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MARINE  BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORY. 


Received    #4/  </o  ^  /  ri    f 


Accession  No.  ^  I 

Given  by 

Place, 


***No  book  op  pamphlet    is  to  be  removed    from  the  Lab- 
oratory tuithout  the  permission  of  the  Trustees. 


UNITED  STATES  COMMISSION  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES. 


P  JL  H  T  ■  III 
REPORT 


OK 


THE   COMMISSIONEK 


i  OB 


1873-4  AND  1874-5. 


A— INQUIRY  INTO  THE  DECREASE  OF  THE  FOOD-FISHES. 
B— THE  PROPAGATION  OF  FOOD-FISHES  IX  THE  WATERS 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING    OFFICE. 

187G. 


United  States  Commission  of  Fisn  and  Fisheries, 

Washington,  February  20,  1875. 

Gentlemen:  In  compliance  with  the  order  of  Congress,  I  transmit 
herewith  my  report  for  1873-74  and  1871-75  as  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  embracing:  first,  the  result  of  inquiries  into 
the  causes  of  the  decrease  of  the  food-fishes  of  the  sea-coast  and  lakes  of 
the  Uuited  States;  and,  secondly,  the  history  of  the  measures  taken  for 
the  propagation  of  food-fishes  by  stocking  the  rivers  and  lakes  with 
shad,  salmon,  and  other  valuable  species. 

Very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

SPENCER  F.  BAIRD, 

Commissioner. 
Hon..  Henry  Wilson, 

President  of  the  United  States  Senate;  and 
Hon.  Jas.  G.  Blaine, 

Speaker  of  the  Ilousa  of  Representatives. 


m 


CONTENTS 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER. 

A— INQUIRY  INTO  THE  DECEEASE  OF  THE  FOOD-FISHES. 

Page. 

l.  Investigations  of  1873 vn 

Reason  for  selecting  Portland,  Me.,  as  base  of  operations VII 

Assistance  rendered  by  the  Navy  Department vn 

The  steam-tug  Blue  Light vii 

Associates  in  the  inquiry vm 

Numbers  of  living  forms  found  in  the  waters  of  the  region vnr 

Mackerel,  cod,  and  herring  fisheries viii 

Fish-food viii 

Biological  researches IX 

Ph ysical  researches IX 

Collections  for  scientific  museums IX 

List  of  visitors  at  Peak's  Island  station ix 

Apparatus  used  on  the  Blue  Light ix 

The  region  southeast  from  Cape  Elizabeth .• x 

The  region  at  the  upper  end  of  Casco  Bay x 

Proof  of  climatic  changes  on  the  northern  Atlantic  coast x 

Assistance  rendered  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey X 

The  steamer  Bache x 

Assistance  rendered  by  the  Treasury  Department XI 

The  revenue  steamer  McCulloch XI 

The  revenue  steamer  Chase XI 

Assistance  rendered  by  the  Quartermaster  Department  of  the  Army XI 

2.  Investigations  in  1874 xi 

Reasons  for  selecting  Noank,  Conn.,  as  base  of  operations XI 

Assistance  rendered  by  the  Navy  Department XI 

The  steam-tug  Blue  Light xi 

General  character  of  work  prosecuted xi 

Experiments  in  propagating  sea-bass XII 

Visit  to  shad-hatching  station  at  Holyoke,  Mass XII 

Experiments  in  inuring  embryo  shad  to  sea-water XII 

Shipment  of  shad  to  Germany XII 

Discoveries  of  specie3  before  unknown  to  the  coast •- XHI 

Associates  in  the  inquiry xm 

List  of  visitors  to  the  Noank  station xm 

Special  report  to  be  made  on  invertebrates xiv 

Cold  currents Xiv 

Assistance  rendered  by  United  States  Coast  Survey Xiv 

The  steamer  Bache xiv 

Experiment  with  preservatives XV 

B— THE  PROPAGATION  OF  FOOD-FISHES. 

3.  Extent  of  the  work xv 

Regions  benefited XV 

The  value  of  fish-propagation  to  China xvi 

Reasons  why  the  work  cannot  he  left  to  State  action xvi 

The  plan  as  regards  the  propagation  of  the  shad xvi 

Extent  of  the  California-salmon  work xvii 

The  possible  resources  of  rivers xvn 

The  proposed  introduction  of  the  carp xvn 

Former  abundance  of  fishes XVII 

V 


VI  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

Page. 

4.  The  shad xvm 

The  hatching  and  distribution  of  1874 xvni 

The  waters  benefited  in  the  United  States xvni 

The  shipment  to  Germany t xvm 

The  hatching  and  distribution  of  1875 : xvm 

The  Neuse  River  of  North  Carolina XIX 

The  Pamunkey  River  of  Virginia XIX 

The  reconnaissance  of  the  Potomac  fisheries XIX 

The  stations  and  results  on  the  Potomac  . XIX 

Distribution  from  Coeymans  Landing,  K.  T.,  on  the  Hudson xix 

Distribution  from  South  Hadley  Falls,  Mass.,  on  the  Connecticut  Kiver xix 

Distribution  from  Point  Pleasant,  Pa.,  on  the  Delaware  River xx 

Review  of  the  libors  of  the  season .. XX 

Experiments  by  Fred  Mather  and  H.  "W.  "Welsher,  with  a  view  to  transporting  shad  long 

distances xxi 

The  shipment  to  Germany xxi 

Experiments  with  a  view  to  transporting  shad  in  sea-water xxii 

Experiments  with  a  view  to  transporting  shad  of  several  inches  length xxii 

5.  The  California  salmon xxii 

Mr.  Livingston  Stone's  operations  in  1873 xxii 

The  final  hatching  of  the  eggs  in  eastern  waters xxm 

Mr.  Livingston  Stone's  operations  in  1874 xxm 

Qualities  of  the  California  salmon xxiv 

Observations  of  temperature  in  San  Joaquin  River xxv 

Observations  of  temperature  in  McCloud  River xxvi 

Observations  of  temperature  in  Columbia  River xxvi 

Comparison  of  physical  conditions  of  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  elope  and  Gulf  of  Mexico 

with  Pacific  streams xxvi 

Distances  which  anadromoua  species  will  travel  inland xxvm 

The  great  vigor  of  the  California  salmon xxix 

The  reasons  for  expectation  of  success  in  introducing  California  salmon  in  eastern  waters.  xxix 

The  great  addition  to  the  food  resources xxx 

6.  The  Atlantic  salmon xxx 

Mr.  Atkins'  operations  in  1873-'74  and  1874-'75 xxx 

The  number  of  breeding  salmon  bought  and  manipulated xxxi 

Marking  the  fish  when  released xxxi 

Recapture  of  marked  fish xxxi 

7.  The  white  fish xxxn 

8.  The  caw  of  Eurofe xxxn 

Its  qualities  and  habits xxxn 

Numerous  domesticated  varieties xxxm 

The  best  varieties xxxv 

Its  artificial  propagation xxxv 

Localities  in  Europe  where  they  are  bred xxxv 

Desirability  of  the  carp  for  the  United  States XXXVI 

9.  The  aquarium  car xxxvii 

The  trip  of  1873 xxxvn 

The  trip  of  1874 XXXVII 

10.  Tables  of  distribution  of  food-fishes xxxvm 

Tables  of  shad  hatching  and  distribution xxxvm 

Tables  of  California  salmon  distribution XL 

Tables  of  Atlantic  salmon  distribution I xlv 


REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER. 


The  duties  intrusted  to  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  .and 
Fisheries,  as  established  by  joint  resolution  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  the  9th  of  February,  1871,  are  two- 
fold: first,  an  investigation  into  the  cause  of  the  decrease  of  the  sea- 
coast  fishes  and  those  of  the  rivers  and  lakes,  with  suggestions  as  to  the 
best  methods  of  restoring  the  same;  second,  active  measures  looking 
toward  the  propagation  and  multiplication  of  the  useful  food-fishes, 
either  by  restocking  depleted  waters  or  by  introducing  desirable  species 
into  new  localities. 

In  tbe  two  reports  already  published  will  be  found  a  history  of  the 
measures  adopted  to  accomplish  these  ends  during  the  years  1871, 1872, 
and  the  first  half  of  1873;  and  I  now  proceed  to  give  the  history  of  the 
labors  of  the  commission  from  July  1,  1S73,  to  July  1,  1875.* 

A— INQUIRY  INTO  THE  DECREASE  OF  FOOD  FISHES. 

1. — INVESTIGATIONS  IN   1873. 

The  labors  of  tbe  Commission  commenced  at  Wood's  Hole,  Massachu- 
setts, in  1871,  while  the  season  of  1S72  was  passed  at  Eastport,  in  tbe 
Bay  of  Fundy.  For  the  purpose  of  more  completely  developing  the 
economical  and  natural  history  of  the  coast  of  Maine,  the  chief  seat  of 
the  herring  and  cod  fisheries,  Portland  was  selected  as  a  secoud  station 
in  that  State  from  which  to  prosecute  the  inquiries  of  the  Commission 
in  1873.  Quarters  were  accordingly  secured  at  Peak's  Island,  about 
three  miles  from  the  city,  where  a  wharf,  with  buildings,  and  good  anchor- 
age near  by,  furnished  the  necessary  facilities. 

The  law  of  Congress  authorizing  the  Commission  instructs  the  heads 
of  all  the  Government  departments  to  render  it  such  assistance  as  may 
be  in  their  power;  and,  in  obedience  to  this  requirement,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  granted  the  use  of  a  stanch  vessel  of  about  100  feet  in 
length  and  nearly  one  hundred  tons  burden,  then  stationed  at  the  Wash- 
ington navy-yard,  and  not  required  at  the  time  for  other  purposes — the 
steam-tug  Blue  Light.     Commander  L.  A.  Beardslee,  of  the  U.  S.  Navy, 

*  The  printing  of  tbo  reports  for  tbe  years  1873-4  and  1374-5  was  ordered  separately 
by  Congress;  but  no  provision  baving  been  made  for  extras,  and  unavoidable  delays 
baving  occurred  in  tbe  printing,  it  lias  been   thought  best  to  publish  tbe  two  in  a 


single  volume. 


VII 


VIII       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

was  placed  in  charge  of  the  vessel,  and  a  suitable  crew  furnished  from 
the  navy-yard. 

Various  alterations  were  made  in  the  vessel  to  better  adapt  her  for  the 
purposes  to  which  she  was  to  be  applied.  A  pilot-house  was  erected  on  the 
upper  deck,  the  old  one  being  converted  into  a  laboratory,  and  a  small 
donkey-engine  placed  on  the  forward  part  of  the  deck  to  work  the 
dredge  and  trawl.  Leaving  Washington  in  charge  of  her  commander 
on  the  28th  of  June,  the  Blue  Light  reported  at  Peak's  Island  for  duty 
on  the  8th  of  July.  She  proved  to  be  everything  that  could  be  desired 
for  her  purposes  ;  her  light  draught  (about  7  feet)  enabling  her  to  run 
into  the  bays  and  harbors  along  the  coast,  and  her  seaworthiness  to  go 
off  considerable  distances  to  the  outer  banks.  As  on  previous  occa- 
sions, Professor  Verrill,  of  Yale  College,  took  the  more  immediate- 
charge  of  the  researches  into  the  invertebrates,  while  numerous  special- 
ists were  also  members  of  the  party  for  a  greater  or  less  length  of  time, 
among  whom  were  Prof.  Sidney  J.  Smith,  of  New  Haven ;  Prof.  J.  E. 
Todd,  of  Tabor  College,  Iowa ;  Prof.  E.  T.  Nelson,  of  Delaware  Col- 
lege, Ohio ;  Prof.  E.  N.  Rice,  of  the  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown ; 
Dr.  P.  P.  Carpenter,  of  Montreal ;  Dr.  J.  B.  Holder,  of  the  American 
Museum,  Central  Park,  New  York;  Mr.  G.  Brown  Goode,  curator  of 
the  museum  of  the  University  of  Middletown,  Conn. ;  Prof.  Theodore 
Gill  and  Dr.  E.  Palmer,  of  Washington  ;  Mr.  J.  E.  Thacher,  of  New 
Haven  ;  Mr.  C.  B.  Puller,  of  Portland ;  Mr.  Spencer  F.  Biddle,  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  others. 

The  work  of  investigation  into  the  general  and  economical  histoiwof  the 
fishes  and  other  marine  animals  was  prosecuted  with  unremitting  energy, 
and  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  many  important  collections  and  ob- 
servations. According  to  a  rough  estimate,  62  species  of  fishes,  130  of 
articulates,  145  of  worms,  215  of  mollusks,  34  of  radiates,  50  of  acalephs, 
30  of  sponges,  and  50  of  plants,  or  about  750  in  all,  were  identified ; 
while  the  number  of  minute  crustaceans,  and  other  diminutive  objects,  re- 
quiring further  investigation,  will  probably  amount  to  nearly  as  many  more. 
The  present  history  and  statistics  of  the  mackerel,  cod,  herring,  alewives, 
menhaden,  &c,  was  well  worked  out  as  far  as  peculiar  to  the  coast. 
The  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  all  the  fishes  taken,  under  different 
circumstances,  were  examined  and  recorded,  and  important  generaliza- 
tions reached  as  to  the  relationships  between  the  fish,  their  food,  and 
the  differing  regions  of  the  sea-bottom.  Among  other  collections  made 
by  the  Commission  were  numerous  specimens  of  a  species  of  flounder, 
Pleuronectes  glaber,  known  heretofore  by  only  a  single  specimen  de- 
scribed by  Storer  in  his  great  work  on  the  "  Pishes  of  Massachusetts." 

The  collection  of  invertebrates  embraced  very  many  extremely  inter- 

'  esting  species,  some  of  them  entirely  new,  and  others  found  for  the  first 

time  on  this  coast.    Among  these  may  be  mentioned  a  species  of  Hya- 

lonema,  Holtenia,  and  some  other  very  remarkable  siliceous  sponges  which 

have  lately  attracted  much  attention  from  naturalists.    Some  very  rare 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.  IX 

radiates  weie  also  secured,  among  them  Comatida,  Ccriantlius,  Schiz- 
aster,  Astrogonhim,  &c. 

The  opportunity  was  of  course  embraced  to  study  the  habits  and 
structures  of  the  animals  collected  during  the  season  and  kept  in  aqua- 
ria ;  and  the  artist  of  the  expedition,  Mr.  J.  H.  Emerton,  made  over  300 
drawings  of  these  from  life  mostly  of  species  never  before  figured,  ex- 
cepting, possibly,  a  few  from  shriveled  alcoholic  specimens. 

In  addition  to  the  biological  researches,  attention  was  paid  to  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  physics  of  the  deep  seas,  this  branch  of  the 
work  being  more  particularly  under  the  direction  of  Captain  Beards- 
lee,  the  commander  of  the  steamer.  These  consisted  of  a  determina- 
tion of  the  temperature  of  the  surface-,  median-,  and  bottom-water,  at 
numerous  localities,  and  a  daily  record  at  the  anchorage  of  the  steamer 
off  Peak's  Island.  Specimens  of  the  water  were  also  brought  up  from 
various  depths  and  secured  in  well-sealed  bottles  for  examination  as  to 
specific  gravity,  chemical  composition,  and  gaseous  constituents. 

As  on  previous  occasions,  the  occasion  was  made  use  of  by  some  of 
the  associates  of  the  Commission  and  its  visitors,  to  secure  specimens  for 
various  public  museums,  principally  those  of  colleges,  among  others  an 
extensive  collection  was  gathered  by  Dr.  Holder  for  the  American  Muse- 
um of  Natural  History,  Central  Park,  New  York.  After  the  collections 
have  been  thoroughly  worked  up  a  distribution  of  duplicates  will  be 
made  from  the  stock  reserved  by  the  Commission. 

Among  the  numerous  visitors  to  the  headquarters  of  the  commission 
during  its  sojourn  at  Peak's  Island,  some  of  them  members  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  attending  its 
meeting  at  Portland,  were  Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson,  of  Montreal;  Messrs. 
Stilwell  and  Stanley,  fish-commissioners  of  Maine  ;  Mr.  C.  G.  Atkins,  of 
Bucksport ;  J.  W.  Milner,  of  Waukegau,  111. ;  Professor  Atwater,  of  Mid- 
dletown,  Conn. ;  Prof.  Joseph  Henry ;  Captain  Walker,  United  States 
Navy  ;  Mr.  E.  B.  Elliot ;  Dr.  T.  M.  Brewer,  of  Boston  ;  J.  W.  Harper, 
of  New  York,  and  many  others.  Mr.  W.  C.  Wyckoff,  of  the  New  York 
Tribune,  spent  much  time  on  the  island  in  making  himself  familiar  with 
the  operations  of  the  Commission,  embodying  the  results  of  his  inqui- 
ries in  a  series  of  illustrated  letters  published  by  the  Tribune  in  connec- 
tion with  the  report  of  the  proceedings  of  the  American  Association  as 
one  of  its  "  lecture  extras." 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  also  visited  the  station,  and  spent  several 
days  in  examining  the  operations  of  the  Commission. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  success  of  the  operations  of  the  season  of 
1873  was  very  greatly  facilitated  by  the  service  of  the  Blue  Light  and  her 
force.  Special  assistance  was  found  in  the  steam-windlass  for  hoisting 
the  dredges  and  trawls;  besides  saving  labor,  this  permitted  more  fre- 
quent hauls  in  each  day's  excursion. 

All  the  known  forms  of  apparatus  for  deep-sea  research  were  tried  by 
the  commission,  including  a  full  series  of  that  used  on  the  Porcupine 


XII         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

men,  many  of  them  specialists  in  marine  zoology,  and  others  haviug  a 
general  interest  in  the  objects  of  the  Commission.  Daring  the  season 
the  Blue  Light  was  continuously  occupied  on  her  trips,  losing  but  little 
time  for  repairs  or  other  purposes.  The  principal  points  visited  by  her, 
in  addition  to  the  waters  adjacent  to  Noank,  were  Block  Island,  Gardi- 
ner's and  Peconic  Bay,  Montauk  Point,  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut, 
&c,  a  range  of  from  thirty  to  forty  miles  from  the  starting-point. 

Noank  possesses  special  advantages  for  fishery  inquiries,  the  inhab- 
itants being  engaged  almost  entirely  in  fishing,  and  a  large  number  of 
smacks  being  owned  at  that  place,  some  of  which  are  employed  in  fishing 
off  the  Florida  coast  during  the  winter ;  but  which  in  summer  are  all  oc- 
cupied in  the  vicinity,  or  in  trips  to  the  outer  banks.  Every  day  numer- 
ous cargoes  of  fish  which  were  brought  in  for  shipment  to  New  York  and 
elsewhere,  furnished  the  means  of  studying  the  species  in  their  varying 
condition  of  age  and  season.  A  full  series  was  obtained  for  the  collections 
of  the  Commission,  either  for  photographing  or  modeling  in  plaster. 

Experiments  were  made  toward  the  end  of  July,  by  Mr.  Fred  Mather, 
in  regard  to  the  possibility  of  the  artificial  propagation  of  sea-bass 
{Centroprisies  atrarius),  and  a  considerable  number  of  eggs  were  success- 
fully impregnated  and  placed  in  hatching-boxes.  Unfortunately,  how- 
ever, it  was  found  impossible  without  more  extensive  precautions  than 
we  were  prepared  to  adopt  to  properly  protect  the  boxes  against  the 
weather,  and  a  severe  storm  at  the  end  of  July  emptied  the  boxes 
and  ended  the  experiment.  The  experiment,  however,  will  be  again 
tried,  as  it  is  believed  that  the  process  of  artificial  propagation  is  as 
available  for  the  reproduction  of  many  of  the  sea-fishes  as  for  those  of 
fresh  water.  Among  these  may  be  especially  mentioned  the  sea-bass, 
the  tautog,  the  striped  bass,  the  scup,  &c. 

On  the  22d  of  July,  I  visited  the  Holyoke  shad-hatchiug  station  of 
the  Commission,  in  charge  of  Mr.  Milner,  and  found  great  activity  pre- 
vailing, and  a  very  successful  effort  in  connection  with  the  distribution 
of  the  fish. 

On  the  15th  of  August,  Mr.  Milner  reached  JSToank,  accompanied  by 
Mr.  Griswold,  one  of  his  assistants,  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  effect 
of  the  introduction  of  young  shad  into  salt  water,  the  details  of  which 
experiment  will  be  found  under  the  subject  of  "  shad,"  and  also  in  Mr. 
Milner's  special  report  on  the  subject.  It  may,  however,  be  here  stated 
in  general  terms,  that  in  adding  salt  water  to  the  fresh  in  which  the 
fish  were  kept,  it  was  found  that  up  to  a  certain  percentage  the  fish 
were  about  as  vigorous  as  in  entirely  fresh  water,  although  a  sudden 
transfer  from  fresh  to  salt  water  resulted  in  their  speedy  death. 

With  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  length  of  time  during  which  shad 
could  be  carried  safely  from  one  point  to  another,  it  was  determined  to 
try  the  experiment  of  forwarding  a  number  of  young  fish  to  Europe, 
this  answering  the  purpose  of  a  test  of  the  possibilities  in  the  case.  If 
the  experiment  met  with  success,  the  favor  of  the  German  government 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.        XIII 

in  presenting  to  the  United  States  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  the  salmon 
of  the  Rhine  could  be  reciprocated.  Messrs.  Fred  Mather  and  A.  A. 
Anderson  were  detailed  for  the  purpose,  and  visited  Noank  on  the  begin- 
ning of  August  to  receive  instructions,  the  steamer  leaving  New  York  on 
the  5th  of  August,  Unfortunately  the  experiment  was  a  failure,  the  fish 
dying  a  few  days  after  the  vessel  left,  These  gentlemen  returned  to 
Noank  on  the  11th  of  September  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  their 
report.  Full  reference  to  this  subject  will  be  found  under  the  head  of 
the  subject  of  "  Propagation  of  shad  for  1874,"  and  in  an  appendix,  and 
further  allusion  to  it  here  is  necessary  only  to  renew  the  reference  to  the 
great  liberality  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  in  granting  free  passage 
to  the  two  gentlemen  mentioned  above,  with  their  freight,  to  Bremen 
and  return. 

The  steamer  Blue  Light  went  out  of  commission  on  the  9th  of  Sep- 
tember, and  was  laid  up,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  at  New  London ;  after  which  the  work  of  the  Commission  was 
prosecuted  almost  entirely  by  means  of  sail  and  row  boats. 

Many  interesting  discoveries  were  made  in  the  way  of  additions  of 
previously  unrecorded  species  on  the  coast,  and  in  extending  the  area  of 
the  distribution  of  others.  A  general  sketch  of  the  results,  so  far  as 
tbe  invertebrates  are  concerned,  will  be  found  in  an  article  by  Professor 
Yerrill. 

The  labors  of  the  Commission  at  Noank  extended  over  the  months  ot 
July,  August,  and  September.  Professor  Verrill  and  his  party  left  early 
in  September,  but  the  other  divisions  were  occupied  until  the  beginning 
of  October.  Eemaining  a  few  days  to  settle  up  the  business  of  the 
Commission,  I  left  for  Washington  on  the  8th  of  October. 

The  working  party  of  the  Commission,  for  the  most  part,  consisted  of 
the  following  gentlemen  :  Prof.  A.  E.  Verrill,  of  Yale  College,  in  charge 
of  the  dredging  operations,  and  of  the  department  of  marine  zoology, 
with  the  exception  of  the  fishes,  having  as  special  assistants  Prof.  S. 
J.  Smith,  Mr.  S.  F.  Clark,  Mr.  Turnbull,  of  Yale  College,  and  Prof.  N. 
S.  Eice,  of  Wesleyan  University,  Middletown. 

The  department  of  the  fishes  was  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  G. 
Brown  Goode,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  assisted  by  Mr.  C.  W. 
Schuermann  and  T.  H.  Bean  of  Washington,  and  Mr.  H.  C.  Chester. 

The  algologists  were  Prof.  D.  C.  Eaton,  of  Yale  College,  and  Dr.  W. 
G.  Farlow,of  Cambridge,  assisted  by  Messrs.  Livingston  and  Klaburger. 
Prof.  A.  Hyatt,  of  the  Society  of  Natural  History,  Boston,  with  Mr. 
Eichard  Eathburn,  and  Mr.  Saltonstall,  of  Boston,  were  also  members 
of  the  party. 

Among  the  visitors  who  devote  more  or  less  of  their  time  to  natural 
history  investigations,  and  who  availed  themselves  of  the  material  pro- 
vided by  the  Commission,  or  who  desired  to  become  acquainted  with  its 
methods,  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  Joseph  Leidy,  Prof.  Henry  Chapman, 
and  Dr.  Horatio  Allen,  of  Philadelphia;  Prof.  D.  C.  Jordan,  of  India- 


XIV        EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

napolis  ;  Prof.  F.  W.  Putnam,  of  Salem  ;  General  A.  B.  Eaton,  Dr.  Theo- 
dore Gill,  and  Dr.  E.  Bessels,  of  Washington ;  Mr.  W.  C.  Wyckoff,  and 
Dr.  J.  B.  Holder,  of  New  York ;  Mr.  O.  S.  Westcott,  of  Chicago ;  Prof. 
J.  Hammond  Trumbull,  and  Dr.  W.  O.  Ayres,  of  Hartford;  Mr.  W.  T. 
Parker,  and  M.  W.  Humphrey,  of  West  Meriden,  Conn. 

The  State  fish  commissioners,  or  persons  specially  interested  in  fish-cul- 
ture, visiting  the  station  during  the  summer,  were  Messrs.  Alfred  Eead, 
jr.,  Newton  Dexter,  and  J.  Barden,  of  Rhode  Island ;  Dr.  M.  C.  Ed- 
munds, of  Vermont ;  Dr.  W.  W.  Fletcher,  of  New  Hampshire ;  G.  C. 
Anderson,  of  New  Jersey  ;  Mr.  J.  W.  Milner,  Fred  Mather,  A.  A.  An- 
derson, and  C.  D.  Griswold,  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 

The  results  of  Professor  Verrill's  labors,  and  those  of  his  associates 
in  the  department  of  marine  natural  history  and  plants,  will  be  fur- 
nished in  a  special  report;  although  it  may  be  proper  here  to  state  that 
over  one  hundred  species  of  invertebrates,  new  to  the  fauna  of  New 
England,  were  secured,  most  of  them  northern  species,  and  many  unde- 
scribed. 

The  principal  localities  over  which  dredgings  were  made  were  Fish- 
er's Island  Sound ;  Block  Island  Sound ;  off  Block  Island  and  south  of 
Montauk  Point;  the  eastern  part  of  Long  Island  Sound;  from  Fisher's 
Island  and  Gardiner's  Island  to  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  River; 
the  shallow  waters  in  the  harbors  and  estuaries  near  Noank  ;  Gardiner's 
Bay,  Long  Island  ;  Great  Peconic  and  Little  Peconic  Bays  and  Green- 
port  Harbor,  Long  Island.  These  latter  localities  showed  temperatures 
much  higher  than  the  others,  and  furnished  correspondingly  southern 
types  of  animal  life. 

It  was  clearly  shown  by  the  investigations  of  the  Commission  that 
there  is  a  very  decided  flow  of  cold  currents  through  Fisher's  Island 
Sound  and  Block  Island  Sound  into  Long  Island  Sound,  and  along  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  latter  for  a  great  distance,  especially  toward  the 
southern  and  deeper  side.  The  influence  of  this  cold  current  is  very 
apparent  as  far  west  as  New  Haven  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  sound. 
According  to  Professor  Verrill  its  flowing  into  Long  Island  Sound  is 
due  largely  to  the  influence  of  the  tidal  currents  modified  by  the  local 
wind-currents.  On  the  other  hand,  the  much  higher  temperature  of 
such  inclosed  localities  as  the  Peconic  Bays  may  be  safely  attributed  to 
the  direct  heat  of  the  sun  over  a  broad  expanse  of  shallow  water,  from 
which  the  cold  currents  are  excluded. 

As  in  previous  years  assistance  was  rendered  by  the  Coast  Survey  in 
carrying  on  operations  at  distances  remote  from  the  coast,  and  which 
the  Blue  Light  was  not  suited  to  reach.  A  part  of  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember was  occupied  by  the  steamer  Bache,  under  command  of  Captain 
Piatt,  in  dredging  operations  off  the  coast  of  Maine.  The  scientific 
work  was  in  charge  of  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard,  assisted  by  Mr.  C.  Cook  and 
Mr.  Robert  Rathburu.  Dredgings  at  about  forty  stations  were  made  off 
the  coasts  of  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  at  various  depths,  down  to 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.  XV 

125  fathoms.  The  results  of  this  investigation  will  also  be  found  in 
Professor  Verrill's  report. 

The  attention  of  Professor  Verrill  and  his  party,  especially  of  Prof. 
TV.  N.  Rice,  was  directed  to  investigations  as  to  the  best  method  of 
preserving  the  invertebrates  for  museum  purposes,  and  to  improved 
methods  for  killing  in  an  expanded  state  such  species  as  usually  con- 
tract when  placed  in  alcohol.  In  regard  to  the  preservation  of  Actinia 
very  satisfactory  results  were  obtained  by  slowly  adding  a  saturated 
solution  of  picric  acid  to  a  small  quantity  of  sea-water  in  which  they 
had  been  allowed  to  expand.  When  fairly  dead  they  were  transferred 
to  a  pure  saturated  solution  of  the  acid  and  allowed  to  remain  from  one 
to  three  hours,  according  to  size.  They  were  then  placed  in  alcohol  of 
about  GO  to  70  per  cent,  for  permanent  preservation.  The  alcohol  should 
be  renewed  after  a  day  or  two,  and  this  repeated  until  the  water  is  all 
absorbed  from  the  specimen. 

It  was  found  that  hydroids  and  most  kinds  of  jelly-fishes  can  be  easily 
and  beautifully  preserved  in  the  same  way,  but  of  these  the  specimens 
may  usually  be  placed  alive  directly  in  the  acid  of  full  strength.  The 
success  with  osmic  acid  was  not  so  marked,  the  specimens  contracting 
more,  and  finally  becoming  so  darkly  stained  as  to  render  them  useless. 
Various  trials  were  made  with  different  kinds  of  drugs  for  the  purpose 
of  killing  marine  animals  in  an  expanded  state,  but  no  better  method 
was  discovered  than  that  of  allowing  them  to  suffocate  in  stale  sea-water 

B— THE  PROPAGATION  OF  FOOD-FISHES. 
3. — EXTENT  OF  THE  WORK. 

The  work  of  propagation  and  distribution  of  food-fishes  has  been  en- 
larged year  by  year.  Applications  have  been  received  from  all  of  the 
States  and  from  four  Territories.  This  has  necessitated  a  continual  ex- 
pansion of  the  plans  for  each  season's  work. 

The  work  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  in  multiplying  use- 
ful food-fishes  was  commenced  in  1872,  and  has  been  prosecuted  with 
satisfactory  results  up  to  the  present  time. 

The  species  to  which  special  attention  has  been  directed  are  the  shad 
(Alosa  sapidissima,)  fresh-water  herring  or  alewive,  (Pomolobus  pseudo- 
harengus,)  striped  bass  or  rock-fish  (Boccus  lineatus,)  California  salmon 
(Salmo  quinnat,)  the  salmon  of  Maine  (Salmo  salar,)  land-locked  salmon 
(Salmo  sebago,)  white-fish  (Coregonus  albus,)  and  the  carp  (Cyprinus  carpio 
and  var.,)  each  of  these  having  special  relations  to  certain  portions  of 
the  country,  and  promising  in  their  anticipated  aggregate  an  extremely 
.important  addition  to  the  food-resources  of  the  United  States. 

The  States  which  have  so  far  been  the  direct  recipients  of  spawn  and 
young  fish  of  more  or  less  of  these  species  are  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New 
Jersey.  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia, 


XVI       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES 

Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Lou- 
isiana, Mississippi,  Missouri,  Texas,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Utah, Nebraska,  Colo- 
rado, and  California ;  while  other  States,  as  Alabama  and  Arkansas, 
which  have  not  been  the  actual  scene  of  the  operations  of  the  Coinniis- 
sion,  have  been  indirectly  benefited  by  the  introduction  of  fish  into  their 
waters  at  points  outside  of  the  State  limits,  thrty-three  States  and  two 
Territories  in  all.  The  extension  of  the  work  to  other  States  and  its 
amplification  in  all  is  only  a  question  of  time. 

The  operations  of  the  Commission  have,  it  is  believed,  given  entire 
satisfaction  to  the  people  at  large,  as  shown  by  the  general  popularity 
of  the  measures  adopted,  the  great  interest  excited  in  the  subject 
throughout  the  country,  and  the  appointmeut  of  State  fish  commissions 
in  nineteen  States,  in  most  instances  for  the  purpose  of  directly  co-oper- 
ating with  the  United  States  Commission  in  its  efforts  to  secure  from 
the  waters  their  fullest  yield  of  animal  food.  This  has  rightly  been  con- 
sidered an  object  of  the  greatest  importance  in  view  of  the  rapidly-in- 
creasing population  of  the  United  States  and  the  almost  corresponding 
diminution  in  the  average  yield  of  vegetable  food  by  the  farming-lands, 
and  it  is  not  considered  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  water  can  be  made 
to  yield  a  larger  percentage  of  nutriment,  acre  for  acre,  than  the  land. 
A  further  evidence  of  the  importance  of  this  effort  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  China,  with  its  enormous  population,  greater  to  the  square 
mile  than  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  world,  derives  the  largest  por- 
tion of  its  animal  food  from  the  interior  waters  of  the  empire,  the  meth- 
ods of  fish-cultivation  there  being  conducted  in  a  very  efficient  manner, 
and  every  cubic  yard  of  pond  and  stream  thoroughly  utilized. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  work  prosecuted  by  the  United 
States  Commission  is  in  no  case  that  which  would  be  carried  on  by 
State  commissions  or  by  private  enterprise.  The  States  of  Iowa,  Min- 
nesota, Ohio,  or  Pennsylvania  would  not  find  their  advantage  in  going 
to  any  great  expense  in  the  way  of  stocking  their  streams  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  the  fish,  when  mature,  would,  on  their  return,  enter  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  traverse  all  the  intermediate  States  before 
arriving  within  their  borders,  with  the  certainty  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  catch  would  be  secured  by  citizens  of  other  States.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  young  and  immature  fish,  requiring  the  cold  upper  sources 
of  the  streams  as  their  home,  will  not  find  in  the  great  waters  of  the 
more  Southern  States  the  proper  conditions  for  their  preservation  and 
growth.  Furthermore,  the  primary  outlay  for  securing  the  eggs  of  such 
species  as  the  California  salmon,  &c,  is  greater  than  single  States  can 
meet,  while  the  cost  of  obtaining  a  supply  for  the  entire  country  at  a 
siugle  establishment  is  much  less  proportionately  than  the  aggregate 
cost  of  separate  effort. 

The  plan  as  regards  the  propagation  of  shad  is  to  establish  hatch- 
ing-camps in  March  on    the  southernmost   streams  on  the  Atlantic 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.      XVII 

slope,  there  to  hatch  all  the  eggs  that  can  be  procured,  and,  placing  a 
portion  of  the  young  fish  in  the  stream  where  they  are  procured,  to 
transmit  the  remainder  to  other  waters  now  entirely  unprovided.  This 
operation  would  be  continued  by  removing  the  camps  northward  as  the 
season  advanced  until  the  Connecticut  Kiver  is  reached,  toward  the  end 
of  June,  and  from  which  the  States  along  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Upper 
Mississippi,  and  the  Pacific  coast  would  be  supplied. 

The  California  salmon  is  a  species  which  can  withstand  the  warmest 
regions  of  the  United  States,  and  is  extremely  hardy  and  prolific,  and 
its  multiplication  is  considered  extremely  important.  Some  idea  of  the 
scale  on  which  the  work  of  the  commission  connected  with  this  species 
has  been  conducted  can  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  eggs  collected 
during  the  season  of  1875  at  the  United  States  establishment  on  the 
Upper  Sacramento  numbered  about  11,000,000,  with  a  bulk  of  80  bush- 
els, and  weighing,  with  the  packing  in  which  they  were  transported  to 
eastern  establishments,  nearly  10  tons. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  results  that  may  be  looked  for  from  a 
judicious  and  systematic  prosecution  of  the  work  of  propagating  the 
food-fishes,  we  may  refer  to  the  Potomac  Biver,  in  which  from  six  to  ten 
million  pounds  of  shad  and  herring  are  taken  during  the  spring  months 
alone.  There  is  no  reason  why  any  stream  in  the  United  States  having, 
direct  communication  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  either  ocean,  may 
not  be  made  to  abound  in  an  equal  degree  with  these  and  other  fishes,, 
and  in  view  of  the  aggregate  of  the  animal  food  to  be  derived  from  a, 
number  of  such  streams,  the  importance  of  this  work  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.* 

Another  fish  to  which  it  is  proposed  to  devote  the  efforts  of  the  Com- 
mission is  the  European  carp,  a  species  eminently  calculated  for  the 
warmer  waters  of  the  country,  especially  the  mill-ponds  and  sluggish, 
rivers  and  ditches  of  the  South.  This  fish  has  been  domesticated,  for 
thousands  of  years,  and  is  one  of  the  species  which  furnish  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  Chinese.  Living  on  vegetable  matter  instead  of  animal,, 
it  can  be  multiplied  at  very  little  expense  in 'restricted)  waters. 

It  is  not  alone  to  the  introduction  of  suitable  fishes  into  water  pre- 
viously uninhabited  by  them  that  the  efforts  of  the  Commission  are 
directed,  but  also  toward  restoring  a  full  supply  to  streams  where  they 
were  formerly  abundant.     At  one  time  all  the  rivers  on  the  Atlantic 

*  Large,  however,  as  is  the  present  yield  of  "  herring"  and  shad  in  the  Potomac  River 
it  is  hut  a  mere  fraction  of  that  which  prevailed  less  than  fifty  years  ago.  Martin's- 
Gazetteer  of  Virginia  and  the  District  of  Columhia,  published  in  1835,  states  that  the 
number  of  fisheries  on  the  Potomac  in  the  previous  year  was  150,  and  that  in  six 
weeks'  time  22,500,000  shad  and  750,000,000  herring  were  taken  in  this  river.  Allow- 
ing an  average  of  three  pounds  for  each  of  the  shad  and  three-fourths  of  a  pound 
to  the  herring,  we  have  the  enormous  aggregate  of  630,000,000  pounds  of  food  taken 
in  a  single  river  in  six  weeks'  time  alone,  not  including  the  immense  quantity  of  striped 
bass  or  rock-fish,  sturgeon,  and  other  fish  that  doubtless  belonged  to  the  catch.  These 
statistics,  large  as  they  appear,  are  corroborated  by  the  older  fishermen  of  the  Poto- 
mac—S.  F.  B. 
F — II 


XVIII    REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

coast  abounded  in  shad  and  furnished  an  enormous  aggregate  of  food, 
sufficient  for  several  months'  supply  to  the  inhabitants,  and  allowing  a 
surplus  for  shipment,  either  fresh  or  salted.  Now,  however,  this  condi- 
tion has  become  a  matter  of  tradition  in  regard  to  nearly  every  stream 
south  of  the  Potomac,  and  nothing  but  artificial  propagation  will  restore 
the  stock.  When,  however,  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  eggs  of  a  single 
pair  of  shad,  artificially  treated,  can  be  made  to  produce  more  young 
fish  than  those  of  two  hundred  pairs  of  natural  spawners,  the  impor- 
tance of  the  measures  adopted  by  the  Commission  will  be  readily  appre- 
ciated. 

4. — THE   SHAD. 

The  hatching  and  distribution  of  shad  began  rather  late  in  1874,  as 
the  appropriation  for  the  purpose  was  not  available  early  enough  for 
work  in  southern  rivers.  In  the  last  week  of  June  Mr.  Milner  proceeded 
with  a  force  of  men  to  the  hatching-station  of  the  New  York  commis- 
sioners, at  Coeymans  Landing  on  the  Hudson  Eiver,  from  which  point 
the  distribution  to  western  waters  was  at  once  begun.  Four  hundred 
thousand  shad  were  placed  in  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  in  the 
Brazos  and  Colorado  Bivers  of  Texas,  and  the  tributaries  of  the  great 
lakes.  On  the  3d  of  July  the  traveling  parties  moved  to  South  Hadley 
Falls,  Mass.,  on  the  Connecticut  Eiver.  From  this  station  over  two 
millions  of  shad  were  transferred  to  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  of 
the  great  lakes,  Lake  Champlain,  and  rivers  of  New  England.  Five 
hundred  and  sixty-five  thousand  fry  were  carried  above  the  clam  and 
placed  in  the  Connecticut  Eiver,  for  the  most  part  above  Bellows  Falls, 
Vermont.  In  all,  three  million  and  thirty-one  thousand  young  shad 
were  planted  in  waters  of  the  United  States  between  June  25  and  Au- 
gust 15  of  1874. 

Those  in  charge  of  the  transfers  were  very  successful  in  transporting 
these  fishes  and  in  placing  them,  in  a  healthy  condition,  in  the  waters 
for  which  they  were  destined. 

The  generous  action  of  Germany  in  the  gift  to  the  United  States,  in 
1873,  of  250,000  salmon-eggs  prompted  an  attempt  to  transport  some 
young  shad  to  Germany,  and  the  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship 
Company  kindly  offering  free  passage  for  both  men  and  fish  to  Bremen 
and  back,  the  experiment  was  entered  upon  early  in  August.  On  the 
5th  of  August  Mr.  Fred  Mather  and  Mr.  A.  A.  Anderson  left  by  the 
steamer  Donau,  captain  Neiuaber,  with  100,000  shad-embryos,  a  large 
and  convenient  compartment  was  assigned  for  them,  and  the  cans  were 
so  arranged  that  the  movement  of  the  ship  need  not  affect  the  shad,  while 
an  abundance  of  Croton  water  was  taken  on  board  for  their  use.  Un- 
fortunately, after  six  days  the  fish  showed  signs  of  distress  and  in  ten 
days  they  were  all  dead. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  trip  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Mather's  report. 
Excepting  in  this  instance  every  shipment  was  a  complete  success. 

Shad-hatching  in  1875  was    commenced  April  1.    The  first  efforts 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.         XIX 

were  on  the  Neuse  Eiver,  Forth  Carolina.  A  camp  was  established  by 
Mr.  Milner  at  Kinstou,  in  the  vicinity  of  three  fisheries,  which  was  con- 
tinued until  May  10.  The  river  was  exceedingly  high  during  the  whole 
time.  Continued  fishing  was  not  begun  until  April  14,  when  the  water 
had  lowered  sufficiently  for  seiue-hauling.  The  catch  was  very  light, 
and  no  spawners  were  found. 

On  the  12th  of  May  a  camp  was  made  near  Fish-Haul, on  the  Pamunky 
Eiver,  Virginia,  and  some  fifty  thousand  eggs  impregnated,  but  the  ova 
not  thriving  well  the  station  was  continued  only  ten  days,  with  results 
of  no  consequence. 

On  the  27th  of  April  a  reconnaissance  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Potomac 
was  made  in  the  steam-tug  Triana,  United  States  Navy,  Captain  Cook, 
kindly  placed  at  my  disposal  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  Mr.  Milner 
directed  the  trip,  the  commissioners  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  being 
members  of  the  party.  The  results  secured  by  this  reconnaissance  were 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  fisheries,  the  selection  of  favorable  hatch- 
ing-stations, and  thesecuring  of  a  collection  of  the  fishesof  the  river,while 
the  good  will  of  the  fishery  proprietors  was  sought  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  the  obtaining  of  eggs  at  the  fisheries.  A  full  report  of  the 
expedition  will  be  found  in  the  appendix. 

Stations  were  established  on  the  Potomac  at  Free-Stone  Point,  Va.,  at 
the  Virginia  end  of  Long  Bridge,  and,  later,  at  Moxley  Point,  Md.,  and  at 
Ferry  Landing,  Va.  The  work  lasted  from  May  15  to  June  5,  and  about 
4,885,000  shad  were  released  in  the  Potomac  Eiver.  The  season  at  the 
fisheries  was  a  poor  one.  The  protracted  cold  weather  of  the  spring 
retarded  the  ripening  of  the  ova,  and  the  eggs  did  not  thrive  well  in  the 
cold  wraters  after  they  were  taken  from  the  fish.  In  an  ordinary  season 
a  much  larger  number  of  young  shad  would  have  been  placed  in  the 
water  as  the  result  of  such  effort.  Still  this  is  to  be  considered  as 
very  fair  success  if  compared  with  the  hatching  of  1873,  which  yielded 
only  1,370,400  shad  for  the  Potomac,  and  70,000  shipped  to  waters  of 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia. 

The  season  having  closed  in  the  region  just  referred  to,  traveling  par- 
ties proceeded  to  the  Hudson  Eiver,  arriving  on  the  11th  of  June,  when 
the  work  of  'distribution  began.  Shipments  were  made  from  here. to 
four  important  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  and  to  the  Colorado  Eiver 
of  Texas,  of  about  425,000  young  shad. 

On  the  1st  of  July  operations  commenced  at  South  Hadley  Falls, 
Mass.  The  first  shipment  was  started  on  the  7th  of  July,  between 
which  date  and  the  31st,  transfers  were  made  to  waters  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  Lake  Champlain,  to  the  Atlantic  Slope  rivers,  and  the  rivers  of 
the  Gulf  States.  As  a  general  summary  of  the  work  at  this  station,  it 
may  be  stated  that  the  waters  of  New  England  other  than  the  Connecti- 
cut Eiver  received  320,000  shad ;  there  were  carried  westward  and 
southward,  590,000 ;  carried  above  the  Holyoke  Dam  to  the  Upper  Con- 
necticut, 1,205,000;  hatched  and  put  in  below  the  dam,  4,500,000;  sent 
to  Germany,  400,000.     Total,  about  7,000,000. 


XX         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

From  Point  Pleasant,  Pa.,  shipments  were  made  of  about  200,000  shad, 
on  July  8,  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Eoauoke,  in  Virginia,  and  to  the 
Pearl  Eiver,  of  Mississippi  and  Louisiana. 

The  entire  number  of  shad  hatched  out  during  the  season  was  over 
12,500,000.  The  accompanying  tables  give  the  facts  pertaining  to  their 
distribution.  Preference  was  given  this  year  to  the  Mississippi  waters 
and  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  slopes.  The  only  shipments  to 
the  tributaries  of  the  lakes  were  to  those  of  Lake  Champlain. 

In  reviewing  the  labors  of  the  season,  it  may  be  remarked  that  no  suc- 
cess was  had  in  southern  waters,  the  stock  of  fishes  being  greatly  re- 
duced and  the  hauls  small,  and  consequently  ripe  male  and  female  fish 
are  rarely  obtained  at  the  same  time.  The  Potomac,  although  the 
season's  catch  was  very  much  diminished,  afforded  a  larger  quantity  of 
eggs,  but  it  would  appear  to  be  at  a  disadvantage  when  compared  with 
the  Hudson  or  the  Connecticut  for  obtaining  spawn. 

The  head  of  the  present  migration  of  the  shad  in  the  Connecticut  is 
the  Holyoke  Dam.  For  a  half  mile  below  the  dam,  the  water  is  shoal 
and  runs  among  projecting  rocks.  Just  below  the  Holyoke  Bridge  is  a 
deep  and  wide  area  of  the  river,  into  which  the  shad  congregate  to 
spawn.  This  is  the  seiuiug-ground,  and  offers  probably  the  best  facili- 
ties for  obtaining  shad -ova  of  any  locality  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  Hudson  the  upper  spawning-grouud  is  near  Coeymaus  Landing, 
where  a  long  projecting  point  shelters  a  large  bayou  or  arm  of  the  river. 
About  twenty  miles  above  this  is  the  Troy  dam,  which,  until  the  fish- 
way  was  erected,  was  an  effectual  obstruction  to  the  fishes,  but  for 
some  reason  few  shad  go  above  Coeymaus.  So  well  recognized  is  this 
habit,  that  the  occasional  shad  found  above  the  Coeyman's  spawning- 
ground  are  termed  gipsies.  This  station  of  the  New  York  commission 
is  established  at  the  spawning-grounds,  where  plenty  of  ripe  fish  are  to 
be  obtained  during  the  season. 

The  Potomac  has  no  extensive  seiuing-ground  above  the  end  of  Long 
Bridge.  Small  seines,  pound-nets,  and  skim-nets  are  used  to  the  very 
foot  of  the  falls,  but  no  hauls  are  made  sufficiently  large  to  warrant  a 
hatching  station  with  the  probability  of  takiug  ripe  males  and  females 
at.each  haul  above  the  Jackson  City  fishery.  In  fact,  the  spawning- 
ground  does  not  concentrate  at  any  one  point,  but  is  found  along  the 
river  at  nearly  all  the  shad  seining  grounds.  This  compels  a  multipli- 
cation of  stations,  and  the  past  season  eggs  were  obtained  from  Free 
Stone  Point,  Ferry  Landing,  and  the  end  of  Long  Bridge,  Virginia,  aud 
from  Moxley  Point,  Maryland,  and  in  fact  it  would  be  worth  while  to 
test  any  fishery  where  there  was  sufficient  shelter  for  the  hatching-boxes 
from  the  effect  of  wind  and  sea.  The  Ferry  Landing  fishery  afforded 
the  largest  number  of  eggs  in,  1875,  although  the  time  occupied  was 
shorter  than  at  some  of  the  other  localities. 

Hoping  to  favorably  solve  the  problem  as  to  the  possibility  of  carrying 
young  shad  alive  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  which  a  failure  was  experi- 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.        XXI 

enced  in  1874,  a  shipment  was  determined  upon  during  1875,  and  the 
preliminary  experiments  were  first  begun  at  Washington  under  the  care 
of  Mr.  Fred  Mather,  who  made  the  attempt  the  previous  year.  Among 
the  apparatus  devised  by  this  gentleman  was  a  cylinder  of  tin  hung 
upon  gimbals,  as  would  be  necessary  at  sea.  Within  the  cylinder  was 
a  screen  a  few  inches  from  the  bottom*  A  current  of  water  flowed 
through  a  rubber  hose  into  an  inlet  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  and, 
rising  through  the  screen,  overflowed  at  the  top.  No  success,  however, 
was  obtained  with  this  contrivance,  and  Mr.  Mather  proceeded  to  Point 
Pleasant,  Pa.,  to  renew  his  experiments  at  the  shad-hatching  station 
near  that  point. 

A  new  device,  however,  was  finally  hit  upon,  the  suggestion  of  Mr. 
Charles  Bell,  Mr.  Mather's  assistaut.  Instead  of  a  cylinder,  a  funnel- 
shaped  vessel  was  made,  the  bottom  above  the  inlet  being  guarded  by 
a  wire  screen  only  2  inches  in  diameter.  The  eggs  were  put  into  the  fun- 
nel, and  the  flow  of  the  water  up  through  the  small  end  lifted  them  toward 
the  surface  repeatedly  as  they  fell  back  toward  the  bottom.  Mr.  Mather 
reported  his  experiments  with  this  arrangement  as  entirely  satisfactory, 
and  recommended  it  for  the  Atlantic  trip,  as  will  be  seen  from  his  report 
in  the  appendix. 

At  Coeymans  Landing  experiments  for  a  similar  purpose  were  begun 
about  June  15,  by  Mr.  WTelsher,  who,  before  they  were  completed,  associ- 
ated with  him  Mr.  Monroe  A.  Green.  In  these  the  eggs  were  taken  soon 
after  impregnation  and  put  into  a  series  of  flannel  screens,  which  were 
adjusted  in  a  case  in  the  same  manner  as  a  case  of  drawers.  In  the 
upper  screen  was  a  quantity  of  ice,  the  water  from  which  dripped  upon 
the  screens  below.  By  this  process  the  eggs  were  successfully  retarded 
about  seven  days,  and  then  hatched  out  as  vigorous  fishes.  Mr.  Welsher 
haviug  auuouuced  the  success  of  his  experiment  in  advance  of  Mr. 
Mather's  completing  his,  he  was  called  upon^  to  take  charge  of  the  trip 
across  the  ocean. 

About  four  hundred  thousand  eggs  were  taken  and  impregnated  by  Mr. 
Monroe  A.Green, on  the  night  of  the  10th  of  July.  These  were  all  se- 
lected eggs,  the  lighter  ones  from  each  fish  having  been  flowed  out  of  the 
impregnating  pans  and  only  the  heavier  superior  ones  retained.  The 
screens  were  filled,  and  the  cases  with  a  large  quantity  of  broken  ice 
placed  in  contact  with  them,  packed  in  turners'  shavings.  The  ship- 
ment started  from  New  York  on  the  steamer  Mosel,  Captain  Neinaber, 
the  17th  of  July.  The  purpose  was  to  carry  the  eggs  in  the  cases  for 
six  or  .seven  days,  and  then  remove  them  to  tin  vessels  devised  by  Mr. 
Green,  when  they  were  expected  to  hatch  and  the  embryos  to  remain 
until  deposited  in  the  Weser.  This  hatching-apparatus  was  a  tin  fun- 
nel, quite  similar  in  form  to  Messrs.  Bell  and  Mather's ;  but,  instead  of 
the  flow  of  water  and  movement  of  the  eggs  by  a  stream  of  water,  air 
was  forced  in  from  below  ;  the  bubbles,  forcing  the  water  upward  in  a 
current  diverging  along  the  outward  sloping  sides  of  the  funnel,  raised 


XXII      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

the  eggs  with  a  cloud  of  miuute  bubbles  of  air.  Nine  of  these  funnels 
were  provided  with  rubber  hose  leading  to  an  air-reservoir  filled  by  an 
air  force-pump.  Unfortunately,  however,  on  opening  the  cases  after 
getting  under  way,  the  eggs  were  found  to  have  suffered  from  railroad 
jolting,  and  they  all  rapidly  died  before  any  were  hatched  or  even  the 
eye-specks  had  begun  to  show. 

At  the  end  of  the  season  at  South  Hadley  Falls,  Mass.,  Mr.  Milner 
arrived  atlSoank,  bringing  with  him  about  45,000  shad,  when  experiments 
were  carefully  made  in  attempting  to  accustom  shad  to  small  proportions 
of  sea- water.  For  this  purpose,  earthen  jars  with  a  capacity  of  about  four 
gallons  were  used.  The  object  in  view  was  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  a 
very  gradual  increase  of  sea- water.  The  jars  received  a  continually- in- 
creasing proportion  of  sea  water,  until,  in  two  of  the  tests,  it  became  all 
sea-water.  In  the  other  two  experiments,  it  was  allowed  to  reach  a  cer- 
tain proportion  and  so  remain.  Other  jars  were  assigned  for  tests  of  the 
effect  of  different  temperatures  upon  the  fish.  It  was  found  that  shad 
placed  directly  in  sea-water  die  very  rapidly,  but  that  sea-water  intro- 
duced gradually  and  in  small  proportions  has  not  a  sensibly  injurious 
effect.  The  decision,  however,  was  against  its  use,  unless  with  extreme 
caution  and  in  very  small  quantities,  wheu  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
purifying  stale  water.  Later  in  the  season,  Mr.  Chas.  D.  Griswold  ex- 
perimented with  partially-grown  shad  taken  at  Holyoke,  Mass.  The  re- 
sults showed  far  less  advantage  in  the  transportation  of  the  older  shad; 
the  numbers  that  could  be  carried  were  but  a  minute  fraction  of  the 
large  numbers  of  embryos  usually  transported,  while  in  most  instances 
they  did  not  survive  as  long  as  the  younger  fish. 

5. — CALIFORNIA  SALMON. 

Mr.  Livingston  Stone  arrived  at  the  McCloud  River  station  and  began 
operations  August  6,  1873.  A  pen,  or  corral,  was  built  in  the  river,  but 
it  was  found  to  be  too  small,  the  fish  not  retaining  their  vigor,  while  a 
large  proportion  of  those  confined  in  the  inclosure  died.  The  seine  was 
again  resorted  to,  aud  sufficient  salmon  taken  to  make  up  the  prescribed 
quota  of  2,000,000  eggs.  The  hatching  establishment  was  moved  to  the 
bank  of  the  river,  and  the  water  raised  by  a  bucket-wheel  turned  by  the 
current. 

The  eggs  were  packed  in  moss  in  boxes  two  feet  square  by  one  foot 
deep,  each  containing  75,000  eggs.  Two  boxes  were  put  into  a  crate, 
with  a  space  on  all  sides,  which  was  packed  with  hay  aud  broken  ice. 
When  ready  for  shipment,  there  were  about  2,000,000  in  good  con- 
dition. The  first  lot,  300,000,  was  shipped  September  20,  1873  ;  a  second 
lot,  500,000,  on  the  30th ;  a  third  lot,  330,000,  October  7th,  and  a  fourth 
lot,  250,000,  on  the  14th.  A  fifth  lot,  20,000,  was  placed  directly  into 
the  McCloud  River  on  the  19th  of  October,  and  500,000  were  left  to 
hatch.     The  total  was  1,900,000  salmou-eggs. 

The  consignees  who  received  the  eggs  and  arranged  for  their  care  in 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.     XXIII 

the  hatching-houses  where  they  were  carried  forward  until  the  young 
fish  were  placed  in  the  waters,  with  the  number  of  eggs  to  each, 
were  as  follows:  J.  H.  Slack,  Bloomsbury,  N.  J.,  550,000;  James 
Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa.,  170,000;  Seth  Green,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  200,000; 
B.  G.  Pike,  Middletowu,  Conn.,  150,000;  Livingston  Stone,  Charles- 
town,  N.  H.,  50,000;  E.  A.  Brackett,  Winchester,  Mass., 50,000  ;  Charles 
G.  Atkins,  Bucksport,  Me.,  50,000 ;  George  H.  Jerome,  Niles,  Mich., 
120,000 ;  A.  P.  Bockwood,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  40,000 ;  Dr.  W.  A. 
Newell,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  20,000.  The  500,000  for  the  Sacramento 
waters  were  hatched  at  the  station.  Some  of  the  cases  of  eggs  arrived 
in  excellent  condition,  while  many  were  fouud  to  have  heated  and  fer- 
mented, with  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  eggs  in  a  healthy  condition. 
The  number  of  fishes  reported  by  the  State  commissiouers  as  resulting 
from  the  1,900,000  eggs  was  1,522,930,  the  distribution  of  which  is  given 
in  detail  in  the  appended  table. 

Mr.  Stone  began  operations  at  the  McCloud  station  on  the  5th  of  July, 
1874.  Modifications  in  the  apparatus  used  were  effected  which  resulted  in 
a  great  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  eggs.  The  trays  in  the 
hatching-boxes  were  quite  deep,  and  the  eggs  put  into  them  in  twelve 
layers;  the  water  rising  from  below  in  the  Williamson  troughs  buoyed 
the  eggs  so  that  the  lower  layers  did  not  suffer  from  the  weight  of  those 
above  them.  By  this  means  space  was  economized  and  a  very  large 
number  of  eggs  cared  for.  The  corral,  or  pen,  of  the  previous  year  was 
also  improved  upon.  A  substantial  timber  grating  was  built  across 
the  stream  somewhat  in  the  style  of  that  used  by  Professor  Basch 
in  the  fiords  of  Norway.  Below  the  fence  large  corrals,  or  pens, 
were  erected,  into  which  the  salmon  were  gathered  and  retained  until 
their  spawn  was  needed.  The  grating  was  an  entire  bar  to  the  salmon, 
no  opening  being  left  to  permit  their  passing  above  it ;  and  the  experi- 
ment satisfied  Mr.  Stone  that  salmon  which  ascend  the  river  to  spawn 
never  return  to  the"  sea.  The  number  which  had  passed  above  the  grat- 
ing before  it  was  finished,  he  estimated  at  hundreds  of  thousands,  while 
thousands  crowded  against  its  lower  side  when  completed,  vainly  at- 
tempting to  pass.  As  to  their  return,  he  failed  to  discover  a  single  live 
salmon,  though  thousands  of  dead  ones  lodged  against  the  upper  side  of 
the  grating. 

The  work  of  developing  the  eggs  to  the  point  of  hardiness  requisite 
for  their  safe  shipment,  was  continued  until  the  25th  of  September,  when 
the  first  shipment  was  made.  On  the  18th  of  October,  the  sixth  and 
last  shipment  was  made.  The  whole  number  transmitted  eastward 
was  4,155,000,  which  with  850,000  hatched  at  the  station  for  California 
waters,  make  a  total  of  5,005,000.  There  were  reported  from  these 
2,908,710  fishes  distributed,  and  25,000  eggs  remaining  to  be  heard 
from.  November  30,  the  last  of  the  fishes  was  placed  in  the  waters  of 
the  McCloud  and  the  camp  closed  for  the  season.  The  details  of  the 
distribution  will  be  found  in  the  accompanying  table. 


XXIV    REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  California  salmon,  believed  to  be  the  same  as  the  quinnat  salmon 
of  the  Columbia  River  (Salmo  quiimat,  Rich,)  is  one  of  the  largest  of  this 
family.  Its  average  weight  in  the  Sacramento  River  is  20  pounds,  while 
in  overgrown  individuals  it  is  as  high  as  100  pounds.  Its  flavor  when 
fresh  and  properly  cooked  is  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  salmon  {Salmo  salar,)  and  in  the  markets  of  California  and  as 
far  eastward  as  New  York  it  is  sought  as  a  luxury,  and  commands 
a  high  price.  Prepared  in  cans  it  finds  a  wide  market  throughout  the 
United  States  and  in  Australia.*  It  is  by  far  the  most  prolific  fish  on 
the  Pacific  coast.  Of  an  anadromous  habit,  it  swarms  up  the  Colum- 
bia, the  Sacramento,  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers  in  vast  shoals  from  March 
to  August,  and  thus  becomes  valuable  not  merely  as  an  occasional  article 
of  table  luxury,  but  as  a  large  commercial  resource.  Statistics  pub- 
lished in  the  weekly  Astorian,  Astoria,  Oreg.,  for  the  season  of  1875  on 
the  Columbia  River,  give  13,000,000  pounds  as  the»aggregate  put  up  at 
the  different  canning  establishments,  which  sold  at  the  average  whole- 
sale rate  of  eleven  cents  per  pound,  making  a  total  money  value  of 
$1,430,000.  Besides  the  sale  of  the  fish  as  food  the  manufacture  of  oil 
from  the  heads  has  been  begun,  and  this  season  a  single  fishing  locality 
produced  9,000  gallons. 

Statistics  procured  from  the  books  of  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad 
Company  show  that  4,079,025  pounds  of  salmon  were  shipped  from 
points  on  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers  between  November  1, 
1874,  and  August  1,  1875.     (See  report  of  California  commissioners, 

P-  HO 

The  species  has  proven  itself  thus  far  to  be  the  best  adapted  of  the 

family  to  the  methods  of  artificial  propagation.  When  properly  packed 
and  kept  at  a  sufficiently  low  temperature  the  eggs  endure  transporta- 
tion with  inconsiderable  loss.  Once  in  the  hatching-troughs  the  loss  is 
very  small  before  hatching,  while  the  young  are. possessed  of  great 
tenacity  of  life,  and  grow  to  be  several  months  old  with  less  loss  than 
hns  been  experienced  with  any  other  species;  indeed,  they  are  com- 
mended by  all  the  fish -culturists  who  have  had  to  do  with  them  for 
their  hardiness,  activity,  and  good-feeding  tendencies.  In  the  mature 
stage  they  are  capable  of  adapting  themselves  to  a  variety  of  conditions. 
They  pass  up  the  Sacramento  when  its  waters  are  turbid  from  the  great 
quantities  of  sediment  washed  into  them  by  the  rains  and  the  extensive 

*  Au  item  published  in  several  of  the  newspapers  of  the  United  States  hns  a  tendency 
to  excite  prejudice  against  canned  salmon  as  food.  It  appeared  under  the  heading 
"Poisoned  by  eating  canned  salmon,"  and  stated  that  part  of  a  can  had  been  partaken 
of  by  several  persons  who  experienced  no  unpleasant  results,  but  that  after  two  days 
the  remainder  of  the  contents  of  the  can  which  had  been  set  aside  and  exposed  to  the 
air,  being  again  eaten  of  by  the  same  persons,  purging  and  strong  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing resulted.  The  fact  that  such  large  quantities  of  the  article  are  consumed  through- 
out the  country  with  but  a  single  instance  of  any  ill  effects  suggests  the  possibility  of 
something  else  than  the  salmon  as  a  cause  for  the  sickness — the  accidental  mixture, 
perhaps,  of  some  deleterious  article  with  the  salmon  before  it  was  served. 


KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.       XXV 

hydraulic  mining  operations  along  the  banks  of  the  river  and  its  tribu- 
taries; they  go  up  through  the  warm  valley  of  the  San  Joaquin  River, 
lying  in  the  second  hottest  summer  area  of  the  United  States,  in 
large  shoals,  ascending  the  numerous  side  tributaries  to  their  spawning- 
grouuds.  The  hottest  temperature  area  for  the  months  of  June,  July, 
and  August,  as  shown  by  the  temperature  charts  for  the  United  States, 
lately  compiled  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  is  the  region  of  the 
Gila  and  mouth  of  the  Colorado  Rivers  in  Arizona  Territory.  The  mean 
for  these  mouths  is  88°  Fahrenheit.  The  valley  of  the  San  Joaquin, 
portions  of  Arizona,  and  the  lower  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  River  have 
a  mean  of  84°.  No  other  portion  of  the  United  States  has  so  high  a 
summer  mean.  During  the  mouths  of  August  and  September,  1875, 
temperature  observations  were  made  at  the  railroad  bridges  of  the  Cen- 
tral Pacific  Railroad.*  The  maximum,  minimum,  and  mean  tempera- 
tures for  the  months  of  August  and  September  were  as  follows : 


Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Upper  crossing 

Air 

o 
107 
84 
83 
93 
82 
81 

0 

82 
74 
73 
73 
72 
71 

0 

98.7 

Water  at  surface 

79.7 

Water  at  bottom 

78.7 

Lower  crossing 

Air 

86.9 

Water  at  surface 

76.3 

Water  at  bottom 

76.3 

As  referred  to  by  Mr.  Milner  in  a  communication  to  the  commissioners 
of  fisheries  at  their  meeting  in  New  York,  February  10,  1875,  the  Sac- 
ramento  salmon,  and  especially  the  colony  entering  the  San  Joaquin 
River,  spawn  in  latitudes  farther  south  than  any  anadromous  species  of 
the  genus  Salmo.  t 

In  the  report  of  the  commissioners  of  fisheries  of  the  State  of  Califor- 
nia, for  the  years  1874  and  1875,  the  following  statement  is  made  with 
reference  to  the  Sacramento  salmon :  "  Large  numbers  pass  up  the  San 
Joaquiu  River  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  in  July  and  August,  swim- 
ming for  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  through  the  hottest  valley  in  the 
State,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  at  noon  is  rarely  less  than  80° 
Fah.,  and  often  as  high  as  105°,  and  where  the  average  temperature  of 
the  river  at  the  bottom  is  79°  and  at  the  surface  80°.  The  salmon  of 
the  San  Joaquin  appear  to  be  of  the  same  variety  as  those  in  the  Sac- 
ramento, but  average  smaller  in  size."  Leaving  the  bed  of  the  San 
Joaquin,  they  ascend  the  tributaries,  the  Merced,  the  Stanislaus,  and 
others,  and  find  their  spawning-grounds  in  the  snow-fed  sources  of  these 

#A  series  of  observations  were  made  on  the  temperature  of  the  San  Joaquin  River, 
California,  through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  B.  B.  Redding,  of  Sacramento,  commissioner 
for  fisheries  of  California. 

t  The  trouts,  Sahno  fontinaJis,  Mitch.,  in  the  Appalachian  range,  and  Salmo  pleuriticw, 
Cope,  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Grande  River,  extend  their  range  to  about  the  same 
latitude,  37°  N,  as  the  San  Joaquin  salmon. 


XXVI      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


streams.    The  mean  temperature  for  the  Sacramento  for  July,  said  to 
be  of  ten  years'  observations,  is  given  at  74°.G6.* 

The  temperature  for  the  McCloud  River  was  observed  between  the 
Gth  of  July  and  the  12th  of  November,  1874,  at  6  a.  in.,  3  p.  m.,  and  6 
p.  m.  by  Mr.  Livingston  Stone,  the  maxima,  minima,  and  means  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  following  table : 

Temperature,  air  and  water,  at  McCloud  River  hatching-station. 


*** llg; 

Aug-t \ii«*»i\ 

September...  jgjg; 

O^ober {|1  days; 

November...  J  j^ays; 


67  observations 
73  observations 

87  observations 
86  observations 
78  observations 
77  observations 

88  observations 
91  observations 
30  observations 
28  observations 


Air   or 
water. 


Air  .. . 
Water 
Air  . . . 
Water 
Air... 
Water 
Air . . . 
Water 
Air  . .. 
Water 


Maximum. 


o 

106 
62 
97 
60 

100 
58 
96 
55 
58 
50 


Minimum. 


48 
54 
43 
52 
37. 
49 
35 
42 
35 
42 


Mean. 


76.4 

57 

70.7 

55.  9 

67.8 

51.1 


56.56 

49.8 
48.4 
46.  89 


Observations  of  the  temperatures  of  the  Columbia  River  have  beeu 
kindly  furnished  by  the  firm  of  the  Oregon  Packing  Company,  J.  W.  & 
!N.  Cook,  proprietors.  These  were  made  in  the  mouths  of  May,  June, 
July,  and  August,  1S75,  at  7  a.  m.  and  12  m.  The  results  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 


Water. 


May,  22  days  ;  44  observations 

June.  26  days  ;  52  observations  . . . 
July,  27  days  ;  54  observations  - . . 
August,  12  days  ;  24  observations 


Water 
Water 
Water 
Water  . 


Maximum.     Minimum 


56 
61 

70 
70 


Mean. 


o 

o 

50 

46.2 

55 

58.3 

60 

66.2 

65 

66.8 

By  this  series  of  temperatures,  which  exhibits  the  maxima,  minima, 
and  means  of  the  waters  where  the  fish  have  their  natural  home,  we  are 
enabled  to  judge  as  to  the" degree  of  warmth  they  may  be  expected  to 
endure  when  transported  to  new  waters.  The  testimony  as  to  the 
warmth  of  the  San  Joaquin  water  is  the  most  important,  reaching, 
as  it  does,  a  maximum  of  84°,  and  showiug  a  mean  of  nearly  80°  daring 
the  two  months  the  salmon  are  ascending  in  large  numbers.  But  the 
high  temperature  is  not  the  only  seeming  trouble  they  encouuter.  Ac- 
cording to  the  observer  at  the  San  Joaquin  bridge,  the  water  was  very 
turbid  at  the  time  it  was  so  warm,  yet  the  salmon,  passing  up  in  large 
numbers,  appeared  in  the  clear  waters  of  the  tributaries  higher  up  in  a 
healthy,  vigorous  condition. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  temperature,  the  turbidity,  the  volume, 
the  velocity,  and  the  characters  of  the  sources,  as  well  as  the  other 
physical  conditions  of  the  rivers  inhabited  by  the  California  salmon,  it 
seems  probable  that  a  very  large  number  of  the  rivers  of  the  Eastern 

*  Proceeding  of  the  Agassiz  Institute,  Sacrameuto,  California.  Annual  address  and 
report  on  physics,  &c,  of  Sacramento  River,  by  Thomas  M.  Logan,  M.  D.,  president, 
October  20,  1873. 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES.       XXVII 

United  States  are  equally  adapted  for  the  production  and  growth  of  this 
species. 

On  the  Atlantic  slope,  there  are  few  if  any  rivers  as  turbid  as  the  Sac- 
ramento ;  few  which  have  not  spring  sources  iu  the  Appalachian  range, 
aud  among  their  tributaries  many  rapids,  pools,  and  eddies,  in  rocky  and 
gravelly  places,  suitable  for  spawning-grounds.  Of  the  rivers  of  the 
Gulf  States,  the  Chattahoochee  and  the  Alabama  have  their  sources  in 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  Blue  Eidge,  among  cool,  spring-fed  brooks. 
They  rise  among  hills  and  rocks  in  a  country  full  of  large  springs.  The 
Brazos  and  Colorado  Bivers,  of  Ttxas,  have  their  sources  among  the 
springs  of  the  southern  hills  and  spurs  of  the  Bocky  Mountains,  and  the 
Guadalupe  and  San  Antonio  Bivers  are  fed  by  large  springs.  Most  of 
the  Texas  streams  are  turbid,  but  not  more  so  thau  the  Sacramento  or 
San  Joaquin. 

The  suggestion  that  the  salmon  are  not  likely  to  find  suitably  cold 
waters  after  descending  to  the  sea,  the  following  facts  show  to  be 
groundless. 

The  temperatures  of  the  bottom  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  have  been 
recorded*  through  a  series  of  lines  extending  from  the  lougitude  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  Tortugas  and  Key  West,  Fla.,  and 
temperatures  found  equally  as  cold  as  those  off  the  coast  of  Massachu- 
setts aud  New  England.  As  low  as  34°  Fahrenheit  has  been  observed 
at  a  depth  of  896  fathoms ;  at  depths  of  421,  610,  aud  790  fathoms,  35° 
and  3G°  were  observed,  while  40°,  41°,  and  42°  were  common  at  from  400 
to  over  1,800  fathoms,  and  50°  to  60°  between  less  than  100  to  400 
fathoms  and  more. 

The  only  peculiarity  especially  notable  in  the  streams  to  which  the 
California  salmon  belong  is  that  they  are  snow-fed  during  most  of  the 
year.  As,  however,  the  Maine  salmon,  a  species  much  more  sensitive 
to  heat  than  that  of  California,  inhabits  rivers  not  snow-fed,  and  more- 
over is  kept  in  the  Bucksport  breeding-pond  throughout  the  entire  sum- 
mer at  a  temperature  of  70°,  we  have  a  sufficient  guarantee  that  the 
California  fish  will  not  be  affected  in  its  transfer;  indeed,  the  whole 
question  is  one  relating  to  the  rapidity  of  development  of  the  eggs,  rather 
than  to  the  conditions  surrounding  the  fish ;  the  warmer  the  water  the 
more  rapid  and  premature  the  birth  of  the  embryo. 

Thus  far  we  have  left  entirely  out  of  consideration  the  great  system 
of  waters  contributing  to  the  Mississippi  Biver.  The  main  stream  ex- 
tends from  latitude  47°  50'  to  29°,  and  the  northernmost  tributary  of 
the  Missouri  as  far  north  as  50°.  Its  greatest  length  is  2,616  miles,t 
from  its  highest  source  to  the  Gulf.  From  the  source  of  the  Madison 
Fork,  the  formerly-supposed  head  of  the  Missouri,  (within  the  National 
Yellowstone  Park,)  to  the  Gulf,  it  has  a  length  of  4,194  miles.t 

*  Coast  Survey  reports. 

t  See  measurements  iu  tables  on  page  91  of  the  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River.     Uuited  States  Engineer  Bureau. 


XXVIII     REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES. 

The  Mississippi  River,  with  its  tributaries  and  subtributaries,  as  laid 
down  on  the  larger  maps  of  the  United  States,  exhibits  over  120,000 
miles  of  combined  lengths,*  which  we  know  falls  much  within  the  extent 
of  waters  available  for  food-fishes ;  and,  were  the  system  of  the  Chinese 
adopted,  all  waters  would  be  considered  down  to  the  brooks,  pouds,  and 
eveu  ditches. 

From  this  an  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  vast  work  to  be  done  in  mak- 
ing the  waters  of  the  United  States  afford  their  proper  quota  of  the  food- 
resources  of  the  future. 

The  physical  conditions  of  the  Mississippi  River  in  contrast  with  the 
rivers  of  the  Atlantic  coast  which  contain  or  have  contained  the  Atlan- 
lic  salmon  (Sahno  salar)  are  very  marked.  Such  streams  as  the  Saint 
John  of  New  Brunswick,  the  Penobscot,  the  Kennebec,  and  the  Andros- 
coggin of  Maine,  the  Merriinac  of  New  Hampshire,  and  the  Connecticut 
of  Western  New  England  are,  for  their  greater  lengths,  clear  and  with 
rocky  bottoms,  with  considerable  fall,  and  with  sources,  in  the  longest, 
not  more  than  500  miles  from  the  sea. 

The  Lower  Mississippi  is  a  turbid,  alluvial  stream,  with  a  fall  of  less 
than  5  inches  to  the  mile  for  eighteen  hundred  miles  from  the  Gulf.  The 
nearest  source,  having  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  is  near  the  head  of  the 
Red  River,  about  1,500  miles  from  the  delta.  Fort  Atkinson,  Kansas,  on 
the  Arkansas  River,  has  an  elevation  of  2,331  feet,  1,750  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  remoteness  of  the  elevated  cold  sources  of  the  Mississippi  seems 
to  be  its  most  unfavorable  feature  when  viewed  as  to  the  adaptation 
of  salmon  to  its  waters.  The  California  salmon  traverse  the  Sac- 
ramento Valley  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Little  Sacramento  and  the 
McCloud  Rivers,  about  four  hundred  miles,  to  the  headwaters  of  the 
San  Joaquin,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  To  Fort  Boise,  on  the 
Snake  River,  where  the  Salmo  quinnat  are  said  to  have  been  taken  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  is  about  seven  hundred  miles.  There 
is  no  hindrance  to  their  ascent  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Shoshone  Falls,  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  above  Fort  Boise,  which  would  increase  the 
distance  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  about  eight  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
The  great  Shoshone  Falls  of  the  Snake  River,  over  two  hundred  feet 
high,  are  of  course  an  effectual  barrier  to  their  progress  up  the  stream. 
In  the  report  of  the  commissioners  of  Iowa,t  a  correspondent  writing 
from  Elko,  Nev.,  says:  "This  stream  is  one  of  the  many  that  form  the 
headwaters  of  the  Columbia  River,  and  to  this  point,  eighteen  hundred 

miles  from  its  mouth,  the  salt-water  salmon  come  in  myriads  to  spawn." 

* — 

*  A  rough  approximation  made  by  running  a  chartometer  on  the  Land-Office  map, 

and  correcting  tbe  error  by  comparison  of  lengtbs  of  seventeen  rivers  given  in  the 

work  just  referred  to. 
t  First  Report  of  tbe  State  Fisb  Commissioners  of  Iowa  for  tbe  years  1874  and  1875. 

Des  Moines :  R.  P.  Clarkson,  State  Printer,  1876,  p.  17 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.      XXIX 

The  large  King  salmon,  or  chowichee,*  and  the  Red  salmon,  hoikoh,t 
are,  according  to  Mr.  Dall,  taken  as  far  up  the  Yukon  River  as  Fort 
Yukon,  fourteen  hundred  miles  from  the  sea. 

The  shad  of  China,  samlai  (Alosa  rtevesii,  Rich.,)  according  to  Mr.  Salter, 
extend  their  migrations  up  the  Yang-tse-Idaug  for  over  a  thousand 
miles;  and,  according  to  Dr.  MacGowan,  to  a  distance  of  three  thou- 
sand miles  from  its  mouth. 

A  specimen  of  a  shad  (Alosa  sapidissima)  was  received  at  the  National 
Museum  from  Mr.  R.  O.  Sweeney,  which  was  taken  in  the  Mississippi 
River  at  Saint  Paul,  Minn. 

From  these  facts  we  may  infer  that  the  instinct  of  location  is  probably 
sufficient  to  attract  a  colony  of  fishes  as  far  inland  as  the  headwaters  of 
the  longest  river,  whenever  their  home  has  been  once  established  there. 

The  vigorous  strength  and  the  energy  exhibited  by  the  California 
salmon  during  its  migrations  up  the  Sacramento  and  Columbia  Rivers, 
afford  the  evidence  that  its  capacity  for  a  long  migration  from  the  sea  to 
its  spawning-grounds,  is  unsurpassed  by  any  species  of  fish  known. 

Wherever  the  California  salmon,  in  the  process  of  artificial  propaga- 
tion, has  come  under  the  hands  of  the  fish-culturist,  it  is  acknowledged, 
as  previously  mentioned,  to  exceed  all  other  species,  which  are  propa- 
gated, in  hardiness,  in  tenacity  of  life,  and  in  freedom  from  tendency 
to  disease.  Although  it  will  not  compare  with  the  catfishes  (SiluridcB) 
or  the  eels  (Anguillidw,)  or  even  the  suckers  (Catastomidw,)  in  retaiu- 
iug  life  out  of  water,  yet,  unlike  these,  it  does  not  owe  its  tenacity  of  life 
to  a  low,  sluggish  action  of  the  vital  forces,  that  retain  life  when  the 
respiration  has  become  almost  entirely  impeded,  but  rather  to  the  posses- 
sion of  an  excess  of  vitality,  and  which  exhibits  itself  in  all  stages  from 
the  egg  to  the  mature  fish.  Mr.  Charles  Nordkoff,  in  an  article  on  The 
Columbia  River  and  Puget  Sound,  in  Harper's  New  Monthly  Magazine,^ 
in  describing  the  processes  at  the  canneries,  says :  "  A  salmon 
bleeds  like  a  bull."  Professor  Agassiz  thought  he  found  evidence  in 
the  structure  of  the  salmon  family  that  indicated  "  the  highest  rank 
in  the  class  of  fishes,"§  and  refers  with  enthusiasm  "to  their  admirable 
structure"  and  great  vigor.||  In  addition,  we  have  the  testimony  of 
Seth  Green  and  other  fish-culturists,  that  the  eggs  and  young  fishes  are 
hardy  and  enduring,  the  latter  great  feeders  and  very  rapid  growers. 
In  the  ponds  of  different  fish-culturists  in  the  country,  it  is  com- 
mou  to  see  a  school  of  several  thousand  California  salmon  a  year 
old  or  more,  which    are   said  to   have   suffered  no  loss  whatever  in 

*  Oncorhynchus  orientalis,  Pall.  (English)  King  salmon;  (Russian)  Chowicheo;  Na- 
tive K'hab.  Alaska  and  its  Resources.  By  William  H.  Dall,  director  of  the  scientific 
corps  of  the  late  Western  Union  Telegraph  Expedition.  Boston :  Lee  &  Shepard, 
1870,  p.  579. 

t  Oncorhynchus  protens,  Pall,     f  English)  salmon  ;  (Russian)  hoikoh.     Op.  cit. 

t  No.  285,  February,  1874,  p.  341. 

§  Lake  Superior.    Boston  :  1850,  p.  25. 

U  Op.  cit.,  pp.  327,  328. 


XXX       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

numbers  since  they  were  placed  in  the  pond.  In  the  report  of  the 
commissioners  of  fisheries  of  the  State  of  New  York  for  the  year 
1874-'7o,  it  is  said  of  the  California  salmon :  "These  fish  will  endure 
a  much  higher  temperature  of  water,  spawn  at  a  different  season, 
are  less  exacting  in  the  circumstances  necessary  to  their  well- 
being."  In  view  of  these  facts,  as  to  their  habits,  endurance,  and 
general  vigor  and  energy,  have  we  not  a  right  to  hope  for  ultimate  suc- 
cess in  stocking  the  Mississippi  and  other  eastern  rivers  with  this  val- 
uable species  % 

The  stocking  of  a  large  number  of  rivers  of  the  United  States 
with  this  food-fish  to  as  great  an  extent  as  the  Sacramento  Eiver 
or  even  the  San  Joaquin,  is  an  enterprise  well  worthy  great  effort 
and  much  pecuniary  outlaj',  and  its  successful  achievement  will  prove 
a  blessing  to  the  poorer  classes  of  the  country  as  well  as  another 
evidence  of  the  value  of  science  in  its  application  to  the  economic  indus- 
tries. If,  however,  our  anticipations  are  only  partially  realized  in  a 
moderate  proportion  to  what  we  now  have  in  the  California  and  Oregon 
rivers,  the  labor  and  cost  of  the  experiment  will  not  have  been  in  vain, 
and  coming  generations  will  have  cause  to  thank  the  liberality  and 
statesmanship  of  our  present  law-givers. 

G. — ATLANTIC     SALMON. 

During  the  seasons  of  1873-'74  and  1874-'75  the  collection  of  eggs  of 
Penobscot  salmon  has  been  conducted  at  Bucksport,  by  Mr.  C.  G.  Atkins, 
in  the  same  manner  as  described  in  the  report  for  1872-'73. 

The  fixtures  and  apparatus  employed  have  undergone  considerable 
enlargement  and  amendment,  but  the  essential  features  of  the  system 
remain  the  same  as  at  first  adopted.  The  salmon  are  caught  in  early 
summer  in  pounds  in  the  Penobscot  Eiver,  carried  alive  to  a  small  fresh- 
water pond,  and  kept  there  until  the  breeding-season,  when  they  are 
caught  again  and  manipulated. 

Duriug  the  first  season  the  salmon  had  the  range  of  a  pond  of  GO 
acres,  and  a  large  number  escaped  recapture  at  the  spawning-season. 
They  have  since  been  confined  in  an  inclosure  of  about  10  acres,  and 
each  year  the  inclosing  banier  has  been  made  more  secure.  In  1873 
and  1871  it  was  a  strong  net,  and  in  spite  of  all  exertions  a  number  of 
salmon  each  year  escaped.  In  1875  a  fence  composed  of  wooden  racks 
was  substituted  for  the  net,  and  proved  an  effectual  means  of  confining 
the  salmon. 

The  means  of  catching  the  fish  in  the  fall  have  been  improved  by 
the  introduction  of  additional  pounds,  nets,  and  other  apparatus,  so  that 
the  waste  of  eggs  by  the  fish  laying  them  before  they  can  be  caught  and 
manipulated  is  reduced  to  a  very  small  amount. 

In  the  hatching-house  since  the  first  season  the  troughs  have  been 
reduced  to  a  uniform  length  of  about  23  feet,  and  fitted  with  covers. 

The  use  of  tin  boxes  for  packing  eggs  for  transportation  has  been 
mostly  abandoned  on  account  of  its  expense.    Wooden  trays,  3  inches 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES.     XXXI 

deep  and  from  1  to  2  feet  in  length  and  breadth,  are  now  employed, 
and  make  at  once  the  most  compact,  convenient,  and  economical 
package  with  which  I  am  acquainted.  The  eggs  are  placed  in  these 
trays  in  layers,  alternating  with  layers  of  moss,  from  which  they  are 
separated  by  pieces  of  thin  fabric.  When  filled  and  put  together  in 
stacks,  the  trays  are  encased  in  sawdust,  which  protects  from  freezing 
during  long  winter  journeys.  In  packages  of  50,000  to  100,000  they 
occupy  about  one  cubic  foot  for  5,000  or  10,000  eggs. 

The  number  of  breeding-salmon  bought  and  manipulated,  their  size, 
the  number  of  eggs  obtained  and  distributed,  and  the  number  of  young 
salmon  set  free  are  exhibited  by  the  following  table : 


Salmon  bought. 

Salmon  recaptured  at  sp 
season. 

iwriing 

Eggs. 

Young 

salmon 
set  tree. 

Tear. 

a 

GO 
OD 

BQ 

O 

a 

B 
Eh 

"la 
o 
srl 

©   • 

®   . 

t  2° 
.5  J 

S3 

O  Jc  (U 

1873-'74 

1874-'75 

650 
601 

Pounds. 
13.28 
14.03 

143 

178 

279 
343 

422 
521 

Pounds. 
12. 28 
12.  73 

Inches. 
32.  24 
32. 19 

2,  453,  638 

3,  008,  356 

2,  292,  675 
2,  744,  877 

2,  065,  445 
1,  68C,  603 

Total 

1,251 

321 

622 

943 

5,401,994 

5,  037,  552 

3  752  113 

The  ratio  of  impregnation  has  been  about  95  per  cent. 

Complete  success  has  attended  the  incubation  of  the  eggs,  except  in 
the  season  of  1874-'75,  when  the  eggs  were  all,  or  nearly  all,  affected  by 
a  deficiency  of  strength  in  the  outer  shell.  An  average  success  was  had 
with  those  eggs  that  remained  that  season  in  the  hatching-house  at 
Bucksport  to  hatch  for  the  State  of  Maine ;  but  of  those  that  were 
packed  for  transportation  large  numbers  were  lost  en  route,  or  so  greatly 
injured  that  they  died  before  hatching,  or  soon  after.  Mr.  Atkins  attrib- 
uted this  phenomenon  to  causes  existing  in  the  state  of  the  water  of  the 
pond  and  hatching-house,  which  remained,  through  prevalence  of  warm, 
dry  weather,  in  a  low,  foul  state  through  the  greater  part  of  the  spawn- 
ing season.  In  1873-'74  the  water  was  renewed  by  copious  rains,  and 
the  eggs  throughout  incubation  were  in  perfect  health. 

In  1872  and  1873,  and  again  in  1875,  all  the  fish  handled  at  the 
spawuing  season  were  marked  with  metal  tags  and  dismissed  to  the 
river.  The  mode  of  tagging  in  1872  was  by  affixing  a  stamped  alu- 
minum tag  to  a  rubber  baud  passing  around  the  tail.  This  was  a  de- 
fective mode,  and  no  results  were  obtained  from  it.  In  1873  the  alumi- 
num tags  were  attached  directly  by  a  platinum  wire  to  the  rear  margin 
of  the  first  dorsal  fin.  A  reward  was  offered  in  the  following  spring  for 
the  return  of  the  marked  salmon,  and  about  twenty  of  them  were  sent 
in,  nearly  all  caught  in  the  river,  and  more  than  half  of  them  above 
Bangor,  25  miles  further  up  the  river  than  Bucksport,  where  they  were 
set  at  liberty,  showing  that  instinct  did  not  impel  these  liberated  fish  to 
return  at  once  to  their  marine  feeding-grounds.  They  were  all  poorer 
than  when  set  free  in  the  fall.    In  1874  the  marking  was  omitted,  but 


XXXII    REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

the  offered  reward  was  renewed  in  the  spring  of  1875,  and  resulted  in  the 
return  of  seven  or  eight  of  the  marked  salmon  of  1873,  now  iu  prime 
order,  weighing  from  16£  to  24J  pounds.  Unfortunately  the  aluminum 
tag  had  fallen  off,  and  we  could  not  trace  the  individual  salmon,  but 
the  wire  remained  to  attest  the  date  of  their  liberation  and  return.  The 
salmon  set  free  in  autumn  of  1873  in  poor  condition  returned  in  good 
condition  in  1875,  and  not  before.  Probably  a  much  larger  number  of 
these  salmon  were  caught  that  were  never  reported,  for  the  wire  was  fine 
and  not  easily  seen ;  indeed,  two  marked  salmon  were  placed  in  the 
pond  without  discovering  the  mark  till  the  spawning  season. 

The  experiment  has  been  renewed  in  1875,  with  a  change  in  the 
material,  platinum  being  substituted  for  aluminum  in  the  tag. 

7. — THE  WHITE-FISH. 

The  white-fish  (Coregonus  albas,  Les.,)  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  a  fine  table- 
fish,  and  as  it  is  produced  in  considerable  numbers  in  favorable  waters, 
some  attention  has  been  given  to  its  propagation.  In  1872,  arrange- 
ments were  made  with  Mr.  K.  W.  Clark,  of  Clarkston,  Mich.,  to  hatch  a 
half  million  of  eggs  of  this  fish.  About  the  middle  of  February,  216,000 
were  shipped  to  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  but  being  left  to  the  care  of  the 
express  messenger,  beyond  Omaha,  Nebr.,  they  suffered  from  the  changes 
of  temperature  incident  to  a  car  with  a  fire  in  it,  and  arrived  iu  very 
bad  condition.  On  March  10,  another  shipment  of  116,000  was  made, 
which  arrived  in  good  order.  In  1873,  25,000  more  were  transmitted 
and  hatched,  and  the  young  fish  placed  in  the  waters  of  Clear  Lake,  from 
which  partly  grown  ones  were  afterward  taken.  Iu  1874  an  additional 
20,000  were  sent  by  Mr.  K  W.  Clark,  late  of  Northville,  Mich.,  which 
were  hatched  at  Berkeley,  Cal.,  and  put  into  Tulare  Lake.  On  March 
8,  1875,  there  were  shipped  to  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  100,000.  and  March 
23,  100,000  were  sent  to  the  Lakes  in  the  Indian  Reservation  at  Keshena, 
Wis.  The  States  bordering  on  the  Lakes  and  Canada  have  now  begun 
the  propagation  of  this  species,  by  which  means  they  intend  to  keep  up 
the  stock  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

8. — THE  CARP   OF  EUROPE. 

After  considerable  inquiry  and  investigation  we  are  disposed  to  be- 
lieve that  there  are  varieties  of  the  European  carp  of  superior  value, 
because  of  their  table  qualities,  and  that  the  idea  entertained  by  many 
that  the  carp  is  a  very  inferior  food- fish  has  arisen  from  the  testimony 
of  those  who  have  been  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  eaten  only  those  of 
inferior  quality. 

Admitting  its  value  as  a  table-fish,  or  even  that  it  is  of  average  excel- 
lence, it  should  be  considered  a  desirable  acquisition  to  the  waters  of 
the  United  States,  for  it  has  other  characteristics  which  render  it  val- 
uable, and  which  are  not  known  to  be  possessed  by  any  American 
species,  among  which  are  its  fecundity  and  adaptibility  to  the  most 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES.    XXXIII 

varied  waters,  from  deep  cool  lakes  and  rapid  streams  to  the  merest 
puddles  and  ditches,*  and  to  latitudes  from  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  to 

Italy-t 

Its  diet  is  also  varied  ;  unlike  the  great  proportion  of  American  food- 
fishes  it  can  be  sustained  on  vegetable  matter,  being  expecially  fond  of 
water-cresses  and  similar  succulent  plants ;  it  also  devours  worms  and 
insect-larvae  voraciously.  Heckel  speaks  of  its  fondness  for  sheep-dung, 
and  of  its  becoming  fat  upon  it.  It  has  proved  to  be  admirably  well 
adapted  to  the  processes  of  artificial  culture,  and  throughout  Europe 
the  species  has  been  kept  in  a  semi-domesticated  condition  from  time 
immemorial  in  a  very  large  number  of  hatching-ponds.  It  becomes 
very  tame  after  a  time,  and  may  be  taught  to  eat  from  the  hand,  to 
come  to  the  side  of  the  pond  the  culturist  desires,  and  to  follow  him 
along  its  edge. 

Heckel  and  Kner}:  speaking  of  it,  remark  that  its  capability  of  rapid 
propagation,  its  tough  constitution,  and  excellent  table  qualities  have 
induced  its  abundant  cultivation  from  a  very  early  time.  It  is  believed 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  temperate  Asia,  and  has  spread 
from  the  Danube  over  the  whole  of  Middle  and  part  of  Southern  Europe. 
It  is  said  to  attain  to  au  average  of  from  five  to  ten  pounds  and  even 
more,  according  to  the  waters  inhabited,  while  Dr.  Rudolph  Hessel  states 
that  in  Lower  Hungary  he  had  seen  specimens  weighing  thirty  and  forty 
pounds.  The  species  is  of  rapid  growth,  and,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, may  be  made  to  attain  a  weight  of  three  or  four  pounds  in  three 
years.  § 

In  its  domesticated  condition  the  carp  has  developed  very  many  va- 
rieties, some  of  which  are  improvements  in  quality  over  the  original 
type,  while  the  contrary  is  true  of  others.  These  different  forms  falling 
into  their  hands,  naturalists  have  been  led  to  name  them  as  different 
species,  and  later  students  in  studying  the  carp  in  its  numerous  forms 

*  In  Couch's  British  Fishes  a  quotation  is  made  from  Sir  Roger  North,  as  follows : 

"  Carp  are  sometimes  fed,  during  the  colder  season,  in  a  cellar.  The  fish  is  wrapped 
up  in  a  quantity  of  wet  moss,  laid  on  a  piece  of  net,  and  then  laid  into  a  purse,  but  in 
such  manner,  however,  as  to  admit  of  the  fish  breathing;  the  net  is  then  plunged  into 
water  and  hung  to  the  ceiling  of  the  cellar.  The  dipping  must  be  first  repeated  every 
three  or  four  hours,  but  afterward  it  need  be  plunged  into  the  water  only  once  in  sis 
or  seven  hours.  Bread  soaked  in  milk  is  sometimes  given  him  in  small  quantities;  in 
a  short  time  the  fish  will  bear  more  and  grow  fat  by  this  treatment.  Many  have  been 
kept  alive,  breathing  nothing  but  air,  in  this  way  several  successive  days." 

A  History  of  the  Fishes  of  the  British  Islands,  by  Jonathan  Couch,  F.  L.  S.,  vol.  iv, 
containing  seventy-three  colored  plates,  from  drawings  by  the  author.  (London : 
Groombridge  &  Sous,  5  Paternoster  Row.     1845.     Carp,  p.  4.) 

t  In  winter  they  are  said  to  bury  themselves  in  the  mud  in  large  bodies,  and  to  re- 
main in  a  somewhat  torpid  condition  and  without  food,  but  losing  little  or  nothing  in 
flesh,  until  the  following  spring. 

t  Die  Susswasserfische  der  ostreichischen  Monarchie  mit  Rucksickt  auf  die  angriin- 
genden  Lander  bearbeitet  von  Jakob  Heckel  *  *  uud  Dr.  Rudolph  Kner  *  *  * 
Leipzig,  Verlag  von  Wilhelm  Engelmann,  1858,  p.  57. 

§Aigner,  quoted  by  Heckel  and  Kner. 

f— in 


XXXIV    REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

have  been  obliged  to  gather  long  lists  of  synonyms,  each  applying  to 
one  or  more  of  the  varieties.  Giinther's  list  of  synonyms  embraces 
thirtj'-one  binomial  names,  aud  several  common  names.  Beginning  with 
the  Koizpivoq  of  Aristotle,  his  volume  includes  new  ones  to  nearly  the 
date  of  its  publication.*  He  finds  the  names  applied  to  the  normal 
type,  to  "  varieties  of  the  integuments,"  to  "  varieties  of  form,"  to 
"  monstrosities,"  to  the  "  eastern  [Asiatic]  specimens,"  and  to  a  "  variety 
with  the  fins  much  prolonged."  His  material  for  study  included  Euro- 
pean specimens  from  different  parts  of  England,  Holland,  Hungary, 
Switzerland,  and  Eussia,  and  Asiatic  specimens  from  China,  Formosa, 
Japan,  and  Java,  all  which  varieties  he  refers  to  the  one  species,  Gypri- 
nus carpio  L. 

Another  species,  the  Crucian  carp  (Carassms  vulgaris  (Miss.)  Nord.) 
is  found  in  temperate  Asia  aud  Europe.  This,  too,  has  been  domesti- 
cated and  has  developed  varieties  principally  in  the  particular  of  form. 
An  extensive  list  of  names  pertains  to  this  species,  also.  The  testimony 
of  writers  agrees  rather  uniformly  that  the  Crucian  carp  is  inferior  in 
flavor  to  the  common  carp  ;  still,  it  is  cultivated  in  portions  of  Europe. 
Its  present  distribution  appears  to  extend  farther  north  than  the  com- 
mon carp,  as  it  is  taken  in  Norway  and  Siberia.  A  variety  is  also  found 
as  far  south  as  Sicily. 

To  add  to  the  confusion  into  which  the  existence  of  so  many  variable 
forms  has  placed  the  question  of  species,  it  is  known  that  two  or  more 
hybrids  exist  between  the  Gyprinus  carpio  and  other  species.  The  best 
known  one  is  that  which  was  identified  by  Heckel  as  Gyprinus  Kollarii, 
now  believed  to  be  a  cross  between  Gyprinus  carpio  and  Gyprinus  caras- 
sius  L. ;  it  is  said  to  be  found  wherever  the  two  species  are  kept  under 
domestication.  This  hybrid  is  considered  to  be  inferior  to  the  common 
carp.  Another  one  is  the  cross  between  G.  carpio  L.  and  Garassius 
auratus  (L.)  Bleeker,  which  is  thought  superior  to  the  latter,  though 
much  cannot  be  said  in  its  favor.  In  a  letter  received  from  Dr.  O. 
Finseh,  still  another  hybrid  is  referred  to  between  C.  carpio  L.  and 
Gyprinus  brama  L. 

Among  all  these  variations  of  form  and  external  characters,  differing 
as  they  do  in  proportions  of  body,  in  the  size  of  the  scales,  in  the  partial 
or  complete  absence  of  scales,  in  the  form  of  the  fins,  and  in  the  combi- 
nations of  the  characters  of  two  species  in  a  hybrid,  there  is  also  a  varia- 
tion in  their  edible  qualities,  in  their  prolificness,  some  forms  being  en- 
tirely sterile,  and  popularly  believed  to  be  neuter  in  gender,  aud  also 
in  their  hardiness  and  adaptability  to  more  or  less  unfavorable  waters. 

In  referring  to  the  sterile  carps,  Siebold  remarks  that  many  are  found 
in  which  ovaries  or  spermaries  are  never  fully  developed.  In  some  they 
are  so  little  developed  that  the  generative  organs  are  found  only  with  the 

*  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  in  the  British  Museum,  by  Albert  Giinther,  M.  A.,  M.  D., 
Ph.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  Z.  S.,  etc.,  etc.    Volume  seventh,  Loudon :  Printed  by  order  of  the 

trustees,  1803. 


REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES.       XXXV 

greatest  difficulty,  and  they  are  considered  by  many  as  asexual.  The 
sterile  carp  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle.  They  are  generally  well  known 
and  can  be  distinguished  by  those  accustomed  to  handle  them.  In 
France  the  sterile  form  is  the  Carp  Brehaigne  and  Carpeau.  De  La- 
tourette  states  that  the  sterile  carp  has  shorter  and  thicker  lips,  and  that 
the  belly  in  the. vicinity  of  the  anus  is  thin  and  shrunken.*  The  better 
varieties  seem  to  be  the  Spiegel-karpfen,  mirror  carp  {Cyprinus  specularis 
Lacep),  {Cyprinus  rex-cyprinorum  (Bloch),  Cuv.,)  and  the  naked  carp 
{Cyprinus  nudus  Bloch)  or  {Cyprinus  alepidotus  Ag.)  and  the  sterile  ones. 
It  is  claimed  by  certain  English  writers  that  by  a  process  of  spaying  or 
castration,  which  can  be  performed  on  the  carp,  the  flavor  is  much  im- 
proved. 

The  artificial  propagation  of  the  carp  has  been  carried  on  successfully 
in  Europe  for  a  number  of  years.  Their  annual  deposit  of  eggs,  how- 
ever, is  so  large  in  numbers  that  artificial  impregnation  is  seldom  neces- 
sary, though  affording  a  larger  percentage  of  increase  over  the  natural. 
The  spawning  season  in  Middle  Europe  is  May  and  June,  though,  accord- 
ing to  Siebold,  some  spawn  as  late  as  August.  The  eggs  are  very  adhe- 
sive, and  in  a  state  of  nature  are  found  sticking  to  the  leaves  of  plants 
and  the  small  twigs  of  brush  which  have  fallen  into  or  which  grow 
under  the  water.  The  eggs  are  thought  to  develop  best  when  only  one 
or  two  inches  from  the  surface,  t  The  fish  emerges  from  the  egg  after 
about  twenty  days,  leaviug  the  shell  still  attached  to  the  plant  or  twig. 
The  artificial  method  is  to  express  the  eggs  on  light  frames  of  netting, 
©r  on  baskets  made  by  wattling  a  wooden  frame  with  boughs,  the  milt  be- 
ing scattered  over  them  as  they  lie  adherent  to  the  nets  and  the  leaves. 
The  netting  frames  are  placed  vertically  in  a  floating  box,  which,  in  a 
running  stream,  is  afforded  the  necessary  water  circulation.  The  basket, 
when  covered  with  the  impregnated  eggs,  is  treated  in  like  manner. 
The  boughs  of  the  juniper  (Juniperus)  are  said  to  be  the  best  for  making 
the  baskets.  The  pairs  of  ripe  fish  may  be  put  into  the  basket  and  left 
to  themselves,  a  piece  of  netting  being  tied  over  the  top  to  prevent 
their  escape.  After  the  eggs  have  been  deposited  the  fishes  should  be 
removed. 

Among  the  localities  in  Europe  where,  it  is  stated,  they  are  bred,  the 
following  are  referred  to,  with,  in  some  cases,  the  name  of  the  proprietor 
or  superintendent  of  the  ponds : 

"  The  naked  carp  {C.  nudus  Bloch)  is  chiefly  raised  in  North  Germany; 
the  mirror  carp  {C.  rex  cyprinorum  (Bloch)  Cuv.)  in  South  Germany;  the 
scaled  genuine  carp  in  North  Germany  (Mecklenburg,  Holstein,  &c), 
in  Bohemia  and  Silesia ; "  fide  Dr.  O.  Finsch.  Casel,  mirror  carp,  Mr, 
Lewin  Fischhof;  Geirsdorf,  Silesia  scaled  carp ;  Wittengen,  Hanover, 
Mr. Link;  Hameln,  Fishermeister  Schieber;  Liebbinchen,  Brandenburg; 

*See  Die  Siisswasserfische  vou  Mittel-Europa^bearbeitet  Von  C.  Th.  E.  v.  Siebold. 
Leipzig,  Verlag  von  Wilhelm  Engelmann,  1863. 
t  Report  18?2-'73,  p.  568. 


XXXVI    EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Drobriluyk,  Brandenburgh,  Traugott  Mende;  Wittengen,  Bohemia, 
Prince  Schwarzenburg  j  Biddabausen,  near  Brunswick,  naked  carp7 
Prince  of  Schonnburg-Lippe ;  Wiesbaden,  common  carp,  mirror  carp, 
and  gold-orfe,  nassauiscke  Fisberei,  Actiengesellscbaft ;  Niirnburg,  mirror 
carp;  Gunzenbausen,  mirror  carp;  Lusatia,  estate  of  Cottbus  Peitzj 
Upper  Silesia,  Baron  Eotbscbild  ;  Brickaberg,  naked  carp ;  Heesen,  Mr. 
Bodeman ;  Hocbst,*  near  Frankfort,  mirror  carp,  scaled  carp,  and  gold- 
orfe  ;  Oldenburg,  bybrid,  C.  Kollarii  Heck.,  Mr.  Wagner. 

Tbis  list  migbt  be  multiplied  many  times. 

Tbe  present  distribution  of  tbe  carp  (Cyprinus  carpio  L.)  in  Europe 
may  be  given  as  throughout  tbe  middle  latitudes  of  Europe,  extending 
northward  to  Northern  Germany  and  southward  into  Italy.  The  C. 
carassius  L.  has  a  more  northern  range  into  Siberia  and  Norway,  while 
the  variety  C.  humilis  is  fouud  in  Sicily. 

The  special  advantage  to  be  gained  by  the  possession  of  the  carp  is  in 
its  general  adaptability  to  all  waters,  and  that  it  thrives  under  conditions 
unfavorable  to  many  species.  According  to  Heckel  and  Kner,  it  prefers 
"water  not  too  rapid  and  a  boggy  bottom. 

As  a  fish  for  propagation  in  ponds  and  other  sluggish  waters  both  south 
and  north,  it  is  believed  the  carp  will  excel  all  others.  In  Northern 
Silesia,  according  to  Mr.  Von  dem  Borne,t  on  the  estate  of  Baron  von 
Bothschild,  puddles  two  or  three  feet  deep  in  the  villages  are  used  for 
raising  two-year-old  carps  for  stocking  distant  waters.  From  this  re- 
source, a  single  estate  realized  what  would  amount  to  about  $55  per 
American  acre  of  pond-surface. 

The  following  is  a  recapitulation  of  the  good  qualities  of  the  carp  : 

1.  Fecundity  and  adaptability  to  the  processes  of  artificial  propaga- 
tion. 

2.  Living  largely  on  a  vegetable  diet. 

3.  Hardiness  in  all  stages  of  growth. 

4.  Adaptability  to  conditions  unfavorable  to  any  equally  palatable 
American  fish  and  to  very  varied  climates. 

5.  Kapid  growth. 

G.  Harmlessness  in  its  relations  to  other  fishes. 

7.  Ability  to  populate  waters  to  their  greatest  extent. 

8.  Good  table  qualities. 

The  food-fish  indigenous  to  the  United  States,  which  has  been  the 
most  widely  distributed  in  the  smaller  ponds  and  lakes,  is  the  large- 
mouthed  black  bass  {Micropterus  nigricans  (Cuv.)  Lacep.)  This  fish  is 
very  carnivorous,  preying  upon  almost  all  species  in  the  same  waters. 
Even  the  pickerel  is  said  to  decrease  rapidly  when  in  contact  with  it. 
The  necessity  for  fish-food  is  always  a  bar  to  a  great  increase  of  numbers 
among  fishes,  especially  in  small  bodies  of  water.     Species  which  feed 

*  Carp  in  ponds  at  Baltimore,  Mel.,  obtained  here  by  United  States  Commission 
Fisheries. 

t  Circular  No.  1,  1876,  of  the  Deutsche  Fisberei- Verein,  see  translation  in  appendix. 


REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES.     XXXVII 

upon  invertebrate  and  vegetable  forms  fill  out  the  possible  quota  of  the 
waters  with  their  own  kind,  while  the  carnivorous  species  require  that 
a  large,  generally  the  larger,  proportion  of  the  inferior  species  upon  which 
they  feed  inhabit  the  waters  with  them.  An  instance  of  the  ability  of 
the  carp  to  stock  waters  to  their  utmost  occurred  at  Heidelberg,  Ger- 
many, where  male  pikes  (Esox  lucius  L.)  were  introduced  for  the  purpose 
of  reducing  their  numbers. 

9. — AQUARIUM  CAR. 

During  the  winter  of  lS72-'73,  Mr.  Livingston  Stone  was  employed 
in  an  investigation  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Sacramento  Eiver  and  some 
of  the  inland  lakes  of  California.  In  the  spring  of  1873,  he  came  East 
to  prepare  for  a  return  to  California  with  an  aquarium-car  loaded  with 
fishes  for  both  the  inland  waters  and  sea-coast  of  California — an  enter- 
prise partly  under  the  auspices  of  the  State  commissioners  of  California. 
This  car,  originally  built  for  the  transportation  of  fruit,  was  furnished 
by  the  Central  Pacific  .Railroad  Company.  It  was  fitted  up  with  the 
necessary  tanks,  ice-chests,  and  beds  for  attendants;  the  supply- reser- 
voir was  arranged  so  as  to  receive  water  from  the  spouts  of  the  rail- 
road  tanks. 

The  stock  of  fishes  and  invertebrates  taken  on  board  consisted  of 
60  black  bass  (Micropterus  salmoides);  11  wall-eyed  pike  (Stizostedium 
Americanus) ;  190  yellow  perch  (Perca  fiavescens)  ;  12  bullheads 
{Amiurus  catus) ;  110  cat-fish  from  Earitan  Eiver,  Amiurus  albidus  f) ; 
20  tautogs  {Tautoga  Americana))  41,500  eels  (Anguilla  bostoniensis) ; 
1,000  trout  (Salmo  fontinalis)  j  20,000  shad  (Alosa  sapidissima) ;  162 
lobsters  (Homarus  vulgaris) ;  and  one  barrel  of  oysters  from  Massachu- 
setts Bay  (Oslrea  virginica.)  The  start  was  made  from  Charlestown, 
N.  H.,  June  3,  and  everything  resulted  favorably  until  the  8th  of  June, 
when,  by  the  giving  way  of  the  trestle-work  of  a  bridge  at  the  Elkhorn 
Eiver,  Nebr.,  the  aquarium-car  was  precipitated  into  the  river,  the  car 
was  partially  up-ended,  and  the  tanks  thrown  into  confusion.  As  the 
lids  were  floated  off  from  the  tanks,  it  is  probable  that  most  of  the 
fishes  escaped  into  the  river.  Many  of  the  species,  however,  were  well 
adapted  to  the  waters  of  the  river,  but  of  course  not  the  tautogs,  lob- 
sters, or  oysters. 

In  the  year  following,  Mr.  Stone  left  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  on  June  4, 
1874,  under  the  auspices  of  the  commissioner  of  fisheries  of  California. 
He  arrived  at  the  Sacramento  on  the  12th  of  June,  and  at  San  Fran- 
cisco the  same  day.  A  tabulated  list  of  the  results  of  this  expedition 
will  be  found  in  the  appendix. 


XXXVIII  REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES. 


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CONTENTS. 


Page. 

REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER.    (Table  of  contents  precedes  report) I 

APPENDIX  A.— SEA  FISHERIES  AND  THE  FISHES  AND  INVERTEBRATES  USED  AS 

POOD 1 

I.  Historical  observations  on  the  condition  of  the  fisheries  among  the  ancient  Greekb 

and  Romans  and  their  mode  of  salting  and  pickling  fish.    By  J.  K.  Smidth 3 

Introduction 3 

Classified  groups  of  fishes , 8 

Caring  processes 14 

Lobsters 1? 

Fish,  oyster,  and  snail  ponds 18 

tj.  Statistics  of  the  most  important  fisheries  of  the  North  Atlantic.    By  Carl  Dam- 
beck 21 

1.  Norway • 21 

2.  Sweden 21 

3.  Denmark 22 

4.  Germany 22 

5.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 23 

6.  Fiance 24 

7.  North  America 24 

TTT.  On  the  fisheries  of  Norway •. 25 

IV.  Statistical  data  regarding  the  Swedish  fisheries 31 

Y,  Account  of  the  fisheries  and  seal-hunting  in  the  White  Sea,  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 

the  Caspian  Sea.    By  Alexander  Schultz 35 

A-  The  fisheries  of  the  White  Sea  and  the  Petshora 36 

1.  The  herring 37 

2.  Thesalmon 40 

3.  Thenavaga  (Qadtis  navaga)  and  other  salt-water  fish *. 43 

4.  River  and  lake  fish 44 

B.  Fisheries  in  the  Arctic  Ocean 44 

1.  Fisheries  on  the  Mourman  coast 44 

2.  Fisheries  at  Novaya-Zemlya 52 

Q.  Fishing  and  seal-hunting  in  the  Caspian  Sea 58 

1.  Fish  found  in  the  Caspian  Sea 58 

2.  Spawning-season  of  the  fish  in  the  Caspian  Sea 61 

3.  Wealth  of  fish  in  the  Caspian  Sea 62 

4.  Estimated  value  of  the  fisheries  in  the  Caspian  Sea 63 

5.  Fishing-basins  of  the  Caspian  Sea 64 

6.  Fishing-implements 72 

7.  Importance  of  a  vataga  (fishing-establishment) 80 

8.  Preparing  the  fish  and  its  several  parts 82 

9.  Market-price  of  fish  and  their  products 90 

10.  Price  of  fish  as  fixed  by  agreement  between  the  fisherman  and  the  fishing-houses 91 

11.  Seal-hunting 92 

12.  Manufacture  of  seal-oil 95 

VI.  The  Norwegian  herring-fisheries.    By  A.  I.  Boeck  and  A.  Feddersen 97 

VII.  Preliminary  report  for  1873-74  on  the  herring  and  the  herring-fisheries  on  the 

west  coast  of  Sweden.    By  Axel  Vilhelm  Ljungnian 123 

1.  On  different  species  of  herring  and  small-herring 125 

The  spring-herring  (Olupea  majalis)  128 

The  sea-herring  (hafslottsill) 130 

The  wandering-herring  (Straksillen) 131 

Herring-spawning  in  autumn 133 

The  large  herring,  or  the  so-called  (ganila)  herring,  ( Olupea  bohusica,  Nilss) 133 

2.  Of  the  propagation  and  growth  of  the  herring  and  small-herring 143 

3.  Of  the  herring's  and  small-herring's  mode  of  life;  its  migrations,  and  the  dependence  of 

these  latter  on  meteorologic  an  d  hydrographic  circumstances . . 147 

4.  Of  the  herring-fisheries  and  thejr  time  and  place............... „„..... j....^...... 150 


XLYIII  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX  A- Continued.  Page. 

yil.  Of  THE  HERRING  AND  HERRING-FISHERIES  ON  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  SWEDEN— Continued. 

5.  The  smaL.  herring  fisheries,  their  time  and  place . 152 

6.  Of  fishing  implements,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  used,  and  other  matters  connected 

therewith 154 

7.  Scientific  ol  eervations  and  scientific  as  well  as  practical  experiments  necessary  for  con- 

tinuing the  i  nvestigations  and  bringing  them  to  a  satisfactory  end 365 

8.  Of  the  immediate  continuation  of  the  investigations  and  the  sums  required  for  this 

purpose 167 

VUI.  The  halibut-fisheries  of  the  United  States.    By  Lieut.  P.  de  Broca 109 

IX.  The  fishing-villages,  Sxekkersteen  and  Skotterup,  and  the  collection  of  fishing- 

implements  exhibited  by  them  at  Elbinore,  Denmark,  during  the  summer  of  187a. .  173 

X.  On  the  herring,  and  its  preparation  as  an  article  of  trade.    By  Bjalniar  Widegren  ..  183 

Introduction ,   163 

1.  Preparation  of  common  Baltic  herring  for  consumption  in  Sweden  and  in,  the  German 

ports  of  the  Ealtic 189 

2.  Preparation  of  extra- fine  herring  for  home  consumption 192 

3.  Preparation  of  spiced  herring  (Kryddsill) 193 

XL  New  contributions  to  the  herrlng-question.    The  dispute  between  Axel  Boeck  and 

OtsiAN  Sars  regarding  the  Norwegian  summer-herring.    Sars'u  recent  observa- 
tions and  HIS  NEW  THEORY  ON  THE  MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  HERRING 195 

XII.  Otf  THE  SPAWNING  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  COD-FISH.     By  Prof.  G.  O.  Sars 213 

XIII.  The  Norwegian  lobster-fishery,  and  its  history.    By  A.xel  Boeck 223 

Introduction ?~3 

Implements  for  catching  the  lobsters,  methods  of  catching  them,  and  tho  manner  of  ship- 
ping them 228 

The  lobster-trade  and  the  history  of  its  legislation , 232 

Draught  of  a  law  regarding  the  protection  of  lobsters 253 

XIV.  Transportation  of  lobsters  to  California 258 

XV.  ON  THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  THE  LOBSTER 267 

XVI.  On  the  oyster-industries  of  the  United  States.    By  Lieut  P.  do  Broca .  27 1 

Letter  to  the  minister  of  marine  and  colonial  affairs 271 

Chapter  first — 

Introduction , , 277 

Chapter  second — 

Oysters  of  the  United  States ,»„ 2eG 

Mode  of  obtaining  the  oysters 202 

Culture  of  oysters 290 

Laws  concerning  oyster-plantations 299 

Chapter  third — 

The  oyster-business  in  several  cities  of  tho  United  States , 302 

Chapter  fourth — 

General  views  upon  the  natural  history  of  the  market-clams. 313 

Recommendations  for  introduction 318 

APPENDIX  B.— THE  RIVER-FISHERIES 321 

XVII.  The  propagation  and  distribution  of  the  shad 323 

A.  Operations  in  the  distribution  of  the  shad  in  1874.    By  James  VV.  Mil ner 323 

Distribution  from  Coey mans,  N.  T 323 

Distribution  from  South  Hadley  Falls,  Mass 323 

Table  of  distribution,  1874 326 

B.  Report  on  shad-hatching  in  New  Jersey.    By  G.  A.  Anderson 327 

C.  Voyage  to  Bremerhaven,  Germany,  with  shad.    By  Fred  Mather 328 

D.  Living  shad  on  their  way  to  Weser.    Translated  by  H.  Jacobsen 330 

E.  Shad  hatching  and  distributing  operations  of  1875 335 

1.  The  Nouse  River  station 335 

2.  The  Pamunkey  River  station 336 

3.  The  Potomic  River  stations 336 

4.  The  distribution  of  shad  from  the  Hudson  River 337 

5.  The  Connecticut  River  station , 337 

6.  Experiments  with  a  view  to  transporting  shad  to  Germany 338 

7.  The  trip  to  Germany 339 

Tables  of  shad-hatching  operations 340 

XVTTL  Report  of  the  Triana  trip.    By  J.  W.  Milner 351 

XIX.  On  the  transportation  of  shad  for  long  distances 363 

A.  Experiments  with  a  view  to  transporting  shad  in  sea-water.    By  James  "W.  Milner 363 

B.  Experiments  with  a  view  to  transporting  shad  a  few  months'  old.    By  Charles  D.  Griswold  370- 


CONTENTS.  XLIX 

APPENDIX  B  -Continned.  Page. 

XIX.  On*  tiie  transportation  of  shad  for  long  distances— Continued. 

G.  Apparatus  for  hatching  shad-ov.i  while  en  route  to  new  waters.    By  Fred  Mather 372 

XX.  Report  of  operations  in  California  in  1873.    By  Livingston  Stone 377 

A.  Clear  Late 377 

1.  Field-work  in  the  winter  of  1872-'73 377 

2.  Character  of  Clear  Lake 377 

3.  List  of  fishes  inhabiting  the  lake 378 

4.  The  condition  of  the  fish  in  Clear  Lake  at  different  seasons 380 

B.  Sacramento  River 382 

1.  Character  of  fishing  on  the  Sacramento 382 

C.  California  aquarium-car 385 

D.  Overland  journey  with  live  shad 390 

1.  Preparation  for  the  trip 390 

2.  The  start 390 

3.  The  apparatus 391 

4.  The  care  of  the  fish 391 

5.  Journal  of  the  trip 395 

6.  Experiments  to  ascertain  the  character  of  the  water 400 

7.  Stations  affording  supplies  of  water 401 

8.  Temperature  of  the  water  in  the  cans 401 

9.  Conclusion 401 

E.  McCloud  River  station i 402 

1.  Catching  the  parent  salmon 40:3 

2.  Confining  the  salmon 405 

3.  The  Indian  sentiment  in  regard  to  catching  the  salmon 408 

4.  Spawning  the  fish 410 

5.  The  hatching-apparatus 4 1 1 

6.  Hatching  the  eggs 415 

7.  Packing  and  shipping  the  eggs 419 

8.  The  method  of  packing  discussed 420 

9.  Cost  of  the  eggs 420 

10.  Journal  of  overland  trip  with  salmon-eggs 421 

11.  Distribution  of  salmon-eggs 423 

F.  Catalogue  of  collections  sent  to  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1873 424 

G.  A  list  of  McCloud  Indian  words,  supplementary  to  a  list  contained  in  the  report  of 

1872.    By  Livingston  Stone 128 

XXI.  Hatching  and  distribution  of  California  salmon 4ru 

A.  Report  on  California  salmon-spawn  hatched  and  distributed.    By  J.  H.  Slack,  M.  D 431 

B.  Hatching  and  distribution  of  California  salmon  in  tributaries  of  Great  Salt  Lake.    By  A. 

P.  Rockwood 434 

XXII.  Report  of  operations  during  1874  at  the  United  States  salmon-hatching  estab- 
lishment on  the  McCloud  River,  Cal.    By  Livingston  Stono 437 

Introduction 437 

Table  of  consignment  of  salmon-eggs  according  to  order  of  shipments 441 

Cost  of  the  eggs 443 

Camp-buildings,  &c 443 

The  hatching-apparatus 444 

The  fish  and  the  fishing 445 

The  taking  and  ripening  of  the  eggs 447 

Packing  the  eggs 448 

The  overland  journey  of  the  eggs 44& 

Life  in  camp 459 

Our  neighbors 466 

Game 468 

Extracts  from  journal  . , 4t>8 

Tables  of  temperature 471 

Catalogue  of  collections  sent  to  Smithsonian  Institution,  contributed  in  1874 474 

Second  California  aquarium-car 477 

XXIII.  Correspondence  relatlng  to  the  San  Joaquin  River  and  its  fishes 479 

XXIV.  The  Atlantic  Salmon,  (Salmo  salar) 485 

A.  Report  on  the  collection  and  distribution  of  Penobscot  salmon  in  l£73-'74  and  1874-'75. 

By  C.G.Atkins 485 

1.  Methods 485 

2.  Purchase  of  breeding-salmon j 486 

S.  Development  and  distribution 488 

IV  F 


L  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX  B— Continued.  Page. 

XXIV.  The  Atlantic  salmon— Continued. 

4.  Marking  salmon  for  future  identification 490 

5.  Summaries 492 

Tables 493 

B.  The  salmon  of  Lake  Charnplain  and  its  tributaries.    By.  W.  C.  Watson 531 

1.  Abundance  of  the  salmon  in  early  times 531 

2.  The  disappearance  of  the  salmon,  and  its  causes 534 

3.  Traits  of  the  salmon 533 

4.  The  Au  Sable  River 539 

APPENDIX   C— FISH-CULTURE  RELATING  MORE  ESPECIALLY  TO  SPECIES   OF 

CYPRINID^ 541 

XXV.  Notes  on  pisciculture  in  Eiangsi.    ByH.Kopsch 543 

XXVI.  ON  THE  CULTUKE  OF  THE  CAKP 549 

A.  On  carp-ponds 549 

B.  Carp-culture  in  East  Prussia.    ByR.Striivy 552 

C.  Carp-ponds -. 555 

XXVII.  The  gold-orfe,  (Cyvrinus  orfus) 559 

A.  On  the  raising  of  the  gold-orfo,  ( Oyprinus  orfus. )    By  M.  Eirsch 559 

B.  Correspondence  relating  to  the  gold-orfe.    By  Prof.  C.  Th.  E.  v.  Siebold 561 

XXVIII.  Directions  for  using  tables  for  recording  the  propagation  and  distribution  of 
FISH 563 

APPENDIX  D.— THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  INLAND  FISHERIES 569 

XXIX.  Fisheries  and  fish^rst-laws  in  Austria  and  of  the  world  in  general.    By  Carl 

Pey  rer 571 

A.  General  considerations 571 

1.  Early  protective  measures 571 

2.  Improved  appreciation  of  the  interest - 572 

3.  The  object  of  fishery-legislation 573 

B.  The  fisheries 575 

4.  The  former  condition  of  the  Austrian  fisheries 575 

5.  The  present  condition  of  the  fisheries  and  its  causes 576 

6.  Artificial  fish-breeding 580 

7.  Progress  of  foreign  fisheries 585 

8.  Condition  of  pisciculture  in  Austria 589 

9.  Value  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries 598 

10.  Fishery  statistics 601 

11.  Scienti^c  investigations 603 

C.  Important  fresh-water  fisheries 605 

12.  Salmon  family,  (Salmonoid"i) 606 

13.  The  pike  family,  (Esocini) 613 

14.  The  catfish  family,  (SUuroidei)    613 

15.  The  cod  family,  (Oadoidei) 613 

16.  The  eels,  (Murcenoidei) 614 

17.  The  carp  family,  (Cyprinoidei) 614 

18.  The  perch  family,  (Percoidei) 616 

19.  The  sturgeon  family  (Ae>penserini) 616 

20.  The  crawfish,  (Astacus  fluviatilis) 617 

D.  Protective  legislation 618 

21.  The  fishing-privileges 618 

22.  Foreign  fishery -laws 619 

23.  Fishing-privileges  and  fishing-laws  in  Austria 643 

24.  The  buying-off  of  fishing-privileges 665 

25.  International  fishery-treaties 6G9 

26.  Salt-water  fisheries  and  the  laws  relating  to  them 674 

E.  Conclusion 077 

XXX.  How  can  our  lakes  and  rivers  be  again  stocked  with  fish  in  the  shortest  possible 

time ?    By  Mr.  Von  dem  Borne 681 

APPENDIX  E— NATURAL  HISTORY 685 

XXXI.  Preliminary  report  on  a  series  of  dredgings  made  on  the  United  States  Coast 
Survey  Steamer  Bache  in  the  Gulf  of  Maine.    By  A.  S.  Packard,  jr.,  M.  D 687 

XXXII.  List  of  the  marine  algm  of  the  United  States.    By  TV.  G.  Farlow,  M.  D 691 

Class  Algae 691 

List  of  the  principal  useful  sea- weeds  occurring  on  the  United  States  coast 71G 

Used  as  food 716 

Used  as  fertilizers 716 


CONTENTS.  LI 

m 
APPENDIX  E— Con  tinned.  Page. 

XXXII.  List  of  the  marine  alcje  of  the  United  SrATES— Continued. 

Used  for  the  manufacture  of  iodine 717 

The  great  kelp  of  California 717 

Alphabetical  index 718 

XXXIII.  Lecture  on  the  organs  of  reproduction  and  the  fecundation  of  fishes  and 
especially  of  eels.    By  Dr.  Syrski 719 

Introduction 719 

The  organs  of  reproduction  and  fecundation  in  fish  in  general 720 

The  reproductive  organs  of  the  eel '. 725 

The  ovaries  of  the  eel 730 

The  spermatic  organs 732 

XXXIV.  The  food  and  mode  of  livinc;  of  the  salmon,  the  trout,  and  the  shad.    By  D. 
Barfurth 735 

Prefatory  note.    By  Theo.  Gill 735 

Introduction 737 

1.  The  food  of  Trutta  salar  Siebold,  (Salmo  salar  and  hamulus  Val.,)  and  Trutta  trutta  Sie- 
bold  (Fario  argenteus  Val.)  in  the  river  Bhine '. 738 

2.  The  food  of  Trutta  fario 753 

3.  The  food  of  Alausa  vulgaris  while  in  the  Khino 75? 

Conclusion «•■  759 


APPENDIX   A. 


SEA  FISHERIES 


AND 


THE  FISHES  AND  INVERTEBRATES  USED  AS  FOOD. 


I.— HISTORICAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE 
FISHERIES  AMONG  THE  ANCIENT  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS, 
AND  ON  THEIR  MODE  OF  SALTING  AND  PICKLING  FISH. 


By  J.  K.  Smidth.* 


If  it  is  interesting  to  follow  the  great  and  rapid  progress  which  pis- 
ciculture has  made  and  is  still  making  in  our  times,  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  of  no  small  importance  to  go  back  through  the  ages  aud  inquire 
into  the  position  which  this  sister  of  agriculture  held  in  antiquity, 
especially  among  those  two  great  nations,  the  Greeks  and  Eomans 
concerning  which  we  have  the  most  accurate  and  ample  information  in 
the  writings  of  their  poets,  historians,  and  scientists.  Although  this 
rich  aud  almost  perfect  literature  is  known,  at  least  in  part,  to  many 
persons  through  the  study  of  the  classical  texts  themselves,  and  by 
means  of  more  or  less  faithful  translations  of  the  same,  but  few,  per- 
haps, are  aware  of  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of  these  writings  treats 
of  the  life  of  the  seas.  They  describe  its  inhabitants  and  their  mode  of 
living,  and  inform  us  that  in  those  times -fish  were  used  as  an  article  of 
food,  or  put  to  medicinal  and  other  uses.  It  would  be  a  great  mistake 
to  suppose  that  we  would  find  a  few  obscure  names  only,  as  having  dis- 
cussed this  subject ;  on  the  contrary,  they  begin  with  Homer,  and  are 
found  throughout  the  entire  wide  range  of  classic  literature. 

