ideas now familiar to most educated persons were as yet
unborn. Our knowledge of the physiology of nutrition was in its infancy, even
the significance of starches and sugars in the green-plant being as yet not under-
stood; root-hairs and their importance were hardly spoken of; words like heter-
ecism, symbiosis, mycorhiza, &c., did not exist, or the complex ideas they now
connote were not evolved. When we reflect on these facts, and remember that
bacteria were as yet merely curious ‘animalculz,’ that rusts and smuts were
generally supposed to be emanations of diseased states, and that ‘spontaneous
generation’ was a hydra not yet destroyed, we obtain some notion of the condi-
tion of this subject about 1860.
As with other groups of plants, so with the Fungi, the first studies were those
of collecting, naming and classifying, and prior to 1850 the few botanists who
concerned themselves with these cryptogams at all were systematists. So far as
the larger fungi are concerned, the classification attained a high degree of perfec-
tion from the point of view of an orderly arrangement of natural objects, and the
student of to-day may well look back at the keen observation and terse, vivid
descriptions of these older naturalists, which stands in sharp contrast to much of
the more slovenly and hurried descriptive work which followed.
It may be remembered that even now we rely mainly on the descriptions and
system of Fries (1821-1849) for our grouping of the forms alone considered as
fungi by most people, and indeed we may regard him as having done for fungi
what Linnzus did for flowering plants.
But, as you are aware, a large proportion of the Fungi are microscopic, and in
spite of the conscientious and beautiful work of several earlier observers, among
whom Corda stands pre-eminent, the classification and descriptions of the
thousands of forms were rapidly bringing the subject into chaos.
The dawn of a new era in Mycology was preparing, however. A few isolated
observers had already begun the study of the development of Fungi, but their
work was neglected, till Persoon and Ehrenberg at the beginning of this century
again brought the subject into prominence, and then came a series of discoveries
destined to stimulate work in quite other directions,
The Tulasnes may be said to have brought the old period to a close and pre-
pared the way for the new one; they combined the powers of accurate observation
with a marvellous faculty of delineation, and applied the anatomical method to
the study of fungi with more success than ever before. Their new departure,
however, is more evident in their selection of the parasitic fungi for study, and
you all know how indispensable we still find their drawings of the germinating
spores of the Smuts and Rusts. It is difficult to say which of their works is the
most masterly, but probably the study of the life-history of Claviceps purpurea
deserves first place, though successive memoirs on the Uredinex, Ustilagines,
Peronosporex, Tuberacexe, and then that magnificent work the ‘Selecta Fungorum
Carpologia,’ cannot be forgotten.
In England, Berkeley was the man to link the period previous to 1860 with
the present epoch. A systematist and observer of high power, and with a rare
faculty for appreciating the labours of others, this grand old naturalist did work
of unequalled value for the period, and the student who wishes to learn what was |
the state of mycology about this time will find it nowhere better presented than
in Berkeley’s works, one of which—his ‘Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany ’—
is a classic.
Like all classifications in botany, however, that of the Fungi now took two
courses: one in the hands of those who collated names and herbarium-specimens,
and proposed cut and dried, but necessary and from a certain point of view very
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 835
complete systems of classification, and those who, generalising from actual
cultures and observation of the living plant, proposed outline schemes, the details
of which should be filled in by their successors.
No one who knows the history of botany during this century will deny that
it is to the genius of De Bary that we owe the foundation of modern mycology,
for it was this young Alsatian who, though profoundly influenced by the work of
Von Mohl and Schleiden on the one hand, and of Unger and the Tulasnes on the
other, refused to follow either the school of the phytotomists—though his
laborious ‘Comparative Anatomy of the Ferns and Phanerogams’ shows how
well equipped he was to be a leader in that direction—or that of the ana-
tomical mycologists. No doubt the influence of Cohn, Pringsheim, and others
of that new army of microscopists who were teaching the necessity of con-
tinued observation of living organisms under the microscope, can he traced
in impelling De Bary to abandon the older methods, but his own unquestionable
originality of thought and method came out very early in his investigations on
the Lower Algze and Fungi. If I may compare a branch of science to an arm of
the sea, we may look on De Bary’s influence as that of a Triton rising to a
surface but little disturbed by currents and eddies. The sudden upheaval of his
genius set that sea rolling in huge waves, the play of which is not yet exhausted.
The birth and flow of the new ideas, expressed in far-reaching generalisations and
suggestions which are still moving, led to the revolutions in our notions of polymor-
phism, parasitism, and the real nature of infection and-epidemics. His development
of the meaning of sexuality in Fungi, his startling discovery of hetercecism, his
clear exposition of symbiosis, and even his cautious and almost wondering whisper of
chemotaxis were all fruitful, and although the questions of enzyme-action and
fermentation were not made peculiarly his own, he saw the significance of these
and many other phenomena now grown so important, and here, as elsewhere,
thought clearly and boldly, and criticised fearlessly with full knowledge and
justice.
: I do not propose to occupy our time with even a sketch of the history of these
and other ideas of this great botanist ; but rather pass to the consideration of a few
of the results of some of them in the hands of later workers, in schools now far
developed and widely independent of one another, but all deeply indebted to the
genial little man whom we so loved and revered.
The most marked feature noticed in the founding of the new schemes of classi-
fication of the Fungi was the influence of the results of pure and continuous cultures
introduced by De Bary. The effect on those who followed can best be traced by
examining the great systems of subsequent workers, led by Brefeld and Van
Tieghem, and the writings of our modern systematists. This task is beyond
my present scheme, howeyer, and there is only time to remind you of the fungus
floras of Saccardo, Constantin, Massee, and others, in this connection.
The word ‘fermentation’ usually recalls the ordinary processes concerned in the
brewing of beer and the making of wines and spirits; but we must not forget that
the word connotes all decompositions or alterations in the composition of organic
substances induced by the life-activities of Fungi, and that it is a mere accident
which brings alcoholic fermentation especially into prominence.
I ventured some time ago to term alcoholic fermentation the oldest form of
microscopic gardening practised by man, and this seems justified by what we know
of the very various and very ancient processes in this connection.
But the making of beers, wines, and spirits, as we understand them, constitutes
but a small part of the province of fermentation, and even whea we have added
cider and perry, ginger-beer, and the various herb and spruce beers to the list, we
have by no means exhausted the tale of fermented drinks. Palm-wines of various
kinds, toddy, pulque, arrack, kava, and a number of tropical alcoholic fermented
liquors have to be included, and the koumiss and kephir of the Caucasus, the
curious Russian kwass, the Japanese saké, and allied rice-preparations must be
mentioned, to say nothing of the now almost forgotten birch-beer, mead and
metheglin, and various other strange fermented decoctions of our forefathers’ time
or confined to out-of-the-way localities.
3H2
836 REPORT—1897.
In all these cases the same principal facts come out—a saccharine liquid is
exposed to the destructive action of fungi, which decompose it, and we drink the
altered or fermented liquor. As is now well known, the principal agents in these
fermentations are certain lower forms of fungi called yeasts, and since Leeuwen-
hoeck, of Delft, discovered the yeast cells two hundred years ago, and La Tour,
Schwann, and Kiitzing (about 1840) recognised them as budding plants, living on
the sugar of the liquid, and which must be classed as Fungi, the way was paved for
two totally different inquiries concerning yeast.
One of these was the fruitful one instigated by Pasteur’s genius about 1860,
and concerned the functions of yeast in fermentation. In the hands of Naegeli,
Brefeld, and others abroad, and of A. J. and Horace Brown and Morris and others
in England, Pasteur’s line of research was rapidly developed, and, as we all know,
has had a wide influence in stimulating investigation and in suggesting new ideas ;
and although the theory of alcoholic fermentation itself has not withstood all the
criticism brought against it, and seems destined to receive its severest. blow this
year by E. Buchner’s isolation of the aleoholic enzyme, we must always honour
the school which nursed it.
The divergent line of inquiry turned on the origin and morphological nature of
yeast. What kind of a fungus is yeast, and how many kinds or species of yeasts
are there?
Reess, in 1870, showed the first steps on this long path of inquiry, and gave the
name Saccharomyces to the fungus, showing that several species or forms existed,
some of which develop definite spores.
In 1883, Hansen, of Copenhagen, taking advantage of the strict methods of
culture introduced and improved by De Bary, Brefeld, Klebs, and other botanists,
had shown that by cultivating yeast on solid media from a single spore it was
possible to obtain constant types of pure yeasts, each with its own peculiar
properties.
One consequence of Hansen’s labours was that it now became possible for
every brewer to work with a yeast of uniform type instead of with haphazard
mixtures, in which serious disease forms might predominate and injure the beer.
Another consequence soon appeared in Hansen’s accurate diagnosis of the specific
or varietal characters of each form of yeast, and among other things he showed
that a true yeast may have a mycelial stage of development. The question of the
nucleus of the yeast-cell, on which Mr. Wager will enlighten us, has also occupied
much attention, as have also the details of spore formation.
Meanwhile, a question of very general theoretical interest had arisen.
Reess, Zopf, and Brefeld had shown that many higher fungi can assume a
-yeast-like stage of development if submerged in fluids. Various species of Mucor,
Ustilago, Exoascus, and as we now know, numerous Ascomycetes and Basidio-
mycetes as well, can form budding cells, and it was natural to conclude that
‘probably the yeasts of alcoholic fermentation are merely reduced forms of these
higher fungi, which have become habituated to the budding condition—a con-
clusion apparently supported by Hansen’s own discovery that a true Saccharomyces
can develop a feeble but unmistakable mycelium.
With many ups and downs this question has been debated, but as yet we do
not know that the yeasts of alcoholic fermentations can be developed from higher
fungi.
During the last two years it appeared as if the question would ‘be settled.
Takamine stated that the Aspergillus used by the Japanese in brewing saké from
rice develops yeast-like cells which ferment the sugar derived from the rice.
Jiihler and Jorgensen then extended these researches and claimed to have found
yeast-cells on other forms of fungi on the surface of fruits, and to have
established that they develop endogenous spores—an indispensable character in
the modern definition of the genus Saccharomyces—and cause alcoholic fermen-
tation.
Klécker and Schiénning have this last year published the results of their very
ingenious and thorough experimental inquiry into this question, and find, partly
by pure cultures of the separate forms, and partly by means of excellently devised
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 837
cultures on ripening fruits still attached to the plant, but imprisoned in sterilised
glass vessels, that the yeasts and the moulds are separate forms, not genetically
connected, but merely associated in nature, as are so many other forms of yeasts,
bacteria and moulds.
It is interesting to notice how here, as elsewhere, the lessons taught by pure
cultures are found to bear fruit, and how Hansen’s work justifies the specialist’s
laboratory.
Among the most astonishing results that have come to us from such researches
are Hansen’s discoveries that several of the yeasts furnish quite distinct races or
varieties in different breweries in various parts of the world, and it seems impos-
sible to avoid the conclusion that their race characteristics have been impressed on
the cells by the continued action of the conditions of culture to which they have
so long been exposed—they are, in fact, domestic races.
Much work is now being done on the action of the environment on yeasts, and
several interesting results have been obtained. One of the most striking examples
is the fact observed by Sauer, who found that.a given variety of yeast, whose
activity is normally inhibited when the alcokol attains a certain degree of concen-
tration in the liquid, can be induced to go on fermenting until a considerably higher
proportion of alcohol is formed if a certain lactic-acid bacterium is added to the
fermenting liquor. The bacterium, in fact, prepares the way for the yeast. Ex-
periments have shown that much damage may be done to beers and wines by
foreign or weed germs gaining access with the yeasts, and Hansen has proved that
several yeasts are inimical to the action of the required fermentation. But not all
pure fermentations give the desired results: partly because the race-varieties of
even the approved yeasts differ in their action, and partly, as it appears, on account
of causes as yet unknown.
There are facts which lead to the suspicion that the search for the best possible:
variety of yeast may not yield the desired results, if this particular form is used
as a pure culture. The researches of Hansen, Rothenbach, Delbrick, Van Laer,
and others, suggest that associated yeasts may ferment better than any single yeast
cultivated pure, and cases are cited where such a symbiotic union of two yeasts of
high fermenting power has given better results than either alone.
If these statements are confirmed, they enhance the theoretical importance of
some investigations I had made several years previously. English ginger-beer
contains a curious symbiotic association of two organisms—a true yeast and a true
bacterium—so closely united that the yeast-cells imprisoned in the gelatinous
meshes of the bacterium remind one of the gonidia of a lichen entangled in the
hyphz of the fungus, except that there isno chlorophyll. Now it is a singular
fact that this symbiotic union of yeast and bacterium ferments the saccharine
liquid far more energetically than does either yeast or bacterium alone, and results
in a different product, large quantities of lactic and carbonic acids being formed,
and little or no alcohol.
In the kephir used in Europe for fermentmg milk, we find another symbiotic
association of a yeast and a bacterium ; indeed, Freudenreich declares that four
distinct organisms are here symbiotically active and necessary, a result not con-
firmed by my as yet incomplete investigation. I know of at least one other case
which may turn out to be different from either of the above. Moreover, examples
of these symbiotic fermentations are increasing in other directious,
Kosai, Yabe, and others have lately shown that in the fermentations of
rice to produce saké, the rice is first acted on by an Aspergillus, which converts
the starch into sugars, and an associated yeast—hitherto regarded as a yeast-form
of the Aspergillus, but, as already said, now shown to be a distinct fungus sym-
biotically associated with it—then ferments the sugar, and other similar cases are
on record.
Starting from the demonstrated fact that the constitution of the medium pro-
foundly affects the physiological action of the fungus, there can be nothing sur-
prising in the discovery that the fungus is more active in a medium which has
been favourably altered by an associated organism, whether the latter aids the
fungus by directly altering the medium, or by ridding it of products of excretion
838 REPORT—1897.
or by adding some gas or other body. This granted, it is not difficult to see that
natural selection will aid in the perpetuation of the symbiosis, and in cases like
that of the ginger-beer plant it is extremely difficult to get the two organisms
apart, reminding us of the similar difficulty in the case of the soredia of Lichens,
Moreover, experiments show that the question of relative abundance of each
constituent affects the matter.
I must now return for a moment to Buchner’s discovery that by means of
extremely great pressures a something can be expressed from yeast which at once
decomposes sugar into alcohol and carbon-dioxide, and concerning which Dr. Green
will inform us more fully. This something is regarded by Buchner as a sort of
incomplete protoplasm—a body composed of proteid, and in a structural condition
somewhere between that of true soluble enzymes like invertin and complete living
protoplasm.
Tf this is true, and Buchner’s zymase turns out to be a really soluble enzyme,
the present theory of alcoholic fermentation will have to be modified, and a
reversion made towards Traube’s views of 1858, a reversion for which we are in a
measure prepared by Miquel’s proof in 1890 that Urase, a similar body extracted
from the urea-bacteria, is the agent in the fermentation of urea. At present,
however, we are not sufficiently assured that the body extracted by Buchner is
really soluble, and I am told that very serious difficulties still face us as to what -
solution is. The enormous pressures required, and the fact that the ‘solution’
coagulates as a whole, might suggest that he was dealing with expressed proto-
plasm, still alive, but devoid of its cell-wall; against this, however, must be urged
the facts that the ‘solution’ can be forced through porcelain and still act, and this
even in the presence of chloroform.
We may fairly expect that the further investigation of Buchner’s ‘zymase,’
Miquel’s ‘urase,’ and the similar body obtained by E. Fischer and Lindner from
Monilia candida will help in deciding the question as to the emulsion theory of
protoplasm itself.
In any case, soluble or not, these enzymes are probably to be regarded as bits
off the protoplasm, as it were, and so the essentials of the theory of fermentation
remain, the immediate machinery being not that of protoplasm itself, but of some-
thing made by or broken off from it. Enzymes, or similar bodies, are now known
to be very common in plants, and the suspicion that fungi do much of their work
with their aid is abundantly confirmed.
Payen and Persoz discovered diastase in malt extract in 1833, and in 1836
Schwann discovered peptase in the juices of the animal stomach. Since that time
several other enzymes have been found in both plants and animals, and the
methods for extracting them and for estimating their actions have been much
improved, a province in which Horace Brown, Green, and Vines have contributed
results,
It seems not improbable that there exists a whole series of these enzymes which
have the power of carrying over oxygen to other bodies, and so bringing about
oxidations of a peculiar character. These curious bodies were first observed
owing to studies on the changes which wine and plant juices undergo when exposed
to the action of the oxygen of the air.
In the case of the wine certain changes in the colour and taste were traced to
conditions which involved the assumption that some body, not a living organism,
acts as an oxygen-carrier, and the activity of which could be destroyed by heating
and antiseptics. It was found that similar changes in colour and taste could be
artificially produced by the action of ozone, or by passing an electric current
through the new wine; indeed, it is alleged that the ageing of wine can be suc-
cessfully imitated by these devices, and is actually a commercial process.
The browning of cut or broken apples is now shown to be due to the action of
a similar oxydase—z.c. an oxygen-carrying ferment, and the same is claimed for
the deep-colouring of certain lacks, or lackers, obtained from the juice of plants
such as the Anacardiacee, which are pale and transparent when fresh drawn, but
gradually darken in colour on exposure to air. Bertrand found in these juices an
oxydase, which he terms daccase, and which affects the oxygen-carrying, and con
verts the pale fluid juice to a hard dark brown varnish.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 839
Other oxydases have been isolated from beets, dahlia, potato-tubers, and several
other plants.
These discoveries led Bourquelot and Bertrand in 1895 to the explanation of a
phenomenon long known to botanists, and partly explained by Schonbein as far
back as 1868. If certain Fungi (e.g., Boletus luridus) are broken or bruised, the
yellow or white flesh at once turns blue: the action is now traced to the presence
in the cell-sap of an oxydase, the existence of which had been suspected but not
proved, and the observers named assert that many fungi (59 out 107 species
examined) contain such oxydases.
It will be interesting to see how far future investigations support or refute the
suggestion that many of the colour-changes in diseased tissues of plants attacked
by fungi are due to the action of such oxydases.
Wortmann, in 1882, showed that bacteria, which are capable of secreting
diastase, can be made to desist from secreting this enzyme if a sufficient supply of
sugar be given them, and since then several instances have been discovered where
fungi and bacteria show changes in their enzyme actions according to the nature of
their food supply. Nor is this confined to fungi. Brown and Morris, in 1892,
gave evidence for the same in the seedlings of grasses: as the sugar increased, the
production of diastase diminished.
It is the diastatic activity of Aspergillus which is utilised in the making of
saké from rice in Japan, and in the preparation of soy from the soja bean in the
same country, anda patented process for obtaining diastase by this means exists ;
and Katz has recently tested the diastatic activity of this fungus, of Penzcilliwm,
and of Bacterium meyatherium in the presence of large and small quantities of
sugar. All three organisms are able to produce not only diastase, but also other
enzymes, and the author named has shown that as the sugar accumulates the
diastase formed diminishes, whereas the accumulation of other carbohydrates
produces no such effect.
Hartig’s beautiful work on the destruction of timber by fungi obtains new
_ interest from Bourquelot’s discovery of an emulsion-like enzyme in many such wood-
destroying forms. This enzyme splits the Glucosides, Amygdalin, Salicin, Coniferin,
&c., into sugars and other bodies, and the hyphe feed on the carbo-hydrates, I
purpose to recur to this subject in a communication to this Section. The
fact that Aspergillus can form invertins of the sucrase, maltase, and trehalase
types, as well as emulsin, inulase, diastase, or trypsin, according to circumstances
of nutrition, will explain why this fungus can grow on almost any organic
oo it alights on, and other examples of the same kind are now coming
to hand.
The secretion of special enzymes by fungi has a peculiar interest just now, for
recent investigations promise to bring us much nearer to an understanding of the
phenomena of parasitism than we could hope to attain a few years ago.
De Bary long ago pointed out that when the infecting germinal tube of a
fungus enters a plant-cell, two phenomena must be taken into account, the
penetration of the cell-walls and tissues, and the attraction which causes the tips
_of the growing hypha to face and penetrate these obstacles, instead of gliding over
them in the lines of apparent least resistance. ;
The further development of these two themes has been steady and unobtrusive,
and from various quite unexpected directions more light has been obtained, so that
we are now ina position to see pretty clearly what are the principal factors involved
in the successful attack of a parasitic plant on its victim or ‘host.’ That fungi
can excrete cellulose-dissolving enzymes is now well known, and that they can
produce enzymes which destroy lignin must be inferred from the solution of wood-
cells and other lignified elements by tree-destroying fungi. Zopf has collected
several examples of fungi which consume fats, and further cases are cited by
Schmidt, by Ritthausen,and Baumann. In these cases also there can be no doubt
that an enzyme or similar body is concerned.
There is one connection in which recent observations on enzymes in the plant-
cell promise to be of importance in explaining the remarkable destructive action
of certain rays of the solar-light on bacteria. As you are aware, the English
840 REPORT—1897.
observers Downes and Blunt showed long ago that if bacteria in a nutrient liquid
are exposed to sunlight, they are rapidly killed. Further researches, in which I
have had some part, gradually brought out the facts that it is really the light rays
and not high temperatures which exert this bactericidal action, and by means of a
powerful spectrum and apparatus furnished by the kindness of Professor Oliver
Lodge I was able to obtain conclusive proof that it is especially the blue-violet
and ultra-violet rays which are most effective. This proof depended on the pro-
duction of actual photographs in bacteria of the spectrum itself. Apart from this,
I had also demonstrated that just such spores as those of anthrax, at the same
tims pathogenic and highly resistent to heat, succumb readily to the action of
these cold light-rays, and that under conditions which preclude their being poisoned
by a liquid bathing them.
The work of Brown and Morris on the daily variations of diastatic enzyme in
living leaves, and especially Green’s recent work on the destructive action of light
on this enzyme, point to the probability that it is the destruction of the enzymes
with which the bacterial cells abound which brings about the death of the cell.
That these matters are of importance in limiting the life of bacteria in. our
streets and rivers, and that the sun is our most powerful scavenger, has been
shown by others as well as myself. In this connection may also be mentioned
Martinand’s observations, that the yeasts necessary for wine-making are deficient
in numbers and power on grapes exposed to intense light, and he explains the
better results in Central France as contrasted with those in the South as largely
due to this fact. Whether, or how far, the curious effects of too intense illumina-~
tion in high latitudes and altitudes on plants which might be expected to grow
normally there, can be explained by a destructive light action on the enzyme of
the leaves, has not, so far as I know, been tested; but Green’s experiments
certainly seem to me to point to the possibility of this, as do the previous
experiments with screens of Pick, Johow, myself, and others.
It is interesting to note that Wittlin and others have confirmed the conclusion
my own few trials witn Réntgen rays led to; they show no action whatever,
That branch of mycology which is now looked upon by so many as a separate
department of science, usually termed bacteriology, only took shape in the years
1875-79, when its founder, the veteran botanist Cohn, who recognised that the
protoplasm of plants corresponded to the animal sarcode, and who has been
recently honoured by our Royal Society, published his exact studies of these
minute organisms, and prepared the way for the specialists who followed.
It is quite true that isolated studies and observations on bacteria had been
made from time to time by earlier workers than Cohn, though it is usually over-
looked that Cobn’s first paper on Bacteria was published in 1853. Ehrenberg
in particular had paid special attention to some forms; but neither he nor his
successors can be regarded as having founded a school as Cohn did, and this
botanist may fitly be looked upon as the father of bacteriology, the branch of
mycology which has since obtained so much diversity.
It should not be overlooked that the first proof that a specific disease of the
higher animals is due to a bacillus, contained in Koch’s paper on Anthrax, was
published under Cohn’s auspices and in his ‘ Beitriige zur Biologie der Pflanzen”
in 1876, four years after Schroeter’s work from the same laboratory on pigmented
bacteria, and that the plate illustrating Koch’s paper was in part drawn iss Cohn.
It is of primary importance to recognise this detail of Koch’s training under
Cohn, because, as ] have shown at length elsewhere, popular misapprehensions as
to what bacteriology really consists in have been due to the gradual specialisation
into three or four different schools or camps of a study which is primarily a branch
of botany ; and, again, it is of importance to observe that the whole of this particular
branch of mycology, to which special laboratories and an enormous literature are
now devoted, has arisen during the last quarter of a century, and subsequent to
the foundation of scientific mycology by De Bary. When we reflect that the
nature of parasitic fungi, the actual demonstration of infection by a fungus spore,
the transmission of germs bv water and air, the meaning and significance of poly-
morphism, hetercecism, syn biosis, had already been rendered clear in the case of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 841
fungi, and that it was by these and studies in fermentation and in the life-history
of the fungus Saccharomyces that the way was prepared for the etiology of
bacterial diseases in animals, there should be no doubt as to the mutual bearings of
these matters.
Curiously enough, it was an accident which deflected bacteriology along lines
which have proved so significant for the study of this particular group of minute
organisms, that an uninitiated visitor to a modern bacteriological laboratory (which
in England, at any rate, is usually attached to the pathological department of a
medical school) hardly perceives that he is in a place where the culture of micro-
scopic plants is the chief object—for the primary occupation of a bacteriologist is
really, after all, the cultivation of minute organisms by the method of ‘ micro-
scopic gardening,’ invented by De Bary, Klebs, and Brefeld, whether the medium
of culture is a nutritive solution, or solid organic substrata like potato, agar, or
gelatine, or the tissues of an animal.
This accident—I use the word in no disrespectful sense—was Koch’s ingenious
modification of the use of gelatine as a medium in which to grow bacteria: he hit
upon the method of pouring melted gelatine containing distributed germs on to
plates, and thus isolating the colonies.
Pasteur and Cohn had already coped with the difficulty of isolating mixed
forms by growing them in special fluids. When a given fluid favoured one form
particularly, a small quantity containing this predominant species was put into
another flask of the fluid, then a drop from this flask transferred to a third flask,
and so on, until the last flasks contained only the successful species, the others
having been suppressed : these ‘ fractional cultures’ were brought to a high state
of perfection by the botanist Klebs in 1873.
Then Brefeld (1872) introduced the method of dilution—i.e., he diluted the
liquid containing his spores until each single drop taken contained on the average
one spore or none, whence each flask of sterile nutritive solution receiving one drop
contained either none or one spore. Brefeld was working with fungi, but Lister—
now Lord Lister, and our late President—applied this ‘dilution method’ to his
studies of the lactic fermentation in 1878, and Naegeli, Miquel, and Duclaux carried
it further, the two latter especially having been its chief defenders, and Miquel
having employed it up to quite recently.
Solid media appear to have been first generally used by Schroeter in 1870,
when he employed potatoes, cooked and raw, egg-albumen, starch-paste, flesh, &c.
Gelatine, which seems to have been first employed by Vittadini in 1852, was
certainly used by Brefeld as early as 1874, and even to-day his admirable lecture
on Methoden zur Untersuchung der Pilze of that date is well worth reading, if
only to see how cleverly he obtains a single spore isolated in gelatine under the
microscope. Klebs used gelatine methods in 1878.
We thus see that when Koch proposed his method of preparing gelatine plate-
cultures in 1881 he instituted, not a new culture-medium, for cultures on solid
media, including gelatine, had been in use by botanists for eight or ten years; nor
did he introduce methods for the isolation of spores, for this had been done long
before. What he really did was to ensure the isolation of the spores and colonies
wholesale, and so facilitate the preparation of pure cultures on a large scale, and
with great saving of time.
It was a brilliant idea, and, as has been said, ‘the Columbus egg of Bac-
teriology ;’ but we must not lose sight of the fact that it turned the current of
investigation of bacteria from the solid and reliable ground established by Cohn,
Brefeld, and De Bary, into a totally new channel, as yet untried.
We must remember that De Bary and Brefeld had aimed at obtaining a single
spore, isolated under the microscope, and tracing its behaviour from germination,
continuously to the production of spores again; and when we learn how serious
were the errors into which the earlier investigators of the mould-fungi and yeasts
fell, owing to their failure to trace the development continuously from spore to
spore, and the triumphs obtained afterwards by the methods of pure cultures, it
is not difficult to see how inconclusive and dangerous all inferences as to the mor-
phology of such minute organisms as bacteria must be unless the plant has been
80 observed.
842 REPORT—1897,
As matter of fact, the introduction and gradual specialisation of Koch’s methods
of rapid isolation of colonies encouraged the very dangers they were primarily
intended to avoid. It was soon discovered that pure cultures could be obtained
so readily that the characteristic differences of the colonies in the mass could
presumably be made use of for diagnostic purposes, and a school of bacteriologists
arose who no longer thought it necessary to patiently follow the behaviour of the
single spore or bacillus under the microscope, but regarded it as sufficient to
describe the form, colour, markings, and physiological changes of the bacterial
colonies themselves on and in different media, and were content to remove speci-
mens occasionally, dry and stain them, and describe their forms and sizes as they
appeared under these conditions.
To the botanist, and from the points of view of scientific morphology, this
mode of procedure may be compared to what would happen if we were to frame
our notions of species of oak or beech according to their behaviour in pure forests,
or of a grass or clover according to the appearance of the fields and prairies com-
posed more or less entirely of it, or—and this isa more apt comparison, because
we can obtain colonies as pure as those of the bacteriologist—of a mould-fungus
according to the shape, size, and colour, &c., of the patches which grow on bread,
jam, gelatine, and so forth. ¢
Now it is obvious that this is abandoning the methods of morphology, and
the consequence has been that two schools of descriptive bacteriologists are
working along different lines, and the ‘species’ of the one—the test-tube school—
cannot be compared with those of the other, the advocates of continuous culture
from the spore.
The difficulty of isolating a bacterium and tracing its whole life-history under
the microscope is so great, that the happy pioneers into the fascinating region
opened up by the test-tube methods may certainly claim considerable sympathy
in their cry that they cannot wait. Of course they cannot wait; no amount of
argument will prevent the continual description of new test-tube ‘species,’ and
all we can-do is to go on building up the edifice already founded by the botanists
Cohn, Brefeld, De Bary, Van Tieghem, Zopf, Prazmowski, Beyerinck, Fischer,
and others who have made special studies of bacteria.
The objection that such work is slow and difficult has no more weight here
than in any other department of science, and in any case the test-tube school is
already in the plight of being frequently unable to recognise its own ‘ species,’
as I have convinced myself by a long-continued series of cultures with the object
of naming common bacteria.
I wish to guard myself against misconstruction in one particular here. It is
not insinuated that the test-tube methods and results are of no value. Far from it;
a vast amount of preliminary information is obtained by it; but I would insist upon
the discouragement of all attempts to make ‘ species’ without microscopic culture ;
and continuous observation of the development as far as it can be traced.-
The close connection between bacteriology and medicine has been mainly
responsible for the present condition of affairs; but it is high time we recognised
that bacteriology only touches animal pathology at a few points, and that the
public learn that, so far from bacteria being synonymous with disease germs, the
majority of these organisms appear to be beneficial rather than inimical to man.
There is not time to attempt even a brief description of all the ‘useful fermenta-
tions’ due to bacteria, but the following cases will point the conviction that
a school of bacteriology, which has nothing to do with medical questions, but
investigates problems raised by the forester, agriculturist, and gardener, the
dairyman, brewer, dyer, and tanner, &c., will yet be established in England
in connection with one or other of our great botanical centres.
There are many industrial processes which depend more or less for their success
on bacterial fermentations. The subject is young, but the little that has been
discovered makes it imperative that we should go on, for not only are the results of
immense importance to science, but they open up vistas of practical application,
which are already being taken advantage of in commerce, and we may be sure that
every economic application of such knowledge will give the people employing it an
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 843
advantage over those who proceed by the old rule-of-thumb methods, where
nobody knows or cares where the waste or leakage occurs that spoils a commercial
roduct.
The discovery by Alvarez of the bacillus which converts a sterilised decoction
of indigo-plant into indigo sugar and indigo white, the latter then oxidising to form
the valuable blue dye, whereas the sterile decoction itself, even in presence of
oxygen, forms no indigo, may be cited as a case in point. It remains to be decided
whether this bacillus alone is concerned, or whether the infusion of indican will fer-
ment under the action of enzymes alone derived from the leaves of the indigo plant.
It also remains for future investigation to determine whether the indigo bacillus is
the same as the pneumonia bacillus—which resembles it—and will also induce the
indigo fermentation, and to explain why the woad-makers of the Fens find a sale
for this indigo preparation among the indigo makers, as well as to clear up certain
mysterious ‘diseases’ in the indigo-vats. Our much more extensive knowledge of
the diseases of beer and wine suggests the possibility of profitable bacteriological
investigations in several directions here.
That certain stages in the preparation of tobacco leaves—as also in the pre-
paration of tea—depend on a carefully regulated fermentation, which must be
stopped at the right moment, or the product is impaired, or even ruined, has long
been known. Regarding the possible ré/e of bacteria in the preparation of tea,
nothing is ascertained, but, if Suchsland’s investigations are confirmed, there is
among the many and various organisms concerned in the fermentation of West
Indian tobacco a bacterium which has been isolated and plays an important part.
It is claimed that the flavour of European-grown tobacco can be materially
improved by its use. I read that the process is patented, which may or may not
affect its value as a scientific announcement ; but in view of the increasing number
of researches into this subject by Behrens, Davalos, Schloesing, and others, it is
evidently a domain for further bacteriological investigations in a properly equipped
laboratory.
avery botanist knows that flax and hemp are the bast fibres of Linum
and Cannabis respectively, separated by steeping in water until the middle
lamella is destroyed and the fibres isolated; but itis perhaps not so well known
that not every water is suitable for this ‘retting’ or steeping process, and for a
long time this was as much a mystery as why some waters are better than others
for brewing.
Only quite recently Fribes, working under Winogradsky, has isolated the
bacillus which accomplishes this dissolution of the middle lamella, and _ its
behaviour brings to light some very interesting details, and furnishes another of
those cases where the reactions of living micro-organisms can be utilised in
deciding questions of plant chemistry too subtle for testing with ordinary reagents.
You are aware that recent researches, especially those of Maquin in France
and of Walter Gardiner in Cambridge, Cross and Bevan and others, have caused
us to discard the view that the middle lamella is composed of cellulose, and to
learn that it consists of pectin compounds. Now Fribes’ anaérobic bacillus dis-
solves and destroys pectins and pectinates, but does not touch cellulose or gum,
and thus enables us to criticise from a new point of view the bacillus (B. Amylo-
bacter) which Van Tieghem asserted to be the cause of cellulose fermentation and
of the retting of flax. Clearly it cannot be both, otherwise the flax-fibre would be
eee and we know from other facts that B. Amylobacter is not the cellulose
erment.
Fribes’ discovery has yet to be tested with reference to other processes of
retting. The Indian Government have lately published a series of notes on jute
and other fibres, and the description of the retting of jute suggests this as a very
definite problem for investigation,
I am told that a patent exists in the United States for a process whereby the
retting organisms may be sown and encouraged in waters otherwise unfitted for
the steeping of flax, &c., another indication of the keen interest taken in these
matters.
It goes without saying that the steeping of skins in water in preparation for
844. REPORT—1897.
tanning involves bacterial actions, owing to which the hair and epidermal cover-
ings are removed ; but it appears from recent investigations that in the process of
swelling the limed skins, the gases evolved in the substance of the tissues, and the
evolution of which causes the swelling and loosens the fibre so that the tanning
solutions may penetrate, are due to a particular fermentation, caused by a bacterium
which, according to Wood and Wilcox, is similar to, if not identical with, a lactic
ferment. If Haenlein’s results may be accepted, it is a bacillus introduced into
the tanning solution by the pine bark, which is responsible for the advantageous
acidification of the tanning solutions much valued for making certain kinds of
leather, and of decisive importance in the quality, so that tanners add the souring
liquor of other vats to encourage the souring of the doubtful one.
Hay is made in very different ways in different countries, and in those where a
‘spontaneous ’ heating process is resorted to there seems to be no doubt that cer-
tain thermogenic bacteria are concerned. The researches of Béhmer, Dietrich,
Fry, Lafar, and others show that here and in the preparation of ensilage we have
important fermentation processes which affect the end result.
The whole question of fermentation in hay, and the high temperatures produced
in the process, as well as what occurs in straw-stacks under similar conditions,
have important theoretical bearings, and we know of bacilli which grow at 70° C.
Probably no other subject in this domain has, however, attained so much im-
portance as the bacteriology of the dairy—the study of the bacteria found in milk,
butter, and cheese in their various forms. In all cases of this kind, as in brewing,
bread-making, and so on, there are three aspects of the bacteriology of the opera-
tions: we have to consider first the bacteria concerned in the normal process;
secondly, introduced forms which bring about abnormalities, or ‘ diseases’ of the
normal operation ; and, thirdly, the possible pathogenic bacteria, 7.c., pathogenic to
man, which may lurk in the product.
Of milk especially much has been said as a disease-transmitting medium, and
with good reason, as is well known; and if we may accept the statement of a Con-
tinental authority, who calculated that each time we eat a slice of bread and
butter we devour a number of bacteria equal to the population of Europe, we
have grounds for demanding information as to what these bacteria are, and what
they are doing, And similarly with cheese, every kind of which teems with
millions of these minute organisms.
Now I cannot, of course, go into the question of pathogenic bacteria, nor is
there time to discuss those forms which bring about undesirable or abnormal pro-
cesses in the dairy; but I want to call your attention to the splendid field for
bacteriological investigation which is being opened up by inquiries into the normal
changes utilised in making butter and cheese.
We may pass over the old controversies as to the souring of milk, culminating
in Pasteur’s discovery of the bacteria of lactic fermentation in 1857-58, Lister in
1877 isolated Bacterium lactis, Hueppe in 1884 confirmed his results, and added
several other lactic bacteria, and we now know a whole series of forms which can
turn milk sour by fermenting its sugar, and this in various ways, as Warington
and others have shown. The souring of milk and cream by merely leaving it to
stand often led to failure, and the study of this preliminary to butter- and cheese-
making is itself a bacteriological question of great importance. We shall not be
surprised, therefore, that when, in 1890, Wiegmann proposed to use pure cultures
of lactic-acid bacteria for the souring of cream, the plan was at once taken up.
Some years ago Storch found that the peculiar aroma of a good butter was due
to a bacterium which he isolated, and Wiegmann has now two forms, or races,
one of which develops an exquisite flavour and aroma, but the butter keeps badly,
while the other develops less aroma, while the butter keeps better.
According to a recent publication of Conn’s, however, this subject has been
advanced considerably in America, for they have isolated and distributed to
numerous dairies pure cultures of a particular butter-bacillus which develops the
famous ‘ June flavour’ hitherto only met with in the butter of certain districts
during a short season of the year. I am told that this fine-flavoured butter is now
prepared constantly in a hundred or more American dairies. Simultaneously with
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 845
these advances in the manufacture of pure butter with constant flavour, the days
of ‘diseased’ butters seem numbered.
Properly considered, the manufacture of cheese is a form of microscopic garden-
ing even more complex and more horticultural in nature than the brewing of beer.
From the outset, when the cheesemaker guards and cools his milk till his stock is
ready, he is doing all he knows how to do to keep down the growth of the germs
introduced into the milk; he then coagulates it, usually with rennet—an enzyme
of animals, but also common in plants—and the curd thus prepared is simply
treated as a medium on which he grows certain fungi and bacteria, with the need-
ful precautions for favouring their development, protecting them against the in-
roads of animal and plant pests, and against unsuitable temperature, moisture,
access of light, and so on. Having succeeded in growing the right plants on his
curd, his art then demands that he shall stop their growth at the critical period,
and his cheese is ready for market.
The investigations of Duclaux, Wiegmann, and others on the Continent, of
Conn in America, and of Lloyd in England, to say nothing of other workers now
busy at this subject in various parts of the world, are getting at the particular
forms of fungi concerned in so altering the constitution of curd that it becomes the
very different article of food we call cheese, and they have even determined to
some extent what ré/e is played by these plants in giving the peculiar odours and
flavours to such different cheeses as Camembert, Stilton, and Roquefort. It is
known, for instance, that a certain fungus (Penicillium) cultivated on bread is
purposely added to Roquefort, and that it destroys the lactic and other acids and
so enables certain bacteria in the cheese, hitherto inhibited in their actions by
these acids, to set to work and further change the medium, whereas in making
Emmenthaler cheese the object is to prevent this fungus thus paving the way for
these bacteria. Pammel claims to have discovered a bacillus which gives a peculiar
and much-admired clover aroma to certain cheeses, and according to recent state-
ments a definite Streptococcus is responsible for the peculiarities of certain Dutch
cheeses, and so on. Nevertheless, we are still profoundly ignorant of most of the
forms concerned in the ripening of cheese, and every research which throws light
on this difficult and complex subject, and so paves the way to rendering uniform
and certain this at present most haphazard and risky manufacture will be doing
service to the State. Considering that Cohn only discovered that the ripening
process is due to bacteria in 1875, and that Duclaux only published his researches
on Tyrothrix in 1878, we can scarcely be surprised that the interval has not been
long enough for the isolation and study of the numerous and curious forms, several
hundreds of which are now imperfectly known. Nevertheless, there are signs of
advance in various directions, and researches into the mysteries of Roquefort,
Gorgonzola, Emmenthaler, and other cheeses are being industriously pursued on
the Continent. Even as I write this comes the news that Freudenreich has dis-
covered the coccus which causes the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese. It is not
impossible that the much more definite results obtained by investigations into the
manufacture of the vegetable cheeses of China and Japan will aid bacteriologists in
their extremely complex task.
These vegetable cheeses are made by exposing the beans of the leguminous
plant Glyctne—termed soja-beans—to bacterial fermentations in warm cellars,
either after preliminary decomposition by certain mould-fungi, or without this. The
processes vary considerably, and several different kinds of bean-cheeses are made,
and known by special names. They all depend on the peculiar decompositions of
the tissues of the cotyledons of the soja-bean, which contain 35 to 40 per cent. of
proteids and large quantities of fats. The softened beans are first rendered
mouldy, and the interpenetrating hyphe render the contents accessible to certain
bacteria, which peptonise and otherwise alter them.
Here, however, I must bring this subject to a close, and time will not permit
of more than the mere mention of the vinegar fermentation, to which Mr. Adrian
Brown has lately contributed valuable knowledge, of the preparation of soy, a
brine extract of mouldy and fermented soja-beans, of bread-making, and other
equally interesting cases,
846 REPORT—1897.
When the idea of parasitism was once rendered definite, as it was by De Bary’s
work, and the fundamental distinction between a parasite and a saprophyte had
been made clear, it soon became evident that some distinction must be made
between obligate facultative parasites and saprophytes respectively; but. when
De Bary proposed the adoption of these terms of Van Tieghem’s he can hardly
have contemplated that they would be abused as they have been, and was clearly
alive to the existence of transitions which we now know to be so numerous
and so gradual in character that we can no longer define any such physiological
roups.
: ae years ago Penicillium and Mucor would have been regarded as
saprophytes of the most obligate type, but we now know that: under certain
circumstances these fungi can become parasites; and the border-land between
facultative parasites and saprophytes on the one hand and between the former
and true parasites on the other can no longer be recognised.
In 1866 the germ of an idea was sown which has taken deep root and extended
very widely. De Bary pointed out that in the case of lichens we have either a
fungus parasite on an alya, or certain organisms hitherto accepted as alge are
merely incomplete forms. In 1868 Schwedendener declared the lichen to be
a compound organism. :
In 1879, in his celebrated lecture, De Bary definitely launched the new hypo-
thesis, and brought together the facts which warranted his disturbance of the
serenity of those unprepared to accept so startling a new notion as Symbiosis.
The word itself, in the form ‘Symbiotismus,’ is due to Frank, who, in an
admirable paper on the biology of the thallus of certain lichens, very clearly set
forth the existence of various stages of life in common.
This paper has been too much overlooked ; but its existence is the more note-
worthy from its being in the same number of the ‘ Beitrage zur Biologie ’—which
we owe to Cohn, the founder of scientific bacteriology—in which Koch’s remark-
able paper on Anthrax occurs.
The details of these matters are now principally of historical interest; we now
know that lichens are dual organisms, composed of various algw, symbiotic
with ascomycetes and even basidiomycetes, and, as Massee has shown, even
gastromycetes. The soil contains also bacterio-lichens. The point for our con-
sideration is rather that botanists were now awakened to a new biological idea—
viz., that a fungus may be in such nicely balanced relationships with the host
from which it derives its supplies as to afford some advantage in return, whence
we must look upon the limited liability company formed by the two symbionts
as a better business concern than either of the plants could establish for itself—
a case, in fact, where union is strength. Symbiosis, consequently, is now under-
stood to be of advantage to both the symbionts, and not to one only, as is the case
in parasitism, or, to use Vuillemin’s term, Aztidiosis.
In 1841 an English botanist, Edwin Lees, discovered the existence of ‘a
hirsuture that appears like a byssoid fungus’ on the roots of Monotropa, and
observed that the hyphz linked the roots to those of a beech; he regarded the
fungus as conveying nutriment from the latter to the former, and as an essential
constituent of the Monotropa. This discovery was published in the now defunct
‘Phytologist’ for December 1841, and was unearthed by Oliver and by Dr. Dyer, of
Kew. This is apparently the first observation of a mycorhiza yet recorded, and,
although the naturalists referred to did not understand the full significance of
Lees’ find, several of them made excellent guesses as to the meaning of the pheno-
menon, As Dr, Dyer points out, it disposes of Wabrlich’s claim that Schleiden
(1842) first discovered mycorhiza, as well as of Woronin’s contention that the
priority is due to Kamienski, though the latter (1881-82) probably was the first
to clearly indicate that we have here a case of symbiosis, and thus anticipated
Frank’s generalisation in 1885.
Kamienski and Frank, followed by numerous other observers, among whom
Oliver and Groom are to be mentioned, have now shown that the peculiar type of
symbiosis expressed in this intimate union of fungus-hyphe with the living cells of
the roots of trees and other plants in soils which abound in vegetable remains—
e.g., leaf-mould, moors, &c,—is very common,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 847
In the humus of forests we find the roots of beeches and other Cupulifere,
willows, pines, and so forth, clothed with a dense mantle of hyphz and swollen into
coral-like masses of mycorhiza; in similar soils, and in moorlands which abound
in the slowly decomposing root-fibres and other vegetable remains so characteristic
of these soils, the roots of orchids, heaths, gentians, &c., are similarly provided
with fungi, the hyphez of which penetrate further into the tissues, and even send
haustoria into the living cells, but without injuring them.
As observations multiplied it became clear that the mycorhiza, or fungus-root,
was not to be dismissed as a mere case of roots affected by parasites, but that a
symbiotic union, comparable to that of the lichens, exists; and that we must
assume that both the tree and the fungus derive some benefit from the connection.
Pfeffer, in 1877, suggested that the deficiency of root-hairs observed in orchids
might be explained by the fungus-hyphe playing the part of these organs, and
taking up materials from the soil which they then handed on to the roots. He is
quite clear on the subject, and recognises the symbiosis definitely, comparing it
with other cases of symbiosis indicated by De Bary.
Frank stated that, as the results of experiments, seedling forest-trees cannot be
grown in sterilised soil, where their roots are prevented from forming mycorhiza,
and concluded that the fungus conveys to the roots organic materials, which it
obtains by breaking down the leaf-mould and decaying plant-remains, together
with water and minerals from the soil, and plays especially the part of a nitrogen-
catching apparatus. In return for this important service the root pays a tax to
the fungus by sparing it certain of its tissue contents, and no doubt can well afford
to do so.
It appears that the mycorhiza is only formed where humus or yegetable-mould
abounds. In sandy soils the roots bear root-hairs, as usual, and it is now clear
that, while mycorhiza is a far more general phenomenon than was previously
supposed, it is not essential for all the roots, nor even under all circumstances for
any of them. ;
Probably what really happens is this. Trees and other plants with normal
roots and root-hairs, when growing in ordinary soil, can adapt their roots to life in
a soil heavily charged with humus only by contracting the symbiotic. association
with the fungus and paying the tax demanded by the latter in return for its
supplies and services. If this adaptation is impossible, and no other suitable
variation is evolved, such trees cannot grow in such soils,
In certain cases—e.g., ground orchids, Monotropa, various Evicacee, &e.—it
would seem that the plant is unable to grow in other than humus soils, and always
forms mycorhiza. : :
Much further we cannot at present go, but it is evident that various different
grades of symbiosis exist in these mycorhizas. In the first place, there are several
different fungi concerned—those on cupuliferee and pines, apparently mostly
Tuberacee and Gasteromycetes, and allied forms, being different from those in
orchids, some at least of which appear to be Nectrzas or related genera,
The physiological relations of the root to the fungus must be different in details
in the case of non-green, purely saprophytic plants, like Neottia, Monotropa, &c.,
and in that of the green plants like Erica, Fagus, Pinus, &c.
It is well known that ordinary green plants cannot utilise vegetable débris
directly, whereas trees in forests appear to do so; this in appearance only, how-
ever, for the fungi, yeasts, and bacteria there abounding are actively decomposing
the leaves and other remains,
Now it is possible that the mycorhiza theory is not applicable in all cases, and
that, sometimes, what happens is this. The trees, once well established, make so
good a fight that in spite of the leaf-decomposing fungi attacking their roots para-
sitically, or merely ensconcing themselves in the dead primary cortex as it is
sloughed, they manage to keep going and to obtain such shares of the nitrates and
other products due to the fungus-action as satisfy their needs. But although
there may be something to be said for this view as regards a few forest-trees, it. is
not easy to see how it would apply to the non-assimilating humus-plants like
Neottia, Monotropa, &c., and we may probably regard the. two: sets of cases as
standing or falling together.
848 REPORT—1897.
No treatment of this subject would be complete without reference to those
obscure cases of symbiosis—as we must regard them—between certain alge which
occur in the cavities of the leaves of Azolla and in Gunnera, and those found in
the intercellular spaces of cycad-roots. When we know more of the physiology
of these blue-green algs, it may be possible to explain these puzzles, but at present
they are mysterious curiosities.
‘A class of pseudo-symbiotic organisms is being more and more brought into the
foreground where the combined action of two symbionts results in death or
injury to a third plant, whereas each symbiont alone is harmless, or compara-
tively so.
Some time ago Vuillemin showed that a disease in olives results from the inva-
sion of a bacillus (B. olez), which, however, can only obtain its way in the tissues
through the passages driven by the hyphe of a fungus (Chetophoma). The result-
ing injury is a sort of burr. Vuillemin has this year observed the same bacillus
and fungus in the canker burrs of the ash, and so confirms Noack’s statement to
the same effect.
Among many similar cases, well worth further attention, the invasion of
potato-tubers by bacteria, which make their way down the decaying hyphe of
pioneer fungi, may be noted. I have -also seen tomatoes infected by these means,
and have facts showing that many bacteria which quicken the rotting of wood are
thus led into the tissues by fungi.
Probably no subject in the whole domain of cryptogamic botany has wider
bearings on agricultural science than the study of the flora and changes on and in
manure and soil.
As vegetable physiology and agricultural science progressed, it became more
and more of primary importance that we should learn what manure is composed
of, what changes it undergoes in the soil, and what the roots of plants do with it.
Chemistry did much to solve some of ‘the earlier problems, but it soon became
evident that it only raised new questions which it could not solve; and it was not
till the sequence of changes induced by the successive growths of Mucor, Pilobolus,
Coprinus, Ascobolus, and other moulds and fungi of various sorts, followed by
bacteria and yeasts, began to be understood, that anything approaching a coherent
account of the complex phenomena going on in soil or in a manure-heap could be
attempted. Not that all the difficulties have been solved even now, but we are at
least able to trace some very important chains of occurrences which throw light
on many hitherto obscure matters going on in the field.
Since Pasteur in 1862, and Van Tieghem in 1864, showed that certain bac-
teria are concerned in converting urea to ammonium carbonate, much has been
learnt, and we now know from the investigations of Miquel, Jaksch, Leube, and
others that numerous urea-bacteria exist; and Miquel, in 1890, isolated an ex-
tremely unstable enzyme—urase—which converts sterile urea to ammonium
earbonate very rapidly, a discovery of considerable interest, as it was one of
the first examples of this class of bodies to be examined ; and when we reflect
on the enormous quantities of urea which have to be destroyed daily, and that
fresh urine is in effect a poison to the roots of higher plants, some idea of the
importance of these urea-bacteria is obtained. The necessity for preventing the
josses of this volatile ammonia by fixing it in the soil and presenting it to the
action of the nitrifying organisms is also obvious.
Winogradsky’s classical isolation and cultivation of bacteria which take up
these ammonia compounds and oxidise them to nitrous and to nitric acids in the
soil, may be quoted as further instances of the bearing of bacteriological work on
this department of science, as explaining not only the origin of nitre-beds and
deposits, but also the way the ammonia compounds fixed by the soil in the neigh-
bourhood of the root-hairs are nitrified and so rendered directly available to
plants.