If  any  one  should  ask  for  the  reason  of  this  ardent  attachment  of  the 
ancient  writers  for  the  sea  and  everything  connected  with  it,  the  best 
answer  will  be  found  in  Buffon's  Natural  History  of  Fish,  where  this 
famous  natural  historian  says :  "  Fruitfulness,  beauty,  and  long  life  are 
essential  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  ocean."  This  is  the 
reason  why  Greek  mythology,  which,  so  far  as  regards  the  ultimate  cause 
of  its  imagery,  was  much  better  informed  than  we  usually  suppose,  and 
which  produced  ideals  of  undying  beauty,  placed  the  cradle  of  the  god- 
dess of  love  and  beauty  in  the  ocean,  and  represents  her  as  springing 
from  the  foaming  waves  surrounded  by  her  sacred  fish,  glittering  with 
gold  and  azure.  This  allegory,  as  beautiful  as  it  is  instructive,  is  by  no 
means  astonishing,  for  we  find  that  the  ancient  Greeks  had  observed  the 

"Nogle  historiske  Bemserkningerom  Fiskeriernes  Tilstand  paa  Grsekernes  og  Romer- 
nes  Tid  saint  om  de  dengang  brngte  Tilberedelsesmaader  af  saltet  og  mariueret  Fisk. 
Af  J.  K.  Smidth.  <  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri.  Udgivet  af  H.  V.  Fiedler,  og  Arthur  Fedder- 
Ben.— lite  Aargang.    Kj^beuhavn.    Jacob  Erslovs  Boghatulel.     1871.    pp.  34-02. 


4  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

habits  of  fish  more  closely  than  those  of  any  other  animals.  They  were 
not  only  familiar  with  them,  but  they  preferred  them  as  food  even  to  the 
choicest  poultry.  The  modern  Greeks  inherited  from  them  this  love  of 
the  sea  and  its  inhabitants,  and  still  preserve  it ;  while  the  Romans* 
weighed  down  beneath  the  most  cruel  despotism,  the  most  fearful  im- 
morality, and  the  most  insane  luxury  that  ever  disgraced  a  noble  nation, 
still  clung  to  their  love  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  deep.  It  is  by  no 
means  improbable  that  they  inherited  it  from  those  ancient  nations  of 
the  East,  among  whom  these  characteristic  traits  may  still  be  observed.* 

The  nearness  of  the  coast,  and  the  nature  of  the  sea  which  surrounded 
their  country  as  it  did  on  almost  every  side,  naturally  inspired  them 
with  a  love  for  ocean  life ;  and  it  may  well  be  said,  "  that  this  circum- 
stance is  more  closely  connected  with  the  progress  of  civilization  than 
is  usually  supposed.  We  find  that  it  vanishes  completely  first  in  those 
unfortunate  portions  of  Europe  and  Asia  where  barbaric  hordes  of  wild 
huntsmen,  issuing  forth  from  their  northern  forests,  succeeded  by  their 
numbers  and  fierceness  in  changing  the  customs  and  ideas  of  the  con- 
quered nations." 

These  words  of  Buffon  form  the  theme  and  starting-point  for  the  fol- 
lowing observations,  which  are  partly  taken  from  ancient  Greek  and 
Roman  authors  themselves ;  partly  from  more  recent  writers,  such  as 
PaulJovius  [Giovio],  Aldrovaudi,  Petrus  Artedi,  Gesner,  Buffon,  Sabin 
Berthelot,  and  partly  from  the  very  able  writings  of  Noel  dela  Moriniere, 
of  Rouen,  on  this  subject. 

The  archetypes  of  our  modern  fishing  implements,  the  net  and  the  line, 
have  been  known  and  used  throughout  the  whole  world  from  times  im- 
memorial. In  Homer  we  find  the  fisheries  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
and  he  frequently  takes  his  similes  from  the  art  which,  in  all  probability 
not  only  the  twin-sister  of  agriculture,  but  together  with  hunting,  consti- 
tuted the  first  mode  of  securing  subsistence  in  the  earliest  days  of  the 
human  race.  In  the  Odyssey,  e.  g.,  Penelope's  sighing  lovers  are  com- 
pared to  the  fish  gasping  on  the  shore,  where  the  fisherman's  net  has 
been  emptied.  Hesiod  places  on  the  shield  of  Hercules  a  fisherman  on 
his  lookout,  ready  to  cast  his  net  over  some  of  the  finny  tribe  which  are 
pursued  by  a  dolphin. 

The  ancients  knew  as  well  as  we  that  certain  natural  advantages, 
•wisely  managed,  would  open  up  new  and  remunerative  lines  of  business. 
Hence,  the  Greeks  developed  their  fisheries  to  such  a  degree  as  to  enlist 
a  large  amount  of  physical  and  mental  exertion,  and  they  gradually 
became  one  of   the  most  remunerative  of    occupations.    Large  salt- 

*  During  my  stay  in  Paris,  I  had  a  long  and  interesting  conversation  with  the 
Chinese  minister,  and  was  astonished  to  hear  how  far  advanced  the  Chinese  are  in  pis- 
ciculture, especially  as  regards  the  breeding  and  raising  of  fish.  They  also  seem  to 
have  a  great  many  fishing  implements  which  are  unknown  to  us.  He  finally  assured 
me  that  M.  Coste  (the  great  French  pisciculturist)  himself  might  learn  a  good  deal 
by  traveling  to  China,  an  opinion  which  was  strongly  corroborated  by  his  secretary, 
a  Belgian. 


FISHERIES    AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.         5 

ing-houses  were  established  in  favorable  places,  round  which  soon 
rose  a  constantly  increasing  number  of  fishermen's  huts.  These  again 
attracted  artisans  and  merchants,  so  that  the  village  soon  grew  to  a 
city,  of  which  the  fisheries  might  be  called  the  nucleus.  Of  such  cities 
there  was  a  large  number,  Byzantium  and  Sinope  being  illustrious  ex- 
amples. It  is  well  known  that  the  wealth  from  fish  gave  to  the  sea 
near  the  former  city  the  name  of  the  Golden  Horn.  "  Proud  and  beau- 
tiful Venice"  is  of  later  date,  but  of  similar  origin.*  Many  private  in- 
dividuals rapidly  accumulated  large  fortunes  by  dealing  in  salt-fish,  and 
the  ancient  writers  of  comedies  frequently  make  such  a  trader  (Keriphi- 
los  by  name)  the  object  of  their  raillery.  This  man,  it  seems,  had  been 
honored  with  the  Athenian  citizenship,  but  his  son,  by  a  life  of  dissipa- 
tion, soon  spent  the  fortune  which  his  thrifty  father  had  amassed. 

We  are  acquainted  with  about  four  huudred  different  names  of  fishes, 
which  have  been  described  by  Greek  authors.  "This  abundance  of  words," 
says  Buffon,  "  this  wealth  of  exhaustive  and  accurate  terms,  presupposes 
the  same  abundance  of  ideas  and  knowledge.  Is  it  not  evident  that 
nations,  who  had  fixed  the  names  of  many  more  objects  than  we,  must 
naturally  have  known  a  great  many  more  f 

From  what  Aristophanes  and  other  dramatic  writers  tell  usof  themode 
of  living  amons;  the  ancient  Greeks  we  know  that  in  their  time  fresh  and 
salt  fish  formed  a  very  important  article  of  trade.  Athenaeus  quotes  about 
two  hundred  passages  of  authors,  whose  works  are  now  lost,  in  which 
different  ways  of  preparing  and  preserving  fish  are  mentioned.  Xeno- 
crates,  iEschylus,  and  Sophocles  did  not  consider  it  beneath  their  dignity 
to  speak  of  very  tempting  bills  of  fare;  and  Archestratus,  who  assisted 
Epicurus  in  seeking  the  qualification  of  the  senses,  seems  to  have  de- 
scribed a  great  many  such  in  his  poem,  "  Dipnologia,"  a  most  amusing 
and  excellent  cook-book,  whose  lossis  still  deplored  by  modern  gourmands. 
In  the  city  of  Athens  the  government,  in  its  paternal  care,  even  went  so 
far  as  to  make  a  law  obliging  fishermen  as  soon  as  they  brought  their  fish 
to  the  market  to  sound  a  gong,  so  that  everybody  might  buy  fresh  fish. 
We  are  also  told  that  fishmongers,  in  order  to  sell  their  stock  more  rapidly, 
were  not  allowed  to  sit  down,  but  required  to  stand  during  the  time  fixed 
for  selling.t 

That  fish  formed  U  favorite  article  of  food  in  those  times,  is  clear  from 
the  fact  that  great  importance  was  attached  to  their  fisheries.  But  other 
considerations  also  tended  to  increase  their  interest  in  the  success  of 
the  fisheries.  Fleets,  as  is  well  known,  played  an  important  part  in  all 
of  the  wars  of  those  ages.    It  was  often  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty 

*  Regarding  the  remarkable  fish-colony,  Commachio,  compare  the  work  by  M.  Coste, 
"Voyage  d'exploration  sur  le  littoral  de  la  France  et  de  l'ltalie."    Paris,  1861. 

tThis  law  seems  to  have  been  known  in  Vienna  in  the  fifteenth  century.  At  any 
rate,  there  has  been  fouud  in  the  archives  of  that  city  an  ancient  decree  ordering  the 
fishermen  to  sell  their  fish  standing  and  bare-headed,  exposed  to  the  scorching  rays  of 
eun  and  to  storm  and  rain,  thus  forcing  them  to  sell  their  fish  speedily  and  at  a  reason- 
able price. 


6  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

to  find  sailors  sufficient  to  mau  theni,  and  especially  experienced  sailors. 
It  was,  therefore,  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the  governments  of 
Athens,  Sparta,  and  other  states,  that  the  fisheries  should  be  encour- 
aged, especially  the  sea-fisheries,  which,  in  our  days  also,  are  considered 
the  best  nurseries  of  sailors  for  the  navy. 

We  must  also  take  into  account  the  fact  that  the  greatest  wealth  of 
Greece  grewoutof  her  colonies.  To  maintain  an  intimate  connection  with 
these  was  of  the  utmost  importance;  and  for  this  end,  also,  the  fisheries 
were  especially  useful,  since  along  the  coasts  of  these  colonies  all  those 
fish  were  caught  which  move  in  schools.  These  fish  formed  an  impor- 
tant article  of  trade,  not  alone  for  the  colonies,  but  also  for  the  mother- 
country,  so  that  the  former  were  necessarily  dependent  upon  the  latter. 
The  article  for  which  there  was  the  greatest  and  most  widely-spread 
demand,  was  salt-fish.  All  historians  of  that  period  agree  in  laying 
stress  on  the  great  importance  which  this  article  held  in  commerce, 
even  before  the  time  of  Alexander,  and  during  the  last  centuries  of  the 
independence  of  Greece. 

But  after  wealth  increased,  and  luxury  and  effeminacy  took  the  place 
of  the  original  simplicity  of  life  and  manners,  the  fisheries  developed  an 
inexhaustible  supply  of  new  articles  of  food,  and  the  Black  Sea  (Pontus 
Euximis)  and  the  Sea  of  Azof  (Palus  Mceotis)  became  what  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland  were  to  the  maritime  states  of  Europe  during  the  first 
centuries  after  their  discovery.  Besides  fresh  fish,  dried  and  salt  fish, 
oil,  glue,  and  a  number  of  other  articles,  prepared  in  an  ingenious  man- 
ner from  the  roe  and  the  intestines  of  fish  and  of  other  animals  living 
in  the  water,  as  also  a  large  number  of  peculiar  kinds  of  medicine,  pre- 
pared from  them,  became  the  objects  of  large  and  extended  mercantile 
enterprises ;  and  all  these  were  often  sent,  at  an  enormous  expense,  to 
the  most  distant  portions  of  the  then  known  world.  Hence  it  was  that 
the  fisheries  constantly  increased  in  importance,  so  that  thousands  of 
slaves  became  educated  as  sailors  and  fishermen. 

But  the  fisheries  of  Greece  could  not  save  her  from  decay.  There 
arose  in  Italy  a  new  nation  whose  fixed  purpose  was  to  subdue  the 
world,  which  it  ultimately  accomplished.  Borne,  nursed  by  a  wolf,  never 
renounced  its  wolf-nature.  First,  it  ravished  its  neighbor's  daughters 
in  order  to  secure  wives;  then  their  sons,  iu  order  to  secure  slaves ;  and, 
finally,  it  carried  its  eagles  over  the  beautiful  land  of  the  Greeks.  But 
Borne  was  practical,  and  its  rule  proved  an  advantage  to  the  fisheries. 
The  most  important  question  was  how  to  raise  sailors  for  the  fleet.  The 
number  of  fishermen  was  not  sufficient,  and  the  crews  of  the  Boman 
galleys  consisted  more  of  rowers  than  of  sailors ;  but  the  latter  were  in 
great  demand,  as  they  were  more  familiar  with  the  element  where  battles 
were  to  be  fought. 

Not  only  politics,  but  religion  also,  proved  advantageous  to  the  fish- 
eries, for  the  Licinian  law  decreed  that  on  certain  days  of  the  year  salt- 
fish  only  could  he  eaten.  The  fishermen  had  also  their  special  festival, 
which  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  on  ihe  3d  day  of  June. 


FISHERIES    AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.  7 

The  Romans,  like  the  Greeks,  carried  on  their  fisheries  partly  along 
the  coasts  and  partly  in  the  open  sea.  A  large  number  of  fishermen's 
societies  had  been  organized,  which  fitted  out  large  vessels  and  sent  them 
on  long  cruises  all  over  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  beyond  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  up  and  down  the  coasts  of  North  Africa,  Spain,  and  Por- 
tugal. They  well  knew  how  to  make  use  of  favorable  weather,  and  were 
familiar  with  the  best  hours  for  fishing  by  day  and  by  night ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, just  before  the  rising  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  just  after 
their  setting. 

The  most  ordinary  fishing-implements  were  the  harpoon,  the  line,  and 
different  kinds  of  nets  and  seines.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  fishermen 
in  our  time  are  not  so  very  far  in  advance  of  their  ancient  brethren, 
although  of  course  these  implements  have  been  somewhat  improved 
during  the  progress  of  ages. 

Noel  de  la  Moriniere  gives  the  following  account  of  the  method  of  fish- 
ing with  lines :  "  The  lines  were  generally  made  of  horsehair,  single, 
double,  and  plaited.  The  hair  of  horses  was  preferred  to  that  of  mares, 
and  black  hair  was  not  esteemed  as  highly  as  white.  According  to 
iElianus,  the  hair  was  colored  in  different  ways.  The  fishing-pole  was 
chosen  with  reference  to  the  supposed  weight  of  the  fish  to  be  caught 
and  the  resistance  it  could  offer.  The  hooks,  which  were  of  copper  or 
iron,  covered  with  tin,  were  single,  or  composed  of  several  branches, 
and  of  different  thickness.  If  fish  were  to  be  caught  having  sharp 
teeth,  and  hence  able  to  injure  the  line,  it  was  surrounded  just  above 
the  hook  with  a  covering  of  horn  or  some  other  hard  substance,  e.  g., 
copper.  For  catching  sharks,  or  similar  fish,  iron  chains  were  employed. 
Many  details  concerning  these  implements  are  found  in  the  works  of 
the  ancient  writers."    (Histoire  generate  des  Peches,  p.  188.) 

Special  care  was  taken  in  the  selection  of  bait  for  line-fishing.  The 
most  common  bait  was  small  fish,  larva),  worms,  or  insects ;  some- 
times, also,  the  lungs  and  liver  of  hogs  and  goats,  shell-fish,  and  polyps ; 
and  even  at  times  the  entrails  of  animals  which  had  been  saturated 
with  an  extract  of  myrtle  and  other  odoriferous  plants.  Oppianus,  and, 
after  him,  Cassianus  Bassus,  as  well  as  other  writers  in  the  time  of  the 
emperors,  have  described  a  large  number  of  different  kinds  of  bait. 
Tbey  were  prepared  to .  suit  the  tastes  of  the  different  fish.  Thus  the 
"  aurata"  was  caught  with  almonds  and  the  sword-fish  with  mullets.  Op- 
pian  says  that  the  "  lycostome  "  (a  sort  of  herring)  was  the  best  bait 
for  catching  the  "  sargus."  As  soon  as  a  certain  quantity  had  been 
thrown  into  the  water  they  came  in  large  swarms  to  eat  it,  and  the  fish- 
ermen then  seized  the  opportunity  to  inclose  them  in  their  nets,  and 
thus  frequently  caught  large  numbers.* 

*  This  use  of  bait  in  net-fishing  reminds  us  of  the  sardine  fisheries  on  the  coast  of 
Brittany,  as  carried  on  in  our  own  time.  But  here  the  roe  of  the  cod-fish  is  used  as  a 
bait  for  the  sardines.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  enormous  quantity  of  roe  used  for  sar- 
dine-fishing, I  will  only  mention  that  30,000  kegs  of  roe  are  exported  annually  from 


H  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  Romans  also  used  artificial  baits ;  and  the  art  of  making  flies  of 
feathers  and  other  materials  has,  perhaps,  never  been  carried  further 
in  our  time  even  in  England  itself.  Fishing  by  torch-light  was  a  favor- 
ite amusement,  and  several  ancient  authors  describe  this  mode. 

There  were  peculiar  methods  of  net-fishing,  which  we  have  only  imi- 
tated or  somewhat  developed.  Hemp,  flax,  and  Spanish  reeds  were  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  these  nets,  which  were  afterward  tanned  sev- 
eral times  in  order  to  make  them  stronger.  The  fishermen  set  them 
both  along  the  coast  and  in  the  open  sea.  Drag-nets,  which  were  first 
used  by  the  Greeks,  served  for  inclosing  the  large  schools  of  migratory 
fish,  and  the  stationary  nets  stopped  them  in  their  course.  These  latter 
were  very  large,  and  were  made  of  a  kind  of  plaited  work  of  Spanish 
broom.  Permanent  nets  of  this  kind  were  soon  used  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bosphorus,  on  the  coasts  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  especially  in  the 
Ligurian  Sea,  the  Bay  of  Naples,  the  straits  of  Bonifacio  and  of  Mes- 
sina, at  the  entrance  of  the  Adriatic,  the  straits  of  Cadiz,  and  along 
the  coasts  of  France  and  Spain.  Strabo  makes  especial  mention  of  the 
large  stationary  nets  on  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Elba. 

The  four  hundred  names  of  fish  spoken  of  by  Greek  authors  are  given 
in  alphabetical  order  in  the  work  of  Aldrovandi,  who,  also,  gives  alpha- 
betical lists  of  fish  in  Latin,  Italian,  French,  German,  and  English. 
Similar  lists  are  found  in  Gesner,  Artedi,  and  other  authors.  Those 
who  desire  further  information  on  this  subject  are  referred  to  the  works 
of  those  ichthyologists.  But  to  enable  the  reader  to  form  some  idea  of 
the  numbers  and  kind  of  fish  known  in  those  times,  the  following  list  is 
given,  in  which  those  groups  and  families  are  mentioned  which  were 
most  numerous  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  seas.  Each  of  these  groups, 
therefore,  comprises  a  considerable  number  of  important  species,  to 
enumerate  which  would  lead  us  too  far  from  our  special  theme.  In  this 
list  Lutken's  system  has  been  followed : 

FIRST   ORDER. 

a.  Tlie  perch  group. — Red  mullets  (Muuus)  ;  breams  \Sparus); 
scisenoids  (Scicena  umbra);  and  white  mullets  [Mugil)\  besides  quite 
a  number  of  labroids  (e.  g.,  the  parrot-fish,  Scarus,  and  other  simi- 
lar fish.) 

b.  The  toad-fish  group. — 1,  gurnards  (Trigla);  2,  frog-fishes,  e.  g.,  the 
angler  (Lophius  piscatorius) ;  3,  gobies  (Gobius);  4,  blennies  (Blennius); 
the  sea-wolf  (Anarrhicas  lupus);  5,  codfishes  (Gadus),  and  especially 
the  "  Asellus;"  6,  flounders  (Pleuronectes);  and  among  these  the  turbot 
(Pleuronectes  rhombus),  plaice  (Pleuronectes  limanda),  sole  (Pleuronectes 
solea,)  <&c. 

Norway  to  France.  Each  of  these  kegs  contains  ahout  140  kilograms,  making  a  total 
of  about  4,500,000  kilograms,  or  about  9,000,000  of  pounds,  valued  at  about  3,000,000 
francs.  Several  owners  of  large  fisheries  have  assured  me  that  the  buying  of  this  roe 
deprives  them  of  half  the  profits  of  their  sardine-fisheries. 


FISHERIES   AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.  9 

e.  The  mackerel  group. — The  mackerel  {Scomber  scombus);  the  tunny 
(Scomber  thynnus);  the  scad  (Caranx  trachurus),  and  the  swordfish 
(Xiphias). 

d.  The  pipe-fish  group. — The  sea-horse  (hippocampus). 

SECOND   ORDER. 

a.  The  carp  group. — The  common  carp  (Cyprinus  carpio);  the  tench 
(Cyprinus  tinea),  and  the  loach  (Cobitis). 

b.  The  eel  group. — The  common  kinds  of  eel  and  the  sea-eel  (Anguilla, 
Conger). 

c.  The  salmon  group. — Nearly  all  kinds. 

d.  The  herring  group. — Especially  the  anchovy  (Engraulis  encras- 
icholus). 

THIRD   ORDER. 

a.  Sharks  (squalus). — The  dog-fish  (Scyllium  canicula);  the  blue  shark 
(Galeus  vulgaris);  and  others. 

b.  Rays  (raja). — The  saw-fish  (Pristis);  the  cramp-fish  (Torpedo). 

FOURTH  ORDER. 

Lampreys  (Petromyzon). — The  river  lamprey  (Petromyzon  fluvialis), 
and  the  sea-lamprey  (Petromyzon  marinus). 

Besides  these  fish,  whales,  dolphins,  lobsters,  crabs,  oysters,  various 
kinds  of  shell-fish  and  other  sea-animals,  that  came  within  the  scope  of 
the  fisheries,  are  mentioned,  and  ought  therefore  to  be  noticed  in  this 
place.  In  the  following  pages  some  of  the  most  important  fish,  as  well 
as  the  mode  of  fishing  for  them,  &c,  will  be  mentioned ;  then  the  salt- 
ing of  fish ;  and  finally  we  will  see  what  Pliny  says  about  the  artificial 
fish  ponds,  which  will  naturally  lead  us  to  speak  of  lobsters,  oysters, 
shell-fish,  &c. 

THE  MULLET. 

The  mullet  (mullus)  was  a  great  favorite  with  the  Romans.  Horace 
says,  "You  praise,  O  fool,  a  mullet  of  three  pounds,  which  you  are 
obliged  to  cut  into  several  pieces;"  and  Martial  praises  the  mullet,  say- 
ing, "  The  mullet  of  four  pounds,  which  you  had  bought,  was  the  chief 
attraction  of  your  feast,"  (ccenw  pompa  caputque  fuit).* 

Noel  de  la  Moriniere  tells  us  in  the  following  words  to  what  length  the 
Eomans  carried  their  passion  for  mullets : 

"The  mullet  was  one  of  those  fish  that  were  most  sought  for  in 
degenerate  Eome,  aud  it  was  made  the  subject  of  the  most  refined 
sensual  enjoyment  with  the  emperors  and  the  aristocracy,  who  had 
become  thoroughly  depraved  by  the  extravagant  use  that  was  made 
of  the  world's  plunder.  It  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  the  enormous 
value  which  the  Romans  placed  upon  this  fish,  for  as  it  never  reaches 

*"  Martial,  Epigrams,  s,  31. 


10  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

any  great  size,  they  did  not  hesitate  to  pay  its  weight  in  gold  if  it 
was  unusually  large.  Seneca  and  Suetonius  have  given  us,  in  their 
writings,  descriptions  of  the  extravagant  taste  in  the  preparation  of 
the  mullet  for  the  table  of  the  rich.  We  read  there  how  each  guest, 
with  the  most  refined  cruelty,  looked  upon  the  mullet  destined  for 
his  own  dish,  die  before  him,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  rapid  change 
of  brilliant  hues  which  the  fish  then  exhibited.  The  wildest  fancies 
that  the  most  extravagant  luxury  could  imagine  were  realized  in  pre- 
paring it  for  the  table.  The  freedmen  who  were  intrusted  with  the 
preparation  of  the  mullet  enjoyed  the  greatest  privileges,  and  a  good 
cook  was  often  better  paid  than  a  good  general.  Mullets  were  served 
on  dishes  lavishly  adorned  with  precious  stones,  and  the  most  costly 
spices  were  used  in  cooking  them.  During  the  reign  of  Heliogabalus, 
extravagance  reached  such  a  height  that  this  emperor,  who  had  become 
tired  of  mullets,  although  at  that  time  they  were  growing  scarce,  ordered 
(according  to  Lampridius)  a  dish  to  be  prepared  consisting  of  nothing 
else  but  the  mouth-fibers  of  mullets.  It  may  well  be  imagined  what  an 
enormous  quantity  was  required  to  satisfy  this  morbid  taste. 

"  Mullets  from  the  straits  of  Gades  (the  straits  of  Gibraltar  or  the 
straits  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules)  enjoyed  the  greatest  reputation. 

Dat  rhombos  Sinuessa,  Dicarchea  littora  pagros, 
Herculese  nmllum  rupes  .... 

"  Scarcely  less  famous  were  those  from  the  sea  around  Sicily  and  Cor- 
sica. According  to  Seneca,  (epist.  95,)  the  Emperor  Tiberius  sold  at 
auction  a  mullet,  weighing  four  pounds,  to  Apicius  and  Octavius  jointly, 
for  the  sum  of  4,000  sesterces,  ($156.)  This  fish,  which  can  easily  be 
recognized,  is  very  frequently  represented  on  the  fresco  paintings  which 
have  been  dug  out  from  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum  and  Portici." 

Though  not  exposed  to  the  same  cruelties  as  the  mullet,  there  was 
another  fish  which  almost  equaled  it  in  costliness: — 

THE   SCARUS. 

The  scarus,  a  fish  of  the  labroid  family,  was,  according  to  Pliny,  (Hist. 
Nat.,  ix,  17;  xxx,  10,)  originally  found  only  in  the  iEgean  Sea.  But 
in  the  time  of  the  emperors,  when  the  simplicity  of  former  days  degen- 
erated into  extravagance  and  luxury,  the  wrasse  was  brought  from 
Greece  to  adorn  the  tables  of  the  wealthy  Eomans.  One  of  the  freed- 
men of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  Elipertius  Optatus,  who  commanded  a 
Eoman  fleet  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  brought  a  large  quantity  of  these  fish  to 
the  coast  of  Italy,  where  they  were  put  into  the  water  near  Ostia,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  For  five  years  all  fishermen  who  caught  such 
fish  in  their  nets  were  ordered  to  throw  them  into  the  sea  again ;  and 
the  consequence  was,  that  that  portion  of  the  sea,  aud  even  the  Tiber 
itself,  as  far' as  the  gates  of  Rome,  swarmed  with  them.  This  attempt 
to  transplant  fish  proved  so  entirely  successful,  that  these  transplanted 


FISHERIES    AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.        11 

scat*  soon  gained  the  reputation  of  excelling  in  richness  of  flavor 
those  of  the  Greek  seas.  In  the  time  of  Pliny,  the  scams  was,  without 
doubt,  considered  one  of  the  greatest  dainties.  Originally,  the  stur- 
geon held  this  place,  then  the  basse  (lupus)  and  asellus,  and  at  last 
the  scarus  "came,  saw,  and  conquered." 

Ovid,  in  his  book  "  Halieutikou,"  relates  a  remarkable  trait  in  the 
nature  of  this  fish  :  when  it  has  been  caught  in  a  net  it  does  not  swim 
any  further,  as  this  would  cause  it  to  become  fastened  with  its  gills  in 
the  meshes,  but  it  swims  backward,  wagging  its  tail.  As  soon  as 
another  scarus  outside  the  net  notices  this  movement,  it  comes  to  its 
assistance,  by  seizing  the  tail  of  the  captive,  and  thus  draws  it  out  of 
the  net.  The  relation  of  this  remarkable  phenomenon  shows  the  accu- 
racy of  the  observations  of  the  ancients.  Pliny  tells  us  that  the  mullet 
and  the  scarus  when  they  find  themselves  pursued,  act  like  partridges 
and  little  children,  hiuiug  their  heads  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and 
imagining  that  the  pursuer  cannot  see  them,  because  they  cannot  see 
him. 

According  to  Suetonius,  the  "  shield  of  Minerva,"  the  famous  monster- 
dish  which  Vitellius  brought  into  fashion,  was  garnished  with  scari 
The  part  of  this  fish  most  esteemed  was  the  liver. 

THE  MUR2ENA. 

The  mursena  is  described  in  the  following  manner  by  PauA  oovius, 
whose  words  are  given  in  a  literal  translation  to  show  at  the  same  time 
how  natural  history  was  written  in  the  sixteenth  century :  "  Murcenas 
are  found  in  great  numbers  in  all  parts  of  the  sea,  but  those  from  the 
coasts  of  Sicily  are  the  largest  and  best.  These  are  the  kind  which 
Columella  calls  '  flutes.'  They  swim  near  the  surface,  and  it  therefore 
sometimes  happens  that  when  the  warm  rays  of  the  sun  dry  their  skin, 
thereby  depriving  them  of  their  flexibility,  they  can  no  longer  dip  beneath 
the  water  and  can  easily  be  caught  with  the  hand.  They  are  speckled,  and 
are  said  to  have  star-like  figures  on  their  sides,  arranged  in  the  shape  of 
the  dipper,  which,  however,  disappears  immediately  after  death.  They 
possess  great  cunuiug,  for  when  they  find  themselves  caught  they  swallow 
the  hook,  bite  through  the  line  with  their  teeth,  and  thus  make  their 
escape.  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  ancient  Romans  prized  the  inurcena  more 
on  account  of  its  long  life  than  of  its  delicious  flavor ;  for  the  large  num- 
bers required  for  daily  use  could  easily  be  kept  in  ponds  prepared  for  this 
purpose,  while  most  other  fish  soon  died,  either  through  grief  at  having 
lost  their  liberty  or  through  the  neglect  of  the  pond-keepers.  We  know 
from  Pliny  that  C.  Hirrius,  at  a  banquet  given  to  Ccesar  as  Dictator, 
could  place  on  the  tables  6,000  inuraenas  from  his  own  ponds.  MursB- 
nas  could  easily  be  tamed,  and  taught  to  take  their  food  out  of  a  per- 
son's hand.  Crcssus,  surnamed  the  wealthy,  was  so  much  attached  to 
a  niuraena  which  he  had  raised  himself,  that  when  it  died  he  shed  tears, 
and  had   it  buried.     We  also  read  an  account  of  an  answer,  which 


12  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Croesus  gave  to  L.  Domitius,  who  laughingly  expressed  his  astonishment 
that  any  one  could  weep  over  a  dead  muraena;  it  might,  perhaps,  be 
thought  strange,  he  said,  that  he,  Croesus,  shed  tears  over  a  dead  niurae- 
na,but  it  was  far  more  strange  that  he,  Domitius,  did  not  shed  any  tears 
over  his  three  dead  wives.  (Domitius  had  three  wives,  whom  he  is  re- 
ported to  have  poisoned  in  order  to  obtain  their  property.) 

Certain  ladies  showed  great  affection  for  mursenas ;  thus  Antonia,  the 
daughter  of  Drusus,  adorned  a  tame  rnuraena  with  gold  rings  and  brace- 
lets. 

Muraenas  eat  human  flesh,  and  the  cruelty  of  Vedius  Pollio  in  this 
respect  seems  well  established.  He  placed  those  of  his  slaves  who  had 
been  condemned  to  death  in  his  fish-pond,  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
could  not  be  eaten  at  once,  but  were  gradually  torn  to  pieces  by  the 
teeth  of  the  inursenas.  It  is  said  that  the  muraena  breathes  through  its 
tail,  and  therefore  dies  sooner  when  struck  on  the  tail  than  when  struck 
on  the  head. 

D.  Ambrosias  and  several  other  ancient  writers  assert  that  snakes 
mate  with  niuraenas,  and  that  the  latter  entice  the  snakes  to  the  seaside 
by  a  certain  peculiar  whistling  sound.  Athenaeus  does  not  believe  this, 
and  in  corroboration  of  his  opinion  quotes  from  a  work  on  popular  su- 
perstitions, written  by  Andreas.  Muraenas  spawn  all  the  year  round,  and 
of  this  kind,  the  Mums,  the  largest  and  strongest  is  of  a  uniform  color, 
very  much  resembling  that  of  the  larch;  so  at  least,  Aristotle  affirms: 
Pliny  calls  this  kind  Myrinus.  There  is  also  a  river  Muraena,  which  is 
much  smaller  and  has  only  one  point;  and  which  according  toDorianus 
is  the  same  that  Athenaeus  calls  gallaria,  and  I  think  that  Athenaeus 
must  have  meant  by  this  smaller  kind  what  we  call  lamprey  and  not 
the  sea-fish.  Iresius  assures  us  that  the  flesh  of  the  muraena  is  not  less 
nourishing  than  that  of  the  eel,  but  on  account  of  a  certain  hardness  and 
moisture  it  is  very  indigestible.  It  is,  however,  much  prized  on  account 
of  its  delicious  entrails,  with  which,  as  Lampridius  tells  us  in  his  history, 
Heliogabalus,  while  far  from  any  sea,  regaled  his  court  and  the  whole 
rural  population. 

THE   COD  FAMILY. 

Of  the  cod  family,  our  northern  codfish  was  certainly  not  known 
to  the  ancients.  The  kind  best  known  and  most  highly  prized  was  the 
Asellus,  which,  in  all  probability,  is  our  Gadus  merluccius.  At  all  events, 
Jovius  tells  us  that  the  fish  which  the  Ligurians  call  asellus  was  named  by 
the  Romans  squamus,  or  merluza.  Pliny  informs  us  how  highly  this  fish 
was  prized.  There  were  two  kinds.  The  larger  one  is  named,  by  Jovius, 
banchus,  and  reaches  a  length  of  two  feet.  The  smaller  kind  he  calls 
callarius.  Pliny  says  that  they  have  a  small  stone  in  their  head,  and 
praises  their  delicate  flavor.  Galenus  maintains  that  its  flavor  strongly 
resembles  that  of  the  codfish.  Aristotle  relates  that  during  the  great 
heat  of  summer  they  hide  themselves,  and  he  is  unable  to  tell  how  often 


FISHERIES    AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.       13 

they  spawn.  The  asellus  was  also  called  Bacchus  on  account  of  the  wine 
color  of  its  mouth,  and  this  circumstance  caused  Ovid  to  exclaim  "  that 
a  fish  with  so  many  excellent  qualities  did  not  deserve  so  ugly  a  name 
as  asellus  (i.  e.,  little  ass.)" 

As  an  article  of  commerce  the  asellus  was,  for  the  most  part,  salted, 
and  in  that  shape  sent  all  over  tbe  Eoman  empire. 

The  Eomans  did  not  confine  themselves  to  these  common  fisheries, 
but  also  ventured  to  attack  the  more  dangerous  animals  of  the  sea; 
and  even  whales,  which  came  into  the  Mediterranean,  often  became  a 
prey  to  the  fisherman. 

According  to  Oppianus,  this  fishery,  although  only  of  casual  occur- 
rence, resembled  very  much  our  mode  of  catching  whales  before  our 
fishermen  began  to  use  explosive  projectiles.  There  were  attached  to 
the  line,  which  the  whale  would  drag  under  water  while  escaping, 
two  large  leather  bags  filled  with  air,  precisely  like  those  which  the 
Greenlanders  and  the  inhabitants  of  Kamschatka  use.  The  description 
of  Oppianus  is  remarkable,  as  it  contains  many  interesting  details,  and 
seems  to  be  entirely  trustworthy.  He  says :  "  The  moment  the  monster 
is  attacked,  it  dives  down  to  the  depths  of  the  sea,  and  the  fishermen 
anxiously  wait  for  its  return.  Their  light  boats  plow  the  foaming 
waves,  and  rapidly  fly  toward  the  battle-ground,  where  a  combat  is  soon 
to  take  place,  on  whose  fortunate  termination  the  keenest  interest  is 
centered.  The  fishermen  encourage  each  other  by  shouts,  every  one 
strains  his  powers  to  the  utmost,  and  the  sea  presents  a  scene  of  ani- 
mated confusion.  As  soon  as  the  whale  shows  himself  again,  it  is  at- 
tacked with  double-hooked  spears.  Its  blood  begins  to  flow,  and  colors 
the  sea  for  a  great  distance ;  but  like  a  staunch  vessel,  braving  the 
thunder  and  the  lightning,  the  whale  resists  the  furious  attacks,  some- 
times with  a  single  movement  of  its  tail  sweeping  away  the  boats  which 
surround  it,  and  mocking  all  the  exertions  of  its  assailants.  But  the 
decisive  moment  approaches ;  though  mortally  wounded,  its  tail  still 
throws  a  deluge  of  water  over  its  enemies.  But  nothing  can  now  re- 
strain the  zeal  of  the  pursuers.  The  monster  is  overcome,  and  silent  and 
motionless  it  floats  on  the  water  like  a  conquered  man-of-war  after  a  san- 
guinary battle.  The  victors  then  drag  their  prize  ashore  amid  tumul- 
tuous shouts  of  joy." 

THE  SWORD-FISH. 

The  ancient  Eomans  possessed  many  sword-fisheries  throughout 
the  whole  extent  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  Byzantium  to  Gibraltar, 
but  they  were  of  the  greatest  importance  on  the  coasts  of  the  Tyrrhen- 
ian sea  and  in  the  great  and  shallow  bay  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  France.  The  name  of  the  promontory  Xiphonion  (called 
so  after  the  Latin  name  of  this  fish,  i.  e.,  xiphias)  shows  how  valuable  the 
sword-fish  was  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  coasts. 

De  la  Moriniere  says :  u  One  of  the  most  common  modes  of  fishing  was 


14  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

to  employ,  as  the  Greeks  do,  boats  built  in  the  shape  of  a  sword-fish, 
with  a  long  projecting  point  representing  the  sword  of  the  fish's  upper 
jaw,  and  painted  with  a  dark  color  like  that  peculiar  to  this  fish.  The 
sword-fish,  imagining  he  sees  a  comrade,  confidingly  approaches  these 
boats,  when  the  fishermen,  profiting  by  the  mistake,  plunge  their  spears 
into  its  side.  The  animal,  although  surprised,  nevertheless  vigorously 
defends  itself,  and  by  plunging  its  sword  into  the  sides  of  the  treacher- 
ous boat  often  exposes  it  to  imminent  danger.  This  moment  is  seized 
by  the  fishermen  to  cleave  its  head,  and  if  possible  to  chop  off  its  upper 
jaw.  After  thus  overcoming  its  resistance,  they  tie  their  victim  to  the 
boat,  and  so  drag  it  ashore. 

Oppianus  has  preserved  an  amusing  characteristic  of  this  fish,  which 
seems  to  contradict  the  statement  made  concerning  its  courage.  He 
says  that  if  accidentally,  or  in  the  too  eager  pursuit  of  mackerel  or  tun- 
nies, it  finds  itself  in  a  stationary  net,  it  retreats,  suspecting  some  snare, 
although  it  could  easily  tear  the  net.  This  timidity,  however,  proves 
disastrous,  for,  at  last  remaining  quite  still,  the  fishermen  come,  drag  it 
ashore  in  their  nets,  and  kill  it. 

SALTING. 

Tiiis  branch  of  industry  was  carried  on  in  the  earliest  times  by  the 
Phenicians  on  the  western  coast  of  Spain,  and  was  afterward  continued 
by  the  Greeks ;  but  it  was  reserved  for  the  Roman  empire  to  raise  it  to 
the  highest  degree  of  perfection.  It  was  applied  to  many  different 
kinds  of  fish.  By  the  term  "  salt-fish,"  we  must  not  understand  exclu- 
sively fish  laid  in  brine,  but  also  those  that  were  pickled  with  spices 
and  odoriferous  herbs.  According  to  Koel  de  la  Moriniere's  learned  re- 
searches, fish  were  preserved  both  in  a  raw  and  in  a  cooked  state,  and 
in  the  latter  case  they  were  prepared  with  precious  herbs  only.  He 
adds,  that  ii  would  really  seem  difficult  to  suppose  that  the  Roman 
Sybarites,  who  had  the  most  costly  fowl  and  fish  brought  from  Persia, 
Colchis,  and  India,  at  such  great  cost,  could  find  in  salted  tunnies, 
and  mormyri  anything  to  gratify  their  spoiled  palates. 

The  art  of  preserving  fish  in  different  ways  made  rapid  progress. 
Care  was  taken  not  only  to  preserve  such  kinds  as  would  retain  a  deli- 
cate flavor,  but,  also,  to  bring  new  articles  into  the  market,  that  thus  a 
brisk  intercourse  might  be  kept  up  between  the  cities  of  Italy  and  the 
colonies  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  those  days  the  mullet 
was  frequently  salted,  at  which  people  in  these  times,  at  least  with  us, 
would  sneer  ;  and  its  roe  formed  a  favorite  dish  with  all  classes.  From 
a  passage  in  Athemeus,  where  he  quotes  Archestratus,  we  learn  that 
the  sword-fish  was  then  salted  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  is  now 
done  on  the  coast  of  Sicily.  "  When  yon  c^me  to  Byzantium,"  he  says, 
"  take  a  piece  of  salt  sword-fish,  and  choose  a  slice  of  the  back  nearest 
to  the  tail."     Large  fish  were  cut  into  pieces  and  underwent  different 


FISHERIES    AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.       15 

processes,  both  simple  and  complicated,  according  to  which  they  were 
differently  named. 

It  would  detain  us  too  long  to  give  a  complete  list  of  those  fish  which, 
when  salted,  were  held  in  great  esteem.  The  following  are  some  for 
which  there  was  the  greatest  demand  :  the  sea-eel,  from  Siuope ;  the 
tunny,  from  Byzantium  ;  the  mackerel,  from  Spain  ;  the  tunny,  from 
Cadiz  ;  the  sword-fish,  from  Sicily  ;  the  mullet,  from  Exone;  the  scarus, 
from  Ephesns;  the  "pagrus?  from  Italy;  the  eel,  from  Strymon;  themor- 
myrus,  from  the  Nile,  &c.  The  names  of  all  these  fish  of  acknowledged 
excellence  served  as  recommendations  for  those  cities  or  countries  which 
had  gained  fame  by  their  manner  of  preparing  them. 

But  most  of  these  fish  have  lost  in  our  days  the  reputation  which  they 
formerly  enjoyed.  The  mormyrus  of  the  Nile,  e.  #.,  which  Athenseus 
described,  and  with  which  the  learned  Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  has  made 
us  acquainted,  is  now  scarcely  known  beyond  the  works  of  natural  his- 
torians. The  same  holds  good  of  the  tunny,  which  is  now  preserved  in 
oil,  instead  of  being  salted  or  dried  as  was  the  custom  among  the 
ancients.  The  Komaus  had  learned  from  the  Greeks  a  mode  of  pre- 
serving it,  which,  with  some  modifications,  is  used  even  in  our  time 
among  the  Italians  and  Spaniards ;  it  is  called  "  escabeche."  The  fish 
are  first  fried  in  oil  with  bay  leaves,  salt,  and  spices,  and  then  boiling 
vinegar  is  poured  over  them.  This  method  was  especially  employed 
with  several  kinds  of  mackerel,  but  likewise  with  other  fish,  such  as  the 
"  pagrus,"  the  dorado,  and  even  the  larger  kinds  of  perch. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Greek  Archipelago  were  the  first  to  preserve 
the  tunny.  This  fish  was  salted  on  the  islands  of  Eubcea,  Samos,  and 
on  the  coast  of  Icaria,  which  acquired  the  surname,  "  the  coast  rich  in 
fish."  The  ancient  names,  Cetaria  domitiana,  (near  Orbitello  and  Santo 
Stephano,)  and  Terra  cetaria,  (stretching  from  Segarte  to  the  promon- 
tory now  called  Santo  Vito,)  designate  places  where  the  Eomans  had 
large  stationary  nets,  and  they  show  the  importance  of  these  fisheries. 

Tarentum,  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  had  gained  a  great  reputation  for 
its  salt  fish,  especially  for  its  delicious  tunny,  which  was  exported  to 
remote  districts.  No  less  famous  was  the  tunny  from  Sicily,  especially 
that  kind  salted  in  Cephalo. 

The  ancient  Oetobriga,  a  Phoenician  colony  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Lusitania,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadiaua,  maintained  its  former  great 
importance  under  the  Eomans  on  account  of  its  stationary  nets,  and  the 
immense  quantities  of  tunnies  which  were  salted  on  that  coast.  Eesen- 
dius,  (Antiquitates  Lusitanise,  210,)  assures  us  that  even  in  his  time, 
the  ruins  of  the  salting  establishments  of  Cetobriga  could  be  seen.  The 
new  town,  Neoeetobriga,  which  rose  not  far  from  the  old  one,  and  which 
the  Portuguese  have  called  Setubal,  (Saint  Ybes,)  continued  to  carry  on 
the  trade  in  salt  tunny,  which  had  once  enriched  the  Greek  town. 
Castro,  the  historian,  fully  corroborates  the  statements  of  Eesendius. 
He  says  the  name  of  the  town  is  derived  from  "  briga,"  which  in  the  old 


16  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Lusitanian  language  means  "  castle "  or  "  fortified  town,"  and  from 
"  cete,"  i.  e.,  "  great  fish"  (tunny). 

Malaga  also  owes  its  wealth  and  its  name  to  the  tunny  fisheries,  fbr, 
in  the  Punic  language,  "  Malach"  means  both  "to  salt,"  and  the  "salt- 
ing place."  Several  other  Spanish  towns  contended  for  the  fame  of 
bringing  the  best  articles  into  market.  Gades  (Cadiz)  gained  the 
prize.  The  favorite  parts  for  salting  were  the  gristly  portions  of  the 
head ;  but  many  portions  of  the  body  were  also  used  for  this  purpose. 
According  to  Galenus  this  fish  was  preferred  in  the  salted  state,  because 
it  then  seemed  less  hard  and  easier  to  be  digested. 

One  of  the  most  important  fisheries  in  those  times  was  a  tunny-fish- 
ery, which,  during  the  Grecian  period,  brought  great  wealth  to  the 
Carian  and  the  Milesian  colonies  on  the  Black  Sea.  When  these  fish 
in  their  periodical  migrations  came  out  of  the  sea  of  Azof,  (Palus  Mceotis,) 
they  followed  the  coast  of  Asia,  and  many  were  caught  in  nets  near 
Trapezon.  Thence  tbey  went  in  company  with  other  kinds  of  mackerel 
to  Sinope,  whose  inhabitants,  according  to  Strabo,  grew  immensely 
wealthy  through  this  fishery.  Amastris,  Tejum,  and  Heraclea,  located 
on  the  same  coast,  likewise  reaped  a  rich  harvest.  If  we  may  believe 
the  author  of  "  Storia  philosophica  e  politica  delle  colonie  degli  antichi 
nel  mar  ISTegro,"  the  best  harbors  were  Sinope  and  Galidon,  on  the 
river  Halys,  near  whose  mouth  great  salting  establishments  were  lo- 
cated. 

Notwithstanding  the  enormous  quantities  of  tunny  caught  on  the 
coast  of  Thrace,  the  salt-fish  from  Sardinia  were  the  most  famous, 
and  those  of  the  best  quality  were  called  Sardinians. 

The  fish  known  in  France  by  the  name  of  "  auriolf  (in  Spanish  "  cav- 
allay"1)  is  another  kind  of  mackerel,  great  numbers  of  which  were  salted 
by  the  Greeks.  Athenoeus  praises  it  in  the  most  eloquent  manner,  and 
its  fame  increased  still  more  after  the  Eomans  had  conquered  Spain, 
and  had  learned  how  to  extract  from  its  entrails  the  far-famed  u  garum 
sociorum,"  a  fish  sauce  which  was  greatly  prized.  Although  several 
ancient  authors  have  written  the  most  glowing  encomiums  ou  this  secret 
preparation,  (for  it  seems  to  have  enjoyed  then  as  great  a  reputation 
as  the  English  fish-sauce  in  our  times,)  it  is  impossible  to  discover 
what  this  '  garum  sociorum '  really  was.  Pliny,  the  encyclopedist  of  the 
ancients,  says  that  this  fluid  matter  was  an  extract  from  the  entrails  of 
certain  fish  that  had  undergone  the  process  of  fermentation.  "  The 
Greeks,"  he  says,  "in  former  times,  prepared  'garum'  from  the  fish 
called  by  that  name ;  the  best '  garum '  comes  now  from  Carthage,  in 
Spain,  (Carthagena,)  and  is  called  '  garum  sociorum.'  You  can  scarcely 
buy  two  boxes  (each  containing  about  ten  pounds)  for  a  thousand 
pieces  of  money.  No  fluid,  except  scented  waters,  sells  for  so  high  a 
price,  and  it  is  in  great  demand  by  all  classes  of  society.  The  fisher- 
men of  Mauritania,  Betiea,  and  Carteja,  prepare  it  from  mackerel,  fresh 


FISHERIES   AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.       17 

from  the  oceau,  which  alone  are  fit  for  this  purpose.  The  '  garum ' 
from  Klazomene,  Pompeii,  and  Liptes  is  also  highly  praised ;  and  the 
prepared  fish  from  Antipoles,  Thurium,  and  Dalmatia  are  no  less  to  be 
recommended."  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  XXXI,  8.)  Paul  Jovius  tells  us 
that  the  best  "  garum  "  was  obtained  in  Africa.  This  "  garum  socioruni" 
was  chiefly  prepared  by  a  certain  society  of  mackerel  fishermen,  (hence 
the  term  "  sociorum,")  which  in  those  times  seems  to  have  played  a  part 
similar  to  that  of  the  "  Maatjes  Hariugeu,"  herring-society,  in  the  Neth- 
erlands. 

Besides  this  prime  article  of  "  garum,"  other  kinds  formed  an  exten- 
sive item  of  trade  among  the  Eomans.  Atkenaeus  tells  us,  among  other 
things,  of  one  kind  prepared  from  the  entrails  of  the  u  lykostome"  a  fish 
which  is  closely  related  to  the  anchovy,  and  which  is  probably  the  same 
as  that  still  to  be  obtained  at  Antibes,  although  Martial  ouly  speaks  of 
"  garum  "  prepared  from  tunnies.  (Mart.  Epigr.  XII,  103.)  A  similar 
preparation,  called  '•  Incia,"  was  frequently  used  in  the  time  of  Helio- 
gabalus,  for  preserving  fish. 

The  epicure,  Apicius,  offered  a  great  prize  to  any  one  who  would 
invent  a  new  sauce  or  paste  of  the  livers  of  mullets.  But  the  name  of 
the  man  who  secured  the  prize  has  been  lost  to  posterity ;  for,  as  Pliny 
remarks,  "  it  is  easier  said  than  done." 

We  will  only  mention,  in  conclusion,  that  the  Greeks  preserved  the 
sea-eel  iu  salt  and  marjoram.  They  were  the  greatest  masters  in  pickling 
the  dorado  and  iu  preserving  the  scarus  in  brine.  But  the  Eomans  far 
excelled  them  in  the  use  of  costly  spices,  and  in  pickled  and  preserved 
fish,  which  still  further  increased  the  enormous  prices  paid  for  the  rarest 
fish  brought  at  large  expense  from  foreign  countries. 

LOBSTERS. 

Of  lobsters,  Paul  Jovius  speaks  thus  in  the  fortieth  chapter  of  his 

book:  "Among  the  shell-fish,  the  lobster  enjoys  the  greatest  reputation. 

Theodoras  thinks  this  is  the  animal  which  Aristotle  calls  the  crab.  But 

Oppianus  understands  by  the  term  *  crab,'  what  is  commonly  known 

as  the 'lion,'  and  Theodoras  calls  this  kind  '  Commarus?    For  in  the 

passage  where  he  describes  so  vividly  the  combat  between  the  mursena 

and  the  crab,  he  gives  to  the  latter  an  indented  pincer-like  claw,  with 

which  it  bites  the  neck  of  the  lamprey."   It  is  certain,  however,  that  both 

the  lobster  and  the  crab  were  known  to  the  ancients,  besides  some  other 

kinds,  such  as  the  craw-fish,  and  those  which  Oppianus  and  the  rest  of 

the  Greeks  called  ;'  Karidce. "    Paul  Jovius  does  not  show  any  great 

knowledge  of  natural  history,  when  he  says  that  the  lobster  is  red,  and 

yet  certainly  quite  as  much  as  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  in  the 

good  city  of  Paris  more  than  three  hundred  years  later,  since,  not  very 

many  years  ago,  one  could  read  in  the  great  dictionary  of  that  academy 

under  the  word  "  ecrevisse"  the  following  remarkable  definition :  "  animal 

rouge  qui  marche  en  reculant,"  i.  e.,  "  a  red  animal  which  walks  b.ick- 
2  F 


18  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

wards!'1  "The  flesh  of  this  animal  was  generally  found  to  be  very  hard, 
but  its  eggs  were  eaten  prepared  in  different  ways  and  were  considered  a 
great  delicacy.  They  were  also  put  to  various  medicinal  uses ;  thus  they 
were  recommended  for  hectic  and  feverish  persons ;  and  Galenus's  teacher, 
JErkhirion,  advises  those  who  have  been  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  to  roast 
alive  one  of  that  kind  of  crawfish,  which  in  Greek  is  called  "  KarJdnos," 
and  to  turn  towards  the  constellation  Canis,  when  the  sun  passes  through 
the  sign  of  Leo,"  &c. 

* 

FISH,   OYSTER,   AND   SNAIL  PONDS. 

As  to  these  ponds,  we  give  the  information  found  in  Pliny,  Paul  Jovius, 
and  the  Frenchman  Coste  in  his  extremely  interesting  work,  Voyage 
d'exploration  sur  le  littoral  de  la  France  et  de  lTtalie,  &c,  in  that  por- 
tion of  the  book  where  he  speaks  of  the  raising  of  oysters  in  Lake  Fusa- 
ro,  p.  97. 

From  the  passage  quoted  from  Pliny,  we  see  that  the  Romans  had  fish- 
ponds for  various  kind  of  fish,  but  that  the  muraena,  on  account  of  its 
peculiar  tenacity  of  life,  was  best  suited  for  being  thus  kept.  Several 
such  ponds  are  mentioned  as  belonging  to  noted  persons.  Spawning- 
ponds,  however,  such  as  are  now  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  coast  of 
France,  where  the  fish  are  raised  and  fattened  till  they  are  fit  to  be  sent 
away,  seem  to  have  been  unknown.  It  would  appear  that  persons  were 
satisfied  with  putting  those  fish  in  ponds  that  were  caught  in  the  sea,  to 
have  them  on  hand,  as  it  were,  to  fill  an  order  at  any  time ;  although 
many  circumstances  seem  to  favor  the  opinion  that,  at  least  as  far  as 
the  muroenas  were  concerned,  many  of  these  fish  were  bred  and  raised 
in  these  very  ponds.  Though  there  are  not  sufficient  grounds  to  prove 
that  the  Romans  had  a  regular  system  of  breeding  and  raising  fish,  we 
know  enough  to  conclude  that  the  raising  of  oysters  had  reached  such 
a  degree  of  perfection  as  to  command  our  highest  admiration. 

Pliny  tells  us  that  the  first  inventor  of  oyster-ponds  was  a  certain  Ser- 
gius  Orata,  who  in  the  time  of  L.  Crassus  lived  near  JBajoe.  What  led 
him  to  this  invention  was  not  gluttony,  but  a  spirit  of  speculation.  He 
had  made  a  good  deal  of  money  by  his  bathing  establishment,  and  by 
redecorating  old  country-houses  so  as  to  make  them  look  like  new  ones, 
when  he  conceived  the  project  of  speculating  in  oysters.  At  that  time 
the  existence  of  oysters  on  the  English  coasts  was  not  known,  and  Brun- 
dusium,  which  had  almost  the  exclusive  privilege  of  supplying  the  whole 
of  Italy  with  the  article,  was  so  far  from  Roine,  quite  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  peninsula,  that  the  oysters  reached  the  capital  in  a  very  poor 
condition,  often  completely  spoiled.  It  is  well  known  that  oysters  and 
fish  are  of  a  better  quality  in  some  localities  than  in  others.  Thus  the 
best  lupus  or  basse*  is  found  in  the  river  Tiber  between  the  two  bridges; 
the  best  turbots  in  Ravenna;  the  best  muraenas  in  Sicily,  &c.  Orata  found 
in  Lake  Lucrinus  a  place  specially  favorable  for  his  undertaking.    This 

*  Lupus  of  the  aucieuts,  or  Lnbrax  lupus  of  naturalists. 


FISHERIES    AMONG    THE    ANCIENT    GREEKS    AND    ROMANS.      19 

lake,  which  had  a  clear  bottom  and  pure  water,  was  connected  both  with 
the  salt  water  of  the  ocean  and  with  fresh  river- water,  and  in  the  hands 
of  Orata  it  soon  became  a  gigantic  oyster-pond,  which  could  at  all  times 
supply  Rome  with  oysters  of  such  an  excellent  flavor  as  soon  to  gain  the 
very  highest  reputation  among  all  the  dainty  eaters  in  Italy;  for  they 
ordered  these  oysters  to  be  sent  to  them  in  wooden  boxes  filled  with 
water,  even  to  places  at  a  great  distance  from  the  sea.  Athenseus  tells  us 
that  a  noble  sycophant,  by  the  name  of  Apicius,  sent  fresh  oysters  care- 
fully packed  in  jars  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  while  he  was  waging  war 
against  the  Parthians  in  the  interior  of  Asia. 

The  fullest  information  on  this  subject  we  gain  from  two  ancient  mon- 
uments of  the  time  of  Nero,  of  which  a  short  description  is  given  in  the 
above-mentioned  work  by  M.  Coste.  These  remains  consist  of  two 
supulchral-urns  of  glass,  one  of  which  was  discovered  near  Popularia,  the 
other  near  Borne.  They  resemble  in  shape  our  refrigerators  of  terra- 
cotta, viz,  a  round  vessel  with  a  long,  narrow  neck.  The  outside  of 
these  urns  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  engraving,  which,  notwithstanding 
its  rudeness,  shows  us  very  distinctly  an  ancient  oyster-pond.  To  con- 
vince us  still  further,  we  fiod  on  one  of  them  the  following  inscriptions 
over  the  engraving:  "Anima  felix  vivas,"  and  "Stagnuni  Pallatium," 
(the  first  containing  a  wish  that  the  soul  may  live  happy,  the  second  be- 
ing the  name  of  a  country-seat  which  the  Emperor  Nero  possessed  on 
Lake  Lucrinus ;)  and  immediately  in  the  center  of  the  engraving  we 
read  the  word  "  ostriaria,"  i.  en  oyster-pond.  On  the  other  urn  we  read 
the  following  inscription,  "  Stagnum  Neronis  Ostriaria  ;  Stagnum  Silva 
Bajoe,"  which  leads  the  thought  to  Bajoe's  famous  coast,  where  also 
Nero  had  a  villa.  The  most  remarkable  thing  about  these  engravings  is 
that  a  great  number  of  poles  are  seen  rammed  in  the  ground — placed  in 
circles — for  this  can  only  have  been  done  with  the  same  object  for  which 
this  is  done  in  our  days  near  Lake  Fusaro,  viz,  to  give  to  the  young  oys- 
ter an  object  to  which  it  may  cling. 

It  is  evident  from  this  that  the  ancients  not  only  kept  a  stock  of  oys- 
ters in  their  ponds,  but  also  let  tbem  breed  there,  and  in  various  inge- 
nious ways  made  their  extraordinary  fruitfulness  a  source  of  income. 
We  have  here  authoritative  proof  of  a  regularly  organized  system  of 
oyster-culture,  which  brought  untold  wealth  to  its  inventor,  Sergius 
Orata,  this  "  niagister  luxuriorum,"  as  Cicero  calls  him.  His  example 
was  followed,  and  soon  many  other  oyster-ponds  were  established.  Li- 
cinius  Murena  was  the  first  who  had  ponds  for  fish,  especially  for  the 
muraena,  which  he  named  after  himself,  and  soon  most  of  the  rich  and 
noble  Boman  families  possessed  their  own  fish-ponds,  such  as  Philippus, 
Hortensius,  r.nd  Lncullus.  The  last  mentioned,  as  Pliny  tells  us,  had  a 
channel  dug  through  a  mountain,  near  Naples,  at  a  greater  expense 
than  it  would  have  cost  to  build  a  magnificent  country  seat,  and  in  this 
manner  brought  the  sea- water  into  his  gardens.^  Pompey,  from  this  cir- 
cumstance, called  him  a  "  Xerxes  in  the  toga." 

Shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  with  Pompey,  Fulvius 


20  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Hirpiuus  was  the  first  in  the  Tarquiniaii  district  to  establish  snail- 
ponds.  He  arranged  them  in  separate  divisions :  one  for  the  white 
snails  from  Eeatiue,  one  for  the  Illyrian  snails  distinguished  by  their 
great  size,  one  for  the  African  snails,  which  are  very  fruitful,  and 
another  for  the  Solitanian  snails,  which  are  the  finest  of  all.  He  even 
invented  a  special  kind  of  food  for  them,  prepared  of  thick  must,  flour, 
and  other  ingredients,  and  by  means  of  this  artificial  diet  they  grew  to 
an  enormous  size. 

Galenus  says  that,  as  a  general  thing,  oysters,  especially  if  eaten  raw, 
produce  witty  thoughts.  Pliny  attributes  to  them  a  purging  property, 
and  advises  people  to  use  the  burnt  shells  as  a  remedy  for  dysentery. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  a  large  number  of  mussels  and  garden-snails 
were  eaten,  such  as  the  blue  mussel,  "purpura?,"  " buccina,"  " aures," 
"  digiti,"  "  ungues,"  "  patellar ; "  and  Horace  says,  "  effeminate  Taren- 
tum  boasts  of  her  large  scallops."  The  ancients  knew  how  to  prepare 
even  sea-urchins  and  star-fish  as  dainty  dishes. 

The  above  may  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the  state  of  the  fisheries 
among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Eoinans,  as  well  as  the  different  branches 
of  trade  and  industry  connected  therewith ;  and  we  certainly  feel  con- 
strained to  admit  that  they  had  attained  to  an  astonishing  degree  of 
perfection.  The  fall  of  the  empire  also  brought  about  the  decline  of  the 
fisheries.  Eude  hordes  of  barbarians  overran  the  empire  in  overwhelm- 
ing numbers,  and  destroyed  a  refined,  and,  in  many  cases,  effeminate, 
but  at  the  same  time  beautiful,  product  of  the  oldest  civilization. 

I  close  these  remarks  with  the  following  words  of  the  excellent  Noel 
de  la  Moriniere :  "  The  conquest  of  so  many  countries  which  were  forced 
to  accept  laws  made  for  them  by  the  barbarians,  sundered  all  commercial 
ties,  after  having  destroyed  the  industry  and  art  which  gave  them  life. 
We  therefore  see  the  most  important  fishery  of  the  Mediterranean,  the 
tunny-fishery,  after  being  entirely  destroyed,  revived  again  after  long  ages. 

"  In  the  history  of  the  later  emperors,  we  hear  no  longer  of  those 
costly  fish  which  the  luxury  of  ihe  wealthy  procure  from  distant  coun- 
tries, and  which  gave  luster  and  the  greatest  enjoyment  to  their  ban- 
quets. The  fish-ponds  which  once  swallowed  princely  fortunes,  stand 
empty  and  deserted.  The  time  of  extravagance  has  passed,  and  strange 
and  morbid  fancies  have  lost  their  sway.  People  can  procure  only  with 
great  trouble  the  most  common  fisb,  in  order  to  fulfill  the  ritual  of  their 
religion.  Fishing  is  carried  on  only  by  the  poor  inhabitants  of  the 
coasts,  whose  abject  poverty  is  their  best  protection  against  the  plunder- 
ing invaders,  or  who  only  manage  to  carry  on  their  miserable  trade,  un- 
disturbed, by  retiring  to  lonely  nooks,  such  as  the  lagoons  near  Venice, 
or  the  swamps  of  Narbonne,  thus  interposing  large  and  almost  impene- 
trable morasses  between  themselves  and  their  avaricious  pursuers." 

Public  interest  is  now  directed  toward  the  North,  and  here  we  also 
find  fisheries  springing  up  anew,  which  soon  grew  to  an  astonishing  ex- 
tent and  won  for  themselves  a  new  and  grand  commerce ;  so  that  Sergius 
Orata  would  still  not  be  entirely  out  of  place  among  us. 


II -STATISTICS  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  FISHERIES  OF  THE 

NORTH  ATLANTIC. 


By  Carl  Dajibeck. 


The  following  statistics  show  the  yield  of  the  fisheries  of  the  most 
important  States  on  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  : 

1. — Norway. 

During  the  twenty  years  from.  1850  to  1870,  the  average  annual 
amount  of  herring  caught  was  1,452,000,000  pounds,  (avoirdupois,) 
representing  a  value  of  upward  of  $2,200,000.  The  total  export  of 
herring  in  1870  was  valued  at  $3,850,000.  During  the  last  few  years 
the  herring  have  mostly  gone  to  the  province  of  Nordland.  In  the  bay 
of  Malanger  a  comparatively  large  number  of  great  herring  were  caught 
in  1871.  From  August  to  November,  270,600,000  pounds  were  caught ; 
and  in  1872,  as  many  as  1,210,000,000  pounds.  The  herring  fisheries 
south  of  the  Stadt  promontory  have  decreased.  The  cod-fisheries  in 
Sondmore  were  very  considerable  in  1871.  Up  to  the  19th  of  March 
four  millions  of  cod  were  caught,  representing  a  value  of  $330,000.  The 
yield  of  the  spring  cod-fisheries  in  1873  was  nineteen  and  a  half  millions 
of  fish,  110,000,000  pounds  of  liver,  or  at  least  55,000,000  pounds  of  oil, 
and  39,600,000  pounds  of  roe,  or  two  millions  of  fish  more  than  the  year 
before,  or  a  half  million  more  than  the  average  annual  yield  of  the  last 
fourteen  years.  The  total  values  have  probably  been  the  largest  ever 
realized  in  the  spring  fisheries,  and  amounted  to  $1,870,000 ;  while  in 
1872  it  was  only  $1,386,000  5  and,  on  an  average,  $1,375,000  annually 
during  the  period  from  1859  to  1S72.  The  mackerel  fisheries,  of  course, 
did  not  yield  so  abundantly.  In  1870  a  million  of  mackerel,  valued  at 
$14,300,  were  exported  to  England  from  Christiansand ;  and  in  1871, 
1,813,860  were  exported  from  the  same  place,  valued  at  $63,202.70; 
while  100,000  were  sold  in  the  city  and  neighborhood.  The  salmon 
fishery  in  1S71  was  likewise  very  productive.  During  the  first  half  of 
the  year,  177,685  pounds,  valued  at  $29,729.70,  were  exported.  The 
yield  of  the  Norwegian  fisheries  were  larger  in  1S70  than  in  any  previous 
year.  The  fish  exported  were  valued  at  $10,833,909.90,  or  $1,268,300 
more  than  in  1869,  and  $2,805,500  more  than  in  1866. 

2.— Sweden. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  superintendent  of  fisheries,  Mr.  von 
Yhlen,  the  value  of  the  fisheries  in  1869  was  only  $894,947.90,  while  in 

*Das  Ausland,  Stuttgart,  1374,  No.  13.     Translated  by  H.  Jacobson,  p.  363. 


22  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

1870  it  amounted  to  $917,079.90 ;  for  during  the  last  years  the  herring 
has  again  appeared  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan.  Large  quantities  were 
also  caught  in  1870  near  Marstrand  and  Maltno,  so  that  in  Carlshamn 
alone  19,146,600  pounds  were  salted,  while  in  1872  there  were  only 
11,000,000  pounds.  The  mackerel  fishery  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan, 
which  only  continues  one  month,  yielded  in  1S71  an  income  of  from 
$8,100  to  $11,200  in  the  district  of  Stromstadt  alone.  The  salmon  fish- 
eries on  the  south  coast  near  Carlscrona,  adjacent  to  the  Kullen  promon- 
tory, and  those  in  the  rivers  Dal  and  Klara,  were  likewise  very  pro- 
ductive. The  export  of  fish  from  Gottenburg  was  very  large  in  1872. 
No  less  than  135,905  pounds  of  salmon  packed  in  ice,  349,8S2  pounds  of 
dried  cod,  and  5,500  pounds  of  anchovies  were  shipped. 

3. — Denmark. 

The  Danish  fisheries  are  not  so  extensive,  because  the  abundance  of 
fish  is  not  so  great,  and  because  the  extent  of  coast  is  less.  In  1869  the 
fisheries  in  the  Ljimfjord  yielded  the  following :  the  2,459  persons  em- 
ployed caught  fish  valued  at  $104,975,  yielding  a  net  income  of  $79,312, 
and  giving  about  $32.50  to  each  fisherman.  This  was  less  than  in  186S, 
when  the  total  yield  of  fish  was  valued  at  $112,370.  The  number  of 
herring  caught  in  the  autumn  of  1870,  on  the  coasts  of  the  island  of 
Funen,  was  so  large  that  they  did  not  all  find  a  market.  In  the  Great 
Belt  it  was  very  small  in  1872,  twenty-eight  boats  from  the  town  of 
Korsor  catching  about  a  million,  and  valued  at  $6,415.  In  1871  a  large 
number  of  cod  were  caught  on  the  western  and  eastern  coasts  of  Jut- 
land, of  which  about  353,100  pounds,  valued  at  $3,332.50,  were  ex- 
ported.- 

4. — Germany. 

The  German  fisheries  are  not  so  remunerative,  since  the  extent  of 
coast  is  small,  and  much  of  it  consists  of  inland  seas.  The  total  net 
annual  income  is  valued  at  $1,500,000.  Two  fishing  societies  were  or- 
ganized in  1868,  at  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  on  the  North  Sea.  The  Ham- 
burg North-Sea  fishing  society  has  worked  with  a  capital  of  $120,000, 
and  their  receipts  during  the  first  half  of  1869  amounted  to  $23,380.61, 
and  during  the  same  period  in  1870  to  only  $19,713.26,  or  $3,667.38  less. 
In  consequence  of  the  poor  fishing  season  and  the  foundering  of  a  vessel, 
the  society  sustained  a  loss  of  $4,281.46,  and  was  obliged  to  close  its 
office  in  1871.  The  Bremen  society  met  with  similar  disastrous  experi-, 
ences,  and  has  also  been  dissolved.  Great  Britain  exported  to  Germany, 
in  1871,  962,533,000  of  herring,  valued  at  $3,436,837.50,  which  outlay 
ought  to  have  been  avoided.  If,  however,  this  importation  of  foreign 
fish  is  to  be  prevented,  the  fisheries  must  be  carried  on  much  more  ener- 
getically than  they  have  yet  been.  In  Emden,  a  new  herring-fishing 
society  has  been  formed,  which  had  every  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  its 
success  in  1872,  for  in  twenty-one  trips  they  realized  $39,780.  And  if 
it  should  combine  fishing  in  deep  water  with  fishing  on  the  ocean,  the 


STATISTICS    OF    FISHERIES    OF    THE    NORTH    ATLANTIC.         23 

probability  is  that  it  will  be  more  successful  than  its  predecessors.  The 
fishermen  operating  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  up  to  the  boundary  of 
Jutland,  catch,  for  the  most  part,  bream,  herring,  and  sturgeon.  The 
sturgeon  fishing  has  been  particularly  good  during  the  last  few  years.  In 
1871,  however,  it  was  not  so  good  in  the  river  Eider.  In  1873,  so  many 
plaice  were  caught  that  whole  wagon-loads  were  sold  for  a  trifle.  The 
number  of  cod  and  ray  caught  was  likewise  very  large,  while  the  herring- 
fisheries  on  the  east  coast  of  Schleswig-Holstein  were  very  poor.  On  the 
Mecklenburg  coast,  especially  near  Warnemiinde,  the  herring-fishery  has 
been  carried  on  for  some  years  by  societies.  Warnemiinde  possesses 
four  herring-nets.  Of  the  three  societies  fishing  east  of  that  town,  one 
netted  $750  in  1871,  while  another  realized  only  half  of  that  sum. 
The  fishermen  on  the  coast  of  Pommerania  are  very  poor,  for  the  fisher- 
ies yield  but  little.  The  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Eastern  Prussia  are 
richer,  salmon  and  bream  being  caught  in  considerable  quantites.  In 
September  of  18G0  about  3,500  salmon  were  caught  at  the  village  of 
Euss,  near  Memel,  the  average  weight  of  each  being  33  pounds,  while 
some  ranged  in  weight  from  82^  pounds  to  102  pounds. 

5. — Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Great  Britain,  undoubtedly,  has  larger  fisheries  than  any  other  coun- 
try in  Europe.  Cod  are  caught  near  Newfoundland  ;  herring,  pilchard, 
and  sprats,  off  the  British  coasts  ;  salmon,  mackerel,  plaice,  and  other  fish 
are  caught  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  McCullogh  estimates  the  annual 
income  of  the  British  fisheries  at  $20,000,000  j  others,  at  $60,000,000. 
The  increase  of  the  cod-fisheries  will  be  seen  from  the  following  figures : 
In  1790,  it  was  72,100,000  pounds ;  in  1811,  137,038,880  pounds,  valued 
at  $12,458,080 ;  in  1825,  only  107,030,000  pounds ;  and  in  1835,  only 
78,320,000  pounds,  valued  at  $1,780,000 ;  while  in  1848,  it  was  again 
110,000,000  pounds.  The  success  of  the  mackerel  fisheries  in  1821  was 
entirely  unexpected.  The  value  of  fish  caught  by  sixteen  boats,  near 
Lowestoft,  on  June  30,  was  $26,200 ;  and  the  total  value  of  fish  caught 
on  the  coast  of  Suffolk  amounted  to  about  $70,000.  In  1827,  no  less 
than  10,521  persons  were  engaged  in  the  pilchard  fisheries  on  the  coasts  of 
Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  and  the  capital  employed  in  these  fisheries  was 
$2,20G,075.  There  are  cases  on  record  where  10,000  barrels  were  landed 
in  a  single  day  at  one  port,  each  barrel  containing  2,500  fish.  During 
.the  winter  of  1829-'30,  the  sprat  fisheries  were  so  successful  that  loads 
of  from  1,000  to  1,500  bushels — costing  from  12  to  16  cents  a  bushel — 
were  brought  to  Maidstone  to  be  used  as  manure  for  the  hop-fields.  The 
herring  fisheries  are  still  more  abundant,  and  were  especially  rich  in 
1S71  on  the  south  coast.  In  Lowestoft  alone,  more  than  50,000,000  of 
fish  were  brought  ashore  in  seven  days.  They  sold,  of  course,  at  a  very 
small  price.  On  the  Scotch  coast,  the  fisheries  were  not  so  successful. 
Tho  herring-fisheries  in  Stornoway  proved  a  failure,  and  the  result  of 
the  fisheries  on  the  east  coast  was  not  much  better.    Notwithstanding 


24  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

this,  Great  Britain  exported  to  Germany,  in  1871,  902,533,000  pounds, 
valued  at  $3,272,750.  In  1872,  the  fisheries  proved  very  successful. 
The  Fraserburg  herring-fleet  of  six  hundred  boats  caught  in  a  single 
night  upward  of  10,000,000  of  herring,  valued  at  from  $75,000  to  $S0,000. 
This  is  the  largest  haul  on  record  in  those  parts.  In  no  country  of  the 
world,  in  proportion  to  its  size,  are  the  salmon  fisheries  as  valuable  as 
in  Great  Britain.  They  arc  most  extensive  in  Scotland,  where  from 
10,000  to  12,000  salmon  are  caught  annually.  In  1820,  21,817  were 
caught  5  and  from  5,000  to  6,000  are  caught  every  summer  in  the  Tweed 
alone.  The  Scotch  salmon  fisheries  were  particularly  successful  in  1870, 
many  large  and  beautiful  fish  being  taken. 

C. — France. 

As  this  country  is  very  rich  in  natural  products,  and  as  the  extent  of 
its  coast  is  small,  the  fisheries  are  not  carried  on  to  any  great  extent. 
But  notwithstanding  this,  they  yield  a  large  income,  the  annual  sum 
being  estimated  at  no  less  than  $8,200,000.  Herring,  pilchard,  and  sar- 
dines are  chiefly  caught  on  the  coasts  and  in  the  North  Sea.  Sardines 
and  tunnies  are  caught  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  cod  near  Newfound- 
land. In  1818,  110,000,000  pounds  of  cod  were  taken.  The  herring  and 
pilchard  fisheries  are  even  more  productive.  Single  boats  from  Dun- 
kirk, Calais,  Dieppe,  and  Boulogne,  have  caught  as  many  as  28,000  in 
a  single  night.  On  the  coasts  of  Provence  and  Languedoc,  from  220,000 
to  330,000  pounds  of  tunnies  are  frequently  caught  at  a  single  haul. 
The  finest  sardiens  are  found  near  Antibes,  Frejus,  and  St.  Tropez,  and 
they  are  brought  to  the  fair  at  Beaucaire  in  enormous  quantities. 

7. — North  America. 

The  following  statistics  will  show  sufficiently  the  importance  of  the 
North  American  fisheries.  The  fisheries  near  Newfoundland  have 
yielded  the  following :  Excluding  those  fish  caught  by  the  English  and 
French,  the  Americans,  in  1829,  caught  195,030,000  pounds  of  cod.  St. 
Johns,  in  1812,  exported  cod-fish  and  oil  valued  at  $1,176,315.  The 
Americans  caught,  in  1818,  165,000,000  pounds  of  cod.  St.  Johns  also 
exported,  in  1S12,  salmon  valued  at  $68,390,  and  herring  estimated  at 
$35,595.  Montreal  exported  in  1811  fish  valued  at  from  $350,000  to  $100,- 
000,  and  fromGaspe  there  were  shipped  from  11,300,000  pounds  to  16,500,- 
000  pounds.  The  New  Brunswick  fisheries  annually  yield  from  $200,000  to 
$300,000,  and  those  of  the  United  States  in  1817  yielded  $17,069,262.  The 
most  important  fisheries  in  the  country  last  named,  are  the  cod  and 
mackerel.  Boston,  alone,  in  1819,  exported  about  231,856  barrels  of 
mackerel.  The  cod-fisheries  of  Greenland  were  also  very  successful  in 
187  . 


III.— ON  THE  FISHERIES  OF  NORWAY; 


Christiania,  November,  1873. 
To  Dr.  Spencer  Baird, 

President  of  the  United  States  Commission 

Fish  and  Fisheries,  Washington,  D.  C.  : 

Of  the  Norwegian  salt-water  fisheries,  the  haddock-fisheries  are  the 
most  important,  and  next  to  them  the  herring-fisheries. 

The  largest  haddock-fisheries  are  those  of  the  Loffoden,  (Islands,)  in 
the  district  of  Nordland,  carried  on  from  the  beginning  of  the  year  till 
some  time  in  April. 

About  the  time  that  the  fisheries  cease  near  the  Loffoden,  another 
important  haddock-fishery  commences,  in  East  and  West  Finmarken, 
whicli  continues  till  about  the  24th  of  June. 

A  third  periodical  haddock-fishery,  which  promises  to  become  of  con- 
siderable importance,  is  carried  on  on  the  coast  of  the  Eomsdal  district, 
and  partly,  also,  further  north,  in  the  districts  of  Fosen  and  Namsdal, 
about  the  same  time  that  the  Loffoden  fisheries  are  in  progress. 

Of  the  herring-fisheries,  that  of  the  spring  herring,  which  is  conducted 
in  the  districts  of  Stavanger,  Southern  and  Northern  Bergenhus,  and 
Eomsdal,  during  February  and  March,  has,  so  far,  been  the  most  import- 
ant. During  late  years  this  fishery  has  been  somewhat  irregular.  While 
it  has  partly  abandoned  the  usual  fishing-places,  especially  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Stavenger  and  Southern  Bergenhus,  it  has  been  confined,  to 
some  extent,  to  places  where  fishing  was  formerly  not  very  good.  On 
the  whole,  however,  it  has  diminished  considerably,  and  during  the  last 
four  years  the  number  of  fish  caught  has  not  been  half  of  what  it  for- 
merly was. 

At  the  time  that  the  spring-herring  fisheries  began  to  diminish  another 
large  herring  fishery  was  opened  up  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country, 
especially  in  the  district  of  Nordland,  and  partly,  also,  in  that  of  Tromso. 
The  fisheries  have  generally  continued  from  the  middle  of  October  till 
some  time  after  the  beginning  of  the  year.  The  number  of  fish  caught 
has  been  constantly  on  the  increase,  and  last  year  it  reached  700,000 
<'tonder,r  (2,156,000  bushels,)  or  as  much  as  in  former  times  was  con- 
sidered the  result  of  a  good  spring-herring  season.  The  species  of  her- 
ring called  great  herring  (stor  sild,)  has  become  an  excellent  article  of 
trade. 

*  Translation  of  a  printed  letter  addressed  to  the  United  States  Fish  Commissioner  by 
the  authorities  of  the  Norwegian  commission,  in  response  to  an  application  for  docu- 
ments relative  to  the  fisheries  of  Norway  and  Sweden. 


26  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Besides  the  periodical  herring-fisheries  mentioned,  there  may  be  reck- 
oned scattered  fisheries  along  the  coast  of  the  Bergen  and  Trondbjem 
districts,  all  during  the  summer  and  autumn.  Summer  herring  and  fat 
herring  are  caught  here,  and  they  constitute  an  article  of  food  much 
sought  after. 

Further  information  regarding  the  kinds,  results,  and  methods  of  our 
fisheries,  is  contained  in  a  work  on  the  Norwegian  fisheries,  published 
iu  1804,  by  O.  X.  Loberg,  in  the  official  statistics  of  fisheries ;  as,  also, 
in  the  annual  reports  of  the  various  superintendents  of  fisheries. 

These  works  will  show  that  besides  the  fisheries  referred  to,  other 
regular  fisheries  are  carried  on  during  the  year,  each  of  which,  consid- 
ered separately,  is  not  as  important  as  those  already  mentioned;  but 
which,  nevertheless,  taken  as  a  whole,  play  no  inconsiderable  part  in 
the  economy  of  the  country. 

Scientific  investigations  concerning  our  fisheries  have,  as  far  as  the  her- 
ring fisheries  are  concerned,  been  made  by  Mr.  AxelBoeck.  The  results  of 
his  investigations  are  published  iu  a  work  entitled  "On  Herring  and 
Herring  Fisheries,"  only  the  first  part  of  which,  however,  has  been 
printed.  What  connection  there  may  be  between  the  decrease  of  the 
spring-herring  fisheries  and  the  development  of  the  great  herring  fish- 
eries, is  yet  an  unsolved  problem. 

Similar  investigations  regarding  the  haddock  fisheries  on  the  Lofloden, 
have  been  made  by  Mr.  G.  O.  Sars,  who  has  published  several  reports 
on  the  investigations  which  have  led  to  very  valuable  discoveries  as  re- 
gards the  development  and  the  manner  of  living  of  the  haddock. 

There  is  no  uniform  law  prescribed  for  our  salt-water  fisheries,  but 
there  is  a  number  of  separate  laws  for  the  separate  fisheries,  or  for  the 
various  districts. 

Attempts,  however,  have  been  made  to  secure  some  uniformity  of 
principle  in  these  different  laws,  so  that  no  greater  discrepencies  exist 
between  them  than  are  necessarily  found  between  different  fisheries 
and  different  localities.  The  old  laws  and  regulations  undertook  to 
exert  an  influence  on  the  fisheries  as  well  as  on  the  preparing  of  the 
fish,  by  various  restrictions  and  prohibitions.  The  new  fishing  laws,  on 
the  contrary,  have  been  limited  principally  to  regulations  concerning 
the  maintenance  of  good  order  during  the  fishing  season,  especially  by 
appointing  officers  for  this  purpose;  so  that  the  fishermen  are  allowed, 
to  a  great  extent,  to  carry  on  their  fishing  operations  in  any  way  most 
acceptable  to  themselves. 

A  sea-police  has  been  organized  by  the  law  of  May  23,  1857,  for  the 
haddock  fisheries  on  the  Loflod  Islands.  This  police  exercises  its  func- 
tions by  means  of  small  vessels  called  -'skates,"  (skoiter,)  manned  by 
five  or  six  men,  and  generally  under  the  command  of  a  naval  officer. 
As  to  the  details  of  this  organization  we  refer  to  a  resolution  of  the  gov- 
ernment sanctioned  by  the  king,  October  27,  1S5S,  and  contained  in  the 
official  journal  (Departement  tidende)fov  1858,  p.  781,  sqq.    The  expenses 


ON    TIIE    FISHERIES    OF    NORWAY.  27 

of  this  police  amount  annually  to  about  7,000  Norwegian  "specie  dalers," 
($7,966). 

A  similar  sea-police  lias  been  organized  for  the  spring-herring  fish- 
eries by  the  law  of  September  24,  1851,  modified  by  the  amendments  of 
August  28,  1854,  March  21,  1SG0,  June  22,  18G3,  and  March  27,  18G9. 
The  annual  expenses  of  this  police,  which  formerly  amounted  to  10,000 
Norwegian  "  specie  dalers,"  ($11,3S0,)  have  been  reduced,  during  the 
last  few  years,  to  4,000  "  specie  dalers,  ($4,552.) 

It  has  also  been  found  necessary  to  strengthen  the  local  police  for  the 
great-herring  fisheries.  There  has  not,  however,  been  the  same  amount 
of  inspection  for  these  as  for  the  Loffoden  and  spring-herring  fisheries. 

Legislation  with  regard  to  the  great-herring  fisheries  is  comprised  in 
the  laws  of  April  25,  18G3,  as  amended  May  22, 1869,  April  20,  1872, 
and  April  5,  1873.  These  laws  apply  generally  to  all  herring  fisheries, 
except  the  spring-herring  fisheries,  since  these  are  the  only  ones  with 
regard  to  which  the  law  of  Sexjtember  24, 1851,  with  its  amendments,  is 
in  force. 

The  Finmarken  haddock  fisheries  are  regulated  by  the  law  of  Septem- 
ber 13,  1830,  some  of  whose  provisions,  however,  were  annulled  by  the 
law  of  May  18,  18G0. 

The  law  of  1830  is  based  on  old  and  limited  principles  of  fishing ; 
and  the  question  has  been  raised,  since  most  of  its  provisions  are  con- 
sidered antiquated,  whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  introduce  regula- 
tions for  the  Finmarken  fisheries  similar  to  those  in  force  at  the  Loffo- 
den fisheries. 

As  will  be  seen,  however,  from  the  report  of  the  committee  appointed 
for  this  purpose,  made  August  12, 1868,  (published  as  "  Storthing,"  Par- 
liamentary document  No.  79,  session  lSGS-'69,)  the  committee  thought 
it  advisable,  in  deference  to  public  opinion  in  the  district,  not  to  make 
any  changes  for  the  time  being. 

The  above-mentioned  law  of  May  18,  1SG0,  contains  some  general  pro- 
visions for  all  the  salt-water  fisheries  in  the  districts  of  Nordland  and 
Finmarken,  in  as  far  as  these  fisheries  have  not  become  the  subject  of 
special  legislation. 

In  addition  to  the  laws  already  mentioned  a  law  of  February  20, 1869, 
is  in  force,  making  some  changes  in  the  regulations  concerning  fines. 

We  must  consider  the  law  of  July  26,  1781,  concerning  the  preparing 
of  so-called  "  round-fish,"  (rund-fish,)  in  the  districts  of  Komsdal  and 
Sondmore,  as  nearly  antiquated ;  also  the  law  of  December  21,  1792, 
concerning  the  haddock  fisheries  in  the  district  of  Fosen ;  the  law  of 
August  21, 1821,  concerning  the  fisheries  near  Skudesnoes,  and  the  law 
of  the  same  date  regarding  the  spring-haddock  fisheries  in  the  Borgen- 
fjord  (bay)  of  the  Sondmore  district. 

"With  special  reference  to  those  salt-water  bays  and  inlets  which  in- 
deed may  be  considered  as  inclosed  basins,  and  whose  abundance  of 
fish  is  supposed  to  be  chiefly  dependent  on  local  increase,  the  law  of 


28  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

June  5,  1869,  prohibits  tbe  use  of  any  implements  which,  by  catching 
or  destroying  tbe  young  fish,  would  prove  detrimental  to  the  fisheries. 

As  to  lobster-fishing,  there  is  a  law  of  June  29,  1848,  still  in  force, 
which,  however,  is  destined,  at  no  distant  period,  to  undergo  consider- 
able alterations. 

As  regards  tbe  administration  of  justice  at  tbe  fisheries  it  may  be  well 
to  notice  tbe  following ;  it  is  a  general  rule  that  any  differences  arising 
among  the  fishermen  are  not  referred  to  any  other  judicial  authorities 
than  those  to  which  they  naturally  belong,  and  are  treated  in  no  other 
manner  than  other  matters  in  law,  except  that,  as  far  as  local  circum- 
stances make  it  necessary,  the  local  police  is  strengthened,  and  the  local 
judge  is  himself  either  present  at  tbe  fishing-stations,  or  sends  a  substi- 
tute. 

There  are  special  regulations  for  maintaining  order  and  for  admiuis- 
teriDg  justice  at  two  of  the  more  important  fisheries,  viz,  the  spring- 
herring  fishery  in  the  districts  of  Stavanger,  Southern  and  Northern 
Bergenhus  and  Eomsdal,  and  the  spring-haddock  fishery  on  the  Loffo- 
den  Islands  in  the  northern  district. 

A  special  sea-police  has  been  organized  for  each  fishery,  as  author- 
ized by  the  laws  which  regulate  these  interests,  consisting  of  from 
three  to  four  officers  and  a  number  of  subordinates,  all  under  the  com- 
mand of  a  naval  officer.  This  police,  which,  as  far  as  the  naval  officers 
are  concerned,  belongs  to  tbe  department  of  the  interior  and  is  com- 
manded by  the  officer  who  superintends  the  whole  fishery,  is  under  the 
immediate  control  of  the  respective  local  civil  authorities.  The  higher 
local  authorities  are  empowered  to  appoint  for  each  of  the  two  fisheries 
above  mentioned  one  or,  if  necessary,  several  special  judges,  who,  in- 
stead of  the  ordinary  judges,  administer  justice  during  the  fishiog  sea- 
son in  all  matters  relating  to  fishing  in  the  fishing-districts. 

This  superintendence  during  the  fishing-season  consists  in  the  exer- 
cise of  the  usual  police  functions,  and  in  seeing  that  the  special  fishing- 
laws,  the  general  commercial  laws,  and  the  liquor  laws  are  properly 
observed.  In  case  of  violations  which  can  be  punished  by  fines,  the 
superintendent  imposes  the  fine.  If  this  fine  is  paid,  the  matter  is  con- 
sidered adjusted ;  if  not,  it  is  referred  to  the  judge.  The  superintending 
authorities,  i.  c,  the  nearest  officer  present,  with  two  men  chosen  by 
him,  must  also  arbitrate  in  cases  of  conflict  between  fishermen.  (Law 
of  September,  1851,  section  9,  and  law  of  May  23,  1857,  section  33.) 

The  special  judge  must  decide  in  cases  wbere  the  fine  imposed  by  the 
superintending  authorities  is  not  paid,  as  well  as  in  other  cases  of  viol- 
ation of  the  law  which  are  punishable  by  heavier  penalties  than  fines. 
If,  however,  the  case  after  having  been  heard  by  the  judge  cannot  be 
determined  in  accordance  with  existing  regulations  without  the  ordinary 
authorities,  (the  government  of  the  district,)  it  is  then  referred  to  them 
to  be  disposed  of  in  the  usual  manner.  The  special  judge  also  arbitrates 
in  private  differences  arising  in  fishing  or  in  the  fishing  trade.     lie  has 


ON    THE    FISHERIES    OF    NORWAY.  29 

also  the  power,  in  cases  not  strictly  belonging  to  the  fishing  superinten- 
dence, to  select  two  men,  who,  in  conjunction  with  the  judge,  have 
power  to  make  a  decisiom. 

The  period  of  ofiice  of  the  special  judge  is  limited  to  the  fishing  sea- 
son, and  those  cases  which  he  cannot  finish  for  want  of  time  are  referred 
for  further  action  to  the  ordinary  judge  of  the  district.  The  judge  also 
exercises  this  authority  in  cases  belonging  to  his  jurisdiction,  which 
otherwise  belong  to  the  bailiff,  such  as  the  carrying  out  of  judgments, 
arrest,  confiscation,  &c. 

The  superintending  authorities  have,  as  has  been  already  intimated, 
some  small  sailing-vessels  at  their  disposal,  on  which  the  naval  officers 
live  during  the  fishing-season  ;  and  they  sail  round  to  the  different  fish- 
ing-places, while  the  j  udge  is  generally  stationed  on  shore,  where  he 
hears  and  acts  upon  the  cases  presented  for  decision. 

As  to  the  right  of  fishing  in  salt  water,  the  following  statements  may 
be  made : 

1.  All  kinds  of  fishing  can  be  freely  carried  on  in  salt  water  by  every 
Norwegian  citizen,  whenever  he  may  please  to  do  so,  in  the  sea  or  along 
the  coast.  The  state  does  not  reserve  to  itself  any  rights  in  this  re- 
spect, except  *he  necessary  police-regulations  for  maintaining  order. 
(Eegarding  the  privileges  of  landowners  of  the  coast  see  2.) 

2.  Free  fishing  in  salt  water  is  not  confined  to  the  sea,  but  also  com- 
prises fishing  on  the  coast,  except  that  as  far  as  the  coast  itself  is  used 
in  fishing,  e.  g.,  for  drawing  fish  on  land  or  for  fixing  implements,  this 
rule  is  somewhat  modified  ;  and  in  some  places  a  different  law  has 
grown  up  in  course  of  time,  as  regards  fishing  for  salmon  and  oysters. 

Fishing  from  land  is  the  exclusive  right  of  the  landowner,  and  he 
alone  has  authority  to  place  stationary  fishing  implements.  Any  one, 
however,  may  make  use  of  the  land  to  draw  his  fish  ashore,  but  with 
this  condition,  that  the  landowner  can  claim  a  certain  bonus,  which,  for 
herring  fishing,  is  fixed  at  3,  and  in  some  cases  at  G  per  cent.  (See  law 
of  May  23,  1803,  and  law  of  September  24,  1851,  §  36.) 

The  right  to  fish  for  salmon  on  the  shore  belongs,  in  many  places,  ex- 
clusively to  the  landowner,  even  if  fishing  is  not  carried  on  with  sta- 
tionary fishing  implements.  Oyster  fishing  belongs  as  a  rule  to  the 
landowner.  It  may  well  happen  that  in  some  places  a  more  exclusive 
right  of  the  landowner  with  regard  to  that  portion  of  the  sea  adjoining 
his  property  has  grown  up  in  course  of  time. 

3.  Besides  the  use  of  the  coast  for  drawing  fish  ashore,  which  is  guar- 
anteed to  every  fisherman,  some  fisheries,  carried  on  in  the  open  sea 
with  boats,  such  as  the  haddock  fisheries,  require  that  the  fisherman 
shall  have  some  place  on  shore  for  his  boats,  for  his  implements,  and 
for  drying  and  preparing  the  fish.  The  old  fishing  laws  contained 
various  regulations  obliging  the  land-owners  to  allow  the  fisherman  a 
certain  space  on  the  coast,  in  return  for  a  bonus  fixed  by  law ;  and  even 


30  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

now  similar  regulations  are  made  in  the  Finrnarken  fishing  law  of  Sep- 
tember 13,  1830,  sections  2S-30. 

Like  regulations  contained  in  the  old  laws  regarding  tbe  most  impor- 
tant haddock-fisheries,  viz,  those  of  Loffoden,  were  annulled  by  the  law 
of  May  23,  1857.  By  this  law,  this  matter  is  left  to  a  mutual  arrange- 
ment between  the  fisherman  and  the  landowner,  and  the  latter  is  in  no 
way  obliged  to  grant  tbe  fisherman  any  space  on  bis  land  along  the 
coast. 

It  is  but  natural  that  among  the  fishermen  themselves  certain  customs 
and  usages  in  fishing  have  arisen,  which  are  strictly  observed.  Of  such 
usages,  however,  which  are  always  taken  into  consideration  by  tbe 
jndges  in  deciding  a  case,  we  are  unable  to  give  any  further  informa- 
tion 

Of  Loberg's  book  "  On  tbe  Fisheries  of  Norway,"  and  of  G.  O.  Sar's 
last  report,  the  Department  of  the  Interior  possesses  no  more  copies. 
We  inclose  the  following :   • 

1.  Statistics  of  Fisheries  for  1870  and  1871. 

2.  Eeports  on  the  Spring-Herring  Fisheries  for  1868-'09,  1869-'70, 
1870-'71,  lS71-'72,  and  1872-'73. 

3.  Eeports  on  the  Loffoden  Fisheries  for  1869,  1870,  1871,  1872,  and 
1S73. 

4.  On  Herring  and  Herring-Fisheries,  especially  the  Norwegian 
Spring-Herring  Fisheries,  by  Axel  Boech,  Part  I. 

5.  Eeports  of  G.  O.  Sars,  1864-1869. 

6.  Department  Journal,  (Departementstidende,)  1858,  No.  49. 

7.  Amendment  of  the  Law  regarding  Spring-Herring  Fisheries,  March 
27,  1869. 

8.  Amendments  to  the  Law  regarding  Herring-Fisheries,  May  22, 1869, 
April  20,  1872,  and  April  5,  1873. 

9.  "  Storthings,"  (Parliamentary,)  Document,  No.  79,  session  186S-69. 

10.  Law  regarding  Changes  m  the  Begulations  for  treating  Judicial 
cases  arising  under  the  Fisheries,  February  20,  1869. 

11.  Law  regarding  the  Limitations  in  the  Use  of  Fishing-Implements 
in  Salt-water  Inlets,  June  5,  1869. 

The  other  laws  mentioned  in  this  letter  will  be  found  in  the  Eeview 
of  Fishing  Laws  prepared  by  Mr.  Thomas  Boeck. 


IV -STATISTICAL  DATA  REGARDING  THE  SWEDISH 

FISHERIES. 


BY    IIjALMAIl   WlDEGIiEX. 


[Nordisk  Tidskrift  for  Tiskcri,  published  at  Copenhagen.    New  series,  Part  J,  November,  1873.  Trans- 
lated by  H.  Jacobson.] 

Sweden,  extending  from  north  to  south  through  more  than  12°  of 
latitude,  is  washed  by  the  sea  on  about  two-thirds  of  its  circumference, 
which  forms,  in  many  places,  large  inlets.  The  country  itself  is  trav- 
ersed by  numerous  streams,  and  possesses  a  very  large  number  of  lakes, 
so  that  nearly  one-tenth  of  its  whole  area  is  covered  with  water.  The 
natural  conditions  of  the  eastern  and  western  coasts,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  water-courses  and  lakes  of  northern  and  southern  Sweden,  are 
different,  so  that,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  country  possesses  a  very  great 
variety  of  fish.  • 

In  such  a  country  the  fisheries  must  of  course  form  a  considerable 
source  of  income ;  and,  it  is  well  known,  that  next  to  agriculture,  forest- 
culture  and  mining,  the  fisheries  are  the  most  important  source  cf  reve- 
nue, giving  employment  and  subsistance  to  a  large  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation. 

The  most  important  fisheries  in  Sweden  are — 

1.  The  lake- fisheries  and  the  coast-fisheries  in  the  numerous  narrow 
inlets. 

2.  The  salmon- fisheries  in  the  streams  and  inlets. 

3.  The  herring-fisheries  in  the  Baltic  and  along  the  coasts. 

4.  The  fisheries  in  the  Kattegat  and  the  North  Sea. 

1.  The  lake  and  coast  fisheries  in  the  south  of  Sweden  are  chiefly  pro- 
ductive of  perch,  jjffte,  bream,  and  fish  of  the  carp  species ;  as  also  the 
burbot  and  the  eel ;  while  in  the  north  of  Sweden,  they  yield  mainly  fish 
of  the  genus  Coregonus,  but  also  some  of  those  just  mentioned.  The  lake 
and  coast-fisheries  are  carried  on  partly  as  a  means  of  living  by  the 
fishermen  residing  near  the  lakes  and  coasts  ,•  and  partly  as  a  means  by 
which  those  farmers,  peasants,  mechanics,  and  soldiers,  who  either  own 
the  right  of  fishing  in  certain  places,  or  have  temporarily  secured  it, 
may  earn  some  little  money.  Although  statistics  regarding  the  Swedish 
fisheries  have  been  collected  for  some  years,  it  is  not  yet  fully  known 
how  many  persons  are  annually  engaged  in  them ;  nor  has  the  value  of 
the  implements  used,  and  of  the  fish  caught  been  ascertained.  From 
what  is  known  in  this  respect  as  to  some  of  the  provinces,  it  appears 
that  this  branch  of  the  Swedish  fisheries  is  of  considerable  financial 
value,  in  proof  of  which,  we  may  mention,  that  in  Kerike,  one  of  the 


32  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

smaller  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  489  persons  are  employed  in  them, 
and  that  the  value  of  the  implements  is  $9,430. 

In  the  other  provinces,  with  the  exception  of  Sk&ne  and  Blekinge,  the 
lake  and  coast  fisheries  are  carried  on  by  a  much  larger  number  of  per- 
sons. The  money  value  of  gwiniad,  Coregonus  albula,  and  char  caught  in 
lake  Wettern,  amounts  annually  to  $27,775.  On  the  Calmar  coast,  the 
fisheries  are  carried  on  by  182  persons  as  their  exclusive  source  of  in- 
come, while  689  having  some  other  employment  in  addition,  are  also 
engaged  in  them.  The  value  of  the  inrplements  used  is  $29,385.  The  fish 
caught  in  the  lakes  and  on  the  coast  are  either  sold  fresh  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, or  are  used  in  the  households  of  the  fishermen.  As  these  peo- 
ple keep  no  account  of  their  labors,  it  has  been  found  impossible  to 
obtain  any  exact  data  regarding  the  money  value  of  these  fisheries.  In 
order  to  reach  some  approximate  result,  the  number  of  men  employed 
and  the  value  of  the  implements  used  have  bee*u  ascertained  j  and  from 
these  figures  a  tolerably  correct  estimate  may  be  made  regarding  their 
great  value. 

2.  The  salmon  fisheries. — These  are  carried  on  in  the  streams  of  the 
northern  provinces,  from  £he  end  of  May  till  the  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber ;  and  in  the  western  streams,  ( Wiska,  Atra,  Nissa,  Laga,  and  Quis- 
trum,)  from  the  beginning  of  April  till  the  middle  of  July  ;  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Blekinge  and  Skane,  (in  the  south  of  Sweden,)  during  the 
winter  months  as  long  as  the  ice  does  not  interfere.  The  streams  rich- 
est in  salmon,  are  tkeTornea,  Lulea,  Umea,  Ljusne,  and  Angerman,  in 
the  province  of  Norrland.  !Next  come  the  western  streams,  mentioned 
above,  whose  salmon  are  more  highly  valued  than  those  from  the  east 
coast,  and  which  are  fully  as  good  as  the  Scotch  salmon.  The  most  ex- 
tensive salmon  fisheries  in  Sweden  are  those  of  Elfkartlby,  in  Gestrik- 
land,  and  of  M-orrum,  in  Blekinge  ;  the  former  yielding  an  average  an- 
nual income  of  $11,110  ;  and  the  latter,  of  $8,300. 

At  present,  the  salmon  is  mostly  sold  fresh  in  the  country,  or,  packed 
in  ice,  is  exported  from  Gottenburg  and  Stockholm  to  England  and 
Germany,  and  especially  to  Berlin.  The  larger  portion  of  the  salmon 
caught  on  the  south  coast  of  Sweden,  during  winter,  is  smoked  and  sent 
to  Germany  and  Denmark.  According  to  the  most  recent  statistics,  the 
annual  yield  of  salmon  from  twenty-seven  Swedish  streams  is  valued  at 
$170,035.  The  salmon-fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Skiine  and  Blekinge 
yield  an  average  annual  income  of  $33,330. 

3.  The  herring  fisheries  in  the  Baltic  and  along  the  Coasts. — These 
fisheries,  which  are  by  far  the  most  important  in  Sweden,  are  carried 
along  the  whole  coast  from  Kullen  on  the  sound,  to  the  farthest  point  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  exclusively  with  open  boats,  each  manned  by  two 
or  three  persons.  The  fishermen  use  both  stationary  and  floating  nets  ; 
and  the  best  fishing  is  at  different  seasons  along  the  northern  and 
southern  coasts.  On  the  southern  coast,  the  herring-fishery  is  carried 
on  by  a  population  living  together  in  large  fishing  villages,  and  depend- 


STATISTICAL    DATA    REGARDING    THE    SWEDISH    FISHERIES.      33 

ing  entirely  for  subsistence  on  this  fishery.  On  the  coast  of  the  inner 
Baltic,  along  the  northern  line  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  on  the  island 
of  Gotland,  the  herring-fishery  is  partly  carried  on  by  persons  living  in 
the  interior,  who,  during  the  fishing-season  come  to  the  coast,  and 
partly  by  fishermen  living  permanently  on  the  coast  or  on  the  small 
islands  near  it.  The  Baltic  herring  are  partly  sold  fresh,  or  smoked  in 
the  towns  on  the  coast,  partly  salted,  packed  in  casks,  and  sent  all  over 
the  country,  and  of  late  years  even  exported  to  Germany. 

As  salt  herring  constitutes  the  daily  food  of  the  Swedish  peasants  and 
the  lower  classes  in  general,  the  amount  secured  in  the  country  is  not 
sufficient,  so  that  a  considerable  quantity  must  be  imported  from  Nor- 
way. 

Along  the  coast  of  Sweden,  from  Kalmar  to  Malon  near  Haparanda, 
the  herring  fishery  is  carried  on  with  3,275  boats,  and  the  annual  yield 
is  about  66,500  tons  of  salt  herring.  In  Blekinge  there  were  salted  in 
1868,  47,732  tons  of  herring ;  and  in  the  Melmo  and  Christianstad  dis- 
tricts, where  the  herring  fishery  is  carried  on  with  685  boats,  there  were 
salted  during  the  same  year  13,600  tons.  The  greater  portion  of  the 
herring  caught  in  the  two  districts  last  mentioned  are  sold  fresh  to  the 
inhabitants.  On  the  island  of  Gotland,  1,911  persons,  with  606  boatSj 
are  engaged  in  the  herring-fishery,  and  the  yield  in  1869  amounted  to 
30,070  tons. 

It  may  be  safely  asssumed  that  on  an  average  the  total  annual  yield 
of  herring  on  the  Swedish  coasts  of  the  Baltic  amounts  to  150,000  tons, 
representing,  according  to  last  years'  prices,  a  capital  of  $833,330. 
Besides  the  herring  fishery  carried  on  in  the  Baltic,  the  Clupea  harengus 
and  Clupea  sprattus  are  caught  during  the  autumn  and  winter  in  the 
Kattegat  near  the  coast  of  the  province  of  Bohuslau.  The  Clupea  sprat- 
tus is  partly  used  fresh  and  partly  salted  or  pickled,  as  anchovies,  of 
which  latter  very  large  quantities  have  been  Exported  during  late  years. 
The  amount  of  herring  caught  near  the  coast  of  Bohuslau  was,  in 
1871,  valued  at  $24,680. 

4.  The  fisheries  in  the  Kattegat  and  North  Sea. — These  fisheries  are 
partly  carried  on  near  the  coast  with  smaller  boats  and  partly  out  on 
the  Kattegat  and  along  the  western  coast  of  Norway  with  larger  ves- 
sels, of  from  20  to  40  tons,  and  manned  by  twelve  or  fourteen  persons. 

The  implement- used  is  the  so-called  "  storbackan,"  a  line  with  hooks 
which  is  laid  out  ou  the  fishing-banks  to  the  depth  of  100  fathoms. 
Muscles  or  pieces  of  fresh  fish  are  used  as  bait.  With  this  implement 
they  catch  cod,  ling,  flounders,  halibut,  and  other  fish.  Some  of  these 
are  sold  fresh,  but  most  of  them  having  been  salted  either  by  Norwe- 
gian or  Bohuslau  traders,  are  exported.  Codliver  oil  is  prepared  from 
tbe  liver,  and  the  roe  is  salted  and  exported  to  France  to  be  used  as 
bait  in  fishing  for  sardines.  In  1871  Bohuslan  carried  on  the  fishery  in 
the  Kattegat  and  the  North  Sea  with  126  boats,  manned  by  1,226  per- 
sons. The  amount  of  fish  caught  by  them  during  the  same  year  was 
3  F 


34  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

valued  at  $177,930.  During  that  year  5,257  cwt.  of  salt-cod  were 
exported  from  Gottenburg  to  England.  The  fisheries  on  the  coast  of 
Bohusliin,  including  mackerel-fisheries,  employed  351  boats,  manned  by 
1,378  persons.  The  income  from  this  fishery  in  1871  amounted  to 
$97,790. 

The  lobster-fishery  in  Bohusliin  was  valued  in  1871  at  $22,180,  and 
the  oyster-fishery  at  $4,010. 

The  editor  of  the  Scandinavian  Piscicultural  Journal  adds  to  the  above 
article  the  following  items  of  information :  In  Sweden,  the  following 
officers  are  appointed  to  manage  the  fisheries  :  ■ 

A  superintendent  of  the  lake,  river,  and  Baltic  fisheries,  with  two  assist- 
ants, and  one  teacher  of  pisciculture.  This  superintendent  is,  at  present, 
Br.  Ejalmer  Widegren,  and  his  assistants  are  Br.  C.  Bystrom  and  Mr. 
V.  Wehlburg;  while  the  teacher's  place  is  filled  by  Baron  C.  G.  Ceder- 
strom.  Besides  these  government  officials  there  are  special  superin- 
tendents over  certain  sections  of  water  in  some  of  the  provinces,  whose 
chief  duty  it  is  to  see  to  the  proper  observance  of  the  fishing-laws. 
Some  of  these  superintendents  receive  a  small  addition  to  the  salary  paid 
them  by  the  provinces,  from  the  central  government,  while  others  are 
paid  entirely  by  the  provinces,  by  fishing-companies,  or  by  large-landed 
proprietors.  The  superintendence  of  the  open  sea  fisheries  (Kattegat 
and  North  Sea)  is-  intrusted  to  an  official,  who  is  responsible  to  the  Bo- 
huslan authorities.     The  present  incumbent  is  Mr.  G.  von  Yhlen. 

The  duties  of  the  first-mentioned  superintendent,*  as  defined  by  a  let- 
ter from  his  majesty,  the  king,  dated  February  12,  1864,  and  by  a  royal 
proclamation,  dated  November,  1867,  are  as  follows:  1,  to  inspect  the 
fisheries  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country ;  2,  to  propose  suitable 
fishing-laws  wherever  needed,  and  to  assist  the  local  authorites  in  up- 
holding these  laws;  3,  to  collect  and  compile  statistics  of  the  fisheries; 
4,  to  superintend  the  government  Normal  Institution  of  Pisciculture, 
and  all  similar  establishments  throughout  the  country  ;  and,  5,  to  give 
the  necessary  instructions  to  the  other  superintendents. 

*  Dr.  Widegren. 


V.-ACCOUNT  OF  THE  FISHERIES  AND  SEAL-HUNTING  IN  THE 
WHITE  SEA,  THE  ARCTIC  OCEAN,  AND  THE  CASPIAN  SEA. 


By  Alexander  Schultz. 


The  similarity  ill  many  respects  between  the  fish  and  fisheries  of  the 
great  lakes  and  the  northeastern  coast  of  the  United  States  and  those  of 
certain  portions  of  Russia  has  induced  me  to  print  the  very  interesting 
and  important  memoir  of  Mr.  Schultz,*  prepared  to  accouipany  the  Rus- 
sian display  of  fishery-products,  implements,  &c,  at  the  Vienna  Expo- 
sition. In  regard  to  the  conversion  of  the  sturgeon,  so  abundant  in  the 
United  States,  and  until  lately  considered  a  refuse  fish,  into  a  valuable 
article  of  trade,  the  memoir  will  be  found  replete  with  valuable  informa- 
tion. It  also  details  novel  modes  of  capturing  and  utilizing  the  cod,  the 
herring,  the  salmon,  the  seals,  and  the  smaller  cetaceans,  (porpoises,  &c.) 
many  of  them  perfectly  available  in  the  United  States,  and  worthy  of 
introduction. — [S.  F.  Balrd.] 

In  the  district  of  Archangel,  large  fishing-villages  are  found  on  the 
coasts  of  the  White  Sea,  especially  near  the  mouths  of  rivers  and 
streams,  such  as  the  Dwina,  the  Onega,  the  Souma,  the  Kem,  the  Kovda, 
the  Niva,  the  Oumba,  and  the  Varzoukha.  A  still  larger  portion  of  the 
population  of  the  cities  of  Archaugel,  Onega,  and  Kem,  as  well  as  of  the 
town  of  Souma,  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  fishing  and  trading  in 
fish.  The  coast  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  which  extends  east  of  the  White 
Sea  has  a  very  sparse  population.  Only  here  and  there,  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  are  seen  the  wretched  huts  of  fishermen,  inhab- 
ited only  in  the  summer,  and  the  felt  tents  of  Samoyed  families,  who 
also  live  by  fishing.  The  inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Mezene,  and  those 
of  the  village  of  Poustozersk,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Petshora,  are  engaged 
either  in  fishing  Or  hunting  the  seal  or  the  walruss. 

Not  more  than  3,000  fishermen  live  in  the  vast  region  of  the  Lower 
Petshora,  extending  three  hundred  versts  (about  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
eight  miles)  along  the  shores  of  the  sea,  and  four  hundred  versts  (about 
two  hundred  and  sixty-eight  miles)  up  the  river.  The  Lapland  coast, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Kola  Peninsula,  is  entirely  uninhabited  as  far 
as  the  Norwegian  frontier.    Only  nomadic  Laplanders  show  themselves 

*Ministere  ties  doruaines.  Comite"  special,  charge"  de  la  collection  des  produits  des  in- 
dustries rurales  et  forestieres  pour  l'exposition  universelle  de  Vienne. — Notice  sur  le 
pickeries  et  la  chasse  aux  phoques  daus  la  Mer  Blanche,  FOc6an  Glacial  et  la  Mer  Caa 
pienue.  Par  Alexandre  Schultz,  conseillor  d'etat  actuel  et  president  de  l'adininistra- 
tiou  des  pecheries  d' Astrakhan. — St.  Pe"tershourg,  1873.    8vo,  80  pp.,  2  1. 


36  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

here  and  there.  This  country,  called  the  Mourman  coast,  possesses  a 
great  number  of  large  and  small  inlets,  which  form  excellent  anchoring- 
places.  Five  thousand  fishermen  assemble  there  for  the  season,  from 
April  till  the  middle  of  August.  The  majority  of  these  come  from  the 
coast-villages  of  the  White  Sea,  located  in  the  districts  of  Onega  and 
Kern,  and  they  are  known  by  the  name  of  "Poinortsie" — inhabitants 
of  the  sea-coast. 

The  average  annual  value  of  the  fisheries  in  the  White  Sea,  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  the  rivers  flowing  into  them  is  a  million  "roubles,"  (about 
$700,000  gold.)  Of  this  sum,  the  cod-fisheries  on  the  Mourman  coast 
yield  at  least  400,000  "roubles,"  (about  $280,000  gold,)  and  the  herring- 
fisheries  in  the  White  Sea  250,000  "roubles,"  (about  $175,000  gold.) 
The  phocse-hunt  yields  annually  about  80,000  "pouds"  (2,880,000  pounds) 
of  oil,  valued  at  120,000  "roubles,"  (about  $84,000  gold.) 

The  manner  of  fishing  and  of  preparing  the  fish  when  caught  is  much 
less  perfect  on  the  coasts  of  the  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  than 
that  of  the  Astraehau  fishermen.  The  fish  are,  in  general,  salted  in  an 
imperfect  and  slovenly  manner.  The  monks  of  the  convent  of  Solovetsk 
alone  distinguish  themselves  by  their  manner  of  salting  herring ;  and  an 
exception  must  also  be  made  with  regard  to  the  salting  of  the  salmon  of 
the  Dwiua  and  the  Onega.  The  reason  of  this  is,  not  that  the  fishermen 
do  not  know  the  approved  method  of  preparing  fish,  but  that  they  shun 
the  trouble  and  expense,  and  content  themselves  with  the  old  saying, 
"We  go  on  doing  as  our  fathers  and  grandfathers  have  done  before  us." 

A— THE  FISHERIES   IN   THE   WHITE    SEA   AND   THE    PET- 

SHOKA. 

In  the  White  Sea  and  the  rivers  falling  into  it,  such  as  the  Petshora, 
the  following  kinds  of  fish  are  found,  of  which  I  will  first  give  the  Rus- 
sian names  :  "  Okouue,"  (Perca  fluviatilis,)  perch ;  "  yorsche,"  (Acerina 
vulgaris;)  "revtsa,"  (Cottus  quadricornis ;)  "  kertcha,"  (Cottus  scorpio  ;) 
"zoubatka,"  (Anarhiclias  lupus,)  wolf-fish;  "harass,"  (Cyprinus  caras- 
sius,)  carp;  "  vyoune,"  (Tinea  vulgaris,)  tench;  "pestousch,"  (Gobio 
fluviatilis;)  "  yelets,"  (Leuciscus  grislagine ;)  in  the  Tsilma  and  Peza 
Elvers:  " yaz,"  (Leuciscus  idus,)  nerfling;  "  soroga,"  (Leuciscus  rutilus  ;) 
"lestche,"  (Abramisbrama ;)  "oukleika,"  (Aspius  alburnus ;)  "stchouka," 
(Esox  lucius,)  pike ;  "siomga,"  (Salmo  salar,)  salmon;  "coumja," 
(Salmo  trutta,)  sea-trout;  " koriouchka,"  (Osmerus  eperlanus,)  smelt; 
"  kharyouss,"  (Thymallus  vexillifer,  Agassiz,)  grayling;  "sig,"  (Corego- 
nus  oxyrliynchus,  Lin.,)  long-snouted  white-fish;  "  nelma,"  (Coregonus 
leucichthys,  Pall.;)  "  seld,"  (Clupea  harengus,)  herring;  "  treska,"  (Gadus 
morrhua,)  cod;  "  pertoua,"  (Gadus  callarias ;)  "  navaga,"  (Gadus  na- 
vaga ;)  "  sai'da,"  (Gadus  sa'ida ;)  "  nalim,"  (Lota  vulgaris,)  burbot; 
"  kambala,"  (Pleuronectes  platessa,)  flounder;  "  kambala,"  (Pleuronectes 
fiesus  ;)  "  sterliad,"  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  sterlet;  "  minoga,"  (Petromy. 
zon  fiuviatilis,)  lamprey;  "petchorskoi  sig,"  (Coregonus  polkur,T?i\\\.,) 


FISHEEIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  37 

"  peliad,"  (Coregonus  peled.  Pall.,)  "  tchir,"  (Coregonus  nasutus,  Pall.,) 
"  oinoul,"  (Coregonus  omul,)  and  u  saourei,"  (Coregonus  vimba,)  species 
of  white-fish. 

Of  all  these  kinds  of  fish,  those  forming  the  largest  article  of  com- 
merce are  the  herring,  the  salmon,  aud  the  cod;  then  follow  the 
"navaga,"  the  "sterliad,"  and  the  "minoga."  The  fish  are  exported 
to  the  districts  of  Vologda,  Viatka,  Yaroslaw,  Moscow,  Olonets,  St. 
Petersburg,  and  to  the  several  districts  of  the  province  of  Archangel. 

1. — THE   HERRING. 

The  species  Glupea  liarengus  is  found  in  the  White  Sea  only,  and  is 
divided  into  a  large  and  a  small  kind.  The  former  is  caught  especially 
on  the  southwest  shore  in  the  bay  of  Kaudalakcha,  near  the  convent  of 
Solovetsk,  and  near  the  village  of  Pongama,  and  more  rarely  near  the 
city  of  Kem  and  on  the  northwest  shore  of  the  bay  of  Kaudalakcha. 
The  small  herring  usually  attains  the  length  ot  from  G  to  7£  inches ; 
and  a  thousand  weigh  about  two  "  pouds1'  and  a  half,  (90  pounds.)  These 
herring  come  up  in  large  numbers  from  the  depth  of  the  sea  in  the 
beginning  of  November,  and  make  for  the  bays,  especially  the  bay  of 
Soroka,  where  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  villages  always  catch  them 
in  great  abundance. 

Herrings  leave  the  deep  sea  only  during  the  spawning  season,  in 
order  to  reach  the  more  shallow  bays,  and  the  fishermen  call  them  by 
different  names,  according  to  the  time  when  they  make  their  appearance. 
The  herring  of  St.  George  (appearing  about  the  time  of  that  saint's  day) 
has  perfectly  matured  roe,  and  spawns  in  April.  Two  hundred  and 
fifty  of  these  fish  weigh  only  one  "pond,"  (36  pounds.)  It  requires,  on  the 
other  hand,  only  from  80  to  120  herring  of  St.  John  to  make  the  same 
weight,  and  these  have  most  of  the  time  roe  and  milt.  The  autumn 
herring  are  the  fattest,  but  have  neither  roe  nor  milt. 

Organization  of  the  herring-fisheries. — It  is  a  rule  very  generally  ob- 
served that  the  interests  of  a  whole  community  shall  not  be  injured 
by  the  preponderating  influence  of  private  individuals,  and  that  the  per- 
sonal rights  of  every  fisherman  shall  be  protected.  To  insure  this,  vari- 
ous measures  are  taken,  varying  according  to  local  conditions.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  villages  of  Kaudalakcha,  Kovda,  and  Kniajno'i,  the  herring- 
fishery  is  organized  in  the  following  manner :  the  places  near  these  vil- 
lages where  the  fisheries  are  most  productive  being  known,  the  entire 
community  goes  there,  aud  the  result  of  the  common  labor  is  divided 
among  the  fishermen  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  male  inhabitants 
of  each  village. 

This  proportion  is  calculated  in  the  following  mauner :  At  first,  the 
number  of  fishermen  is  determined,  aud  then  the  number  of  inhabitants 
obliged  to  furnish  one  fisherman.  In  counting  one  fisherman  to  three 
inhabitants,  a  family  composed  of  three  members  must  furnish  one ;  a  fam- 
ily of  six  members,  two ;  aud  so  on.     Families  having  only  two  members 


38  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

associate  themselves  with  others  numbering  four  members,  and  thus 
furnish  two  fishermen  in  common.  Every  one  of  these  must  furnish  the 
salt  aud  the  necessary  fishing-implements.  When  the  fisheries  have 
come  to  an  end,  all  the  fish  which  have  been  caught  are  sold  in  a  lump, 
and  the  proceeds  are  divided  among  all  the  persons  who  havetaken  a 
part  in  the  fishing.  Families  which,  though  taking  a  part  in  the  com- 
mon fisheries,  wish  to  fish  in  other  places,  are  authorized  to  do  so  with 
their  own  means  ;  but,  if  the  places  where  they  desire  to  fish  are  particu- 
larly rich,  the  community  has  the  right  to  take  possession  of  them  as 
common  property. 

On  the  northern  coast  of  the  White  Sea,  there  is  a  large  fishing-vil- 
lage called  Kauzomene,  where,  in  the  autumu,  herring-fisheries  are 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale  near  the  mouth  of  the  river.  It  is  the  cus- 
tom in  this  village  that  the  inhabitant  of  the  village  who  first  arrives  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  has  the  right  to  cast  his  nets  first ;  but  after 
having  drawn  them  in,  he  must  yield  his  place  to  the  one  who  comes 
second,  and  so  on.  The  herring  caught  there  spawn  in  May  and  disap- 
pear entirely  during  the  latter  half  of  July. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  autumn  and  the  beginning  of  the  winter,  great 
herring-fisheries  are  going  on  in  the  bay  of  Soroka,  where  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  coast  are  joined  by  considerable  numbers  of  Kareles,  who 
come  from  their  villages,  far  away  from  the  bay.  Here  every  person 
fishes  for  himself,  every  family  enjoying  its  own  gains.  The  fishing  here 
is  always  very  productive,  and  it  is  not  a  rare  case  to  find  100,000  her- 
ring in  the  net  and  70,000  in  the  sweep-net. 

Implements  for  the  her  ring -fisheries. — The  two  wings  of  the  net,  when 
spread  out,  have  a  total  length  of  from  16  to  35  "  sagenes,"  (112  to 
245  feet;)  their  depth  is  from  2£  to  4  "sageues,"  (17£  to  28  feet;)  the 
meshes  of  the  wings  are  from  1  to  If  of  an  inch  square,  and  those  of  the 
purse  or  bag  §  of  an  inch.  The  bag  is  4  "  sagenes"  (28  feet)  long,  and 
can  contain  300  "  pouds"  (10,800  pounds)  of  fish.  These  nets  are  used 
on  the  south  coast  of  the  White  Sea,  particularly  in  the  bay  of  Soroka, 
where  usually  750  of  them  are  employed  at  a  time.  The  fisheries  commence 
in  the  middle  of  November  and  last  till  the  end  of  February.  Holes  are 
made  in  the  ice  in  order  to  get  the  nets  into  the  water,  and  they  are 
kept  there  by  means  of  small  sticks  tied  to  the  wings  of  the  net  by  long 
cords,  and  laid  across  the  holes  made  in  the  ice. 

For  the  autumn  herring-fisheries,  nets  are  used  whose  wings  are  gen- 
erally 8  "sagenes"  (56  feet)  long,  and  every  fisherman  has  such  a  net 
in  his  boat.  The  boats  always  go  out  two  by  two.  A  cord  with  a  run- 
ning-knot tied  to  the  prows  of  the  two  boats  prevents  their  separating. 
Every  boat  is  manned  by  three  fishermen,  one  of  whom  rows  while  the 
second  guides  the  helm,  and  the  third  continually  sounds  the  sea  by 
means  of  a  long  pole,  to  ascertain  the  presence  of  a  school  of  herring. 
The  moment  the  fishing  ought  to  commence,  the  cord  uniting  the  two 
boats  is  pulled  out;  and  the  fishermen  in  each  rowing  rapidly,  they 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  39 

soon  separate.  Paring  this  time,  one  of  the  nets  is  cast,  and  the  boats 
keep  in  the  same  place  till  the  whole  net  is  in  the  water ;  then  the  oars 
are  again  put  in  motion,  dragging  the  net  a  certain  distance,  when  the 
two  boats  again  unite.  The  wings  are  tben  drawn  into  the  boats,  the 
bag  is  detached  from  them,  tied  up  like  a  purse,  and  left  in  the  water 
till  the  second  net  has  likewise  been  cast  and  drawn.  After  having 
brought  this  double  operation  to  an  end,  the  herring  are  taken  out  of 
the  bag  by  means  of  hand-nets  and  crayfish-nets  and  put  in  the  boats  or 
laid  on  the  shore. 

The  largest  nets,  the  so-called  "  eissauges,"  which  are  always  hauled 
on  shore,  are  from  50  to  100  "  sagenes"  (350  to  700  feet)  long,  and  have 
a  bag  measuring  7  "  sagenes,"  (49  feet.) 

The  total  length  of  this  implement  is  8  "  sagenes,"  (56  feet,)  and 
a  cylindrical  net  is  attached  to  its  bag  serving  as  a  leap,  3  "ar- 
sheens "  (7  feet)  iu  length,  and  stretched  over  three  small  wooden 
rings.  The  meshes  of  the  cylindrical  net  and  those  of  the  bag 
measure  only  half  an  inch,  while  those  of  the  wings  measure  1£  inches. 
With  nets  of  this  kind,  small  herring  scarcely  two  inches  long 
are  caught  under  the  ice ;  of  these  small  herring,  2,500  weigh  one 
"  poud,"  (36  pounds.)  This  kind  of  fishing  is  chiefly  carried  on  near  the 
mouths  of  the  Dwiua,  and  cart-loads  of  these  fish  are  taken  to  Arch- 
angel, the  price  of  one  cart-load  being  generally  5  "  roubles,"  ($3.50  gold.) 

The  sweep-nets  have  mostly  ten  hoops ;  the  first  or  foremost  one,  being 
the  largest,  about  2£  "  arsheens  "  (5  feet  10  inches)  in  diameter,  while 
the  last  or  hindmost,  being  the  smallest,  measures  only  £  "  arsheen,"  (1 
foot  2  inches.)  The  hoops  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  1£  "  arsheens"  (3 
feet  6  inches)  from  each  other.  The  meshes  are  one  inch  square.  Two 
little  necks,  shaped  like  funnels,  called  "gorges"  by  the  fishermen,  are 
attached  to  the  inside  of  the  nets ;  and,  through  these  openings,  the  fish 
enter  the  net,  where  they  become  imprisoned.  Each  wing  of  the  net 
measures  10  "  sagenes"  (70  feet)  iu  length.  These  sweep-nets  are  placed 
at  a  depth  varying  from  1  to  3  "sagenes,"  (7  to  21  feet,)  chiefly  during 
the  months  of  January  and  February. 

Preparing  the  herring.- — The  herring  caught  in  the  spring,  summer, 
and  autumn,  in  the  bay  of  Kandalakcha,  at  Pogama,  at  Solovetsk,  and 
other  places,  are  always  salted.  The  monks  of  Solovetsk  know  how  to  do 
this  admirably.  They  do  not  take  out  the  entrails,  but  after  having 
washed  the  herring  properly,  they  barrel  them  in  layers  with  the  greatest 
precision,  and  put  a  thick  covering  of  salt  on  every  layer,  after  which 
the  barrels  are  placed  in  the  ice- vaults. 

In  most  of  the  villages,  on  the  contrary,  the  herring  are  thrown  pro- 
miscuously into  pine- barrels,  which  are  so  badly  made  that  they  scarce- 
ly retain  the  brine  ;  then  a  quantity  of  salt  is  added,  and  the  whole  is 
well  shaken.  Sometimes  the  large  herring  of  St.  John  are  dressed, 
and  then  placed  in  layers  iu  the  barrels,  slightly  salted.  The  barrels 
are  then  left  to  stand  a  week  and  a  half  till  the  fish  are  completely  im- 


40         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

pregDated  with  the  salt,  and  then  finally  closed.  The  barrels  generally 
used  are  16  inches  high  and  9£  inches  in  diameter.  Every  barrel  contains 
usually  from  70  to  100  herring  of  St.  John,  or  from  200  to  250  of  St. 
George,  and  its  weight  varies  between  34  and  42  pounds.  To  every  bar- 
rel the  fishermen  take  4  pounds  of  salt  in  the  spring,  and  G  pounds  in 
the  autumn.  The  largest  barrels,  containing  from  150  to  400  herring, 
are  one  "  arsheen"  (2  feet  4  inches)  high,  and  half  an  "  arsheen"  (1  foot 
2  inches)  in  diameter.  At  Archangel,  the  price  of  such  a  barrel  varies 
from  30  to  50  "  kopecks,"  (21  to  35  cents.)  For  salting,  Spanish  or  Arch- 
angel salt  is  used. 

The  herring  are  smoked  in  some  villages  of  the  district  of  Kem,  at 
Saroka,  at  Jisma,  and  at  Saukho'i  Navoloki,  where  there  are  80  smoke- 
houses. The  village  of  Ouua,  in  the  district  of  Onega,  has  4  smoke- 
houses. They  are  simple  sheds  covered  by  a  slanting  roof,  with  small 
apertures  to  let  the  smoke  pass  out.  Parallel  to  the  walls,  fifteen  or 
more  poles  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  1£  "  arsheens  "  (3  feet  6  inches) 
from  each  other,  supporting  other  poles,  which  are  placed  across  the 
former.  On  these  poles  small  laths  are  placed,  pointed  at  the  end,  and 
on  which  the  herring  are  spitted,  after  having  been  washed  and  salted. 
After  eight  or  nine  days,  the  herring  are  thoroughly  smoked.  The  whole 
process  usually  takes  twelve  days.  The  smoked  herring  cost  90 
"kopecks"  (63  cents)  a  thousand,  and  sometimes  even  1  "rouble"  25 
"kopecks,"  (about  87  cents.)  Not  less  than  ten  millions  of  herring  are 
smoked  every  year. 

2. — THE   SALMON. 

They  distinguish  three  kinds  of  salmon  according  to  the  time  when 
they  show  themselves  in  the  rivers.  The  first  makes  its  appearance  im- 
mediately after  the  breaking  of  the  ice,  toward  the  end  of  May  or  the 
beginning  of  June.  Its  roe  is  almost  matured.  The  salmon  of  this  kind 
is  of  medium  size,  and  weighs  about  seven  pounds.  The  second  kind 
appears  toward  the  end  of  June  and  during  July  ;  it  is  small,  and  weighs 
only  three  pounds.  At  this  time,  male  fish  are  found  with  the  milt 
almost  matured.  The  third  kind  begins  to  ascend  the  rivers  in  August, 
and  stays  there  till  the  water  is  covered  with  a  slight  coating  of  ice. 
Among  them  are  found  males  as  well  as  females ;  but  milt  and  roe  are 
so  little  developed  that  this  salmon  cannot  spawn  that  same  autumn. 
This  kind  is  the  largest  and  fattest;  some  caught  in  the  Dwina  and 
Onega  weighing  twenty  pounds.  The  first  two  kinds  named  enter  the 
rivers  to  spawn  during  the  autumn  of  the  same  year.  After  having 
spawned,  they  spend  the  winter  in  the  rivers,  returning  to  the  sea  in 
the  spring.  In  the  Petshora,  the  Mezene,  the  Dwina,  the  Onega,  and  the 
Varzoukha,  the  salmon  is  caught  in  enormous  quantities. 

Implements  for  salmon- fishing. — The  bars,  which  extend  over  the 
entire  breadth  of  the  river  or  over  a  portion  of  the  stream,  consist  of 
stakes  firmly  driven  in  the  ground,  to  which  poles  are  attached  support- 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  41 

iug  a  sort  of  trellis  made  of  boughs.  These  parks  are  arrange/  in  zig- 
zag shape,  the  outer  angles  having  openings,  where  leaps  ov  wooden 
boxes  are  placed.  These  bars  are  not  used  in  the  Petshora,  tbe  Mezene, 
the  Koulo'i,  and  the  Dwina,  but  in  all  the  other  rivers  falling  into  the 
White  Sea. 

As  soon  as  the  rising  of  the  river  has  subsided,  people  begiu  to  build 
these  bars,  always  leaving  an  opening  of  3  "sagenes"  (21  feet)  to  let 
the  fish  and  the  boats  pass.  The  bar  of  the  river  Ponoi  consists  of  two 
parallel  rows  of  stakes  on  which  transverse  beams  rest,  surmounted  by 
long  thick  poles  weighted  down  by  stones.  The  stakes  are  driven  in  at 
a  distauce  of  2  "sagenes"  (14  feet)  from  each  other.  In  the  interven- 
ing spaces,  horizontal  and  vertical  poles  are  fixed,  furnished  with  a 
trellis  of  thin  branches,  and  here  the  apparatus  for  catching  the  fish 
is  placed,  consisting  of  a  large  box  whose  opening  is  turned  toward  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  This  apparatus  is  called  "ta'iuik"  in  Russian.  A 
funnel,  10  inches  broad  and  1£  "sagenes"  (10£  feet)  long,  leads  to  this 
box,  open  at  the  top  and  crossed  by  planks,  on  which  the  fisherman 
stands  ready  to  take  out  the  captured  salmon  with  a  small  net. 

In  the  Onega,  near  the  village  of  Podporojye,  the  bar  has  only  one 
row  of  wooden  stakes,  on  which  thick  poles  are  placed,  weighted  down  by 
heavy  stones.  In  the  intervening  spaces,  poles  driven  in  at  a  distance  of 
2  "arsheens"  (4  feet  8  inches)  from  each  other,  support  the  trellis.  As 
raits  of  timber  and  planks  float  down  the  river,  bars  have  been  built  2 
"sagenes"  (14  feet)  in  front  of  the  chief  bar,  in  order  to  preserve  them 
against  accidents.  These  last-mentioned  bars  are  a  sort  of  ramparts 
formed  by  beams  floating  on  the  water  and  attached  to  trestles  placed 
there  for  the  purpose.  In  the  Onega,  no  boxes,  but  sweep-nets,  are 
placed  on  the  bars.  While  the  fishermen  take  up  and  examine  the 
sweep-nets,  they  are  replaced  by  a  net  stretched  on  a  wooden  frame,  so 
as  to  prevent  the  fish  from  passing. 

Near  the  town  of  Onega,  they  use,  besides  the  sweep-nets,  a  bog-net 
called  "kourma."  This  is  placed  opposite  the  opening  of  the  sweep-net, 
and  is  intended  to  catch  those  salmon  which  may  attempt  to  escape  the 
moment  the  leap  is  taken  up. 

At  the  bar  of  the  river  Kitcha,  another  sweep-net  is  used,  which  has  the 
shape  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  and  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  poles 
fastened  in  a  wooden  frame.  The  foremost  part  of  this  pyramid  is  open 
andis turned  toward  the  opening  in  the  bar.  A  funnel-shaped  net, called 
"  gorge, "  is  attached  to  the  frame,  having  the  shape  of  a  quadrangu- 
lar, truncated  pyramid.  This  apparatus  is  placed  on  a  support  by  means 
of  a  winch,  and  one  of  the  fishermen  slips  inside  to  take  the  salmon* 
The  sweep-nets  of  the  bar  of  the  river  Souina  are  called  "  merschi,"  and 
consist  of  several  wooden  frames  resembling  the  apparatus  which  has  just 
been  described. 

Skillful  divers  are  kept  at  all  the  bars,  who  immediately  repair  any  dam- 
age done  under  the  water.    These  bars  are  constructed  and  put  in  posi- 


42  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

tion  by  special  manufacturers,  who  inspect  them  during  the  fishing-sea- 
son, and  take  them  to  pices  at  the  end  of  the  autumn. 

In  June  and  July,  they  fish  for  the  salmon  with  seines  6  "  sagenes  " 
long,  (42  feet,)  whose  bag  is  4  "  sagenes"  (28  feet)  long  and  3  "  sagenes" 
(21  feet)  wide.  The  meshes  of  the  bag  are  an  inch  square,  and  those  of 
the  wings  of  the  seine  from  1£  to  2\  inches.  These  seines  are  also  used 
as  stationary  nets.  The  following  is  the  method  of  fishing:  One  of  the 
fishermen  remains  on  shore  and  holds  the  cord  attached  to  the  shortest 
wing.  The  others  gradually  lower  the  net  into  the  sea,  standing  at  a 
distance  of  several  "sagenes"  from  each  other.  One-half  of  the  net  is 
in  a  straight  line  from  the  shore,  while  the  other  half  forms  a  large 
semicircle,  whose  extremity  approaches  the  portion  under  water  in  the 
shape  of  a  hook,  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  a  passage  of  4 
"sagenes"  (28  feet)  between  the  halves,  which  leads  into  the  hook 
above  mentioned.  As  soon  as  one  of  the  fishermen,  who  is  on  the  out- 
look in  one  of  the  boats,  notices  that  a  certain  number  of  salmon  have 
entered  the  net,  he  detaches  from  the  pole  the  cord  keeping  back  that 
end  of  the  wiug  of  the  net  which  forms  the  hook,  and  takes  off  the  nip- 
pers holding  the  bolt-ropes  to  the  poles,  so  that  the  longer  wing  of  the 
net  becomes  free  and  can  be  hauled  on  shore  by  means  of  a  winch.  The 
salmon  which  have  been  caught  in  the  hook  are  in  this  manner  forced 
to  enter  the  bag,  which  the  fishermen  afterward  draw  on  shore. 

In  the  Petshora  River,  seines  are  used  measuring  from  250  to  400 
"  sagenes"  (1,750  to  2,800  feet)  in  length. 

They  first  place  a  net  on  the  shore  in  a  perpendicular  position  and 
fastened  to  poles,  and  then  a  second  net  is  cast  so  as  to  form  with  the 
first  the  letter  T.  At  the  ends,  there  are  curtains  of  crescent  or  polygo- 
nal shape,  whose  concave  portion  is  turned  toward  what  is  called  the 
"wall,"  viz,  the  perpendicular  net  on  the  shore.  The  entrance  is  be- 
tween two  nets  which  join  the  stationary  nets  in  a  slanting  direction.  The 
bottom  of  the  apparatus  where  the  fish  are  caught  is  likewise  formed 
by  a  net. 

When  the  salmon  approach  the  shore,  they  meet  the  "  wall"  and  fol- 
low it  till  they  enter  into  the  apparatus  itself,  from  which  they  cannot 
escape. 

Other  stationery  nets,  simple  parts  of  nets,  have  only  a  single  "wall," 
and  are  placed  on  the  shore  in  a  perpendicular  position.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  Petshora,  one  of  these  "walls"  extends  as  far  as  five  and  even 
seven  "rersts"  from  the  shore,  (two  and  two-thirds  miles  to  four  miles.) 

Every  net  is  from  40  to  50  "sagenes"  (280  to  350  feet)  long,  with 
meshes  3£  inches  square,  sixteen  of  which  make  the  height  of  the  net. 
A  certain  number  of  these  nets  are  tied  together,  the  head  bolt-ropes  be- 
ing fastened  to  poles  driven  in  at  a  distance  of  15  "sagenes"  (105  feet) 
from  each  other.  The  nets  are  examined  at  the  time  the  tide  is  out,  and 
the  salmon  caught  in  the  meshes  are  taken  out.  These  nets  are  set  dur- 
ing the  mouth  of  July,  and  taken  up  in  September.    They  also  use  the 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  43 

drag-net,  which  consist  of  two  or  three  parallel  nets,  the  inner  part  of 
which  has  small  meshes,  while  the  two  outer  have  large  ones,  or  a  sin- 
gle large-meshed  net. 

The  floating  seines  used  in  the  Dwina  are  from  150  to  200  "sagenes" 
(1,050  to  1,400  feet)  long,  seldom  as  long  as  300  "sagenes,"  (2,100  feet.) 
Those  of  the  Petshora  are  usnsually  200  "sagenes"  (1,400  feet)  long, 
and  those  of  the  other  rivers  from  80  to  100  "sagenes,''  (560  to  700  feet.) 
The  depth  of  the  seine  is  from  28  to  32  meshes,  each  measuring  from  2 
to  2h  square  inches.  Two  boats,  at  some  distance  from  each  other,  go 
down  the  stream  dragging  the  net ;  they  finally  approach  each  other, 
and  the  net  is  gradually  drawn  into  one  of  the  boats.  This  fishing  is 
carried  on  from  the  middle  of  July  till  the  rivers  are  frozen. 

Fishing  is  also  carried  on  in  these  streams  with  floating  nets  in  the 
shape  of  a  bag,  measuring  2i  "sagenes"  in  length,  (17£  feet.) 

In  the  dark  autumn  nights,  the  salmon,  the  pike,  and  the  "  lavaretus" 
are  caught  with  fish-gigs  by  torch-light.  The  fish-gig  has  the  shape  of 
a  fork  with  three  or  four  prongs,  each  terminating  in  a  barbed  pike.  A 
fire  is  made  ou  a  chafing-dish  on  the  prow  of  the  boat,  so  that  the  fish 
at  the  bottom  of  the  river  can  easily  be  seen  and  speared.  They  also 
use  fish-gigs  composed  of  a  whole  bunch  of  prongs. 

Preparing  the  salmon. — Salmon  is  mostly  placed  in  the  market  salted, 
rarely  smoked.  The  salting  is  done  in  the  following  manner :  The 
head  of  the  fish  is  cut  off,  the  belly  is  opened,  and  the  entrails  are 
taken  out;  then  it  is  washed  clean  and  filled  with  salt ;  salt  is  also  put 
under  the  gills,  and  the  scales  are  usually  rubbed  with  it.  They  cal- 
culate, generally,  17£  pounds  of  salt  to  100  pounds  of  fish.  The  quan- 
tity of  salt  to  be  used  depends  also  on  the  season  of  the  year  and  on  the 
quality  of  the  fish.  The  best  salmon  comes  from  the  Onega  and  the 
Dwiua.  That  of  the  Petshora  is  larger  and  fatter,  but  it  is  salted  so 
little  that  it  becomes  worthless. 

3. — THE  "  NAVAGA"  (GADUS  NAVAGA)  AND  OTHER  SALT-WATER  FISH. 

The  "  uavaga  "  appears  in  large  numbers  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  aud 
near  the  sea-shore  toward  the  end  of  the  autumn.  This  fish,  which  is 
very  voracious,  spawns  in  the  autumn.  It  has  an  excellent  flavor,  and 
is  sent  frozen,  in  enormous  quantities,  into  the  interior  of  Russia  as  far 
as  Astrachan,  where  fish  is  so  plentiful. 

In  the  villages  located  on  the  rivers  falling  into  the  White  Sea, 
flounders  (Pleuronectes  flcsus)  and  plaice  (Pleuronectes  platessa)  are,  when 
caught,  stuck  on  small  poles,  and  are  thus  smoked ;  while  at  Mezeue, 
they  are  salted.  In  the  bay  of  Kandalakcha,  a  small  kind  of  cod-fish  is 
caught,  which  the  fishermen  salt  exclusively  for  their  own  use. 

Implements  for  catching  these  fish. — A  line  of  twisted  horse-hair  is 
attached  to  a  stick  or  to  a  piece  of  lath,  from  which  hangs  a  piece  of 
lead  pierced  by  a  strong  wire.  To  the  two  ends  of  this  wire,  aud  some- 
times also  in  the  middle,  thin  little  horse-hair  strings  are  tied,  furnished 


44         KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

with  small  fish-hooks.  The  fisherman  makes  a  hole  in  the  ice,  and  places 
the  apparatus  in  the  water,  using  small  fish  as  baits.  He  draws  it  out 
soon  to  plunge  it  in  again,  for  this  fishing  is  yery  productive,  a  prac- 
ticed fisherman  often  taking  not  less  than  2,000  "navagas  "  in  one  short 
winter's  day. 

To  fishing-tackle  measuring  40  "sageues"  (280  feet)  in  leagth,  copper 
or  wire  hooks  are  attached  by  means  of  horse-hair  strings  10  inches  in 
length.  The  hooks  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  three-fourths  of  an  "ar- 
sheen"  (1  foot  9  inches)  from  each  other,  and  are  baited  with  small  pieces 
of  herring,  or  lavaretas,  (Coregonus pollcur.)  This  apparatus  is  placed  in 
the  spring  near  the  shore. 

4. — RIVER  AND   LAKE  FISH. 

Among  the  river-fish,  the  sterlet  (Acipenser  ruthenus)  holds  the  first 
rank.  During  the  second  decade  of  the  present  century,  the  sterlet  first 
commenced  to  show  themselves  in  the  Dwina;  then,  in  1848  and  1849,  in 
the  Soukhona  in  large  numbers.  These  precious  fish  seem  to  have  come 
to  the  Dwina  from  the  Kama  through  the  canals.  This  fishery  is,  how- 
ever, so  far,  not  very  considerable.  As  regards  fresh-water  fish,  great 
quantities  of  "nalim,"  (Lota  vulgaris;)  of  " koriouchka, "  (Osmerus 
eperlanus ;)  of  Coregonus  and  of  "  minoga, "  (Petromyzon  fluviatilis,)  are 
caught,  these  last  mentioned  chiefly  in  the  Onega,  while  the  "omoul" 
(Coregonus  omul)  and  the  "nelma, "  (Coregonus  leucichthys,)  the  Siberian 
salmon,  are  caught  more  frequently  in  the  Petshora.  Every  year,  about 
100 "pouds"  (3,600  pounds)  of  "minoga"  (Petromyzon  jluviatilis)  are 
exported  from  the  town  of  Onega.  Next  to  the  salmon,  the  "  omoul  " 
(Coregonus  omul)  finds  the  best  market.  They  are  salted  in  casks  contain- 
ing 12  "  pouds  "  (832  pounds)  each,  reckoning  about  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  salt  to  each  "poud,"  (36  pounds.) 

The  above-mentioned  fish  are  either  caught  with  lines,  or  with  station- 
ary nets  having  meshes  from  1£  to  2  inches  square.  In  the  lakes,  seines 
froni60to  100  "sagenes"  (420  to  700  feet)  in  length  are  used  for  catching 
scaly  fish.  Unfortunately,  the  spawn  is  also  taken,  especially  in  the  lake 
of  Koubino.  For  this  purpose,  hoop-nets  are  used  with  a  bag  measuring 
4  "  sagenes"  (28  feet)  in  length.  The  meshes  of  the  bag  are  so  narrow 
that  a  fly  could  not  pass  through.  Nine  of  these  meshes  measure  only 
2^  inches,  while  seven  meshes  of  the  wing  of  the  seine  measure  2£  inches. 
The  roe  of  the  "  okoune,  "  (Perca  fluviatilis,)  and  of  the  "  yerschi, "  (Acer- 
ina  vulgaris,)  is  dried  in  ovens  specially  constructed  for  this  purpose, 
and  is  used  as  a  seasoning  during  Lent. 

B— FISHERIES  IN  THE  ARCTIC  OCEAN. 

1. — FISHERIES   ON   THE  MOURMAN   COAST. 

The  Mourman  coast,  in  Russian  Lapland,  begins  at  the  Cape  of  Saints, 
the  point  of  demarkatiou  between  the  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean, 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  45 

and  extends  as  far  as  the  Norwegian  river  Worgheina.  On  this  coast- 
line of  eight  hundred  "  versts,"  (about  four  hundred  and  sixty-one  miles,) 
there  are  fine  bays  offering  the  fisherman  good  and  safe  anchorage.  There 
are  forty-one  of  these  inlets  into  which  rivers  fall.  At  these  points,  the 
fishermen  have  built  huts  and  sheds  and  scaffolding  of  various  kinds, 
so  that  the  shores  of  those  bays  which  are  frequented  most  look  some- 
what like  large  villages,  busy  with  the  excitement  of  fishing-life.  The 
fishermen  meet  there  in  the  spring  and  remain  till  the  middle  of  August. 
Other  auchoring-places,  where  the  coast  is  almost  barren,  are  frequented 
only  in  June  and  July  by  those  fishermen  who  come  from  the  populous 
auchoriug-places,  or  by  others  who  come  from  Archangel  on  large  boats, 
manned  by  their  masters,  in  order  to  catch  a  large  number  of  fish  in  a 
short  time. 

Species  of  fish  found  on  the  Mourman  coast. — The  fisheries  of  the 
Mourman  coast  comprise  especially  the  different  varieties  of  "  treska," 
(Gadus  morrhua  ;)  the  "  kambala,"  (Pleuronectes  fiesus  ;)  and  the  "kam- 
bala,"  (Pleuronectes  platessa  ;)  a  good  many  salmon  also  are  caught 
near  the  mouths  of  the  rivers. 

Of  the  cod,  the  Gadus  morrhua  is  caught  most  frequently.  It  spawns 
in  February  and  in  March,  and  is  caught  with  baited  hooks.  For 
bait,  the  fishermen  mostly  use  Mallotus  arcticus*,  or  Ammodytes  Ian- 
cea,  or,  in  case  of  necessity,  Arenicola  piscatorum,  a  sort  of  thick  worm 
dug  out  from  the  sand  of  the  beach.  The  Mallotus  arcticus  and  the 
Ammodytes  lancea  resemble  the  Osmerus  eperlanus,  and  are,  like  it,  easily 
distinguished  by  a  peculiar  odor  resembling  that  of  the  cucumber. 
Among  the  varieties  of  the  cod,  there  are  the  Gadus  ceglefinus,  and  the 
Gadus  virens,  the  latter  called  "  sa'ida"  by  the  Russians. 

The  Hippoglossus  maximus,  Cuv.,  which  the  Russians  call  "  paltouss," 
usually  weighs  2  "  pouds,"  (72  pounds ;)  but  near  the  North  Cape  some 
are  caught  weighing  15  "ponds,"  (540  pounds.)  The  small  kinds  of 
plaice  (Pleuronectes  platessa,  L.)  and  the  Pleuronectes  limanda  have  but 
little  value  as  articles  of  commerce,  as  likewise  the  Brosmius  vulgaris,  a 
sort  of  cod;  the  Sebastes  norvegicus,  Cuv.,  called  by  the  Russians  "  mors- 
ko'i  okoune;"  and  the  Anarrhichas  lupus,  L. 

The  two  kinds  of  sharks  (Scymnus  borealis  and  Selaclw  maxima)  are 
caught  only  for  the  sake  of  their  liver,  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  cod-liver  oil. 

Fishing-implements. — The  "  palangre"  consists  of  a  chief  line  as 
thick  as  a  man's  finger,  and  from  33  to  42  "  sagenes"  (231  to  294  feet) 
long,  to  which  small  lines  of  the  thickness  of  a  quill  are  attached  at  the 
distance  of  If  "arskeens"  (4  feet  1  inch)  from  each  other.  These  lines 
have  baited  hooks.  A  succession  of  lines  tied  one  to  the  other  forms 
what  is  called  in  Russian  a  "  yarous,"  extending  from  6  to  10  kilometers 
in  the  sea.  This  "yarous,"  or  train,  is  kept  by  three  anchors  a  little 
above  the  bottom  of  the  sea.    Every  anchor  is  attached  by  a  cord  to  a 

*A  fish  similar  to  the  capelin  of  the  North  Atlantic  coast. 


46         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

buoy,  the  location  of  which  is  indicated  to  the  fishermen  by  a  bunch  of 
sea- weeds  placed  vertically  on  a  pole. 

The  fishermen  of  the  Mourman  coast  use  only  English  hooks,  which 
they  buy  from  Norwegian  merchants  from  the  towns  of  Wardoe,  Wadsoe, 
Hammerfest,  and  Tromsoe.  They  cost  8  "  roubles"  ($5.60  gold)  a  thou- 
sand. Every  fishing-boat,  called  "  sehniaka,"  uses  not  less  than  5,000 
hooks  a  year.  These  boats  are  open,  and  have  only  one  mast,  with  a 
large  sail  and  six  oars.  They  are  from  28  to  40  feet  long,  their  breadth 
is  from  6  to  9  feet,  and  their  draught  is  4|  feet.  Their  capacity  is  from 
150  to  250  "pouds,"  (5,400  to  9,000  pounds.)  The  price  of  one  of  these 
boats,  completely  rigged,  is  60  "  roubles,"  ($42  gold.)  The  fishermen 
will  go  thirty  "  versts"  (upward  of  seventeen  miles)  out  to  sea  in  these 
boats. 

Before  setting  out  for  the  cod  fisheries,  the  fishermen  provide  themselves 
with  a  quantity  of  bait  for  their  hooks,  to  be  used  on  the  following  day. 
They  begin  to  bait  the  hooks  some  hours  before  going  to  sea,  and  con- 
tinue doing  this  till  they  reach  the  fishing-place.  There  a  train,  "  yarous," 
is  laid,  and  every  six  hours  the  captured  fish  are  taken  out.  Eeturning 
from  the  fishing-expedition,  the  nets  are  hung  up  to  dry  on  scaffolds 
erected  for  the  purpose,  after  which  boys  of  from  nine  to  thirteen  years 
put  the  "palangres"  again  in  order;  i.  e.,  disengage  the  hooks  and  the 
entangled  lines. 

Strong  threads  each  1 "  arsheen"  (2  feet  4  inches)  long,  with  steel  hooks, 
are  suspended  from  the  two  ends  of  a  slightly-curved  iron  rod.  The 
hooks  are  baited.  A  cord  2  "  arsheens  "  (4  feet  8  inches)  long,  with  a 
piece  of  lead  at  the  end,  is  attached  to  a  ring  at  the  middle  of  the  rod. 
Then  the  whole  is  tied  to  a  cord  280  feet  in  length.  This  implement  is 
chiefly  used  by  the  Laplanders  and  by  poor  fishermen,  who  have  no 
means  for  buying  nets. 

A  large  iron  hook  is  moved  easily  by  means  of  an  iron  ring  with  a 
pole,  to  which  an  iron  chain  of  4  "arsheens"  (80  inches)  is  attached. 
This  chain  is  connected  with  a  cable  200  to  300  "sagenes"  (1,400  to 
2,100  feet)  long,  to  which  a  weight  of  10  "pouds"  (360  pounds)  is 
attached.  Roasted  phoca-fat  is  used  for  bait.  In  order  to  attract  the 
sharks,  large  pieces  of  fat  are  placed  in  the  deep  sea  in  perforated  boxes. 
The  voracious  shark  rushes  with  avidity  at  the  choice  morsel  of  fat 
which  is  baited  on  the  hook,  and  he  is  caught.  To  bring  the  captured 
shark  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  a  winch  kept  on  the  boat  for  the 
purpose  is  employed.  When  brought  up,  he  is  killed;  the  belly  is 
opened,  the  liver  is  taken  out,  and  he  is  then  again  thrown  into  the 
water.  But  in  order  that  the  body  may  not  sink  to  the  bottom  and 
become  the  prey  of  other  sharks,  it  is  inflated  with  air  by  means  of  a 
long  tube  passed  into  the  inside  of  the  fish.  In  summer,  the  shark  is 
caught  at  a  depth  varying  between  100  and  300  "  sagenes,"  (700  and 
2,100  feet;)  sometimes  at  100  "versts,"  (about  57£  miles;)  while  in  the 
autumn  he  is  caught  near  the  coast.     It  often  happens  that  during  the 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  47 

few  hours  of  an  autumn  day  four  fishermen  catch  sharks  enough  to 
yield  as  much  as  100  "pouds"  (3,G00  pounds)  of  liver.  The  inhabitants 
of  Kola  catch  the  shark  under  the  ice. 

The  small  species  of  cod  called  Gadus  virens  is  chiefly  caught  in  July 
and  August,  when  it  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  sea  in  enormous  schools. 
These  small  fish  are  caught  like  a  large  "  carrelet,"  (a  sort  of  square  net 
fixed  on  a  pole,)  or  globe,  which  hangs  down  in  the  shape  of  a  bag,  sur- 
rounded by  a  bolt-rope  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger.  Every  side  of  the 
net  is  from  15  to  17  "  sagenes,"  (105  to  119  feet)  long,  and  the  meshes  are 
an  inch  square.  To  the  four  ends  long  cords  are  attached,  by  means  of 
which  the  fishermen  keep  the  globe  up  and  extended. 

For  this  operation,  four  boats  are  required,  each  manned  by  three  fish- 
ermen. As  soon  as  a  school  of  cod  approaches,  the  fishermen  cast  the 
net  into  the  water,  first  by  the  side  of  the  school,  and  then  they  manage 
to  get  it  underneath.  To  effect  this,  the  cords  attached  to  the  four 
corners  must  be  stretched  evenly  by  the  four  boats.  As  soon  as  the 
net  is  placed  horizontally  beneath  the  school,  the  fish  are  frightened  by 
yelling,  striking  the  water  with  the  oars,  and  by  throwing  stones  into 
the  sea,  so  that  the  fish,  desiring  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
become  entangled  in  the  net  which  is  below  them.  When  this  has  been 
done,  the  four  boats  lift  up  the  net  by  a  regular  movement.  This  fishery 
is  very  productive,  each  boat  often  receiving  as  its  share  about  200 
"  pouds"  (7,200  pounds)  of  cod. 

The  small  fish  mentioned  above,  which  resemble  the  Osmerus  cper- 
lanus,  and  are  used  as  a  bait  for  cod-fishing,  are  caught  with  hoop-nets 
30  "  sagenes"  (210  feet)  long.  The  meshes  of  the  bags  of  these  nets  are 
so  narrow  that  44  of  them  make  7  square  inches.  When  they  have 
caught  with  the  hoop-net  6  "pouds"  (216  pounds)  of  these  fish,  it  is  con- 
sidered sufficient  to  bait  about  3,000  hooks  on  the  following  day. 

Preparing  the  various  products  of  the  fisheries. — Among  the  various 
kinds  of  cod,  the  Gadus  morrhua  and  the  Gadus  virens  are  salted  or 
dried,  according  to  the  season,  while  the  Gadus  ccglefiuus  is  almost 
always  salted.  The  Hippoglossus  maximus  and  the  Anarrhicas  lupus  are 
only  salted  without  cutting  off  the  head,  as  is  done  with  the  different 
kinds  of  cod. 

The  way  to  prepare  the  cod  is  as  follows :  The  head  of  the  fish  is  cut 
off;  then  it  is  split  open  along  the  back,  so  that  the  vertebral  column 
adheres  to  one-half.  Then  the  belly  is  opened,  and  the  liver  and  entrails 
are  taken  out  j  after  which  it  is  washed,  and  brought  to  the  huts  to  be 
salted  or  suspended  on  poles  to  dry. 

In  the  huts,  the  halves  of  the  fish  are  laid  out  in  rows,  the  side 
of  the  skin  turned  back,  and  every  row  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of 
salt, 

They  generally  reckon  from  17  to  20  "  pouds  "  (612  to  780  pounds)  of 
salt  to  100  "pouds"  (3,000  pounds)  of  cod-fish;  and  from  7  to  9  "pouds" 
(252  to  324  pounds)  of  salt  to  100  "pouds"  (3,600  pounds)  of  "pilchoni," 


48  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

or  Garfus  cegUfinas.  The  same  quantity  of  Hippoglossus  maximus  requires 
25  "  pouds"  (900  pounds)  of  salt.  On  the  Mournian  coast,  Spanish  and 
English  salt  are  used,  which  can  be  imported  duty-free.  Wealthy  fish- 
ermen usually  buy  their  stock  of  salt  in  Norway,  and  sell  some  of  it 
again  to  the  poorer  fishermen. 

The  cod  salted  in  the  spring  are  taken  to  Archangel  in  large  sail-boats, 
and  are  much  sought  after  as  being  freshly  salted.  The  cod  salted  in 
the  summer  are  carried  in  large  boats,  called  in  Eussian  "  ladya," 
which  come  from  Archangel  for  this  purpose.  During  the  time  of  lad- 
ing, and  as  long  as  the  boats  are  at  anchor  near  the  fishing-places,  the 
fishermen  continue  to  salt,  on  board  their  boats,  the  fish  taken  during 
this  time. 

The  cod  is  dried  from  the  beginning  of  the  fishing  till  the  middle  of 
May.  The  Eussian  fishermen  do  not  take  out  the  vertebral  column  as 
the  Norwegians  do.  They  split  the  back  of  the  fish  and  open  the  belly, 
so  that  the  two  halves  are  connected  only  by  the  tail.  The  cod  dried  in 
this  manner  is  by  the  Eussians  called  "  rochkirka,"  and  by  the  Norwe- 
gians "  roskaer."  In  Norway,  they  also  prepare  "rondfish,"  which  the 
Eussians  call  "  rountovka."  For  this  purpose,  the  head  of  the  fish  is  cut 
off,  and  the  belly  is  opened,  but  without  flattening  the  opened  fish. 
They  are  then  tied  two  and  two  by  the  tails  and  hung  on  poles  to  dry. 
The  Eussians  do  not  prepare  what  the  Norwegians  call  "  klipfisk,"  that 
is,  codfish  salted  and  then  dried. 

As  soon  as  the  drying  is  done,  the  fish  are  taken  from  the  poles,  and 
heaped  up  like  wood,  placing  on  the  top  of  each  heap  boards  weighted 
down  by  stones,  in  order  to  flatten  those  fish  which,  while  drying,  may 
have  become  warped. 

The  dried  cod  is  shipped  from  Archangel  to  St.  Petersburg  and  to 
the  districts  of  Olonets  and  Vologda.  About  30,000  «  pouds  "  (1,080,000 
pounds)  of  dried  cod  arrive  every  year  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  scarcely 
5,600  "pouds"  (201,600  pounds)  of  salted  cod.  The  chief  market  for 
salt  cod  is  the  district  of  Archangel,  especially  the  rural  districts. 

The  heads  of  the  cod-fish  are  generally  thrown  away,  but  sometimes 
the  largest  are  gathered  and  spread  on  rocks  to  dry.  They  are  taken  to 
Archangel,  where  50  "  kopecks'7  (35  cents)  are  paid  for  a  "  poud,"  (36 
pounds.)  The  chief  buyers  of  this  vile  food  are  the  peasants  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Pinega,  who  live  in  the  most  wretched  manner. 

The  tongues  of  the  cod-fish  are  salted  separately,  15  pounds  of  salt 
being  used  to  100  pounds  of  tongues.  These  salted  tongues  are  sold 
at  Archangel  at  4  "kopecks"  (2|  cents)  a  kilogram.  From  April  till 
the  middle  of  August,  every  boat  can  gather,  if  the  fishing  is  good, 
about  1,600  kilograms  of  cod-fish  tongues. 

The  swimming-bladder  of  the  cod  also  forms  an  article  of  trade  in 
the  shape  of  fish-glue,  after  having  been  carefully  washed,  laid  out,  and 
dried.  Packed  in  parcels  of  from  6  to  10  pounds,  this  fish-glue  usually 
sells  at  Archangel  for  only  18  "kopecks"  (12£  cents)  a  kilogram. 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  49 

The  liver  of  the  cod-fish  is  gathered  in  tubs,  and  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun.  After  ten  days,  a  coating  of  oil  of  amber-color  is  found  swim- 
ming at  the  top,  which  is  skimmed  and  sold  in  casks  containing  from  S 
to  10  "ponds,"  (288  to  3G0  pounds.)  Three  '-pouds"  (108  pounds)  of 
liver  usually  yield  i  "  pond  "  (30  pounds)  of  oil.  The  cod-liver  oil  sells 
at  2  "roubles"  ($1.40  gold)  a  "  poud,"  (30  pounds.)  The  residue  is 
cooked,  and  produces  a  dark  brown  oil,  which  costs  less  than  the  first- 
mentioned  kind.  One  "  poud  "  (30  pounds)  of  this  oil  is  usually  obtained 
from  2  "  ponds"  (72  pounds)  of  the  residue.  The  dark  and  burned  mat- 
ter remaining  at  the  bottom  of  the  kettles  is  sold  to  the  Norwegians, 
who  pay  1£  "  roubles"  ($1.05  gold)  or  a  bottle  of  rum  for  a  barrel,  and 
use  it  as  grease. 

Organization  of  the  fisheries. — The  financial  condition  of  the  fisher- 
men, as  regards  both  their  mutual  relations  and  their  relations  to  their 
masters,  varies  according  as  the  fisheries  on  the  Mourmau  coast  are 
carried  on  by  fishermen  who  have  established  themselves  there  perma- 
nently, or  by  those  who  only  stay  there  during  the  summer-months. 

Among  the  permanent  inhabitants  of  the  Mourmau  coast  are  the 
inhabitants  of  the  little  town  of  Kola,  and  the  Laplanders  who  live  in 
the  neighborhood.  Those  fishermen  who  have  their  own  boats  and  fish- 
ing-implements buy  on  credit  from  the  rich  merchants  of  Kola  all  that 
is  required  for  their  households,  and  pay  in  kind,  i.  e.,  by  fish.  The 
price  of  the  fish  is  fixed  by  the  merchant  himself,  to  whom  the  fishermen, 
are  bound  to  deliver  the  fish  caught  during  the  spring-fisheries,  which 
season  is  generally  considered  as  continuing  till  the  29th  of  June.  If' 
their  debts  have  been  paid  before  this  time,  the  merchant  pays  the  fish- 
ermen up  to  the  29th  of  June  in  cash,  the  price  determined  beforehand 
for  each  fish  delivered.  After  that  time,  the  fishermen  are  at  liberty  to 
sell  their  fish  to  whom  they  please,  and  can  fix  their  own  price.  Tlie 
principal  buyers  at  this  time  are  the  fishermen  who  sail  for  Norway  to 
exchange  fish,  or  those  who  come  from  there.  In  the  autumn,  the  men. 
lay  iu  fish  for  their  own  winter-provision ;  but  as  soon  as  the  frosts  com- 
mence, they  again  deliver  the  frozen  fish  to  the  merchants,  who  send, 
them  to  St.  Petersburg.  Iu  the  middle  of  December,  the  fishing  stops, 
entirely,  to  recommence  three  months  later. 

The  poor  inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Kola,  and  most  of  the  Laplanders, 
work  as  day -laborers  with  the  merchants,  and  receive  a  certain  share  of 
the  f»sh  delivered  to  the  merchants.  The  merchants  furnish  them  fish- 
ing-implements and  provisions,  but  they  must  generally  pay  for  the  boats 
from  their  own  funds.  The  merchants  divide  the  proceeds  of  the  fish- 
eries with  their  laborers,  and  buy  their  share  of  fish  from  them  at  a  price 
fixed  beforehand. 

The  organization  of  the  fisheries  of  the  "  pomortsi,"  who  only  fish  for 

some  months  on  the  Mourmau  coast,  is  entirely  different.     They  form 

fishing-associations,  each  member  receiving  a  certain  portion  of  the 
4  F 


50         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

whole  number  of  fish  caught,  while  the  largest  portion  goes  to  the  head 
of  the  association,  who  defrays  all  the  expenses. 

Formerly,  the  inhabitants  of  Archangel  andKholmogori  likewise  fished 
on  the  Mourmau  coast ;  but  at  present  the  fisheries  are  almost  exclusively 
carried  on  by  the  fishermen  of  the  district  of  Keme  and  Gn6ga.  Those  fish- 
ermen who  have  the  means  to  build  small  houses,  depots,  and  sheds  on 
the  coast,  as  well  as  large  and  small  boats,  and  to  provide  fishing-imple- 
ments  and  the  necessary  provisions,  become  independent  master-fisher- 
men, and  form  associations,  of  which  they  become  the  leaders,  and  which 
are  usually  composed  of  four  fishermen.  The  laborers  hire  themselves 
out,  and  receive  in  return  part  of  the  fish  which  have  been  caught. 

The  head  of  the  association  engages  his  laborers  in  the  autumn  or  the 
beginning  of  the  winter;  gives  them  money  to  buy  provisions  for  them- 
selves and  their  families  ;  and  defrays  all  their  expenses.  Every  head 
of  an  association  has  an  anchoring-place  in  some  bay  on  the  Monrmau 
coast.  Thither  he  sends  his  laborers.  These  set  out  on  their  long  and 
difficult  journey  about  the  middle  of  March.  According  to  an  ancient 
custom,  the  master  (head  of  association)  gives  them  a  feast  on  the  eve 
of  their  departure,  and  presents  each  with  a  piece  of  cloth  sufficient  for 
a  pair  of  gloves.  The  pilot  of  the  boat,  and  those  laborers  who  have  to 
draw  the  net,  receive  two  pairs  of  gloves. 

They  reach  the  village  of  Kandalachka  with  tolerable  ease,  for  the 
roads  lead  through  well-known  villages,  where  they  are  well  received 
and  conveyed  on  sleighs.  But  from  Kandalachka  to  Kola  and  the  vil- 
lage of  Eazuavoloki,  a  distance  of  nine  hundred  "versts,"  (about  five 
hundred  and  eighteen  miles,)  they  are  obliged  to  perform  the  journey  on 
foot,  dragging  their  clothes  and  provisions  after  them  on  little  sleds. 
From  Raznavoloki  to  the  fishing-places,  they  travel  in  sleighs  drawn 
by  reindeer,  at  the  expense  of  the  master ;  and  from  Kola  on  boats, 
with  wooden  runners.  They  hoist  the  large  sail,  and  the  wind  drives 
them  rapidly  to  the  open  sea.  Having  arrived  at  the  place  of  their 
destination,  they  immediately  set  to  work.  They  have  to  remove  the 
masses  of  snow  under  which  the  huts  and  sheds  are  almost  buried,  to 
repair  the  boats,  to  get  the  fishing-implements  iuto  working-order;  and, 
after  all  this  has  been  done,  they  go  to  sea. 

The  money-value  of  the  fishing  is  divided  in  the  following  manner :  The 
master  first  takes  two-thirds,  and  the  laborers  divide  the  other  third,  so 
that  every  laborer  receives  one-twelfth.  If  every  one  of  them  receives 
100  "  roubles"  ($70  gold)  as  his  share,  the  total  sum  realized  by  the  fishing 
has  been  1,200  "  roubles,"  ($840  gold.)  The  pilot,  who  has  to  lead  tlie  ex- 
pedition, must  keep  order  among  the  laborers,  and  watch  over  the  inter- 
ests of  the  master,  for  which  he  receives  a  certain  pro  rata  of  the  eight- 
twelfths  which  come  to  the  master,  and,  moreover,  a  certain  fee,  which  is 
fixed  beforehand,  and  which  varies  from  10  to  50  4i  roubles,"  ($7  to  $35.) 
In  this  manner,  the  master's  portion  amounts  to  20  forty-eighths,  while 
the  combined  portions  of  the  four  laborers  amount  to  19  forty-eighths,  of 


FISHEEIES    AND    SBAL-HUNTING.  51 

the  whole  sum.  At  tirst  sight,  it  might  be  thought  that  the  masters  make 
a  considerable  profit,  and  that  the  laborers  are  working  at  a  disadvan- 
tage. This,  however,  is  not  the  case ;  for  the  sum  which  the  laborers 
receive  is  the  actual  pay  for  their  labor,  while  the  master  must  deduct 
from  his  portion  a  large  amount  for  the  boats,  fishing-implements,  salt, 
&c.  These  expenses  are  seldom  less  than  250  "roubles,"  ($175  gold,) 
so  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  laborers  work  on  favorable  conditions. 

The  trade  with  Noncay. — The  bartering-trade  with  Norway  has  been 
going  on  since  the  second  half  of  the  last  century,  and  is  increasing  from 
year  to  year.  The  Russian  vessels,  laden  with  rye -flour,  wheat-flour,  mil- 
let, and  oat-meal,  are  obliged  to  put  into  one  of  the  four  Norwegian 
ports  of  Wardoe,  Wadsoe,  Hammerfest,  and  Tromsoe,  to  declare  their 
cargoes  and  to  pay  the  duty  ;  rye-flour,  oat-meal,  and  building-materials 
alone  being  free  of  duty.  The  Russian  government,  upon  its  part,  au- 
thorizes the  citizens  and  peasauts  inhabiting  the  coast  of  the  White  Sea 
to  export  rye-flour  and  oat-meal  to  Norway,  while  the  merchants  of  the 
first  guild  have  the  right  to  trade  in  other  articles.  The  Norwegian 
authorities  are  very  strict  in  their  watch  over  the  coast.  As  soon  as 
the  Russian  sailors  have  been  authorized  to  commence  their  bartering- 
trade,  they  sail  for  the  different  bays  of  the  coast,  where  they  have  least 
competition  to  fear,  and  there  exchange  their  cargoes  of  rye-flour  and 
oat-meal  for  fish. 

The  Norwegian  government  allows  the  inhabitants  of  Finnmarken, 
during  six  weeks,  viz,  from  the  1st  of  July  to  the  15th  of  August,  (new 
style,)  this  bartering-trade  with  the  Russian  fishermeu,  who  are  also 
allowed  to  sell  their  goods  for  cash  only  to  merchants.  But  when  a 
Russian  vessel  has  been  in  Norwegian  waters  for  six  weeks,  it  can  also 
sell  rye-flour  to  the  inhabitants  for  cash,  on  condition  that  the  regular 
terms  of  the  bartering-trade  are  not  exceeded,  and  not  less  than  three 
bags  to  one  buyer.  The  Russiau  fishermen  find  it  much  to  their  advan- 
tage to  barter  their  cargoes  for  fish.  They  usually  receive,  for  one 
"poud"  (30  pounds)  of  rye-flour,  from  three  to  five  "pouds"  (108  to 
180  pounds)  of  cod-fish,  or  four  to  eight  "pouds"  (144  to  2S8  pounds) 
of  saida,  (a  small  kind  of  cod-fish.)  The  Russian  fishermen  usually 
exchange  a  portion  of  their  rye-flour  and  their  oat-meal  for  fish,  and  the 
other  portion  for  walrus- skins. 

From  400  to  500  Russian  ships,  manned  by  more  than  2,000  men, 
devote  themselves  every  year  to  this  bartering-trade.  It  may  be  safely 
asserted  that  they  export  annually  from  Norway  about  700,000  "  pouds" 
(25,200,000  pounds)  of  fish.  In  1800,  the  export  amounted  to  a  million 
of  "  pouds,"  (30,000,000  pounds,)  because  the  cod-fisheries,  and  especially 
that  of  the  "  saida,"  had  been  particularly  rich. 

The  average  prices  at  Archangel  during  the  years  from  1852  to  1800 
wTere  as  follows :  Salt  cod,  GO  to  75  "  kopecks  "  (42  to  52  cents)  per 
"poud,"  (3G  pounds  ;)  dried  cod,  1  "rouble  "  to  1£  "roubles,"  (70  cents 
to  $1.05  gold  ;)  salted  "  saida," 20  to  30  "  kopecks/(14  to  21  cents  gold ;) 


52  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

dried  "  saida,"  1  "  rouble"  to  1  "rouble"  20  "  kopecks,"  (70  cents  to 
84  cents  gold  ;)  cod-liver  oil,  2  "  roubles  "  to  2  "  roubles  "  20  "  kopecks," 
(81.40  to  $1.54;)  dried  cod-fish  heads,  10  "  kopecks,"  (7  cents,) 

2. — FISHERIES  AT   NOVAYA-ZEMLYA. 

Between  the  years  1830  and  1840,  Novaya-Zemlya  was  visited  by  con- 
siderable numbers  of  "  pomortsi,"  inhabitants  of  Mezene,  and  fishermen 
from  the  Gulf  of  the  Petshora,  and  every  year  large  sailing-vessels 
brought  thence  rich  cargoes  of  salmon  or  trout,  of  seals  and  walruses. 
After  that,  the  product  of  the  fisheries  and  of  the  chase  diminished  ; 
the  animals  left  their  usual  places  of  abode  and  removed  to  others  less 
accessible.  The  fishermen  consequently  ceased  going  to  Novaya-Zemlya, 
so  that  in  1850  and  1SG0  only  five  vessels  sailed  for  that  group  of  islands. 

The  northern  island  of  JSTovaya-Zemlya  is  most  frequented  by  fisher- 
men, while  those  who  have  strong  and  well-equipped  vessels  venture 
as  far  north  as  Matoschkine.  The  arrangements  are  made  so  as  to  ar- 
rive toward  the  end  of  June  at  Novaya-Zemlya,  where  the  fishermen 
commence  their  work  by  hunting  the  seals  and  the  walrus,  and  after- 
ward devote  themselves  to  fishing  for  the  common  trout,  the  variety 
called  Salmo  alpinus,  which  the  Eussians  call  "golets."  This  little  fish, 
which  only  weighs  four  pounds,  enters  the  rivers  in  large  numbers  dur- 
ing the  spawning-season,  when  it  is  caught  by  means  of  small  bars  and 
leaps.  They  are  fished  for  in  the  sea  with  seines  and  stationary  nets. 
Every  boat  usually  contains  three  seines  aud  six  stationary  nets.  The 
"golets"  fishery  is  always  productive;  for  during  its  stay  in  these  lati- 
tudes, every  boat  catches  about  300  "  ponds"  (10,800  pounds)  of  this 
fish.  A  "  poud  "  (36  pounds)  of  salted  "  golets  "  costs  3  "  roubles,"  ($2.10.) 
In  1830,  and  during  the  three  following  years  this  fishery  was  so  extraor- 
dinarily abundant  that  the  fishermen  were  obliged  to  throw  a  large 
number  of  "  golets  "  into  the  sea,  because  tbey  had  not  salt  enough.  In 
1852,  the  fisheries  were  also  productive  ;  the  stationary  nets  contained 
on  an  average  20  "  ponds  "  (720  pounds)  of  this  fish,  and  one  fisherman 
caught  480  "  pouds"  (17,280  pounds)  in  a  single  day. 

The  u golets"  fishery  ceases  in  the  middle  of  August,  and  the  fisher- 
men sail  for  the  "  Iron  Gate,"  the  narrow  channel  which  separates  the 
northern  island  of  Novaya-Zemlya  from  the  island  of  Vaigatck,  where 
they  hunt  the  walrus. 

The  fishermen  always  try  to  be  at  home  again  in  September;  most  of 
them  dread  the  idea  of  spending  the  winter  in  Novaya-Zemlya,  on  account 
of  its  severe  and  unhealthy  climate,  Some  men,  however,  from  the  Gulf 
of  the  Petshora,  always  spend  the  winter  there. 

The  species  sought. — Seven  different  kinds  of  animals  living  in  the 
sea  are  hunted  on  the  northern  coast  of  Eussia  for  their  fat  and  their 
skin.  These  are  the  "nerpa,"  (Phoca  anneallta  and  Phoca  vitulina,  L,;) 
the  "zayats,"  (Phoca barbata,  Nils.;)  the  "lysoune,"  (Phoca grcenlandica, 
Mull. ;)  the  "  tevyak,"  (Cystophora  cristata,  Nils.;)  the  "  morje,"  (Trichccus 


FISHERIES    AND    SBAL-HUNTING.  53 

rosmarus;)  and  the  li  belouga,"  (Delphinapterus  leucas,  Pull.;)  i.  e.,  hve 
kinds  of  seals,  the  walrus,  and  the  white  orca. 

The  walrus  is  caught  on  the  coasts  of  Novaya-Zeinlya  and  the  islands 
of  Vaigatch  and  Kalgouyew ;  the  "tevyak  "  on  the  Mourinau  coast,  very 
rarely  in  the  White  Sea ;  the  orca  is  caught  in  the  White  Sea  by  ineaus 
of  nets;  the  small  seals  and  the  "  zayats  "  are  shot  with  guns  from  the 
coast,  or  are  killed  with  boat-hooks  when  they  assemble  in  flocks  on  the 
ice  with  the  "  lysounes." 

b.  Seal  hunting. — On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  White  Sea,  the  "  Winter 
Coast,"  as  it  is  called,  and  in  the  bays  of  the  Dwiua  aud  the  Mezeue,  and 
on  the  coast  of  Kauine,  they  chiefly  hunt  the  species  of  phoca  called 
Phoca  groenlandica.  This  phoca  is  larger  than  the  kiud  found  in  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  usually  yields  six  "pouds"  (210  pounds)  of  fat.  It  is 
killed  on  the  ice. 

These  animals  live  in  the  high  regions  of  the  Polar  Seas  from  May 
till  September,  and  only  a  few  occassionally  show  themselves  in  the 
White  Sea;  but,  later,  they  make  their  appearance  in  the  gulfs  and 
bays  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where  the  females  give  birth  to  their  young, 
and  feed  them.  These  animals  pair  in  the  beginning  of  February,  on  the 
ice  in  the  White  Sea,  aud  especially  in  the  Gulf  of  the  Dwina. 

At  this  time  the  hunting  commences  on  the  "Winter  Coast"  and  lasts 
till  the  end  of  March. 

The  huntsmen  care  fully  observe  from  the  eoast  the  movment  of  the  float- 
ing ice.  High  wooden  towers  are  erected  for  this  purpose  all  along  the  shore, 
whence  the  observers  watch  the  horizon  with  telescopes  and  when  the  have 
discovered  an  encampment  of  phocse,  they  decide  whether  it  is  possible 
to  get  to  them,  and  whether  it  is  worth  while  to  give  them  chase.  Small 
hunting-sheds  are  also  built  along  the  coast,  each  of  which  can  accom- 
date  as  many  as  twenty  huntsmen.  As  soon  as  the  phocce  show  them- 
selves at  a  short  distance  from  the  shore,  the  huntsmen  venture  on  the 
floating  ice,  drawing  a  small  boat  after  them,  and  they  kill  the  young  phocae 
by  blow  with  their  boat-hooks,  and  the  old  ones  by  gunshots.  In  order  to 
approach  the  phocae  as  near  as  possible,  the  hunters  make  use  of  the  follow- 
ing ruse :  They  make  themselves,  as  it  were,  invisible  by  muffling  up 
in  long  and  large  and  white  shirts,  aud  by  advancing  slowly  aud  noise- 
lessly on  the  snow.  When  the  chase  is  over,  the  dead  animals  are  at 
once  skinned  aud  dragged  on  shore.  They  usually  kill  only  those  which 
they  can  take  with  them  for  the  wind  easily  drives  the  ice  far  away, 
and  the  booty  would  be  lost  to  the  huntsmen,  who  themselves  are  often 
exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers. 

This  chase  takes  place  on  the  "Winter  Coast,"  extendiug  over  a  space 
of  four  hundred  "  versts,"  (two  hundred  and  thirty  miles  ;)  and  numerous 
huntsmen  meet  there  from  the  districts  of  Archaugel,  Pinega,  and  Me- 
zene.  The  principal  place  of  meeting,  and  at  which  generally  two  thou- 
sand huntsmen  assemble,  is  called  Kedy,  and  is  located  twelve  "  versts  " 
(about  seven  miles)  from  Cape  Voronov.    The  huntsmen  have  built  at 


54         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

this  place  about  one  hundred  huts,  where  there  is  constant  excitement 
from  February  till  the.  end  of  March,  while  during  the  rest  of  the  year 
these  huts  are  deserted. 

About  the  middle  of  March,  the  young  phocse  are  large  enough  to 
leave  the  ice  and  swim  toward  the  open  sea,  whither  the  old  ones  do  not 
follow  them.  They  assemble  in  the  Gulf  of  Mezene,  where  they  rest  on 
the  ice  and  pair.  The  pieces  of  ice  in  the  gulf  are  sheltered  from  the 
wind,  and  are  not  carried  about  by  the  waves,  although  they  melt  a 
little,  especially  during  the  rainy  periods. 

Numerous  societies  of  huntsmen  assemble  in  the  beginning  of  April 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Koulo'i,  in  order  to  follow  for  several  weeks 
the  chase  of  the  phocse  on  the  ice.  They  use  sailing-vessels  22  feet 
long,  with  an  iron-plated  bottom.  Every  vessel  is  manned  by  seven 
huntsmen,  is  completely  equipped,  and  furnished  with  provisions  aud 
fuel. 

The  huntsmen  all  leave  the  shore  at  the  same  time;  and,  having 
reached  the  floating  ice,  they  draw  their  vessels  on  the  ice,  and  there 
establish  a  vast  encampment.  The  younger  and  more  active  huntsmen 
are  sent  out  to  reconnoiter.  Provided  with  snow-shoes,  they  hasten  in 
ail  directions  to  search  for  the  phocse.  As  soon  as  they  observe  a  flock, 
they  advise  the  other  huntsmen  of  the  fact,  and  these  all  run  toward 
the  spot,  drawing  their  boats  after  them.  Having  arrived  withiu  gun- 
shot distance,  the  most  expert  are  placed  in  the  front  rank  and  com- 
mence the  chase;  for  every  shot  must  kill,  and  not  merely  wound,  lost 
the  cries  of  the  wounded  phocse  frighten  the  whole  flock  and  make  them 
speed  away.  The  animals  which  are  killed  are  then  placed  in  the  boats, 
and  the  huntsmen  return  to  the  shore — sometimes  on  the  ice,  sometimes 
on  the  open  sea — to  deposit  there  the  result  of  the  chase,  and  bring  new 
provisions  to  the  comrades  who  had  been  left  there. 

The  huntsmen  usually  receive  from  their  master,  provisions  and  cloth- 
ing for  the  whole  season,  and  must  give  him  in  return  half  or  even  two- 
thirds  of  all  the  animals  which  have  been  killed.  The  more  hardened 
and  expert  a  huntsman  is,  the  larger  is  his  share.  Every  society  of 
twenty  huntsmen  elects  a  "  starosta,"  (the  old  one*)  whose  duty  it  is  to 
guard  the  coast  and  prepare  the  food,  without  receiving  for  this  a  larger 
share  than  the  other  huntsmen. 

On  the  western  coast  of  the  White  Sea,  (called  the  Terski  coast,)  the 
phocse-chase  is  not  as  productive  as  on  the  eastern  coast,  because  the 
pieces  of  ice,  driven  toward  the  north,  float  along  the  shore.  ScarceljT 
more  than  15,000  "pouds"  (540,000  pounds)  of  phocse  are  caught  there 
every  year. 

In  these  latitudes,  the  principal  meeting-place  of  the  huntsmen  is  six- 
teen "  versts"  (about  nine  miles)  north  of  the  river  Pouoi,  and  is  called 
Deviataya.  Huts  are  built  here,  and  about  five  hundred  huntsmen 
assemble,  who  form  themselves  into  societies.  Every  society  is  composed 
of  a  master  and  three  huntsmen.     While  one  of  the  members  of  the 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  55 

society  remains  on  shore  with  his  sleigh  and  his  reindeer,  the  other  three 
venture  on  the  pieces  of  ice  to  discover  the  phocse,  which  are  sleeping 
there.  Every  huntsman  wears  over  his  clothes  a  short  cloak  of  reindeer- 
skin,  called  "  sovik,"  and  has  on  his  feet  large  boots  lined  with  far.  At 
the  end  of  a  long  strap  passed  over  his  shoulder  he  draws  a  small  boat, 
weighing  20  kilograms.  A  game-bag  with  provisions  is  attached  to 
his  belt.  Flis  gun  on  his  shoulder,  and  having  in  his  hand  a  loug  stick, 
with  an  iron  point,  he  rapidly  and  skillfully  advances,  by  means  of  his 
snow-shoes,  over  the  vast  fields  of  snow  and  ice.  The  hunter  who  leads 
directs  his  course  by  a  mariner's  compass,  and  with  his  iron-pointed 
stick  constantly  tries  the  firmness  of  the  ice.  He  acts  as  guide,  and 
his  two  comrades  follow  him  in  single  file,  drawing  their  boat  after 
them.  When  they  have  arrived  at  an  expanse  of  water  where  phocse 
are  swimming,  two  of  the  huntsmen  fire,  while  the  third  pushes  the 
boat  into  the  water  in  order  to  take  up  the  dead  animals,  which  he 
hoists  into  the  boat  by  means  of  a  boat-hook. 

The  chase  commences  early  in  the  morning,  and  the  huntsmen  do  not 
return  to  their  hut  till  evening ;  a  flag  hoisted  on  the  shore  indicating 
to  them  its  position. 

b.  The  chase  of  the  white  orca. — The  white  orca,  (Delphinapterus  leacas, 
Pall.,)  in  Eussian  "  belouga,"  (the  fishers  of  the  Caspian  Sea  also  call 
the  great  sturgeon  "  belouga,"]  is  found  nearly  all  the  time  in  the  White 
Sea  in  large  numbers,  but  chiefly  in  June  and  July.  The  young  orcse 
begin  to  swim  in  May  ;  their  color  is  a  bluish-gray,  while  that  of  the  old 
ones  is  yellowish. 

The  orcse  are  caught  in  all  the  bays  of  the  Polar  Sea,  especially  on 
the  Kanine  coast  near  Mezene  ;  in  the  White  Sea ;  and  at  the  mouths 
of  the  Petshora.  The  fishing-implements  used  are  seines  joined  together 
and  fish-gigs. 

In  the  summer,  when  the  weather  is  calm  and  beautiful,  large  flocks 
of  orcse  can  be  seen  approaching  the  shallow  places  near  the  shore,  or 
between  the  numerous  islands  of  the  White  Sea.  Several  fishermen 
associate  for  hunting  orcse,  each  one  furnishing  a  boat,  and  a  large  seine 
made  of  cords  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger,  the  meshes  being  10i  inches 
square.  The  length  of  the  net  is  125  "  sagenes,"  (875  feet,)  and  its 
depth  C  "  sagenes,"  (42  feet.)  The  upper  bolt-rope  is  furnished  with 
wooden  floats  1  "arsheen"  (2  feet  4  inches)  long,  and  placed  at  the  dis- 
tance of  2  "arsheens"  (4  feet  8  inches)  from  each  other;  the  lower  bolt- 
rope  has  no  ballast.  These  nets  weigh  about  23  "  pouds,"  (828  pounds,) 
and  cost  150  "  roubles,"  ($105  gold.) 

A  society  has  usually  eight  boats,  each  being  manned  by  four  fisher- 
men besides  the  master,  to  whom  the  boat  and  the  seine  belong.  The 
fishing  commences  at  the  end  of  Juue.  The  fishermen  cast  anchor  near 
a  group  of  islands,  and  wait  impatiently  for  the  watchmen  to  give  the 
signal  that  a  flock  of  orcse  is  approaching.  As  soon  as  the  signal  is 
given,  they  row  rapidly  toward  the  place  designated,  taking  good  care, 


5G  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

however,  not  to  fish  in  deeper  water  than  5  "  sagenes,"  (35  feet,)  lest  the 
net,  which  is  only  6  "  sagenes  "  (42  feet)  deep,  as  has  been  said  before, 
should  prove  useless. 

At  first,  the  boats  row  without  order ;  but  as  soon  as  they  approach  the 
orcse,  they  place  themselves  in  the  following  manner :  the  two  middle 
boats  approach  each  other  and  remain  in  the  rear,  while  the  others  ad- 
vance to  the  right  and  left,  keeping  at  a  distance  of  120  "  sagenes  "  (81 0 
feet)  from  each  other,  i.  e.,  almost  the  length  of  the  seine.  In  order  that 
the  fishing  should  be  successful,  it  is  necessary  that  the  boats  should 
advance,  remaining  always  two  and  two,  at  the  same  depth  ;  afterward, 
they  must  halt  at  some  distance  from  the  orcse,  and  cast  all  the  nets  at 
the  same  time,  after  having  tied  them  to  each  other.  In  this  manner, 
the  orcse  are  surrounded,  and  endeavor  in  vain  to  break  through.  The 
circle  is  constantly  growing  narrower,  and  the  orcae  are  finally  har- 
pooned with  fish-gigs  having  short  handles,  which  are  easily  detached. 
The  iron  of  the  fish-gig  is  not  beyond  the  fisherman's  control,  as  it  is 
ioined  to  the  hand  by  a  cord  used  for  pulling  up  the  instrument  and 
the  pierced  orca. 

If  the  orcce  enter  iut  j  a  small  bay,  their  retreat  is  cut  off  by  means  of 
large  stationary  seines,  and  they  are  easily  captured. 

Hunting  the  walrus  and  the  polar  bear. — About  a  dozen  sailing-ves- 
sels devote  themselves  habitually  to  hunting  the  walrus  from  Cape 
Kanine  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kara.  Every  boat  can  carry  500  "  pouds," 
(18,000  pounds,)  and  is  manned  by  ten  huntsmen,  mostly  inhabitants  of 
Mezene  and  the  Petshora  Basin  ;  sometimes,  also,  by  well-to-do  Samo- 
yeds.  The  "  Zyriauy  "  and  the  poor  Samoyeds  serve  among  the  Rus- 
sians as  laborers  for  very  small  pay  and  food. 

In  order  not  to  expose  these  badly-built  and  badly-rigged  boats  to  the 
dangers  of  the  ocean,  they  are  transported  to  the  open  sea,  a  distance 
of  at  least  three  hundred  "versts"  (one  hundred  and  seventy-three 
miles)  on  sleighs  drawn  by  reindeer.  The  expenses  of  this  transporta- 
tion, which  are  considerable,  are  repaid  to  the  master,  as  he,  besides 
receiving  his  share  for  each  boat,  receives  three  more  portions  of  the 
whole  product  of  the  chase,  which  is  divided  into  ten  portions.  The  wal- 
rus-chase, in  general,  is  but  slightly  productive.  Scarcely  more  than 
six  hundred  of  these  animals  are  killed  during  a  year.  There  are  not 
sufficient  funds  to  equip  boats  and  to  pay  skillful  and  experienced 
huntsmen. 

The  polar  bears  live  on  the  ice,  on  the  islands,  or  on  the  coast.  An 
experienced  huntsman  lets  the  animal  approach  within  ten  paces  before 
he  fires.  If  the  bear  is  only  wounded,  the  huntsman  draws  his  huutiug- 
kuif'e,  avoids  the  attack  of  the  furious  animal  by  leaping  aside,  and  the 
moment  he  finds  himself  behind  the  bear  he  kills  him.  Nothing  is  more 
curious  than  the  guns  with  which  these  hardy  huntsmen  attack  the 
polar  bears ;  they  are  simply  manufactured  by  the  village-smith !  If 
the  gun  is  not  discharged,  and  the  bear  escapes,  the  huntsman  values 


FISHERIES   AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  57 

his  loss  at  15  "roubles,"  ($10.50;) but  if  the  same  accident  happens  with 
a  walrus,  his  loss  amounts  to  60  "  roubles,"  ($42.)  It  is  not  necessary 
to  remark  that  the  huntsman  is  often  in  danger  of  losing  his  life. 

Preparing  the  oil. — From  the  fat  of  the  animals  which  are  hunted 
or  fished  for  in  the  sea,  as  well  as  from  the  blubber  of  the  whales  which 
sometimes  approach  the  coast  of  Lapland  when  the  tide  comes  in,  and 
which  remain  on  dry  land  when  the  tide  goes  out  again,  an  oil  is  pre- 
pared, which  forms  an  important  article  of  commerce. 

In  nearly  all  the  coast- villages  of  the  White  Sea,  there  are  oil-manu- 
factories. The  oil  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner :  The  fat,  which 
has  been  secured  by  scraping,  is  thrown  into  large  tubs  and  well  shaken ; 
the  tubs  are  then  exposed  for  some  days  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  After 
this  time,  a  layer  of  clear,  limpid  oil  forms  upon  the  surface,  its  color 
being  yellowish ;  this  is  the  first  quality.  The  second  quality  is  obtained 
by  melting  the  residue  of  the  scraped  fat  with  the  pieces  of  cut  fat  in  a 
caldron  containing  a  small  quantity  of  water;  this  oil  has  a  dark- brown 
color.  The  caldrons  used  for  this  purpose  generally  hold  from  30  to  GO 
"pouds"  (1,080  to  2,100  pounds)  of  fat;  but  the  Archangel  merchants, 
who  send  large  quantities  abroad,  have  in  some  villages  caldrons  holding 
from  SO  to  120  "  ponds  "  (2,880  to  4,320  pounds)  of  fat.  In  from  ten  to 
twelve  hours,  the  whole  mass  is  melted,  and  the  oil  is  poured  into  casks 
holding  from  20  to  32  "ponds,"  (720  to  1,152  pounds.)  A  "  poud"  of  fat 
of  the  white  orca  usually  yields  32  pounds  of  oil,  while  a  "poud" 
of  fat  yields  only  30.  As  regards  the  fat  itself,  the  walrus,  on  an 
average,  yields  from  10  to  28  "  pouds,"  (300  to  1,028  pounds;)  the  white 
orca,  from  15  to  25  "pouds,"  (540  to  930  pounds;)  and  of  the  different 
species  of  seal,  the  Oystophora  cristata  yields  9  "pouds,"  (324  pounds;) 
the  Phoca  grcenlandica,  from  4  to  0  "pouds,"  (114  to  210  pounds;)  the 
Phoca  annellata,  3  "pouds,"  (108  pounds;)  and  young  seal  with  white 
fur,  1£  "pouds,"  (54  pounds.) 

Preparing  and  cutting  the  skins. — The  skins  of  the  Phoca  grcenlan- 
dica are  bought  by  some  merchants  of  Archangel,  who  salt  them  down 
in  casks  and  send  them  abroad.  These  casks  contain  from  50  to  80  skins 
each,  and  they  usually  reckon  from  2£  to  4  pounds  of  salt  to  each  skin. 
Most  of  the  skins  of  seals,  orcse,  and  walruses  are  used  in  the  vil- 
lages themselves. 

When  the  skins  have  remained  in  the  water  for  some  time,  and  have 
lost  all  their  hair,  they  are  dried  and  tanned,  and  straps  are  made  of 
them. 

The  skin  of  a  large  orca  is  cut  into  four  straps,  two  from  the  back  and 
two  from  the  sides ;  that  of  a  small  orca,  into  three,  two  from  the 
sides  and  one  from  the  back.  These  straps  are  tanned  and  made  into 
soles  of  boots  and  shoes  and  into  harness.  The  skin  of  an  orca  can  be 
made  into  from  four  to  six  pairs  of  reins  and  twelve  pairs  of  soles. 

From  the  skin  of  the  Phoca  grcenlandica  70  "sage^nes"  (490  feet)  can 
be  cut. 


58  KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  huntsmen  derive  the  greatest  profit,  however,  from  the  skins  of 
the  walruses.  The  Russian  fishermen,  especially  the  "proniortsi,"  barter 
rye-flour  very  advantageously  in  Norway  for  walrus-skins.  They  usually 
get  for  10  "pouds"  (300  pounds)  of  flour  two  walrus-skins,  which  they 
sell  at  Archangel  for  10  "roubles"  ($7  gold)  apiece. 

The  monks  of  the  convent  of  Solovetsk  prepare  the  skin  of  the  Phoca 
annellata  iu  an  admirable  manner.  The  skins  of  polar  bears  cost  8 
"  roubles"  ($5.00)  apiece  at  Archangel.  They  are  warm  and  durable, 
but  they  are  seldom  tanned. 

C— FISHING   AND    SEAL-HUNTING   IN   THE   CASPIAN    SEA. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  with  an  area  of  147,000  square  miles,  furnishes, 
perhaps,  a  greater  quantity  of  fish  than  any  other  basin  in  Europe  hav- 
ing the  same  extent.  This  also  applies  to  the  rivers  falling  into  it:  the 
Ural,  the  Volga,  the  Terek,  the  Koura,  and  the  Sefid-Roud.  It  can  be 
proved  that  the  amount  of  fish  caught  is  constantly  increasing.  Not 
less  than  11,000,000  "pouds"  (390,000,000  pounds)  of  fish  are  annually 
caught  in  the  waters  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  cause  of  this  great  abundance  of  fish  must  be  found  in  the 
character  of  the  water,  which  is  but  little  salty,  in  the  shallowness  of 
the  sea,  and  iu  the  existence  of  numerous  excellent  spawning-places, 
especially  iu  the  immense  delta  of  the  Volga. 

In  the  northern  basin  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  where  the  most  important 
fisheries  are  located,  the  sea  is  shallowest,  the  greatest  depth  being  about 
8  "sageues,"  (50  feet.)  The  southern  and  middle  portions  of  this  sea  are, 
however,- very  deep;  but  no  fishing  is  carried  on  there.  In  the  northern 
basin,  the  water  is  scarcely  brackish,  often  entirely  sweet,  particularly 
when  there  is  a  north  wind,  which  carries  the  waters  of  the  Ural  and 
the  Volga  far  out  into  the  sea.  The  rivers  falling  into  the  Caspian  Sea 
carry  into  it  great  masses  of  organic  matter,  which  furnishes  abundant 
food  for  the  fish. 

The  delta  of  the  Volga  forms  a  vast  net-work  of  long,  narrow,  and 
shallow  lakes,  called  "limans,"  which  are  joined  to  each  other,  or  to  va- 
rious branches  of  the  Volga,  by  a  large  number  of  small  watercourses ; 
and  here  the  fish  find  a  peaceful  retreat  during  the  spawning-season. 

1. — FISH  FOUND  IN  THE  CASPIAN  SEA. 

The  cartilaginous  fish  or  sturgeons  are  principally  found  in  the  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  its  tributaries,  among  which  the  Volga,  with  its  immense 
basin,  is  the  most  important.  The  Russian  fishermen  call  these  fish 
"red  fish."  In  the  Caspian  Sea  and  its  tributaries,  the  following  species 
of  fish  are  found,  of  which  the  Russian  name  is  always  given  first. 

1.  "Belouga,"  (Acipenser  huso,)  with  an  average  weight  of  3  "pouds," 
(108  pounds,)  but  frequently  weighing  from  20  to  25  "pouds,"  (720  to 
000  pounds,)  and  occasionally  as  much  as  from  40  to  00  "pouds,"  (1,440 
to  2,100  pounds.)     In  the  year  1709,  a  "  belouga"  was  caught  in  a  bay 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  59 

not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ural,  weighing  70  "pouds,"  (2,520  pounds,) 
and  containing  25  "  pouds"  (900  pounds)  of  roe.  In  1S13,  one  was  caught 
in  the  Volga,  near  Saratow,  weighing  80  "ponds,"  (2,880  pounds,)  and 
containing  10  "  pouds"  (376  pounds)  of  roe.  In  1843,  one  of  GO  "  pouds  " 
(2,160  pounds)  was  caught;  and,  in  1819,  one  of  40  "pouds,"  (1,440 
pounds,)  measuring  2  "  sagenes"  (14  feet)  in  length.  In  1854,  a  sturgeon 
was  caught  near  Kazan  and  Nijni-Novgorod,  weighing  60  "pouds," 
(2,160  pounds,)  whose  head  alone  weighed  17  "pouds,"  (612  pounds;) 
and  another  weighing  53  "pouds,"  (1,908  pounds.)  In  1871,  a  "  belouga" 
weighing  63  "pouds"  (2,268  pounds)  was  caught  near  Derbent  at  a 
depth  of  130  "  sagenes,"  (910  feet.) 

2.  "Osetre,"  (Acipenser  Guldensicidtii.)  Its  average  weight  is  30 
pounds ;  but  many  are  caught  in  the  Volga  measuring  from  4  to  6  feet, 
and  weighing  from  1  to  3  "  pouds,"  (36  to  108  pounds,)  sometimes  weigh- 
ing even  5  "pouds,"  (180  pounds,)  and  measuring  from  6  to  9  feet  in 
length.  This  fish  is  exceedingly  prolific.  M.  Baer,  a  member  of  the 
academy,  has  found  600,000  eggs  in  one  large-sized  fish,  and  200,000  in 
a  medium -sized  one. 

3.  "  Sevriouga,"  (Acipenser  stellatus.)  Average  weight,  15  pounds. 
It  is  caught  in  enormous  quantities  in  the  Koura,  most  of  them  weigh- 
ing about  1  "  poud,"  (36  pounds.) 

4.  "Chyp,"  (Acipenser  Scliypa.)  In  the  Ural.  Weight,  1£  "pouds,"  (54 
pounds.) 

5.  "  Sterliad,"  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  sterlet.  Two  feet  long  ;  weight, 
from  15  to  20  pounds. 

6.  "Som,"  (Silurus  glanis,)  Wels;  sheat-fish.  Length,  from  3  to  6  feet; 
weight,  as  much  as  6  "  pouds,"  (216  pounds.)  It  is  very  common  in  the 
Koura,  where  it  sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  8  "pouds,"  (2S8  pounds,) 
and  a  length  of  1£  "sagenes,"  (10J  feet.)* 

7.  "  Belorybitsa,"  the  "nelnia"  of  the  northern  rivers,  (Coregonus  leu- 
cicMliys,  Giildenst.,)  an  excellent  fish,  also  known  as  the  white  Siberian 
salmon,  is  found  in  the  Volga,  rarely  in  the  Ural,  and  not  at  all  in  the 
Terek  and  Koura.  It  weighs  from  12  to  17  pounds,  sometimes  as  much 
as  30  pounds,  and  measures  3  feet  in  length. 

8.  "  Lososs,"  (Salmo  solar,)  salmon.  Is  common  in  the  Terek  and 
the  Koura,  very  rare  in  the  Volga,  and  never  found  in  the  Ural. 

9.  "  Chemaya,"  (Aspius  clupeoides,  Pall.)  Is  only  found  in  the  Koura 
and  the  Terek. 

10.  "  Saz&ne,"  {Cypnnus  carpio,  L.,)  carp.  In  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
near  the  mouths  of  the  Volga.  Often  from  3  to  4  feet  long,  and  weigh- 
ing from  40  to  50  pounds.     Average  weight,  from  10  to  17  pounds. 

11.  "Karass,"  (Carassius  vulgaris,)  crucian  carp.  Common  in  the 
Volga.    The  largest  are  one  foot  long,  and  weigh  5  pounds. 

12.  "  Soudak,"  (Lucioperca  sandra,)  saudre.    From  15  to  20  pounds. 

*This  is  the  European  representation  of  tbe  fresh-water  catfish  or  bull-heads  of  the 
United  States.— S.  F.  B. 


GO         EEPOET    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHEEIES. 

13.  "  Bersche,"  (Lucioperca  volgensis.)    Five  pounds. 

14.  "  Linn,"  {Tinea  vulgaris,)  tench.  The  largest  measure  2  feet  in 
length,  and  weigh  7  pounds. 

15.  "  Ousatche,"  (Barbus  obtuslrostris,  Yakovlew.)  Bare  in  the  Volga  ; 
common  in  the  Koura. 

16.  "Piskar,"  {Gobio  fluviatilis,  Cuv.)     Three  inches  long. 

17.  "  Lestche,"  (Abramis  brama.)     From  8  to  10  pounds. 

18.  "Yersche,"  (Acerina  cernua.)  Usually  7  inches,  but  sometimes 
reaching  10  inches. 

19.  "Okoune,"  {Perca  fluviatilis,)  perch.     From  3  to  4  pounds. 

20.  "  Sinetse,"  {Abramis  ballerus,  Cuv.)  Found  chiefly  in  the  Volga ; 
10  inches  long,  and  weighing  rarely  more  than  half  a  pound. 

21.  "  Sopa,"  {Abramis  sopa,  Pall.)     Common  in  the  Volga. 

22.  "  Goustera,"  {Blicca  bicerna.)     Thirteen  inches  ;  2  pounds. 

23.  "  Tck^khonne,"  {Pelecus  cultratus,  Agass.)     Two  feet;  2*  pounds. 

24.  "  Oukleika,"  {Albumus  lucidus,  Heck.)     From  4  to  6  inches. 

25.  "Jerekk"and  " che'vesper,"  (Aspiusrapax.)  Length, 2^  feet;  weight, 
16  pounds. 

26.  "  Taranne,"  {Scardinius  erythrophthalmus,  L.)  Scarcely  a  foot 
long ;  common  in  the  Volga.  "  Taranne"  is  the  collective  name  of  sev- 
eral species  of  Leuciscus  and  Abramis;  but,  in  the  Don  and  the  Azov  Sea, 
the  name  "Taranne"  is  only  given  to  .Leuciscus  Heckelii,  Nordtn. 

27.  "Vobla,"  {Leuciscus  rulilus,li.)  Length,  1£  feet;  weight  from  2 
to  3  pounds,  and  found  in  the  Volga  in  vast  numbers. 

28.  u  Koutoume,"  "Wyrezoub,"  {Leuciscus  Friesii,  Nordm.)  Common  in 
the  Sefid-Boud,  the  Koura,  and  the  Terek;  very  rare  in  the  Volga,  aud 
never  found  in  the  Ural. 

29.  "  Stchouka,"  {Esox  lucius,)  pike.  From  30  to  40  pounds ;  as  much 
as  3£  feet  in  length. 

30.  "Bescheuka,"  (Alosa  pontica.) 

31.  "J61eznitsa,"  {Alosa  caspica,)  Astrachan  herring. 

These  two  last-mentioned  species  are  known  by  the  name  of  "Astra- 
chan herring ; "  usually  from  2  to  2£  pounds,  and  sometimes  4.  Length, 
L}  feet.  They  are  very  common  in  the  Volga,  which  they  ascend  very 
far.  Some  are  caught  even  at  Koliazino,  in  the  district  of  Tver.  They 
are  not  found  in  the  Ural,  the  Terek,  the  Koura,  and  the  Sefid-Roud. 
The  Azov  Sea,  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Caspian  Sea  contain  no  species 
of  Clupea,  Val. 

32.  "Podouste,"  (Chondrostoma  nasus,  Val.;)  1J  pounds. 

33.  "  Minoga,"  {Pctromyzon  fluviatilis,)  Lamprey.  Found  in  large  num- 
bers in  the  Koura  and  the  Terek ;  common  in  the  Volga  below  Astra- 
chan; and,  since  1870,  very  common  near  the  towns  of  Yuotayeosk  aud 
TchornoiYar;  and,  since  1855,  in  immense  masses  in  the  district  of 
Saratow. 

Of  these  fish,  those  which  furnish  the  principal  articles  of  trade  are 
the  Acipeuser,  the  Silurus,  and,  of  scaly  fish,  the  Lucioperca,  the  Abramis, 


FISHEEIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  61 

the  Alosa,  the  Leuciscus  rutilus,  and  the  Cyprinus  carpio,  L.  The  Core- 
gonus  Icucichthys  and  the  Salmo  salar  are  less  important,  and  still  less  the 
Esox  lucius  and  other  small  scaly  fish.  Pickled  lamprey  (Petromyzon 
fluviaUlis)  might  form  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  but,  on  the 
T6rek,  it  is  entirely  neglected,  and,  on  the  Koura,  it  is  dried  and  used 
as  candles. 

The  first  establishment  for  pickling  lampreys  was  opened  in  the  city 
of  Tsaritsyn,  after  the  close  of  the  year  1871;  and  up  to  February,  1873, 
700  casks,  containing  about  1,200,000  lampreys,  had  arrived  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, weighing  not  less  than  56  kilograms  (about  123  pounds)  to 
the  thousand,  and  being  exceedingly  well  pickled ;  they  are  sold  from 
12  to  14  "roubles"  ($8.42  to  $9.80  gold)  a  thousand. 

2.— SPAWNING-SEASON   OF   THE  FISH  IN  THE   CASPIAN   SEA. 

At  Astrachan,  the  Volga  is  usually  free  from  ice  from  the  beginning 
of  April,  and  the  different  kinds  of  fish  arrive  from  the  Caspian  Sea 
about  that  time.  The  first  to  arrive  is  the  Scardinius  erythroplithalmus, 
L.;  the  "vobla,"  (Leuciscus  rutilus,)  chased  there  during  its  capricious 
leaps  from  the  water  by  the  voracious  "belouga";  this  is  followed  by 
the  Esox  lucius,  pike;  then  by  the  Abramis,  and  by  the  Lucioperca, 
sandre.  From  the  20th  of  April  till  the  5th  of  May,  the  Alosa,  or  so- 
called  herrings,  appear  in  immense  schools  ;  then  the  "  sevriouga,"  (Aci- 
penser  stellatus,)  sturgeon ;  the  Silurus  glanis,  Wels;  the  Cyprinus  carpio, 
L.,  carp ;  and,  finally,  tbe  Acipenser  Guldenstddtii,  sturgeon. 

Most  of  the  scaly  fish  spawn  in  April  or  in  May,  and  for  this  purpose 
seek  the  shallow  water,  where  there  is  but  little  current,  and  where  aquatic 
plants  are  numerous,  and  where  fishing  is  strictly  prohibited  from  the  15th 
of  April  till  the  15th  of  May,  in  order  that  the  spawning-process  may  not 
be  interrupted.  The  salmon  and  the  "cleinaya,"  (Aspius  clupeoides,) 
which  are  caught  in  large  numbers  in  the  Terek  and  in  tbe  Koura,  usu- 
ally spawn  in  August  and  September,  the  first-mentioned  on  sandy  bot- 
toms. 

The  spawning-season  of  the  sturgeon  commences  in  the  Volga  in  June 
and  lasts  till  the  end  of  July ;  in  the  Ural,  it  lasts  from  the  middle  of 
April  till  the  middle  of  June.  They  prefer  a  hard  and  stony  bottom. 
Only  three  hundred  and  eighty  "versts"(two  hundred  and  nineteen 
miles)  above  Astrachan,  near  Sarepta,  the  bottom  of  the  river  is  of  this 
character.  In  order  to  let  the  different  kinds  of  sturgeon  enjoy  the  rest 
which  they  require,  the  fishing-regulations  forbid  fishing  in  the  Volga, 
as  well  in  the  river  as  in  its  branches,  from  the  15th  of  May  till  the  15th 
of  July.  Nevertheless,  fishing  is  permitted  exceptionally,  to  supply  the 
local  want,  from  the  15th  of  June  till  the  15th  of  July,  between  tbe  Cas- 
pian Sea  and  the  town  of  Tchornoi-Yar,  two  hundred  and  twenty -five 
"versts"  (one  hundred  and  twenty -nine  miles)  above  Astrachan,  with 
floating  nets  90  "  sagenes"  (G30  feet)  long  aud  1  "  sagene"  (7  feet)  deep. 

Careful  observations  have  shown  that  during  tbe  time  immediately 


62         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

preceding  the  spawning-season,  the  sturgeons  eat  nothing,  while  after 
spawning  they  are  exceedingly  voracious.  In  the  rivers,  the  young  stur- 
geon feed  on  the  larvae  of  insects  and  small  shell-fish,  and,  in  the  sea,  on 
small  crabs  and  shell-fish.  The  little  "  belouga  "  is  an  exception,  feeding 
on  other  fish.  The  common  sturgeon,  the  "  sevriouga,"  and  the  "  ster- 
liad,"  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  also  feed  on  shell-fish.  When  the  sturgeons 
are  one  year  old,  they  leave  the  rivers  and  go  into  the  sea,  to  return  as 
soon  as  they  are  able  to  spawn. 

A  very  peculiar  phenomenon  in  the  Ural  is  the  winter  sleep  of  fish, 
especially  of  the  sturgeon.  From  the  end  of  June,  the  different  kinds 
of  sturgeon  as  well  as  scaly  fish  come  to  the  Ural  for  the  second  time. 
For  some  time  they  can  be  seen  swimming  and  playing  in  the  stream, 
but  as  soon  as  the  water  grows  cold  this  vivacity  disappears ;  they  seek 
the  deep  places,  ("yatoves,'')  in  which  the  bed  of  the  river  abounds,  and 
hide  there  as  soon  as  the  surface  is  frozen.  In  their  state  of  torpor,  these 
fish  secrete  a  viscous  matter,  which  formes  a  thin  layer  over  their  whole 
body.  The  fishermen  call  this  the  "  cloak  "  of  the  fish.  This  torpor,  or 
sleep,  of  the  fish  is  caused  by  severe  cold  and  want  of  air  under  the 
water,  and  is  therefore  a  consequence  of  the  excessive  weakening  of  the 
respiration.  The  fish  eat  nothing  during  this  state,  for  nothing  is  found 
in  their  stomach  but  the  viscous  matter  spoken  of  above.  The  great 
sturgeon  alone  (Acipenser  huso)  seems  to  take  food  during  his  winter- 
sleep,  for  some  have  been  caught  having  scaly  fish  in  their  stomach. 

The  deep  places,  or  "  yatoves,"  of  the  Ural  are  from  7  to  8  "  eagenes  " 
(252  to  278  feet)  deep,  and  the  fish  there  pile  themselves  upon  each  other 
in  thick  layers.  According  to  the  account  of  experienced  fishermen,  stur- 
geons there  associate  only  with  sturgeons,  and  scaly  fish  with  their  own 
kind,  never  intermingling  :  the  "  sinetse  "  (Abramis  ballerus)  is  the  only 
scaly  fish  which  has  been  found  among  the  sturgeons. 

Watchmen  posted  near  the  "  yatoves,"  every  one  of  which  has  its  own 
name,  notice  exactly  in  what  quantities  the  fish  seek  refuge  there,  and 
of  which  kind  the  fishing  will  be  most  productive.  These  watchmen 
develop  a  most  astonishing  sagacity  in  this  respect. 

3. — WEALTH  OF  FISH  IN  THE   CASPIAN  SEA. 

Pallas,  who  visited  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  in  1773,  speaks  of 
the  immense  quantities  of  fish  in  this  sea.  He  says,  in  addition  to  other 
things,  that,  in  the  spring  in  the  Koura,  near  the  bar  of  Salyan,  15,000 
sturgeons  were  frequently  caught  in  one  day ;  and  that  when  the  fishing 
was  interrupted  for  one  day  only,  the  river,  whose  depth  is  4  "  arsheens," 
(80  inches,)  was,  at  every  bar,  filled  with  a  vast  number  of  fish,  piling 
themselves  one  upon  the  other  to  such  a  degree  that  the  topmost  had 
their  backs  out  of  the  water.  At  that  time,  there  was  a  bar  at  Gour- 
yew,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ural.  It  is  related  that  at  this  place  schools 
of  sturgeon  rushed  at  the  bar  in  countless  numbers,  and  would  have 
upset  it  if  the  Cossacks  had  not  driven  them  to  flight  by  cannon-shots 


FISHERIES   AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  Go 

Similar  stories  are,  it  is  true,  not  related  in  later  times,  but  it  is  unde- 
niable that  the  result  of  the  fisheries  during  the  years  from  1820  to  1830 
was  perfectly  enormous,  and  that  this  is  not  infrequently  the  case  in  our 
time.  Thus,  in  182G,  during  12  consecutive  days,  an  average  of  15,000 
sturgeon  a  day  were  caught,  mostly  "  sevriougas  "  and  common  stur- 
geous,  (Acipenser  Giildenstadtii,)  at  the  fishing  establishment  ("vataga") 
of  Provideuce,  ("Bojii  promysl,")  on  the  Koura,  fifteen  "  versts"  (about 
eight  miles)  from  the  mouth  of  this  river.  There  were  not  hands  enough 
to  carry  on  the  work,  so  that  an  immense  quantity  of  fish  spoiled  on  the 
spot,  and  40,000  of  them  had  to  be  cast  into  the  water.  This  "  vataga" 
(fishing-establishment)  was  visited,  in  1853,  by  the  "  Imperial  commis- 
sion for  examining  the  fisheries  of  the  Russian  Empire."  The  commis- 
sion was  led  by  M.  Baer,  from  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences  at  St. 
Petersburg,  the  statistical  work  being  confided  to  M,  Dauilevsky,  while 
I  had  charge  of  the  technical  part. 

I  observed  many  a  time  that  ducks  and  other  aquatic  birds,  which,  in 
the  river  Koura,  swam  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  fell  victims  to  the 
voracity  of  the  Siluri.  Whenever  a  bird  killed  by  a  shot  from  a  hunts- 
man fell  into  the  water,  it  was  immediately  seized  and  devoured  by  these 
enormous  fish. 

Every  day  from  3,000  to  5,000  "  sevriougas"  were  brought  to  the  "  va- 
taga," (fishing-establishment,)  where  the  following  quantities  were 
caught  annually :  about  15,000  "b61ougas;"  30,000  common  sturgeon, 
(Acipenser  Giildenstadtii ;)  250,000  "  sevriougas;"  and  230,000  Siluri. 

Large  numbers  of  the  different  species  of  sturgeon  are  also  caught  in 
the  Ural,  the  Terek,  and  the  Volga.  The  wealth  of  the  northern  basin 
of  the  Caspian  Sea  in  fish  is  almost  inexhaustible.  More  than  100,000 
nets  and  at  least  15,000,000  of  hooks  are  here  employed  for  sturgeon- 
fishing  alone,  and  thousands  of  fishing-boats  are  continually  engaged  in 
this  occupation.  Immense  nets  are  in  constant  use  in  the  Ural,  the 
Volga,  and  in  the  delta  of  this  latter  river;  and  it  is  no  rare  occurrence 
that  at  one  single  haul  40,000  "lestche"  (Abramis  brama)  are  caught,  or 
150,000  "voblas,"  (Leuciscus  rutilus,  L.,)  or  200,000  "jelezuitsa,"  (Alosa 
caspica.) 

4. — ESTIMATED  VALUE   OF   THE   FISHERIES  IN  THE   CASPIAN   SEA. 

The  quantity  and  value  of  the  fish  which  are  caught  every  year  in 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  its  principal  tributaries,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
seals  captured  in  this  sea,  can  be  estimated  only  approximately.  This 
estimate  amounts  annually  to  the  following : 

"  B61ouga,"  (Acipenser  Huso,)  475,000  "pouds,"  (17,100,000  pounds;) 
value,  1,288,000  «  roubles,"  ($901,600  gold.) 

"Osetre"  (Acipenser  Giildenstadtii)  and  "Ohyp,"  (Acipenser  Schypa,) 
405,000  "pouds,"  (14,580,000  pounds;)  value,  1,G20,000  "roubles," 
($1,134,000  gold.) 


64         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"Sevriouga,"  (Acipenser  stellatas,)  65,000  "pouds,"  (2.340,000  pounds;) 
value,  1,962,000  "  roubles,"  ($1,373,400  gold.) 

"  Sterliad,"  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  50,750  "  pouds,"  (1,827,000  pouuds ;) 
value,  275,000  "  roubles,"  ($192,500  gold.) 

"  Sazaue,"  (Cyprinus  carpio,  L.,)  200,000  "pouds,"  (7,200,000  pounds;) 
value,  120,000  "roubles,"  ($84,000  gold.) 

"Soudah"  [Lncioperca  sandra)  and  "Stchouka,"  (Esox  lucius,)  2,650,000 
"pouds,"  (95,400,000  pounds;)  value,  2,450,000  "roubles,"  ($1,715,000 
gold.) 

"  Lestche,"  (Abramis  brama,)  1,375,000  "pouds,"  (49,500,000 pounds;) 
value,  1,275,000  "  roubles,"  ($892,500  gold.) 

"  Beschenka,"  (Alosa  pontica,)  and  "  jeleznitsa,"  (Alosa  caspica,) 
3,000,000  "pouds,"  (108,000,000  pounds;)  value,  1,050,000  "roubles," 
($735,000  gold.) 

"Vabla,"  (Leuciscus  rutilus,)  600,000  "pouds,"  (21,600,000  pounds;) 
"  okoune,"  (Pcrcafluviatilis,)  760,000  "  pouds,"  (27,360,000  pouuds ;)  value, 
500,000  "  roubles,"  ($350,000  gold.) 

"Som,"  (Silurus  glanis,)  185,000  " pouds,"  (6,660,000  pounds;)  value, 
315,000  "  roubles,"  ($220,500  gold.) 

"  Lososs,"  (Salmo  salar,)  33,000  "pouds,"  (1,188,000  pounds;)  value, 
106,000  "  roubles,"  ($74,200  gold.) 

"  Belorybitsa,"  {Goregonas  leucichthys,)  32,000  "pouds,"  (1,152,000 
pounds;)  value,  103,000  "  roubles,"  ($72,100  gold.) 

"  Beluga"  bladder,  5,500  "  pouds,"  (198,000  pounds ;)  value,  600,000 
"  roubles,"  ($420,000  gold.) 

"  Veziga,"  4,000  "  pouds,"  (144,000  pounds;)  value,  70,000  "roubles," 
($49,000  gold.) 

Sturgeon  caviar,  139,000  "  pouds,"  (5,004,000  pounds;)  value,  1,390,000 
"  roubles,"  ($973,000  gold.) 

Caviar  of  Abramis  brama  and  the  two  kinds  of  Lucioperca,  300,000 
"pouds,"  (10,000,000  pounds;)  value,  300,000  "roubles,"  ($210,000 
gold.) 

Fish-oil,  50,000  "  pouds,"  (1,800,000  pounds ;)  value,  150,000  "  roubles," 
($105,000  gold.) 

Seals,  100,000  "  pouds,"  (3,600,000  pounds;)  value,  150,000  "  roubles," 
($105,000  gold.) 

Seal-oil,  100,000  "pouds,"  (3,600,000  pounds;)  value,  350,000  "rou- 
bles," ($245,000  gold.) 

The  grand  annual  total  is  therefore  13,000,000  "  pouds,"  (468,000,000 
pounds,)  representing  a  value  of  15,000,000  "roubles,"  ($10,500,000 
gold.) 

5. — FISHING-BASINS  OF  THE  CASPIAN  SEA. 

The  Caspian  Sea  forms  four  fishing-basins  :  1.  The  trans-Caucasian  ; 
2.  The  territory  of  the  Terek  Cossacks  and  the  inhabitants  of  Mangy- 
schlak  ;  3.  The  territory  of  the  Ural  Cossacks  ;  4.  The  basin  of  fisheries 
belonging  to  the  state. 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  G5 

The  trans-  Caucasian  fisheries. — Thisbasin  containsfour  fisheries;  those 
of  Salyan  aud  of  Kizil-Agatch  being  the  most  important.  The  fishery 
of  Salyan,  to  which  the  "  vataga"  (fishing-establishment)  of  Bojii- 
Promysl  or  Providence  belongs,  extends  from  the  month  of  the  Konra 
to  the  town  of  Salyan,  where  the  river  Akoncha  leaves  the  Konra  to 
follow  itsown  course  to  the  sea.  At  this  point  the  fishery  of  Kizil-Agatch 
is  located.  The  fisheries  extend  fifty  "  versts  "  (about  twenty-nine  miles) 
from  the  sea-coast.  Above  Salyan,  on  the  Konra  and  on  the  Arape,  the 
fisheries  of  Mougaue,  Chemakha,  Elizabethpol,  and  Arase  are  found.  The 
waters  of  Bakou  extend  from  the  mouth  of  the  Alatchai  to  Mount  Akh 
Syvir,  comprising  a  fishing-ground  in  the  sea  as  far  as  fifty  "  versts  " 
(about  twenty-nine  miles)  from  the  shore,  as  well  as  the  seal-hunting 
in  the  islands.  The  fisheries  of  Kouba  commence  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Samouch  and  extend  to  the  district  of  Bakau. 

The  government  always  leases. out  the  trans-Caucasian  fishing-basins 
for  a  period  of  eight  years  5  the  contracts  being  made  at  Tiflis.  From 
1S1G  to  1854,  the  amount  of  rent  received  by  the  government  was  only 
180,000  "  roubles,"  ($120,000  gold.)  It  then  rose  to  320,000  "  roubles," 
($221,000  gold;)  then  to  385,000  "  roubles,"  ($200,500  gold  ;)  and  at  the 
present  time  it  amounts  to  390,000  "  roubles,"  ($273,000  gold.)  The  per- 
son who  rents  a  fishery  keeps  Tartar  and  Russian  laborers  at  a  fixed 
monthly  salary,  amounting,  from  1816  to  1851,  to  1£  "roubles,"  ($3.15 
gold.)  He  also  supplies  the  laborers  with  food,  fishing-implements,  and 
boats.  Besides  their  fixed  monthly  pay,  1%  "kopecks"  (not  quite  one 
cent)  is  giveu  for  each  sturgeon  that  is  caught. 

At  the  "vataga"  (fishing-establishment)  of  Bojii-Promysl,  fifteen 
"  versts  "  (eight  aud  a  half  miles)  from  the  mouth  of  the  Koura,  and  iu 
the  Akoucha,  there  are  bars  formed  by  poles  and  stakes  driven  into  the 
bed  of  the  river,  forming  a  curved  liue  from  one  shore  to  the  other.  In 
every  bar,  openings  are  left  3  "  sagenes"  (21  feet)  broad,  called  "  gates,"  for 
letting  boats  and  fish  pass.  But,  contrary  to  the  regulations,  these  open- 
ings are  usually  closed  by  means  of  stationary  nets.  Fishing  is  always 
very  good  in  all  the  space  between  the  bar  and  the  sea.  People  fish 
here  with  hooks,  stationary  lines,  "  palangres,"  and  with  large  and  small 
nets  and  seines.  The  lines,  being  furnished  with  pointed  hooks,  which 
are  not  baited,  are  either  held  up  by  floats  or  are  ballasted  and  arranged  in 
rows.  The  fish  coming  from  the  sea  are  caught  on  the  numberless  hooks, 
and  are  taken  up  by  the  fishermen,  who  patrol  all  the  rows  of  lines  reg- 
ularly. Besides  these  implements,  stationary  and  floating  nets  are  also 
used.  For  catching  the  "  som*  (Silur  us  glanis,)  the  so-called  "eissauge" 
(very  large  nets)  are  employed.  The  "  som  "  is  only  fished  for  in  the 
spring  ;  during  the  other  mouths  of  the  year  it  is  entirely  neglected,  be- 
cause a  great  deal  of  salt  is  required  to  preserve  this  extraordinarily  fat 
fish,  and  much  fuel  to  extract  the  oil,  both  of  which  articles  are  scarce 
and  expensive.     In  the  autumn,  the  "chemaya"  (Aspius  clwpeoides)  is 

caught  by  means  of  floating  nets,  the  thick  part  of  which  is  made  of 
5  F 


66 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


silk.     Seines  are  but  rarely  employed  for  catching  scaly  fish,  and  this 
is  only  doDe  in  the  Upper-Koura. 

The  person  who  rents  a  fishery  is  bound  by  his  contract  to  fulfill  the 
following  obligations  :  Fishing  is  prohibited  from  the  1st  of  June  to  the 
1st  of  August.  During  this  period,  the  gates  of  the  bar  must  remain 
open  ;  and  it  is  forbidden  to  put  any  lines  or  nets  there,  in  order  that 
the  fish  may  be  enabled  to  come  up  from  the  sea  and  reach  their  spawn- 
ing-places. A  fine  is  imposed  for  breaking  this  law,  amounting  to  1,000 
"  roubles"  ($700  gold)  the  first  time,  2,000  "  roubles  "  ($1,400  gold)  the 
second  time,  and,  if  it  occurs  a  third  time,  the  contract  is  annulled.  If 
the  lessee  erects  new  bars  of  his  own  accord,  he  is  punished  by  having 
his  building-material  confiscated  ;  in  case  of  a  second  offense,  he  pays  a 
fine  of  2,000  "  roubles"  ($1,400  gold)  the  first  time,  and  4,000  "  roubles" 
($2,800  gold)  the  second  time.  If  he  receives  permission  to  construct 
fishing-parks,  bars  of  stakes,  or  nets,  he  must  leave  two-thirds  of  the 
breadth  of  the  river  open  if  he  has  any  competitors  farther  up  the  river; 
and,  if  this  is  not  the  case,  only  one-sixth  part.  In  navigable  rivers, 
bars  of  any  kind  must  not  occupy  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  breadth 
of  the  river.  Moreover,  it  is  forbidden  to  obstruct  rivers,  branches  of 
rivers,  mouths  of  rivers,  and  lakes  with  apparatus  of  this  kind. 
Finally,  to  allow  the  fish  to  ascend  the  rivers  easily,  it  is  not  allowed  to 
cast  a  second  seine  before  the  first  one  has  been  taken  on  shore. 

The  lessee  procures  the  necessary  salt  for  preserving  fish  and  for  pre- 
paring caviar  from  the  government  salt-depots.  In  the  district  of 
Bakou  and  in  the  region  of  the  salt-lakes  of  Salyau,  salt  costs  12 
"  kopecks"  (about  7  cents)  a  pound.  The  lessee  cannot  get  more  than 
130,000  "  pouds,"  (4,990,000  pounds;)  but  he  has  the  right  to  buy  salt 
at  Astrachan  or  other  cities  of  the  empire. 

According  to  the  exact  statistics  of  M.  Dauilevsky,  the  trans-Cauca- 
sian fisheries  yielded  during  the  period  from  1848  to  1855  the  following: 


Number  of  fi.sh  caught. 

Co 

CO 

00 

g 

CO 

CO 

s 

m 

a 

3 

e 

•»  -~. 

.£•■•£ 

Co 

§1 
» ~ 

Sri 

.2  °° 

s 

-     < 

a:  ^ 

p4 
>-. 

s 

boVh 

r.-i 

0"8 

a 
o 

2 

fe 

.2 

*-'§■ 

a  ^ 

o 

ffl 

go 

o 

Sq 

QQ 

1848 

734 

52, 126 

514,  923 

14.  693 

127,  663 

208,  563 

21,  778 

46,  653 

1849 

M):U 

27,  723 

4:12,  452 

14,751 

79,  537 

300,  094 

91,  192 

33,  764 

1850 

12,020 

29,  601 

558,  502 

16,  906 

88,444 

98,  972 

23,  636 

69,  830 

1851 

12,  507 

28,  576 

464,  923 

14,  975 

64,  006 

161,337 

30,  594 

31,  378 

L852 

12.  523 

36,  363 

556,  563 

11,  170 

116,  131 

206,  755 

24,  754 

69,  498 

1 .-;,;: 

9,  527 

35,  287 

513, 132 

13,  695 

107,  413 

191,501 

22,371 

41,  574 

1854 

6,  572 

23,  256 

436,  495 

14,919 

59,  499 

70,  995 

9,531 

46,  362 

FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING. 


G7 


Caviar. 

"B61ouga"  bladder. 

"Vezijra." 

"Balyk." 

© 

"Pouds." 

Pounds. 

"Pouds." 

Pounds. 

"Pouds." 

Pounds. 

"  Pouds." 

Pounds. 

1848 

26,  522 

952,  792 

533 

19.  183 

724 

26,  064 

278,  786 

10,  036,  296 

1849 

30,  095 

1,  083,  420 

567 

20,412 

770 

27,  720 

312,  036 

11,233,2:16 

1850 

31,909 

1,  150,784 

657 

23,  652 

880 

31  680 

323,  207 

11,635,452 

I8.")l 

28,  4^4 

1,025,424 

586 

21,096 

707 

27,612 

300,  593 

10,821,  148 

1853 

34,  089 

1,227,204 

690 

24,  840 

850 

30,  600 

281,  833 

10,  145,  983 

1853 

31,7^4 

1,  144,  224 

617 

22  212 

820 

29,  520 

264,  659 

9,  527,  724 

1854 

24,  72  L 

889,  956 

531 

19,  116 

720 

25,  920 

304,  342 

10,  956,  312 

Fisheries  in  the  territory  of  the  Terek  Cossack's  and  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Mangyschlak. — This  basin  comprises  two  districts,  that  of  Tcbetcheue 
and  that  of  Bakhteinir.  The  former  extends  eleven  "  versts "  (about 
six  miles)  along  the  coast;  the  latter  fourteen  "versts"  (about  eight 
miles)  from  the  Gulf  of  Bakhteinir  to  the  possessions  of  the  Scham- 
kal  of  Tarki.  In  the  sea,  the  extreme  limit  of  the  two  districts  is 
seventy-six  "  versts  "  (about  forty-four  miles)  from  the  coast. 

The  right  to  fish  in  these  waters  belongs  both  to  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Terek,  and  to  those  fishermen  who,  by  paying  a  certain  sum  of  money, 
receive  a  permit  from  the  military  authorities. 

The  fishing-basin  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Peninsula  of  Mangy- 
schlak in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  Caspian  Sea  extends  from 
Cape  Tiouk  Karagane  twenty-five  "  versts"  (fourteen  miles)  toward 
the  north,  and  the  same  distance  toward  the  west.  It  has  an  area  of 
six  hundred  and  twenty-five  square  "versts,"  (about  two  hundred  and 
seventy- three  square  miles.)  Only  the  inhabitants  have  the  right  to 
fish  here. 

Fisheries  in  the  territory  of  the  Ural  Cossacks. — This  exceedingly 
rich  basin  comprises  (a)  the  river  Ural,  to  a  length  of  six  hundred 
"  versts"  (about  three  hundred  and  forty-five  miles)  from  its  mouth  to 
one  hundred  "versts"  (about  fifty-seven  and  one-half  miles)  above  the 
city  of  Uralsk  ;  (b)  part  of  the  Caspian  Sea  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ural 
extending  eighty-eight  "  versts"  (about  fifty  and  a  half  miles)  to  the 
west,  and  seventy-eight  "  versts"  (about  forty-five  miles)  to  the  east, 
and  having  a  depth  of  7  "  sageues,"  (lb'  feet  4  inches;)  (e)  all  the  rivers 
and  lakes  in  the  interior  of  the  territory ;  (d)  a  great  lake,  called 
Tcherkalskoe  Mortso  in  the  Kirghize  steppe,  which  is  connected  with 
the  sea. 

All  these  waters  are  the  undisputed  property  of  the  army  of  Ural 
Cossacks.  The  fishing-regulations  are  very  old,  and  have,  till  the 
present  time,  been  kept  up  by  tradition  and  custom.  The  military 
authorities  see  to  it  that  these  regulations  are  strictly  enforced.  For 
every  kind  of  fishing-industry,  the  military  authorities  publish  regula- 
tions, stipulating  the  time  of  opening  and  closing  the  fisheries,  the 
different  formalities,  conditions,  &o. 

As  soon  as  the  Ural  is  free  from  iee,  the  spring-fisheries  commence. 
In  the  river,  "  sevriougas  "  (Acipenser  stellatus)  are  caught  with  floating 


68  EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OP    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

nets;  sturgeon  are  caught  in  tbe  sea;  and  scaly  fish  in  the  Tcherkalskoe 
Mortso.  Fishing  in  the  river  is  prohibited  from  the  middle  of  Juue  till 
the  middle  of  August.  The  sturgeon  appear  in  great  numbers  in  the 
Ural  in  the  month  of  July  to  seek  refuge  in  the  "  yatoves,"  (deep  places,) 
to  which  they,  however,  do  not  retire  till  October.  The  autumn-fish- 
eries commence  about  the  middle  of  August,  first  with  stationary  nets, 
then  with  floating  nets  and  seines,  and  last  till  November.  As  soon  as 
the  Ural  is  frozen,  they  begin  to  catch  the  sturgeon  under  the  ice  by 
means  of  hooks  and  fish-gigs,  ("  bagrenie ;")  and  scaly  fish  with  seines  in 
the  river,  and  with  stationary  nets  in  the  sea.  Hook-fishing  lasts  till 
the  middle  of  January,  while  nets  are  used  till  the  first  of  March. 

In  order  to  allow  the  fish  to  enter  freely  into  the  Ural,  fishing  in  the 
sea  just  at  the  mouths  of  the  river  is  prohibited  over  an  area  eighty 
"  versts"  (about  forty-sis  miles)  long,  and  forty  "  versts"  (about  twenty, 
three  miles)  broad.  Outside  of  this  area  it  is  allowed  to  place  "  pa- 
langres  "  perpendicularly  on  the  shore  for  catching  sturgeou.  The  num- 
ber of  "  palangres"  is  fixed  beforehand,  and  the  most  favorable  locations 
are  distributed  by  casting  the  lot. 

In  autumn,  they  fish  in  the  lower  part  of  the  Ural  over  an  extent  of 
two  hundred  and  eighty  "  versts,"  (about  one  hundred  and  sixty-one 
miles;)  and  8,000  Cossacks,  with  3,000  boats,  are  engaged  in  this  occu- 
pation. The  whole  stretch  is  marked  off  into  fifteen  divisions.  There 
is  always  one  seine,  with  wings,  to  every  two  boats.  The  boats  at  first 
go  slowly  down  the  river  iu  regular  order,  then,  as  they  approach  the 
"yatoves,"  (deep  places,)  wliere  the  fish  congregate,  all  the  boats  use  the 
oars  to  their  utmost  capacity,  in  order  to  arrive  first. 

After  the  "yatoves"  of  one  division  have  been  exhausted,  they  pass 
to  another  division,  and  so  on  in  order.  While  the  Cossacks  go  down 
the  river  in  their  boats,  the  merchants  follow  them  along  the  shore, 
accompanied  by  wagons,  on  which  the  fish,  which  have  been  bought  by 
them,  are  placed.  Salting  is  carried  on  on  the  spot,  as  well  as  the  man- 
ufacture of  fish-glue  (isinglass)  and  of  caviar. 

From  the  city  of  Uralsk  to  the  Cossack  village  of  Antonov,  people 
fish  in  the  Ural  under  the  ice  with  hooks  and  fish-gigs.  This  fishery  is 
also  carried  on  by  divisions  appointed  for  every  fishing-day.  The  hook, 
called  "  bagor,"  is  a  fish-gig  with  a  pointed  steel  hook  attached  to  a 
wooden  handle.  Fishing  with  hooks  is  the  favorite  occupation  of  the 
Cossacks.  Even  the  poorest  among  them  can  take  a  part  iu  it;  for  the 
whole  outlay  consists  of  a  hook,  a  sleigh  drawn  by  a  horse,  and  the 
necessary  food  and  fodder  for  one  day.  At  this  season  of  the  year,  the 
price  of  fish  is  high,  so  that  fishing  becomes  a  very  profitable  occupa- 
tion. Chance,  however,  has  a  good  deal  to  do  with  success  in  this  mode 
of  fishing. 

The  fishermen  form  associations  ("  artelles ")  of  from  six  to  fifteen 
members,  and  divide  the  fish  among  them. 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  GO 

The  value  of  these  fisheries  (by  hook  and  by  net)  may  be  estimated 
with  certainty  at  400,000  "  roubles"  ($280,000  gold)  per  annum. 

The  annual  revenue  of  the  fisheries  of  the  army  of  Cossacks  of  the  Ural 
is  1,200,000  "roubles,"  ($840,000  gold.) 

Fisheries  of  the  government — The  following  localities  belong  to  the  vast 
basin  of  government-fisheries:  (a)  the  Volga,  with  its  tributaries  from  the 
city  of  Kamychine,  in  the  district  of  Saratow,  to  the  sea,  which  includes 
an  area  of  15,900  square  "  versts,"  (about  7,000  square  miles,)  with  135 
fishing-establishments,  ("  vatagas ";)  (b)  those  portions  of  the  sea  in 
which  fishing  is  free,  according  to  the  imperial  decree  of  May  25,  1865. 
This  part  of  the  sea  is  divided  into  seven  fisheries :  1.  The  southwest 
fishery,  from  the  northern  frontier  of  the  territory  of  the  Terek  Cossacks 
to  a  point  on  the  coast  five  "  versts  "  (almost  three  miles)  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Talovka,  with  an  areaof  l,501f  square  "  versts,"  (about  G57  square 
miles  ;)  2.  That  of  the  buoys  of  the  Terek,  from  the  boundary  of  the  pre- 
ceding division  to  five  "  versts"  (almost  three  miles)  beyond  the  mouth 
of  the  Prorva,  with  1,252£  square  "  versts,"  (549  square  miles;)  3.  That 
of  the  west  from  the  boundary  of  the  preceding  division  to  the  Island  of 
the  Four  Hills,  with  4,206^  square  "versts,"  (1,844  square  miles;)  4. 
That  of  the  buoys  of  the  Volga  in  front  of  the  mouths  of  the  river  from 
the  Island  of  the  Four  Hills  to  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  great  gulf 
of  Siuoye  Mortso,  with  3,G55f  square  "  versts,"  (1,720  square  miles  ;)  5. 
That  of  the  northeast  from  this  gulf  to  the  western  limit  of  the  waters  of 
the  Ural,  with  11,054  square  "  versts,"  (4,047  square  miles;)  0.  That  of 
the  Emba,  from  the  eastern  limit  of  the  waters  of  the  Ural  to  the  fish- 
ing-basin of  the  inhabitants  of  Mangyschlak,  with  a  surface  of  60,596 
square  "  versts,"  (22,667  square  miles;)  7.  The  division  of  the  high  sea 
and  the  waters  that  wash  the  eastern  coast  of  the  sea  to  the  river  A  trek, 
which  forms  the  boundary-line  of  Persia;  the  extent  of  this  division 
has  not  been  exactly  measured. 

All  these  divisions,  not  including  the  seventh,  have  an  area  of  82,267 
square  "  versts,"  (32,286  square  miles.)  If  one  adds  15,914  square  "versts" 
(3,398  square  miles)  of  river-fisheries,  the  fourth  fishing-basin  comprises 
an  area  of  98,181  square  "versts,"  (35,6S4  square  miles.)  It  includes,  at 
least  in  part,  the  districts  of  Saratow,  of  Astrachau,  of  Orenburg,  of 
Stavropol,  and  of  Daghestan.  The  administrative  authorities  have 
their  seat  at  Astrachau.  They  were  constituted  by  an  imperial  decree 
of  the  25 tii  of  May,  1865,  and  are  called  "Administration  of  the  fisheries 
and  of  the  seal  hunt."  This  administration  belongs  to  the  ministry 
of  domains,  and  it  has  officers  appointed  to  secure  the  strict  observance 
of  the  fishing-regulations.  It  also  makes  out  the  contracts  and  receives 
the  payments  for  fishing-permits. 

ISTot  only  are  the  river-fisheries  of  private  individuals  subject  to  the 
regulations,  but  also  the  fisheries  of  the  cities,  convents,  and  villages, 
as  also  those  of  the  Astrachau  Cossacks. 

The  river-fisheries  of  the  Terek  are  leased  out  by  the  chamber  of  do- 


70  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

mains  at  Stavropol  for  the  annual  sum  of  28,000  "roubles,"  ($19,600 
gold.)  The  leases  of  the  other  fisheries  yield  the  following  sums :  those  of 
Prince  Dolgorouki,  7,000  "  roubles,"  ($4,900  gold ;)  of  Count  Kouchelew- 
Bezborodko,  22,G26  "roubles,"  ($15,838.20  gold;)  of  the  Astrachan  Cos- 
sacks, 29,574  "roubles,"  ($20,701.80  gold;)  of  the  convent  of  Tchourki, 
7,500  "roubles,"  ($5,250  gold ;)  of  the  city  of  Astrachau,  1,803  "roubles," 
($1,301.10  gold.) 

The  government  possesses  in  the  Volga  and  its  several  branches,  as 
well  as  in  the  innumerable  lagoons  and  small  brooks,  ("yiryks,")  sixty- 
three  fisheries,  which  are  leased  separately.  The  lease  is  for  seven 
years;  the  price  of  the  lease  amounting  to  218,S39  "roubles,"  32  "ko- 
pecks," ($174,187.51  gold.) 

The  administration  of  the  fisheries  issues  special  permits  for  fishing 
in  the  sea.  The  price  of  these  permits  varies,  and  depends  as  much  on 
the  season  of  the  year  as  on  the  locality  where  people  desire  to  fish. 
Every  boat  must  have  its  permit.  In  the  spring,  the  permit  costs  20 
"roubles"  ($14  gold)  for  fishing  with  stationary  nets;  in  the  autumn,  30 
"  roubles,"  ($21  gold;)  and  for  the  whole  year,  50  "  roubles,"  ($35  gold.) 
For  fishing  with  seines,  a  permit  is  required  for  each  seine,  which  costs 
100  "roubles"  ($70  gold)  a  year,  and  50  "  roubles"  ($35  gold)  for  half  a 
year.  The  seal-hunters  pay  for  an  annual  permit  G  "roubles,"  ($4.20 
gold,)  and  for  a  half-yearly  permit  3  "roubles,"  ($2.10  gold.)  A  permit 
for  fishing  in  winter  costs  25  "roubles,"  ($17.50  gold;)  but  those  who 
have  already  a  permit  for  the  whole  year,  or  two  permits  for  six  months 
each,  receive  the  winter-permit  gratis. 

There  are  in  these  waters  every  year  about  14,000  fishermen,  with 
3,000  large  sail-boats. 

Immediately  in  front  of  the  mouths  of  the  Volga,  the  limit  of  fishing 
is  indicated  by  twenty-two  lines  of  buoys.  These  lines  are  formed  by 
beacons,  or  buoys,  placed  from  120  to  150  "  sa genes  "  (840  to  1,050  feet) 
apart,  in  the  direction  of  32  degrees  southeast,  and  extend  iuto  the  sea 
fifty  "  versts,"  (twenty-eight  miles,)  with  a  depth  of  3  "  sagenes,"  (21 
feet.)  These  lines  are  distant  from  two  to  six  "  versts"  (about  one  and 
one-fourth  miles  to  three  and  one-third  miles)  from  each  other.  The 
two  lines  of  buoys  established  before  the  mouth  of  the  Terek  follow 
the  direction  of  45  degrees  northeast,  and  go  out  into  the  sea  sixty 
"  versts,"  (thirty-four  and  one-half  miles,)  with  a  depth  of  4  "  sagenes," 
(28  feet.)  "Corridors,"  as  they  are  called,  from  five  to  ten  "versts" 
wide,  (about  three  to  six  and  one-third  miles,)  form  openings  before  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  to  let  those  fish  pass  which  are  leaving  the  sea  to 
ascend  the  rivers.  Fishing  in  these  "  corridors  "  is  prohibited.  In  the 
space  between  the  lines,  the  fishermen  can  follow  their  vocation  till  the 
sea  reaches  the  depth  of  1  "  sagene,"  (7  feet,)  which  is  the  case  at  about 
twelve  "  versts"  (almost  seven  miles)  out  at  sea,  but  only  with  "  palan- 
gres;"  while  farther  out  at  sea,  at  a  depth  of  3  "  sagenes,"  (21  feet,) 
they  can  use  "  palangres  "  and  stationary  nets.    In  the  first  case,  the 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING. 


71 


permit  costs  30  "  roubles  "  ($21  gold)  in  the  spring  ;  20  "  roubles  "  ($14 
gold)  in  the  autumn  ;  and  50  "  roubles"  ($35  gold)  for  the  whole  year; 
in  the  second  case,  70,  50,  and  100  "roubles,"  ($19,  $35,  and  $70  gold.) 
The  fishing  implements  must  be  placed  parallel  with  the  lines  of  buoys. 
The  rows  of  "palangres"  are  22£  "  sagenes"  (117 J  feet)  apart,  while  the 
space  between  the  rows  of  boats  must  be  135  "  sagenes,"  (915  feet.)  On 
an  average,  there  are  5,100  fishermen,  with  1,700  boats,  employed 
annually  in  the  fisheries  among  the  buoys  of  the  Volga. 

Table  of  income  from  the  government  fisheries  during  the  years  1867-1872. 


Income  from  the  sale  of 

Income     from     the 
leases    of     river- 
fisheries. 

permits. 

Taxes  on  seal-oil 
and     seal-skins 
transported     to 
Astrachan. 

Total. 

Fisheries. 

Seal-hunt- 
ing. 

Years. 

50 
IS 

3 

3 
O 

P5 

o5 

M 
o 

a> 
a 

o 

M 

American 
gold,  dol- 
lars. 

o5 
0 

3 
0 

American 
gold,  dol- 
lars. 

3 

0 

American 
gold,  dol- 
lars. 

en 
0 

3 
0 

50 

_£ 
O 

s 

0" 

American 
gold,  dol- 
lars. 

o5 

O 

3 

5 

_£ 

a,' 
P. 
o 

P.-1 
o  — 
*£  — r   . 

E    -   00 

£  c  is 

1867  . . 

1868  .. 

210,  801 
229,  139 

47 
13 

147,  603  03 
160,397  39 

209,  035 
176,  350 

146,  324  50 
123,  445  00 

1,479 

1,068 

1,035  30 
747  60 

40,  302 
43,  795 

58 
46 

28,211  80* 
30, 656  82" 

461,  577 
450,  352 

05 

59 

323, 103  93* 
315.246  82" 

1869  .. 

229,  86H 

13  160,  907  69 

163,  930 

141,  751  00 

963 

674  10  34,549 

01 

24,  184  30 

429,310;  14 

31.0,517  104, 

1870  . . 

229,  868 

13^  160,  907  69 

183,  635 

128,  544  50 

1,131 

791  70  33,  552 

62 

23,  486  82    448,  1861  75 

313,730  71 

1871  .. 

248,  839 

32  174,  187  52*183,  700 

128,  590  00 

999 

699  30'24,  888 

12 

17,421  67    444,  983i  32 

311,488  31 

1872  . . 

248,  839 

32  174,187  524204,454 

143,  117  80 

663 

464  10  43,  371 

19 

30,  359  84 

497,327    51 

348,  129  25 

The  taxes  on  seal  oil  are  paid  by  persons  who  buy  the  seals  from 
the  huntsmen  as  soon  as  these  have  returned  from  the  sea  to  the 
mouths  of  the  Volga.  The  taxes  are  paid  as  soon  as  the  huntsman  has 
sold  his  seals,  or  at  the  time  when  the  buyer,  after  having  notified  the 
fishing-administration,  gets  ready  to  ship  the  casks  of  seal-oil.  The 
tax  is  30  "  kopecks  "  (21  cents)  for  each  "  poud  "  (36  pounds)  of  seal-fat 
or  seal-skins ;  and  40  "kopecks"  (28  cents)  for  each  "poud"  (30  pounds) 
of  oil. 

Table  showing  quantities  of  oil  and  slcins  registered  at  the  offices  of  the  administration  of 

fisheries. 


Years. 


1867 

1608 
1869 

1870 
1871 
1672 


Oil. 


Russian  weight. 


93,  395  "  pouds  "  15  pounds 
104,  161  "  ponds  "  5  pounds 
81,  979  "  pouds  "  30  pounds 
76,  790  "  pouds  "15  pounds 
59,  154  "  pouds  "  25  pounds 
102,874  "pouds" 


American 
weight. 


Pounds. 
3,  362,  235 
3,  749,  801 
2,  951,  274 

2,  836,  455 
2, 129,  569 

3,  703,  464 


Skins. 


Xumher. 


131,  723 
150,  947 
128,  701 
137,  030 
90,  468 
156,  759 


Russian 
weight. 


American 
weight. 


'Pouds." 
12,  667 
14.  7rli 
11,915 

12,  674 
8,454 

13,  092 


Pounds. 
450,  012 
532,  2110 
428,  940 
440,  204 
304,  344 
492,  912 


Whoever  introduces  dead  seals  as  contraband  articles,  or  clandes- 
tinely sells  or  buys  them,  pays  a  fine  triple  the  amount  of  the  tax  on 
seal-oil. 

The  fishing-regulations  also  imxiose  fines  for  illicit  fishing  in  the  sea. 


72         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Thus,  for  the  use  of  floating  nets  there  is  a  fine  of  20  "  roubles,"  ($14  gold,) 
and  the  fishing-implements  and  the  fish  caught  are  confiscated.  Any 
person  fishing  in  the  "  corridors,"  where  fishing  is  prohibited,  pays 
double  the  amount  of  an  annual  permit,  either  100  or  210  "roubles, 
($70  or  $L08  gold.)  A  person  who  is  fined  for  the  third  time  has  not 
only  to  pay  the  fine,  but  is  deprived  for  ten  years  of  the  right  of  fishing 
within  the  limits  of  the  buoys.  Persons  using  forged  permits  are 
arraigned  before  the  criminal  court.  When  a  permit  has  run  out,  it 
must  be  delivered  at  the  offices  of  the  fishing-administration,  and,  if 
this  is  neglected,  a  fine  of  5  "  kopecks"  (3-J  cents)  must  be  paid  for  each 
day  of  delay,  till  the  maximum  of  3  "roubles"  ($2.10  gold)  is  reached. 

The  river-fisheries  of  the  government  are  subdivided  into  a  certain 
number  of  small  fisheries,  which  are  leased.  This,  as  well  as  the  liberty 
of  fishing  in  the  sea,  the  system  of  buoys,  and  the  fixing  of  certain 
periods  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  has  fully  proved  its  beneficial  influ- 
ence and  great  usefulness.  Formerly,  there  were  at  Astrachan  only 
seven  houses  which  dealt  in  fish  and  fishing-products  ;  at  present,  there 
are  in  that  city  about  thirty  large  and  small  fishing-houses,  which  com- 
pete with  each  other,  not  only  in  the  preparation  of  fish  and  the  different 
articles  prepared  from  them,  but  also  in  the  sums  they  pay  to  their  em- 
ployes and  laborers.  Poor  fishermen — and  their  number  is  very  great — 
who  have  commenced  with  but  little,  have  been  favored  by  fortune,  and 
many  of  them  have  become  the  independent  proprietors  of  large  fishing- 
boats,  on  which  numerous  laborers  earn  a  safe  and  good  living.  The 
prices  paid  by  the  fishing-houses  are  just  double  that  which  they  were 
formerly.  The  system  of  buoys  facilitates  the  passage  of  fish  into  the 
innumerable  currents  which  form  the  mouths  of  the  Volga,  so  that  they 
cannot  only  reach  the  spawning-places,  but  ascend  as  high  as  the  fisheries 
located  beyond  Kamychiue  in  eight  districts  of  the  Volga  basin.  Special 
officers  watch  zealously  over  the  strict  observance  of  the  new  fishiug- 
regulations,  and  the  important  process  of  spawning  cau  now  go  on  with- 
out the  slightest  risk  of  being  disturbed. 

An  improvement,  which  is  very  desirable,  and  which  has  not  yet 
been  carried  out,  is  the  total  abolition,  or  at  least  a  great  diminution, 
of  the  tax  on  salt.  If  this  were  done,  the  fish  would  be  better  salted, 
and  certain  kinds,  which  now,  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  salt,  are 
not  salted  at  all,  would  become  an  eagerly  sought-for  article  of  com- 
merce. The  Astrachan  fisheries  use  at  present  not  less  than  2,500,000 
"  pouds  "  (90,000,000  pounds)  yearly.  The  duty  on  salt  is  30  "  kopecks  " 
(21  cents)  on  the  "  pond,"  (36  pounds.) 

6. — FISHING-IMPLEMENTS. 

The  implements  used  by  the  fishermen  of  the  Caspian  Sea  are  various 
kinds  of  nets,  "paleugres,"  hooks,  and  fish-gigs,  which  generally  resem- 
ble those  used  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  are  of  ancient  origin. 