The theoretical explanation of many questions connected with the washing
out of nitrates from fallows, the advantages of autumn and winter sowing, and
processes occurring in the upper soil as contrasted with subsoil, has been rendered
much easier by these researches; moreover, as is now well known, they brought
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 849
to our knowledge a startling instance of the assimilation of carbon-dioxide by
these non-green plants—bacteria—which not only take some of the purely in-
organic ammonia, but by means of energy set free by its oxidation obtain their
carbon also by breaking up the carbonate—a true case of the assimilation of
carbon-dioxide by a plant devoid of chlorophyll and without the direct aid of
light. Indirectly, it is true, the source of the energy is the light of the sun,
because the oxygen employed by these aérobic forms has been liberated by green
plants in the last instance; but the case is none the less a startling and important
contribution to physiology, and Winogradsky’s work, which had been preceded. by
investigations in England by Warington and others, affords one of the best. illus-
trations I know of the importance of this branch of botanical investigation.
Stutzer and Hartleb’s recent publications go to show that the nitrifying
organism isa much more highly developed and complex form tban has hitherto
been suspected ; that it can be grown on various media, and exhibits considerable
polymorphism—for instance, it can be made to branch, and show the characteristics
of a true fungus, statements confirmed to a certain extent and independently by
the even more recent work of Rullmann ; and it appears that we have much more
to learn of the morphology of this widely spread. and interesting plant.
It is impossible to go into the controversy between the observers referred to
and Winogradsky, the discoverer of the definite nitrifying organism ; but there is
one point I must just mention: if Stutzer and Hartleb’s details are confirmed we
have here the most remarkable case of polymorphism I know of, for they claim
characters for their fungus which prevent our putting it into any existing group.
I have for some time insisted on the fact that river-water contains reduced forms
of bacteria—z.e., forms so starved and so altered by exposure to light, changes of
temperature, and the low nutritive value of the river-water, that it is only after
prolonged culture in richer food-media under constant conditions that their true
nature becomes apparent. Now, Stutzer and Hartleb show that the morpho-
logical form of this nitrifying organism can be profoundly altered by just such
variations in the conditions as the above, and occurs as a branched mycelial form,
as bacilli or bacteria, or as cocci of various dimensions according to conditions.
These observations, and the researches of Zopf, Klebs, and others on variations
in form (polymorphism) in other fungi and bacteria, open out a vast field for
further work, and must lead to advancements in our knowledge of these puzzling
organisms; they also help us to explain many inconsistencies in the existing
systems of classification of the so-called ‘species’ of bacteria as determined by
test-tube cultures.
But the urea bacteria and the nitrifying organisms are by no means the only
forms found in manure and soils.
In 1868 Reiset found evidence of a reduction of nitrates in fermenting beet-
juices, and in 1873 Schloesing found that free nitrogen escaped in certain soil-
fermentations. Further work by Mensel, Deherain, and others led to the suspicion
that certain bacteria can undo the work of the nitrifying organisms, and in 1879
Warington showed that both nitrites and nitrates occurred in his soil-fermentations.
In 1886 Gayon and Dupetit put this almost beyond doubt, and in 1891 Giltay
and Aberson isolated and cultivated a denitrifying bacterium, capable of com-
pletely reducing nitrates with evolution of free nitrogen, provided it is cultivated
anaérobically. Several such forms have now been obtained, the observations of
Burri and Stutzer that certain of the commonest bacteria of the alimentary canal
—e.g., B. coli commune—abounding in fresh manure, are especially, active, being
particularly suggestive. You will thus notice that we have now a sketch of the
whole of the down-grade part of the cycle of organic nitrogen in Nature: it only
needs supplementing by the history of the fixation of free nitrogen from the
ee by leguminous plants and certain soil-organisms to complete the
sketch.
As is well known from investigations in which Eriksson, Woronin, Frank,
Prazmowski, and others, including myself, have taken part, the nodules on the roots
of leguminous plants contain a fungus—the morphological nature of which is in
dispute—living in symbictic union with the protoplasm of the cells, Hellriegel
1897. 31
850 REPORT—1897.
and Wilfarth showed in 1888-90 that, provided the root-nodules are present, these
leguminous plants fix the free nitrogen of the atmosphere; and Laurent and
Schloesing put this beyond all doubt in 1892 by demonstrating that a closed
atmosphere in which Leguminose grow loses nitrogen in proportion as the plants
gain it. Meanwhile Schulz Lupitz had shown that agricultural land poor in nitrogen
can be made to accumulate it in paying quantities by growing lupines on it, and
quite recently pure cultures of the organism of the nodules have been placed on
the market under the unfortunate name Mtragin. It is claimed that these organisms
can be readily used in practice to inoculate the seeds or soil.
Kossowitsch in 1894 showed that certain symbiotic unions of algee with bacteria
are also capable of fixing nitrogen ; and Winogradsky declares that there exists in
the soil a bacterium which, provided it is kept protected from oxygen by aérobic
soil organisms, can itself do this. We are quite unaware of the mechanisms here
concerned ; but in all cases it appears certain that active destruction of carbohy-
drates is an essential condition, and we can only assume that the nitrogen is forced
into synthetic union by means of energy derived from this destruction. Here,
then, we have a glimpse of the up-grade part of the cycle of nitrogen in Nature,
the importance of which to agriculture cannot be overrated. As to the theoretical
bearings of the matter, we are still much in the dark, and can only anxiously await
the results of further investigations into the nature of the peculiar fermentations
and their products going on in these nodules, I now want to draw your atten-
tion to a bearing of the above discoveries concerning denitrifying bacteria on some
agricultural and horticultural questions.
It is well known that a gardener eschews the use of fresh manure. Why is
thisP The most obvious reply might seem to be, because the ammonia compounds
and other nitrogenous constituents in such manure are not directly useful, or are
even harmful to the roots of the plants. Some recent researches suggest that the
matter is more complex than this.
It has not unfrequently happened that a farmer, finding himself short of stable-
manure, has made up the deficit by adding some such artificial manure as Chili
saltpetre, his argument running somewhat as follows:—Both are good nitro-
genous manures, the one acting slowly, the other rapidly, so that a mixture of both
should be better than either alone. The results have disappointed him, and
numerous experiments in Norfolk, as I am informed by Mr. Wood, and in the
North of England, as Dr. Somerville assures me, have shown that most disastrous
results ensue if such mixtures are used, whereas if the farmyard manure is em-
ployed at first—the ‘ shorter’ the better—and the nitrates applied later on as a
‘ top-dressing,’ excellent crops follow. The explanation seems to come from some
recent experiments by Wagner, Maercker, Burri and Stutzer, and others. The
farmyard manure, especially if fresh, so abounds in denitrifying bacteria that they
destroy the nitrates rapidly and completely, free nitrogen escaping. Curiously
enough, a very active denitrifying bacillus was found on straw, and we know
that straw abounds in such manures,
I did not intend to go so far into agricultural details as this, but it was impos-
‘sible to resist these illustrations of the splendid field of mycological research which
here lies before us.
Nor can I avoid instancing at least one more example of the organisms at work
in manure. We all know what enormous quantities of cellulose are manufactured
daily, and even hourly, by the activity of green leaves; and when we reflect on
the millions of tons of dead-wood, straw, fallen leaves, roots, &c., which would
accumulate every year if not destroyed, we see at once how important is the
‘scavenging action of the moulds and bacteria which gradually reduce these to
carbon-dioxide and water, setting these gases free to enter once more into the
cycle of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in Nature.
In 1890 Van Senus obtained two bacteria, one an aérobic and the other an
anaérobic form, which in symbiotic union were found to excrete an enzyme which
‘dissolved cellulose. Such a cellulose-dissolving enzyme I had myself isolated from
the Botrytis of the lily-disease in 1888. In 1895 Omeliansky, working with
river mud, found an anaérobic bacillus which dissolves paper with remarkable
rapidity. I can only hint at the importance of these forms in connection with the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 851
roduction of marsh gas in swamps, the question of the digestion of cellulose in
erbivorous animals, the manufacture of ensilage, and the processes of ‘shorten-
ing’ of manure; and it is clear they have much to do with the destruction of
paper, &c., in sewers and refuse-pits. Moreover, their further investigation pro-
mises a rich harvest of results in explanation of the rotting of stored tubers, certain
diseases of plants, and several theoretical questions concerning anaérobism, butyric
fermentation, and, possibly, that extremely difficult question on which Mr. Gardiner
has done such excellent work, the nature of the various célluloses and constituents
of the cell-wall.
I now turn to the subject of fungus epidemics, of world-wide interest, if only
because the annual losses to agriculture due to epidemic diseases of plants amount
to millions of pounds sterling.
‘The history of wheat-rust can be traced to Genesis, and at least five references
to it exist in the Old Testament. The Greeks were familiar with it, and the
Romans had a special deity and ceremonies devoted to it. References can be
i to it in old Norman times, and Shakespeare can be quoted as acquainted
with it.
According to Loverdo, a law existed in Rouen in 1660, authorising the pulling
up of barberry bushes as in some mysterious way connected with rust, and in
1755 the celebrated Massachusetts law was promulgated. Eriksson refers to an
English farmer destroying his neighbour’s barberry in 1720.
The words Robigo, Rubigo, Rouille, Ruggine, Rufus, and Rust comprise a his-
tory in themselves, into which, however, we have not time to go, and there are
many fascinating points in the history of wheat-rust which must be passed over.
Felice Fontana in 1767 probably made the first scientific investigation of rust ;
he distinguished the uredo- and puccinia-stages under other names, and even
thought of them as rootless plants exhausting the wheat; in this, and his convic-
tion that no remedy was possible until a careful study of all phases of the disease
had been made, he was far ahead of his times.
Jethro Tull, Marshall, and Withering are the most conspicuous English names
in connection with this question and period, and Marshall in 1781-84 experimented
intelligently with barberry and wheat inter-planted.
Persoon in 1797 gave the name Puccinia graminis to the fungus. In 1805 Sir
Joseph Banks described it, and suggested that the germs entered the stomata: he
also warned farmers against the use of rusted litter, and made important experi-
ments on the sowing of rusted wheat-grains.
A great discussion on the barberry question followed, in which Banks, De
Candolle, Windt, Fries, and others took part, Fries particularly insisting on the
difference between Aicidium berberidis—a name conferred by Gmelin in 1791—
and Puccinia graminis.
De Candolle had also distinguished Uredo rubigo-vera in 1815, and Schmidt
soon after described a third wheat-rust— Uredo glumarum.
Matters were at about this stage when Tulasne confirmed the statement of
Henslow—one of my predecessors in Cambridge—that the uredo- and puccinia-
stages really belong to the same fungus, and are not, as Unger’ asserted, mixed
species.
Then came De Bary and his classical investigation of the whole question in
1860-64. He proved that the sporidia of some Uredines (e.g., Coleosporium) will
not infect the plant which bears the spores, and that the ecidia of certain other
forms are only stages in the life-history of species of Uromyces and Puccinia.
In 1864 De Bary attacked the question of wheat rust, and by means of
numerous sowings of the teleutospores on barberry proved beyond doubt that they
bring about its infection.
But De Bary did more. For the first time in history he saw the entrance of
the infecting tube and the beginning of its growth in the tissues. In 1865 he
demonstrated in the same faultless way the infection of the cereal by means of the
zecidio-spores, and showed that P. rubigo-vera alternates on Boraginee as ic.
asperifolii, while P. coronata, separated by Corda in 1837, does the same as ic,
Rhamni on Rhamnus,
312
852 REPORT—1897.
Thus was discovered the astounding phenomenon of Heterecism, introducing @
new idea into science and clearing up mysteries right and left.
During the next twenty-five years the number of hetercecious forms has risen to
about seventy, including Woronin’s recent discovery of this phenomenon in an
ascomycete—Sclerotinia heteracia.
About 1890 the rust question entered on a new phase. In Australia, India,
Sweden, Germany, and America especially, active commissions, inquiries, and
experiments were set on foot, and amid some confusion of meaning among some of
those concerned much knowledge has resulted from the investigations of Plowright.
and Soppitt in England; Barclay in India; Cobb, Anderson, and McAIpine in
Australia; Arthur, Bolley, Smith Ellis, Galloway, Farlow, Harper, and others in
the United States ; Dietel, Klebahn, Sorauer, and others in Germany ; Rostrup in
Denmark; and especially from the continued and indefatigable researches of Eriksson
and Henning in Sweden. This renewed work has resulted in the complete con-
firmation of De Bary’s results, but with the further discovery that our four common
cereals are attacked by no less than ten different forms of rust belonging to five
separate species or ‘ form-species,’ and with several physiological varieties, and
capable of infecting the barberry. Some of these are strictly confined to one or
other of the four common cereals, others can infect two or more of them, and yet
others can infect various of our common wild grasses as weil.
The fact that what has usually gone by the name of Puccinia graminis is an
ageregate of several species is in itself startling enough, but this was not un-
expected ; the demonstration that varietal forms exist so specially adapted to their
host that, although no morphological differences can be detected between them,
tkey cannot be transferred from one cereal to another, points, however, to physio-
logical variation of a kind met with among bacteria and yeasts, but hitherto un-
suspected in these higher parasitic fungi. It now appears that we must be pre-
pared for similar specialisation of varietal forms among Ustilaginee as well as
among other Uredine, as follows from the results obtained by Kellermann and
Swingle in America, by Klebahn, Tubeuf, and others in Germany, and by Plowright
and Soppitt in England.
Not less remarkable is the conviction that among the many different pedigree
varieties of wheat, some are more susceptible to attacks of rust than others. This
had often been asserted in general terms, but the extensive observations of Cobb in
Australia, and the even more extensive and exact experiments of Eriksson in
Sweden, seem to put the matter beyond doubt.
Of course attempts have been made to account for these differences in predis-
position to the attacks of wheat-rust.
N. A. Cobb, who has done much for the investigation of Australian wheat-
rusts, regards the different susceptibility to rust as due to mechanical causes, and
seeks to explain it by the difference in thickness of the cell-walls on the upper and
lower leaf-surfaces offering different resistance to the outbreak of the spore-clusters ;
the average number of stomata per square millimetre differing in the different sorts
of grain, influencing the predisposition to infection; the presence of waxy bloom
affording a protection, and so on.
Eriksson and Henning have made a critical examination of Cobb’s mechanical
theory, and show that, for Sweden at any rate, the conclusions of the Australian
investigator cannot be confirmed.
Nevertheless, the problem remains. As matter of fact, different sorts of wheat,
of oats, of barley, and of rye are susceptible to their particular rusts in different
degrees, and the question is, Why? Some complex physiological causes must be
at the bottom of it.
Sorauer pointed out in 1880 that every change of vegetative factors induces
differences in composition and form of a plant, and therefore alters the predispo-
aoe of each individual and variety; and this applies to the fungus as well as to
the host.
De Bary’s proof, in 1886, that a Peziza succeeds in being a parasite only after
saprophytic culture to a strong mycelium, that its form is altered thereby, and that
probably a poison is excreted, throws side-lights on the same question; while I
myself showed that similar events occur in the case of the lily disease.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 853
Reinhardt, in 1892, showed that the apical growth of a Peziza is disturbed and
interrupted if the culture solution is concentrated by evaporation or diluted; and
Biisgen, in 1893, showed that Botrytis cinerea excretes poison at the tips of the
hyphe, confirming my results with the lily-disease in 1888, and that a similar
excretion occurs in rust-fungi.
De Bary had also shown, in 1886, that the water-contents of the infected
plant influence the matter; and I may remark that we have here also to consider the
ease of Botrytis attacking chrysanthemums, &c., in autumn, with respect to the
ehilling of the plant, which lowers the vitality of the cells and causes plasmolysis,
as well as the fact that cold increases the germinating capacity of spores, as
Eriksson showed.
I discussed these points at some length a few years ago in the Croonian Lecture
to the Royal Society, and it now remains to see if any further gleams of light can
be found in the progress of discoveries during recent years.
You are all no doubt familiar with Prfetter’s beautiful work on chemotaxis, and
with the even more fascinating experiments of Engelmann, which prove that
bacteria will congregate in the neighbourhood of an algal cell evolving oxygen.
When Pfeffer took the matter up in 1883, he was interested in the question as
to the stimulating action of various bodies on mobile organisms, for he tound that
many motile antherozoids, zoospores, bacteria, &c., when free to move in a liquid,
are vigorously attracted towards a point whence a given chemical substance is
diffusing.
Pfetier’s problems had nothing to do with those of Engelmann; he was
eoncerned, not with the proof of oxygen evolution or the movements of bacteria as
evidence of the presence of that element, but with a fundamental question of
stimulation to movement in general.
Pfeffer found that the attractive power of different chemical substances varies
according to the organism, and according to the substance and its concentration.
He also showed that various other bodies besides oxygen thus attract bacteria
€.g., peptone, dextrose, potassium salts, &c. These experiments are by no means
difficult to repeat, and are now employed in our laboratories.
During the course of several years not only were these facts confirmed, but it
was also shown that this remarkable attraction—chemical attraction, or ‘chemotaais’
—is a very general phenomenon.
Pfeffer had already shown that swarmspores of the fungus Saprolegnia are
powerfully attracted towards the muscles of a fly’s leg placed in the water in
which they are swimming about, and pointed out that in many cases where the
hyphee of fungi suddenly and sharply bend out of their original course to enter the
body of a plant or animal, the cause of the bending lies in a powerful ‘ chemotropic’
action due to the attraction of some substance escaping from the body.
This idea of an attractive action between the living substance of two organisms
growing in close proximity was not entirely new—it was, so to speak, in the air—
e.g., the fusions of mycelial cross-connections and clamp-organs, and of the spores
of Tilletia, Entyloma, &c. One of the most striking examples is afforded by
Kihlmann’s demonstration of the parasitism of Melanospora on Isaria, where he
states that some attractive action exists. In 1882 I had myself seen zoospores of
Pythium suddenly dart on to the cut surface of a bean-stem, and there fix them-
selves. But it is due to Pfeffer and his pupil Miyoshi to state that they were
the first to demonstrate these matters clearly.
To understand the important consequences which followed, I must now refer
to another series of discoveries.
When a spore of a parasitic fungus settles on a plant, it frequently behaves as
follows. The spore germinates and forms a slender tube of delicate cousistence,
blunt at the end and containing colourless protoplasm. De Bary long ago showed
that such a tube—the germinal hypha—only grows for a short time along the
surface of the organ, and its tip soon bends down and enters the plant, either
through one of the stomata or by boring its way directly through the cell-walls.
Several observers, and among others myself, remarked how the phenomena sug-
gested that the end of the tube is attracted in some way and by some force which
854: REPORT—1897.
brings its tip out of the previous direction, and De Bary even threw out the hint
that this attraction might be due to some chemical substance excreted by the host-
plant. I myself showed that the condition of the attacked plant affected the ease
with which the tube penetrates the cell-walls, and that the actual boring of the
cell-walls is due to a solvent enzyme secreted by the tip of the fungus, and in
clearly demonstrating this excretion of an enzyme capable of dissolving cellulose
carried a step further what was so far known, principally from De Bary’s
researches, as to this process. In 1892, Reinhardt showed that the tips of hyphe
curve over towards spores they are about to attack, and found that sugar-gelatine
of greater strength attracts them from the same medium with a smaller proportion
of sugar.
Mayeehi then showed, in 1894, that if a leaf is injected with a substance such
as ammonium-chloride, dextrine, or cane-sugar, all substances capable of exerting
chemotropic attraction on fungus-hyphe, and spores of a fungus then sown on it
which is not parasitic, the hyphee of the fungus penetrate the stomata and behave
exactly as if the fungus were a true parasite.
This astounding result throws a clear light on many known cases of fungi
which are, as a rule, mot parasitic, becoming so when the host-plant is in an
abnormal condition—e.g., the entry of species of Botrytis into living tissues when
the weather is cold and damp and the light dull; the entry of Mwcor into various
fruits, such as tomatoes, apples, pears, &c., when the hyphz meet with a slight
crack or wound, through which the juices are exposed. Nay, I venture to suggest
that it is even exceedingly probable that the rapid infection of potato-leaves in
damp weather in July is not merely traceable to the favouring effect of the
moisture on the fungus, but that the state of super-saturation of the cell-walls of
the potato leaf, the tissues of which are now unduly filled with water and dis-
solved sugars, &c., owing to the dull light and diminished transpiration, is the
primary factor which determines the easy victory of the parasite, and I suggested
some time ago that the suppressed life of Ustilaginee, in the stems of grasses, is
due to the want of particular carbohydrates in the vegetative tissues there, but
which are present in the grain.
Miyoshi, in 1895, carried to proof the demonstration that a fungus-hypha is
really so attracted by substances on the other side of a membrane, and that its
tip pierces the latter; for the hyphze were made to grow through films of artificial
cellulose, of collodion, of cellulose impregnated with paraffin, of parchment-paper,
cork, wood, and even the chitinous coat of an insect, simply by placing the intact
films on gelatine impregnated with the attracting substance, and laying the spores
on the opposite side of the membrane.
Hyphe so separated by similar membranes from gelatine to which the
attracting substance was not added, did not pierce the membranes, whence we may
conclude that it is really the substance referred to which incites the hyphz to
penetration.
Now, obviously, this is a point of the highest importance in the theory of
parasitism and parasitic diseases, because it suggests at once that in the varying
conditions of the cells, the contents of which are separated only by membranous
walls from the fungus-hyphz, whose entrance means ruin and destruction, there
may be found circumstances which sometimes favour and sometimes disfavour the
entrance of the hyphe; and it is at least a remarkable fact that some of the
substances which experiments prove to be highly attractive to such hyphe—ey.,
sugars, the sap of plums, phosphates, nitrates, &c.—are just the substances
found in plants, and the discovery that the action depends on the nature of the
substance as well as on the kind of fungus, and is affected by its concentration,
the temperature, and other circumstances, only confirms us in this idea.
Moreover, there are substances which repel instead of attracting the hyphe.
Is it not, then, natural to conclude that the differences in behaviour of different
parasites towards different host-plants, and towards the same host-plant under
different conditions, probably depend on the chemotropie irritability of the hyphz
towards the substances formed in the cells on the other side of the membranous
cell-walls? And when, as often happens, the effusion of substances such as the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 855
cells contain to the exterior is facilitated by over-distension and super-saturation,
or by actual wounds, we cannot be surprised at the consequences when a fungus,
hitherto unable to enter the plant, suddenly does so.
In spite of all the progress made towards an explanation of the origin and
course of an epidemic of rust, however, one serious inconsistency has always
puzzled men who have worked with it in the open and on a large scale. This
inconsistency concerns the outbreaks of epidemics over large areas, at periods, and
within intervals, which do not agree with the weather records and the described
biological facts. We know, speaking generally, the conditions of germination of
the spores, we know how long infection requires, and the latent period is known:
we know much as to the conditions which favour or disfavour the fungus
mycelium in the tissues, and, nevertheless, an outbreak of disease over large
areas sometimes occurs under conditions which appear quite inconsistent with
this knowledge.
During his six years’ study of the wheat rusts Eriksson was so impressed with
these difficulties that he has lately committed himself to an hypothesis which may
perhaps crystallise the ideas which have floated in the minds of several who have
been puzzled by these matters.
The facts which seem to have finally impelled Eriksson to his hypothesis were
those of the distribution of the wild rusts and grasses. Having learnt which
grasses could infect the wheat, oat, barley, and rye respectively, he found cases of
epidemics occurring where it was impossible to fit in the facts with the view that
spores had been transferred from these grasses within the period required for
infection and development of the disease spots. Again, seasons occurred when all
the conditions pointed to the probability of a serious outbreak of rust, and no such
epidemic occurred. Further, experiments were made in which cereals of varieties
known to be susceptible to given rusts were planted in close vicinity to grasses
infected with such rusts, and, nevertheless, in seasons eminently suitable for the
outbreak of this particular rust on these particular cereals none appeared, or so
little that it was impossible to explain the outbreaks of this same rust on this
cereal elsewhere, during that season, as due to direct infection from the surrounding
grasses.
- More and more it became evident that the infective capacity of the rusted
grasses is small, and confined to restricted areas, and that the outbreaks in certain
seasons—rust-years—must be due to something other than wind-borne spores dis-
tributed by gales over the district.
Three hypotheses can be suggested to account for the.non-spreading of the
disease on to susceptible cereals—(1) Indisposition to germinate on the part of the
spores; (2) unfavourable weather for germination; (3) some structural peculi-
arities of the leaves on which the spores fell, of such a nature that infection was
prevented.
The results of many experiments showed that, as matter of fact, the spores
are often very obstinate, and refuse to germinate even when the weather is
apparently favourable, and Eriksson discovered during these experiments that
cooling the ripe spores on ice increased their germinating power. Neither of the
other two hypotheses mentioned could be brought into agreement with the results,
however.
The conclusion was thus arrived at that an outbreak of rust cannot always be
referred directly to the normal germination and infection of wind-borne spores
from neighbouring centres of infection.
In some patches of extremely susceptible cereals, the disease appeared simul-
taneously on plants isolated from all perceptible sources of infection, and on plants
not thus protected ; the date of outbreak in these cases—reckoned from the sowing of
the grain—was far too late to be explained by direct infection from spores on the
soil, or on the grainsown. Experiments demonstrated that if such spores had been
there, and germinal tubes formed as usual, the disease would have shown itself
much earlier.
These and numerous other inconsistencies drove Eriksson to look for an
‘internal source of infection,’ in spite of the improbability of any such existing,
and of its apparent incompatibility with scientific theory since De Bary’s time.
856 REPORT—1897.
Two methods were pursued. In one each plant of the cereal was enclosed
from the beginning in a long glass tube, stuffed with cotton-wool above and below,
and so carefully protected against infection from wind-blown spores that we may
accept forthwith the improbability of such infection.
Notwithstanding these precautions, the cereal was rusted at the same time as
its unprotected neighbours, and equally badly.
Granting the accuracy of the experiments, only two explanations seem to
suggest themselves, Hither (1) winter-spores attached to the grain had germinated
and infected the young seedling—a not impossible event, since several observers
have found spore-bearing mycelia in the pericarp of the ripe grains, and we know
these spores can conserve their germinating power for months; or (2) the infective
material had been handed down to the embryo from the parent plant—an almost
inconceivable hypothesis.
To answer this question Eriksson protected his seed-plants from external
infection, and sowed the grains in sterilised soil in specially constructed green-
houses, through which the air can only pass wid cotton-wool filters. Between the
double-glass windows water was allowed to stream, and the plants thus kept cool.
Some of these protected plants became rusted.
Before we draw any conclusions from such difficult experiments as the above,
Jet us see the results of microscopic examination.
Reference has already been made to the mycelium and spores in the tissues of
the pericarp of the grain; no trace could be, or ever has been, detected in the
‘endosperm or embryo. In some cases the seedlings, four to eight weeks old,
showed the first uredo-pustules on their leaves, and the mycelium but no spores
could be detected in the seed-coats.
The tissues of the leaf, in the neighbourhood of young uredo-pustules,
frequently showed curious clumps of protoplasm in the cells, either free in the
cell-cavity, or attached to the primordial utricle, and looking like haustoria.
Eriksson assumes that we have here the key to the puzzle; he regards these
‘plasmatic corpuscles’ as the protoplasm of the fungus which, after leading a
dormant life commingled symbiotically with the living protoplasm of the cell, is
now gaining the upper hand and beginning to form a dominant mycelium.
We are therefore to suppose that when the spores of rust, even if of the right
variety, alight on the tissues of a wheat-plant, it is a matter decided by external
and internal conditions whether the germ-tubes forthwith infect the plant and
grow out into a dominant, parasitic, sporiferous mycelium, as we know they
usually do, or simply manage to infect the cells with enough protoplasm to live
a latent symbiotic life for weeks—or even months—as a Mycoplasma, which may,
under favourable circumstances, gain the upper hand, and grow out in the form
of a mycelium.
This is a startling hypothesis, and brings us to the most advanced point along
this line of biological speculation. We must distinguish sharply and clearly
between such a view, which is by no means inconsistent with all we know of
parasites, so far as the dormant mycelium goes, and all the hazy, mystical sugges-
tions as to ‘infective substance’ and so forth, which were so freely flung about
at the beginning of this epoch, and which De Bary’s strictly scientific methods put
down so firmly.
The idea of symbiosis is now comparatively old, and there are many cases of
dormant life now well established. Even the astounding notion of blended proto-
plasms can no longer be regarded as new. I need only remind you of Cornu’s
Rozella, which invades the thallus of Saprolegnia, and Woronina in Vaucheria,
the protoplasm of the two organisms apparently blending and living a common life
for some time before the true nature of the parasite manifests itself. Eriksson has
avowedly been influenced by these and other cases among the Chrytridiacee.
That the remarkable intra-cellular fusions of Plasmodiophora and the now well-
established symbiosis of the organism of the leguminous root-nodules have also
had their influence on his work may well be assumed, and I think we may trace
also the effects of our knowledge of the latent life of Ustilago during the vegetative
period of the attacked cereal.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 857
But there are other cases which prevent our casting aside as impossible the
view that Eriksson has put forward.
I showed some years ago that the mycelium of the Botrytis of the lily disease
can lie dormant for some time in the cell-walls, and I have observations showing
that other forms of Botrytis which attack roses and chrysanthemums only gain
the upper hand when the cold autumn nights so chill the attacked cells that they
succumb; the mycelium was there long before, but so long as the cells were active
no progress could be made, and only when the plasmolysed chilled cells exude their
sap can the mycelium advance.
Many cases of similarly dormant mycelia appear to exist in those cortex and
eambium diseases which result in the production of cankers—e.g., Nectria ditissima
and Peziza Willkommit, and Tubeuf’s experiments with Gymnosporangium are even
more suggestive. Tubeuf found that if G. clavarieforme is sown on hawthorn
seedlings the fungus forms yellow spots and induces marked hypertrophy, and normal
spermogonia and zecidia— Roestelia lacerata—are developed; but if Pyrus Aucuparia
is used as the host, no yellow spots or hypertrophy result, though a mycelium is
formed and will even produce a few starved spermogonia. On allied species of Pyrus
the fungus may even succeed in forming a few poorly developed zcidia. But on the
quince the fungus only just succeeds in establishing an infecting mycelium, and
soon dies; and Wagner describes similar events with fungi on Stellarza.
These cases point to a struggle between the protoplasm of the cells of the
different hests, and of the fungus respectively: sometimes one wins, sometimes
the other. The following cases are also suggestive. De Bary found that the
germinal hyphe of Peronospora pygmea, which is parasitic on Anemone, will
penetrate the tissues of Ranunculus Ficaria, but cannot maintain its hold, and the
mycelium soon succumbs and dies.
Still more remarkable and to the point is the following case. Soppitt and
Plowright in England, and Klebahn and others on the Continent, have gradually
unrayelled a curious case of hetercecism and specialised parasitism among certain
Puccinias found on Smilax, Convallaria, Paris, and Digraphis. The story is too
long to recount in detail, but the Puccinia-spores from Phalaris were found by
Klebahn to refuse to infect Polygonatum leaves successfully, though they readily
infect the allied Convallaria. Close investigation showed, however, that although
the sporidia failed to develop a mycelium in the Polygonatum leaves, they really
penetrate the cells, and the delicate germ-tube is killed off by the protoplasm, a
red spot marking the place of entrance.
The perennial mycelia of Witches’ Brooms, ecidia in Euphorbia, Taphrina,
and many other perennial mycelia are also cases in point.
It is not my purpose to hold a brief for Eriksson’s hypothesis, but I may point
out that it is in no way contradictory to the facts already known since De Bary’s
time. Its most serious aspect is with regard to possible treatment, and it is obvi-
ously essential that we should have it tested to the utmost, for it must be remem-
bered that no method of spraying or dusting has been, or apparently can be, devised
for cereals; hence the questions as to the existence of really resistent forms, and
whether dormant mycelia lurking in their tissues have deceived us in these cases
also, require sifting to the bottom. Experience, so far, points to the selection of
pedigree wheats and careful cultivation as the first necessities; how far the ques-
tion of spring versus winter wheat aids us is still matter for further experiment ;
early and late ripening are also concerned. Climate we cannot hope to control,
but it remains to be seen—when the facts are known—how far it can be ‘ dodged.’
Clearly what is needed, then, is experiments with varieties of wheat under all
conditions, and we may congratulate the Australian, Swedish, and United States
experimental stations on their preliminary efforts in this direction.
I have only been able to give a mere sketch of this rapidly growing subject,
but I think you will agree that we are justified in saying that an epidemic of para-
sitic fungi depends on the interaction of many factors, congenital variations of
the host-plant and topical variations of its cell-contents being probably among the
most important ; and since we cannot hope to control the variations of the parasite,
or the meteorological conditions, it behoves agriculturists to pay more systematic
858 REPORT—1897
attention to the selection of those varieties of the cereal which are least predisposed
to rust.
When we find the annual losses from wheat-rust alone put down at sums vary-
ing from 1,000,0002. to 20,000,000/. in each of the great wheat-growing countries
of Europe, India, Australia, the United States, and elsewhere, it strikes one as very
remarkable that so little should be done to encourage the scientific investigation
of these practical questions. I need hardly say that the establishment and main-
tenance of a fully equipped laboratory and experimental station does not cost the
interest on the smallest of these sums.
It should be also clear that in the further development of our knowledge of the
treatment of parasitic diseases of plants the farmer, gardener, and forester can
alone supply the experimental evidence which will enable us to put theory to the
test in the field, garden, and forest. The botanist, by means of his pure cultures
of the fungus, can now show clearly what stage in the life-history of a parasite is
vulnerable. In his ‘microscopic gardens’ he can show what antiseptics may be
employed, how strong they should be, and when and how they should be em-
loyed.
3 ‘Bud we must not forget that it is one thing to kill a fungus when grown pure,
and another to kill it when growing on or in, or even associated with, other plants,
without harming the latter. We may compare the first case to the destruction of
weeds on a gravel path, where the antiseptic dressing may be employed lavishly
and at any time, because there are no other plants to injure; but it is another
matter to kill the same weeds growing in a lawn or a flower-bed, where we have
to pay attention to the neighbouring plants.
Experiments in the open, simple in themselves, but conducted intelligently
and with due regard to the rigorous demands of science, can alone determine
these questions.
Brewers have long known that buruing sulphur in the barrels will rid these
barrels of the moulds and yeasts growing on their damp beer-soaked sides; and
Berkeley saw clearly that sulphur could be applied to the outside of plants on
which such fungi as the hop- or grape-mildew, &c., are growing, the critical period
being when the spores are germinating, so that the slowly oxidising sulphur should
evolve sulphurous acid in just sufficient quantities to destroy the delicate germs
without injuring the leaves. And even better results have been attained with
Bordeaux mixture.
But it is clear that this can only be done with an intelligent appreciation of
the life-history of the fungus, and a knowledge of when the germinating stage is
at hand. The successes obtained in France and America with Bordeaux mixture
attest this.
It would obviously be absurd to powder sulphur or spray liquids over
plants attacked by bunt- or smut-fungi, for we know that the germ-tubes only
infect the germinating grain as its first root emerges. Here, as was shown long
ago, and especially by the experiments of Hoffmann, Kiihn, and De Bary, the
practice known as ‘dressing the grain’ must be followed. Knowing that the
spores of the fungus are attached to the grain, or to particles of soil around, the
efforts must be directed to covering the outside of the grain with an antiseptic
which is strong enough to kill the germs but not the grain. If the land is known
to be clean, the grain may be immersed in hot water, the temperature being
experimentally determined, and high enough to kill the spores but not the wheat,
and so on. In these matters also the American stations have done good work.
Neither of these classes of treatment can be adopted, on the other hand, for
diseases such as ‘ Finger and Toes,’ where we have a delicate slime-fungus making
its way into the roots already in the soil; but, here again, intelligently devised
experiments, such as those of Somerville and Massee, have shown that liming
the soil renders it so unfavourable to this disease that it can be coped with.
And similarly with other diseases; the particular methods of dealing with the
‘damping-off’ of seedlings, ‘ dry-rot’ in timber, the various diseases of trees, and
so on, do and must differ in each case, and the guiding principle must be always
the same—having learnt all that can be learnt of the habits of the fungus and of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 859
the host, and of the relationships of each to the other and the environment, to see
how it is possible to step in at the critical moment and interfere with these rela-
tionships in the direction desired by human interests. peer 4
The whole matter thus resolves itself into a study of variation—a purely
experimental inquiry into complex biological relationships, and it is encouraging
to see that this is being understood in the large American and other stations,
which are distinguishing themselves by their efforts.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 19.
The following Reports and Pavers were read :—
1. Report on the Preservation of Plants for Exhibition.
See Reports, p.-537.
2. Report on the Fertilisation of the Pheophycee.
See Reports, p. 537.
3. The Growth of the Mycelium of Aecidium graveolens (Shuttlew.) on the
Branches of the Witches’ Broom on_Berberis vulgaris. By P. Maenus,
Berlin.
Eriksson has stated in the ‘Beitriige zur Biologie der Pflanzen (Bd. VIIL.,
Heft I.) that the mycelium of the Aecidium producing the witches’ broom of the
barbery grew within the cells of the cambium. In the ‘ Berichte der deutsch.
bot. Gesellschaft,’ Bd. XV., I asserted that the mycelium was intercellular with
haustoria in the pith, cortex, and in the phloem. In the same volume of the
‘Berichte,’ Eriksson states (pp. 228-231) that he had only examined the cambium,
and I only the pith and the cortex, and the latter statement was correct. He also
pointed out that he had examined fresh material, whereas mine had been preserved
in alcohol, which objection I did not consider of any value. I have examined,
therefore, this summer some fresh material which was kindly sent me by Messrs.
Biumler and Reuter, and have renewed my investigations on the growth of the
mycelium in the new shoots of the witches’ broom. I find my former statements
confirmed. The mycelium grows in the intercellular spaces of the pith, cortex, soft
bast, and of the medullary rays, and as I have mentioned (doc. cit.) it often causes
the walls of the cells between which it grows to swell up. It sends numerous
generally knot-like haustoria into the cells. At the end of April or at the begin-
ning of May many of the short rosette-like shoots of the barbery, the leaves of which
were coyered in spring with aecidia and spermogonia, grow out into long shoots.
Into the pith of these shoots the mycelium enters, and it keeps pace with the growth
of the medullary cells, so that its ends reach into the meristem of the terminal
bud. From the pith the hyphe pass through the medullary rays into the primary
cortex, and especially through the original tissue rays opposite the insertion of the
leaves. Hence it reaches the axillary buds, and makes its way into their first
leaves, which will expand in the next spring. The hyphe which are figured by
Eriksson within the cambium cells, I consider to be the cell contents contracted
by plasmolysis; the yellow granules which Eriksson observed in them might,
in my opinion, be the first appearance of the yellow colouring matter which fills
the young wood-cells of Berberis.
Lastly, I have to point out that I had identified this aecidium of the barbery
in 1875 with Aecidium magellanicum, Berk., and all other observers have followed
me in this respect. Since then I have shown that another aecidium is found in
Patagonia and Chili, producing witches’ brooms on Berberis buaifolia, and this I
860 REPORT—1897.
have named Aecidiwn Jacobsthalii, Henrici, and I consider that the dAecidium
magellanicum observed by Berkeley on Berberis ilicifolia should be distinguished
from the two above-mentioned aecidia.
The fungus causing the witches’ broom on the barbery in Europe should there-
fore no longer be called Aectdiwm magellanicum, Berk., but must be called either
Aecidium graveolens, Shuttlew., or aecidium form of Puccinia Arrhenatheri (Kleb.),
Erikss.
4, Stereum hirsutum, a Wood-destroying Fungus. By H. MarsHaLtu WARD,
D.Sc., F.RS., Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge.
The author has cultivated this fungus from the spores, on sterilised wood
blocks, and has not only obtained very vigorous pure cultures, and traced the action
of the mycelium week by week on the elements of the wood, but has obtained
spore-bearing hymenia, and worked out the life-history very completely. Hartig,
in his ‘ Zersetzungserscheinungen des Holzes,’ examined the wood-destroying action
of this fungus, but used material growing in the open, and therefore not pure.
Brefeld attempted its culture, but failed to make it develop any fructification or
spores; since Brefeld does not allow us to know the composition of his media, it
is not possible to suggest why he failed.
The fertile hymenium arises in about three to four months, and the author has
examined the development very thoroughly, and refers to discrepancies in the
existing descriptions. The details of its destruction of the wood are also gone into
fully ; the fungus delignifies the inner layers of the walls of the wood-elements,
and in three months’ cultures and upwards these turn blue in chlor-zinc-iodine,
and are shown by other reagents to undergo alteration to cellulose-like bodies
before their final consumption by the fungus,
Drawings and lantern slides made by Mr. Ellis from the author’s preparations
were shown.
5. The Nucleus of the Yeast Plant. By Harotp WAGER.
Of the numerous observers, some twenty in number, who have made observa-
tions upon the presence of a nucleus in the yeast plant three only actually deny
its existence. Many conflicting statements, however, have been made as to its
nature, some observers having described it as a perfectly homogeneous body, others
as possessing a nuclear membrane and nucleolus, whilst two observers regard cer-
tain granules present in the cell under certain conditions as of the nature of a
nucleus.
In Saccharomyces cerevisee the nucleus can be easily demonstrated by careful
staining in hematoxylin, Hartog’s double stain of nigrosin and carmine, or by
staining in aniline-water solution of gentian violet. It appears to consist, in the
majority of cases, of a homogeneous substance, spherical in shape, placed between
the cell wall and the vacuole. By very careful staining, however, and especially
efter digestion in pepsin glycerine solution, a granular structure can be observed.
The whole cell is in the normal, undigested state, often pervaded by such a deeply
stainable substance that this granular structure is difficult to make out. On the
whole, perhaps, it resembles more than anything else the fragmenting nuclei in the
older leaf cells of Chara; that is, it consists of deeply stained granules embedded in
a slightly less stainable matrix. These granules are probably chromatin granules,
and the matrix occasionally gives evidence of a slight granular structure.
The process of budding in a yeast cell is accompanied by the division of this
nucleus into two. The division is a direct one, and does not take place in the
mother cell, but in the neck joining it to the daughter cell. When about to divide,
the nucleus places itself just at the opening of this neck, and proceeds. to make its
way through it into the daughter cell, until about half of it has passed through,
when it divides completely, and the two nuclei thus formed separate from each
other towards the opposite sides of their respective cells.
Wt ng a5
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 861
In S. Ludwigii the nucleus appears to possess the normal structure of a nucleus
a nuclear membrane being present, together with a nuclear network and a nucleolus,
The nucleolus appears to contain all the chromatin substance, and in the process
of division increases in size and divides into two, each portion becoming a new
nucleus.
In S. Pastorianus the nucleus is similar in structure to that of S. Ludwigti,
except that a distinct nuclear network could not be seen. ‘The process of division
is likewise similar to that observed in S. Ludwigit.
The process of spore-formation was observed in S. cerevise@. In a ceil about
to sporulate che large vacuole or vacuoles disappear, and the protoplasm becomes
filled witi a large number of very small ones, so that its texture appears spongy.
At this stage the nucleus is found in the centre of the cell, and appears to be
homogeneous in structure. Soon, however, deeply stained granules appear in it,
and these accumulate in the centre, forming a spherical mass, which looks exactly
like a nucleolus. When this nucleus divides its outline becomes irregular, and
the granules arrange themselves in the form of a short rod surrounded by the other
portion of the nucleus, which stains differently and appears to form a structure of
the nature of a spindle. The granules separate into two groups, and each group
becomes a nucleus, The two nuclei thus formed again divide, and four nuclei are
produced, each of which becomes the nucleus of a spore. A small quantity of
protoplasm accumulates round each nucleus, spore membranes appear, and four
spores are thus formed, standing in the remainder of the protoplasm, from which
ultimately the thick spore membranes are produced.
We may, I think, regard the process of nuclear division in spore-formation as a
simple form of karyokinesis.
6. A Disease of Tomatoes. By W. G. P. Ex.is, IfA., Cambridge.
From diseased tomatoes received in August 1896 from Jersey the associated
fungi and bacteria were isolated and cultivated on nutrient gelatine, and the
mycelium was traced in sections of the fruits. On removing the first skin with
carefully sterilised instruments the mycelium within the fruit formed in a short
time the well-known sporangiophores of Mucor stolonifer. Though late in the
season (August 31, 1896), infection of sound plants at the University Botanic
Gardens, Cambridge, from pure cultures caused a disease resembling that of the
fruits received in August and September from the grower. Experiments are now
(July 1897) in progress to determine (1) whether the fungi, obtained, other than
Mucor stolonifer, cause disease, and (2) the site of infection.
7. Qn the Chimney-shaped Stomata of Holacantha Emoryi.
By Professor Cuarues E. Bessey.
This prickly, leafless shrub, called the ‘Burro Thorn,’ ‘ Sacred Thorn,’ ‘ Cruci-
fixion Thorn,’ ‘ Corono de Christo,’ &c., is a native of the arid regions of Southern
Arizona, where it was discovered fifty years ago by Major Emory, of the United
States Army. It is supplied with remarkable breathing pores, which are evidently
designed to enable the plant to obtain carbon dioxide, while at the same time pre-
venting the loss of water from its interior moist tissues. The epidermis is of
extraordinary thickness, and the stomata have long, narrow, chimney-shaped
openings above them, terminating in hollow papille, which project some distance
above the surface.
8. Some Considerations upon the Functions of Stomata,
By Professor Cuartes E. Bessey.
The author summarily reviewed the structure of stomata and discussed the
needs of aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial plants as to their getting of food, and the
“862 REPORT—1897.
means by which they resist the drying of their tissues. The facts cited are held
by him to indicate that respiration is the normal function of stomata, and that the
loss of water through stomata is incidental and secondary. The author concludes :—
1. That one of the functions of stomata is the admission of carbon dioxide to
the chlorophyll-bearing tissues of the plant for use in the formation of the carbo-
hydrates. 2. That the loss of water by terrestrial plants was originally hurtful,
and is so now in many cases. 3. That if plants have utilised this constant phe-
nomenon, it is for the supply of food matters of secondary importance, as the salts
in solution in the water of the soil. He cites observations and experiments to
corroborate his views. Thus Stahl and Blackman have shown that carbon di-oxide
enters through the stomata ; Stahl has shown, also, that transpiration takes place
through the stomata, but many observations show that stomata quickly close when
the water supply is deficient. Stahl, again, has shown that the leaves of ever-
reens have their stomata closed during the times when no carbon assimilation can
take place (that is, in winter) ; observations show that green parasites (mistletoe,
&c.) have many stomata, while those not green (dodders, &c.) have scarcely any.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 20.
The President’s Address was delivered. See p. 831.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Species of Picea occurring in North-eastern United States and
Canada. By Professor D. P. PENHALLOw.
Since the time of Pursh the validity of the red spruce as a distinct species has
been generally denied by systematic botanists. In 1887 the late Dr. George
Lawson maintained, in a paper before the Royal Society of Canada, that the red
and black spruces are distinct species. This view has been sustained during the
past year by Britton in his ‘Illustrated Flora of North America.’ My own studies
prosecuted during the past two years have likewise shown that there are abundant
reasons for the separation of P. rubra as a distinct species.
Incidentally attention has been directed to a form of the white spruce
characterised by its foetid odour and its strongly glaucous, rigid, and often
cuspidate leaves, which are commonly produced at the base. For this the name
Setida is suggested.
2. Contribution to the Life History of Ranunculus,
By Professor CouLTEr.
3. On the Distribution of the Native Trees of Nebraska.
By Professor Cuarues E. Bessey.
The State of Nebraska occupies a central position in that portion of the North
American continent where forest trees may grow. In this great area it lies almost
centrally again within the prairie region, which extends from the Mississippi
River to the Rocky Mountains, and stretches from Saskatchewan to Texas.
Beginning with an elevation of a little less than 300 metres along the Missouri
River, which forms its eastern boundary, it rises gradually to an altitude of about
1,700 metres near its western border. From east to west it is an undulating plain
whose western edge has been much uplifted. Down this slope run the Niobrara,
the Platte, and the Republican Rivers, each a turbid mountain torrent rushing
ssatily and directly from the Rocky Mountains or the foot-hills to the Missouri
iver.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 863
Across the central part of the State a broad belt of sand-hills stretches from
north-east to south-west. From these arise many small rivers of clear water,
filtered through the sands, and issuing in never-failing springs.’ Thus arise the
Middle Loup, North Loup, Calamus, South Loup, Shell, and the Elkhorn Rivers
and their numerous branches. Lastly, in the basin of the south-eastern quarter
there flow in different directions several alluvial streams, whose muddy waters run
sluggishly into the Republican, the Missouri, and the Platte Rivers.
South-eastward of this area lie the heavy forests which characterise many
portions of Missouri. Southward lies the southern extension of the Great Plains,
while northward the plains continue to the international boundary and far beyond.
Eastward lie the undulating prairies of Iowa, with their streams bordered by
narrow belts of forest trees. Westward are the forests of the Rocky Mountains,
extending eastward upon the Black Hills of South Dakota, and the foot-hills of
Wyoming and Western Nebraska, namely Pine Ridge, north of the Niobrara River
and Cheyenne Ridge, between the North Platte and Lodge Pole Rivers.
Tn this area, in the centre of the plains, the native trees of the South-eastern
Missouri forests, and the Western Rocky Mountain forests have pushed until there
are now about sixty-five species of trees which grow naturally within its limits.
Of this number fully fifty-six came from the Missouri forests, and but nine from
the Rocky Mountains.
4. The Vegetation Regians of the Prairie Province.
Ly Roscoe Pounp and FreDErRIc E, CLemMents.
A portion of the paper is devoted to a critique of the treatment accorded by
various authors to the floral covering of the North American continent, and in
particular to that given by Drude in his ‘Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie.’
Especial attention is paid to the latter’s characterisation of the Great Plains, and
the details are discussed at considerable length. The authors endeavour to demon-
strate the integrity of the Great Plains as a single vegetation province, and, in so
doing, summarise the most salient features of the floristic. Finally, the vegetation
regions of the prairie province are outlined briefly, followed by a concise summary
of the characteristic formations.
There are three general classes of formations, comprising a considerable number
of types, viz., the prairie formations, prairie-grass, buffalo-grass formations, the
sand-hill formations, bunch-grass, blowout, and sand-draw formations, the foot-
hill formations, the undershrub formation of tableland and bad land, the mat and
rosette formation of buttes and hills, and the grass formation of high prairie and
sandy plains..
5. The Zonal Constitution and Disposition of Plant Formations.
Sy Freperic E. CLEMENTs.
The author has here reviewed the phytogeographical contributions bearing upon
the subject in hand, with especial reference to the part they have played in the
elaboration of the conception of zonation. In addition, he has endeavoured to
demonstrate the fundamental universality of zonation in all divisions of the floral
covering. The essential connection between lines of: stress which are physical,
tensions which are biological, and zones which are phytogeographical is brought
out, and the causation of these phenomena briefly discussed. Lines of stress are
symmetrical or asymmetrical, Continental lines of stress are asymmetrical. They
are transverse, in which case they are primary, and give rise to vegetation zones,
or longitudinal, when they are secondary, and originate vegetation provinces,
There are also tertiary lines of stress, which are likewise asymmetrical, and define
vegetation regions. Symmetrical lines of stress produce bilaterally or radially
symmetrical tensions, Each may be the result of biological or topographical
symmetry, so that various portions of the floral covering may manifest zonation,
864 REPORT—1897.
due to either bilateral or radial biological symmetry, or to bilateral or radial
topographical symmetry. Zonal and azonal formations are contrasted, and the
latter shown to be rare and atypical.
6. The Transition Region of the Caryophyllales.
By FrEevERIc E. CLEMENTS.
The history of the investigation of the transition region is discussed at con-
siderable length. After a concise sketch of the histogenetic changes in the transi-
tion region in general, the details of the process are given for selected genera,
Dianthus, Portulaca, Allionia, Phytolacca, Polygonum, and Rumex. Three types
of transition may be distinguished with respect to the constitution of the bundle
trace of the cotyledons: holostelar, where the trace is composed of the entire
vascular system of the hypocotyledonary stele; prototracheidal, when the proto-
tracheids are the xylem elements to pass into the cotyledons ; metatracheidal, when
the cotyledonary trace is formed by the metatracheids. With reference to the per-
fection of the transition in the hypocotyl, the transition may be truncate or com-
plete. In the first case, the xylem and phloém reach the cotyledons in centripetal
or secantial orientation ; in the second, the orientation is centrifugal, and the stele
becomes collateral.
7. Note on Pleurococcus. By Dororura F. M. Perrz, Cambridge.
Cultures of Pleurococcus in nutritive solutions were made during the winter
months, from November to April. They did well in Knop’s solution, ‘2 per cent.,
in sterilised glass dishes and flasks, which were placed in different situations ; in the
laboratory, in a greenhouse, and out of doors.
Separate clusters of Pleurococcus in hanging drops of the same solution were
also observed as continuously as possible. These drops were suspended in carefully
sterilised moist chambers, which were kept for several weeks, in one case for two
months.