Stationary  nets. — The  nets  that  are  in  use  are  stationary  nets  float- 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  73 

ing  nets,  seines,  and  cast-nets,  ("  eperviers.")  Tbe  fishermen  and  pro- 
prietors of  fisheries  buy  the  material  for  tbe  nets,  viz,  twine,  thread, 
small  cords,  cords,  &c,  from  the  Astraehan  merchants,  who  get  them 
from  Nijui-Novgorod,  Kazan,  and  Saratow.  They  use  for  sturgeon-fish- 
ing in  the  sea  nets  which  are  12  "  sagenes  "  (84  feet)  long  and  4  "  ar- 
sheens"(9  feet  4  inches)  deep,  made  of  five-ply  or  six  ply  thread,  with 
meshes  oh  to  4  inches  square,  and  furnished  with  floats  and  leads. 
These  nets  are  laid  as  deep  as  4  "  sagenes,"  (28  feet.)  Generally,  from 
20  to  40  are  joined,  and  sometimes  even  as  many  as  80  or  100,  so  as  to 
form  a  straight  line  extending  several  "  versts."  The  whole  line  of  nets 
is  held  up  by  bolt-ropes  on  a  row  of  stakes,  which  are  driven  into  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  Fishing  with  stationary  nets  coutinues  from  April 
till  the  end  of  May,  and  from  August  till  the  beginning  of  October. 
During  the  second  part  of  the  autumn  and  in  the  winter,  they  are  but 
rarely  used. 

For  catching  the  great  sturgeon,  ("belouga,")  especially  in  the  winter, 
large  nets  12  "  sagenes  "  (84  feet)  long  and  G  "  arsheens  "  (14  feet)  deep, 
are  used,  with  meshes  8  inches  square. 

In  the  lagoons,  and  in  the  narrow  channels  ("yeryke")  connecting 
them,  as  well  as  in  the  mouths  of  rivers,  stationary  nets  are  also  set  for 
catching  sturgeon  and  different  kinds  of  scaly  fish.  According  to  the 
regulations,  these  nets  must  be  set  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  one- 
third  of  the  river  unobstructed.  The  nets  for  catching  scaly  fish  are 
made  of  3  and  4  ply  threads;  are  likewise  12  "sagenes"  (84  feet)  long, 
but  not  more  than  2  "arsheens"  (4  feet  8  inches)  broad.  The  meshes 
are  of  different  sizes.  For  Lucioperca  sandra  and  Lucioperca  volgensis 
and  Abramis  brama,  they  measure  2.}  inches;  for  other  small  scaly  fish, 
1£  inches  ;  and  for  Coregonus  leucichthys,  4  inches.  In  places  that  are  not 
very  deep,  these  nets  are  attached  to  poles,  while  in  deep  places  they 
rest  on  stationary  stakes. 

Among  the  stationary  nets  must  also  be  classed  the  sweep-nets  made 
of  from  four  to  seven  osier  hoops  of  different  diameter,  covered  with  a 
net  forming  a  sort  of  hood  over  them.  The  circle  which  forms  the  en- 
trance, and  to  which  the  hood  and  the  wings  are  attached,  has  a  diam- 
eter of  from  %  to  1£  "  sagenes,"  (5  feet  3  inches  to  10  feet  G  inches.)  The 
other  circles,  whose  diameterdimiuishes  gradually,  are!  to  1.1  "arsheeus" 
(1  foot  8  inches  to  2  feet  G  inches)  apart.  The  net  extends  li  "arsheens" 
(1  foot  8  inches)  beyond  the  smallest  circle  forming  the  last  bag;  or, 
ending  in  a  leap  between  the  first  and  third  circle,  there  is  another  net 
inside,  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel  or  truncated  cone,  called  "  straight  en- 
trance," ("  goulet  "  in  French,)  whose  inner  opening,  4  inches  broad, 
allows  the  fish  to  pass  into  the  leap  or  bag.  This  entrance  is  kept  open 
by  means  of  cords.  Each  wing  of  the  sweep-net  is  from  li  to  3  "  sa- 
genes*' (10  feet  G  inches  to  21  feet)  long,  and  the  meshes  are  from  l£to 
2  inches  square.  The  nets,  which  are  fixed  to  poles,  are  placed  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  opening,  like  an  enormous  mouth,  faces  the  fish, 


74  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

which  are  going  up  the  river.  Several  sweep-nets  are  usually  placed 
side  by  side  in  such  a  manner  that  their  wings  form  sharp  angles.  It 
is  strictly  forbidden  to  obstruct  the  whole  breadth  of  the  river,  or  the 
whole  extent  of  a  fishing-ground  with  a  row  of  sweep-nets. 

These  nets  are  generally  used  in  the  winter ;  while,  in  the  summer, 
small  sweep-nets  with  one  wing  are  used,  chiefly  for  catching  "  som," 
(Hilurus  giants.) 

Floating  nets. — The  use  of  floating  nets  in  the  sea  is  strictly  pro- 
hibited, because  during  the  summer- months  immense  schools  of  stur- 
geon leave  the  sea  to  spawn  in  the  rivers.  It  has  sometimes  happened 
that  sturgeon  have  been  caught  in  this  manner,  aud  for  want  of  la- 
borers and  salt  have  been  thrown  into  the  sea  after  their  roe  aud  their 
swimming-bladder  had  been  taken  out.  Whenever  the  officers  of  the 
fisheries  find  a  fisherman  with  floating  nets  in  the  sea,  they  confiscate 
his  nets  and  the  fish  he  has  caught,  and  make  him  pay  a  fine  of  25 
"  roubles,"  ($17.50  gold.) 

The  floating  nets  are  from  12  to  15  "  sagenes"  long,  (84  to  105  feet,) 
with  meshes  4  inches  square,  of  which  28  or  32  go  to  one  net.  The 
floats  consist  of  wooden  blocks  one  "arsheen"  (2  feet  4  inches)  long, 
cut  iu  the  shape  of  a  spatula,  and  attached  to  cords,  which  are  tied  to 
the  upper  bolt-rope  of  the  net,  so  that  they  can  be  lengthened  or  short- 
ened at  will,  according  as  the  school  of  fish  keeps  at  a  certain  depth  or 
near  the  surface.  These  nets  have  no  lower  bolt-rope  and  no  leads. 
Two  nets  are  generally  tied  together  longitudinally,  in  order  to  double 
the  total  depth  of  the  leap  to  5Q  or  64  meshes.  Every  boat  carries  from 
30  to  80  nets,  which,  bound  together  end  to  end,  and  thrown  into  the 
sea,  form  a  wall  of  meshes  several  "versts"  in  length;  and  this,  at- 
tached to  one  of  the  boards  of  the  boats,  is  dragged  along  with  the 
boat,  while  the  latter  is  driveu  by  the  wind,  till  it  extends  facing  the 
school  of  the  advancing  fish.  Frequently,  two  boats  keep  the  nets 
extended  between  them,  and  move  with  full  sail  to  meet  the  school 
of  fish. 

In  the  Volga  and  its  various  branches,  as  also  in  the  Ural,  floating 
nets  are  used  only  for  catching  the  several  kinds  of  sturgeon.  In  the 
Terek,  the  "  chemaya"  (Aspius  clupeoides,  Pall.)  is  caught  with  simple 
floating  nets,  aud  in  the  Koura  with  silk  nets.  Floating  nets  in  the 
shape  of  a  bag  are  used  in  the  Koura  and  the  Volga  for  catching  the 
"som,"  (Silurus  giants.) 

The  floating  nets  in  the  Volga  have  different  names.  For  catching 
the  "  belouga,"  (Acipenser  huso,)  they  use  the  "pogona'ie"  nets  that  are 
150  "sagenes"  (1,050  feet)  long  and  from  7  to  11  "sagenes"  (49  to  77 
feet)  broad,  having  meshes  0  inches  square.  For  catch  ug  the  sturgeon 
and  the  "  sevriouga,"  (Acipenser  stellatus,)  they  use,  immediately  after  the 
ice  has  broken  up,  the  "  samoplavy ;"  and  from  the  end  of  May  to  the 
middle  of  June,  the  "  svintchatki ;  "  then,  immediately  after  the  rising  of 
bhe  sea,  which  occurs  iu  July,  the  "rejaki."    The  first-mentioned  nets 


FISHERIES   AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  75 

are  90  "sagenes"  (030  feet)  long  and  33  meshes  broad,  each  of  which  is 
4£  inches  square.  They  have  no  lower  bolt-rope.  The  "  svintchatky  " 
are  from  CO  to  130  "  sagenes"  (420  to  910  feet)  long,  and  have  two  leaps, 
one  of  which,  the  outer,  is  woven  with  large  meshes  of  G  inches,  and  the 
other,  or  inner,  with  meshes  of  an  inch  and  a  half.  One  of  the  ends  of 
the  net  has  a  float  of  reeds  or  of  wood  attached  to  the  net  by  means  of 
a  cord  2  "arsheens"  (4  feet  8  inches)  long,  while  the  other  end  is  at- 
tached to  the  boat.  The  fisherman  who  is  in  the  boat  allows  himself  to 
be  driven  by  the  current,  and  is  careful  to  see  that  the  net  and  the  float 
always  follow  in  a  straight  line,  and  at  an  equal  distance.  The  fish, 
which  throw  themselves  on  the  net,  go  through  the  great  meshes  of  the 
outer  leap,  and  then  find  themselves  caught  in  the  inner  one.  The 
"  rejaki"  are  90  "  sagenes"  (030  feet)  long,  2  "arsheens"  (4 feet  8 inches) 
broad,  and  have  meshes  3 J  inches  square,  and  a  lower  leaded  bolt-rope. 

In  the  Volga  and  its  several  branches,  fishing  is  prohibited  from  May 
15  to  July  15,  except  with  "  palaugres,"  and  a  seine  of  50  "  sagenes," 
(350  feet,)  which  the  fishermen  drag  to  and  fro,  running  about  on  foot 
in  the  bed  of  the  river  in  places  which  are  not  very  deep,  thus  catching 
small,  scaly  fish.  The  fishermen  are,  moreover,  authorized  to  catch 
sturgeon  for  their  own  use,  between  the  city  of  Tcharnoi-Yar  and  the 
sea,  by  means  of  floating-nets  90  "sagenes"  (G30  feet)  long  and  1 
"sageue"  (7  feet)  broad.  This  fishing  is  permitted  from  June  15  to 
July  15. 

The  floating  nets  used  in  the  Koura  for  catching  the  "chemaya" 
(Asjjius  clupeo'ides)  have  meshes  lh  inches  square  and  are  12  "sageues" 
(84  feet)  long.  Instead  of  floaters,  the  fishermen  use  hollow  pumpkins. 
The  bag  nets  for  catching  the  "som"  (Silurus  glanis)  have  meshes  2| 
inches  square.  The  bag  itself  is  12  "sageues"  (84  feet)  long  and  5 
"  arsheens"  (11  feet  8  inches)  broad.  In  the  Volga,  these  nets  are  used 
for  fishing  only  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  in  the  Koura,  in  January  and 
February. 

Seines  with  bags. — In  the  Volga  and  its  tributaries,  large  seines 
("eissaugues")  are  used,  measuring  from  300  to  400  "sagenes,"  (2,100  to 
2,800  feet,)  whose  bag  is  from  G  to  12  "sagenes"  (42  to  84  feet)  long, 
with  meshes  one  inch  square.  The  meshes  of  that  part  of  the  wings 
which  is  nearest  to  the  bag  have  the  same  dimensions,  while  those 
farther  removed  from  it  are  from  1%  to  2J  inches  in  size.  The  wings 
are  not  of  the  same  length.  That  which  is  cast  first,  the  "coast-wing," 
as  it  is  called,  measures  only  50  "  sagenes,"  (350  feet,)  while  the  other, 
which  is  cast  so  as  to  form  a  crescent,  measures  from  250  to  350  "  sagenes," 
(1,750  to  2,450  feet.)  The  seines  are  used  for  catching  Lueioperca  sand ra 
and  Lucio±)erca  volgensis  and  Abramis  brama.  It  is  no  rare  occurrence 
to  take  30,000  to  40,000  fish  at  a  single  haul.  From  the  middle  of  May 
till  the  beginning  of  July,  seines  are  not  used,  because  the  banks  of  the 
river  are  overflowed  and  the  current  is  exceedingly  strong. 

Two  boats  are  absolutely  required  for  this  fishing;  one  of  them,  the 


7G  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"nevodnik,"  does  nothing  else  but  cast  and  haul  in  the  nets;  while  the 
other,  the  "rybnitsa,"  takes  the  fish  which  have  been  caught  to  the 
fishing-establishment,  ("vataga.")  The  "nevodnik"  is  manned  by  8  or 
12  fishermen,  with  a  pilot,  who  directs  the  fishing,  and  has  the  general 
superintendence  of  the  whole.  On  board  the  "  rybnitsa,'1  which  has  two 
masts  and  is  30  feet  long,  there  are  7  men,  one  of  them  being  a  pilot. 
It  can  carry  1,000  "pouds"  (30,000  pounds)  of  fish.  A  "rybnitsa" 
costs-  from  150  to  250  "roubles,"  ($105  to  $175,)  and  a  "nevodnik,"  from 
100  to  200  "roubles,"  ($70  to  $140.) 

The  places  in  the  river  where  seine-fishing  is  to  be  carried  on  must 
have  a  uniform  and  even  bottom,  so  that  the  nets  can  be  dragged  with 
an  even  movement,  and  may  not  be  exposed  to  the  danger  of  tearing. 

According  to  the  regulations,  there  can  be  only  two  seines  in  one  and 
the  same  place,  while  the  number  of  fishermen  is  also  limited;  for  there 
must  not  be  more  than  one  fisherman  to  every  20  "  sagenes  "  (110  feet)  of 
net.  The  fishing- places  must  moreover  be  one  "  verst "  (3,500  feet)  apart. 
For  catching  the  "  Astrachau  herring,"  (Alosa pontica  and  Alosa  caspica,) 
the  number  of  nets  is  not  limited;  but,  according  to  the  regulations,  the 
meshes  of  the  bag  of  the  net  must  measure  three-eighths  of  a  "  verschok," 
(little  more  than  half  an  inch,)  and  those  of  the  wing  1^  square  inches. 
From  the  15th  of  April  till  the  15th  of  May,  these  schools  of  herring  are 
so  numerous  that  the  fishermen  attach  a  second  bag  to  the  first,  then 
again  a  third  one  to  that,  and  do  not  draw  the  net  on  shore,  but  take  the 
fish  out  with  a  hand-net  and  throw  them  into  the  "  rybnitsa." 

In  tne  sea,  at  a  depth  of  from  5  to  7  feet,  and  especially  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  seines  are  used  measuring  from  300  to  400  "sagenes,  (2,100  to 
2,800  feet,)  and  the  fish  caught  are  chiefly  Lucioperca  sandra,  Lucioperca 
volgensis,  and  Abramis  brama,  which  at  this  time  arrive  in  vast  schools. 
The  wings  of  the  seine  are  of  equal  lengths.  As  soon  as  the  approach 
of  a  school  of  fish  is  announced,  the  "  rybnitsa"  casts  anchor,  while  the 
"  nevodnik  "  uses  all  its  oars  or  sails  going  toward  the  school  and  grad- 
ually casting  the  nets.  On  board  the  "  nevodnik,"  there  are  a  pilot,  six 
rowers,  and  two  laborers.  When  the  net  has  been  cast,  the  "  nevodnik" 
joins  the  "  rybnitsa,"  to  which  one  of  the  ends  of  the  seine  is  attached, 
aud,  all  hands  assisting,  they  begin  to  draw  the  net  into  the  "  nevodnik." 
This  last-mentioned  boat  is  placed  at  a  distance  of  one  "  arshecn  "  (2  feet 
4  inches)  from  the  "  rybnitsa,"  to  which  it  is  joined  by  strong  transverse 
sticks.  The  net  is  drawn  back  underneath  the  hull  of  the  "  rybnitsa." 
This  must  be  done  in  an  even  manner,  without  any  sudden  jerks.  In 
order  to  deprive  the  fish  of  every  means  of  escape,  the  net  is  drawn  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  lower  bolt-rope  of  the  two  wings  slightly  grazes 
the  outside  of  the  boat.  For  this  purpose  an  iron  implement  is  used, 
shaped  like  a  heart,  to  the  pointed  end  of  which  a  loug  cord  is  attached. 
People  fish  only  by  daytime,  and  during  the  night  the  boats  are  drawn 
on  shore.  It  is  very  interesting  to  see  the  fishermen  go  out  into  the  sea 
to  search  for  a  school  of  fish.    The  experienced  pilot  who  leads  the  ex- 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  77 

pedition  stands  at  the  prow  of  the  boat,  constantly  sounding  the  water 
with  a  long  pole,  to  ascertain  the  presence  of  a  school,  or  to  see  whether 
one  is  approaching.  He  also  gives  the  sign  ,as  soon  as  he  thinks  the 
moment  has  coaie  for  casting  the  nets.  Generally,  the  whole  school  is 
caught. 

Gast  net.) — These  nets  are  chiefly  used  on  the  southwestern  coast 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  at  Lencoran,  and  in  the  bay  of  Enseli.  They 
are  made  of  silk,  and  small  scaly  fish,  and  even  roe,  are  caught  with 
them.  The  cast  net  is  a  round,  conical  net.  If  taken  up  in  the  middle, 
it  assumes  the  shape  of  a  funnel,  the  lower  opening  having  a  diameter 
of  5^  "  arsheens,"  (12  feet  10  inches;)  while  in  the  middle  of  the  net, 
which  forms  the  apex  of  the  cone,  there  is  a  thin  cord  8  "sagenes"  (50 
feet)  long.  A  slack  silk  rope  is  attached  to  this,  ending  in  a  noose, 
through  which  the  hand  can  be  easily  passed.  The  opening  is  edged 
with  a  strong  bolt-rope  of  the  thickness  of  a  finder,  which  is  ballasted 
by  small  leaden  tubes  C  inches  long  and  3  inches  apart.  In  the  spaces 
between  the  leads,  cords  10  inches  long  are  attached,  with  one  end  to 
the  bolt-rope  and  the  other  to  one  of  the  meshes  of  the  net  above  the 
bolt-rope.  Thereby,  the  lower  portion  of  the  net  hangs  in  the  shape  of  a 
bag  below  each  one  of  these  cords,  and  the  leads  gradually  approach 
each  other.     This  is  the  old  cast-net  with  blouses,  or  pockets. 

When  the  net  is  cast,  it  spreads  at  first  like  a  disk  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water;  then,  as  soon  as  the  cord  is  drawn,  the  vertical  cords  are 
brought  nearer  together,  and  close  the  opening  like  a  purse.  The  net 
thus  forms  folds,  and  the  fish,  which  are  underneath,  get  entangled  in 
the  meshes.  It  requires  a  certain  degree  of  skill  to  cast  the  net.  It  is 
done  in  the  following  mauner:  The  fisherman  puts  his  left  wrist  in  the 
noose,  holds  a  portion  of  the  net  gathered  in  his  left  hand,  and  with  his 
teeth  tykes  hold  of  the  cord  with  the  leads.  At  the  same  time  he  gath- 
ers on  his  right  arm  about  one-third  of  the  extent  of  the  net  forming  its 
opening,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  let  the  end  hang  below  the  arm,  while 
the  remainder  hangs  down  in  front  of  his  body.  In  this  position,  he 
seizes  with  his  right  hand  the  cord  with  the  leads,  describes  a  semicircle 
toward  the  left  to  give  force  to  his  throw,  then  turns  quickly  to  the  right, 
and,  slackening  the  cord  which  he  holds  between  his  teeth,  casts  the  net 
into  the  water  with  all  his  strength.  The  cord,  weighted  down  by  the 
leads,  immediately  siuks  to  the  bottom,  and  the  net,  completely  extended, 
catches  the  fish  which  are  below.  In  order  to  draw  it  back,  the  fish- 
erman lifts  the  net  gradually  by  means  of  the  cord,  whose  end  he  has 
not  slackened,  turniug  alternately  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  in  order 
to  bring  the  leads  together  more  easily,  and  winds  up  by  drawing  in  the 
whole  net  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

In  order  to  attract  the  fish,  small  glittering  stones,  or  little  clay -balls, 
baited  with  worms,  are  thrown  into  the  water.  Fishing  with  the  cast-net 
is  only  carried  on  during  the  night,  and  an  even  bottom,  without  stones 
or  trunks  of  trees,  is  absolutely  required. 


78         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"  Palangres,"  cable-lines,  (cablieres,)  and  bottom-lines. — The  cords, 
thread,  and  twine  required  for  manufacturing  the  "palaugres  "  are  made 
in  the  villages  and  in  sqnie  cities  of  the  districts  of  Nijui-Novgorod  and 
Saratow,  whence  they  are  sent  to  Astrachan.  The  hooks  are  made  of 
wire  and  are  barbed.  These  hooks  are  only  used  for  the  different  species 
of  sturgeon.  A  thousand  of  these  hooks  for  fishing  in  the  sea  cost,  if 
they  weigh  3  "  pouds,"  (108  pounds,)  17  "  roubles,"  ($11.90  gold;")  those 
weighing  2J  "pouds"  (90  pounds)  to  the  thousand,  cost  12  "roubles," 
($8.40  gold;)  while  the  third  kind,  weighing  l.J  "pouds"  (54  pounds)  to 
the  thousand,  generally  cost  only  7  "roubles,"  ($4.90  gold.)  In  the  riv- 
ers, hooks  are  used  weighing  lh  "  pouds,"  (54  pounds,)  1  "pond"  10 
pounds,  (46  pounds.) or  1  "poud,"(36  pounds,)  to  the  thousand;  costing, 
respectively,  5  "roubles"  15  "kopecks,"  ($3.60£  gold;)  4  "roubles"  GO 
"  kopecks,"  ($3.22  gold  ;)  and  4  "  roubles"  40  "  kopecks,"  ($3.08  gold.) 

A  "  bottom-line"  is  Jf  cord  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger  and  20  "  sagenes" 
(140  feet)  long,  to  which  pieces  of  whip-cord  are  attached  about  as  thick 
as  a  quill,  12  inches  apart,  and  furnished  with  hooks.  The  floats  are  of 
wood,  5  inches  long  and  2  inches  broad.  They  are  attached  to  the  line, 
the  distance  between  them  being  equal  to  that  from  the  end  to  the  fifth 
or  sixth  piece  of  whip-cord,  making  from  twelve  to  fifteen  floats  to  a 
line  of  10  "  sagenes,"  (70  feet.)  From  ten  to  fifteen  of  these  lines  are 
usually  tied  together  and  placed  at  a  depth  of  3  "sagenes"  (21  feet)  or 
more.  They  are  kept  in  position  by  means  of  cords  attached  to  station- 
ary poles.  In  very  deep  places,  anchors  are  substituted  for  the  poles. 
In  the  summer,  they  are  only  left  in  the  water  one  week,  while  in  the 
other  seasons  they  remain  there  two  weeks.  They  are  examined  every 
day,  and  the  sturgeons  that  have  been  caught  on  the  hooks  are  taken 
off.  They  are  placed  in  the  sea  in  a  straight  line,  and  extend  several 
"  versts."  The  sturgeons  approach  "  these  palangres,"  and,  anxious 
to  pass  through  the  free  spaces  between  the  pieces  of  whip-cord,  are 
caught  by  the  hooks,  and  the  more  efforts  they  make  to  disengage 
themselves  the  more  do  they  bring  the  water  in  motion,  and  a  larger 
number  of  hooks  enter  their  body. 

The  "bottom-line"  used  in  the  Volga  for  catching  the  "sterliad" 
(Aeipenser  ruthenus)  has  usually  200  hooks,  attached  to  pieces  of  whip- 
cord 11  inches  long,  and  15  inches  apart,  on  the  main  line,  which  is  GO 
"sagenes"  (420  feet)  long.  The  hooks  are  made  of  wire,  and  a  thou- 
sand of  them  weigh  only  5h  pounds. 

The  "belouga"  (Aeipenser  huso)  is  caught  in  the  sea  with  "  palengres" 
at  a  depth  of  from  70  to  100  "  sagenes,"  (490  to  700  feet,)  the  line  having  a 
diameter  of  half  an  inch  and  a  length  of  70  "  sagenes."  The  hooks  are  at- 
tached to  piecesof  whip-cord,  1J  "sagenes  "  (10.V  feet)  long,  and  are  much 
larger,  stronger,  and  thicker  than  those  used  for  catching  the  common 
sturgeon.  A  thousand  of  them  weigh  3  "  pouds, "  (108  pounds.)  These 
hooks  are  baited  with  small,  living,  scaly  fish,  kuown  by  the  name  of  "  ta- 
ranes,"  (a  local  name  for  bait  fishes  of  several  kinds  of  Alosa,  Abramis, 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  79 

Leuciscus,  and  Cyprinns,)  which  are  caughtin  the  Volga  immediately  after 
the  ice  breaks  up.  Iu  order  to  keep  these  small  fish  alive,  the  fishing-boat, 
which  has  sails,  and  is  called  "kouzovaya  lodka,"  coutaius  a  large  per- 
forated box,  which,  by  means  of  pumps,  is  constantly  kept  supplied  with 
fresh  water.  When  the  fishermen  have  exhausted  their  stock  of  bait, 
they  return  to  Astrachan.  While  the  fishing  is  going  on,  the  livers  and 
the  caviar  of  the  "  belouga"  are  being  prepared  ou  board  the  boat. 

Spinning-lines  and  other  implements  with  hooks. — The  "  belouga " 
(Acipenser  huso)  is  caught  under  the  ice  in  the  sea  by  means  of  large 
perforated  hooks  of  forged  iron,  baited  with  seal-fat.  The  hook  is 
attached  to  a  thick  cord  30  "  sagenes"  (210  feet)  long,  only  half  of  which 
is  placed  in  the  water,  while  the  other  half  is  rolled  up  at  the  edge  of 
a  hole  which  has  been  made  in  the  ice.  The  other  end  of  the  line  is  at- 
tached to  a  strong  piece  of  wood  placed  across  the  hole,  and  the  middle 
of  this  line  is  tied  to  it  with  a  thin  thread,  which  tears  as  soon  as  a 
sturgeon  has  bitten,  so  that  the  remaining  portion  of  the  line  unrolls 
and  glides  under  the  ice. 

For  catching  the  Silurus  giants  in  June  aud  July,  hooks  are  likewise 
used,  baited  with  living  frogs.  The  following  is  the  method  :  The  fish- 
ing boat  is  manned  by  two  men.  One  rows  and  the  other  throws  the 
line,  which  is  attached  to  a  rectangular  wooden  lever ;  at  the  same  time 
he  beats  the  water  with  a  sort  of  shovel  formed  by  a  small  piece  of 
plank,  which  is  slightly  concave,  aud  which  is  attached  to  a  handle. 
This  plank  produces  a  peculiar  noise,  which  attracts  the  Silurus,  and, 
seeing  the  frog,  it  seizes  it,  and  finds  itself  caught. 

The  Coregonus  leucichthys  is  caught  by  means  of  the  "  blesna,"  which 
consists  of  perforated  hooks  with  a  long  shaft  bearing  a  little  tin  fish, 
or  a  fiat  piece  of  tin  shaped  like  a  fish.  Scales  of  the  Cyprinus  carpio, 
whose  sparkling  attracts  the  fish,  are  pasted  on  the  flat  part  of  the 
hook. 

The  Ural  Cossacks  use  large  steel  hooks,  sharply  pointed  aud  barbed, 
for  catching  the  sturgeon  under  the  ice.  The  line  is  attached  to  the  thin 
end  of  a  rod,  whose  length  is  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  the  river. 
Frequently,  several  poles  are  tied  together;  in  order  that  the  hook  may 
descend  vertically  into  the  water,  and  may  not  be  carried  away  by  the 
current,  leads  are  attached  to  the  rod  a  little  below  the  hook.  Small 
poles  are  held  in  the  hand,  but  generally  they  are  evenly  balanced  on 
a  tripod  of  wooden  blocks  or  poles,  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the 
hole  in  the  ice.  Near  this  hole,  an  arch  of  osiers  is  stuck  in  the  ice,  to 
which  the  automatic  apparatus  is  attached,  by  which,  through  a  wooden 
pin,  the  line  is  kept  in  the  position  which  is  required  for  this  kind  of 
fishing — the  thin  end  of  the  pole  near  the  arch  on  the  ice — and  the  hook 
at  the  desired  depth.  Whenever  a  fish  seizes  the  hook,  the  pin  is  pulled 
out,  the  rod  again  becomes  straight  through  the  weight  of  its  heavy  part, 
and  so  pulls  the  fish  out.  Camps,  "  sidebki,"  of  from  100  to  1,000  of  these 
automatic  arrangements  may  be  seen  every  year  on  the  ice  of  the  Volga, 


80  KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  authorities  of  the  Cossack  army  fix  the  time  for  opening  the  fish- 
ing-season. On  the  appointed  day,  Cossacks  with  ice-breakers,  long 
poles,  and  hooks,  meet  with  their  sleighs  at  the  place  which  has  been 
designated,  usually  near  the  deep  places,  "  yatoves,"  where  the  stur- 
geon are  hiding  for  the  winter.  AVheu  all  have  arrived,  they  place 
their  sleighs  in  a  row,  and  wait  for  the  signal  in  the  most  profound 
silence.  A  cannon  shot  is  heard,  and  all  the  Cossacks  rush  on  to  the 
ice  with  the  greatest  emulation.  Each  one  selects  his  place,  rapidly 
works  a  hole  in  the  ice,  and  plunges  his  hooked  rod  in.  The  holes  are 
generally  round,  and  have  a  diameter  of  half  an  "  arsheen,"  (1  foot  2 
inches.)  The  hooks  are  lowered  to  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  they 
are  constantly  taken  up  and  baited.  The  sturgeons,  some  of  which 
remain  entirely  quiet  in  their  "  yatoves,"  while  others  are  frightened  at 
being  disturbed  in  their  rest,  soon  become  the  prey  of  the  fishermen, 
who,  over  a  space  1£  "  versts "  (almost  a  mile)  long  and  00  "  sagenes  "  (41*0 
feet)  broad,  frequently  work  no  less  than  10,000  rods  armed  with  hooks. 
As  soon  as  a  fisherman  sees,  by  the  strong  movement  of  the  water, 
that  a  sturgeon  approaches  his  hook,  he  raises  it  suddenly,  draws  it 
back,  and  hauls  the  captured  fish  on  the  ice. 

This  fishing  goes  on  over  certain  fixed  areas.  After  a  certain  area 
has  been  exhausted,  the  fishermen  pass  on  to  another,  leaving  the  ice 
pierced  by  innumerable  holes,  and  covered  with  some  inches  of  water 
reddened  by  the  blood  of  the  fish. 

Fishrgigs. — This  fishing-implement  consists  of  an  iron  fork  with  two 
pointed  and  barbed  prongs,  which  is  attached  to  a  pole.  Cyprinus  car- 
pio  and  Sllurus  glanis  are  caught  with  the  fish-gig  among  the  reeds  and 
water-plants.     This  fishing  takes  place  in  the  spring. 

7. — IMPORTANCE   OF   A   "  VATAGA,"   (FTSHING-ESTABLISHMENT.) 

By  a  "  vataga  "  must  be  understood  an  entire  fishing-establishment, 
such  as  are  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  and  its  several  branches. 
The  "  vataga"  comprises  dwelling-houses  for  the  proprietors  of  the  es- 
tablishment, and  for  the  inspectors  and  laborers,  and  warehouses  and 
sheds  for  keeping  the  fishing-implements ;  also  salt-warehouses,  provi- 
sion-warehouses, buildings  for  dressing  and  salting  fish,  and  for  manu- 
facturing isinglass,  caviar,  and  fish-oil.  The  shore  is  covered  with  large 
and  small  fishing-boats,  and  everywhere  there  is  bustle  and  activity. 

No  such  establishments  are  found  on  the  banks  of  the  Ural,  where 
the  fish  is  generally  cut  and  dressed  in  the  open  air,  and  where  it  is 
salted  in  tubs  protected  by  a  roof  of  reed  or  plank. 

The  buildings  in  which  the  fish  are  dressed  are  constructed  on  piles, 
rising  several  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  these  form  vast 
halls,  which  are  floored  and  have  a  roof.  In  the  walls,  there  are  large 
doors.  The  two  doors  on  the  water-side  open  on  inclined  planes,  form- 
ing a  sort  of  plank-bridge  over  the  water.  Very  large  fish  are  hoisted 
by  means  of  winches  on  to  this  bridge  from  the  boats,  while  the  small 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  81 

fish  are  thrown  on  to  it  with  boat-books.  An  inspector  receives,  counts, 
and  registers  all  the  fish  which  each  fisherman  delivers.  The  various 
kinds  of  sturgeon — the  "red  fish,"  or  the  "fish  proper,"  as  it  is  called — 
are  measured  from  the  middle  of  the  eye  to  the  caudal  fin ;  for  the  fish- 
ermen receive  more  or  less  pay  according  to  the  different  lengths  of  the 
fish.  The  scale  of  prices,  according  to  the  length  of  the  fish,  is  nearly 
the  same  in  all  the  "  vatagas"  of  the  Astrachan  district. 

Four  different  lengths  are  fixed  for  the  "belouga,"  (Acipenser  Huso,) 
3  "arsheens,"  (7  feet,)  and  over;  1  "arsheen"  10  "vershocks"  to  3 
"arsheens,"  (3  feet  9£  inches  to  7  feet;)  1  "arsheen"  4  "vershocks"  to 
1  "arsheen"  10  "vershocks,"  (2  feet  11  inches  to  3  feet  9£  inches;)  and 
1  "arsheen"  to  1  "arsheen"  4  "vershocks,"  (2  feet  4  inches  to  2  feet  11 
inches.) 

The  common  sturgeon  should  measure  1  "arsheen"  to  1  "arsheen "6 
"vershocks,"  (2  feet  4  inches  to  3  feet  2\  inches;)  the  "sevriouga," 
(Acipenser  stellatus,)  and  the  "  chyp,"  (Acipenser  tSchypa,)  from  f  "ar- 
sheen" to  1  "arsheen"  1  "  vershock,"(l  footO  inches  to  2  feet  5f  inches;) 
the  "sterliad,"  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  from  4  to  7  "vershocks,"  (7  inches 
to  12^  inches;)  the  "som,"  (Siluvus  glanis,)  from  1  "arsheen"  to  1J 
"  arsheens,"  (2  feet  4  inches  to  2  feet  11  inches  ;)  and  the  "  sazane,"  (Cy- 
prinus  carpio,)  from  8  to  12  "vershocks,"  (1  foot  1^  inches  to  1  foot .9 
inches)  and  over. 

The  "soudak,"  (Lucioperca  sandra ;)  the  "bersche,"  (Lucioperca  rolge- 
nis;)  the  "lestche,"  (Abramis  brama;)  the  "  besckenka,"  (Alosa pontica  ;) 
the  "  jeleznitsa,"  (Alosa  caspica,)  while  other  scaly  fish  are  not  measured, 
but  counted. 

After  the  fish  have  been  delivered,  they  are  cut,  and  the  entrails 
taken  out.  For  all  this  work,  there  are  special  laborers,  who  display  an 
almost  incredible  amount  of  skill  and  rapidity,  and  who  receive  wages 
which  are  fixed  beforehand  by  free  contract. 

The  head  and  tail  of  the  large  sturgeons  are  cut  off,  and  the  belly  is 
removed  from  the  pectoral  air-bladder  to  the  tail.  The  belly  of  the 
smaller  "  belouga  "  and  the  common  sturgeon  is  opened,  and  the  head  is 
split  as  far  as  the  nasal  cartilage.  The  "sevriougas"  (Acipenser  stella- 
tus) are  split  into  two  halves,  and  the  entrails  thrown  away.  The  roe, 
the  swimming-bladder,  and  the  dorsal  cord,  however,  are  carefully  taken 
out.  These  parts  of  the  fish  are  handed  to  other  laborers  whose  special 
occupation  is  the  manufacture  of  caviar  and  isinglass,  which  is  carried 
on  in  separate  buildings.  Laborers  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
caviar  receive  the  highest  annual  wages. 

A  large  number  of  young  girls  and  women  are  occupied  in  cutting  the 

fish.     They  all  wear  a  peculiar  working-dress,  consisting  of  breeches  and 

a  jacket;  their  head  and  half  their  body  being  covered.    A  sharp  knife 

in  one  hand,  and  a  little  hook  in  the  other,  the  working-woman   begins 

her  labor.     Crouched  with  crossed  legs  on  a  straight  bench,  she  picks 

up  a  fish  with  her  hook,  opens'  its  belly,  takes  out  the  entrails,  and 
6  F 


82  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

throws  the  fish  into  a  corner,  where  a  large  heap  is  soon  piled  up.  Dur- 
ing this  time,  other  women  are  splitting  and  cutting  the  fish  with  no  less 
skill,  and  stringing  them  on  threads  made  of  the  fiber  of  the  bark  of 
the  linden-tree,  which  they  pass  through  the  eyes  of  the  fish  by  means 
of  a  large  needle.  The  skill  and  rapidity  of  these  women  are  truly  ad- 
mirable. Enormous  piles  of  fish  which  encumbered  the  floor  disappear 
in  a  few  hours,  and  pass  to  another  building  to  be  salted.  A  skillful 
woman  can  dress  as  many  as  2,000  Lucioperca  during  a  siugle  day. 

The  building  in  which  the  scaly  fish  are  salted  has  a  long  shape, 
usually  several  doors,  and  contains  tubs  and  wooden  boxes  of  different 
sizes.  A  box  3  "  arsheens  "  (7  feet )  deep  4  "  arsheens  "  (9  feet  6  inches) 
broad,  and  8  "arsheens"  (18  feet  8  inches)  long,  can  hold  100,000  Alosa 
or  45,000  Abramis  or  30,000  Lucioperca  or  2,000  "pouds"  (72,000  pounds) 
of  sturgeon  of  different  kiuds.  The  tubs  have  generally  a  diameter  of 
4J  "arsheens,"  (10  feet  6  inches,)  and  a  depth  of  31  "arsheens,"  (8  feet 2 
inches,)  and  can  hold  45,000  Alosa  or  20,000  Abramis.  The  numberof  tubs 
and  boxes  varies  according  to  the  locality.  Thus,  the  "vataga"  (fishing- 
establishment)  of  Petropovlovsk,  fifty  "versts"  (about  twenty-seven 
miles)  above  Astrachan,  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga,  has  four  large  cel- 
lars, each  holding  from  30  to  40  large  boxes,  destined  chiefly  for  salting 
the  various  kinds  of  Alosa. 

The  so-called  "  cold  cellars"  are  particularly  grand;  here  blocks  of  ice 
are  piled  up  behind  a  wooden  lattice,  leaving  a  space  of  1^  "  sagenes  " 
(10  feet  G  inches)  free  along  the  walls  of  the  cellar.  Entering  a  salting- 
cellar  through  the  large  door,  one  sees  first  the  rooms  where  salt  is  pul- 
verized by  machines ;  then  the  cellar  itself,  in  which  there  is  a  long 
floored  corridor,  running  between  high  and  strong  wooden  pillars.  To 
the  right  and  left  of  this  "  corridor,"  the  boxes  are  ranged  side  by  side. 
The  roof,  which  rests  on  numerous  pillars,  has  sky-lights  which  give 
sufficient  light  for  the  whole  cellar.  In  the  roof,  there  is  also  a  large 
opening,  from  which  an  inclined  plane,  made  of  planks,  leads  into  the 
cellar.  On  this  inclined  plane,  the  "  belougas"  and  large  sturgeons  are 
easily  let  down  into  the  cellar.  Several  ventilators  keep  the  air  con- 
stantly pure. 

8. — PREPARING  THE   FISH  AND  ITS   SEVERAL  PARTS. 

Salting. — After  having  been  dressed,  the  fish  are,  under  the  super- 
intendence of,  the  Salter,  placed  in  layers  in  the  boxes  above  mentioned 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  heads  and  tails  alternate.  The  Salter  then 
throws,  with  a  shovel,  the  necessary  quantity  of  salt  on  every  layer  of 
fish;  the  quantity  of  salt  varying  according  to  the  kind  of  fish,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  season.  In  the  Astrachan  "  vatagas,"  (fishing-establish- 
ments,) it  is  customary  to  take  from  27  to  30  "pouds"  (972  to  1,080 
pounds)  of  salt  in  the  spring,  and  from  18  to  20  "pouds"  (048  to  720 
pounds)  in  the  autumn  to  every  1,000  Lucioperca;  from  7  to  9  "  pouds  " 
(252  to  324  pounds)  in  the  spring,  and  from  4  to  0  "  pouds  "  (144  to  21 G 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  83 

pounds)  in  the  autumn,  to  every  1,000  Abramis,  Perca  fluviatilis,  and  As- 
pins  rapax;  and,  on  an  average,  10  "  ponds,"  (360  pounds,)  to  1,000  Alosa. 
A  thousand  small  Cyprinus  carpio,  L.,  require  from  15  to  18  "  ponds"  (540 
to  618  pounds)  of  salt. 

A  thousand  fresh  fish  have  the  following  average  weight:  Cyprinus 
carpio.  L.,  120  "  ponds,"  (4,320  pounds  ;)  Lucioperca  sandra  and  Esox  In- 
dus, 100  "ponds,"  (3,600  pounds;)  Lucioperca  volgensis,  55  "  pouds," 
(1,980  pounds;)  Abramis  brama  and  Aspius  rapax,  50  "pouds,"  (1,800 
pounds;)  Perca  fluviatilis,  35  "pouds,"  (1,290  pounds;)  Scardinius  ery- 
throphthahnus,  L.,  32  "  pouds,"  (1,152  pounds;)  and  the  various  kinds  of 
Alosa,  from  20  to  25  "  pouds,"  (720  to  900  pounds.) 

The  differents  kinds  of  sturgeon  and  the  Silurus  require  from  12  to  13 
pounds  of  salt  to  every  "  pond  "  (30  pounds)  of  fish  ;  and  the  large  Cy- 
prinus carpio,  L.,  the  Salmo  salar,  and  the  Coreyonus  leucichhys,  Giildeust., 
12£  pounds  to  every  "  poud  "  of  fish,  (36  pounds.) 

In  the  autumn,  the  back,  and  not  the  belly,  of  the  scaly  fish  is  split 
open,  so  as  to  let  the  salt  saturate  more  thoroughly. 

The  fish  remain  a  longer  or  shorter  time  in  the  box  according  to  the 
different  species :  Lucioperca,  one  month  ;  Cyprinus  carpio,  L.,  6  days  ; 
Silurus,  till  autumn  ;  Abramis,  12  days;  the i  different  kinds  of  Alosa  till 
the  month  of  June.  The  brine  of  the  Lucioperca  is  again  used  for  salt- 
ing the  Abramis  or  the  Leuciscus  rutilus,  while  the  brine  of  the  other 
scaly  fish  is  thrown  away. 

In  the  spring,  the  fish  are  taken  from  the  boxes,  washed,  and  dried 
on  poles.  This  is  done  particularly  with  the  Lucioperca,  the  Abramis, 
and  the  Leuciscus  rutilus,  L. ;  while  the  Cyprinus  carpio  is  dried  on  hur- 
dles made  of  reeds.  The  drying  process  being  completed,  the  fish  are 
taken  from  the  poles,  or  from  the  hurdles,  laid  up  in  warehouses,  and  in 
July  shipped  by  steamer  toNijni-Novgorod.  In  September,  large  boats 
arrive  at  the  "  vatagas,"  (fishing-establishments,)  where  they  buy  the 
fish  on  the  spot,  being  salted  before  they  are  shipped. 

The  so-called  herring,  Alosa  caspica,  is  not  dressed,  but  is  salted  as  it  is. 
Up  to  the  years  1854  and  1855,  the  Astrachan  herriug  were  only  used  for 
extracting  the  oil  from  them.  Even  poor  people,  frightened  by  its  name, 
"  beschenka,"  (the  furious  fish,)  hesitated  to  use  it  for  food.  It  is  owing 
to  the  efforts  of  the  committee  appointed  for  examining  the  fisheries  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Baer  that  several  lessees  of  the  fisheries  finally  con- 
sented to  salt  the  "  beschenka  "  and  the  "jeleznitsa"  under  the  name 
of  "  herring."  From  that  time,  the  Astrachan  herring,  as  a  salt  fish,  has 
become  more  and  more  an  artisle  of  commerce,  while  the  extraction  of 
oil  from  it  has  diminished  in  proportion.  Thus,  there  were  salted  in  the 
river-waters  of  Astrachan,  in  1858,  43,000,000  of  this  fish,  while  the  num- 
ber rose  to  140,000,000  in  1871,  and  to  160,000,000  in  1872  ;  while  during 
the  same  year,  1872,  only  30.000  herring  were  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  oil. 

The  "  belouga,"  (Acipenser  huso,)  and  the   "  sevriouga,"  (Acipenser 


84  EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

stcllatus,)  taken  in  the  spring,  remain  for  six  mouths  in  the  boxes,  till 
the  salting  and  hardening  process  is  complete.  Afterward  they  are 
taken  out,  dried  superficially,  and  packed  in  casks. 

Those  kinds  of  sturgeon  which  are  caught  from  spring  till  the  mid- 
dle of  July  are  transported,  during  September  and  October,  on  wagons 
to  the  Saratov  fair;  while  the  fish  of  this  kiud  caught  between  the  8th 
of  July  and  the  15th  of  August  are  shipped  the  following  spring  to 
Nijui-Novgorod  on  large  boats,  which  are  towed  by  steamers. 

The  sturgeon  caught  in  the  district  of  Emba,  the  northeastern  basin 
of  the  sea,  are  salted  on  board  of  large  fishing-boats  called  "  koujovaya." 

The  fish,  having  been  dressed,  are  usually  laid  in  brine  for  two  days, 
and  then  they  are  placed  in  layers  at  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  each  layer 
being  covered  with  salt. 

The  fishermen  return  from  their  fishing-expeditions  on  the  sea  to  As- 
trachan  at  the  end  of  June,  and  keep  the  fish  they  have  caught  in  ware- 
houses till  a  transport  starts  for  Nijui-Novgorod. 

The  sturgeons  caught  from  the  15th  of  August  till  the  first  frost  are 
preserved  in  the  wells  (boxes  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  filled  with  fresh 
water  and  used  for  keeping  fish)  in  order  to  be  shipped  at  a  later  time. 

Manufacture  of  caviar. — Two  sorts  of  caviar  are  manufactured,  fresh 
or  grained  caviar,  and  hard  or  pressed  caviar.  In  both  cases,  the 
roe  of  the  several  kinds  of  sturgeon  is  spread  out  on  a  net  with  narrow 
meshes  forming  a  sieve,  and  stretched  over  a  wooden  frame ;  then  the 
grains  are  passed  through  the  meshes  by  slightly  pressing  the  whole 
mass  till  nothing  remains  on  the  sieve  but  the  cellular  tissue,  the  fat, 
and  the  muscle.  The  grains,  which  are  black  or  brown,  fall  through  the 
sieve  into  a  wooden  receptacle  placed  underneath.  For  manufacturing 
grained  caviar,  the  roe  is  sprinkled  with  very  clean  and  fine  salt,  and 
the  whole  mass  is  stirred  with  a  wooden  fork  having  eight  or  ten  prongs. 
The  quantity  of  salt  required  varies,  according  to  the  season,  from  5 
to  If  pounds ;  in  August  they  take  from  3  to  5  pounds  of  salt  to  1 
"poud"  (36  pounds)  of  roe,  and  from  2£  to  If  in  winter.  The  less  the 
fresh  caviar  is  salted  the  more  it  is  esteemed.  The  roe  mixed  with  the 
salt  presents  at  first  a  doughy  appearance  when  it  is  stirred  ;  but  when 
every  grain  has  been  impregnated  with  salt,  the  whole  mass  swells,  and 
in  stirring  it  a  slight  noise  is  perceptible  like  that  of  stirring  small 
grains  of  glass.  This  noise  is  the  sign  that  the  caviar  is  ready.  Then 
it  is  packed  in  casks  made  of  lindenwood,  which  does  not  impart  any 
bad  flavor  to  it,  while  this  is  not  the  case  with  casks  made  of  other 
wood. 

For  manufacturing  pressed  caviar,  a  tub  half  filled  with  brine  is  placed 
under  the  sieve ;  the  brine  being  stronger  or  weaker,  according  to  the 
temperature  and  the  season.  To  impregnate  the  grains  evenly  with 
brine,  the  whole  mass  is  stirred  with  a  wooden  fork,  always  turning  it 
from  the  same  side ;  then  the  grains  are  taken  out  with  line  sieves,  and 
after  the  whole  briue  has  been  drained,  3  "pouds''  (108  pounds)  of 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  85 

grains  are  put  in  a  sack  made  of  the  bark  of  the  linden,  which  is  placed 
under  the  press  in  order  to  get  all  the  brine  out  of  the  caviar,  and  to 
transform  it  to  a  solid  mass.  In  thus  pressing  the  caviar,  a  large  number 
of  grains  are  crushed,  and  a  portion  of  their  contents  flows  out  with  the 
brine,  so  that  on  every  "  poud  "  (30  pounds)  there  is  a  loss  of  from  10  to 
12  pounds.  After  having  taken  the  pressed  caviar  from  the  sacks,  it  is 
packed  in  casks  containing  30  "pouds"  (1,080  pounds)  each,  the  inside 
of  which  is  covered  with  napkin-linen,  this  being  the  reason  why  the 
caviar  is  also  called  "napkin -caviar,"  (caviar  a  la  serviette.) 

The  finest  quality  of  pressed  caviar,  that  which  has  been  least  pressed 
and  salted,  is  placed  in  straight  linen  bags  of  a  cylindrical  shape,  and 
is  then  called  "  sack-caviar,"  (caviar  a  sac.)  Caviar  is  also  shipped  in 
tin  boxes  hermetically  closed  and  soldered. 

Fresh  caviar  is  always  preferred  to  pressed  caviar,  and  also  costs  more. 
At  Astrachan,  fresh  caviar  costs  from  30  to  35  "  roubles"  ($21  to  .$21.50 
gold)  the  "poud,"  (3G  pounds,)  while  the  pressed  caviar  only  costs  21 
"  roubles,"  ($10.80  gold.)  It  is  infinitely  more  advantageous  to  manu- 
facture grained  caviar  than  hard  caviar,  because  the  former  pays  better, 
requires  less  salt  and  less  trouble,  and  there  is  scarcely  any  loss  on  it. 

Every  year  about  11,000  "  pouds"  (300,000  pounds)  of  caviar  are  sent 
abroad  from  Astrachan,  especially  to  Berlin,  to  Dresden,  aud  to  Vienna. 
This  caviar  is  bought  by  contract  from  the  proprietors  of  the  fisheries, 
who  either  get  it  from  their  own  fisheries  or  from  fishermen  hired  by 
them  for  this  purpose,  aud  who  prepare  the  caviar  on  their  own  boats 
while  fishing  on  the  sea.  There  are  in  the  "  vatagas"  (fishing-establish- 
ments) special  laborers  for  manufacturing  caviar,  who  receive  an  auuual 
salary  of  300,  400,  and  even  GOO  "roubles,"  ($210,  $280,  to  $120  gold,) 
besides  board,  lodging,  fuel,  and  light. 

In  trade,  the  caviar  of  the  "  belouga  "  (Acipenser  huso)  is  esteemed 
more  highly  than  that  of  the  common  sturgeon,  (Acipenser  Guhlenstadtii,) 
or  of  the  "  sevriouga,"  (Acipenser  stellatus,)  because  its  grains  are  larger 
and  better  looking.  The  most  savory  of  all  caviars  is  the  small  grained 
caviar  of  the  "  sterliad,"  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  but  it  does  not  form  an 
article  of  commerce. 

All  the  different  kinds  of  sturgeon  have  not  equally  fat  roe.  This  de- 
pends both  on  the  good  quality  of  the  fish  and  on  the  season  when  it  has 
been  caught.  The  fattest  caviar  is  that  made,  during  the  hot  season, from 
the  roe  of  those  kinds  of  sturgeons  which  are  caught  in  the  sea  between 
the  8th  of  July  and  the  15th  of  August.  This  roe  is  left  only  a  few 
hours  in  the  brine,  and  then  taken  out  aud  packed,  without  being 
pressed,  in  casks  holding  from  5  to  10  "pouds"  (180  to  3G0  pounds)  each. 
If  the  roe  is  tender  to  the  touch  in  the  ovaries,  and  is  already  spoiled, 
roe  and  ovaries  are  thrown  into  the  brine  till  they  are  tuoroughly  im- 
pregnated with  salt.  This  is  then  caviar  of  the  worst  quality,  and 
is  shipped  in  casks  holding  from  27  to  30  "  pouds,"  (972  to  1,080  pounds.) 
This  quality  is  worth  only  from  3  to  4  "roubles"  ($2.10  to  $2.80  gold) 


86  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

the  " poud,"  (36  pounds.)     The  kind  called  "summer-caviar,"  however, 
sells  at  from  6  to  9  "roubles,"  ($4.20  to  $0.30  gold.) 

The  milt  of  the  "  belouga"( Acipenser  huso)  aud  of  the  common  stur- 
geon (Acipenser  Guldenstadtii)  is  left  from  three  to  four  days  in  the 
brine,  and  then  shipped  in  barrels.  The  milt  of  a"belouga"  of  medium 
size  often  weighs  27  pounds,  and  that  of  the  common  sturgeon  12  pounds. 

The  roe  of  the  "lestche,"  (Abraniis  brama,)  of  the  "  soudak,"  (Lucio- 
perca  sandra,)  and  of  the  "  vobla,"  (Leuciscus  rutilus,  L.,)  is  also  used  for 
making  a  kind  of  caviar  which  is  chiefly  sent  to  Constantinople  and  to 
Greece.  Greek  merchants  come  to  Astrachan,  buy  the  roe  of  these  fish 
at  the  "  vatagas  "  (fishing-establishments,)  and  there  prepare  the  caviar 
themselves.  They  draw  from  the  body  of  the  fish  the  little  bags  which 
contain  the  roe,  throw  them  together  promiscuously,  and  cover  each 
layer  with  a  certain  quantity  of  salt.  They  then  press  the  whole  be- 
tween boards  weighted  down  by  heavy  stones.  This  caviar  remains  thus 
for  a  month,  after  which  the  Greeks  put  it  in  casks  aud  ship  it.  Caviar 
which  has  been  thus  prepared  is  cut  in  slices  shaped  like  disks,  and  is 
much  sought  after  in  Greece. 

Manufacture  of  isinglass. — The  bladder  of  fish,  which  is  known  in 
trade  by  the  name  of  "feuille  d'esturgeon"  in  French,  "Hauseublase"  in 
German,  and  "isinglass"  in  English,  is  extracted  from  the  inner  side 
of  the  swimming-bladder,  not  only  of  the  "  belouga,"  but  also  of  other 
kinds  of  sturgeon,  as  likewise  of  the  Silurus  glanis  and  of  the  Cyprinus 
carpio.  It  is  true  that  the  large  sturgeon  yields  the  greatest  quantity  of 
bladder,  but  the  best  is  that  of  the  common  sturgeon,  (Acipenser  Gulden- 
stddlii,)  while  the  most  inferior  quality  is  that  which  comes  from  the 
Silurus.  Good  isinglass  must  be  pure,  white,  shining,  half- transparent, 
dry,  and  horny,  without  taste,  but  not  without  some  perfume.  Good 
fish-bladder  dissolves  in  water  heated  to  30  or  40  degrees  Eeaumur 
(about  100  to  122  degrees  Fahrenheit)  without  leaving  any  residue,  and 
when  it  grows  cold  it  becomes  a  transparent  aud  almost  colorless  gelatine. 

The  fish-bladder  is  mostly  prepared  by  young  boys,  superintended  by 
experienced  laborers.  First,  the  swimming  bladder  of  the  fish  is  thrown 
into  the  water,  where  it  is  left  for  several  days ;  the  water  being  fre- 
quently changed,  in  order  to  detach  all  the  fatty  aud  bloody  particles 
from  the  bladder.  The  hotter  the  water  the  quicker  is  this  done.  The 
bladders  are  then  taken  out,  and  cut  lengthwise  into  strips,  which  are 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.  These  strips,  or  leaves,  are  usually  spread 
out,  in  order  to  dry  them,  with  their  outer  side  on  small  boards  of 
lindenwood  ;  the  inner  side  is  formed  by  leaves  [lamellae)  of  pure 
isinglass,  which,  after  having  been  well  dried,  are  carefully  detached 
from  the  outer  side.  The  leaves  of  isinglass  thus  obtained  are  laid 
between  pieces  of  linen,  to  preserve  them  from  the  flies  and  from  dust; 
then  they  are  placed  under  a  press,  so  that  they  may  not  become 
warped,  but  may  form  smooth  cakes.  It  is  only  after  all  these  different 
operations  have  been  performed  that  the  laborer  proceeds  to  pick  the 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  87 

leaves  and  tie  them  in  bundles.  These  bundles  of  isinglass,  produced 
from  the  large  sturgeon,  are  usually  composed  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
leaves,  and  weigh  1^  pounds  each;  while  those  of  the  common  sturgeon, 
or  of  the  "sevriouga,"  contain  twenty-five  leaves,  and  weigh  one  pound 
each.  Generally,  eighty  of  these  bundles  are  sewed  up  in  a  linen  bag; 
they  are  also  made  up  into  small  bales,  covered  with  rush  mats  or  with 
liuen,  and  are  then  shipped,  after  being  securely  headed. 

The  "  poud"  (36  pounds)  of  "  sturgeon-leaf"  costs  in  Astrachau  from 
120  to  180  "  roubles,"  ($84  to  $126  gold.) 

The  swimming-bladder,  deprived  of  its  inner  skin,  that  is,  of  the  inner 
shining  cuticle  of  which  isinglass  is  made,  as  described  above,  still  con- 
tains a  certain  quantity  of  glue,  which  is  moistened  with  water,  and  then 
removed  by  scraping  it  with  a  knife;  this  is  also  moistened  with  water, 
and  then  kneaded.  This  mass  is  molded  into  small  round  tablets  of 
the  size  of  a  dollar,  which  are  dried.  This  kind  of  fish-glue  is  shipped  in 
sacks,  and  costs  less  than  the  isinglass  in  leaves. 

The  leaves  of  the  glue  from  the  Silurus  are  arranged  in  book-form, 
and  are  dried  on  thin  cords.  They  are  shipped  in  bags  containing  4 
"  pouds"  (144  pounds)  each.  The  glue  gained  from  the  Cyprinus  carpio 
is  also  in  leaves,  arrauged  in  packages  of  30  each. 

Some  persons  at  Astrachau  have  manufactured  good  fish-glue  from 
the  scales  of  fish.  Even  at  this  day  there  lives  iu  the  Cossack  village  of 
Samyani,  60  "  versts "  (about  34£  miles)  above  Astrachau,  a  surgeon 
named  Sokologorski,  who,  from  the  scales  of  the  Alosa,  extracts  glue  in 
thin  and  transparent  leaves.  According  to  his  account,  two  pounds  of 
this  glue  are  as  good  as  one  "  poud "  (30  pounds)  of  sturgeon-glue. 
Unfortunately,  he  has  not  the  necessary  means  to  enable  him  to  place 
any  considerable  quantity  of  his  manufactures  in  the  market. 

Formerly,  the  shining  cuticle  of  the  swimming-bladder  was  dried,  and 
cut  into  long,  straight  strips,  which  were  tied  alternately  together,  one 
by  the  side  of  the  other  and  one  on  the  top  of  the  other.  These  strips 
thus  tied  were  then  laid  in  water  to  become  soft,  and  afterward  pressed 
to  let  the  water  run  off.  This  matter  was  then  molded  into  different 
figures,  such  as  horseshoes,  lyres,  hearts,  cylinders,  &c.  Small  wooden 
bolts  kept  these  figures  in  their  original  shape  till  they  were  completely 
dry.  The  Ural  Cossacks,  even  to  this  day,  make  "  glue  hearts,"  which 
they  put  up  in.  packages  of  42.  It  requires  1,500  ki  glue  lyres  "  to  make 
one  "  poud,"  (36  pounds,)  and  from  7,000  to  10,000  "glue  horseshoes" 
to  make  the  same  weight. 

Isinglass  is  used  for  clarifying  various  liquids,  for  making  fine  glue- 
colors,  for  giving  a  gloss  and  finish  to  textile  fabrics,  for  making  plas- 
ters, for  taking  the  impress  of  coins,  and  finally  in  the  kitchen  for 
making  jellies. 

Manufacture  of  u  veziga.v — "Veziga"  is  the  name  given  to  the  dried 
dorsal  cord  of  various  kinds  of  sturgeon.  After  the  entrails,  the  roe, 
and  the  swimming-bladder  have  been  taken  out  of  the  fish,  a  small 


88  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

iucisiou  is  made  in  the  flesh,  and,  the  finger  being  inserted,  the  dorsal 
cord  is  drawu  out.  This  cord  has  the  shape  of  a  long  and  straight  rib- 
bon. It  is  carefully  washed,  and  pressed,  so  that  the  soft  matter  which 
it  contains  oozes  out,  after  which  it  is  dried  during  from  three  to  eight 
days,  according  to  the  season.  When  the  "veziga"  is  entirely  dry,  it  is 
put  up  in  packages,  fifty  of  which  form  a  bale  weighing  one  "pond," 
(30  pounds.)  A  package  of  "  veziga"  of  the  "  belouga"  (Acipenser  huso) 
contains  twelve  dried  dorsal  cords,  while  there  are  twenty  in  a  package 
of  "veziga"  of  the  Acipenser  GuldenstadtU,  the  Acipenser  stellatus,  and 
the  Acipenser  schypa.  A  thousand  "belougas"  of  medium  size  gen- 
erally produce  5  "  pouds"  (180  pounds)  of  "veziga;"  but  the  same  num- 
ber of  common  sturgeon,  (Acipenser  GuldenstadtU,)  and  of  Acipenser  stel- 
latus,  yield  only  1  "poud,"  (30  pounds.)  When  the  "veziga"  is  boiled,  it 
rises,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  which  form  an  im- 
portant ingredient  in  excellent  little  fish-pies.  The  "veziga"  is  not  used 
for  anything  else.  It  costs  from  15  to  20  "roubles"  ($10.50  to  $14  gold) 
a  "poud,"  (30  pounds.) 

Manufacture  of  u  balyk." — The  Tartar  word  "balyk"  means  "fish," 
and  is  used  in  Russian  for  the  backs  of  sturgeons  which  have  been 
slightly  salted  and  then  dried  in  the  sun.  For  making  good  "balyk," 
a  large  and  tolerably  fat  fish  is  selected,  whose  head,  tail,  sides,  and 
belly  are  taken  off.  That  which  remains,  the  dorsal  part,  has  to  undergo 
a  special  salting,  while  the  other  parts  are  salted  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  back  of  the  common  sturgeon  (Acipenser  GuldenstadtU)  and  of  the 
"sevriouga"  (Acipenser  stellatus)  remain  entire,  while  those  of  the  large 
sturgeon  (Acipenser  Huso)  are  cut,  either  lengthwise  only,  or  else  both 
lengthwise  and  crosswise.  The  pieces  are  placed  in  a  tub  so  as  not  to 
touch  each  other  nor  the  sides  of  the  tub;  and  they  are  left  thus  after 
having  been  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  salt  from  nine  to  twelve 
days,  and  even  fifteen  days  when  the  pieces  are  large  and  the  weather 
is  hot.  The  salt  is  mixed  with  a  little  saltpeter,  to  give  to  the  "  balyk  " 
a  reddish  color,  (2  pounds  of  saltpeter  to  50  "pouds"  (1,800  pounds) 
of  "  balyk.")  Allspice,  cloves,  and  bay -leaves  are  frequently  put  into 
the  brine.  When  the  salting  is  finished,  the  "  balyk"  is  put  into  water 
for  a  day  or  two,  in  order  to  detach  all  particles  of  the  brine  from  it. 
Thereupon  it  is  dried,  first  in  the  sun  and  then  in  the  shade,  on  roofed 
scaffoldings,  which  are  erected  for  the  purpose.  This  last-mentioned 
operation  requires  from  four  to  six  weeks,  and  is  considered  finished 
when  the  "  balyk  "  begins  to  cover  with  a  slight  mold,  the  absence  of 
which  shows  that  it  has  been  salted  too  much. 

Good  "balyk"  must  be  as  soft  and  tender  as  smoked  salmon  ;  must 
have  a  reddish  or  orange-brown  color ;  and  must  have  an  odor  something 
like  that  of  the  cucumber;  it  must  also  be  transparent,  show  no  traces 
of  putrefaction,  nor  have  a  bitter  taste ;  and,  finally,  it  must  not  be  too 
salty.  There  are  very  few  manufacturers  who  can  prepare  "balyk" 
that  has  all  these  qualities.     A  "  poud"  (30  pounds)  of  good  "  balyk" 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  89 

costs  at  the  manufactory  at  least  18  "roubles,"  ($12.60  gold,)  and  at 
retail  it  can  seldom  be  bought  for  less  than  1  "rouble"  (70  cents  gold) 
a  pound.     The  "  balyk  "  made  in  March  is  considered  the  best. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Koura,  and  in  the  trans-Caucasian  waters,  where 
the  "  sevriouga "  (Acipenser  stcllatus)  is  caught  in  large  numbers, 
"  balyk  "  is  made  of  at  least  300,000  of  these  fish  every  year.  This 
"  balyk,"  commonly  called  "  djirim,"  is  not  of  the  first  quality.  It  is 
dry,  very  salty,  and  is  much  sought  after  by  the  inhabitants  of  Kache- 
tia,  because  it  produces  thirst  and  gives  them  occasion  to  quench  it 
with  the  excellent  production  of  their  vineyards. 

A  large  sturgeon  of  20  "ponds  "  (720  pounds)  yields  5  "ponds"  (180 
pounds)  of  "balyk;"  a  very  large  "sevriouga,"  15  pounds;  a  common- 
sized  "  sevriouga,"  4  pounds ;  and  the  common  sturgeon,  from  8  to  12 
pounds. 

Manufacture  of  oil. — Oil  is  extracted  either  from  the  fat  which  in- 
closes the  entrails  of  the  sturgeon  and  the  Lucioperca,  or  from  the 
whole  body  of  the  Astrachan  herring,  (Alosa  pontica  and  Alosa  caspica.) 
In  the  first  case,  the  fat  is  taken  out,  washed,  and  cut  into  pieces,  which 
are  thrown  into  a  tub,  with  from  10  to  15  pounds  of  salt  for  the  whole 
mass.  The  whole  is  then  well  shaken  in  a  caldron,  and  placed  on  the 
fire ;  this  caldron  being  put  inside  a  larger  copper  caldron,  in  which 
the  water  is  boiled,  thus  causing  the  fat  in  the  inner  caldron  to  melt. 
When  the  oil  swims  on  the  surface,  it  is  skimmed  off  and  poured  into 
oakwood  barrels.  This  oil  is  pure  and  has  a  light-yellow  color.  It  is 
used  for  cooking-purposes,  and  for  softening  caviar  when  it  has  become 
too  dry. 

Oil  was  made  from  x\strachan  herring  on  a  very  large  scale  till  the 
year  1854,  when  people  commenced  to  salt  this  fish.  Other  scaly  fish, 
even  the  "  sterliad,"  [Acipenser  ruthenns,)  were  used  for  making  oil. 
The  period  from  April  15  to  May  5,  fixed  for  this  manufacture,  was 
scarcely  ever  observed.  This  period  is  still  considered  the  legal  period 
for  the  "  vatagas"  (fishing-establishments)  located  below  Astrachan ; 
while  for  those  above  this  city,  the  time  for  making  oil  is  between  April 
20  and  May  10.  Any  person  taken  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  before  or 
after  this  period  has  to  pay  a  fine  of  25  "roubles"  ($17.50  gold)  for 
every  day  beyond  the  legal  period. 

The  manufacture  of  oil  is  carried  on  in  the  open  air.  The  Alosa  are 
piled  up  in  casks  and  tubs,  and  are  constantly  moistened  with  boiling 
water  till  the  oil  separates  and  swims  on  the  surface.  The  oil  is  poured 
into  barrels,  and  sold  at  from  2  "roubles"  75  "kopecks"  ($1.92£  gold) 
to  3  "  roubles"  25  "  kopecks"  ($2.27£  gold)  a  "  poud,"  (3G  pounds.)  It 
is  used  in  soap-factories  and  in  tanneries ;  it  is  also  burned  in  lamps 
and  used  in  making  oil  varnish. 

The  residue  must  be  buried  in  the  ground,  and  it  is  strictly  forbidden 
to  throw  it  into  the  water.  Any  violation  of  this  regulation  is  punished 
with  a  fine  of  100  "  roubles,"  ($70  gold.) 


90 


REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


Since  the  year  1870,  people  have  commenced,  although  it  is  properly 
not  allowed,  to  make  oil  of  lampreys,  (Petromyzon  fluviatilis,)  which,  in 
December  and  January,  appear  in  great  numbers  in  the  Volga  above 
Astrachau.  These  fish  yield  no  less  than  8  pounds  of  oil  per  thousand 
fish;  and  this  oil,  which  costs  3  "roubles"  ($2.10)  a  "  poud,"  (36  pounds,) 
is  pure  and  clear,  although  containiug  a  good  deal  of  glue.  It  is  not 
probable  that  this  industry  will  develop  much;  for  several  "  vatagas" 
(fishing-establishments)  have  already  begun  to  pickle  the  lamprey, 
which  forms  iu  this  shape  a  very  savory  dish.  Thus,  in  October  last, 
a  merchant  of  Tchoruoi-Yar,  Sabourow  by  name,  sent  to  St.  Petersburg 
for  experienced  laborers  to  pickle  3,000  "pouds"  (108,000  pounds)  of 
lamprey.    A  thousand  lampreys  weigh  not  less  than  140  pounds. 

9. — MARKET-PRICE    OF   FISH   AND    THEIR   PRODUCTS. 
Tabic  of  the  marlcet-prices  since  the  year  1868,  when  fishing  in  the  sea  was  declared  perfectly  free. 


PEIi  "POUD,"  36  POUNDS. 


Acipenser  huso 

Acipenser  Guldenstcidtii  of 
3'  6" 

Of  2'  4" 

Acipenser  stellatus  of  2'  4". 

Less  than  2'  4" 

Acipenser  sc.hypa 

Siiurus  glanis  of  3'  0" 

Of  2'  4" 

Coregonus  leucichthys 

A  cipenser  ruthenus  

Cyprinus  carpio,  dried 

Salt 

Tinea  vulgaris  and  Perca 

fluviatilis 

Esox  lucius,  salt 

Heads  of  Acipenser  huso, 

salt 

Belly  of  Acipenser  Imso  . . . 
Caviar,  pressed 

Made  iu  summer 

Inferior  quality 

Fresh  caviar  of  Acipenser 
huso 

Of  Acipenser  Gulden- 

stddtii 

Milt  of  sturgeon 

Oil 

Abramis  brama 

Lucioperca  volyensis 

Seals 


$1  33  toll  574  $1  47  to§l  50A  $1  01 


From  July  1, 
1806,  to  July 
1, 1867. 


From  July  1, 
ltG7,  to  July 
1, 18G8. 


From  July  1, 
1868,  to  July 
1, 1869. 


574 

014. 

29§ 

734 

33 

12 

63 

22* 


70 
35 

28 
804 

70 
45 
75 

55 
80 


11  40 

8  92J 
35 
1  75 

56 
244. 
1  33 


2  06  i 
1  54 
1  82 
98 
1  57* 


84 


2  80 
12  60 


17  50 
12  60 


1  57* 

1  47 
1  29i 
91  . 
1  47 


12 

63 

40 
8?4 
77 
03 


454 

77 
45 
75 
20 
35 


11  20 


03 

50J 
68" 
084 
50j 


59A 


2  80 
12  60 


17  50 
11  20 


8  92J 

70 
1  47    1  96 

56      59* 

244. 

84 


Si  01  to  1  92A  §2  38 


574  to  82  03 


01  i 
29J 

08^ 

504. 

12 

63 

70 

154 


28 
384 

77 
2  80 
8  05 
4  20 
2  35 

11  40 


1  50} 


1  75 


14  00 


From  July  1, 
1809,  to  July 
1, 1870. 


From  July  1, 
1870,  to  July 
1, 1871. 


38 

10 

92J 

714 

784. 

26 

70 

75 

75 

94i 

5-4 

35 

84 

1  05 

2  80 
9  80 
6  30 

3  15 


18  20  11  20 


9  80 


8  40 
1  05 
1  47    1  68 

63 

24* 

91 


45 

31 

03 

82 

89J 

68 

98 

80 

05 
594. 


3  08 
2  67 
2  73 
2  5"2 
2  38 
1  26  to$l  54 


63 
75 
75 
05 
49 

35 

91 


1  221 
3  321  3  15 

15  40" 10  50 
5  60 

2  75 


19  60 


11  20 
1  05 
1  54    2  17 

77 
24J 
1  40 


11  90 

7  70 
1  05 

1  92} 
91 
35 

2  33 


84 
2  45 


59* 


3  85 
15  40 


19  60 
11  20 

2  274 


PEK  THOUSAND. 


Alosa 

Abramis  brama,  salt,  large 

Salt,  small 

Aspiu<  rapax 

"Sertes" 

Leuciscus  rutilus 

Perca  fluviatilis 


7  52^ 
16  10 

8  05 
4  37J 
2  10 

70 
2  10 


18  90 

9  45 

4  55 

1  75 

2  80 

7  524 
10  80 

8  40 
4  20 
3  30 

1  26 

2  80 


4  20 

18  90    16  80 

9  45  j  8  40 

4  444 

4  55 


2  27ft 


4  20 
4  20 

1  05 

2  45 


6  30 

19  6.1 

9  80 


4  721 

19  00 
9  80 
3  50 
3  50 
1  40 
3  15 


6  30 

23  20 

12  60 

4  90 

4  90 

3  15 

4  20 


27 
40 
20 
90 
90 
10 
90 


7  70 
25  20 
12  00 
7  CO 
7  00 
4  55 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING. 


91 


10. — PR10E  OF  FISH  AS  FIXED  BY  AGREEMENT  BETWEEN  THE   FISHER- 
MEN AND   THE  FISHING-HOUSES. 

The  fishing-houses  pay  to  the  fishermen  whom  they  hire  either  an 
annual  salary,  or  a  fixed  price,  determined  by  agreement  for  every  kind 
offish  and  the  articles  manufactured  from  hsh.  The  fishermen  have  no 
fishing-implements,  and  receive  these  from  the  fishing-houses.  They 
are  principally  engaged  for  seine-fishing,  serve  as  rowers,  or  work  at 
the  "vatagas,"  (fishing-establishmeuts.)  Russians  very  seldom  hire 
themselves  out  by  the  year,  while  the  Kalmyks  do  this  exclusively. 
The  annual  salary  is  in  proportion  to  their  skill,  experience,  and  dili- 
gence. 

Those  fishermen  who  are  paid  according  to  the  number  of  fish  caught 
nearly  all  owu  a  little  house,  horses  or  cattle,  boats,  or  other  property, 
which  assure  them  credit  at  the  fishing-houses,  and  serve  as  a  guar- 
antee for  the  payment  of  indemnities  in  case  they  do  not  fulfill  the  con- 
ditions to  which  they  have  bound  themselves  by  agreement.  They 
receive  the  earnest-money  in  advance  to  buy  fishing-implements  and 
equip  their  boats.  This  subsidy  is  much  more  considerable  for  those 
who  fish  in  the  sea  than  for  those  who  fish  in  the  river;  for  the  former 
must  have  a  spacious,  safe,  and  solidly-built  sail-boat,  and  also  a  larger 
number  of  workmen.  Moreover,  they  are  exposed  to  all  kinds  of  priva- 
tions and  dangers.- 

Contracts  are  made  in  July.  The  fishing-year  commences  July  1.  If 
the  year  has  been  favorable,  the  fisherman,  after  paying  back  the 
earnest-money,  has  a  considerable  sum  left ;  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  unfavorable,  the  fisherman  finds  it  difficult  to  meet  all  his 
expenses,  and  he  is  obliged  to  contract  debts,  which  he  is  never  able  to 
pay. 

Tabic  showing  the  beneficial  influence  which  the  liberty  of  fishing  in  the  sea  has  had  on  the 

wages  of  fishermen. 


Acipcnser  huso 

(December  1  to  February  15)  . 
Acipcnser  Gulden stddtii,  (3'  6") 

(December  1  to  February  15). 

(2' 4") : 

(December  1  to  February  15) 
Acipcnser  stellatus,  (2'  4") 

(1'9") 

(December  1  to  February  15). 

Adpenser  Schypa 

•  (December  I  to  February  15)  . 
Heada  of  Acipenter  huso  .... 


The  flshermeu  have  received  the  following  prices 
per  "  poud,"  (36  pounds.) 


£» 


a  •> 
°  S 


Eh 


$0  5G 
1  CI 

91 
1  61 

63 
1  61 

91 

63 
1  61 

52.' 


21 


i— T*-* 

o  o 
Eh 


SO  56 


26 
91 
26 
63 
26 
77 
63 
26 
521 


£0 


o  o 


$0  70 
1  26 

96 
1  26 

63 
1  26 

84 

63 
1  26 


24i  i  24  i 


"3  >> 

o  o 

Eh 


§1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


111 

75 
40 
75 
75 
75 
40 
05 
75 

ty 

75 

36* 


5  o 
u  ■** 
Eh 


f  1  26 
2  10 


47 
10 
0SA 
10 

47 


1  76J 


in 
26 
10 
36$ 


p  o 
Eh 


$1  54 
2  10 

1  75 

2  10 

1  22£ 

2  10 
1  75 

1  22J 

2  10 

1  54 

2  10 
52J 


92  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Tabic  showing  the  beneficial  influence,  $'C. — Continued. 


Caviar  of  Acipe nser  huso. 

(July  1  to  September  1)    

(September  1  to  December  1) 

(December  1  to  February  15) 

Caviar  of  second  quality,  made  iu  summor 

Caviar  of  inferior  quality7 

Caviar  of  Acipenscr  Guldenstcidtii  and  of  Acipenser 
stellatus : 

(.July  1  to  December  1 ) 

(December  1  to  February  15) , 

(February  15  to  July  1) 

Silurus  qlanis,  (3'  6'')  . . .' 

(2' 4")   

Corcgonus  leuchichthys 

Seals  in  spring 

In  autumn 


Acipenser  ruthenus 

Cyprinus  carpio.  L.: 

(1'  9"  ami  more,  in  spring) 

(1'  55"  to  1'9",  in  spring)  

(1'  9"  and  more,  in  autumn) 

(1/  5$"  to  V  9",  in  autumn) 

(1'  2"  to  1' 5}",  salt) , 

Salting  Lucioperca  sandra  at  the  "  vataga  " 

Salting  Lucioperca  sandra  on  the  boat 

Salting  Esoxlucius  in  spring 

In  autumn 

Salting  large-sized  Abramis  brama,  strongly 

Slightly 

Large-sized  Abramis  brama,  salted  and  dried 
Salting  medium-sized  Abramis  brama  strongly 
Salting  medium-sized  Abramis  brama  slightly. 
Medium-sized  Abramis  brama  salted  and  dried  . 

Salting  Aspius  rapax 

Suiting  Lucioperca  volgensis  strongly 

Slightly 

Alosa 

Salting Leuciscus  rutilus 

Salting  and  drying 

Salting  Scardinius  erythrophthelmus 

Slightly I. 

Salting  and  drying 


The  fishermen  have  received  tbo  following  prices 
per  "  poud,"  (36  pounds.) 


^  3 

S 


$4  27 

6  37 

7  91 
2  10 

70 


27 
37 
27 
35 

21 

21 
35 


10  50 

11  20 
5  00 


3  50 

4  90 


3  50 
'3"  50 


1  40 


1  05 
1  05 


52* 
07" 
21 
70 


1  40 


.=.<= 


o  o 


$4  27 

6  37 

8  12 

2  10 

70 


27 
12 
27 
35 
17J 
21' 
21 
35 


£2 


3  >> 

^3 

o  o 


$4  90 

7  70 

8  40 
2  10 

70 


90 

in 

55 

35 

17i 

21 

21 

35 


s  >> 

O    O 


87  00 

11  90 

11  90 

2  10 

70 


6  30 

6  30 

6  30 

35 


17* 
.21 
35 
05 


o 


o  o 


$7  35 

12  25 

12  60 

2  10 

70 


65 

65 

55 

49 

-li 

21 

35 

70 


PEIi  THOUSAND. 


10  50 

11  20 
5  CO 


3  50 

4  90 


3  50 
350 


9  10 
1  40 


5  95 
1  05 
1  05 


52i 

07 

21 

70 


1  40 


10  50 

11  20 
5  60 

17  50 
8  75 

3  50 

4  90 


3  50 


3  50 


9  10 
1  40 


5  95 
1  05 
1  05 


52. 
07 
70 

70 


1  75 


10  50 

11  20 

5  60 

17  50 

8  75 

3  50 

4  90 


3  50 
"350 


9  10 

1  40 


5  95 
1  05 
1  05 


52J 
07 
1  05 

70 


2  45 


21  00 


11 

5 
17 
8 
3 
5 
7 
4 
4 


4  20 


07' 
05 
70 


2  45 


.  XJ 


5  >• 

^3 

c  o 


§8  40 

13  30 

12  60 

2  10 

70 


7  70 


7  70 
7  70 
70 
49 
24* 
35 
70 
21 


21  00 

11  20 

5  60 
28  00 
10  50 

3  50 
7  70 

28  00 

4  20 
28  00 

5  60 
.  8  75 

10  50 
2  80 


75 
65 
05 


1  05 

2  80 
52* 
07 

1  05 

1  05 

2  80 
2  80 


11. — SEAL-HUNTING. 


The  seal,  which  is  very  common  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  (Phoca  caspica-,) 
is  from  3  to  6  feet  long,  weighs  from  2  to  4  "pouds,"  (72  to  141  pounds,) 
and  has  a  variegated  fur,  the  back  grayish-brown  with  yellowish  stripes. 

These  seals  gather  in  large  herds,  and,  plungiug  continually  into  the 
water,  chase  scaly  fish,  of  which  they  eat  only  the  breast,  leaving  the 
remainder  of  the  body,  with  the  entrails,  to  the  sea-birds,  which  are 
constantly  hovering  above  them.  Endowed  with  a  very  acute  sense  of 
smell,  the  seals  at  times  escape  the  vigilance  of  their  enemies,  the  fish- 

of  the  young,  which,  inexperi- 


ermen,  with   the  exception,  however 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  93 

enced  as  they  are,  follow  the  fishing-boats  for  long  distances,  and  seem  to 
take  special  pleasure  in  hearing  the  fishermen  whistle  or  sing.  It  is  an 
interesting  spectacle  to  see  the  young  seals  lying  on  their  back,  sleep- 
ing peaceably  while  being  rocked  by  the  waves,  and  throwing  up  from 
time  to  time  small  jets  of  water  by  breathing. 

The  seals  love  the  cold;  and,  in  the  summer,  they  seek  the  deep  sea, 
leaving  it  in  the  autumn  for  their  favorite  place  of  abode,  the  north- 
eastern basin  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  which  is  the  portion  first  covered  with 
ice,  and  where  the  ice  breaks  up  latest.  Numerous  herds  of  seals  gather 
on  pieces  of  floating  ice,  to  rest  or  to  pair.  The  pairing-season  lasts 
from  the  end  of  December  till  January  10.  The  female  every  year  gives 
birth  to  one  young  one,  seldom  to  two.  The  young  have  a  shining 
white,  silky  fur ;  but  after  ten  days  it  becomes  coarse  and  turns  gray. 
Then  the  tender  solicitude  of  the  mother  ceases  ;  for  the  little  one  has 
to  go  into  the  water  and  swim.  Seals  that  are  one  year  old  have  gray 
fur  speckled  with  black  spots. 

The  seal  is  hunted  also  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  at 
the  mouths  of  the  Volga  and  the  Ural,  and  in  its  southern  part,  espe- 
cially on  the  islands  of  the  Gulf  of  Apchdron. 

The  principal  meeting-places  of  seal-hunters  are  on  the  seven  islands  sit- 
uated north  of  the  Peninsula  of  Mangyshlak,  called  the  "  Seals'  Islands," 
on  account  of  the  large  number  of  these  animals  found  there.  Other 
islands  also  abound  in  phocse.  Thus  there  have  been  years  when  about 
40,000  seals  were  killed  on  the  island  of  Peshnoi,  before  the  mouths  of 
the  Ural ;  and,  in  1846,  1,300  were  killed  in  one  night. 

The  seals  are  hunted  in  three  different  ways :  they  are  killed  with 
clubs  on  the  islands  where  they  gather ;  or  they  are  shot  with  guns  ;  or 
they  are  caught  iu  nets. 

The  first-mentioned  way  is  the  graudest,  and  yields  the  best  results. 

The  great  meeting-place  of  the  huntsmen  is  Koulali,  the  largest  of 
the  seal  islands,  having  a  length  of  thirty-five  "versts,"  (about  twenty 
miles,)  and  a  breadth  of  three  "versts,"  (about  one  and  two-thirds  miles.) 
The  hunters,  who  winter  there  every  year,  have  built  wooden  houses, 
huts,  and  sheds  on  this  island.  The  fishing-authorities  at  Astrachan 
send  every  year  one  of  their  officers  to  Koulali  to  superintend  the  chase 
and  the  hunters,  where  he  remains  from  October  till  the  middle  of  May. 
On  account  of  the  bustle  and  noise,  the  seals  have  deserted  this  island 
for  a  number  of  years,  and  selected,  for  their  place  of  gathering,  the 
islands  of  Sviato'i  and  Podgorno'i. 

In  the  spring  and  autumn,  the  seals  seek  the  shore  to  rest  in  the  sun, 
one  herd  arriving  after  the  other.  Scarcely  has  the  first  settled,  when 
a  second  comes  yelling  and  showing  their  teeth  to  drive  it  away,  followed 
soon  by  a  third,  to  which  it  in  turn  has  to  yield  its  place ;  so  that  the 
last  herd  arriving  always  drives  the  first  farther  back  on  the  coast.  The 
invasion  terminates  by  the  arrival  of  some  isolated  stragglers. 

Now  is  the  time  for  the  hunters  to  commence  the  chase.    They  care- 


94  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

fully  observe  in  what  place,  and,  approximately,  in  what  numbers,  the 
seals  have  gathered ;  aud  then  elect  as  their  chief  the  most  experien- 
ced and  skillful  among  them.  They  approach  the  rookery  in  boats, 
either  at  dusk  or  during  the  night,  always  goiug  against  the  wind,  to 
conceal  their  approach. 

After  their  arrival  on  shore,  the  hunters  disembark  noiselessly,  form 
a  Hue  in  order  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  seals,  and  thus,  creeping, 
advance  quite  near  to  the  herd,  which  is  sleeping  and  suspects  no  danger. 
On  a  signal  from  the  chief,  the  hunters  all  rise  at  once  and  pitilessly 
attack  their  unfortunate  victims,  killing  them  by  a  single  blow  on  the 
snout  with  the  club.  The  bodies  are  piled  up  by  means  of  gaffs,  and 
after  a  few  minutes  form  a  rampart,  depriving  the  survivors  of  every 
chance  of  regaining  the  sea.  The  seals  howl,  groan,  bite,  and  defend 
themselves;  but  the  hunters,  eager  for  gain,  go  on  killing  them  without 
mercy,  and  soon  the  whole  herd  is  massacred.  It  is  no  infrequent 
occurrence  to  see  15,000  dead  seals  cover  the  battle-field  of  a  single 
night. 

After  the  killing,  the  dressing  of  the  seals  commences,  usually  about 
daybreak. 

The  head  is  cut  off,  the  belly  is  opened,  and  the  skin  is  taken  off  with 
the  thick  layer  of  fat  adhering  to  it.  These  skins  are  piled  up  on  the 
boats,  which  take  them  to  large  sailing-vessels,  anchored  some  "versts" 
from  the  shore,  on  which  they  are  heaped  up,  each  layer  being  covered 
with  salt.  These  vessels  sail  with  their  cargo  to  Astrachan,  while  the 
hunters  return  to  the  coast  to  carefully  clean  the  battle-field.  They 
bury  the  bodies  and  entrails,  at  some  distance,  deep  in  the  ground,  or 
throw  them  into  the  sea,  far  from  the  shore,  and  carefully  obliterate 
every  trace  of  blood,  so  that,  when  another  herd  of  seals  arrives,  these 
animals  do  not  see  any  marks  of  the  slaughter  which  has  taken  place; 
for  experience  has  shown  that  they  never  select  for  their  rookery  a 
place  from  which  every  trace  of  the  slaughter  has  not  been  carefully 
removed. 

Two  hundred  seal-hunters,  employed  by  wealthy  merchants  or  fish- 
ermen, usually  winter  on  the  island  of  Koulali.  Numerous  boats,  be- 
sides, go  there  every  year  to  participate  in  the  chase.  The  masters  of 
these  boats  secure  permits  from  the  fishing-authorities  and  give  them 
to  their  workmen,  who  receive  their  wages  in  money.  The  pilot  gener- 
ally gets  from  175  to  300  "  roubles,"  ($122.50  to  $210  gold,)  and  the 
workmen  from  85  to  125  "  roubles,"  ($59.50  to  $87.50  gold.)  They  are  fed 
at  the  expense  of  the  master. 

Another  way  of  hunting  the  seals  is  to  take  them  with  nets.  Im- 
mense nets  are  stretched  out,  into  which  the  hunters  endeavor  to 
chase  them  by  yelling  and  making  a  noise.  This  way  of  hunting  is 
chiefly  employed  in  the  maritime  district  of  the  Ural  Cossacks  and  in 
the  Gulf  of  Sineye  Mortso,  from  October  till  the  sea  is  covered  with  ice. 


FISHERIES    AND    SEAL-HUNTING.  95 

The  nets,  called  "okkani,"  are  6  "sageues"  (42  feet)  deep,  and  have 
meshes  of  7£  inches. 

The  following  is  the  manner  of  proceeding:  Forty  boats  join  together 
and  elect  a  chief  and  an  assistant  chief.  Then  the  boats  sail  out  to  sea 
with  a  fair  wind,  or  use  their  oars,  going  in  a  line,  thus  forming  a  sort 
of  chain.  In  every  boat,  there  are  three  nets.  The  chief,  followed  by 
twenty  boats,  is  on  the  lookout  for  a  herd  of  seals,  which  he  endeavors 
to  cut  off,  while  his  assistant  remains  with  the  other  half  of  the  fleet  at 
some  distance  from  the  shore.  When  the  chief  thinks  that  the  time  for 
action  has  come,  he  gives  the  signal  by  throwing  into  the  sea  a  bale,  to 
which  a  flag  is  fastened.  At  this  signal,  the  boats  simultaneously  cast 
their  nets,  which  are  all  tied  together  so  as  to  form  a  wall  of  meshes,  by 
which  the  seals  are  soon  completely  surrounded.  Then  the  hunters 
begin  to  yell  and  to  strike  the  water  with  their  oars,  in  order  to 
frighten  them.  These  seek  to  avoid  the  danger  by  plunging,  but  they 
rush  against  the  barrier  of  nets,  and  are  caught  in  the  meshes,  so  that 
they  can  be  killed  without  difficulty.  This  way  of  hunting  is  prohibited 
in  those  parts  of  the  sea  where  it  injures  the  fishing  or  obstructs  the  first- 
mentioned  manner  of  hunting.  The  chase  on  the  ice  is  fraught  with 
many  dangers,  and  is,  therefore,  at  present  prohibited.  The  hunters, 
sitting  on  little  sledges  drawn  by  strong  and  hardy  horses,  and  provided 
with  food,  continue  on  for  several  weeks  to  shoot  old  seals,  and  kill 
young  ones  while  they  still  have  their  white  and  silk-like  fur.  These 
hunters  brave  all  dangers;  and  it  has  sometimes  happened  that  the 
south  or  southwest  wind,  having  detached  large  masses  of  ice  from  the 
shore,  has  driven  them  out  into  the  open  sea,  where  they  have  floated 
in  all  directions,  with  the  adventurous  huntsmen  on  them.  These  un- 
fortunate hunters  usually  perish  from  cold  and  hunger  on  these  masses 
of  ice,  or  find  their  death  in  the  waves. 

12. — MANUFACTURE  OF  SEAL-OIL. 

The  fat  adhering  to  the  skin  of  the  seal  is  detached  from  it,  cut 
into  pieces,  and  melted  in  caldrons,  after  which  the  oil  is  poured  in 
barrels.  This  is  the  simplest  way  of  making  seal-oil,  aud  the  hunters 
often  employ  it.  But  oil  is  also  manufactured  by  steam  in  establish- 
ments built  for  this  purpose  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga,  opposite  As- 
trachan,  by  some  rich  merchants.  Thirty-five  "  versts  "  (about  twenty 
miles)  below  Astrachan,  the  Sapojnikow  Brothers  have  built  a  steam  oil- 
factory  at  the  "vataga"  (flshiug-establishment)  of  Ikriannaya.  This 
factory  is  particularly  busy  in  the  spring,  when  whole  cargoes  of  seal- 
fat  arrive,  which  is  either  boiled  immediately  in  order  to  extract  the 
oil,  or  is  safely  stored  away  in  cellars.  These  cellars  are  long,  floored, 
and  furnished  with  four  ventilators  and  several  windows.  Large  oak- 
wood  tubs,  plated  with  lead  on  the  inside,  and  capable  of  holding  700 
"  pouds  "  (25,200  pounds)  of  oil  each,  are  placed  at  intervals  in  holes 
dug  in  the  ground.  The  oil  which  runs  out  from  the  seal-fat  piled  up 
in  layers  flows  into  these  tubs  by  way  of  an  inclined  plane.     The  oil  is 


96  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

then  poured  into  barrels.  In  order  that  the  skins,  from  which  the  fat 
has  not  yet  been  removed,  may  not  spoil,  they  are  salted  again,  just  as 
it  had  been  done  on  board  the  vessels  ;  150  "  pouds  "  (5,490  pounds)  of 
salt  being  generally  used  for  salting  a  thousand  skins,  and  only  70 
"  pouds  "  (2,520  pounds)  per  thousand  for  the  final  salting,  before  the 
skins  are  stored  in  the  cellars.  Kalmyks  are  employed  ckieily  to  detach 
the  fat  from  the  skins.  They  spread  the  skin,  with  the  fur  down,  on  an 
inclined  plank,  which  they  lean  against  their  breast,  in  order  to  have 
the  free  use  of  both  their  hands.  Then,  armed  with  a  two-handled 
knife,  they  scrape  the  fat  from  the  skin.  The  oil,  which  is  pure  and 
clear,  running  down  during  this  operation,  flows  into  a  reservoir  let  into 
the  ground,  holding  400  "  pouds,"  (14,400  pounds,)  and  forming  a  cube, 
each  side  of  which  measures  one  "  sagene,"  (7  feet.)  This  work  is 
extremely  fatiguing.  A  strong  and  experienced  Kalmyk  can,  how- 
ever, clean  500  or  even  700  skins  in  a  single  day.  The  workmen  form 
associations,  sharing  their  labor  and  their  gain. 

The  fat  is  then  melted  in  large  tubs,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  action 
of  steam.  The  oil  flows  through  a  funnel-shaped  apparatus,  and,  finally, 
through  pipes  into  immense  oak-wood  reservoirs.  There  are  three  such 
reservoirs  connected  by  pipes,  and  let  into  the  ground,  so  that  the  oil 
from  the  first  flows  into  the  second,  and  then  into  the  third,  from  whence, 
through  cocks,  it  passes  into  casks,  which  can  be  shipped  as  soon  as 
filled.  Each  one  of  these  reservoirs  has  a  diameter  of  3  "  sagenes,"  (21 
feet,)  a  depth  of  1  "sagene,"  (7  feet,)  and  can  hold  4,S00  "pouds" 
(172,000  pounds)  of  oil. 

The  oil  thus  extracted  forms  the  first  quality.  The  second  quality  is 
obtained  by  melting  the  residue  in  caldrons,  and  by  pressing  it.  The 
color  of  this  oil  is  dark-brown.  Before  the  residue  is  put  into  the  cal- 
drons, (capable of  holding  200  "pouds"  (7,200  pounds)  each,  it  is  thrown 
into  a  receptacle  with  an  inclined  bottom,  and  the  whole  mass  is  stirred 
violently  by  means  of  wooden  shovels.  This  is  done  in  the  sunlight,  so 
that  the  heat  may  help  to  melt  the  mass.  This  receptacle  is  joined 
to  the  caldron  by  a  large  gutter,  which  is  walled  up  in  the  furnace. 
Through  this  gutter,  the  residue  is  led  into  the  caldron,  there  to  melt, 
which  done,  the  mass  is  taken  out  with  dippers  and  cast  into  a  box, 
which  is  then  pressed.  By  means  of  this  last  operation,  all  the  remain- 
ing oil  contaiued  in  the  residue  is  extracted. 

The  oil-factory  of  the  Sapojnikow  Brothers  formerly  manufactured 
about  100,000  "  pouds  "  (3,000,000  pounds)  of  seal-oil,  which  was  sent 
to  Moscow,  where  it  was  chiefly  used  in  leather-factories ;  but  during 
the  last  fifteen  years,  this  establishment  has  gone  down  considerably, 
and  other  wealthy  Astrachan  merchants,  among  them  Messrs.  Vlasow, 
Smoline,  and  Orekhow,  have  established  several  factories  for  making 
the  oil. 

The  skins  of  the  seals  are  used  for  making  knapsacks  and  for  cover- 
ing valises. 


VI.— THE  NORWEGIAN  HERRING-FISHERIES.* 


Bv  A.  I.  Boeck  and  A.  Feddersex. 


Mr.  A.  Boeck,  who  for  several  years  bad  conducted  scientific  re- 
searches for  the  Norwegian  government  in  regard  to  the  herring-fish- 
eries, was  invited,  on  his  return  from  the  districts  of  Nordland  and 
Troinso,  in  February,  1872,  to  deliver  some  lectures  in  Bergen  on  the 
spring-herring  fisheries.  Although  the  season  was  far  advanced,  the 
southern  herring  had  not  yet  made  its  appearance,  and  fishermen  and 
salters  were  in  great  doubt  as  to  what  they  should  do.  Boeck's  lectures 
were  therefore  received  with  special  attention,  and  as  they  contain  a 
great  deal  of  valuable  information,  we  preseut  here  copious  extracts 
from  them,  following  the  account  given  in  the  "Bergcns  Adrcsseavis,1' 
(Bergen  Advertiser,)  and  "  Bergenposten,"  (Bergen  Post,)  for  February, 
referring  our  readers  at  the  same  time  to  an  article  by  A.  Boeck,  u Ac- 
count of  the  Herring  on  the  Coast  of  Noricay  and  Bohusliin,"\  (a  province 
of  Sweden,)  published  in  the  fifth  annual  volume  of  our  journal,  pp.  123, 
et.  seq.  We  also  refer  to  A.  Boeck's  work  uOn  the  Herring  and  the  Her- 
ring -Fisheries, I  especially  on  the  Norwegian  Spring-Herring." 

The  herring  is  found,  in  Europe,  from  &pitzbergen  to  the  west  coast 
of  France,  and  is  caught  in  large  numbers  on  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia, 
Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Holland,  and  France.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  they  are  caught  from  Greenland  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Amer- 
ica. In  all  those  places  where  herring  are  found  in  large  quantities, 
and  where  people  have  become  rich  through  these  fisheries,  the  number 
caught  has,  at  times,  been  exceedingly  small,  and  for  long  periods  the 
herring  have  disappeared  entirely.  This  has  not  only  been  the  case  on 
the  coast  of  Norwaj7,  but  also  in  Bohuslan,  (western  coast  of  Sweden,) 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  France,  and  people  have  been  reduced  to  want 
in  consequence  of  the  failure  of  the  fisheries. 

In  the  present  century,  when  science  has  made  such  rapid  progress, 
and  has,  in  manifold  ways,  become  tributary  to  the  comforts  of  life,  and 
when  many  of  the  greatest  inventions  of  modern  times  have  sprung 
from  the  quiet  and  unostentatious  researches  of  scientists,  it  was  be- 

*  DetNorske  Sildefiske.  Efter  Referaterne  af  Stipendiat  A.  Boecks  Foredrag  i  Bergen 
red  A.  Feddersen;  in  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri.  Udgivet  af  H.  V.  Fiedler  og  Arthur  Fed- 
dersen.  7de  Aargang.  (Kjobenkavn.  Jacob  Erslers  Boghandel.  1872.)  pp.  1-40. 
Translated  from  the  Danish  by  O.  Jacobson. 

t  Beretning  ora  Sildefisket  ved  den  norske  ogbohuslensko  Kyst. 

{ Oui  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  navnlig  om  dot  norsko  Voarsildlisko. 
7  F 


98  EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

lieved  that  important  results  in  regard  to  the  herring-fisheries  might 
also  be  secured  by  scientific  investigation,  and  many  problems  be  solved 
which  had  hitherto  been  doubtful.  It  was  questionable,  however,  how 
far  practical  results  could  be  hoped  for,  and  how  far  the  causes  of  the  her- 
ring's disappearance  could  be  ascertained  and  means  be  found  to  prevent 
it.  Yarrell,  the  English  scientist,  lately  deceased,  said  that  the  herring 
was  a  whimsical  fish,  which  had  no  definite  place  in  wbbh  it  could  be  ex- 
pected with  certainty.  The  famous  Danish  ichthyologist  Kroyer,  who  had 
for  some  time  made  scientific  researches  iu  this  direction,  in  his  great 
work,  "The  Fish  of  Denmark ,"*  makes  use  of  these  words  :  "  How  desir- 
able it  is  to  gain  more  insight  into  the  natural  history  of  fish  is  strik- 
ingly illustrated  by  the  herring,  as  many  points  iu  its  mode  of  living  are 
still  unexplained,  and  many  fabulous  accounts  are  transmitted  from  one 
generatiou  to  another."  The  zoologist  Yan  der  Hoeven  also  dissuaded 
Boeck  from  occupying  himself  with  these  studies,  as  they  would  be  pro- 
ductive neither  of  profit  nor  of  honor. 

Several  scientists  have,  however,  opened  the  way  for  such  researches. 
The  French  zoologists,  Audouiu  and  Milne-Edwards,  traveled  for  sev- 
eral years  on  the  coasts  of  France  for  the  purpose  of  examiuing  the 
fisheries  scientifically ;  the  only  result  of  their  researches,  however, 
being  a  volume  published  iu  1830  and  containing  chiefly  statistics.  The 
investigations  made  in  Bohusliin,  (western  coast  of  Sweden,)  by  Profes- 
sor Nilsson,  of  the  University  of  Lund,  are  of  greater  value.  The  her- 
ring had  disappeared  from  that  coast  iu  1S08,  after  having  been  exceed- 
ingly plentiful  for  more  than  fifty  years.  Large  sums  of  money  had 
been  employed  iu  establishing  salting-houses  and  oil-refineries,  and  the 
government  had  specially  favored  emigration  to  the  coast  of  Bohusliin, 
Avhere  the  herring-fisheries  for  a  long  time  formed  a  fruitful  source  of 
income.  No  herring  were  found  near  the  coast;  the  merchants  were 
idle;  and  fishermen  and  salters  led  a  miserable  life.  Still,  people  hoped 
year  after  year  for  the  return  of  the  herring,  and  rumors  were  current 
that  enormous  quantities  of  fish  were  immediately  outside  the  coast  in 
the  so  called  "  Stor  rende,"  (Great  Channel.)  The  government  assisted 
the  fishermen,  and  50,000  rigsdalers  (about  $25,000  gold)  were  spent  iu 
attempts  to  secure  fish  from  this  locality,  (the  "  Stor  rende.")  Although 
all  these  efforts  failed,  it  was  still  hoped  that  the  herring  would  return, 
as  scientists  had  expressed  the  opiuion  that  only  unfavorable  circum- 
stances prevented  their  approach.  The  fish,  however,  did  not  return, 
and  the  former  extensive  fisheries  were  almost  entirely  abandoned. 
The  local  press  zealously  advocated  new  investigations,  and  Professor 
Nilsson  began  iu  Lund,  in  1825,  a  series  of  researches.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  Nilsson  could  not  begin  this  labor  until  eighteen  years  after 
the  disappearance  of  the  herring,  and  that  he  entered  upon  these  inves- 
tigations with  his  opinions  firmly  fixed.  He,  therefore,  met  with  much 
opposition.     He  renewed  his  investigations  during  the  years  182S-32, 

*  Daninarks  Fiske. 


THE    NORAVEGIAN   HERRING-FISHERIES.  99 

and  visited  the  Norwegian  herring-fisheries,  in  order  to  compare  them 
with  the  Swedish.  He  endeavors  to  prove,  in  his  reports,  that  the  her- 
ring does  not  come  from  the  Polar  Sea  to  the  coasts  of  different  coun- 
tries, but,  as  the  well-known  zoologist  Bloch  has  remarked,  has  its  per- 
manent place  of  abode  near  those  coasts  where  it  comes  to  spawn.  He, 
therefore,  thought  that  the  Botmsliin  herring  never  left  the  Skagerak, 
and  bad  nothing  to  do  with  the  Norwegian  spring-herring,  which  was  a 
totally  different  variety,  and  that  the  Bohuslan  herring  had,  therefore, 
not  emigrated  to  Norway.  On  the  other  band,  he  at  first  thought, 
although  he  was  not  quite  certain  about  it,  that  it  had  been  completely 
exhausted  by  the  fisheries.  At  a  later  date,  he  abandoned  this  opinion 
and  supposed  that  the  herring  had  only  been  driven  away  from  the 
coast  by  the  noise  of  singing  and  dancing  in  the  fishing-huts,  and 
remained  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ;  and,  finally,  he  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  was  killed  by  the  impurities  of  fish-oil  which  were  thrown 
into  the  sea.  He  was  also  of  the  opinion  that  the  herring  would  return, 
if  the  seines,  by  which  all  the  young  were  caught,  could  be  laid  aside. 
As  his  opinions  did  not  meet  with  general  favor,  a  committee  was 
appointed,  consisting  of  Ccunt  Bosen,  Professor  Nilssou,  and  others, 
which  traveled  along  the  whole  coast  of  Bohuslan  from  Gottenburg  to 
Stromstad,  nnd  made  numerous  inquiries  among  the  fishermen  of  the  dif- 
ferent districts.  Nilsson's  reports,  as  well  as  the  report  of  the  commit- 
tee, and  two  memorials  regarding  the  same  matter  by  Professors  Sunde- 
vall  and  Loven,  who  concurred  in  Nilsson's  opinion,  were  printed  and 
distributed  in  large  numbers.  We  shall  have  occasion,  in  the  course  of 
this  article,  to  refer  to  these  reports  and  memorials. 

The  Dutch  government  commissioned  Lieutenant  Kraft  to  make  exten- 
sive observations  during  several  years,  on  the  temperature  during  the 
season  of  the  herring-fisheries,  by  means  of  which  it  was  ascertained  at 
what  degree  of  warmth  the  greatest  quantity  of  fish  was  caught.  He 
then  prepared  a  map  showing  where,  at  different  times,  the  largest 
quantity  and  the  best  quality  of  herring  were  caught.  This  map  was 
exhibited  at  the  fishing-exposition  held  in  Bergen  in  18G5. 

Observations  have  been  made  in  England  for  some  time  by  zoologists 
and  scientists,  mostly  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  the  sup- 
position that  the  fishing-implements  had  anything  to  do  in  driving  away 
the  herring  was  correct  or  not,  and  they  finally  arrived  at  the  conclusion 
that  the  great  number  of  old  laws  which  embarrassed  the  herring-fish- 
eries ought  to  be  rescinded. 

In  Denmark,  Professor  Kroyer  has  made  a  number  of  observations, 
only  some  of  which,  however,  have  been  published  in  his  work  "Msh  of 
Denmark." 

Professor  Miinter,  at  Greifswalde,  (province  of  Pomerania,  Prussia,} 
has  also  made  observations  concerning  the  various  species  of  Pomeraniau 
herring,  their  food,  and  the  temperature  most  favorable  for  spawning. 

These  are  the  most  important  practical  and  scientific  investigation? 


100       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  the  herring-fisheries  which  had  been  made  up  to  the  yearlSGO,  when 
the  Storting-,  (the  Norwegian  parliament,)  appropriated  a  sum  for  similar 
investigations  on  the  coasts  of  Norway.  Besides  these,  two  investiga- 
tions of  the  fisheries  have  been  commenced  on  a  large  scale,  the  one  by 
the  imperial  German  government  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Mobius,  for  which  a  very  considerable  sum  has  been  appropriated,  and 
the  other  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States  under  the  direction 
of  Prof.  Spencer  P.  Baird,  LL.D.,  who,  with  several  younger  scientists, 
is  to  examine  the  fisheries  along  the  entire  coast  of  the  United  States, 
for  which  purpose  some  Government  steamers  have  been  placed  at  his 
disposal. 

"When  Mr.  Boeck  was  commissioned  to  examine  the  Norwegian  herring- 
fisheries,  he  could,  at  first,  only  follow  the  same  plan  in  his  investiga- 
tions as  other  scientists  before  him  had  done;  but  he  soon  found  that 
these  investigations  ought  to  be  made  on  a  very  different  scale,  and  in 
other  directions,  because  he  discovered  that  there  were  other  natural 
phenomena  which  might  influence  the  migrations  of  the  herring.  After 
having  made  himself  acquainted  with  these  natural  phenomena,  his  atten- 
tion was  naturally  led  to  circumstances  which  had  hitherto  not  been 
considered  of  any  importance.  The  essential  point  in  all  such  investi- 
gations is  to  gather  as  much  material  as  possible  in  the  shape  of  indis- 
putable facts.  As  these  facts  could  not  properly  be  gathered  in  a  hurried 
manner,  and  as  it  was  desirable  at  the  same  time  to  secure  some  result  as 
soon  as  possible,  Boeck  proposed  to  adopt  a  provisional  theory  adapted 
to  such  facts  as  could  be  ascertained.  He  saw  that  two  plans  might  be 
followed :  one  was  to  examine  the  migrations  of  fish  in  relation  to 
meteorological  changes,  by  exact  historical  data  regarding  the  older 
fisheries  from  1807  to  1852,  when  the  government  inspection  commenced 
its  reports;  the  other,  to  gather  facts  from  old  and  experienced  fisher- 
men. Although  the  latter  plan  might  seem  to  be  of  doubtful  value,  he 
soon  found  that  such  experience  was  by  no  means  to  be  despised.  Fish- 
ermen are  more  observant  than  many  suppose.  They  think,  see,  and 
hear  a  great  deal,  and  although  their  opinions  are  sometimes  very  fan- 
ciful, the  true  can  readily  be  distinguished  from  the  false,  and  so  be 
made  useful.  Both  plans,  however,  require  to  be  corrected  by  scientific 
investigation.  Boeck  has  adopted  the  following  mode  of  procedure, 
endeavoring  to  accomplish  his  purpose  both  by  observations  and  by 
historical  researches : 

1.  To'  make  observations  during  the  fishing-season  on  the  currents 
and  the  temperature  of  the  sea,  the  nature  and  form  of  the  bottom,  the 
migrations  of  the  schools  of  herring,  and  the  influence  of  these  circum- 
stances on  the  time  of  their  approaching  the  spawning-places. 

2.  To  collect  the  most  accurate  information  possible  on  the  migration 
of  the  herring,  and  on  the  meteorological  changes  which  seem  to  have 
influenced  it  from  its  beginning,  in  1807,  until  the  government  inspec- 
tion commenced. 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  101 

3.  To  endeavor  to  find  out,  by  historical  data,  the  migration  of  the 
herring -fisheries  at  large ;  how  the  mass  of  herring  at  one  time  ap- 
proached one  part  of  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  then  another ;  or  how 
disappeared  entirely ;  and  then  to  compare  these  facts  with  those  gath- 
ered from  other  couutries,  and  thus  to  ascertain  if  there  be  any  connec- 
tion between  the  different  herring:fisheries  in  Norway  and  other  coun- 
tries ;  and  also  to  compare  the  fisheries  of  former  times  with  those  of 
the  present,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  any  satisfactory  results  could  be 
reached  with  regard  to  their  future  condition. 

In  accordance  with  this  plan,  Boeck  has,  during  his  sojourn  of  five 
years  at  the  fishing-stations  of  Norway,  made  personal  observations,  and 
has  also  collected  material  from  archives  and  libraries.  He  was  greatly 
assisted  in  his  observations  by  two  citizens  of  Bergen,  the  consul  Carl 
Kouow,  and  the  banker  N.  Nicolaysen,  who  permitted  him  to  use  two 
collections  of  carefully  kept  diaries  regarding  the  herring-fisheries  from 
the  year  1835,  which  facts  he  partly  supplemented  by  notes  from  Ben 
bergenslce  MerJeur,  (the  Bergen  Mercury,)  and  from  Stiftstidenden,  (the 
County  Journal.)  He  finally  obtained,  through  the  firms  of  Kjellaud  & 
Son  and  Ploug  &  Suudt,  in  Stavanger,  a  series  of  observations  made  on 
the  fisheries  previous  to  the  year  1835,  which  he  likewise  supplemented 
by  a  large  amount  of  written  and  oral  information  derived  from  persons 
iu  Stavanger,  Skudesnres,  Kopervik,  and  Haugesund.  From  all  this 
material  there  may  be  compiled  a  more  or  less  complete  account  of  the 
fisheries  from  1808  down  to  1852. 

Boeck  has  draughted,  on  a  large  scale,  a  map  of  the  southern  coast 
of  Norway,  from  Sognefjord  to  Gottenburg,  and  the  northern  part  of 
Jutland.  The  depth  of  the  sea  along  the  coast  is  marked  by  lines  in 
accordance  with  the  information  which  he  had  received.  Another  map, 
on  a  much  larger  scale,  embraces  the  coast  from  Espevser  to  Tuugenoes. 
On  this  there  are  marked  the  channels  and  depths,  together  with  sev- 
eral fishing-banks,  to  within  a  mile  of  the  outer  coast,  which  are  not 
usually  indicated  on  the  coast  maps,  and  which  were  carefully  pointed 
out  to  Boeck  by  an  old  fisherman,  Henrik  Roevar,  as  well  as  by  other 
fishermen  from  Syre  and  Utsire.  The  localities  indicated  on  the  map 
last  mentioned  are  the  ones  to  which  he  devoted  special  attention.  He 
has  chosen  this  locality,  partly  because  at  that  time  the  fisheries  were 
particularly  productive  in  those  places,  the  northern  fishery  having 
ouly  just  then  begun  to  be  of  any  importance,  and  the  Sondmor  fishery 
being  still  in  its  infancy;  and  partly,  because  it  has  always  been  one  of 
the  chief  places  for  catching  spring  herring.  He  has  also  contiuued  his 
observations  there  in  order  to  make  them  the  more  satisfactory. 

When  Boeck  first  went  to  the  fishing-grounds,  he  determined  to  follow 
the  advice  of  the  government  inspector,  which  was  to  go  out  with  the 
fishing-boats,  and  also  to  frequently  visit  the  stations  for  salting.  A 
fisherman,  whose  advice  he  followed,  often  spoke  of  putting  the  nets  in 
the  channels,  and  he  found  on  inquiry,  and  by  observations  with  the 


102       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

sounding  line,  that  these  channels  are  valleys  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
running  toward  the  coast  in  different  directions.  Having  continued 
these  observations  for  some  time,  he  was  able  to  corroborate  the  fisher- 
man's statement  that  at  different  times  the  herring  follow  certain  chan- 
nels when  they  approach  the  coast  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  It 
would  require  too  much  time  to  describe  the  location  of  these  channels 
in  detail,  and  we  hope  that  Boeck  will,  at  some  future  day,  publish 
these  maps.  In  one  of  his  lectures  he  mentioned  a  circumstance  which 
fortunately  was  among  the  first  to  come  under  his  observation,  and 
which  showed  conclusively  that,  during  the  spawning  time,  the  herring 
follow  these  channels;  and  this  he  found  to  be  the  case  invariably.  He 
had  made  a  great  inany  soundings  in  the  channel,  extending  between 
Eoser  and  Feed  and  stretching  toward  Hauskeskcer,  and  had  placed  a 
chain  of  nets  across  it.  A  large  number  of  fish  were  caught  all  along 
this  chain,  while  another  chain,  the  greater  part  of  whose  nets  stood  on 
the  rocks,  with  only  one  end  reaching  the  channel,  only  caught  fish  in 
that  portion  which  touched  the  channel.  He  also  found  it  of  the 
utmost  importance,  for  the  success  of  the  herring-fisheries,  to  ascertain 
which  channel  the  great  school  of  herring  follows  when  it  comes  in  to 
spawn ;  for  several  times  he  was  able  to  designate  with  certainty  the 
place  where  the  fish  would  be  on  the  following  day,  by  knowing  where 
large  numbers  were  caught  the  preceding  day.  This,  however,  he  could 
only  do  when  storm  or  cold  did  not  interfere  with  his  calculations.  He 
also  convinced  himself  that  if  several  nets  are  set  in  such  a  channel 
they  do  not  interfere  with  each  other,  but  that  the  herring  push  forward 
along  the  channel  over  and  into  the  nets. 

Boeck  finally  drew  attention  to  the  so-called  "  flak,"  i.  e.,  large  level 
places  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  covered  with  rough  gravel,  which  iu 
calm  weather  are  the  herring's  favorite  spawning  places.  He  raised 
with  the  dredge  large  lumps  of  roe  and  gravel  intermixed.  In  these 
places  the  largest  number  of  herring  is  invariably  caught. 

The  influence  of  wind  on  the  fisheries  was  observed  long  ago,  and  the 
Swedish  zoologist  Ekstrom,  and  after  him  Nilsson,  attach  some  im- 
portance to  it;  but  iu  estimating  the  information  obtained  from  fisher- 
men, they  are  not  sure  which  wind  is  favorable  for  fishing,  the  one  blow- 
ing from  the  coast  or  the  one  blowing  toward  it.  The  Dutch  zoologists 
have  not  been  able  to  discover  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  has  any 
special  influence  on  the  fisheries,  except  that  a  violent  gale  precludes 
all  possibility  of  fishing.  On  the  coast  of  Norway  opinions  are  likewise 
very  much  divided  on  this  point,  some  maintaining  one  thing,  others 
another.  By  examining,  however,  all  the  annual  observations  made  by 
the  government  inspector  and  by  himself,  Boeck  found,  that  when  the 
herring  is  out  in  the  open  sea  a  wind  blowing  toward  the  coast  favors 
its  approach,  while  when  the  herring  are  near  to  the  coast  its  formation 
has  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  If,  e.  #.,  the  herring  occupy  an  area 
like  the  one  opposite  the  southern  part  of  Karmo,  between  Syre  and 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  103 

Skude,  and  strong  southwesterly  gales  rage  for  any  length  of  time,  they 
are  prevented  from  reaching  their  usual  spawning  places,  and  remain  a 
long  time  outside  the  channel  for  some  more  favorable  opportunity.  If, 
however,  the  storm  continues,  the  herring  generally  pass  into  that  part 
of  the  channel  which,  stretching  by  Skude,  runs  on  into  the  sound  of 
Karm.  Fishing  may  then  be  carried  on  up  to  Salkus  and  to  the  end  of 
the  Forresfjord.  Of  this  there  are  many  instances  as  far  back  as  1815. 
From  the  accounts  of  the  government  inspector,  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  was  the  case  in  1857,  and  most  of  us  will  recollect  the  great  fish- 
eries of  1803.  A  southeasterly  wind  on  this  coast  will  have  the  same 
effect,  but  to  a  less  degree.  If  the  herring  keep  more  toward  the  south 
near  the  Hvidiug  Islands  and  Roth,  both  strong  southwest  and  north- 
west winds  will  prevent  their  approach  to  these  islands.  In  that  case 
the  whole  school  passes  by  Tunge,  and  there  may  be  good  fishing 
directly  up  to  Stavanger,  as  was  the  case  in  1825.  Similar  facts  will 
become  apparent  if  we  advance  farther  north  and  inquire  into  the  like 
circumstances. 

If  the  coast  is  exposed  to  strong  winds  blowing  toward  it,  the  herring 
do  not  approach  it,  and  the  fisheries,  if  they  have  commenced,  are  inter- 
rupted. Thus,  rich  fisheries  far  in  the  Bommelfjord  beyond  Tittelsnres, 
and  even  far  beyond  Nyleden,  will  be  a  consequence  of  continual  storms, 
when  the  herring  have  been  previously  outside  of  Sletten  or  south  of 
Espevser.  Of  this  there  are  many  instances.  Hence  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  point  on  which  the  question  turns,  is  not  whether  the  winds 
blow  toward  or  from  the  coast,  but  what  kind  of  wind  prevails  at  the 
respective  fishing-places,  since  a  wind  blowing  toicard  the  coast  may  in 
one  place  have  the  same  effect  as  a  wind  blowing  from  the  coast  in 
another. 

The  temperature  of  the  air  also  exercises  great  influence  on  tbe  fish- 
eries ;  and  this  influence  has  never  been  underrated,  but  has  always 
been  taken  into  accouut,  although  certain  phenomena  observed  in  the 
fisheries  can  not  yet  sufficiently  be  explained  by  it.  Boeck  drew  atten- 
tion to  the  influence  of  temperature  in  his  first  report  of  18G1.  It  has 
been  observed  from  time  immemorial,  that  the  fisheries  are  not  as 
abundant  in  cold  weather  as  when  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  disturbed  by 
southerly  winds.  This  has  been  proved  by  the  experience  of  several 
centuries,  but  only  recently  have  attempts  been  made  to  investigate 
this  whole  matter  thoroughly  and  scientifically.  Even  Cuvier  and  Val- 
enciennes in  their  great  work  on  fish,  in  which  the  herring  is  discussed 
at  much  length,  do  not  enter  upon  this  question.  Dutch  scientists  were 
the  first  to  devote  more  attention  to  temperature,  by  making  a  series 
of  observations,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  during  what  degrees  of 
temperature  the  herring-fishery  is  most  prosperous.  They  found  that 
more  fish  were  caught  at  a  temperature  of  from  12°  to  14°  Celsius,  than 
at  any  other  time.  The  Dutch  herring-boats  are  therefore  always  sup- 
plied with  a  thermometer,  which  enables  them  to  place  the  net  at  a 


104        EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHEPJES. . 

proper  depth.  Professor  Miiuter  discovered  also  that  the  higher  the 
temperature  of  the  water  the  deeper  the  herringkeep  during  the  spawning- 
time,  for  which  reason  the  nets  on  the  coasts  of  Pouierania  are  set  deeper 
in  summer  than  in  spring.  Dming  his  stay  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway, 
Boeck  constantly  noticed  the  temperature,  and  noted  down  a  large  number 
of  observations  during  different  years.  In  his  report  for  1SG2  he  showed 
the  influence  of  cold  on  the  herring-fishery.  In  that  year  he  examined 
the  temperature  at  different  depths.  The  weather  had  been  calm,  but 
a  severe  coid  had  prevailed  for  some  time,  by  which  the  temperature  of 
the  sea  at  a  depth  of  10  fathoms  had  been  brought  as  low  as  li°  or  2° 
Reaumur,  while  at  a  depth  of  30  fathoms  it  was  from  3°  to  4°.  He  no- 
ticed that  same  year,  while  present  at  the  rich  herring-fisheries  near 
Rovser  and  Skaareholmene,  that  some  fishing-implements,  which  were 
placed  at  a  depth  of  about  10  fathoms  below  the  surface,  and  were  held 
there  by  means  of  buoys,  caught  but  few  fish ;  while  others,  placed  at 
the  bottom  in  a  depth  of  from  50  to  GO  fathoms,  caught  a  very  large 
number.  Seine-fishing  was  also  very  unproductive  during  that  year, 
although  the  schools  of  herring  came  in  in  enormous  numbers.  The 
same  was  the  case  in  18G4,  and  similar  observations  might  be  quoted 
indefinitely.  If  we  examine  these  accounts  we  find  frequent  references 
to  the  fact  that  the  cold  prevented  the  herring  from  approaching.  Thus 
it  was  extraordinarily  cold  in  1855,  lilfe wise  iu  1800;  and  in  1853  the 
eold  was  so  severe  that  the  bays  and  inlets  on  the  outer  coast  were 
frozen  over,  which  happens  but  very  rarely,  and  presupposes  a  long  pe- 
riod of  very  low  temperature.  The  cold  was  so  severe  that  the  fisher- 
men were  obliged,  after  emptying  their  nets,  to  lay  them  in  the  water 
to  prevent  their  freezing  quite  stiff,  and  iu  order  that  they  might  have 
thern  ready  for  use  again  in  the  evening.  The  herring -fishery  was,  not- 
withstanding this,  successful,  although  the  herring  for  quite  a  longtime 
remained  out  in  the  deep  sea  and  would  not  approach  the  coast.  A 
great  many  instances  might  also  be  quoted  from  observations  made  in 
former  years  and  collected  by  Boeck.  It  will  suffice  to  mention  a  few 
years,  such  as  1825,  1826, 1828, 1829, 1836, 1840, 1841,  and  1844.  In  sev- 
eral of  these  vears  the  cold  was  so  severe  that  nearlv  all  the  bavs  were 
covered  with  ice,  and  iu  some  years  even  the  Bay  of  Bergen  was  so 
much  obstructed  that  all  communication  was  interrupted.  Still  the 
fisheries  were  good,  and  iu  some  years  even  unusually  so,  although  the 
sea  had  grown  cool  at  a  far  greater  depth  and  to  a  greater  degree  than 
during  the  preceding  year  ;  for  then  the  cold  was  not  particularly  se- 
vere, and  the  temperature,  according  to  the  observation  of  the  govern- 
ment inspector,  was  1°  at  a  depth  of  10  fathoms.  Boeck  thinks,  there- 
fore, that  the  failure  of  the  fisheries  the  year  before  cannot  at  all  be 
ascribed  to  the  cold.  He  found  that  in  calm  weather  the  herring  seldom 
approaches  the  coast  except  iu  small  numbers  when  chased  by  the  had- 
dock, while  the  chief  fishery  always  commences  when  a  southwesterly  or 
northwesterly  wind  has  stirred  up  the  sea  and  mingled  the  lower  and 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  105 

warmer  water  with  the  upper  and  colder.  Of  this,  Boeck  gives  many 
examples,  partly  from  his  own  observations  and  partly  from  those  of 
the  government  inspector.  It  is  important  to  keep  this  in  mind  when- 
ever the  influence  of  the  cold  is  spoken  of. 

From  all  this  it  will  be  seen  that  neither  the  character  of  tbe  bottom 
of  the  sea,  nor  the  direction  or  force  of  the  wind,  nor  the  temperature  of 
the  air  and  sea  by  themselves,  exercise  an  influence  on  the  fisheries  suffi- 
ciently great  to  cause  their  cessation,"  but  that  these  various  influences 
only  modify  the  time  and  place  of  the  fisheries.  The  schools  of  herring 
that  come  in  from  the  ocean,  seek  the  coast  notwithstanding  these  influ- 
ences. 

The  question,  '"'  Where  does  the  spring-herring  keep  itself,  when  it  is 
not  uear  the  coast  V '  has  been  discussed  from  the  earliest  times.  Shortly 
before  the  fisheries  commence,  the  herring  may  be  seen  approaching  the 
coast,  followed  by  whales,  and  the  sea  then  frequently  appears  quite 
green  from  the  large  masses  of  fish  seen  near  the  surface.  After  the 
herring  has  spawned  and  gone  out  into  the  sea,  it  disappears.  In  very 
early  times  it  was  supposed  that  the  Polar  Sea  was  the  true  home  of  the 
herring.  The  Dutch  fishermen  on  the  Shetland  Islands  noticed  that  it 
came  from  the  north.  It  also  approached  the  coasts  of  Scotland  from 
the  north.  The  Irish  saw  the  herring  pass  their  coasts  from  north  to 
south,  and  the  same  was  observed  on  the  coasts  of  Norway.  It  is  there- 
fore not  at  all  astonishing  that  its  home  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  north, 
and  that  the  Polar  Sea,  which,  according  to  the  strange  fancies  of  those 
times,  hid  so  many  wonders,  was  the  place  from  which  the  herring  emi- 
grated every  year.  The  English  writer,  Dodd,  in  a  book  entitled  "Atlas 
Maritimus  et  Commercialism*  published  in  1728,  started  the  theory  that 
the  herring  emigrates  from  the  Polar  Sea.  But  this  theory  is  brought 
out  in  a  clearer  and  more  attractive  manner  in  a  work  by  Johann  Ander- 
son, burgomaster  of  Hamburg,  and  well  known  for  his  learning,  entitled 
*'  .Wachrichten  von  Island,  Grbnlandf1  &c,  Hamburg,  174G,  {Account  of  Ice- 
land, Greenland,  <£c.,)  which  appeared  in  a  Danish  translation  in  the  jear 
1781.  He  first  remarks  that  several  well-known  persons  had  seen  her- 
ring and  the  bones  of  herring  lying  on  the  rocks  of  the  coast  of  Green- 
land. He  then  shows  that  the  whale,  the  seal,  and  the  porpoise,  whose 
favorite  food  is  the  herring,  have  their  home  in  those  Arctic  seas,  and 
that,  therefore,  the  herring  must  be  found  there.  Far  up  toward  the 
North  Pole,  under  the  broad,  icy  plain,  which  never  melts,  the  herring 
was  supposed  to  live  quietly,  because  neither  whales,  sharks,  nor  men 
could  pursue  it  there ;  there  it  also  spawned  and  increased  in  such  num- 
bers that  the  Polar  Sea  became  too  narrow  for  them,  and  thence  colonies, 
compelled  by  actual  necessity,  emigrated  toward  the  south,  just  as  bees 
swarm  in  summer.  When  such  a  school  of  herring  issues  forth  from  its 
icy  home,  it  is  immediately  attacked  by  its  enemies,  who  pursue  it  dur- 


*  See,  also,  Dodd  (J.  S.)  Essay  towards  a  Natural  History  of  the  Herring.    Loudon* 
1752.— Ed. 


10G       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISII   AND    FISHERIES. 

iug  its  passage  to  the  south,  and  finally  drive  it  into  the  bays  and  inlets 
where  it  is  caught.  During  its  passage  southward,  it  dispatches  two 
flank  divisions,  the  right  flank  toward  the  coast  of  Iceland,  of  whose 
fate  Anderson  does  not  speak  in  his  book,  while  he  does  state  that  the 
great  mass  of  the  herring,  when  near  the  coast  of  Norway,  divides  into 
two  columns,  one  of  which  goes  toward  the  coasts  of  Scotland  and  En- 
gland, where  it  is  for  the  greater  part  captured  by  the  fishermen  of  those 
countries ;  while  some  are  driven  partly  along  the  eastern  coast  of  En- 
gland, and  partly  along  the  coast  of  Ireland,  till  they  finally  meet  in  the 
English  Channel,  where  they  are  caught  by  the  French  fishermen.  That 
school,  which,  it  was  conjectured,  passed  toward  Norway,  continued  its 
journey  along  the  coast  of  that  country.  Some  pass  through  the  sound 
and  belts  into  the  Baltic,  where  the  Swedes  and  Prussians  are  ready 
to  receive  them ;  another  portion  of  the  school  follows  the  coasts  of  Den- 
mark, Germauj',  and  Holland,  while  the  remainder  reach  the  Atlantic, 
where  they  disappear. 

This  theory  became  so  popular  that  it  has  been  handed  down  from 
one  writer  to  another,  even  to  our  time,  and  has  intrenched  itself  even 
in  text-books  on  natural  history.  It  met,  however,  with  some  opposi- 
tion, and  Bloch,  who  published  in  1782  his  book  entitled  -;  Ockonomische 
NaturgescMchte  der  Fische  Deutschlands,"  {Economical  Natural  History 
of  the  Fish  of  Germany,)  a  work  very  remarkable  for  its  time,  raises 
many  weighty  objections  to  it.  He  first  showed  that  the  herring  is  not 
so  common  in  the  northern  countries  as  was  generally  supposed,  and 
that  it  was  impossible  for  it  to  travel  so  many  thousands  of  mdes  in 
the  short  period  between  spring  and  autumn.  Besides,  the  herring  is 
found  at  all  times  of  the  year  in  the  Baltic  and  on  the  coasts  of  Nor- 
way, and  the  Dutch  continue  their  herring-fisheries  even  throughout 
the  entire  winter  until  spring.  It  would  also  be  very  remarkable  if  just 
the  smallest  herring  should  make  the  longest  journey  far  down  to  the 
Baltic.  But  as  Bloclfs  books  were  not  popular,  being  only  intended 
for  scientists,  his  opinions  did  not  become  widely  known.  An  Amer- 
ican by  the  name  of.  Gilpin,*  went  even  beyond  Anderson  in  promul- 
gating another  fanciful  migration  theory.  He  showed  that  'herring 
were  also  caught  in  America,  and  that  here  it  first  approached  the 
coast  of  Florida,  and  then,  passing  along  Virginia,  went  as  far  as  New- 
foundland, moving,  therefore,  from  south  to  north,  and  thus  differing 
from  its  direction  in  Europe.  The  American  herring  must,  therefore, 
come  from  schools  out  of  the  English  Channel ;  and  his  theory  was  that 
the  herring,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  described  in  his  migration  an  ellipse 
of  not  less  than  forty-seven  degrees  of  latitude,  crossing  the  Atlantic 
twice  a  year,  the  first  time  to  escape  the  strong  heat  in  the  south,  and 

*  Gilpin,  John,  "  Oil  the  Annual  Passage  of  Herrings,"  Transactions  Amer.  Phil.  Soc., 
II,  (1786,)  p.  236-239. 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  107 

the  second  time  the  severe  cold  in  the  north.*  Kroyer  thinks  that  if  there 
wereauy  probability  in  this  theory,  the  herring  might  justly  be  compared 
to  the  Wandering  Jew,  who  travels  unceasingly  without  finding  rest. 
This  theory,  however,  has  not  found  many  advocates  outside  of  Amer- 
ica,t  aud  is  of  no  value  since  it  has  been  proved  that  the  American  her- 
ring is  a  species  different  from  ours. 

Anderson's  theory  was  violently  attacked  by  Nilsson  in  182G  and  1828, 
who,  like  Block,  proved  that  the  herring  could  not  possible  live  deep 
under  the  ice  in  the  Polar  Sea,  and  much  less  spawn,  as  the  roe 
would  there  miss  the  most  essential  conditions  for  its  development,  viz, 
light  aud  warmth.  Although  the  herring  was  seen  to  come  from  the 
north,  it  need  not  necessarily  come  from  the  Polar  Sea,  as  it  could  not 
possibly  travel  the  long  distance  of  more  than  a  thousand  miles,  as  An- 
derson maintained  that  it  did.  He  showed,  besides,  that  on  the  coasts 
of  Sweden  there  was  found  a  great  number  of  varieties,  which  never 
leave  that  part  of  the  sea  where  they  are  born,  (such  as  the  "  Striim- 
miug,"  which  is  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,)  while  farther  toward  the 
south  other  varieties  of  the  herring  are  found,  those  from  the  western 
coast  being  easily  distinguished  from  those  of  the  southern.  On  the 
coast  of  Norway,  also,  different  species  of  herring  are  found,  which 
again  differ  from  the  Scotch  and  Dutch  herring.  Nilsson,  therefore, 
thought  it  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  herring  does  not  come  from  one 
great  common  tribe,  but  that  every  race  has  its  home  outside  that 
coast  where  it  goes  to  spawn;  and  that  it  has  its  regular  dwelling-place 
in  the  open  sea  near  such  coast.  He  thus  thinks  that  the  Gottenburg 
herring,  which  came  into  the  inlets  of  Bohuslau  in  such  extraordinary 
large  numbers  prior  to  the  year  1808,  aud  of  which,  e.  g.,  in  the  year  1870, 
more  than  one  and  a  half  million  tons  were  caught,  (which,  by  the  way, 
was  only  a  very  insignificant  portion  of  the  whole  mass  of  herring  which 
had  gathered  there,)  has  its  permanent  home  in  the  Skagcrak,  which  is 
neither  very  deep  nor  of  very  great  extent.  Ouvier  and  Valenciennes, 
also,  showed  that  on  the  northern  coast  of  France,  aud  not  far  apart, 
there  were  two  such  tribes  of  herring,  each  of  which  had  its  separate 
home  in  certain  basins  of  the  open  sea,  and  that  these  tribes  never  in- 
termingled. Hunter  is  also  able  to  show  that  there  is  on  the  coast  of 
Pomerania  one  tribe  of  herring  which  spawns  in  the  autumn,  and  an- 
other which  spawns  in  the  spring,  differing  greatly  from  each  other, 
although  the  basins  of  the  sea  near  the  coast  where  they  live  are 
scarcely  more  than  a  mile  apart.  Another  proof  of  the  theory  that 
every  race  of  herring  has  its  special  dwelling-place  in  the  sea,  which 
it  does  not  leave,  except  when  it  approaches  the  coast  for  the  purpose 

*  This  "  theory  "  was  the  result  of  a  confusion  of  two  very  different  fishes  under  the 
same  name — Culjpca  harengus  and  Pomolohus  pscudoharengus — one  of  which  is  the  true 
sea-herring,  and  the  other  an  anadromous  species  whose  ascent  of  the  rivers  coincides 
with  the  advancing  temperature  of  the  new  year,  and  therefore  with  the  latitude — 
S.  F.  B. 

t  The  only  avowed  advocate  of  the  "theory"  in  America  was  the  originator. — Ed. 


108       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  spawning,  is  the  fact  that  the  kerriug  is  not  able  to  swim  very  far, 
since  neither  the  structure  of  its  muscles  nor  fins  is  adapted  for  this 
purpose.  Immediately  outside  the  coast  there  are  small  banks  on  which 
the  fishermen  catch  cod  and  other  fish,  and  from  these  banks  the  bot- 
tom often  shelves  off  with  great  abruptness  to  a  depth  of  sea  which  in 
some  places  reaches  from  four  to  five  hundred  fathoms,  and  which,  in 
the  shape  of  a  deep  channel,  varying  in  breadth  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
miles,  stretches  from  Soguefjord  in  a  southerly  direction  along  the  coast 
of  Norway,  making  a  sharp  turn  at  Lindesnaes,  and  extending  from  that 
point  to  the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  Ohristiauia.  In  some  places  its  depth 
is  from  four  to  five  hundred  fathoms,  and  deep  channels  branch  of  from 
it  toward  the  mouths  of  the  great  bays  and  inlets  on  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way. In  the  Skagerak  this  deep  channel  is  much  narrower,  and  reaches 
its  greatest  depth  in  the  neighborhood  of  Arendal,  while  higher  banks 
stretch  along  as  far  as  the  northern  point  of  Jutland.  It  is  found  near 
Fedge  that,  at  a  distance  of  twenty  miles  from  land,  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  rises  up  to  70  fathoms,  and  immediately  afterward  to  between  GO 
and  50,  and  all  sailors  know  well  how  the  North  Sea  rises  toward  the 
coasts  of  England. 

North  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Sagnefjord  to  the  Shet- 
land Islands,  the  deep  sea  extends  from  the  coasts  of  Norway  as  far  as 
Iceland  and  Greenland,  and  only  north  of  Stat  are  banks  again  found 
outside  the  coast.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  herring  may  very  well 
live  in  that  great  and  deep  sea  when  they  do  not  linger  near  the  coast. 
That  they  live  there,  may  also  be  argued  from  the  fact  that  Nilson  has 
found  large  quantities  of  herring  in  the  stomachs  of  haddock  caught  out 
in  the  deep  sea.  Boeck  has  likewise  found  proofs  that  the  herring 
lives  in  very  deep  water,  when  not  near  the  coast.  He  has  repeatedly 
examined  the  stomachs  of  herring,  and,  though  he  fouud  but  few 
remains  of  food,  there  were,  among  these,  fragments  of  crustaceous  ani- 
mals living  in  the  great  deep.  By  means  of  the  dredge  he  has  caught 
the  animals  at  various  depths,  from  the  surface  to  a  point  three  hundred 
fathoms  below  it,  and  has  specially  examined  those  species  which  serve  as 
food  for  fish.  Through  investigations  continued  during  several  years, 
he  fouud  that  certain  species  of  crustaceous  animals  (copcpods)  always 
keep  at  a  certain  depth,  and  iu  such  a  manner  that  those  living  near 
the  surface  are  never  found  at  a  depth  of  fifty  or  sixty  fathoms ;  and 
that  those  which  live  in  the  deep  are  never  found  near  the  surface.  The 
euchseta  kind  forms  the  favorite  food  of  the  spring  herring,  when  it  is 
not  near  the  coast  of  Norway ;  and  this  is  never  found  at  a  depth  of 
less  than  two  or  three  hundred  fathoms.  The  herring  must,  therefore, 
in  Boeck's  opinion,  live  at  that  depth,  which  is  not  very  far  from  the 
coast.  He  was  several  times  informed  by  fishermen,  especially  in  1801, 
18G1,  and  1SGG,  that  they,  when  at  a  distance  from  the  coast,  varying 
between  Hyg  and  twenty  English  miles,  and  in  different  places,  such  as 
to  the  northwest  of  Utsire  and  Sartoro,  had  sailed  through  great  masses 


THE    NORWEGIAN   HERRING-FISHERIES.  109 

of  herring,  which,  as  they  thought,  had  risen  from  the  bottom  of  tbe 
sea  in  order  to  move  toward  the  coast.  Some  fishermen  also  showed 
him  herring  which  had  been  cast  on  deck  by  the  waves.  Boeck  is  dis- 
posed to  concur  in  Nilson's  opinion  that  the  herring  never  makes  long 
journeys,  but  that  that  school,  which,  during  the  time  of  the  southern 
herring-fishery  seeks  the  coast  of  Norway,  keeps  out  in  the  deep  near 
that  coast.  Cuvierand  Valenciennes  are  of  the  same  opinion,  for  they 
have,  as  already  mentioned,  proved  that  on  the  northern  coast  of  France, 
two  species  of  herring  are  found  not  very  far  aparr,  which  are  easily 
distinguished  from  each  other  in  the  Paris  fish-market.  These  herring 
are  brought  to  Paris  from  two  villages  on  the  coast  adjacent  to  each 
other,  and  they  are  never  mistaken  for  each  other.  Their  abodes  are 
two  different  basins  near  the  coast. 

Bceck  then  proceeds  to  speak  of  tbe  causes  which  impel  the  herring 
to  approach  the  shore.  It  is  well  known  that  it  comes  there  to  spawn ; 
and  daring  the  spring-fisheries  the  largest  number  caught  are  herring 
about  to  spawn.  The  stomach  of  the  herring  is  empty  during  this  whole 
period,  so  that  it  evidently  cannot  be  its  intention  to  seek  food  at  that 
time.  Its  desire  to  propagate  dominates  for  the  time  being  over  all  other 
desires,  and  it  seeks  places  against  which  it  can  press  its  abdomen,  and 
thus  make  the  spawn  flow  more  readily.  •  It  does  not  at  all  avoid  the 
nets,  but  seems  rather  to  seek  them,  of  which  fact  interesting  proofs  may 
frequently  be  seen,  such  as,  that  the  herring  will  squeeze  itself  into  the 
meshes  of  the  net  if  they  are  too  small  to  receive  it  easily.  The  entire 
herring-fishery  of  Norway  is  limited  to  catching  the  herring  when  about 
to  spawn,  which  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  fact  that  in  almost  every 
other  country  it  is  supposed  that  catching  fish  during  the  spawning  sea- 
son ruins  the  fishery.  In  every  roe-herring  which  is  caught  CS,000  eggs 
are  preveuted  from  developing,  aud  it  may  easily  be  imagined  that  enor- 
mous numbers  of  unborn  fish  are  destroyed  by  the  spriug-fisheries.  If 
the  sea  did  not  contain  such  incredible  numbers  of  them,  one  years 
fishery  would  entirely  destroy  the  whole  species.  The  empty  herring 
never  approach  the  nets,  and  are  caught  only  occasionally,  since  they  no 
longer  feel  the  need  of  pressing  against  anything. 

In  the  opinion  of  several  scientists,  such  as  Professors  Sundevall  and 
Loven,  every  herring  is  instinctively  led  to  returp  to  the  place  where  it 
was  born,  although  it  be  only  an  island  of  the  smallest  dimensions ;  and 
that  it  seeks  another  place  for  spawning  only  when  driven  away.  This 
opinion  is  chiefly  based  on  observations  of  the  same  habitin  the  salmon, 
which  always  seeks  the  identical  place  of  its  birth. 

A  writer  in  the  u2Iorgenbladct,v  (The  Morning  Journal,)  some  years 
ago,  endeavored  to  prove  that  those  herring  which,  six  years  before, 
were  born  in  a  certain  spot,  returned  to  it,  and  that  the  fishery  would 
always  be  abundant  in  the  same  place  after  the  above-mentioned  period, 
and  cited  as  evidence  some  extracts  from  the  government  inspectors' 
accounts.    This  proved  a  very  interesting  subject  for  investigation  to 


110       REPORT    CF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Boeck,  and  be  determined  to  make  it  very  thorough  and  extend  it  over 
a  great  many  localities.  He  soon  arrived  at  another  result,  by  using, 
first,  the  accounts  of  the  government  inspectors ;  and,  secondly,  the 
very  minute  information  regarding  the  fisheries  which  he  bad  collected 
prior  to  1852.  By  thus  marking  all  the  places  where  herring-fisheries 
had  been  carried  on,  and  by  noting  every  year  where  the  herring  had 
approached  the  coast,  he  found  that  there  were  so  many  exceptions  to 
these  six-year  periods,  that  in  several  places  their  number  by  far  ex- 
ceeded the  rule ;  and  the  same  was  the  case  in  any  period  selected  at 
random  from  one  to  seven  years.  Boeck  can,  therefore,  see  no  law  of 
nature  in  this,  and  thinks  that  the  herring  does  not  return  to  the  places 
from  which  it  came  with  the  same  certainty  as  the  salmon  does.  The 
approach  of  the  herring,  in  his  opinion,  depends  on  the  three  conditions 
mentioued  above,  viz,  the  channels,  the  wind,  and  the  temperature.  The 
age  of  the  herring  when  it  approaches  the  coast  to  spawn  for  the  first 
time,  belongs  to  that  line  of  investigations  which  Boeck  has  not  been 
able  to  complete.  Nowhere,  as  yet,  has  this  been  accurately  ascertained. 
Some  have  maintained,  but  without  being  able  to  furnish  proof,  that 
the  age  of  the  herring,  when  it  spawns  for  the  first  time  on  the 
coast,  varies  between  one-half  and  seven  years.  Boeck  is  in  doubt, 
whether  the  herring  when  fully  capable  of  spawning  is  exactly  six  years 
of  age;  but  he  has  likewise  no  means  of  establishing  his  own  opinion 
that  it  is  only  between  three  and  four  years  old.  He  merely  remarks 
that  too  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  fact  that  the  herring  when 
it  spawns  has  by  no  means  reached  its  full  size,  and  he  has  found  her- 
ring eight  inches  long  which  contained  roe  and  milk. 

Boeck  also  spoke  of  the  so-called  "signs?  which  in  earlier  times  were 
closely  observed,  but  to  which,  at  present,  little  importance  is  attached. 
In  those  early  days  fishermen  thought  that  all  the  phenomena  which 
they  observed  in  the  sky  and  the  sea  must  necessarily  have  some  con- 
nection with  their  most  important  occupation;  and  we  find  that  there 
were  autumn,  winter,  and  spring  signs.  Some  of  these  signs  for  the 
autumn  and  winter  consisted  in  the  color  of  the  sea,  the  redness  of  the 
sky,  the  kind  of  lower  animals  with  which  the  sea  swarmed,  and  even 
the  roaring  of  the  whales,  and  the  rising  of  the  salmon  in  the  mountain- 
streams.  The  well-kuown  Norwegian  clergyman,  Be  v.  0.  Hertzberg, 
has,  in  the  "Budstilcken"  (the  Messenger)  for  1821,  written  an  essay  on 
this  subject,  entitled  "0»  the  Spring-herring  and  the  Signs  of  its  Coming." 
At  present,  however,  people  have  lost  all  trust  in  most  of  these  signs, 
and  rely  only  on  appearances  furnished  by  the  whale,  by  certain  birds, 
and  by  the  codfish,  which,  in  many  respects,  furnish  important  tokens 
of  the  herring's  approach.  When  the  time  of  the  herring  fishery  is  near, 
different  kinds  of  sea-gulls  gather  in  larger  numbers  than  usual ;  but  it 
is  not  until  the  herring  comes  near  the  shore  and  near  the  surface  of  the 
water  that  these  birds  can  find  food  among  them,  and  thereby  indicate, 
with  greater  accuracy,  the  locality  of  the  fish.    The  case  is  different 


THE    NOEWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  Ill 

with  the  whale  and  the  codfish,  whose  element  is  the  sea,  and  who  can 
follow  the  herring  far  helow  the  surface.  These  therefore  give  more 
trustworthy  signs  of  the  herring's  whereabouts  than  the  birds;  but,  in 
pursuing  the  schools  of  herring,  there  is  also  a  difference  between  the 
whale  and  the  codfish  which  it  may  be  interesting  to  notice.  The  whale 
can  easily  be  distinguished,  even  when  far  out  in  the  sea,  as  it  is  obliged 
to  come  frequently  to  the  surface  for  the  purpose  of  breathing,  while  the 
codfish  always  keeps  below  the  surface,  and  can  only  be  seen  when  caught. 
Both  of  these,  while  following  the  "herring  mountain,"  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  food,  may,  however,  furnish  useful  signs  forjudging  of  the 
probable  condition  of  the  herring  fishery.  The  whale  invariably  keeps 
outside  the  great  schools  of  herring,  along  the  edges,  never  attempting 
to  penetrate  auy  farther.  It  is,  therefore,  an  auspicious  sign  for  the 
fishermen  when  they  see  whales  in  a  wide  circle,  round  some  well-known 
fishing-place.  They  then  know  that  the  herring  are  approaching  the 
shore  in  dense  masses,  and  they  may  justly  expect  a  rich  harvest.  In 
the  year  1862,  Boeck  saw  whales,  in  a  long  and  imposing  line,  stretch 
from  the  northwest  of  Rovrer  as  far  as  Utsire,  and  on  the  following  day 
the  fisheries  commenced  near  Rovajr  and  along  the  entire  coast.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  whales  are  seen  to  spread  over  a  large  area,  or 
in  small  numbers,  it:  is  safe  to  predict  that  the  herring  will  not  approach 
certain  places  in  large  masses,  but  that  they  will  be  scattered,  and  thus 
the  schools  be  smaller.  If,  after  the  fishery  has  been  going  on  for  some 
time,  the  whales  are  seen  near  the  coast  in  the  spawning  places,  it  is 
absolutely  certain  that  the  herring  are  leaving  the  coast,  although  on 
that  day  fishing  may  be  very  good.  In  the  same  year,!  1862,  remarkable 
examples  of  the  truthfulness  of  these  phenomena  were  witnessed.  The 
codfish  does  not  exercise  the  same  influence  on  the  masses  of  herring 
that  the  whale  does.  Being  a  very  greedy  fish  of  prey,  it  plunges  into 
the  school  of  herring,  scatters  them,  if  possible,  surrounds  the  fright- 
ened fish  on  all  sides,  pursues  them  fiercely,  and  often  drives  them  to- 
ward the  shore  loug  before  the  chief  mass  of  the  school  reaches  there. 
The  approach  of  such  smaller  scattered  schools,  before  the  fisheries 
commence,  are  termed,  by  the  Norwegian  fishermen,  "sejejag,"  (codfish- 
chase.)  When  the  school  approaches  the  shore,  the  codfish  is  found 
not  only  on  its  edge,  but  in  the  middle  of  it;  and  if  codfish  are  caught 
having  herring  in  their  stomachs,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  herring  fishery  is 
near  at  hand.  Of  the  greediuess  of  the  codfish,  and  its  power  to  scatter 
the  herring-schools,  amusing  illustrations  may  frequently  be  seen  in  the 
full  seines.  This  sight  is,  however,  more  amusing  to  the  spectator  than 
to  the  owner  of  the  seine,  as  it  frequently  happens  that  the  scared  her- 
ring press  the  seine  down  so  heavily  as  to  allow  them  to  escape.  Seine- 
fishermen  are,  therefore,  afraid  of  the  codfish.  If  fche  schools  are  already 
scattered  before  coming  near  the  shore,  the  codfish  is  found  mixed  with 
the  herring  during  the  whole  fishing  season;  and  it  is  not  a  sign  of 


112        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

favorable  fishing  -when,  in  the  beginning  of  the  season,  codfish  are 
caught  with  the  herring. 

The  herring  may  also  be  observed  spawning  within  the  nets ;  and, 
when  it  is  free,  it  spawns  in  inlets  and  on  the  large  flat  places  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  which  are  covered  with  rough  gravel,  ("  flak,")  where 
the  roe  sometimes  lies  in  such  enormous  quantities  as  to  fill  the  dredge  en- 
tirely, when  cast  in  such  places.  This  roe  does  not,  however,  lie  loose, 
but  is  firmly  pasted  to  the  bottom  by  a  peculiar  glutinous  substance 
which  hardens  in  the  course  of  half  an  hour,  and  which,  with  the  rough 
gravel,  forms  large  cakes.  It  may  happen  that  violent  storms  disturb 
the  bottom  to  such  a  degree  as  to  tear  off  the  masses  of  roe,  and  Boeck 
relates  a  very  interesting  case  of  this  kind.  One  year  such  an  enor- 
mous mass  of  herring-roe  was  driven  by  storms  up  the  Jteder  Bay  that 
cart-loads  of  it  were  taken  away  to  be  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  the  fields, 
and  hogs  also  fed  on  it  for  many  days.  In  these  masses  of  roe  the  eggs 
have  a  certain  invariable  position,  with  an  opening  in  the  shell  of  the 
egg,  and  the  so-called  "  micropyle"  turned  upward,  so  that  the  fructi- 
fying male  semen  can  enter  easily.  The  male  fish  pour  their  milt  (se- 
men) over  the  masses  of  roe  which  have  been  deposited  by  the  females, 
and  it  is  therefore  evident  that  in  their  approach  the  females  precede 
the  males.  In  the  commencement  of  the  fisheries  more  females  will  be 
caught,  and  toward  the  end  more  males.  This  was  the  case  near 
Skaareholmene,  and  may  be  a  fact  of  practical  value.  After  there  had 
been  very  good  fishing  for  some  time,  one  day  the  greater  part  of  the 
herring  brought  to  the  salting-houses  were  found  to  be  male  fish.  Boeck 
was  therefore  of  the  opinion  that  the  approach  of  the  herring  had 
ceased.  This  was  really  the  case,  and  it  was  not  at  all  necessary  to 
explain  this  circumstance,  as  was  attempted  at  the  time,  by  a  steamer 
having  scared  away  the  herring  by  the  noise  of  its  machinery. 

Boeck  did  not  undertake  to  describe  minutely  the  development  of  the 
embryo  in  all  its  stages,  although  it  forms  a  subject  for  exceedingly  in- 
teresting investigation,  to  observe  how  it  is  formed  from  the  egg',  how 
the  organs  by  degrees  grow  together  ;  how  the  heart  begins  to  beat  and 
the  blood  to  flow.  But  as  all  this  could  not  throw  any  more  light  on 
the  main  question,  viz,  "  whether  the  spring  fisheries  are  to  disappear 
from  the  southern  fishing-places,"  Boeck  passed  over  it  very  briefly. 
He  did  say,  however,  that  when  the  herring  emerges  from  the  egg  it 
differs  so  much  in  its  shape  from  the  grown  herring  that  it  resembles 
rather  an  eel;  and  even  after  it  is  a  month  old  its  shape  is  not  at  all 
like  that  of  the  mature  herring.  In  fact,  the  difference  between  the 
young  and  the  old  fish  is  even  much  greater  than  that  existing  between 
different  species  of  herring. 

Boeck  also  referred-  to  a  few  species  of  herriug,  concerning  which 
opinions  have  been  divided,  viz,  the  great  herring  and  the  spring  her- 
ring, lie  exhibited  a  drawing  of  a  great  herring  from  Laugenoes, 
and  another  of  a  large   spring-herring   from  Brono.     With  regard  to 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES-  113 

the  shape  of  the  great  herring,  it  will  be  found  that  the  upper  out- 
line from  the  end  of  the  head  to  the  beginning  of  the  back  fin  ^ 
curved,  while  in  the  spring-herring  it  is  straight.  Its  greatest  height 
also  is,  in  proportion  to  its  length,  more  than  that  of  the  spring-herring; 
and  if  two  equally  large  specimens  are  compared,  it  will  be  seen  that  in 
the  great  herring  the  back  immediately  in  front  of  the  back  finis  much 
broader  than  that  of  the  spring-herriDg,  and  that  the  outline  of  the 
belly  in  the  latter  is  less  curved.  Boeck  has  not  been  able,  except  in 
these  respects,  to  discover  any  difference,  although  he  was  told  that, 
according  to  popular  opinion,  there  was  a  great  difference  between  these 
two  kinds  of  herring.  Several  years  ago  he  was  offered  an  opportunity 
in  Haugesund  to  examine  and  compare  both  kinds  with  great  minute- 
ness. A  merchant  from  Nordland  brought  a  quantity  of  great  herring 
to  Haugesund  to  be  exported.  The  government  officials  demanded  the 
usual  spring-herring  tax  on  these  fish,  which  the  merchant  refused  to 
pay,  as  they  were  not  spring-herring,  and  as  he  had  already  paid  tax 
on  them  in  Nordland.  The  government  officials  wished  in  this  case  that 
Boeck  would  furnish  some  sure  and  easily  marked  characteristics  by 
which  the  great  herring  could  be  distinguished  from  the  spring-herring. 
He  found  this  at  the  time  to  be  impracticable,  although  he  examined  a 
great  number  of  both  kinds.  But  when  he  heard  that  several  persons 
considered  themselves  capable  of  determining  in  what  the  difference 
consisted,  he  had  an  interview  with  them,  at  which  one  said  that  one 
important  difference  was,  that  the  membrane  of  the  belly  is  white  in  the 
great  herring,  but  black  in  the  spring-herring.  This,  however,  was 
found  to  be  Only  partially  the  case  in  some  pressed  and  salted  great 
herring,  while  with  all  the  others  not  the  least  difference  could  be  dis- 
covered. Another  said  there  was  a  difference  in  the  scales,  but  the  cause 
of  this  was  that  the  great  herring,  by  a  less  careful  treatment,  were  de- 
prived of  its  scales,  while  they  were  found  in  the  spring-herring.  There 
was  therefore  not  a  single  point  by  means  of  which  these  two  kinds  of 
herring  could  be  absolutely  distinguished,  with  the  exception  of  the  cir- 
cumstances mentioned  above,  and  these  were  due  simply  to  the  superior 
fatness  of  the  great  herring.  Some  time  after  this,  however,  a  charac- 
istic  was  mentioned  by  which  both  kinds  it  was  thought  could  easily  be 
discriminated.  It  was  affirmed  that  the  great  herring  was  destitute,  it 
was  said,  of  certain  bones  in  the  back,  which  the  spring-herring  had. 
Boeck,  on  hearing  this,  thought  it  highly  improbable,  as  the  structural 
forms  of  the  different  kinds  of  herring  had  been  carefully  examined,  and 
the  conclusion  reached  that  they  are  entirely  the  same  in  most  kinds 
inhabiting  the  northern  hemisphere ;  while  only  a  few  exceptions  are 
found  in  those  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  "procesus  spiwsus 
superior"  is  double  in  the  herring,  which  is  not  the  case,  for  example, 
with  the  haddock.  On  the  sides  of  this  bone  there  are  seen „  two  fine 
bones,  and  the  argument  turns  on  the  question  whether  these  are  found  or 
not.    If  we  examine,  however,  a  great  herring  minutely,  these  bones 


114       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

are  found  just  as  in  the  spring-herring;  but  they  are  frequently  over- 
looked, because  the  flesh  of  the  great  herring  is  much  fatter  and  looser, 
and  in  cutting  through  its  back  the  knife  will  easily  pass  through  these 
soft  bones;  while  in  the  spring-herring,  whose  flesh  is  less  fat  and  there- 
fore apparently  coarser  and  harder,  the  knife  will  not  pass  through  so 
readily,  but  will  glide  along  the  bone  when  it  meets  it.  In  carefully 
cutting  open  the  flsh,  the  two  bones  above  mentioned  will  easily  be  found 
in  both  kinds. 

Of  all  the  assumed  distinguishing  marks,  then,  between  the  great 
herring  and  the  spring-herring,  only  the  greater  fatness  of  the  former 
remains.    It  might  be  thought  that  this  fatness  is  caused  by  the  better 
food  which  the  great  herring  finds  at  the  greater  depth  of  its  abode ; 
but  this  cannot  be  the  sole  reason.    Indeed,  there  is  another  and  more 
important  cause  of  this  phenomenon.    In  seeing  the  great  herring  lying 
in  the  boat  after  it  has  been  caught,  one  is  immediately  struck  by  its 
smooth  and  beautiful  appearance ;  while  the  spring-herring,  under  the 
same  circumstances,  is  frequently  covered  with  a  filthy  slime,  a  mixture 
of  roe  and  milk,  and  in  pressing  the  belly  of  a  spring-herring  a  stream 
either  of  roe  or  milk  flows  out,  which  is  not  at  ail  the  case  with  the  great 
herring.    In  opening  both,  one  finds  that  in  the  female  spring-herring 
the  roe-bags  are  coarse-grained  and  soft ;  while  in  the  female  great  her- 
ring they  are  fine-grained  and  hard.    It  might  be  supposed  that  this  is 
a  specific  difference  between  them,  which,  however,  is  not  the  case,  since 
it  is  only  caused  by  the  roe-bags  being  more  developed  in  the  spring- 
herring  than  in  the  great  herring.    In  taking  the  roe-bag  of  the  spring- 
herring,  especially  that  of  a  salted  one,  as  its  structure  can  be  more  easily 
distinguished,  one  will  find,  on  opening  it  with  a  fine  pin,  that  the  roe- 
bags  are  not  what  one  would  suppose  them  to  be — bags  filled  with  eggs — 
but  that  their  structure  is  more  complicated.    With  the  aid  of  the  pin, 
one  will  easily  be  able  to  lay  open  and  follow  up  certain  fine  vessels  in 
which  the  eggs  seem  to  lie,  and  this  is  actually  the  case.    The  whole  roe- 
bag  consists  of  an  infinite  number  of  fine  tubes,  which,  perhaps,  can 
best  be  compared  to  greatly-elongated  fingered  gloves  lying  exceedingly 
close  to  each  other  and  connected  by  the  so-called  "binding  texure,' 
which  is  sometimes  hard  and  stiff  and  sometimes  soft.    Where,  to  con- 
tinue the  figure,  the  fingers  of  the  glove  would  join  that  space  which  is 
occupied  by  the  hand,  a  channel  leads  the  eggs  out  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  roe-bag,  and  its  continuation  is  another  channel  which 
opens  in  front  of  the  dorsal  fin.    In  the  finger-shaped  channels,  the  eggs 
develop  from  small  cells  which  gradually  grow  larger.    In  the  great 
herring,  the  egg-cells  are  very  small,  and  the  egg-tubes  are  connected 
with  each  other  by  a  thick  layer  of  binding  texture  filled  with  fine  blood- 
vessels.   In  the  spring-herring  the  egg-cells  are  more  than  four  times 
as  large ;  the  egg-tubes  are  very  thin  and  fine,  and  there  is  scarcely  any 
binding  texture.    In  breaking  the  roe-bag  of  the  great  herring  in  the 
middle,  it  seems  to  consist  only  of  a  somewhat  brittle-grained  mass  ; 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  115 

while  in  the  spring-herring,  it  is  softer  and  tougher.  There  is,  therefore, 
no  other  difference  between  the  roe-bags  of  the  great  herring  and  those 
of  the  spring-herriug,  than  that  the  roe-bag  of  the  former  is  less  de- 
veloped than  that  of  the  latter.  In  the  early  part  of  the  fisheries,  the 
roe-bag  of  the  great  herring  is  least  developed",  while  toward  the  end,  cer- 
tainly in  those  caught  near  Selsovik,  it  is  much  more  developed  and 
softer,  and  we  even  find  herring  among  them  which  are  ready  to  spawn. 
The  first  herring  is,  on  the  other  hand,  much  fatter  than  this  last  from 
Selsovik,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the  fatness  decreases  in  propor- 
tion as  the  sexual  organs  develop.  When  the  herring  comes  in  from 
the  sea  in  order  to  spawn,  it,  like  the  haddock,  takes  no  food  during  the 
spawning  time,  and  must,  therefore,  secure  the  material  which  is  neces- 
sary for  the  development  of  the  roe-bags  from  its  own  body ;  it  there- 
fore grows  thin  in  proportion  as  the  sexual  organs  develop. 

Boeck  met  with  a  beautiful  illustration  of  this  in  a  great  herring  from 
Skarsfjord,  six  miles  north  of  Tromso.  Among  the  great  herring  which 
he  had  occasion  to  examine  there,  he  saw  one  that  was  much  fatter  than 
the  other,  and  which,  on  account  of  its  size  and  beauty,  he  determined 
to  take  home  and  preserve  in  alcohol,  but  he  finally  opened  it  to  ascer- 
tain the  cause  of  its  excessive  fatness.  He  found  that  the  herring  was 
a  male,  and  that  the  right  milt  was  well  developed,  while,  on  the  left 
side,  only  small  traces  of  milt  were  found.  He  then  observed  that  an 
intestinal  worm  had  taken  up  its  abode  in  the  left  milt,  and  had  hin- 
dered its  development.  On  the  same  side  were  found  large  stripes  of 
fat  twisted  around  the  digestive  channels ;  and  as  this  herring  had  thus 
not  been  able  to  develop  its  whole  milt,  it  was  not  obliged  to  use  all 
the  fat  in  its  body,  so  that  some  of  it  lay  on  that  side  where  there  was 
room  for  it.  Hence  it  is  clear  that  in  this  respect  there  is  no  difference 
between  the  great  herring  and  the  spring-herring.  He  was  told  by  old 
seine-fishermen  that  during  the  first  year  of  the  spring-herring  fisheries 
this  herring  did  not  approach  the  coast  in  a  condition  ready  for  spawning, 
but  that  it  became  so  only  toward  the  end  of  the  fishery,  and  that  then 
the  herring  was  much  fatter  than  it  is  now.  Perhaps  there  is  a  similar 
change  in  store  for  the  great-herring  fisheries,  so  that  after  some  years 
the  great  herring  will  also  come  near  the  coast  better  prepared  for  spawn- 
ing, and  will  consequently  be  less  fat. 

Boeck  then  gave  his  opinion  on  the  probable  future  of  the  spring- 
herring  fisheries  in  the  so-called  southern  fishing-places,  where  he  had 
made  a  number  of  observations.  In  what  he  said  he  did  not  wish  to 
assume  the  character  of  a  prophet ;  he  would  only  give  facts,  both  for 
and  against,  and  he  would,  as  he  had  done  before,  leave  it  to  each  one 
of  his  hearers  to  draw  from  these  facts  the  conclusions  that  seemed  to 
him  most  correct.  Four  years  ago,  when  the  fishery  was  still  good,  he 
had  warned  people  not  to  put  too  much  faith  in  its  continued  success, 
and  not  to  expend  too  large  sums  in  the  erection  of  new  salting-houses, 
or  the  extension  of  old  ones.    At  that  time  his  warnings  were  received 


11G       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

unfavorably,  as  the  practical  fishermen  entertained  different  opinions, 
and  thought  that  scientific  investigations  were  of  no  use  as  regards  the 
spring-herring  fisheries.  Many  also  thought  that  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  say  anything  which  would  alarm  people  in  prosecuting  their 
labors.  Boeck,  nevertheless,  deemed  it  his  duty,  first  privately,  and 
tbeu  publicly,  in  his  work  "  On  Hie  Herring  and  the  Herring-Fisheries,"  to 
make  known  the  results  of  his  investigations,  which  he  thought  were  of 
great  importance  to  the  fishermen.  If  the  spring-herring  disappeared, 
and  his  predictions  thus  became  true,  he  deserved  the  thanks  of  all  for 
having  given  timely  warning  of  the  evil  impending ;  and  if  his  advice 
had  been  heeded,  thousands  of  dollars  might  have  been  saved,  which 
otherwise  must  be  lost  in  a  trade  that  was  doomed  to  disappear.  People 
ought  not  to  rely  too  confidently  on  the  spring-herring  fishery  as  a  con- 
stant source  of  income.  In  examining  the  history  of  the  fisheries,  it 
would  be  seen  that  at  times  they  had  been  very  productive,  and  then, 
again,  had  dwindled  down  to  almost  nothing.  The  fisheries  had  been 
abundant  during  the  reigns  of  Hakon  Adelsten  and  Olaf  Trygvason ; 
also,  from  1217  to  1340,  during  which  period  the  spring-herring  fishery 
was  of  such  importance  that  the  law  of  Magnus  Lagaboter  contains  sev- 
eral paragraphs  in  reference  to  them ;  then  again,  from  1559  to  1572 ; 
from  1640  to  1688  ;  from  1698  to  1784;  and  finally  our  period,  from  1807 
till  the  present  time.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  herring  can  disap- 
pear, and  that  the  fisheries  can  decrease.  But  now  comes  the  important 
question,  "  What  can  be  the  cause  of  this?"  Two  classes  of  causes  were 
assigned.  The  mass  of  herring  has  either  decreased  by  being  caught  in 
too  profuse  a  manner,  by  being  devoured  by  fish  of  prey,  or  by  being- 
destroyed  in  some  other  manner,  or  else  the  schools  of  herring  have  wan- 
dered to  other  places.  Professor  Nilsson  seemed,  in  the  beginning,  favor- 
able to  the  causes  first  named,  but  later,  he  has  decided  against  them, 
chiefly  on  the  ground  of  better  information.  Government  Inspector 
Widegren,  however,  still  clings  to  them.  Boeck  himself  does  not  believe 
that  the  mass  of  spring-herring  has  decreased,  but  thinks  that  they  no 
longer  approach  the  shore. 

Wherever  the  herring-fisheries  have  disappeared  the  fishermen  have 
been  left  in  great  want  and  the  merchants  have  lost  an  important 
source  of  income.  In  consequence  of  the  cessation  of  the  fisheries  the 
country  has  suffered  directly  and  indirectly,  and  it  is  therefore  not  to 
be  wondered  at  that  people  in  ail  classes  of  society  have  thought  over 
the  matter  and  have  tried  to  discover  the  cause  of  the  decay.  Many 
reasons  were  assigned,  but  none  seemed  to  be  plausible.  What  was 
given  as  the  cause  of  the  herring's  disappearance  in  one  place  was 
found  not  to  be  the  cause  in  another.  Laws  have  thus  been  based  on 
very  vague  suppositions,  and  large  sums  have  been  expended  for  carry- 
ing on  the  fishery  according  to  new  and  hitherto  unknown  methods ; 
such  as  by  stationary  nets  in  the  deep  sea,  or  by  drag-nets,  but  all  in 
vain.    The  promises  of  learned  men  proved  futile,  and  hope  alone  kept 


.     THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  117 

ui)  the  courage  of  the  fishermen  and  merchants.  In  earlier  times,  wheu 
people  did  not  seek  the  cause  of  various  phenomena  in  nature,  but 
judged  things  by  their  appearances,  it  was  thought  that  God  had 
blighted  the  herriug-fishery,  because  men  had  become  ungrateful  and 
abused  his  gifts.  Sometimes  special  causes  were  assigned  for  the 
Divine  wrath,  and  Absalon  Pedersen  Beyer  thought  that  the  herring- 
fishery  disappeared  because  Cristopher  Walkendorpk  had  taken  tithes 
away  from  the  clergy  and  used  them  for  building  purposes.  Even  in 
our  own  days,  (1835,)  we  see  something  similar  to  this,  in  the  fact  that 
several  members  of  the  British  Parliament  declared  in  the  House  of 
Commons  that  the  herring  had  disappeared  from  a  place  on  the  coast 
of  Ireland  because  a  priest  had  demanded  tithes  of  his  parishioners. 
Casper  Seatus  tells  us,  that  in  the  year  1830  the  herring  left  Heligoland, 
where  at  that  time  about  two  thousand  people  gained  their  living  from 
the  fisheries,  because  some  young  men,  in  mere  wantonness,  had  cruelly 
abused  a  herring.  In  Stavanger,  according  to  the  account  of  Professor 
Kroyer,  the  fishermen,  in  the  year  1830,  did  not  allow  a  wealthy  citizen 
to  hold  a  masked  ball  in  his  own  house,  for  they  thought  tbat  this  would 
vex  the  Deity,  and  that  as  a  punishment  He  would  cause  the  herring 
to  leave  the  place. 

When  this  superstitious  belief  yielded  to  the  better  suggestions  of 
the  understanding,  the  decay  of  the  herring-fisheries  was  sought  for 
in  natural  causes.  In  former  times  it  was  believed  that  noise  could 
drive  the  herring  away,  and,  in  1580,  to  shoot  on  board  ships  was  pro- 
hibited at  Bohuslan.  This  belief  was  common  even  in  later  daj'S.  Thus 
it  was  thought  that  the  herring  left  Bohuslan  in  1697  in  consequence 
of  the  discharge  of  the  guns  during  a  naval  engagement,  (in  the  war 
between  the  Swedes  and  Danes ;)  and  the  disappearance  of  the  herring 
from  Dynekilur  (a  gulf  on  the  coast  of  Sweden)  was  generally  ascribed  to 
the  guns  of  Tordcnskjold's  (a  Danish  admiral)  fleet.  When  the  herring 
returned  in  1750  a  law  of  1756  fixed  a  penalty  of  500  rigsdalers  ($250 
gold)  for  discharging  a  gun  from  any  fortress  on  the  coast,  on  men-of- 
war,  and  on  merchant-vessels  during  the  period  when  the  herring  was 
approaching;  and  as  late  as  1808  the  thunder  of  guns  (in  the  war 
between  Denmark  and  England)  was  considered  the  cause  of  the  herring's 
disappearance.  Even  now  the  herring  fishermen  do  not  like  the  noise 
of  the  steamers,  and  in  1862  they  were  not  permitted  to  cross  the  Silde- 
fjord  near  Karmo.  In  Ramsdalen  steamers  were  not  considered  so  obnox- 
ious, and  during  the  great-herring  fisheries  no  instance  is  on  record  of 
the  herring  having  been  driven  away  by  the  constant  passing  and  re- 
passing of  steamers.  In  Scotland  careful  observations  have  shown  that 
the  herring  has  disappeared  from  bays  which  have  never  been  touched 
by  a  steamer,  and  have  remained  in  some  portions  of  the  sea  where 
steamers  pass  daily.  Professor  Nilsson  considers  all  noise  detrimental 
to  the  herring-fisheries,  and  to  show  how  easily  the  herring  can  be 
frightened,  he  relates  that,  in  1756,  when  the  fisheries  near  Eikfjord 


118      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

were  very  abundant,  the  herring  left  when  eight  men-of-war  anchored 
there,  and  this  only  because  the  ship-bells  were  rang  every  evening,  all 
shooting  having  been  forbidden.  He  adds  that  the  cause  of  the  her- 
ring's disappearance  in  1808  was  the  constant  noise  in  the  salting-houses, 
produced  by  the  manufacture  of  barrels,  and  by  other  work,  all  the  harbor 
being  full  of  ships  and  boats  waiting  for  their  cargoes  of  herring,  the 
whole  coast  and  all  the  islands  swarming  with  people  of  every  age  and 
sex,  who  had  gathered  there  for  the  sake  of  earning  money.  In  the 
evening  there  was  music  and  dancing  in  the  fishing-places,  and  therefore 
Nilsson  says  it  was  no  wonder  that  the  herring  left. 

In  Norway  the  herring  does  not  seem  to  be  so  much  disturbed  by 
noise,  but  other  causes  of  its  disappearance  are  given.  In  Flaekkefjord 
people  thought  the  cause  of  the  herring's  departure  in  1S59  was  the 
strong  glare  of  the  List  light-house.  In  other  places,  however,  there  was 
no  objection  to  light-houses ;  while  in  Utsire  it  was  even  thought  that 
the  fisheries  began  to  be  very  abundant  just  about  the  time  when  the 
light-houses  were  erected,  the  herring,  as  they  supposed,  being  attracted 
by  the  light.  The  opinion  that  light-houses  have  any  influence  on  the 
herring's  appearance  or  disappearance  has  now  been  entirely  abandoned. 
Formerly  many  supposed  that  the  bad  odor  spreading  over  the  sea  from 
the  burning  of  sea-weeds  caused  the  herring  to  leave,  and  in  many 
places  laws  were  demanded  forbidding  the  act.  The  burners  of  sea- 
weed, however,  were  of  a  different  opinion,  as  well  as  the  owners  of 
glass-houses,  who  used  the  burnt  sea- weed.  Professor  Eathke  was  com- 
missioned to  examine  this  matter,  and  he  found  that  the  herring  had 
left  places  where  sea-weeds  had  never  been  burned,  and  continued  in 
others  where  sea-weeds  were  burned  constantly.  It  has  also  been  said 
that  the  cuttle-fish  was  a  cause  of  the  herring's  disappearance,  but 
Boeck  has  never  found  a  single  cuttle-fish  in  the  southern  fisheries, 
while  he  saw  large  numbers  of  them  near  Langences,  and  many  instances 
were  related  how  the  cuttle-fish  loved  to  pursue  the  herring;  but  in  no 
instance  could  it  be  proved  that  it  had  ever  driven  away  even  the  small- 
est school. 

At  one  time  it  was  supposed  that  impurities  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
had  an  influence  on  the  herring- fisheries,  and  that  the  herring  avoided 
those  places  where  many  impurities  were  found,  because  they  were  unfa- 
vorable to  the  development  of  the  spawn.  Such  impurities  were  gen- 
erally produced  by  employing  imperfect  fishing-implements,  which  left 
greater  or  less  masses  of  herring  at  the  bottom,  and  also  by  various 
kinds  of  refuse  being  thrown  into  the  sea,  which  might  make  it  unfit 
for  spawning.  On  the  coast  of  Norway  the  former  opinion  was  quite 
prevalent,  it  being  maintained  that  in  seine-fishing  great  quantities  of 
dead  herring  were  left  in  the  water.  Boeck,  during  his  first  stay  at  the 
fishing-stations,  had  his  attention  directed  to  this.  He  also  saw  that 
the  nets  with  narrow  meshes,  which  the  fishermen  have  recently  begun 
to  use,  did  not  permit  larger  herring  to  put  the  whole  head  through  the 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  119 

meshes,  but  that  only  the  front  portion  entered,  so  that  the  fish  died  at 
last  in  endeavoring  to  push  through  the  meshes,  as  it  never  moves  back- 
ward. When  the  net  is  hauled  in,  these  larger  herring  fall  off  and  re- 
main at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  He  had  several  times  examined  such 
places  after  the  fishing  was  over,  but  had  never  found  any  large  quan- 
tity of  dead  herring  at  the  bottom,  even  when  he  used  the  dredge  after 
particularly  rich  fishing-seasons.  With  the  water-telescope  he  could 
not  penetrate  to  such  a  depth,  but  he  thinks  that  the  account  of  great 
masses  of  herring  lying  there  is  very  much  exaggerated.  On  another 
occasion  he  saw  a  large  quantity  of  dead  herring  lying  at  the  bottom  of 
the  sea,  but  he  felt  convinced  that  this  could  not  possibly  influence  the 
fisheries,  and  experience  has  shown  that  he  was  right.  When  the  cur- 
rent is  very  violent,  nets  set  in  exposed  places  will  be  driven  together 
and  become  entangled,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate  them.  He 
thus  witnessed  at  Bjorkevser  the  sinking  of  such  a  mass  of  entangled 
nets  which  had  been  cut  off  from  the  buoys,  in  order  to  save  something. 
It  was  important  for  him  to  examine  the  place  where  this  was  done,  and 
he  went  there  about  two  months  after  this  occurrence.  The  nets  were 
then  so  much  decayed  that  only  small  pieces  could  be  recovered,  whilo 
of  the  herring  only  bones  and  gristly  parts  were  found.  But  the  frag- 
ments of  the  nets  and  herring  were  everywhere  covered  with  carrion- 
eating  animals,  which  had  gathered  in  great  numbers.  Many  other  ani- 
mals were  also  found.  When,  later  in  the  same  year,  he  requested  some 
one  to  procure  for  him  specimens  of  some  of  these  animals,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  there  was  not  a  trace  left  of  nets,  herring,  or  animals  ;  so 
that  about  four  months  after  the  close  of  the  fisheries  the  bottom  was 
quite  clean  again. 

It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  dead  herring  could  not  make  the  bottom 
so  impure  that  a  year  after  it  should  be  unfit  for  the  herring  to  spawn 
in ;  and  experience  has  also  shown  that  this  is  not  the  case.  On  the 
other  hand,  reports  from  Sweden,  Scotland,  and  other  countries,  affirm 
that  seines  may  be  very  detrimental  to  the  fisheries,  by  leaving  a  great 
many  dead  herring  at  the  bottom,  and  many  instances  of  this  are  men- 
tioned, such  as  the  well-known  fishery  near  Golten,  where,  after  a  great 
many  herring  had  died  during  one  night,  the  fisheries  were  never  again 
successful.  Boeck  also  discovered,  several  times  after  seine-fishing,  by 
examining  the  bottom  with  the  water-telescope,  a  considerable  number 
of  dead  herring  ;  but  he  thinks  that  the  injurious  influence  is  very  much 
exaggerated.  Where  seine-fishing  is  carried  on  in  open  places  the  cur- 
rent, sea-animals,  &c,  will  very  soon  purify  the  bottom,  and  only  where 
very  large  masses  of  fish  have  died  in  deep  and  narrow  inlets  will  some 
remains  be  found  the  following  year.  The  cause  of  the  herring  not  re- 
turning to  such  places  might  rather  be  occasioned  by  its  irregular  habits 
than  by  dead  fish.  In  order  to  adduce  more  substantial  proof  of  this 
he  caused,  according  to  the  government  inspector's  account,  to  be  marked 
on  a  map  all  those  places  where  seine-fishing  had  been  carried  on  since 
1853,  and  he  found  that  in  some  there  had  been  considerable  seine-fish- 


120       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ing  year  after  year.  It  was,  therefore,  beyond  a  doubt  that  seine-fishing 
was  by  no  means  so  detrimental  to  the  fisheries  as  was  generally  sup- 
posed. That  the  seines  brought  up  all  the  young  herring,  was  entirely 
unfounded,  or,  at  any  rate,  but  rarely  the  case ;  and  the  small  herring, 
which  are  frequently  caught  toward  the  close  of  the  fisheries,  often  con- 
tain roe  which  has  not  been  fully  developed.  He  was  informed  at  the 
great-herring  fisheries,  and  also  saw  for  himself  several  localities,  where 
large  masses  of  dead  herring  were  said  to  be,  at  Selsovik,  where,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  deep  and  narrow  Gjeres  inlet,  between  10,000  and  15,000 
tons  were  lying.  The  following  year  would  show  whether  they  had 
decayed  or  not. 

In  Sweden,  the  disappearance  of  the  herring  had  been  chiefly  attrib- 
uted to  refuse  of  fish -oil  which  had  been  throwu  into  the  sea.  This  had 
formed  a  theme  of  discussion  as  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  Professor  Xilson  had  clearly  stated  the  reasons  which  favor 
this  opinion.  It  will  be  seen  that  with  regard  to  Bohuslan,  his  opinion 
has  met  with  much  opposition,  while  just  as  many  instances  are  given 
tending  to  show  that  the  refuse  of  fish-oil  has  no  such  injurious  results. 
Boeck  has  not  been  able  to  find  that  these  heaps  of  refuse  are  so  near 
each  other  that  the  herring  could  find  no  suitable  spawning-places 
between  them.  Even  if  the  refuse  of  fish-oil  were  the  cause  of  the  her- 
ring's departure,  this  could  not  have  been  the  case  in  former  times,  when 
the  herring  disappeared  from  Bohuslan,  as  at  that  time  there  were  no  oil- 
refineries  either  in  Norway  or  in  the  Liinfjord,  (in  the  north  of  Jutland.) 

Boeck's  investigations  therefore  prove  that  all  these  causes,  which  have 
been  mentioned  as  being  instrumental  in  driving  the  herring  away  at 
different  times  from  different  places,  either  amount  to  nothing,  or 
have  not  held  good  in  all  cases.  He  endeavored  himself  to  find  causes 
of  the  herring's  disappearance  which  would  better  stand  the  test  of 
science,  but  for  a  long  time  sought  in  vain,  till  at  last  he  thinks  that, 
through  the  study  of  history  of  the  herring-fisheries,  he  has  found  reasons 
that  will  hold  good  in  all  cases.  During  the  first  year  of  his  stay  at  the 
fishing-stations  it  occurred  to  him  that  the  herring-fisheries,  which  formerly 
had  commenced  much  earlier  in  the  season,  sometimes  even  before 
Christmas,  had  more  recently  beguu  later  in  the  year,  and  he  was  un- 
able to  find  any  special  reasons  for  this.  He  also  noticed  that  the  herring- 
fisheries  were  very  unproductive  near  Skudesnres,  where  formerly  they 
had  been  very  abundant,  and  that  this  could  not  be  ascribed  to  storms 
or  to  any  other  ordinary  cause.  In  the  following  year  the  fisheries  com- 
menced still  later,  and  in  carefully  examining  this  whole  matter  he  found 
that  at  the  commencement  of  the  fisheries  in  1808  the  herring  approached 
the  coast  in  February,  while  during  the  following  years  it  came  earlier 
every  year,  tillrecently  it  again  came  later  and  later  in  the  season, until  this 
year  it  came  at  the  end  of  February.  In  his  work,  "  On  the  herring  and  her- 
ring-fisheries,''- he  has  given  the  exact  date  for  every  year  when  the  herring 
approached  the  coast.  From  these  dates  it  is  seen  that  there  is  a  certain 
regularity  in  the  time  of  the  herring's  approach,  which  is  but  slightly 


THE    NORWEGIAN    HERRING-FISHERIES.  121 

modified  by  storm  and  cold.  In  examining  the  localities  where  the 
herring  fisheries  are  carried  on,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  likewise  a 
certain  regularity  in  them.  From  1808  and  1819  Skudesnses  was  the 
chief  seat  of  the  fisheries  on  the  southern  coast,  while  north  of  Karma 
and  Espevaer  only  few  herring  were  caught,  not  counting,  however,  the 
so-called  Bergen  fisheries  from  Selbjornfjord  to  Feio.  From  the  year  1819 
the  herring  also  began  to  appear  in  large  masses  near  the  Hviding  Islands, 
Tananger,  and  Eoth,  and  in  1825  it  passed  south  of  Jeeder.  From  1824  to 
183S  we  notice  a  constant  tendency  in  the  herring  to  move  south ,  the  schools 
in  that  direction  increasing  every  year,  so  that  rich  fisheries  began  to  spring 
up,  first  near  Egersund,  then  near  Sagndal,  Basgefjord,  and  Hoekkefjord, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  fisheries  near  Skudesnses  gradually  grew 
less  abundant.  From  that  time,  the  herring  began  again  to  retreat,  and 
soon  disappeared  completely  south  of  the  J  seder,  and  more  recently  from 
the  Hviding  Islands  and  Skudesna3s ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
fisheries  became  very  important  near  Bovser.  During  the  last  year  the 
fishing  has  shifted  north  of  Espevser.  If  this  regularity  in  the  change 
of  time  and  place  of  the  herring  movements  could  only  be  proved  with 
regard  to  the  southern  spring-herring  fisheries,  it  would  be  an  impor- 
tant fact,  yet  not  important  enough  to  allow  us  to  deduce  laws  that 
would  be  applicable  in  all  cases.  Boeck,  however,  found  that  such  was 
really  the  case.  In  examining  the  information  scattered  in  merchants' 
account-books,  and  letters  which  he  was  permitted  to  use  in  Stavanger, 
he  found  that  this  same  law  applied  in  former  as  well  as  in  later  times, 
and  that  there  was  the  same  regularity  in  the  change  of  time  and  place 
of  the  herring-fisheries.  He  has  treated  this  subject  at  length  in  his 
work,  "  On  the  herring  and  the  herring-fisheries."  Even  in  examining 
the  dates  regarding  the  herring-fishery  in  the  year  1575,  given  by 
Absalon  Pedersen  Beyer,  we  find  that  the  fisheries  in  the  beginning  of 
that  period  commenced  toward  the  end  of  February.  This  law  is  there- 
fore found  to  apply  to  three  different  periods.  The  same  phenomena 
were  observed  not  only  here,  but  also  in  other  places.  This  can  be 
shown  most  conclusively  in  the  Bohuslen  fisheries.  Boeck  found  that 
this  regularity  was  very  apparent  there  in  the  great  fisheries  which 
closed  in  1808.  In  175G  the  fisheries  commenced  near  Styrso  and 
Bifofjord,  south  of  Gottenburg ;  from  there  the  herring  went  constantly 
northward,  and  in  1773  herring  were  caught  near  Stroinstad,  and,  in 
177S,  near  the  Hval  Islands.  As  regards  the  time  of  its  appearance, 
the  herring  in  1750  came  in  October,  and  from  that  time  always  a  little 
earlier,  till  1702,  when  it  came  on  the  lGth  of  August;  then  again 
gradually  later.  For  example,  in  1780,  toward  the  end  of  October ; 
1790,  in  the  middle  of  November ;  1S00,  about  Christmas,  and  toward 
the  end  of  that  period  (about  180S)  in  February.  The  same  was  also 
the  case  during  the  great  fishing  period,  from  1556  to  1590.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  same  law  has  held  good  for  several  centuries  and 
in-two  different  places. 

In  1868,  when  the  fisheries  were  still  very  abundant,  Boeck  thought 


122        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

that  he  was  fully  justified  in  predicting  that  a  change  of  the  fisheries 
was  near  at  hand  ;  and  although  in  the  beginning  he  met  with  violent 
opposition,  he  saw  his  predictions  verified  from  year  to  year.  He 
finally  mentioned  some  other  facts.  It  has  been  a  wide-spread  opinion 
that  the  herring-fisheries  change  alternately  between  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way and  that  of  Bohusliin,  and  that  the  herring  moved  between  these 
two  places,  an  opinion  which  was  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  when, 
about  1808,  the  schools  of  herring  left  Bohusliin,  they  made  their 
appearance  on  the  coast  of  Norway.  But  Nilsson  had  already  shown 
that  the  Bohuslen  herring  is  a  totally  different  species  from  the  Nor- 
wegian, and  Boeck  has  proved  conclusively  that  this  difference  has 
existed  from  time  immemorial.  He  has  furthermore  proved  that  these 
two  species  also  differ  in  the  circumstance  that  they  spawn  at  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year,  the  spring-herring  spawning  in  the  spring,  and 
the  Bohusliiu  herring  in  the  autumn.  He  has  also  been  able  to  prove 
by  historical  researches  that,  from  the  very  earliest  times,  both  these 
herring-fisheries  have  been  carried  on  at  the  same  season,  and  that 
only  during  the  last  fishing  period  there  was  any  difference  in  time. 
Nor  has  he  found  any  connection  existing  between  the  Norwegian, 
Dutch,  and  Danish  fisheries.  Such  a  connection  may  possibly  have 
existed  between  the  Bohusliin  fishery  and  the  Dutch-Scotch  fisheries,  as 
some  data  seem  to  point  in  that  direction. 

If  the  herring  should  leave  the  coast  of  Norway,  it  will,  in  all  prob- 
ability, be  obliged  to  seek  the  other  channel,  ("  Bende,")  which  Boeck 
has  marked  on  his  map.  At  a  distance  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  from 
the  coast  of  Norway,  large  banks  are  found,  that  have  their  roots  in  the 
North  Sea,  where  the  depth  of  water  varies  only  between  70  and  50 
fathoms,  a  depth  which  is  very  favorable  to  the  development  of  the 
spawn.  Boeck  thinks  that  if  the  herring  disappears  from  the  southern 
coast  of  Norway,  the  fishermen  and  merchants  will  suffer  in  the  begin- 
ning, but  not  as  much  as  in  former  times.  The  cod-fisheries  which 
have  recently  commenced,  and  which  he  always  found  to  come  after  a 
period  of  herring-fishing,  would  probably  replace  the  herring-fisheries, 
after  people  had  become  accustomed  to  them,  and  had  supplied  them- 
selves with  the  necessary  implements.  Besides,  since  the  intercourse 
by  steamers  has  become  so  common,  and  is  even  increasing,  fishing- 
places  that  were  formerly  considered  too  remote  will  be  used  just  as 
well  as  those  which  are  near,  and  herring-fishing  will  assuredly  be 
carried  on  at  all  times  on  the  long  coast-line  of  Norway.  The  periods 
during  which  the  herring  has  disappeared  have  been  neither  as  long 
nor  as  exclusive  as  is  generally  supposed  ;  for  although  we  know  that 
the  herring  left  Skudesnres  in  1784,  it  was  caught  near  Bergen  in  1787, 
and  returned  there  in  1S08,  while  it  did  not  return  to  Skudesuses  till 
1808.  Nor  has  it  remained  entirely  away  during  the  intervening  period, 
since  in  1803  there  might  have  been  considerable  fishing,  if  people  had 
been  prepared  for  it,  for  during  that  year  the  herring  approached  the 
shore  in  vast  numbers. 


VII -PRELIMINARY  REPORT  FOR  1873-74  ON  THE  HERRING 
AND  THE  HERRING-FISHERIES  ON  THE  WEST  COAST  OF 
SWEDEN. 


By  Axel  Vilhelm  Ljungman.' 


To  the  committee  appointed  to  investigate  the  herring -fisheries  an  the  west 

coast  of  Siceden  : 

Having  been  informed,  on  the  3d  Jane,  last  year,  by  the  secretary  of 
the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Sciences,  that,  by  a  letter  of  His  Majesty  the 
King,  dated  March  the  28th,  I  had,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Eoyal 
Academy,  been  intrusted  with  the  continued  prosecution  of  the  investi- 
gations regarding  the  herring  and  the  herring-fisheries  on  the  west  coast 
of  Sweden,  I  went  to  Stockholm  in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the 
committee,  as  expressed  by  their  letter  of  the  13th  of  June,  and  remained 
there  till  the  end  of  the  month  to  gather  all  the  necessary  information 
and  make  every  necessary  preparation. 

In  the  course  of  the  summer,  I  visited  the  most  important  fishing- 
stations  on  the  coast  of  Bohus-lan  to  secure  information  and  to  make 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  investigating  the  fisheries  which  com- 
mence in  the  autumn.  I  left  for  Stockholm  on  the  23d  of  September 
to  consult  with  the  members  of  the  committee,  and  to  make  myself 
acquainted  with  the  literature  of  the  subject  in  the  library  of  the  Eoyal 
Academy  of  Sciences.  In  consequence  of  sickness,  I  was  compelled  to 
remain  in  Stockholm  till  near  the  end  of  October,  so  that  I  was  pre- 
vented from  making  any  observations  at  the  beginning  of  the  fisheries. 
During  the  months  of  November  and  December,  I  visited  all  the  more 
important  fishing-stations  on  the  central  and  northern  coast,2  where  the 
fishing  for  small  herring  was  carried  on. 

As  soon  as  I  received  information,  about  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
that  herring  were  coming  in  in  great  quantities,  I  went  immediately  to 


vestkust  anstallda  undersokuingaraa.  Af  Axel  Villi.  Ljungrnan.  (Tryckt  sasom  hands- 
krift.)  Upsala,  Ed.  Berliug,  1874.  [8vo,2  p.  1.74,  pp.  1  1.]  Translated  from  the  Swedish 
by  H.  Jacobson.  Original  "  printed  as  manuscript "  by  the  author,  [i.  e.,  not  for  gen- 
eral circulation,]  Upsala,  1874. 

2 By  the  southern  coast,  I  understand  the  coast  from  Salofjord  toTistlarne,  (Reports  on 
Herring-Fisheries,  p.  86  fr.  8  ;)  by  the  central  coast,  the  coast  from  Salofjord  to  Soteskar, 
(counted  to  the  northern  coast  by  the  old  fishermen  ;  see  Act  Concerning  Blubber-Refin- 
eries, pp.  120,  134;)  and  by  the  northern  coast,  the  coast  from  Soteskar  to  the  boundary 
of  Norway.  A  somewhat  different  division  of  the  coast  has  been  made  by  Dubb,  (Re- 
ports of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  34.) 


124       EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   TISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Gottenburg,  where  I  had  au  excellent  opportunity  for  observing  the  her. 
ring-fishermen  assembled  together  from  all  the  neighboring  coast.  On 
the  24th  of  January,  I  went  to  Stockholm  to  consult  with  the  committee, 
and  to  inform  myself  of  the  financial  arrangements  made  for  the  obser- 
vations. From  the  end  of  February  till  the  beginning  of  June,  I  visited 
various  localities  on  the  coast  of  Bohus-liin,  to  make  observations  and 
gather  whatever  information  I  could. 

I  went  to  Stockholm  again  on  the  7th  of  June,  at  the  express  desire  of 
the  committee,  to  report  on  the  progress  and  result  of  my  observations. 

Although  I  had  some  knowledge  of  the  coast  of  Bohuslan  and  its 
fisheries,  much  time  was,  nevertheless,  lost  by  my  being  unacquainted 
with  many  peculiar  circumstances  of  importance  for  carrying  on  obser- 
vations in  the  easiest  and  quickest  manner.  This  knowledge  can  be 
acquired  only  by  several  years'  intercourse  with  the  fishermen.  All  the 
investigations,  which  were  chiefly  of  a  practical  character,  were  on  that 
very  account  entirely  new  to  me,  and,  therefore,  necessarily  retarded  my 
progress.  My  investigations  were,  moreover,  impeded  by  the  unusually 
stormy  weather  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  by  sickness,  and  by  want 
of  funds  and  apparatus.1  Much  time  has  also  been  consumed  in  col- 
lecting all  that  has  been  said  on  the  subject  in  the  very  rich  herring- 
literature,  which,  as  far  as  possible,  I  endeavored  to  obtain. 

I  need  scarcely  say  that  the  distrust  and  opposition  with  which  the 
investigations  were  met,  not  only  by  nearly  the  whole  population  en- 
gaged in  fishing,  but  even  by  those  from  whom  assistance  might  reason- 
ably have  been  expected,  exercised  a  depressing  influence,  and  will 
continue  to  do  so  in  the  future,  though  not,  perhaps,  to  so  great  an 
extent.  The  rigid  observance  of  section  22  of  the  fishing-law,  and  the 
milder  ordinance  of  July  19, 1872,  regarding  the  use  of  nets  with  narrow 
meshes,2  increased  the  excited  feelings  of  the  coast-population,  especially 
in  the  beginning  of  the  year,  when  the  herring  came  in  in  great  numbers. 

The  almost  uninterrupted  journeys,  which  were  especially  troublesome 
in  winter,  on  account  of  the  apparatus  which  had  to  be  carried  along, 
and  the  brief  stay  made  in  each  place,  did  not  permit  any  thorough 
anatomical  or  microscopical  observations,  since  these  require  a  quieter 
sojourn  in  a  suitable  place,  where  all  the  necessary  apparatus  may  easily 
be  brought.  As  I  did  not  consider  it  desirable  and  of  practical  use 
for  the  advancement  of  science  to  report  on  the  special  investigations 
which  have  been  begun,  but  have  not  yet  led  to  any  definite  result,  the 
cause  of  the  incompleteness  of  this  first  report  will  easily  be  understood ; 
while  this  incompleteness  was  still  further  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the 
investigations  were  carried  on  uninterruptedly  till  the  end  of  the  year, 
thus  leaving  but  little  time  for  putting  my  notes  into  suitable  shape. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that,  as  the  investi- 
gations continue  and  more  information  is  collected,  much  in  this  report, 

1  See  Chapter  VIII. 

■  New  Reports  on  the  Herring- Fisheries,  p.  3,  58,  59. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  125 

will  probably  have  to  be  modified  in  future  ones.  I  also  hope  tbat  I 
shall  tben  be  able  to  make  my  report  much  more  complete  by  means  of 
observations  made  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  in  the  Kattegat,  and  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Baltic. 

I. — ON  THE    DIFFERENT   SPECIES   OF    HERRING  AND   SMALL-HERRING. 

Even  in  olden  times  different  races  of  herring  were  recognized,  or  at 
least  names  were  given  to  them  designating  different  kinds,  as  the 
idea  of  a  variety  or  race  was  scarcely  known  to  the  traders  and 
fishermen,  who  by  those  different  names  only  wished  to  distinguish  one 
article  of  trade  from  some  other  which  was  obtained  at  another  place 
or  time,  or  was  considered  to  have  a  different  value. 

Among  our  Scandinavian  naturalists,  Linne  was  the  first  who  de- 
scribed a  kind  of  herring  called  in  Swedish  "Stromming,"  [a  sort  of 
small-herring,]  as  a  separate  species,  under  the  name  of  Clupea  liarengus 
/?  membra  s.1 

From  Dr.  P.  DuWs  observations  on  the  herring -fishery  of  Bohus-Lan,2 
we  learn  that  the  Bohus-Lan  fishermen,  during  the  last  great  fishery, 
distinguished  the  so-called  "  old"  herring,  ("  gamla"  sill,)  as  it  is  called 
at  present,  as  a  "  real  sea-herring"  ("rigtig  hafssill")  from  the  spring- 
herring,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  coast,  and  belongs  to  it  exclusively. 
This  last-mentioned  herring  was  said  to  have  a  smaller  head,  to  be 
thicker  and  shorter,  and  to  resemble  the  Kattegat  herring.  To  judge 
from  an  expression  of  0.  N.  Loberg's,3  the  Norwegian  herring-fishers 
likewise  make  a  distinction  between  the  "  sea-herring"  ("  Havsikl")  and 
the  "  fiord-herring,"  ("  Fjordsteing.") 

Professor  Nilsson,  in  the  year  1832,  distinguished,  besides  the  "  Strom- 
ming," a  large  number  of  different  races  of  herring  from  the  southern  and 
western  coasts  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  all  of  which,  however,  he 
grouped  under  two  heads,  viz :  sea-herring  (Hafssill)  and  coast-herring, 
(Skargardssill.)4    This  division,  which  was  somewhat  modified  by  him 

1  Fauna  Svecica.    Ed.  alt.,  p.  128. 

2  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad.  Handl.  f.  1817,  p.  35,  44. 

8  Norges  Fiskerier.    Kristiania,  1864,  p.  89,  90. 

4 Prodronius  ichthyologies  Scandinavian,  p.  23,  24.  As  this  work  is  very  scarce, 
and  as  the  quotation  is  of  special  importance,  it  is  given  in  full : 

Clupea  liarengus  Auctorurn.     Svecis  Sill. 

Suh  hoc  nomine  latent  plures  species,  vel,  si  mavis,  varietates  locales  constantes, 
quae  in  duas  formas  aptius  aheunt : 

1-mo  Forma  oceanica  (sea-herring) :  capite,  oculis  et  rictu  minorihus  ;  orbita  £-0 — ^ 
longit.  corp.;  ventralibus  sub  anteriori  £  pinnae  dorsalis  ;  distantia  arostro  ad  piunas 
pectorales  intervallum  ajquante  ventralium  et  ani,  seu  initii  pinna?  analis  : 

1.  oeresundica,  Nostratibus  Rabosill  (  boundary-herring). 

2.  schelderensis,  Nostratibus  Kullasill. 

3.  mojalis,  Nostratibus  Grcissill  (grass-herring). 

4.  oalmsica,  Nostratibus  Aflingssill  I.  Storsill  (great-herring). 

5.  hiemalis,  Nostratibus  Norsk  vintersill  (Norwegian  winter-herring). 

6.  autumnalis,  Nostratibus,  Norsk  liostsill  (Norwegian  fall-herring). 


126       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

subsequently,1  seems  to  have  beeu  adopted  by  all  tbe  Swedish  ichthy- 
ologists, but  has  been  questioned  by  Professor  Kroycr,  who  says,  in  his 
great  work  on  the  fish  of  Denmark,  that  he  is  not  convinced  of  the 
correctness  of  Professor  Nilsso)i>s  distinction  of  different  species  of 
herring  from  the  southern  Baltic,  the  Kattegat,  and  Norway.2 

From  the.  western  portion  of  the  North  Sea,  Yarrcll  has  described  two 
analogous  forms  of  herring  as  different  species:  Clupea  leachii  and 
Clupea  alba,*  the  latter  of  which,  however,  is  only  a  herring  in  an  earlier 
stage  of  its  development.4 

In  the  year  1833,  in  testimony  before  a  committee  of  inquiry  ordered 
by  His  Majesty,  the  Bohus-liiu  fishermen  distinguished  the  following 
kinds  of  herring:  1.  The  so-called  old  ("  gamla")  herring,  (which  for- 
merly came  in  every  year  from  the  North  Sea ;  2,  the  half-grown 
"  ToUsil,"  (so  called  from  the  Swedish  word  "  lott,"  a  kind  of  net,)  found 
both  toward  the  end  of  the  last  fishing-period  and  later,  and  whichneither 
propagated  nor  was  to  be  seen  in  its  full-grown  state  near  the  coast ; 
and,  3,  the  "spring-herring,"  or  "  grass-herring,"  belonging  to  the  coast, 
and  caught  during  the  old  fisheries  as  well  as  since.  The  distinctive 
marks  assigned  by  the  fishermen  were  very  nearly  the  same  as  those 
■which  are  generally  employed  by  JSTilsson  and  other  professional  ichthy- 
ologists in  distinguishing  the  various  species  of  herrings,  viz,  the  size 
of  the  head,  height  of  body,  length  of  dorsal  and  ventral  fins,  size  of 
scales,  and  time  of  spawning.  The  opinion  of  the  fishermen  was  at- 
tacked by  Professor  Nilsson  as  being  unreasonable,  and  all  the  Swedish 
naturalists  adopted  his  views.5 

Obs.  Pulli  omnium  barum  varietatum  sub  nomine  Smdsill — small-berring — (et  adbuc 
minores  Ansjovis — ancbovies — )  venditantur.  Nomen  vero  Smasill  etiam  imponitur 
varietatibus  minoribus  formse  insequentis. 

2:  do  Forma  tceniensis  (coast-herring),  capite,  oculis  et  rictu  majoribus;  orbita  ^ — ,J7 
longit.  corp.;  veutralibus  fere  sub  medio  pinnse  dorsalis;  distantia  a  rostro  ad  pinnas 
pectorales  multo  longiore  quam  a  ventralibus  ad  anum,  et  ajquaute  distantiam  a 
ventralibus  ad  mediam  analem  : 

1.  Clupea  Cimbrica.  Sv.  Kivik-Sill  vel  Cimbrishamns-Sill.  In  parte  meridionali 
maris  baltbici. 

2.  Clupea  membras.     Sv.  Strumming.     In  parte  superiori  maris  baltbici. 

1  Skandinavisk  Fauna.     IV,  p.  492-493. 

2  Danmarks  Fiske.    Ill,  p.  Ii5-156. 
»  British  Fishes,  3  ed.,  I,  pp.  Ill,  121. 

4  The  Clupea  alba  (subsequently  called  by  Valenciennes  Eogenia  alba)  was  estab- 
lished by  Yarrellfor  the  celebrated  "Whitebait"  of  English  gourmands,  but  has  been 
satisfactorily  demonstrated  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  young  of  the  herring. — S.  F.  B. 

5  It  does  not,  however,  seem  at  all  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  during  the  old 
Bohus-Lan  fisheries  the  great  herring  came  from  the  North  Sea,  and  that  its  descend- 
ants, the  young  herring,  visited  the  coast  of  Norway,  (see  Boeclc,  Om  Silden,  p.  130 ; 
Trangrumsacten,  p.  173,)  presuming  that  the  small  herring  (lotsill)  coming  to  the  coact 
of  Bohus-Lan  from  tbe  sea,  was  descended,  e.  g.,  from  the  Kattegat  herring,  spawning 
in  autumn,  or  from  the  Limfiord  herring,  spawning  iu  spring.  G.  0.  Sars'a  investiga- 
tions regarding  the  young  or  so-called  summer-herring  caught  in  Norway,  are  very 
instructive  in  this  respect,  as  they  point  to  very  similar  results. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  127 

Axel  Boccl;  who,  in  May,  1S70,  visited  the  coast  of  Bohus-Liin  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  herring-fishery  on  that  coast,  maintains 
that  the  herring  which  spawns  there  is  "  certainly  only  a  coast-herring,"1 
which,  moreover,  is  distinguished  from  the  "old  herring'7  by  spawning 
in  spring,  the  latter  spawning  in  autumn,  and  that  it  must  be  supposed 
to  have  come  from  the  North  Sea,  and  possibly  had  some  connection 
with  the  Scotch-Dutch  herring.2 

G.  von  Yhlen,  who,  during  five  years'  fishing,  had  abundant  opportu- 
nity for  making  observations  on  the  matter,  has,  in  his  memorial  of  No- 
vember 1G,  1870,3  addressed  to  the  royal  governors  of  Goteborgs-lan  and 
Bohus-lan,  given  the  result  of  his  own  experience  in  the  following  two 
assertions,  viz :  1.  That  "  that  in  none  of  those  years  had  there  been  in 
the  schools  of  herring  coming  in  from  the  sea  any  mature  herring  capa- 
ble of  propagating;  that  therefore  they  could  not  be  herring  spawning 
in  autumn  like  the  so-called  'old  herring;'  and  that  '  the  great  mass  of 
herrings  have  not  remained  till  the  beginning  of  the  spring-spawning 
season ;"  2.  "  That  the  herring  of  one  year  differ  in  shape  and  size  from 
those  of  another,"  which  observation  is  said  to  be  "indisputable"  and 
"  valuable."  Von  Yhlen  thinks  that  he  is  able  to  verify  by  his  observa- 
tions the  testimony  of  the  fishermen  made  before  the  committee  in  1833, 
that  the  so-called  sea-herring  does  not  spawn  on  the  coast  of  Bohus-Liin 
and  is  not  of  the  same  breed  as  either  th«  coast-herring  or  the  "old" 
herring,  as  well  as  the  assertions  made  by  himself  that  the  sea-herring 
are  not  of  the  same  breed  each  year,  and  do  not  come  from  the  same 
place,  and  that  "  they  possibly  may  be  young  herring  from  various  parts 
of  the  Kattegat  and  Skagerack,  which  are  drifted  along  by  marine  cur- 
rents till  those  able  to  spawn  go  to  their  various  spawning-places."4  In 
his  report  of  1870  on  the  salt-water  fish  of  Bohus-lan,  he  says,  further- 
more, that  as  "  herring  have  nowhere  been  found  to  spawn  on  the  outer 
coast,"  it  would  appear  from  this  circumstance  "  that  those  herring 
which  in  autumn  showed  themselves  in  such  enormous  numbers  on  the 
outer  coast,  do  not  come  from  the  small  schools  which  are  annually 
found  spawning  in  the  fiords."5  In  his  report  for  the  preceding  year  he 
supposes  that  the  large  number  of  sea-herring  caught  during  that  year 
(90,800  bushels)  came  from  yonng  herring  which  migrated  from  the 
fiords  in  September,  1867. 5 

.  The  fishermen  of  Bohus-lan,  as  was  shown  in  the  report  on  the  herring- 
fisheries,  published  in  1843,  have  distinguished  several  races  of  herring 
by  different  names,  most  of  which,  however,  only  indicated  differences 

1  Om  Silclen  og  Sildefiskerierne.     Ckristiania  1871,  p,  126. 

2  Tidskrift  for  Fiskeri.  V,  p.  21-54. — Goteborgs  oeh  Bobus-liins  Husballnings-Salls- 
kaps  Qvartalsskrift.  October,  1870,  p.  123-160. — Oni  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  p.  121, 
122, 126. 

3  Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  11-17. 
<Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  12. 

5  Goteborgs  ocb  Bobus-liins  Hushallnings-Siillskaps  Qvartalsskrift,  July,  1870,  p.  16. 


128       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  age,  or  size,  or  a  greater  development  of  the  sexual  organs  in  one  and 
the  same  kind,  or  such  as  are  found  at  the  different  seasons  when  the 
herring  are  caught,  and  -which  the  fishermen  themselves  by  no  means 
always  understand.  The  more  experienced  among  them,  however,  gen- 
erally make  a  distinction  between — 1,  the  spring  or  grass  herring;  2,  the 
sea-herring,  (lottsill;)  and,  3,  the  wandering-herring,  (straksill,)  which  last 
is  by  some  thought  to  be  only  a  full-grown  sea-herring.  Concerning  the 
three  races  thus  recognized,  and  which  have  not  been  admitted  from 
interested  views,  I  shall  give  whatever  I  have  been  able  to  gather  from 
the  literature  on  the  subject  as  well  as  from  conversations  with  the  most 
experienced  and  reliable  fishermen,  reserving  for  a  future  report  all  the 
facts  I  could  gather  from  personal  observation.  I  shall  make  it  a  specia 
object  to  enter  into  a  fuller  examination  than  has  been  hitherto  done  of 
the  various  assertions  made  before  the  committee  of  inquiry  in  1833,  as 
these  are  viewed  from  such  different  stand-points,  and  are  urged  by  the 
partisans  of  conflicting  opinions. 

THE   SPRING-HERRING  (u  Y&rsilV). 

(Clupea  majalis,  Kilss.) 

This  coast-herring,  which  is  found  in  the  Skagerack,  along  the  coast 
from  Holland  Point  to  Cape  Lindesnces,  is  distinguished  by  its  com- 
paratively small  head  and  plump  shape,  and  by  its  spawning  on  the 
coast  in  March,  April,  and  May.  Whether  the  Limfiord-herriug,  which 
likewise  spawns  in  spring,  belongs  to  the  same  race,  I  have  not  been 
able  to  ascertain.1  The  spring-herring  is  chiefly  found  near  the  mouths 
of  the  large  rivers  flowing  into  the  Skagerack,  where  it  is  also  caught 
with  stationary  nets.  This  race,  which  is  distinguished  from  the  larger 
one  that  has  sometimes  visited  Bohus-Lan  in  enormous  numbers  and  has 
caused  the  famous  "great"  fisheries,  is  either  entirely  overlooked  or 
considered  incorrectly  as  the  former  "old"  herring's  insignificant  de- 
scendant. It  is  chiefly  caught  in  spring,  during  the  spawning-sea- 
son, but  likewise,  though  in  smaller  numbers,  at  the  end  of  summer 
and  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  while  its  young  are  caught  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  though  rarely  in  any  great  number. 

The  spring-herring  was  during  the  old  fishery,  and  even  some  time 
afterward,  known  by  the  collective  name  of  "  lottsill,"3  but  began  to 
be  gradually  distinguished  from  it  as  a  separate  race.3  The  most  com- 
mon and  oldest  name  for  this  race  is  spring-herring,  (Varsill.4)  Accord- 
ing to  Nilsson5  and  Ekstrom6  it  is  said,  after  having  finished  spawning, 

1  See  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  107  fr.  24. 

s  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  88  fr.  23,  p.  89  fr.  30,  p.  100  fr.  13,  14,  p.  102  fr.  25,  p.  119  fr.  9, 
p.  127  fr.  19. 

3  See  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  107  fr.  24. 

4  Dubb,  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad.  Handl.  f.  1817,  p.  34.    Handl.  ror.  Sillf,  p.  90  fr.  31. 
6  Handl.  ror.  Sillf,  p.  63  fr.  136. 

6  Praktisk  afhandling,  p.  10. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  129 

to  lose  some  of  its  scales,  and  appear  of  a  more  greenish-color,  and  be- 
come inferior  in  quality,  at  which  time  ft  is  called  grass-herring,  (Gras- 
sill.)  -This  name  was  generally  understood  by  the  fishermen  at  the  in- 
quest'of  1833  ;l  this  is  still  the  case,  as  they  always  understand  thereby 
a  herring  which  frequents  and  is  caught  on  grassy  bottoms,  although  at 
present  this  name  is  perhaps  more  generally  used  in  another  sense.  On 
the  northern  coast  of  Sweden,  as  well  as  in  the  neighboring  portions  of 
Norway,  the  young  of  more  than  one  year  of  the  coast-herring  are 
called  by  this  name.  By  May-herring  we  understand  smaller,  but  often 
very  fat  specimens  of  the  spring-herring,  which  toward  the  end  of 
spring  are  caught  in  the  same  places  where  formerly  the  great  spring- 
herring  was  caught.  It  is  often  filled  with  insects,  and  therefore  be- 
comes easily  damaged,  which  circumstance  no  doubt  accounts  for  Nils- 
son's  report  as  to  its  poor  quality.2  It  is  called  summer -herring  when 
caught  toward  the  end  of  summer.3  By  autumn-herring4,  they  under- 
stand on  the  northern  coast  the  same  herring,  if  caught  during  the  be- 
ginning of  autumn.  Some  see  in  this  herring  a  different  race  from  the 
spring-herring,  although  they  can  mention  no  other  difference  than  that 
the  autumn-herring  is  somewhat  larger  and  probably  spawns  somewhat 
earlier  (in  February.)  Autumn-herring  seems  to  be  only  a  more  recent 
name,  which  has  replaced  that  of  "summer  herring."  By  uganesillV5 
the  same  fish  as  the  summer  or  autumn  herring  is  understood.  The 
name  "Istersill  "6 — lard-herring — is  synonymous  with  "summer-herring," 
although  other  herring  are  sometimes  called  by  that  name.  uKnub- 
sill" — plump-herring — is  a  name  given  to  the  coast-herring,  on  account 
of  the  short  and  plump  form  of  its  body.  uFetsiW'' — fat-herring — the 
coast-herring  is  called  when  it  has  fully-developed  sexual  organs,7  a 
reminiscence  of  the  old  fisheries,  when  the  full-grown  herring  was  fat- 
test and  most  valuable,  on  which  account  it  also,  toward  the  end  of  the 
fishing  period,  got  the  name  "YaljesilV — select  herring.8  "AJUngssiW'9 
means  the  same  as  "  fat- herring."  iiHoljesill,,,l°  or,  as  the  Norwegians 
call  it,  "Fiordstoing"11 — fiord-herring — is  another  name  given  to  the 
coast-herring,  because  it  sometimes  frequents  the  deep  fiords.     By  the 

1  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  119  fr.  9,  10,  16,  p.  126  fr.  16, 17, 18, 22, 23. 

2  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  131,  136. 

3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  107  fr.  25,  p.  127  fr.  19.  Ekstrom,  Ofvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet. 
Akad:s  Forhandl.  f.  1846,  p.  20. 

4  It  seems  that  formerly  the  sea-herring  or  so-called  "old-herring"  was  sold  under 
this  name.     See  Diibb,  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad:s  Handl.  f.  1817,  pp.  35,  44. 

6  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  89  fr.  30,  p.  119  fr.  9,  pp.  45,  136. 
e  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  127  fr.  19,  pp.  131,  136. 

7  Ekstrom,  Praktisk  af  handling,  p.  11. 

8  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  98  fr.  5,  p.  112  fr.  17.  There  seems,  therefore,  not  to  have  been 
any  fishing  of  "  May-herrings  " — so-called  "  maatjes  " — during  the  old  fishery,  and  the 
word  "fat-herring"  has  therefore  in  Bohus-Liin  got  quite  a  different  meaning  than  in 
Norway  and  other  countries.    Ekstrom,  Praktisk  afhandling,  pp.  10,  11. 

*Xilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  16,  45,  46,  62,  70,  134. 

10Thlen,  G.  von,  Goteb.  o.  Boh.  liins  Hush.  Siillsk.  Qvartalsskr.,  July,  1867,  p.  51 ;  1873, 
p.  205. 

uLdberg,  Norges  Fiskerier,  p.  89. 
<J   F 


130      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

name  "  Tjogsill,"  or  score-herring,  (in  Norway  "Sne&esild?)  all  herrings 
of  such  a  size  as  can  be  sold  by  the  score  are  understood.1 

The  young  of  the  coast-herring  are  called  uSillogon,V2  (herring-eyes,) 
"Sillmdrj"  or  "Sillmyr?*  (tender-herring,)  and  "Sillstagg,"4'5 — in  the 
neighboring  portion  of  Norway  "Sildemaur,"  OT°llSildegnu}n6 — till  they 
are  one  year  old,  when  they  are  called  "Grassill?  (grass-herring,) 
"Sm&sill"  (small-herring,)7  and  "Smdlodda"8  (small  "lodda,")  till  at  the 
age  of  two  years  they  reach  a.  length  of  five  to  six  inches,  when  they 
begin  to  be  caught  in  the  large  nets,  and  are  known  by  the  general 
name  of  "Lottsill,"9  or  "Hal/sill,"  (half-herring.)10  The  coast-herring  is 
said  to  be  fatter  and  plumper  than  the  sea-herring,  from  which,  accord- 
ing to  some,  it  is  known  by  the  same  characteristics  which  distinguish 
the  mature  spring-herring  from  the  sea-herring  of  the  same  size. 

THE   SEA-HERRING  ("hctfslottsill"). 

The  kind  of  herring  called  "  sea-herring,"  which  during  winter  comes 
in  great  numbers  to  the  coast  of  Bohus-liin — more  regularty,  however, 
on  the  southern  coast  and  the  southern  portion  of  the  central  coast — is 
distinguished  by  its  comparatively  large  head,  its  more  elongated  shape, 
and  the  great  size ;  all  of  which  characteristics  are,  however,  only  dis- 
tinctly discernible  in  the  larger  specimens,  (called  "  storlodda?  I.  e., 
11  great  lodda,")  which  are  found  in  small  numbers  among  the  medium- 
sized,  two-year-old  herring,  in  respect  to  whose  relation  to  the  other 
herring,  however,  opinions  are  divided.11 

It  is  by  some  supposed  to  spawn  at  the  beginning  of  autumn,  (like 
the  "  old"  herring  of  former  times,)  because  the  larger  specimens  which 
have  been  caught  were  usually  empty,  and  would,  consequently,  when 
it  comes  to  the  coast  of  Bohus-liin,  be  nearly  half  a  year  older  than  the 
*  coast-herring.  At  the  meetings  held  by  the  committee  of  inquiry  in 
1833,  the  fishermen  of  the  Bohus-liin  coast  unanimously  declared  that 
the  "sea-herring"  (ulottsillv)  " goes  away  from  the  coast"  before  it 
gets  mature  ;12  and  some  of  them  were,  therefore,  of  opinion  that  it 

1Easch,  H.  fy  Bcrg,B.  M.    Betaeukning  og  Indstilling  afgiven  af  den  til  Fiskeriernes 
Unders^gelse  i  Christiania — og  Langesundsfjorden  ved  Kongel.    Resol.  af  23  de  Mai 
1852,  nedsatte  Commission,  p.  32. 

2Ekstrom,  Praktisk  afhandling,  p.  9. 

3Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  45,  70. 

Ekstrom,  Praktisk  afhandling,  p.  10. 

*Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  63,  70,  134. 

Ekstrom,  Praktisk  afhandling,  p.  10. 

6  These  and  some  of  the  following  names  are  merely  differences  of  dialect,  and  there 
fore  almost  untranslatable. — Translator's  note. 

6Basch  $•  Berg,  Betaenkning  og  Indstilling,  p.  32. 

•>Mlsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  46. 

sNilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  137. 

sMlsson,  Handl.  ror.,  Sillf.  pp.  70,  63,  66. 

i°Mlsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  46. 

11  See  what  is  Baid  regarding  the  "  Strdksill " — the  "  wandering-herring." 

12 Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  102  fr.  24,  p.  112  fr.  15,  p.   117  fr.  14,  p.   129  fr.  33.    Nihson, 
Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  47. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  131 

spawned  "  out  in  the  sea,"  whither  it  went  on  leaving  the  coast,1  while 
others  maintained  that  it  was  a  small  kind  of  herring  which  never  got 
any  larger2  and  never  propagated  its  race,  but  was  a  "  direct  produc- 
tion of  the  water;"3  views  which  are  still  held  by  some  people.4  Its 
spawning-places,  the  parts  of  the  sea  whence  it  comes  and  whither  it 
goes,  are  thus  not  known ;  bat  if  it  should  really  come  from  another 
race  of  herring  than  that  belonging  to  the  Skagerack,  it  could  not  come 
from  any  other  place  but  the  North  Sea,  the  Limfjord,  or  the  Kattegat. 
The  fact  discovered  by  G.  0.  Sars  that  the  young  herring  descended 
from  the  Western  Norwegian  winter-herring  stays  generally  much  far- 
ther toward  the  north,  near  the  northwestern  coast  of  Norway,5  fur- 
nishes an  example  of  a  young  herring  or  sea-herring,  like  that  found  on 
the  coast  of  Bohus-Iiin,  paying  regular  visits  to  a  coast  where  it  is  not 
born  and  where  it  does  not  spawn. 

The  Swedish  word  "  lottsill"  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  old 
fisheries,  and  originally  meant  a  smaller  kind  of  herring,  or  one  of  uneven 
size,  not  suitable  for  an  article  of  trade,6  in  contradistinction  to  the  more 
even-sized  herring,  which  was  sold  to  the  salting-establishments  or  her- 
ring traders.  "  Lottsill "  was  consequently  a  collective  name,  and  meant 
not  only  half-grown  herring,  but  also  larger  herring  of  another  kind 
than  the  good  herring,7  and  therefore,  following  the  example  of  others, 
I  have  used  the  term  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  races  of  herring, 
although  it  ought  in  course  of  time  to  be  exchanged  for  a  better  one, 
since  it  has  not  become  popular,  and  is  perhaps  even  based  on  false 
premises.  Nowadays,  since  the  "old"  herring  has  been  forgotten,  the 
term  "  lottsill"  is  often  used  by  the  fishermen  to  distinguish  a  kind  of 
herring  different  from  the  spring  herring.8  It  is  even  called  halfsill, 
(half-herring,)9  and  the  few  large  ones  found  among  them  "  storlodda," 
(great  lott-herriug.) 10 

THE  WANDERING-HERRING,    ("  Strdksill.") 

A  large,  but  thin  species  of  herring,  which  is  found  in  small  numbers 
late  in  autumn  and  in  winter,  and  which  is  distinguished  from  the 

1  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  Ill  fr.  10. 

*  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  91  fr.  38,  p.  92,  p.  95,  p.  106  fr.  21,  p.  107  fr.  26,  p.  112  fr.  15. 

3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  103  fr.  33.— Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  37.— Wright,  W.  von, 
Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  168. 

4 Quite  a  different  opinion,  viz,  that  the  "lottsill"  "was  descended  from  our  coast- 
herring,  seems  to  have  heen  quite  common  on  the  coast  of  Bohus-Liin.  See  Lundbeck, 
O.,  Anteckningar  rorande  Bohusliiuska  Fiskerierna,  i  synnerhet  Sillnsket.  Gotheb. 
1822,  p.  27. — Eosen,  A.  von,  Anforande  i  Commerce  Collegii  underd.  Forslag  till  nyt, 
Reglemente  for  Fiskerierne  of  d.  17  Aug.,  1840. — Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  95, 

6  Indberetning  for  1873,  p.  54. 

6  Xilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  63. 

*  Haudl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  88  fr.  19,  23,  p.  100  fr.  12,  p.  119  fr.  9,  p.  127  fr.  19,  &c.  Tho 
"  Lottsill "  is  still  called  "  lottsill "  when  it  becomes  larger  than  about  seven  inches,  as  is 
erroneously  thought.    Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  135.    Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  65. 

«  See  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  107  fr.  24.' 

9  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  46. 

10  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  137. 


132        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

spring-herring  by  the  same  marks  as  the  sea-herring,  and  which  is  said 
to  resemble  in  its  appearance  the  Norwegian  herring.  On  the  coast 
of  Bohus-Lan  it  is  never  found  with  fully-developed  sexual  organs,  but 
is  by  some  considered  to  be  full-grown  sea-herring.  Ekstrdm  thought 
that  they  were  barren  spring-herring ; l  and  this  opinion  was  shared 
by  von  Yhlen.2  Some  years  ago  this  kind  of  herring  came  to  the 
northern  coast  in  much  larger  numbers  than  usual,3  and  according  to  some 
reports  they  are  said  to  have  staid  till  the  end  of  May,  when  they  got 
fat;  but  this  last-mentioned  kind,  caught  in  May,4  is  said  by  others  to  have 
been  mostly  autumn-herring,  a  race  which  is  supposed  to  be  distinct  from 
the  wandering- herring.  The  wandering-herring  is  not  liked  by  the  fisher- 
men, because  it  is  almost  valueless,  and  is  believed,  if  appearing  in  larger 
numbers,  to  chase  away  the  other  herring  and  eat  up  the  young  ones,5 
so  that  its  arrival  often  indicates  the  close  of  the  herring-fisheries.  On 
the  Stroinstad  coast  one  occasionally  hears  the  opinion  expressed  that 
the  wandering-herring  is  of  the  same  kind  as  the  "  old  n  herring,  or  at 
least  resembles  it.  The  wandering-herring  is  not  spoken  of  in  the  re- 
ports of  the  "  old  "  fisheries,  so  that  in  this  respect  they  seem  to  be  dif- 
ferent from  the  fisheries  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway,  which  generally 
commenced  with  the  fishing  of  wandering-herring. 

The  name  StrdJcsill  (wandering-herring)  seems  to  have  been  given  on 
account  of  its  wandering  about  the  coast  in  comparative  loneliness, 
without  occurring  in  regular  schools  and  producing  any  fisheries.  On 
the  northernmost  coast  it  is  called  Bensill,  (bone-herring,)  because  it  is 
thought  to  have  more  numerous  and  larger  bones  than  any  other  her- 
ring.6 In  the  neighboring  portion  of  Norway  it  used  formerly  to  be 
called  Jernsvensk  sill  (Iron  Swedish  herring.7)  Its  proper  Norwegian 
name,  however,  is  Straalsild,  (ray-herring,)  JStraaksild,  (wandering- 
herring,)  Solkovedsild,  (sun-head  herring,)8  as  well  as  Blodsild  (blood- 
herring.9)  This  last-mentioned  name  seems  to  indicate  that  even  in 
Norway  the  fishermen  consider  the  wandering-herring  to  have  more 
blood  than  any  other  herring. 

1  Ofvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad :  a  Forhandl.  f.  1844,  p.  26.— Praktisk  af  handling,  p.  8  — 
Later,  however,  he  came  to  the  conviction  that  the  wandering-herring  was  identical 
with  the  Norwegian  herring. — Ofvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad  :  s  Forhandl.  f.  1840,  p.  20. 

2Goteborgs  och  Bohusliins  Hushallings  Sailskaps  Quartalsskrift,  Jnly,  1873,.p.  50; 
1873,  p.  205. 

0  Sars,  G.  0.,  Iudheretning.    Morgenhladet  f.  1871,  n:o. 

4  Handl.  ror  Sillf.,  p.  90  fr.  31. 

6Handl.  ror  Sillf.,  p.  88  fr.  21.— Ekstroin,  Ofvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet.  Akadrs  Forhandl,  f. 
1846,  p.  20. 

6  Boeclc,  A.,  Tidskrift  for  Fiskeri,  VII,  p.  26. 

7  Yhlen,   G.  von,  Goteborgs  och   Bohusliins   llushallnings   Sailskaps  Qvartalsskrift, 

1873,  p.  205. 

8  Lfybcrg,  Norges  Fiskerier,  pp.  23, 24. — Boeclc,  Om  Silden,  pp.  23, 24, 48. 

9  Sars,  G.  O.,  Indberetning  til  Departernentet  for  det  Indre  om  de  af  ham  i  Aarene, 
1864-1873,  anstillede,  praktisk  videnskabligo   Uuders^gelser.      Christiania,  1869  and 

1874.  Indberetuiug  for  1873,  p.  59. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN  133 

HERRING  SPAWNING  IN  AUTUMN. 

Herring  spawning  in  autumn  are  said  to  have  been  caught  sometimes 
near  Tjorn,  where,  some  years  ago,  small  quantities  of  this  same  fish 
were  caught  at  the  end  of  summer  or  in  the  beginning  of  autumn.  G. 
von  Yklen  thinks  that  this  herring  is  related  to  the  Dutch  herring.1 

THE  LARGE  HERRING,  OR   THE   SO-CALLED  "OLD  "  (GAMLA)  HERRING. 

'  (Clupea  uahusica,  Nilss.) 

It  is  frequently  maintained,  though  not  as  often  now  as  formerly, 
both  by  old  men  who  remember  the  old  fisheries,  and  by  young  per- 
sons, that  herring  of  the  same  kind  as  the  "old"  herring,  or  at  least 
resembling  it  very  much,  are  caught  among  the  other  herring,  or  are 
observed  in  the  open  sea.  I  therefore  feel  it  my  duty  to  contribute  my 
share  toward  ascertaining  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  and  to  increase 
our  knowledge  of  this  remarkable  kind  of  herring  by  gathering  all  the 
information  on  the  subject  scattered  in  books  and  reports,  giving  a  re- 
view of  the  different  opinions  regarding  its  appearance  and  disappear- 
ance on  the  coast  of  Bohus-lan. 

The  "  old  "  herring  ("  gamla"  sill)  was,  during  the  period  it  visited 
tbe  coast  of  Bohus-lan,  generally  called  "  samsill"'3  in  order  to  distin- 
guish it  from  a  smaller  and  less  valuable  kind.  It  was  also  called  "stor- 
sill,"  (great-herring,)3  by  which  name  people,  as  they  do  in  Norway  at 
the  present  day,  intended  to  distinguish  a  kind  of  herring  excelling  the 
others  in  size,4  and  u  vadsill," 5  (net-herring,)  signifying  a  herring  too 
large  to  stick  in  the  meshes  of  a  net,  as  well  as  "  hostsill,"  (autumn-her- 
ring.)6 

As  there  are  no  specimens  of  the  "old"  herring  in  any  of  our  muse- 
ums, it  was  necessary,  in  order  to  get  some  idea  of  its  nature,  to  collate 
accurately  the  different  accounts  regarding  it  obtained  from  the  fishing 
period  when  it  was  caught,  or  from  the  time  near  its  close,  when  every- 
thing was  still  fresh  in  the  memory  of  men. 

If  we  examine  the  answers  which  were  given  to  the  committee  of  1833 
by  the  fishermen,  we  find  that  they  unanimously  declared  that7  the  her- 
ring which  spawned  in  spring  and  which  was  peculiar  to  the  coast  was 

1  Goteborgs  och  Bokusliius  Husballnings  Siillskaps  Qvartalsskrift,  July,  1867,  p.  51. — 
Here,  as  well  as  in  A.  Boeck's  report,  (Goteb.  ocb  Bob.  lans  Husb.  Siillsk.  Qvartalskr. 
Oktob.,  1870,  p.  28  ;  Tidskrift  for  Fiskeri,  V,  p.  131,)  and  bis  more  extensive  work,  "  Om 
Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,"  (p.  122,)  tbe  word  Holliindska"  (Dutcb)  sbould  be  substi- 
tuted instead  of  "  Hallilndska." 

2  Wright,  TV.  von,  Haudl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  171. — Efcstrom,  Praktisk  afbaudling,  p.  11. 

3  Xihson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  45,  46, 62, 70, 134 

4  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.  p.  88  fr.  23,  p.  90  fr.  33. 
sNilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  16, 62. 
*Dubb,  K.  Vet.  Akad:s  Handl.  f.  1817,  p.  35. 

7  Only  two  salters,  of  wbom  one,  bowever,  could  only  remember  tbo  great  fishery 
from  bis  cbildbood,  were  of  a  different  opinion.  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  112  fr.  16,  p.  127 
fr.  17. 


134      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

certainly  different  from  the  "old"  herring, and  stated  that  it  differed 
from  it  partly  by  variation  in  form,1  and  partly  by  staying  near  the  coast 
"  all  the  year  round,"  (while  the  "  old  "  herring  came  near  the  coast  only 
for  a  short  time,)2  and  by  having  (in  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  in 
spring)  roe  and  milt,3  (which  during  that  period  was  not  generally  the 
case  with  the  "  old  "  herring,)4  by  being  not  as  large  when  full  grown,5 
by  a  smaller  head  and  higher  body,6  by  the  relative  position  of  the 
fins,7  by  a  different  flavor,8  and  finally  by  resembling  the  Kattegat- 
herring.9  As  a  characteristic  distinction,  it  was  mentioned  that  the 
herring  coming  in  from  the  sea  had  a  larger  head,  and  was  thinner  and 
smaller,  than  the  "  old  "  herring,  and  had  a  different  flavor  :10  which  as- 
sertions, however,  have  been  utterly  and  indisputably  refuted  by  Professor 
Nilsson.11  Even  from  that  kind  of  herring  which  is  now  generally  called 
lottsill,  (wandering-herring,)  and  which  in  size  occasionally  exceeds  the 
"  old  "  herring,12  it  is  said  to  differ  somewhat,  as  the  lottsill  was  said  to 
resemble  more  closely  the  Norwegian  grabensill,  (gray-bone  herring,)  or 
have  smaller  scales  and  proportions  slenderer.13  The  "  old"  herring  was 
furthermore  of  a  different  race  from  the  Norwegian  grabensill,  (gray-bone 
herring,)14  and  the  Southern  Kattegat  and  Limfjord-herring.18  If  we 
now  consider  everything  that  is  alleged  in  the  reports  on  the  herring- 
fisheries  regarding  this  matter,  we  find  that  the  "  old  "  herring,  accord- 
ing to  the  account  of  the  fishermen,  differed  from  the  "  skiirgardsill,'' 
(coast-herring,)  from  the  "  str&ksill,"  (wandering-herring,)  and — though 
not  quite  so  much — from  the  "  hafslottsill,"  (sea-herring,)  and,  finally,  also 
from  the  herring  caught  on  the  western  coast  of  Norway,  in  the  Katte- 
gat, and  in  the  Limfjord,  but  that  it  nevertheless  bore  some  resemblance 
to  the  "  straksill,"16  and  even  to  the  older  and  larger  "varsill,"  (spring- 

1  Hand!,  rdr.  Sillf.,  p.  88  fr.  23,  p.  89  fr.  30,  p.  90  fr.  31,  pp.  95, 102,  fr.  25.  Also  see 
Lundbeck,  O.,  Antekningar,  p.  27. — Edenhielm,  G.  Utlatande  till  Commerce  Collegium  at 
d.  2  Mars  1840. 

2  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  95. 

3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  90  fr.  31,  p.  120  fr.  16,  p.  127  fr.  17. 

4  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  89  fr.  25,  p.  98  fr.  5,  p.  120  fr.  12,  p.  125  fr.  6. 

5  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  120  fr.  13,  p.  127  fr.  17  and  23.— See  also  Dubb,  K.  Vet.  Akacks 
Handl.  f.  1817,  pp.  35,  44. — Lundbeck,  Antekningar,  p.  27. 

e  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  100   fr.  14  and  15,  p.  107   fr.  24,  p.  120  fr.   10,  p.  127  fr.  23. 
Dubb,  K.  Vet.  Akad:s.     Handl.  f.  1817,  p.  44. — Lundbeck,  Antekningar,  p.  27. 
i  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  112  fr.  16. 

8  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  120  fr.  10,  p.  127  fr.  17 .—Lundbeck,  Antekningar,  p.  27. 

9  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  100  fr.  15,  p.  107  fr.24.— See  also  Dubb,  K.  Vet.  Akad:s.  Handl. 
f.  1817,  pp.  35, 44. 

10  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  88  fr.  23,  pp.  87-88  fr.  19,  pp.  92,  108  fr.  32,  p.  119  fr.  6,  p.  126 
fr.  10. 

11  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  133-135. 

12  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  90  fr.  33. 

"Handl.  ror.  Sillf*  p.  88  fr.  23,  p.  90  fr.  33,  p.  119  fr.  7. 
" Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  90  fr.  34,  pp.  95,  107  fr.  25,  p.  121  fr.  20— See  also  p.  121  fr. 

21  and  p.  100  fr.  16. 

"  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  100  fr.  15,  p.  121  fr.  20. 

!6 Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  119  fr.  7,  p.  128,fr.  25  and  26. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  135 

herring,)  as  "  its  head  was  smaller,  the  rest  of  the  body  fatter,  and  the 
fish,  when  salted,  of  a  better  flavor."1 

Begarding  the  spawning-season  of  the  "old"  herring,  we  know  (see 
"Kandlingarnetill  R.  St.  FisJceri- Deputation  dr.  1764  ")2  that  the  herring 
"  was  full  of  roe  in  the  beginning  of  the  fishing-season,  but  empty  in 
November,"  and  that  "another  herring,  full  of  roe  and  milt,  came  late  in 
autumn  and  spawned  later,"  which  chiefly  took  place  then  in  September 
and  October,  though  herring  were  also  caught  which  spawned  later  in 
autumn ;  a  circumstance  which  reminds  one  of  the  spring-herring.3  In 
the  "  TrangrumsacV  it  is  said,  as  is  well  known,  "  on  the  first  arrival  of 
the  herring,  especially  when  it  comes  early  to  the  coast,  it  is  full  of  roe 
and  milt,  while  toward  the  end  of  the  fishing-season  it  is  thin,  empty, 
and  has  no  roe  ;  "4  also,  "  the  usual  spawning-season  of  the  herring  is 
on  its  first  arrival,  when  it  is  always  wild,"5  and  this,  if  compared  with 
the  accounts  of  the  early  history  of  the  herring-fisheries,6  points  to  their 
spawning  in  autumn,  which  seems  to  have  continued  thus  during  the 
remaining  portion  of  the  fishing  period,  whenever  the  herring  which 
was  caught  toward  the  end  of  the  year  is  mentioned  as  having  done 
spawning  ;7  and  the  inconsiderable  quantity  of  fish  with  roe  which  were 
caught  must  have  been  got  at  the  beginning  of  the  fishing-season,  in 
November  and  December.8  In  the  "  Trangrumsact "  it  is  mentioned 
that  "  in  January,  1774,  three  great  boat-loads  of  herring  were  caught 
in  the  Ellosfiord,  near  Morlanda,  which  in  size  and  thickness,  with  milt 
and  roe,  exceeded  all  the  herring  which  had  been  caught  on  the  coast  of 
Bohus-Lan  during  the  previous  autumn ; " 9  but  I  know  of  no  reliable 
account  that  the  "  old  "  herring  should,  toward  the  end  of  the  fishing- 
period,  have  delayed  spawning  till  far  in  spring,  and  nothing  similar 
is  known  from  Western  Norway,  (where  the  great  fishery  was  very  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  Bohus-Lan,)  or  from  any  other  place  where  herring-fish- 
eries are  carried  on. 

As  regards  the  place  where  the  "  old  "  herring  staid  when  not  an  ob- 
ject of  fishery  on  the  coast  of  Bohus-Lan,  opinions  are  much  divided, 
which  is  quite  natural,  as  there  was  very  little  personal  observation  to 

1  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  88  fr.  19,  p.  92,  p.  123  fr.  30. 

2  Sundevall,  C.  J.,  Stockholuis  liins  Kgl.  Hushallnings-Siillskaps  Handlingar.  VI,  Stock- 
holm, 1855,  p.  153. — Cederstrom,  G.  C,  Fishkodling  ock  Sveriges  Fiskerier.  Stockholm, 
18G7,  p.  130  och  22G  anm. 

3  See  chapter  II  of  this  report. 
4Trangruinsacten,  p.  163. 

6  Trangrumsacten,  p.  183. 

«  Trangrumsacten,  pp.  129, 130, 133, 134, 139, 146, 147, 150. 

7  Svensson,  Beriittelse  om  Sillfisket  i  Bohusliin,  Gotheb.  1822,  p.  18. — Handl.  ror  Sillf. 
p.  140. — Nilsson,  Handl.  ror  Sillf.,  pp.  41,  42. — Sundevall,  Handl.  ror  Sillf.,  p.  158. 

8 Even  during  the  last  period  of  the  "old"  fishery  did  fishing  commence  about  a 
month  before  Christmas,  and  herrings  were  often  observed  long  before  this,  although 
they  could  not  be  taken  with  nets.  (See  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  104  fr.  3,  p.  119  fr.  4. — 
Cederstrom,  Fiskodling  och  Sveriges  Fiskerier,  pp.  208-214.) 

9  Trangrumsacten,  p.  146. 


136        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

serve  as  a  guide,  but  simply  more  or  less  well-founded  suppositions.  In 
Doctor  Fagrcsus's  work,  "  Anmdrlcningar  rorande  sillJisJce  och  tranlcolceri," 
which  is  embodied  in  the  "  Trangrwmact," x  it  is  supposed,  (as  Bodd 
and  Anderson  first  suggested,  and  after  them  Pennant  and  others,)  that 
the  herring  had  a  common  place  of  sojourn  near  the  north  pole,  from 
whence  large  schools  emigrated  every  year  to  those  places  where  herring- 
fisheries  were  carried  on.2  This  supposition  was  eagerly  taken  up  by  the 
oil-refiners  and  other  comparatively  educated  persons  on  the  coast  of  Bo- 
hus-Lau,3  but  did  not  coincide  with  the  opinion  of  the  uneducated  fisher- 
men. These  latter,  who  distinguished  the  "  old  "  herring  as  a  "  regular 
sea-herring  "4  from  the  kind  of  herring  peculiar  to  the  Skagerack,  seem 
to  have  considered  the  North  Sea  as  its  proper  home ; 5  an  opinion  which 
Professor  Nilsson  considered  so  entirely  without  foundation,  that  he  did 
not  think  it  worth  refuting.6  This  opinion  of  the  Bohus-liin  fishermen 
has  been  taken  up  by  Norwegian  naturalists,  who  had  made  a  specialty 
of  the  study  of  the  herring  and  the  herring-fisheries.7  Professor  Nilsson, 
on  the  other  hand,  and  those  who  unconditionally  followed  him,  sup- 
posed that  it  only  went  a  short  distance  from  the  west  coast  of  Sweden, 
"  and  certainly  never  went  beyond  the  Skagerack."8  This  opinion  of 
Professor  Nilsson  was'based  on  the  supposition  that  the  herring,  when 
not  an  object  of  fishery  on  the  coast,  lived  at  the  bottom  of  the  deep- 
sea  valleys  or  basins* outside  the  coast;  and  he  maintained  his  view 
chiefly  by  the  fact  that  herring  are  often  found  in  the  stomach  of  the 
codfish.9  Even  Axel  Boeclc  approved  of  this  last-mentioned  opin- 
ion,10 against  which  subsequently  well-founded  objections  have  been 
raised  by  G.  0.  Sars11  and  G.  C.  Cederstrom,12  which,  doubtless,  will  lead 
to  an  entirely  different  view  regarding  this  most  important  point  in  the 
question  of  the  herring-fisheries. 

Closely  connected  with  this  is  the  question  regarding  the  fate  of  the 
old  herring  after  abandoning  the  spawning-places  on  the  coast  of  Bohus- 
lan.  Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  our  most  prominent  zoologists  sup- 
posed that  the  whole  race  of  herrings,  with  the  exception  of  the  young 
left  on  the  coast  from  last  year's  spawning,  were  probably  scattered 

1  Trangrumsacten,  pp.  95-150. 

2  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  24-28. 

3  Trangrumsacten,  pp.  162, 163.— Dubb,  K.  Vet.  Akad:s  Handl.  f.  1817,  pp.  43. 
*Dubb,  K.  Vet.Akad:s  Handl.  f.  1817,  p.  44. 

6  See  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  53,57. 
e  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  68. 

7  Boeclc,  A.,  Om  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  pp.  37, 45, 46.— Sars,  G.  O.,  Indberetuing  f. 
1873,  p.  58. 

e  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  8, 68.— Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  x. 

9  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  7, 8,  42, 43.— Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  pp.  503-508. 

i°Om  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  p. 47.— Tidakrift  for  Fiskeri.  VII,  pp.  18, 19. 

1J  Indberetning  f.  1869,  pp.  60-61 ;  f.  1873,  pp.  46-51. 

"Naturkistoriska  betraktelser  och  iaktagelser  innefattande  bfinvisniugar  till  lampliga 
siitt  att  forska  for  att  kuuua  tilltbrlitligt  utreda  sillfiskarnes  tillhall  ocb  vaudringar. 
Stockholm,  1871.    Tillagg,  pp.  1-3. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  137 

or  destroyed  in  the  sea,1  or  perished  in  the  depth  of  the  ocean,  or  in  an 
unsuitable  climate,2  though  there  have  not  been  wanting  suppositions 
regarding  spawning-places  which  it  was  said  to  visit  afterward.  Thus 
Professor  Mlsson,  in  his  report  of  November  11,  1826,  seemed  inclined 
to  suppose  that  the  herring,  in  consequence  of  the  injudicious  treatment 
which  it  experienced  among  us,  turned  toward  Jutland  and  Loeso;3  and 
AxelBoeclc  thiuks  there  was  a  connection  between  the  Bohus-lilii  and  the 
Scotch-Dutch  fisheries.4  Oscar  Andersen  mentions  a  supposition  of  0. 
N.  Lobcrg,  according  to  which  "the  northern  great  herring  would  be  of 
the  same  kind  as  the  old  Bohus-Liin  herring,''  and  would  therefore,  at  a 
later  period,  "have  turned  toward  the  north."3  Among  the  professional 
men,  the  opinion  seems  at  first  to  have  been  common  that  the  herring, 
at  least  in  the  beginning,  had  gone  to  the  southeastern  part  of  the  North 
Sea;6  and  afterward  the  opinion  seems  to  have  gained  ground  that 
there  was  some  intimate  connection  between  the  Norwegian  spring 
herring- fisheries  and  the  Bohus-lan  autumn  herring-fisheries.7 

As  regards  the  causes  of  the  re-appearance  of  the  old  herring  on  the 
coast  of  Bohus-Lan  in  1747,  after  a  long  absence,  there  has  scarcely  been 
any  dispute,  although  the  solution  of  this  problem  would  be  of  great 
importance.8  Professor  Nilsson  and  his  followers  suppose,  according  to 
the  views  expressed  in  Handliugar  rorande  SillfisJcet,  that  those  herring 
which  had  remained  over  from  the  last  great  fisheries  on  the  coast  of 
Bohus-lan  staid  undisturbed  near  the  coast,  "  which,  through  war  and 
pestilence,  had  become  depopulated,"  and  increased  gradually,  unnoticed, 
so  that  when  they  were  "  suddenly"  discovered,  they  produced  an  ex- 
tremely rich  fishery,  lasting  sixty  years.9  Those  who  suppose  that  the 
large  kind  of  herring  are  possessed  of  an  innate  desire  for  roaming 
about,  see  of  course  in  this  the  ouly  cause  of  its  coming  to  the  coast 
and  leaving  it  again.10  Among  the  fishermen  on  the  coast  of  Bohus-lan 
the  opinion  seems  to  have  been  very  common,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
former  fishery -period,  that  the  herring  were  attracted  by  the  large  num- 
ber of  marine  articulates,  which,  as  is  well  known,  they  prefer  to  any 

1NUsson,  Haudl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  66. 

^Sundevall,  Haudl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  156. 

3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  16. 

4Beretuing  oin  Fiskeri-Udstillingen  i  Aalesuuu,  1664,  p.  34. — Oiu  Silden  og  Sildefiske- 
rierne,  p.  129. 

5 Andersen,  O.,  Bobuslens  Fiskerier.    Frederiksbald,  1869,  pp.  10,  11. 

tiLundbeck,  O.,  Antekuingar  rorande  Bobuslauska  Fiskerierna,  i  synnerbet  sillfisket. 
CDtlieb.,  1632,  p.  35. 

7  Haudl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  85,  p.  101  fr.  22,  p.  141.— Nya  Haudl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  XXVIII. 

8Boeck,  Out  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierue,  p.  83. 

^Nilsson  Fornyad  underdanig  berattelse  om  fiskerierna  i  Bobus  Liln.  Stockholm,  1828, 
b  p.  28,  anm. 

l0Dubb  tbougbt  a  periodicity  iu  meteorological  aud  bydrograpbic  events  was  tbe  cause. 
— K.  Vet.  Akad:s  Haudl.  f.  1817,  p.  46. 


138        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

other  food ;!  an  opinion  which  has  recently  been  more  fully  developed 
by  G.  0.  Sars.2 

Begarding  the  causes  of  the  "old"  herring's  disappearance  from  the 
coast  of  Bohus-lan  there  has  been  a  great  variety  of  opinion,  and  the 
dispute  has  often  waxed  hot.  At  a  very  early  period  of  the  "old" 
fisheries  it  was  expected  that  they  would  some  time  come  to  an  end,3 
and  people,  therefore,  discussed  the  question  of  the  possible  causes  of 
such  an  event,  and  the  means  which  should  be  used  to  prevent  such  a 
national  calamity,  and  laws  were  passed  with  a  view  to  such  a  contin- 
gency.4 Passing  over  the  more  mythical  causes  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  herring,  which  were  given  from  time  to  time,  and  which, 
doubtless,  found  the  greatest  favor  among  the  common  people,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  assigned  as  the  chief  causes  of  such  an  event: 

1.  That  tJie  herrings  were  gradually  destroyed,  so  that  the  schools  be- 
came smaller  and  smaller  toward  the  end  of  the  fishing-period 5 — by 
"  excessive  fishing  ;"6  by  catching  the  young  herring  in  nets  with  narrow 
meshes  j7  by  preventing  the  herring  from  reaching  the  most  conven- 
ient spawning-places  ;8  and  by  the  consequent  destruction  of  the  roe  ;9 
and  by  unfavorable  weather,  "  an  unusual  appearance  of  fish  of  prey, 
birds  of  prey,"  "  want  of  food,"  &c,  &c;  "  and  other  influences  inju- 
rious to  the  roe,  the  young,  and  the  full-grown  fish."  10 

2.  Tliat  the  lierrings  were  "slowly  and  persistently  driven  away  ;"n — by 
noise;13  by  the  excessive  number  of  fishermen  ; 13  'by  the  use  of  injurious 

JR.  St.  Fiskeri-Deputations  Handlingar,  1760-1772. — Enl.  Cedersirom,  Fiskodling  ock 
Sveriges  Fiskerier,  p.  141. 
2Indberetning  for  Aaret,  1873,  p.  58. 

3  R.  St.  Fiskeri-Deputations  beriittel.se  om  fiskeriernas  tillstand  i  Riket  gifven  vid 
Riksdagen  d.  18Maj  1772. — Eul.  Cedersirom.,  Fiskodling  ock  Sveriges  Fiskerier,  p.  192. 

4  Trangramsacten,  pp.  151, 152, 108. 
6  HandL  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  98,  fr.  8. 

6  Nilsson,  Fornyad  rmderdanig  beriittelse  om  Fiskerierna  i  Bonus  Liin.  Stockholm, 
1828,  pp.22, 29.— Handl.  ror.Sillf.,  p. 47.— Skandinavisk  Fauna,  iv,  pp.505, 514.—  Widegrcn, 
Handlingar  ock  upplysningar  rorande  Sveriges  Fiskerier,  i,  p.  51 ;  iv,  pp.  12, 36. — Nya 
Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  32, 33,  38,  39. 

7  Nilsson,  Skaudinav.  Fauna,  iv,  pp.  507,514. —  Wright,  TV.  von,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p. 
174.    See  also,  Krfyyer,  H.,  Danmarks  Fiske,  iii,  p.  164. 

8  Nilsson,  Fornyad  underdanig  beriittelse  om  Fiskerierna  i  Bohus  Liin.  Stockholm, 
1328,  p.  30. 

9  Trangramsacten,  pp.  163-164,  171. — Nilsson,  Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  p.  515. — For- 
nyad underd.  beriittelse.     Stockh.  1828,  p.  30. 

10  Cederstrb'm,  G.  C,  Fiskodling  och  Sveriges  Fiskerier,  pp.  208,  213,  anm.,  216.— 
Krcpyer,  Danmarks  Fiske,  iii,  pp.  162, 163. 

"Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  17,  73-74,  138.— Sundevall,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  152, 
154. — Love'n,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  163. 

liNiUson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  17, 18,41, 138.— Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  p.  505. — Lund- 
beck,  Antekningar,  pp.  34-38.— Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  87  fr.  16,  p.  99  fr.  10.—  Sundevall, 
Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  152.— Wright,  TV.  von,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  172. 

13  Nilsson,  Fornyad  underd.  beriittelse,  Stockh.  1828,  p.  23,  anm— Handl.  ror.  Sillf., 
p.  17.— Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  p.  505.— Widegren,  Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  33.— Boeclc, 
Om  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  p.  85. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  139 

fishing-implements;1  by  interfering  with  the  spawning-process  f-  by  in- 
terfering with  the  spaioning -places  generally,3  and  particularly  by  drag- 
nets,4 or  by  throwing  offal  in  the  water;5  by  leaving  dead  ■  herring  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  ;6  by  throwing  the  guth  and  gills  of  fish  into  the  water  f 
by  polluting  the  water  through  offal  of  blubber  and  similar  matter;8  by 
the  increasing  number  of  the  enemies  of  the  herring.9 

3.  That  the  herrings  left  the  coast  from  an  innate  desire  of  roaming. w 

4.  That  the  herrings  were  obliged  to  leave,  because  there  was  no  longer  a 
sufficient  supply  of  food.11 

The  validity  of  these  causes  has  been  disputed  almost  immediately 
after  they  had  been  put  forward,  and  even  now  there  is  not  one  of  them 
which  has  been  unanimously  recognized  as  the  probable  cause  of  the 
repeated  disappearance  of  the  great  Bohus-lan  fisheries.12  It  was  thus, 
c.  g.,  denied  at  the  inquest  of  1833  that  the  herring  was  destroyed 
through  too  much  fishing,13  and  that  it  was  driven  away  by  noise,u  offal 
of  blubber,15  &c. 

A  more  extensive  and  valuable  criticism  of  these  supposed  causes 
has  been  given  by  Kroyer,16  0.  N.  Ldberg,17  Axel  Boeclc,13  and  others. 

I  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  17, 138.— Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  pp.  501,  505. —  Widegren, 
Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  33. 

-  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  51,  n.  b. — Loven,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  161.  Nya  Handl.  ror. 
•Sillf.,  p.  04. 

3  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  51,  n.  b. — Sundevall,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  153. —  Widegren, 
Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  33. 

4  Loven,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  161, 162. — Ekstrom,  Praktisk  af  handling,  pp.  7, 19. 
Nilsson,  Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  pp.  514-515. — Widegren,  Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  ]).  33. 

6  Trangrumsacten,  pp.  158, 161, 163,164, 167, 186-187. — Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  41.— 
Skandinavisk  Fauna,  iv,p.  514. — Sundevall,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  152, 153. — Loven,  Handl. 
ror.  Sillf.,  p.  161. — Elcstrom,  Praktisk  af  handling,  pp.  7-8. 

«  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  99  fr.  10.— Lundbeck,  Autekuingar,  pp.  32-33.—  Wright,  W.  von, 
Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  174. — Sars,  G.  0.,  Indberetuiug  f.  1873,  p.  45.  Trangrumsacten,  pp. 
177, 182. 

7  Loven,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  161. 

s  Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  41, 138.— Skandinav.  Fauna,  iv,  pp.  505,  blA.—Lundlecl:, 
Autekuingar,  p.  31. — Lov6n,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  161. —  Wright,  W.  von,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf., 
pp.  172-174. — Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  94,  p.  116  fr.  9. — Trangrumsacten,  pp.  153, 154, 155, 165, 
172, 176, 183, 185, 186, 188. 

^  Dull,  K.,  Vet.  Akad:s  Handl.  f.  1817,  p.  45. 

io  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  94,  p.  99  fr.  9,  p.  Ill  fr.  7,  p.  115  fr.  7,  p.  128  fr.  24.— Yarrell, 
British  Fishes,  3  ed.,  i,  p.  101. — Boeclc,  Om  Sildeu  og  Sildefiskerierne,  p.  85. 

II  Sars,  G.  O.,  Indberetuiug  f.  1873,  p.  58. — Cedcrstrbm,  Fiskodling  och  Sveriges  Fiske- 
xier,  p.  213  anm.,  216.  Trangrumsacten,  pp.  164, 167. — Lundleclc,  Antekningar,  p.  26. — 
Mosen,  A.  von,  Yttrande  till  Commerce-Collegium  d.  8  Juli  1829. 

12  Boeclc,  Om  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  p.  85. 

13  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  87  fr.  15  p.  98  fr.  8,  p.  110  fr.  4,  p.  122  fr.  23,  p.  128  fr.  24.— Nils- 
son,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  pp.  137-138. 

"  Handl.  ror,  Sillf.,  p.  92, 95,  99  fr.  10,  p.  115  fr.  8,  p.  122  fr.  23,  p.  128  fr.  24. 
»  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  99  fr.  10,  p.  105  fr.  13,  p.  110  fr.  5,  p.  115  fr.  9,  p.  121  fr.  23,  p. 
128  fr.  24. 