The chief difficulties met with were, first, to obtain the Plevrococcus in ab-
solutely pure condition, and then to keep it sufficiently aérated without running
any risk of making the culture impure. Both the ‘globular sporangia’ and those
of ‘elongated or quadrangular form,’ observed by Chodat, occurred frequently, and
they seem undoubtedly to be produced by the transformation of normal Pleuro-
coccus-cells. Individual sporangia were repeatedly selected for special observation,
and the process by which they break up into separate spores was noted at all its
stages.
“The filamentous form described by Chodat never occurred.
MONDAY, AUGUST 23.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Antherozoids of Zamia integrifolia." By Hersert J. Wesser, J/.A.,
Washington, D.C.
The occurrence of motile antherozoids in Zamia confirms their recent discovery
in Gingko and Cycas by the Japanese investigators Hirase and Ikeno. The develop-
1 For fuller details see ‘Peculiar Structures Occurring in the Pollen Tube of
Zamia, Bot. Gazette, vol. xxiii., June 1897, p. 453; ‘The Development of the Anther-
ozoids of Zamia,’ Bot. Gazette, vol. xxiv., July 1897, p. 16; ‘ Notes on the Fecunda-
tion of Zamia and the Pollen Tube Apparatus of Gingko,’ Bot. Gazette, vol. xxiv.,
October 1897, p. 255.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 865
ment of the antherozoids in Zamia is unique. In the generative cell two compara-
tively very large bodies are found accompanying the nucleus, which very greatly
resemble centrosomes, but which differ from any centrosomes that have been de-
scribed. The generative cell divides, forming two daughter-cells, each of which forms
a motile antherozoid. In the prophases of the division the centrosome-like bodies in-
crease in size, becoming from 18 to 20 » in diameter, an exterior wall becomes plainly
distinguishable, and the contents become vacuolate. During the formation of the
spindle, the kinoplasmic filaments centered upon the centrosom-like bodies entirely
disappear, apparently being utilised in forming the spindle. The spindle is inter-
nuclear, thefilaments having no visible connection withthe centrosome. Inthe monas-
ter stage of the division the outer membrane of the centrosome-like bodies has the ap-
pearance of breaking up into fragments, the contents contracting away from the
wall. During the formation of the cell-plate the outer membrane may be seen to have
broken, and the contents are then visibleasa small cluster of granules in the cytoplasm.
The membrane formed by the broken wall of the centrosome-like bodies becomes
extended in length, forming a band which moves outward and becomes appressed
against the Hautschicht of the antherozoid cell. This band grows in length,
finally forming from 6 to 6 turns around the cell, which are arranged in the form
of a helicoid spiral. While this band is still short, protuberances can be noticed
on its outer surface, which ultimately grow into the motile cilia of the mature
antherozoid. The antherozoids of Zamia are surprisingly large, being plainly
visible to the unaided eye. They are ovate or compressed, spherical in shape, and
from 258 to 332 » in length by 258 to 306 in width. Their motion and de-
velopment were studied in 10 per cent. sugar solution, in which they could be kept
living and moving for over two hours. In fecundation from two to four anthero-
zoids enter each archegonium, only one of which takes part in fecundation. In
the actual process of fecundation, the nucleus only appears to take part, the
cytoplasm and cilia bearing band probably remaining in the cytoplasm of the
archegonium. The first division of the fecundated oosphere has not been observed.
In later divisions, however, which have been carefully studied no indication of
centrosomes could be found. The centrosome-like body in Zamia seems thus to be
a temporary organ of the cell, having the special and unique function of forming
the motile organs of the antherozoid.
2. On Diagrams illustrating the result of Fifty Years’ Experimenting on
the Growth of Wheat at Rothamsted, England. By Dr. H. E, Arm-
stTrRONG, JR.
3. A Preliminary Account of a New Method of Investigating the Behaviour
of Stomata. By Francis Darwin, F.R.S.
The method resembles in principle Stahl’s cobalt test, inasmuch as it only
indirectly indicates the condition of the stomata. Both are, strictly speaking,
methods for localising the transpiration of leaves, and both, to some degree,
measure the amount of transpiration. The instrument made use of in the present
researches is a hygroscope depending for its action on the extreme sensitiveness to
watery vapour of certain substances. The best material consists of thin sheets of
horn treated in a special manner, and known as ‘Chinese sensitive leaf’ The
ether is what is used for the toys described as ‘ fortune-telling ladies, ‘magical
fish, &c. When either of these membranes is placed on a damp surface it
instantly curves with the concavity away from the source of moisture, If one end
of a strip of the material is fixed to the lower surface of a block of cork, and is
placed on the stomatal face of a leaf, it is clear that only the free end can rise. It
is on this principle that the hygroscope is constructed, the angle, to which the
hygroscope tongue rises being a rough indication of the degree of transpiration.
Thus on a leaf having stomata only below, the index of the hygroscope remains at
zero on the upper surface of the leaf, while on the lower side it instantly rises te
1897. 3K
866 REPORT—1897.
an angle varying with the condition of the stomata. If they are widely open the
angle will be 30° or 40° to a horizontal line ; if the stomata are closed the reading
will be zero on both surfaces of the leaf. With this instrument a number of well-
known facts in the physiology of the stomata can be easily demonstrated. The
author is engaged in a general investigation of the behaviour of the stomata under
varying conditions.
4. Notes on Lilea. By Professor CAMPBELL.
5, Lecture on Fossil Plants. By A. C. Sewarp, IZA.
6. On the Existence of Motile Antheroxoids in the Dictyolacee.
By J. L, Wit.1aMs.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 24.
A joint discussion with Section I on the Chemistry and Structure of the Cell
was introduced by the reading of the following Papers :-—
(1) The Rationale of Chemical Synthesis.
By Professor R. Menpoua, /.2.S.
(2) On the Hxistence of an Alcohol-producing Enzyme in Yeast.
By Professor J. R. Green, F.2.S.
(3) The Origin and Significance of Intracellular Structures.
By Professor A. B. Macauium, Ph.D.
The following Papers were then read :—
1. Further Observations on the Insemination of Ferns, and specially on
the Production of an Athyrioid Asplenium Trichomanes. By E. J.
Lowe, /. 2.8.
At the meeting of the British Association at Cardiff in 1891 the author used
the term multiple parentage. Since then a biological committee of the Royal
Society has been formed, and the term insemination has been used in the case of
animals, Asa member of that committee the author uses the term insemination
of plants in preference to that of multiple parentage.
The author records experiments in these insemination of Aspleniwn Tricho-
manes with Asplenium marinum and Athyrium filix feemina.
In the hybrid Trichomanes the length of the frond is six inches, of which the
lower half is dépennate and two inches wide, the upper half being pinnate, with
long narrow pinne. Some of the fronds are pinnate from the base to the apex,
and these have very long pinne, especially near the base, some being as much as
three-quarters of an inch in length.
Although copiously fertile and giving promise of a crop of seedlings, it has
yet to be proved whether it may not be similar to the hybrid between Aspidiwm
aculeatum and Aspidiwm angulare, whose spores looked equally promising, though
practically sterile, for the sowings of many thousand spores (persevered in for a
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 867
number of years) have only resulted in three or four plants; but these three or
four are, however, not only copiously fertile, but have produced many plants.
Tn the athyrioid Trichomanes the only peculiarity connecting it with Asplenium
marinum consists in the long narrow pinne being substituted for the usual rounded
ones, and in the basal pinnze being large, which is not the case in other forms of
Asplenium Trichomanes. The change from pinnate to bipinnate is evidence of a
cross with Athyrium, for the author has never heard of a bipinnate-fronded
Asplenium Trichomanes; the bipinnate lower half of the fronds have the pinne
bent, some even at right angles to the frond (as is the case with the variety of
Asplenium Trichomanes that was used in this cross). These pinne being bent at
right angles makes it impossible to show the character with a pressed frond. The
reproductive organs largely imitate Aspleniwm Trichomanes. A portion of the
fronds are not bipinnate, and in these the pinne are very large at the base.
Two plants having this bipinnate character are almost identical, and some
others now approaching maturity will be very similar, whilst others show no
attempt up to the present time to be bipinnate, and these have the large lengthy
pinnee of the sea spleenwort.
2. On more than one Plant from the same Prothallus.
by E. J. Lows, 4S.
Experiments have now contradicted the assertion that only one cell on a pro-
thallus can be impregnated, and that only one plant can be produced.
It must be borne in mind that what holds good in a wild state does not neces-
sarily affect artificial impregnation, 7.e., where the strongest survive, to the
destruction of the weaker. Taking two notable examples, tbe variety wictorie of
the lady fern and the cristatum of the Nephrodium palleaceum, both remarkable
varieties, and now to be seen in every good fernery, have never again been found
growing wild, although by artificial culture they are raised by thousands.
In artificially cultivated plants we have some important instances. In 1885
an Athyrium was inseminated with eight varieties, and amongst the plants three
were found growing so closely together as to be difficult to separate. These
eventually proved to be all alike, and were moreover so remarkable from having
two kinds of fronds (the first instance known in the lady fern) as to make it
certain they were produced on the same prothallus. Ayain, in 1889 there was the
case ofa Scolopendrium, in which four varieties of a Scolopendrium from insemination
produced three plants under similar circumstances, These were also alike, and had
fronds that were undulate, muricate, periferent, and caudate, thetail or horn being
2} inches long and branched.
Further experiments, in which immediately on a frond appearing it was
removed, caused the prothallus to throw out other branches or fronds, which
were as speedily removed; and in this way seven plants resulted from this one
prothallus, but this development was most conclusively shown in the experiment
of dividing and repeatedly subdividing a prothallus, as then forty plants were
obtained, and the prothallus divisions kept healthy for several years, although for
several years previously they had been kept alive and unimpregnated.
3. Results in Experiments in the Cross-fertilising of Plants, Shrubs, and
Trees. By Wm. Saunvers, Director of the Dominion Experimental
Farms.
In this Paper the writer gives an account of the results achieved by experi-
ments conducted by him during the past twenty-five years in the cross-fertilising
of plants, trees, and shrubs. This work has included experiments with different
sorts of wheat, barley, oats, pease, and rye; also with different varieties of the
gooseberry, red currant, white currant, black currant, raspberry, blackberry, grape,
3K 2
868 REPORT—1897.
apple, pear, plum, and cherry, and with several species of ornamental shrubs and
wild flowers.
Among the most interesting results obtained with fruits may be mentioned
some hybrids between the black currant as female and the gooseberry as male,
which show in a very striking manner the influence of both parents. In the
hybrids the leaves are intermediate in form and character. In all but two
instances the leaves have no odour when bruised, and in these the characteristic
odour of the black currant is but faintly perceptible. The flowers also are inter-
mediate in the size of the clusters and the number of flowers on each. Even in
the structure of the pistil the flower partakes of the characteristics of both parents.
In the black currant it is single, short, and robust; in the gooseberry it is long and
slender, and divided to the base; in the hybrid the pistil is cleft halfway down.
Very little fruit has yet been produced, but the berries thus far have been borne
singly, and are of a dull reddish colour.
The gooseberry sawfly, Nematus Ribeswi, which does not eat the foliage of the
black currant, feeds on the leaves of the hybrids; the gooseberry mildew also,
Spherotheca Mors-uve, which does not affect the black currant, attacks these
hybrids. Although these have been raised from seed of the black currant, their
gooseberry characteristics are recognised by both animal and vegetable parasites.
Another interesting hybrid spoken of was the result of a cross between the
Clinton, an improved form of the native wild grape Vitis cordifolia, with Buck-
land’s Sweetwater, a variety of Vitis vinifera. The Clinton produces a bunch
which is small, long, and very compact, with a round black berry, quite acid. The
Sweetwater forms a large loose bunch, and the berries are large, oval, and pale
yellowish green. The hybrid produces large, rather loose, shouldered clusters with
berries oval in form, and of a pale yellowish green colour. In size, form, colour,
and quality the fruit resembles that of the male more than the female parent.
A number of varieties of dark purple raspberries have been produced by cross-
ing the black cap raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, with one of the cultivated forms of the
red raspberry, Rubus strigosus. The former is propagated by emitting roots from the
tips of the pendulous branches when these touch the ground, while the latter sends
up suckers from the running roots. The hybrids have usually rooted from the tips,
but not freely, but in several instances occasional suckers have been sent up from
the roots. The fruit has a flavour which is a striking combination of that of both
arents.
‘ Many crosses have been made during the past three years, using Pyrus baccata
as female, the pollen being obtained from a number of different varieties of the
most hardy Russian apples. Pyrus baccata has proved quite hardy on the north- —
west plains, where all the larger and better sorts of apples have failed, and this
work has been undertaken with the object of securing useful fruits which will be
hardy in the north-west country. With a similar object hybrids have also been
obtained between the sand cherry, Prunus pumila, and the cultivated forms of the
American plum, Prunus americana.
Some very promising varieties of wheat have been originated by crossing the
Ladoga—a Russian sort—with Red and White Fife. One of these, known as
Preston, ripens earlier than Red or White Fife, and in the tests made last season
with a large number of varieties it stood first in productiveness.
Very distinct hybrids have been obtained between two-rowed and six-rowed
barley, some of which are proving commercially valuable. Interesting results have
also been had by crossing different sorts of oats ; also different varieties of pease.
In ornamental shrubs striking hybrids have been produced between two species
of barberry, Berberis Thunbergit, and Berberis vulgaris purpurea, combining the
peculiarities of both parents in flowers, fruit, leaves, and general habit to a
remarkable extent.
4, Ona Hybrid Fern, with Remarks on Hybridity.
By Professor J. B. Farmer.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 869
5. Lhe Morphology of the Central Cylinder in Vascular Plants.
By EK. C. JEFFREY.
There are three main types of fibro-vascular arrangement in plant axes, viz.—
(1) a single so-called concentric aggregation ; (2) several such aggregations, com-
monly, but not always, grouped in a circle; (3) aring of so-called collateral or
bicollateral bundles.
Disregarding the older views, Van Tieghem’s is that the first type is primitive,
and is to be designated monostelic; the second is derived from it by simple
multiplication, and is consequently to be considered as polystelic; the last type
is derived from the first by the segregation of a parenchymatous pith in the
midst of the central vascular core, and the splitting of the resultant fibro-
vascular ring into wedges called fibro-vascular bundles by radiating parenchy-
matous strands, the medullary rays. The last type of stem is according to this
conception monostelic.
The writer considers that this view of the phenomena does not correspond
with morphological facts. In some of the Pteridophyta we have a single vascular
non-medullated axis from which originate the leat-traces. This state of affairs is
found, for example, commonly in the genera Lycopodium and Selaginella. Inmany
ferns the stele becomes a tube just below the origin of the leaf-trace, and this
cylinder breaks open again above the exit of the foliar bundle. This modification
is seen in its simplest form in ferns with sparse leaves and creeping rhizomes, and
the tubulisation of the stele seems to be a mechanical device to strengthen the
slender axis, and to enable it to support its comparatively enormous leaves.
Where the leaves are close ranked and the stem ascends the foliar gaps overlap,
and the stelar cylinder becomes in a transverse section apparently a circle of
separate bundles. In all such cases examined by Le Clerc du Sablon and the
writer, the young stem has a tubular stele. Hven when widely separated the
vascular strands anastomose, so that there results a mechanically efficient fibro-
vascular cylinder. In some genera, for example, Antrophyum and Vittaria, the
internal bast of the stelar tube degenerates, the result being a state of affairs
approximating that found in the Angiosperms with the exception that the pith
freely communicates with the outside. This modification is very marked in
certain Ophioglossaceze and Lepidodendraceze, which will be described at length in
the fuller account which will appear shortly. In the former there is present
sometimes an internal endodermis, although the internal bast has disappeared.
Among the Gleicheniaceze we have in Mertensia the cortex sending parenchy-
matous strands into the vascular axis of the stem down through the channelled
leaf-traces ; in Gleichenia and Platyzoma these are completely cut off from the
outside cortex, and we find an entirely included pith similar to that presented by
Osmunda. The pith of these forms is in reality extrastelar, but no longer com-
municates with the peripheral cortex.
We have a similar series in the Equisetacee, where in the young stem the
vascular axis is not primitively dialydesmic, but gamodesmic, contrary to the
statement of Van Tieghem. The primitive stelar arrangement is a closed tube
with external and internal endodermic, but no internal bast. In the older stem
this condition may be replaced by isolated bundles, surrounded by individual
endodermal sheaths. Often, however, the primitive tube remains intact, and the
internal endodermis disappears, bringing about a disposition quite similar to that
obtaining in the higher plants. It is interesting to note that the Calamitee pre-
aay a still closer resemblance to the latter, owing to the presence of secondary
wood.
The writer proposes for the stelar tube the term siphonostelic; where the
internal as well as external bast is present, the stele is to be described as amphi-
phloic ; where only the external bast is present, ectophloic. Monostelic axes are
to be considered as protostelic, and present a marked contrast to the mechanically
modified siphonostelic axes.
In the Filicales the siphonostelic modification arose in connection with tho
870 REPORT—1897.
support of large leaves, and hence is to be called phyllosiphonic. In the Lyco-
podiales, and probably the Equisetales, it is related to the support of branches,
and hence may be termed cladosiphonic.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum.
Sy Evwarp C. Jerrrey, B.A.
A complete description of the gametophyte of the Ophioglossaceze has long
been a desideratum.
Since the discovery by Mettinius, in 1856, of the subterranean prothallium of
Ophioglossum pedunculosum, and by Hofmeister, in 1857, of that of Botrychium
lunaria, nothing has been added till recently to their necessarily incomplete
accounts of the gametophyte in these species.. Our latest knowledge on this subject
is derived from a brief description of incomplete material of the prothallium of
Botrychium virginianum found in 1893 at Grosse Isle, Michigan, by Professor
Douglas Campbell, which was published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Oxford meeting
of the British Association in 1894, p. 695.
During the summer of 1895 the writer secured a large number of prothallia of
the same species at Little Metisin the Province of Quebec. On examination it was
found that the material thus obtained afforded a complete elucidation of the
development and structure of the antheridia and archegonia, and a less satisfactory
series of stages in the segmentation of the embryo. Last summer the remaining
prothallia were removed to the number of about six hundred ; and, although they
have only been partially studied, owing to technical difficulties in embedding
them, yet those examined have supplied all the lacking stages of the development of
the young sporophyte
It is proposed at the present time to furnish a brief account of the features of
interest ; a fuller description will shortly appear in the ‘Transactions’ of the
Canadian Institute.
The gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum is of flattened oval shape, the
narrower end of the prothallium being terminated by the growing point. My
examples are from two to eighteen millimetres in length, by one and a-half to eight
millimetres inbreadth. Their thickness increases from the growing end backwards.
The sides and lower surface of the prothallium are covered in younger specimens
with multicellular hairs. In older plants these tend to disappear. ‘The middle of
the upper surface is occupied by a well-defined ridge, upon which the antheridia
are situated. The archegonia are found on the declivities which slope away from
the antheridial ridge.
As might be expected, the younger sexual organs are found nearer the growing
point than those of greater age.
A cross section of the prothallium reveals to the naked eye the fact that the
lower part of the gametophyte is composed of tissue which is yellowish in colour,
and from which a thick oil exudes, even when the plant has been lying in 90
per cent. alcohol for months. The upper portion of the prothallium tissue, upon
which the generative organs are situated, is white in colour and free from oil. A
long section of the prothallium shows the same distribution of yellow oil-bearing
and white oil-free tissue as the cross section, but demonstrates that the oil-
beariny stratum is both absolutely and relatively much thicker in the older parts
of the plant.
Microscopic examination shows that the oleiferous tissue has its cells occupied
by an endophytic fungus and a very abundant protoplasm.
The fungus, so far as it has yet been studied, seems to be a sterile Pythiwm,
possibly the same as that found by Treub, Goebel, and others in the prothallium
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION XK. 871
of species of Lycopodium. I hope to investigate the fungus more closely ina
living condition during the next period of vegetation. The fungus filaments
can be seen passing from the prothallium to the outside medium by way of the
root-hairs.
The antheridia, as has been already stated, occur in numbers on a ridge
running lengthwise on the upper surface of the prothallium. The young antheridia
originate behind the growing point from a single superficial cell. This divides
transversely the outer half, giving rise to the outer antheridial wall and the inner
half by repeated simultaneous divisions to a large number of spermatocytes. The
fully developed. antheridium is largely embedded in the antheridial ridge, and
projects only slightly above its surface. The formation of the spermatozoids has
not yet been carefully studied, but seems to resemble closely that described in the
Marattiacez and Equisetacez.,
The spermatozoids are unusually large in size, but otherwise resemble the
ordinary fern type, and consequently differ from the biciliate, moss-like spermato-
zoids of the Lycopodiales.
The archegonia are confined to the sloping sides of the upper surface of the
prothallium. Unlike the antheridia, young archegonia, although most abundant
near the growing point, may be formed on almost any part of the archegonia-
bearing surface. The archegonium mother cell is superficial, and is distinguished
from its neighbours by a larger-nucleus and a more-abundant protoplasm. It first
divides transversely into a shallow outer cell and a deeper inner cell. The inner
cell divides again, and as a result the young archegonium consists of three cells.
The most external of these, by subsequent divisions, gives rise to the neck of the
archegonium. ‘The internal cell is the basal cell. It also divides into a plate of
cells sometimes composed of two layers and distinguished by their richly proto-
plasmic contents. The middle cell of the young archegonium series gives rise by
division to the neck canal cell and the ventral cell. The former becomes binu-
cleate, but never divides into two cells. The latter, just before the maturation of
the archegonium, divides into the egg-cell and the ventral canal cell. The ventral
canal cell is broad, like that of the Marattiacez.
In the ripe archegonium the nucleiof the cellsof the upper storeys of the arche-
gonium neck become chromatolysed. I do not know yet whether this feature is
peculiar to Botrychium.
The fully developed archegonium is sunk into the prothallium, and only the
neck projects above its surface. The cervical cells are in four rows as in the other
Pteridophyta, and the terminal ones spring apart when the egg is ripe.
Spermatozoids are frequently found in contact with the ege. After fertilisation
the egg grows to many times its original size, and the reduced protoplasm contains
a large hydroplastid.
The first division of the oospore is across the long axis of the archegonium.
The next division is parallel with the long axis of the prothallium, and at right
angles to the first. The third cross wall is in the transverse direction of the pro-
thallium, and at right angles to the other two, I have been unable to follow
satisfactorily the subsequent divisions,
The organs appear very late, and only after the embryo has attained a large
size. The root is the first of them to emerge, and the proliferation of cells, indi-
eating its place of origin, is lng unmarked by the presence of an apical cell. The
cotyledon, stem apex, and foot appear nearly simultaneously.
The root and cotyledon originate from the upper part of the embryonic mass ;
the foot and stem apex from its lower cells. .
The apex of the root in many cases is in the same straight line with the canal
of the archegonium neck,
i seems hardly possible to derive the organs from definite octants of the
embryo.
The growth of the root ruptures the calyptra, and its exit is followed somewhat
later by that of the cotyledon. The latter is not a bilaterally symmetrical
structure, as in most ferns, but is of the same palmate type as is found in +he
872 REPORT—1897.
Osmundacete. The cotyledon begins to assimilate as soon as it reaches the surface
of the ground, and thus resembles that of Ophioglossum pedunculosum.
There seems to be no evidence to indicate that more than the cotyledon appears
above ground in the first season of the young plant's growth. In following
summers apparently only a single leaf is produced, as is the case with the older
plant. Ihave found young sporophytes, bearing their sixth leaf, still attached to
the mother prothallium ; and, as I have never found more than one leaf on the
spore plants at once, and as the leaves, like other organs of this species of Botry-
chium, are extremely resistant to decay, I am reasonably certain that such examples
were in the sixth year of their existence. This longevity of the gametophyte is of
some interest.
One frequently finds two sporophytes on a single prothallium, and in many of
these cases the apex of the prothallium is bifurcated. In one case I found two
spore plants which had arisen from a single embryo. In another case I discovered
two tracheids in a prothallium in the vicinity of a decayed young spore plant.
The latter may have been of apogamous origin, as a similar phenomenon generally
accompanies apogamy. I have not yet studied thoroughly the growing region of
the prothallium, as it is best examined in longitudinal sections of the gametophyte.
So far as I have investigated the matter, there seems to be evidence of the existence
of an apical cell.
2. Remarks on Changes in number of Sporangia in Vascular Plants.
By F. O. Bower, F_R.S.
Comparison shows that in certain cases a progressive increase in number of
sporangia has taken place, in others a decrease. ‘The changes may be classified
as follows :—
Increase in number of sporangia.
of (a2) by septation of sporangia.
\ (6) by interpolation of sporangia.
(ce) by continued apical or intercalary growth of the part bear-
Indirectly { ing the sporangia, with or without branching.
(d) by branchings in the non-sporangial region.
Directly
Decrease in number of sporangia.
at (a) by fusion of sporangia.
pony 1% by abortion of Spteaon.
(c) by reduction or arrest of growth or branching of the part
bearing the sporangia.
(2) by suppression of branchings in the vegetative region,
resulting in fewer sporangial shoots.
Indirectly
Probably this does not exhaust the list of modes of modification, but the con-
dition of the individual plant, as we see it in the mature state, may be regarded
as a resultant of modifications such as these, and the morphological problem will
be in each case to assign the due importance to any or all such factors. The
physiological condition of the plant during development may largely determine
the greater or less prominence of any one factor.
An analytical study such as this may help in clearing the problem of the origin
of homosporous Pteridophyta.
3. Notes on Fossil Equisetacee. By A.C.Suwarp, ILA., F.G.S., Cambridge.
The genus Eguisetites, established by Sternberg in 1838, has been used by
several authors as a convenient designation for fossil Equisetaceous stems, which
show a close agreement in external form with the recent Horse-tails, In the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 73
absence of internal structure, and without a knowledge of details, it is better to
adopt the term Equzsctites than to include the fossils in the genus Lguisetwm.
In tracing the geological history of the Equisetaceze it is extremely difficult to
determine how far the evidence warrants the reference of certain Paleozoic fossils
to Lquisetites rather than to the genus Calamites. The fused leaf-segments usually
regarded as characteristic of Equisetites may not be a trustworthy distinguishing
feature. Equisetites Hemingwayi, Kidst, from the English Coal Measures, and other
Permo-Carboniferous species, afford examples of the difficulties of correct determina-
tion. There are certain species of Eguisetites of Mesozoic age which present
characters of special interest, ¢.g., Hquisetites Beanti, E. lateralis, and others. An
examination of several specimens of these forms has led to the conclusion that the
specimens originally described as Calamites Beanii, and afterwards referred to the
Monocotyledous, must be included in the genus Eguisetites. Egquisetites Beanii,
from the Lower Oolite rocks of England, rivalled in size the gigantic Triassic
stems described by Schimper and others from the Vosges Sandstones. Eguisetites
lateralis, regarded by some writers as a form of Phyllotheca or Schizoneura, is, in
all probability, a true Zquisetites, the reference to the former genera being founded
on an incorrect interpretation of certain specimens. The so-called branch scars
of £. lateralis are probably slightly displaced nodal diaphragms. In conclusion
the author refers to specimens described as Phyllotheca from various localities and
geological horizons, and expresses the opinion that in such cases the generic name
LEquisetites would be the mure appropriate designation.
4. On Streptothrix actinomycotica and allied species of Streptothrix.
By Professor E. M. CrooxsHank, J.D.
5. Observations on the Cyanophycee.
By Professor A. B. Macatium, Ph.D.
6. Report upon some Preliminary Experiments with the Rontgen Rays on
Plants. By Guorer F. Arxriyson.
The experiments were conducted for the purpose of testing the effect of the
Nntgen rays on plants exposed during a considerable period of time.
Because of the numerous instances of reported injury to the human body as a
result of exposure to the Réntgen rays, it has been suggested that it might also-
have an injurious influence on plants.
After a few preliminary experiments with leaves of Caladium, flowers of Begonia
and seedlings of corn, wheat, sunflower, radish, german-millet, soja-bean, with
exposures of one to ten hours, in which no perceptible injury resulted, a longer
exposure was made, in which the following seedlings were acted on for a total of
forty-five hours in a dark room: sunflower, wheat, german-millet, nonpareil-bean,
soja-bean, coiton, oats, corn, vetch, pea, and cucumber. A duplicate set was placed:
also in the dark room, but outside the range of the Réntgen rays, as a check upon
the experiment.
On some days a continuous run of fifteen hours was made. During this time
the plants behaved exactly as plants grown in a dark room would. Some of the:
seedlings were at one time or another turned strongly towards the light, and at
other times just as strongly away from it, and these movements were ascribed to-
nutation. At the close of the experiment all the growth which had taken place
in the dark room was etiolated. On removing the seedlings from the dark room
they all became slowly green, but the seedlings which were under the influence of
the Réntgen rays recovered the green colour more slowly, which suggests that this.
light may have some slight injurious effect on the chloroplastids. No other influ-
ence of any kind was noted.
874: REPORT—1897.
Another set of seedlings was then exposed for two days outside of the dark
room. There was no perceptible influence.
The absorption of the Réntgen rays by the plants was then studied. Réntgen
photographs of the seedlings experimented with, as well as of the internal structure
of Arisematriphyllum, Pellandra virginica, fruits of Cycas, Podophyllum peltatum,
“pea, bean, peach, plum, cherries, &c., and of the venation of leaves and internal
parts of flowers were readily obtained ; which shows that, while the rays penetrate
plant tissues, they are also readily absorbed by the same. The lack of injuries or
other influences then cannot be ascribed to non-absorption of the Réntgen rays.
Experiments were also made upon three species of Mucor, on several species of
Bacteria, and on one species of Oscillatoria. No influence was exerted on the
growth or movement of any of the plants experimented with.
INDEX.
References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Jowrnal or Newspaper
where the paper is published in extenso.
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
0.40.6
List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1898, x1.
List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1898, lii.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, liii.
List of evening lectures from 1842, 1xxi.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxiv.
Officers of Sections present at Toronto,
Ixxv.
Officers and Council for 1897-98, Ixxvii.
Treasurer’s account, lxxviii.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, Ixxx.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Toronto, lxxxii.
Resolutions passed by the
Committee at Toronto :
(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, lxxxviii.
(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, xciv.
(3) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, XCVii.
(4) Resolutions referred to the Coun-
cil for consideration, and ac-
tion if desirable, xcvii.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1897, xcviii.
Places of meeting in 1898, 1899 and 1901,
xcix.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, c.
General meetings, cxvi.
Address by the President, Sir John
Evans, K.C.B., Treas. R.S., 3.
General
Abelian functions, the historical develop-
ment of, up to the time of Riemann, Dr.
Harris Hancock on, 246.
ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 75. :
on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 286.
*ACKWORTH (W. M.) on the theory of
railway rates, 746.
*Actinians, the symmetry of, Prof. J. P.
McMurrich on some points in the, 697.
ADAMS (Frank D.) on the structure and
origin of certain rocks of the Laurentian
System, 665.
——— and J. T. NICOLSON on some experi-
ments on the flow of rocks, 642.
(Prof. W.G.) on seismological inves-
tigation, 129.
on practical electrical standards,
206.
*ADDISON (W. L. T.) on the formation of
crystals, 613. ;
*Adze-making in the Andaman Islands,
Prof. A. C. Haddon on, 797.
Africa, the climatology of, Sixth report
on, 409.
African Lake fauna, Report on, 368.
butterflies, theories of mimicry as
illustrated by, Prof, E. B. Poulton on,
689.
Air, the exploration of the, with kites,
A. Lawrence Rotch on progress of,
569.
— C. F. Marvin on, 569.
supply and the fuel supply of the
earth, Lord Kelvin on the, 553.
*Alaska geography and the camera, Otto
J. Klotz on, 724.
*Alcohol-producing enzyme in yeast, the
existence of an, Prof. J. R. Green on,
826, 866.
Alcohols, the nitro-, Prof. Louis Henry
on, 624.
Aldehydes and amides, condensation pro-
ducts of, Dr. C. A. Kohn on, 622.
876
ALDRIDGE (J. G. W.) on the present
tendencies of electric tramway traction,
761.
*ALLEN (H.) on a modern power gas
plant working in a textile factory,
767.
— (J. Romilly) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 452
Alps, the glacial formations of the, Prof.
A. Penck on, 647.
Alternating currents, Demonstrations on
the form of, by Prof. F. Braun, 570.
Amblyopsidz, the blind fish of America,
Dr. C, H. Eigenmann on, 685.
American aborigines, the hut-burial of
the, E. S. Hartland on, 794.
*American-Asiatic contact, Discussion of
evidences of, 795.
Ami (Dr. H. M.) on the state of the
principal museums in Canada and
Nenfoundiand, 62.
—— on some new, or hitherto little
known, Paleozoic formations in North-
eastern America, 657.
Amides and aldehydes, condensation pro-
ducts of, Dr. C. A. Kohn on, 622.
*Anzsthetics, the action of on cardiac
muscle, Miss Welby on, 822.
*Andaman Islands, adze-making in the,
Prof. A. C. Haddon on, 797.
ANDERSON (H. K.) on the functional
activity of nerve cells, 512.
— (Dr. Joseph) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 452.
—— (Dr. Tempest) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 298.
ANDREWS (Prof. W. W.) on reform in
the teaching of chemistry, 601.
on the plaster of Paris method in
blowpipe analysis, 625.
*Annelids, musculo-glandular cells in,
Prof. G. Gilson on, 695.
*Antherozoids, the existence of motile,
in Dictyolacee, J. L. Williams on, 866.
of Zamia integrifolia, H. J. Webber
on, 864.
Anthropology, Address by Sir W. Turner
to the Section of, 768.
Anthropometric measurements in schools,
Report on, 451.
*Antlers of the red deer, a particularly
large set of, G. P. Hughes on, 698.
Appalachians, the former extension of
the, across Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Texas, J. C. Branner on, 643.
Argon, the behaviour of, in X-ray tubes,
Prof. H. L. Callendar and N. N. Evans
on, 553.
—— and helium, Demonstration of the
spectra of, by Prof. W. Ramsay, 611.
Arisaig series of Nova Scotia, a fish tooth
ath the Upper, J. F. Whiteaves on,
*
REPORT—1897.
ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the teaching
of science in elementury schools, 287.
—- on the investigation of “isomeric
naphthalene derivatives, 292.
on the production of haloids from
pure materials, 295.
uk on diagrams illustrating the result
of fifty years’ experimenting on the
growth of wheat at Rothamsted, 865.
Army worm (Leucania unipuncta), the
appearance in 1896 of the, in the pro-
vince of Ontario, Prof. J. Hoyes Panton
on, 695.
Asar (Eskers) of Finland, Prince Kro-
potkin on the, 648.
Astronomical research, the atmosphere in
its effects on, Percival Lowell on, 585.
ATKINSON (George F.) on some pre-
liminary experiments with the Réntgen
rays on plants, 873.
Atlantic, the plankton collected con-
tinuously during a traverse of the, in
August, 1897, Prof. W. Herdman on,
695.
*___.. the North, the surface plankton of,
W. Garstang on, 691.
Atmosphere in its effects on astronomical
research, Percival Lowell on, 585.
Atomic weight of thorium, Prof, B.
Brauner on the, 609.
—— weights of nickel and cobalt, Prof.
T. W. Richards, A. S. Cushman, and
G. P. Baxter on the, 609.
ATWATER (Prof. W. O) and Prof. E. B.
Rosa on an apparatus for verifying the
law of conservation of energy in the
human body, 583.
Australia, Western, some spearheads
made of glass from, Sir W. Turner on,
796
**Australian natives, the brains of, Prof.
A. Macalister on, 790.
AYRTON (Hertha) on the relations between
the electric arc curves and crater ratios
with cored positive carbons, 575.
—-—- (Prof. W. E.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
— and Prof. J. V. JoNES on a deter-
mination of the ohm made in testing
the Lorenz apparatus of the McGill
University, Montreal, 212.
*— and J, MATHER on the use of a
constant total current shunt with
’ ballistic galvanometers, 588.
— on short v. long galvano-
meters for very sensitive zero tests,
588.
%, on the sensibility of galvano-
meters, 588.
BAILEY (Lieut.-Col. F.) on forestry in
India, 714.
—— (L. W.) on some typical sections in
south-western Nova Scotia, 640.
INDEX.
BAKBR (Marcus) on Institutions engaged
in geographic work in the United
States, 718.
BALFourR (Prof. I. Bayley) on the preser-
vation of plants for exhibition, 537.
BAty (E. C. C.), Note on a compound of
mercury and ozone by, 613.
BaR Low (A. E.) and W. F. FERRIER on
the relations and structure of certain
granites and associated arkoses on
Lake Temiscaming, Canada, 659.
BARNES (H. T.) and Prof. H. L. CAL-
LENDAR ona new method of determin-
ing the specific heat of a liquid in
terms of the international electrical
units, 552.
on a simple modification of the
Board of Trade form of the standard
Clark cell, 591.
Barometer, the great Canadian lakes as a
sensitive, F. Napier Denison on, 567.
Barren lands of Canada, J. B. Tyrrell on
the, 720.
BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 362.
Basqguin (O. H.) and H. CREW on the
source of luminosity in the electric
arc, 577.
BATHER (F. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 367.
—— on zoological bibliography and publi-—
cation, 359.
Battery, a new carbon-consuming, and
some new forms of gas batteries, W.
E. Case on, 579.
BAXTER (G. P.), Prof. T. W. RIcHARDs,
and A. §. CUSHMAN on the atomic
weights of nickel and cobalt, 609.
BuARE (Prof. T. H.) on the calibration
of instruments used in engineering
laboratories, 424.
BEAUCHEMIN (Dr. Nerée) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 440.
BEDDOE (Dr. John) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 452.
BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection of /
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 298.
Bees, statistics of, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth
on, 694.
BELL (C. N.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 440.
—— (Dugald) on the erratic blocks of the
British Tsles, 349.
Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on, |
ort on, 219.
Bennettites, Williamsonia, and Zamites
gigas, the possible identity of, A. C.
Seward on, 663.
_ *BENSLEY (R. R.) on secretion in gland
cells, 828.
877
*BENSLEY (R. R.) on the morphology
and physiology of gastric cells, 828.
Benzene-ring, the formation of a, by
reduction of a 1:6 diketon, A. Leh-
mann on, 621.
Berberis vulgaris, the growth of the
mycelium of Zeidium graveolens on,
Prof. P. Magnus on, 859.
BrssEy (Prof. C. E.) on the chimney-
3 boa stomata of Holacantha Emoryi,
—— on the functions of stomata, 861.
—— on the distribution of the native
trees of Nebraska, 862.
*Bibliography of spectroscopy, Interim
report on the, 627.
zoological, and publication, Report
on, 359.
BIGELOw (Prof. F. H.) on the cause of
the semi-annual inversions of the type
solar curve in the terrestrial magnetic
field, 585.
on observations at Toronto with
magnet watch integrator, 586.
BINNIE (Sir A. R.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, Report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 370.
station, a proposed lacustrine,
Prof. R. Ramsay Wright on, 683.
Bird migration in Great Britain and
Treland, Interim report on, 362.
Birds, the hematozoon infection in, W.
G. Macallum on, 697.
Blackfoot legend of Scar-face, R. N.
Wilson on, 788.
sun-offerings, R. N. Wilson on, 789.
—— womanhood, Rev. John Maclean
on, 793. .
BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the structure
of «w coral reef, 297.
on the zoology of the Sandni
Islands, 358. date pi
BLAXELL (Dr. F. R.) and Dr. S. Moncx-
TON COPEMAN on the action of
Buenos on the tubercle bacillus,
Blind fish of America, the Amblyopsidz,
Dr. C. H. Eigenmann on, 685.
Blood, Report on the physiological effects
of peptone when introduced into the
circulating, 531.
—— pressure, the effects upon, produced
by the intravenous injection of fluids
containing choline, neurine, or allied
products, Dr. F. W. Mott and Prof. W.
D. Halliburton on, 826.
—— vessels, the resistance of, Prof. K.
Hiirthle on, 815.
Blowpipe analysis, the plaster of Paris
method in, Prof. W. W. Andrews on,
625.
Board of Trade form of Clark’s cell, a
*
*
878
simple modification of, Prof. H. L. Cal-
lendar and H. T. Barnes on, 591.
Boas (Dr. Franz) on the growth of
Toronto children, 443.
Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 23.
___ on the structure of a coral recf, 297.
on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 298.
—— on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 349.
Botany, Address by Prof. Marshall Ward
to the Section of, 831.
— and xoology of the West India
Islands, Tenth report on the present
state of our knomledge of the, 369.
BorHAMLEY (C. H.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 295.
Botrychium virginianum, the gameto-
phyte of, E. C. Jeffrey on, 870.
BorromueEy (J. T.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 129.
__— on practical electrical standards,
206.
Boulder-clay, the Chalky, and the glacial
phenomena of the western-midland
counties of England, H. B. Woodward
on, 649.
Bourinor (Dr. J. G.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 440.
BourNE (G. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 352.
on the life conditions of the oyster,
363.
on investigations made at the
Marine Biological Association labora-
tory at Plymouth, 370.
Bovey (Prof. H. T.), Experiments on the
strength of white pine, red pine, hem-
lock, and spruce by, 758.
___ and J. T. FARMER on the hydraulic
laboratory of McGill University, 754.
BownitTcu (Prof. H. P.) on the rhythm
of smooth muscles, 809.
BowEk (Prof. F. 0.) on fertilisation m
Pheophycee, 537.
——— on changes in number of sporangia
in vascular plants, 872.
*BowKER (R. R.) on recent reaction from
economic freedom in the United States,
746.
Boyce (Prof. Rubert W.) on the life
conditions of the oyster, 363.
on the pysiological effects of
peptone and itprec ursors when intro-
duced into the circulation, 531.
es and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN on the
presence of copper in animal cells, 827.
BOYLE (David) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 440.
REPORT—1897.
BRABROOK (E. W.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 440.
on the physical and mental defects of
children in schools, 427.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
on anthropometric measurements in
schools, 451.
on the Silchester excavation, 511.
*Brachycephaly, the cause of, Prof. A.
Macalister on, 790.
*BRACKETT (B. B.) the effect of tension
and quality of the metal upon changes
in length produced in iron wires by
magnetisation, 586.
*Brains of Australian natives, Prof. A.
Macalister on the, 790.
BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on seismological
investigation, 129.
on the B. A. screw gauge, 426.
*Branchipus stagnalis, A. Halkett on,
691.
Branner (J. C.) on the former extension
of the Appalachians across Mississippi,
Louisiana, and Texas, 643.
BRAUN (Prof. Dr. F.) on demonstrations
on the form of alternating currents,
570.
*___ on a movement produced by the
electric current, 830.
*BRAUNER (Prof. Bohuslav) on the
chemistry of the rare earth metals,
608.
—— on the chemistry and the atomic
weight of thorium, 609.
BRECKENRIDGE (Dr. B. M.) on local
differences in discount rates in the
United States, 744.
Bromic acid, the reduction of, and the
law of mass action, J. Wallace Walker
and Winifred Judson on, 613.
Brown (Prof. A. Crum) 0 metcoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 219.
Brownz (Dr. C. R.) on the ethnographi-
cal survey of Ireland, 510.
BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 219.
BuckneEy (T.) on the B. A. serew gauge,
426.
Buncu (Dr. J. L.) on the origin, course,
and cell-connections of the viscero-
motor nerves of the small intestine, 513.
Bunsen burner, a new form of, Hugh
Marshall on, 623.
Burton (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 349.
Calibration of instruments used in engi-
neering laboratories, Report on the, 424.
CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on an electrical
method of measuring the temperature
of a metal surface on which steam is
condensing, 422.
INDEX.
CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) and H. T.
BARNES onanew method of determining
the specific heat of a liquid in terms
of the international electrical units,
552.
—— on a simple modification of
the Board of Trade form of the stan-
dard Clark cell, 591.
—— and N. N. Evans on the behaviour
of argon in X-ray tubes, 553.
—— and Prof. J. T. NICOLSON on a new
apparatus for studying the rate of
condensation of steam on a metal sur- |
face at different temperatures and
pressures, 418, 759.
Cambrian rocks of South-western Nova
Scotia, some typical sections of, L.
W. Bailey on, 640.
Cambrian, some characteristic genera of
the, G. F. Matthew on, 657.
—— and pre-Cambrian fossils supposed
to be related to Eozoon, Sir W.
Dawson on certain, 656.
*CAMPBELL (Prof.), notes on Lil@a, 866. |
Canada, ethnological survey of, Lirst
report on an, 440.
t+ Canada, North-Western tribes of the Do-
minion of, Twelfth report on the, 791.
, the climatology, R. I’. Stupart on,
567.
——, Eastern, pre-glacial decay of rocks
in, Robert Chalmers on, 655.
——, the glaciation of north-central, J.
B. Tyrrell on, 662.
——, the barren lands of, J. B. Tyrrell
on the, 720
, the geological survey of, the topo-
graphical work of. J. White on, 721.
*
on the history of, 737.
——, statistics of deaf-mutism in, G.
Johnson on, 739.
—— and the silver question, John
Davidson on, 740.
——, public finance chiefly in relation to,
J. L. McDougall on, 742.
— (1763-1847), crown revenues in
Lower, J. A. McLean on, 742.
*____ some economic notes on gold min-
ing in, by Prof. J. Mavor, 746.
. —— the 14-foot inland navigation of, J.
Monro on the Soulanges canal, a
typical link of, 754
—— and north-east U.S.A.. the species
of Picea in, Prof. D. P. Penhallow on,
862.
and Nenfoundland, the principal
museums in, Report by Dr. H. M. Ami
on, 62.
*Canadian fossils in the Museum of the
School of Practical Science, exhibition
of, 666.
—— and Imperial hydrographic survey,
Prof, A. Johnson on a, 554.
, trade combination in, W. H. Moore |
879
Canadian virgin soils, the composition
of, F. T. Shutt on, 616.
*____ economic history, Prof. A. Shortt,
on characteristics of, 741.
Canal, the Soulanges, a typical link of
the 14-foot inland navigation of Can-
ada, J. Monro on, 754.
CANNAN (Edwin) on national policy and
international trade, 741.
Cape of Good Hope and the Congo, 1482
to 1488, E. G. Ravenstein on the, 717.
CAPPER (Prof. D. 8.) on the calibration
of instruments used in engineering
laboratories, 424.
Carbohydrates of cereal straws, Second
report on the, 294.
Carboniferous rocks, Report on life-zones
in the British, 296.
*Cardiac nerves, the morphological sig-
nificance of the comparative study of,.
Dr. W. H. Gaskell on, 697.
CARRUTHERS (W.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 369.
Caryophyllales, the transition region of,
F. E. Clements on, 864.
CASE (Willard E.) on some new forms
of gas batteries and a new carbon-
consuming battery, 579.
*Cattle, the evolution of the domestic
races of, G. P. Hughes on, 698.
Caves, the Selangor, near Singapore,
Interim report on, 342.
*Cell, the chemistry and structure of
the, Discussion on, 826, 866.
Centres nerveux, la période réfractaire
dans les, Prof. Dr. C. Richet sur, 823.
*Cerebral commissures in the vertebrata,
the morphology of the, Dr. G. Elliot
Smith on, 697.
cortex, the functional development
of in different groups of animals,
Prof. Wesley Mills on, 828.
CHALMERS (Robert) on the pre-glacial
decay of rocks in eastern Canada, 655.
CHAMBERLAIN (Dr. A. F.) on the Koote-
nays and their Salishan neighbours,
792.
— on Kootenay Indian drawings, 792.
CHAMBERLIN (Prof. T. C.) on a group
of hypotheses bearing on climatic
changes, 644.
—— on the distribution and succession
of the Pleistocene ice sheets of
northern United States, 647.
Champlain submergence and uplift, and
their relation to the Great Lakes and
Niagara Falls, F. B. Taylor on the,
652.
*Chemical synthesis, the rationale of,
Prof. R. Meldola on, 826, 866.
Chemistry, Address by Prof. W. Ramsay
to the Section of, 593.
—— reform in the teaching of, Prof.
W. W. Andrews, 601.
880
Childven in schools, the physical and
mental defects of, Report on, 427.
—— the growth of Toronto, Dr. F. Boas
on, 443.
*Chinese climate, slow refrigeration of,
Dr. J. Edkins on, 569.
*Chlorine, some experiments with, R.
Ransford on, 627.
*Chronograph, a cheap, Prof. W. P. Lom-
bard on, 823.
Chronoscope, the pendulum, and acces-
sory apparatus, Dr. E. W. Scripture
on, 824.
CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
Circulation, the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced inte the, Interim report on, 531.
Clark cell, a simple modification of the
Board of Trade form of the, Prof. H. L.
Callendar and H. T. Barnes on, 591.
*Clark’s cell, the cyclical variation with
temperature of the E.M.F. of the H
form of, F. 8. Spiers, F. Twyman, and
W. L. Waters on, 591.
Olassification of fish-like vertebrata, the
determinants for the major, Prof.
Theodore Gill on, 696.
CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 128.
‘CLAYPOLE (Prof. E. W.) on the Palzozoic
geography of the eastern States of
America, 665.
*____ on human relics in the Drift of
Ohio, 796.
CLELAND (Prof. J.) on anthropometric
measurements in schools, 451.
‘CLEMENTS (F. E.) on the zonal consti-
tution and disposition of plant forma-
tions, 863.
on the transition region of the
Caryophyllales, 864.
—— and ROscoE POUND on the vegeta-
tion regions of the Prairie province,
863.
*Climate, Chinese, slow refrigeration of,
Dr. J. Edkins on, 569.
of Europe, Dr. van Rijckevorsel on
the, 566.
‘Climatic changes, a group of hypotheses
bearing on, Prof. T. C. Chamberlin,
644.
as y of Africa, Sixth report on the,
409
ma be, of Canada, R. F. Stupart on the,
567.
CLOWES (Prof. F.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 295.
*Coal, the proximate constituents of,
Interim report on, 608.
Coals, analyses of some Precarboni-
“ahaa Prof. W. Hodgson Ellis on,
REPOR!—1897.
*Coast erosion Committee of the East
Kent and Dover Natural History
Societies, the report of the, Capt. G.
McDakin on, 658.
Coastal plain of Maine, Prof. W. Morris
Davis on the, 719.
Cobalt and nickel, the atomic weights of,
Prof. T. W. Richards, A. 8. Cushman,
and G. P. Baxter on, 609.
COLEMAN (Prof. A. P.) on glacial and
interglacial deposits at Toronto, 650.
Colour-vision, the physiology and psychol-
ogy of, the tricolour lantern for illus-
trating, Dr. E. W. Scripture on, 824.
Columns, the strength of, Prof. G. Lanza
on, 755.
Combination tones, a photographic record
of objective, Prof. A. W. Riicker, NR.
Forsyth, and R. Sowter on, 551.
*Con (Dr. Philip) on recent additions. to
the fish fauna of New Brunswick, 689).
Condensation products of aldehydes and
amides, Dr. C. A. Kohn on, 622.
— of steam, experiments on the, by
Prof. H. L. Callexdar and Prof. J. 7.
Nicolson, 418.
Congo and the Cape of Good Hope, 1482
to 1488, E. G. Ravenstein on the, 717.
Cooker (C. W.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
426.
COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 219.
CorpEMAN (Dr. 8. Monckton) and Dr.
F. R. BLAXELL on the action of
glycerine on the tubercle bacillus, 829,
*Copper in animal cells, the presence of,
Prof. W. A. Herdman and Prof. R.
Boyce on, 827.
Coral reef, Report on the investigation of
the structure of a, 297.
CoORDEAUX (J.)on making a digest of the ob-
servations on the migration of birds, 362.
CoRNISH (Vaughan) on the distribution
of detritus by the sea, 716.
Corresponding Societies Committee :
Report, 23.
Conference at Toronto, 27.
List of Corresponding Societies, 34.
Papers published by Local Societies.
36.
*CORTHILL (EH. L.) on the geographical
development of the Lower Mississippi,
723.
*COULTER (Prof.) on the life history of
Ranunculus, 862.
Cretaceous fossils in Aberdeenshire, Re-
port on, 333.
—— rocks of the South Saskatchewan,
the Lower, some remains of a sepia-
like cuttle-fish from, J. F. Whiteaves
on, 694.
CREW (H.) and V. H. BAsQuin on the
source of luminosity in the electric
arc, 577.
INDEX,
Crick (G. C.) 2 life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
CROMPTON (R. E.) on the B. A. screw
gauge, 426.
*CROOKSHANK (Prof. E. M.) on Strep-
tothrix actinomycotica and allied
species of Streptothriz, 873.
Cross (C. F.) on the carbohydrates of
cereal straws, 294.
Cross-fertilising of plants, shrubs, and
trees, experiments in the, Dr. W.
Saunders on, 867.
Crystallisation, progressive, differentia-
tion in igneous magmas as a result of,
J. J. H. Teall on, 661.
*Crystals, the formation of, W. L. T.
Addison on, 613.
CuNDALL (J. T.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 295.
CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables
of certain mathematical functions, 127.
(Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 452.
~_— on the ethnographical survey of Ire-
land, 510.
3 (G. C.) on the Montreal electric
tramway system, 761.
Cu0Q (Abbé) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 440.
Curve tracer, an electric, Prof. E. B. Rosa
on, 571.
*CUSHING (F. H.) on the genesis of
implement-making, 797.
CUSHMAN (A. 8.), Prof. T. W. RICHARDS,
and G. P. BAXTER on the atomic
weights of nickel and cobalt, 609.
CusHny (Arthur H.) on rhythmical
variations in the strength of the con-
tractions of the mammalian heart, 816.
Cuttle-fish, some remains of a sepia-like,
from the Lower Cretaceous rocks of
the South Saskatchewan, J. F. Whit-
eaves on, 694.
*Cyanophycee, Prof. A. B. Macallum on,
873.
DARWIN (Francis) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
A preliminary account of a new
method of investigating the behaviour
of stomata by, 865.
—— (Prof. G. H.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 129.
—— on the structure of a coral reef, 297.
—— (Horace) on seismological investi-
gation, 129.
DAvIDSON (John) on Canada and the
silver question, 740.
DAvis (Prof. W. Morris) on the coastal
plain of Maine, 719.
—— on geography in the University,
726.
DAVISON (Dr. C,) on seismological inves-
tigation, 129.
1897.
€81
DAWEINS (Prof. Boyd) on the structure
of a coral reef, 297.
—— on Irish elk remains in the Isle of
Man, 346.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
DAWSON (Dr. G. M.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 440.
——, Address to the Section of Geology
by, 628.
—— (Sir W.) on certain pre-Cambrian
and Cambrian fossils supposed to be
related to Eozoon, 656.
Day (Wm. 8.) on a reduction of Row-
land’s value of the mechanical equiva-
lent of heat to the Paris hydrogen
scale, 559.
DEACON (G. F.) on seismological investi-
gation, 129.
——, Address to the Section of Mechani-
cal Science by, 747.
*Deaf-mutism in Canada, statistics of,
G. Johnson on, 739.
Deliquescence and efflorescence of cer-
tain salts, F. P, Dunnington on the,
612.
DENISON (F, Napier) on the Great Lakes
as a sensitive barometer, 567.
DE RANCE (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 349.
Detritus, the distribution by the sea of,
Vaughan Cornish on, 716.
*Devonian fossils from Western Ontario
exhibited by Dr. 5S. Woolverton, 666.
DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 75.
* and Prof. H. MorssaAn on the pro-
perties of liquid fluorine, 611.
Dickson (H. N.) on the climatology of
Africa, 409,
*Dictyolacee, the existence of motile
antherozoids, J. L. Williams on, 866.
*____ on the first ascent of Mount Le-
froy and Mount Aberdeen, 724.
Discount rates in the United States,
local differences in, Dr. R. M. Brecken-
ridge on, 744.
*Discussion on the first traces of man in
America, 666, 796.
*_____ of evidences of American-Asiatic
contact, 795.
*____ of the chemistry and structure of
the cell, 826, 866.
*DIxON (Prof. H. B.) on photographs of
explosive flames, 612.
DopGE (Richard E.) on scientific geo-
graphy for schools, 714.
*DOHRN (Dr. Anton) on the Naples
marine station and its work, 683.
*Dollar, the origin of the, Prof. W. G.
Sumner on, 740.
Dorsey (N. Ernest) on the determina-
tion of the surface tension of water,
3 L
882
and of certain dilute aqueous solutions
by means of the method of ripples, 551.
Dravidian race, the North, linguistic.and
anthropological characteristics of, Re-
port on the, 427.
Drawings, Kootenay Indian, Dr. A. F.
Chamberlain on, 792.
*Drift of Ohio, human relics in the,
Prof. E. W. Claypole on, 796.
—— phenomena of Puget Sound and
their interpretation, Bayley Willis on,
653.
Drumlins, the origin of, Prof. N. §.
Shaler on, 654.
DUDDELL (W.) on an instrument for
recording rapidly varying potential
differences and currents, 575.
Durr (A. Wilmer) on the rate of the
decrease of the intensity of shrill
sounds with time, 583. :
DUNKERLEY (Prof. Stanley) and Prof. J.
A. EwrING, on the specific heat of
superheated steam, 554.
DUNNINGTON (F. P.) on the distribution
of titanic oxide upon the surface of the
earth, 612.
—~—— on the deliquescence and efflores-
cence of certain salts, 612.
Dunstan (Prof. W. R.) on the teach-
ing of science in elementary schools,
287.
—— on the production of haloids from
pure materials, 296.
Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
Report on, 286.
Ear, and lateral line in fishes, F. 8. Lee
on the, 811.
Earth strains and structures, O. H. How-
arth on, 664.
Earthquakes, see Seismological Investiga-
tion.
Earthquakes, submarine, geological
changes due to, John Milne on, 716.
*Hclipse instruments, automatic opera-
tion of, Prof. D. P. Todd on, 585.
*Kconomic choices, the theory of, Prof.
F. H. Giddings on, 746.
—— entomology in the United States,
Dr. L. O. Howard on, 694.
* freedom in the United States,
recent reaction from, R. R. Bowker on,
746.
history of Canada, J. Castell Hop-
kins on, 741.
~ characteristics of the, Prof. A.
Shortt on, 741.
Science and Statistics, Address by
Prof. HE. C. K. Gonner, to the Section
of, 727.
EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on statistics
of bees, 694.
REPORT—1897.
*EDKINS (Dr. J.) on silver and copper
in China, 740.
*____ on the slow refrigeration of the
Chinese climate, 569.
Epmonpson (T. W.) on the disruptive
discharge in air and dielectric liquids,
591.
Education. Reform in the teaching of
chemistry, Prof. W. W. Andrews on,
601.
Efflorescence and deliquescence of cer-
tain salts, F. P. Dunnington on, 612.
EIGENMANN (Dr. C. H.) on the Ambly-
opsidz, the blind fish of America, 685.
Electric alternating currents, demonstra-
tions on the form of, Prof. Dr. F.
Braun on, 570.
arc, the source of luminosity in the,
H. Crew and O. H. Basquin on, 577.
are curves and crater ratios, the
relations between the, with cored
positive carbons, Hertha Ayrton on,
575.
—— curve tracer, Prof. E. B. Rosa on
an, 571.
— discharge in air and dielectric
liquids, the disruptive, T. W. Edmond-
son on, 591.
z rays, electrostatical experiments on
nerve simulating the effects of, Prof.
Jacques Loeb on, 821.
—— spark, constitution of the, Prof. A.
Schuster on the, 557.
*____ tramway system at Montreal, G.
C. Cunningham on the, 761.
—__— ~—— traction, the present tendencies
of, J. G. W. Aldridge on, 761.
—— waves, the use of the interfero-
meter in the study of, G. F. Hull on,
574.
Electrical measurements, experiments for
improving the construction of practical
standards for, Report on, 206.
Appendiz :
I. Note on the constant-volume gas-
thermometer, by G. Carey Foster,
210.
Il. On a determination of the ohm made
in testing the Lorenz apparatus of
the McGill University, Montreal, by
Prof. W. E. Ayrton and Prof. J.
Viriamu Jones, 212.
method of measuring the tempera-
ture of a metal surface on which steam
is condensing, Prof. H. L. Callendar
on an, 422.
oscillator, Nicola Tesla on an, 570.
—— potential differences and currents,
an instrument for recording rapidly
varying, W. Duddell on, 575.
—— units, a new method of determining
the specific heat of a liquid in terms
of the international, Prof. H. L. Cal-
lendar and H. T. Barnes on, 552.
INDEX,
*Flectricity supply meters, some tests on
the variation with temperature and
currents of the constants of, G. W. D.
Ricks on, 766.
Electrolysis and clectro-chemistry, Re-
port on, 227.
Electrolytes, the determination of the
state of ionisation in dilute aqueous
solutions containing two, Prof. J. G.
MacGregor on, 581.
Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana-
lysis, Report on the, 295.
Llectromotive changes in the spinal cord
and nerve roots during activity, Prof.
F.. Gotch and G. J. Burch on, 514.
Eth remains, Irish, in the Isle of Man,
Report on the, 346.
ELLIS (W. G. P.) on a disease of toma-
toes, 861.
(Prof. W. Hodgson) on analyses of
some Precarboniferous coals, 620.
Ets (R. W.) on problems in Quebec
geology, 640.
ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B. A.
screw gauge, 426.
ELwortny (F. T.) on some old-world
harvest customs, 789.
Energy, the law of conservation of, in
the human body, Prof. W. O. Atwater
and Prof. E. B. Rosa on an apparatus
for verifying, 583.
Engineering laboratories, calibration of
instruments used in, Report on, 424.
Entomology, economic, in the United
‘States, Dr. L. O. Howard on, 694.
Eozoon, certain Cambrian and pre-Cam-
brian fossils supposed to be related to,
Sir W. Dawson on, 656.
Equation, the cubic, Alex. Macfarlane
on the solution of, 560.
—— the quinquisection of the cyclo-
tomic, J. C. Glashan on, 562
Equisetacee, fossil, A. C. Seward on,
872.
Erratic blocks of the British Isles, Report
on the, 349.
ERRERA (Prof. L.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 537.
Esocide (or Luciidz) of Canada. Prof.
E. E. Prince on the, 688.
Ethnographical survey of the United King-
dom, Fifth report on an, 452.
Appendix :
I. Further Report on Folklore in
Galloway, Scotland, by the late Rev.
Walter Gregor, LL.D., 456.
Il. Report on the Ethnography of
Wigtownshire and Kirkcudbright-
shire, 500.
Ill. Report of the Cambridge Com-
mittee for the Ethnographical Survey
of Bast Anglia, 503.
IV. Observations on Physical Charac-
teristics of Children and Adults
883
taken at Aberdeen, tn Banffshire
and in the Island of Lens, 506.
V. Anthropometric Notes onthe Inhab-
itants of Cleckheaton, Yorkshire,
507.
VI. Report of the Committee on the
Ethnographical Survey of Ireland,
510.
Ethnological Survey of Canada, First
report on an, 440.
Appendia :
I. The growth of Toronto children, by
Dr. Franz Boas, 443.
II. The ovigin of the Freneh Cana-
dians, by B. Sulte, 449.
Eurasia, the direction of lines of struc-
ture in, Prince Kropotkin on, 722.
EVANS (Arthur J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 452.
on the Silchester excavation, 511.
——(Sir John), Presidential Address
by, 3.
on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 23.
(N. N.) and Prof. H. L. CALLEN-
DAR on the behaviour of argon in X-
ray tubes, 553.
EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
*Ewarr (Prof. J. Cossar) on the trans-
mission of acquired characters, 796.
Ewine (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 129.
on the calibration of instruments
used in engineering laboratories, 424.
—— and Prof. STANLEY DUNKERLEY on
the specific heat of superheated steam,
554.
*Explosive flames, photographs of, Prof.
H. B. Dixon on, 612.
*Hye, the function of the canal of Still-
ing in the vitreous humour of the,
Prof. Anderson Stuart on, 820.
—— the reaction of the, to intermittent
stimulation, O. F. F. Griinbaum on, 828.
FAIRCHILD (H. Le Roy) on the glacial
geology of western New York, 664.
FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 537.
on the preservation of plants for
exhibition, 537.
*—_ on a hybrid fern with remarks on
hybridity, 868.
(J. T.) and Prof. H. T. BovEY on
the hydraulic laboratory of McGill
University, 754.
FAWCETT (Hon. P.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
Ferns, the insemination of, and specially
on the production of an athyrioid
Asplenium Trichomanes, E. J. Lowe on,
866.
3L2
884
*Ferratin and hemoglobin, internal
absorption of, F, W. G. Mackay on,
828.
FERRIER (W. F.) and A. E. BARLOW on |
the relations and structure of certain
granites andassociated arkoseson Lake
Temiscaming, Canada, 659.
*Ferrier collection of minerals in the
Biological Museum,Toronto, Exhibition
of the, 666.
Finance, public, chiefly in relation to
Canada, J. L. McDougall on, 742.
Finland, the dsar (eskers) of, Prince
Kropotkin on, 648.
Fish fauna of Hudson Bay, Prof. E. E.
Prince on, 687.
*____of New Brunswick, recent addi-
tions to the, Dr. Philip Con on, 689.
tooth from the Upper Arisaig series
of Nova Scotia, J. F. Whiteaves on,
656.
Fishes, the ear and lateral line in, F. S.
Lee on, 811. /
FITZGERALD (Prof, G. F.) on practical
electrical standards, 206.
FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 206.
on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
227.
FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
+FLETCHER (Miss Alice C.) on the scalp-
lock: a study of Omaha ritual, 788.
on the import of the totem among
the Omaha, 788.
FLETCHER (A. E.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 295.
FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on the Selangor
caves, Singapore, 342.
on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 352.
—— on zoological bibliography and pub-
lication, 359.
—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 367.
Fluorine, demonstration of the prepara-
tion and properties of, by Prof. E.
Meslans, 611.
*____ the properties of liquid, Prof. H.
Moissan and Prof. J. Dewar on, 611.
Folklore in Gallomay, The late Rev. Dr.
W. Gregor on, 456.
Foorp (A. H.) on life zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
Forsres (G.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
—— (H. 0.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 297.
— on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 352.
on the migration of birds in Great
Britain and Treland by, 362.
REPORT—1897.
*FORBES (H. O.) on the physical charac-
teristics of Kuropean colonists born in
New Zealand, 791.
Forestry in India, Lieut.-Col. F. Bailey
on, 714.
ForsytTH (Prof. A. R.), Address to the
Section of Mathematical and Physicat
Science by, 541.
—— (R.), Prof. A. W. RUcksr, and R.
SOWTER on a photographic record of
objective combination tones, 551.
*Fossil plants, Lecture by A. C. Seward
on, 866.
Foster (A. Le Neve) on the B. A. screw
gauge, 426.
— (Dr. C. Le Neve) on the structure
of a coral reef, 297.
(Prof. G. C.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
on the constant-volume gas thermo-
meter, 210.
—— (Prof. M.), Address to the Section of
Physiology by, 798.
Fox (H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy) on the elec-
trolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 295.
* FREER (Prof. P. C.) on the constitution
of aliphatic ketones, 621.
French Canadians, the origin of the, B.
Sulte on, 449.
Fuel supply and the air supply of the
earth, Jord Kelvin on the, 553.
Fungus, a wood-destroying, Sterewm hir-
sutum, Prof. H. Marshall Ward on, 860.
Galloway, The late Rev. Dr. W. Gregor
on folk-lore in, 456.
GALTON (Sir Douglas) on the work of |
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
23.
—— on the physical and mental defects
of children in schools, 427.
—— (Francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 23.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
*Galvanometer, tangent,
Thompson on, 557.
*Galvanometers, the use of a constant
total current shunt with ballistic, Prof.
W. HE. Ayrton and J. Mather on, 588.
*___, the sensibility of, Prof. W. E.
Ayrton and J. Mather on, 588.
*___, short v. long, for very sensitive
zero tests, Prof. W. E. Ayrton and J.
Mather on, 588.
Gametophyte of Botrychiwm
anum, Ki. C. Jeffrey on, 870.
*GANNETT (Henry) on the material con-
ditions and growth of the United
States, 725.
Prof vss ge:
virgini-
INDEX.
GARDINER (W.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 537.
GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 23.
—— onthe physical and mental defects
of children in schools, 427.
on anthropometric measurements in
schools, 451.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
*GARSTANG (W.) on the surface plankton
of the North Atlantic, 691.
*____ on recapitulation in development,
as illustrated by the life history of the
masked crab ( Corystes), 695.
GARWOOD (E. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 298.
Gas burner, Bunsen, a new form of,
Hugh Marshall on, 623.
plant, a modern power, working in
a textile factory, H. Allen on, 767.
GASKELL (Dr. W. H.) on the functional
activity of nerve cells, 512.
on the morphological significance
ef the comparative study of cardiac
nerves, 697.
on the comparative physiology of
the cardiac branches of the vagus
nerve, 816.
*Gastric cells, the morphology and
physiology of, R. R. Bensley on, 828.
+-— inversion of cane sugar by hydro-
chloric acid, Prof. G. Lusk on the, 821.
Gauge for small screws, the British
Association. See ‘Screw Gauge.
GBEIKIB (Sir Archibald) on the structure
of a coral reef, 297.
— (Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 298.
Geographic work of the U.S.A. Geogra-
phical Survey, C. V. Walcott on, 720.
—— work of the United States Coast
and Geodetic Survey, T. C. Menden-
hall on the, 719.
—— work in the United States, Institu-
tions engaged in, Marcus Baker on,
718.
Geographical classification, a scheme of,
Dr. H. R. Mill on, 715.
—— pictures, Dr. H. R. Mill on, 725.
—— wall-pictures, Prof. A. Penck on,
725.
Geography, Address by Dr. J.S. Keltie
to the Section of, 699.
—— Report on the position of, in the
educational system of the country, 370.
—— for schools, scientific, R. E. Dodge
on, 714.
-~—in the University, Prof. W. M.
Davis on, 726.
*
*
%
885
Geography of Rhodesia, the economic, F.
C. Selous on, 721, *746.
Geological changes, certain submarine,
John Milne on, 716.
*___ photographs, British, exhibition of
a collection of, 666.
Survey of Canada, the topographi-
cal work of the, J. White on, 721.
work in the province of Quebec
since 1827, R. W. Ells on, 640.
Geology, Address by Dr. G. M. Dawson
to the Section of, 628.
GipBs (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 75.
GIBSON (Prof. Harvey) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee@, 537.
*GIDDINGS (Prof. F. H.) on the theory of
economic choices, 746.
*GILBERT (G. K.), Remarks introductory
to the excursion to Niagara Falls and
Gorge by, 653.
GILL (Deemster) on Irish Elk remains
in the Isle of Man, 346.
——(J. L. W.) on a new metaod of
measuring hysteresis in iron, 762.
-_— (Prof. Theodore) on the determin-
ants for the major classification of
fish-like vertebrates, 696.
— on the derivation of the pectoral
member in terrestrial vertebrates, 697.
GILMAN (Prof. N. P.) on recent aspects
of profit sharing, 738.
GILPIN (Dr. E.) on the geological hori-
zons of some Nova Scotia minerals, 663.
*GILSON (Prof. Gustave) on musculo-
glandular cells in annelids, 695.
Glacial epoch, the continental elevation
of the, J. W. Spencer on, 651.
—— formations of the Alps, Prof. A.
Penck on, 647. ~
--— geology of western New York,
H. Le Roy Fairchild on the, 664.
—— and interglacial deposits at Toronto,
Prof. A. P. Coleman on, 650.
phenomena and the Chalky Boulder-
clay of the western-midland counties
of England, H. B. Woodward on the,
649.
Glaciation of north-central Canada, J. B.
Tyrrell on the, 662.
GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 287.
(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 287.
and W. HIBBERT, Continuation of
experiments on chemical constitution
and the absorption of X rays by, 611.
GLAISHER (Dr. J. W. L.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 127.
*Gland cells, secretion in, R. R. Bensley
on, 828.
GLASHAN (J. C.) on the quinquisection
of the cyclotomic equation, 562,
886
*Glass plates, an experiment with a
bundle of, Prof. S. P. Thompson on, 557.
}Glastonbury, the Lake Village of, Dr.
R. Munro on, 789.
GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
Glycerine, the action of, on the tubercle
bacillus, Dr. S. Monckton Copeman
and Dr. F. R. Blaxell on, 829.
GopMAN (F. Du C.) on the present state
of our knonledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 369.
*Gold mining in Canada, some economic
notes on, by Prof. J. Mavor, 746.
Gold ores containing tellurium, the cause
of loss incurred in roasting, Dr. T. K.
Rose on, 623.
GONNER (Prof. E. C. K.), Address to the
Section of Economic Science and Sta-
tistics by, 727. :
GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 298.
GotcH (Prof. F.) on the. functional
activity of nerve cells, 512.
—— and G. J. BuRCH on electromotive
changes in the spinal cord and nerve
roots during activity, 514.
Granite and associated arkoses on Lake
Temiscaming, Canada, the relations
and structure of certain, W. F. Ferrier
and A. E. Barlow on, 659.
GRAY (W.) on the eollection of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 298.
GREEN (Prof. J. R.) on the preservation
of plants for exhibition, 537.
bs on the existence of an alcoho}-pro-
ducing enzyme in yeast, 826, 866.
GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of
certain mathematical funetions, 127.
GREGOR (The late Rev. Dr. W.) on folk-
lore in Galloway, 456.
GREGORY (J. W.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
—— on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
227.
*GRUNBAUM (O. F. F.) on the muscle-
spindles in pathological conditions,
811.
on visual reaction to intermittent
stimulation, 828.
GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L.G.) on the zoology
and botany of the West Endia Islands,
369.
Guppy (H.B.) on the structure of a coral
reef, 297.
HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 297,
REPORT—1897.
HADDON (Prof. A.C.) on the necessity for
the immediate investigation of the bio-
logy of oceanic islands, 352
on an ethnological survey of Canada,
440,
—— on the linguistic and anthropological
characteristics of the North Dravidian
and Kolarian races, 427.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452, 503, 510.
5 on the evolution of the cart and
Irish car, 795.
on adze-making in the Andaman
Islands, 797.
*HADLEY (Prof. A. T.) on some fallacies
in the theory of the distribution of
wealth, 740.
Heematozoon infections in birds, W. G.
Macallum on, 697.
*Hemoglobin and ferratin, internal ab-
sorption of, F. W. G. Mackay on, 828.
*HAGAR (Stansbury) on star-lore of the
Micmacs of Nova Scotia, 789.
HAuN (Dr. Otto) on meteorites, solid
and gelatinous, 569.
HALE (G. E.) on the Yerkes observatory,
586.
——(W. H.) on the evolution of the
Metropolis, and problems in metro-
politan government in New York, 743.
*HALIBURTON (R. G.) on November
meteors and November floods, 569.
*HALKETT (A.) on Branchipus stag-
nalis, 691.
HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on the
Sunetional activity of nerve cells, 512.
—— and Dr. F. W. Mort on the effects
upon blood pressure produced by the
intravenous injection of fluids contain-
ing choline, neurine, or allied pro-
ducts, 826.
Haloids, the production of, from pure
materials, Final report on, 295.
HAMPSON (Sir G. F.) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 369.
HANcOocK (Dr. Harris) on the historical
development of Abelian functions up to
the time of Riemann, 246.
HANITSCH (Dr. R.) on the Selangor caves,
Singapore, 342.
*Harmonie analyses, new, Prof, A. A.
Michelson and S. W. Stratton on, 562.
HARRISON (Rev. S. N.) on the erratic
. blocks of the British Isles, 349.
HARTLAND (H. Sidney) on the linguistic
and anthropological characteristics of
the North Dravidian and Kolarian
races, 427.
on an ethnological survey of Canada,
440.
onan ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
— on the hut-burial of the American
aborigines, 794.
° INDEX.
HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 75. |
Harvest customs, some old-world, F. T.
Elworthy on, 789.
HARVEY (Arthur) on magnetic perio-
dicity as connected with solar physics,
587.
HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 362.
HAUGHTON (The late Dr. 8S.) on the
ethnographical survey of Ireland, 510.
HAWKSHAW (J. C.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
HAYORAFT (Prof. J. B.) on the fune-
tional activity of nerve cells, 512.
Heart, Observations on the mammalian,
by W. T. Porter, 814.
—— the output of the mammalian,
Dr. G. N. Stewart on, 813.
rhythmical variations in the
strength of the contractions of the
mammalian, A. H. Cushny on, 816.
Heat, a reduction of Rowland’s value of
the mechanical equivalent of, to the
Paris hydrogen scale, W. 8. Day on,
559.
*Helium, Prof. W. Ramsay on, 608.
*___ and _ argon, Demonstration of
the spectra of, by Prof. W. Ramsay,
611.
HENRICI (Prof. O.) on a notation in
vector analysis, 560.
HENRY (Prof. Louis) on the nitro-alco-
hols, 624.
HERBERTSON (A. J.) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 370.
HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the necessity
Sor the immediate investigation of the
biology of oceanic islands, 352.
—— on the occupation of a table ut the
Zoological Station at Naples, 353.
— on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 359.
—— on the life conditions of the oyster,
363.
—— on African Lake fauna, 368.
—— on the plankton collected con-
tinuously during a traverse of the
Atlantic in August, 1897, 695.
*____ and Prof. RUBERT Boyce on the
presence of copper in animal cells,
827.
*Heredity, Prof. J. C. Ewart on the
transmission of acquired characters,
796.
Hero of the Ntlakapamugq, B. C., Squak-
tktquaclt, C. Hill-Tout on, 788.
HEwitt (C. J.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
426.
HIBBERT (W.) and Dr. J. H. Guap-
STONE, Continuation of experiments
887
on chemical constitution, and the
absorption of X rays by, 611.
Hicks (Dr. H.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
— (Prof. W. M.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 127.
Hickson (Prof. 8S. J.) on the structure
of a coral reef, 297.
on the occupation of a table at the
Loological Station at Naples, 353.
on the present state of our know-
ledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 358.
HI (R. T.) on the stratigraphical suc-
cession in Jamaica, 642.
HiLu-Tour (C.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 440.
——-on Squaktktquaclt, or the benign-
faced Oannes of the Ntlakapamugq,
British Columbia, 788.
ma on the Indians of British Colum-
bia, historical and philological notes,
791.
HILTON-PRICE (F. G.) on an _ ethno-
graphical survey of the United King-
dom, 452.
HIND (Dr. Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
HINDE (Dr. G. J,) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
HITCHCOCK (C. H.) on the southern lobe
of the Laurentian ice-sheet, 653.
Houtmes (T. V.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
23.
HopkKINs (J. Castell) on the economic
history of Canada, 741.
HOPKINSON (Dr. J.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 206.
(J.) on the work of the Correspond-
ing Societies Committee, 23.
on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 128.
— on monthly and annual rainfall in
the British Empire, 1877 to 1896, 564.
HORNE (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 349.
HOWARD (Dr. L. O.) on economic ento-
mology in the United States, 694.
HOWARTH (0. H.) on earth strains and
structures, 664.
—— on Mexico Felix and Mexico De-
serta, 724.
Howes (Prof. G. B.) on African Lake
Fauna, 368.
HowortH (Sir Henry) on an ethno-
graphical survey of the United Kingdom,
452.
Hoye (W. E.) on the occupation of
@ table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 353.
—— on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 359.
888
HRDLICKA (Dr. A.) and W. C. LUMHOLTZ
on a case of trepanning in North-
Western Mexico, 790
HuBER (Prof. G. Carl) on the com-
parative physiology of the cells
of the sympathetic nervous system,
822.
—— and Mrs. DE WITT on the innerva-
tion of motor tissues, with especial
reference to mnerve-endings in the
sensory muscle-spindles, 810.
Hudson Bay, sea-trout, caplin, and
sturgeon from, Prof. E. E. Prince on,
687.
=HuGHEs (G. P.) on a particularly large
set of antlers of the red deer ( Cervus
élaphus), 698.
*____ on the evolution of the domestic
races of cattle, with particular refer-
ence to the history of the Durham
short-horn, 698. .
Huu (Prof. E.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 349.
— (G. F.) on the use of the inter-
ferometer in the study of electric
waves, 574.
*Human relics in the Drift of Ohio,
Prof, E. W. Claypole on, 796.
progress: why it is in leaps, G.
Tles on, 796.
HuUMMEL (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light wpon dyed colours, 286.
HUMPHREYS (W. J.) on changes in the
wave-frequencies of the lines of
emission spectra of elements, 556.
HURTHLE (Prof. K.) on the resistance
of vascular channels, 815.
Hut-burial of the American aborigines,
E. S. Hartland on the, 794.
*Hybridity, Remarks by Prof. J. B.
Farmer on, 868.
Hydraulic Laboratory of McGill Univer-
sity, Prof. H. T. Bovey and J. T.
Farmer on the, 754.
*Hydrogen in minerals, the occurrence
of, M. W. Travers on, 610.
Hydrographic survey, a Canadian and
Imperial, Prof. A. Johnson on, 554.
Hydrography of the United States,
F. H. Newell on the, 719.
Hysteresis in iron, a new method of
measuring, J. L. W. Gill on, 762.
Ice sheet, the southern lobe of the
Laurentian, C. H. Hitchcock on, 653.
Igneous magmas, differentiation in, as a
result of progressive crystallisation,
J. J. H. Teall on, 661.
ILES (George) on human progress; why
it is in leaps, 796.
*Implement-making, the genesis of, F.
H. Cushing on, 797.
Index generwm et specierum animalium,
REPORT—1897,
Report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 367.
India, forestry in, Lieut.-Col. F. Bailey
on, 714.
*Indians of British Columbia, Historical
and philological notes by C. Hill-Tout
on the, 791.
Indians, see ‘ Kootenays,’ ‘*Seri,’ ‘ Tre-
panning,’ ‘*Micmacs,’ ‘ Blackfoot,’
‘*Totem,’ ‘Omaha,’ ‘Squaktktquaclt.’
*Induction, coefficient of mutual, of
a circle and a co-axial helix, Prof.
J. V. Jones on the calculation of the,
575.
Innervation of motor-tissues, Prof. G. Carl
Huber and Mrs, de Witt on the, 810.
*Insect structure, a supposed new, Prof.
L. C. Miall on, 695.
*Instinct, the natural history of, Prof.
C. Lloyd Morgan on, 697.
*___ the physiology of, Prof. C. Lloyd
Morgan on, 829.
Interferometer, the use of the, in the
study of electric waves, G. F. Hull on,
574.
Intestine, the absorption of serum in
the, Prof. E. Waymouth Reid on, 817.
*Intracellular structures and organs, new
views on the significance of, Prof, A. B.
Macallum on, 826, 866.
Intravenous injection of fluids containing
choline, neurine, or allied fluids, the
effects upon blood-pressure produced
by the, Dr. F. W. Mott and Prof. W. D.
Halliburton on, 826.
Jonisation, the determination of the state
of, in dilute aqueous solutions contain-
ing two electrolytes, Prof. J. G. Mac-
Gregor on, 581.
*Jrish car and cart, the evolution of the,
A. C, Haddon on, 795.
Iron, a new method of measuring hys-
teresis in, J. L. W. Gill on, 762.
.-—, the variation with temperature of
the magnetic qualities of, a new mode
of investigating. F. H. Pitcker on, 763.
-_—, the distribution of, in animal and
vegetable cells Prof, A. R, Macallum
on, 827.
Isle of Man, Trish elk remains in the,
Report on the, 346.
Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, Tenth
report on the investigation of, 292.
Jacobi’s theory of the last multiplier, a
kinematic representation of, J. Larmor
on, 562.
Jamaica, the stratigraphical succession
in, R. T. Hill on, 642.
JAMIESON (T. F.) on Cretaceous fossils
found near Moreseat, Aberdeenshire,
333.
JEFFREY (E. C.) on the morphology of
INDEX,
the central cylinder in vascular plants,
869.
JEFFREY (E. C.) on the gametophyte of
Botrychium virginianum, 870.
*JENKINS (H. C.) on the behaviour of
lead and of some lead compounds to-
wards sulphur dioxide, 624.
*Jesup expedition to the North Pacific,
Prof. F. W. Putnam on the, 795.
JOHNSON (Prof. Alex.) on a Canadian
and Imperial hydrographic survey, 554.
*____(G.) on statistics of deaf-mutism
in Canada, 739.
JONES (Prof.J. Viriamu) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
*____ on the calculation of the coefficient
of mutual induction of a circle anda
co-axial helix, 575.
—— and Prof. W. E. AYRTON on a de-
termination of the ohm made in testing
the Lorenz apparatus of the Me Gill
University, Montreal, 212.
—— (Prof. T. Rupert) on the Phyllopoda
of the Paleéozoic rocks, 343.
JUDD (Prof. J. W.) on the structure of a
eoral reef, 297.
JUDSON (Winifred) and J. WALLACE
WALKEER on the reduction of bromic
acid, and the law of mass action, 613.
JUKES-BROWNE (A. J.) on Cretaceous
fossils found near Moreseat, Aberdeen-
shire, 333, 337.
Kafiristan and the Kafirs,
Robertson on the, 712, *796.
*Kathode rays, Prof. S. P. Thompson on
new varieties of, 555.
KELLOGG (J. H.) on a dynamometric
study of the strength of the several
groups of muscles, and the relation of
corresponding homologous groups of
muscles in man, 812.
KELTIE (J. Scott) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
this country, 370.
—— Address to the Section of Geography
by, 699.
KELVIN (Lord) on tables of certain mathe-
matical functions, 127.
on seismological investigation, 129.
on practical electrical standards,
206.
on the B. A. serew gauge, 426.
on the fuel supply and the air
supply of the earth, 553.
KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on life-zones in
the British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
—— on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 349.
KENNEDY (Prof. A. B. W.) on the cali-
bration of instruments used in engineer-
ing laboratories, 424.
Sir G. S.
889
KERMODE (P. M. C.) on Irish elk remains
in the Isle of Man, 346.
*Ketones, the constitution of aliphatic,
Prof. P. C. Freer on, 621.
KIDSTON (R.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 298.
Kigk (Sir John) on the climatology of
Africa, 409.
KIRKLEY (J. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
Kites, exploration of the air with kites,
A. Lawrence Rotch on the, 569.
——- for meteorological uses, C. F, Marvin
on, 569.
*KLOTZ (Otto J.) on south-eastern Alaska
geography and the camera, 724.
Knott (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 129.
KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 362.
Koun (Dr. C. A.) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 295.
—on condensation products of alde-
hydes and amides, 622.
*—— on the electrolytic determination
. of copper and iron in oysters, 624.
Kootenay Indian drawings, Dr. A. F.
Chamberlain on, 792.
Kootenays and their Salishan neighbours,
Dr. A. F. Chamberlain on the, 792.
KROPOTKIN (Prince) on the dsar (eskers)
of Finland, 648.
—— on the direction of lines of structure
in Eurasia, 722.
*Lacustrine biological station, a proposed,
Prof. R. Ramsay Wright on, 683.
LAFLAMME (Merv. J.- C. K.) sur Vinfluence
dun éboulement sur le régime d’une
riviére, 658.
Lake fauna, African, Report on, 368.
Lakes, the great, as a sensitive barometer,
F. Napier Denison on, 567.
LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
—— on Trish elk remains in the Isle of
Man, 346.
Landslip, the influence of a, on the régime
of a river, Mgr. J.- C. K, Laflamme on,
658.
LANGLEY (Dr. J.N.) on the functional
activity of nerve cells, 512.
LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the occu-
pation of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 353.
on African lake fauna, 368.
—— on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
370.
890 |
Lantern, the tricolour, for illustrating the |
physiology and psychology of colour-
vision, Dr. E. W. Scripture on, 824.
LANZA (Prof. Gaetano) on the strength
of columns, 755.
LAPWORTH (Prof. C.) on the structure of
a coral reef, 297.
LARMOR (J.) on the influence of pressure
on spectral lines, 555
|
—on a kinematic representation of
Jacobi’s theory of the last multiplier,
562.
Lateral line and ear in fishes, F. 8. Lee
on the, 811.
Laurentian ice sheet, the southern lobe
of the, C. H. Hitchcock on the, 653.
—— system, the structure and origin of
certain rocks of the, Frank D. Adams
on, 665.
*Lead and of some lead compounds, the
behaviour of, towards sulphur dioxide,
H. C. Jenkins on, 624.
LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on seismological
investigation, 129.
on life-zones in the British Carbon-
iferous rocks, 296.
LEE (Frederic 8.) on the ear, and the
lateral line in fishes, 811.
LEHMANN (A.) on the formation of a
benzene-ring by reduction of a 1:6
diketon, 621.
Life-zones in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 296.
Light, the action of, upon dyed colours,
Report on, 286.
*Lilea, notes by Prof. Campbell on,
866.
Linguistic and anthropological character-
istics of the North Dravidian and
Kolarian races, Report on the, 427.
Lithium and other salts, notes on con-
centrated solutions of, by J. Waddell,
613.
LIVEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 75.
Lioyp (F. Seymour) and Dr. A. D.
WALLER on histological changes in me-
dullated nerve fibre after treatment with
the vapours of ether and chloroform,
and with carbonic acid gas, 520.
*LLOYD-MoRGAN (Prof. C.) on the natu-
ral history of instinct, 697.
*____ on the physiology of instinct, 829.
LOocKYER (Sir J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 75.
LopceE (Prof. A.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 127.
(Dr. O. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
on Zeeman’s discovery of the
effects of magnetism on spectral lines,
588.
*
REPORT—1897.
*LoEB (Prof. Jaques) on electrostatical
experiments on nerve simulating the
effects of electric rays, 821.
Lomas (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 349.
*LOMBARD (Prof. W. P.) on a cheap
chronograph, 823.
*____ on the effect of frequency of ex-
citatious on the contractility of
muscle, 812.
Lowe (E. J.) on the insemination of
ferns, and specially on the production
of an athyrioid Aspleniwm Tricho-
manes, 866.
on more than one plant from the
same prothallus, 867.
LOWELL (Percival) on the atmosphere in
its effects onastronomical research,585.
LuBBock (Sir John) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 287.
LUMHOLTZ (W. Carl) and Dr. A. Hrp-
LICKA on a case of trepanning in
North-Western Mexico, 790.
| *LUMSDEN (C. E.) on the unification of
time at sea, 720.
Lusk (Prof. Graham) on the gastric in-
version of cane-sugar by hydrochloric
acid, 821.
MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on anthropo-
metric measurements in schools, 451.
ig on the cause of brachycephaly,
790.
*___ on the brains of some Australian
natives, 790.
*MACALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on new views
on the significance of intracellular
structures and organs, 826.
*___ on the distribution of iron in
animal and vegetable cells, 827.
*_._ on the origin and significance of
intracellular structures, 866.
* on Cyanophycee, 873.
(W. G.) on the hematazoon infec-
tions in birds, 697.
*McDAKIN (Capt. 8. G.) on the Report of
the Coast Erosion Committee of the
East Kent and Dover Natural History
Societies, 658.
*MACDONALD (J. R.) on economic as-
pects of the Workmen’s Compensation
Bill, 746.
McDovuGauu (J. L.) on public finance,
chiefly in relation to Canada, 742.
MACFARLANE (Alex.) on the solution of
the cubic equation, 560.
*McGEE (Dr. W. J.) on some cases of
trepanning in early American skulls,
790.
* on the Seri Indians of the Gulf of
California, 791.
McGill University, the hydraulic Labora-
tory of, Prof. H. T. Bovey and J. T.
Farmer on, 754.
INDEX.
MacGree@or (Prof. J. G.) on the deter-
mination of the state of ionisation in
dilute aqueous solutions containing
two electrolytes, 581.
M‘IntTosH (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 353.
*Mackay (F. W. G.) on internal absorp-
tion of hemoglobin and ferratin, 828.
*McKay (J. W.) on a rock inscription
on Great Central Lake, Vancouver
Island, 793.
McKenprick (Prof. J. G.) on the fune-
tional activity of nerve cells, 512.
—— on physiological applications of the
phonograph, 526.
—— (J.8.) on physiological applications
of the phonograph, 526.
MACKENZIE (J. J.) on investigations in
the micro-chemistry of nerve cells, 822.
MACKINDER (H. J.) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 370.
MACLACHLAN (R.) on the compilation of
an index generum et specierum anima-
liwm, 367.
McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 219.
MacnhHan (Rev. John) on Blackfoot
womanhood, 793.
—— onanethnological Survey of Canada,
440.
McLEAN (J. A.) on crown revenues in
Lower Canada (1763-1847), 742.
MACMAHON (Prof. P. A.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 127.
*___. on the multipartite partitions of
numbers which possess symmetrical
graphs in three dimensions, 562.
*McMurRRIcK (Prof. J. P.) onsome points
in the symmetry of Actinians, 697.
*MACPHAIL (A.) on the effect of tem-
perature in varying the resistance to
impact, the hardness, and the tensile
strength of metals, 767.
*Magnet watch integrator, observations
at Toronto with, Prof. F. H. Bigelow
on, 586.
Magnetic field, the terrestrial, the cause
of the semi-annual inversions of the
type solar curve in, Prof. F. H. Bigelow
on, 585.
—— periodicity as connected with solar
physics, A. Harvey on, 587.
-—— qualities of iron, the variation
with temperature of the,a new mode
of investigating the, F. H. Pitcher, 763.
——— substances, the susceptibility of dia-
magnetic and weakly, A. P. Wills on,
586.
Magnetisation, changes in length pro-
duced in iron wires by, the effect of
tension and quality of the metal upon,
B. B. Brackett on, 586.
891
Magnetism. A new method of measuring
hysteresis in iron, J. L. W. Gill on, 762.
Magnetites, nickeliferous, W. G. Miller
on some, 660.
Maaunus (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 287.
(Prof. P.) on the growth of the
mycelium of Aecidiwm graveolens on
the branches of the Witches’ broom
on Berberis vulgaris, 859.
Maine, the coastal plain of, Prof. W-~
Morris Davis on, 719.
*MALLORY (F.) and C. D. WAIDNER on
a comparison of Rowland’s mercury
thermometer with a Griffiths’ platinum
thermometer, 560.
Mammalia, the origin of the, Prof. H. F.
Osborn on, 686.
—— Tertiary, skeletons and restorations
of, Prof. H. F. Osborn on, 684.
Mammalian heart, the output of the,
Dr. G. N. Stewart on, 813.
—— Observations on the, by W. T.
Porter, 814.
rhythmical variations in the strength
of the contractions of the, A. R.
Cushny on, 816.
MANN (Dr.) on the functional activity of
nerve celis, 512.
Marr (J. E.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
MARSHALL (Dr. Hugh) on the electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 295.
-_— ona new form of Bunsen burner, 623.
*_____ (W. B.) on roller bearings, 766.
MARTENS (Prof. A.) on the calibration of
instruments used in engineering labora-
tories, 424.
Marvin (C. F.) on kites for meteoro-
logical uses, 569. ©
Mass action, the law of, and the reduc-
tion of bromic acid, J. Wallace Walker
and Winifred Judson on, 613.
Mathematical functions, Interim report
on tables of certain, 127.
| —— and Physical Science, Address by
Prof, A. R. Forsyth to the Section of,
541.
| *MATHER (J.) and Prof. W. E. AYRTON
on the use of a constant total current
shunt with ballistic galvanometers, 588.
. on the sensibility of galvano-
meters, 588.
* on short v. long galvanometers-
for very sensitive zero tests, 588.
MATTHEW (G. F.) on some character-
istic genera of the Cambrian, 657.
*MAvor (Prof. J.), Some economic notes.
on gold mining in Canada by, 746.
Mechanical Science, Address by G. F.
Deacon to the Section of, 747.
MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
23.
892
MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the application
of photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 128.
—— on seismological investigation, 129.
on the action of light upon dyed
colowrs, 286.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
= on the rationale of chemical syn-
thesis, 826, 866.
MENDENHALL (T. C.) on the geographic
work of the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, 719.
Mental and physical defects of children
in schools, Report on the, 427.
“*____ physical reactions, an experi-
mental analysis of certain correlations
of, Prof. Lightner Witmer on, 791.
Mercury and ozone, Note on a compound
of, by E. C. C. Baly, 613. :
MeESLANS (Prof. E.) Demonstration of
the preparation and properties of fluo-
rine by, 611.
*Metals, the effect of temperature in
varying the resistance to impact, the
hardness, and the tensile strength of
metals, A. Macphail on, 767.
*____ molecular movement in, Prof. W. C.
Roberts-Austen on, 623.°
Meteorites, solid and gelatinous, Dr.
Otto Hahn on, 569.
Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
Report on, 219.
—— phenomena, the application of photo-
graphy to the elucidation of, Seventh
report on, 128,
Meteorology, kites for investigations in,
A. Lawrence Rotch on, 569.
C. F. Marvin on, 569.
*Meteors, November. and November flood
traditions, R. G. Haliburton on, 569.
*Methylene, the chemistry of, Prof. J. U.
Nef on, 621.
Metropolis, the evolution of the, and
problems in metropolitan government
in New York, W. H. Hale on, 743.
Mexico Felix and Mexico Deserta, O. H.
Howarth on, 724.
Mexico, north-western, a case of trepan-
ning in, W. C. Lumholtz and Dr. A.
Hrdlicka, 790.
MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 349.
——, Address to the Section of Zoology
by, 667.
*——- on a supposed new insect struc-
ture, 695.
*MICHELSON (Prof. A. A.) and S. W.
STRATTON on new harmonic analyses,
562.
*Micmacs of Nova Scotia, star-lore of
the, Stansbury Hagar on, 789.
Micro-chemistry of nerve cells, investiga-
tions in the, J. J. Mackenzie on, 822.
REPORT—1897.
Migration cf birds, Interim report of the
Committee for making a digest of the
observations on the, 362.
MILL (Dr. H. BR.) on the position of geo-
graphy in the educational system of the
country, 370.
-—— on the climatology of Africa, 409.
—— on a scheme of geographical classi-
fication, 715.
—— on geographical pictures, 725.
MILLER (W. G.) on some nickeliferous
magnetites, 660.
*____ (Dr. W. L.) and T. R. RoseBrRouGH
on the vapour tensions of liquid mix-
tures, 624.
MILLS (Prof. Wesley) on the functional
development of the cerebral cortex in
different groups of animals, 828.
-—— on the psychic development of
young animals and its somatic corre-
lation, with special reference to the
brain, 829.
MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 129.
—— on certain submarine geological
changes, 716.
Mimicry, protective, as evidence for the
validity of the theory of Natural
Selection, Prof. E. B. Poulton on, 692.
—— theories of,as illustrated by African
butterflies, Prof. E. B. Poulton on,
689.
Minerals in Nova Scotia, the geological
horizons of some, Dr. E. Gilpin on, 663.
*MINOT (Prof. C. 8.) on the origin of
vertebrata, 683.
*Mississippi, the geographical develop-
ment of the Lower, E. L. Corthill on,
723.
*MOISSAN (Prof. H.) and Prof. J. DEwAR
on the properties of liquid fluorine, 611.
*Molecular movements in metals, Prof.
W. C. Roberts-Austen on, 623.
Monopoly (in tobacco), a consideration
of an European, as a contribution to
the theory of state industries, by Dr.
S. M. Wickett, 738.
Monro (J.) on the Soulanges Canal, a
typical link of the 14-foot inland navi-
gation of Canada between Lake Erie
and Montreal, 754.
*Montreal electric tramway system, G. C.
Cunningham on the, 761.
Moore (W. H.) on the history of trade
combination in Canada, 737.
—— (Prof. Willis L.) on the United
States daily weather survey, 721.
Moreseat, Aberdeenshire, the age and
relation of rocks near, Report on, 333.
Appendix :
On the fossils found near Morseat, by
A. J. Jukes-Browne, 337.
MorGAn (E. Delmar) on Novaia Zemlia
and its physical geography, 712.
INDEX,
Morton (G. H.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
Mott (Ff. W.) and Prof. W. D. HALLt-
BURTON, on the effects upon blood-pres-
sure produced by the intravenous in-
jection of fluids containing choline,
neurine, or allied products, 826.
*Mount Lefroy and Mount Aberdeen, the
first ascent of, Prof. H. B. Dixon on,
724.
*Movement produced by the electric cur-
rent, Prof. F. Braun on a, 830.
MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
+Munro (Dr. R.) on the lake village of
Glastonbury, 789.
Murray (George) on the zoology and
botany of the West India Tslands, 369.
(Prof. G. G.) on physiological appli-
cations of the phonograph, 526.
(Dr. John) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 219.
on the structure of a coral reef, 297.
—— on the necessity for the immediate
investigation of the biology of oceanic
islands, 352.
on African lake fauna, 368.
*Muscle, the action of anesthetics on
cardiac, Miss Welby on, 822.
*____ the effect of frequency of excita-
tion on the contractility of, Prof, W.
P. Lombard on, 812.
Muscle-spindles, nerve endings in the
sensory, Prof. G. Carl Huber and Mrs.
De Witt on, 810.
+ in pathological conditions, O. F.
F. Griinbaum on the, 811.
Muscles, the rhythm of smooth, Prof. H.
P. Bowditch on, 809.
——a dynamometric study of the
strength of the several groups of,
and the relation of |homologous groups
of muscles in man, Dr. J. H. Kellogg
on, 812.
*Muscular contraction, inhibition as a
factor in, Prof. C. 8. Sherrington on,
830.
Museums in Canada and Newfoundland,
Report on the principal, by Dr. H. M.
Ami, 62.
Myres (J. L.) on the linguistic and
anthropological characteristics of the
North Dravidian and Kolarian races,
427.
on the Silchester excavation, 511.
*____ on a journey in Tripoli, 722.
Naphthalene derivatives, Tenth report on
the investigation of isomeric, 292.
*Naples Marine Station and its work, Dr.
Anton Dohrn on the, 683.
— Zoological Station at, Report on the
occupation of a table at, 353.
893
National policy and international trade,
Edwin Cannan on, 741.
Natural Selection, protective mimicry as
evidence for the validity of the theory
of, Prof. E. B. Poulton on, 692.
Nebraska, the distribution of native trees
of, Prof. C. E. Bessey on, 862.
*NuEF (Prof. J. U.) on the chemistry of
methylene, 621.
Nerve-cells, the functional activity of,
Report on, 512.
Appendia :
I. On the origin, course, and cell-con-
nections of the viscero-motor nerves
of the small intestine, by J. L. Bunch,
M.D., B.Se., 513.
II. Hlectromotive changes in the spinal
cord and nerve roots during activity,
by Prof. Francis Gotch, F.R.S., and
G. J. Burch, M.A., 514.
Ill. The activity of the nervous centres.
which correlate antagonistic muscles
in the limbs, by Prof. C. S. Sherring-
ton, M.D., #.R.S., 516.
IV. On the action of reagents upon
isolated nerve, by A. D.Waller, M.D.,
F.R.S., and 8. C. M. Sonton, 518.
V. Histological changes in medullated
nerve after treatment with the vapours
of ether and chloroform, and with
CO,,, by A. D. Waller, M.D., F.BS.,
and F. Seymour Lloyd, 520.
VI. An investigation of the changes in
nerve-cells in various pathological
conditions, by W. B. Warrington,
M.D., M.B.C.P., 525.
Nerve-cells, investigations in the micro-
chemistry of, J. J. Mackenzie on, 822.
—— centres, the non-responsive period
in, Prof. C. Richet on, 823,
*_____ electrostatical experiments on,
simulating the eftects of electric rays,
Prof. Jacques Loeb on, 821.
- the vagus, the comparative physi-
ology of the cardiac branches of the,
Dr. W. H. Gaskell on, 816.
—— endings in the sensory muscle-
spindles, Prof. G. Carl Huber and Mrs.
De Witt on, 810.
Nervous system, the sympathetic, the
comparative physiology of the cells of,
Prof. G. Carl Huber on, 822.
New York, the evolution of the Metro-
polis and problems in metropolitan
government in, W. H. Hale on, 743.
New York, Western, the glacial geology
of, H. Leroy Fairchild on, 664.
*New Zealand, physical characteristics of
European colonists born in, Dr. H. O.
Forbes on the, 791.
NEWELL (F. H.) on the hydrography of
the United States, 719.
NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the necessity for
894
the immediate investigation of the bio-
logy of oceanic islands, 352.
NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 358.
—— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds, 362.
on our knonwledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 369.
Niagara Fails and the Great Lakes, the
Champlain submergence and uplift
and their relation to, F. B. Taylor on,
652.
*___ and Gorge, Remarks introductory
to the excursion to, by G. K. Gilbert,
653.
NicHoxson (Prof. H. A.) on life-zones in
the British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
Nickel and cobalt, the atomic weights
of, Prof. T. W. Richards, A. S. Cush-
man, and G. P. Baxter on, 609. ;
Nickeliferous magnetites, W. G. Miller
on some, 660.
Nicoison (Prof. J. T.), Prof. H. L. CAL-
LENDAR on @ new apparatus for
studying the rate of condensation of
steam ona metal surface at different
temperatures and pressures, £18, 759.
and F. D. ADAMS on some experi-
ments on the flow of rocks, 642.
+North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada, Twelfth report on the, 791.
Nova Scotia, some typical sections in
South-western, L. W. Bailey on, 640.
—— minerals, the geological horizons of
some, Dr. E, Gilpin on, 663.
Novaia Zemlia and its physical geo-
graphy, E. Delmar Morgan on, 712.
Nucleus of the yeast plant, Harold Wager
on the, 860.
Oceanic islands, Report on the necessity
for the immediate investigation of the
biology of, 352.
+Omaha ritual, the scalp-lock as a study
of, Miss A. C. Fletcher on, 788.
, the import of the totem among
the, Miss A. C. Fletcher on, 788.
Orographical lines of structure in Hura-
sia, Prince Kropotkin on, 722.