16Danmarks  Fiske.,  iii,  pp.  164-167. 

17  Norges  Fiskerier,  pp.  8,  9. 

I80m  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  pp.  86-102,  119. 


140       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  enormous  masses  in  which  the  herrings  appear  must  doubtlessr 
if  they  select  a  narrow  bay  as  their  spawning-place,  produce  quite  a 
change  in  the  nature  of  the  coast,  both  by  their  becoming  with  their 
roe  and  young  ones  the  food  of  numerous  marine  animals,  and  by  the 
food  which  they  and  their  young  ones  eat,  which  change  may  finally 
assume  such  dimensions  that  the  coast  becomes  unsuitable  as  a  spawn- 
ing-place. On  the  coast  of  Bohus-lan  unfavorable  weather  has  contrib- 
uted not  a  little  toward  bringing  about  such  a  change.  Because  a  tem- 
perature of  +  3°  C.  has  no  destructive  effect,  it  cannot  be  maintained 
that  a  still  lower  temperature,  with  its  consequent  formation  of  bottom- 
ice,  will  not  prove  injurious.1  Not  sufficient  attention  seems  to  have 
been  paid  to  the  very  destructive  effect  which  several  severe  winters, 
.'ollowing  close  one  upon  the  other,  must  have  had  on  the  spawning- 
places  of  the  herring,  especially  on  the  outer  coast. 

Another  question  which  is  closely  related  to  that  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  "  old"  herring  is,  why,  during  the  fishing-period,  the  herrings 
came  to  the  coast  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Already  during  the 
first  half  of  the  last  fishing-period,  it  was  observed  in  Bohus-lan  that 
the  herrings  commenced  to  come  later,  and  people  began  to  fear  "  that 
the  herrings,  as  had  happened  repeatedly  in  former  times,  to  the  irrep- 
arable injury  of  the  province  and  the  whole  kingdom,  would  leave  the 
coasts  of  Sweden."2  People  began  to  inquire  into  the  possible  causes 
of  such  an  event,  and  attempts  were  made  through  various  laws  and 
regulations  to  prevent  so  dire  a  calamity.3  After  the  herring-fisheries 
had  ceased  in  the  year  1808,  people  thought  that  in  this  circumstance 
they  had  a  proof  that  the  herring  had  been  driven  away  by  the  coast- 
population,  and  the  same  causes  were  given  for  it  as  were  supposed  to 
have  brought  about  the  stoppage  of  the  fisheries.  By  Axel  BoecWs  in- 
vestigations this  whole  question  entered  upon  a  new  phase.  He  showed 
that  there  always  had  existed,  in  this  respect,  a  very  remarkable  simi- 
larity between  the  great  Bohus-liiu  fisheries  and  the  Norwegian  spring- 
herring-fisheries,4  a  circumstance  which  gives  increased  weight  to  the 
point  in  question,  and  possibly  contains  the  key  to  the  question  of  the 
periodicity  of  the  great  Scandinavian  herring-fisheries.  Bocclc  has  not, 
however,  attempted  to  assign  any  cause  for  the  later  arrival  of  the  herring 
during  the  fishing-period,  but  this  has  recently  been  done  by  G.  0.  Sars.6 
Regarding  the  appearance  of  the  herring  on  different  places  of  the 
coast  during  the  fishing-period,  Boeck  seems  to  have  pointed  out  the 

lBoeck,  A.,  Om  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  p.  119.—  Widegren,  Nya  Handl.  ror  Sillf„ 
p.  38. — Cederstrom,  Fiskodling  och  Sveriges  Fiskerier,  p.  216.— Edlund,  Ofvers.  .if  kgl. 
Vet.  Akad:s  Forhandl.  f.  1883,  p.  372 ;  f.  1865,  p.  209. 

2  R.  St.  Fiskeri-Deputations  beriittelse  orn  fiskeriornas  tillstand  i  Rikct  afgifvcn  vid 
Riksdagen  d.  18  Maj.  1772.— Enl.  Cederstrom,  Fiskodling  ock  Sveriges  Fiskerier,  p.  192. 

3  Trangrumsacten,  pp.  151-154,  158,  1G6. 
4Om  Silden  og  Sildefiskerierne,  pp.  102-110. 
6  Indberetning  for  Aaret  1S73,  pp.  55-5G. 


HEKRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  141 

similarities  to  the  Norwegian  spring-herring-fishery,  and  passed  by  the 
differences.  With  regard  to  the  Bohus-liin  fishery,  this  fact  may  be 
explained  by  well-known  meteorological  and  hydrographic  conditions. 
It  is  also  evident,  that  if  fishing,  as  is  done  near  the  coasts  of  Scotland, 
had  been  carried  on  with  floating  nets,  the  above-mentioned  facts 
would  not  have  become  prominent  as  they  are  now  in  consequence  of 
fishing  with  stationary  nets. 

Nothing  remains  now,  in  conclusion,  but  to  account  for  the  assertion 
that  herring  "resembling"  the  "  old"  herring  had  been  caught  near  the 
coast  of  Bohus-liin,  or  in  the  open  sea  near  that  coast,  and  to  examine 
this  assertion  a  little  more  closely. 

At  the  meetings  held  by  the  committee  of  inquiry  in  1833,  the  opinion 
of  the  fishermen  that  "herring  resembling  the  old"  herring  had  been 
caught  among  the  other  herring  was  upheld  by  a  majority  of  those  pres- 
ent only  at  two  places,  viz,  in  Stromstad1  and  in  Kladesholinen.2  If 
we  compare  the  reports  given  by  the  fishermen  at  the  former  of  these 
places  with  those  given  on  the  same  occasion  by  Mr.  JSForberg,  a  whole- 
sale dealer,  we  find  that  the  coast-herring,  although  distinctly  different 
from  the  "  old  "  herring,  was  still  thought  to  resemble  it  in  some  cases,3 
and  thatthelarger  herring,  which  was  otherwise  caught,  was  the  so-called 
straksill,  (wandering  herring,)4  which  latter  race  is  still  declared  to  be 
the  same  as  the  "old"  herring,  or,  at  least,  is  said  to  resemble  it  very 
much,  by  old  men  in  Stromstad.  It  does  not,  therefore,  seem  improb- 
able that  either  of  these  species  of  herring  was  meant  by  the  answers 
given  to  the  nineteenth  question  put  by  the  committee.  If  we  further 
compare  the  latter  of  the  above-mentioned  answers  with  those  received 
in  the  same  place  to  the  seventh  question,  it  also  appears  that  another 
kind  of  herring  was  thought  to  resemble  the  "  old  "  herring.  The  answer 
to  the  thirtieth  question,5  however,  undoubtedly  implies  the  coast-her- 
ring.6 As  the  answers  given  by  the  salters  Schiller  and  Mjoberg7  were 
disputed  by  all  the  fishermen  present,  and  as  the  former  of  these  men 
had  only  witnessed  the  "  old  "  fisheries  when  very  young,  and  both  evi- 
dently meant  the  coast-herring,  these  answers  may  chiefly  have  been 
called  forth  by  the  couviction — discarded  at  a  later  time — of  the  cor- 
rectness of  Professor  Niteson's  views.  Mjoberg  was  the  only  person  who, 
at  the  inquest  of  1833,  positively  asserted  that  herring  was  constantly  being 
caught  on  the  coast  of.Bokus-lan  which  not  only  resembled  the  "  old"  her- 
ring, but  was  of  the  same  kind.    If  we  compare  the  answers  received  at 

1  Handl.  r6r.  Sillf.,  p.  87-88  fr.  19. 

2  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  123  fr.  30. 

3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  92. 

4  Handl.  rcir.  Sillf.,  p.  95. 

•  Handl.  ror.  Sillf,  p.  123. 

6  See  Norlerg's,  Schiller's,  and  Mjoberg's  similar  answers:  Handl.  ror.  Sillf,  p.  92,  p 
112  fr.  16,  p.  127  fr.  17.— Elcstrom,  6fvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad:s  Forhandl.  f  1848,  p.  84 
■>  Handl.  rik\  Sillf,  p.  112  fr.  16,  p.  127  fr.  17,  p.  123  fr.  28. 


142       EEPOET    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHEPJES. 

Fjellbacka  and  Gullkoliaen  regarding  herring  "  resembling  "  the  "  old  'r 
herring,  which  were  taken  from  the  stomachs  of  cod-fish,1  with  the  an- 
swers received  at  Grebbestad,  where  herring  found  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances were  described  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that 
coast-herring  were  meant,2  (which  is  also  confirmed  by  W.  von  Wright's 
report  on  the  herring-fisheries  in  Bohus-liin  during  the  winter  1842-'43,3) 
and  with  the  answers  received  at  Kiiidesholmen  and  Kalfsund,  (where 
herriug  obtained  under  such  circumstances  were  declared  to  have  been 
of  different  size4  or  altogether  sea-herring,5)  and  if  we  take  into  consid- 
eration the  fact  that  it  is  always  more  or  less  difficult  to  ascertain  to 
what  kiud  of  herring  a  badly-preserved  specimen  belongs,  such  accounts 
can  scarcely  be  considered  as  of  any  great  importance.    Still  less  weight 
can  be  attached  to  the  accounts  received  at  Fjellbacka,  that  herring  re- 
sembling the  "  old  "  herring  had  been  seen  in  the  Kattegat,6  as  the  fish- 
ermen on  the  northern  coast,  neither  at  that  time  nor  later,  have  carried 
on  any  great  fisheries,  and  as  entirely  different  accounts  were  received 
from  the  central  and  southern  coasts,7  where  such  fisheries  were  carried 
on.    It  must  also  be  remembered  that  although  the  correctness  of  the 
minutes  of  these  meetings  was  certified,  still  there  might  have  been 
expressions  used  which  might  have  been  misunderstood  by  a  clerk  not 
entirely  familiar  with  the  coast  population,  a  case  which  seems  still 
more  probable,  as  the  questions  were,  perhaps,  not  always  propounded 
in  a  form  most  intelligible  to  the  fishermen.     During  the  more  produc- 
tive sea-herring-fisheries  it  happens  not  unfrequently  that  some  old  per- 
son who  either  remembered  the  "  great n  fisheries,  or  has,  in  his  youth, 
heard  some  lively  traditions  regarding  them — and  who,  consequently, 
is  considered  more  knowing  in  such  questions  than  other  persons — 
asserts  that  herring  of  the  old  kind  have  been  caught,8  which  joyful 
news  then  goes  the  round  of  the  papers,  awakening  anew  among  a  por- 
tion of  the  coast-population  the  hope  that  another  great  herring-fishery 
is  near  at  hand.9    Thus  it  happened  last  winter  that  an  old  woman,  who 
could  well  remember  the  former  fisheries,  declared  most  emphatically 
that  she  recognized  "  great "  herring  among  the  larger  herring  caught 
with  the  sea-herring.    The  mackerel-fishers  occasionally  observe  schools 

1  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  107  fr.  22,  p.  108  fr.  31,  p.  117  fr.  13. 
3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  100  fr.  15. 

3  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  106. 

4  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  119  fr.  8.— Nilsson,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  46. 
6  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  126  fr.  15. 

6  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  107  fr.  22,  p.  108  fr.  31. 

*  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  116  fr.  13,  p.  119  fr.  8,  p.  126  fr.  15. 

8  Wright,  W.  von,  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  172.— Ekstrom,  Ofvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet.  Akad:s  F6r- 
handl.  f.  1848,  p.  84. 

9  Lundbeck,  Antekningar,  p.  24, 25. — Edenhielm,  G.,  Utlatande  till  Commerce-Collegium 
af  d.  2  Mars  1840.— Ekstrom,  Ofvers.  af  Kgl.  Vet.  Akadrs  Forhandl.  f.  1844,  p.  26.— 
Yhlen,  G.  von :  Goteborgs.  ocli  Bohusliins.  Husuallnings-Sullskaps.  Qvartalskrift  Juli 
1870,  p.  16.— Nya  Handl.  ror.  Sillf.,  p.  11. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  143 

of  large  sea-herring,  but  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  any  account 
regarding  it,  which  would  not  have  been  the  case  if  such  fish  really  were 
found  in  any  considerable  numbers  in  the  Skagerak.1 

Among  the  small  herring  different  kinds  are  also  distinguished,  and 
the  eminent  ichthyologist  Kroiier  has  described  one  of  these  as  a  sepa- 
rate species  under  the  name  of  Clupea  Schoneveldi.2  Professor  Nilsson 
has  distinguished  "  a  longer  and  small  northern,  variety  "  from  the  south- 
ern, to  which  the  Clupea  Schoneveldi  Kr.  belongs.3  Von  Yhlen  has,  on 
tke.Bohus-lan  coast,  distinguished  •"small  herring  coming  from  the  sea" 
and  "  small  herring  belonging  to  the  coast,"  without,  however,  asserting 
that  they  are  two  different  species.4 

My.  personal  observations  have  not  yet  enabled  me  to  explain  fully 
whether  the  different  herrings  and  small  herrings  are  in  reality  different 
species  or  not.  From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  this  whole 
question  can  only  be  answered  satisfactorily  after  the  most  careful  ob- 
servations have  been  carried  on  for  years,  and  by  a  critical  comparison 
of  specimens  of  every  age  obtained  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  At 
the  first  superficial  glance  the  difference  of  species- seems  easily  decided, 
but  on  a  closer  examination  one  difficulty  after  the  other  presents  itself. 
And  still,  if  the  question  of  the  herring-fisheries  is  to  be  answered  satis- 
factorily and  practically,  these  difficulties  must  be  so  completely  over- 
come, that  a  sufficient  knowledge  is  obtained  of  the  period  when  each  of 
these  species  is  generally  caught  on  the  coast,  and  of  the  quantities 
which  are  caught. 

II. — OF    THE     PROPAGATION    AND     GROWTH    OF     THE     HERRING    AND 

SMALL-HERRIN  G. 

The  spawning  of  the  spring-herring  goes  on  during  the  months  of 
March,  April,  and  May,5  in  suitable  places  on  the  coast,  of  which 
only  a  few  are  generally  known,  because  the  fishing  with  stationary 
nets,  which  are  the  most  convenient  for  catching  spawning-herring,6 
is  not  common  in  Bohuslan ;  and  also  because  drag-nets  can  be 
used  only  in  exceptional  cases  in  those  places  where  the  herrings 
spawn.  A  bottom  free  from  stones  and  rocks,  and  perfectly  even, 
is  very  seldom  found  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan,  since,  over  a  hilly  bot- 
tom, which  offers  the  best  places  for  spawning,  the  drag-nets  cannot  gen- 
erally be  drawn.  It  seems  that  the  herring  also  often  spawns  on  a 
clayey  bottom,  overgrown  with  aquatic  plants.    Of  well-known  spawning- 

1  Sars,  G.  0.,  Indberetning  f.  1873,  p.  54. 

3  Dantnarks  Fiske,  iii,  p.  138. 

3  Skandinavisk  Fauna,  iv,  p.  518-520. 

4Goteborgs  och  Bohuslilns  Hushallnings-Siillskaps  Qvartalsskrift,  Juli  1871,  p.  52; 
Juli  1872,  p.  50-51. 

6  It  is  supposed,  bowever,  tbat  tbe  larger  spring-berring  spawns  somewhat  earlier  on 
the  northern  and  central  coasts,  beginning  even  in  February ;  Dubb,  however,  main- 
tains that  the  herring  on  the  southern  coast  continues  to  spawn  till  some  time  in  June. 
(Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  pp.  35,  44.) 

6  See  Journal  of  Pisciculture,  VII,  p.  20. 


144       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

places,  there  maybe  mentioned  Bjornsund,  in  Dyne'kilen,  where  the  herring 
spawns  on  a  hilly  bottom,  and  is  caught  in  stationary  nets  ;  Ozevik,  and 
other  places  in  the  sound  between  Bolccniis  and  Orost,1  Ulkehdlet,2  and 
Hummer  nund3  and  several  localities  near  Tjorn,  as  well  as  the  farms  of 
Hiistevik,  Andal,  Ardal,  and  Gdsesundf  on  the  Hisingen  coast,  &c.5  The 
herrings  which  spawn  in  March  and  April  are  generally  larger  than 
those  spawning  in  May  ?  the  latter  being  considered  the  younger,  and 
spawning  for  the  first  time.6  This  so-called  May  herring  is  often  found 
among  those  two  years  old,  sometimes  even  with  those  one  year  old,  and 
sometimes  with  still  younger  herring.  After  mild  winters  and  in  favor- 
able weather,  the  spawning  begins  somewhat  earlier  than  otherwise/ 
though  the  spawning-time  of  the  spring-herring  seems  to  have  been 
invariably  the  same,  if  we  may  judge  from  what  can  be  inferred  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  from  the  more  or  less  clear  accounts  concerning 
the  fishing  for  spring-herring  and  its  spawning,  found  in  the  "Trangrums 
AcV*  concerning  the  blubber-refineries,  in  DubVs  report  on  the  herring- 
fisheries  in  Bohuslan,9  in  the  reports  on  the  herring-fisheries,10  and  in 
Ekstroirfs  reports.11     - 

The  young  herring  generally  begins  to  make  its  appearance  in  the 
early  part  of  May,  and  grows  so  rapidly  that  toward  the  end  of 
the  year  it  has  reached  a  length  of  from  2 J  to  3£  inches.12  Hav- 
ing measured  a  large  number  of  herring  which  were  caught  during 
the  latter  half  of  May,  I  found  the  most  of  them  can  be  divided 
into  three  groups,  according  to  their  size,  viz,  those  measuring  about 
4  inches  in  length,  which  must  be  considered  as  one  year's  fish  ;  those 
of  from  5 \  to  6  inches,  probably  two  years'" fish;  and  those  of  about  6| 
inches,  which  were  supposed  to  be  three  years  old,  and  had  completely 
developed  sexual  organs.  Some  fish  were  occasionally  found  with  flow- 
ing spawn,  measuring  only  about  2£  inches ;  and  some  measuring  some- 
what more,  but  not  yet  ripe  for  spawning  the  same  year.     Larger  fish, 

1  Wright,  W.  von,  Reports  on  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  166. 

2  Wright,  TV.  von,  Reports  on  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  166.  Ekstrom,  Review  of  the  Reports 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1844,  pp.  26,  82. 

3  Nilsson,  Scandinavian  Fauna,  IV,  p.  509. 

4  Bubo,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  pp.  35,  44. 

6  Compare,  also,  G.  von  Yhlen,'  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Gottenburg  and  Bohusliin 
Economical  Society,  July,  1871,  p.  51. 

6  This,  possibly,  was  also  the  case  with  the  "  old  "  herring  during  the  former  great 
fisheries.  Compare  "  Reports  to  the  Royal  Fishing  Deputation  for  the  Year  1764  ;"  also, 
Sundevall,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Economical  Society  of  Stockholm,  Liin  VI,  p.  153;  and 
Cederstrom,  The  Propagation  of  Fish  and  the  Swedish  Fisheries,  pp.  130,  226. 

7  Ekstrom,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1844,  p.  120.  Practical  Essay, 
p.  8. 

8  Trangrums  Ad,  pp.  76, 77, 78. 

9  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  pp.  35, 44. 

10  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  64, 66, 90,  fr.  31 ;  p.  117,  fr.  16, 17 ;  p.  120,  fr.  11, 
16 ;  p.  126,  fr.  27.    New  Reports  Concerning  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  ix,  x. 

11  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1844,  p.  120.     Practical  Essay,  p.  8. 

12  Counting  from  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw  to  the  root  of  the  caudal  fin. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  145 

measuring  about  8  inches,  are  probably  four  years  old.  The  spring- 
herring  sometimes  reach  a  length  of  more  than  12  inches,  but  even  spec- 
imens of  9|  inches  are  rare.  The  Bohuslan  herring  seems,  therefore, 
to  spawn  as  early  as  at  the  age  of  three,  although  I  do  not  wish  to  con- 
vey the  idea  that  all  the  herring  sprung  from  the  same  year's  spawn 
begin  to  spawn  at  that  age ;  but  it  seems  rather  as  if  one  portion  did  not 
reach  their  maturity  till  their  fourth  year.  The  circumstances  that  the 
herring  spawns  during  three  whole  nionths,  and  that  therefore  there  is 
a  considerable  difference  in  the  ages  of  those  that  are  produced  first 
and  those  produced  last,  that  some  have  better  chances  for  securing 
food  than  others,  taken  in  connection  with  other  more  or  less  accidental 
circumstances,  explain  the  fact  that  fish  of  all  possible  sizes  are  fre- 
quently taken  from  the  same  net. 

As  to  the  age  at  which  the  herring  spawns  for  the  first  time,  opinions 
have  been  much  divided,  both  among  Scandinavian  naturalists  and 
those  persons  who  have  devoted  their  life  to  the  herring-fisheries.  Pro- 
fessor Nilsson,  from  information  received  from  "  trustworthy  fishermen," 
assumes  that  u  no  fish  spawns  in  the  second  year,"  and  that  "  the  her- 
ring does  not  spawn  till  the  fifth  or  sixth  year."1  Dean  EJcstrom  con- 
siders those  herring  which  measure  6  inches  (counted  from  the  point  of 
the  nose  to  the  anal  fin)  to  be  two  years  old  ;  those  measuring  from  10 
to  13  inches,  from  four  to  five  years  old  ;  and  adds  that  "  the  herring 
found  in  Bohuslan  does  not  spawn  till  it  measures  from  7  to  8  inches, 
counting  the  whole  length."2  Prof.  G.  J.  Sundevall,  who  has  made  ob- 
servations on  the  growth  of  the  herring  on  the  coast  near  Stockholm, 
thinks  that  it  becomes  capable  of  spawning  when  it  is  from  three  to 
four  years  old.3  Mr.  Widegren,  superintendent  of  fisheries,  thinks  that 
the  herring  is  fit  to  spawn  when  it  is  "  about  three  years  old."4  Axel 
Boeck  was  inclined  to  think  "  that  the  youngest  herring  when  spawn- 
ing is  scarcely  less  than  three  years  old,  and  certainly  not  more  than 
four,"  although  he  could  not  give  any  sufficient  reason  for  this  view,"5 
•but  at  the  same  time  said  that  persons  who  had  been  long  employed  in 
fishing  had  told  him  that  the  herring,  when  able  to  spawn,  must  be  from 
six  to  eight  years  old.6     G.  0.  Sars,  also,  seems   to   have  been  of  the 

1  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  45, 47, 51, 59, 

2  Practical  Essay,  pp.  10, 11. 

3  Reports  of  the  Royal  Economical  Society  of  the  Stockholm  District,  vol.  VI,  pp.  105, 
151. 

4  Some  Remarks  on  the  Herring  and  its  proper  Preparation  for  an  Article  of  Com- 
merce, Stockholm,  1871,  p.  4. 

6  On  Herring  and  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  36,  37.     Piscicultural  Journal,  VII,  p.  20. 

6  On  Herring  and  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  36.  Piscicultural  Journal,  VII,  pp.  20, 21. 
In  the  Morning  Journal,  of  November,  1872,  Boeck  gives  a  fuller  account  of  similar  in- 
formation given  him  by  a  professional  man,  Dahl,  regarding  the  six  years'  development 
of  the  herring.  According  to  this,  it  is  called  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway  "musse," 
when  it  is  one  year  old;  "leaf-herring,"  when  two  years;  "Christiania-herring,"  when 
three  years ;  "  middle  herring,"  when  four  years ;  "  merchants'  herring,"  when  five 
years;  and  "spring-herring,"  when  six  years  old;  all  which  terms  seem  to  be  very  old 
in  Norway. 
10  F 


146      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

same  opinion  as  Professor  Nilsson,  and  at  first  thought  that  the  herring 
became  capable  of  spawning  at  the  age  of  five  years,  but  afterward  as- 
signed the  age  of  six  years.1 

Fishermen  generally  assume  that  the  small-herring  has  roe  and  milt 
during  the  spring  and  early  summer,  and  some  of  them  have  observed 
the  young  of  the  small-herring  some  time,  after  spawning.  The  spawn- 
ing of  the  small-herring  may,  like  that  of  the  herring  proper,  be  delayed 
or  hastened  by  the  weather,  but  otherwise  does'  not  seem  to  change  as 
to  the  time  when  it  takes  place.  In  the  reports  of  Mr.  P.  Clancey,  made 
in  his  capacity  of  superintendent  of  herring-fisheries,  to  the  Eoyai 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  it  is  said,  e.  g.,  that  on  the  11th  March,  1811, 
"  herring  and  small-herring  were  caught  having  both  roe  and  milt,"2 
which  implies  that  spawning  would  have  taken  place  at  most  from 
three  to  four  months  later.  Hence  we  may  conclude  that  one  cannot 
assume  any  advance  in  the  spawning-time  of  the  small-herring,  in  order 
to  explain  Nilsson's,  Wilhelm  von  Wright's,  and  Ekstrom's  different  views, 
since  these  men  take  the  autumn  to  be  the  spawning-season  of  the' small- 
herring.3  Prof.  C.  J.  Sundevall  has  found  that  the  small-herring  on  the 
coast  of  the  Stockholm  district  spawns  at  the  end  of  June  and  in  July,4 
and  therefore  about  the  same  time  as  in  Bohuslan.  Kroger  says  of 
the  Clupea  sprattus  that  "  its  spawning-season  is  mostly  in  August,  but 
that  it  begins  as  early  as  the  latter  half  of  June,  and  sometimes  extends 
to  September,"5  and  of  the  Clupea  Schoneveldi  that  "  in  males  caught 
early  in  the  spring  the  milt  was  found  to  be  considerably  developed,"6 
which  points  to  a  somewhat  earlier  spawning-season  for  the  last-named 
variety. 

The  few  observations  which  I  have  been  able  to  make  on  this  point 
prove  that  the  spawning  of  the  small-herring  on  the  central  coast  begins 
at  the  end  of  May  or  the  first  of  June.  Its  spawning-season  may,  pos- 
sibly, begin  somewhat  earlier  on  the  northern  coast  and  a  little  later 
on  the  southern  coast.7  Small-herring  caught  in  the  autumn  or  winter 
never  have  any  roe  or  milt,  a  circumstance  which  could  easily  be  ascer- 
tained in  the  preparation  of  the  so-called  boneless  anchovies ;  and  yet 
they  are  not  very  thin  either,  which  shows  that  they  cannot  have 
spawned  immediately  before  the  commencement  of  the  fisheries.  The 
small-herring  which  I  had  occasion  to  observe  during  the  spring  is 

'Report  for  1872,  pp.  38,  39;  Report  for  1873,  p.  44,  note. 

sCederstrom,  Fish-Culture  ami  the  Swedish  Fisheries,  p.  215. 

*Nilson,  Prodromus  Ichthyologiae  Scandinavicae,  p.  22.  Scaudinavisk  Fauna,  IV, 
p.  521.  Wright,  W.  von,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  167, 175.  Ekstrom,  Prac- 
tical Essay,  pp.  9,  103  ;  Review  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences, 
for  1844,  p.  26. 

*  Reports  of  the  Royal  Economical  Society  for  the  District  of  Stockholm,  VI,  pp. 
109,  185-187. 

e  Denmark's  Fish,  III,  p.  191. 

•Denmark's  Fish,  III,  p.  201. 

''Nilsson,  Scaudinavisk  Fauna,  IV,  p.  521. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  147' 

smaller,  and  is  more  like  the  variety  Schoneveldi  Kr.  than  those  which 
I  saw  caught  on  the  northern  coast  toward  the  end  of  last  year. 

It  is  said  that  the  young  of  the  small-herring  begin  to  show  them- 
selves in  the  northernmost  portion  of  the  coast  about  midsummer,  or  in 
the  beginning  of  July.  I  cannot  give  auy  information  gathered  from 
other  persons,  as  to  how  rapidly  the  small  herring  grows,  and  how  old 
it  is  when  it  spawns  for  the  first  time ;  and  the  observations  made  by 
myself  are  still  too  few  and  incomplete  to  draw  from  them  any  accurate 
conclusion.  But  as  I  have,  in  the  mean  time,  received  from  Kalfsund 
small-herring,  measuring  not  quite  100  millimeters,  (96-97,)  whose  sex- 
ual organs  were  considerably  developed ;  and  as  most  of  those  which  I 
procured  at  Tjorn  during  May,  and  which  were  capable  of  spawning, 
only  measured  from  100  to  110  millimeters,  it  seems  to  me  not  improb- 
able that  the  small-herring  can  spawn  for  the  first  time  when  it  is  two 
years  old  j  although  I  believe  that  this  is  by  no  means  the  case  with  all 
the  fish  born  during  the  same  season.  The  largest  small  herring  which 
I  could  get  measured  149  millimeters,  but  even  specimens  measuring 
140  millimeters  are  very  rare. 

III. — OF  THE  HERRING'S  AND  SMALL-HERRING'S  MODE  OF  LIFE ;  ITS  MI- 
GRATIONS, AND  THE  DEPENDENCE  OF  THESE  LATTER  ON  METEOR- 
OLOGIC  AND  HYDROGEAPHIC  CIRCUMSTANCES. 

As  I  was  able  to  make  but  few  personal  observations  on  these  points, 
I  endeavored  to  ascertain  from  experienced  fishermen  on  the  coast  what 
they  had  observed,  and  then  compared  their  observations  with  all  the 
literature  on  the  subject  which  was  accessible  to  me,  in  order  to  find  how 
far  discrepancies  existed. 

The  herring  and  small-herring  are  usually  found  in  separate  schools 
and  do  not  intermingle.  They  seem  not  to  get  on  well  together,  and 
must  be  considered  rather  as  enemies  of  each  other.  If,  therefore,  her- 
ring are  caught  in  auy  considerable  numbers  during  the  small-herring 
fisheries,  it  is  considered  an  unfavorable  omen.  When  the  larger  spring- 
herring  goes  to  its  spawning-places  in  great  schools,  it  is  not  generally 
found  consorting  with  any  small-herring.1  The  large  herring  is  con- 
sidered dangerous  to  the  young-herring,2  and  is  said,  when  found  in  any 
large  numbers,  to  drive  away  all  the  other  herring,  and  is  therefore  dis- 
liked by  fishermen  on  the  northern  coast. 

In  seine-fishing,  the  herring  generally  seems  to  be  very  much  afraid 
of  the  seine,3  and  cannot  often  be  caught  in  this  manner.  The  differ- 
ent degrees  of  clearness  of  the  water  plays  an  important  part  in  this 
operation,  and  seiue-fishiug  by  daytime  can,  at  present,  be  carried  on 
only  on  the  southern  coast,  where  the  more  turbid  water  from  the  rivers* 

1  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  Ill  fr.  8. 

*Ekstrdm,  Review  of  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1846,  p.  20. 

3  H.  Easch  and  B.  If.  Berg,  Memorial  and  Petition,  pp.  10,  33. 

4  F.  Ekman,  On  the  Sea-Water  on  the  Coast  of  Bohusliin,  p.  25. 


148       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

prevents  the  herring  from  noticing  the  seine  till  it  is  too  late.  The 
large  herring  is  not  near  as  bold  a  fish  as  the  small-herring,  and  does 
not  make  any  serious  attempts  to  escape ;  while  the  latter,  as  soon  as 
the  seine  is  hauled  on  land,  boldly  pushes  against  the  meshes  trying  to 
get  out,  resembling  somewhat  in  this  respect  the  pilchard.1 

The  chief  food  of  the  herring  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan  consists  of 
small  insects,  ("  Ganeskar,")  which  are  found,  especially  during  the 
warm  season,2  in  great  numbers. 

The  herring  seems  to  like  those  gulfs  into  which  some  large  river 
empties ;  and  the  Skagerack  spring-herring  is  consequently  found  in  very 
great  abundance  near  the  mouths  of  the  Gota  Eiver  and  the  Glommen, 
(where  it  has  been  caught  with  stationary  nets  from  time  immemorial.) 
This  may  arise  from  the  facts  that  it  finds  more  food  there,  and  be- 
cause the  less  salty  and  more  turbid  water  offers  a  better  protection, 
especially  upon  the  part  of  the  young  fish  against  enemies.3 

In  former  times,  the  large  herring  often  ascended  the  river  as  far  as 
Goteborg,  and  once  it  was  found  near  Tingstad,  a  mile  from  Nya  Elfs- 
borg.* 

The  herring  is  found  at  a  greater  depth  in  cold  than  in  warm  weather;5 
and  when  there  is  ice,  it  has  sometimes  been  observed  to  pass  under  it.6 
Near  Kalfsuud,  it  has  been  found  that  there  is  frequently  good  herring- 
fishing  immediately  after  the  breaking-up  of  the  ice.7  This  always  im- 
plies a  change  from  land-wind  and  cool  weather  to  sea- wind  and  milder 
weather. 

When  the  water  grows  warmer,  the  young  herriug  move  to  the  shallow 
places;  but  when  cold  weather  sets  in,  they  move  to  deep  water.  It 
has  been  observed,  near  Hisingen,  that  during  the  summer  the  young- 
herring  like  to  come  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  when  there  is  an  east 
wind,8  but  otherwise  they  follow  the  stream  out  on  the  coast.  After 
mild  winters,  and  during  particularly  mild  spring  weather,  the  spring- 
herring  begin  to  spawn  somewhat  earlier,  and  the  fisheries  consequently 
begin  at  an  earlier  period  than  otherwise.9 

At  the  beginning  of  the  u  old"  fisheries,  when  the  herring  still  came 
near  the  coast  during  the  warm  season,  the  land-wind  was  considered 
most  favorable  to  the  fisheries;  but  since  the  herring  have  begun  to 

1  Yarrell,  British  Fishes,  3d  ed.,  I,  pp.  143-144. 

2  Ekstrom,  Review  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1346,  pp. 
181-182. 

3  Dubb,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1S17,  pp.  35, 44.  Nilsson,  Re- 
ports on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  57, 59,  64. 

4  Act  concerning  Blubber-Refineries,  p.  98. — Dubb,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  for  1817,  p.  35. 

6  J.  M.  Mitchell,  The  Herring,  its  Natural  History  and  National  Importance,  Edin- 
burg,  1864,  p.  28. 

6  Ccdarstrom,  Fish-Culture  and  the  Swedish  Fisheries,  p.  211. 

7  Reports  on  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  129  fr.  28. 
8Nilsson,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  64. 

9  Ekstrom,  Review  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1844, 
p.  120. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  149 

approach  the  coast  during  the  cold  season,  this  is  no  longer  the  case.1 
This  change  has  been  attributed  to  the  blubber-refining  establishments. 
An  east  wind  increases  the  saltness  and  purity  of  the  sea-water,2  but  it 
retards  the  current  coming  from  the  North  Sea  toward  the  gulfs,  and 
consequently  lowers  its  temperature  during  the  cold  season,  and  favors 
the  formation  of  ice.  As  to  the  most  favorable  time  for  fishing,  (which, 
as  is  well  known,  is  chiefly  carried  on  during  the  warm  season,)  the  old 
saying  holds  good:  "fine  and  steady  iceather  icith  high  water"3  is  best. 
A  land-wind  and  low  water  are  generally  considered  unfavorable ; 4  while 
a  change,  indicated  by  rising  water  and  falling  weather,  is  considered 
good.5  On  the  Fjellbacka  coast,  and  in  several  other  places,  it  has  been 
noticed  that  the  herring  goes  out  from  the  coast  "  to  meet  storm  and 
foul  weather;"6  but  that  after  the  storm  fishing  is  very  good  again.7 

During  the  spring-herring  fisheries  near  Hisingen,  the  herring  are 
said  to  move,  during  the  land-wind,  farther  up  toward  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  there  is  then  good  fishing  near  Gasesund  and  Ardal,  and  near 
Ny-Elfsborg  j  while  during  the  west  and  south  wind,  the  best  fishing  is 
near  Andal  and  Hastevik.  Very  mild  winters,  with  continuing  violent 
sea- winds,  are  thought  to  drive  the  sea-herring  to  the  coast.8 

Although  I  think  it  proper  not  to  increase  the  number  of  suppositions 
regarding  the  herring  and  the  herring-fisheries,  (which,  by  the  way,  is 
easy  enough,  even  with  only  a  very  superficial  knowledge  of  the  her- 
ring-literature,) I  deem  it  best  not  to  omit  noticing  in  this  place  the 
similarity  between  the  approach  of  the  so-called  sea-herring  to  the  coast 
of  Bohuslan,  and  the  direction  which  the  current  of  the  sea  takes 
from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Skagerack.  This  current  flows  from  Skagen 
toward  the  Paternoster  Eock,  just  outside  of  which  it  turns  toward  the 
north,  and  then  follows  the  coast.9  Fishing  for  those  herring  which 
come  from  the  sea  usually  commences  near  Tjorn  and  the  Marstrand 
Islands,  from  which  the  herring  spread  toward  the  south  and  north.10  In 
this  latter  case,  they  follow  the  current  of  the  sea,  and  as  this  leaves  the 

1  Act  Concerning  the  Blubber-Refineries,  pp.  176, 177. 

2  Ekman,  On  the  Sea- Water  on  the  Coast  of  Bohuslan,  p.  26. 

3  Act  Concerning  the  Blubber-Refineries,  p.  84. 

4Dubb,  Reports  of  tiie  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  46. 
6  Mitchell,  The  Herring,  p.  33. 

6  Act  Concerning  the  Blubber-Refineries,  p.  73.  Wright,  W.  von,  Report  concerning 
the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  167.     Mitchell,  The  Herring,  pp.  97-98. 

7  Dubb,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  46.  Mitchell,  The  Her- 
riag,  p.  98. 

8  Act  Concerning  Blubber-Refineries,  p.  177.  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  86 
fr.  11,  p.  113  fr.  22,  p.  128  fr.  27.     Mitchell,  The  Herring,  pp.  28, 33. 

9  Klint,  G.  af,  The  Bohus  Bay  and  the  Kattegat,  Stockholm,  1840,  p.  89.  Arwidsson,  Th. 
The  Bohus  Bay  and  the  Kattegat,  Stockholm,  1869,  p.  3.  Ekman,  F.,  On  the  Sea- Water 
near  the  Coast  of  Bohuslan,  p.  23. 

10 Reports  of  the  Fishery-Commission,  1760-72.  Cederstrom,  Fish-Culture  and  the 
Swedish  Fisheries,  p.  131.  Act  Concerning  Blubber  Refineries,  p.  6.  2)<4&&rReports.of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  34.  Wright,  TV.  von,  Report  on  the  Herring- 
Fisheries,  p.  174. 


150      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH  AND   FISHERIES. 

coast  north  of  Sotenas  the  sea-herring  fisheries  on  the  northern  coast 
hare  been  less  certain  and  comparatively  less  productive  than  those 
on  the  central  and  southern  coasts.1  The  reason  why  the  "  old  "  herring, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fishing  period,  moved  farther  south,  and  toward 
the  end  of  the  same  period  more  toward  the  north,  must  be  found,  no 
doubt,  in  the  uneven  temperature  of  the  respective  portions  of  the  sea 
toward  the  end  of  the  summer  and  the  beginning  of  autumn  on  toward 
winter.  It  is  possible  that  the  so-called  "  deep  trough,"  from  which  there 
is  a  branch  toward  the  Marstrand  Bay,  has  likewise  some  influence  on 
the  route  which  the  herrings  take  when  they  approach  the  coast. 

The  current  of  the  sea,  which  enters  the  Skagerack  with  considerable 
violence,  of  course  facilitates  the  movement  of  the  herring,  and  by  main- 
taining a  more  even  temperature  has  doubtless  great  influence  on  their 
migrations. 

IV. — OF   THE   HERRING-FISHERIES,   THEIR  TIME  AND   PLACE. 

The  common  coast-herring  fishery  is,  in  Bohuslan,  generally  of  but 
little  importance,  and  is  carried  on  mostly  for  the  every-day  supply  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  coast ;  but,  by  the  combination  of  several  favora- 
ble circumstances,  it  is  sometimes  more  productive  and  even  quite  remu- 
nerative. This  fishery  is  carried  on  along  the  whole  coast  of  Bohus. 
Ian,  although  it  is  only  important  in  the  northern  portion,  and  near 
Hisingen.  During  the  autumn,  especially  in  October,  small  quantities 
of  the  so-called  "  autumn  herring "  are  caught  between  Hafstensund 
and  the  Sacke  Bay.  A  few  fish  of  this  kind  have  been  caught  occasion- 
ally, even  on  the  Fjellbacka  coast.  From  the  beginning  of  March  on 
through  the  spring,  so-called  spring-herring  have  been  taken  with  sta- 
tionary nets  in  Dynekilen,  (a  bay,)  and  in  the  Ide  Bay,  and  such  fish, 
with  loose  roe  and  milt,  have  been  sold  during  March  in  Stromstad  for 
12i  cents  a  score.  This  herring-fishery,  although  of  no  great  impor- 
tance, is  carried  on  even  with  small  drag-nets,  in  several  localities  both 
on  the  northern  and  central  coasts,  but  chiefly  on  the  latter,  where,  in 
some  places,  e.  g.,  Ulkaehalet  and  Hakeniis,  both  belonging  to  the  district 
of  Tjorn,  it  has  furnished  an  ample  supply  for  the  households  of  the 
fishermen ;  while,  in  other  places,  e.  g.,  Hummersund  and  Stockeviken, 
both  situated  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Tjorn  Promontory,  the  fishiug 
has  been  exceedingly  poor.  Fish  for  household-supply  have  also  been 
caught  with  stationary  nets  in  some  other  places  on  this  coast.  Near 
Hisingen,  the  spring-herring  fisheries  have,  this  year  as  well  as  during 
previous  years,  been  very  good.  This  fishery  commences  about  the 
middle  of  March,  and  is  generally  continued  till  the  middle  of  June. 
The  first  herring  caught,  which  are  the  proper  spring-herring,  are  some- 
what larger,  and  much  less  mixed  with  other  herring  than  those  caught 
during  May  and  the  beginning  of  June,  (these  being  called  "  May  her- 
ring,") and  are  generally  fatter  and  better.    Fishing  is  chiefly  carried 

1  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  106. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  151 

on  here  with  so-called  spring,  or  two-men's,  nets,  but  also  with  station- 
ary nets.  Herring  here  sell  from  25  cents  to  28  cents  a  score,  but  when 
they  are  very  plentiful  they  only  bring  12J  cents.  The  two-men's  nets 
have,  daring  the  last  year,  generally  caught  from  $56  to  $112  worth  of 
the  fish,  and  one  of  them  is  said  to  have  yielded  its  owner  the  sum  of 

•JjOOJ. 

The  one  and  two  years'  old  young  coast-herring  are  caught  in  smaller 
numbers  in  the  beginning  of  the  autumn  on  the  southern  coast  and  on 
some  portions  of  the  central  coast,  and  are  occasionally  found  among 
the  small  herring  when  these  are  taken.  During  the  winter  and  the 
beginning  of  spring,  some  are  likewise  found  among  the  so-called  sea- 
herring.  The  so-called  May  herring,  which  is  caught  toward  the  end  of 
the  spring  and  the  beginning  of  summer,  is  often  mixed  with  similar 
small-herring.  From  the  end  of  April  till  the  end  of  summer,  more  sea- 
herring  are  caught  during  the  small-herring  fisheries  north  of  Orost. 
Quite  young  herring,  which  are  sometimes  found  in  enormous  quantities, 
are  caught  as  bait  for  the  eel-boxes l  near  Hisingen  and  some  other 
places  on  the  coast  with  "  dog-nets,"  (nets  with  very  narrow  meshes.) 

Fishing  for  sea-herring,  coming  from  the  sea  to  the  coast  in  large  num- 
bers, begins  near  Kladesholm  between  the  New-Year  and  the  13th  ot 
January,  and  almost  at  the  same  time  near  Marstrand  and  Herinano. 
On  the  southern  coast,  it  begins  somewhat  later;  on  the  Fjellbacka  coast, 
about  the  middle  of  January;  and,  near  Strom stad,  toward  the  end  of 
the  same  month,  and  is  everywhere  very  productive.  On  the  southern 
coast,  the  fisheries  continue,  with  short  interruptions,  till  the  middle 
of  March;  and,  on  the  northern  coast  near  Fjellbacka,  till  near  the  end  of 
February ;  but,  near  Stromstad,  they  continue  one  month  longer.  Near 
Tjornekalf  and  on  the  southern  coast,  the  great  herring  nets  are  taken 
to  pieces  about  Easter,  as  the  fisheries  during  the  latter  half  of  March 
are  not  very  productive;  but  there  have  been  years  when  fishing  with  the 
large  nets  has  been  continued  till  the  beginning  of  May.  The  sea-her- 
ring caught  during  winter  are  generally  of  an  excellent  quality  and  bring 
a  good  price,  so  that  the  fishermen  earn  a  very  good  living.  The  largest 
income  from  any  single  net  was  $2,520. 

Herring,  spawning  in  the  autumn,  have  not,  as  far  as  my  knowledge 
extends,  been  caught  anywhere  during  this  year  on  the  coast  of  Bohusliin. 

Fishing  for  the  herring  proper  is  mostly  carried  on  with  nets  of  dif- 
ferent description,  and  in  some  places  with  stationary  nets.  Other  kinds 
of  nets  are  rarely  used,  although  occasionally  good  hauls  are  made  with 
them  by  poor  fishermen. 

The  sea-herring  when  tolerably  small  is  occasionally  made  into  ancho- 
vies2 by  less  conscientious  traders,  although  this  has  not  happened  this 
year  on  the  coast  of  Bohusliin.     It  scarcely  pays  to  salt  the  spring-her- 

1  This  is  also  done  in  Norway.    Basch  and  Berg,  Memorial  and  Petition,  p.  37.    Sars, 
G.  0.,  Report  for  1872,  p.  35. 
*Ml880nt  Scandinav.  Fauna,  IV,  p.  522. 


152       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ring,  and  if  it  is  done,  it  is  only  for  home-consumption  or  when  the  her- 
ring are  so  plentiful  that  the  market  is  overstocked  with  fresh  fish. 
Even  the  fresh  sea-herring  brings  so  good  a  price  that  salting,  for  which 
it  is  otherwise  well  suited,  does  not  pay,  and  has  therefore  been  done 
only  with  small  quantities.  It  is  well  adapted  for  smoking,  although, 
of  course,  but  very  few  have  been  thus  prepared. 

V. — THE  SMALL -HERRING-  FISHERIES,  THEIR   TIME   AND   PLACE. 

The  autumn  and  winter  fisheries. — Not  many  small-herring  are  caught 
on  the  southern  coast,  and  these  during  the  autumn  are  mostly  mixed 
with  the  sea-herring,  while  but  few  small-herring  are  found  among  the 
sea-herring  when  these  are  caught  later  in  the  season. 

On  the  central  coast,  near  Marstrand  and  south  of  Tjorn,  good-sized 
and  fat  small-herring  were  caught  all  through  the  autumn  from  October, 
and  these  were  almost  entirely  free  from  sea- herring,  which  but  seldom 
occurs  on  this  coast;  and  some  small-herring  were  caught  later  among 
the  sea- herring.  Near  Oxevik,  at  Brofjord,  not  far  from  Northern 
Grundsund,  as  well  as  in  many  other  places,  fine  and  unmixed  small- 
herring  have  been  caught  during  the  entire  autumn  from  October  till 
Christmas,  when  the  fisheries  ceased,  and  most  of  the  nets  were  taken 
to  pieces.  The  same  was  also  the  case  near  Huunebo  Strand,  and  in 
the  Battnafjord,  where  the  small-herring  fisheries  are  not  very  im- 
portant. 

On  the  Fjellbacka  coast,  the  fisheries  commenced  in  October  and  con- 
tinued, with  brief  interruptions,  till  the  end  of  the  year,  and  the  fish 
caught  were  nearly  all  fine  specimens  and  not  mixed  with  other  herring; 
but  in  other  years,  it  has  happened  that  the  fisheries  commenced  even  as 
early  as  September,  and  the  small-herring  were,  on  an  average,  of  a  less  size. 
The  largest  number  caught  at  a  single  haul  was  about  five  hundred 
bushels.  By  witnessing  and  examing  numerous  hauls,  I  conviuced  my- 
self that  the  fish  were  not  at  all  mixed  with  young  small-herring  or  sea- 
herring.  In  a  haul  of  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  bushels,  scarcely  a  score 
of  sea-herring  could  be  found,  and  small-herring,  measuring  less  than 
100  millimeters,  could  not  be  found  at  all.  Some  sea-herring  are  said 
to  have  been  found  in  the  beginning  of  the  fisheries,  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  year  they  became  more  frequent.  During  the  sea-herring  fish- 
eries, more  or  less  small-herring  were  caught,  occasionally  in  such  num- 
bers that  it  paid  to  pick  them  out  and  pickle  them. 

On  the  Stromstad  coast,  the  small-herring  fisheries  commenced  in 
October  and  continued  in  very  inconsiderable  hauls  till  Christmas,  when 
the  small-herring  became  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  sea-herring, 
although  even  then  an  occasional  haul  was  found  to  be  entirely  unmixed. 
The  month  of  January  yields  the  largest  quantity  of  small-herring  on 
this  coast,  although  last  year  this  was  not  the  case. 

In  the  Siicke  Bay,  the  small-herring  fishery  proved  almost  an  entire 
failure ;  but  near  the  Hval  Islands,  Norwegian  fishermen  caught  small- 


HEEEING-FJSHEEIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  153 

herring,  which  were  mostly  sent  to  Sponvigen  and  pickled  there.  The 
fisheries  this  year,  however,  were  by  no  means  as  productive  in  the 
boundary- waters  of  Sweden  and  Norway  as  they  usually  are. 

Small-herring  were  generally  sold,  during  the  autumn  fisheries,  for 
from  56  cents  to  $1.40  a  bushel. 

As  the  sea-herring  greatly  predominate  on  the  southern  coast,  so  do 
the  small-herring  on  the  northern  coast,  where  a  successful  haul  of  sea- 
herring  is  considered  a  rarity.1  Even  among  the  largest  hauls  of  sea- 
herring  on  the  northern  coast,  the  small-herring  were  found  in  consider- 
able numbers  ;  and,  in  1843,  the  last  year  of  the  first  half-century  of  the 
great  fisheries,  (of  which  we  possess  without  a  doubt  a  faithful  and  reli- 
able account,)  it  was  estimated  that  about  half  the  income  from  the  fish- 
eries came  from  the  small-herring.2  Wilhelm  von  Wright  deserves  great 
credit  for  having  first  drawn  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  small- 
herring  and  its  common  appearance  on  the  northern  coast.3  Professor 
Nilsson,  on  the  other  hand,  has  so  completely  underestimated  the  im* 
portance  of  the  small-herring  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Bohusliin  that 
he  proposed,  in  order  to  prevent  any  sea-herring  from  being  caught 
among  them,  to  forbid  this  fishery  entirely,4  or  at  least  with  any  other 
nets  than  drag-nets  or  stationary  nets;5  an  opinion  which,  as  is  well 
known,  was  shared  by  the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  which,  by 
an  ordinance  of  His  Majesty  of  June  29, 1852,  became  a  law.6 

G.  von  Yhleri's  opinion  that  those  herring  which  have  been  caught  in 
good  fish-years  during  the  last  sixty  years,  especially  in  1812, 1817, 1831, 
1840,  and  1843,  were,  as  far  as  he  could  ascertain,  chiefly  small-herring, 
possibly  mixed  with  some  larger  herring,7  does  not  seem  to  me  correct, 
either  as  regards  researches  made  by  myself  among  old  acts  or  as  re- 
gards information  gleaned  from  old  fishermen,  all  of  whom  maintained 
that  the  sea-herring  were  those  which  appeared  in  the  largest  numbers 

1  Eeports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  101, 106  fr.  17.  Professor  Nilsson's  and  others 
supposition  that  it  is  different,  (Eeports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  55, 65 ;  Ekstrom 
Practical  Essay,  p.  29 ;  note,  New  Eeports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  xiv,)  and  his 
underestimate  of  the  small-herring's  importance  and  numbers  created  the  belief  on  the 
coast  that  our  naturalists  consider  the  small-herring  to  be  only  the  young  of  the  her- 
riug  proper. 

2  W.  von  Wriglii,  Eeport  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  169 

3  Eeports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  167, 168, 169. 

4  Eeports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  18. 

6  Ekstrom,  Practical  Essay,  p.  112.  Fdhrceus,  0. 1.,  Memorial  regarding  the  Petition 
of  Several  Fishermen  in  the  Parish  of  Tanum  to  have  the  Eoyal  Ordinance  of  June, 
1852,  changed ;  presented  November  9, 1853. 

5  New  Eeport  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  ix,  xv,  xx,  xxi.  0. 1.F&hraeus.  Memo- 
rial regarding  the  Petition  of  Several  Fishermen  in  the  Parish  of  Tanum  to  have  the 
Eoyal  Ordinance  of  June,  1852,  changed ;  presented  November  9, 1853.  Letter  of  His 
Majesty  the  King,  dated  February  25,  1855,  to  the  Governors  of  Goteborg  and  Bohus- 
lan, regarding  certain  regulations  for  makiug  the  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan 
more  productive.     New  Eeport  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  53,  59. 

7  Quarterly  Journal  of  the   Goteborg  and    Bohuslan  Agricultural   Society,  July, 
1867,  p.  52 ;  April,  1863,  pp.  43,  44.    New  Eeport  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  11, 12. 


154       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

whenever  they  came  near  the  coast.1  In  the  large  fisheries  which  are 
carried  on  in  the  boundary- waters  between  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  in 
which  the  Swedes  have  taken  a  part  only  during  the  last  twenty  or 
thirty  years,  the  small-herring  are  said  to  have  always  predominated, 
with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  last  weeks  of*  the  fishing-season. 

The  spring  and  summer  fisheries. — Near  Ulkekalet,  in  the  sound  between 
Mjorn  and  Tjorn,  a  few  small-herring  have  been  taken,  which  had  fully- 
developed  sexual  organs.  At  Orost,  in  the  parish  of  Torp,  small-her- 
ring have  usually  been  caught  during  the  spring,  which  likewise  had 
fully-developed  roe  and  milt. 

During  these  fisheries,  the  small-herring  have  often  been  found  mixed 
with  sea-herring,  and  so-called  **  grass-herring,"  (herring  one  year  old.) 
During  the  last  great  fishing-period,  the  small-herring  seem  to  have  been 
more  numerous  during  the  summer  than  is  now  the  case.2 

The  small-herring  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan  are  carried  on 
entirely  with  nets,  as  all  the  other  fishing-implements  would  yield  too 
little  result.  I  know  only  one  fisherman  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan  who 
fishes  with  a  purse-net,  and  only  one  who  fishes  with  stationary  nets. 

More  than  5,000  tons  of  small-herring  have  been  prepared  during  the 
fishing-year  as  anchovies,  especially  at  Stromstad,  Fjellbacka,  Grafvarue, 
Lepekie,  Uddevalla,  Gullholmen,  Nosund,  Kyrkesund,  and  Marstrand. 
The  smaller  kind  are  considered  the  best  for  making  anchovies,  because 
they  have  a  finer  flavor  and  smaller  bones.  Young  small-herring  are,  in 
Norway,  made  into  anchovies,  and  they  are  particularly  well  suited  for 
this  purpose ;  but,  as  in  a  fresh  condition  they  cannot  stand  the  long 
journey  to  the  salting-establishments,  they  are  very  seldom  used  for 
this  purpose  by  our  manufacturers. 

VI. — OF     FISHING-IMPLEMENTS,     THE    MANNER  IN    WHICH    THEY    ARE 
USED,    AND   OTHER  MATTERS    CONNECTED    THEREWITH. 

Nets  properly  so  called. — Large  herring-nets. — These  nets,  which,  at 
least  on  the  southern  coast,  are  used  for  catching  the  herring  coming 
in  from  the  sea,  and  which  are  very  much  like  the  nets  used  lor  catch- 
ing herring  during  the  "old"  fisheries,  are  now  almost  confined  exclu- 
sively to  the  southern  coast,  only  a  few  being  found  on  the  central  and 
northern  coasts.3  These  nets  are  generally  120  fathoms  long  and  12 
fathoms  deep.  On  the  southern  coast,  they  have  usually  18  inesfies  to 
the  yard  ;  but,  on  the  central  and  northern  coasts,  they  have  22  meshes. 
On  the  southern  coast,  all  the  meshes  are  equally  fine ;  but,  on  the  north- 

1  Iu  the  Report  on  the  Salt-Water  Fish  of  Bohuslan  for  18G9,  von  YMen  mentions 
the  frequent  occurreuce  of  "fjord  herring."  See  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Goteborg 
and  Bohusliiu  Agricultural  Society,  July,  1870,  p.  16.,  which  may  he  compared  with 
the  July  number,  1871,  p.  52,  of  the  same  journal. 

2  Act  Concerning  Blubber-Refineries,  pp.  73,  75. 

3  The  nets  used  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  central  and  northern  coasts  corre- 
spond both  in  their  construction  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  used  more  with  tho 
middle-sized  nets  used  tor  fishing  for  small-herring. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  155 

era  coast,  the  outer  ends  (wings)  have  larger  meshes.  For  each  wing, 
they  have  500  fathoms  of  line  on  the  southern  coast  5  while,  on  the  cen- 
tral and  northern  coasts,  they  have  shorter  lines.  On  the  southern  coast, 
the  line  is  hauled  in  by  a  winch,  and  the  stone  weights  are  likewise 
brought  up  in  this  manner.  On  the  southern  coast,  twenty  men  usually 
belong  to  a  net,  while,  on  the  northern  coast,  only  fourteen.  Before  the 
Det  is  cast,  the  current  is  examined,  but  no  search  is  made  for  the  her- 
ring. The  nets  can  only  be  hauled  on  land  in  a  few  places  on  the  coast 
of  Oekero,  e.  g.,  (where  these  places  are  most  numerous,  from  12  to  15 
only,  in  number,)  where  there  is  deep  water  close  up  to  the  coast.  The 
net  while  being  dragged  moves  along  the  bottom,  and  its  position  is  in- 
dicated by  floats,  which  are  fastened  to  long  ropes.  Fishing  is  carried 
on  in  about  the  same  manner  as  Ekstiom  has  described  it.1 

Middle-sized  nets. — On  the  whole  central  coast  and  on  the  northern 
coast,  with  the  exception  of  its  northernmost  portion,  these  nets,  which 
are  mainly  intended  for  the  small-herring  fisheries,  are  in  common  use. 
They  are  from  50  to  100  fathoms  long,  and  from  21  to  29  yards  deep, 
having  from  20  to  21  meshes  to  the  yard.  Generally,  however,  there 
are  22  meshes  to  the  yard.  They  are  hauled  in  with  winches,  and  their 
lines  vary  in  length  from  100  to  300  fathoms.  On  the  Fjellbacka  coast, 
they  are  usually  brought  on  land  in  boats. 

Small  herring-nets. — On  the  southern  portion  of  the  central  coast — 
e.  g.,  near  Tjorn — these  nets  are  much  used  for  catching  spring-herring, 
sea-herring,  small-herring,  mackerel,  and  other  fish  to  be  used  either  for 
bait  or  in  the  household.  They  are  from  35  to  40  fathoms  long  and 
from  12  to  1G  yards  deep.  Their  meshes  are  fine,  generally  from  18  to 
22  to  a  yard.  In  hauling  them  in,  a  winch  is  used,  employing  generally 
four  men.  As  to  their  nature  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  used, 
they  seem  to  correspond  with  the  "mackerel-nets"  mentioned  in  several 
places  in  the  "Act  Concerning  Blubber-Refineries."2  On  the  northern 
coast  north  of  Hafstensund,  similar  nets  are  used,  and  are  called  in 
Swedish  "Bolke"  nets.  They  are  generally  40  fathoms  long,  and  from 
4  to  0  1  a thorns  deep.     Four  men  haul  them  in,  and  no  winch  is  employed. 

Half-nets. — This  kind  of  net  is,  as  far  as  I  am  informed,  used  only  near 
Hisingen,  where  there  are  said  to  be  four  such  nets,  chiefly  used  for 
catching  sea-herring.  They  are  about  100  fathoms  long  and  9  fathoms 
deep,  and  their  meshes  have  the  same  size  as  the  large  herring-nets. 

Nets  for  small-herring. — These  nets,  chiefly  intended  for  catching 
small-herring,  were  introduced  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago  from  Sponvi- 
geu,  in  Norway,  where  they  have  been  in  use  for  a  long  time.3  In  the 
neighboring  portions  of  Norway,  they  were  formerly  called  "herring- 

— ■  ■■  ■   .         .     .  _  ... ,  .,  — ....  .  .  ..         . .  . .      ,  .  .  -  ■ 

1  Practical  Essayj  pp.  21-24.  Dubb,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for 
1817,  pp.  36-39. 

2  Act  Concerniug  Blubber-Refineries,  pp.  73,  77,  79-81. 

3Ekstwm)  Practical  Essay,  p.  29,  note.  Basch  and  Berg,  Memorial  and  Petition, 
p.  33. 


156       REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER   OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

nets,"  to  distinguish  them  from  the  large  nets;  and  this  name  they  have 
kept  both  there  and  on  the  coast  of  Bohusliin.  These  nets  are  gen- 
erally  from  40  to  45  fathoms  long,  and  from  8  to  10  fathoms  deep,  and 
they  have  30  meshes  to  the  yard.  They  are  only  slightly  weighted  down 
with  stones,  so  that  they  are  easily  buoyed  up  by  the  floats  when  lowered 
to  a  great  depth.  The  lines  to  each  wing  measure  about  100  fathoms. 
They  are,  properly  speaking,  intended  for  fishing  in  the  deep  Sacke  Bay, 
with  its  steep  shores,  where  other  nets  could  not  well  be  used. 

Two-men's  or  spring  nets. — These  are  used  on  the  southern  coast  for 
catching  spring-herring,  from  the  middle  of  March  till  near  midsummer. 
Besides  herring,  other  fish,  such  as  cod,  salmon,  &c,  are  caught  with 
them.  They  are  from  65  to  80  fathoms  long  and  12  yards  deep,  (only  7 
at  the  end  of  the  wings.)  A  wooden  pole  is  fastened,  by  means  of  two 
lines,  some  distance  from  the  wing;  and  to  the  middle  of  this  pole  is 
attached  the  line  for  hauling  in,  measuring  about  100  fathoms  in  length. 
The  meshes  in  these  nets  are  generally  very  fine. 

So-called  "dog-nets." — These  nets,  which  are  small  and  have  very  fine 
meshes,  are  used  on  the  southern  coast  for  catching  very  young  herring 
for  bait,  but  also  for  catching  salmon  and  other  fish.  They  are  used 
during  the  spring  and  summer. 

On  the  northern  coast,  north  of  Hafstensund,  a  similar  but  somewhat 
deeper  net  is  used,  generally  from  25  to  30  fathoms  long  and  4  fathoms 
deep  in  the  middle  and  tapering  off  toward  the  wings.  With  these  nets, 
three  or  four  men  have  made  from  twenty  to  forty  successful  hauls  during 
the  night.  As  the  use  of  these  nets  has  been  for  some  years  prohibited 
in  the  above-mentioned  portion  of  the  northern  coast,1  many  of  them 
have  been  altered  into  nets  resembling  the  small-herring  nets,2  but  even 
these  were  forbidden  by  a  royal  ordinance  of  July  19,  1872.3 

Stationary  nets. — These  nets,  which  have  been  used  on  the  coast  of 
Bokuslan  from  time  immemorial,4  are  well  known  to  the  fishermen  in 
those  parts,  although  they  are  not  much  in  use  now,  since  they  prove 
remunerative  only  in  exceptional  cases.  On  the  southern  coast  of  Hisin- 
gen,  near  Ny-Elf'sborg,  about  200  such  nets  are  said  to  be  in  use,  each 
yard  having  about  14  meshes.  Herring-fishing  is  likewise  carried  on 
with  such  nets  outside  the  mouth  of  the  Northern  River.  On  the  Oekerd 
coast,  fishing  for  autumn-herring5  with  these  nets  seems  of  late  years 
to  have  ceased  altogether.  Excepting  the  few  stationary  nets  here  and 
there  on  the  coast,  there  is  no  fishing  with  these  nets  worth  mentioning 
north  of  the  Northern  River,  as  far  as  Dynekilen  and  the  Idefjord, 
where,  however,  such  nets  are  used  in  the  spring  for  catching  spring-her- 
ring. 

*New  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  7,  16. 
s  New  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  52. 
3 New  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  3,  58. 

4  All  the  great  Bohusliin  herring-fisheries,  with  the  exception  of  this  last-mentioned 
one,  have  been  carried  on  exclusively  with  such  nets. 
6  See  New  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  10-11,  43. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  157 

Small  herring  are,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  caught  with  these  nets  by 
one  fisherman  only  on*the  coast  of  Bohusliin. 

Drag-nets. — At  the  expense  of  a  Goteborg  merchant,  Aron  Anderson, 
experiments  have  been  made  with  such  nets  which  were  brought  from 
Blekiuge,  Skane,  and  Norway,  aud  taken  out  by  a  mackerel-boat  from 
Koster. ;  but  these  experiment  have,  I  believe,  been  unsuccessful. 

Purse-nets  are  used  in  some  portions  of  Norway  for  catching  herring 
and  small-herring.1  In  Sweden,  they  are,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  only 
used  near  Stromstad,  where  they  have  been  in  use  for  a  long  time  for 
catching  salmon,  and  occasionally  during  May  and  June  for  catching 
small -herring. 

Other  fishing-implements  are  but  rarely  employed  in  catching  her- 
ring. 

As  it  has  been  stated  that  the  large  nets  now  in  use  in  Bohuslan 
have  much  finer  meshes  than  those  used  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,2 
and  that  the  nets  used  during  the  great  fishing-periods  have  meshes 
measuring  from  1  to  1^  inches ; 3  aud  as  this  is  of  great  importance  in 
answering  the  question  how  a  suitable  net  should  be  constructed,  I  deem 
it  necessary  to  adduce  some  additional  facts  which  I  have  gathered. 

As  to  the  nets  used  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  great  fishing- 
period,  it  is  well  known  that  these  generally,  at  least  on  the  southern 
coast  aud  the  southern  portion  of  the  central  coast,  had  sixteen  meshes 
to  the  yard  : i  but  at  the  beginning  of  this  fishing-period,  the  fisheries 
are  said  to  have  been  carried  on  with  mackerel-nets  having  wider  meshes,5 
according  to  information  received  during  the  year  1833,  by  the  investi- 
gating committee,  from  the  northern  coast.  As  there  is,  however,  no 
detailed  iuformatipu  regarding  this  matter,  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  size  of  the  meshes  of  these  mackerel-nets.  This 
much  only  is  certain,  that  these  nets,  on  account  of  the  great  size  of 
their  meshes,  were  considered  useless  iu  fishing  for  the  large  herring, 
(although  they  were  not  mixed  with  other  herring) ; 6  that  ma«kerel-nets 
with  meshes  measuring  more  than  one  inch  are  unknown  in  Bohus- 
liin ;  that  catching  fine  and  fat  mackerel  presupposes  meshes  narrower 
than  these;  and  that  these  nets,  both  during  the  old  fishing-period  and 
in  later  time,  have  had  narrower  meshes,  at  least  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  central  coast,  where  they  are  continually  used  for  catching 
bait  and  other  small  fish.7  Even  in  the  neighboring  portions  of  Nor- 
way, there  are  no  mackerel-nets  in  use  whose  meshes  measure  more  than 


1  Basch  and  Berg,  Memorial  and  Petition,  p.  34. 
.    sNew  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  24,  66. 

3  New  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  24,  63,  66. 

*Ekstrom,  Practical  Essay,  p.  20,  note  2.    Dubb,  Reports  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences  for  1817,  p.  36. 

6  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  86  fr.  9,  p.  98  fr.  7.    Nilsson,  Reports  on  the 
Herring-Fisheries,  p.  12. 

6  Nilson,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  63. 

7  Act  Concerning  Blubber-Refineries,  pp.  73, 77, 79-81.  Ekstrom,  Practical  Essay,  p.  110. 


158       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

seven-eighths  of  an  inch,  the  general  size  being  only  one-halfof  an  inch.1 
As  the  herring  during  the  old  fisheries  were  persecuted  by  fish  of  prey, 
even  in  the  inlets,  smaller  meshes  were  necessary  to  increase  the  strength 
of  the  net  and  to  prevent  the  herring  from  sticking  fast  in  the  meshes, 
and  this  even  when  the  fishing  was  going  on  during  the  daytime,  and 
help  could  easily  be  secured. 

When  Professor  Nilsson,  more  than  forty  years  ago,  made  his  obser- 
vations on  the  salt-water  fish  of  the  west  coast  of  Scandinavia,  the 
nets  on  the  southern  coast  had  the  same  sized  meshes  as  at  present,  i.  e., 
18  meshes  to  the  yard,2  and  they  were,  therefore,  about  the  same  size  as 
that  prescribed  for  the  small-herring  nets  by  the  royal  ordinance  of  July 
19,  1872,  while  their  meshes  are  somewhat  narrower  than  those  pre- 
scribed by  the  law  of  December  29,  1857,  for  the  fisheries  in  the  Liin- 
fjord,  (Denmark.)  In  the  nets  used  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
central  coast,  where  the  small-herring  begins  to  be  of  importance  for 
the  fisheries,  there  were,  thirty  years  ago,  20  meshes  to  the  yard,  and 
this  is  still  the  case.3  On  the  northern  coast,  near  Fjellbacka,  where  the 
nets  are  chiefly  adapted  for  catching  small-herring,  the  meshes,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  royal  ordinance  of  1833,  are  made  very  narrow,  ''scarcely 
an  inch  from  knot  to  knot."  *  This  does  not  mean,  as  has  sometimes  been 
supposed,  that  the  meshes  scarcely  measured  an  inch ;  but  that  the  dis- 
tance from  knot  to  knot,  when  stretched,  was  scarcely  an  inch.  In 
olden  times,  the  word  "  mesh,"  when  used  in  Bohusliin,  always  meant 
the  stretched  mesh ;  and  this  meaning  has  been  retained  by  Ekstrom  in  his 
often  quoted  "Practical  Essay."  The  Fjellbacka  nets  are,  therefore,  not 
any  narrower  than  they  were  forty  years  ago,  but  they  are  now  gener- 
ally less  deep  and  long.  If  the  nets  had  had  meshes  measuring  scarcely 
an  inch,  herring  from  3  to  6  inches  long,  as  well  as  small-herring,  could 
not  have  been  caught  in  them  to  any  considerable  extent ; 5  and  the 
complaint  so  often  heard  that  the  nets  had  meshes  too  narrow  would 
have  been  unfounded.6  The  report  made  at  the  Stromstad  meeting  that 
the  meshes  "  are  so  large  that  the'  thumb  can  scarcely  be  pushed 
through," 7  proves  that  the  herring-nets  used  in  that  portion  of  the  north- 
ern coast  were  not  narrower  than  the  Fjellbacka  nets,  nor  had  they 
larger  meshes  than  those  used  on  the  southern  coast. 

The  method  of  using  the  nets  in  former  times  is  supposed  to  be  very 

1  Fasch  and  Berg,  Memorial  and  Petition,  pp.  28, 29. 
8  Niteson,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  64. 

3  EJestrom,  Practical  Essay,  p.  20,  note  2,  p.  107.  (The  information  that  the  nets 
should  be  from  15  to  20  fathoms  deep  is  based  on  a  mistake  of  the  printer.) 

4  Report  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  107  fr.  28. 

6  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  18,  64-66,  69,  136,  157. 

*Nils8on,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  18,  64,  80,  143.  Scandinavian  Fauna, 
IV,  p.  507,  514.  Sundevall,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisberies,  p.  156.  Wright,  W.  von, 
Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  174. 

7  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  91  fr.  36. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  159 

nearly  the  same  as  that  in  present  use,1  except,  perhaps,  that  during  the 
old  fisheries  the  greater  experience  and  the  more  unfavorable  localities, 
where  fisuing  was  carried  on,2  made  the  fishermen  more  practical  and 
venturesome,  and  taught  them  many  a  crafty  ruse  in  placing  and  man- 
aging them,  which  is  now  forgotten.  In  this  respect,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  northern  portion  of  Bohuslan  gained  great  fame.3  During  the 
great  fishing-periods  of  the  oldeu  time,  fishing  was  mostly  carried  on  by 
daytime,  which  at  present  is  only  possible  on  the  southern  coast,  where 
the  water,  at  least  near  the  surface,  is  less  transparent.4  The  use  of  so- 
called  "locks"  is,  at  present,  not  known  in  Bohuslan. 

As  the  large  and  deep  nets  cannot  be  hauled  on  land  except  on  a  steep 
coast,  and  cannot  be  dragged  along  if  the  bottom  is  not  perfectly  even 
and  the  water  comparatively  deep,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  these 
nets  cannot  injure  the  spawning-places  of  the  herring  on  the  coast  of 
Bohuslan.  These  spawning-places  consist  either  of  a  stony  bottom 
overgrown  with  algcc,  or  of  a  clayey  bottom  overgrown  with  zostera,6 
over  none  of  which  can  the  nets  be  dragged.  Neither  do  these  nets 
bring  up  any  large  quantity  of  algae  and  sea-weeds,  and  for  reasons 
which  can  easily  be  understood,  the  fishermen  are  very  particular  in  using 
them  and  in  keeping  them  in  repair.  The  places  where  they  can  be  used 
are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and  at  the  present  time,  at  least,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  portion  of  the  coast  over  which  they  may  be  safely 
dragged  is  exceedingly  small.  In  consequence  of  this  fact,  the  igno- 
rance of  the  fishermen  concerning  the  spawning-places  of  the  herring  is 
very  great,  and  has  often  been  mentioned  in  the  reports  on  the  herring- 
fisheries.  On  the  other  hand,  smaller  and  shallower  nets  can  be  used 
everywhere  on  an  even  bottom  overgrown  with  sea- weeds,  or  merely 
covered  with  sand  ;  and  even  these  nets  bring  up  sea-weeds  and  small 
fish,  especially  during  the  summer.  In  the  spring,  when  the  herrings 
spawn,  the  sea- weeds  are  shorter  and  adhere  more  firmly  to  the  ground, 
so  that  the  light  spring-nets  do  not  do  much  injury  to  the  grassy  bot- 
toms. As  to  the  injury  which  they  may  possibly  inflict  by  disturbing 
the  spawn,  I  have  not  sufficient  information.  The  number  of  places 
where  they  can  be  hauled  on  land  is  also  very  limited. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  anything  more  with  regard  to  the  so-called 
11  dog-nets,"  (the  fish  caught  in  them  being  mostly  used  for  bait,6)  since 
these,  as  well  as  the  small  nets  and  two-men's  nets,  have  become  law- 
ful for  the  coast  of  Bohuslan,  by  a  royal  ordinance  of  February  23, 
1855. 

1Dubb,  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  pp.  36-39.  Eh' 
strom,  Practical  Essay,  pp.  21-24. 

2  Act  Concerning  +he  Blubber-Refineries,  p.  176. 

3  Dubb,  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  36. 
*Dubb,  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  39. 
6  Dubb,  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  p.  33. 

6  Dubb,  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1817,  pp.  45, 54. 


160       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  other  fishing-implements,  and  the  harm  which 
they  may  possibly  do,  as  well  as  all  other  matters  pertaining  to  this  sub- 
ject, I  respectfully  refer  to  the  memorial  of  Rasch  and  Berg  treating  of 
the  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  from  the  Swedish  boundary-line  to 
Langesund,  which,  on  account  of  the  similarity  of  the  localities  to  the 
coast  of  Bohuslan,  I  consider  to  be  of  special  value.1 

So  far  as  Baron  UgglcCs  proposition  is  concerned,  that,  for  the. small- 
herring  fisheries,  nets  of  the  same  size  should  be  used  as  for  the  herring- 
fisheries,2  experience  has  sufficiently  proved  how  disadvantageous,  not 
to  say  impracticable,  such  nets  must  often  be,  the  use  of  which  would 
only  seem  to  be  required  when  extraordinarily  large  schools  of  herring 
come  in,  the  small-herring  caught  being  prepared  anchovies;  and  this 
same  opinion  would  hold  good  with  regard  to  Counselor  0. 1  Fdhraeus's 
proposition  that  small-herring  should  be  fished  for  with  drag-nets  and 
stationary  nets.3 

The  size  of  the  meshes  prescribed  by  a  royal  ordinance  of  July  19, 
1872,  for  the  small-herring  nets  to  be  used  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslan 
(about  18  meshes  to  the  yard)  has  called  forth  several  petitions  from  the 
fishermen  on  the  central  and  northern  coasts,4  asking  for  delay  in  carry- 
ing out  this  ordinance,  and  setting  forth  numerous  reasons  for  retaining 
the  present  size  of  the  meshes.  As  this  question  is  doubtless  of  consid- 
erable importance,  I  thought  it  my  duty  to  gather  as  much  information 
as  possible  on  this  point  from  the  most  experienced  and  best  informed 
fishermen,  and  to  report  what  I  heard. 

"With  meshes  measuring  one-half  an  inch,  the  smaller  kind  of  small- 
herring;  which  are  mostly  used  for  anchovies,  cannot,  it  is  said,  be 
caught,  as  they,  unless  hindered  by  larger  small-herring  clinging  in  the 
meshes,  can  easily  escape  through  meshes  of  the  above-mentioned  size ; 
while  the  larger  herring  remain  in  the  meshes,  which,  in  particularly  rich 
hauls,  produces  several  inconvenience,  such  as — 

1.  That  the  herring  which  are  fast  in  the  meshes  hinder,  through 
their  weight,  the  hauling-in  of  the  net.  On  the  southern  coast,  where 
the  large  herring-nets  have  meshes  of  very  nearly  the  prescribed  size, 
the  small-herring  frequently  remain  in  the  meshes  in  such  numbers  that 
the  net  looks  like  a  silvery  fur  when  it  is  drawn  out  of  the  water;  and 
as  a  net,  of  course,  weighs  much  heavier  when  so  many  fish  are  con- 

1 H.  Rasch  and  JB.  M.  Berg,  Memorial  and  Petition  drawn  up  by  the  Commission  ap- 
pointed by  Royal  Ordinance  of  May  28,  1852,  for  Investigating  the  Fisheries  in  the  Bay 
of  Christiania  and  in  Langesund  ;  Christiania,  December  31,  1853. 

sNew  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  43. 

3  Royal  Reply  to  the  Petition  of  some  Fishermen  in  the  Parish  of  Tanum  with  regard 
to  the  change  of  section  22  of  the  fishery-ordinance  concerning  the  implements  to  be 
used  in  the  herring  fisheries.    Ekstrom,  Practical  Essay,  pp.  103, 112. 

4  As  long  as  twenty  years  ago,  a  similar  petition  was  sent  to  the  king  by  the  fisher- 
men of  the  Tanum  parish,  asking  to  be  allowed  the  use  of  other  nets  than  those  men- 
tioned in  the  royal  ordinance  for  catching  small-herring.  At  the  suggestion  of  the 
governor  of  Goteborg  and  Bohuslan,  this  petition  was  not  granted. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  161 

fined  in  the  meshes,  it  is  maintained  that  the  introduction  of  the  pre- 
scribed size  of  meshes  obliges  the  fishing-companies  on  the  northern 
and  central  coasts  to  employ  more  men  for  each  net  than  is  now  the  case, 
and  thereby  diminishes  their  income,  which,  in  poor  or  even  in  tolerably 
good  years,  is  small  enough  ;  as,  e.  g.,  an  income  of  $84  from  one  net 
near  Stroinstad  presupposes  that  it  has  caught  $336  worth  of  fish;  an 
equal  income  from  one  net  near  Kalfsund  presupposes  that  it  has  caught 
$1,CS0  worth.  An  increase  of  the  number  of  men  employed  on  one  net 
from  fourteen  men  (which  is  considered  sufficient  near  Fjellbacka)  to 
twenty  (which  is  the  number  required  at  Kalfsund)  of  course  diminishes 
the  income  considerably ;  aud  with  the  small-herring  nets  used  in  the 
Siickefjord  this  is  said  to  be  even  more  noticeable.  As  on  the  Fjell- 
backa coast  the  nets  are  seldom  taken  up  on  the  shore,  but  in  tbe  boats, 
the  inconvenience  becomes  still  greater,  as  there  is  not  room  enough  for 
several  men  to  work ;  and,  furthermore,  because  the  winch  cannot  be 
used  for  hauling  in  the  net  unless  the  boats  are  very  much  larger  and 
consequently  more  expensive. 

2.  That  the  net,  weighed  down  by  the  herring  clinging  to  the  meshes, 
drags  too  much  along  the  bottom  while  it  is  being  hauled  on  land,  and, 
becoming  filled  with  mud  and  sea- weeds,  is  found  to  be  unusually  heavy 
aud  difficult  to  manage.1 

3.  That  the  herring  in  the  meshes  cause  the  net  to  sink  by  their  weight, 
and  allow  some  of  the  fish  to  escape.  Near  Kalfsund,  this  difficulty  is 
obviated  by  the  great  care  taken  to  have  enough  men  employed  to  man- 
age the  nets. 

4.  That  it  requires  much  labor  to  withdraw  the  herring  from  the  meshes 
and  therefore  delays  the  fisheries  to  a  considerable  degree. 

5.  That  the  larger-sized  small-herring,  which  are  stronger  than  the 
others  and  first  rush  to  the  meshes,  by  remaining  in  them,  hinder  other 
useless  fish  from  escaping. 

It  is  also  said  that  the  small-herring  when  plucked  from  the  meshes  are 
of  scarcely  any  value,  because  they  have  been  in  most  cases  considera- 
bly damaged.  They  do  not  keep  fresh  so  long  in  this  condition,  nor  do 
they  present  so  good  an  appearance. 

It  is  further  maintained  that  when  the  meshes  are  large,  any  opening 
occasioned  by  tearing  becomes  still  larger,  and  that  on^  the  whole  the 
strength  and  durability  of  any  net  is  considerably  increased  by  having 
finer  meshes. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  several  of  these  reasons  adduced  by  the  fish- 
ermen for  proving  the  necessity  of  finer  meshes  are  based  on  prejudices, 
and  on  selfish  desires  to  obtain  a  larger  number  of  fish ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  also  clear  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  root  out  such  old  aud  deep- 
seated  prejudices,  and  that  the  only  way  to  do  this  with  any  hope  of  suc- 
cess would  be  to  prove  the  superiority  of  nets  with  wider  meshes  by  a 
long  series  of  experiments.    The  large  herring-nets  used  on  the  southern 

1  Ekstrom,  Practical  Essay,  p.  101). 
11  F 


162        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

coast  have  meshes  of  the  same  size,  or  only  a  very  little  smaller  than 
those  prescribed  for  the  small-herring  nets  by  the  royal  ordinance  of 
July  19, 1872,  but  these  nets  are  intended  for  catching  the  larger  herring, 
and  could  scarcely  be  as  advantageously  employed  for  catching  small- 
herring  as  the  nets  used  at  Fjellbacka  and  Sackefjord,  although  during 
the  autumn  a  considerable  number  of  small-herring  was  caught  on  the 
southern  coast.1  Near  Fjellbacka  I  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  how 
small-herring,  measuring  100  millimeters,  and  some  even  larger,  squeezed 
through  the  meshes,  and  that  only  very  few  small-herring  measuring 
less  than  100  millimeters  could  be  found  among  the  large  number  of  fish 
in  the  nets. 

In  the  Limfjord,  (Denmark,)  where  people  have  had  such  a  long 
experience  in  making  laws  concerning  the  use  of  the  various  fishing- 
implements,  the  meshes  in  that  portion  of  the  net  where  the  fish  are 
gathered  measure  only  0.55  of  an  inch,  even  in  nets  destined  for  catch- 
ing herring,  to  be  in  keeping  with  which  the  meshes  in  the  Swedish 
small-herring  nets  should  measure  only  0.05  of  an  inch. 

Even  when  the  old  fisheries  on  the  coast  of  Bohusliin  were  in  their 
most  flourishing  condition,  when  fishermen  only  now  and  then  caught 
the  immature  herring,  as  it  was  considered  unfit  for  use  by  salters  and 
oil-refiners,2  nets  with  nearlv  as  narrow  meshes  as  those  in  use  at 
present  were  employed,3  partly  in  order  that  the  herring  should  no 
remain  fixed  in  the  meshes  and  so  make  the  net  heavier,  and  partly  in 
order  to  give  the  necessary  strength  to  the  nets. 

Wherever  net-fishing  is  carried  on  on  a  large  scale,  the  fishermen 
seem  to  maintain  the  opinion  that  the  size  of  the  meshes  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  any  considerable  number  of  fish  should  remain 
in  tbe  meshes;4  and  Mitchell  relates  that  sometimes  during  the  great 
herring-fisheries  in  the  North  Sea  the  nets  become  so  crowded  with  her- 
ring that  they  have  to  be  abandoned; 5  and  it  is  said  to  be  no  unusual 
occurrence  in  those  parts  that  nets  sink  down  on  account  of  the  large 
number  of  fish  in  them. 

A  question,  intimately  connected  with  that  of  limiting  the  use  of 
fishing-implements,  is  that  of  supplying  the  demand  for  bait.  The 
greater  importance  which  the  so-called  winter-fisheries  on  the  southern 
and  central  coasts  have  gained  during  the  last  twenty  years,  on  account 

1  It  is  a  very  different  question  whether  an  implement  can  be  used,  or  whether  it  can, 
under  certain  given  conditions  in  a  certain  place,  be  used  with  the  sure  hope  of  gain. 
If  an  implement  is  very  practical  in  its  mechanical  application,  it  by  no  means  follows 
that  its  use  will  pay,  and  an  implement  which  is  suited  to  one  place  may  be  entirely 
unsuited  to  another. 

sNilsson,  Reports  on  the  Herring- Fisheries,  p.  63. 

sDulb,  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1617,  p.  36.  Ekstrom, 
Practical  Essay,  p.  20.     Wright,  W.  von,  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  169. 

4  Mitchell,  The  Herring,  p.  105.  De  la  Blanche™,  La  Peche  et  les  Poissons,  Paris, 
1868,  p.  725. 

fiThe  Herring,  p.  39. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  1G3 

of  the  rise  in  the  price  of  fish  and  the  greatly-increased  means  of  com- 
munication, has  enlarged  this  demand  very  much,1  which,  even  twenty 
years  ago,  called  forth,  at  the  request  of  the  fishermen,  a  limitation  of 
section  22 2  of  the  royal  fishing-ordiuauce,  in  consequence  of  which  nets 
with  narrow  meshes  continued  to  he  used.3 

The  larger  portion  of  the  demand  for  bait 4  is  supplied  by  the  large 
herring-nets,  from  which  bait  can  usually  be  obtained  all  through  the 
winter.  When  the  great  herring-nets  are  laid  up,  bait-herring  are 
obtained  from  the  two-men's  nets,  and  from  other  small  nets  used  for 
catching  spring-herring.  During  the  summer,  when  the  demand  for 
bait  is  less,  since  most  of  the  fishermen  are  employed  in  the  mackerel- 
fisheries,  sea-needles,  which  can  be  obtained  in  great  quantities  from 
the  island  of  Lreso,  mackerel,  and  small  Crustacea  (as  long  as  these  can 
be  secured)  are  used  as  bait.  In  the  autumn,  some  bait-herring  are  pro- 
cured on  the  southern  coast  from  the  "half-nets;"  and  on  the  central 
coast  small-herring  can  then  usually  be  obtained.  It  is  most  difficult  to 
obtain  bait  at  the  end  of  summer  and  the  beginning  of  winter,  and  there 
is  then  occasionally  an  actual  scarcity  of  it. 

The  supply  of  Crustacea  can  only  fill  a  small  portion  of  the  demand 
for  bait,  since  a  great  many  are  used,  and  because  their  favorite  places, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Gota  River,  have  been  much  disturbed  by  dredg- 
ing-machines;  and,  also,  because  the  severe  winters  destroy  many  of 
them.  If  these  animals  were  more  protected,  their  number  could  cer- 
tainly be  increased.  This,  however,  is  scarcely  to  be  expected,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  changes  wrought  in  the  fisheries  (at  least  as  far  as  Bo 
huslau  is  concerned)  by  the  recent  fishing  laws. 

Stationary  nets  can  be  used  in  Bohuslan  with  advantage  only  for 
catching  spring-herring,5  while  they  spawn,  (as  also  ia  the  beginning  of. 

1  The  oft-repeated  saying  of  the  fishermen  that  they  would  not  he  able  to  make  a 
living  if  they  could  not  catch  herring,  contains,  therefore,  much  more  truth  than  people 
are  -willing  to  acknowledge ;  and  the  strict  carrying  into  effect  of  section  22  of  the 
royal  fishing-ordinance,  and  of  the  royal  ordinance  of  February  23,  1355,  would  have 
beeu  a  severe  blow  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast.  See  0. 1.  I&hrceus,  Memorial  of  De- 
cember 22, 1854,  regarding  the  Promotion  of  the  Fisheries  on  the  Coast  of  Bohusliin. 

2  Ordinance  of  February  23,  1855,  for  the  Better  Management  of  the  Fisheries  on 
the  Coast  of  Bohuslan. 

"E.  J.  E.  Uggla,  Report  on  the  Salt-Water  Fish  of  Bohuslan  for  1859,  p.  14;  1860, 
p.  49;  1861,  p.  56;  1862,  p.  7;  1864,  p.  110;  1865,  p.  5.  New  Reports  on  the  Herring- 
Fisheries,  pp.  40,  41.  G.  von  YMen,  Report  of  the  Meeting  of  Fishermen  at  Lysekil, 
Goteborg,  1859,  pp.  20,  59.  0.  Andersen,  The  Fisheries  of  Bohuslan,  Frederikskald, 
1869,  p.  14. 

4  Baron  Uggla's  proposition  (New  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  43)  is,  there- 
lore,  not  practicable,  because,  under  present  circumstances,  the  demand  for  bait  can  be 
tilled  by  the  proposed  small  nets  only  in  exceptional  cases,  and  at  a  very  exorbitant 
price. 

5  The  assertion  which,  during  the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  was  often  made, 
that  it  was  difficult  or  impossible  to  make  the  use  of  stationary  nets  on  the  coast  of 
Bohusliin  general,  is  proved  to  be  incorrect,  among  other  things  by  the  circumstance 
that  all  the  great  Bohusliin  herring- fisheries,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  have  been 
carried  on  with  such  nets. 


164       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

autumn ;)  and  this  only  in  those  places  where  they  are  found  in  large 
numbers,  and  where,  being  sold  fresh,  they  can  command  a  higher  price. 
Stationary  nets,  moreover,  cannot  compete  with  the  other  nets  used 
during  this  period,  either  in  cheapness  or  in  the  variety  of  ways  in  which 
they  can  be  used ;-  for,  with  the  other  nets,  mackerel,  codfish,  salmon, 
and  other  fish  are  caught  in  addition  to  herring  and  small-herring ;  and 
they  can  also  be  used  during  those  seasons  when  herring  are  not 
caught.  Oft-repeated  experiments  with  stationary  nets,  which  have 
been  made  from  time  to  time,  e.  g.,  on  the  coast  near  Kalfsund,  have 
not  been  able  to  extend  their  use,  as  they  have  been  too  little  remuner- 
ative to  warrant  the  fishermen  in  using  them.  It  is  said  that  at  pres- 
ent scarcely  any  herring  can  be  caught  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslau  with 
stationary  nets  having  meshes  of  the  size  proposed  by  Professor  Nil- 
son,1  (1£  of  an  inch,)  because  the  herring  on  that  coast  reach  only  in 
exceptional  cases,  a  size  which  prevents  them  from  slipping  through  the 
meshes.  As  regards  the  oft-repeated  assertion  that,  by  introducing  sta- 
tionary nets,  the  herring-fisheries  are  improved,  it  must  be  said  that  this 
kind  of  net  is  supposed  to  have  a  much  more  injurious  influence  on  the 
herring-fisheries  on  a  comparatively  shallow  coast  like  that  of  Bohus- 
lau than  the  large  herring-nets,  a  fact  which  has  also  been  directly  ac- 
knowledged by  several  persons  who  recommended  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  stationary  nets. 

Ever  since  Bohusliin  became  a  province  of  Sweden,  it  has  been  re- 
peatedly said  that  the  inhabitants  of  that  province  ought,  like  the 
Dutch  and  the  Scotch,  to  carry  on  their  herring-fisheries  in  the  open 
sea  with  floating  nets  ;  and  several  attempts,  even  with  very  favorable 
privileges  or  contributions  from  the  king,  have  been  made  in  this  direc- 
.  tion,  without,  however,  having  led  to  any  satisfactory  result.  The  best 
managed  attempts  of  this  kind  were,  doubtless,  those  which  were  made 
with  boats  and  nets  brought  from  Holland.  Less  fortunate,  and  showing 
want  of  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  hand,  is  a  proposition  made  in 
1774  in  the  journal  "  Hvad  XyaW  (What  News)  to  catch  herring  with  Ble- 
king  (another  province  in  the  south  of  Sweden)  nets,  three  or  four  miles 
out  in  the  open  sea.2  Rev.  Elcstrom,  who  is  so  well  versed  in  everything 
pertaining  to  fisheries,  has  recently,  in  his  excellent  book  and  in  a  very 
practical  manner,  made  propositions  in  this  direction,  pointing  out  the 
best  way  for  carrying  on  the  open  sea  fisheries,3  which  could  be  done 
without  any  great  outlay. 

For  carrying  on  fishing  with  floating  nets  off  the  coast  of  Bohuslau, 
boats  and  nets  of  the  same  kind  as  those  used  in  Scotland  would,  doubt- 
less, be  required.  It  has  been  found  in  that  country  that  the  better 
covered  and  more  seaworthy  the  boats  are,  the  greater  protection  they 
offer  to  the  fishermen,  and  all  the  safer  and  more  productive  will  be  the 

Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  pp.  81,  8 

2  Act  Concerning  Blubber-Refineries,  p.  139. 

3  Practical  Essay,  pp.  16, 93, 98, 99. 


"HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  165 

fisheries.1  Weak  and  uncovered  boats,  and  incomplete  nets  or  other 
implements,  used  in  the  open-sea  fisheries,  show  that  the  fishing  is  yet 
in  a  somewhat  primitive  condition.2  It  must  also  be  mentioned  that,  in 
the  Skagerak,  during  the  dark  season  of  the  year,  there  are  far  greater 
meteorological  and  hydrographical  impediments  to  net-fishing  than  in 
any  other,  sea  of  Northern  Europe  where,  such  fisheries  are  carried  on. 
To  make  such  fishing-methods  pay,  it  is  necessary  thot,  during  the 
milder  season,  a  considerable  number  of  larger  herring  should  be  found 
near  the  coast,  which,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.3  If  the 
herring  are  to  he  caught  farther  out,  no  other  method  seems  more  prac- 
ticable than  the  Dutch  method ;  but  this,  as  is  well  known,  requires  a 
great  outlay  of  money,  special  experience,  and  good  nautical  knowledge. 

yil. — SCIENTIFIC  OBSERVATIONS  AND  SCIENTIFIC  AS  WELL  AS  PRAC- 
TICAL EXPERIMENTS  NECESSARY  FOR  CONTINUING  THE  INVESTIGA- 
TIONS AND  BRINGING  TIIE3I  TO   A  SATISFACTORY  END. 

In  order  to  carry  on  the  investigations  which  have  been  begun  to  the 
extent  mentioned  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences," March  12,  1873,  the  cooperation  of  several  men*  is  doubtless 
required,  and  has  been  expressly  insisted  upon,  for  one  person  cannot,  with 
sufficient  accuracy,  follow  the  course  of  the  fisheries  on  the  different 
fishing-stations,  much  less  carry  on  the  necessary  hydrographical,  mor- 
phological, physiological,  and  biological  experiments,  &c,  which  must 
be  made. 

The  Skagerak  and  Kattegat  are,  from  a  hydrographical  point  of  view, 
almost  unknown,  and  in  order  to  attain  this  knowledge,  it  would  be 
necessary  (if  it  is  to  be  at  all  exhaustive)  in  a  work  of  such  dimensions 
and  importance,  to  have  a  separate  investigation  by  men  specially 
selected  for  the  purpose,  and  much  time  in  which  to  do  the  work.  In 
order  to  compare  the  hydrographical  and  meteorological  facts  with  the 
course  of  the  herring-fisheries  and  the  migrations  of  the  schools  of  her- 
ring, a  very  complete  series  of  simultaneous  observations  would  be 
required  on  these  three  fields,  which  a  single  person  constantly  traveling 
from  one  place  to  another  could  not  possibly  make,  even  if  he  had  some 
assistance.5 

'Thus,  some  of  the  larger  boats  in  Scotland  realized  during  the  year  1872  an  annua 
income  of  from  £100  to  £550  per  boat  ;  -while  the  smaller,  uncovered  boats,  made  only 
from  £60  to  £160. 

"  The  mackerel  net-fisheries,  'which  at  present  are  carried  on  in  the  Skagerak  by 
Swedes  and  Norwegians,  must  be  considered,  as  regards  the  seaworthiness  of  the  boats, 
the  excellence  of  the  nets,  and  the  result  of  the  fisheries,  the  best  in  the  whole  of 
Scandinavia. 

3  Practical  Essay,  p.  32.  Nilsson  has  never  proposed  that  any  such  net-fisheries  should 
be  carried  on  near  the  coast.     See  New  Report,  Stockholm,  1828,  p.  31. 

4 New  Reports  on  the  Herring-Fisheries,  p.  73. 

5In  Norway,  the  investigations  of  the  herring-fisheries  have  been  very  much  aided  by 
the  overseers  of  fisheries,  and  by  information  given  in  the  journals,  while  this  has  not 
been  the  case  with  us. 


16G       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AXD    FISHERIES. 

Accurate  anatomical  observations  on  the  development  of  the  sexual 
organs,  and  their  condition  at  different  ages  and  periods,  require,  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  claims  of  scientific  accuracy,  uninterrupted  opportu- 
nity, a  constant  supply  of  fresh  material,  and  all  the  necessary  scientific 
apparatus.  Well- arranged  aquaria  would  also  be  of  the  greatest  value 
for  some  of  these  investigations. 

While  occupied  with  the  observations  which  I  had  been  commissioned 
to  make,  I  soon  became  satisfied  that,  in  order  to  obtain  an  entirely 
satisfactory  and  decisive  result,  it  would  be  necessary  to  establish 
a  complete  station  for  scientific  observations  of  the  ocean  in  some 
convenient  place  on  the  coast ;  which  station  ought  to  be  furnished 
with  the  required  meteorological,  hydrographical,  botanical,  and  zoolog- 
ical working  force,  and  with  a  full  set  of  scientific  apparatus.  That 
such  a  station  would,  moreover,  contribute  much  new  and  valuable  infor- 
mation to  this  branch  of  natural  science,  and  would  also  become  really 
indispensable  in  this  respect,  is  just  as  evident  as  that  its  observations 
would  and  ought  to  extend  far  beyond  the  range  of  the  present  investi- 
gations. 

As  the  so-called  "  great  old  "  fishing-period  has,  during  the  whole  dis- 
cussion regarding  the  best  method  of  carrying  on  the  fisheries  inBohus- 
liin,  been  presented  as  an  interesting  and  instructive  example,  and  as 
being  intimately  connected  with  the  present  fisheries,  a  complete  and 
accurate  history  of  this  period  would  be  of  great  importance,  and  this 
the  more  so  as  the  facts  we  possess  concerning  it  are  too  few,  and  have 
been  collected  mostly  from  sources  dating  after  the  end  of  this  period. 
Even  those  works  and  public  reports  from  1809  to  1855  which  treat  of 
the  present  Bohuslan  herring-fisheries  and  other  subjects  connected 
with  them,  ought  to  be  searched  much  more  carefully  than  has  yet  been 
done,  in  order  to  furnish  a  complete  epitome  of  their  contents.1 

In  order  to  observe  satisfactorily  the  migrations,  mode  of  life,  and 
place  of  sojourn  of  the  herring  during  the  fishing-season,  as  well  as 
their  course  in  the  water  under  different  temperatures,  &c,  experiments 
with  floating  and  stationary  nets,  having  different-sized  meshes,  should  be 
made  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  both  near  the  coast  and  in  the  open  sea ; 
for  the  use  of  one  sort  of  nets  furnishes  data  unlike  those  yielded  by 
the  use  of  another  kind. 

It  is  furthermore  necessary  that  continued  experiments  with  floating 
nets  should  be  made  for  a  considerable  time,  in  a  seaworthy  boat  fur- 
nished with  all  the  required  implements,  so  as  definitely  to  answer  the 
question  whether  the  "  old  "  herring  have  altogether  left  the  coast  of 
Bohuslan,  (as  is  maintained  by  many,)  or  whether  they  continue  to 
spawn  on  the  outer  coast,  which  would,  of  course,  make  fishing  in  the 
open  sea  a  remunerative  occupation. 

1  Professor  Nilsson  has  drawn  attention  to  the  fragmentary  condition  in  which  these 
reports  have  been  published,  (Scandinav.  Fauna,  IV,  p.  501,  note  1,)  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  new  aud  complete  edition  of  these  reports  would  be  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance to  all  who  wish  to  study  this  subject. 


HERRING-FISHERIES    ON    THE    COAST    OF    SWEDEN.  167 

VIII. — OF    THE    IMMEDIATE    CONTINUATION    OF    THE    INVESTIGATIONS 
AND  THE  SUMS  REQUIRED  FOR  THIS  PURPOSE. 

My  time  during  the  coming  year  might  be  most  advantageously  em- 
ployed in  correcting  and  completing  the  information  thus  far  gathered- 
and  in  extending  my  observations  to  the  herring  and  small-herring  fish- 
eries of  the  South  Baltic,  the  Kattegat,  and  Southern  Norway ;  although 
it  would  certainly  be  a  great  advantage  if,  before  any  fishing-experi- 
ments were  made,  the  observations  which  are  independent  of  the  fish- 
eries were  more  advanced  than  they  now  are  or  can  be.  Nevertheless, 
these  experiments  ought  not  to  be  delayed  too  long,  even  if  in  the  begin- 
ning they  must  be  made  on  a  less  extensive  scale  and  in  a  shorter  time. 

I  dare  not  renew  the  request  which  I  made  last  year  that  I  might 
receive  scientific  assistance  for  the  carrying-on  of  these  investigations, 
as  long  as  the  members  of  the  committee  do  not  express  a  desire  to  have 
these  investigations  made  on  a  larger  scale,  and  with  greater  dispatch 
,than  heretofore.  But  as  the  apparatus  for  carrying  on  these  investiga- 
tions, and  which  I  furnished  from  my  own  means,  has  proved  entirely 
insufficient,1  and  as  the  sums  which  were  at  my  disposal  have  been  ex- 
pended in  buying  the  necessary  books,  I  feel  justified,  from  my  experi- 
ence of  last  year,  in  making  a  request  for  the  following  sums,  both  for 
buying  apparatus  and  for  meeting  other  expenses  incurred  during  the 
course  of  these  investigations  : 


&« 


1.  For  glass  vessels  and  alcohol $224 

2.  For  scientific  apparatus 84 

3.  For  buying  and  hiring  nets  and  paying  the  fishermen,  suppos- 

ing that  these  observations  can  begin  next  year 420 

4.  For  paying  assistants,  who  are  to  take  notes  on  the  fisheries 

in  the  most  important  fishiug-statious 392 

Total 1, 120 

AXEL  VILRELM  LJUNGMAN. 
Tjorn,  June  4,  1874. 

1  The  want  of  suitable  vessels  for  keeping  the  herring  of  different  seasons,  locatiozrf, 
ages,  and  sizes  separate  has  been  particularly  felt. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


Page. 

Introduction 123 

I.  Of  the  Different  Species  of  Herring  and  Small  Herring 125 

II.  Of  the  Propagation  and  Growth  of  the  Herring  and  Small  Herring 143 

III.  Of  the  Herring's  Mode  of  Life,  its  Migrations  and  their  Dependence  on  Me- 

teorologic  and  Hydrographic  Conditions 147 

IV.  Of  the  Herring-Fisheries,  their  Time  and  Place 150 

V.  Of  the  Small-Herring  Fisheries,  their  Time  and  Place 1j2 

VI.  Of  the  Implements  used  in  the  Herring-Fisheries,  the  Manner  in  which  they 

are  used,  and  other  matters  pertaining  thereto 154 

VII.  Of  the  Scientific  Researches  and  Experiments,  and  the  Practical  Fishing- 
Experiments  necessary  for  continuing  these  investigations  wnd  bringing 

them  to  a  satisfactory  end 165 

VIII.  Of  the  Immediate  Continuation  of  these  Experiments  and  the  Sums  re- 
quired for  this  purpose 1G7 


VIII -THE  HALIBUT-FISHERY  OF  THE  UNITED"  STATES. 


By  Lieut.  P.  de  Bkoca 


Oat  of  the  most  frequently  observed  fish  in  the  markets  of  the  seaboard 
towns  of  the  United  States  is  the  halibut,  (abundant  in  the  northern 
seas,)  which  the  fishermen  of  Newfoundland  consider  of  little  value,  in 
consequence  of  a  prejudice  cherished  by  them  as  absurd  as  that  of  the 
English  iu  regard  to  the  skate.  The  flesh  of  the  halibut  possesses  every 
quality  which  can  make  it  desirable  to  the  consumer,  being  white,  firm, 
and  delicate.  It  may,  perhaps,  lack  flavor ;  but  it  makes  up  for  this  de- 
ficiency by  entering  readily  into  the  most  varied  culinary  combinations, 
and,  when  smoked,  it  rivals,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  preparations  possi- 
ble. Under  whatever  form  it  appears,  it  is  so  highly  appreciated  in  the 
United  States,  that  it  has  become  the  object  of  an  important  industry. 
This  fishery  is  generally  combined  with  that  of  the  cod,  when  it  is  car- 
ried on  along  the  shores  of  the  open  sea. 

The  halibut  is  found  in  abundance  along  the  coast  of  New  England 
and  of  the  British  Possessions,  as  well  as  on  the  banks  of  Saint  George, 
of  Sable  Island,  and  of  Newfoundland.!  The  giant  representative  of 
the  family  of  Pleuronectids,  it  attains  such  dimensions  that  among  the 
edible  fishes  of  the  sea  it  may  be  considered  as  analogous  to  the  ox 
among  the  animals  of  the  slaughter-house.  It  is  often  caught  weighing 
a  hundred  pounds,  and  in  many  instances  it  has  been  taken  weighing 
even  more  than  this.  A  few  years  ago  one  appeared  in  the  market  of 
Boston  which  weighed  400  pounds ;  and  in  1807  one  was  caught  at  New 
Ledge,  sixty  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Portland,  that  weighed  over  600 
pounds.  It  is  truly  astonishing  that  fish  which  contain  so  great  an 
amount  of  alimentary  substance  have  not  long  since  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  French  fishermen  of  Newfoundland  or  those  of  Iceland,  and 
suggested  to  them  the  thought  of  their  great  commercial  value. 

During  the  warm  season  halibut  are  caught  in  shallow  water,  only  a 
few  miles  from  the  shore ;  but  as  the  weather  grows  colder,  they  migrate 
toward  the  banks  of  the  open  sea,  where  they  must  be  followed  to  be 

*£tude  sur  L'industrie  huitriere  des  Etats-Unis,  [pp.  139-224:—]  Deuxieme  partie. 
Apercus  divers  sur  la  peche  cotiere,  [pp.  141-148 :— ]  Chapitre  premier  Peche  du  Fle"tan. 

iThe  halibut  inhabits  also  all  the  seas  of  the  north  of  Europe,  and  is  the  object  of  an 
important  fishery,  especially  among  the  Icelanders  and  Norwegians.  The  English  and 
the  Dutch  consume  large  quantities. 


170       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

captured.  A  part  of  those  taken  on  the  coast,  as  well  as  upon  the 
banks  of  Saint  George  and  of  Sable  Island,  are  carried  fresh  to  the  mar- 
kets. The  methods  of  preservation  used  are  those  generally  employed 
in  such  cases.  Those  of  smaller  size  are  thrown  into  tanks,  while  the 
very  large  ones  are  placed  in  the  ice-houses  of  the  fishing  establishments. 
The  most  important  fishing  is  done  by  schooners  of  from  70  to  120  tons 
burden,  owned  by  the  States  of  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Ehode  Island, 
and  Connecticut.  They  take  on  board  during  the  summer  from  20  to  25 
tons  of  ice  on  each  expedition. 

In  consequence  of  the  great  popularity  of  the  halibut  with  consumers, 
this  fishery  has  become  so  profitable  that,  in  certain  localities  where 
mackerel  have  become  scarce,  the  latter  fishery  has  been  almost  entirely 
abandoned  for  the  former,  since  it  is  much  more  certain.  The  harbor 
of  New  London  is  a  case  in  point. 

Besides  the  large  vessels  I  have  just  mentioned,  many  smaller  ones 
are  also  employed,  but  these  never  go  beyond  fifty  miles  from  port. 

The  fishermen  off  the  Grand  Bank  of  Newfoundland,  who  combine 
halibut  fishing  with  that  of  the  cod,  cut  the  fish  into  longitudinal  strips, 
in  order  to  salt  it  more  easily ;  and,  on  their  return,  deliver  it  to  certain 
establishments,  where  it  is  smoked  after  the  manner  of  salmon. 

During  the  year  1858,  444,920  pounds  of  fresh  halibut  were  sold  in  the 
market  of  Gloucester,  Mass.  The  total  amount  brought  in  by  the  fish- 
ing-boats of  the  harbor  of  New  London  is  now  estimated  to  be  about 
3,300,900  pounds.  In  1S61,  the  halibut  taken  by  the  fishermen  of 
Gloucester  was  valued  at  $120,000.  From  these  examples,  which  might 
be  multiplied  indefinitely,  since  the  entire  coast  of  New  England  is 
engaged  in  this  fishery,  we  may  readily  estimate  the  amount  of  suste- 
nance annually  furnished  for  public  use  by  this  single  fish. 

It  is  evident  that  our  Newfoundland  fishermen  can  never  bring  fresh 
halibut  to  France,  but  nothing  prevents  them  from  salting  it,  as  the 
Americans  do.  Notwithstanding  their  prejudice  against  it,  I  have  no 
doubt  that  the  flesh  of  this  fish  would  be  received  with  favor  by  our 
population,  especially  as  it  could  be  sold  to  them  as  low  as  7  or  8  cents 
per  pound,  the  ordinary  price  of  it  in  Boston. 

Americans  are  surprised  at  our  want  of  forethought  in  this  matter, 
and  one  of  them  said  to  me,  on  more  than  one  occasion,  that,  if  the 
French  government  would  allow  him  to  fish  in  the  grounds  of  New- 
foundland, reserved  for  our  nation,  he  would  engage  to  take  only  hali- 
but, and  to  dispose  at  Saint  Peter's  of  all  the  codfish  he  might  capture. 
The  French  consul  at  Boston  has  several  times  received  overtures  of 
the  same  kind. 

The  unreasonable  prejudice  of  our  fishermen  should  be  overcome  by 
the  single  fact  that  this  want  of  interest  in  the  fishery  is  the  cause  of  a 
serious  loss  in  the  supply  of  articles  of  food.  Besides,  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  that  a  fish  which  is  used  by  the  wealthier  classes  of  a  country 
as  rich  as  the  United  States  is  in  every  kind  of  product,  is  essentially 


THE    HALIBUT    FISHERY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  171 

uu palatable,  and  that  our  countrymen  could  not  become  accustomed  to 
the  taste  of  it.  For  my  part,  I  would  find  it  difficult  to  determine 
which  I  preferred,  salmon  of  smoked  halibut. 

Before  my  visit  to  the  United  States,  I  was  acquainted  with  the  hali- 
but only  through  the  descriptions  of  naturalists.  I  did  not  know  that  it 
constituted  a  fishery  of  such  importance.  But  since  I  have  had  the 
opportunity  of  observing  the  large  amount  of  food  it  furnishes  to  all 
classes  of  the  American  people,  I  consider  it  great  folly  on  the  part  of 
our  fishermen  to  neglect  such  a  source  of  profit  and  of  food. 

The  best  way  of  elevating  the  French  fisherman  from  his  condition  of 
pecuniary  distress  is  to  have  him  understand  that  he  ought  to  make  his 
arrows  out  of  every  kind  of  wood,  and  not  to  disdain,  without  good  rea- 
son, riches  which  lie  at  his  very  door. 

When  a  nation  has,  as  ours,  a  large  population  to  nourish,  it  amounts 
almost  to  a  crime  to  deprive  it  of  an  element  of  food  both  economical 
and  agreeable.  In  many  cases,  too,  fishing  for  halibut  would  become  a 
useful  auxiliary  to  that  of  the  cod,  and  would  increase  its  value. 

Without  dwelling  further  upon  this  subject,  I  think  that  an  attempt, 
at  least,  should  be  made  to  put  the  question  to  a  practical  test,  on  the 
fishing-grounds  of  Newfoundland  or  Iceland.  The  bait  used  in  catch- 
ing the  halibut,  whose  gluttony  is  proverbial,  is  composed  of  salted  fish 
of  the  herring  order,  of  very  little  value  in  America  on  account  of  their 
abundance  and  inferior  quality.  They  are  the  same  as  those  used  for 
catching  mackerel,  and  for  manuring  fields  of  Indian  corn.  A  barrel  of 
bait,  all  prepared,  sells  at  the  rate  of  $1  or  $1.50.  It  would  be  a  very 
easy  matter  to  obtain  it,  and  the  French  consul  at  Boston  could  send 
it  to  Saint  Peter's,  if  to  do  so  were  deemed  advisable.* 

Many  persons  may  object,  that  if  this  subject  were  really  as  import- 
ant as  I  suppose  it  to  be,  it  would  not  have  remained  so  long  unnoticed. 
But  the  truth  is  too  evident  to  be  affected  by  such  reasoning.  I  do  not 
claim  the  merit  of  having  discovered  what  might  have  been  proved  a 
thousand  times  better  by  our  consuls,  or  by  any  other  competent  per- 
son ;  but  I  have  seen,  I  have  handled,  I  have  tasted,  the  flesh  of  the 
halibut,  and  found  it  superior  to  that  of  very  many  fish  which  appear 
in  our  markets;  and,  not  being  able  to  doubt  the  evidence  of  my  senses, 
I  consider  it  a  duty  to  publish  the  fact. 

*It  is  unnecessary,  however,  to  agitate  the  question  of  bait,  since  that  used  by  the 
Icelandic  and  Norwegian  fishermen  could  be  employed. 


IX.— THE  FISHING-VILLAGES,  SNEKKERSTEEN  AND  SKOTTERUP, 
AND  THE  COLLECTION  OF  FISHING-IMPLEMENTS  EXHIB- 
ITED BY  THEM  AT  ELSINORE,  DENMARK,  DURING  THE 
SUMMER  OF  1872  * 


The  fishing- villages,  Snekkersteen  and  Skotterup,  are  situated  not  far 
from  the  town  of  Elsinore,  on  the  Danish  island  of  Zealand,  where  the 
soundjs  narrowest.  The  inhabitants  are,  with  few  exceptions  all  fisher- 
men and  entirely  dependent  on  the  sea  for  their  living.  The  circuni- 
stances. under  which  they  are  obliged  to  gain  their  livelihood  are  some- 
what peculiar,  for,  while  the  location  of  their  villages  offers  in  some 
respects,  great  advantages  for  fishing,  on  the  other  hand  it  presents  dif- 
ficulties which  the  greatest  energy  of  the  fishermen  can  scarcely  over- 
come. The  most  important  field  for  their  operations  is  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  sound  where  it  widens  on  both  sides  like  a  funnel;  and  they 
have  consequently  both  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  being  in 
the  very  spout  of  the  funnel,  where  everything  that  is  poured  into  it 
must  pass  through.  All  the  schools  of  fishes  pass  close  by  them,  but 
the  powerful  current,  which,  flowing  sometimes  this  way,  and  sometimes 
that,  according  to  the  wind,  while  it  brings  the  fish  to  them,  frequently 
drives  them  just  as  rapidly  away.  Hence,  here  more  than  in  many  other 
places  the  fishermen  must  understand  how  to  seize  the  right  moment  for 
their  work.  The  large  number  of  ships  sailing  by  or  riding  at  anchor  t 
proves  useful  to  the  fishermen,  as  they  are  by  this  ineaus  often  enabled 
to  sell  their  fish  at  a  very  high  price.  Yet  their  nets  are  often  destroyed 
by  the  ships  or  entirely  carried  away  by  anchors  or  oars.  The  peculi- 
arity of  the  location  makes  stationary  fish  migratory,  and  vice  versa. 
The  haddock  and  flounder  are  thus  obliged  to  migrate,  and  though  their 
migrations  do  not  extend  far,  they  occur  all  the  more  frequently ;  while 
the  hornfish  and  other  migratory  fish  are  often  compelled  to  remain  in 
those  waters  much  longer  than  is  good  for  them.  Thus  many  different 
things  are  to  be  considered  by  the  fisherman  in  order  that  he  may  not 
come  too  soon  or  too  late  with  his  nets.  The  more  accurately  he  can 
calculate  the  probabilities,  and  the  more  completely  he  is  provided  with 
suitable  nets  for  catching  the  numerous  kinds  of  fish  that  pass  the  coast, 
the  more  remunerative  will  be  his  labor. 

It  has  not  been  possible  to  exhibit  all  the  implements  "  in  natural 
hence  the  boats  and  great  casting-nets  are  only  shown  in  models. 

1.  Model  of  a  transport-boat. — The  boat  of  which  it  is  a  model  was 

*From  Nordisk  Tidsskrift  for  Fiekeri. 

t  On  an  average,  21,000  per  annum. — [  Translator's  note.'] 


174        EEPOET    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

7  years  ago,  and  has  brought  millions  of  genuine  Snekkersteen  haddock, 
plaice,  and  eels  to  Copenhagen.  From  5  to  6  such  boats  are  continually 
plying  between  Snekkersteen  and  the  capital,  and  their  numbers  will 
soon  be  increased  by  one  or  two  more.  During  the  winter  of  1866-'67, 
one  of  these  boats  made  36  trips,  aud  brought  to  Copenhagen  10,142 
pounds  of  eel,  49,655  haddock,  and  2,995  plaice,  which  sold  for  a  total 
sum  of  4,264  Danish  rigsdalers,  (one  rigsdaler  =  about  50  cents,  gold.) 

These  boats  must  be  good  sailers  and  must  be  built  very  solidly,  of  a 
tonnage  of  not  more  than  four  tons,  and  their  price,  completely  rigged, 
is  about  1,000  Danish  rigsdalers. 

2,  3.  Models  ofjishing-boats. — These  are  models  of  fishing-boats  used  by 
the  fishermen  of  Snekkersteen  and  Skotterup.  The  two  villages  possess, 
at  present,  122  of  these  boats,  and  their  number  is  constantly  increasing- 
All  these  boats  were  formerly  built  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  but  now 
they  are  built  in  the  villages  themselves,  and  are  even  exported  from 
there  to  Sweden.  These  boats  are  constructed  for  fast  sailing,  and  are 
of  all  sizes.  One  of  the  largest  size,  built  of  oak,  costs,  with  sail  and 
rigging,  300  Danish  rigsdalers;  while  one  of  the  smallest  size,  but  just 
as  fast  a  sailer,  can  be  bought  for  70  rigsdalers.  No  family  has  less 
than  two  of  these  boats,  while  some  own  as  many  as  six,  the  use  of  so 
many  different  kinds  of  nets  requiring  that  large  number. 

4.  Model  of  a  casting-net. — This  is  the  largest  net  used  by  the  fisher- 
men, and  the  original  is  from  80  to  200  fathoms  long. 

5,  6,  7.  Prices  of  a  casting-net. — As  such  a  net  must  be  adapted  to  the 
place  where  it  is  set,  and  as  it  must  be  placed  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
upper  edge  may  reach  the  surface  of  the  water,  while  the  lower  touches 
the  bottom,  the  nets  are  naturally  of  different  length  and  depth.  The 
cost  of  such  a  net  is  about  700  rigsdalers.  It  is  tarred  yearly,  and  in 
spite  of  this  and  the  solidity  of  the  work,  it  scarcely  ever  lasts  longer 
than  4  years,  and  even  then  it  must  frequently  be  repaired.  There  are 
in  Snekkersteen  and  Skotterup,  11  such  nets,  but  they  are  seldom  all 
used  at  the  same  time.  The  number  of  fish  caught  in  these  nets  varies, 
of  course,  in  different  years.  Thus,  two  such  nets  caught,  in  the  fall  of 
1871,  459£  rigsdalers'  worth  of  fish,  while  two  nets  caught,  in  1861,  1,544§ 
rigsdalers'  worth.  TThe  casting-net  can  be  used  only  near  the  land,  but 
here  all  those  fish  are  caught  that  travel  along  the  coast.  The  eels 
often  manage  to  slip  through  the  meshes,  but  for  other  fish,  such  as 
herring,  mackerel,  hornfish,  haddock,  &c,  this  net  proves  a  sure  trap. 

8.  An  eel-trap  or  boic-net  for  catching  eel. — Notwithstanding  the  eel's 
nimbleness,  it  is  caught  in  large  numbers  in  this  trap,  hundreds  of  which 
are  set,  one  row  alongside  of  an  other,  from  the  shore  to  an  extent  of  7 
fathoms.  Every  fall  an  immense  school  of  eels  passes  through  the  sound 
from  the  south.  From  the  middle  of  September  till  November,  the  eels 
travel  during  star-light  nights ;  when  wind  and  current  are  favorable, 
but  when  there  is  no  moon,  and  the  traps  are  carefully  cleaned  of  all 
sea- weed,  the  fishermen  may  calculate  on  a  rich  booty.    Great  care  is 


FISHING-VILLAGES  AND  FISHING-IMPLEMENTS  IN  DENMAKK.    175 

required,  however,  for  the  eel  is  very  sly,  and  a  few  sea- weeds  or  a  little 
white  stone  at  the  entrance  of  the  trap  is  sufficient  to  drive  it  away ; 
and  if  only  one  mesh  be  broken,  or  if  it  be  a  little  larger  than  the  others, 
we  may  be  sure  that  the  eel  which  has  been  caught  will  find  the  weak 
place,  and  tail  foremost,  work  his  way  out.  Three  kinds  of  eel  pass 
through  the  sound,  and,  strange  to  say,  of  two  of  these  not  one  can  ever 
be  seen  by  day  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  while  the  third  is  occasionally 
seen  among  the  seaweeds. 

9.  Apparatus  for  holding  the  eel-trap,  (boiv-net.J — The  eel-trap  or  bow- 
net  is  an  old  invention,  and  is  known  and  used  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe.  But,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  it  is  nowhere  else  placed  as 
it  is  here,  owing,  of  course,  to  the  peculiar  locality.  While,  in  many  other 
places,  a  pole  is  fixed  at  the  bottom,  to  which  the  trap  is  fastened,  they 
have  on  the  coast  of  the  sound  a  special  apparatus  for  this  purpose 
called  "  vager,"  which  is  laid  before  the  traps  are  put  in  position,  and 
which  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  when  they  are  taken  out  to  be 
dried.  This  apparatus  is  not  in  the  way  of  ships,  as  a  pole  might  be;  is 
strong  enough  to  resist  any  current ;  aud  enables  the  fishermen  easily  to 
take  the  trap  out  and  again  place  it  in  its  exact  position. 

10.  An  eel-trap  on  its  "vager,"  as  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. — This 
exceedingly  practical  arrangement  dates  from  a  very  ancient  period, 
perhaps  a  thousand  years  back,  as  is  proven  by  the  technical  terms 
applied  to  its  different  parts,  Danish  words  entirely  out  of  use  now,  but 
common  at  that  distant  period.  Snekkersteen  owns  6S0,  and  Skotterup 
240  of  these  bow-nets.  Like  the  casting-nets,  they  are  never  all  used  at 
the  same  time,  about  one-fourth  being  kept  as  a  reserve.  Such  a  bow-net 
complete  costs  from  17  to  20  rigsdalers,  and  lasts  from  4  to  6  years. 
They  are  made  either  of  flax  or  of  cotton,  and  their  manufacture  is  a 
favorite  employment  of  the  fisher-families  during  the  long  winter  even- 
ings. The  places  where  these  bow-nets  are  set  are  sold  by  the  govern- 
ment to  the  fishermen  at  a  high  price.  The  profits,  of  course,  vary  very 
much.  A  fisherman,  who  kept  an  exact  account,  says,  that  in  1861,  he 
caught  352  rigsdalers'  work  of  eels  in  21  bow-nets;  in  1862,  216  rigs- 
dalers' worth  in  30  nets ;  and  in  1871,  197  rigsdalers'  worth  in  19  nets. 

11.  Bow -net  for  catching  sJvrimps. — The  location  is  not  favorable  for 
shrimps,  aud  they  are  but  rarely  caught  here  as  an  article  of  food;  they 
chiefly  serve  as  a  bait  for  the  haddock. 

12.  "  TJlhen"  a  sort  of  net  for  catching  shrimps. — This  is  dragged  after 
the  boat,  in  order  to  catch  the  shrimps,  which  are  so  deep  in  the  water 
among  the  sea-weeds  that  the  fisherman  cannot  wade  in  and  catch  them 
with — 

13.  The  uhoven,v  an  implement  which  he  pushes  before  him.  To  this 
branch  of  fishing  belong  also — 

14  and  15,  two  different  hinds  of  nets  or  uhoven"  for  catching  shrimps. — 
In  winter  the  shrimps  go  into  deeper  water,  (from  3  to  4  fathoms,)  and 
live  among  the  masses  of  sea- weeds  torn  off  by  the  currents  and  the 


176       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

storms.  A  sort  of  hook  is  thrown  out,  by  means  of  which  large  quanti- 
ties of  these  sea-weeds  are  brought  up,  and  the  shrimps  are  shaken  out 
of  the  net  into — 

16.  A  little  fish-trunk  or  can/,  (the  shrimp-box,)  where  they  are  kept 
alive  till  used  for  bait. 

17.  A  pole  called  "stampe"  is  used  for  stirring  up  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  in  order  to  bring  out  the  sand- worms  which  are  also  used  for  bait ; 
these  are  then  caught  with  a  sort  of  comb  or  catcher — 

18.  Called,  in  Danish,  "  krillen,"  the  curl. 

19.  Trap  for  catching  snails,  also  used  for  bait. 

20.  Herring-catcher,  for  catching  herring  for  bait. 

One  may  see,  on  any  winter  morning,  numerous  boats,  each  manned 
by  one  or  two  fishermen  and  provided  with  all  the  different  kinds  of 
bait,  leave  the  two  villages  for  catching  haddock.  The  fish,  when 
caught,  are  thrown  into  a  tub  filled  with  water,  which  must  be  con- 
stantly renewed,  or  into  a  sack-like  net  hanging  outside  the  boat,  for  it 
is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  keep  the  fish  alive.  In  its  endeavors 
to  swallow  the  bait,  the  hook  easily  pierces  the  inner  part  of  the  gullet 
and  produces  a  fatal  wound.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  the  hook  is  fur- 
nished with  a  piece  of  tin  soldered  to  it,  often  in  the  shape  of  a  little 
fish.  This  makes  it  heavy,  and  the  fish  can  scarcely  get  it  further  down 
than  the  gristly  parts  of  the  mouth. 

The  fishermen  encounter  more  difficulties  in  striving  to  keep  the  fish 
alive  than  in  catching  them.  During  severe  winters,  when  the  sound  is 
covered  with  ice,  the  Danish  fishermen  do  not  put  on  skates  as  the 
Swedes  do,  but  merely  wooden  shoes  with  small  spikes  in  the  soles  to 
prevent  slipping.  Thus  shod  they  start  out  dragging  behind  them  a 
sledge  furnished  with  the  fishing-impleinents,  their  temporary  house, 
and  its  furniture.  The  house  consists  merely  of  a  large  sail  and  some 
poles,  and  to  put  this  up  is  the  fisherman's  first  work.  He  makes  him- 
self as  comfortable  in  this  tent  as  possible.  He  cuts  two  holes  in  the 
ice,  one  for  his  fishing-line  and  one  for  the  sack  into  which  the  fish  are 
to  be  put.  The  sledge  serves  as  his  chair,  the  basket  containing  his 
food  and  the  tub  containing  the  bait  being  so  placed  that  he  can  reach 
them  without  moving  from  his  seat.  Thus  he  sits  quietly  for  hours,  and 
returns  home  in  the  evening  drawing  the  sledge,  whose  load  is  now 
increased  by  the  tub  full  of  water  containing  the  fish. 

21.  A  fishing  line  with  the  so-called  "  tin-fish"  attached. 

22.  A  line  for  catching  whiting. 

23.  A  line  for  catching  mackerel. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  from  the  terrace  of  the  ancient  castle  of 
Kronborg,  commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  the  sound,  the  catching, 
in  the  spring,  of  hornfish,  which  then  pass  through  the  sound  in  large 
numbers  on  their  way  to  the  Baltic.  Two  boats  always  go  together, 
each  manned  by  four  men,  and  a  large  net  stretched  out  between  the 
boats.    Everything,  apparently,  is  quiet;  most  of  the  fishermen  seem  to 


FISHING-VILLAGES  AND  FISHING-IMPLEMENTS  IN  DENMARK.  177 

be  asleep  with  the  exception  of  the  two  standing  on  a  board  stretched 
across  the  boat  to  keep  a  lookout.  Everything,  however,  is  prepared  ; 
the  oars  are  in  their  places,  and  the  stones  are  prepared,  which  are 
thrown  into  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  chasing  the  fish  into  the  net. 
The  two  uien  stand  on  the  board  motionless  as  statues,  straining  their 
eyes  to  see  in  the  distance  the  faint  and  indistinct  shadow  appearing 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  occasioned  by  the  approach  of  a  school  of  fish. 
For  hours  they  may  be  observed  standing  thus,  unmindful  of  wind  and 
weather.  Suddenly  one  of  the  men  raises  his  arm,  and  immediately, 
but  silently,  every  man  is  at  his  post.  He  hurls  a  stone  a  great  dis- 
tance, then  another,  constantly  nearer  in  order  to  drive  the  school 
toward  the  net.  Now7  the  fish  are  inside  the  bay  forformed  by 
the  net  "How!"  is  the  order  given,  and  the  oars  dip  into  the  water. 
The  former  silence  is  now  changed  to  a  scene  so  wild  and  picturesque 
that  one  would  scarcely  believe  that  all  this  commotion  is  only  produced 
by  some  hornfish.  All  are  on  the  alert,  and  every  order  given  by  the 
commander  is  executed  with  the  greatest  swiftness  and  precision. 
When  the  boats  have  approached  each  other,  and  the  fish  are  conse- 
quently entirely  surrounded,  but  by  no  means  caught  as  yet,  the  net  is 
carefully  drawn  together,  so  that  the  inner  space  becomes  smaller  and 
smaller.  The  fish  now  try  to  slip  out  beneath  the  boats,  but  the  fisher- 
men are  at  their  post,  and  by  shouting  and  splashing  they  chase  the 
frightened  fish  back.  After  such  unsuccessful  attempts  to  escape,  the 
whole  school  frequently  turns  the  other  way,  pushing  with  all  their  might 
against  the  net.  This  is  the  moment  for  which  the  commander  has  been 
eagerly  waiting.  "Draw  together !"  he  shouts,  and  with  a  desperate 
pull  the  net  is  entirely  closed,  heavy  with  the  splashing  fish,  and  is  soon 
drawn  up  into  the  boats. 