OsBORN (Prof. H. F.) on reconstruction
and model of Phenacodus primavus,
Cope, 684.
— on skeletons and restorations of
Tertiary mammalia, 684.
__— on the origin of the mammalia, 686.
Oyster, life conditions of the, normal and
abnormal, Second report on the, 363.
*Oysters, the electrolytic determination
of copper and iron in, Dr. C. A. Kohn
on, 624.
+
*Pain, the nature and physical basis of
pain, Prof. L. Witmer on, 829.
REPORT——1897.
Paleozoic formations in North-eastern
America, some new or little known,
H. M. Ami on, 657.
—— geography of the Eastern States of
America, E. W. Claypole on the, 665.
PANTON (Prof. J. Hoyes) on the appear-
ance of the army worm (Leucania uni-
puncta) in the Province of Ontario
during 1896, 695.
*Partitions of numbers, the multipar-
tite, which possess symmetrical graphs
in three dimensions, Major P. A.
MacMahon on, 502.
PASCHEN (F.) and C. RUNGE on the
spectra of oxygen, sulphur, and sele-
nium, 555.
PATON (Dr. D. Noel) on the phosphorus
metabolism of the salmon in fresh
water, 820.
PATTERSON (Rev. Dr. G.) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 440.
——(J.A.) on the unification of time,
550.
PEABODY (Prof. Cecil H.), tests on the
triple-expansion engine at Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, 759.
PEACH (B.N.) on life zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
Pectoral member of terrestrial verte-
brata, the derivation of the, Prof.
Theodore Gill on, 697.
PEEK (Cuthbert E.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 23.
PENCK (Prof. A.) on the glacial forma-
tions of the Alps, 647.
on potamology as a branch of
physical geography, 723.
—— on geographical wall-pictures, 725.
PENHALLOW (Prof. D. P.) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 440.
—— on the species of Picea, occurring
in north-east U.$.A., and Canada, 862.
Peptone and its precursors, the physto-
logical effects of, when introduced into
the circulation, Interim report on,
531.
PERKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light
awpon dyed colowrs, 286.
PERRY (Prof. John) on seismological in-
vestigation, 129.
on practical electrical standards,
206.
PrRTzZ (Dorothea F. M.) on Pleurococcus,
864.
Phaophycea, fertilisation in, Interim
report on, 537.
Phenacodus primevus, Cope, recon-
struction and model of, Prof. H. F.
Osborn on, 684.
*Philippine Isles, the Mangyans and
Tagbanuas of the, Prof. D.C. Worcester
on, 796.
PHILLIPS (Prof. R, W.) on fertilisation
in Pheophycea, 537.
INDEX.
Phonograph, Final report on physio-
logical applications of the, 526.
Phosphorus metabolism of the salmon in
fresh water, Dr. Noel Paton on the, 820.
*Photographic plate, the action exerted
by certain metals on a, Dr. W. J.
Russell on, 612.
Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, Lighth report on the
collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 298.
Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, Siath report on, 128.
Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic
Thirteenth report on the, 343.
Physical and Mathematical Science, Ad-
dress by Prof. A. R. Forsyth to the
Section of, 541.
*Physiological apparatus, Description
by Prof. Anderson Stuart of some
pieces of, 820.
Physiology, Address by Prof. M. Foster
to the Section of, 708.
Picea in north-east U.S.A., and Canada,
the species of, Prof. D. P. Penhallow
on, 862.
Pike, a new and undescribed species of,
Prof. E. E. Prince on, 688.
Prrr- Rivers (Gen.) on an ethnograph-
ical survey of the United Kingdom,
452.
Plankton collected continuously during
a traverse of the Atlantic, in August,
1897, Prof. W. Herdman on the, 695.
*____ of the North Atlantic, the surface,
W. Garstang on, 691.
Plant formations, the zonal constitution
and disposition of, F. E. Clements on,
863.
— more than one, from the same
prothallus, E. J. Lowe on, 867.
Plants for exhibition, preservation of,
Report on the, 537.
—— the action of Roéntgen rays on,
G. F. Atkinson on, 873.
—— shrubs and trees, experiments in
the cross-fertilising of, Dr. W.
Saunders on, 867.
— vascular, the morphology of the
central cylinder in, E. C. Jeffrey on,
869.
Pleistocene ice-sheets of Northern United
States, the distribution and succession
of, Prof. T. C. Chamberlin on, 647.
Plewrococcus, Dorothea F. M. Pertz on,
864.
Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a
table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 370.
Porter (W. T.), Observations on the
mammalian heart, by, 814.
Potamology as a branch of physical
geography, Prof. A. Penck on, 723.
rocks,
895
Potential differences and currents, an
instrument for recording rapidly vary-
ing, W. Duddell on, 575.
PoTreR (Prof. M. C.) on the preservation
of plants for exhibition, 537.
POULTON (Prof. Edward B.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 23.
—on theories of mimicry as illus-
trated by African butterflies, 689.
—— on protective mimicry as evidence
for the validity of the theory of
Natural Selection, 692.
POUND (Roscoe)and F, E. CLEMENTS on
the vegetation regions of the Prairie
province, 863.
PoyntTINnG (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 129.
Prairie province, the vegetation regions
of the, Roscoe Pound and F. RK.
Clements on, 863.
Precarboniferous coals, analyses of some,
Prof. W. Hodgson Ellis on, 620.
PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
on the B. A. screm gauge, 426.
Pre-glacial decay of rocks in eastern
Canada, Robert Chalmers on, 655.
PRENTICE (Manning) on the carbo-
hydrates of cereal straws, 294.
Presidential Address at Toronto by Sir
John Evans, 3.
Pressure, the influence of, on spectral
lines, J. Larmor on, 555.
PRIicE (Prof. B.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 127.
(W. A.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 426.
PRINCE (Prof. E. E.) on sea-trout, cap-
lin, and sturgeon from Hudson Bay,
687.
—— on the Esocidé (or Luciide) of
Canada, 688.
Profit-sharing, recent aspects of, Prof.
N. P. Gilman on, 738.
Prothallus, more than one plant from
the same, E. J. Lowe on, 867.
Psychic development of young animals
and its somatie correlation, with
special reference to the brain, Prof.
Wesley Mills on, 829.
Publication, zoological, and bibliography,
Report on, 359.
Puget Sound, Drift phenomena of, and
their interpretation, Bayley Willis
on, 653.
*PUTNAM (Prof. F. W.) on the Jesup
expedition to the North Pacific, 795.
* on the Trenton Gravels, 796.
Pyrometer, a platinum resistance, a re-
search in thermo-electricity by means
of, H. M. Tory on, 588.
Quantitative analysis, the electrolytic
methods of, Report on, 295.
896
Quebec geology, problems in, R. W.
Ells on, 640.
*Railway rates, the theory of, W. M.
Ackworth on, 746.
Rainfall in the British Empire, 1877 to
1896, monthly and annual, J. Hopkin-
son on the, 564
RAMSAY (Prof. W.), Address to the Sec-
tion of Chemistry by, 593.
*____ on helium, 608.
*____ Demonstration of the spectra of
helium and argon by, 611.
—— and Morris W. TRAVERS on the
refractivity of certain mixtures of
gases, 587. ‘
*RANSFORD (R.) on some experiments
with chlorine, 627.
*Ranunculus, the life-history of, Prof.
Coulter on, 862.
*Rare earth metals, Contributions to the
chemistry of the, by Prof. B. Brauner,
608. :
RAVENSTEIN (EH. G.) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 370.
on the climatology of Africa, 409.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 452.
__—.- on the Congo and the Cape of Good
Hope, 1482 to 1488, 717.
RAWSON (Sir Rawson) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 23.
RAYLEIGH (Lord) ox tables of certain
mathematical functions, 127,
on practical electrical standards,
206.
RAYNBIRD (Hugh),junr., on the linguistic
and anthropological characteristics of
the North Dravidian and Kolarian
races, 427.
*Recapitulation in development, as il-
lustrated by the life history of the
masked crab (Corystes), W. Garstang
on, 695.
Refractivity of certain mixtures of gases,
Prof. W. Ramsay and Morris W.
Travers on, 587.
REID (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 298.
— (Clement) on the Selangor caves,
Singapore, 342.
(Prof. E. Waymouth) on the ab-
sorption of serum in the intestine,
817.
RENNIE (J.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
Revenues in Lower Canada (1763-1847),
Crown, J. A. McLean on, 742.
REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 295.
REPORT—1897,.
Rhodesia, economic geography of, F. C.
Selous on the, 721.
Rhythm of smooth muscles, Prof. H. P.°
Bowditch on the, 809.
Rhythmical variations in the strength of
the contractions of the mammalian
heart, A. R. Cushny on, 816.
RICHARDS (Prof. T. W.), A.S. CUSHMAN,
and G. P. BAXTER on the atomic
weights of nickel and cobalt, 609.
RICHET (Prof. Dr. C.) sur la période
réfractaire dans les centres nerveux,
823.
*RicKs (G. W. D.) on some tests on the
variation of the constants of electricity
supply meters with temperature and
currents, 766,
RIDLEY (H. N.) on the Selangor caves,
Singapore, 342.
Riemann, the historical development of
Abelian functions wp to the time of,
Dr. Harris Hancock on, 246.
Rieg (EH.) on the B. A. serew gauge,
426.
RIJCKEVORSEL (Dr. van) on the tempera-
ture of Europe, 566.
Rivers, the study of, as a branch of
physical geography, Prof. A. Penck on,
723.
Riviére, l'influence d’un éboulement sur
le régime d'une, Mgr. J.-C. K. La-
flamme sur, 658.
ROBERTS (Dr. I.) on seismological investi-
gation, 129.
*ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Prof. W. C.) on
molecular movements in metals, 623.
ROBERTSON (Sir George Scott) on Kafir-
istan and the Kafirs, 712, *796.
*Rock inscription on Great Central Lake,
Vancouver Island, J. W. McKay on a,
793.
Rocks, the flow of, some experiments on
the, J. T. Nicolson and F. D. Adams
on, 642.
*Roller bearings, W. B. Marshall on, 766.
Rontgen rays, the permeability of ele-
ments of low atomic weights to the,
J. Waddell on, 611.
—— the action of, on plants, G. F.
Atkinson on, 873.
Rosa (Prof. E. B.) on an electric curve
tracer, 571.
—— and Prof. W. O. ATWATER on an
apparatus for verifying the law of
conservation of energy in the human
body, 583.
Roscoe (Sir H. E.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 75.
on the teaching of science wm ele-
mentary schools, 287.
RosE (Dr. T. K.) on the cause of loss
incurred in roasting gold ores contain-
ing tellurium, 623.
INDEX.
RosEBRouGH (T. R.) and Dr. W. L.
MILLER on the vapour tensions of
liquid mixtures, 624.
Roron (A. Lawrence) on progress of the
exploration of the air with kites at
Blue Hill Observatory, 569.
*Rothamsted, diagrams illustrating the
result of 50 years’ experimenting on
the growth of wheat at, Dr. H. E.
Armstrong on, 865.
Rowland’s value of the mechanical
equivalent of heat, a reduction of, to
the Paris hydrogen scale, W. S. Day
on, 559.
Ricker (Prof. A. W.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206.
, R. FoRSYTH, and R. SOwTER on a
photographic record of objective com-
bination tones, 551.
RUNGE (C.) and F, PAscHEN on the
spectra of oxygen, sulphur, and sele-
nium, 555.
RUSSELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 286.
e on the action exerted by certain
metals on a photographic plate, 612.
Salishan and the Kootenays, Dr. A. F.
Chamberlain on the, 792.
Salmon, the phosphorus metabolism of
the, in fresh water, Dr. Noel Paton on,
820.
SALVIN (0.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 358.
SANDERSON (Prof. Burdon) on the func-
tional activity of nerve-cells, 512.
Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
Seventh report on, 358.
SAUNDERS (Dr. Wm.) on experiments in
the cross-fertilising of plants, shrubs,
and trees, 867.
SAVAGE (Rev. E. B.) on Trish elk re-
mains in the Isle of Man, 346.
ScaDDING (Rev. Dr.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 441.
{Scalp-lock: a study of Omaha ritual,
Miss A. C. Fletcher on the, 788.
Scar-face, the Blackfoot legend of, R. N.
Wilson on, 788.
ScHAFER (Prof. HE. A.) on the functional
activity of nerve-cells, 512.
—— on the physiological effects of pep-
tone and its precursors when introduced
- into the circulation, 531.
Schools, anthropometric measurements in,
Report on, 451.
——,, the physical and mental defects of
children in, Report on, 427.
—, scientific geography for, R. E.
Dodge on, 714.
ScHusTER (Prof. A.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements
and compounds, 75.
1897.
897
SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 206. :
on the constitution of the electric
spark, 557.
Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, Report on, 287.
SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 358.
on xoologicat bibliography and
publication, 359.
on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 367.
—— on African lake fauna, 368.
on the zoology and botany of the West
India Islands, 369.
Scorr (Dr. D. H.) on the preservation of
plants for exhibition, 537.
Screw gauge proposed in 1884, Report on
the means by which practical effect can
be given to the introduction of the, 426.
SCRIPTURE (Dr. E. W.) on the pendulum
chronoscope, and accessory apparatus,
824.
on the tricolour lantern for illus-
trating the physiology and psychology
of colour vision, 824.
Sea, the distribution of detritus by the,
Vaughan Cornish on, 716.
—— temperatures north of Spitsbergen,
B. Leigh Smith on, 713.-
*Secretion in gland cells, R. R. Bensley
on, 828,
SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 353.
— on xoological bibliography and
publication, 359.
on investigations made at the
Marine Biological Laboratory at Ply-
mouth, 370.
Seismological investigation, Second report
on, 129.
Selangor caves, Singapore, Interim report
on the, 342.
SELOUS (F. C.) on the economic geo-
graphy of Rhodesia, 721, *746.
*Seri Indians of the Gulf of California,
Dr. W. J. McGee on the, 791.
Serum, the absorption of, in the intes-
tine, Prof. E. Waymouth Reid on, 817.
SEWARD (A. C.) on the possible identity
of Bennettites, Williamsonia, and
Zamites gigas, 663.
- , Lecture on fossil plants by, 866.
on fossil Hgwisetacee, 872.
SHALER (Prof. N, 8.) on the origin of
drumlins, 654.
SHARP (D.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 358.
on zoological bibliography and publi-
cation, 359. -
on the zoology and botany of the
West India Islands, 369. ‘
3M
898
SHARPE (B. F.) and A. G. WEBSTER on
a new instrument for measuring the
intensity of sound, 584.
SHaw (W.N.) on practical electrical
standards, 206.
on electrolysis and electro-chemistry,
227.
SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the production of
haloids from pure materials, 295.
SHERBORN (OC. D.) on zovlogical biblio-
graphy and publication, 359.
SSHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the life
conditions of the oyster, 363.
on the functional activity of nerve-
cells, 512.
on the activity of the nervous centres
which correlate antagonistic muscles in
the limbs, 516.
on the physiological effects of peptone
and its precursors when introduced
into the circulation, 531.
on visual contrast, 824.
*____ on inhibition as a factor in mus-
cular contraction, $30.
SHIPLEY (A. E.) on the necessity for the
immediate investigation of the biology
of oceanic islands, 352.
Ships, speed trials of, W. G. Walker on,
766.
*SHoRTT (Prof. A.) on characteristics of
Canadian economic history, 741.
Suvurr (Frank T.) on the composition of
Canadian virgin soils, 616.
Silchester excavation, Report on the, 511.
Silver question, Canada and the, John
Davidson on, 740.
*_____ and copper in China, Dr. J. Edkins
on, 740.
Singapore, Selangor
report on the, 342
SLADEN (Percy) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at Naples,
353.
SmirH (B. Leigh) on sea temperatures
north of Spitsbergen, 713.
—— (E. A.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zovlogy of the Sandwich
Islands, 358.
*____ (Dr. G. Elliot) on the morphology
of the cerebral commissures in the
vertebrata, 697.
Soils, Canadian virgin, the composition
of, F. T. Shutt on, 616.
Solar physics, magnetic periodicity as
connected with, A. Harvey on, 587.
SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the structure of
a coral reef, 297.
on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 349.
Soulanges Canal, J. Monro on the, 754.
Sound, a new instrument for measuring
the intensity of, A. G. Webster and
B. F. Sharpe on, 584.
Sounds, the rate of the decrease of the
Caves, Interim
REPORT—1897.
intensity of shrill, with time, A. Wilmer
Duff on, 583.
SOWERBUTTS (Eli) on the position of
geography in the educational system of
the country, 370.
SoOWTER (R.),° Prof. A. W. RUCKER, and
R. ForsyTH on a photographic record
of objective combination tones, 551.
Sowton (Miss 8. C. M.) and Dr, A.
WALLER on the action of reagents upon
isolated nerve, 518.
Spear-heads made of glass from Western
Australia, Sir W. Turner on some, 796.
Specific heat of superheated steam, Prof.
J. A. Ewing and S. Dunkerley on the,
554.
of a liquid in terms of the interna-
tional electrical units, a new method
of determining the, Prof. H. L. Cal-
lendar and H. T. Barnes on, 552.
Spectra of the elements and compounds,
wave-length tables of the, Report on, 75.
of elements, changes in the wave-
frequencies of the lines of emission,
W. J. Humphreys on, 556.
of helium and argon demonstrated
by Prof. W. Ramsay, 611.
——— of oxygen, sulphur, and selenium,
C. Runge and F. Paschen on the, 555.
Spectral lines, the influence of pressure
on, J. Larmor on, 555.
*_____ lines, Zeeman’s discovery of the
effects of magnetism on, Prof. O. J.
Lodge on, 588.
* Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, Interim
report on, 627.
Speed trials of ships, W. G. Walker on,
766.
SPENCER (J. W.) on the continental ele-
vation of the Glacial epoch, 651.
*SprErs (F. S.), F. TwyMAy, and W. L.
WATERS on the cyclical variation with
temperature of the E. M. F. of the H
form of Clark’s cells, 591.
*Spinal curves in man, A demonstration
of the utility of the, by Prof. A. Stuart,
790.
Spitsbergen, sea temperatures north of,
B. Leigh Smith on, 713.
Sporangia in vascular plants, changes in
number of, Prof. F. O. Bower on, 872.
SPRINGER (A.) on increase of segmental
vibrations in aluminium violins, 564.
Squaktktquaclt, or the benign-faced
Oannes of the Ntlakapamugq, B.C., C.
Hill-Tout on, 788.
STAFFORD (Dr. Joseph) on the post-
embryonic development of Aspidogaster
conchicola, 698.
State industries, a consideration of an
European monopoly as a contribution
to the theory of, by Dr. 8. M. Wickett,
738. ,
Statistics and Economic Science, Ad= ©
*
INDEX.
dress by Prof. E. C. K. Gonner to the
Section of, 727.
Steam, experiments on the condensation
of, Prof. H. L. Callendar and Prof.
J. T. Nicolson on, 418.
I. A new apparatus for studying the
rate of condensation of steam on a
metal surface at different tempera-
tures and pressures, by Prof. H. L.
Callendar and Prof. J. T. Nicolson,
418.
Il. An electrical method of measuring
the temperature of a metal surface on
which steam is condensing, by Prof.
H T. Callendar, 422.
Steam, the specific heat of superheated,
Prof. J. A. Ewing and S. Dunkerley on,
554.
—- engine, the triple-expansion at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Tests by Prof. C. H. Peabody on, 759.
STEBBING (Rev. T. R. BR.) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 359.
on the compilation of an index gene-
rum et specierum animalium, 367.
Stewart (Prof. A.) on the structure of a
coral reef, 297.
(Dr. G. N.) on the output of the
mammalian heart, 813.
*Stilling, the function of the canal of,
in the vitreous humour, Prof, Anderson
Stuart on, 820.
Stomata, a preliminary account of a new
method of investigating the behaviour
of, F. Darwin on, 865.
—— Some considerations upon the func-
tions of, by Prof. C. E. Bessey, 861.
— of Holacantha Emoryi, the chimney-
shaped, Prof. C. E. Bessey on, 861.
Stonny (Dr. G. Johnstone) on practical
electrical standards, 206.
STRAHAN (A.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 296.
Strains and structures of the earth, O. H.
Howarth on, 664.
Stratigraphical succession in Jamaica,
R. T. Hill on the, 642.
*STRATTON (S. W.) and Prof. A. A.
MICHELSON on new harmonic analyses,
562.
Stranvs,the carbohydrates of cereal, Second
report on, 294.
‘Strength of columns, Prof. G. Lanza on
the, 755.
of white pine, red pine, hemlock,
and spruce, Experiments by Prof. H.
T. Bovey on the, 758.
*Streptothrix actinomycotica and allied
species of Streptuthry2, Prof. E. M.
Crookshank on, 873.
STROH (A.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
426.
Stroup (Prof. W.) on the action of light
- upon dyed colours, 286.
899
“STUART (Prof. Anderson) on the utility
of the spinal curves in man, 790.
*___ on the function of the canal of
Stilling in the vitreous humour, 820.
*___ on some pieces of physiological
apparatus, 820.
*STUPART (R. F.) on the climatology of
Canada, 567.
Sugar, the gastric inversion of cane, by
hydrochloric acid, Prof. Graham Lusk
on, 821.
SULTE (B.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 440.
on the origin of the French Cana-
dians, 449.
*SUMNER (Prof. W. G.) on the origin of
the dollar, 740.
Sun-offerings, Blackfoot, R. N. Wilson on,
789.
Surface tension of water, etc., the deter-
mination of the, by means of the
method of ripples, N. Ernest Dorsey
on, 551.
Susceptibility of dia-magneticand weakly
magnetic substances, A. P. Wills on,
586.
SyMONS (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 23.
on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 128.
on seismological investigation, 129.
—— on the climatology of Africa, 409.
Sympathetic nervous system, the com-
parative physiology of the cells of the,
Prof. G. Carl Huber on, 822.
Lables, mathematical, Interim report on,
a nen Canon Arithmeticus, 127,
TANGUAY (Abbé) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 440.
TAYLOR (F. Bursley) on the Champlain
submergence and uplift, and their
relation to the Great Lakes and Niagara
Falls, 652.
——(H.) on practicalelectricalstandards,
206.
(J. J.) Anthropometric notes on the
inhabitants of Cleckheaton, Yorkshire,
by, 507.
Teaching of chemistry, reform in the,
Prof. W. W. Andrews on, 601.
TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 298.
—— on differentiation in igneous magmas
as a result of progressive crystallisation,
661.
Tellurium, gold ores containing, the cause
of loss incurred in roasting, Dr. T. K.
Rose on, 623.
Temiscaming, Lake, Canada, the relations
and structure of certain granites and
3M 2
900
arkoses on, W. F. Ferrier and A. E.
Barlow on, 659.
*Temperature, the effect of, in varying
the resistance to impact, the hardness,
and the tensile strength of metals, A.
Macphail on, 767.
—- of Europe, Dr. van Rijckevorsel on
the, 566.
of a metal surface on which steam is
condensing, an electrical method of
measuring the, Prof. H. L. Callendar
on, 422.
Tertiary mammalia skeletons and re-
storations of, Prof. H. F. Osborn on,
684.
TESLA (Nicola) on an electrical oscillator,
570.
Thermo-electricity, a research in, by
means of a platinum resistance pyro-
meter, H. M. Tory on, 588. z
*Thermometer,a comparison of Rowland’s
mercury, with a Griffiths’ platinum
thermometer, F. Mallory and C. D.
Waidner on, 560.
THOMPSON (Prof. 8S. P.) on practical
electrical standards, 206.
on the teaching of science in element-
ary schools, 287.
* on new varieties of kathode rays,
555.
*.___ on an experiment with a bundle of
glass plates, 557.
*___. on a tangent galvanometer, 557.
—— on the use of the trifilar suspension
in physical apparatus, 588.
(Prof. W. H.) on the physiological
effects of peptone and its precursors
when introduced into the circulation,
531.
THoMSON (Prof. J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 206.
‘Thorium, the chemistry and the atomic
weight of, Prof. B. Brauner on, 609.
‘THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 286.
‘TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 298.
—— on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 349.
TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 292.
Timber columns, the strength of, Prof.
G. Lanza on, 758.
Experiments by Prof. H. T.
Bovey on the strength of, 758.
Time, the unification of, J. A. Patterson
on, 550.
*____ at sea, the unification of, C. E.
Lumsden on, 720.
Titanic oxide, the distribution of, upon
the earth’s surface, F. P. Dunnington
on, 612.
REPORT—1897.
*TopD (Prof. David P.) on automatic
operation of eclipse instruments, 585.
Tomatoes, a disease of, W. G. P. Ellis on,
861..
Toronto children, the growth of, Dr. F.
Boas on, 443.
.Glacial and interglacial deposits at,
Prof. A. P. Coleman on, 650.
Tory (H. M.) on a research in thermo-
electricity by means of a platinum
resistance pyrometer, 588.
{Totem among the Omaha, Miss A. C.
Fletcher on the import of the, 788.
Trade combination in Canada, the history
of, W. H. Moore on, 737.
——, national policy and international,
Edwin Cannan on, 7+1.
TRAIL (Prof. J. W. H.) on the preserva-
tion of plants for exhibition, 537.
TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.) on Life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
*TRAVERS (Morris W.) on the occurrence
of hydrogen in minerals, 610.
and Prof. W. RAMSAY on the re-
fractivity of certain mixtures of gases,
587.
Trees of Nebraska, the distribution of
the native, Prof. C. E. Bessey on, 862.
Trematode Aspidogaster conchicola, the
post-embryonic development of the,
Dr. Joseph Stafford on, 698.
*Trenton gravels, Prof. F. W. Putnam on
the, 796.
*Trepanning, some cases of, in early
American skulls, Dr. W. J. McGee on,
790.
——, a case of, in north-western Mexico,
W. C. Lumholtz and Dr, A. Hrdlicka
on, 790.
Trifilar suspension in physical apparatus,
the use of, Prof. §. P. Thompson on,
588.
Triple-expansion engine at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Tests by Prof.
C. H. Peabody on the, 759.
*Tripoli, a journey in, J. L. Myres on,
722.
TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon H. B.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 23.
Tubercle bacillus, the action of glycerine
on the, Dr. 8. Monckton Copeman and
Dr. F. &. Blaxell on, 829.
TURNER (Sir W.), Address to the Section
of Anthropology by, 768.
—— on some spear-heads made of glass
from Western Australia, 796.
*TWYMAN (F.), F. 8. Sprers, and W. L.
Waresrs on the cyclical variation with
temperature of the EH. M. F. of the
H-form of Clark’s cell, 591.
TYRRELL (J. B.) on the glaciation of
north-central Canada, 662.
—— on the barren lands of Canada, 780.
————
INDEX.
Unification of time, J. A. Patterson on
the, 550.
*____ of time at sea, C. E. Lumsden on
the, 720.
United States of America, economic
entomology in the, Dr. L.O. Howardon,
694.
—-- Geographical Survey, the geographic
work of the, C. V. Walcott on, 720.
—— Institutions engaged in geographic
work in the, Marcus Baker on, 718.
-—— Coast and Geodetic Survey, T. C.
Mendenhall on the work of the, 719.
— hydrography of the, F. H. Newell
on the, 719.
daily weather survey, Prof. Willis
L. Moore on the, 721.
*___._ the material conditions and growth
of the, H. Gannett on, 725.
local differences in discount rates
in the, Dr. K. M. Breckenridge on,
744.
*_____ recent reaction from economic
freedom in the, R. R. Bowker on, 746.
UNWIN (Prof. W. C.) on the calibration
of instruments used in engineering
laboratories, 424,
Uranws, Report on the linguistic and an-
thropological characteristics of the, 427.
*Vancouver Island, a rock inscription on
- Great Central Lake, J. W. Mackay on,
793.
*Vapour tensions of liquid mixtures,
Dr. W.L. Miller and T. R. Rosebrough
on, 624,
Vascular channels, the resistance of, Prof.
K. Hiirthle on, 815.
—-. plants, changes in number of spo-
rangia in, Prof. F. O. Bower on, 872.
plants, the morphology of the cen-
tral cylinder in, E. C. Jeffrey on, 869.
Vector analysis, a notation in, Prof. O.
Henrici on, 560.
Vegetation regions of the Prairie pro-
vince, Roscoe Poundand F. E. Clements
on, 863.
VERNON (H. M.) on the conditions of
animal life in aquaria, 354,
Vertebrata, the determinants for the
major classification of fish-like, Prof.
Theodore Gill on, 696.
* the origin of, Prof. C. S. Minot on,
683.
*—— the morphology of the cerebral
commissures in the, Dr. G. Elliot
Smith on, 697.
the derivation of the pectoral mem-
ber in terrestrial, Prof. Theodore Gill
- on, 697.
Vines (Prof. 8. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
_ ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 370.
901
Violins, increase of segmental vibrations
in aluminium, Dr. A. Springer on, 564.
Visual contrasts, Prof. C. S. Sherrington
on, 824.
reaction to intermittent stimulation,
O. F. F. Griinbaum on, 828.
*Vitreous humour, the function of the
canal of Stilling in the, Prof. Anderson
Stuart on, 820.
WADDELL (John) on the permeability of
elements of low atomic weights to the
Rontgen rays, 611.
, notes on concentrated solutions of
lithium and other salts by, 613.
WAGER (Harold) on the nucleus of the
yeast plant, 860.
*WAIDNER (C. D.) and I’. MALLORY on
a comparison of Rowland’s mercury
thermometer with Gritiths’ platinum
thermometer, 560.
WALCcoTT (Charles V.) on the geographic,
work of the United States Geographical
Survey, 720.
WALKER (W.G.) on speed trials of shivs,
766.
—— (J. Wallace) and WINIFRED JUD-
SON on the reduction of bromic acid,
and the law of mass action, 613.
WALLACE (A. Russel) on the Selangor
caves, Singapore, 342.
WALLER (Dr. A. D.) on the functional
activity of nerve-cells, 512.
—— and §. C. M. SowTon on the action
of reagents upon isolated nerve, 512.
and ¥. SEYMOUR LLOYD on histo-
logical changes in medullated nerve
after treatment nith the vapowrs of
ether, chloroform, and with carbonic
acid gas, 520,
WALLIS (E. White) 6x the mental and
physical defects of children in schools,
427,
WaARrD (Prof. H. Marshall), Address to the
Section of Botany by, 831.
——on Stereum hirsutum, a wood-destroy-
ing fungus, 860.
WARINGTON (Prof. R.) on the carbo-
hydrates of cereal straws, 294.
WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
a, ond mental defects of children in schools,
427,
Water, the determination of the surface
tension of, by means of the method of
ripples, N. Ernest Dorsey on, 551.
*WATERS (W. L.), F. S. Sprers and F.
TWYMAN on the cyclical variation with
temperature of the E.M.F. of the H.
form of Clark’s cell, 591.
WATKIN (Col.) on the B. A. screw gauge,
426.
Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 75,
902
WATTS (Prof. W. W.) on the structure of
a coral reef, 297.
——on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 298.
Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, Report on,
75.
*Wealth, some fallacies in the theory of
the distribution of, Prof. A. T. Hadley
on, 740.
Weather survey, the United States daily,
Prof. Willis L. Moore on, 721.
WEBBER (Herbert J.) on the anther-
ozoids of Zamia integrifolia, 864.
(Maj.-Gen.) on the B. A. screm gauge,
426.
WEBSTER (A. G.) and B. F. SHARPE on
a new instrument for measuring the
intensity of sound, 584.
Weiss (Prof. F. EH.) on the preservation
of plants for exhibition, 537.
*WELBY (Miss) on the action of anzs-
thetics on cardiac muscle, 822.
WELDON (Prof. W. F. BR.) on the necessity
Jor the immediate investigation of the
biology of oceanic islands, 352.
on the occupation of a table at the
Zoological Station at Naples, 353.
on zoological bibliography and pub-
lication, 359.
West India Islands, Tenth report on the
zoology and botany of the, 369.
on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association Laboratory at
Plymouth, 370.
WHARTON (Adm. Sir W. J. L.) on the
structure of a coral reef, 297.
*Wheat, diagrams illustrating the result
of 50 years’ experimenting on the
growth of, at Rothamsted, Dr. H. E.
Armstrong on, 865.
WHETHAM (W. C. D.) on electrolysis and
electro-chemistry, 227.
on the theory of the migration of
ions and of specific tonic velocities, 227.
WHITAKER (J.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 23.
WHITE (J.) on the topographical work
of the Geological Survey of Canada,
721.
WHITEAVES (J. F.) on some remains of
a sepia-like cuttle-fish from the Lower
Cretaceous rocks of the South Sas-
katchewan, 694.
—— on a fish tooth from the Upper
Arisaig series of Nova Scotia, 656.
WICKET? (Dr. S. M.), A consideration of
an European monopoly (in tobacco)
as a contribution to the theory’ of
State industries by, 738.
*WILLIAMS (J. L.) on the existence of
le antherozoids in Dictyolacee,
REPORT—1897.
WILLIAMS (Prof. W. Carleton) on the
electrolytic methods of quantitative
analysis, 295.
Williamsonia, Bennettites, and Zamites
gigas, the possible identity of, A. C.
Seward on, 663.
WILLIS (Bayley) on Drift phenomena of
Puget Sound and their interpretation, -
653.
WILLs (A. P.) on the susceptibility of
diamagnetic and weakly magnetic
substances, 586.
WILSON (R. N.) on the Blackfoot legend
of Scar-face, 788.
—— on Blackfoot sun-offerings, 789.
WILTSHIRE (Rev. 'T.) on the Phyllopoda
of the Paleozoic rocks, 343.
WINDLE (Prof. B.) on anthropometric
measurements in schools, 451.
WINGATE (David 8.) on physiological
applications of the phonograph, 526.
Witches’ broom on Berberis vulgaris, the
growth of the mycelium of Aecidiwum
graveolens on the, Prof. P. Magnus on,
859.
*WITMER (Prof. Lightner) on an experi-
mental analysis of certain correlations
of mental physical reactions, 791.
*____on the nature and physical basis
of pain, 829.
WitT (Mrs. de) and Prof. G. CARL
HUBER on the innervation of motor
tissues, with special reference to nerve-
endings in the sensory muscle-spindles,
810.
Womanhood, Blackfoot, Rev. John Mac-
lean on, 793.
*Women and children, the relation of
the employment of, to that of men,
Carroll D. Wright on, 746.
Woop (Sir H. T.) on the B. A. screw
gauge, 426.
Wood-destroying fungus, Sterewm hirsu-
tum a, Prof. H. Marshall Ward on,
860.
WOODWARD (Dr. H.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 296.
on the Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic
rocks, 343.
on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 367.
(H. B.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 298.
— on the Chalky Boulder-clay and the
glacial phenomena of the western-
midland counties of England, 649.
WoOOoLNOUGH (F.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 298.
*WOOLVERTON (Dr. 8.) exhibited a col-
lection of Devonian fossils from
Western Ontario, 666.
*WORCESTER (Prof. Dean C.) on the
INDEX.
Mangyans and Tagbanuas of the
Philippine Isles, 796.
*Workmen’s Compensation Bill, econo-
mic aspects of the, J. R. Macdonald
on, 746.
*WRIGHT (Carroll D.) on the relation of
the employment of women and chil-
dren to that of men, 746.
—— (Prof. E. Perceval) on the ethnogra-
phical survey of Ireland, 510.
*____ (Prof, R. Ramsay) on a proposed
lacustrine biological station, 683
X-rays, experiments on the absorption
of, and chemical constitution, by Dr.
J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert, 611.
X-ray tubes, the behaviour of argon in,
Prof. H. L. Callendar and N. N., Evans
on, 553.
*Yeast, the existence of an alcohol-pro-
ducing enzyme in, Prof. J. R. Green
on, 826, 866.
—— plant, the nucleus of the, Harold
Wager on, 860.
Yerkes observatory, G. E. Hale on the,
586.
Zamia integrifolia, the antherozoids of,
H. J. Webber on, 864.
903
Zamites gigas, Bennettites, and William-
sonia, the possible identity of, A. C.
Seward on, 663.
*Zeeman’s discovery of the effects of
magnetism on spectral lines, Prof. O.
J. Lodge on, 588.
Zonal constitution and disposition of
plant formations, F. E. Clements on
the, 863.
Zoological bibliography and publication,
Report on, 359.
—— Station at Naples, Report on the
occupation of a table at the, 353.
Appendix:
I. On the condition of animal life in
marine aquaria, by H. M. Vernon,
354.
Il. List of naturalists who have worked
at the Station from July 1, 1896, to
June 30, 1897, 356.
Ill. List of papers published in 1896
by naturalists who have occupied
tables at the Station, 357.
*_____ Station at Naples, Dr. Anton
Dohrn on the, 683.
Zoology, Address by Prof. L. C. Miall
to the Section of, 667.
—— and botany of the West India
Islands, Tenth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 369.
-—— of the Sandwich Islands, Seventh
report on the, 358.
,
*
'
La gt IN
Site fe Sak eer,
Sheet ath Ars: a
‘ ys
ae ee F
/ an Meee tah
: al AG
me ioe
Yo Aa tk! ee See thy
“es re. seit
WHC
4 .
f ate ;
om be a a ae ‘fe is
hi cs, a obs 7 Bad
' ey ; pa’ 5 ah ae!
ee gtwanie Raat ~dntirgeaal sel ha edie
| wee, ss Ah TWP DANE, at 4 ¥o "sficp iret ig fieaieg
Z ag be tet abide. feat i taam
ao he os! vady fw ¢
ee Ge eee aa
t ae “nk, rer’ whe o%, ea fn re sl
‘ ee atte § The sak 7
on x att ofl Sem a 4\3 ‘ tak =
ey bi og er erin “ae
4 fy be ees aa TS) \: ~ a bFE rj pa a aint ee (a je
ss iene ( aos (MD a JOntt)
*) ae ‘ Pes ots wat fo 1th ‘ad 7) p a
rin dives Alig Coa full? ue BS
: ws tls ? sd
52 ah fad
oi i a ae ee zs it WirNe
or + Pe Spi Se yest a
et bag 7% Sire borne Saey i 57354 " “
: Ne a denen ‘me? k a gi beadlss ad 8
te «Hee fe ED "y
alas Ae bts ig : ‘
: " A Pa ; é he af La
= a is fF a i
Py ‘
i A is Ae
7 A ‘ a Phd : ‘ j n
=... << > ‘
i < whe ad ty, Y i: Saal; ty 1h
i, ih ©;.7 ’ Li
LJ aad , '
* c tas ae A 4 4 a
’ ‘ i ~ ® ; . P
ot * — + ray *
; ~ ae oor ’ 4
. 7 eo peta ice, Ee : ces
ere eee af Wee eda
+ at Galea Rott tee
\ ae? ; a,
mere Y ’ Jets al ie at beuhal wROM RL) Ae
. . i“ esi ha oad Wau jv “g.3ee4
i » Peay Pe eet eee v* ap. (at
" . ries! nA a een 4 . & onl
b eat! ap ak. “ine ent re Dai
: Pe ie fats =) wat AS. ae. ton
a 4a eee ae
a eee 5 Psi Mar east! Thy hy ts
e .. Lc Miraé so eh ae x9
Pra cS.
tity Shee ie -c
a Eee, ee, Clo
A : \ er. “
aoe, " . :
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.
Associates for the Meeting in 1897 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price,
REPORT or rue SIXTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Liver pool, Septem-
ber, 1896, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Grants of sit ae ke. x -XXVii.-cxii.
Address by the President, Sir Joseph Lister 2 : 3
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee . : ; . 3
Preliminary Report on the Calculation of the G (7, v)- Integrals . . ‘ - 70
Report on the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory : 82
Report on the Uniformity of Size of Pages of Scientific Societies’ Publications 86
Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments . : . : Jive <8
Report on the Calculation of certain Mathematical Functions . : ogee, aoe
Report on Electrical Standards . . . . J - - 150
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . 166
‘Sixth Report on the Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena : . = . 172
First Report of the Committee on Seismological ‘Investigation : . \. - 180
Report on Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry _. m . 230
Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations . 231
Twelfth Report on the best Methods of ees the Direct pape of Solar
Radiation . . . . : 241
Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy : 2 243
Third Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analy sis . - . 244
First Report on the Carbohydrates of Cereal Straws . : : : - 262
Tenth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . : A - < . 265
906
Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools :
Report on the Preparation of a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements . : :
Report on the Proximate Constituents of Coal
Interim Report on the Production of Haloids from Pure Materials
Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours
Third and Final Report on the Stonesfield Slate
Seventh Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom
First Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles ; ‘ , -
Interim Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef ‘ 5
Report on the Character of the High-level Steel-bearing Deposits i in Kintyre
Preliminary Report on the Selangor Caves .
Report on the Relation of Palzolithic Man to the Glacial Epoch
Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks .
Fourth and Final Report on the Marine Zoology, Botany and Geology of the
Trish Sea
Report on the Investigation into the ‘Life. -history and Economic Relations of
the Coccide of Ceylon, by Mr. E. E. GREEN :
Report on making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at
Lighthouses and Light-vessels, 1880-1887 :
Report on the Post Office Regulations regarding the Carriage of Natural History
Specimens to Foreign Countries é :
Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;
Report on African Lake Fauna
Report on Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine ‘Biological
Association at Plymouth 2
Report on the Necessity for the Immediate Investigation of the Biology of
Oceanic Islands
Report on the Compilation of an Index Generum et Specierum Animalium
Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication .
Sixth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands :
Ninth Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and
Botany of the West India Islands, and on taking Steps to Investigate ascer-
tained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora
Interim Report on the Position of Geography in the Educational al System of the
Country . :
Fifth Report on the Climatology of Africa. - 2
Report on the Effect of Wind and Atmospheric Pressure on the Tides
Report on the means by which Practical Effect can be given to the Introduc-
tion of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 ., ‘
Report on the Calibration of Instruments used in Engineering Laboratories
On the Physical and Engineering Features of the River Mersey and Port of
Liverpool. By GEORGE FOSBERY LyYsTER, M.Inst.C.H. . .
Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada . . .
Report on the Mental and Physical Defects of Children . .
Fourth Report on an Ethnographical Syryey of the United Kingdom
Third Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury
Report on the Linguistic and “Anthropological Characteristics of the N orth
Dravidian and Kolarian raees—the Uranws .
First Report on the Elucidation of the Life Conditions of the Oyster under
Normal and Abnormal Environment, including in the latter the effect of
sewage matter and pathogenic organisms . : é .
Report on 1 the Physiological Applications of the Phonograph : : ° .
On the Ascent of Water in Trees. By FRANCIS DARWIN, F.R.S.
Report on the best Methods of ae th nea ey for Exhibition:
in Museums . ° 4 f - =
The Transactions of the Sections ; i A > - 6 : 2
Index . F i - , : : ‘ P
List of Publications : Sn Bb - A 5 ci : ; 2 =
(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-116).
907
The following Publications are also on sale at the Office of the Asso-
ciation :—
Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with
the Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s.
Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).
Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 43d.).
Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.
Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s.
On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
ning, 2s.; Weaving, Is.
Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 6d.
Second Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.
Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
in Electrical Measurements, 6d.
Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
1892, 1s.
Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.
The Action of Magnetism on Light, by J. Larmor, F.R.S., 1893, 1s.
Table of EHlectro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by Rev. T. C.
Fitzpatrick, 1893, 1s. 6d.
Report on Electrical Standards, with seven Appendices, 1894, 1s.
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
G. H. Bryan, with an Appendix by Prof. L. Boltzmann, 1894, Is.
Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., 1894, 1s.
Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.
Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1895, 1s.
Fourth Report on the Erosion of the Sea Coast, 1895, 9d.
Second Report on a Gauge for Small Screws, 1884, reprinted 1895, 6d.
First Report on giving practical effect to the Introduction of the British Association
Screw Gauge, 1896, 6d.
Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds made at Lighthouses, by W. Eagle
Clarke, 1896, 6d.
Report on Tables of the Bessel Functions, 1896, 1s.
Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments, 1896, 4d.
Report on the position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country,
1897, 6d. ¥
The President’s Address, and Sectional Addresses, for 1889, 1892, 1893, 1895, 1896,
1897, each 1s.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
pire st
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO OCTOBER 31, 1897.
Office of the Association:
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.
AeOTATE ss PRTLNEL
4 . Z mM. 7 .
eae tie On oe 10 TTL
: : ‘ ; .
oe a ee | yy,
i iy, ¢ ; “ / ~ ‘ rT $3 ] i ‘ =
, : 4 * ; i . } eA. . ‘4.
eo ee. « SHUEY OVA) AUG Sane
= z ‘ u A : 7 ‘ f ee 7 a
. . = . ‘ ; ~ ~ d
; aie race WRT te AAG} AAT COMORTA '
3 ~
-
' * é
- a :
y a ye"
7 Y ah ate
=: rc f , ( je ,
‘3 od P - \
; ise
7 oe
vs Ey
a
; e
Ye OUHROT Wevor p
rah a, Se oe.
_i- > x
4
a
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1897-98.
PRESIDENT.
SIR JOHN EVANS, K.C.B., D.O.L., LL.D., F.S.A., Treasurer of the Royal Society of London.
His Excellency the Right Hon. the EArw orf |
ABERDEEN, G.O.M.G., Governor-General of the
Dominion of Canada.
The Right Hon. the Lorp Ray.uicH, M.A,, |
D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
tario.
The Hon. the PREMIER of the Province of On-
The Hon. the Minister oF EpucaTIon for the
Province of Ontario.
The Hon. Sir CHARLES TUPPER, Bart., G.O.M.G.,
The Right Hon. the Lorp Ketyi, G.O.V.0.,
M.A., LL.D., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Prime Minister of the Dominion of Oanada,
His Honour the LizuTENaNnT-GovERNOR of the
|
|
The Right Hon. Sir Wirrrm Lavrimr, G.O.M.G., |
Province of Ontario.
O.B., LL.D.
Sir WILLIAM Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
The Mayor of Toronto.
Professor J. Loupon, M.A., LL.D., President of
the University of Toronto,
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR W. OROOKES, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT,
The Right Hon. the EAru of Duc, F.R.S., F.G.S,
The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop of Bristol, D.D.
The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp Fry, D.O.L., F.RB.S.,
F.S.A.
Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Bart., D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor of Bristol.
The PRINCIPAL of University College, Bristol.
The Master of The Society of Merchant Venturers
of Bristol,
JOHN BEDDOE, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor T. G. BONNEY,
F.G.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor E. A. ScHAWER, F.R.S., University College, London, W.C.
Professor W. O. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, O.B., F.R.S., Royal Mint, London, E.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W. Ricker, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL,
ARTHUR LEE, Esq.
BERTRAM ROGERS, Esq., M.D.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BRISTOL.
J. W. ARROWSMITH, Esq. Y
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Boys, C. VERNON, Esq., F.R.S.
CreEAk, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S.
Darwiy, F., Esq., F.R.S.
EDGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., D.O.L.
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir 0. W., K.O.B.
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A.
PREECE, W. H., Esq., O.B., F.R.S.
Ramsay, Professor W., F.R.S.
REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Suaw, W. N., Esq., F.R.S.
D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
HErDMAN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
Hopxinson, Dr. J., F.R.S.
Horsey, Victor, Esq., F.R.S.
Makkr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.
MELDOLA, Professor R., F.
Povtron, Professor E. B.,
R.S.
F.R.S.
TyLor, Professor E. B.,
UNWIN, Professor W. C.
WHITE, Sir W. H., K.C.B.,
M.,
FE
FR
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries
the Secretary,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years,
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luspock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.
The Right Hon. Lord RayLeieH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
for the present and former years,
and the Local Treasurer and
S., F.L.S.
8.
The Right Hon. Lord PLayrarr, G.O.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.8.
Lord Playfair, G.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir F, J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir F, A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., F.R.S.
Sir Wm. Huggins, K.O.B., F.R.S,
SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
Prof. J.S.Burdon Sanderson,F.R.S.
rte of Salisbury, K.G.,
Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Lord Lister, D.O.L., Pres.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S,
G. Griffith, Esq., M.A.
Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S.
| P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, K.O.B.. F.R.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.
A2
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S,
A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S.
| Dr. D. H., Scott, F.R.S.
me
a el Am te
the. sae
TAL TNS) , ’ =i “5
tet, _hiert . 4 7 vi
Wi Al ae L
‘ ah at ms held
hee 40g8792
weedy Laps ast
LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1897.
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1897.
} indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq. ‘
Year of
Election.
1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.
1897. §Abbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.
1887, {Abbott,T.C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,
1863. *AseL, Sir Freperick Aveustus, Bart., K.O0.B., D.C.L., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
and 2 Whitehall-court, S.W.
1885, *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D., Governor-
General of Canada. Ottawa.
1885. {Aberdeen, The Countess of. Ottawa.
1885. t{Abernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.
1885. {Abernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.
1873. *Asney, Captain W. pr W., R.E., C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens South, Harl’s Court, 8.W,
1886. Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.
6 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884. f{Acheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
1873. tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1882. *Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W. ;
1869. {Acland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E, Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.
1873. *Acland, Rev. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.
1894, *Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.
1873. *ActanpD, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S. Broad-street, Oxford.
1877. *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, W.
1860, tActAND, Sir THomas Dyxz, Bart., M.A., D.C.L. Killerton, Exeter.
1887. tApami, J.G., B.A. The University, Montreal, Canada.
1892, tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.
1884, {Adams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
1871. §Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.
1879. *ApAms, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Canon of Quebec, Principal of
Bishop’s College, Lennoxville, Canada.
1869, *Apams, WILLIAM GRYI1s, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.8., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, W.
1879. {Adamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.
1896.§§Adamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1890. {Addyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.
1890. {ApENny, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsfort-
terrace, Dublin.
1865. *Adkins, Henry. Ley-hill, Northfield, near Birmingham,
1883. {Adshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.
1896.§§Affleck, W. H. 28 Onslow-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.
1884. {Agnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
1887. {Agnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.
1864. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling, Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.
1871. tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1895. *Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
1891. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.
1871. §ArrKeEn, Jonn, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.
1884, *Alabaster, H. Lytton, Mulgrave-road, Sutton, Surrey.
1886. *Albright,G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1896. §Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
1894. {Alexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.
1891. f{Alexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.
1883. {Alexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.
1888. *Alexander, Patrick Y. 47 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1873. tAlexander, R., M.D. 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1896.§§Alexander, William. 45 Hightield South, Rockferry, Chester.
1891. Bir Charles J., F.G.S. Coolivin, Hawkwood-road, Boscombe,
ants.
1883. tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
1883. {Alger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
1883. tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
1867. tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.
1885, {Allan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.
LIST OF MEMBERS, T
Year of
Election.
1871. {Allan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, E.C.
1871. tALtEn, ALFRED H., F.C.S. Sydenham Cottage, Park-lane, Sheffield.
1879. *Allen, Rey. A. J. G. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.
1887. * Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
1887. * Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
1888. §Allen, F. J.. M.A., M.B., Professor of Physiology, Mason College,
Birmingham.
1884, tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,
1891. tAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.
1887. {Allen, John. Kilerimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vid) Preston.
1878. tAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.
1887. * Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1891. tAllen, W.H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.
1889, {Allhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.
1889. §Allhusen, Frank E. The School, Harrow.
*ALLMAN, GroreE J.,M.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.,F.RS.E.,M.R.LA., F.LS.,
: Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.
1886. epee Samuel, F.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.
1896.§§ Alsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.
1887. {Alward, Gs el Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire,
1873. {Ambler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1891. {Ambrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks, Cardiff.
1883, §Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
1883, §Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.
1884, §Ami, Heyry, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
1883. {Anderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
1885. *Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.
1874. {Anderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
1892. {Anderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Tasha
1888. *Anderson, R. Bruce. 354 Great George-street, S.W.
1887. tAnderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
1889. {Anderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1880, *AnpERson, Tempxst, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Stonegate, York.
1886. *ANDERSON, Sir WILLIAM, K.O.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.,
Director-General of Royal Ordnance Factories. Lesney House,
Erith, Kent.
1880. {Andrew, Mrs. 126 J amaica-street, Stepney, E.
1883. tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
1895. {Andrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), S.W.
1891. {Andrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1880. *Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.
1886. §Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.
1883. tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridg e.
1877. §Anaett, Jonny, F.C.S., FIC. 6 aacins held, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.
1886. {Annan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.
1896.§§Annett, R. 6. Bald Greenhey-road, Liverpool.
1886. tAnsell, Joseph. 88 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1878. {Anson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’ s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
1890. §Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.
1896.§§ Appleton, C. 314 King-street, Wi igan.
1894, §Archibald, A. Bank House, Ventnor.
1884, *Archibald, FE. Douglas. Care of Mr. F. Tate, 28 Market-street,
Melbourne, Australia.
1851. tAreyi1L, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D. C.L., F.RS.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Inverary.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1888. §Armistead, Richard. 33 Chambres-road, Southport.
1883. *Armistead, William, Oaktield, Compton- -road, ni rea
1887. {Armitage, ‘Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.
1857.
1879.
1886,
1878.
1876,
1889,
1884.
1889.
1893.
1898.
1886.
1870.
1874.
*ArmstRone, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cragside, Rothbury.
*A RMSTRONG, Sir ALEXANDER, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Elms, Sutton Bonnington, Loughborough.
tARrmstRonc, Groren Frepprick, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.
*ArmstronG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemis-
try in the City ‘and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W. 55 Granville Park,
Lewisham, S.E.
tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
tArmstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, 8.W.
fArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tArnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.8. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.
§ARROWSMITH, J. W. (Loca TREASURER). Bristol.
tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham,
*Ash, Dr. T, Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.
fAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
1889.§§Ashley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
1887.
1866,
1888.
1890.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1875.
Asuton, THomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
ftAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
*Ashworth, J. Jackson. Hillside, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
Ashworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.
tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S8. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.
tAshworth, Mrs. J. W. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
“Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.
1861.§§ Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
1896.
1861.
1896.
1887.
1865.
1884.
1894.
1894.
1861.
1881.
1881.
1894.
1865.
1884,
1886.
*Assheton, Richard. Birnam, Cambridge.
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
§Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Rockferry.
§Atkinson, Rey. C. Chetwynd, M.A. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.
ean Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S8. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
urrey
{Atkinson, kageaa, Ph.D,, LL.D. Brookline, Meee rhieaae U.S.A.
§ Atkinson, George M. 28'St. Oswald’ s-road, S.W,
*Atkinson, Harold W. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.
fAtkinson, Rev. J. A. The Vicarage, Bolton.
tAtkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
tArkrnson, Ropert Witiam, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
§Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.
ee Je) MAS Pha, ER. S., F.C.S. 111 Temple-chambers,
tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tAulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.
Year of
Election
1888.
1877.
1884.
1883.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1883.
1892.
1883.
1893.
1870.
1887.
1865.
1855.
1887.
1866.
1894.
1878.
1885.
1873.
1897.
1885.
1882.
1891.
1881.
1875.
1881.
1884,
1871.
1894.
1875.
1883.
1878.
1866.
1883.
1886.
1869.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
tAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 30 Green-street, Grosvenor-square, W.
*Ayrron, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, S.W. 41 Kensington Park Gardens, W.
tBaby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
*Bach, Madame Henri. 12 Rue Fénélon, Lyons,
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
*Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.
{Baddeley, John. 1 OCharlotte-street, Manchester.
{Baden-Powell, Sir George S8., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.A.S.,
F.S.S. 114 Eaton-square, 8.W.
{Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
{Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
tBaildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.
*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
§Bailey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.8., F.R.G.S. Edinburgh.
{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester,
tBailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Bailey, W. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.
{Bailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
tBaillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.
*Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.
{Baily, Walter. 4 Roslyn-hill, N.W.
{Barn, AtexanpER, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.
{Bain, Sir James, M.P. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
§Bain, JAmus, jun. Toronto.
{Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
*BakER, Sir Bensamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.0.E.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster,S.W. — -
{Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.
tBaker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.
{Baker, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.
tBaldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
{Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.
{Balfour, The Right Hon. G. W,, M.P. 24, Addison Road, Ken-
sington, W.
tBalfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
TBaxrovr, Isaac Baytny,M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.RS.,F.R.S.E., F.LS.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.
{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.
"Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.
*Ba1, Sir Roperr Srawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.
tBamber, Henry K., F.0.S._ 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, 8. W.
10 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1890. {Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.
1882. {Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.
1884, {Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.
1866. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
1884. {Barber, Rev. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.
1890. *Barber-Starkey, W.J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
1861. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
1855. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
1894. §Barclay, Arthur. 29 Gloucester-road, South Kensington, S.W.
1871. {Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
1852. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, E.C.
1860. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
1887. *Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.
1886. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.
1881. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.
1882. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.
1886. {Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.
1890. {Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross, 8.E.
1860. *Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. ast Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.
1882. *Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.
1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C.,M.A., LL.B. The Vicarage, Yatton, Bristol.
1870, {BarKty, Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, S.W.
1886. {Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1873. tBarlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 53 Victoria-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
1889. §Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.8. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-
road, Urmston, near Manchester.
1883. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.
1883. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice. 5 Great George-street, Dublin.
1885. *Bartow, WittiaM, F.G.8. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, N.
1878. {Bartow, WiiiiAm Henry, F.R.S., M.inst.C.E. High Combe, Old
Charlton, Kent.
1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham.
1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. 38 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
1889. {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.
1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
1884, {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Barr, ARCHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.
1890. {Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds. :
1895. t{Barr, James Mark. Central Technical College, E.C.
1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1891.§§ Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.
1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. LErrismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
1872. *Barrerr, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.1.A., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.
1887. {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
1874, *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
LIST OF MEMBERS. Th
Year of
Election.
1874.
1885
1866.
1893.
1886.
1886,
1896.
1886.
1886.
1858.
1862.
1883.
1875.
1881.
1884,
1890.
1890.
1892.
1858.
1884,
1873.
1892.
1893.
1884.
1852.
1892.
1887.
1876.
1876.
1888.
1891.
1866.
1889.
1869.
1871.
1889.
1883.
1868,
1889.
1884.
1881.
1836.
.
*Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.
tBarron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
{Barrow, Gzoren, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-
street, S.W.
{Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
}Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 15 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
§Barrowman, James. Stanacre, Hamilton, N.B.
{Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
{Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
tBarry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
*Barry, CHartes. | Victoria-street, S.W.
tBarry, Charles EK. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.
tBarry, Sir Jonny Wotrs, K.C.B., F.R.S., Pres.Inst.C.E. 23 Delahay-
street, Westminster, 8.W.
{Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.
*Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
tBartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.
*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Hyde Park, Leeds.
tBartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
TBartley,G.C.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, 8. W.
tBarton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
{Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
{Barton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
{Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
{Bartrum, John 8. 18 Gay-street, Bath. ;
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
{Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, W.
{Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
*Basset, A.B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berk-
shire.
tBassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.
{BastaBLE, Professor C, F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.
{Bastard, 8. 5S. Summerland-place, Exeter.
{Bastran, H. Cuaruron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London. 8a Manchester-square, W.
{Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Bateman, A. E., C.M.G., Controller General, Statistical Depart-
ment. Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.
{Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
{Bareson, WitrtAM, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A.,F.G.S. 185 Kensington High-street,
W.; and British Museum (Natural History), S.W.
{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. Thorn Falcon, near Taunton, Somerset.
12 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863. §BauveRMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8. W.
1867. {Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
1892. §Bayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.
1875. *Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
1876. *Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1887. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1883. *Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
1886. {Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1860, *Bratz, Lionet §., M.B., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, W.
1882. §Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, 8.W.
1884. {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
1872. {Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent. :
1883. {Beard, Mrs. Oxford.
1889. §Beare, Prof. T. Hudson, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. University College,
W.C
1887. { Beaton, John, M.A. 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.
1842. *Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
1889. }Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1855. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S8. 18 Picca-
dilly, W.
1886. {Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal.
1861. *Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.
1887. *Beaumont, W. J. Post Office, Knutsford, Cheshire.
1885. *Beaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,
W.C
1896.§§Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.
1871. *Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-syuare, S.W.
1887. *Brecxert, Joun Hamppen. Corbar Hill House, Buxton, Derby-
shire.
1885.§§Bepparp, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.8., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London, Rezent’s Park, N.W.
1870. §Beppoz, Jonn, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.
1896. §Bedford, F. 8. King’s College, Cambridge.
1858. §Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.
1890, {Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.
1891. §Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.
1878. {Bepson, P. Purtires, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884. {Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.
1874. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
1891. *Belinfante, L. L., B.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.
1892. tBell, A. Beatson. 143 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
1871. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
1884 {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
1896. §BerL, Dueatp, F.G.S. 27 Lansdowne-crescent, Glasgow.
1894. {Butt, F. Jerrrny, M.A., F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde
Park, W.
Bell, Frederick John, Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
bar ere
LIST OF MEMBERS. 13
Year of
Election.
1862. *Berxt, Sir Issac Lowruran, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.0.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
1875, {Bett, Jamns, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Howell Hill Lodge,
Ewell, Surrey.
1896.§§Bell, James. 38 Russian-drive, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.
1891. {Bell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.
1871. *Berx, J. Carter, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
1888. *Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.
1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
1876. {Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.E. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1888. *Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
1842. Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
1893. Seen, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottingham-
shire.
1884. {Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.
1886, §Benger, Frederick Baden, F.LC., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford.
1885. {Bennam, WiLL1AM BLAXLAND, D.Sc. The Museum, Oxford.
1891.§§Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.
1870. {Bennert, AtrReD W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, N.W. ‘
1896.§§ Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton.
1836. {Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
1881. §Bennett, John Ryan. 3 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1883. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Hall, East Isley, Berkshire.
1896.§§Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
1881. ieee an S.H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
ork.
1870. *Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
1889. {Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon- Tyne.
1887. *Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa.
1863, {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884. {Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1897. §Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
1896. *Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.
1894. §Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.
1863. tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
1886, {Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada. "
1894. §Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.
1862. {Busanr, WittiAM Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
1865. *Bessemer, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, S.E.
1882. *Bessemer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park, West End, Southampton.
1890. {Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
1880. *Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-road, W.
1885. tReveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.
1884. *Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
1890. §Bevington, Miss Mary E. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks, Kent.
1870. {Bickerton, A.W. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
1888. *Bidder, George Parker. The Zoological Station, Naples.
1885. *Biowett, SuetrForp, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodoe
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W. 4
1882. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, 8.E.
1891. {Billups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.
14
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1888.
1887.
1871.
1892.
1894,
1885.
1886.
1889.
1889.
1881.
1869.
1876.
1884,
1877.
1855.
1896.
1884.
1883.
{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.
*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.
{Binnie, Sir Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. London County
Council, Spring-gardens, S.W.
{Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down House, Millbrook, near
Devonport.
*Birley, MissCaroline, 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
*Birley, H. K. Hospital, Chorley, Lancashire.
*Biscnor, Gustav. 19 Ladbroke-gardens, W.
{Bishop, Arthur W., Ph.D. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.
{Bisset, James. 5 Hast India-avenue, E.C,
{Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.
*Bixby, Major W. H. Custom House, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
tBlack, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.
tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.
{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshyen, Fort William, N.B.
{Blackburn, Robert. ' New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
{Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
*Brackig, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhaven-terrace, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.
§Blackie, Walter W., B.Sc. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.
1896.§§Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.
1895.
1888.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1849.
1886.
1885.
1846.
1891.
1886.
1894.
1887.
1881
{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Blaine, R. S., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.
{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.
{Blair, Alexander. 385 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.
*Bvaxn, Henry Wottastron, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, W.
{ Blake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.
*Brake, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 69 Comeragh-road, W.
*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
{Blakesley, Thomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.
{Blakie, John. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire,
{Blakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.
{Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.
{Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
1895.§§Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.
1884
1869,
1887.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1880.
1888.
. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.
{Bianrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hill, W.
*Bles, A. J.S. Palm House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
*Bles, Edward J., B.Sc. Newnham Lea, Grange-road, Cambridge.
{Bles, Marcus 8S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.
*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
{Bloxam, G. W., M.A. 11 Presburg-street, Clapton, N.E.
§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 15
Year of
Election.
1870,
1859.
1885.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1876.
1894.
1898.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1888.
1893.
1890.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1883.
1876.
1882.
1876.
{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby.
{Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinbureh.
{Bryrra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
{Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 27 Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.
*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
{Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.
tBoardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.
*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester,
{Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 30 Walbrook, E.C.
{tBody, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. ‘Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.
TBolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
§Bolton, John. Clifton-road, Crouch End, N.
§Bonar, J., M.A., LL.D., 1 Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.
§Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Stafford-
shire.
§Bonney, Miss 8. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
*Bonney, Rev. THomas Grorexr, D.Sc., LL.D., F.RS., F.S.A,,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
tBoon, William. Coveniry.
{Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.
*Booth, Charles, F.S.8. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, E.C.
§Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.
{Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
{Booth, Rev. William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, S.W.
{Boothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.
*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glascow.
§Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
*Bosanauet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Tenerife.
1896.§§ Bose, Dr. J. C. Calcutta, India.
1881.
1887.
1872.
1868.
1887.
1871.
1884,
1892.
1876.
1890.
1883.
1883,
1893.
1889
“Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
§Bornaminby, Cuartes H., F.1C., F.0.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Otter-
wood, Beaconsfield-road, Weston-super-Mare.
TBott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
tBottle, Alexander. Dover.
{Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
{Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.
*Borromiry, James THomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.0.S8.
13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.
tBottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College, W.C.
{Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.
§Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
tBourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, 8.W.
{Bovrng, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras.
§Bournr, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. Savile House, Mansfield-road,
Oxford.
{Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
1866.§§ Bournr, SrnpHen, F.S.S. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.
1890. {Bousfield, ©. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
16 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884. §Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.
1888. ¢{Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
1881. *Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in
the University of Glasgow.
1856. *Bowlby, Miss F. E. 28 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
1880. {Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.
1865. §Bowman, F. H., D.Se., F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire.
1887. §Box, Alfred Marshall. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
1895. *Boyrcr, Rupert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College
Liverpool. f
1884. *Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.
1871. tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1865. t{Boyrz, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A. The Deanery, Salisbury.
1884. *Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. - Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, 8. W. é
1892. §Boys, CHARLES VERNON, F.R.S. 27 The Grove, Boltons, S.W.
1872, *Brasroox, KE. W., C.B., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, 8. W.
1869. *Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington
Middlesex. '
1894. *Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.
1893. §Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1892. §Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
1857. *Brady, Cheyne, M.R.LA. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
1863. {Brapy, GrorcE S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
1880. *Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, §.0., Essex.
1864, {Brawam, Parr. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, 8.E.
1888. §Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.
1865. §BRaMWwELL, Sir FREDERICK J.,° Bart; D:Cily, Dynes:
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, S.W. 4
1872. t{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. The Rectory, Dickleburgh.
1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.
1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.
1877. {Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
1882. *Bretherton, OC. E. Goldsmith-buildings, Temple, E.C.
1866. {Brettell, Thomas. Dudley.
1891. {Brice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 159 Strand, W.C.
1886.§§Bridge, T. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Mason
Science College, Birmingham.
1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Bryerswood, Windermere.
1887. {Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
1886. {Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1879. tBrierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
1870. *Briee, Joun, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1890. tBrigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1893. {Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.
1868. +Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
Ss)
1893.§§Briscoe, Albert E. , A.R.C.Se., B.Sc. Battersea Polytechnic, 8. W.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 17
Year of
Election.
1884. {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.
1879. *Brirrain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Alma Works, Sheffield.
1878. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,S.W,
1884. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black-
heath, S.E.
1897. §Brock, W. R. Toronto.
_ 1896. *Brocklehurst, S. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1859. *Bropuurst, Burnarp Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.
1883. *Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common, S.W,
1884. {Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A.
1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne.
1881.§§Brook, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire.
1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.
1888. {Brooke, Rev. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
Bath.
1887. $Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
; chester,
1863. {Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1887. {Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
1887. *Bros, W. Law. Camera Club, Charing-cross-road, W.C.
1883. *Brotherton, E. A. Arthington Hall, via Leeds.
1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, 8.E.
1886.§§Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.
1885. *Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham.
1863. *Brown, "ALEXANDER Crum, M.D. iuivs D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.8.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, 8 Bel-
erave-crescent, Hdinburgh.
1892. {Brown, Andrew, M. ‘Inst. C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.
1896.§§ Brown, A. T. *The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.
1867. {Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 2388 Sloane-street, S.W.
1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.
1863. *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
1883. +Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1881. {Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
1883. {Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, EHaling, Middlesex, W.
1883. {Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 62 Stanley-street, Aberdeen.
1883. {Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.
1870. §Brown, Horace T., F.R.S., F.C.8., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square, S.W.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
1883. {Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh.
1895. {Brown, J. Auten, J.P., F.R.G.S.,F.G.S. 7 Kent-gardens, Haling, W,
1870. *Brown, Professor J. CampBett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.
1876. §Brown, John. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast.
1881. *Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
1882. *Brown, J ohn, 7 Second- -avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
1895. *Brown, John Charles. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham.
1859. {Brown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D. Haddington, N.B.
1894. {Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.
1882. *Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 i ade, Burnley, Lancashire.
1897.
18 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1897. §Brown, Price, M.B. 387 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.
1886. §Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.
1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1897. §Brown, Richard. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
1896.§§Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.
1891. §Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guild Hall Chambers,
Cardiff.
1865. tBrown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
1885. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.
1884, {Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co,, Virginia, U.S.A.
1863. {Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
1892. {Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.
1895. *Browne, Henry Taylor. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.
1879, {Browne, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.
1891.§§Browne, Montacu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.
1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Ireland.
1872. {Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redeot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent.
1887. {Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
1865. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, W.C.
1883. {Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
1855. {Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
1892. {Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
1893. {Bruce, William 8. University Hall, Riddle’s-court, Edinburgh.
1863. *Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1863. {Brunel, I. 15 Devonshire-terrace, W,
1875. {Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1896. *Brunner, Sir J. T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liver-
pool.
1868. {Brunron, T. LavpEr, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. 70 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, W.
1897, *Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
1878. §Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.
1886. *Bryan, G. H., D.Se, F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
University College, Bangor,
1894,§§ Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.
1884. {Bryce, Rey. Professor George. Winnipeg, Canada.
1897. §Brycz, Right Hon. Jamus, D.C.L., M.P., F.R.S. 54 Portland-
lace, W.
1894, Teaaeae. R. M. Petworth, Sussex.
1890, §Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.
1871. §Bucnan, AtexanperR, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
1867, {Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
1881. *Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
1871. {BucHanan, Jonn Younes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.S.
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1884, {Buchanan, W, Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.
18838. {Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.
1886. *Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C.
1865. *Buckley, Henry. 18 Princes-street, Cavendish-square, W.
1886. §Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.
1884, *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.
1880. {Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, W.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 19
Year of
Election.
1851. *Buckron, Groree Bowntrnr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
1887. tBudenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
1875. tBudgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.
1883. {Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland,
1893. §BuLiter, ArrtHUR. Glastonbury.
1871. {Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, S.W.
1881. {Bulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.
1883. {Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.
1865. {Bunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.
1895. {Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.
1886. §Bursury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
1842. *Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.
1875. {Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
1869. {Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.
1881. {Burdett-Coutts, W. L.A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.
1891. {Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.
1894.§§ Burke, John. Owens College, Manchester.
1884, *Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,
Canada.
1888. {Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
1883. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.S.L., C.LE., F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.
1876. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glaszow.
1885. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
1877. {Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.
1884, {Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.
1887. {Burroughs, Egeleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, F.C.
1883. *Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.
1860. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford,
1894, {Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.
1891. tBurt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.
1888. {Burt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.
1888. {Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.
1894, {Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.
1866. *Burron, FrepertcK M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough,
1889. {Burton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.
1897. §Burton, S. H., M.B. 50 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1892. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St,
George’s Club, Hanover-square, W.
1897. §Burwash, Rev. N., LL.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.
1887. *Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1895. §Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. Bramhope, Old Charlton, Kent.
1878. {Burcuer, J. G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, S.W.
1884. *Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.
1884. {Butler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
1888. {Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Bath.
1884. *Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Man-
chester.
1872. {Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
1883, {Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.
1887. *Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.
1868. {Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
1881. {Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, S.W.
B2
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1872.
1854,
1885.
1852.
1883.
1889.
1892.
1894.
1865.
1861.
1886.
1868.
1857.
1887.
1897.
1892.
1884.
1876.
1857.
1896.
1884.
1870.
1884.
1876.
1897.
1897.
1882.
1890.
1897.
1888.
1894.
1880.
1883.
1887.
1873.
1896.
1877.
1867.
1897.
1884.
1884.
1897.
1854.
{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Wazrlies,
Waltham Abbey, Essex.
tByertey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool.
{Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.
{Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
{Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.
{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo’ness, N.B.
{Caillard, Miss E. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
*Caldwell, William Hay. Cambridge.
tCaley, A. J. Norwich.
tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College. -
t{Cattaway, Cuaruzs, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 385 Huskisson-street,
Liverpool.
§CaLLenDER, Professor Hucu L., F.R.S. 62 Hutchinson-street,
Montreal, Canada.
{Calvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.
{Cameron, Ai‘neas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart, M.D., LL.D. 1 Huntly-gardens,
Glasgow.
tCameron, Sir Cuartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
§Cameron, Irving H. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
t{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
t{Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place,
Edinburgh. :
§Oampbell, Major J. C. L. New Club, Edinburgh.
§Campion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
t{Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.8. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
§Cannon, Herbert. Erith, Kent.
{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.LE. 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.
§Capper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.
{Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
tCapper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
*CaRBUTT, Sir EpwarpD Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, W.
*Carden, H. V. Lismore, Lovelace-gardens, Surbiton.
{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
§Carmichael, Norman R. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
pee ee Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
USA
§Carpenter, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
{Carpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B,A. Bridport.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election.
1889.
1893.
1889.
1867.
1886.
1883.
1837.
L868.
1897.
1866.
1855,
1870.
1883.
1883.
1896.
1878.
1870.
1862.
1894.
1884,
1884,
1887.
1897.
1896.
1871.
1873.
1897.
1888.
1874.
1859.
1886,
1871.
1883.
1859,
1883.
1884,
1883.
1885.
1881.
1865.
1865.
1886.
1865.
1888.
1861.
1897.
t{Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
{Carr, J. Wesley, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.
{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
{CarRvriers, Wittiam, F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S. 14 Vermont-
road, Norwood.
{OarstaKe, J. Barwam. 30 Westfield-road, Birmingham.
{Carson, John. 651 Royal-avenue, Belfast.
“Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.LA. — L Trinity College, Dublin.
*Oarteighe, Michael, F.C.S., F.I.C. 180 New Bond-street, W.
§Carter, E. Tremlett. Broadclyst, 53 Cloudesdale-road, S.W.
fCarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tCarter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
§Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 69 Gloucester-road, Kew, Surrey.
*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. i Courtfield-gardens, S.W.
§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.1., Borough and Water
Engineer. Albion-place, Bury, Lancashire.
fCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.
Carus, Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.
*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, 8S.W.
tCarver, Mrs. ee Streatham Common, London, 8.W.
{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
*Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.
*Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, E.C.
{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
*Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.
§Caston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-avenue,
Toronto, Canada.
tCater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.
fCaton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
{Catto, Robert. 44 Kine-street, Aberdeen.
*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella. Devonshire House, ‘New Malden,
Surrey.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
{Chadwick, James Percy. 651 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
{Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-
port.
{Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
tChambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
t{Chambers, Charles, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Colaba peers Bombay.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
*Champney, John E. Abchurch-chambers, E.C.
tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chance, James Ded Grand Avenue, Brighton.
*Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad “Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, “Dorset.
"Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C. S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.
§Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda’s-terrace, Whitby.
22
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889.
1884,
1877.
1874.
1874,
1866,
1886.
1884,
1886,
1867.
1884.
1883.
1864.
1887.
1887.
1896
1874
1884
1896
1879
1883.
1884.
1889.
1894.
1882.
1887.
1893.
1884.
1875.
1876.
1870.
1860.
1896.
1890.
1877.
1876.
1892.
1892.
1876.
1881.
1861.
1855.
tChapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tChapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada. :
{Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-avenue, Liscard, Cheshire.
tCharles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.
{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
{Cuarnock, Ricnarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A. Crichton Club,
Adelphi-terrace, W.C.
{Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.
§Chattock, A. P. University College, Bristol.
*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.
tCHavveav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
{Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
tCuraptz, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,
Portman-square, W..
tCheetham, F. W. Limetield House, Hyde.
{tCheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
«§§Chenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.
. *Chermside, Colonel Sir H. C., R.E., K.C.M.G.,C.B. Care of Messrs.
Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, 8. W.
. {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.
.§§Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.
. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.
tChinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.
{Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.
TChisholm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.S. 26 Dornton-road, Balham,
tChorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
*CHREE, CHARLES, D.Sc, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kew
Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.
*Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
*Christopher, George, F.C.S. 3 Tankerville-road, Streatham, London,
S.W
*CurystaL, Guorer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.
§Cuurcy, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew.
{Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C,
§Clague, Daniel, ¥.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liver-
ool.
{Clark, E. K. 13 Wellclose-place, Leeds.
*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.
Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, W.
{Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
§Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Agriculture in the York-
shire College, Leeds.
tClark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.
{Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.
tClark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. 12 Feversham-terrace, York.
fCrarx, Larrmr, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street,
S.W.
tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 23
Election.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1886.
{Clarke, Rey. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
§Clarke, C. Goddard, J.P. Fairlawn, 157 Peckham-rye, S.E.
{Clarke, Charles 8. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
{Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
1886.§§Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
1875.
1897.
1883.
1896,
1884.
1889.
1866.
1890.
1859.
1875.
1861.
1886.
1861.
1895.
1878.
1873.
1892.
1883.
1863.
1881.
1885.
1891.
1897.
1884,
1895,
1889.
1889.
1892.
1883.
1861,
1881.
1896.
1884,
1887.
1894,
1895.
1895.
1853.
1893.
1879,
1894,
1897.
18938.
1878.
{Crarks, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
§Clarke, Colonel 8. C. Uphill, Guildford.
{Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
§Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.
{Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
§CLaypEN, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.
tClayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, W.C.
*Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.
fCleghorn, John. Wick.
{Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
§CLELAND, Jonny, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.
tClifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*QOxrirron, R. Becuamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.
{Clofford, William. 36 Manstield-road, Nottingham.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 38 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
{Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Clouston, T. S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.
*Ctowxs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S. London County Council, London.
*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
*Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.
tClyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.
*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.
§Coates, J., M.Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia.
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
§Cobb, John. Westfield, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*CoppoLpD, Ferix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.
{Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.
{Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.
*Oorrin, Water Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, 8.W.
*Coghill, Perey de G. Camster, Cressington.
*Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, W.
tCohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
*Colby, Miss E. L. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.
*Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire,
*Colby, William Henry. Carreg-wen, Aberystwith.
{Colchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.
{Cole, Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Cole, Skelton. 387 Glossop-road, Sheftield.
fColefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, 5S. W.
§Coleman, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.
tColeman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.
{Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.
24 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
1892. {Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.
1892.§§ Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.
1887. {Cotris, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 16 Campden-grove, W.
1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon, ~
1893. {Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.
1854. {CoLttinewoop, Curnsert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, W.C.
1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Ivene-road, Parson’s Green,
S.W.
1865. *Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876. {Coxtins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, S.E.
1892. {Colman, H.G. Mason College, Birmingham.
1868. *Cotman, J. J. Carrow House, Norwich.
1882. {Colmer, Joseph G.,O.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 17 Victoria=street, S.W.
1884. {Colomb, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Ireland; and Junior United Service Club, S.W.
1897. §Colquhoun, A. H. W., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada.
1896. *Comber, Thomas. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester.
1888, {Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.
1884, {Common, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.
1891. {Common, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.
1892. {Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S.. The Grammar School, Durham.
1884, {Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
1896.§ §Connacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.
1890. {Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.
1871. *Connor, Charles C. 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.
1881. {Conroy, Sir Jon, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.
1893. {Conway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S. The Red House, Hornton-
street, W.
1876. {Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.
1882. {Cooxz, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, S.W.
1876. *Cooxz, Conrad W. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.
1881. {Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.
1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
1895.§§Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich.
1868. {Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, N.
1884, {Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
1878, {Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
1881. {Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.
1865. {Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
1896.§§Cookson, E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.
1888. {Cooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.
1895, {Cooper, Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W
1893, {Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Notting-
ham.
1883. {Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, W.C.
1868. {Cooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.
1889. tCoote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1878, {Cope, Rev. S. W. Bramley, Leeds.
1871. {Coprtanp, Ratpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.
Year of
Election.
1885.
1881.
1842.
1891.
1887.
1894.
1881.
1883.
1870.
1898.
1889.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1891.
1891.
1885.
1891.
1874.
1864.
1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1889.
1896.
1890.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 25
{Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
Corbett, Edward. Grange-ayenue, Levenshulme, Manchester.
§Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.
*Corcoran, Bryan. 9 Alwyne-square, N.
§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,
Surrey.
§Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes House, R.5.0., Lincoln.
*Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.
*CorFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College, London. 19 Savile-
row, W.
*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.
{Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Cornwallis, F. S. W., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.
{Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.
tCorser, Rev. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.
{Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Carditt.
{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, N ewport-road, Cardiff.
{Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 383 Chancery-lane, W.C.
*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt, G.W-.R. Laboratory, Swindon, Wilts.
*Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S1. 18 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, 8. W.
{Corron, Wirt1am. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
{Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallet, Somerset.
{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Courtney, F. S. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, S.W.
{Courtngy, Right Hon. Lxonarp, M.P. 15 Cheyne Walk,
Chelsea, 5. W.
{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
1896.§§Coventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.
1863.
1863.
1872.
1895.
1871.
1867.
1867.
1892.
1882.
1888.
1867.
1883.
1890.
1892.
1884,
1876.
1858.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh,
{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
t{Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
pore a William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 31 Belsize Park-gardens,
*Cowrtt, Puitie H. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 8.E.
Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.
tCowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
t{Cox, Robert. 84 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
{Cox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, 8. W.
{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.
{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
{Crabtree, William. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.
{Cradock, George. Wakefield.
*Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
§Cratere, Major P. G., F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.
$Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,
{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
26 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884, {Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.
1887. *Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.
1871. *CRawrorp AND Baxcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.
1871. *Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Edin-
burgh.
1846. *Orawshaw, The Right Hon, Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.
1890. §Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.
1883. *Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 26 Tollington- park, N,
1870. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.
1885. §Cruax, Captain E. W., R.N.. F.R.S. 7 Hervey-road, Black-
heath, 8.E.
1896. §Cregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.
1879. {Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.
1876. *Crewdson, Rey. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.
1887. *Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.
1896. §Crewe, W. Outram. 121 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
1896. §Crichton, H. 6 Roclfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.
1880. *Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., FL. 8., FGS. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Till, W.
1890. *Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.
1878. {Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.
1857. {Orolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
1885. {Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
1885. {Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.
1885. {Cromprg, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
1885. {Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1887. {Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
1887.§§Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.
1865. §Crooxss, Sir W., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (PResrpenr Execr.) 7 Kensing-
ton Park-gardens, W.
1879. {Orookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.
1897. *Crookshank, E. M., M.B., Professor of Bacteriology in King’s
College, London, W.C.
1870. {Crosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1894. *Crosfield, Miss Margaret C, Undercroft, Reigate.
1870. *CrosrreLp, Witt1aM. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1890. {Cross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.
1887.§§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1861. {Cross, Rey. John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Halecote, Grange-over-
Sands.
1853. {Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
1887. *Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1894. *Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.8., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
Kent.
1897. *Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.
1894.§§Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock-road, Oxford.
1883. {Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
1882. §Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
1890. *Crowley, Ralph Henry.. Bramley Oaks, Croydon.
1868. {Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1885. {Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.
1888. {Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1897.
1874.
1861.
1861.
1882.
1877.
1891.
1852,
1892.
1885,
1869,
1883.
1892.
1892.
1884,
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.
1889.
1854.
1883.
1889.
1863.
1867.
1894,
1870,
1862.
1876,
1896.
1849.
1894.
1897.
1897.
1861.
t{Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
*Oryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
*CULVERWELL, Epward P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.
{Oulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
§Cumberland, Barlow, Toronto, Canada.
tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
*Ounliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.
*CunnincHam, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.IL.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.
*Cunninenam, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.
t{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
t Cunningham, Very Rev. John. St. Bernard’s College, Edinburgh.
{Cunnineuam, J.'T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.
{CunninenaM, Ropert O., M.D., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.
*CunnincHam, Rey. Wittiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.
§Cunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
*Currie, James, jun., M.A. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh.
{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.
{Curtis, William. Oaramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depdt, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, S.W.
tDageer, John H., F.I.C. Victoria Villa, Lorne-street, Fairfield,
Liverpool.
{Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
{Dahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.
*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.
{Dale, J. B. South Shields.
tDalgleish, W. Dundee.
. graeens W. Scott, M.A., LL.D. 25 Maytield-terrace, Edin-
burgh.
{DariineEr, Rey. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, S.E.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
tDansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.
tDansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
§Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,
Liverpool.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.8. Montreal, Canada.
{Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.
§Darbishire, C. W. Darbishire Granite Quarries, Penmaenmawr.
§Darbishire, F. V. Rossplatz 121, Leipzig.
Speers ee Rosrerr Duxinrierp, B.A. 26 George-street, Man-
chester.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1896.
1882.
1881.
1878.
1894.
1882.
1888,
1872.
1880.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1891.
1875.
§Darbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales.
TDarwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.8. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.
*Darwin, GEores Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.
*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
§Darwin, Major Lronarp, Sec. R.G.S. 12 Egerton-place, South
Kensington, S.W.
{Darwin, W. E., M.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
tDaubeny, William M. 1 Cayendish-crescent, Bath.
tDavenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.
*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.
tDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
{Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
{Davies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.
}Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
1887.§§Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.
1870.
1887.
1893.
1896.
1887.
1873.
1870.
1864,
1842.
1882.
1896.
1885.
1885.
1891.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869.
1860.
1864,
1886
1891
1897
1885
1884
1859
1892
1870
1861
1887
1855.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A. Midland Baptist College, Nottingham.
*Davies, W. V. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.
{Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. 13 St. Ermin’s-mansions, 8. W.
*Davis, A. 8. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.
tDavis, Cuaries E., F.S.A. 655 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.
{Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
*Davis, John Henry Grant. 18 Clare-road, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Davis, R. Frederick, M.A. Earlsfield, Wandsworth Common, 8. W.
*Davis, Rey. Rudolf. 1 Victoria-avenue, Evesham.
{Davis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
{Davison, Cuartzs, M.A. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.
*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
tDavy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
tDaw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.
*Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.
tDawxins, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.8., Professor of
Geology and Palontolory in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.
{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
§Dawson, G. M., O.M.G., LL.D, F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Canada. Ottawa, Canada.
*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall, Skipton.
}Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Dawson, Sir Witrram, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S.
293 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent.
tDay, 1. C., F.C.S. 386 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Deracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-square, 8.W.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
{Deakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 29
Year of
Election. -
1861. tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
1884. *Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N. W.
1866. {Desus, Herverca, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel,
Hessen.
1884, {Deck, Arthur, F.C.8. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
1893.§§Deeley, R. M. 10 Charnwood-street, Derby.
1878. {Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
1884. *De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.
1870. tDe Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. 15 Sandycove-avenue West,
Dublin.
1896. §Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.
1889. {Dendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.
1897. §Denison, F. Napier. The Observatory, ‘Toronto, Canada,
1896. {Denison, Miss Louisa EK. 16 Chesham-place, S.W.
1889, §Drenny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,
Sheffield.
Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.
1874, §De Ranoz, Cnartis E., F.G.S. 55 Stoke-road, Shelton, Stoke-
upon-Trent.
1896.§§Drrsy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot,
Lancashire.
1874. *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M.,F.G.S. 63 Queensborough-terrace, W.
1878. {De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
1894. *Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, S.E.
1868, {Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pres.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
“2 the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-
ridge.
1881. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
1884. *Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.
1872. {Dewick, Rev. E.S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.
1887. {De Winton, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, 8S. W.
1884, {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
1873. *Dew-Surtu, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1896.§§D’Hemry, P. 1386 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
1897. §Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.
1889. {Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.
1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.8. South Bank, Pendleton.
1884, {Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 11 West Clittroad, Birkdale,
Southport.
1887. §Dickson, H. N., F.R.S.E. 2 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
1885. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.
1883. {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston. ,
1862. *Ditxz, The Right Hon. Sir Cartes Wentworru, Bart.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S.W.
1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.
1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
1884. {Dix, John William H. Bristol.
1874, *Dixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
1883. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliffterrace, Kendal.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1888.
1886.
1879.
1885.
1896.
1887.
1885.
1890.
1885.
1860.
1897.
1892.
1891.
1893.
1894.
1875.
1870.
1876,
1897.
1889,
1895.
1885.
1882.
1869.
1877.
1889.
§Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, SW.
{Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Dixon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Manchester.
{Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.
§Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot.
{Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire,
tDoak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
{Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.
§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Hdinburgh,
*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne-park, W.
§Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kong.
t{Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
{Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.
{Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.
tDockar-Drysdale, Mrs. 39-Belsize-park, N.W.
*Docwra, George, jun. 108 London-road, Gloucester.
*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York,
tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
§Dodge, Richard E. Teachers’ College, Morningside Heights, New
York, U.S.A.
{Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.
{Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.
{Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
tDonaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
{Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
*Donkin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.
{Donkin, R. S.,M.P. Campville, North Shields.
1896.§§Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.
1861
1881
1867
1863
1890.
1885.
1884,
1884.
1876.
1894.
1884,
1857.
1865.
1881.
1887.
1894,
1885.
1892.
1868,
1890.
1877.
1884.
. {Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken-
sineton Museum, S.W.
{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.
tDougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotseraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Henwick, Newbury.
*Doverass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Stella House, Bon-
church, Isle of Wight.
tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
t{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.
t{Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.
tDove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.
t{Dowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
t{Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.
{Dowie, Robert Chambers. 13 Carter-street, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.
{Downing, S., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Great Queen-street, S.W.
{Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
{Doyne, R. W., F.R.O.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.
*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
{Dresser, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, E.C.
{Drew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 31
Year of
Election.
1892. {Dreyer, fens L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh. :
1893. §Drucz, G. Crariper, M.A., F.L.8. 118 High-street, Oxford.
1889. {Drummond, Dr, 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1892. {Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.
1889, {Du Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, W.
1856. *Ducrz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynotps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S., F.G.8. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth
Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire.
1870. {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.
1895. *Duddell, William. 47 Hans-place, 8S. W.
1867. *Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mountsrvarr Etpainstone GRant-
G.C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 11 Chelsea-embankment, S.W.
1852. {DurreRtn anpD Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.S.1., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.
1877. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
1875. {Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.
1890. {Dufton,S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1884. {Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.
1883.§§ Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.
1892. {Dulier, Colonel E.,C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, S.W.
1866. *Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, H.C.
1891. *Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.
1880. {Duncan, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, W.
1896.§§Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Liverpool.
1881. {Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.8S. Nawton Grange, York.
1893. *Dunell, George Robert. 9 Grove Park-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1892. {Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo.
mew House, E.O0.
1881. {Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
1896.§§Dunkerley, S. University Engineering Laboratory, Cambridge.
1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
1882. {Dunn, J. T., M.Sc., F.C.S. Northern Polytechnic Institute,
Holloway-road, N. bi
1883. {Dunn, Mrs. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N.
1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1878. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
1884, §Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
,
1859. {Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
1893. *Dunstan, M. J. R. Neweastle-circus, Nottingham.
1891. {Dunstan, Mrs. Neweastle-circus, Nottingham.
1885. *Dunstan, WynpHam R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the
Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, S.W.
1869. {D’Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.8. Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon.
1895. *Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 65 Louis-street, Leeds.
1887. {Dyason, John Sanford. Boscobel-gardens, N. W.
1884, {Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.
1885. *Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
1869, *Dymond, Edward EK. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.
1895, eee ae S., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelms-
ord.
1897. §Dynan, Miss. 75 Queen’s-park, Toronto, Canada.
32 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1868. {Hade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1895.§§ Earle, Hardman A. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 8.W.
1877. tHarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
1888. {Earson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1874. {Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
1871. *Easron, Epwarp. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1863. tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham,
1876. {Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.
1883. tEastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
1893. §Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, H.C.
1887. *Eccles, Mrs. S. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.
1884, tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
1861. {Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
1870.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1870.
1883.
1888.
1884.
1883.
1867.
3855.
1884.
1887.
1896.
1876,
1890.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1891.
1883.
1886.
1877.
1875.
1880.
1891.
1884.
1869,
1887.
1862.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
{Ede, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.
*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. The College House,
Leamington.
§EpenwortH, F, Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,
@xtord.3 9.
*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, E.C.
Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.
*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, 5. W.
*Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, W,
{Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple, E.C.
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
*Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Oanada.
tEdwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.
§Ekkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
{Elder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
§Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Erear, Francts, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 113 Cannon-
street, H.C.
{Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W.
tElliott, A. C.,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,
*Eiiiotr, Epwin Battery, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
{Elliott, Thomas Henry, C.B, F.S.5S. Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall-place, 5. W.
{Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
*Euits, Joan Henry. Woodland House, Plymouth.
§Ellis, Miss M. A. 2 Southwick-place, W.
Ellis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B. 74 St. Alban’s-street,
Toronto, Canada.
{Exuis, Writ1am Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. EK. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.
{Elphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
LIS! OF MEMBERS. 33
Year of
Election.
1897.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1897.
1863,
1891.
1884,
1863.
1890.
1894.
1866.
1884.
1853.
1883.
1869,
1894,
1864.
1862.
1878.
1887.
1887.
1869.
1888.
1883.
1891.
1881.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1865.
1896.
1891.
1889.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1897.
1881.
1875.
1865.
1891.
1886.
1871.
1868,
1895.
1863.
§Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.
tElwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§Etworrtay, Freprrick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
*Ety, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynr Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.
§Ely, Robert E. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
tEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
tEmerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.
tEmery, AlbertH. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
tEmsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
tEmtage, W. T. A. University College, Nottingham.
}Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
tEnglish, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull.
{Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.
*Enys, John Davis. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.
§Erskine-Murray, James. 46 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
*Eskrigge, R, A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins Hey, Liverpool.
*Esson, WitrraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,
Oxford.
fEstcourt, Charles. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.
*Estcourt, Charles. Hayesleigh, Montague-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.LC. 20 Albert-square, Manchester.
tErueriper, R., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.
tEtheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.
tEunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.
tEvan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,
tEvans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.
*Evans, A. H. Care of R. H. Porter, 18 Prince’s-street, W.
*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Lyndhurst, Upper Chorlton-road,
Whalley Range, Manchester.
*Evans, ARTHUR JoHN, M.A., F.S.A. Youlbury, Abingdon.
*Evans, Rey. Cuartes, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, W.
§Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire.
tEvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.
fEvans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.
tEvans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, Weston-super-Mare.
*Evans, James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.
*Evans, Mrs. James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.
*Evans, Sir Joun, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., F.S.A,,
F.L.S., F.G.S. (PResipent). Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
*Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
{Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.
tEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.
tEvans, William Llewellin. (uildhall-chambers, Cardifi.
tEve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.
tEve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, W.C.
*EverErt, J. D., M.A., D.C.L, F.RS., F.RS.E., Derryvolgie-
avenue, Belfast.
§Everett, W. H., B.A. University College, Nottingham.
*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
1897. C4]
36 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1890. {Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.
1892. tFletcher, George, F.G.S. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth. -
1888. *Fiercuer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
S.W. 36 Woodville-road, Ealing, W.
1862. §Frower, Sir Wrrrram Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Se., F.B.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History De-
partments, British Museum, South Kensington, 8.W. 26
Stanhope-gardens, S.W.
1889. tFlower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, 8.W.
1877. *Floyer, Ernest A. Downton, Salisbury.
1890. *Flux, A. W., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
1887. {Foale, William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth,
1883. {Foale, Mrs. William, 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
1891. §Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.
1879. {Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
1880. {Foote, R. Bruce, F.G.S.- Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, F.C.
1873. *Forpes, Groner, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, 5. W.
1883. {Forpes, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor-
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.
1897. §Forbes, J., Q.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, S.W.
1885. {Forbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.
1890. tForp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.
1875 *ForpHam, H. Grorer. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.
1883.§§Formby, R. Kirklake Bank, Formby, near Liverpool.
1894.§§Forrest, Frederick. Castledown, Castle Hill, Hastings.
1887
. {Forrest, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, K.C.M.G., F.R.GS., F.G.S8.
Perth, Western Australia.
1883. {ForsytH, A. R., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure
1884
1877
1882
1896
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
. {Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.
. }Forrsscur, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
. t{Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.
.§§Forwoop, Sir Wittiam B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.
1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, S.W.
1865
1865
. tFoster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
. *Foster, Crement Le Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno.
1883. {Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
1857. *Fostrr, Grorck Qargy, B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
1896
1877
1859
1863
1896
1866
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.
.§§ Foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.
. §Foster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth.
. *Fosrer, Micwart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Sec.R.S., F.LS.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Great
Shelford, Cambridge.
. tFoster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
. }Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside. ’ :
. {Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.
1868. {Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
1892
. {Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-cireus, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Year of
Election.
1876. *Fowler, John. 16 Kerrsland-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1882. {Fowrer, Sir Jonn, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, 8. W.
1884. {Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth,
1883. *Fox, Charles. 104 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting, S.W.
1883, §Fox, Sir Coartes Dovetas, M.Inst.C.H. 28 Victoria-street, West-
minster, 8.W.
1896.§§Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.
1883, {Fox, Howard, F.G.8. Falmouth.
1847. *Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.
1888. {Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.
1886. {Forwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.
1881. *Foxwett, Hersert §., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1889, {Frain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
Tyn
yne.
Francis, WittraM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, H.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.
1845. {FRanxtanD, Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D.,
E.R.S., F.C.S. The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
1887. *FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason College, Birmingham.
1894, §Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 9 Pembridge-gardens, W.
1895.§§ Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.
1882, {Fraser, Alexander, M.b. Royal Colleze of Surgeons, Dublin.
1885. {Fraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 232 Union-street, Aber-
deen.
1865, *FRrasmr, Joun, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
1897. §Fraser, Sir Malcolm, K.C.M.G. 15 Victoria-street, S.W.
1871. {Frasrr, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
1859. *Frazer, Daniel. Rowmore House, Garelochhead, N.B.
1871. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
1884, *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France),, Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1884, *Fream, W., LL.D., BSc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.
1877. §Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, Sonth Devon.
1884, *FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 12 Buckingham Palace-
gardens, 8. W.
1869. {Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.
1886. {Freshfield, Douglas W.,F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W
-1887. {Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.
1887. {Froehlich, The Chevalier. (Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man
chester.
1892. *Frost,Edmund. Chesterfield, Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.
1882. §Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
1883. {Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
1887. *Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.
1898. §Fry, The Right Hon. Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.
1875, tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1875. *Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1884. §Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.
1895. {Fullarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
{Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A..
1896.§§Gilmour, H. B. Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1892,
1867.
1898.
1867.
1884.
1886.
1850.
1849.
1883.
1861.
1871.
1897.
1885.
1881.
1881.
1859.
1867.
1874.
1870.
1889.
1872.
1886,
1887.
1878.
1880.
1883.
1852.
1879.
1876.
1881.
1886,
1890,
1884,
1852.
1878.
1884,
1885.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1885.
*Gilmour, Matthew A. B. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,.
Hamilton, N.B.
tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
*Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham.
{Givssure, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
tGirdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada,
*Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle StationP.O., Assa.,N.-W.T., Canada.
*Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.
*GLapstong, JouN Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, W.
*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, W.
*GLAIsHER, JAmms, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon. :
*GuaIsHER, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
§Glashan, J.C. Ottawa, Canada.
tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.
*GrazeBRook, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.
tGlennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.
tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
TGloyer, George T. Corby, Hoylake.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
{Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGopparp, Ricwarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Godlee, Arthur. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
{Godlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.
*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 Clarence-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W.
{Gopman, F. Du Canz, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, W.
tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
tGopwin-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
F.Z.8. Shalford House, Guildford.
tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
tGotpscumipr, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.
{Gotpsm1p, Major-General Sir F. J., O.B., K.0.S.1., F.R.G.S.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.
*Gonwer, FE. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
tGood, Charles E, 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
tGoodhody, Jonathan. Olare, King’s County, Ireland.
tGoodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.
tGoodbody, Robert. Fairy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
{Goopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
"Goodridge, Richard E. W. 1038 Rookery Building, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
pei gs Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
anada.
tGoouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tGordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Reetory,.
Newport, Salop.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 4]
lection.
1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, 8. W.
1884. *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Mary-street, St.
Andrews, N.B.
1857. tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
1885. {Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.
1887. ¢{Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, S.W.
1865. {Gorn, Grorer, LL.D., F.R.S. 67 Broad-street, Birmingham.
1875. *Gorcu, Francis, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
the University of Oxford, The Lawn, Banbury-road, Oxford.
1873. {Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1849. {Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
1881. {Gough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.
1894, ¢Gould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1888. {Gouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.
1867. {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
1876. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1883. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1873. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
1886.
1875.
Yorkshire.
tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.
{Graname, James. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1892.§§Grange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.
1893.
1896.
1892,
1864.
1881.
1890.
1864.
1865.
1876.
1881.
1898.
1870.
1892.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1886,
1881.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
tGranger, Professor F. S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,.
Nottingham.
§Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.
tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.
{Grantham, Richard F., F.G.S. Northumberland-chambers, Northum-
berland-avenue, W.C. :
Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York,
{Gray, Professor ANDREW, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Univer-
sity College, Bangor.
*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.
tGray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.
tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
{Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Milleate, Manchester.
{Gray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W.
*Gray, James H., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.
§Gray, John, B.Sc. 351 Coldharbour-lane, Brixton, S.W.
{Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Cleveland Villa, Shurdington Road,.
Cheltenham.
tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
tGray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In--
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
tGray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, Colonel Witttam. Farley Hall, near Reading.
tGray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.
{Gray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.
tGreaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham..
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.
*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.
{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
}Greaves, William, 33 Marlborough-place, N.W.
44
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1890. {Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1882. {Hankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.
1884, {Hannaford, E. P. 2573 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
1894.
1886.
1859.
1890.
1886.
1892.
1865.
1869.
1877.
1869.
1894.
1897.
1894.
1894.
1838.
1858.
1885.
1885.
1890.
1881.
1890.
§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, W.
§Hansford, Charles, J.P. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.
*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.-
Cowley Grange, Oxford.
*Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.K, 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,
S.W.
*Hardcastle. Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,.
N.W.
*Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. 20 Kensington-crescent, W.
tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
tHarding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.
{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
tHarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’ s Lynn, Norfolk.
{Hardman, S.C. 225 Lord- street, Southport.
§Harpy, Hon. Artuur &., Premier of the Province of Ontario.
Toronto, Canada.
tHare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.
tHare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.
*Hare, Cuartes Joun, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester—
square, W.
tHarerave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
{Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tHarereayes, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Hargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.
tHarerove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.
§Harxcer, ALFRED, M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1896.§§Harker, Dr. John Allen. ‘Springfield House, Stockport.
1887.
1878.
1871.
1875.
1877.
1883.
1883.
1862.
1868.
1881.
1882.
1872.
1884,
1872.
1888.
1842.
1889.
1884.
1888.
1860.
1864,
tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
*Harkmess, H. W., M.D. California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.
{tHarkness, William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, W.C.
*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
*Harland, Henry Seaton. 1 Belmont, Tenby.
*Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.
*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C.
*HaRLEY, Rev. Ropert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.
*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*Harmer, Srpney F., M.A., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.
{Harpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
{Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, ’ Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.
*Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
tHarris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.
*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.
§Harris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.H. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
{Harris, Miss Katherine E. 73 Albert Hall-mansions, S.W.
tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, S.W.
}Harrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.
}Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1874. {Harrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1858. *Harrison, J. Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.
1892. {Harrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.
1889. §Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.
1870. {Harrison, Rratvarp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, W.
1853. tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
1892. {Harrison, Rey. S. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
1895.§§Harrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.
1886. {Harrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham.
1876. *Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.
1875. tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.
1893: *Harriann, HE. Sipyey, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester.
1897. §Hartley, E.G. S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
1871. {Harriny, Watrer Nort, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., Professor ot
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.
1896.§§Hartley, W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.
1886. *Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Se. Queen’s College, Cork.
1887. {Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
1897. §Harvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.
1885.§§ Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.
1862. *Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors:
1884. {Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
1882. {Haslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester.
1893. §Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, S.W.
1875. *Hasrines, G. W. 23 Kensington-square, W.
1889. {Hatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.
1893. {Hatton, John L. 8S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.
1887. *Hawkins, William. LEarlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1872. *Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, S.W.
1864, *Hawxsuaw, Joun Crarxn, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 33 Great George-street, S.W.
1897. §Hawksley, Charles. 60 Porchester-terrace, W. —
1884, *Haworth, Abraham, Hilston House, Altrincham.
1889. {Haworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.
1887. *Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1887. {Haworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
1886. {Haworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham,
1890. {Hawtin, J.N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.
1877. {Hay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
1861. *Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joan C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S. W.
1885. *Haycraft, John Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology,
University College, Cardiff.
1891. tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.
1894, {Hayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.
1896. §Hayes, Rev. F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.
1896. §Hayes, Wiliam. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.
1873. *Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
1858. *Haywarp, R. B.,,M.A.,F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight.
1896. *Haywood, A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands.
1879. *Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rock Ferry.
1851. §Heap, Jeremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47: Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.
48
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1886.
1885.
1888.
1876.
1885.
1886.
1863.
1887.
1858.
1870.
18838.
1888.
1886.
1881.
1884,
1884.
1890.
1858.
1881.
1879.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1877.
1883.
1877.
1876.
1852.
1863.
1887.
{Hill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
tHint, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.
*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
tHill, William. Hitchin, Herts.
tHill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
*Hin~HousE, WiLL1AM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College. 16 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, near Bedford.
tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
{Hilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
tHincks, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
Clifton, Bristol.
tHinpz, G. J., Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.5. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
Croydon, Surrey.
*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.
*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.
{Hingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.
tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
tHivnesron, Sir Witt1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 87 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.
tHirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.
*Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds.
{Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
§Hobbes, Robert George, M.R.I. Livingstone House, 374 Wands-
worth-road, S.W.
{Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. Hill House, Park-road, Dewsbury.