There  is,  of  course,  the  greatest  difference  in  the  number  of  fish  con- 
tained in  different  schools.  Sometimes  there  are  only  a  few,  and,  at 
otLer  times,  one  school  will  more  than  fill  two  boats.  In  this  latter  case 
the  contest  becomes  more  animated,  and  to  a  person  who  sees  it  for  the 
first  time  it  looks  like  a  desperate  combat  between  the  crews  of  the 
different  boats,  never  failing  to  attract  a  large  number  of  spectators. 
The  most  animated  spectacle  is  presented  when  the  fishermen  make 
the  so  called  "  Hage-stretch,"  i.  c,  when  they  are  forced  by  the  current 
past  the  promontory  called  "  LTage,"  in  order  to  catch  the  fish  which 
are  just  being  driven  back  from  the  south.  The  boats  shoot  through 
the  foaming  waves  with  fearful  rapidity,  and  it  requires  a  great  amount 
of  skill,  strength,  and  courage  to  obtain  a  favorable  result.  One  little 
mistake,  an  order  given  or  executed  too  soon  or  too  late,  is  sufficient  to 
frustrate  the  whole  scheme.  To  make  this  stretch  is  therefore  consid- 
ered the  crucial  test  for  all  fishermen  on  the  coas%  and  unless  oue  has 
accomplished  this  feat  he  is  not  esteemed  very  highly  by  his  comrades. 
Affairs  become  still  more  complicated  when  there  are  two  schools  com- 
ing on  at  the  same  time,  for  if  one  turns  to  the  right,  the  other  is  sure 
12  F 


178        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

to  turu  to  the  left,  and  it  requires  the  utmost  attention  of  the  fishermen 
to  make  sure  of  either. 

24.  A  net  for  catching  liornfisli. — It  costs,  when  new,  from  GO  to  80 
rigsdalers,  and  can  be  used  for  five  or  six  years  if  kept  in  careful  re- 
pair. 

25.  A  model  of  the  preceding  net,  showing  in  what  manner  it  is  placed 
in  the  water. 

Toward  fall  the  hornfish  returns  from  the  Baltic  and  travels  through 
the  sound  toward  the  North  Sea.  They  can  then  no  longer  be  caught 
in  the  same  place  and  in  the  same  mauner  as  described  above,  for  they 
are  spread  at  this  season  of  the  year  over  the  whole  sound.  The  whole 
coast  of  Zealand,  south  of  Kronborg,  is  now  closely  packed  with  large 
nets,  and  the  fish  are  not  chased  by  men  alone,  for  a  large  number  of 
porpoises  are  all  day  long  busy  in  securing  their  share  of  the  booty. 
These  porpoises  appear  in  August,  and  chase  the  hornfish  with  the 
greatest  zeal.  They  are  not  at  all  shy,  and  they  pursue  the  fish  close  up 
to  the  boat,  so  that  they  can  easily  be  caught.  Their  flesh,  however, 
cannot  be  eaten,  but  they  prove  useful,  inasmuch  as  they  actually  assist 
the  fishermen  in  the  chase  for  the  fish.  Special  nets,  called  in  Danish 
"nedgarn,"  are  used  for  this  kind  of  fishing. 

26.  One  of  the  above-mentioned  nets,  («'  nedgarns.v) — At  night  the  fish 
will  enter  this  net  very  readily,  but  by  day  they  are  very  careful  to  avoid 
it,  and  now  comes  the  porpoise  in  its  useful  capacity  of  hound.  But 
for  these  animals  the  fish  would  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  below 
the  nets.  The  fisherman  rows  toward  the  place  where  the  porpoises  are 
seen  and  where  the  hornfish  leap  out  of  the  water.  Here  he  casts  his 
net  and  lies  in  ambush  like  a  spider.  Suddenly  a  rushing  sound  is 
heard;  it  is  a  school  of  hornfish  jumping  toward  the  net  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Behind  them  is  the  porpoise  chasing  them,  now  shooting 
along  under  the  surface  with  incredible  swiftness,  now  leaping  out  of 
the  water,  and  not  infrequently  casting  up  some  fish  or  holding  one  in 
its  mouth.  Sometimes  it  turns  a  somersault,  but,  for  the  most  part,  its 
large  body  falls  straight  back  into  the  sea,  splashing  the  water  in  all 
directions.  The  school  of  fish  turns  directly  into  the  net,  and  only  those 
that  leap  over  it  manage  to  escape  and  the  fisherman  gathers  the  fish 
caught  in  the  net  and  makes  it  ready  to  receive  another  school.  When 
the  weather  is  favorable  and  the  porpoises  are  lively,  this  chase  is  very 
amusing.  Porpoises,  like  trained  dogs,  never  touch  a  fish  that  is  caught 
in  the  meshes,  and  with  the  most  admirable  dexterity  they  avoid  tear- 
ing the  net  in  their  bold  leaps.  The  porpoise  is  often  seen  swimming 
patiently  alongside  of  the  net  waiting  for  a  fish  to  fall  off;  but  should 
it  be  ever  so  hungry  it  would  never  think  of  plucking  off  one  by  itself. 
It  is  therefore  considered  as  a  friend  by  the  fishermen,  and  none  of  them 
would  ever  venture  to  injure  one  of  these  animals. 

27  and  28.    Nets  for  catching  herring. — These  nets  are  of  different 
depth,  but  all  equally  long.     They  are  twice  as  long  as  the  common  nets, 


FISHING-VILLAGES  AND  FISHING-IMPLEMENTS  IN  DENMARK.    179 

and  can  be  divided  into  two  parts.  Snekkersteen  owns  140  such  nets, 
and  Skotterup  40.  They  cost  from  10  to  20  rigsdalers  each.  A  horu- 
fish-uet  costs  from  12  to  1G  rigsdalers,  and  the  two  fishing  villages  own 
about  50  of  them.  Of  mackerel-nets  Snekkersteen  own  130  and  Skot- 
terup 54,  the  price  of  these  being  from  10  to  16  rigsdalers  each. 

2dand30.  Mackerel  Nets.— The  so-called  "sinallnets"  play  an  important 
part  in  the  fishery  on  this  coast,  and  they  are  consequently  manufactured 
of  many  different  sizes  to  suit  all  circumstances.  They  are  twice  the 
usual  length,  and  can  be  separated  into  two  parts.  While  the  poorer 
fishermen  do  not  possess  any  casting-nets  or  bow-nets,  there  is  not  one 
of  them  who  does  not  own  several  "  small  nets."  They  are  used  all  the 
year  round  for  haddock,  flounders,  turbots,  dabs,  &c.  Salmon  or  stur- 
geon are  sometimes  caught  in  them,  and  occasionally  a  lobster  or  crab 
finds  his  way  into  them  ;  perhaps  a  mackerel,  and  even  wild  ducks  ;  and 
more  rarely  yet  a  porpoise,  which  becomes  strangled  iu  the  meshes  from 
want  of  air. 

31  to  41.  "Small-nets"  of  different  sizes. — These  cost  about  8  rigsdalers 
each.  Snekkersteen  owns  about  a  thousand  of  them,  and  Skotterup 
two  hundred  and  fifty. 

During  the  summer  the  fishermen  cast  their  nets  for  plaice  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  island  of  Llveen,  (about  the  middle  of  the  sound.) 
The  fish  caught  there  are  of  a  very  superior  quality,  and  often  very  large. 
Some  have  been  caught  weighing  10^  Danish  pounds,  (1  Danish  pound 
is  equal  to  1.101  pounds  avoirdupois;)  and  fish  weighing  from  4  to  6 
pounds  are  frequently  caught.  Turbots  are  also  often  taken  here,  the 
largest,  as  far  as  known,  weighing  30  Danish  pounds.  These  fish  are 
sold  almost  exclusively  in  the  Elsinore  market  or  to  the  ships  lying  at 
anchor  there.  The  fisherman  rises  very  early  in  summer-time,  mostly 
between  1  and  2  o'clock,  a.  m.  He  first  observes  the  weather,  and  if  it 
be  favorable  he  hurriedly  dresses  and  hastens  down  to  his  boat,  for  the 
fish  must  be  in  the  Elsinore  market  as  early  as  G  o'clock.  He  is  soon 
in  his  boat,  and  speeds  swiftly  toward  the  place  where  the  nets  have 
been  cast  the  previous  day.  "While  one  of  the  fishermen  plies  both  oars, 
the  other  draws  in  the  nets.  Others  are  cast  out  irumediatel}',  and,  row- 
ing rapidly,  the  boat  soon  approaches  the  coast  again.  There  his  wife 
and  children  meet  him,  help  him  to  draw  the  net  on  land,  and  to  take 
out  the  fish  and  sort  them.  In  a  few  minutes  they  are  packed  on  a 
wheelbarrow  and  one  of  the  fisherman's  children  or  his  wife  wheels  them 
to  the  market,  and  at  7  o'clock  a.  m.,  not  a  fish  is  to  be  had. 

As  soon  as  the  nets  are  dry  they  are  mended,  stretched  out  on  poles, 
and  loaded  down  with  stones,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  carrying  them 
away,  so  as  to  be  ready  for  the  next  day's  work.  All  this  keeps  the 
fisherman  and  his  family  busy  during  the  day.  Every  now  and  then 
the  nets  are  boiled  in  lye  or  tree-bark,  with  an  addition  of  soda  or  pot- 
ash. 

42.  The  so-called  "  livistelcjvcppcf  a  sort  of  switch  or  broom,  is  a  very 


180       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

practical  implement  for  freeing  tbe  nets  of  rubbish,  which  they  invaria- 
bly bring  up  with  them  from  the  water.  It  requires  some  skill  and 
practice  to  use  this  tool,  but  it  cleans  the  nets  much  better  than  any 
other  used  for  that  purpose.  Strange  enough,  this  useful  implement 
is  scarcely  known  outside  of  Snekkersteeu  and  Skotterup. 

43.  A  net  for  catching  porpoises. — This  is  but  seldom  used,  and  there  is 
only  one  such  in  the  two  fishing  villages.  Most  fishes  of  the  flounder 
kind  are  caught  in  "  small  nets,"  but  the  halibut  proves  too  large  for 
these.  This  fish  is  therefore  caught  with  special  halibut-hooks,  (called 
"  bagger"  in  Danish,)  or  with  lines.  All  along  the  sound,  nearer  the 
Swedish  than  the  Danish  coast,  there  is  found  a  very  considerable  de- 
pression of  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  From  Ueliugsborg,  the  Swedish  town 
opposite  Elsinore,  the  fishermen  call  this  great  deep  "  Skraepperne.7* 
This  seems  to  be  the  favorite  resort  of  the  halibut.  In  summer  one  may 
also  find  there  large  haddocks  and  skates.  The  fishing  in  tbese  waters 
pays  very  well,  and  most  of  the  fish  caught  here  are  brought  to  the  Co- 
penhagen market. 

44.  A  number  of  halibut-lwolcs. 

45.  A  halibut-line. 

40.  Different  specimens  of  haddoclc  catchers,  (Danish,  "  torskepillc?) — In 
fishing  in  the  "  Skraepperne"  the  fishermen  are  often  obliged  to  make 
use  of  this  instrument  for  want  of  bait,  but  it  is  not  a  favorite  with 
them. 

47.  A  flounder-net,  ready  to  be  cast  out,  or,  as  the  Danish  techuical 
term  has  it,  to  be  "  stoned."  By  holding  the  split  peg  with  one  hand, 
and  throwing  out  the  stones  with  tbe  other,  the  net  is  laid  without  much 
trouble,  and,  sinking  to  the  bottom,  places  itself  in  position. 

48.  A  buoy;  a  so-called  herring-buoy. 

49.  A  grapple,  or  anchor. 

50.  A  claw. — These  are  of  many  different  sizes,  and  are  sometimes 
used  as  anchors,  but  more  frequently  to  search  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
for  nets  and  other  objects  that  have  been  lost. 

51.  A  fisher-buoy. — In  the  sound,  where  the  shipping,  the  current,  and 
large  masses  of  seaweeds  all  prove  injurious  to  the  buoys,  this  kind, 
simple  as  it  looks,  has  proved  the  most  effectual  in  diminishing  all  these 
causes  of  injury. 

52.  A  net-trough. 

53.  A  hundred  claws,  "  baggers,"  ready  for  being  cast  out. 

54.  A  hundred  cleft  claws,  hung  up  for  drying.  Of  these  the  two  fish- 
ing villages  possess  an  endless  number. 

55.  An  eel-iron. — A  sort  of  spear  for  spearing  eel,  which,  however,  is 
but  seldom  used. 

50,  57,  and  58.  Different  hinds  ofcaufs. 
59.  Tools  for  man  ufacturing  nets. 
GO.  Apparatus  for  iccighing  eels. 
61.  A  catcher. 


FISHING-VILLAGES  AND  FISHING-IMPLBMENTS  IN  DENMARK.  181 

Nearly  all  these  implements  are  made  by  the  fishermen  themselves. 
The  women  spin  and  the  meu  bind  them  ;  small  children  even  assisting 
in  the  work. 

The  amount  of  material,  however,  is  so  large,  and  requires  so  much 
repairing-,  that  the  fishermen  and  their  families  cauuot  do  all  the  work 
alone,  so  that  there  is  enough  work  left  for  the  poor  and  old  folks  of 
the  villages.  The  considerable  expense  required  for  the  material  and 
its  repairing,  consumes,  of  course,  a  large  portion  of  the  fishermen's 
annual  income,  so  that  they  can  not  save  much  money.  Still  they  suffer 
no  want,  and  are  enabled  to  keep  up  with  the  age,  being  decidedly  bet- 
ter housed,  fed,  and  clothed,  than  their  ancestors. 

Local  influences  have  tended  to  make  the  fishermen  of  Snekkersteen 
and  Skotterup  better  educated  than  fishermen  generally  are.  Living 
close  by  the  sound,  the  great  European  highway,  they  have  learned 
much  from  the  many  foreigners  of  all  nations,  with  whom  they  come  in 
constant  contact.  They  are  enlightened  and  liberal  in  their  views  and 
possessed  of  a  strong  feeling  of  independence. 

As  far  back  as  the  year  1745  they  established  among  themselves  a 
society  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  the  burial  of  the  dead.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  see  from  the  old  account-books  of  this  society,  that  the  major- 
ity of  the  members,  who  were  only  simple  fishermen,  could  write  and 
cipher,  some  of  them  even  very  well,  and  this  at  a  time  when  such 
learning  wras  not  often  found  among  the  poorer  classes. 

Much  could  be  done  to  increase  the  value  of  the  fisheries  of  Snek- 
kersteen and  Skotterup,  both  in  the  way  of  new  methods  and  more 
modern  implements.  But  what  is  particularly  wanted  is  a  good  harbor. 
Such  a  harbor  would  cost  from  6,000  to  8,000  rigsdalers.  The  ministry 
of  the  interior  has  appropriated  1,000  rigsdalers  for  this  undertaking, 
the  district  council,  800 ;  and  many  private  individuals  have  made  con- 
tributions. The  work  was  begun  last  spring,  and  there  is  every  pros- 
pect that  these  two  flourishing  villages  will  soon  possess  an  excellent 
boat-harbor,  and  have  it  free  of  debt. 


X.-ON  THE  HERRING,  AND  ITS  PREPARATION  AS  AN  ARTICLE 

OF  TRADE.* 


BV   H.TALMAR  WlDEGREN. 


Contents. 


Introduction. 

I.  Preparation  of  common  Baltic  herring  for  consumption  in  Sweden  and  in  the  Ger- 
man ports  on  the  Baltic. 

II.  Preparation  of  extra-fine  herring  for  home  consumption. 

III.  Preparation  of  spiced  herring,  ("  Kryddsill.") 

la  the  sea  which  surrounds  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  several  kinds 
of  herring  are  found  differing  in  size  and  fatness.  These  are  caught  on 
certain  parts  of  the  coast,  and  afterward  brought  into  the  market 
under  different  names  and  prepared  in  various  ways.  Throughout  the 
whole  of  Sweden,  there  are  found  in  the  market  Norwegian  herring, 
Graben  herring,  Ludd  herring,  fat  herring,  Goteborg  or  Bohusliiu  her- 
ring, Kulla  herring,  anchovies,  small-herring,  spiced  herring,  &c.  All 
these  articles  of  trade  are  prepared  from  two  kinds  of  fish,  viz,  the  her- 
ring properly  so-called,  (Clupea  harengus,  L.,)  which  in  the  Baltic  is 
named  "  stro  mining,"  and  the  sprat  or  small-herring,  (Clupea  sprattus,  L.) 
The  former,  both  in  its  natural  state  and  as  an  article  of  trade,  is  found 
in  much  larger  quantities  than  the  latter,  which  is  caught  only  in  com- 
paratively small  quantities,  and  prepared  mostly  as  anchovies.  As  the 
strommiug  is  nothing  but  a  variety  of  the  common  herring,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  course  of  this  article,  the  term  "  herring,''  or  "  common  her- 
ring," is  used  both  for  the  herring  of  the  Western  Sea,  (Atlantic  and 
Kattegat,)  and  the  herring  of  the  Baltic,  i.  e.,  the  strommiug.  The  sprat 
is  at  first  sight  distinguished  from  the  herring  by  having  a  smaller 
head  and  the  lower  fins  placed  more  toward  the  front  of  the  body.  Its 
belly  is,  moreover,  sharper  and  furnished  with  serrated  scales,  which  are 
not  found  in  the  common  herring. 

The  common  herring,  which  on  certain  parts  of  the  coast  is  eaten  so 
extensively,  has  its  proper  home  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  Atlantic,  but 
is  also  found  in  the  seas  connected  with  them — the  Kattegat  and  the 
Baltic.  Like  other  animals  and  fish,  the  common  herring  has  un- 
dergone, in  course  of  time,  iu  the  different  parts  of  the  sea  and  bays 
where  it  lives,  various  changes  as  to  size,  fatness,  &c,  and  which  are 

*  Nagra  ord  om  Sillfiske  samt  ora  Sillens  eller  Strommigens  riitta  bercdning  till  han- 
del  svara  :  in  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri.  Udgivet  af  H.  V.  Fiedler,  og  Arthur  Feddersen. 
6te  Aargang.     (Kjobenhavn.    Jacob  Erslevs  Boghandel.    1871.)   pp.  63 — 80. 


184       EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

chiefly  to  be  accounted  for  by  tbe  difference  of  food  in  the  Atlantic, 
the  Kattegat,  and  the  Baltic,  differing  even  in  different  parts  of  tbe 
Atlantic  and  tbe  Baltic.  We  find,  therefore,  that  every  part  of  the  sea, 
and  even  different  bays,  have,  so  to  speak'their  own  peculiar  kind  of 
herring,  which  certainly  do  not  belong  to  a  different  family,  but  which, 
nevertheless,  can  easily  be  distinguished  as  belonging  to  a  different 
kind,  by  certain  peculiarities  due  to  the  locality.  Thus,  there  is  found, 
e.  g.,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  in  some  bays  of  tbe  Baltic,  a  larger 
kind  of  herring,  which  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  that  which  lives 
and  spawns  on  the  outer  portion  of  the  coast;  and  the  herring  found  on 
the  coast  of  Bobuslau,  (the  west  coast  of  Sweden,)  and  in  the  bay  of 
Christiania,  differ  greatly  in  size  from  those  of  the  west  coast  of  Nor- 
way, &c,  &c.  While  this  circumstance  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  given 
rise  to  the  different  ways  of  preparing  and  naming  the  herring  as  an 
article  of  trade,  it  affords  the  means  of  forming  conclusions  as  to  the 
herring's  manner  of  living,  and  also  as  to  the  improvement  of  the  her- 
ring-fisheries iu  the  future.  Many  a  fisherman,  even  in  our  days,  be- 
lieves what  formerly,  before  science  shed  light  upon  the  subject,  was  a 
common  opinion,  that  the  herring  only  accidentally  came  from  remote 
portions  of  the  sea  to  the  coast  where  it  is  found,  and  therefore  thinks  he 
acts  wisely  in  making  use  of  this  accident  for  catching  as  many  as  pos- 
sible ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  fish  with  implements  however  destructive 
to  the  fish.  Since  experience,  however,  has  shown  that  one  can  never 
catch  Norwegian  herring  on  the  Bohuslan  coast,  Kulla  or  malmo  herring 
on  the  Blekiug  coast,  (the  south  coast  of  Sweden,)  and  Gottlam  herring 
near  Ostgota,  &c,  &c. ;  and  since  the  discovery  has  been  made  of  the 
time  aud  place  where  the  herring  spawns,  and  the  mode  and  place  of  liv- 
ing of  the  tender  young,  it  will  become  evident  that  the  herring,  like  the 
salmon  and  other  kinds  of  fish  and  animals,  has  certain  distinct  lim- 
its to  its  migrations  aud  certain  definite  places  which  it  frequents  iu 
larger  numbers,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  Iu  order  to  perpetuate 
good  herring-fisheries  ou  the  coasts  with  some  reasonable  hope  of  suc- 
cess, fishing  must  be  conducted  iu  such  a  manner  that  only  a  portion  of 
the  tribe  which  has  its  spawning-place  in  a  certain  bay  be  caught,  and 
that  the  young  deposited  on  the  coast  or  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  be 
spared. 

In  several  places  on  the  Baltic  aud  the  Atlantic,  people  have  suffered 
severely  for  their  recklessness  iu  conducting  the  herring-fishery,  and 
especially  with  regard  to  the  preservation  of  the  young.  Thus,  obser- 
vations made  during  several  years  have  shown  that  the  dying  out  of 
the  fish  has  in  no  small  degree  contributed  to  the  almost  total  decline 
of  the  great  herring  fisheries  in  Bohuslan,  which,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  have 
not  yet  been  revived,  chiefty  because,  as  soon  as  some  younge.r  herring 
appear,  they  are  caught  with  narrow-meshed  nets.  For  many  years  the 
herring  were  accustomed  to  approach  Bredsund,  iu  Norway,  but  ceased 
to  appear  as  soon  as  people  began  to  use  nets.    To  take  a  nearer  exam- 


HERRING    AS    AN    ARTICLE    OF    TRADE.  185 

pie:  not  long  ago  the  herring  went  into  Braviken  (a  bay  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Sweden)  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Motala  River,  and  nets  were 
placed  near  Lossingsskar  and  Botilshast,  where  considerable  quantities 
of  fish  were  often  caught.  v  The  fishermen  in  the  village  of  Quilliuge 
then  used  the  same  large  nets  which  are  still  employed  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Quarse,  (both  villages  on  the  east  coast  of  Sweden.)  But  by  a 
reckless  use  of  the  net  during  spawning-time,  the  whole  tribe  of  herring 
has  been  caught;  the  herring  has  ceased  to  appear  there,  and  the  fish- 
ermen draw  but  empty  nets.  In  many  other  inlets  on  the  Baltic  the 
herring  has  entirely  disappeared  siuce  excessive  net-fishing  has  been 
introduced. 

With  this  trustworthy  experience  as  a  guide,  it  will  be  evident  to 
every  one  how  important  it  is,  if  the  very  existence  of  the  fisheries  is 
not  to  be  destroyed,  to  follow  certain  rules  based  on  the  nature  and 
habits  of  the  fish. 

To  enable  the  fisherman  himself  to  decide,  in  cases  of  necessity,  what 
ought  to  be  done  for  the  improvement  of  the  herring-fisheries,  (beside 
those  regulations  which  possibly  may  be  fixed  by  law,)  some  further 
information  must  be  given  regarding  the  herring's  nature  and  mode  of 
living. 

The  herring  is  a  gregarious  fish,  mostly  found  in  large  schools,  espe- 
cially at  the  time  when  he  approaches  the  coast,  which  he  does  regularly 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  and 
partly  to  seek  food,  or  to  "  bathe"  in  calmer  waters  before  and  after 
spawning. 

During  winter  the  herring  is  found  in  the  deep  sea  outside  the  coast, 
where  he  has  spawning-places;  but  even  during  this  period  he  visits 
the  deeper  gulfs,  and  thus  keeps  moving  as  during  summer.  This  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  it  can  be  caught  in  the  Baltic  during  winter  with 
nets  laid  under  the  ice  at  a  depth  varying  between  5  and  24  fathoms, 
and  even  with  seines  laid  in  the  fjords  and  bays  at  different  depths. 
During  its  migrations  to  and  from  the  coasts,  as  well  as  during  its  stay 
in  the  depths  of  the  open  sea,  the  herring  keeps  alternately  near  the 
surface  of  the  water  and  at  the  bottom.  These  changes,  it  is  thought, 
are  occasioned  by  the  temperature  of  the  water,  by  the  different  cur- 
rents, and  by  other  like  circumstances.  Our  experience  in  this  respect 
is  as  yet  too  limited  to  deduce  safe  conclusions  as  to  the  depth  at  which 
the  herring  may  be  found  at  the  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  best 
plan  for  the  fishermen,  therefore,  is  to  ascertain  this  by  experimenting 
with  nets  at  various  depths. 

The  spawning-time  of  the  herring  occurs  at  different  seasons  in  the 
sea  where  this  kind  of  fish  is  found.  Even  the  different  species  of  her- 
ring, living  in  the  same  sea,  have  differeut  spawning-times  ;  and  of  the 
same  species  some  spawn  earlier  and  -some  later  in  the  season  ;  this  lat- 
ter circumstance  being  probably  occasioned  by  difference  of  age,  by  the 
slower  or  quicker  development  of  some  fish,  &c. 


186       EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

la  the  Baltic,  the  herring  spawns  partly  in  the  spring  and  partly  in 
the  summer,  and  is  therefore  called  spring-herring  and  summer-herring. 
In  the  southern  portion  of  the  Baltic,  the  herring  continues  to  spawn  till 
about  the  middle  of  October,  while  in  the  northern  portion  the  spawning 
season  closes  in  August.  The  spawniug  occurs  partly  outside  the  coast 
on  elevations  of  from  three  to  fifteen  fathoms  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
and  partly  in  the  fjords  (gulfs)  nearer  to  the  main  land,  particularly  in 
places  where  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  thickly  covered  with  sea-weeds. 
Tbe  spawning  process  goes  on  very  rapidly,  as  the  school  ouly  keeps  to- 
gether at  the  bottom  probably  from  five  to  six  hours.  The  spawn  is 
dropped  on  sea-weeds,  stones,  sand,  and  similar  objects,  where  it  remains. 
The  development  of  the  spawn  takes  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according 
to  the  temperature  of  the  water. 

In  May,  when  the  water  is  cool,  it  takes  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
days  for  the  spawn  to  develop,  while  in  July  and  August,  when  the 
water  in  the  spawning-places  usually  has  a  temperature  of  from  14°  to 
15°,  Reaumur,  it  requires  only  from  six  to  eight  days.  The  young  her- 
ring, which  is  smaller  and  more  transparent  than  the  young  of  most 
other  fish,  (and  on  this  accouut  difficult  to  distinguish,)  is  a  little  more 
than  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  and  has,  till  about  eight  days  after  the 
development,  a  residue  of  the  yolk  remaining  obliquely  across  the  belly, 
which,  at  first,  greatly  impedes  its  movements.  Only  when  the  young 
herring  has  lost  this  so-called  "  belly -bladder,"  does  it  begin  to  swim 
around,  to  collect  in  schools,  and  seek  food.  It  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  growth  and  size  of  the  young  herring  until  it  reaches  a  certain  age, 
especially  as  all  the  young  ones  have  not  the  same  ability  to  gather  food, 
on  which  circumstance  the  development  of  course  depends. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  raise  young  herring  by  having  them 
inclosed  in  small  basins,  but  they  have  never  lived  longer  than  about  five 
weeks,  at  which  time  their  length  was  about  one-half  of  a  decimal  inch. 
During  the  whole  first  year  of  its  existence,  the  young  herring  is  found 
in  its  spawning  place  both  outside  the  coast  and  inside  the  fjords.  Young 
herring  about  one  common  inch  in  length  may  be  supposed  to  be  about 
two  months  old.  At  the  age  of  three  mouths,  their  length  is  about  an 
inch  and  a  half.  All  the  fins  are  fully  developed,  and  the  whole  shape  of 
the  body  resembles  that  of  the  mature  herring,  so  that  it  can  easily  be 
recognized  as  the  young  of  this  fish,  which  before  that  time  is  somewhat 
difficult.  From  comparisons  made  with  the  young  herring  found  in  the 
spawning-places,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  those  of  about  3  inches  in 
length  found  in  the  spawning-places  in  spring  are  of  the  preceding 
year's  spawning,  and,  therefore,  about  one  year  old.  Young  herring  from 
5  to  6  inches  in  length,  which  are  often  caught  iu  nets,  are  probably 
only  two  years  old.  In  fish  of  this  size  the  roe  and  the  milk  begin  to  be 
tolerably  developed,  and  when  the  fish  has  reached  the  length  of  8  inches 
and  the  age  of  about  three  years,  it  is  capable  of  spawning. 

The  food  of  the  young,  as  well  as  the  grown  herring,  consists  chiefly 


HERRING   AS    AN    ARTICLE    OF    TRADE.  187 

of  small  crustaceous  animals,  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  which  are  found 
iu  enormous  quantities  in  the  sea,  both  in  shallow  and  deep  waters.  In 
passiug  sea-water  through  a  straining-cloth,  great  numbers  of  these 
small  animals  will  be  found.  Their  quantity,  however,  varies  at  differ- 
ent seasons,  during  a  changeof  temperature,  and  at  different  depths.  This 
might  possibly  explain,  to  some  extent,  the  appearance  of  herring  at  dif- 
ferent depths.  In  summer  these  crustaceous  animals  are  found  nearer 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  at  this  season  the  herring  is  also  found  to 
swim  comparatively  higher.  Like  other  fish,  the  herring  abstains  from 
food  some  time  before  and  after  spawning,  and  its  stomach  is  therefore 
generally  found  to  be  empty  at  this  time.  But  after  spawning  it  begins 
to  eat  again,  and  gradually  regains  the  strength  and  fatness  which  it 
seems  to  lose  during  that  process.  This  explains  the  fact  that  at  some 
seasons  of  the  year  the  herring  is  leaner  than  at  others. 

About  two  mouths  before  spawning,  the  herring  may  generally  bo 
considered  the  fattest  and  best.  This  fatness  continues  until  spawning 
is  over,  when  the  fish  becomes  lean  and  thin,  and  not  fit  to  be  caught. 
The  herring,  after  spawning,  usually  migrates  to  the  deep  sea  to  seek 
food,  and  does  not  return  till  it  has  again  gained  in  flesh  and  strength. 
That  the  herring,  like  other  kinds  of  fish,  as  soon  as  the  spawning-time 
approaches,  again  seeks  the  spot  where  it  was  born,  is  proved  by  the 
circumstance,  mentioned  above,  that  certain  easily  recognizable  tribes 
or  kinds  of  herring  spawn  every  year  at  a  certain  time  and  at  the  same 
place.  That  during  one  year  it  appears  in  larger  numbers  in  one  place 
than  during  another,  has  doubtless  its  cause  in  the  change  of  tempera- 
ture, currents  of  the  sea,  and  similar  influences,  which  may  even  occa- 
sion the  entire  absence  of  the  herring  from  certain  bays  in  some  years. 
Cold  and  inclement  weather,  during  spawning-time,  often  destroys  almost 
the  whole  breed  of  one  year,  so  that,  naturally,  for  some  years  to  come, 
the  kind  of  herring,  in  places  where  this  has  happened,  will  be  very 
poor.  These,  and  other  causes  on  which  the  development  of  herring 
is  dependent,  are,  however,  as  yet  so  little  understood  that  nothing 
definite  can  be  said  about  them.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  well 
known  that  man  himself  can  destroy  the  herring  in  a  bay  of  the  sea 
by  catching  the  whole  tribe,  both  old  and  young,  in  large  nets,  thereby 
also  destroying  the  spawning-places. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  certain  kinds  of  herring,  particularly 
the  larger  ones,  spawn  nearer  the  land,  on  a  bottom  overgrown  with 
sea-weeds.  If  this  bottom  is  made  unfit  for  spawning,  by  taking  up  or 
destroying  the  sea-weeds,  either  by  nets  or  iu  any  other  way,  the  her- 
ring is,  of  course,  obliged  to  seek  other  and  more  suitable  places,  and, 
consequently,  deserts  those  inlets  where  formerly  it  came  regularly. 

By  experience  gained  in  Bohusliin  and  other  places  it  is  proved  that 
the  herring  is  extremely  sensitive  in  this  respect,  and  deserts  old  spawn- 
ing-places entirely  if  their  character  is  changed. 

Every  one,  therefore,  who  desires  to  keep  his  herring-fishery  in  good 


188       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

condition,  ought  to  be  very  careful  not  to  change  the  nature  of  the 
spawning-places  by  disturbing  the  vegetation,  or  by  casting  refuse  and 
other  matter  into  the  water. 

From  wliat  has  been  said  concerning  the  herring's  nature  and  mode 
of  living,  it  will  be  evident  that,  in  order  not  to  risk  its  annihilation, 
destroy  the  young,  and  disturb  the  spawning  places,  it  is  best  not  to 
catch  the  fish  with  nets  during  the  spawning  season,  but  to  use  the  net 
only  during  those  portions  of  autumn  and  winter  when  the  herring  seeks 
the  deep  water  in  the  inlets  ;  while  one  can  catch  herring  in  seines  with- 
out danger  at  every  season  of  the  year.  This  mode  of  fishing  is,  in  the 
long  run,  the  most  advantageous  in  every  respect. 

If  the  herring  fishery,  however,  is  really  to  become  remunerative,  it 
is  necessary  not  only  to  find  a  good  market  for  the  fish,  but  also  to  pre- 
pare the  fish  in  the  proper  manner. 

As  it  is  frequently  impossible  for  fishermen  to  sell  the  fish  immedi- 
ately on  being  caught,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  him  to  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  best  method  of  preparing  it  for  the  trade,  particularly 
in  our  time,  when  the  vast  improvements  in  the  means  of  communica- 
tion permit  the  acquisition  of  the  necessaries  of  life  from  the  most  re- 
mote localities,  so  that  every  one  is  obliged  to  strive,  by  a  constantly 
improved  preparation  of  his  products,  to  procure  and  maintain  an  ad- 
vantageous market  for  them. 

In  consequence  of  more  rapid  communication,  the  herring  of  the  Baltic 
can  be  sold  with  profit  not  only  at  home,  but  also  in  those  distant  regions 
to  which,  in  former  times,  exportation  was  impossible.  The  preparation 
of  the  herring  must,  of  course,  vary  accordiug  to  the  place  where  it 
finds  its  market,  as  there  is  a  demand  for  different  kinds  of  herring  in 
different  localities.  The  various  methods  in  which  the  herring  is  pre- 
pared, so  as  to  secure  the  best  market,  are  at  present  the  following  : 

1.  The  common  salt  Baltic  herring,  to  supply  the  demand  at  home, 
and  in  the  German  ports  on  the  Baltic. 

2.  The  so  called  "delikatess"  or  extra-fine  herring  prepared  in  the 
^Norwegian  and  Dutch  manner  for  home  consumption. 

3.  The  so-called  spiced  herring,  for  home  aud  foreign  consumption. 
The  choice  of  any  one  of  these  three  methods  is  determined  partly  by 

the  fatness  aud  condition  of  the  fish,  partly  by  the  ease  or  difficulty 
with  which  buyers  are  found  for  one  or  the  other  kind,  and  partly  by 
other  considerations.  The  fat  herring,  which  is  sometimes  caught  in 
summer  or  autumn  on  certain  coasts,  is,  of  course,  best  suited  for  the 
finer  kinds  of  trade-herring,  i.  c,  the  extra  fine  herring  or  the  spiced 
herring,  while  the  common  herring  is  best  suited  for  the  common  salt 
herring,  observing,  however,  in  its  preparation  those  rules  which  are 
indispensable  for  obtaining  a  good  article. 

In  the  preparation  of  every  kind  of  fish,  the  most  important  rule  to 
be  observed  is,  to  bring  the  fish,  as  soon  as  possible  after  caught,  in 
contact  with  the  saltj  and  special  care  must  be  taken  that  the  fish,  be- 


HERRING    AS    AN   ARTICLE    OF    TRADE,  189 

fore  it  is  salted,  is  not  too  much  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  for  this 
soon  spoils  it.  In  summer,  therefore,  every  boat  ought  to  be  furnished 
with  sufficient  tarpaulin  to  cover  the  fish  while  returning  home.  It  is 
also  very  useful  to  have  in  the  boat  a  large  tub  or  vessel  with  crushed 
ice,  in  which  tbe  fish  should  be  placed  immediately  after  it  is  caught,  as 
this  keeps  it  quite  fresh  until  salt  can  be  applied.  Those  fish  which 
have  been  brought  to  market  fresh,  and  exposed  for  some  time  to  the 
sun,  cannot  be  used  for  salt  fish,  since,  as  a  general  rule,  the  fish  are 
more  or  less  injured  while  being  transported  to  the  market.  Another 
imporiant  rule  in  preparing  any  kind  of  fish  is  to  preserve  the  greatest 
possible  cleanliness.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  fish-refuse  or  other 
objectionable  matter  lie  around  in  the  salting-houses,  or  in  the  tubs  or 
vessels  used  for  salting.  Old  biine,  which  is  full  of  slime,  blood,  or  other 
little  particles,  must  never  be  used  for  salting,  as  a  foul,  disagreeable 
taste  is  apt  to  be  thus  imparted  to  the  fish.  Another  very  important 
consideration  in  the  preparation  of  fish  is  the  quality  of  the  salt  used, 
for  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  have  a  loose,  strong,  and  hard  salt,  which 
is  best  suited  for  preserving  different  kinds  of  herring,  but  a  prime  arti- 
cle must  be  used.  Salt  that  has  suffered  from  sea-water,  or  that  contains 
impurities,  ought  never  to  be  used. 

I. — PREPARATION  OF   COMMON   BALTIC  HERRING  FOR  CONSUMPTION  IN 
SWEDEN  AND  IN  THE   GERMAN  PORTS  ON  THE  BALTIC. 

In  the  salting  of  herring,  as  at  present  carried  on  by  the  fishermen  on 
most  parts  of  the  coast,  two  mistakes  are  frequently  made:  first,  salt- 
ing the  fish  too  much ;  and  secondly,  pressing  it  too  hard.  It  is  very 
important  to  prepare  the  fish  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  for  a  long 
time  without  spoiling.  It  is  likewise  important  for  the  merchants  to 
secure  well-packed  barrels.  But  both  these  advantages  may  be  gained 
without  producing  a  fish  entirely  saturated  with  strong  salt,  or  made 
so  thin  by  pressing  as  to  lose  all  its  natural  fat  aud  only  taste  of  salt. 
In  many  places  the  fish  are  pressed  so  hard  into  the  barrels  that  they 
form  a  thick  mass,  from  which  the  brine  soon  flows  off,  leaving  the 
fish  dry  aud  rancid,  and  by  no  means  pleasant  to  the  taste.  Even 
if  the  fish  are  to  be  sold  in  one  place,  a  precisely  similar  mode  of  pre- 
paring them  is  by  no  means  to  be  recommeuded.  And  although  no 
one  can  prescribe  rules  for  preparing  fish  or  producing  an  article  which 
will  satisfy  many  different  tastes,  especially  as  one  buyer  cares  little  for 
the  flavor  or  fatness  of  the  herring,  but  only  for  its  weight,  while  with 
auother  the  case  is  just  the  reverse,  most  buyers  nowadays  endeavor  to 
secure  a  well-flavored  article,  which  is  also  carefully  packed.  The  mode  of 
preparation  given  below  has  been  tried  for  a  number  of  years  in  the 
best  salting  establishments  in  Gottland  and  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Sweden,  and  fish  preserved  in  this  manner  will  never  fail  to  find  a  ready 
market. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  common  herring,  St.  Yves,  (Setubal,)  Lis- 


190        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

bon,  and  other  strong  kinds  of  salt  ought  to  be  used,  but  Cagliari  salt, 
and  other  looser  kinds  of  English  and  French  salts  may  also  be  em- 
ployed, especially  if  the  fish  is  intended  for  immediate  consumption. 
The  salt  must  be  somewhat  crushed  so  that  the  larger  crystals  may 
melt  in  the  brine,  and  the  salt  thus  come  into  contact  with  the  meat  of 
the  fish  as  much  as  possible. 

As  salt  herring  are  mostly  exported  to  distant  places,  and  during 
their  transportation  in  ships  are  exposed  to  injury  from  contact  with 
heavy  freight  piled  upon  them  ;  and  as,  even  on  railroads  and  wagons, 
they  run  the  risk  of  being  somewhat  roughly  handled,  they  ought  to  be 
transported  only  in  tight  and  strong  barrels,  firmly  hooped,  so  that  there 
may  be  no  danger  of  the  brine  escaping.  It  may  be  well  to  mention  here, 
that  a  leaky  barrel  of  herring  is  not  worth  one-fourth  the  price  of  a  sound 
barrel.  As  soon  as  the  herring  are  taken  from  the  net,  they  ought  to  be 
thrown  into  vessels  filled  with  pure  and  clear  brine.  In  no  case  ought 
so  many  herring  to  be  put  into  a  vessel  as  to  cause  the  upper  layers  to 
press  too  heavily  on  the  lower  ones.  If  the  number  of  fish  caught  is 
very  great,  a  larger  number  of  vessels  ought  rather  to  be  employed. 
After  the  herring  has  thus  been  brought  into  immediate  contact  with 
the  salt,  it  is,  after  a  while,  taken  out  to  be  cleaned,  in  which  process 
care  must  be  taken  to  remove  the  entrails  and  gills,  but  not  the  roe  and 
milk.  Every  fisherman  knows  how  to  do  this.  After  the  herring  has 
been  cleaned,  it  is  again  placed  in  another  vessel  filled  with  pure  brine. 
When  all  the  fish  have  been  cleaned,  or  while  the  process  is  going  on, 
the  cleaned  herring  are  taken  out  of  the  brine  and  washed  in  fresh  and 
pure  sea-water,  and  then  placed  in  small  baskets  with  wood-shavings  at 
the  bottom,  so  that  the  water  may  drain  off.  The  fish  are  then  sprinkled 
with  salt  in  the  following  manner:  They  are  placed  loose  in  a  barrel, 
together  with  crushed  salt,  the  proportion  being  3  gallons  (kappa)  per 
barrel,  (tuuua,)  of  about  4  bushels.  In  every  layer  the  fish  and  the  salt 
are  stirred  so  as  to  mix  properly.  After  twenty-four  hours,  the  fish  are 
again  taken  out  of  the  salt  and  placed  in  baskets,  so  that  the  briue  may 
run  off.  This  process  is  finished  in  about  an  hour,  and  the  fish  are  then 
properly  packed  and  salted  in  other  barrels,  arranged  in  layers,  with 
the  back  downward,  and  crushed  salt  placed  between  every  layer,  reck- 
oning about  5  gallons  to  every  tunua,  (see  above.)  When  the  barrel  is 
full  it  is  exposed  to  a  slight  pressure,  so  slight  that  the  fish  is  kept 
under  the  brine,  but  not  so  heavy  as  to  cause  the  fat  and  juice  to 
exude  from  the  fish  into  the  brine,  since  this  would  injure  their  flavor. 

The  barrels  are  left  standing  open  in  this  state  for  some  time,  (about 
two  or  three  days,)  and  as  the  mass  of  the  fish  siuks  down,  new  layers 
are  placed  on  the  top.  When,  after  some  days,  the  sinking  of  the  fish 
may  be  considered  finished,  the  barrels  are  filled  up  and  closed.  Every 
fourteenth  day,  at  least,  these  barrels  ought  to  be  gently  rolled  about 
and  turned  up  and  down,  so  that  the  brine  may  penetrate  the  whole 


HERRING    AS    AN    ARTICLE    OF    TRADE.  191 

mass.  Before  the  fish  are  to  be  shipped,  the  barrels  must  he  examined 
again,  and  if  any  further  sinking  is  noticed,  the  barrels  are  filled  up 
with  fish  for  the  last  time. 

The  brine,  which  during  the  filling  of  the  barrels,  flows  over,  as  well 
as  that  which  is  obtained  during  every  salting,  may  be  put  into  those 
vessels  in  which  the  fish  are  placed  immediately  after  being  caught,  and 
where  they  are  kept  during  the  cleaning  process.  It  is,  however,  im- 
portant that  such  old  brine  be  exchanged  for  new  alter  it  has  been 
once  used  and  has  become  filled  with  impurities. 

To  salt  fish,  as  is  done  in  the  province  of  Ostergotland,  with  9  gallons 
of  salt  per  tunna,  is  not  advisable,  because  then  the  fish  is  pressed 
too  bard  and  salted  too  thoroughly.  After  it  has  been  sprinkled  with 
salt  all  that  is  required  is  25  gallons  per  tunna,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
fish  ought  to  be  placed  immediately  in  the  barrels  and  not  be  pressed 
more  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  proper  filling  of  them.  In  the 
province  of  Norrland  it  is  customary  to  let  the  herring  lie  uncleaned  in 
the  brine  for  twenty-four  hours  ;  and,  moreover,  to  use  brine  which  has 
been  often  used  for  the  same  purpose.  That  this  mode  is  objectionable, 
and  that  the  herring  ought  to  be  cleaned  as  soon  as  possible,  will  be 
evident  from  what  has  been  said  above. 

In  Carlskrona,  south  coast  of  Sweden,  it  is  customary  to  use  only  1 
gallon  of  salt  per  tunna  for  sprinkling  the  fish,  and  then  to  salt  them 
with  7  gallons  per  tunna.  This  method  cannot  be  recommended,  as 
the  fresh  fish,  if  they  have  absorbed  enough  of  the  brine,  do  not  require 
as  large  a  quantity  of  salt  as  7  gallons  per  tunna. 

The  Baltic  herring,  prepared  in  the  manuer  explaiued  above,  fiud  a 
ready  market,  not  only  at  home,  but  also  in  foreign  ports  on  the  Baltic. 
The  price  paid  for  herring  differs  of  course  in  different  years,  being 
partly  regulated  by  the  quality  of  the  fish  and  partly  by  the  price  of 
Norwegian  and  other  foreign  herring.  In  some  years,  when  the  herring- 
fishery  both  in  Norway  and  Sweden  has  been  good,  the  fishermen  can 
scarcely  dispose  of  their  fish  at  home  at  such  a  price  as  to  fully  remu- 
nerate them.  It  is,  therefore,  advantageous  to  seek  a  foreign  market, 
and  prepare  the  fish  accordingly.  German  ports  on  the  Baltic,  especially 
Stettin,  Stralsund,  and  some  others,  afford,  at  certain  seasons,  a  very 
good  market  for  the  common  salted  herring.  The  most  profitable  season 
for  selling  herring  in  these  places  is  from  midsummer  to  the  beginning 
of  September.  The  fish  inteuded  for  exportation  to  Germany  are  pre 
pared  in  the  above-mentioned  manner,  but  ought  to  be  very  carefully 
packed  in  good  sound  barrels,  not  in  barrels  ("tunna")  of  the  same 
size  as  in  Sweden,  but  somewhat  smaller,  such  as  are  used  in  Boruholm 
and  on  the  German  coast.  In  Stettin,  such  barrels,  if  the  fish  are  sound 
and  well  packed,  bring  from  13  to  21  riksdalers,  (1  riksdaler,  silver= 
about  $L  currency,)  which  is  a  very  good  price,  considering  the  fact 
that  these  barrels  are  much  smaller  than  the  Swedish  ones. 


192       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

II. — PREPARATION  OF  EXTRA-FINE  HERRING  FOR  nOME  CONSUMPTION. 

It  is  well-kuown  that  Sweden  annually  imports  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  Dutch  and  Norwegian  herring,  which  are  partly  sold  in  barrels, 
("  tunna,")  but  mostly  in  smaller  vessels  ("  fjerdingar,"*)  for  household 
use  among  the  better  classes.  Experiments  have  proved  that  the  large 
and  fat  Baltic  herring,  which  are  caught  in  several  places  on  the  Swed- 
ish coast,  can  very  easily  be  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Holland 
and  Norway.  In  this  way  an  article  is  produced  which,  although  per- 
haps not  in  every  respect  equal  to  the  foreign  herring,  nevertheless 
resembles  it  very  closely,  and  therefore  finds  a  ready  market  at  a  profit- 
able price  at  home,  and  this  all  the  more  since  the  Swedish  extra-fine 
herring  can  be  furnished  at  much  less  expense  than  the  foreign. 

The  term  "  extra-fine  herring"  ("  delikatess — sill '*)  implies  that  it 
is  not  an  article  for  every-day  use.  It  ought,  therefore,  to  be  put  up  iu 
smaller  kegs  than  the  common  herring,  such  as  the  "Ijerdingar,"  (see 
above.)  As  a  matter  of  CDurse  the  extra-fine  herring  must  not  be  salted 
nearlyas  much  as  the  common  salt-herring,  because  the  fine  flavor  which 
ought  to  distinguish  it  would  thus  be  lost.  As  a  consequence  it  can- 
not be  kept  as  long  as  the  common  herring.  In  preparing  the  extra-fine 
herring,  looser  kinds  of  salt  ought  to  be  used,  those  that  are  milder, 
finer,  and  more  easily  dissolved,  such  as  Liverpool  salt,  Liiueburg  salt, 
Cagliari  salt,  &c. ;  the  best  on  the  whole  being  Liiueburg  salt. 

Preparation  of  extra-fine  herring  after  the  Norwegian  manner. — The 
fresh-caught  herring  are  placed,  during  the  cleaning-process,  in  pure 
brine.  Some,  in  cleaning  the  fish,  take  out  only  the  entrails  ;  but  it  is, 
in  all  cases,  best  to  take  out  both  the  entrails  and  the  gills.  As  soon  as 
they  are  cleaned  they  are  placed  iu  layers  in  kegs,  the  back  downward. 
Between  every  layer  salt  is  put,  reckoning  about  six  gallons  to  one 
"  tunna;"  salt  also  being  placed  on  the  top  of  the  uppermost  layer.  As 
the  layers  gradually  sink  iu  the  keg,  others  are  put  in.  After  about  six 
days,  an  opening  is  made  with  a  stick  between  the  inass  of  herring  and 
the  side  of  the  keg,  into  which  salt  is  poured,  and  the  keg  then  closed. 
Before  shipping  them,  the  kegs  are  all  examined  again  and  filled  up,  if 
necessary,  in  the  same  manner  as  mentioned  in  the  preparation  of  the 
common  salt-herriug.  If  sufficient  brine  has  not  formed,  a  small  hole  is 
bored  in  the  side  of  the  keg,  pure  brine  is  poured  in,  and  the  hole  closed. 
It  is  well,  too,  frequently  to  roll  and  turn  the  kegs.  Herring  prepared 
in  this  manner  have  kept  quite  good  and  fresh  for  six  mouths. 

Preparation  of  the  Bailie  herring  after  the  Dutch  manner. — Fresh  and 
fat  Baltic  herring  are  put,  immediately  on  being  taken  out  of  the  water, 
into  a  keg  in  small  quantities,  and  frequently  stirred  for  at  least  an  hour 
with  fine-crushed  Liiueburg  salt.  Then  the  fish  can  be  cleaned  as  de- 
scribed above,  or  without  being  cleaned,  placed  iu  kegs  in  layers,  with 
fine-crushed  Liiueburg  salt  between  every  layer;  reckoning  about  from 

*1  "fjerdiug"  =  2  pecks. 


HERRING   AS    AN    ARTICLE    OF    TRADE.  193 

1  to  li  gallons  of  salt  to  every  "  fjerding."  When  a  keg  is  full  it  is 
closed,  but  also  examined  and  filled  up  again,  as  before  mentioned.  The 
uncleaned  herring,  which  are  called  in  foreign  countries  "round-salted 
herring,"  do  not  keep  near  as  long  as  the  cleaned  herring ;  for,  of  the  lat- 
ter kind,  I  have  seen  some  prepared  at  the  Herta  Salting  Establishment, 
on  the  island  of  Gottland,  preserved  fresh  and  good  for  over  a  year. 
Baltic  herring  prepared  after  the  Norwegian  or  Dutch  manner  find  a 
very  ready  and  profitable  market  in  Stockholm  and  other  Swedish 
cities. 

III.— PREPARATION   OF   SPICED  HERRING,  ("  KRYDDSILL  "). 

The  so-called  spiced  herring  is  an  article  found  here  and  there  in  the 
market,  kept  like  anchovies  in  small  kegs  or  glass  jars.  It  may  be  pre- 
pared from  any  kind  of  herring,  and  it  is  much  sought  after  in  some 
places  in  Sweden,  but  especially  in  North  Germany.  Its  preparation, 
however,  cannot,  as  yet,  be  said  to  form  any  important  branch  of  trade, 
and  must  be  considered  rather  as  an  experiment  by  housewives  for  the 
purpose  of  introducing  a  little  variety  into  their  meals,  especially  for 
the  lunch-table.  As  there  seems  to  be  some  demand  for  this  article,  par- 
ticularly for  the  foreign  market,  the  most  approved  method  of  preparing 
it  is  given  below. 

The  fresh-caught  herring  are  immediately  put  into  vinegar,  with  one- 
fourth  water,  and  some  salt.  After  remaining  in  this  mixture  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  the  herring  are  taken  out  and  the  vinegar  drained  off.  The 
fish  are  then  placed  in  a  keg  with  a  mixture  of  the  following  spices, 
reckoning  these  quantities  for  every  (fourscore)  80  herrings:*  1  "skal- 
pund"  fine  dry  salt,  "1  skalpund"  pulverized  sugar,  1  "lod"  pepper,  1 
"lod"  bay-leaves,  1  "lod"  saltpeter,  £  "lod"  sandal,  £  "loci"  ginger,  £ 
"lod"  Spanish  hops,  £  "lod"  cloves. 

Others  use  the  following  mixture:  1  "skalpund"  salt,  £  "skalpund." 
sugar,  2  "  lod"  pepper,  2  "lod"  allspice,  1  "lod"  cloves,  1  "lod"  Spanish 
hops. 

The  herring  must  be  left  in  this  mixture  for  two  months  before  it  is 
fit  for  use.  Some  put  the  herring  immediately  into  vinegar,  without 
water  and  salt,  from  which  it  is  taken,  after  twelve  hours,  and  treated  as 
above  described. 

If  the  spiced  herring,  after  some  time,  should  not  have  sufficient  brine, 
good  brine  of  Liineburg  salt  is  poured  over  it,  by  means  of  which  it  will 
keep  for  years. 

*  Swedish  weights  mentioned. — 1  "skalpund"  of  32  "lod,"  =  nearly  1  pound  avoirdupois ; 
1  "  lod  "  of  4  "  quintin,"  =  nearly  |  ounce  avoirdupois. 

13  v 


XI -NEW  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  THE  HERRING-QUESTION. -THE 
DISPUTE  BETWEEN  AXEL  BOECK  AND  OSSIAN  SARS  RE- 
GARDING THE  NORWEGIAN  SUMMER-HERRING  -SARS'S 
RECENT  OBSERVATIONS  AND  HIS  NEW  THEORY  ON  THE 
MIGRATIONS  OF  THE  HERRING-* 


I. 

In  accordance  with  a  proposal  made  by  Mr.  G.  O.  Sars,  the  "  practical 
and  scientific  observations  on  the  Norwegian  sea-fisheries"  were,  in 
1872,  combined  with  the  soundings  made  by  the  Norwegian  navy  in  the 
sea  outside  the  Jseder  stream ;  and  as  this  portion  of  the  sea  is  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  spring-herring  district,  the  "  depart- 
ment of  the  interior"  commissioned  Mr.  Sars — we  presume,  in  accordance 
with  his  own  suggestion — to  throw,  if  possible,  some  new  light  on  the 
hitherto  somewhat  obscure  question  regarding  the  nature  and  the  mi- 
grations of  the  herring.  Mr.  Sars  intended  to  direct  his  attention  par- 
ticularly to  the  so-called  fat-herring  or  summcr-licrring,  as  he  always  sus- 
pected that  its  true  nature  had  not  been  properly  understood  by  other 
naturalists,  and  particularly  by  Mr.  Axel  Boeck.  Mr.  Sars's  report  was 
noticed  in  the  "  Morgenhladet^  and  was  subsequently  printed  in  full 
in  that  journal  (October  29,  1872f).  It  called  forth  some  remarks 
by  Mr.  Axel  Boeck  in  a  later  number  of  that  journal,  (November  5, 
1872,)  and  a  discussion  ensued  between  the  two  gentlemen,  which,  in 
the  beginning  especially,  was  of  a  violent  character,  perhaps  to  some 
extent  excused  by  the  circumstances,  but  in  itself  very  deplorable. 
It  seems,  however,  that  both  of  them  during  the  subsequent  discussion 
(which  elicited  but  little  that  was  new)  endeavored  to  treat  the  matter 
in  a  calmer  spirit.  It  is  not  our  intention  to  judge  between  the  per- 
sons of  these  two  gentlemen,  or  to  revive  a  discussion  which  for  one  of 
them  bears  the  melancholy  souvenir  that  his  colleague  and  opponent — to 
the  great  sorrow  of  all  Scandinavian  naturalists — did  not  long  survive 
it.  All  we  desire  in  this  article  is  to  give  a  brief  review  of  the  data 
which  have  been  gained,  by  Mr.  Sars's  observations  of  the  "summer-her- 
ring," respecting  the  herring  whose  natural  history  is  still  enveloped  in 
so  much  obscurity.     Every  step  toward  throwing  more  light  on  the  sub- 

*  "  Nye  Bidrag  til  Sildesp^rgsruaalet.  Striden  uiellem  Axel  Boeck  og  Ossian  Sars  an- 
gaaendo  den  norske  Sommersild.  Sars's  senere  Unders^gelser  og  nans  nye  Theori  om 
SildensTrajk  :"  in  Nordisk  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri.  New  series.  Aargang2.  Part  2.  1S75. 
pp.  — ,  with  map. 

t  Later  it  has  been  printed  separately,  (1874,)  together  with  the  reports  of  1370, 1871, 
and  1873. 


196        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ject  is  of  unusual  interest;  for  no  one  knows  to  what  important  discov- 
eries it  may  lead.  We  will,  therefore,  in  this  place  give  an  extract  of 
Mr.  Sars's  "  Report,"  and  in  connection  with  it  review  the  more  impor- 
tant remarks  called  forth  by  it  on  both  sides. 

On  the  17th  July,  Mr.  Sars  began  his  sojourn  in  Stav anger,  and  from 
that  place  made  excursions  in  the  neighboring  fjords.  In  the  city 
itself  he  had  an  excellent  opportunity  of  examining  herring,  which 
about  this  time  were  brought  to  market  from  various  places  in  large 
quantities.  He  subsequently  visited  one  of  the  fishing-stations  on  the 
outer  coast,  where,  during  the  wiuter,  the  so-called  spring-herring  fisheries 
are  carried  on,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information  regard- 
ing those  fisheries,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  making  personal  observa- 
tions. The  place  he  visited  was  "  Hvitingso,"  an  island  far  out  in  the 
sea,  and  an  old  and  well-known  spring-herring  fishing-place.  From 
that  point  he  made  excursions  in  all  directions,  examining  particularly 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean  in  those  places  where  the  herring-fisheries  are 
carried  on.  Mr.  Sars  also  collected  much  information  regarding  the 
spring-herring  fisheries  from  conversations  with  experienced  fishermen. 
He  reports  that  at  that  season  enormous  numbers  of  young  herring  were 
found  in  the  more  sheltered  sounds  and  bays,  which,  on  closer  exami- 
nation, turned  out  to  be  almost  exclusively  young  spring-herring,* 
and,  as  could  be  ascertained,  of  this  year's  spawning.  The  fishermen 
know  this  herring-spawn  very  well,  and  call  it  "Aesja.v\  They  use  it 
partly  as  bait,  partly  as  food  in  eel-boxes,  and  take  it  as  often ^  as  re- 
quired with  fine  nets  in  quiet,  grass-grown  inlets.  In  examining  the 
''Brisling,"  (Clupea  sprattus,)  brought  to  the  Stavanger  fish-market 
from  various  places,  it  was  frequently  found  mixed  with  a  great  number 
of  young  spring-herring.  The  Hvitingso  fishermen  testified  that  dur- 
ing that  year  the  spring-herring  was  found  in  unusual  quantities ;  in 
fact,  they  did  not  remember  so  good  a  spring-herring  year  since  the  old 
extraordinarily  rich  spring-herring  fisheries.  Sars  concludes  from  this 
that  during  the  previous  winter  a  large  number  of  spring-herring  must 
have  remained  near  the  coast  and  have  spawned  there;  and  that,  there- 
fore, the  poor  spring-fisheries  of  the  previous  year  cannot  have  been 
caused  by  any  decrease  in  the  number  of  herrings,  nor  by  any  change 
of  route  in  the  migrations  of  the  herrings,  but  only  by  the  circumstance 
that  for  some  reason  or  other  the  great  mass  of  the  herrings  did  not 
come  as  near  the  coast  as  formerly,  but  spawned  farther  out  at  sea.  All 
the  fishermen  agreed  that  large  schools  of  herring  approached  the  coast 
at  the  usual  time,  which  could  be  judged  of  from  the  unusual  number 

of  whales  and  birds ;  and  for  some  time  there  was  a  prospect  that  the 

• 

*  It  seems  that  the  author  hy  this  term  only  'wishes  to  convey  the  idea  that  they 

•were  the  young  of  the  genuine  herring,  (Clupea  harengus,)  in  contradistinction  from  the 

"  Brisling,"  (Clupea  sprattus,)  not  that  they  were  the  young  of  that  variety  of  herring 

■which  is  called  "  spring-herring ; "  but  as  he  does  not  seem  to  allow  that  there  are  several 

varieties  of  herring  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  it  amounts  to  the  same  thing. 

t  Danish  :  Aes,  i.  e.,  food. 

• 


NEW    CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,    ETC.     197 

fisheries  near  Hvitingso  would  be  very  good;  but  people  waited  too 
long,  hoping  that  the  herring  would  come  in  to  the  usual  fishing-places, 
and  the  consequence  was  that  they  quietly  spawned  in  the  outer  deep, 
and  had  already  done  spawning  before  attempts  were  made  to  take 
them  out  at  sea.  That  large  numbers  of  herring  spawned  there  is  also 
corroborated  by  the  fact  that  soon  after  the  close  of  the  herring-fisheries 
there  were  found  in  the  outer' deep  an  unusual  number  of  torsks,  whose 
stomachs  were  full  of  herring-roe,  which  must  have  entirely  covered 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  There  is  therefore  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  usual  number  of  herring  have  also  visited  the  coast  in  1872,  and 
have  deposited  their  roe  in  suitable  places.  It  need  not  follow,  however, 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  spring-herring  in  this  and  partly  in  the 
preceding  year,  from  some  unknown  reason,  has  spawned  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  coast  than  usual,  that  it  will  always  do  so,  much  less 
that  it  will  entirely  leave  the  coast.  Mr.  Sars  thinks  that  there  are  no 
sure  signs  of  such  a  sudden  change  in  the  migrations  of  the  herring, 
but  that  there  is  good  reason  to  hope  that,  under  more  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, the  herring-fisheries  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway  will 
again  be  carried  on  in  the  usual  places ;  of  course,  with  more  or  less 
variable  results.  He  was  confirmed  in  this  view  by  his  observations  of 
the  so-called  fat-herring,  or  summer-herring. 

Eegarding  this  fish,  the  (according  to  Mr.  Sars,  erroneous)  opinion  has 
formerly  been  prevalent  that  it  was  a  different  variety  from  the  spring- 
herring,  or  an  entirely  different  species  of  herring,  which  was  said  to  go  to 
different  parts  of  the  west  coast  of  Norway,  and  not  to  belong  to  the 
ocean  proper,  but  to  the  islands  and  sounds.  It  was  even  said  that  it 
had  a  special  spawning-season  of  its  own,  viz,  autumn,  while  the  spring- 
herring  spawns  in  winter  or  early  in  spring.  We  cannot  entirely  agree 
with  Mr.  Sars  when  he  says,  "if  it  were  really  the  case  that  the  summer- 
herring  spawned  at  an  entirely  different  season  of  the  year,  it  would, 
in  spite  of  its  great  zoological  similarity,  have  to  be  considered  not 
only  as  a  distinct  variety,  but  as  a  separate  species.  There  certainly 
may  be  herring  which  spawn  in  autumn,  and  this  is  particularly  the 
case  with  the  so-called  'Kulla'*  herring,  occurring  on  the  Swedish  coast 
of  the  Kattegat,  but  this  different  spawning-season  is  caused  by  differ- 
ent physical  circumstances — by  varying  conditions  of  life."  "On  the 
same  coast,  therefore,  where  herring  are  found  which  spawn  in  spring, 
none  can  (!)  occur  which  spawn  in  autumn,  and  vice  versa."  Natural 
phenomena  cannot  unfortunately  be  so  easily  and  with  such  certainty 
deduced  from  simple  premises;  and  Boeck  did  not  find  it  difficult  to 
point  out  certain  facts,  which  cannot  be  argued  away,  and  which  show 
that  two  races  of  herring,  one  spawning  in  spring  and  the  other  spawn- 
ing in  autumn,  occur  on  one  and  the  same  coast.  Thus  Miinter  has 
shown  that  on  the  east  coast  of  Eiigen,  on  a  space  scarcely  extending 
four  German  miles,  there  are  two  varieties  of  herring — a  southern, 

*  Kulla,  a  promontory  on  the  western  coast  of  Sweden. 


198       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

spawning  iu  spring,  and  a  northern,  spawning  in  autumn.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  we  may  mention  Nilsson's  and  Ekstrom's  report,  that  in 
the  Baltic  there  are  two  varieties  of  small  herring,  ("Stromming,")  the 
more  slender  of  which  spawns  in  May  and  the  beginning  of  June,  and 
the  stouter  one  in  August  and  the  first  half  of  September.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  present  case,  where  the  Norwegian  summer-her- 
ring is  spoken  of,  Sars  has  given  satisfactory  proof  that  in  general  it 
does  not  spawn  in  autumn.  Its  fat  and  general  good  quality  are  caused 
by  its  having,  as  one  says,  "fat,  instead  of  roe  and  milt."  The  roe  and 
milt  are  there,  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  covered  by 
the  fat,  but  in  so  undeveloped  a  condition,  that  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  they  cannot  possibly  mature  as  early  as  autumn.  The 
Norwegian  fishermen,  therefore,  do  not  know  the  autumn-spawning 
herring.  According  to  their  short-sighted  view,  the  summer-herring 
does  not  spawn  at  all;  and  they  are  led  to  take  this  view  because  it  has 
neither  roe  nor  milt,  but  only  fat,  quite  forgetting  that  every  variety  or 
species  of  fish  must  be  able  to  propagate  itself  in  order  to  exist.  By 
denying  the  power  of  propagation,  (wbich  of  course  is  only  correct  in 
so  far  a,s  it  does  not  spawn  as  summer-herring,)  they  actually  deny  it 
all  independence  as  a  separate  variety.  When  the  "summer-herring" 
finally  spawns,  it  has  ceased  to  be  a  summer-herring,  or  fat-herring,  (the 
distinguishing  mark  of  the  latter  being  that  it  is  filled  with  fat  and  not 
with  roe  or  milt,)  and  has  become  a  spring-herring;  iu  other  words,  it 
is  only  the  younger  herring,  not  yet  Jit  to  spawn,  in  different  stages  of  its 
life,  but  ends  invariably  by  becoming  at  last  a  genuine  spring-herring. 
The  reason  why  people  have  been  so  long  blind  to  this  very  simple 
state  of  facts,  in  Sars's  opinion,  Hows  from  the  erroneous  idea  that  the 
summer-herring  goes  into  the  fjords  and  bays  lor  the  same  purpose  as 
the  spring-herring,  while,  as  every  one  acquainted  with  the  nature  of 
the  herring  knows,  in  reality  it  does  not  go  at  all  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning,  but  merely  to  feed. 

If  this  theory  is  correct,  the  summer-herring  must  occur  in  different 
forms,  corresponding  with  the  different  stages  of  its  life;  and  this  is 
actually  the  case.  It  is  consequently  brought  into  trade  under  different 
names,  which,  on  the  whole,  represent  as  many  years  or  ages.  In  the 
second  year  it  is  called  Christiania  herring;  in  the  third,  middle  herring; 
and  in  the  fourth,  merchants''  herring.  Iu  its  fifth  year,  it  has  become  a 
genuine  spring -her  ring.*  There  is  no  essential  difference  between  these 
varieties  except  the  size  and  the  greater  or  less  development  of  the  sex- 
ual organs ;  but  in  all  other  points  they  are  alike,  even  in  the  subdivis- 
ions of  these  varieties,  viz,  small  and  large  Christiania  herring,  small 
and  large  middle  herring,  merchants'  herring,  &c.  It  must  not  be 
imagined  that  these  divisions  in  all  cases  agree  exactly  with  the  age;  for 
all  fish  do  not  reach  the  same  size  in  the  same  period  of  time,  and  the 

*A  correction,  where,  instead  of  fivo  years,  the  whole  period  of  this  development 
embraces  six  years,  is  given  below. 


NEW    CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,   ETC.     199 

spawning-season  of  the  spring-herring,  and  the  consequent  development 
of  the  young  fish,  extend  over  quite  a  portion  of  winter  and  spring. 
Sars,  however,  supposes  that  a  large  number  of  the  "  merchants'  her- 
ring" (or,  in  other  words,  a  large  portion  of  the  common  herring)  spawns 
by  the  end  of  the  fourth  year.  "  It  will  then  be  found  together  with  the 
older  or  genuine  spring-herring,  and,  as  in  that  case  it  will  have  com- 
pletely matured  roe  and  milt  like  this  one,  no  one  will,  as  a  general 
rule,  think  of  considering  it  as  former  fat-herring,  but  as  young  spring- 
herring,  (which  it  is  in  reality.)  It  is  probable,  however,  that,  on  closer 
examination,  (especially  when  this  youngherring  is  found  in  large  num- 
bers without  being  mixed  with  the  older  spring-herring,)  some  slight 
differences  will  be  found,  chiefly  caused  by  its  not  yet  being  familiar  with 
life  far  out  at  sea,  to  which  the  older  spring-herring  have  become  accus- 
tomed, while  it  only  commences  that  life  now  after  having  done  spawning. 
It  is  likewise  possible  tbat  the  spawning-season  of  this  younger  herring 
does  not  occur  exactly  at  the  same  time,  but  somewhat  earlier."  Sars, 
therefore,  supposed  that  the  so-called  Blandsild,  mixed  herring,  (whose 
occurrence  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  precursor  of  the  disappearance  of 
the  spring-herring  proper,  but  which  he  had  no  opportunity  to  exam- 
ine,) according  to  the  description  given  of  it,  which  says  that  it  is  fatter 
(and  consequently  better)  than  the  spring-herring,  but  somewhat 
smaller  and  spawns  earlier,  is  not  a  previously  unknown  kind  of  her- 
ring, which  has  shown  itself  only  during  the  last  few  years  on  the  coast 
of  Norway,  but  a  summer-herring,  in  its  transition  period  toward  being  a 
"  Graabeusild  "  (graybone  herring );  in  other  words,  the  youngest  spring- 
herring,  which,  during  the  following  year,  will  return  as  a  genuine  Graa- 
beusild. (We  shall  later  return  to  this  subject.)  The  reason  that  it  has 
been  formerly  overlooked  is  that  it  was  mixed  with  the  Graabensild;  but 
during  the  last  few  years  it  has  not  been  found  so  much  mixed  with  it, 
because,  as  has  been  said  above,  the  great  mass  of  the  old  herrings  com- 
ing in  from  the  sea  have  spawned  farther  out  at  sea.  "  Just  as  the  young 
of  the  torsk  spend  the  first  years  of  their  life  near  the  coast,  and  only 
go  out  in  the  open  sea  at  a  more  advanced  age,  so  do  the  young  of  the 
spring-herring  spend  the  first  years  of  their  life  near  the  coast,  and  dur- 
ing summer  gather  (under  the  name  of  fat-herrings)  in  large  schools,  to 
feed  in  the  inner  fjords  and  bays."  Since  the  summer-herring  fisheries 
on  the  heights  of  Stavanger  were  very  productive  in  1872,  rather  more 
so  than  usual,  Mr.  Sars  thinks  there  is  no  reason  to  fear  any  diminution 
jn  the  schools  of  spring-herrings,  or  that  they  should  begin  to  go  to 
other  coasts  ;  if  this  were  the  case,  the  summer-herring  fisheries  must 
have  decreased  iu  the  same  proportion. 

With  regard  to  this,  it  must  be  said  that  nothing  of  the  kind  has  ever 
been  supposed.  Boeck  himself  has  shown  that  if  the  spring-herring 
fisheries  are  not  successful,  the  reason  is  that  the  spawning  herring  does 
not,  as  in  other  cases,  go  near  the  coast,  where  it  could  be  easily  caught, 
but  spawns  farther  out  in  deep  water,  where  it  cannot  be  caught  so  well, 


200       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OP    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

at  least  not  according  to  the  usual  method.  What  causes  the  herring 
to  remain  so  far  from  the  coast  has,  up  to  this  date,  (1872,)  not  yet  be- 
come known.  Mr.  Sars  could  not  say  either  what  favorable  circum- 
stances should  induce  the  hope  that  the  herring-fisheries  on  the  west 
coast  of  Norway  would  again  return  to  the  old  places,  or  what  unfavor- 
able circumstances  kept  the  majority  of  the  herring  during  the  two  pre- 
ceding years  away  from  the  fishing-places.  (We  shall  again  return  to 
this  question.)  Mr.  Boeck  furthermore  proves,  what  need  not  be  men- 
tioned here,  as  it  has  been  spoken  of  in  the  "  TidssJcriftfor  Fislceri,v  7de 
Aargang,  p.  13,  that  under  no  circumstances  has  the  cold  anything  to 
do  with  it.  He  also  protests  against  having  advanced  the  opinion  that 
a  herring-period  (i.  e.,  a  period  of  successful  herring-fisheries)  should 
now  have  come  to  an  end  as  far  as  Norway  is  concerned.  He  has  only, 
from  the  sources  accessible  to  him,  cited  a  number  of  facts  "  which  show 
under  what  conditions  the  herring-fisheries  came  to  an  end  in  former 
times  and  in  different  localities;  how  they  again  returned,  and  in  what 
manner  the  fisheries  were  carried  on  year  after  year.  From  these  his- 
toric facts,  a  certain  law  can  be  deduced  regarding  the  movements  of 
the  great  masses  of  herring,  which  do  not  come  and  go  irregularly 
on  certain  parts  of  the  coast,  but  whose  movements  occur  with  a 
certain  regularity."  He  lets  every  one  from  this  draw  his  own  con- 
clusions, which  he  considers  justified,  and  gives  his  opinion  on  the 
whole  with  great  reserve  :  "  That  even  if  it  does  not  follow,  from  all  which 
has  been  said,  that  the  spring-herring  will  leave  our  coasts,  (the  south- 
ern spring-herring  district,)  all  the  appearances  are  not  favorable  to  the 
opposite  opinion."  We  must  agree  with  Mr.  Sars  that  in  so  far  as  Mr. 
Boeck  has  given  any  opinion  on  this  question,  it  must  be  that  the  appear- 
ances are  not  favorable  for  the  nearest  future  of  the  Norwegian  spring- 
herring  fisheries ;  but  whether  or  not  Mr.  Boeck  will  stand  by  this  proph- 
ecy, whose  correctness  only  the  future  can  show,  it  seems  that  the  expe- 
rience of  last  year  will  bear  it  out.  The  important  question,  why  does 
the  herring  during  a  certain  period  of  years  go  to  the  inner  spawning- 
places,  while  during  another  period  it  remains  outside,  has  so  far  (1872) 
not  been  answered;  just  as  little  as  the  question,  what  may  cause  the 
gradual  change  in  the  spawning-season,  which,  according  to  Boeck's 
investigations,  always  seems  to  precede  the  end  of  the  herring-fisheries. 
Mr.  Sars  believes,  as  we  shall  see  in  another  chapter,  (1873,)  that  he  has 
found  satisfactory  answers  to  all  these  questions ;  but  we  have  not  yet 
reached  this  point. 

Mr.  Boeck  says,  in  the  "Kemarks"  with  which  he  accompanies  Mr. 
Sars's  "'Beport"  in  the  "  Morgenbladet^  of  November  5,  that  in  his  work 
on  the  herring  he  has  already  hinted  at  the  same  view  regarding  the 
relation  of  the  summer-herring  and  the  spring-herring  which  Mr.  Sars 
has  advanced,  and  that  the  reason  why  he  (Boeck)  did  not  describe  this 
relation  more  fully  was  merely  a  want  of  opportunity  to  visit  the  sum- 
mer-herring fisheries  farther  north — during  the  years  in  question  there 


NEW   CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,    ETC.     201 

■was  no,  or  at  least  a  very  inconsiderable,  summer-herring  fishery  in  the 
southern  district — and  that  he  was  prevented  from  visiting  the  northern 
fisheries  by  Mr.  Sars's  using  the  greater  portion  of  the  appropriation 
made  for  both  of  them  for  his  journeys  to  the  Lofoten  Islands,  or  in 
some  other  manner.  However  this  may  be,  we  cannot  but  side  with 
Mr.  Boeck  in  his  protest  against  the  accusations  that  he  systematically 
maintained  the  Mstoric  mode  of  investigation,  in  opposition  to  the  scien- 
tific mode.  He  also  shows  that  the  different  years  of  the  herring  given 
by  Sars  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  given  some  years  ago  by  Mr.Dahl, 
of  Bergen,*  with  the  difference  only  that  the  latter  gave  to  the  spring- 
herring  an  age  of  six  years  instead  of  five,  which  opinion  one  often 
hears  expressed  on  the  western  coast,  (and  which,  as  will  be  seen  from 
Sars's  report  for  1873,  he  also  shares.)  Mr.  Boeck,  in  this  important 
point — the  relation  between  the  summer-herring  and  the  spring-her- 
ring— does  not  express  an  essentially  different  view.  He  fully  agrees 
with  Mr.  Sars  that  the  summer-herriug  is  nothing  but  the  spring-herring 
at  a  different  age;  but  he  does  not  think  that  this  is  the  case  with  all 
summer-herriug ;  and  he  maintains  that  there  are  really  peculiar  coast- 
races  of  herring  on  the  coasts  of  Sweden  and  Norway,!  and  that  they 
may  spawn  at  a  later  season  than  the  spring-herring,  viz,  in  April  on 
the  coast  of  Norway,  and  in  May  on  the  Swedish  coast  of  Bohuslen. 
In  the  fact  that  toward  the  end  of  November,  on  the  northern  coast,  he 
had  an  opportunity  of  examining  a  "  merchants'  herring,"  which  was 
full  of  loose  roe,  he  finds  a  proof  that  the  autumn-herring  (probably 
when  it  remains  in  the  fjords)  can  spawn  before  the  herring's  usual 
spawning-time  in  spring,  at  which  time  Boeck  is  also  inclined  to  think 
the  majority  of  the  autumn-herring  spawns;  and  this  early-spawning 
autumn-herring  could  then,  if  we  understand  Mr.  Boeck  correctly,  also 
be  considered  as  a  separate  race  of  herrings. 

Boeck  further  remarks  that  experience  shows  that  if  in  a  certain 
place  there  is  during  one  year  a  rich  spring-herring  fishery,  such  fact 
does  not  justify  the  hope  that  the  next  winter  or  spring  there  will  be 
a  rich  spring-herring  fishery  in  the  same  place.     "If  there  should  be 

*  Dahl's  years,  with  which  Sars  now  entirely  agrees,  were  the  following  :  First  year, 
Musse  ;  second  year,  Aesja  ;  third  year,  Christiania  herring;  fourth  year,  middle  her- 
ring ;  fifth  year,  merchants'  herring ;  sixth  year,  spring-herring.  It  has,  therefore, 
also  been  supposed  that  the  spring-herring  fisheries  occur  in  periods  of  six  years,  on  the 
idea  that  the  herring,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  would  return  to  the  place  where  it 
had  been  hatched ;  and  in  many  cases  this  idea  has  been  correct. 

t  An  article  in  the  "  Throndhjems  Stiftsavis"  for  1862  makes  the  following  distinc- 
tion between  two  varieties  of  the  summer-herring :  "  The  sea-herring,"  which  during 
summer  comes  in  from  the  high  sea,  and  "  the  fjord-herring ,"  which  remains  in  the 
fjords,  and  during  the  summer-herring  fisheries  mixes  with  the  incoming  sea-herring. 
Boeck,  however,  supposes  that  such  coast-races  have  originated,  and  still  originate,  by 
more  or  less  developed  sea-herring  going  into  the  deeper  and  more  secluded  iulets,  and 
remaining  there.  Their  young  may  possibly  again  become  sea-herring,  but  more  per- 
manent varieties  may  also  form  in  such  places,  e.  g.,  the  Hoxfjordherring,  the  Idefjord- 
herring,  &c. 


202         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

rich  spring-herring  fisheries  in  the  same  places  where,  during  the  pre- 
ceding summer,  great  masses  of  summer-herring  have  shown  themselves, 
we  ought  to  have  had  for  a  long  number  of  years  steady  and  particu- 
larly rich  spring-herring  fisheries  on  the  coast  north  of  Christians- 
sund  as  far  as  the  Tromso  district,  and  even  farther  north  ;  but  noth- 
ing of  the  kind  is  known,  no  real  spring-herring  having  been  caught 
along  that  coast  during  this  century."  Sars,  in  answer  to  this,  says,  if 
we  understand  him  correctly,  that  the  northern  "sea-herring,"  or  "great 
herring,"  is  the  same  as  the  "  spring-herring;"  but  Boeck  draws  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  the  "  great  herring" does  not  go  farther  south  than 
the  boundary  of  the  Nordland  district,  and  that,  from  that  point  as  far  as 
Christianssund,  there  is  a  long  stretch  of  coast  where  large  summer-her- 
ring fisheries  have  taken  place  and  still  take  place,  and  where  no  spring- 
herring  are  caught.  The  "  great-herring "  fisheries  did  not  commence 
till  1861,  and  prior  to  that  year  there  had  not  been  any  spring-fisheries 
in  that  location  for  sixty,  perhaps  for  eighty,  years.  During  those  years 
when  the  spring-herring  had  left  the  heights  of  Stavanger  entirely, 
(17S4  to  1808,)  there  were  rich  summer-herring  fisheries  in  the  Stavan- 
ger fjord,  and  in  other  places,  and  these  fisheries  were  most  successful 
in  the  middle  years  of  this  period ;  when  the  spring-herriug  fisheries 
again  increased,  the  summer-herring  disappeared  altogether.  Several 
printed  and  manuscript  reports  particularly  deplore  the  fact  that  the 
valuable  "summer-herring"  has  gone  away,  while  the  inferior  "  spring- 
herring"  has  come  again.  Just  as  little  is  it  known  from  experience  that 
where  there  have  been  rich  spring-herring  fisheries  for  a  number  of 
years,  great  numbers  of  summer-herring  could  at  the  same  time  be 
caught  in  the  inlets  along  this  coast.  It  appears,  from  the  Stavanger 
and  Bergenshus  districts'  reports,  published  every  five  years,  that,  for 
many  years,  when  the  spring-herring  fisheries  were  successful,  few  or 
no  summer-herring  were  caught  on  the  same  coast.  It  is  only  during 
the  last  few  years  that  the  summer-herring  fisheries  have  been  success- 
ful in  the  Stavanger  fjords,  but  during  these  very  years  the  spring- 
herring  fishery  has  not  amounted  to  anything.  The  hopes  which  have 
been  built  on  the  great  quantity  of  young  fish  coming  in  have  also 
but  too  often  been  disappointed,  and  no  conclusion  can  be  reached  as  to 
the  probable  fate  of  the  Norwegian  spring-herring  fisheries  in  the  near 
future.  "  When  the  spring-herring,  in  1833,  went  past  the  cape  (Lin- 
desnaes)  as  far  as  Mandal,  all  the  bays  were  later  in  the  year  full  of 
young  herring.  The  inhabitants  of  that  coast  for  that  reason  enter- 
tained great  hopes  of  contiuuing  the  fisheries  during  the  following 
years,  especially  when  the  young  from  that  year  would  have  grown  up ; 
but  these  hopes  were  not  fulfilled,  for  later  no  herring  appeared  on  that 
side  of  the  cape.  During  the  year  when  the  spring-herring  left  the 
coast,  it  had  spawned  near  Flekkeijord,  and  numerous  young  fish  justi- 
fied the  hope  of  future  rich  fisheries,  although  the  fishing  during  that 
year  had  been  poor,  and  the  herring  had  kept  in  such  deep  water  that 


NEW   CONTRIBUTIONS   TO   THE   HERRING-QUESTION,    ETC.    203 

some  were  taken  at  a  depth  of  80  fathoms ;  but  the  joy  was  but  short- 
lived, for  it  only  lasted  till  the  time  in  the  following  year  when  the  fish- 
eries were  to  commence,  when  no  herring  appeared,  nor  have  they 
appeared  since."  Similar  masses  of  young  herring  showed  themselves 
on  the  coast  of  Bohuslen  (Sweden)  in  the  year  when  the  great-herring 
fisheries  on  the  coast  ceased. 

With  regard  to  the  objection  raised  by  Mr.  Boeck  against  the  opinion 
that  the  summer-herring  is  only  a  young  spring-herring,  viz,  that  the 
greater  or  less  success  of  the  spring-herring  fishery  on  the  coast  of 
Stavanger  is  in  no  wise  connected  with  the  summer-herring  fisheries  on 
the  same  coast,  great  spring-herring  fisheries  having  occurred  during 
those  years  when  the  summer-herring  fisheries  did  not  amount  to  any- 
thing, Mr.  Sars  says  that  the  difficulty  in  solving  this  problem  dis- 
appears if  one  maintains  the  difference  between  "herring-fisheries"  and 
the  "  occurrence  of  herring."    "  The  former  is,  of  course,  dependent  on 
many  accidental  circumstances,  and  may,  therefore,  although  the  num- 
ber of  herring  is  the  same,  be  very  different.    This  must  especially  be 
supposed  to  be  the  case  with  the  summer-herring  fisheries.    The  summer- 
herring  may  certainly  be  near  the  coast  in  very  large  masses  without  any 
great  fisheries  being  carried  on.    A  rich  summer-herring  fishery  depends 
exclusively  on  the  accidental  occurrence  of  small  crustaceans  and  their 
entirely  accidental  accumulation  in  certain  places  which  are  favorable 
to  the  fisheries,  and  to  this,  of  course,  no  regard  is  had  in  the  historical 
report  on  the  fisheries."    This  explanation  of  Mr.  Sars  of  the  fact  that  a 
rich  spring-herring  fishery  is  not  always  followed  by  a  rich  summer-her- 
ring fishery  is  doubtless  correct,  but  it  does  argue  away  the  experience 
that,  vice  versa,  a  rich  summer-herring  fishery  is  not  followed  by  a  good 
spring-herring  fishery.     Other  causes  must  be  found  for  this.     He  cer- 
tainly answers  the  objection  that  on  the  coast  from  Christianssund  to 
Nordlaud  no  proper  spring-herring  fisheries  are  carried  on,  by  saying 
that  the  spring-herring  may  be  there  and  spawn  out  in  the  deep  water, 
without  any  actual  fishery  being  carried  on;  aud,  moreover,  that  there 
isnothing  which  tellsus  that  its  offspring,  the  summer-herring,  is  entirely 
stationary  in  those  places  where  it  is  hatched,  but  it  is  probable  that  it 
goes  along  the  coast  and  gathers  iu  those  places  where  the  small  crus- 
taceans are  chiefly  found."    We  think,  however,  that  in  this  case  it  is 
Mr.  Sars  who  does  not  distinguish  between  "  herring-fisheries"  and  the 
"occurrence  of  herring;"  for  of  what  use  is  it  to  the  fisherman,  as  Mr. 
Boeck  remarks,  that  there  are  herring  enough  out  in  the  sea,  if  they 
won't  come  in  and  let  themselves  be  caught  iu  those  places  where  fishing- 
can  be  carried  on  ?    There  is  certainly,  as  has  been  said  before,  no  doubt 
that  the  herring  stays  outside  the  coast  of  Norway  every  winter  and 
spring  during  the  spawming-season ;  and  whether  it  remains  outside  and 
spawns  there,  or  approaches  the  coast,  the  young  will  at  any  rate  seek 
shelter  near  it.     There  will,  therefore,  always  be  enough  young  herring, 
(whether  they  flock  together  so  that  they  can  be  caught  to  advantage ; 


204       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

or  not,  which  will  depend  on  stream  and  wind  collecting  their  food ;) 
but  from  the  circumstance  that  there  are  many  "  summer-herring,"  or 
young  herring,  no  conclusion  can  be  drawn  as  to  the  probable  result  of 
the  spring-herring  fisheries.  It  is  in  reality  only  the  "  occurrence  of 
herring"  which  Mr.  Sars  has  been  able  to  promise  his  countrymen,  and 
of  this  there  was  no  reason  to  doubt;  but  so  far  it  is  not  within  any- 
body's power  to  predict  "  herring-fisheries,"  because  we  know  not  the 
causes — at  any  rate,  not  the  proper  causes  which  can  form  the  subject  of 
observations  and  calculations — of  the  periodical  changes  in  the  spawn- 
ing-season and  coming  in  of  the  herring,  but  only  know  from  experience 
that  whenever  these  changes  take  place  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  the 
spring-herring  for  a  number  of  years  will  not  come  to  its  old  spawning- 
places  on  the  coast  in  order  to  spawn  there,  but  stay  farther  out,  as  is 
partly  also  the  case  with  the  Nordlands-herring,  or  the  "  great-herring." 

Mr.  Sars,  with  regard  to  this,  has  raised  the  objection  that  the  "  sea- 
herring"  has  been  known  long  before  1861,  but  that  it  has  not  been 
made  an  object  of  fishing,  probably  because  formerly  it  did  not  come  so 
near  the  land  as  during  the  last  years.  The  Lofoten  fishermen  took  as 
many  of  these  fish  as  they  used  for  their  households  by  taking  them  out 
of  the  sea  in  a  very  primitive  manner — in  buckets.  Mr.  Boeck  quite 
agrees  with  him  in  this  point,  but  did  not  mean  anything  else  than  that 
its  "occurrence"  before  1861  did  not  take  place  near  the  coast  so  that 
it  could  have  been  fished  with  the  common  fishing-implements.  Kegard- 
ing  the  "great-herring,"  Mr.  Boeck  says,  on  this  occasion,  that  it  does 
not  differ  from  the  spring-herring,  but  that  its  apparently  different 
shape  is  only  caused  by  the  greater  amount  of  fat  it  contains,  as  on 
approaching  the  coast  it  is  not  ready  for  spawning.  Only  at  one  place 
did  Boeck,  toward  the  end  of  the  fishery,  in  January,  find  "  great-her- 
ring" with  loose  roe  and  milt.  As  a  general  rule,  it  does  not  spawn 
near  the  coast,  but  far  out  at  sea,  where  large  masses  of  herring  have 
every  year  been  seen,  both  in  this  and  the  last  century,  from  Hammers- 
fest  to  Hitteren,  from  which  cause  a  large  number  of  young  fish  are 
every  year  seen  near  the  coast  and  in  the  fjords ;  but  in  this  century, 
from  some  unknown  reasons,  they  had  not  approached  the  coast  so  that 
they  could  be  caught,  before  1SG1.  As  the  great-herring,  therefore,  does 
not  approach  the  coast  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  the  great-herring 
fisheries  are  always  somewhat  uncertain.  As  was  said  before,  we  do 
not  know  the  cause  why  this  full-grown  herring,  which,  however,  is  not 
ready  to  spawn,  approaches  the  coast  in  this  manner;  it  is  only  sup- 
posed that  it  has  lost  its  way  by  following  the  large  troughs  of  the  sea 
which  lead  to  the  coast. 

Although  there  remain  several  obscure  "  herring-problems,"  it  is  evi- 
dent that,  by  Mr.  Sars's  report  of  1872  and  by  Mr.  Boeck's  comments 
upon  it,  made  during  the  same  year,  we  have  advanced  some  steps  in 
understanding  the  connection  between  the  various  phenomena,  partic- 
ularly by  proving  tbat  the  summer-herring  only  represents  different 


NEW    CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,    ETC.    205 

stages  in  the  life  of  the  spring-herring;  that  it  has  no  separate  spawn- 
ing-time; and  that  its  movements  are  determined  by  its  favorite  food, 
i.  e.,  small  crustaceans.  Besides  acknowledging  the  progress  that 
had  been  made,  we  thought  that  we  owed  it  to  the  whole  question,  as 
well  as  to  the  memory  of  Mr.  Boeck,  to  save  from  oblivion  what  he  had 
written  concerning  it  during  the  last  days  of  his  life,  and  which,  on 
account  of  its  being  contained  in  a  daily  journal,  could  only  be  accessi- 
ble to  a  few,  whose  number  would  naturally  decrease  every  day.  Our 
review  of  the  state  of  the  Norwegian  herring-question  at  the  end  of  the 
year  1872  will  at  the  same  time  serve  as  an  introduction  to  a  review  of 
the  considerable  progress  which  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Sars's  report  for 
1873,  published  in  1874,  to  which  we  will  now  turn. 

II. 

The  above  review  of  the  discussion  carried  on  in  1872  had  long  since 
been  written  for  insertion  in  tbis  periodical,  when  we  received  Mr. 
Sars's  above-mentioned  report  for  1873,  in  which  he  gives  in  detail  his 
complete  theory  of  the  migrations  of  the  Norwegian  herring  and  the 
causes  which  determine  them.  We  likewise  take  the  liberty  to  give,  in 
the  following,  a  brief  extract  from  this  report. 

Mr.  Sars  does  not  believe  that  the  grown  spring-herring,  after  having 
spawned  on  the  western  coast  of  South  Norway,  (from  Ohristianssuud 
to  Stavanger,)  goes  out  to  the  nearest  deep  water  due  west — i.  e.,  between 
the  coast  and  the  ridge  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea  running  parallel  with  it 
from  north  to  south,  at  a  distance  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  miles — and  stays 
there  near  the  bottom  of  the  sea  during  three-fourths  of  the  year  when 
it  is  not  near  the  coast.  This  portion  of  the  bottom,  which,  as  Mr.  Sars 
has  found  by  former  observations,  possesses  but  little  animal  life,  and 
must,  comparatively  speaking,  be  called  a  desert,  is  but  little  suited  for 
these  enormous  masses  of  fish,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
the  herring  is  a  bottom  fish  ;  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  in  harmony  with  its 
form  as  well  as  its  favorite  food — the  small  fat  and  oily  crustaceans  of 
the  surface — a  fish  which  has  its  home  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 
We  do  not  deny  that  the  Baltic,  the  Kattegat,  perhaps,  also,  the  Ska- 
gerak,  and  the  North  Sea,  have  each  their  race  of  herrings,  which  do  not 
go  beyond  the  basin  of  the  sea  which,  by  nature  and  habit,  has  been 
assigned  to  them ;  but  the  Norwegian  spring-herring  comes  from  a  greater 
distance,  from  the  open  sea  between  Iceland,  Scotland,  and  Norway,  not 
from  the  bottom  of  this  sea,  but  from  its  surface.  Here  it  has  lived, 
especially  during  summer,  very  much  scattered,  on  its  favorite  food, 
which  is  there  found  in  great  quantities,  (more  or  less  near  the  surface, 
according  to  the  rising  or  sinking  of  this  food,  caused  by  the  time  of  day 
and  the  weather) ;  and  from  here  it  approaches  the  Norwegian  coast,  in 
a  southeasterly  direction,  toward  the  beginning  of  the  spawning-season, 
gathering  in  large  and  constantly-increasing  schools,  and  following  the 
deep  troughs,  till  at  last  they  are  quite  near  the  coast,  and  form  a  so-called 


20(3        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"  herring-mountain," — a  high,  deep,  and  closely-packed  mass  of  herrings. 
It  has  been  found,  by  certain  observations  which  have  already  been 
communicated  in  Boeck's  well-known  work  on  the  herring,  (p.  47,)  that 
the  herring  always  comes  from  the  northwest.  That  it  follows  this  direc- 
tion is  easily  explained  by  the  fact,  settled  by  Professor  Mohn's  meteo- 
rological observations,  that  the  sea  on  this  portion  of  the  western  coast 
of  Norway,  during  the  winter-months,  (December  to  February,)  has  a 
higher  average  degree  of  warmth  than  near  the  coast  farther  south,  or 
on  the  coast  a  little  to  the  north,  a  very  uniform  degree  of  warmth,  (5° 
to  G°  Eeaumur,)  about  the  same  as  in  the  nearest  portion  of  the  sea- 
basin  from  which  the  herring  is  supposed  to  come.  If  the  herring  would 
go  due  east,  therefore,  to  a  more  northerly  portion  of  the  coast,  e.  //.,  the 
neighborhood  of  Throndhjem,  it  would  come  in  contact  with  water  whose 
degree  of  warmth  would  decrease  very  rapidly  toward  the  north,  from 
4°  to  2°  Eeaumur.  Another  school  of  herrings,  the  Nordland  great-her- 
ring, lives,  in  Sars's  opinion,  to  the  northwest  of  Nordland  and  Fin- 
marken,  but  somewhat  nearer  the  coast,  because  there  the  sea  is  richer 
in  small  crustaceans  than  farther  south,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
coast ;  it,  therefore,  comes  near  the  coast  comparatively  early  in  its 
migration  toward  the  southeast  or  south,  being  fatter,  but  less  ready  to 
spawn. 

Immediately  after  being  hatched,  the  young  herring,  being  born  on 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  naturally  stays  near  it  on  the  outer  coast,  where 
the  spring-herring  loves  to  spawn.  As  soon  as  the  umbilical  bag  has 
been  completely  absorbed  and  the  fins  have  become  developed,  it  goes 
near  the  surface  of  the  water  to  snap  for  small  living  animals;  but  as 
near  the  outer  coast  it  is  exposed  to  many  dangers,  (the  current,  heavy 
waves,  &c.,)  and  to  the  persecutions  of  birds  and  fishes,  instinct  has 
taught  it  to  go  nearer  to  the  land,  in  the  more  secluded  sounds  and  bays, 
where  it  often  can  be  seen  in  enormous  numbers.  As  soon  as  it  has 
reached  the  size  of  a  few  inches,  it  begins  to  rove  about  in  constantly- 
increasing  schools,  in  fact  to  assume  its — according  to  Sars — charac- 
teristic roving  mode  of  life,  which  is  again  dependent  on  its  food, 
viz,  the  small  crustaceans  of  the  surface,  whose  very  irregular  occur- 
rence is  again  dependent  on  the  current.  It  also  depends  on  acci- 
dental circumstances  how  far  it  goes  from  its  birth-place  during  this 
first  period  of  its  life,  and  to  what  extent  it  scatters  over  a  larger 
or  smaller  portion  of  the  coast.  During  its  first  year,  however,  it 
probably  keeps  near  the  coast;  only  gradually  as  it  grows  larger  and 
its  desire  for  food  increases  will  it  be  obliged  to  go  farther  out  into 
the  sea,  where  the  small  crustaceans,  as  a  general  rule,  are  found  in 
great  quantities,  and  thus,  like  the  torsk,  it  gradually  approaches  those 
portions  of  the  sea  where  its  ancestors  came  from.  All  this  would 
go  on  with  the  greatest  regularity,  if  the  small  crustaceans  were  not 
frequently  packed  together,  by  sudden  changes  in  the  weather  and  con- 
sequent changes  of  the  current,  in  large  masses  near  the  coast  and  its 


NEW    CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,    ETC.    207 

bays  and  fjords,  drawing  the  schools  of  young  herring — the  so-called 
"  suiniuer-herring" — after  them,  and  after  awhile  taking  them  out  to  sea 
again  when  the  current  changes.  In  exceptional  cases,  schools  of  her- 
ring remain  in  the  deep  fjords  for  a  whole  year  and  longer,  and  such 
herrings  will  naturally  assume  a  character  of  their  own,  so  as  to  pass 
for  a  special  variety  or  coast-race.  Although,  as  has  been  said  before, 
we  know  all  the  stages  in  the  life  of  the  herring  near  the  coast  of  Nor- 
way, and  would,  therefore,  reasonably  suppose  that  its  whole  youth,  till 
the  period  when  it  spawns  for  the  first  time,  was  spent  near  the  coast, 
Sars  remarks  expressly  that,  on  the  whole,  the  occurrence  of  the  summer- 
herring  near  the  coast  must  be  considered  as  altogether  temporary.  It 
comes,  like  the  older  herring,  (the  spring-herring,)  from  the  open  sea,  but 
not  from  such  a  distance  as  this  one.  "  Some  time  before  the  large  masses 
of  summer-herring  came  to  Espevaer,  in  1873,  the  mackerel-fishers  often 
caught  considerable  quantities  of  large  and  fat  summer-herrings  in  their 
nets  at  a  distance  of  from  five  to  six  miles  from  the  coast,  and  schools 
of  large  and  small  herrings  could  often  be  observed  from  the  mackerel- 
boats.  Soon  afterward  the  current,  on  account  of  a  very  sudden  change 
in  the  weather,  turned  with  unusual  violence  toward  the  islands  near 
Espevaer,  and  carried  with  it  enormous  quantities  of  small  crustaceans, 
which  were  closely  packed  in  all  the  neighboring  bays  and  sounds ;  then 
the  herrings  began  to  come  in  from  the  sea,  first  the  larger  and  then 
the  smaller  ones."  As  during  winter  the  small  crustaceans  are  not 
found  near  the  coast  in  such  large  quantities,  the  migration  of  the  young 
herring  toward  the  sea  will,  on  the  whole,  be  much  less  disturbed  than 
during  summer,  and  there  are  no  instances  of  the  spring-herring  having 
returned  to  the  coast  to  seek  food  after  having  spawned.  As  soon  as 
the  herring  has  got  farther  away  from  the  coast,  cut  in  the  open  sea,  it 
will  not  be  enticed  so  much  toward  the  coast  by  the  small  crustaceans, 
as  the  currents  there  are  generally  more  regular  than  near  the  coast ; 
consequently  only  young  herring — at  least  the  majority  of  them — which 
have  not  yet  got  far  enough  from  the  coast,  visit  the  coasts  of  Norway 
during  summer.  Sars,  however,  does  not  consider  it  improbable  that 
among  the  large  "  merchants' herring"  there  may  also  be  some  which 
formerly,  as  "  spring-herring,"  have  spawned  near  the  coast.  It  is  a 
natural  consequence  of  the  temperature  of  the  sea  and  the  direction  of 
the  current  (which  from  Stat  is  chiefly  northerly)  that  the  distribution 
of  the  young  herring  along  the  coast  and  its  outward  movement  chiefly 
take  place  in  a  northerly  direction,  and,  as  a  consequence  of  this,  the 
summer-herring  fisheries  are  generally  richest  along  the  Throndbjem 
coast,  although  the  spring-herring  is  not  known  to  spawn  anywhere  out- 
side that  coast.  The  "fat-herring"  caught  along  the  coasts  of  Nord- 
land  and  Finmarkeu  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  Nordland  "great- 
herring"  as  the  "summer-herring"  does  to  the  "spring-herring." 

Among  the  phenomena  which   have  been  brought  to  light  by  the 
historic  studies  or  the  regularities  and  irregularities  in  the  course  and 


208        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

results  of  the  herring-fishery,  the  most  remarkable  one  is  this,  that  the 
spring-herring  fishery  has  not  at  all  times  commenced  at  the  same 
period  of  the  year,  but  that  at  times  it  has  had  a  tendency  to  extend 
farther  and  farther  into  spring,  which  became  particularly  evident 
toward  the  end  of  the  so-called  "  herring-periods."  The  difference  in 
the  time  of  the  spring-herring's  arrival  on  the  coast  may  be  a  month 
and  a  half  from  some  time  before  New  Year  till  some  time  in  February. 
From  these  experiences,  Boeck  could  also  in  a  certain  manner  predict 
the  decrease  of  the  spring-herring  fisheries  which  has  taken  place  now. 
This  circumstance  has  so  far  been  entirely  unexplained  ;  if  the  herring 
had  its  proper  home  in  the  deep  sea-basins  near  the  coast,  what  should 
cause  it  to  leave  these  later  and  later  every  year,  or  to  come  early  after 
the  lapse  of  many  years  ?  It  could,  on  the  other  hand,  easily  be  under- 
stood that  its  arrival  caused  a  shorter  stay,  and  a  disinclination  to  go 
near  the  coast,  so  that  the  result  of  the  fisheries  would  naturally  be  less. 

Sars  supposes  that  on  account  of  the  varying  strength  and  direction 
of  the  currents  in  the  open  North  Sea,  which  depend  on  the  differences 
of  the  weather,  the  distribution  of  small  crustaceans  in  the  sea  will  dif- 
fer very  much  in  the  different  years ;  and,  as  the  herring  naturally  stays 
where  it  finds  food,  it  will,  when  its  migratory  instinct  awakens,  be 
nearer  the  coast,  and  consequently  arrive  sooner  than  in  another  where 
it  has  been  farther  out  and  when  its  journey  toward  the  coast  required 
longer  time.    As  the    movement  toward  the  coast,  in  this  case  in  a 
southeasterly  direction,  will  probably  always  occur  about  the  same  sea- 
son of  the  year,  (some  time  before  the  roe  and  milt,  which  likewise 
develop  at  a  certain  season,  are  ready  for  spawning,)  it  follows  of  itself 
that  the  spring-herring  which  comes  in  early  is  of  a  better  quality,  stays 
longer  near  the  coast,  and  will  be  able  to  go  farther  up  the  bays  and 
sounds ;  in  other  words,  that  the  fishery  will  yield  a  much  better,  richer, 
and  safer  result  than  in  the  opposite  case,  when  the  herring  only  re- 
mains for  a  season  near  the  outermost  coast,  and  is  much  thinner  and 
more  exhausted,  and  when  only  occasionally  a  small  school  is  chased 
near  the  land  by  large  fishes  of  prey.    The  herring-fishery  may  there- 
fore yield  a  very  different  result,  even  if  the  same  mass  of  herrings  has 
year  after  year  been  outside  the  coast  and  has  produced  the  same  quantity 
of  young  ones.     The  final  cause  of  the  irregularity  in  the  spring-herring 
fisheries  must  therefore  be  sought  in    the  changes  of  weather,  cur- 
rent, and  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  outer  sea,  not  so  much  during 
the  fishing-season  as  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  particularly  during 
the  preceding  autumn  and  summer. 

Whether  there  is  in  this  respect  a  periodicity  which  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  herring-fishery  will  be  more  satisfactorily  explained  by  fu- 
ture observations  than  by  the  study  of  the  past.  For  the  present,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  such  a  thing  is  possible.  "  It  is  a  fact  that  the 
occurrence  of  small  crustaceans  during  summer  on  the  western  coast 
of  Norway  differs  very  much  in  the  different  years.     Some  years  the 


NEW    CONTRIBUTIONS    TO    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,    ETC.    209 

sea  Dear  tbe  coast  during  the  whole  summer  has  been  filled  with  great 
masses  of  different  crustaceans;  in  other  years,  they  disappeared  almost" 
entirely,  or  were  only  accidentally  driven  to  different  points  of  the  coast 
by  tbe  current,  soon  to  disappear  again."  One  of  the  most  convincing 
evidences  that  the  small  pelagic  animals,  araoug  them  the  genuine  "her- 
ring-crustacean," are  in  certain  years  driven  near  the  coast  by  the  cur- 
rent, is  the  existence  of  salpae,  which  are  as  transparent  as  glass, 
and  which  are  found  either  singly  or  in  long-connected  chains  resem- 
bling pearl  necklaces;  out  in  the  open  sea  they  are  found  every  year,  but 
near  the  coast  many  years  may  pass  before  one  sees  a  single  one;  and  all 
of  a  sudden  in  a  certain  year  they  approach  the  coast  in  such  enormous 
masses  that  every  bay  and  sound  is  filled  with  them.  Tbe  occasional 
occurrence  of  these  animals  in  large  masses  has  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  fishermen,  and  is  counted  among  the  "signs"  which  augur  a  good 
spring-hen  iug  fishery  during  the  coming  winter,  and  it  would  seem 
probably  not  without  reason.  During  such  a  year,  the  herring  will 
already  during  summer  have  come  tolerably  near  the  coast,  and  will 
consequently  arrive  early  iu  winter,  &c. 

The  so-called  "  mixed  herring,"  which  of  late  years  has  appeared  in 
the  spring-herring  district,  is  described  as  an  inferior  kind  of  herring, 
which  formerly  was  not  known,  and  in  whose  occurrence  people  believe 
they  see  a  sure  warning  that  the  spring-herring  fisheries  will  soon  come 
to  an  end.  It  has  been  described  in  many  different  ways.  It  probably 
consists  chiefly  of  herring  in  different  stages  of  life,  which  are  not  yet  able 
to  spawn,  and  are  driven  toward  the  coast  by  the  "  spring-herring 
mountains,"  which  approach  tbe  coast  from  the  sea ;  e.  r/.,  the  barren 
"Straalsild,"  (ray-herring,)  or  "  Solhovedsild,"  (sunhead-herring,)  which 
are  probably  fishes  that  have  been  left  behind  from  the  spring-herring 
school  of  the  preceding  year,  have  remained  near  the  coast,  and,  on 
account  of  the  want  of  suitable  food,  have  not  become  ripe  for  spawn- 
ing during  this  year.  The  longer  the  route  which  the  advancing 
masses  of  the  old  spawning  herring  have  to  travel,  the  greater  number 
of  these  young  herring,  which  have  never  yet  approached  the  open  sea 
in  their  slow  course,  will  they  drive  before  them,  and  all  the  more 
mixed  will  the  different  schools  and  ages  of  the  herring  be.  They 
drive  before  them  first  the  older  ones,  which  had  got  farthest  out,  then 
the  younger  ones,  which  had  not  got  so  far,  and  mix  them  with  the  barren 
Straalsild,  (ray-herring,)  which  they  always  meet  on  their  approach  to 
the  coast,  as  well  as  with  some  stragglers  from  the  great  mass  of  herrings; 
these  latter,  of  course,  being  com  mon  spring-herring,  which  are  nearly  ready 
to  spawn.  The  bulk  of  the  mixed  herrings,  viz,  the  young  herring  which 
are  not  yet  ready  to  spawn,  are  therefore  in  reality  the  same  herrings 
which  earlier  in  the  season  were  called  summer-herring.  Their  occur- 
rence in  unusual  numbers  may,  therefore,  undoubtedly  be  a  sign  of  a  less 
productive  spring-herring  fishery  during  that  year,  but  does  not  augur 
anything  regarding  the  more  distant  future.  As  long  as  the  young 
14  F 


210       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

herring  are  every  year  in  largest  cumbers  in  their  accustomed  places, 
"there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  spring-herring  fishery  will  come 
to  an  end,  although  the  fisheries  may,  on  account  of  many  accidental 
circumstances,  be  more  or  less  productive  in  the  different  years. 

Professor  Sars's  theory  will  become  clearer  to  the  reader  by  casting  a 
glance  at  the  accompanying  map.*  This  theory  must  be  plausible  in  a 
high  degree,  and  no  serious  objections  to  it  can  be  raised,  as  it  seems  to 
explain  the  most  characteristic  phenomena  of  the  Norwegian  herring- 
fisheries  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The  criticism  of  its  details  we  will 
leave  to  those  who  have  made,  or  are  going  to  make,  the  herring-fishery 
and  the  natural  history  of  the  herring  the  subject  of  special  studies.  Its 
weak  points  (if  they  may  be  termed  such)  can  easily  be  pointed  out : 
first  of  all,  to  use  a  simile,  so  many  and  large  drafts  are  issued  on  the 
unknown,  the  unproved,  and  the  unprovable.  It  will  be  difficult  to  at- 
tack Professor  Sars  in  the  rear  by  proving  to  him  that  the  herring  is  not 
found  in  those  places  which  he  assigns  it  during  three-fourths  of  the 
year,  or  that  the  former  relations  of  wind,  current,  and  weather  in  the 
North  Sea  do  not  show  any  periodicity  which  corresponds  with  that  of 
the  herring-fishery.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  no  proof  has  been  given  that  all  this  is  not  so.  Another  weak  point 
in  Sars's  theory  is  that  it  cannot  easily  be  applied  to  herring-fisheries 
outside  of  Norway.  At  least,  one  cannot  read  Mr.  Sars's  application  of 
his  theory  to  the  Bohuslen  (Sweden)  fisheries  with  entire  satisfaction: 
"At  a  time  when  the  small  crustaceans,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  cur- 
rents of  the  ocean,  have  filled  the  North  Sea  and  the  Skagerak  to  an 
unusual  degree,  it  can  easily  be  imagined  that  a  portion  of  the  great 
mass  of  herrings  coming  originally  from  the  uorthwest  have  got  so  far 
into  this  part  of  the  sea  that,  on  the  approach  of  the  spawning-season, 
by  following  the  usual  southeasterly  direction,  they  have  come  toward 
the  coast  of  Bohuslen,  where  they  have  spawned,  and  later,  in  obedience 
to  the  instinct  common  to  all  fish,  have  returned  to  the  same  coast  where 
they  have  spawned  once,  thus  gradually  forming  a  race  of  herrings  pecu- 
liar to  the  Skagerak,  whose  disappearance  must  at  any  rate  in  part  be 
ascribed  to  the  less  bountiful  supply  of  small  crustaceans  in  this  part  of 
the  sea."  These  possible  weaknesses  of  the  theory  do  not,  however,  as 
Professor  Sars  very  justly  remarks,  reduce  it  to  a  mere  play  of  ideas,  or 
detract  from  its  merits  as  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  some  of  the  most 
important  and  most  obscure  points  of  the  whole  question,  but  leave  it 
as  a  combination  of  phenomena  according  with  well-known  facts,  which 
may  form  the  basis  of  further  investigations,  carried  on  with  a  fixed  plan 
and  in  a  thoughtful  manner.  Let  us  hope  that  out  of  the  fiery  ordeal  to 
which  future  investigations  will  put  it,  it  will  only  come  out  stronger  ! 
For  the  present  we  welcome  it  sincerely  as  an  important  step  in  advance. 

0.  L. 

*  The  map  referred  to  has  not  been  reproduced. 


NEW    CONTRIBUTIONS    ON    THE    HERRING-QUESTION,   ETC.     211 

p.  s. — We  learn  that,  at  the  suggestion  of  Professor  Mohn,  the  director 
of  the  Norwegian  Meteorological  Institute,  an  expedition  will  this  sum- ' 
mer  (1875)  be  fitted  out  for  exploring  the  open  North  Sea  between  Nor- 
way, Iceland,  and  the  Farce  Islands,  to  which  Professor  Sars  will  be 
attached.  We  hope  that  this  eminent  naturalist  will  thus  have  a  chance 
to  submit  his  theory  to  a  test  in  that  direction  where  we  think  that  its 
weakest  point  lies,  viz,  in  the  hitherto  unknown.  We  heartily  wish  that 
he  may  have  the  triumphant  satisfaction  to  clear  up  every  doubt,  and 
dissipate  the  last  clouds  of  obscurity  which  envelop  the  natural  history 
of  the  Norwegian  herring. 


XII.— ON  THE  SPAWNING  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 

COD-FISH.* 


By  Professor  G.  O.  Sars 


Commissioned  by  the  Norwegian  government  to  examine  our  cod- 
fisheries,  in  order  to  arrive  at  practical  results  that  may  be  useful  to  our 
fishermen,  I  have  been  enabled  to  observe  the  spawning  and  develop- 
ment of  the  cod-fish,  (Gadus  morrhua,)  and  shall  endeavor  to  present  the 
results  of  my  observations.  I  have  already,  in  my  former  reports  to  the 
department,  briefly  spoken  of  the  most  important  observations  and 
showed  their  practical  bearing,  so  that  in  the  following  I  shall  refer 
only  to  the  scientific  features  of  the  subject.  It  is  true  that  a  subject 
of  such  general  physiological  interest  as  the  propagation  and  develop- 
ment of  the  higher  classes  of  animals  has  already  been  thoroughly 
treated  by  many  scientists,  so  that  it  would  seem  almost  superfluous  to 
write  a  treatise  on  this  subject ;  but  with  regard  to  the  propagation  and 
development  of  fishes  there  are  but  few  works,  and  these  comprise  only 
a  few  kinds,  (all  fresh-water  fishes,)  while  the  observations  regarding 
the  numerous  salt-water  fishes  are  only  scattered  here  and  there  in  the 
shape  of  incidental  remarks.  Thinking  that  for  the  sake  of  comparison 
it  might  be  interesting  to  secure  a  somewhat  connected  representation 
of  the  spawning  and  development  in  one  class  of  salt-water  fishes,  I 
determined  during  my  stay  on  the  Lofoten  Islands,  in  the  year  1865,  to 
give  particular  attention  to  this  point,  especially  as,  duriug  former  visits 
to  these  islands,  I  had  already  made  very  remarkable  aud  unexpected 
observations  of  this  kind. 

Of  all  our  cod-fisheries  that  which  is  carried  on  during  the  first  four 
months  of  the  year  along  the  Lofoten  Islauds  is  the  most  important 
aud  the  most  profitable.  The  winter  cod-fish  at  that  season  approaches 
the  coast  in  vast  numbers  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  The  regularity 
with  which,  from  time  immemorial,  the  cod-fish  has  at  a  certain  season 
come  here  to  spawn,  notwithstanding  the  many  difficulties  thrown  in  its 
way,  especially  by  nets,  would  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must  find 
spawning-places  here  which,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  are 
particularly  favorable,  and  where,  by  instinct,  it  was  compelled  to  deposit 
its  roe.  I  was  therefore  much  astonished  to  hear  that  this  was  not  the 
case,  and  that  the  cod-fish  has  no  spawning-places  which  are  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  but  that  it  drops  its  spawn  free  in  the  sea 

*  Om  Vintertorskens,  (Gadus  morrhua.)     Forplantning  og  Udvikling:  in  Forbandl. 
Vid.  Sslsk.  Christiania,  18G8,  pp.  237-249.     Trauslated  by  H.  Jacobson. 


214       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  bottom,  and,  what  is  all  the  more 
remarkable,  that  the  spawn  does  not  sink  to  the  bottom,  but  goes  through 
all  the  stages  of  its  development  swimming  free  in  the  sea  quite  near  the 
surface.  Nothing  like  this  has  hitherto  been  observed  in  fishes  or  any 
other  class  of  animals,  and  even  the  fishermen,  who  every  day  for  years 
have  had  occasion  to  observe  this  phenomenon,  have  a  very  incorrect 
idea  of  the  actual  facts.  They  have  all  observed  that  at  the  time  when 
the  codfish  spawns  the  sea  was  thick  and  opaque,  as  if  it  were  muddy, 
and  all  agreed  that  this  must  be  caused  by  the  spawn  of  the  fish.  Some 
more  inquisitive  fishermen  even  tried  to  examine  the  matter  more  closely 
by  taking  some  of  this  water  home  with  them.  They  then  saw  that  the 
water  was  swarming  with  very  small  transparent  bodies  looking  like 
pearls,  but  none  of  them  would  admit  that  this  was  the  spawn  of  the 
cod-fish.  They  thought  it  might  be  the  empty  shell  of  the  spawn  which, 
after  the  young  had  crept  out,  came  up  from  the  bottom  and  floated 
about  on  the  surface  of  the  sea.  The  circumstances  are  so  peculiar  that  I 
myself,  the  first  time  I  met  these  but  slightly  developed  and  sporadically 
occurring  little  bodies,  transparent  as  a  drop  of  water,  was  doubtful  as 
to  their  real  nature.  By  microscopic  observation,  however,  I  very  soon 
became  convinced  of  the  actual  facts.  Some  time  later,  when  the  spawn- 
ing was  going  on,  I  also  found  these  small  bodies  in  great  numbers  and 
in  every  stage  of  development,  even  urj  to  the  young  fish,  with  all  its 
most  important  organs  clearly  developed,  lying  in  the  egg  ready  to  slip 
out.  By  a  study  of  this  egg,  from  its  impregnation  till  the  time  when 
the  young  fish  emerges,  I  sufficiently  convinced  myself  that  this  spawn 
floating  about  in  the  sea  belonged  to  the  cod-fish  and  to  no  other.  But 
as  it  has  thus  been  proved  that  the  spawning  proceeds  just  as  well  in 
the  open  sea  as  near  the  coast,  what  must,  then,  be  assigned  as  the  cause 
of  the  cod-fish's  seeking  the  coast  with  such  eagerness1?  Two  reasons 
may  be  assigned  for  this:  the  cod-fish  does  not  originally  seem  to  be  a 
gregarious  fish,  and  while  it  lives  in  the  open  sea  it,  in  all  probability,  is 
found  over  a  very  large  area.  In  order,  now,  that  the  spawn  may  come 
into  close  contact — in  other  words,  that  the  roe  may  become  impreg- 
nated— it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  cod-fish,  which  spawns  free  in 
the  sea,  that  the  originally  solitary  living  fishes  should  come  together  in 
greater  numbers,  and  this  could  scarcely  be  done  unless  they  all  moved 
toward  the  same  common  rendezvous.  Another  reason  may  be  the  in- 
stinctive care  which  they  have  for  their  tender  offspring,  as  it  is  easier 
to  find  food  for  it  near  the  coast  in  this  the  first  stage  of  its  develop- 
ment; for,  at  the  same  period,  many  smaller  marine  animals  are  just  de- 
veloping themselves.  At  this  season,  particularly,  I  have  seen  the  sea 
swarming  with  the  small,  peculiar-looking  larvae  of  the  balanus,  which 
might  very  well  furnish  a  suitable  food  for  the  young  cod-fish. 

The  approach  of  the  cod-fish  takes  place  early  in  the  season,  often 
long  before  New  Year,  and  occurs  in  schools,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
schools,  which  in  the  beginning  are  only  small,  gradually  grow  larger, 


THE    SPAWNING    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    COD-FISH.    215 

till  tlie  time  for  spawning  arrives,  when  they  frequently  assume  such 
enormous  dimensions  that  the  term  '*  fish-mountain,"  which  is  sometimes 
applied  to  them,  does  not  seem  exaggerated.  In  all  these  schools,  even 
in  those  which  come  first,  the  male  and  female  fishes  are  intermingled, 
which  but  rarely  occurs  among  other  kinds  of  fish.  Thus,  as  to  the 
herring,  the  female  fishes  always  come  first,  and  are  followed  by  the 
males,  which  pour  their  milt  over  the  roe.  This  peculiarity  in  the  cod- 
fish is  easily  explained  by  the  above-mentioned  character  of  its  roe ; 
thus,  in  order  that  an  impregnation  may  take  place,  the  roe  and  the 
milt  must  be  poured  out  at  the  same  time  and  mix  in  the  sea.  In  those 
fishes  which  arrive  first,  the  roe  and  the  milt,  although  tolerably  devel- 
oped, are  as  yet  far  from  being  matured.  The  roe  is  still  so  small-grained 
that  without  the  microscope  the  small  eggs  can  scarcely  be  distinguished. 
These  eggs  are  of  a  light  yellowish-red  color,  and  show  under  the  micro- 
scope a  very  light  outer  ring,  and  an  inner  opaque  fine-grained  mass, 
(yolk.)  All  the  eggs  in  this  stage  are  connected  by  a  fine  texture  full 
of  blood-vessels,  mostly  in  irregular,  conical  processes,  all  which  con- 
verge toward  the  center  of  the  roe-bags.  These  encircle  an  inner  hollow, 
into  which  the  eggs  are  received  as  soon  as  they  are  .matured,  in  order 
to  be  carried  out  through  the  two  longer  channels,  which  start  from  the 
inner  side  of  the  roe-bag,  and  which  unite  toward  the  back  in  one.  In 
their  further  development  the  eggs  constantly  increase  in  size,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  become  more  transparent,  till  they  are  almost  colorless. 
They  are  now  almost  mature,  but  still  loosely  connected  by  a  thin  texture, 
and  surrounded  by  a  thin  covering,  in  which  the  feeding  blood-vessels 
spread  in  a  branch -like  manner.  Soon,  however,  this  covering  bursts, 
and  the  mature  egg  is  now  cut  off  from  its  conuectiouwith  the  rest,  and 
falls  into  the  inner  hollow  of  the  roe-bag,  from  which,  by  a  gentle  press- 
ure on  the  fish's  abdomen,  it  can  be  brought  out  through  the  sexual 
opening  (poms  genitalis).  The  eggs  are  now  as  transparent  as  water, 
about  one  millimeter  in  diameter,  and  appear  to  the  eye  like  small  pearls 
of  clear  crystal.  Placed  in  a  glass  with  sea-water,  they  first  sink  to  the 
bottom,  on  account  of  the  downward  movements  of  the  water,  but  rise 
again,  as  soon  as  the  water  has  become  calm,  to  the  surface,  where  they 
form  a  closely -packed  floating  layer.  Their  specific  weight  is  less  than 
that  of  the  sea-water,  and  greater  than  that  of  fresh  water,  of  which 
fact  one  may  easily  be  convinced  by  placing  them  in  a  glass  of  common 
drinking-water,  in  which  they  rapidly  sink  to  the  bottom,  without  rising 
again.*  The  yelk  of  those  eggs  which  have  but  recently  come  out  from 
the  ovarium  appears,  under  the  microscope,  quite  clear  and  transparent, 

*  Tins  accurately-measured  specific  weight  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
development  of  the  egg.  If,  for  instance,  it  should  storm  and  rain  for  several  days, 
there  might  easily  be  formed  a  thin  layer  of  mixed  sea  and  fresh  water,  which  would 
contain  less  brine ;  so  that  if  the  specific  weight  of  the  roe  floating  in  the  sea  were 
only  a  small  particle  less,  this  circumstance  would  have  a  very  injurious  effect  on  its 
development. 


216       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

with  a  very  faint  yellowish  tinge,  almost  completely  filling  the  egg,  and 
leaving  only  an  extremely  narrow  space  between  it  and  the  outer  cover, 
filled  with  a  colorless  and  utterly  incongruous  mass.  The  outer  cover 
or  skin  is  tolerably  firm  and  elastic,  and  consists,  as  I  have  couvinced 
myself  by  dissecting  it,  of  four  different  closely -joined  layers.  One  can 
discover,  with  the  aid  of  a  strong  microscope,  numerous  small  oil-bladders 
of  different  sizes,  and  scattered  irregularly  over  the  whole  surface  of 
the  yelk.  The  egg  has  another  peculiarity,  which  in  the  beginning  I 
overlooked,  but  which,  after  having  had  my  attention  drawn  to  it,  I 
found  invariably  in  every  egg.  This  is  a  small  dark  spot,  only  discerni- 
ble through  the  microscope,  which  is  found  in  the  outer  skin,  and  which 
is  always  near  that  part  of  the  egg  that  is  turned  downward.  Its  loca- 
tion is  not  exactly  the  same  in  every  egg,  for  sometimes  it  is  quite  close 
to  the  lower  part,  and  sometimes  a  little  higher  up  on  the  side  of  the 
egg;  but  among  the  many  hundreds  of  eggs  which  I  have  examined  I 
did  not  find  a  single  one  where  this  dark  spot  was  above  the  lower 
quarter  of  the  egg's  diameter ;  nor  a  siugle  one  where  it  occupied  exactly 
the  lowest  point  of  the  egg.  This  spot  is  the  so-called  micropyle,  which 
answers  a  two-fold  purpose,  namely,  to  allow  the  spermatozoa  to  enter 
the  egg,  and,  also,  during  the  various  stages  of  development,  to  draw 
iu  water;  in  other  words,  it  forms  the  channel  of  impregnation,  and 
serves  as  a  respiratory  organ.  Through  the  most  powerful  microscope 
this  spot  appears  as  a  circular  disk  of  yellow  color,  surrounded  by  a 
somewhat  raised  edge,  and  looking  as  if  it  were  polished.  From  this 
spot  a  narrow  channel  passes  through  the  skin  of  the  egg,  which  ends  in  a 
funnel-shaped  opening.  I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  any  distinct 
opening  iu  the  above-mentioned  round  disk.  It  is  certain,  therefore, 
that  it  is  not  merely  a  hole  iu  the  egg,  but  seems  to  be  of  a  porous  na- 
ture and  to  possess  a  peculiar  power  of  suction.  But  how  can  the  sper- 
matozoa get  into  the  egg  through  this  disk  ?  To  the  solution  of  this 
problem  I  have  devoted  special  attention  by  pouring  a  drop  of  milt  to 
the  eggs,  while  under  the  microscope.  I  have  frequently  seen  the  sper- 
matozoa, as  often  as  they  came  in  contact  with  this  disk,  remain  hang- 
ing there,  and  I  could  for  a  long  time  observe  the  movements  of  tae  tail 
outside,  but  I  never  could  see  them  enter  into  the  egg,  although  this  is 
so  entirely  transparent  that  one  necessarily  must  have  seen  them  if  they 
had  entered  the  clear  space  filled  with  water  between  the  skin  and  the 
yolk.  The  most  plausible  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  seems  to  be 
this,  that  the  spermatozoa,  which  in  reality  are  only  cells,  after  having 
been  for  some  time  in  close  contact  with  the  micropyle,  were  ruptured 
in  consequence  of  the  hitter's  suction-power,  and  that  their  contents 
only  are  absorbed  by  the  egg,  a  view  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  has 
never  before  been  expressed.  The  spermatozoa  of  the  cod-fish  are  oval, 
or  rather  pear-shaped  bodies,  to  whose  pointed  end  the  tail  is  fastened. 
The  milt,  like  the  roe,  is  of  less  specific  weight  than  the  sea-water,  and 
it  therefore  floats  upon  the  surface  as  soon  as  it  is  poured  out.     This 


THE    SPAWNING    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OP    THE    COD-FISH.    217 

circumstance  may  account  for  the  fact  that  the  male  fish  during  the  act 
of  spawning  generally  swims  deeper  than  the  female  ;  and  likewise  for 
the  fact  that  the  micropyle  is  located  uear  the  lower  portion  of  the  egg, 
while  with  other  fish  which  have  heen  observed  this  order  of  things  is 
reversed.  After  the  egg  has  floated  in  the  water  for  some  time,  it  under- 
goes a  very  striking  change.  At  the  lower  end  the  yelk  becomes 
thicker,  aud  viewed  from  the  side  appears  like  a  crescent-shaped  edge, 
of  a  deep  yellow,  and  much  more  compact  than  the  rest  of  the  yelk. 
This  compact  mass  grows  constantly  more  distinct,  till  at  last  it  forms 
a  tolerably  large  semicircular  projection.  The  yelk  has  thus  secreted 
those  parts  which  are  to  serve  in  the  formation  of  the  young  fish  from 
the  remainder,  which  is  to  serve  as  its  food.  This  portion,  however, 
has  still  to  undergo  considerable  changes  till  it  is  fit  to  produce  the 
young.  At  the  same  time  one  cau  observe  how  the  oil-bladders,  which 
were  originally  scattered  over  the  whole  surface,  gradually  flow  together 
and  form  larger  bladders,  gathering  in  a  close  circle  round  the  micro- 
pyle, and  so  growing  together  form  a  transparent  circle  round  it.  These 
changes  take  place  both  in  the  impregnated  and  in  the  uuimpregnated 
egg.  The  first  visible  effect  of  the  impregnation  takes  place  after  the 
lapse  of  a  few  hours.  In  the  middle  of  the  disk  a  faint  furrow  is  seen, 
which  gradually  becomes  deeper,  till  at  last  it  divides  the  disk  into  two 
symmetrical  halves.  After  this  furrow  has  become  somewhat  less 
marked,  another  one  appears  in  each  of  the  halves,  striking  the  first  one 
perpendicularly,  by  which  process  the  disk  is  divided  into  four  divisions 
of  a  spherical  shape.  Each  one  of  these  is  again  divided,  so  that  there 
are  eight  divisions,  and  these  again  into  sixteen,  thirty-two,  sixty-four, 
&c„  divisions.  Finally  the  disk  becomes  divided  into  so  many  divisions, 
and  these  divisions  become  so  small,  that  the  surface  of  the  disk  seems 
just  as  smooth  as  at  first.  With  this  process  the  first  period  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  egg  terminates.  It  has  continued  about  four  days,  (112 
hours.)  Nothing  as  yet  can  be  seen  of  the  foetus,  and  the  disk  has  only 
just  been  prepared  to  produce  it. 