*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.S. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.
t{Hobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHocking, Rev. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Hopexr, Thomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
1896.§ §Hodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport.
1880. §Hodgkinson, W. R, Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
1884,
1863.
1863.
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
8 Park-villas, Blackheath, S.E.
tHodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1896.§§Hodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe.
1894.§§Hogg, A. F. 4 Cliffe-terrace, Darlington.
1894.§§Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, E.C.
1883. tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1887.
tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.
tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.
*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
1294.§§Hoider, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 49
Election
1887. *Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.
1891. tHolgate, Benjamin, F.G.S. Cardigan Villa, Grove-lane, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
1879. {Holland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, S.E.
1896.§§Holland, Mrs. Hooton.
*Holland, Philip H. 3 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1889. tHollinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, W.C.
1886. {Holliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
1865. tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
1883. {Hollingsworth, Dr. T.S. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth.
1883. *Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1866. *Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.
1892, {Holmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.
1882. *Hotmers, Tuomas VincENT, F'.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E.
1896.§§Holt, William Henry. 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead.
1897. §Holterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada.
1891. *Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1875. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.
1847. t{Hooxsr, Sir Josspn Darton, G.C.8.L, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.RS., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
1892.§§Hooker, Reginald H., M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.
1865, *Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, S. W.
1877. *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Holy Trinity Vicarage, Blackheath
Hill, Greenwich, S.E.
1856. {Hooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
1842. Hope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W.
1884. *Hopkins, Edward M. Orchard Dene, Henley-on-Thames,
1865. {Hopkins, J. 5. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1884. *Hopxinson, Cuartes. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester.
1882. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire,
1870. “Speainl Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,
urrey.
1871. *Hopxrinson, Jonn, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-
street, Cavendish-square, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans.
1858. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
1891. {Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff. .
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
1885. {Horne, Jonn, F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff
Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
1875. *Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest
Hill, S.E.
1884. *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
1887. {Horsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
1893. *Horstny, Vicror A. H., B.Se., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 25 Cavendish-
square, W.
1884. *Hotblack,G.S. Brimdall, Norwich.
1859. {Hough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
1896. *Hough, 5.8. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1886. Houghton, F. T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1887. {Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
1896.§§Hoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1884. {Houston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
1883. *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.
1893. {Howard, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.
1883. {Howard, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.
1897. D
5U
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886,
1887.
1882.
1886.
1876.
1885.
1889.
1857.
1868.
1891
1886.
1884.
1884.
1865.
1863.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1894,
1867.
18658.
1887.
1883.
1871.
1887.
1896.
1870.
1891.
1868.
1891.
1865.
1867.
1897.
1887.
1890.
1878.
1880.
1877.
*Howarp, JAMEs L., D.Sc. 86 St. John’s-road, Waterloo, near Liverpool.
*Howard, 8.5. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 13 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
{tHowden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.
§Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.
{Howe 1, Rey. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
-§§ Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Vicar of Holy Trinity, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.
§Howes, Professor G. B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, S.W.
{Howland, Edward P., M.D, 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.
{tHowland, Oliver Aiken. ‘Tororto, Canada.
*Howtert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
}Howorrn, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Bentclitfe, Eccles, Manchester.
tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tHoyle, James. Blackburn.
§Hoytr, WittrAm E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
{Hudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
t{Hupson, C. T., M.A., LL-D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Dawlish.
§Hudson, John EK. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
*Hupson, Wiiiram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Comuion,
S.W.
*Hueerns, Sir Wir, K.C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb.. F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S. 90 Upper Tulse Hill, S.W.
tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
§Hughes, Miss E. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.
*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
§§Hughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.
“Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool.
tHughes, Thomas, F.C.S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
§HueuHes, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge. 18 Hills-road,
Cambridge.
tHughes, Rey. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.
THughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the City of Birmingham.
Birmingham,
§Hui., Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens,
Notting Hill, W.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. Breamore House, Salisbury.
§Hume, J. G., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
*Hummet, Professor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds.
t{Humphrey, Frank W. 63 Prince’s-gate, S.W.
tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.S.. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.
“Hunt, Arrnur Roorg, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 51
Year of
Election.
1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.
1886. {Hunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.
1891. tHunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-garden
Cardiff.
1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
1881. tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
1889.
1881.
1884.
1879.
1885.
1863.
1883.
1869.
1861.
1896.
1887.
1882.
1894,
1896.
1864.
1887.
1861.
1883.
1871.
1882.
1885.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1858.
1893.
1876.
1891.
1852.
1885.
1886,
1892.
1892.
1892.
.§§Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sce., F.G.8. Hockerill, Bishop Stortford,
1882
tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
tHunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.
tHunrrneron, A.K.,F.C.S., Prof. of Metallurgy in King’s College, W.C.
{tHuntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.
tHuntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
*Hurst, Cuar~es Herpert, Ph.D. Royal College of Science,
Dublin.
tHurst, George. Bedford.
*Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.
*Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Holly Lodge, Cressington, Liverpool.
jHusband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
JHussey, Major E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
*Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.
§Hutchinson, W. B. 144 Sussex-road, Southport.
Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Hurron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.
*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.
*Y’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
§Idris, T. H. W. 58 Lady Margaret-road, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
*Iles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.,
fim-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.
*Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.
tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.
fInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
fIngram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.
tIveram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
tIveland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh.
tIrvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.
tIrvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.
Herts.
1888. *Isaac, J. F. V., B.A. Royal York Hotel, Brighton.
1883
1881
189]
1886
. {Isherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
. {Ishiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square, W.
. *Ismay, THomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.
. {Izod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
D2
32
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1859.
1884.
1876.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1885.
1866,
1897.
1869,
1887.
1874.
1865.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1860.
1886.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1896.
1858.
1896.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1859.
1889.
1896.
1870.
1891.
1855.
1867.
tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.
*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 358 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Penalva Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary, N.W.T., Canada.
*Jackson, F. J. Haretield, 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. Harefield, 1 Morley-road, Southport.
*Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.
tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.
§Jackson, James. 34 Lonsdale-square, N.
§Jackson, Moses, J.P. 189 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.
§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.
*Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, Nice, France.
*Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham:
tJames, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.
*James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.
*James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.
{James, Ivor. University College, Carditf.
tJames, John. 24 The Parade, Cardiff.
{James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand, W.C.
{James, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.
§James, O.S. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
{James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
*Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland.
tJameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.
tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.
§Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 37 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
tJamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.
tJamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
*Japp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Aberdeen.
*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.
{Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
jJefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.
*Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
tJeftreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, W.
1887.§§JEFFs, Osmunp W. 164 Falkner-street, Liverpool.
1864.
1891.
1873.
1880.
1852.
1893.
1897.
1878.
1887.
tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.
tJenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, 8. W.
§ Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.
*JENKINS, Sir Jonn Jones, M.P. The Grange, Swansea.
tJennings, Francis M., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
§Jennings, G. E. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester.
§Jennings, W.T. 34 St. Vincent-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.
§JeRvis-Smitu, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.RS.- Trinity College, Oxford.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 53
Year of
Election.
1889.
1884.
1891,
1884.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1865.
1888.
1875.
1870.
18653.
1881.
1890.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1859.
1864.
1884.
1885,
1884.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1864,
1871.
1888.
1896.
1888,
1881.
1997.
1887.
1891.
1890.
1891.
Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
{Jevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.
{Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. ‘Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
{John, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff.
tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
§JoHnson, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.
{Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York.
*Johnson, David, F.C.8., F.G.S. 1 Victoria-road, Clapham Common,
S.W
t{Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
{Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.
tJohnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.
{Johnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
{Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.
*Jounson, Tuomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
{Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
{Johnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.
tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.
tJohnston, Sir H. H., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, 8. W.
tJohnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
tJohnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W.
tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.
tJohnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada.
*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.
{Jounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,
France.
{Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.
fJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
tJonrty, Wir, F.RS.E., F.G.S., St. Andrew’s-road, Pollok-
shields, Glasgow.
tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.
*Joly, C. J.. M.A. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin,
{Jony, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 89 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.
§Jones, D., J.P., F.GS. Kilsal Hall, Shifnal, Shropshire.
tJones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools. 7 Marine-terrace,
Aberystwith.
tJones, D. Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff.
§Jones, Rey. Edward, F.G.S. 7 Fairfax-road, Prestwich, Lancashire.
{Jones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.
1896.§§ Jones, E. Taylor. University College, Bangor.
1887.
1891.
1883.
1895.
1884,
tJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.
*Jonus, Rey. G. Hartwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, Waterloo, Liverpool.
{Jones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.
tJones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’s Park, N. W.
54
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1877.
1881
1897
18738
1880.
1860.
1896.
1883.
1891.
1875.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1879.
1890,
1872.
1883.
1886.
tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal College of Science, South Kensing-
ton, S.W. :
*Jonzs, J. Vrr1amv, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.
§Jones, Robert, M.D. London County Lunatic Asylum, Claybury,
Woodford Bridge, Essex.
tJones, Theodore B. i Finsbury-circus, E.C.
tJones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
{Jonzs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 17 Parson’s Green, Ful-
ham, 8. W.
§Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.
{Jones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
tJones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Jose, J. E. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.
tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,
tJotham, F. H. Penarth. |
tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.
tJowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.
tJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.
tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, S.W.
tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
1896.§§Joyce, Joshua. 151 Walton-street, Oxford.
1891.
1848.
1870.
1883.
1868.
1888.
1859.
1887.
1884.
1875.
1886.
1894.
tJoynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
{Jupp, Joun Wustey, C.B.,F.R.S.,F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 22 Cumberland-road, Kew.
tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, W.C.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road, N.
{Kapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 38 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.
tKay, David, F.R.G.S. 78 Warwick-gardens, Kensington, W.
{Kay, Miss. Hamerlauud, Broughton Park, Manchester.
{Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
tKeeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
tKeen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.
{Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.Z.S. 11 Queen’s-gate, S.W.
1894.§§Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
1892.
1887.
1884.
1864,
1885.
1847.
1877.
1887.
1884,
1890.
Essex.
{Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 54 Northumberland-
street, Edinburgh.
{ Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 35 Crescent, Salford.
{Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
§Ketrie, J. Scorr, LL.D. Sec. R.G.S., F.S.S. 1 Savile-row, W.
*Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.0, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The University, Glasgow.
*Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
{Kemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.
{Kemper, Andrew O.,A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.
§Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.
1891.§§Kenpatt, Percy F., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
Year of
Election.
1875.
1897.
1884,
1876.
1884,
1884.
1897.
1886,
{Kennepy, ALtexanpER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Victoria-
street, S.W., and 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W.
§Kennedy, George, LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
Canada.
§Kennedy, George T., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.
_{Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
§Kenrick, Frank B Knesebeckstr. 3iii., Charlottenburg, Berlin.
{Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1893.§§Kent, A. F. Stanley, F.G.S. St. Thomas's Hospital, S.E,
1886.
1857.
1876.
1881.
1884.
1887.
1883,
1892.
1889,
1887.
1869,
1869.
1883.
1876.
1886.
1897,
1885,
1896.
1890.
1878.
1860,
1875.
1888.
1888.
1883.
1875.
1871.
1855,
1883.
1870,
1883.
1860,
1875.
1870.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
§KenwarD, James, F.S.A. 45 Streatham High-road, S.W.
*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
{Kermope, Puitre M. C. Ramsey, Isle of Man.
}Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.
tKerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.
}Kerr, Rev. Joun, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College,
Glasgow. j ‘
{Kerr, J. Graham. Christ’s College, Cambridge,
{tKerry, W. H.R. Wheatlands, Windermere.
{Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes, Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S.. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
{Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
§Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling.
§Kiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin,
*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.
*Killey, George Deane. SBentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.
{Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.
{Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.
{Kiyanan, G. Henry, M.R.LA. Dublin.
*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.
{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.
*King, E. Powell Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.
*King, Francis. “Alabama, Penrith. ;
*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Rey. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, Hast Grinstead.
{King, John Thomson, 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, N.W.
*King, Joseph, jun. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 3 Clifton-park, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Perey L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.
{King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1889.§§King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.
1869.
1897.
{Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
§Kingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.
56
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875.
1867.
1892.
1870.
1897.
1870.
1890.
§Kinezert, Cuartes T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst,
Kent.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
{Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B.
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
§Kirkland, Thomas. 432 Jurvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Kirson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. ’ Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
1886.§§Klein, Rev. L. M. de Beaumont, D.Sc, F.L.S. 6 Devonshire-road,
1869.
1886.
1888.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1874.
1897.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1875.
1888.
1892.
1890.
1888.
1870,
1858.
1884.
1885.
1897.
1870.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1896,
1893.
1884.
1898.
1890.
1884.
1871.
1886,
1877.
Liverpool.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
{Knight, J. McK., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
{Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street,
Edinburgh.
*Knott, Herbert. <Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
*Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
{Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
§Knowlton, W. H. 36 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.
tKnowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{tKnowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
*Knubley, Rey. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.
{Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.
tKoun, CuaRies A., Ph.D. University College, Liverpool.
*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Wilmslow, Cheshire.
*Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.
{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool.
tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
TLaflamme, Rev. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada.
*Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, S8.W.
§Laird, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada.
§Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.IA. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin. -
*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Old Lodge, Salisbury.
{Lams, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
t{LamseErt, Rey. Brooxn, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E.
§Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowar, Newland, Lincoln.
{tLambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.
tLamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.
tLamplugh, G. W., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
S.W.
{tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.
tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, S.E.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 57
Year of
Election.
1883. {Lang, Rev. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.
1859. tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
1886. *Lanatey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1870. tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1865. {Lanxuster, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
2 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
1880. *LanspELL, Rev. Hryry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, S.E.
1884. §Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
U.S.A.
1878. {Lapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
1885. tLapwortn, Cuartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology
and Physiography in the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
13 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1887. tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.
1881. {Larmor, JospryH, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1883.
1896.
1870.
1870.
1891.
1892.
1888.
1883.
1870.
1878.
1884.
1870.
1881.
1889.
1885.
§Lascelles, B. P., M.A. The Moat, Harrow.
*Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, 8.W.
*LatHam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S. W,
tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 5 Pepy’s-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
tLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, E.
§Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Sc., F.L.5., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo’s College, Glasgow.
tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, E.C.
tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.
*Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.
tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, S. W.
§Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.
{Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York
§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 65 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tLawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.
1888.§§Layard, Miss Nina F, 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.
1856.
1883.
1875.
1894.
1884.
1884.
1847.
1884.
1872.
1884.
1895.
1898
1861.
1896.
1891.
1884.
tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.
tLeach, Colonel Sir G., K.0.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, S.W.
*Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College ;
92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.
*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Leatham, Edward Aldam. 46 Eaton-square, S.W.
*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
tLezour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tLeckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Barham Rectory, Claydon, Ipswich.
§Lee, ArtHuR. (Locan Srcrerary) 12 Richmond-hill, Clifton,
Bristol.
tLee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.
§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. South Park View, Ashburton, Devon.
§Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandati-road, Cardiff.
*Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
58
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1896. *Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
1887. [Leech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1892. *Legs, Coartes H., M.Se. Coningsby Villa, Wellington-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.
1886. *Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.
1882. {Lees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.
1859. tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edmburgh.
1896.§§Lees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.
1883. *Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.
*Leese, Joseph. 35 Lord-street West, Southport.
1889. *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.8. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.
1881. {Lz Frvuvre, J. KE. Southampton.
1872. {LerEvRE, The Right Hon. G. SHaw. 18 Bryanston-square, W.
1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
1892. {Lehfeldt, Robert A. Firth College, Sheffield.
1868. {Lxercester, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.
1856. {LereH, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
1890. {Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.
1891. tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.
1867. {Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
1859.
tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
1882. §Lemon, James, M.inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton.
1867. tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
1878. {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
1887. *Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, W.
1871.
1874.
{Lronarp, Huen, M.R.L.A. 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.
tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
1884. {Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.
1890. *Lester, Joseph Henry. 651 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary's Gate,
Manchester.
1883.§§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.
1880. {LercHErR, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
1894. {Leudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.
1896. §Lever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.
1887
1890.
1895.
1879.
1870.
1891.
1891.
1897,
1891.
1891.
1891.
1884.
1860.
1876.
1887.
1878.
. *Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.
tLevy, J.H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park, S.W.
*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.8.. Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, 8.E.
tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, 8. W.
tLewis, Atrrep Lionrs. 54 Highbury-hill, N.
tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.
§ Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwith.
§Lewis, Rev. J. Pitt. Rossin House, Toronto, Canada.
tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.
{tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.
tLewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.
*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.
tLippELL, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D. Ascot, Berkshire.
tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
*Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester. :
*Limerick, The Right Rev. Cartes Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.L.A. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
Year of
Election.
1881.
1871.
1883.
1895.
1882.
1888.
1861.
1876.
*Lindley, William, M.Inst. C. E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, S.E.
tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
tLisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
§Lister, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., Pres.R.S. 12 Park-crescent,
Portland-place, Ae
*Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.
{Lister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, N. ie
*Lrveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M. Ay RRS FE. OSG E.G:S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, NS.W.
1864.§§Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
1880.
1889.
1865.
1865.
1886.
1891.
1886.
1897.
1865.
1854.
1892.
1867.
1892.
1863.
1886.
1875.
1894.
1889.
TLLEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.
tLloyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-
yue.
{Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
tLloyd, J ohn. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
tLloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-r oad, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,
*Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt, MA., FRS.E. 49a Grove-street,
Liverpool.
{Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
§Lloyd-Verney, J. H. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.
*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Woodgreen, Wed-
nesbury.
*LosLey, JAMES Logan, F.G.S. City of London College, Moorgate-
street, E.C.
§Loch, C.S., B.A. 15a Buckingham-street, W.C.
*Locke, John. 33 Duke-street Chambers, WC
tLockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.
tLocxyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, S. W.
*Lopen, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
*Lopex, Oriver J., D.Sc., LL.D., ER. S., Proféssor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove- park, Liverpool.
*Lodge, Oliver W. F. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.
tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham.
Ee §§Lomas, J. 16 Mellor-road, Birkenhead.
1876. tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1866.
1883.
1883.
1875.
1872.
1881.
1883.
1861.
1894.
1882.
1897.
*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLongden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
tLonge, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham.
{Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.
*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C. s. ,F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.
*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. 1 Brewer-street, Oxford.
*Longstatl, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.
*Longton, E. J.,.M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vid Ulverston.
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
tLord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
tLord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
i bree James, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,
anada.
60 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W.
1896.§§Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1887. *Lovn, A. E. H., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge,
1886. *Love, E. F. J.. M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.
1876, *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S8. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.
1883. {Love, James Allen. 8 Easthourne-road West, Southport.
1875. *Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 29 Park-crescent, Monkgate, York.
1892. §Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.
1889, {Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, W.
1867. *Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
1885. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1891. §Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Cardiff.
1885. *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.
1892. {Lowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.
1861. *LowE, Epwarp JosEpu, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S.
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
1886. *Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E. The Birches, Burton-road, Derby.
1850. {Lowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
burgh.
1894, {Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield.
1897. §Lowry, George. Manchester.
1881, {Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.
1853. *Lussock, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.O., Kent.
1881. {Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, W.
1870. {Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.
1889. {Lucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.
1878. {Lucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, 8. W.
1889. {Luckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1891. *Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.
1875, | Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
1881. tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, Yorl.
1897. §Lumsden, George E., F.R.A.S. 57 Eim-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
1866. *Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire. '
1875. {Lund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
1850. *Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1892. {Lunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.
1853. {Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 28 Charlotte-street, Hull.
1883. *Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in
Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.
1874. *Lupron, Sypnny, M.A. A. Audley-mansions, 44 Mount-street, W.
1864. *Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
1871. {Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.S. 48 Eaton-place, S.W.
1884. t{Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, {Lyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
1874, {Lynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
1885. {liyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
1896. §Lyster, A. G. Dockyard, Coburg Dock, Liverpool.
1896.§§LysreR, Groner F. Plas Isaf, Ruthin.
1862. *Lyre, F. Maxwe xt, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, 8S. W.
1854, *Macapam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 61
Year of
Election.
1876, *Macapam, Wit1tam Ivison, F.R.S.E., F.L.C., F.C.S. Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.
1868. {MacarisTEr, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D.,F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge. é
1878. {MacArisrer, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Se. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
1896.§§Macalister, N. A. 8. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.
1896, §Macatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D. The University, Toronto.
1879. §MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
1883. §MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
1883. §MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester,
1866. *M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland Park, W.
1896.§§McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Chester.
1884, {Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
1896, *Macaulay, F.S.,M.A 19 Dewhurst-road, W.
1834, Macavtay, James, A.M.,M.D. 25 Carlton-vale, N.W.
1896.§§MacBripz, Professor E. W., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.
1897. §McAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.
1884, {McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.
1886. {MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
1887. *McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.
1884. *McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellineton-road, Dublin.
1884. t{McCausland, Orr. Belfast.
1891. *McClean, Frank, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.0.E. Rusthall House,.
Tunbridge Wells.
1876. *M‘Crettann, A.S. 4 Orown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1868. {M‘Crmvrock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B.,, E.R S.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W.
1872. *McClure, J. H., F.R.G.S. Whiston, Prescot.
1878, *M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
1892, *McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.
1892. {McCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.
1883. {McCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1890. *MacDonald, Mrs. J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W:C.
1886. {McDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.
1884, {MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
1884. *McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, {MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
1883. {MacDonnell, Rev.Canon J.C.,D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutterworth.
1884. {McDougall, John. 55 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
1897. §McEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.
1881. {Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
1885. {Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.
1879. {Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glascow.
1897. §McFarlane, Murray, M.D. 32 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.
1867. *M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
1897. §McGaw, Thomas. Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada.
1888. {MacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, W.
1884. {MacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, {MacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.O.L. Dunayon, Westmount,
_ Montreal, Canada.
62 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873. {McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1885. {Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1884. *MacGrucor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
1885. {M‘Gregor-Robertson, J., M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,
Glasgow.
1867. *M‘Inrosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.8.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
1884. ¢{McIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
1883. t{Mack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
1884, §Mackay, A. H., LL.D. Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia,
Canada.
1885. §Mackay, Joun Yuux, M.D., Professor of Anatoray in University
College, Dundee
1897. §McKay, T. W.G, M.D. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
1696. *McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Preston.
1873. {McKzewpricr, Jonn G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Glasgow.
1883. {McKendrick, Mrs. 2 Florentine Gardens, Glasgow.
1897. §McKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
1884. t{McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, E.C.
1884. {McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
1883. {Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
1872. *Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, 8.E.
1867. {Macxiz, Samvurn JosEpH. 17 Howley-place, W.
1884, {McKilligan, John B. 3887 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,
1887. {MackinpeR, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
1867. *Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glaszow.
1891: {Mackintosh, A.C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff.
1850. {Macknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh. :
1872. *McLacutan, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.8. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, 8.E.
1896.§§Maclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.
1892. ¢{Mactaean, Sir Doveras, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 28
‘ Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
1892. {Maclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine’s, Liberton, Midlothian.
1892. tMaclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-creseent’ Edinburgh.
1873. {McLandsborough, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Mauningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire, :
1885. *M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.
1860. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
1897. §MacLaren, J. F. 380 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.
1873. tMacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1897. §MacLaren. Rey. Wm.,D.D. 57 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.
1882. t{Maclean, Inspector-General, C. B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, South-
ampton
1892. *Maciuan, Maenvs, M.A., F.R.S.E. The University, Glasgow.
1884. {McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
1868. §McLrop, Herpert, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 63
Year of
Election,
1892. {Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.
1861. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
1883. *McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square, South
Kensington, S.W.
1883. t{MacManon, Major P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Professor of Electricity in
the Artillery College, Woolwich. 52 Shaftesbury-avenue, W.C.
1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.
1874. {MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
1884. {McMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, U.S.A.
1867. {M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
1883. {McNicoll, Dr. E.D. 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
1878. {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
1887. {Maconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. MaconochieBros., Lowestoft.
1883. {Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, W.
1887. {Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
1883. {Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.
1883. {Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.S. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brichton.
1868. {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich. *
1875, *Magnus, Sir Philip. B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
1896.§§Maguire, Thomas Philip. Eastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.
1878. {Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.
1869. {Main, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W.
1887. {Mainprice, W.S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1885, *Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart., F.G.S. Stirling, N.B.
1883. {Maitland, P.C. 186 Great Portland-street, W.
1881. {Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
1874. {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1889, {Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1857. {Maxter, Jonny Witram, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F roe Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.
1896. *Manbré, Alexandre. 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool. ;
1887. {MancuesrEeR, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester. : ;
1870. tManifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1885. {Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
1888. {Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.
1894. §Manning, Perey, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.
1878. §Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
1864, {Mansel-Pleydell, J. C., F.G.S. Whatcombe, Blandford.
1888. {Mansergh, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W. ‘
1891. {Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1889. {Manville, H. 3 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, 8. W.
1887. Sane Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire.
1870. {Marcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.
i887. {Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.
1885, {Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire
1887. {Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton
1864, {MarKuam, Sir Oremenzs R., K.C.B., FR.S., Pres. R.G.S., FSA
21 Eccleston-square, 8. W. 3 es
1894, {Markoff, Dr. Anatolius. 44 Museum-street, W.C.
1863. tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
1888. {Marling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,
64
Year of
Election
1888,
1881.
1887.
1884.
1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889,
1889,
1892.
1881.
1890,
1881.
1836.
1849,
1865.
1891.
1887.
1848.
1884.
1889.
1890.
1865.
1883.
1891,
1878,
1847.
1886.
1879.
1896.§
1893.
1891.
1885.
1883.
1887.
1890,
1865.
1894.
1865.
1889.
1861.
1881.
1883,
1858.
1885.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Marr, J. E., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.G.S8. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.
*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.
*Marsh, Henry. Hurstwood, Roundhay, Leeds.
{Marsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.
{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 87 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
*MarsHatt, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.
{Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 181 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.
*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Strattan-street, Leeds.
tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.
{Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.
*MarsHALL, WILLIAM Baytey, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.
*MarsHatt, WiLiiaAM P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,
§Marrren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.
*Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
§Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 8 Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts.
§Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, W.
*Martineau, Rev. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, W.C.
{Martineau, R. F, 18 Highfield-road; Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Marwick, Sir James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.
Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.
Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
E.C
House, Swindon.
Mason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.
tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
§Mason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Burton-on-Trent.
*Mason, Thomas. 6 Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.K. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.
tMasson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.
*Mather, William, M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.
}
}
t
if
{MAsKEtyNn, Nrvit Story, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S8. Basset Down
{
t
Mathers, J. S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.
Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham,
{Maruews, Prof. G. B., M.A., F.R.S. Bangor.
*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, W.
*Marnews, Witiiam, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{tMathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-voad, Birkdale, Southport.
{Matthews, I". C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Marruews, JAmEs. Springhill, Aberdeen.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1885.
1898.
1865.
1894.
1876.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1884,
1878.
1897.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1883.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1896.
1881.
1887.
1847.
1863.
t{Matthews, J. Duucan. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Mavor, Professor James, M.A., LL.D. University of Toronto,
Canada.
*Maw, Guore®, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.
§Maxim, Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, S.W.
t{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
{Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.
§May, William, F.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.
tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.
*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.
*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
§Mecredy, James, M.A. Wyunberg, Stradbrook, Blackrock, Dublin.
tMeikie, James, F.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
§Meiklejohn, John W.8., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.
{Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settlements.
*Metpo1a, Rapuwaert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C.
{Mztprum, Cuarizs, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 25 South-
parade, Southsea.
{Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.
*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
{Mautto, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.8S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Mellor, G@. H. Weston, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.
{Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,
Galway.
tMelvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
1896.§§Menneer, R. R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,
1862
1886.
1865.
1881.
1893.
1881.
1894.
1889.
1886.
1881.
1885.
1897.
1879.
1880.
1889.
1863.
1896.
1869.
S.W.
eae, Heyry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
§Merivatz, Joon Herman, M.A. Togston Hall, Acklington,
tMerry, Alfred S._ Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
§Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. :
tMiatt, Lovis C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
the Yorkshire College, Leeds.
{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.
iain ane R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 15 Grange-road, West Har-
tlepool.
“Mrnmrs, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford.
tMilburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
{Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres. ;
{Mites, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton,
§Mrii, Huew Rosert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S. 109 West
End-lane, Hampstead, N.W.
zB
66 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889, *Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
1892. *Millard, William Joseph Kelson, M.D., F.R.G.S. Holmleigh, Rock-
leaze, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
1882. {Miller, A. J. 15 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
1875. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
1895. {Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich.
1888, {Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.
1885. {Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
1886. {Miller, Rey. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.
1861. *Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.
1895. §Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.
1884. {Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
1876, {Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.
1897. §Miller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in Queen’s University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. f
1868. *Mitxts, Epmunp J., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.
1880. ae Bene H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans-.
eld.
1885. {Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1882. *Minnz, Jonny, F.R.S.,F.G.S. Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight.
1885. {Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1887. {Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.
1882. {Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 224 Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, N. W.
1880. {Mrncutn, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the-
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Surrey.
1855. {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow. ;
1859. {Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
1876. {Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1883. {Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
1883. tMitchell, Mrs. Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
WwW
1873. {Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1885. tMitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen.
1885. tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.
1879. {Mrvart, Sr. Gzorex, Ph.D., M.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. 77 In-~
verness-terrace, W.
1895. *Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.
1885. {Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.
1885. {Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
1883. tMollison, W.L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
1878. {Molloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
1877. *Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1884. {Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.
1887. *Monp, Lupwie, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S, 20 Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, N.W.
1891. *Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.
1882, *Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.
1892. tMontgomery, Very Rev. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.
1872. {Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.
1872. t{Moon, W., LL.D, 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
1596. tMoore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
Year of
Election.
1884,
1894,
1891.
1890.
1857,
1896.
1891,
1881.
1895.
1873.
1891.
1896.
1887.
1882.
1892.
1889.
1893.
1891.
1883.
1889.
1896.§
1881
1880.
1883.
1892,
1883.
1880.
1883.
1896.
1888.
1874.
1871.
1865.
1869,
1857.
18658.
1887.
1886,
1896,
1883.
1878.
1876,
1864,
1892,
{Moore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.
§Moore, Harold KE, 41 Bedford-row, W.C.
tMoore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.
*Moorg, Jonn Carrick, M.A., F.R.S.,F.G.S. 113 Eaton-square,
S.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
{Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
*Moore, Rey. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.
“Mordey, W. M. Princes-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.
tMorel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.
{Morean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.
§Morean, C. Luoyp, F.G.S., Principal of University College, Bristol.
16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.
fMorgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.
{Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.
§Morgan, George. 61 Hope-street, Liverpool.
tMorgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester,
§Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton.
tMorison, John, M.D., F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.
§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tMorland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.
tMorley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.
*Mortey, Henry Forster, M.A.,D.Se., F.0.8. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, N.W.
{Mortey, The Right Hon. Jonny, M.A., LL.D, M.P., F.RBS.
95 Elm Park-gardens, 8S.W.
§Morrell, R. S. Caius College, Cambridge.
- {Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
{Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn, R.8.0., Car-
marthenshire.
{Morris, C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
TMorris, Daniel, C.M.G., M.A., D.Se., F.L.S. 12 Cumberland-road,
Kew.
{Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
{Morris, John. 4 The Elms, Liverpool.
*Morris, J.T. 12 Somers-place, W.
tMorris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S._ Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.
“Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinbureh.
{Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driftield.
{Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
§Morton, Grorcr H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Morton, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.
{Morton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
*Morton, P. F. Hockliffe Grange, Leighton Buzzard.
*Morton, William B., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen's
College, Belfast.
{Moseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.
*Moss, Jonn Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
§Moss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.
“Mosse, J. R. 5 Chiswick-place, Eastbourne.
{Mossman, R. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.
B2
68 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873. tMossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
1892. *Mostyn, S.G., B.A. 49 Grosvenor-road, Canonbury, N.
1869. §Morr, Atserr J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Chelten-
ham.
1866.§§Morr, Freperick T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.
1856. {Mould, Rev. J.G.,B.D. Roseland, Meadfoot, Torquay.
1878. aM: J. Fuercuer, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-square,
1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
1877. {Mounz-Evecumse, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.
1887. t{Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.
1888. tMoyle, R. E., B.A., F.0,S. The College, Cheltenham.
1884, {Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.
1884. +Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1894. t{Mugliston, Rev. J., M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.
1876. *Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.
1874. t{Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge
1872. {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Se., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, S.W.
1876. *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 61 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.
1883. {Murwatt, Micwart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
1883. {Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
1891, {Mixuer, The Right Hon. F. Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative
Philology in the University of Oxford, 7 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
1884, *Mixier, Hvueo, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.
1880. {Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.
1897. §Mullins, W. E. Preshute House, Marlborough, Wilts.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, E.C.
1876. {Munro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
1883. *Munro, Ropert, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
1855. tMurdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.
1890, {Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.
1889. {Murphy, James, M.A.., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.
1884. §Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.
1887. {Murray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.
1891. {MurRRAyY, G. RM, FRS., F.RS.E., F.L.S. British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington, S.W.
1859. t{Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
1884, {Murray, Joun, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. ‘ Challenger’
Expedition Office, Edinburgh. *
1884. {Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada. :
1872. {Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E, 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
1292. t{Murray, T. S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.
1863. {Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1874, §Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
1897. §Musgrave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada.
1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Year of
Election.
1891. peng anise, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
USA
1890, *Myres, John L., M.A., F.S.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1886.§§Nagen, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.
1892. *Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
1890. §Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, H.C.
1876, {Napier, James 8. 9 Woodside-place, Glasrow.
1872. t{Narrs, Admiral Sir G. 8., K.C.B., °R. N., E.R.S., F.R.G.S.
1 Beaufort-villas, Surbiton,
1887. tNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, US.A.
1896.§§Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,
1887. §Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.
1883. *Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1887, {Neill, Joseph 8. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1887. {Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George- street, Glasgow.
1897. §Nesbitt, Beattie 8. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto, Canada.
1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
1866, *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.8., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand,
1889, {Nevitte, F. HL, M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1869. {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1889. *Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.
1886. t{Newbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.
1889.§§ Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Roseacre, Epping.
1860, *Newron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.
1892, {Newron, E. T., F.R.S., E.G. 3. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.
1872. {Newton, Rey. J. 125 Hastern-road, Brighton.
1883, {Nias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, Ww.
1882. {Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, W.
1867. {Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
1875. {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol. ;
1866. {NicHotson, Sir CHartzs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D. F.GS.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
1867. {NicHotson, Henry Atiryne, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.
1887. *Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.
1884, {NicHotson, JosnpH S.,M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,
1883. {Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.
1887. {Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.
1893. {Nickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.
1887. {Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.
1885, §Nicol, W.W.J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.
1896.§ §Nisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.
1878, {Niven, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aberdeen.
1877. tNiven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
1874, {Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A, Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
1884, {Nixon, T. Alcock. 38 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
1863. *Nosiz, Sir Awnprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, and J esmond Dene House, ’Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
70
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1879.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1888.
1865,
1872.
1883.
1881.
1886,
1894,
1861.
1896,
1887.
1882,
1878.
1883.
1858.
1884,
1857.
tNoble, T.S. Lendal, York.
tNock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham.
tNodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.
tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
§Norman, Rev. Canon ALFRED MERLE, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. , Houghton-le-Spring, R.S.0., Co. Durham.
{Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
tNorris, Ricuarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
tNorris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
*Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.
tNorth, William, B.A. 84 Mickleeate, York.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, S.W.;
and Hamshall, Birmingham.
fNorton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place,S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
§Norcurr, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. 98 Anglesea-road, Ipswich.
tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
§Nugent, the Right Rey. Monsignor, 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo,
Liverpool.
{Nursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C.
§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.
*Optine, WitLiAM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
tOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.
{O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.
1894.§§Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.
1896,
1885.
1876,
1885.
1893.
1859.
1884
§Ogden, Thomas. 4 Prince's-avenue, Liverpool.
tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
tOgilvie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.
fOeitvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Heriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.
{Ogilvie, Miss Maria M., D.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen,
tOgilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
. {O’Halloran, J. S., C.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-avenue, W.C.
1881. {Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
1887.
1896
1892
1853.
1885.
1893.
1892.
1863,
{Oldham, Charles. Romiley, Cheshire.
.§§Oldham, G. 8. Town Hall, Birkenhead.
. JOldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.
tOxtpHAM, James, M.Inst.C... Cottingham, near Hull. ,
tOldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.
fOldham, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.
H. 8. King & Co., Cornhill, E.C.
tOliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh. ;
fOxiver, Danret, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
Surrey.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 71
lection.
1887.
1883.
1889,
1882.
1860,
1880,
1872.
1888,
1867.
1883.
1888.
1880,
1861,
1858.
1883.
1834.
1884,
1838.
1897,
1887,
1897,
1865.
1884.
1884,
1882,
1881.
tOliver, F. W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. The Tower House, Tite-street, Chelsea, S.W.
§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Olsen, O. T., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s - terrace,
Grimsby.
*Ommannzy, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.5.,
F.R.G.8S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, W.
*Ommanney, Rev. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.
tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, S.W.
{Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.
fOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
tOrd, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
{Ord, Miss Sarah. 2 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.
tO’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
{Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester.
{Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
tOrpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., R.E. Care of G. H. Orpen, Esq.,
Erpingham, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
*Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
§Osborne, James K. 40, St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.
§O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.
*Oster, A. Fouterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Osler, E. B., M.P., Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.
*Osler, Henry F. Ooppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
{Osler, William, M.D. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A,
een James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
rent.
*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.
*Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.
1896.§§Oulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.
1882,
1889,
1896,
1888.
1877,
1889.
1883.
1883.
1894,
1884,
1875.
1870.
1888.
tOwen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.
§Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.
*Owen, Thomas, M.P. Henley-grove, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
{Oxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
tPage, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tPage, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.
{Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
tPaget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, E.C.
}Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
tPaine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Parerave, R. H. Inexis, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great Yarmouth,
{Palgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth.
1896,§§Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.
1889, {PALMER, Sir Cuartes Marx, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York-
1878.
1866.
1883.
shire.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. .Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co, Dublin.
§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham,
§Pant, F. J. Van der. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames, .
72
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886.
1884,
1885.
1883.
1880.
1863.
1886.
1891.
1879.
1887.
1859.
1862.
1883.
1865.
1878.
1883.
1875.
1881.
1887.
1897.
tPanton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., Ontario Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
{Park, Henry. Wigan.
{Park, Mrs. Wigan.
*Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.
tParker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. .
{Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.
{Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield. -
§Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.
{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.
*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, N.E.
t{Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Mountlands, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
tParsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.
{Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
{Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
{Paterson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.
§Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.
1896.§§Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1884.
1897.
1885.
1884,
1871.
1876.
1874.
1863.
1867.
1879.
1863.
1892.
1863.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1881.
1866.
1888.
1886.
1876.
1879.
1885.
1883.
1875.
1881.
1886.
*Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.
§Paton, D. Noél, M.D. 33 George-square, Edinburgh.
*Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.
*Paton, Hugh. Care of the Sheddon Co., Montreal, Canada.
*Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, S.W.
{Patterson,T. L. Maybank, Greenock.
{Patterson, W. H.,M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.
}Parrinson, Jonny, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Pattison, Samuel Rowles. 11 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.
*Patzer, F, R. Stoke-on-Trent.
tPavt, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Paul, J. Balfour. 380 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
tPavy, F. Witrram, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W.
*Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.
*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s:
Heath.
{Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Payne, J. C. Charles. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
{tPayne, Mrs. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
}Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.
*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.
{Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.
{Peace,G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
{Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
}Pnacu, B.N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.
{Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, W.
{Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, W.C.
*Prarce, Horace, F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.
*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 73-
Year of
Election.
1888. §Pearce, Rev. R. J., D.C.L. The Vicarage, Bedlington, R.S.O.,.
Northumberland.
1884, {Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.
1886. {Pearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, 8. W.
1891. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.
1893. *Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.
1885. {Pearson, Miss Helen KE. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.
1892. {Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.
1881. {Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.
1883. *Pearson, Thomas H. Redclytle, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.
1889. {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borough.
1863. tPease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, LL.D., F.S.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Bank
House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1888, {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1885. {Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron Park, Edinburgh.
1884. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
1883. {Pppx, Curupert H., M.A., F.S.A. 22 Belgrave-square, S.W.
1878. *Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.
1881. {Peggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.
1861. *Peile, George. Greenwood, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
1878. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.
1887.§§PENDLEBURY Wittiam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.
1894, §Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.
1894, §Pengelly, Miss Hester, Lamorna, Torquay.
1897, §Penhallow, Professor D. P., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada. :
1896, §Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.
1881. {Penty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.
1875. {Perceval, Rey. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.
1889. {Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-T'yne.
1895. §Percival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Eastern
Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.
*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.
1894, {Perkin, A. G., F.RS.E., F.C.S., F.LC. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Woodhouse Cliff, Leeds.
1868. *Perxin, Witt1am Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.
1884, {PerKin, WILLIAM Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
1864, *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
1885, {Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, N.W.
1886, {Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.
1886, {Perrin, Mrs. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.
1874, *Perry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics and
Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, S.W.
1883. {Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
1883, {Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.
74
Year of
‘LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1897.
18858.
1895,
1871.
1886.
1886.
1865,
1896.
1892.
1870.
1853.
1853.
1877.
1863.
1889.
1883.
1894.
1887.
1892.
1890.
1883.
1881.
1868.
1884.
1883.
1894.
1885.
1884,
1896.5
1888.
1871.
1884.
1865.
1873.
1896.
1896.
1877.
1868.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1864.
1888.
1893.
1868.
§Peters, Dr. George A. 171 College-street, Toronto, Canada,
tPetrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
§Prrrie, W. M. Frinpers, D.C.L., Professor of Egyptology in Uni-
versity College, W.C.
*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Brighton.
tPhelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Phelps, Hon. E.J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, S.W.
*Puent, JoHN SamvusEL, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.8. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, S. W.
§Philip, George, jun. 14 Holly-road, Fairfield, Liverpool.
{Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
tPhilip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.
§Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.
{Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tPhillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.
§Phillips, Statf-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.
{Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 1883 Moss-lane East, Manchester.
§Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset. hig
§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.
{Phillips, 8. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter,
tPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
{Purpson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W.
*Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
*Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.
{PickARD-CAMBRIDGE, Rey. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.
*PICKERING, SPENCER U., M.A., F.R.S, 48 Bryanston-square, W.
*Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.
§Picton, W. H. College-avenue, Crosby, Liverpool.
*Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.
{Pigot, Thomas F.,M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.
{Prxz, L.OwxEn. 201 Maida-vale, W.
{Pike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Toronto, Canada.
*Pilkington, A.C. The Hazels, Prescot, Lancashire.
*Pilling, William. Rosario, Skeene-road, West Worthing.
tPim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
tPinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
{Pirte, Rev. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,
tPirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
{Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, 1.C.
¢Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
{Pitt, George Newton, M.A.,M.D, 24 St. Thomas-street, S.E.
tPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
tPitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Holborn-circus, E.C.
*Pitt, Walter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.
{Pirr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.RS., F.G.S.,
F.S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, 5. W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Year of
‘Election.
1842.
1867.
1884.
1883,
1893.
1897.
1857.
1881.
1888.
1846.
1896.
1896.
1862.
1891.
1892.
1868.
1883.
1883.
1887.
1883.
1886.
4873.
1887.
1883.
1894.
1875.
1887.
1867.
1883.
1884.
1884,
1891.
1869.
1888.
1884.
1894.
1892.
Prayratr, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington, S.W,
{Prayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria,
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, S.W.)
*Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 38 Grosvenor-street, W.
*Plimpton, R.T., M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, S.W.
tPlowright, Henry J. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.
§Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada. .
tPlunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
tPocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.
{Porz, Wri1r1am, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.
§Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts.
*Pollex, Albert. Dale End, Cavendish Park, Rockferry.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
{Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.
§Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Yorkshire College,
Leeds.
{PortaLt, WynpHAM S. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.
}Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.
tPotter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Portland-terrace, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
*Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House,
Banbury Road, Oxford.
*Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-square, W. :
*Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.
{Powell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea.
*Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street, W.
bale oe Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
ristol.
§Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, St. Ann-street,
Manchester.
{Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
tPorntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham.
{Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.
*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 27 Norham-road, Oxford.
age? Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
*Prence, WitLiam Henry, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. ° Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
Nae ALR Llewellyn. Telegraph Department, Midland Railway,
erby.
*Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
§Prentice, Manning, F.C.S. Woodfield, Stowmarket.
§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.
76 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889. §Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.
1894. {Preston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.
1893. *Preston, Martin Inett. 9 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
1893. §Preston, Professor THomas. Bardowie, Orwell Park, Dublin.
1884, *Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland.
Highlanders. ‘
1856. *Pricz, Rev. Barrsotomew, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Pembroke College, Oxford.
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
1888. {Prior, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.
1875, *Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1891. {Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.
1897. *Price, W. A., M.A. Teign House, Westcombe Park Road, S8.E.
1897. §Primrose, Dr, Alexander. 196, Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.
1892, {Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.
1864, *Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
1889. *Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Giles, Norwich.
1876. *PrircHaRD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.
1888. {Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, 8. W.
1881. §Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.
1863. ¢Proctor, R.S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
1884, *Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road, Ilfracombe:
1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston, Stevenage, Herts.
1871. *Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, S.W.
1873, {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
1867. *Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
1883, *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Ochil, Perth.
1891. {Pullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.
1842. *Pumphrey, Charles. Castlewood, Park-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
1887. §PumpHrey, WILLIAM. 2 Oakland-road, Redland, Bristol.
1885.§§PurpIz, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the-
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.
1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
1881. {Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.
1882. {Purrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.
1874, {Purser, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
1866. {PursER, Professor Joun, M.A., M.R.LA. Queen’s College,.
Belfast.
1878. {Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
1884, *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.
1860, *Pusey, 8S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
1883. §Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon,
1883. §Pye-Smith, Mrs. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.
1868, {Pyz-Surrnu, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy's.
Hospital, 8.1.
1879. {Pye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
1896.§§Quaill, Edward. 3 Palm-crove, Claughton.
1893. {Quick, James. University College, Bristol.
1894. tQuick, Professor Walter J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A..
1870. {Rabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, 8.W.
1870. tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Year of
lection.
1896.
1877.
1855.
1888.
1887.
1864.
1896.
1894.
1863,
1884,
1884.
1861.
1885.
1889.
1876.
1883.
1835.
1869.
1868.
1898.
1863.
1861.
1889.
1864.
1892.
1870.
1895.
1874.
1889.
1870.
1866.
1887.
1875.
1886,
1868.
§Radcliffe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.
tRadford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord, Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.
{Radway, C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.
*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.
tRainey, James T. 3 Kent-gardens, Ealing, W.
*Ramage, Hugh. 10 Bridle-road, Crewe.
*Rampaut, ArtHuUR A., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.A.S., M.R.LA,,
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
f{Ramsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
t{Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.
t+Ramsay, Mrs. G. G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
t{Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.
tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
f{Ramsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrige, Edinburgh.
*Ramsay, Wittram, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Uni-
versity College, London. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.
tRamsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.
*Rance, Henry. 6 Ormond-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W,
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-
sington, W.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
{Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.
Ransom, Witi1aM Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
t{Ransome, ArruurR, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Public
Health in Owens College, Manchester. Sunninghurst, Deane
Park, Bournemouth.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
§Rapkin, J.B. Sideup, Kent.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
{Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, Hast Twickenham.
§Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.
§Rathbone, R. R. Glan y Menai, Anglesey.
tRatHzonn, W., LL.D. Green Bank, Liverpool. .
tRavensten, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.8S. 2 York Mansions, Battersea
Park, S.W.
tRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
*Rawiunson, Rey. Canon Grorer, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.
§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, 8. W.
tRawson, W.Stepney,M.A. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Quéen’s-cate, S. W.
*RaytereH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
E.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.
1895.§§Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
1883.
1897.
1896.
1870.
1884,
1852,
Basingstoke.
*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.
*Rayner, Edwin Hartree. Mayfield House, Ashbourre.
§Read, Charles H., F.S.A. British Museum, W.C.
{Reavz, Toomas Metxarp, F.G.S8. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburch.
*REDFERN, Professor PerER, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
78 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1892. tRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The Elms, Westgate-
road, Beckenham, Kent.
1863. {Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, W.
1889. {Redmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.
1889. {Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1890. *Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 4 Bishopsgate-street
Within, E.C.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales,
1861. {Reep, Sir Epwarp James, K.C.B., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, S.W.
1889. tReed, Rey. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.
1891. *Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.
1894. *Rees, Edmund 8. G. 15 Merridale-lane, Wolverhampton.
1891. §Rees, I. Treharne, M Inst.C.E. Highfield, Penarth.
1891. {Rees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.
1891. {Rees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.
1888. tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.
1875. tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
1897. §Reeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.
1881. §Reid, Arthur 8., B.A., F.G.8. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
1883. *Rerp, Crement, F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.
1892. {Reid, E. Waymouth, B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee.
1889. {Reid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1876, tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1897. §Reid, T. W., M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.
1892.§§Reid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.
1887. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
1850. {Reid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
1893. {Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.
1875. §Rurnotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
1863. {Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
1894.§§RenpDat, G. H., M.A., Principal of University College, Liverpool.
1891. *Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.
1885. tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
1889. *Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.
1867. t{Renny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1883, *Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, Birkdale, Southport.
1871. {Reynotps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., M-R.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.
1870. *Reynoips, Ospornz, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 238 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1858. §Reynotps, Ricwarp, F.C.S. Cliff Lodge, Hyde Park, Leeds.
1896.§§Reynolds, Richard 8. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.
1896. §Rhodes, Albert. Fieldhurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.
1883. {Rhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.
1858. *Rhodes, John. Potternewton House, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
1877. *Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
1888. {Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road,S.W.
1890. {Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.
1884. {Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.
1877. *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Rua
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.
Year of
Election.
1891,
18
1889.
1888,
1869.
1882.
1884.
1889,
1884,
1896,
1870.
1889,
1881.
1876.
1891.
1891.
1886,
1868.
1883,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
tRichards, D, 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff,
91. {Richards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
tRichards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
*Ricwarpson, ArtHurR, M. D. Univer sity College, Bristol.
*Richardson, Charles. 6 The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
§Richar dson, Rey. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.
*Richardson, George Str raker. 27 New Walk, ae
{Richardson, Hugh. Sedbergh School, Sedbergh 8.0., York-
shire.
*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.
*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.
tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.
tRichardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Richardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York.
§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
tRiches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.
§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.
§Richmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.
tRicxerts, Cuartes, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
*RippEL, Major-General Cuaries J. Bocnanan, O.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-mansions, 8.W.
1894, §§RIDLEY, E. P, 6 Paget-road, Ipswich.
1861. {Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, N. W.
1889.
1884.
1881.
1883.
1892.
1875.
1892.
1867.
1889.
1869,
1869.
1887.
1859.
1870.
1894,
1881.
1879.
1879.
1896,
1883.
1868.
1885,
1859.
1884.
1883.
TRidley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.
{Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.
*Rige, Arthur. 152 Blomfield-terrace, W.
*Riae, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, E.
tRintoul, D., M. "A. Clifton College, Bristol.
TRipley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Ripon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.1.1.,
D.C. L., F.B.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.
tRitchie, R. ’ Peel, M. Dee RSE. 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
tRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
tRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
*Ropsins, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.
*Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
*RopErts, Isa AG D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.
*Roberts, Miss Janora. 5 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square, H.C.
{Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.
tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
§Roberts, Thomas J. 31 North- road, Cowley Hill, St. Helens.
tRosgrts, Sir WitrraM, M.D., F.R. S. 8 Man chester-square, W.
*Roperts-AvstEn, W. CHANDLER, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.8., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallur oy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. (GENERAL Sucrerary.) Royal Mint, E.
{Robertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.
} Robertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
tRobertson, EH. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
TRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen,
80
Year of
Election
1883.
1897.
1897.
1892.
1888.
1886,
1861.
1897.
1887.
1888.
1863.
1878.
1895.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1863.
1891.
1888.
1870.
1872.
1890.
1896.§
1896.§
1885.
1885.
1866,
1898.
1867.
1890.
1883.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1897.
1876.
1892,
1891.
1894,
1869.
1881.
18565.
1892.
1888.
1894,
1885.
1887.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
{Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
§Robertson, Sir George 8., K.C.S.I. Care of Messrs. Wm. Watson
& Co., 7 Waterloo-place, 5.W.
§Robertson, Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
Canada.
tRobertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, ldinburgh.
*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
§Robinson, Haynes. St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich.
§Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 13 Victoria-street, S.W.
tRobinson, John. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.
tRobinson, J. H. 6G Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.
tRobinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, 8.W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington.
tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
tRobinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.
tRobottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.
*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,S.W.
*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.
tRochester, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of. Kennington Park, 5.E.
§Rock, W. H. 75 Botanic-road, Liverpool.
§Rodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.
*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.
*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 Jokn-street, Adelphi, W.C.
tRoe, Sir Thomas. Grove-villas, Litchurch.
§RocErs, Bertram, M.D. (Locat Secrerary.) 11 York Place,
Cliton, Bristol.
tRogers, James 8. osemill, by Dundee.
*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.
tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.
§Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.
*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.
tRogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham
§Rogerson, John. Barrie, Ontario, Canada.
tRoxirr, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.
tRonnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Rooper, T. Godolphin. The Elms, High Harrogate.
{Roper, 0. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, W.O. Bank-buildings, Lancaster.
*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A.,Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.8.
10 Bramham-gardens, 8. W.
tRose, Hugh. Kilravock Lodge, Blackford-avenue, Edinburgh.
*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, S.W.
*Rose, T. K., D.Sc. 9 Royal Mint, E.
tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 81
Year of
Election.
1880.
1897.
1897.
1859.
1869.
1891.
1893.
1865,
1876.
1884,
186].
1861.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1865.
1877.
1890.
1881.
1881.
1876.
1885.
1888.
1875.
1892.
1869.
1882.
tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, S.W.
§Ross, Hon. Alexander M. 3 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.
§Ross, Hon. G.W., Minister of Education for the Province of Ontario.
Toronto, Canada.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.RS., F.R.AS., M.RIA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown,
Treland.
§Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescott-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.
tRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
*Rothera, George Bell, F.L.S. Orston House, Sherwood Rise,
Nottingham.
TRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
*Rouse, M. L. 54 Westbourne-villas, West Brighton.
tRours, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.RA.S., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.
TRowan, David. Ellot-street, Glasgow.
tRowan, Frederick John. 154 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tRowe, Rev. Alfred W., M.A. Felstead, Essex,
tRowe, Rey. G. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
tRowe, Rev. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.
tRowg, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth.
tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.
*ROWNTREE, JoHN 8S. Mount Villas, York.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.
tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
tRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
tRoy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.
*Rioxer, A. W., M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, London. (GENERAL TREASURER.)
19 Gledhow-gardens, South Kensington, S.W,
§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.
§Rupter, F. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.
tRumball, Thomas, M.Inst.0.E. 8 Union-court Chambers, Old
Broad-street, E.C.
1896.§§Rundell, T. W. 25 Castle-street, Liverpool.
1887.
1847.
1889.
1875.
1884.
1890.
1883.
1852.
1876.
1886.
1852.
1886.
1897.
1891.
1871.
1897.
§Ruscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
tRusxin, Jonny, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.S. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.
tRussell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead,
*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere.
tRussell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.
Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
{Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.
*Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, W.
{Russell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
tRussell, Thomas H, 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham,
*RussELL, Witt1aM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, N. W.
tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.
§Rutkerford, A. Toronto, Canada.
§Rutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff.
§RurperForD, Wir11aM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-
ology in the University of Edinburgh.
F
82 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887. {Rutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.
1879. {Ruxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert,R.N. 41 Cromwell-gardens,S. W.
1875. {Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.
1889. {Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1897. §Ryerson, G.8S., M.D. Toronto, Canada.
1865. {Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
1861. *Rytanps, THomas GuazEBRooK, F.L.S., F.G.8. Hightields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington,
1883. {Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1871. {Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, E.C.
1885. {Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
1866. *Sr. ArBANs, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham. :
1886. §St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.
1893. {SatispuRy, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
20 Arlington Street, S.W.
1881. {Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.
1857. {Satmon, Rev. Greorex, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.
1883. {Salmond, Robert G. Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood, S.E. °
1873, *Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
1872. {Satvin, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8. Hawksfold, Haslemere.
1887. {Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.
1861. *Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
1894. tSamustson, The Right Hon. Sir Breryuarp, Bart., F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, 8.W.
1878. {Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
1883. *Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
1883. {Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. Hast India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, 8.W.
1893. {Sanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.
1872. §Sanprrson, J.S. Burpon, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of
Oxford. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
1883. {Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
1896. §Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Highfield, Northwich.
1896. {Saner, Mrs, Highfield, Northwich.
1892. §Sang, William D. 28 Whyte’s Causeway, Kirkcaldy, Fife.
1886, §Sankey, Percy E. Down Lodge, Fairlight, Hastings.
1896. *Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.
1896.§§Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.
1886. {Sauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.
1886. {Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmingham.
1868. {Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn,
1886. {Saunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.
1881. {SaunprERs, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, W.
1883. {Saunders, Rev. J.C. Cambridge.
1846, {SaunpErRs, TRELAWNEY W., F.R.G.S. 8 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.
1884. {Saunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.
1891. {Saunders, W.H. R. Lilanishen, Cardiff.
1884, {Saunderson, C. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of -
Election.
§Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,
1887.
1871.
1885,
1885.
1872.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1884,
1879.
1888.
1880.
1892.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1873.
1847,
1883.
1867.
1881.
1882.
1878.
1881.
1889.
1885.
1897.
1857.
1884.
1869,
1895.
1881.
1883,
1895.
1890.
1859,
1880
1861,
Douglas, Isle of Man.
{Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
tSavery, G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
&3
*Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
§Sayce, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D., Professor of Assyriolozy in the
University of Oxford. Queen’s College, Oxford.
tSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
"Scorer, EK. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London. (GmNERAL SECRETARY.
. .
Green, Rickmansworth.
) Croxley
*“Scuarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)
{Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, S.W.
Schofield, Joseph, Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
{Schofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
{Schofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Scholes, L. KEden-terrace, Harriet-street, Stretford, Manchester.
Scuuncx, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,
Manchester.
*ScHusTER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
in the Owens College, Manchester.
*Sciater, Puiie Luriny, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., FL.
’
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, W.
of Physics
S., F.GS.,
*Scrarer, W. Luriry, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape
Town.
{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
*Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. University Chemical Laboratory,
Cambridge.
{Scott, Colonel A. deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David's College, Lampeter.
§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Lancashire College, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
*Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Old Palace, Rich-
mond, Surrey.
{Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
§Scott, James. 178 Jameson-ayenue, Toronto, Canada.
*Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S., Secretary to the
Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens, S.W.
“Scott, Sydney C, 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, 8.E.
{Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
§Scott-Elliott, G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Newton, Dumfries,
“Scrivener, A. P, Haglis House, Wendover.
{Serivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
§Scull, Miss E. M. L. 2 Langland-gardens, Finchley-road, N.W.
§Searle, G. F.C., M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
{Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
{Sepewicx, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
"SzrLey, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G
Professor of Geology in King’s College, London.
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.
¥2
S., F.Z.S.,
25 Palace ,
&4 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1891. {Selby, Arthur L.,M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.
1893. {Setpy-Biecn, L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.
1855. {Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
1879, {Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, E.C.
1897. §Selous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.
1884. {Setwyn, A. R. C., C.M.G., F.R.S. Ottawa, Canada.
1885. {Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
1887. §Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.ILA. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.
1892. {Semple, William. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
1888, *SpnrerR, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.0.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.
1858. *Senior, George. Ashgate-road, Chesterfield.
1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. The Chalet, Portinscale-
road, Putney, S.W.
1870. *Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1892.§§Seton, Miss Jane. 37 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.
1895. *Seton-Karr, H. W. Atherton Grange, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1892. phewert C., M.A., F.G.S. Westfield, Huntingdon-road, Cam-
ridge.
1891. {Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1891. {Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1888. {Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.
1883. eet John Lancelot. 380 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, W.
1871. *Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, S.W.
1867. {Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
1869, *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.
1878. {SHarp, Dav, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
1896.§§Sharp, Mrs. E. 65 Sankey-street, Warrington.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
1886, {Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham,
1883. {Sharples, Charles H. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
1896.§§Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.
1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1887. *Shaw, James B. 7 The Beeches, Didsbury, Manchester.
1870. {Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
1891. {Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, E.C.
1889. *Shaw, Mrs. M.S., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.
1887.§§Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. *Suaw, W. N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
1883. tShaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
1891. {Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 28 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1884. {Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.
1878. {Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.K. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S. W.
1865. {Shenstone, Frederick 8. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
1881. {SHenstonr, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
1885. {Shepherd, Rey. Alexander, LEcclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
1890. {Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds. :
1883. {Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
Year of
Election.
1883. {Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
1883. {Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
1883. {Sherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vd Lancaster.
1896. §SHERRINeTON, C. S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.
1888. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.
1886. {Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, S.W.
1892. {Shields, John, D.Sc., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.
1883, *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.
1867. {Shinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey, S. W.
1887. *Suiptey, ArtHUR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1889, {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.
1885. {Shirras,G. F, 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
1870. *SHoorsrep, J. N., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, 8. W.
1888. {Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C.
1897. §Shore, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1875. {SHorz, THomas W., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
1882. {SHorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, H.C.
1897. §Shortt, Professor Adam, M.A. Queen’s~ University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.
1889. {Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Upper Brook-street, W.
1883. {Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.
1883. *Sidebotham, Edward John. LErlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1885. *Sipewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1873, *Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, W.
1878. {SicuRson, Professor Groren, M.D., F.L.S., MR.LA. 3 Olare-
street, Dublin.
1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, E.C.
1874, {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.
1876. {Simon, Frederick, 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.
1887. *Simon, Henry. Lawnhurst, Didsbury, near Manchester.
1893. {Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.
1871. *Smuapson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
1883. {Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1887. {Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.
1859. {Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.
1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
1857. {Surrson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S8. 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, W.
1894, §Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W.
1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1896, *Simpson, W., F.G.S. The Gables, Halifax.
1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.
1874, {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
1870, *Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1897, sees James, Bank of England-chambers, 12 Broad-street,
ristol,
86 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1864, *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.1.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.
1892, {Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, W.
1879. {Skertchly, Sydney B. J. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshalton,
Surrey.
1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
1885. {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.
1892. {Skinner, William. 385 George-square, Edinburgh.
1888. §Sxrivnz, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.
1870. §StapEN, Watrer Percy, F.G.S., F.L.8. 15 Hyde Park-gate, 8. W.
1873. {Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
1889, §Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
1884, {Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1877. {Sleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S. Clifton, Bristol.
1891. §Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiif.
1884, {Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
1849. {Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes. :
1887. §Small, Evan W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.8. County Council Offices, New-
port, Monmouthshire.
1887. §Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.
1885.§§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
1889, *Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1876. {Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. :
1877. {Smelt, Rey. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S: Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
1890. {Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
1876. {Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1867. {Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1892. {Smrra, Apam Grits, F.R.S.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edin-
burgh.
1892. {Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
1897. §Smith, Andrew. Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.
1872. *Smith, Basil Woodd, F'.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, N. W.
1874, *Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, 8. W.
1887. {Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
1873. {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1887. *Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
1889. *Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.
1865. {Smiru, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
1886. {Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1886. *Smith, Mrs. Emma, Hencotes House, Hexham.
1886. {Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
1886, {Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.
1892. {Smith, E, Wythe. 66 Oollege-street, Chelsea, S.W.
1866. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
1897. §Smith, Sir Frank. Toronto, Canada.
1892. {Smith, Rev. Frederick. 16 Grafton-street, Glasgow.
1885. {Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.
1897. §Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1860, *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square, W.
1870. {Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
1889. *Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 49 Beaumont-square, E.
LIST OF MEMBEKs. 87
Year of
Election.
1888.
1885.
1876.
1883.
1837.
1885.
1870,
1866,
1878.
1867.
1867.
1859.
1894.
1884.
1892.
1885.
1896.
1852.
1875,
1876.
1885,
1883.
1883.
Smith, H. W. Owens College, Maxchester.
{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire.
tSmith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
{Suaru, Roserr H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.
{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, E.C,
{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, Kast York-
shire.
§Smith, T. Walrond. 32 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.
tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.
{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
*Smith, Watson. University College, W.C.
*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 31 Esplanade Gardens, Scarborough.
{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton Downs, Bristol.
{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{Smirnetis, ArrHuR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the York-
shire College, Leeds.
{Smithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York.
{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.
1892.§§Smithson, G. E.T. Tyneside Geographical Society, Barras Bridge,
1882,
1874.
1850.
1883.
1857.
1888.
1897.
1888.
1878.
1889.
1879.
1892.
1859.
1879.
1892.
1888.
1886.
1865.
1887.
1883.
1890.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.
tSmoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
*Suyru, CHartus Prazzt, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.
{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.
*Smyrn, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C-E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.
*Snare, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.
§Snelgrove, C. F., M.D. Meaford, Ontario, Canada.
{Snell, Albion T. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, N.W.
§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, W.C.
{Snell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, S.W.
*Sotzas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Oxford.
*Somervail, Alexander. Torquay.
*Sorsy, H. Currron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Shettield.
*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
{Sorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.
tSorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.
{Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
ham.
*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
§Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 44 Brown-street, Manchester.
{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.
tSpark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.
88
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863.
1893.
1887.
1884.
1889.
1891.
1863.
1864.
1894.
1864,
1878.
1864.
1854.
1883.
1888,
1884,
1897.
1888.
1897,
1884,
1892.
1883.
1865.
1881.
1883.
1894.
1893.
1876.
1894.
1873.
1881.
1881.
1884.
1892.
1896.
1891.
1873.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1879.
1880.
*Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.
*Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.
tSpencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.
§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.
*Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.
*Spencer, Thomas. The Groye, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
“pegs Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
N
SIRE
tSplery A H. Newton College, South Devon.
*SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.
§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, 8. W.
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, 8S. W.
*SpracuE, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D.. F.R.S.E, 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.
{Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.
{Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, E.C,
*Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.
§Squire, W. Stevens, M.D. Charendon House, St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.
*Stacy, J. Sargeant. 15 Wolseley-road, Crouch End, N.
§Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Ontario, Canada.
{Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
TStanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of En-
gineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49 May-
field-road, Edinburgh.
*Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.
{SranrorD, Epwarp C. 0., F.C.S. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
*Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, S.E.
tStanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
*Stansfield, Alfred. Royal Mint, E.
{Staples, Sir Nathaniel, Bart. Lisson, Cookstown, Ireland.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
{Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 3 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
{Stavert, Rey. W. J., M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Craven,
Yorkshire.
*Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.
{Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.
tStead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.
{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.
*SrepBine, Rey. Tomas R, R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells. y
*Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.
TSteeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
{Steinthal,G@. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Steinthal, Rey. S, Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.
{Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.
{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Stephens, W. Hudson. Lowyville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.
*STEPHENSON, Sir Hunry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.
*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, near Swansea.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 89
Year of
Election.
1886.
1892.
1863.
1890,
1885.
1887.
1864,
1892,
1885.
1886.
1875.
{Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.
tStevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.
*Srpvenson, JAMES C. Westoe, South Shields,
*Steward, Rey. Charles J.. F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft.
*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, A. H. St. Thomas's Hospital, London, S.£.
{Srewarr, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor and
Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of Surgeons,
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.
{Stewart, C. Hunter. 3 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, Duncan. Bandora, Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
. {Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.
. [Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
. {Stirlmg, Dr. D. Perth.
: {SrretiNe, Witt, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.
. *Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
. {Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
. *Stockrer, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
. “Stokes, Sir GEORGE GABRIEL, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
. {Stone, E. D., F.C.S. 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.
. {Sronz, J oHN. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
. [Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
. [Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
. {Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L. 8., LH ONSE Se Dr. Johnson’ s-buildings,
Temple, E.C.
. {Stone, Octavius0., F.R.G.8. 49 Bolsover-street, Regent’s Park, N.W.
. {Stone, Thomas William, 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’ s Bush, W.
. {Sronzy, Bryvon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C. E. ,M.R.LA. , Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.
. *Stoney, Miss Edith A. 8 Upper Hornsey Rise, N.
. “Stoney, G. Gerald. 7 Roxburgh-place, Heaton, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
. *StonEy, Gzrorcr Jonnstonz, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MRA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, N.
ky .§§Stopes, Henry. Mansion "House, Swanscombe, Greenhithe, Kent.
1887.
1884,
1888.
1874,
1871.
1881,
1876,
1863.
tStopes, Mrs. Mansion House, Swanscombe, Greenhithe, Kent.
*Storey, H. L. Yealand Conyers, Carnforth.
§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.
*Stothert, Percy K. 3 Park Lane, Bath.
{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
“SrracuEy, Lieut.-General Sir RicHarp, Re. GOS, LEDs
FE.RS., F.R.G.S., F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde
Park, W.
{Strahan, ‘Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, S.W.
{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
90 _ LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889. {Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.
1882. {Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.
1881. {Straneways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,S.W.
1889.§§Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.S8. Ryhope, near Sunderland
1879. {Strickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
1884, {Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
1883. §Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.
1887. *Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-T'yne.
1887. *Srroup, Writram, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.
1876. *SrrurHers, Joun, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh.
1878. {Strype, W. G. Wicklow.
1876. *Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.
1872. *Stuart, Rev. Edward A., M.A. St. Matthew, Bayswater, 5 Prince’s-
square, W. - ;
1892. {Stuart, Morton Gray, M.A. Ettrickbank, Selkirk. ‘
1884. {Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
1893. {Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
1896.§§Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1888. *Stubbs, Rev. E. Thackeray, M.A. Grove Lea, Lansdowne-grove,
Bath.
1885. {Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.
1897. §Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada.
1879. *Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.
1891. *Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
1884, {Sumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, E.
1888. {Sunderland, John E. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.
1883. {Sutcliffe J.S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
1873. {Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
1863. tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1886. {Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
1892. {Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.
1884 {Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
1863. tSurron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
1889. {Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1891. {Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.
1881. {Swales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
1881. §Swan, JoserH Witson, M.A., F.R.S. 58 Holland-park, W.
1897. §Swanston, William, F.G.S. Queen-street, Belfast.
1879. {Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
1883. {Sweeting, Rev. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
1887.§§SwINBURNE, James. 4 Hatherley-road, Kew Gardens.
1870. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1887. *Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
1890. §SwrnHoE, Colonel C., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.
1891. t{Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.
1889. §Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. The Municipal Technical School,
Gravesend.
1873. {Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
1895.§§Sykes, E. R. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.
1887. *Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, 8. W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 91
Year of]
Election.
1896,
1887.
1893.
1870.
1885.
1881.
1859.
1855,
1886.
1881,
1883.
‘1870.
1887.
1883.
A895.
§Sykes, Mark L. 19 Manor-street, Ardwick, Manchester.
*Sykes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire.
{Symes, Rev. J. H., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.
tSymxs, Ricuarp Guascorr, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
{Symington, Johnson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.
*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.
§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, N.W.
*Symons, WittIaM. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.
§Symons, W. H., M.D. (Brux.), M.R.C.P., F.1.C. Guildhall,
Bath.
. §Tabor, J. M. 20 Petherton-road, Canonbury, N.
. {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.
. *Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S. 7 The Crescent, Birmingham.
. [Tarr, Perer Gururim, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
. {Tait, P. M., F.S.S. 6 Rossetti-mansions, Cheyne-walk, S. W.
. {Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.
. {Talbot, Herbert, M.I.E.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.
. {Tamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.
. {Tanner, Colonel H. C. B., F.R.G.S. Fieésole, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
. {Tanner, H. W. Luoyn, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
. §Tanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
. *Tansley, Arthur G. 167 Adelaide-road, N. W.
. *Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.
. {Tarpry, Hven. Dublin.
. *Tarratt, Henry W. 190 Old Christchurch-road, Bournemouth.
. *Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.
. {Tate, George, Ph.D. College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.
. *Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds. ~
. *Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
. {Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
. {Taylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.
. *Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, S.W.
. *Taylor, H. M.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.
- {Tayzor, Rev. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
. *Laylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. The Old Palace, Richmond,
Surrey.
*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
. }Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
. [Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
. *Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
tTaylor, Rev. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
tTaylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
{Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.
tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
tTaylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.
92 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1893. {Taylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey.
1894, *Taylor, W. W. 10 King-street, Oxford.
1884. {Taylor- Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.
1858. {THare, Tuomas Pripcin, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street,.
Leeds.
1885. {Tzatt, J. J. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.
1879, tTemple, Lieutenant G. T. )R. N. , F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.
1880, {Trmprz, The Right Hon. Sir " Ricwarp, Bart., G.CS.L, aed
D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, S.W.
1863, {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, } Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. {Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.
1894, §Terras, J. A., B.Sc. Roy al Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.
1882.§§Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.
1881. {Terry, Sir Joseph. Hawthorn Villa, York.
1896. *Terry, Rey. T. R. The Rectory, East Isley, Berkshire.
1892. *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.
1883. {Tetley,C. F. The Brewety, Leeds.
1883. {Tetley, Mrs.C. F. The Brewery, Leeds,
1882, *Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gow er-street, WC.
1885. {Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, W.
1871. tThin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
1871. {Tuseiron-Dyer, Wile OM. GO. Bi. M. A.., B.Se:, Ph.D;, LL.D;
F.R.S., F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.
1870. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
1891, {Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y- lan, Cardiff.
1871. {Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
1891, {Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha ‘Park, Newport, Mon-
moutbshire.
1891. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O.
1891. {Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.
1891, §Thomas, HE. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.
1884, {THomas, F. Worrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
1875. t{Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.
1869. {Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
1881.§§THomas, J. Brount. Southampton.
1869. {Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. 88 Breakspear’s-road, Brockley, 8.1.
1891. {Thomas, John Tubb, we R.C.P. Eastfields, Newport, Monmouthshire..
1880, *Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions,.
N.W.
1883. {Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.
1883, {Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.
1886. {Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.
1886. {Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observator y-gardens, Kensington, W.
1875, {Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
1891. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton,
1883. {Thompson, Miss 0. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
1891. {Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.
1882. {Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
1888. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
Poles: Cardiff.
1885. {Thompson, D’Arcy W., B,A., Professor of Zoology in University
Galtees Dundee. ” University College, Dundee.
1896. *Thompson, Edward P. Whitchurch, Salop.
1883. *Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-toad, Croydon.
1891, {Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 98
ar of
Hlection.
1893, *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
1870.
1883.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1897.
1891.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1876.
1888.
1896.
1896.
1867.
1894,
1889.
1868.
1876.
1891
& Co., Parliament-street, 8. W.
{THomeson, Sir Henry. 385 Wimpole-street, W.
*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.
t{Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.
{Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.
*THompson, Isaac Cooxn, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 53 Croxteth-road,
Liverpool.
§Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
{Thompson, J. Tatham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.
*THomPson, JosEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
*Thompson, Richard. Dringeote, The Mount, York.
tThompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Tuompson, Srtvanus Puitiips, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of
London Technical College, Finsbury, H.C.
*Thompson, T. H. Redlynet House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Tuompson, W. H., M.D., Professor of Physiology in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
§Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.
{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
{Thomson, Arthur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the
University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.
*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§THomson, James, F.G.S. 6 Stewart-street, Shawlands, Glasgow.
{Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
. tThomson, John. 70a Grosvenor-street, W.
1896.§§Thomson, John. 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.
1890.
1883.
1871.
1874.
1880.
1897.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1883.
1845.
1881.
1881.
1864,
1871.
1883.
1896.
1868,
1889,
1870.
§Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Zoology at the
School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 1] Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.
{Tuomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace,
Cambridge.
*TuHomson, JoHN Mrar, F.R.S., Sec.C.8., Professor of Chemistry
in King’s College, London. 85 Addison-road, W. ;
§THomson, WILLIAM, F.R.S.E., F.C.8. Royal Institution, Manchester.
§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.
§Thorburn, James, M.D. Toronto, Canada.
tThornburn, Rev. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
{Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.
t{Thornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.
§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.
tThorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.
*Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.
*THorp, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 22 Sinclair-gardens, West Ken-
sington, W.
{Tuorper, T. E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Treas.C.S., Principal
of the Government Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C,
§Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 12 London-street, Southport.
mate, eouee Edward. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines,
ublin.
{Tuvuruer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., C.S.1L, F.RS., F.R.G.S.
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.
tThys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
tTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.IL.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
94
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1874.
1873.
1883.
1888.
1865.
1896.
1876.
1891.
1897.
1889.
1857.
*TippEMAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28
Jermyn-street, 8. W.
tTrvpey, Wrirram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London,
9 Ladbroke-gardens, W.
{Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Tillyard, A. L., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.
{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.
{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.
§Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton.
tTodd, Rey. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, S.E.
{Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.
§Todhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
§Toll, John M. Carlton House, Kirkby, near Liverpool.
tTombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
1896.§§Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, 5.W.
1888.
1887,
1865,
1865.
1875.
1887.
1886.
1875.
1886.
1884.
1884,
1873.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1876.
1883.
1870,
1868.
1891.
1884,
1868.
1891.
1887.
1885.
1884.
1884.
1879.
1871.
1860.
t{Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
tTonge, James, F.G.S. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.
{Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.
*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal Schoo! of Mines, Jermyn-street,S. W.
{Topham, F. 15 Great George-street, S.W.
}Topley, Mrs. W. 13 Havelock-road, Croydon.
{Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.
tTorr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham.
{Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Torrance, Rey. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,
Towgood, Edward. St. Neots, Huntingdonshire.
tTownend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Townsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.
{Traiit, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
{Trarwt, Wituam A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
t{Tragvatr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the:
Natural History Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.
{Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport, Monmouthshire.
{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
tTreharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.
{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
U.S.A
{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
{Trrmen, Rotanp, F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. 5 Lancaster-street,
Lancaster Gate, W.
§Trisrram, Rey. Henry Baxer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham, The College, Durham.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 95»
Election,
1884.
1885.
1891.
1887.
1896.
1885.
1847.
1888.
1871.
1887.
18838.
1892.
1855.
*Trotter, Alexander Pelham, Government Electrician and Inspector.
The Treasury, Cape Town.
§Trorrer, Courts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Trouton, Frederick T., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.
§Truell, Henry Pomeroy, M.B., F.R.C.S.I. Clonmannon, Ashford,
Co. Wicklow.
*Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.
tTuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.
tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
tTuke, W. C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
{TuppeEr, The Hon. Sir CHartss, Bart., G.C.M.G.,C.B. 17 Victoria-
street, S. W.
tTurnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.
{Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glasgow.
1896 §§Turner, Alfred. Elmswood Hall, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1893.
1882.
1883.
1894,
1886.
1863.
1898.
1890.
1883.
1884.
1886
§Turner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.
{Turner, G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.
{Turner, Mrs. G. 8S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.
*TurneER, H. H., M.A., B.Sce., F.R.S., Sec. R.A.S., Professor of Astro-
nomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.
*TuRNER, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.LC. Ravenhurst, Rowley
Park, Stafford.
*TURNER, Sir Wri11AM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-:
terrace, Edinburgh.
{Turney, Sir Jonny, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.
*Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. School House, Swansea.
tTurrell, Miss S. S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.
*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.
*Twigg,G. H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1888.§§Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.
1882.
1865.
1883.
1897.
1861.
1884,
1888.
1886,
1885.
1883.
1876.
1887.
1872.
1876.
1859,
1866.
1880.
tTyer, Edward. Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, N. W.
§Tytor, Epwarp Burnerr, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Anthropology, and Keeper of the University Museum, Oxford.
tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,.
Stratford, E.
§Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.
*Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester,
*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.
{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.
§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
§Unwin, John. LEastcliffe Lodge, Southport. ‘
*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, W.
{Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.
{Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, W.
{Ure, John F. 6 @laremont-terrace, Glasgow.
FOrqulert Mf Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,.
eland.
tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee,
tUssner, W. A. E., F.G.S, 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.
96
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885.
tVachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.
1896.§§Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1883.
1886.
1868.
1865.
1870.
1869.
1884.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.
{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.
{Van Horne, Sir W. C., IX.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.
*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.
tVarpy, Rev. A.R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.
{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, N.
*VARLEY, 8. ALFRED. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N.W.
{Varley, Mrs. S. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N. W.
tVarwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, W.
1895.§§ Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.*
1887.
1875.
1883.
1881.
1878.
1883.
1885.
1896.
1896.
1864.
1890.
1868.
1883.
1891.
1886.
1860.
1890.
1888.
1890.
*VaucHan, His EminenceCardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster,S. W.
{ Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
{Vaughan, William, 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
§Vetey, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.
*VERNEY, Sir EpMunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.
*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.
{Vernon, H. H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport,
*Vernon, Thomas T, 24 Waterloo-road, Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.
*Vicary, WixLtIAM, F.G.8. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
*Villamil, Major R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, 8. W.
tVincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
*Vines, SypNEY Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.
{Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.
*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.
{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.
t Wadsworth, G. H. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.
§WacErR, Harotp W. T. Bank View, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
1896.§§ Wailes, Miss Ellen. Woodmead, Groombridge, Sussex.
1891.
1884.
1886.
1870.
1892.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1894.
1882.
1885.
1893.
1890.
tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{ Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
tWaite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
{Waxe, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East York-
shire.
tWalcot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
tWaldstein, C., M.A., Ph.D. Slade Professor of Fine Art in the
University of Cambridge.
{Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.
{Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Carditf.
{WatrorpD, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.
*Walkden, Samuel. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.
{ Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
§ Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.
}Walker, A. Vannett. Hunslet, Leeds.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 97
Year of
Election.
1897. *Watxer, B. E. Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto.
1885. {Walker, OC. C.,F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport, Shropshire.
1883.§§ Walker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.
1883. { Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
1891. { Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.
1897. §Walker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.
1894. *Watxer, G. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1866. {Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1896.§§ Walker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1890. { Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.
1894, *Walker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1866. *Waxxer, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham, York.
1855. {Watxer, J. J.. M.A., F.RS. 12 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.
1886. *Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
1866. { Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1884. { Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, 8.E.
1888. { Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
1887. {Walker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, S.W.
1883. {Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1895. §Watker, William G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.
1896. § Walker, Colonel William Hall. Gateacre, Liverpool.
1896.§§ Walker, W.J. D. Lawrencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.
1883. tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
1863. ¢{Wattacz, ALFRED Russet, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.
1897. § Wallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.
1892. { Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
1887. *WattER, Aveustus D., M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove
End-road, N. W.
1889. *Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
1895. {Watuis, KE. Wuirs, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
Margaret-street, W.
1883, { Wallis, Rey. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
1884. { Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
1886. Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1883. { Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.
1894. *Walmisley, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, S.W.
1887. {Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.
1891. § Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.
1883. {Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
1862. {Watpote, The Right Hon. Spencer Horarto, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1895.§§ WatsineHAM, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S, Merton Hall,
Thetford.
1881. { Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.
1884. {Wanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
1887. phy ae W., M.A., Litt.D., late Principal of Owens College, Man-
chester.
1874. {Ward, F. D., J.P., MR.LA. Wyncroft, Adelaide Park, Belfast.
1881. § Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
1879, {Warp, H. Marswatt, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
University of Cambridge. New Museums, Cambridge.
1890. { Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds,
1874. § Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
ae JouHn, F.G.8. . 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.
; G
98
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1857.
1880.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.
1884.
1887.
1878.
1882.
1884.
{Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
*Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford,
S.E.
*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
t{Ward, Thomas. Arnold House, Blackpool.
{Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.
{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,
{ Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.
t{ Wardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.S. St. Edward-street, Leek, Staffordshire.
{Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Waring, Richard 8. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
§Warineron, Rozrrt, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Rural Economy
in the University of Oxford. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans, Herts.
{Warner, F'. 1, F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.
*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
1896.§§ Warr, A. F. 4 Livingstone-drive North, Liverpool.
1896.§§ Warrand, Major-General, R.E, Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.
1875.
1887.
1895.
1875.
1870.
1892.
1875.
1887,
1884.
1886.
1883.
1892.
1885.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1894.
1892.
1879.
1882.
1884.
1869,
1888.
1875.
1884.
1870.
1896.§§ Watts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.
1873.
{Warren, Algernon. 6 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
{Warren, Major-General Sir Caartes, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
E.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzum Club, S.W.
t{Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.
*Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham,
Kent.
t{Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.
{Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.
tWatherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S, The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
{Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, W.
t{Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.
*Watson, C. J. 34 Smallbrook-street, Birmingham.
t{ Watson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.
§ Watson, G., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. Athenzeum-buildings, Park-lane,
Leeds. :
t{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.
{Warson, Rey. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry.
{Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
t{Watson, John, F.I.C. 5 Loraine-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.
{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
{ Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
{+ Watson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.
*Wartson, W., B.Sc. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, 8. W.
§ Watson, William, M.D. Slateford, Midlothian.
*Watson, Wittiam Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S8. Braystones, Cumber-
land.
t{Watt, Alexander. 19 Brompton-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
{Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Watt, Robert B. E. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
tWarrs, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.
*Warrts, Joan, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.
*Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.
§ Watts, William, F.G.S. Little Don Waterworks, Langsett, near
Penistone. \
*Warrs, W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
, LIST OF MEMBERS. 99
Year of
Election.
1883.
1891.
1869,
1883.
1871.
1890.
1866.
1886,
1891.
1859.
1834.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1890.
1886.
1865.
1894.
1876,
1880.
1897.
1881.
1879.
1881.
*Warts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S., Assistant Professor of Geology in
the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
{Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tWay, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.
TWebb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
tWebb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, N.W.
*Wess, WILLIAM FrRepericr, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
§WesseR, Major-General 0. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 E gerton-
cardens, 8. W.
§ Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.
{Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
{tWebster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, E.C.
*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, 8. W.
*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
48 Westendstrasse, Karlsruhe.
{tWeeks, John G. Bedlington.
*Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.
{ Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
tWelch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, S.W.
§Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham Gardens, Oxford.
*Wetvon, W. F.R., M.A., F.B.S., F.L.S., Professor of Comparative
Anatomy and Zoology in University College, London, 304
Wimpole-street, W.
*Weldon, Mrs. '304 Wimpole-street, W.
§ Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada.
§ Wellcome, Henry S. Snow Hill Buildings, F.C.
§We ts, Cuartes A., A.I.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.
§ Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.
1894,§§ Wells, J. G. Selwood Honse, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1864.
1886,
1865.
1853.
1853,
1897.
1882.
1882.
1882.
1885.
1888.
1853.
{t Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
*Welton, T. A. 38 St. John’s-road, Brixton, S.W.
*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon, Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
*Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College,
Bristol.
{ Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W.
{ West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
{West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
§ Western, Alfred I. 36 Lancaster Gate, W.
*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale of Health, Hampstead, N.W.
{Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.
{Weruerep, EpwarpB.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-
ham.
*Wuarron, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.RS., PR.AS.,
F.R.G.8., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-
road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey. j
{Wheateroft, William G, 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.
{ Wheatley, EX. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
G 2
100
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1866.
1884.
1878.
1888.
1883.
1893.
1888.
1888.
1879.
1874.
1883.
1859.
1884.
1886.
1897.
1886,
1876.
1886.
1885.
1882.
1885.
1875.
1859.
1885.
1865.
1883.
1895.
1884.
1859.
1877.
1886.
1897,
1885.
18953.
1881.
1852.
1891.
1897.
1896.
1857.
1887.
1874,
1883,
1870.
1892.
1897.
1888.
{ Wheatstone, Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s-park, N.W.
Wheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A.
*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.
§Whelen, John Leman. Bank House, 16 Old eee E.C.
{Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Wueruim, W.C. D., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.
*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.
*WHIDBORNE, Rey. GrorcE Ferris, M.A., EGS. St. George’s
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, 5. W.
{ Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Ter race, Belfast.
*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley -in- Wharfedale.
*WuIraxEr, Wittram, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Freda, Campden-road,
Croy don.
{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
{ Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.
§ Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.
tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.
tWhite, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, W.
{White, Charles, 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tWhite, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.
*White, J. Martin. 5 King-street, Dundee.
| White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
{Wairtz, Joun Forses. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.
{ White, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.
*White, Mrs. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W.
t White, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College
Bangor, North Wales.
{ White, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.
tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W
*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.
*Warts, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S. The Admiralty, Whitehall,
S.W.
t Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.
§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.O.S., F.1C. 20 Beeches-road, West
Bromwich. y
t Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
{Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
§Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Headingley, Leeds.
§ Whittaker, 1a Me Trinity College, Cambridge.
§ Whitney, Colonel C. A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.
*Wauirty, Rev. Joun Irwinn, M.A., D.C.L., LL. D. Highlands,
Ellington-road, Ramsgate.
{ Whitwell, William. Over dene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Whitwill, Mark. Linthorpe, Tyndall’s Park, Bristol.
t Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport,
tWhitworth, Rey. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, Ww.
§ Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.
§ Wickett, M., Ph.D. 339 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.
t Wickham, Rev. F. D. 0. Horsington Rectory, Bath.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 101
Year of
Election. ~~
1865. {Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,
1886. {Wigein, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
1896.§§ Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.
1888. {Wigglesworth, Mrs. Ingleside, West-street, Scarborough,
1881. *Wigglesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.
1878. {Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin,
1889. *Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1887. {Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1887. *Witps, Heyry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
1896. §Wildermann, Meyer. 22 Park-crescent, Oxford.
1887. {Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
1892, {Wilkinson, Rey. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston,
Herts.
1886, *Wilkinson, J. H. Hamstead Hill, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1879. { Wilkinson, Joseph. York.
1887. * Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.
1872. { Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
1890, {Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.
1872, {Witterr, Henry. Arnold House, Brighton.
1891, {Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.
1861. *Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. “2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.
1887. { Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
1883. “Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
1861. * Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.
1875. “Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.
1883. { Williams, Rey. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1857. {Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairynghornwy, Holyhead.
1888. {Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.
1891. § Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Midwood, Christchurch-road,
Bournemouth,
1887. { Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A. -
1888, *Williams, Miss Katherine, Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale, Clifton,
Bristol.
1875. *Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.
1879. {Witt1aMs, Marraew W. 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
1891. {Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.
1886. { Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
1883. {Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead,
London, N.W.
1883. { Williams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.
1888. { Williams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinghamshire.
1877. *Wittiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.
1888, { Williamson, Miss, Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire,
1850. *Witt1aMson, ALEXANDER Wit1iaM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.8.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy. High
Pitfold, Haslemere.
1857. eg he Brygamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.
1876. { Williamson, Rev. F,J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
1863. { Williamson, John. South Shields.
1895.§§Wittink, W. 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.
1895. {Willis, John O., M.A., Senior Assistant in Botany in Glasgow
University. 8% Lawrence-place, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1896, §Wuixtison, J. S. Toronto.
1882, { Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.
102 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1859. *Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, S. W.
1886. {Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.
1886. {Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.
1885. {Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1878. {Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.
1876. { Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
1894, *Wilson, Charles J., F.LC., F.C.8. 19 Little Queen-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
1874. {Wutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. The Atheneum Club, 8. W.
1876, {Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1890. { Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.
1863. { Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
1847. *Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.
1875. {Witson, GzorcE Ferevsson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
1874, *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1863. { Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B. |
1895. {Wilson, Grege. The University, Edinburgh.
1883. *Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, R.S.O., Kent.
1879. {Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
1885. {Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
1890. Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.
1896.§§ Wilson, John H., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany, Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
1865. {Wuison, Ven. JAmus M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale.
1884. {Wilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.
1879. {Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.
1876. tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.
1847. *Wilson, Rev. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
1883. {Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
1892. § Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861. {Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1887. § Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.
1871. *Witson, WitttaAm E., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete, Rath-
owen, Ireland.
186]. *Wittsuire, Rev. Tuomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London.
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, 8.H.
1877. {Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
1886. {WinpLz, Berrram ©. A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Ana-
tomy in Mason College, Birmingham.
1887. { Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
1893. *Winter, G. K., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S. C/o The Union Bank of
London, 3 Princes-street, E.C.
1863, *Wxywoop, Rey. H.H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
1894. {Witley, Arthur. 17 Acton-lane, Harlesden, N.W.
1888. {WoprHovss, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, 8. W.
1883. {Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
1884, {Womack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Bedford College, Baker-street, W.
1881. *Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
1883.§§ Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
1863. *Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
1861. *Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 1038
Year of
Election.
1883. tWood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
1875. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
1878. {Woop, Sir H. Trupman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C.
1883. *Woop, JAmEs, LL.D. Grove House, Searisbrick-street, Southport.
1881. {Wood, John, B.A. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa, Yorkshire.
1883. *Wood, J. H. Hazelwood, 14 Lethbridge-road, Southport.
1893. Wood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.
1883. {Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.
1864. {Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
1890. *Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds.
1871. {Wood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
1872. {Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
1845. *Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham Vicarage,
Rochester.
1863. *Woopatt, Jonn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S.
1884. {Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
1883. {Woodcock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.
1884. {Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.
1896. § Woodhead, G. Sims, M.D. 1 Nightingale-lane, Balham, S.W.
1888. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.
1872. {Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W
1883. {Woods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E.,F.R.M.S. 16 Adelaide-street, Lea-
mington.
Woops, Samvrt. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C.
1888. {Woodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, S.W.
1887. *Woopwarp, ARTHUR SuitH, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper of
the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W.
1869. *Woopwarp, O. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
1886. { Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.
1866. |Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, 8S. W.
1870. {Woopwarp, Horace B., F.RS., F.G.S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, S.W.
1894. *Woodward, John Harold. 6 Brighton-terrace, Merridale-road,
Wolverhampton.
1884. *Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
1890, §Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.S.8., MR.LA.,,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
1877. {Woollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.
1883. *Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
1856. Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
1874. { Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
1878. {Wormell, Richard, M.A.,D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertfordshire.
1863. * Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
1855. *Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. The Hill, Stourbridge.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
1856. Worthy, George 8. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, N. W.
104 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Electiou.
1884. {Wragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
1896.§§ Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Bastow.
1879. {Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, 8. W.
1883, *Wright, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
1883. *Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.
1890. { Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.
1857. {Wrieut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
1886. { Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.
1884, { Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
1876. {Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.
1865. { Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,
1884. §Wricut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.
1831. Werisur, T.G.,M.D. 91 Northgate, Wakefield.
1876. { Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.
1871. {Wricutson, THomas, M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Norton Hall,
Stockton-on-Tees.
1897. § Wyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.
1883. § Wyllie, Andrew. Sandown, Southport.
1885. {Wyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1871. { Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
1862. {Wrnyz, ArtHUR Bervor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
1875, {Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
1894, *Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E.
1883. §Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
1896.§§ Yates, Rev. S. A. Thompson. 48 Phillimore-gardens, 8.W.
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.
1887. {Yeats, Dr. Chepstow.
1884. {Yee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
1877. tYonge, Rey. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
1891. {Yorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.
1884. {York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.
1891. §Young, Alfred C., F.0.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, $.E.
1886. *Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.
1884, {Young, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.
1894. *Young, George, Ph.D. Firth College, Sheffield.
1884, {Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto,
Canada.
1876. {Youne, Jonny, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1896.§§ Young, J. Denholm, 88 Canning-street, Liverpool.
1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1886. §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
1883. *Youne, Sypner, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol. 10 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1887. tYoung, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, H.C,
1890, {Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.
1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
1886, {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
1886. {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham.
Year of
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 105
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
, Election.
1887.
1892.
1881.
1897.
1894.
1894,
1887.
1892.
1894.
1898,
1880.
1887.
1884.
1890.
1893.
1887.
1884.
1894,
1897.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1894,
1861,
1894.
1887.
1855.
1873.
1880.
1870.
1876,
Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, United States.
Professor Svante Arrhenius, The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18).
Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States. (8909, Locust-street).
Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.
Professor F. Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.
Professor E. van Beneden. The University, Liége, Belgium.
Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.
Professor M. Bertrand. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. Washington, United States.
Professor Christian Bohr. 62 Bredgade, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Fiirkenstrasse 3, Vienna, IX.
Professor Lewis Boss, Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, United States.
Professor Brentano. 1 Maximilian-platz, Miinchen.
Professor Dr. W. C. Brogger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania, Norway.
Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.
gota George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United
tates.
Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, United States.
M. C. de Candolle. Geneva, Switzeriand.
Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna. (65 Via
Zamboni).
Professor J. B. Carnoy. Rue du Canal 22, Louvain.
Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. Mannheim.
Emile Cartailhac. Toulouse, France.
Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universititstrasse 15, Leipzig.
Dr. A. Chauveau. The Sorbonne, Paris.
F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.
Professor Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. The University, Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome. (5 Piazza 8.
Pietro in Vincoli).
106
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1889.
1872.
1870.
1890.
1876.
1894,
1892.
1894.
1892.
1874,
1886,
1887.
1894.
1872.
1894,
1894.
1887.
1892.
1881,
1866,
1861.
1884,
1884.
1889,
1892.
1870.
1889.
1889.
1884,
1892.
1876,
1881.
1872.
1895.
1887.
18958.
1894.
1893.
1898.
1897.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884,
1867.
1876.
W. H. Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
United States.
Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.
Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.
Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Holland.
Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.
Professor T. W. W. Engelmann. Berlin.
Professor Léo Errera. 1 Place Stéphanie, Brussels.
Dr. W. Feddersen. 9 Carolinenstrasse, Leipzig.
Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.
Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.
Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, S.W.
‘W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 18, Liége, Belgium.
Professor C. Friedel. 9 Rue Michelet, Paris.
Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague.
Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Roon Strasse 10, Berlin.
Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 Rue Edouard Detaille, Paris.
Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis Rue des Saints Péres, Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Professor tl Willard Gibbs. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
United States.
Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, United States.
G. K. Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
United States,
Daniel C. Gilman. President of the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, United States.
William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.
Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.
A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.
ab gare A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, D.C.,
S.A
Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.
Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 87 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.
Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.
Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 35, Brussels.
Professor Ludimar Hermann. The University, Kdénigsherg, Prussia.
Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoolog. Museum, Munich.
Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.
Dr, G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.
Professor W. His. Kinigstrasse 22 ; Leipzic.
Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, ri D., C.M.Z.S. The University,
Utrecht, Holland.
Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, Rhode Island,
United States.
Professor C. Loring Jackson. 12 Wave-street, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.
Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.
Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzer-
land,
Year of
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 107
Election.
1881.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1884.
1873.
1894.
1896.
1856.
1894.
1887.
1894.
1887.
1877.
1887.
1887,
1887.
1882.
1887.
1872.
1887.
1883.
1877.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1894,
1887.
1867.
1881.
1887.
1890.
1887.
1887.
1884,
1848.
1887.
1894.
1893.
1877.
1894,
1897.
1897.
W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 32 East Preston-street, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Professor C. Julin. Liége.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.
M,. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.
Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo,
Japan.
iio. Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm Weber Strasse 3, Gottingen.
Professor L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 92, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.
Dr. Kohlrausch, Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, Charlot-
tenburg, Berlin.
Professor A. von Kolliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.
Professor J. Kollmann. Basle, Switzerland.
Professor Dr. Arthur K6nig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin, N.W.
Maxime Kovalevsky. Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes.
Professor Krause. 31 Brueckenallee, Berlin, N.W.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.
Tieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.
Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelm Str. 108, Breslau.
Professor J. W. Langley. 8473 Fairmount-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
United States.
Dr. 8. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Washington, United States.
Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
Professor A. Lieben. Wasagasse 9, Vienna, IX.
Dr. F. Lindemann. Georgenstrasse 42, Munich.
Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.
Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg-in-Breisgau,
Germany.
Professor Dr. Liitken. Nérregade 10, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Dr. Otto Maas. Wurzerstrasse 16, Munich.
Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3,700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, United
States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, Conn., United
States.
Dr. O. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.
Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,
Paris.
Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.
Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. 57 Rue Cuvier, Paris.
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor G. Mittag-Lefler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm.
Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).
Professor V. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Ate.
Marne, France.
Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III3.
Professor Oskar Montelius. Stockholm, Sweden.
Professor E. W. Morley. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
108
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Hlection.
1864.
1887.
1889.
1894.
1864,
1884.
1887.
1894.
1894.
1890.
1889.
1890.
1895.
1887.
1890.
1894.
1870.
1884.
1886.
1887.
1868.
1895.
1886.
1897.
1873.
1896.
1892.
1890.
1881.
1895.
1894,
1897.
1883.
1874,
1846.
1873,
1892.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1881.
1894.
1881.
1884,
1864.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.
Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.
Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universita, Padua, Italy.
Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
Professor Simon Newcomb. 1620 P.-street, Washington, D.C., United:
States.
Professor Emilio Noelting. Mihlhausen, Elsass, Germany,
Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A. .
Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.
Professor W. Ostwald. Briiderstrasse 34, Leipzig.
Professor A. 8. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode:
Island, United States.
Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce. Bari, Italy.
Professor F. Paschen. Nelkenstrasse 14, Hannover.
Dr. Pauli. Feldbergenstrasse 49, Frankfurt a. M., Germany.
Professor Otto Pettersson. Hogskolas Laboratorium, Stockholm.
Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. The University, Leipzig.
Professor Felix Plateau, 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand.
Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, D.C., United States.
Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States. P
Professor Georg Quincke. Friederich bau, Heidelberg.
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich
(Sonnen-Strasse 7).
Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
Rey. A. Renard. Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.
Professor Dr. CO. Richet. Faculté de Médecine, Paris, France.
Professor Baron von Richthofen. Kurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin.
Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 7, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.
A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachu-
setts, United States.
Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.
Professsr Karl Runge. Kérnerstrasse 19a, Hannover.
Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Holland.
Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.
Dr. Ernst Schréder. Gottesanerstrasse 9, Karlsruhe in Baden.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 754, Berlin.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Dr, A. Shafarik, Weinberge, Kopernicus Gasse 422, Prague.
Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht.
Professor Count Solms. Bot. Garten, Strassburg.
Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.
Dr. Alfred Springer. Box 621, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.
Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest, Roumania.
Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘The University, Athens.
Professor E. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.
Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.
Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,.
Ithaca, New York, United States.
Dr. rites Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
weden.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 109
Year of
Election.
1887.
1887.
1890.
1889.
1886.
1887.
1887
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876,
1887.
1896.
1887,
Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.
Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor J. H. van’t Hoff. Uhlansstrasse 2, Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.
Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium,
Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.
Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Kiel.
Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.
Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.
Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.
Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig. |
Professor G. Wiedemann. Thalstrasse 35, Leipzig.
Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisegau,
Baden.
Professor Dr. J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.
Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Sieemundhot, Berlin, N.W.
Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,
Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.
Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.
Professor F. Zirkel. Lalstrasse 33, Leipzig.
110
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Brighton Public Library.
Bristol Naturalists’ Society.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College of South
Wales. |
Cornwall, So-
clety of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.
, Royal College of Surgeons in |
Treland.
——, Royal Geological Society of
Treland.
—, Royal Irish Academy.
-——, Royal Society of.
Dundee, University College.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
——, Royal Medical Society of.
~—, Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute
——, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London, Admiralty, Library of the.
, Anthropological Institute.
——, Arts, Society of.
——, Chemical Society.
——., Civil Engineers, Institution of.
——, East India Library.
——.,, Geological Society.
, Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.
, Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
——, Kew Observatory.
Royal Geological
' The
AND IRELAND.
London, Linnean Society.
, London Institution.
, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.
, Meteorological Office.
——, Royal Asiatic Society.
——., Royal Astronomical Society.
—., Royal College of Physicians.
——., Royal College of Surgeons.
——, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham.
| ——, Royal Geographical Society.
—-, Royal Institution.
—.,, Royal Meteorological Society.
——, Royal Society.
, Royal Statistical Society.
——, Sanitary Institute.
——,, United Service Institution.
; ———, University College.
——, War Office, Library of the.
, Zoological Society.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
| ——, Mechanics’ Institute.
| Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.
——,, Public Library.
Norwich, The Free Library.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——.,, Radcliffe Observatory.
Plymouth Institution,
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, Firth College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Corresponding Societies
list in Report).
(see
11]
EUROPE.
FBP ....-.....5. Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.
schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.
FEE ya vce oes. 5s University Library. —— 4 recesses University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.
Sciences. Naplest.......:.0s. Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.
servatory. Parisige-smeeeees: Association Francaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement
Sciences. des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, = =F Somes estes Geographical Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. —— naepabesdecs Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— ........0... Royal Academy of
clety. Sciences.
Geneva......00.:. Natural History So- | —— ............ School of Mines.
ciety. Pultova .:....... Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. Rome .......s- Accademia dei Lincei.
ROTANA, Secs co ccs s+ Naturwissenschatt- SN A atecslveees Collegio Romano.
licher Verein. eae etdawenwe Italian Geographical
EPANE cans00.0.2- Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.
linische Akademie. | —— ............ Italian Society of
aviem, —......... Société Hollandaise Sciences.
des Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. ... [mperial Observatory.
Helsingfors ...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Kazan, Russia ... University Library. MOTI, Sec.es see Royal Academy of
UG | pie Royal Observatory. Sciences.
TE os cs sc o's University Library. Utrecht ..... .-.. University Library.
Lausanne......... The University. Wientia.c.cscsces The Imperial Library.
Leyden ......... University Library. | —— ............ Central Anstalt fiir
Liege ....:....... University Library. Meteorologie und
HOON =... ....00..0/ Academia Real des | Erdmaenetismus.
Sciences. | ZARB he orcncserd General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
oi re The College. Calcutta ......... Hooghly College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institue |} ——- ......... Medical College.
tion. Wee: See Presidency College.
ee Grant Medical Col- Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo.
lege. | _Madras............ The Observatory.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. ere University Library.
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope .
. The Royal Observatory.
112
AMERICA.
Albany) “sesess. The Institute. New York...... American Society of
Mostonss.-6o-> =~ American Academy of | Civil Engineers.
Arts and Sciences. [Terese Lyceum of Natural
California ...... The University. History.
shea Lick Observatory. | Ottawa .........Geological Survey of
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | Canada.
Library. American | Philadelphia...American Philosophical
Medical A ssociation. Society.
KGhIcASO Sikeceness Field Columbian Mu- ...Franklin Institute.
seum. | Porontolee es. The Observatory.
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. — ... The University.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | Washington...Bureau of Ethnology.
tific Society. _ ...Smithsonian Institu-
MGxICOM tc. ncanncet Sociedad Cientifica | tion,
‘Antonio Alzate. | —— ... The Naval Observatory.
Montreal ......... Council of Arts and | —— ...United States Geolo-
Manufactures. gical Survey of the
—— veveveves McGill University. Territories.
>
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane . . Queensland Museum,
Sydney . Public Works Department.
Victoria . . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND.
Canterbury Museum.
PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
4)
‘
t
i Mh 1 ie
me do 7
ny OTe ai
vevk
fh i
ies i f: mt
aby ith pe
" te ‘Ve:
Tae
, my
Bile
aeta2t?
; nit
Hi st sitkeles
rpsacte
itt
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11