The  second  period  commences  by  the  disk's  upper  side,  which  is  turned 
towards  the  yelk,  and  whicli  till  then  has  been  quite  flat,  rising  like  a 
watch  glass  in  the  direction  of  the  yelk,  so  that  it  assumes  the  shape  of 
a  strongly  convex  lens,  one  half  of  which  stretches  into  the  yelk,  while 
the  other  half  is  outside.  In  the  middle  it  has  a  thin  circular  rim, 
outside  of  which  numerous  small  globular  bodies  can  be  discerned, 
arranged  like  a  wreath  round  it.  These  seem  to  be  some  of  the  small 
particles  produced  by  the  last  dividing  process,  which  have  been 
loosened  from  the  disk  and  are  floating  about  in  the  clear  oily  border 
surrounding  it.  When  that  part  of  the  disk  which  is  protruded  into 
the  yelk  has  reached  its  greatest  height,  which  is  often  much  greater 
than  the  outer  part,  it  begins  to  collapse,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
process  is  completed  more  rapidly  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  At 
this  place  it  becomes  more  compact,  and  here  it  is  that  the  foetus  is 


218       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

first  seen.  The  disk,  therefore,  which  orginally  had  a  flat  and  then  a 
convex  upper  side,  now  begins  to  be  considerably  hollowed  oat  in  the 
middle,  so  that,  at  last,  it  presents  the  shape  of  a  thin  helinet-like  cov- 
ering round  the  lower  part  of  the  yelk.  Seen  from  below,  the  egg  now 
shows  the  disk  consisting  of  two  leaves,  (the  vegetative  and  the  animal,) 
an  inner  lighter  zone,  and  a  more  compact  circular  rim,  which  soon 
appears  on  that  side,  where  the  above-mentioned  thickening  took  place, 
broader  and  more  compact  than  on  the  other  sides.  During  the  further 
development,  the  disk  (statoblast)  rapidly  increases  in  size,  encircling  a 
larger  and  larger  portion  of  the  yelk  ;  the  outer  rim  produces  a  triangu- 
lar continuation  turned  inside,  which  with  its  lower  pointed  end,  gradu- 
ally approaches  the  lower  part  of  the  egg,  so  that  the  inner  lighter  zone 
of  the  disk  assumes  more  and  more  the  shape  of  a  crescent.  In  this 
continuation  the  incipient  embryo  can  very  soon  be  seen  quite  distinctly, 
even  before  the  disk  has  surrounded  half  of  the  yelk.  First,  a  faint 
longitudinal  elevation  is  observed,  thicker  at  the  lower  end,  on  the 
sides  of  which  two  hemispherical  projections  can  be  seen  indistinctly. 
This  longitudinal  elevation  is  the  spinal  marrow  of  the  embryo;  the 
lower  and  more  compact  portion  is  the  head,  or,  properly  cpeaking,  the 
brain  ;  and  the  two  lateral  projections  are  the  beginning  of  the  eyes. 
During  the  eighth  day  after  the  impregnation,  the  disk  may  be  seen 
surrounding  the  whole  of  the  yelk  with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion 
of  the  upper  part,  which  appears  like  a  ring-shaped  opening  surrounded 
by  a  thicker  edge.  At  the  same  time  the  triangular  continuation  has 
become  considerably  elongated  and  has  assumed  the  form  of  a  narrow 
ribbon,  which  stretches  almost  from  one  end  of  the  egg  to  the  other. 
On  the  inside  of  this  ribbon,  but  in  the  upper  portion  of  it,  the  embryo 
is  now  seen  quite  distinctly,  the  extremity  of  the  tail  being  in  immediate 
connection  with  the  disk,  or  rather  with  the  ring  encircling  it. 

The  third  period  in  the  development  of  the  egg  may  properly  be  placed 
as  the  time  when  the  disk  or  skin  has  completely  enveloped  the  yelk. 
This  phenomenon  is  accompanied  by  other  essential  phases  of  fhe  devel- 
opment, as  several  organs  of  the  embryo,  which  before  this  could  not  be 
seen,  now  first  begin  to  show  themselves,  such  as  the  lens  of  the  eye, 
the  chorda  dorsalis,  the  ear-bladders,  the  liver,  the  breast-fins,  and  the 
heart.  The  beginning  of  the  heart  is  seen  by  a  faint  swelling  in  the 
region  of  the  neck  back  of  the  eyes,  in  which  a  small  circular  bladder 
is  perceived,  which,  however,  as  yet  shows  no  sign  of  any  movement. 
This  bladder  soon  changes  into  a  hollow  cone  placed  obliquely  on  the 
embryo,  and  shows  a  few  irregular  contractions,  till  at  last  it  commences 
its  peculiar  rhythmical  movements.  At  the  same  time  may  be  noticed 
the  first  movements  of  the  embryo  itself  inside  the  egg.  These,  at  first, 
consist  of  a  faint,  almost  imperceptible  trembling,  which  at  greater  or 
less  intervals  is  repeated  in  a  more  energetic  manner.  The  pigment 
now  begins  to  show  itself  distinctly  on  the  iris  of  the  eyes  in  the  shape 
of  small  dots,  and  on  the  rest  of  the  body  as  irregular  stripes.     The 


THE  SPAWNING  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  COD-FISH.  219 

young  fish  has  meanwhile  grown  so  niuch,  that  its  body  already  shows 
a  complete  circular  bend  following  the  outlines  of  the  egg,  so  that  the 
tail-end,  which  is  now  surrounded  by  a  membrane  clearly  perceived, 
(the  embryonal  fin,)  reaches  to  the  mouth,  and  later,  even  somewhat 
beyond  it. 

At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  day,  the  young  fish  is  ready  to  slip  out  of 
the  egg.     Its  movemeuts  inside  the  egg  have  now  become  so  powerful, 
that  it  frequently  assumes  an  entirely  different  position  from  that  which 
it  had  at  first.     The  iris  is  completely  colored  and  even  shows  traces  of 
that  peculiar  silvery  gloss  which  is  so  prominent  in  the  more  developed 
fish.     It  has  a  deep  incision  in  its  lower  rim  which  only  gradually  dis- 
appears.    The  pigment  of  the  body  is  diffused  in  such  a  maimer  that  it 
appears  in  larger  quantities  at  the  root  of  the  breast-fins  and  along  the 
upper  side  of  the  entrails ;  also  on  the  back  part  of  the  body,  where  it 
forms  two  dark  ribbons,  consisting  of  numerous  star-shaped  dots,  which 
remain  unchanged  long  after  the  fish  has  left  the  egg.    At  last  the  skin  of 
theegg  bursts,  and  the  young  fish  slowly  frees  itself  from  the  remnants  still 
clinging  to  it.     At  first  the  body  has  still  the  bent  shape  which  it  had  while 
inclosed  in  the  egg,  but  finally  it  straightens,  and  the  young  fish  moves 
about  with  its  special  tremulous  motions.     It  has  now  that  peculiar  un- 
developed appearance  so  characteristic  of  all  young  fish,  and  so  different 
from  that  of  the  adult.     This  peculiar  appearance  is  chiefly  produced  by 
the  large  yelk-bag  still  clinging  to  it,  and  which  is  arranged  so  as  to  fur- 
nish its  only  supply  of  food,  till  the  mouth  has  opened  and  the  intestinal 
channels  have  formed  themselves  into  a  closed  tube,  connecting  with 
the  mouth.    The  body  is  very  thin  and  tender,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  above-mentioned  pigment  gatherings,  almost  entirely  colorless, 
showing  distinctly  in  the  middle  the  chorda  dorsalis,  and  on  both  sides 
of  this  the  regularly-arranged  muscles  of  the  body.     The  front  part  of 
the  body  still  shows  a  faint  downward  bend,  a  reminiscence  of  the  foetal 
curve;  the  head  projects  sharply  from  the  rest  of  the  body,  looks  as  if 
it  were  swollen,  and  has  a  round  shape,  the  mouth,  or  rather  the  region 
of  the  forehead,  projecting  a  little.     On  the  upper  side  of  the  yelk  bag 
can  be  seen  the  intestinal  channel.     It  is  still  almost  entirely  straightl 
and  terminates  at  about  one-third  part  of  the  body,  or  in  that  place 
where  the  back  part  of  the  yelk-bag  is  closed.    At  its  foremost  end, 
which  is  bent  somewhat  to  the  right,  a  round  finegrained  mass  is  seen, 
which  is  the  liver;  and  immediately  above  this  are,  on  each  side,  the 
round  breast-fins,  turned  upward,  anil  transparent  as  clear  water.     The 
body  is  surrounded  by  a  transparent  membrane,  which  begins  immedi- 
ately above  the  mouth  and  stretches  round  the  whole  body  as  far  as  the 
yelk-bag.     Its  foremost  part  is  widened  out  to  a  sort  of  cap,  while  toward 
the  tail  it  is  strongly  compressed ;  and  while  the  auimal  is  in  motion 
this  takes  the  place  of  those  tins  which  are  still  wanting.     The  yelk-bag 
now  begins  gradually  to  collapse,  and  at  the  same  time  begins  the  forma- 
tion of  the  mouth  by  the  lower  jaw,  which  formerly  was  firmly  joined  to 


220  REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

the  upper  one,  becoming  gradually  detached  from  it.  When  the  yelk- 
bag  has  become  completely  absorbed,  which  takes  place  about  two  weeks 
after  the  slipping  out  of  the  young  fish,  the  mouth  is  already  distinctly 
developed,  but  as  yet  of  a  shape  very  different  from  that  of  the  grown 
fish,  as  the  lower  jaw,  as  in  the  case  of  those  deformed  fishes  called 
"  cod-fish  kings,"  projects  considerably  beyond  the  upper  one,  which 
rises  quite  straight.  The  young  fish  now  already  shows  its  peculiar 
gulping  movements,  and  eagerly  snaps  after  microscopical  animals  and 
algae.  It  is  no  longer  so  much  exposed  to  the  currents  and  the  winds  as 
formerly,  when  the  yelk-bag  kept  it  up  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  but 
often  makes  short  excursions  to  a  considerable  depth,  in  order  to  hunt 
small  animals,  with  which  the  sea  at  this  time  is  swarming.  The  changes 
that  follow  are  chiefly  in  the  inner  organs ;  thus  the  bile  develops  itself 
distinctly;  the  blood,  which  at  first  was  entirely  colorless,  assumes  a 
faint  yellowish  tinge,  and  can  be  seen  circulating  through  the  body  in 
regular  courses;  the  intestinal  channel  has  increased  in  length,  and  in  or- 
der to  find  room,  must  describe  one  or  several  convolutions;  the  shoulder 
girdle  is  already  distinctly  developed,  &c.  In  the  most  advanced  stages 
of  development  which  I  observed,  and  which  took  place  in  the  beginning 
of  May,  the  body  was  less  transparent,  and  showed,  especially  on  the 
head,  a  distinct  yellow  color.  The  distribution  of  the  pigment  was  also 
somewhat  uneven,  being  most  distinctly  visible  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
head  and  along  the  back  and  the  belly.  The  intestinal  channel,  in  which 
a  wider  fore  part,  (the  stomach,)  and  a  thinner  loop-shaped  and  bent 
hind  part,  (the  entrails,)  could  already  be  distinguished,  showed  yellow- 
ish contents,  changing  into  green  in  the  hind  part.  In  the  region  of  the 
heart,  the  blood  had  already  a  distinct  red  color.  Near  the  hind  part  of 
the  body,  on  the  lower  side,  some  fine  rays  showed  themselves  in  the 
embryonal  membrane,  as  the  first  sign  of  the  tail-fin  beginning  to  form 
under  the  extremity  of  the  chorda  dorsalis. 

My  observations  on  the  development  of  the  cod-fish  extend  no  further 
than  this;  but  I  hope  next  year  to  be  able  to  continue  them  through  all 
those  interesting  changes  through  which  the  young  fish  passes  before  it 
becomes  fully  mature. 

I  must  remark,  in  conclusion,  that  the  above- mentioued  peculiarity 
in  the  roe  of  the  cod-fish,  viz,  that  it  develops  swimming  free  in  the  sea, 
occurs  also  in  the  roe  of  other  fish.  During  my  last  stay  on  the  Lofo- 
ten Islands,  I  caught,  also,  with  the  aid  of  a  fine  net,  the  roe  of  three 
other  different  kinds  of  fish,  entirely  unknown  to  me,  aud  floating  in  the 
sea  in  exactly  the  same  manner.  I  am  convinced,  too,  that  this  is  also 
the  case  with  the  roe  of  the  haddock,  (Gadus  wglefinus,)  which  spawns 
about  the  same  time  as  the  cod-fish.  On  the  whole,  this  may  indeed  be 
the  case  with  a  much  larger  number  of  salt-water  fish  than  is  generally 
supposed.  I  consider  ic,  in  all  probability,  applicable  to  the  whole  large 
cod-fish  family,  and  on  closer  investigation  it  may  be  found  to  extend 
even  much  further  than  this. 


THE    SPAWNING    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    TIIE    COD-FISH.    221 

NOTE. 

The  following  note,  in  continuation  of  the  preceding  investigation, 
from  Professor  Sars  to  Professor  Agassiz,  was  published  by  Mr.  Theo- 
dore Lyman,  in  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  commissioners  of  fish- 
eries for  1871 : 

"  It  was  my  intention  to  continue  the  investigation  of  the  young  of 
the  winter-cod,  which  I  had  pursued  the  previous  year.  I  then  showed 
that  the  fish  often  considered  as  a  separate  species,  and  known  on  the 
northwest  coast  of  Norway  by  the  names  of  smaagjed,  tarefisk,  and 
griindfisk,  is  nothing  but  the  young  of  the  winter-cod.  I  further  ob- 
served that  the  great  variations  in  color  are  only  the  effects  of  different 
bottom  and  different  food. 

"  It  was  my  task  this  year  to  follow  the  further  development  of  the 
smaagied  during  the  summer.  The  conditions  were  now  quite  different ; 
for  whereas  during  the  winter  I  could,  from  a  boat  or  from  the  beach, 
easily  study  my  objects,  now  the  fish  had  retired  to  the  deep  water  and 
could  only  be  got  by  hook  and  line — a  difficult  matter,  by  reason  of  the 
scarcity  of  bait,  for  the  muscle  rocks  had  been  ransacked  by  the  winter 
fishermen,  and  herring  were  not  to  be  had.  Beginning  on  the  20th  of 
May,  at  a  place  called  Skraaveu,  I  set  my  line  in  20  to  30  fathoms  water, 
in  the  sandy  channels  of  the  outer  holms,  but  got  only  fish  too  large  to 
be  yearlings.  I  then  set  in  the  '  sculls '  near  the  rocks,  and  took  great 
numbers  of  small  cod,  corresponding  perfectly  with  the  tarefisk,  and 
which  were  colored  of  a  brownish-red  by  the  tare  or  rock-weed,  (Lamin- 
aria.)  These  sculls  are  very  dangerous  to  approach,  especially  in  the 
winter-time,  and  are  characterized  by  a  periodic  ground-breaker.  The 
sea  will  appear  perfectly  tranquil  for  a  time,  when  suddenly  there  will 
arise  gently,  over  the  scull,  a  low,  broad  pyramid  of  water,  which  as 
gently  descends,  and  again  the  surface  is  unruffled.  The  wary  fisher- 
men mark  well  these  upliftiugs,  and  keep  the  boat  away  from  them. 
Presently  you  observe  that  the  pyramid  has  again  risen,  but  with  in- 
creased size  and  with  smoke  curling  from  its  apex;  there  is  a  sort  of  for- 
ward pushing  motion  and  a  sullen  roar,  and  in  an  instant  the  sea  rises  in 
a  vast,  glittering,  green  bank,  capped  with  devouring  foam.  With  a 
fearful  crash  it  precipitates  itself  to  the  very  bottom,  leaving  a  great 
circle  of  white  froth.  Your  boat,  safe  in  the  offing,  is  lifted  high  on  a 
huge  wave,  and  the  distant  thunder  on  the  beach  announces  that  the 
great  breaker  has  struck.  The  hapless  boat  that  gets  caught  over  one 
of  these  sculls  is  dashed  in  a  hundred  pieces  against  the  rock  bottom. 
These  violent  periodic  ground-breakers  are  what  attract  the  smaagjed, 
for  they  wash  out  the  small  crabs  from  their  hiding-places  among  the 
sea-weed,  and  the  young  cod,  dashing  forward  with  the  returning  sea, 
devour  them  greedily.  I  thought  now  I  should  get  plenty  of  yearlings 
on  the  sea-weed  ground  during  the  whole  season,  but  I  was  mistaken. 
Toward  the  end  of  June  they  almost  wholly  disappeared  from  that  lo- 


222         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

cality,  and  were  captured  only  near  sandy  channels.  Their  color,  too, 
changed  from  the  red- brown  of  the  sea- weed  to  a  fine  greenish,  with 
silvery  sides.  In  their  stomachs  were  found  quantities  of  siil,  (Ammo- 
dytes  lancea — sand-eel,)  which  now  were  approaching  the  coast,  and  the 
tarefisk  had  evidently  left  the  crustucea  to  prey  upon  them.  The  siil, 
less  common  and  important  in  Southern  Norway,  is  abundant  on  the 
northwest  coast,  and  is  held  in  high  esteem.  Although  too  slender  to 
be  captured  in  nets,  it  is  taken  by  a  large,  coarsely  woven  cloth,  worked 
by  several  boats.  This  cloth  is  slipped  under  a  school  of  siil,  and  the 
corners  being  raised  the  catch  is  dumped  into  one  of  the  boats  and  piled 
in  heaps  on  the  shore.  These  heaps  are  left  there  without  further  care, 
and  the  mass,  half  putrid,  is  accounted  good  food  by  the  inhabitants,  and 
is  also  served  to  animals.  The  cod  are  more  dainty,  and  will  not  touch 
stale  fish  of  any  kind.  Therefore,  the  siil  for  the  fishery  are  got  by  dig- 
ging in  the  sand  where  they  have  buried  themselves,  and  where,  at  this 
season,  they  deposit  their  spawn.  I  took  in  the  sandy  channels  plenty 
of  cod,  of  one,  two,  and  three  years  ;  also  some  very  large  '  siiclod,'  three 
feet  long,  and  these  I  saw  were  the  same  as  the  '  winter-cod,'  except 
that  the  spawn  was  but  little  developed.  x\t  this  season,  also,  came  the 
sei,  (Gadus  carbonarhts — pollack.)  It  was  a  singular  spectacle  to  watch 
the  sea-mews  sitting  in  solemn  lines  and  in  perfect  silence  along  the  rock 
ledges,  their  heads  all  at  one  angle.  Suddenly,  as  if  by  common  im- 
pulse, they  would  spread  their  wings,  and  with  a  shrill  cry  hasten  toward 
a  foamy  surface  on  the  sea.  This  was  occasioned  by  the  sei,  which  had 
rushed  to  the  surface  in  pursuit  of  a  school  of  siil,  and  the  birds  were 
coming  to  share  the  prey.  Thither,  too,  came  the  fishermen  and  trolled 
with  artificial  minnows,  taking,  strange  to  say,  some  cod  with  their  other 
fish,  which  shows  that  cod  occasionally  are  attracted  to  the  surface. 
Later  in  the  season,  the  cod  refused  siil,  which  seemed  to  be  because 
they  were  in  pursuit  of  the  young  herrings,  then  abundant  in  Vest- 
fjord." 


XIII.— THE  NORWEGIAN  LOBSTER-FISHERY  AND  ITS  HISTORY.* 


By  Axel  Boeck. 


As  is  well  known,  of  all  fisheries  those  on  the  coasts  of  Norway  are  the 
largest,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  population  of  our  extended  coast  is 
dependent  on  them  for  their  living.  But  while  all  the  other  great  fish- 
eries on  the  coast  of  Norway  have  been  carried  on  from  time  immemo- 
rial, their  origin  being  so  much  enveloped  in  obscurity  that  our  ances- 
tors supposed  that  the  gods  themselves  had  taught  men  fishing,  the 
lobster-fishery,  which  in  our  days  is  of  such  great  importance,  has  origi- 
nated in  a  later  historical  time,  and  has  since  developed,  till  it  is  now 
more  extensive  than  all  the  other  known  lobster-fisheries,  and  supplies 
not  only  Norway,  but  also  the  neighboring  countries.  Although  we 
will  see,  as  1  shall  show  later,  that  the  lobster  has  been  known  in  Nor- 
way even  iu  olden  times,  it  had  during  the  Middle  Ages  scarcely  ever  been 
used  as  an  article  of  food  in  the  northern  countries.  Lobster-fisheries 
are  not  spoken  of  in  the  Sagas  or  in  the  Old  Laws ;  and  even  now,  although 
the  lobster  has  been  caught  on  our  coast  for  several  centuries,  it  is  but 
rarely,  if  ever,  eaten  by  our  fishermen,  and  only  the  higher  classes  seem 
to  like  its  flavor. 

The  scientific  name  of  the  loster  is  Homarus  gammarus  Linn.,  from 
the  Latin  name  gammarus,  which  again  comes  from  the  Greek  word 
xa;j.iJ.apoc;.  The  Italians  call  it  Gambare  di  mare,  and  the  Spaniards  Craba- 
jo,  both  of  which  names  evidently  come  from  the  Latin.  The  lllyrians 
call  it  Caranthola.  It  does  not  seem  certain  whether  the  Norwegian  and 
German  name  Hummer  and  the  French  name  Homar  can  be  derived  from 
gammarus,  as  our  name  is  very  old,  and  may  have  its  root  in  the  Old 
Norse  verb  homa,  which  means  to  go  backward.  The  English  name 
lobster  is  only  a  modification  of  the  name  longusta,  applied  to  a  closely- 
related  genus,  which  is  specially  found  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  the 
Dutch  name  ZeeJcruft  simply  means  a  sea-crawfish.  In  our  Sagas,  espe- 
cially iu  their  poetical  portions,  it  is  often  mentioned.  Iu  Snorre's  Ed- 
da,  in  the  song  Skaldskaparsmal,  (chapter  75  of  the  Copenhagen  edi- 
tion,) it  is  mentioned  among  fish  and  other  marine  animals.  In  Olaf  den 
Helliges  Saga,  it  is  mentioned  in  a  song  of  Bjorn  Heldoleka3inpe,  where 
the  sea  is  poetically  described  as  "  the  paths  of  the  lobster."  Iu  a  sim- 
ilar poetical  sense,  the  word  is  used  in  Olaf  Trygveseus  Saga,  chapter 
88,  by  the  Skjald  Thord  Kolbeinsson,  where  he  says  that  "the  wave- 

*  Om  det  norske  Hunimerfiske  og  dets  Hsitorie.  Af  Axel  Boeck  :  in  "  Tidsskrift  for 
Fiskeri,"  3die  Aargangs,  Kjobenbavu,  pp.  28-43,  1868  ;  pp.  145-189,  1869. 


224       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

horses  run  over  the  fields  of  the  lobster,"  meaning  the  ships  that  sail  on 
the  waves  of  the  sea.  In  a  song  by  Snigly  Holle,  in  Harald  Haardraa- 
des  Saga,  chapter  105,  the  expression  "  to  be  at  the  bottom  with  the  lob- 
ster "  is  used  for  drowning.  In  the  Selkolle  Songs  of  Einar  Gilson,  in 
Bishop  Gudtnuuds  Saga,  the  term  "  the  light  of  the  lobster,"  equiva- 
lent to  the  fire  of  the  sea,  or  gold,  is  used.  In  the  same  place,  the  expres- 
sion "  the  horse  of  the  lobster  mountain,"  meaning  the  ship,  is  used. 
Finally,  there  is  found  in  the  poem  Liknar-braut,  the  expression  "  laud 
lobster,"  meaning  a  serpent  or  dragon. 

The  lobster  belongs  to  the  class  of  crustaceans,  and  among  them  to 
the  highest  section,  the  so-called  order  of  decapods,  which  embrace  short- 
tailed  (brachyura)  and  long-tailed  (macrura)  species.  The  lobster  has 
a  great  similarity  to  the  common  crawfish,  (Asiacus  fluviatilis,)  living 
in  brooks  and  small  rivers,  but  is  distinguished  from  it  by  having  the 
last  segment  of  the  thorax  united  with  the  preceding  one,  while  iu 
Astacus  it  is  separate.  It  was  therefore  considered  by  Milne-Edwards 
to  be  the  type  of  a  new  genus  Homarus.  Of  this  genus,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  which  live  exclusively  in  the  sea,  three  species  are  known, 
viz :  Homarus  americanus  Say,  i.  e.,  the  American  lobster,  which  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  our  common  lobster,  and  is  found  on  the  coasts  of 
North  America.  From  this  the  European  Homarus  gammarus  is  only 
distinguished  by  having  a  narrower  spine  on  its  forehead,  and  teeth 
only  on  its  upper  margin,  while  the  former  species  has  also  teeth  on 
the  lower  margin.  There  is  finally  the  little  Homarus  capensis,  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  is  not  more  than  five  inches  loug.  The 
European  lobster  seems  to  have  its  central  location  on  the  southwestern 
coast  of  Norway,  and  goes  as  far  north  as  Finmarken,  where,  according 
to  Lem,  in  his  description  of  the  Finmarken  Laplanders,  1707,  it  is  found 
north  of  Traeneu,  where  he  ate  very  fine  ones  on  the  island  of  Rodo, 
while  formerly  their  northern  limit  was  thought  to  be  the  island  of 
Brondo,  but  he  also  thinks  that  they  would  be  found  in  Finmarken, 
if  people  only  searched  for  them.  It  is  very  rarely  found  on  the 
coasts  of  Iceland,  where,  according  to  Mohr's  "Islandske  Naturhistorie," 
it  has  been  found  by  Dr.  Poulseu  in  Grondevig,butit  does  not  extend  to 
Greenland  or  Spitsbergen.  It  does  not  go  into  the  Baltic,  but  is  found 
all  over  the  Kattegat,  especially  near  Anholt,  Hirsholniene,  Laeso,  and 
Hjelm,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Fiedler's  report,  in  the  Great  Belt  as  far 
as  Sprogo.  On  the  coast  of  Bohuslen  it  is  very  common,  and  is  said  to 
go  into  the  Sound  as  far  as  the  island  of  Hveen.  On  the  west  coast  of 
Jutland,  it  is  found  wherever  the  bottom  is  stony,  and  it  is  very  com- 
mon near  Heligoland.  It  rarely  goes  into  the  inlets  on  our  western 
coasts,  chiefly  on  account  of  their  great  depth.  It  is  very  rare  in  the 
inner  portion  of  the  Bay  of  Christiania,  and  not  very  common  in  the 
Limfiord.  On  the  coasts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  it  is  common 
wherever  there  is  a  rocky  bottom,  especially  near  Montrose,  Orkney, 
Lewis,  and  Harris  Island,   and  on  the    southern  coast  of   England, 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  225 

near  Land's-end  and  the  Scilly  Islands.  Near  the  Channel  Islands, 
it  is  common,  as  well  as  near  several  groups  of  islands  on  the  French 
coast.  In  the  Mediterranean,  it  is  not  so  common,  although  it  is  not 
entirely  wanting;  but  its  substitute  as  an  article  of  food  is  another 
large  species  of  crawfish,  the  Langusta  (Palinurus).  It  is  therefore  not 
spread  over  a  very  large  extent  of  sea  ;  but  it  is  found  in  its  central  lo- 
cations iu  very  large  numbers,  and  there  becomes  an  important  article 
of  food  and  trade. 

Its  general  size  is  8  to  10  inches  from  the  point  of  the  spine  on  the 
forehead  to  the  tip  end  of  the  tail.*  It  rarely  exceeds  this  size  where 
large  fisheries  are  carried  on  ;  but  now  and  then  specimens  of  a  much 
greater  size  are  found  in  places  from  which  none  are  exported,  and 
where  it  consequently  has  time  to  grow  before  it  is  caught.  Thus, 
Pontoppidan,  in  his  "  Norges  naturlige  Historie,"  part  ii,  p.  279,  says 
that  the  very  large  lobsters  are  called  "Storjer,"  and  that  near  Utvaer, 
on  the  Bay  of  Evien,  a  lobster  had  been  seen  which  was  so  large  and 
ugly  that  nobody  dared  to  attack  it,  and  that  it  measured  a  full  fathom 
between  the  claws.  This  seems  certainly  to  be  somewhat  exaggerated ; 
but  I  myself  have  seen  the  claw  of  one  which  must  have  been  about  18 
inches  long.  Sir  John  Graham  Dalyell  says,  in  his  work  "  The  Powers  of 
the  Creator,"  1827,  that  he  had  seen  a  joint  of  the  left  claw  of  a  lobster 
that  measured  9  inches  in  length.  According  to  this,  the  whole  claw 
must  have  measured  18  to  24  inches,  and  the  whole  animal  3  to  4  feet. 
As  a  general  rule,  those  that  are  takeu  in  the  fiords  are  larger  than  those 
which  are  caught  near  the  islands  toward  the  sea.  The  color  of  the 
animal  when  alive  is  generally  a  blackish  green,  with  several  blue  spots; 
but  it  may  also  be  lighter,  especially  near  the  mouths  of  fiords,  while 
farther  out  toward  the  sea  it  becomes  much  darker.  I  may  mention  as 
a  curiosity  that  during  this  year  (1868)  I  found  a  lobster  near  Hauge- 
suud,  one  half  of  which  was  of  a  greenish  black  and  the  other  of  a  light 
orange  color,  there  being  a  sharp  and  clearly-defined  dividing  line, 
which  ran  lengthwise,  and  divided  the  lobster  in  two  halves  of  equal 
size. 

The  lobster  lives  close  to  the  coast,  where  there  is  a  rocky  bottom, 
among  the  large  alga? ;  but  in  winter,  when  the  water  grows  cooler,  it 
descends  as  far  down  as  1G  to  20  fathoms,  while  in  spring,  when  the 
temperature  of  the  sea  rises,  it  stays  at  a  depth  of  from  1  to  4  fathoms. 
It  is  altogether  a  coast-animal,  which  very  rarely  seems  to  go  any  dis- 
tance from  its  birth-place,  if  it  can  readily  find  there  a  sufficient  supply 
of  food.  Sometimes,  however,  they  have  been  seen  in  large  masses 
swimming  toward  the  land  from  the  sea,  and  they  have  then  been 
caught  in  nets,  having  been  mistaken  for  a  school  of  herrings  ;  but  this 
is  only  a  consequence  of  local  migrations,  when  it  goes  from  the  deeper 
into  the  shallower  waters.     It  is  not  able  to  make  its  way  through  the 

*  In  the  Kattegat,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Jutland,  it  reaches  a  larger  size  than  on 
the  western  coast,  generally  10  inches. — Ed. 
15  F 


226       KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

sea  for  any  length  of  time  by  swimming.     Its  structure  certainly  allows 
it  to  make  quick  and  definite  movements,  and  it  can  swim  freely  about 
in  the  sea,  but  this  swimming  never  lasts  long,  as  it  cannot  keep  itself 
afloat  very  long.     Neither  is  it  able,  while  swimming,  to  catch  and 
swallow  its  food ;  but  it  seizes  its  prey  only  when  it  can  hold  on  to 
something.    At  the  bottom  of  the  sea  it  can  chase  its  prey,  if  necessary, 
with  great  rapidity,  but  while  eating  it  remains  quite  still.     The  lobster 
is  a  very  greedy  animal,  and  can  swallow  great  quantities  of  food,  which 
it  seems  to  find  especially  during  the  night  by  its  scent,  while  during 
the  day  it  keeps  quiet  and  digests.     Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  the  roe 
of  fish  and  of  dead  fish,  but  likewise  of  small  crustaceans  and  other 
marine  animals.     When  kept  in  confinement,  it  can  live  for  a  consider- 
able time  without  food.     The  lobster  seems  to  be  'able  to  propagate 
when  it  is  a  little  more  than  6  inches  long,  (at  least,  roe  is  only  found  in 
animals  of  this  size;)  but  when  the  lobster  reaches  a  length  of  8  inches 
it  contains  a  great  quantity  of  roe.     A  real  act  of  copulation  takes 
place,  the  male  lobster  placiug  its  double  male  member  into  the  outer 
genital  opening  of  the  female ;  aud  the  eggs  are  impregnated  while  they 
are  yet  in  the  ovary.     This  pairing  seems  to  take  place  from  autumn 
to  spring  or  March  and  April,  for  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  roe  is 
emitted  from  the  ovaries  immediately  after  the  copulation  has  taken 
place,  just  as  with  other  crustaceans;  aud  the  emitted  roe  is  found 
entirely  during  winter.     After  impregnation,  the  eggs  are  emitted  from 
the  outer  genital  openings  of  the  female,  which  are  found  at  the  bases 
of  the  third  pair  of  feet,  but  do  not  fall  into  the  water,  as  they  are  held  in 
a  hollow  which  is  formed  by  the  bent  tail,  which,  both  at  the  end  and  on 
the  sides,  has  leaf-shaped  fringes  that  inclose  the  space  formed  by  the 
bending  of  the  tail.     Under  this  tail,  there  is  fastened  a  double  row  of 
the  so-called  tail-feet,  to  which  the  eggs  are  strung  by  strong  slimy 
strings.     The  embryo  now  begins  to  develop  in  these  eggs,  which  are 
quite  numerous,  2,000  to  3,000  in  one  female,  according  to  the  size,  aud 
occasionally  as  many  as  10,000  to  12,000.     The  formation  of  the  embryo 
does  not,  however,  seem  to  begin  till  the  temperature  of  the  water  has 
become    milder   in     spring,   even   if   the  pairing  should  have  taken 
place  in  autumn  or  winter ;  for,  although  loose  roe  is  often  found  in 
winter,  it  is  never  seen  in  any  degree  developed  into  an  embryo.     This 
pairing  and  the  development  of  the  roe  seem  to  take  place  at  different 
times  on  the  differeut  portions  of  the  coast ;  for  the  fishermen  them- 
selves, who  have  such  an  excellent  opportunity  of  observing  them,  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  actual  time.     The  development  of  the  embryo 
seems  to  take  at  least  fourteen  days  from  the  time  of  commencement, 
aud  it  can  easily  be  observed  till  the  young  break  the  shells  of  the  eggs 
and  begin  to  lead  an  independent  life.     When  the  young  lobster  comes 
out  of  the  egg,  it  measures  only  a  few  lines  in  length,  and  does  not  at  all 
resemble  the  old  lobster,  but  has  a  different  structure.     It  does  not 
leave  the  hollow  uuder  its  mother's  tail  immediately  after  being  hatched, 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  227 

but  lives  tbere  for  some  time,  and  later  frequently  returns  to  it.  It  is 
particularly  distinguished  by  a  less  complete  development  of  its  feelers 
and  tail-feet,  and  by  tbe  feet  being  exceedingly  small  but  furnished  with 
long  brush-like  branches,  with  which  it  swims  vigorously  on  the  surface 
of  the  water.  After  having  spent  some  time  in  this  state,  it  changes  its 
skin  several  times  and  assumes  the  shape  of  its  mother,  when  it  goes 
to  the  bottom.  Its  life  from  this  moment  till  it  reaches  a  size  of  5  to  6 
inches  is  entirely  unknown ;  for  no  young  lobsters  have  been  caught, 
either  by  fishermen  or  scientists,*  the  smallest  having  been  found  in 
the  stomach  of  the  torsk,  so  that  it  is  probable  that  they  spend  this 
portion  of  their  life  at  a  greater  depth  and  live  in  a  different  manner 
and  on  other  food  than  at  a  later  period.  There  can,  therefore,  not  be 
any  artificial  hatching  of  lobsters  in  the  sense  of  artificial  fish-hatching, 
but  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  keep  the  lobster  imprisoned  during  the 
development  of  the  eggs,  and  thus  protect  it  from  the  dangers  which 
threaten  it  and  its  young.  It  is  impossible  to  do  anything  for  the  tender 
young,  as  they  die  very  soon  when  confined.  I  see,  however,  that  sev- 
eral persons  in  France,  and  Mr.  von  Eris,  in  the  lagoons  of  Triest,  near 
Grado,  have  hatched  several  millions  of  young  lobsters  by  keeping 
lobsters  with  ripe  roe  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  in  perforated  boxes. 

After  the  lobster  has  emitted  its  roe,  and  the  young  have  left  the 
mother,  she  begins  to  shed.  She,  therefore,  goes  to  safe  places,  and 
does  not  seem  to  care  much  for  food,  while  the  old  skin  is  being  loos- 
ened ;  the  shell  finally  opens  in  the  back,  and  the  animal  goes  into  the 
water  naked.  It  then  looks  as  if  it  was  covered  with  velvet,  on  ac- 
count of  the  considerable  formation  of  cells  which  is  going  on  all  over 
its  surface.  These  cells  afterward  grow  hard  through  small  particles 
of  lime  and  form  the  new  shell.  This  shedding  of  the  shell  goes  on 
from  the  middle  of  July  till  September,  but  not  at  the  same  time 
all  along  the  coast,  being  earlier  in  the  southern  and  later  in  the  north- 
ern part.  The  lobster  thus  gets  sick,  as  it  is  called,  toward  the  end  of 
June  near  Sogudal,  and  the  export  must  then  cease,  as  the  mortality 
among  them  becomes  too  great,  while  near  Karmo  it  is  still  in  a  healthy 
condition  till  July  15.  Farther  north,  the  shedding  of  the  shell  begins 
still  later,  and  lobster  may  be  caught  all  through  July. 

The  greatest  enemy  of  the  lobster,  and  who  sensibly  diminishes  its 
numbers,  is  man.  When  swimming  near  the  surface  during  its  youth, 
with  a  number  of  other  small  crustaceans,  it  becomes  a  welcome  prey  to 
the  herring  and  the  mackerel.  As  the  grown  lobster  keeps  at  no  great 
depth,  and  where  large  fish  of  prey  are  not  commonly  found,  it  is  not 
much  exposed  to  them,  but  occasionally,  when  lying  near  the  surface,  it 
is  taken  by  large  birds  of  prey.  An  interesting  scene,  may  be  witnessed 
near  Bukkeuo,  north  of  Stavanger,  where  an  Englishman  haseonstruct- 

*  The  development  of  the  lobster  has.  since  the  original  publication  of  this  memoir, 
been  studied  by  Mr.  S.  I.  Smith,  of  Yale  College,  and  Prof.  Japetus  Steenstrup,  of  Co- 
penhagen.— Ed. 


228       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ed  a  large  pond,  between  some  small  islands,  for  keeping  live  lobsters. 
Whenever  the  pond  becomes  too  full  of  lobsters,  so  that  they  do  not 
find  sufficient  food,  they  leave  the  water,  and  crawl  about  seeking 
to  reach  the  sea ;  but  during  their  wanderings  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to 
large  numbers  of  crows  hovering  round,  which  take  them  in  their  claws, 
fly  high  up,  and  let  the  unfortunate  lobster  drop  down  on  the  rocks, 
where  their  shells  are  broken,  so  that  the  crows  can  eat  them  in  comfort. 
The  crows  are  not  easily  scared  away,  but  show  a  remarkable  degree  of 
sense,  only  flying  away  when  any  one  approaches  with  fire-arms,  and 
later  they  carry  on  their  depredations  in  the  early  morning,  when  they 
have  less  to  fear. 

IMPLEMENTS  FOR   CATCHING  THE   LOBSTERS,  METHODS   OF   CATCHING 
THEM,  AND   THE   MANNER   OF   SHIPPING  THEM. 

Formerly,  the  lobster  was  caught  on  our  sea-coasts  exclusively  with 
tongs.  These  tongs  were  made  of  wood,  and  had  about  the  same  shape  as 
the  common  oyster-poles,  being  only  somewhat  longer,  generally  two 
fathoms.  Such  an  implement  was  exhibited  at  the  Bergen  Exposition 
of  1865,  and  an  illustration  of  it  is  given  in  the  report.  As  these  tongs 
were  not  very  long,  lobsters  could  not  be  caught  at  any  great  depth — 
only  at  a  depth  of  little  more  than  a  fathom — and  this  sort  of  fishing 
was  carried  on  during  the  early  morning  hours.  But  as  lobsters  taken 
with  these  tongs  often  got  hurt,  and  died  two  to  three  days  afterward, 
because  they  cannot  stand  any  pressure,  this  implement  was  not  suited 
for  those  that  were  to  be  exported ;  and  the  Dutch,  after  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  when  the  lobster- fisheries  began  to  assume  larger  dimen- 
sions, endeavored  to  induce  the  fishermeu  to  use  other  and  better  im- 
plements. Although  baskets,  through  the  influence  of  the  Dutch,  had 
thus  become  common  in  the  neighborhood  of  Stavanger  since  1717, 
tongs  have  been  frequently  used  even  in  our  century,  and  are  perhaps 
in  some  places  used  to  this  day.  Kryger,  in  his  report  on  Ous,  in  the 
"BudsUkken ?;  (a  periodical)  for  1820,  mentions  that  lobsters  were  caught 
there  with  tongs  for  home-consumption.  Farther  north,  tongs  seem 
to  have  been  the  common  implements  for  catchiug  lobsters  at  a  much 
later  period ;  for,  in  the  quinquennial  report  of  the  governor  of  the  Borns- 
dal  district  for  1840-'44,  it  is  said  that  "lobsters  are  taken  with  tongs, 
baskets  not  being  thought  to  auswer  the  purpose."  Lobsters  were 
caught  with  tongs  by  small  boys  from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age, 
early  in  the  morning,  in  calm  weather,  and,  if  successful,  one  night  might 
yield  an  income  of  $2.25.  Another  very  simple  implement  for  catching 
lobsters  is  spoken  of  in  the  " Bndstilxken"  by  Strom,  who  says  that 
lobsters  are  taken  with  a  hook  fastened  to  a  pole,  which  hook  is  in- 
serted in  the  belly,  the  softest  part  of  the  lobster.  With  this  instiu- 
ment,  it  cannot  be  taken  at  any  great  depth,  and  only  when  the  sea  is 
calm  so  that  the  bottom  can  be  seen.  Lobsters  caught  in  this  manner 
cannot  be  exported,  as  they  could  not  stand  the  journey.    The  imple- 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  229 

inents  which  I  am  going  to  at  once  describe,  and  which  have  almost 
entirely  supplanted  the  simpler  ones,  are  used  by  enticing  the  lobster 
with  bait  into  a  trap,  out  of  which  it  cannot  escape.  The  simplest 
of  these  traps  is  seldom  used  with  us,  although,  according  to  Oeiker,  it 
seems  to  be  in  common  use  near  Heligoland.  It  consists  of  a  very 
thick  iron  ring,  to  which  a  net  is  fastened,  so  as  to  form  a  deep  bag  below 
The  bait  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  bag,  and  it  is  lowered  and  taken 
up  by  means  of  a  long  line,  which,  when  the  bag  is  at  the  bottom, 
reaches  up  to  the  surface.  To  this  line,  a  piece  of  wood  is  fastened,  which 
floats  on  the  water,  and  shows  the  location  of  the  trap.  If  this  instru- 
ment has  been  lying  at  the  bottom  for  half  an  hour  in  a  place  where 
lobsters  are  known  to  abound,  a  sudden  jerk  is  given  to  the  line,  so  as 
to  cause  the  lobster  to  fall  in  the  bag,  and  it  is  rapidly  pulled  up.  (The 
most  successful  time  of  the  day  for  catching  lobsters  is  generally  in  the 
morning  or  also  between  11.30  a.  m.  and  3.30  p.  m.  With  this  instru- 
ment, which  the  English  call  "  plumpers,"  and  the  Germans  "Fallenkor- 
ber,"  lobsters  are  taken  in  deep  places.)  With  us  the  commonest  imple- 
ments for  catching  lobsters  are  baskets  ("  Tejner"),  It  seems  certain 
that  the  Dutch  first  introduced  them  for  catching  lobsters ;  but  they 
may  have  been  used  long  before  that,  e.g.,  for  eels,  as  the  name  is  Scan- 
dinavian, and  is  derived  from  "  tun,"  i.  e.,  the  long  and  tough  roots  of  the 
juniper-tree.  After  1713,  a  beginning  was  made  in  plaiting  them  of 
willow  branches.  Where  these  materials  could  not  be  readily  obtained, 
they  were,  as  Pontoppidan  related  in  1753,  made  of  hoops,  which  were 
kept  apart  by  chips  of  wood.  All  round  these,  nets  are  fastened,  and  at 
each  end  there  is  a  long,  narrow,  trough-shaped  entrance,  out  of  which 
the  lobster  cannot  escape.  On  the  one  side,  there  is  a  trap-door,  which 
can  be  closed  with  a  peg,  and  to  another  pin  sticking  in  the  basket  the 
bait  is  fastened,  while  under  the  basket  there  are  large  stones  to  make 
it  sink  rapidly.  To  one  of  the  uppermost  chips  of  wood,  a  pair  of  tongs 
is  fastened,  furnished  at  the  end  with  a  piece  of  wood  to  indicate  the 
location  of  the  basket.  Such  are  still  in  common  use  all  along  our 
coast.  Still  earlier,  in  1746,  the  famous  naturalist,  Carl  Linne,  described 
similar  baskets,  which  he  saw  in  use  on  the  coast  of  Bohuslen,  in  his 
"  West-Gbta  Kesa,"  p.  191.  These  were  two  yards  long,  one  yard  broad, 
and  one  yard  high,  resembling  a  half-cylinder,  with  entrances  on  both 
sides ;  such  are  still  used  and  could  be  seen  at  the  Bergen  Exposition. 
At  this  same  exposition,  a  basket  was  exhibited,  differing  somewhat  from 
these  in  its  shape ;  it  was  plaited  of  branches,  and  was  shaped  like  a 
hemisphere,  with  an  entrance  at  the  top.  An  illustration  of  this  basket 
is  given  in  the  report  on  the  exposition. 

Lobster-fishing  is  carried  on  at  different  seasons  on  different  parts  of 
the  coast  of  Norway.  It  generally  begins  in  spring,  but  iu  some  places, 
e.  g.,  near  Christianssand,  it  continues  all  winter.  Farther  south  the 
spring  fisheries  begin  earlier;  thus,  on  the  coast  from  Sireaa  to  Jredder  in 
the  middle  or  toward  the  end  of  March,  as  the  lobsters  then  begin  to  go 


230       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

iuto  shallower  waters.  From  Karmo  to  Bspevser,  the  fisheries  begin  in 
April,  and  farther  north,  near  Straudsnud,  in  the  beginning  of  May.  Near 
the  Jaedder,  which  is  farther  south,  but  where  the  coast  is  not  so  flat  and 
convenient,  the  fisheries  commence  much  later.  The  fisheries  are  con- 
tinued through  the  following  months,  but  cease  iu  the  first-mentioued 
district  in  the  middle  or  toward  the  end  of  June,  while  in  the  others, 
near  Stavanger  and  the  Southern  Bergen  district,  they  are  continued 
till  the  middle  of  June,  and  farther  north  till  the  first  of  August.  When 
the  fisheries  are  to  commence,  the  fishermen  go  to  the  outer  islands  near 
the  open  sea,  where  the  fisheries  are  richest,  and  live  in  sheds  built  for  the 
purpose,  during  the  whole  week  from  Monday  on,  returning  with  the 
lobsters  on  Saturday,  fishing  thus  going  on  for  five  days  each  week. 
Two  men  generally  club  together  and  have  thirty  to  fifty  baskets.  In 
the  evening,  the  baskets  are  furnished  with  bait,  consisting  of  all  sorts 
of  fish  except  herring  and  mackerel ;  for  they  claim  to  have  noticed  that 
lobsters  caught  with  bait  of  the  last-mentioned  kind  do  not  live  long. 
The  baskets  are  then  placed  in  the  sea  at  a  depth  varying  from  16  to  2 
fathoms,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year,  and  taken  out  before  sun- 
rise. The  baskets  can  also  be  put  in  positiou  when  the  tide  comes  in, 
and  be  taken  up  when  it  goes  out.  As  soon  as  the  lobster  is  taken 
from  the  basket,  its  claws  are  tied  together  with  strong  twine,  and 
it  is  placed  either  into  a  box  perforated  with  many  holes,  or  into  a 
larger  basket,  which  is  then  sunk  in  the  water  near  the  coast.  Here 
the  lobsters  remain  till  Saturday  morning,  when  they  are  taken  out  and 
brought  to  the  dealers,  from  whom  the  fishermen  immediately  receive 
their  pay.  Ev7ery  lobster  which  measures  more  than  8  inches  from  the 
spine  on  its  forehead  to  the  tip  end  of  its  tail,  and  whose  claws  are  perfect, 
is  called  a  "  full  man ;"  but  if  it  measures  somewhat  less,  or  if  portions 
of  its  claws  are  missing,  it  is  called  "  half  a  man,"  and  only  fetches  half 
the  price  of  the  others.  The  dealers,  who  collect  the  lobsters  on  the  coast, 
pack  them  in  large  boats  that  can  hold  as  many  as  2,000,  cover  them  up 
with  sea-weeds  to  protect  them  against  the  sun,  and  send  them  to  the 
chief  depot,  where  they  are  immediately  placed  in  special  boxes. 
These  boxes  differ  somewhat  among  themselves;  the  best  are  about 
3  yards  long,  2£  yards  broad,  and  18  inches  high,  and  perforated 
by  numerous  holes,  so  as  to  constantly  admit  fresh  water.  These 
boxes  hold  about  400  lobsters  each.  Formerly,  they  were  not  so 
high,  but  then  the  mortality  among  them  was  greater,  especially  in  bad 
weather,  when  the  rain  adulterated  the  water  in  the  box.  In  other  places, 
these  boxes  are  perfectly  square,  measuring  four  yards  each  way,  and 
hold  about  500  to  800  lobsters.  After  the  lobsters  have  arrived  at  the 
chief  depot,  they  must  always  rest  for  some  hours  in  the  box,  before 
they  are  placed  on  board  the  vessels,  as  they  are  sick  from  the  long 
voyage  in  open  boats  without  water.  Every  Saturday,  an  English  lob- 
ster-vessel comes  to  the  depot,  begins  to  take  its  cargo  in  the  evening, 
and  gets  through  with  this  Sunday  afternoon,  whereupon  it  immediately 


NORWEGIAN   LOBSTEE-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  231 

goes  out  to  sea.  In  this  manner,  the  fishery  has  been  arranged  for  more 
than  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  as  it  seems,  by  the  Dutch,  of  which  more 
will  be  said  under  the  history  of  the  fishery.  Nowadays,  the  fisher- 
men receive  a  far  higher  price  for  their  lobsters  than  formerly,  and  as 
a  general  rule  they  get  in  Stavanger  and  Bergen  from  4  to  41  cents 
apiece,  but  farther  north  they  are  cheaper.  Formerly,  when  the  price 
in  Stavanger  was  lower,  about  one-half  cent  extra  was  given  for  every 
lobster  caught  before  the  middle  of  May,  but  this  custom  has  been  aban- 
doned. The  dealers  who  receive  the  lobsters  from  the  fishermen  receive 
about  GO  cents  as  box-money  for  every  thousand,  and  20  to  25  cents  for 
every  hundred  they  bring  to  the  chief  depot  for  every  fall  mile  they 
travel  with  them.  The  wholesale  dealers  receive  the  same  box-money,  but 
besides  $3  as  weekly  money.  If  they  do  not  keep  any  boxes  themselves, 
but  receive  them  from  the  lobster-company,  the  retail  dealers  get  $3  for 
every  thousand,  and  the  wholesale  dealers  $4.50  for  every  thousand, 
but,  in  that  case,  no  week-money.  When  the  lobster- vessels  go  to  sea, 
they  always  go  straight  over  to  England,  to  Grimsby  and  Harwich, 
while  formerly  they  went  to  London,  anchoring  near  Greenwich  in  the 
evening,  unloading  the  lobsters  during  the  night,  and  taking  them  to 
London,  where  they  arrived  in  the  Billingsgate  market  before  sunrise. 
Now  the  vessels,  on  arriving  in  one  of  the  above-mentioned  ports,  go 
into  the  dock,  which  is  specially  intended  for  them,  and  the  lobsters  are 
unloaded  into  the  fish-boxes  belonging  to  the  dock,  which  are  rented  out 
for  one  English  shilling  a  day.  These  fish-boxes  are  shaped  like  a  boat, 
are*  11  yards  long  and  5  feet  broad,  but  have  a  flat  bottom.  They 
are  hoisted  up  so  that  the  water  runs  off,  and  the  lobsters  are  sent  in 
suitable  baskets  by  railroad  to  Billingsgate.  Sometimes  they  are  sorted 
in  the  ports,  but  this  is  mostly  done  in  London.  The  largest  lobsters 
are  picked  out,  and  twenty  are  always  packed  in  a  basket,  which  gets  a 
black  stroke  as  a  mark.  The  smaller  ones  are  packed  forty  in  a  basket, 
and  get  two  strokes  as  a  mark,  while  the  smallest  are  packed  sixty  in  a 
box,  and  get  three  strokes  as  a  mark.  The  baskets  with  one  stroke  are 
more  valuable  than  those  with  two  and  three,  although  these  latter  con- 
tain more  lobsters.  The  wholesale  dealers  in  the  market  get  them  from 
the  railroad  and  sort  them,  and  they  then  pass  over  to  the  fishmongers. 
These  boil  them,  and  send  the  finest  to  their  best  customers  in  the  city 
and  the  country,  while  the  small  ones  are  sold  in  the  city  to  cheap  res 
taurants  and  private  individuals. 

In  the  Billingsgate  ftarket,  the  lobsters  meet  their  brethren  from  the 
English,  Scotch,  and  other  coasts.  From  the  south  coast  of  England, 
they  come  by  the  Southwestern  Bail  way,  and  by  the  Great  Western 
from  Bristol,  to  which  ports  they  have  come  from  Guernsey  and  Jersey, 
the  Scilly  Islands,  aud  Land's-Eud.  From  Scotland,  the  Orkney  Islands, 
and  Lewis  Island  about  180,000  come  every  year,  partly  in  steamers* 
from  Ireland,  they  come  by  way  of  Liverpool  •  while  a  smaller  number 
come  from  Sweden  and  Heligoland.    All   these  are  gathered  in  the 


232       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Billingsgate  market,  and  are  thence  distributed  from  March  to  August. 
Not  all  are  consumed  iu  England,  but  a  portion  are  again  sent  away, 
especially  to  France. 

I  have  mentioned  that  the  coast  is  divided  into  certain  districts,  and 
that  in  these  there  are  certain  stations  for  the  retail  and  wholesale 
dealers,  from  which  the  lobsters  are  shipped,  and  where  the  government 
custom-house  officers  are  stationed,  as  great  facilities  are  afforded  to  this 
trade  in  the  way  of  customs,  &c,  of  which  I  shall  speak  more  under 
the  history  of  the  fisheries.  Of  these  districts,  the  first,  the  most  east- 
erly one,  extends  from  Faerder  to  Mardo,  but  from  this  district  none 
are  at  present  exported  to  England.  The  same  is  partly  the  case  in 
the  second  district,  which  extends  from  Mardo  to  Cape  Lindesnaes, 
although  some  are  placed  dry  in  boxes  and  sent  by  steamer  to  Loudon 
and  Hamburg.  In  this  manner,  lobsters  are  also  shipped  from  the  next 
district,  which  extends  from  Cape  Lindesnaes  to  Suaekken,  the  chief 
place  from  which  they  are  exported  in  this  district  being  Kirkehavn. 
The  lobsters  are  placed  iu  the  boxes  in  several  layers,  the  tail  beiug 
bent  under  the  stomach.  The  boxes  are  then  closed,  and  the  lobsters 
keep  alive  for  a  considerable  time.  Formerly,  they  were  from  these  dis- 
tricts also  exported  in  barrels ;  but  this  was  discontinued  twenty 
years  ago.  The  next  district  extends  from  Stavanger,  near  the  river 
Sire  to  Vig. 

[A  following  half-page  defines  the  exact  location  of  the  different  dis- 
tricts.— Transl.] 

Nearly  all  the  lobsters  which  are  shipped  from  Norway  are  sent  alive. 
Pontoppidau  relates  that  in  his  time — the  middle  of  the  last  century — 
some  were  salted  just  before  being  shipped,  but  this  custom  seems  to 
have  been  subsecpiently  abandoned,  as  so  many  lobsters  died  during 
the  voyage.  In  this  century,  Mr.  Jacob  Morch,  aChristiania  merchant, 
tried  the  plan  of  putting  them  up  in  hermetically-closed  receptacles ; 
but  as  all  those  which  had  been  put  up  by  him  in  this  manner  did  not 
get  the  red  color  of  the  fresh  boiled  lobsters,  and  therefore  were  not 
liked  so  well,  he  took  out  a  patent  in  1840  for  putting  them  up  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  keep  their  beautiful  red  color.  He  dipped  them  in  boil- 
ing water  containing  salt  till  they  got  this  color,  and  then  made  an 
incision  iu  the  soft  part  under  the  tail,  thus  letting  the  water  which 
injured  them  flow  off,  and  then  placed  them  in  hermetically-sealed  ves- 
sels. Very  few  lobsters  put  up  in  this  manner, *however,  seem  to  have 
been  exported,  and  nothing  more  has  been  heard  about  it. 

THE  LOBSTER-TRADE   AND   THE  HISTORY  OF  ITS  LEGISLATION. 

Although  the  lobster  had  been  known  to  our  ancestors  from  time 
immemorial,  it  was,  as  has  been  said  above,  but  little  used  as  an  article 
of  food,  and  foreigners  have  taught  us  to  like  its  flavor.  In  Holland,  the 
lobster  seems  to  have  been  highly  prized,  even  in  olden  times ;  and  when 
their  lobster-fisheries  were  no  longer  able  to  supply  the  demand,  the 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FiSHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  233 

Dutch  began  to  visit  Norway  as  early  as  the  seventeenth  century,  but  it 
seems  that  lobsters  were  not  exported  in  any  considerable  quantity  till  the 
middle  of  the  century,  especially  from  Flaikkefiord  and  from  Karino. 
The  citizens  of  Zierikzee  in  Holland  commenced  this  trade,  and  for  a 
long  time  carried  it  on  exclusively.  We  read  that  lobsters  were  ex- 
ported from  Fisekkefiord  in  1060.  In  1674,  that  port  was  visited  by  ten 
lobster-ships,  and,  in  1676,  Hittero  near  Flcekkefiord,  and  Egvaag  near 
Farsuud,  became  the  chief  stations  in  the  districts  of  Lister  aud  Mandal. 
From  1690  thenceforward  the  Zierikzee  boats  visited  Karmo  regularly, 
Skutesuoes  and  Buken  being  the  first  lobster-ports  in  that  district.  The 
Dutch  were  so  eager  to  further  these  fisheries  that  they  gave  presents 
to  the  clergymen,  consisting  of  cheese  and  cakes,  and  thereby  induced 
them  to  exhort  the  peasants  in  front  of  the  church  to  catch  and  sell 
lobsters.  This  succeeded  so  well  near  Lister  that  I  find  that  a  man  on 
July  7,  1699,  had  his  ground  solemnly  consecrated  so  as  to  prevent 
other  people  from  catching  lobsters  there.  The  clergymen  at  Karmo 
received  presents  till  1730,  when  the  Dutch  found  that  it  had  become  an 
unnecessary  expense,  the  lobster-fisheries  being  by  that  time  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition.  Till  1713,  however,  these  fisheries  were  not  carried 
on  to  any  very  great  extent,  as  wars  hindered  the  fishermen  from  follow- 
ing their  occupation  aud  made  the  export  uncertain.  People  therefore 
contented  themselves  with  catching  lobsters  with  tongs ;  but,  after  the 
peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713,  the  export  of  lobsters  was  better  regulated,  aud 
several  ports  were  visited  both  in  the  Stavanger  and  in  the  South  Ber- 
gen districts.  Then  people  began  to  make  baskets,  which  the  Dutch  were 
very  anxious  to  introduce,  as  many  of  the  lobsters  caught  with  tongs 
died.  The  Dutch,  therefore,  gave  to  those  fishermen  who  used  baskets 
clay  pipes,  and  twine  to  tie  the  claws  of  the  lobster.  By  agreement, 
common  customs  and  regulations  for  loading  the  ships  had  been  adopted, 
so  that  the  shipper  who  first  came  into  port  should  be  allowed  to  take  his 
full  load  before  any  of  the  others  could  buy  any.  The  price  had  also 
been  fixed  by  the  Dutch  at  about  one  cent  for  each  lobster,  ("full  man,") 
and  about  fifteen  cents  for  every  one  hundred  lobsters  brought  along- 
side of  the  ship.  In  order  to  avoid  competition  among  the  buyers,  every 
port  had  a  certain  district  assigned  to  it  from  which  it  was  sup- 
plied with  lobsters,  and  every  captain  had  a  certain  port  to  which  his 
ship  must  go.  As  loug  as  this  trade  was  carried  on  exclusively  by  the 
citizens  of  Zierikzee,  this  agreement  was  kept  up,  and  both  buyers 
and  sellers  were  contented.  The  following  places  were  then  gradually 
designated  as  lobster-ports:  Mandal, Flsekkefiord,  Egersund,  Tananger, 
or  perhaps  Stavanger,  Akre  on  the  island  of  Karmo,  and  Leervig  on  the 
island  of  Stordo.  Outside  of  Lister,  Stavanger,  aud  the  southern  part  of 
the  Bergen  district,  it  was  not  allowed  to  catch  or  sell  lobsters  on  account 
of  the  strange  belief  prevalent  among  the  fishermen  that  lobster-fishing 
would  ruin  the  other  fisheries.  This  can  be  seen  from  Governor  Povel 
Juel's  memorial  of  1717,  which  is  fouud  in  the  royal  archives,  where  we 


234       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

read  :  "  It  is  thought  that  the  lobster-fisheries  are  very  injurious  to  all 
the  other  important  fisheries ;  for  experienced  fishermen  say  that  fish 
mostly  live  where  there  are  lobsters,  and  that  they  dive  to  the  bottom 
to  get  the  roe  of  the  lobster.  It  is  well  known  all  along  the  coast  that 
through  lobster-fishing  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries  are  neglected,  and 
it  is  desirable  that  this  fishery  should  be  entirely  abandoned." 

Thisbeliefin  the  injuriousness  of  the  lobster-fisheries  seems  to  have  been 
very  common  till  the  end  of  the  last  century ;  for,  in  "  Versuch  einer  Natur- 
geschichte  der  Krabben  und  Krebse, "  by  Herbst,  1797,  it  says  "  that  many 
people  think  this  trade  is  injurious  to  Norway,  as  the  removal  of  large 
quantities  of  lobsters  makes  the  fisheries  leave  the  coast  of  Norway."  Gov- 
ernor Holm,  in  his  u  Forsog  til  Beshrivelse  over  Lister  og  Mandate  Amter  i 
Korge"  likewise  says:  "It  is  difficult  to  say  in  how  far  lobster-fishing 
hinders  the  other  fisheries,  as  many  fishermen  stoutly  maintain.  Lobster- 
fishing  has  been  carried  on,  as  now,  in  clden  times,  when  the  other  fish- 
eries were  very  considerable."  The  lobster-ships  were  to  go  to  certain 
ports  specially  designated,  and,  on  leaving  these  ports,  were  to  pay  a 
sum  to  the  custom-house  officers,  who  besides  liked  to  take  small  pres- 
ents, which  abuse  is  complained  of  as  early  as  1717,  as  likewise 
that  the  citizens  sold  to  the  lobster-ships  brandy  and  lumber,  receiviug 
in  exchange  various  goods  which  paid  no  duty.  The  lobster-ships  gen- 
erally came  twice  a  year  from  Holland,  late  in  autumn  and  early  in 
spring,  and  sailed  along  the  coast  to  get  their  cargo  in  the  ports  des- 
ignated for  them.  The  English  at  that  time  received  their  lobsters 
from  their  own  coasts,  from  the  North  American  islands,  and  from  Heli- 
goland ;  1^,000  having  been  exported  to  England  from  the  latter  place  in 
1713,  aud  34,000  in  1714.  But,  as  soon  as  the  English  demand  grew 
larger,  English  ships  occasionally  came  to  Norwegian  ports,  and  bought 
lobsters,  paying  a  higher  price  than  the  Dutch.  It  seemed,  also,  as  if, 
through  the  introduction  of  baskets  in  Lister  aud  Karmo,  by  which  lob- 
sters were  easier  caught  in  greater  numbers,  and  through  the  increased 
export  during  the  years  of  peace  after  1713,  the  quantity  of  lobsters  had 
decreased,  and  the  fishermen  began  to  complain  of  the  low  price  paid 
by  the  Dutch.  In  1716,  the  fishermen  of  Lister  addressed  a  memorial 
to  Governor  Povel  Juel,  saying  "that  they  no  longer  could  sell  lobsters 
according  to  the  old  regulations  at  a  cent  apiece,  because  the  fisheries 
decreased  year  by  year,  so  that  they  had  no  reward  for  their  trouble, 
danger,  and  expense,  but  only  less  profit  in  their  farming,  which  had  to 
be  entirely  neglected  on  account  of  these  fisheries ;  they,  therefore,  had 
concluded  to  give  up  the  above-mentioned  fisheries  entirely;"  and, 
therefore,  they  petitioned  him  to  forbid  the  lobster-buyers  to  visit  the 
ports,  or  at  least  to  raise  the  price  to  2  cents  apiece.  The  governor, 
who  always  seems  to  have  taken  a  deep  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his 
district,  consequently  decreed,  July  15,  1717,  "  partly  in  order  to  please 
the  farmers,  and  partly  the  lobster-buyers,  who  would  quickly  get  their 
cargo  if  all  the  men  along  the  coast  gave  greater  attention  to  the 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  235 

fisheries,  because  they  had  the  price  raised,  and  had  not  to  lie  in  port 
eating  up  their  provisions,"  that  the  lobster-buyers  who,  after  this  date, 
came  to  the  ports  in  his  district  ''  should  pay  2  cents  for  every  lobster, 
either  living  or  dead,  great  or  small,  just  as  it  might  come;  but,  if 
it  only  had  oue  claw,  1£  cents,  and  not  give  either  a  higher  or  a 
lower  price.  Any  one  acting  contrary  to  this  decree  should  pay  a 
fine  of  about  30  cents  for  every  lobster,  half  of  which  should  go  to  the 
informer,  and  half  to  the  sick  poor  of  the  parish  ;  and  the  lobster  which 
had  been  either  bought  or  sold  should  be  confiscated."  The  old  cus- 
toms, that  the  ship  coming  into  port  first  should  first  take  its  full  cargo, 
&c,  should  remain.  He  also  induced  the  governor  of  Stavanger  to 
issue  the  same  decree  in  his  district,  but  the  governor  of  the  South 
Bergen  district  would  not  do  so.  When  the  lobster-traders  in  Zierikzee 
heard  of  these  regulations,  they  resolved  to  oppose  them  unanimously, 
and  agreed  iii  writiug  not  to  give  more  than  oue  cent  for  each  lobster, 
and  also  to  send  their  ships  on  one  and  the  same  day  to  those  places 
where  they  were  accustomed  to  get  their  cargo,  so  as  to  prevent  any  of  the 
shippers  from  abandoning  the  agreement  entered  into  and  paying  more. 
They  thought  that  if  all  the  shippers  were  unanimous  not  to  pay  more, 
the  poor  fishermen  would  finally  give  in  if  they  saw  that  the  shippers 
made  preparations  for  sailing  and  no  one  else  was  there  to  buy.  Their 
commissioner  in  Stavanger,  Lauritz  Smith,  made  great  exertions  to 
induce  the  peasants  to  return  to  the  old  price,  by  traveling  in  person  to 
Tananger,  where  he  had  great  influence,  and  by  urging  the  clergymen 
to  induce  their  parishioners  to  sell  at  the  old  price,  promising  them  some 
extra  presents  from  the  Dutch  if  they  should  prove  successful  in  per- 
suading the  peasants.  All  the  custom-house  officers  also  assisted  him, 
because  they  were  afraid  of  losing  their  fees  and  small  presents  which 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  receiving  from  the  Dutch.  He  was,  however, 
only  successful  in  one  parish  in  the  Tananger  district,  while  in  all  the 
others  and  in  the  districts  of  Lister,  Mandal,  and  Stavanger  the  peasants 
immovably  stuck  to  their  new  price.  In  the  Bergen  district,  the  gov- 
ernor had  issued  no  decrees,  and  Smith  succeeded,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  custom-house  officers  in  Leervig,  in  furnishing  the  Dutch  several 
cargoes  at  the  old  price.  The  wealthy  peasants  were  the  most  eager  to 
uphold  the  new  price,  forcing  the  poorer  ones  not  to  sell,  so  that  all  the 
exertions  of  the  Dutch  failed;  the  new  price  soon  becoming  universal 
everywhere,  and  prevailing  till  near  the  end  of  the  century,  but  only  for 
living  lobsters  measuring  more  than  8  inches  in  length,  while  for  the 
smaller  ones  or  those  having  only  one  claw  only  one  cent  was  paid. 
Lauritz  Smith  also  made  complaints  to  the  government  in  Copenhagen 
regarding  Governor  Juel's  decrees,  and  as  Juel  was  not  in  favor  with  the 
government,  his  decrees  for  the  benefit  of  the  peasants  did  not  meet  with 
its  approval.  In  his  report  to  the  king,  Smith  complained  very  strongly 
that  the  governor  had  attempted  to  change  old  established  customs 
which  to  all  intents  and  purposes  related  to  foreigners.    The  report 


236       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

suggested  that  all  the  fisheries  should  be  rented  out  for  the  benefit  of 
the  royal  treasury.  Governor  Juel  was  that  same  year  obliged  to  resign 
and  could  do  no  more  in  this  matter.  The  thought  of  reutiug  them  out 
was  again  given  up,  as  the  new  governor  could  not  advise  such  a  step;  but 
sometime  afterward  the  question  began  to  be  asked  whether  the  country's 
own  merchants  might  not  derive  some  advantage  from  this  trade,  and 
whether  they  might  not  reap  the  great  profit  which  had  hitherto  fallen 
to  the  share  of  the  Dutch.  The  export  of  lobsters  was  quite  considerable 
at  this  time,  as  the  district  of  Bergen  was  annually  visited  by  eight  ships, 
and  more  than  twenty  took  their  cargoes  in  the  districts  of  Lister,  Manda, 
and  Stavauger.  There  is  no  information  as  to  the  size  of  these  ships,  or 
how  many  lobtsers  they  took,  but  each  took  a  cargo  twice  a  year  ;  and 
even  if  they  were  not  as  large  as  those  mentioned  about  the  middle  of  the 
century  which  could  hold  4,000  to  6,000  lobsters,  the  quantity  of  lobsters 
exported  was,  nevertheless,  very  considerable,  and  the  Dutch  traders 
must  certainly  have  enjoyed  a  good  income  from  this  trade,  as  on  every 
occasion  they  showed  themselves  so  eager  to  retain  it.  As  lobster-fish- 
ing had  become  much  easier  since  the  introduction  of  baskets,  and 
more  profitable  through  the  higher  price  which  the  peasants  got,  the 
lauded  proprietors  wanted  to  have  the  exclusive  right  to  fish  near  their 
grounds  and  forbid  all  others  to  do  so.  This  they  thought  could  best 
be  done  by  haviug  their  grounds  solemnly  consecrated.  I  find  such  a 
consecration  of  a  farm  near  Lister,  spoken  of  as  early  as  1689,  but  on 
the  island  of  Karrno  not  till  1720.  In  some  places,  such  a  consecration 
was  respected ;  while  in  others  this  was  not  the  case,  the  people  haviug 
an  idea  that  fishing  in  the  sea  should  be  free  to  all.  A  law-suit  in  1725 
resulted  in  the  confirmation  of  this  ancient  law  of  free  fishing  in  the  sea 
by  a  royal  decree,  which  also  affected  the  lobster-fisheries.  David  Hal- 
vorsen  Vraa  and  Jacob  Olsen  Vidoen,  of  the  village  of  Staengeland,  on 
the  island  of  Karmo,  in  1725,  brought  a  law-suit  against  some  fishermen, 
who,  in  spite  of  the  consecration  of  their  ground,  had  placed  some  lob- 
ster-baskets near  some  small  islands  belonging  to  them.  Judge  Leth 
gave  judgment  on  the  29th  of  August  of  the  same  year  in  favor  of  the 
plaintiffs,  on  the  ground  that  the  law,  book  5,  chapter  11,  article  2,  con- 
firmed by  book  3,  chapter  13,  article  1,  gave  the  owners  the  right  to 
use  all  the  profits  that  might  be  derived  from  their  property.  After 
this  judgment  had  been  passed,  all  the  owners  of  islands  began  to  forbid 
the  fishermen  from  catching  lobsters  not  only  on  those  portions  of  the 
coast  that  were  very  near  to  their  farms,  but  also  on  islands  that  lay  at  a 
distance  of  three  or  four  miles  from  the  coast.  The  poor  fishermen,  who 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  lived  entirely  off  the  lobster-fisheries,  saw 
themselves  deprived  of  this  means  of  making  a  living,  and  complained 
bitterly  to  the  highest  authorities,  maintaining  "  that  the  lobsterrfisher- 
ies  have  never  before  been  forbidden  them,  and  that  now  they  were  de- 
prived of  their  only  way  of  making  a  living;"  they  pointed  out  that  the 
king's  own  sailors  were  especially  hurt  by  this  judgment.    Through  the 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTEE-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  237 

governor,  their  complaints  were  laid  before  the  viceroy,  Mr.  Weber,  who 
had  the  matter  examined  by  competent  men,  and  thereupon  sent  a  me- 
morial to  the  king,  in  which  he  says,  among  other  things:  "The  bless- 
ings which  tbe  sea  bestows  will  become  useless,  if  the  owner  of  the 
ground  has  the  power  to  take  and  keep  everything  pertaining  to  the 
fisheries;  fish  are  not  in  one  place,  but  change  from  one  to  the  other; 
and  the  fishermen,  who  alone  understand  the  fisheries  and  earn  their 
living  thereby,  must  go  after  the  fish.  It  is  a  general  custom  of  the 
country,  and  also  in  accordance  with  the  law,  that  every  one  takes  the 
fish  which  the  sea  yields  wherever  he  finds  them,  with  the  exception  of 
the  salmon,  which  always  goes  to  certain  places  that  pay  a  special  tax, 
and  where,  therefore,  none  but  the  owner  is  allowed  to  fish.  The  law, 
book  5,  chapter  11,  article  11,  says  that  no  one  must  hinder  another  per- 
son in  the  fisheries  he  possesses  from  olden  times,  and  article  2  of  the  same 
chapter,  on  which  the  judge  has  based  his  argument,  says:  'Every  man 
shall  enjoy  the  water  and  the  fisheries  near  his  grounds  which  he  has 
possessed  from  olden  times,  unless  he  has  been  deprived  of  these  privi- 
leges by  law ;'  and  book  3,  chapter  13,  article  1,  says  :  'A  nobleman  and 
landed  proprietor  is,  more  than  any  stranger,  privileged  to  use  all  the 
advantages  of  his  property.'  Fierce  law-suits  would  follow,  if  the  owner 
of  such  islands  could  forbid  the  fishermen  to  catch  lobsters,  as  the  bless- 
ing of  the  sea  would  then  remain  useless,  and  the  little  that  was  de- 
rived from  it  would  not  be  properly  treated,  since  the  fishermen  alone 
have  the  greatest  experience  in  this  matter,"  &c.  He  therefore  pro- 
poses to  the  king  to  revoke  the  judgment  given  by  Judge  Leth,  and 
allow  all  and  every  one  to  fish  lobsters.  The  result  of  this  memorial  was 
a  royal  decree,  dated  April  23,  1728,  to  the  effect  that  lobster-fishing 
should  be  free  to  all. 

After  this  decree  had  made  the  lobster-fisheries  free,  the  export  of 
lobsters,  concerning  whose  decrease  complaints  had  been  made  to  the 
viceroy,  rose  again,  so  that  in  1733  twenty-three  large  cargoes,  contain- 
ing 160,000  lobsters,  went  to  Holland,  and  the  rest  to  England  in  thirty- 
two  small  English  and  nine  Norwegian  vessels.  The  Stavauger  fish- 
ermen had  recently  got  six  to  eight  lobster-vessels,  after  the  question 
whether  the  advantages  of  the  lobster-trade  might  not  just  as  well  be 
enjoyed  by  the  king's  own  subjects  as  by  the  Dutch  had  been  settled, 
and  certain  privileges  had  been  granted  to  the  home  traders,  decreeing 
"  that  in  order  not  to  let  foreigners  reap  the  chief  profit,  a  Norwegian 
ship  should  be  admitted  into  every  port  before  anything  should  be  sold  to 
foreigners."  English  vessels  likewise  began  from  this  time  to  visit  the 
coasts  of  Norway  in  greater  numbers  ;  many  of  these  had  formerly  taken 
their  cargoes  near  Heligoland,  and  had  left  that  region  because  the 
fisheries  had  decreased  there.  Several  ports  of  export  and  custom- 
houses were  established  on  account  of  the  increased  fisheries  ;  six  ports 
being  alone  established  in  the  Stavauger  districts.  On  account  of  the 
greater  demand  for  lobsters,  the  fisheries  were  carried  on  to  a  great 


238       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

extent,  and  complaints  are  made  during  the  following  years  that  the 
number  of  lobsters  on  the  coast  was  decreasing.  Count  Rantzau,  who 
was  governor  at  the  time,  issued  an  order  to  his  officers  that  they  should 
make  suggestions  as  to  what  should  be  done  to  prevent  the  decrease  of 
this  important  fishery,  which  yielded  so  large  an  income  to  the  king  and 
the  nation.  Judge  Lorn,  in  Lister,  in  1737  made  a  proposition  that  the 
fishermen  should  be  forbidden  to  sell  any  lobsters  measuring  less  than 
9  to  10  inches  in  length,  under  a  fine  of  about  CO  cents  for  every  smaller 
lobster  which  is  sold  ;  and  as  the  lobster,  as  far  as  kuown  to  him,  emits 
its  roe  toward  the  end  of  June,  fishing  should  cease  from  June  24  till 
the  end  of  February.  This  for  those  times  very  remarkable  proposi- 
tion was  not  supported  by  others,  and  was  forgotten  ;  more  than  one 
hundred  years  were  to  pass  before  the  idea  of  protecting  the  lobster 
during  the  season  when  it  spawns  and  sheds  its  shell  was  destined  to 
become  a  reality,  and  a  law  passed  concerning  it.  Peasants  who  had 
farms  near  the  sea  where  lobsters  were  caught,  believed  that  the  decrease 
of  these  fisheries  wTas  chiefly  caused  by  the  freedom  of  fishing,  and  that 
the  lobsters  would  finally  be  exterminated.  There  was  consequently  great 
dissatisfaction  with  the  royal  decree,  which  favored  the  small  farmers  at 
the  expense  of  the  great  ones.  They  likewise  thought  that  as  conse- 
crating the  ground  had,  with  few  exceptions,  always  been  respected, 
owners  should  also  in  the  future  be  exclusively  permitted  to  fish  lobsters 
on  their  gounds,  it'  these  had  been  consecrated  prior  to  the  royal  decree. 
Many  government  officials  seemed  to  have  shared  this  view,  especially 
when  the  fisheries  began  to  decrease  very  much  and  the  peasants  found 
it  very  difficult  to  pay  their  taxes.  The  judge,  in  his  answer  to  Gov- 
ernor Eantzau's  inquiry  regarding  the  economical  pressure,  says  ex- 
pressly "  that  in  assessing  the  taxes  on  each  farm  regard  had  been  had 
to  the  lobster-fisheries,  which  have  become  exceedingly  profitable,  for 
which  reason  the  Dutch  and  English  lobster-vessels  frequent  our  coast. 
In  these  regions,  mackerel  and  other  important  fisheries  have  belonged 
to  the  farms  lying  near  the  sea;  and  as,  in  the  district  of  Lister,  these 
fisheries  have  been  so  entirely  destroyed  that  the  inhabitants  have  not 
had  any  use  of  them  for  many  years,  and  had  to  lay  aside  their  nets 
and  seines,  which  they  had  bought  at  a  great  expense,  they  now  have 
nothing  else  to  fall  back  upon  for  earning  a  living  and  paying  their 
taxes  but  the  lobster-fisheries  near  their  ground,  since  the  quantity  of 
grain  and  hay  wdiich  they  harvest  is  but  very  small,  and  agriculture  is, 
in  many  places,  connected  with  the  greatest  difficulties."  He  would, 
therefore,  propose  "that,  in  order  to  preserve  the  fisheries,  land-owners 
may  have  the  exclusive  right  of  fishing  on  the  coast  near  their  grounds 
and  around  all  those  islands,  which  were  formerly  used  for  agriculture, 
as  far  as  the  deep  water,  but  that  all  the  remaining  waters  should  be 
free  to  every  one."  He,  therefore,  wished  to  bring  back  the  condition 
which  existed  before  Judge  Leth  gave  the  two  farmers  mentioned  above 
the  exclusive  right  to  fish  lobsters  near  their  grounds,  which  right  all 


g 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  239 

Land-owners,  from  foolish  covetonsness,  exercised  so  far  as  to  forbid  the 
poor  fishermen  from  catching  lobsters  on  the  outer  coast  as  formerly,  for 
which  reason  the  royal  decree  also  made  lobster-fishing  entirely  free. 
The  decree,  however,  remained  in  force,  for  the  special  reason  that  it 
favored  the  enrolled  sailors,  to  assist  whom  was  in  the  interest  of  the 
government. 

The  dissatisfaction  with  the  existing  state  of  affairs  did  not  grow  less 
in  course  of  time ;  but  every  time  that  the  political  situation  in 
Europe  favored  or  did  not  prevent  the  lobster-trade,  the  land-owners 
endeavored  to  regain  the  exclusive  right  of  fishing  lobsters  near  their 
grounds.  In  the  district  of  Flrekkefiord,  there  were  thus,  in  1790, 
serious  quarrels  between  the  fishermen  and  the  land-owners,  who  tried 
to  prevent  the  fishermen  from  catching  lobsters  near  their  grounds, 
forbidding  them  to  live  on  their  islands,  or  to  set  their  baskets  and 
gather  the  lobsters.  Mr.  Schiouuing,  a  custom-house  officer,  January  13, 
1770,  made  a  proposition  to  the  board  of  trade,  containing  more  definite 
regulations  concerning  the  rights  of  both  parties,  in  order  to  put  an  end 
to  the  quarrels  between  the  fishermen  and  the  landowners.  This  propo- 
sition was  sent  to  the  governor,  at  that  time  Mr.  Teiste,  who  quietly 
shelved  it. 

The  Stavanger  merchants,  after  the  year  1730,  had  bought  several 
lobster-vessels  for  shipping  lobsters  to  Holland,  because  they  now 
had  a  number  of  privileges  with  regard  to  the  sale  of  lobsters.  They 
could  not,  however,  derive  from  it  the  profit  they  desired,  as  the 
Dutch  sought  in  every  way  to  hinder  the  sale  of  lobsters  in  Hol- 
land from  Norwegian  vessels.  Several  Stavanger  merchants,  there- 
fore, again  sold  their  vessels  to  the  Dutch,  and  became  Dutch  com- 
missioners ;  letting  the  trade,  however,  go  on  in  their  own  name,  so 
as  to  retain  for  their  ships  the  privilege  of  first  buyers.  Complaints 
were  made,  and  the  Norwegian  vessels  seem  somewhat  later  to  have 
lost  this  privilege  of  the  first  buyer.  The  last  who  owned  lobster- 
ships  were  the  firms  of  Kjellaud  &  Son  and  Planz  &  Sunt,  in  Sta- 
vanger, who  became  commissioners  for  English  lobster-companies,  which, 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  gradually  took  possession 
of  the  lobster-trade,  pushing  the  Dutch  into  the  background.  The  priv- 
ileges granted  to  Norwegian  vessels  greatly  benefitted  the  commerce  of 
Norway,  which  at  that  time  could  not  compete  with  the  more  powerful 
commercial  nations,  in  whose  hands  all  our  import  and  export  trade  had 
hitherto  been;  but  the  government,  nevertheless,  endeavored  at  times 
to  encourage  the  export  of  the  productions  of  the  country  in  Norwegian 
vessels,  and  for  the  prosecution  of  the  lobster-trade  several  further  priv- 
ileges were  granted  to  Norwegian  vessels,  without  however  being  of 
much  benefit.  Governor  Holm  therefore  said  toward  the  end  of  the  last 
century,  in  his  "  Forsog  til  Beskrivelse  nf  Lister  og  Mandate  Amter.p  that 
<'the  lobster-fishery  would  be  more  profitable  to  the  country  if  it  became 
more  common  to  carry  it  on  in  Norwegian  ships  instead  of  letting  the 


240       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Dutch  take  it  aud  reap  the  profits  which  Norway  should  enjoy."  In 
1753,  the  custom  house  at  Leervig  was  abaudoned,  and  after  that  year 
lobsters  were  chiefly  shipped  from  Espeveer,  a  group  of  islands  farther 
out  at  sea,  where  the  richest  fisheries  were  carried  on.  Formerly,  as  has 
been  said,  it  was  not  allowed  to  fish  or  ship  lobsters  north  of  Leervig, 
but  later  lobsters  were  also  allowed  to  be  exported  from  the  southern  and 
northern  Bergen  districts,  from  which  there  had  been  constant  com- 
plaints regarding  this  prohibition.  The  export,  however,  was  not  con- 
siderable north  of  the  old  lobster-ports ;  for,  according  to  Olrik,  only 
52,000  were  exported  in  1757  from  the  outer  ports  in  the  Bergen  custom- 
house district,  the  greater  portion  of  which  came  from  Sondtiordlaud. 
Of  these,  only  1,000  wenttoEugland  in  English  ships,  the  remainder  going 
to  Hollaud.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  great  change 
took  place  in  the  lobster-trade,  as,  after  the  war  which  broke  out  between 
Holland  and  England  in  1776,  the  Dutch  lobster-trade  was  entirely 
ruined,  the  English  taking  possession  of  it. 

The  lobster-fisheries  on  the  inner  coast,  where  they  formerly  had  been 
carried  on  almost  exclusively,  decreased  very  much,  so  that  in  the  Sta- 
vanger  district  the  shipping-ports  of  Stjernero  and  Nordstrand  were 
given  up,  as  well  as  the  outer  port  of  Skudesnoes;  and  toward  the  end 
of  the  century  the  export  of  lobsters  was  chiefly  carried  on,  besides 
from  the  old  ports  in  the  Lister  and  Mandal  districts,  from  Tananger, 
Buken,  and  Akre,  in  the  Stavanger  district,  and  from  Espevser,  in  the 
South  Bergen  district,  to  which  afterward  came  the  more  northerly 
ports  of  Salthellern  and  Rognesund.  These  shipping-ports  had  been 
established  through  the  exertions  of  a  Bergen  merchant,  Mr.  Wallace. 
He  was  commissioner  for  an  English  lobster-company,  which  controlled 
all  the  trade  from  Bommel  to  Nordfiord.  Braudosuud  later  took  the 
place  of  Salthellern  as  a  shipping-port. 

In  order  to  encourage  lobster-fishing  and  the  lobster-trade  to  foreign 
couutries,  considerable  changes  were  made  in  the  custom-house  arrange- 
ments and  the  taxes  to  be  paid  for  lobster-vessels.  As  it  is  of  great 
importance  during  the  lobster-season  to  get  the  lobsters  to  the  shipping 
ports  alive,  every  delay  during  the  lading  of  the  vessel,  or  every  delay 
in  the  time  of  sailing,  will  occasion  the  death  of  many  lobsters.  Special 
custom  house  regulations  had  therefore  to  be  made  for  the  lobster-trade. 
Such  a  special  regulation  from  the  end  of  the  last  century  is  here  given, 
omitting  some  unimportant  points: 

"  Until  further  notice,  it  is  allowed — 

"  1.  That  both  foreign  and  Norwegian  lobster- vessels,  when  taking 
lobsters  in  the  ports  of  Salthellern  and  Espevser,  may  enter  these  ports 
without  going  up  to  the  custom-house,  or  without  obliging  the  shipper 
to  go  there  with  the  papers  of  the  ship,  unless  the  ship  has  no  certificate 
of  its  gauge,  in  which  case  it  must  obtain  one  from  the  authorities  in 
Bergen. 

"2.  These  ships  are  not  required,  either  going  out  or  coming  in,  to 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  241 

call  the  custom-house  officers  on  board  in  order  to  examine  the  ship  and 
exact  the  taxes  on  the  lobsters  which  compose  the  cargo.  The  officers, 
however,  are  at  liberty  to  superintend  the  lading,  if  necessary. 

"3.  The  lobster-commissioners  of  this  firm  (Wallace)  must  faithfully 
give  an  account  of  all  the  goods  which  the  incoming  ships  may  bring, 
and  of  the  number  of  lobsters  which  are  to  be  exported,  so  that  the 
dues  may  be  paid,  and  must  also  give  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  vessel. 

"  4.  These  ships  are  not  exempt  from  the  general  custom-house  super- 
vision, but  all  the  more,  on  account  of  the  liberties  accorded  to  them, 
does  it  become  a  duty  of  the  officers  to  keep  strict  surveillance ;  and  the 
revenue-cutters  have  also  to  see  to  it  that  nothing  unlawful  is  going  on. 

"5.  With  regard  to  proving  the  correct  calculation  of  the  custom- 
dues,  it  is  resolved  that  the  commissioners,  in  everyplace  where  lobsters 
are  caught,  shall  annually,  when  the  fisheries  cease,  obtain  from  the 
fishermen  the  exact  number  of  lobsters  caught  and  the  number  of  ships 
employed  in  the  trade,  with  their  carrying  capacity.  These  data  are 
communicated  to  the  custom-house  officers,  and  the  dues  are  to  be  paid 
accordingly. 

"  G.  Ships  exporting  lobsters  from  Rognesuud  are  granted  the  same 
privileges,  only  with  the  difference  that  on  coming  into  port  they  must 
come  up  to  the  custom-house,  so  that,  consequently,  the  commissioner 
alone  becomes  responsible  for  the  correctness  of  the  list  of  the  lobsters 
which  have  been  exported. 

"  Given  at  the  general  custom-house  office  January  20,  1798." 

The  war  between  Holland  and  England  injured  the  lobster-trade 
somewhat,  but  it  soon  recovered  and  rose  to  considerable  dimensions, 
like  our  whale-trade,  during  the  North  American  war  which  broke  out 
in  1775.  In  Farsund,  the  flourishing  firm  of  Jochum  Birch  Lund  had  iu 
178G  commenced  to  export  lobsters  in  vessels  of  their  own.  Several 
years  later,  when  the  English  attempted  to  get  a  foothold  in  their  lob- 
ster-district and  pay  higher  prices,  they  petitioned  the  government  to 
order  the  fishermen  to  keep  the  conditions  of  the  contract  entered  into 
by  them  till  its  time  was  up  ;  but  the  government  could  in  this  case  refer 
them  to  the  law.  In  1790,  they  petitioned  to  obtain  the  exclusive  right 
to  buy  up  all  lobsters  in  the  neighborhood  of  Farsund,  agreeing  to  give 
the  same  price  as  others.  They  referred  to  their  heavy  expenses  for  fit- 
ting out  vessels,  and  to  all  they  had  done  to  further  the  interests  of  Far- 
sund, and  maintained  that  their  petition  was  in  accordance  with  old 
privileges  granted  to  the  Norwegian  lobster-trade.  They  obtained  this 
exclusive  right  to  buy  lobsters  on  condition  that  this  right  should  only 
be  enforced  till  their  ships  had  got  their  full  cargoes,  and  that  they 
should  pay  the  same  price  as  others.  It  was  therefore  not  the  same 
privilege  which  had  been  granted  to  Norwegian  lobster-vessels  more 
than  half  a  century  earlier,  as  these  had  only  the  right  to  let  one  of  their 
vessels  take  its  cargo  before  foreigners  could  get  any  lobsters.  Some 
years  later,  they  petitioned  for  the  same  privilege  for  all  their  vessels, 

even  beyond  Cape  Lindesuses.    This,  however,  was  not  granted. 
16  F 


242        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

As  the  fisheries  toward  the  end  of  the  century  declined  very  much, 
Mr.  Gjertsen,  a  Mandal  merchant,  in  171)0,  proposed  to  the  government 
that  it  should  forbid  the  fishermen  to  catch  lobsters  from  July  1  till  the 
end  of  October,  under  a  fine  of  $25.  He  drew  attention  to  the  constant 
decrease  in  the  number  of  lobsters,  which  he  thought  was  solely  owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  caught  during  the  season  when  they  spawned 
and  sbed  their  shell.  Although  he  did  not  seem  to  know  anything  of 
Judge  Lom's  proposition  of  1737,  he  had  nevertheless  arrived  at  the 
same  result,  viz,  that,  if  the  numbers  of  the  lobster  are  not  to  be  dimin- 
ished, they  must  be  protected  during  the  season  when  they  spawn 
and  shed  their  shell.  The  government  approved  of  this  proposition 
quite  as  little  as  of  Lom's,  thinking  that  such  a  prohibition  of  the  fish- 
eries at  a  certain  season  would  reduce  the  income  of  the  fishermen  too 
much,  especially  during  poor  years,  and  no  one  seems  to  have  had  an 
idea  that  such  a  protection  of  the  lobster  would  prove  extremely  useful. 

The  European  events  from  the  beginning  of  the  French  revolution 
seem  not  to  have  had  much  influence  on  the  lobster-trade,  which  was 
now  in  the  bauds  of  the  greatest  maritime  power,  England.  Even  their 
attack  on  Copenhagen  in  1801  had  only  a  temporary  influence. 

The  export,  which  had  decreased  very  much  toward  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury, seems  to  have  risen  again  somewhat  during  the  first  years  of  the 
new  century,  so  that  from  1801  to  1S06  the  annual  average  export  was 
315,000 ;  97,700  from  the  Bergen  district,  174,300  from  Stavanger  and 
Egerusund,  01,800  from  the  lobster-ports  in  the  district  of  Lister  and 
Mandal,  and  a  number  from  the  district  of  Arendal,  where  people  had 
only  begun  to  catch  lobsters  about  this  time.  The  increased  number  of 
lobsters  exported  was  owing  more  to  the  establishment  of  new  lobster- 
ports  than  to  an  increase  of  the  number  of  lobsters  in  the  old  ones.  On 
account  of  the  small  number  caught  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  the 
price  of  lobsters  had  risen,  so  that  in  1804  about  2£  cents  each  were 
paid  for  lobsters  caught  iu  winter,  and  about  2  cents  for  those  caught 
in  summer.  The  fishermen  were  now  placed  in  a  very  favorable  posi- 
tion, and  lobster-fishing  was  constantly  extending  beyond  its  old  limits. 
The  year  1807,  however,  had  a  decided  influence  on  this  fishery  and  the 
trade  connected  with  it.  After  the  attack  of  the  English  on  Copenha- 
gen and  the  consequent  war,  the  export  of  lobsters  ceased  entirely, 
and  they  were  only  caught  to  supply  the  home  market,  and  partly  to  be 
used  as  bait  in  the  rich  plaice  fisheries,  which  at  that  time  had  been  dis- 
covered near  Stavanger.  These  years  of  war  for  the  country  were  years 
of  peace  for  the  lobsters,  and  their  number  seems  to  have  increased  to* 
such  au  extent  that  when  the  fisheries  recommenced  in  1815  they  were 
taken  in  enormous  quantities,  not  only  inside  but  even  outside  of  the 
baskets.  The  custom  of  the  lobster-fishers  getting  from  the  traders  not 
only  brandy,  as  well  as  twine  to  tie  the  claws  of  the  lobsters  so  they 
should  not  bite  each  other,  but  also  clay  pipes,  which  we  find  common 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  also  spoken  of  iu  1817  by 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  243 

Oftedahl  in  his  "  Efterretninger  om  Raineso,"  where  he  says  "  that  a 
lot  of  clay  pipes  iii  a  house  is  a  sure  sign  that  the  inhabitants  have  been 
engaged  in  lobster-fishing."  The  price  of  lobsters  was,  according  to  him, 
in  the  same  year  only  a  cent  apiece,  as  the  fisheries  were  still  very  pro- 
ductive, but,  nevertheless,  the  fishermen  made  a  good  living,  the  most 
fortunate  ones  selling  annually  in  the  parish  of  Skndesnaes  lobsters  to 
the  amount  of  $150  to  $175,  (Krogs  (EkonomisJc  statistiske  Efterret- 
ninf/er  om  Skudesnaes  Praestegjaeld,  1816,  in  the  u  Budstikken"  for 
1817;)  and  in  the  parish  of  Eenneso  the  average  sum  earned  by  each 
fisher  in  1817  was,  according  to  Oftedahl,  $166.  From  1815  to  1818, 
593,000  were  on  an  average  exported  annually,  so  that  the  exports  were 
greater  than  before  the  war,  although  the  district  was  much  smaller. 
On  account  of  the  low  price  of  lobsters,  caused  by  the  rich  fisheries,  the 
exports  rose  still  more,  and  English  companies  not  only  bought  lobsters 
for  their  own  country,  but  reshipped  some  of  them  to  France. 

The  number  of  lobsters  exported  in  1821  and  1822  amounted  to  over 
a  million  a  year,  and  increased  still  more  during  the  following  years, 
although  it  was  not  so  large  in  1823  and  1824  on  account  of  the  unfavor- 
able weather.  From  1825  to  1830,  the  average  number  of  lobsters  ex- 
ported annually  was  1,268,000,  and  in  1827  and  1828  the  highest  num- 
ber was  reached,  viz,  1,500,000.  These  large  numbers,  however,  were 
caused  not  so  much  by  the  fisheries  being  just  as  productive  or  more  so 
in  the  old  lobster-stations,  but  by  the  circumstance  that  new  English 
companies,  seeing  the  great  profit  to  be  derived  from  this  trade,  com- 
menced to  export  lobsters  from  places  from  which  they  never  had  b^en 
exported  before.  Thus  lobsters  began  to  be  exported  in  1S28  from  the 
district  of  Tonsberg,  and  from  Sondmor  in  1826,  and  during  the  two  fol- 
lowing years  from  Molde  and  Christianssund.  The  exports  from  Sta- 
vanger  and  Egernsund  meanwhile  decreased  very  much,  having  been 
reduced  to  67,000  per  annum  in  the  latter  place  in  1827  when  the  exports 
from  the  whole  of  Norway  amounted  to  1,429,703.  After  1830,  the 
exports  began  to  decrease  even  in  the  new  districts,  so  that  the  annual 
average  quantity  of  lobsters  exported  during  the  five  years  1831-'35 
was  only  640,000.  The  only  places  that  kept  the  lobster-trade  alive 
were  the  new  districts,  while  all  the  old  ones  decreased  rapidly,  some 
of  them  to  such  a  degree  that  according  to  the  governors'  reports  the 
lobster-trade  must  be  considered  almost  extinct  in  1835. 

All  this  export-trade  was  carried  on  by  English  vessels,  except  at 
Farsnnd,  from  which  Mr.  Hans  G.  Lund  shipped  twenty-four  cargoes  in 
1819,  twenty-four  in  1821,  sixteen  in  1824,  and  twelve  in  1825,  each  of 
them  consisting  of  4,000  lobsters,  partly  to  London  and  partly  to  Hol- 
land. 

When  the  attention  of  the  fishermen  was  directed  to  this  decrease  of 
the  lobsters  in  the  old  districts,  people  began  to  be  afraid  that  the  poor 
fishermen  would  entirely  lose  this  means  of  earning  a  living;  and  it 
was  supposed  that  the  decrease  was  chiefly  due  to  the  fisheries  being 


244      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OP    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

carried  on  during  the  spawning-season  of  the  lobster.  In  1830,  Mr.  T. 
Lundsgaard,  member  of  the  Storthing,  (Norwegian  Parliament,)  therefore 
made  the  motion  to  pass  a  law  forbidding  the  catching  or  exporting 
of  lobsters  from  June  15  till  October  1.  The  committee  which  had 
this  matter  in  charge  proposed  that  the  motion  should  be  laid  on 
the  table,  because  Mr.  Lundsgaard  had  not  produced  any  information 
which  might  enable  the  committee  to  judge  with  certainty  to  what 
extent  this  dreaded  decrease  of  the  fisheries  really  existed,  and  whether 
the  evil  could  be  remedied  by  the  measures  that  were  proposed.  The 
committee  likewise  thought  that  such  a  measure  would  be  too  great 
an  encroachment  on  the  rights  of  many  places  on  the  coast,  taking 
away  from  these  regions  their  only  source  of  income.  The  government, 
however  thought,  that  the  matter  was  of  great  importance;  and  as 
the  report  of  the  committee  showed  that  only  want  of  information  had 
prevented  any  action  beiug  taken,  it  requested  those  districts  in  which 
the  lobster-fisheries  were  carried  on  to  have  the  matter  examined  by 
the  local  officers  and  other  competent  men,  and  to  send  in  a  report, 
stating  whether  it  would  be  useful  to  pass  a  law  on  the  subject;  and, 
if  so,  to  state  the  objections  to  Mr.  Lundsgaard's  proposition.  All  the 
reports  which  reached  the  government  in  answer  to  this  request  agreed 
that  the  lobsters  had  decreased  in  size,  but  some  supposed  that  the 
great  masses  of  spring-herring  coming  near  the  coast  might  have  had 
an  influence  on  it,  or  that  this  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  lobster 
might  be  caused  by  their  young  ones  being  disturbed  by  the  cut- 
ting of  sea-weeds  for  manure;  others  advised  not  to  pass  any  law 
against  exporting  lobsters  from  June  15  till  October  1,  fearing  that 
the  exports  to  England  might  thereby  be  hindered,  as  the  companies 
would  naturally  not  consider  the  lobster-trade  profitable  unless  it  was 
steady  ;  and  the  fishermen  would  lose  their  income  during  the  time 
when  exportation  was  forbidden,  or  they  would  evade  the  law,  continu- 
ing to  fish  and  keeping  the  lobsters  till  exportation  was  again  permit- 
ted. Others  again  raised  objections  based  on  their  knowledge  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  lobster,  considering  it  doubtful  whether  the  lob- 
ster spawned  and  shed  its  shell  during  the  time  indicated,  and  even  if  it 
were  the  case,  that  the  time  was  too  long.-  Reports  from  other  districts, 
such  as  Stavanger,  said  that  such  a  law  was  unnecessary,  as  no  fishing 
was,  anyway,  going  on  during  that  time.  These  objections  to  such  a 
protective  law  could  not  have  much  influence,  especially  those  founded 
on  the  natural  history  of  the  lobster,  for  they  could  not  be  proved.  But 
even  the  fear  of  an  entire  stoppage  of  the  lobster-trade  would  be  cause- 
less, as  such  an  event  would  be  much  more  injurious  to  England,  whose 
inhabitants  had  accustomed  themselves  to  this  luxury,  than  to  Norway, 
which  received  but  little  money  for  her  lobsters.  From  other  sides  it 
was  said,  in  favor  of  the  law,  that  such  a  protection  would  be  useful,  as 
the  lobster  very  easily  dies  during  the  season  when  it  spawns  and  sheds 
its  shell,  although  this  seasou  is  not  the  same  everywhere.    Those  who 


NOEWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  245 

might  suffer  from  limiting-  the  fishing-season  would  be  fully  compensated 
for  this  by  the  greater  number  of  lobsters  that  would  be  taken  during 
the  season  when  fishing  was  permitted;  and  the  fishermen  should,  at  any 
rate,  during  summer  devote  their  attention  more  to  working  their  little 
farms  and  to  the  herring-fisheries.  The  government  found  that  the  whole 
matter  was  not  yet  sufficiently  clear  to  say  with  certainty  whether  such  a 
prohibition  of  lobster-fishing  during  the  season  when  the  lobster  spawns 
and  sheds  its  shell  would  prove  generally  useful.  The  districts  where  lob- 
ster-fishing was  carried  on  were  therefore  requested  to  have  those  fisheries 
thoroughly  examined  for  several  years  by  competent  men,  and  then  again 
send  in  reports  as  to  whether  such  a  prohibition  would  be  useful.  It  was 
likewise  requested  that  an  opinion  should  be  given  regarding  a  proposi- 
tion made  by  some  people  in  the  district  of  Nedernees  and  Kaaby  gdelagen, 
to  divide  the  coast  into  small  districts,  where  lobster-fishing  should  be 
alternately  protected,  so  that  if  a  district  had  enjoyed  the  privilege  of 
fishing  for  three  years,  fishing  should  there  be  forbidden  during  the 
three  following  years.  The  reports  coming  in  in  answer  to  this  request 
contained  a  very  extensive  prohibitory  law,  recommended  by  the  above- 
mentioned  district,  suggesting  that  fishing  should  be  prohibited  from 
March  1  till  October  1,  and  advising  that  no  lobsters  measuring  less  than  8 
inches  should  be  caught ;  the  length  of  time  when  fishing  was  to  be  prohib- 
ited should  be  three  years  rh  each  district.  Another  district  only  wanted 
to  have  fishing  prohibited  from  July  1  to  November  1,  but  was  not  in  favor 
of  alternating  the  time  between  the  districts.  The  Stavanger  district 
reported  that  as  fishing  was  going  on  there  only  in  April,  May,  and 
June,  no  law  would  be  required,  and  none  would  be  desirable,  especially 
if  it  were  to  forbid  fishing  during  the  month  of  June,  when  the  weather 
was  favorable  and  the  fishermen  had  most  time  for  it.  The  lobster  did 
not  spawn  on  that  coast  till  August  and  September.  It  was  also  thought 
that  the  number  of  lobsters  had  not  diminished,  but  that  they  now  stayed 
deeper  in  the  water,  finding  enough  food  in  the  roe  left  by  the  herrings; 
alternating  protection  was  not  thought  advisable.  The  report  from 
the  South  Bergen  district  was  essentially  the  same;  and  the  Romsdal 
report  said  that  lobsters  were  only  caught  from  the  end  of  May  till  the 
end  of  July.  As  there  were,  moreover,  many  different  opinions  regard- 
ing the  time  when  the  lobster  spawns  and  sheds  its  shell,  the  govern- 
ment resolved  to  get  the  opinion  of  scientists  on  this  point,  and  requested 
Professor  Eathke,  Professor  C.  Boeck,  and  Professor  Sars  (at  that  time  a 
clergyman)  to  make  a  report  on  the  nature  of  the  lobster.  Professor 
Eathke  in  his  report  said  that  in  his  opinion  the  pairing-season  of  the 
lobster  was  over  before  midsummer,  and  that  the  shedding  of  the  shell 
took  place  later,  but  he  thought  at  the  same  time  that  the  mass  of  lob- 
sters that  came  near  the  coast  during  the  spawning-season  was  so  large 
that  the  comparatively  inconsiderable  number  that  were  caught  would 
scarcely  be  noticed ;  he  also  thought  that  it  would  be  so  difficult  to 
enforce  the  law  that  it  would  be  more  injurious  than  useful.     Professor 


246       EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Sars  thought  that  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  spawning-process  of 
the  lobster  would  be  the  ouly  safe  basis  for  any  law ;  but  this  process 
was  still  very  much  enveloped  in  obscurity.  He  supposed,  however, 
that  fishing  could  be  carried  ou  till  the  eggs  came  out  of  the  ovary,  aud 
were  fasteued  under  the  tail,  which  took  place  in  June,  and  fishing 
should  consequently  be  prohibited  from  June  1  till  September  15.  He 
did  not  think  that  the  number  of  lobsters  had  decreased,  but  that  it  only 
seemed  so,  because  nowadays  more  people  were  engaged  in  fishing,  and 
fewer  lobsters  consequently  fell  to  the  share  of  each  fisherman.  He 
thought,  however,  that  the  lobsters  had  diminished  in  size.  In  a  later 
report,  he  expressed  his  opinion  that  lobster-fishing  should  be  x>rohibited 
from  June  till  the  middle  of  September.  Prof.  C.  Boeck  gave  in  his 
report,  in  the  first  place,  a  description  of  the  lobster's  mode  of  life,  aud 
a  criticism  of  the  reports  on  the  condition  of  the  lobster-fisheries,  sent 
by  the  governor.  He  showed  from  statistics  that  a  decrease  in  the  num- 
ber of  lobsters  was  both  possible  and  probable  on  account  of  the  in- 
creased fisheries  during  the  past  years.  The  lobster  is  a  coast-animal, 
and  ouly  stays  where  it  can  easily  get  a  sufficient  supply  of  food,  there- 
fore near  the  coast,  and  only  as  far  from  it  as  sea-weeds  are  found, 
between  which  it  finds  the  animals  that  constitute  its  food.  Even  if  it 
wanders  about,  it  does  not  go  far,  going,  e.  g.,  in  winter  into  a  greater 
depth,  and  during  summer  into  the  shallow'  water  near  the  coast.  It 
then  swims  about  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  but  never  goes  very  far, 
its  structure  not  being  adapted  for  longer  journeys.  The  fact  of  the  mat- 
ter is,  therefore,  that  a  certain  number  of  lobsters  belong  to  a  certain 
extent  of  coast,  which,  by  propagating  freely,  may  increase  if  they  have 
sufficient  food,  or  decrease  from  a  natural  mortality  or  too  much  fishing; 
and  in  this  latter  case  the  losses  cannot  easily  be  made  up  by  lobsters 
coming  in  from  the  adjoining  districts.  There  can,  consequently,  be  no 
doubt  that  the  lobster  can,  on  a  given  stretch  of  coast,  be  exterminated 
by  continued  persecutions,  or  its  number,  at  least,  be  diminished  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  make  lobster-fishing  unprofitable.  Such  an  event 
would  occur  all  the  sooner  if  the  coast  in  question  be  not  favorable  to 
its  increase.  From  the  reports  which  had  come  in,  it  seemed  that  cer- 
tain places  were  less  favorable  to  their  propagation,  or  possible  immi- 
gration from  adjoining  districts,  than  others,  and  from  such  districts  the 
complaints  concerning  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  lobsters  had  come. 
In  other  places,  the  bottom  of  the  sea  along  the  coast  was  a  couveuient 
place  of  sojourn  for  the  lobsters,  aud  the  number  caught  was  but  a  small 
part  of  those  that  lived  aud  were  born  there.  In  such  places,  the  fish- 
eries would  be  productive  and  steady.  But  even  there,  continued  ex- 
haustive fishing  would  diminish  their  number,  especially  if  there  should 
be  an  unfavorable  year  for  the  growth  aud  development  of  the  lobster. 
Prof.  C.  Boeck  considered  it,  therefore,  not  only  desirable,  but  even 
necessary  for  the  even  maintenance  of  the  fisheries,  that  there  should 
be  certain  limitations,  so  that  lobsters  should  not  be  caught  to  such  a 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  247 

degree  as  to  make  an  entire  stoppage  of  the  fisheries  for  a  period  of 
time  necessary.  He  believed  that  the  proposed  law,  in  obedience  to 
which  lobsters  should  only  be  caught  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
would  not  fully  answer  the  purpose,  especially  as  no  fishing  was  going 
on  during  the  proposed  time  of  prohibition  in  those  districts  from  which 
there  were  the  loudest  complaints  of  the  decrease  of  the  lobsters. 
He  thought,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  law  prescribing  that  only  lob- 
sters of  a  given  minimum  size  should  be  exported  and  sold  would  keep 
the  fisheries  in  an  even  condition.  Regarding  the  size  of  the  lobsters  that 
were  to  be  offered  for  sale,  sold,  and  exported,  he  thought,  that  even  if 
it  could  not  be  definitely  settled  at  what  age  and  what  size  a  lobster  was 
capable  of  spawning,  it  could  to  some  extent  be  ascertained  from  an 
analogical  comparison  with  the  river-crawfish.  This  is  supposed  to  be 
sexually  fully  developed  in  its  third  year,  when  it  is  4  inches  long,  but 
it  may  attain  an  age  of  twenty  years  and  a  length  of  6  inches.  He 
therefore  supposed  that  the  lobster  becomes  capable  of  spawning  when 
it  is  three  years  old  and  has  reached  a  length  of  about  8  inches,  while  lob- 
sters measuring  less  are  seldom  found  to  have  any  roe.  In  order,  there- 
fore, that  the  lobster  before  "being  caught  may  not  only  reach  the  size 
when  it  may  be  considered  fully  grown,  but  might  also  be  supposed  to 
have  contributed  something  toward  the  propagation  of  the  species,  a 
minimum  size  of  a  little  more  than  8  inches  should  be  agreed  upon  for 
lobsters  which  might  be  caught  and  exported.  Possibly  8  inches  might 
be  sufficient,  as  the  English  generally  do  not  buy  any  from  the  fishermen 
as  "  full  men  "  which  do  not  have  this  size. 

In  consequence  of  this  report,  the  ministry  petitioned  His  Majesty  to 
recommend  to  the  next  Storthing  the  passage  of  a  law  forbidding  tbe 
offer  for  sale  and  the  sale  of  lobsters  that  did  not  measure  8  inches  in 
length,  inclusive  of  the  head  and  tail. 

The  following  royal  proposition  for  a  law  limiting  lobster-fishing  was 
thereupon  published  November  5,  1838: 

"We  Carl  Johan,  &c.,  make  known,  &c: 

"  §  1.  That  it  shall  be  forbidden  in  this  kingdom  to  offer  for  sale  or 
sell  lobsters  which  do  not  have  a  minimum  length  of  8  inches,  inclusive 
of  the  head  and  tail.  For  every  lobster  offered  for  sale  or  sold  which 
shall  not  have  this  length,  a  fine  of  24  cents  shall  be  paid,  half  of  which 
shall  go  to  the  police  or  custom-house  officer,  or  any  other  person  denounc- 
ing the  offender,  and  the  other  half  to  the  poor.  All  cases  of  this  kind 
are  to  be  brought  before  the  police  courts. 

"  §  2.  Lobsters  which  do  not  have  the  above-mentioned  length  shall  not 
be  exported." 

The  Storthing  committee  which  had  to  consider  this  matter  hesitated 
to  recommend  to  the  Storthing  the  passage  of  this  law,  basing  their  ob- 
jections on  several  reports  from  the  lobster-districts  and  on  Professor 
Rathke's  report.  Their  chief  objection,  however,  was  that  the  fisher- 
men would  consider  such  a  law  as  limiting  their  liberty,  and,  not  being 


248       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

able  to  understand  its  utility,  would  thereby  only  be  encouraged  to  fol- 
low the  dictates  of  selfishness  aud  trausgress  the  law.  It  was,  moreover, 
thought  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  exercise  any  sufficient  control,  and 
that  the  trade  would  be  injured  thereby.  The  law  was  therefore  not 
passed.  This  was  the  fourth  time  that  a  moderate  proposition  had 
been  made  to  protect  the  lobster  in  order  to  avoid  the  total  ruin  of  the 
fisheries.  In  the  first  proposal,  by  Judge  Lorn,  it  had  been  suggested 
that  the  lobster  should  be  protected  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when 
it  spawns  or  sheds  its  shell,  and  likewise  that  those  lobsters  should  be 
protected  that  had  not  reached  a  certain  length.  In  the  second,  by  Mr. 
Gjertsen,  only  a  certain  annual  season  of  protection  was  suggested ;  as 
was  also  done  in  the  third,  by  Mr.  Lundsgaard.  The  fourth,  or  govern- 
ment proposal,  only  suggested  that  lobsters  below  a  certain  size  should 
not  be  caught. 

It  was  not  long  before  there  were  again  numerous  complaints  of  the 
decrease  in  the  number  of  lobsters,  which,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
impartial  men,  was  owing  to  lobsters  being  caught  at  a  time  when  they 
spawn  and  shed  their  shell.  Before  auythiug  further  was  done  in  the 
matter,  a  fishery-commission  that  had  been  appointed  made  a  proposal 
regarding  the  lobster-fisheries,  which  must  be  mentioned  here.  In  1840, 
the  government  appointed  a  commission  to  revise  the  fishery-laws.  The 
following  were  members  of  this  commission:  Judge  Landmark,  Consul 
Meltzer,  Messrs.  Tan  gen  and  Moses,  merchants,  liev.  (now  Professor) 
Sars,  aud  Chief  Pilot  Monsen.  One  passage  of  the  law  proposed  by 
this  commission  reads  as  follows :  "  On  their  own  property,  as  far  as  ten 
fathoms  from  the  coast  at  low  water,  the  owners  shall  have  the  exclusive 
privilege  to  catch  all  small  fish,  lobsters,  aud  oysters,  but  any  one  may 
catch  lobsters  outside  of  unimproved  land  bounding  the  sea  without 
regard  to  the  distance  from  the  coast." 

In  this  proposition,  which,  however,  never  became  a  law,  the  old  idea 
is  revived  that  the  lobster-fisheries,  properly  speaking,  belong  to  the 
land-owners,  which,  in  spite  of  the  decree  of  1728,  had  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  discussion  all  through  the  last  century.  Even  if  this  proposition 
had  become  a  law,  it  would  not  have  exercised  any  great  influence  on 
the  lobster-fisheries,  which  are  almost  exclusively  carried  on  along 
unimproved  coasts  which  can  scarcely  ever  be  subjected  to  cultivation. 
No  new  law  regarding  the  protection  of  lobsters  was  introduced  in  the 
next  Storthing,  but  in  1845,  when  the  Storthing  had  assembled,  the  de- 
partment of  finance  and  customs  received  a  letter  from  the  agent  of 
the  English  lobster-company  in  Stavanger  that  another  English  com- 
pany intended  to  continue  the  lobster-fisheries,  which,  in  that  district, 
usually  cease  toward  the  end  of  June,  during  July,  August,  and  Sep- 
tember, hoping  thereby  to  gain  over  the  lobster-fisheries,  and  thus  to 
destroy  the  trade  of  the  other  company.  As  this  agent  was  afraid  that 
fishing  during  these  mouths  would  ruin  the  lobster-fisheries  in  this  dis- 
trict for  several  years  to  come,  he  urged  the  department  to  iutroduce 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  249 

the  royal  proposition  of  a  law  in  the  Storthing,  forbidding  lobster-fish- 
ing from  June  15  to  October  15.  The  department  requested  the  gov- 
ernor to  give  his  opinion  on  the  subject.  He  stated,  as  he  had  done  on 
a  former  occasion,  that  such  a  law  would  be  unnecessary,  as  the  lobster 
is  not  fit  to  eat  during  those  months,  and  none  could  therefore  be  ex- 
ported. During  this  and  the  following  years  lobsters  were,  nevertheless, 
caught  and  exported  during  those  months,  as  the  two  companies  vied 
with  each  other,  each  endeavoring  to  secure  the  trade.  The  price  of 
lobsters  rose  considerably,  and  all  those  that  were  caught  were  bought 
up,  even  during  the  season  when  they  spawn  aud  shed  their  shell, 
although  every  one  saw  what  injury  was  being  done,  and  although  the 
mortality  among  the  lobsters  was  great,  and  the  consequent  loss  consid- 
erable. All  this  soon  bore  its  fruit,  but  few  lobsters  being  caught  in 
1847  in  those  places  where  in  1815  fishing  had  been  going  on  till  the 
end  of  August,  while  the  fisheries  were  productive  in  those  places  where 
they  had  ceased  in  July.  All  were  now  agreed  that  it  was  injurious  to 
catch  lobsters  during  the  season  of  the  year  when  they  spawn  and  shed 
their  shell,  which,  in  the  districts  in  question,  was  supposed  to  take 
place  in  August  and  September,  and  it  became  evident  that  such  con- 
tinued fishing  would  in  a  short  time  drive  the  lobsters  entirely  from  the 
coast.  To  prevent  such  a  misfortune,  the  governor  at  last  resolved  to 
request  the  department  to  issue  a  provisional  regulation,  forbidding 
lobster-fishing  during  the  mouths  of  August  and  September.  The  de- 
partment, however,  again  considered  it  necessary  to  get  reports  from 
the  lobster-districts  and  from  the  agents  of  the  English  lobster-compa- 
nies. Some  of  these  reports  declared  that  lobster-fishing  should  be  for- 
bidden from  the  middle  of  July  till  the  middle  of  October;  others  that 
there  should  be  no  fishing  during  August  and  September.  The  agent 
of  an  English  lobster-company  in  Jarlsberg  and  Laurvig,  however,  ad- 
vised against  any  prohibition  of  the  lobster-fisheries,  saying  that  such 
a  prohibition  during  the  summer  months  would  cause  the  English  lob- 
ster-companies to  stop  this  trade,  ice  hindering  the  fisheries  in  winter 
and  spring,  and  storms  those  in  the  latter  part  of  autumn,  so  that  the 
fisheries  commenced  gradually  in  May  and  lasted  till  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber. They  are  most  productive  in  July,  August,  and  September.  The 
decrease  of  the  lobster-fisheries  he  ascribed  not  to  the  summer  fisheries, 
which  were  said  to  diminish  the  number  of  lobsters,  but  to  the  circum- 
stance that  the  people  of  the  district  devote  their  attention  more  to  the 
profitable  mackerel-fisheries.  The  governor  was  of  the  same  opinion.  A 
totally  different  opinion,  however,  was  entertained  by  other  competent  and 
trustworthy  persons  in  Laurvig  and  the  neighborhood,  who,  from  infor- 
mation obtained  of  the  lobster-fishers  of  that  district,  judged  that  such  a 
prohibition  of  fishing  from  the  middle  of  July  till  the  middle  or  end  of 
September  would  have  a  favorable  influence  on  the  preservation  of  the 
lobsters.  The  governor  of  the  Lister  and  Maudal  districts  showed  iu 
his  report  by  examples  from  the  years  of  war,  that  the  more  the  lob- 


250       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

sters  are  protected,  the  more  will  they  increase  in  number;  and  their 
decrease  since  1830  was  almost  unanimously  ascribed  to  the  summer 
fisheries,  which  are  going  on  at  a  time  when  the  lobsters  spawn,  although 
the  spawning  does  not  take  place  at  the  same  time  in  every  place.  Such 
a  prohibitory  law  would  therefore  be  of  great  importance  for  the  lob- 
ster-fisheries. It  was  true  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the  trade  would  be 
somewhat  iuconvenieuced  by  such  a  law,  the  prices  would  fall,  and  it 
would  be  necessary  to  modify  time  when  fishing  should  be  prohibited, 
according  to  different  local  circumstances.  The  reports  which  came  in 
from  the  other  districts  likewise  favored  the  prohibition  of  fishing 
during  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  some  even  advising 
an  extension  of  this  time  from  May  till  October.  Another  agent  of  an 
English  lobster-company,  however,  warned  against  any  interference  by 
law  with  this  trade,  particularly  on  account  of  the  fishermen,  who  would 
not  be  able  to  earn  their  living  during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  The 
decrease  of  the  fisheries  was,  in  his  opinion,  chiefly  caused  by  the  fact 
that  fewer  men  were  employed  in  them,  the  increase  of  navigation  and 
the  rich'  herring  and  mackerel  fisheries  employing  so  many  men.  He 
supposed,  moreover,  that  a  law  prohibiting  the  catching  of  lobsters  during 
a  certain  period  would  not  prove  beneficial  to  the  lobster-trade,  but  that 
an  undoubtedly  more  productive  fishery  during  the  months  when  fish- 
ing would  be  allowed  would  have  a  very  injurious  effect  on  the  market. 
The  Bergen  Board  of  Trade  were  of  opinion  that  such  a  prohibition,  if 
it  did  not  extend  to  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July,  would  not  dis- 
turb the  fisheries  in  the  Bergen  district,  which  are  chiefly  carried  on 
during  these  months,  but  that  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  forbid  fish- 
ing during  these  months.  If  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  pass  some 
law  for  the  preservation  of  the  lobster,  they  would  advise  the  govern- 
ment to  take  up  the  old  proposition  not  to  catch  and  sell  lobsters  meas- 
uring less  than  8  inches.  The  governor  of  the  North  Bergen  district 
considered  it  desirable  that  the  lobsters  should  be  protected  from  the 
middle  of  July  till  the  middle  of  September.  In  Romsdal,  however,  no 
prohibition  was  desired  from  June  15  till  September  15,  since  fishing 
was  going  on  during  this  very  period.  As  so  many  different  opinions  had 
come  from  the  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  as  it  seemed  desirable 
o  hear  the  opinion  of  several  naturalists,  Professor  Rasch  was  requested 
by  the  government  to  prepare  a  law  for  the  preservation  of  the  lobster, 
giving  the  full  reasons  for  such  a  law.  In  his  report  to  the  department, 
he  first  of  all  gave  his  view  regarding  the  pairing-season,  and  then 
regarding  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  pairing  and  the  emission 
of  the  eggs  from  the  ovary.  He  found  that  the  pairing-season  of  the 
lobster  extended  over  a  long  period  of  time,  viz,  from  the  time  it  first 
sheds  its  shell  in  September  till  April  or  May,  but  that  the  embryo  does 
not  develop  till  the  heat  of  summer  sets  in,  no  matter  whether  the  spawn- 
ing has  taken  place  in  autumn,  winter,  or  spring.  Most  of  them  have 
their  eggs  hatched  in  July  and  August,  and  the  young  lobsters  leave 
their  mother  from  the  middle  of  August  till  the  middle  of  September. 


NORWEGIAN   LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  251 

He  had  found,  moreover,  that  the  lobster  was  capable  of  propagating 
before  it  had  reached  a  length  of  8  inches.  He  would  therefore  pro- 
pose— 

"  §  1.  His  Majesty  may  take  measures  for  protecting  the  lobsters  during 
a  continuous  period  of  two  to  three  months  annually  in  every  district  of 
the  kingdom,  at  the  request  of  the  respective  governors. 

"§  2.  The  season  of  protection  shall  in  every  case  embrace  the  whole 
month  of  August. 

"  §  3.  The  protection  may  extend  both  to  males  and  females,  or  only  to 
the  latter. 

"  §  4.  Whoever  catches  lobsters,  or  offers  them  for  sale,  during  the 
close  season,  in  the  district  or  districts  where  there  is  such  a  law,  shall 
pay  a  fine  of  24  cents  for  every  lobster  which  is  caught  or  offered  for 
sale  contrary  to  the  law. 

"  §  5.  In  the  district  or  districts  where  i>i'otection  extends  only  to  the 
female  lobsters,  a  fine  of  24  cents  apiece  shall  be  paid  by  every  one 
who,  during  the  season  of  protection,  allows  female  lobsters  to  be  caught 
and  offered  for  sale,  or  in  any  way  trades  in  such. 

"§  G.  The  same  fine  shall  be  imposed  on  lobster-dealers  or  their  agents 
if  they  receive  and  ship  lobsters  caught  during  the  close  season,  in 
accordance  with  the  law  in  force  in  the  district  in  which  the  lobster- 
station  is  located. 

"  §  7.  The  sums  realized  by  these  fines  go  half  to  the  person  who 
denounces  the  transgressor,  and  the  other  half  to  the  poor-fund  of  the 
respective  district.  All  such  cases  must  be  brought  before  the  police 
court." 

Professor  Rasch  has  given  his  reasons  for  the  provisions  of  the  above 
law  as  follows : 

"Although  there  are  frequent  complaints  that  general  game  and  fish- 
ing laws  are  not  suited  to  all  the  districts  of  this  large  country,  where 
the  different  degrees  of  latitude  and  local  circumstances  produce  great 
differences  with  regard  to  the  pairing-season,  the  periodical  arrival,  &c, 
of  the  same  races  of  animals,  he  had  in  most  cases  found  fewer  differ- 
ences than  one  in  general  might  be  led  to  suppose.  He  proposed  §  1  so 
that  every  district  should  have  the  season  of  protection  best  suited  to 
its  circumstances." 

Regarding  §  2  he  says : 

"As  in  his  opinion  it  seemed  sufficiently  proved  that  the  most  prolific 
hatching-season  occurs  in  the  month  of  August,  even  in  the  most  north- 
erly portions  of  the  country  where  lobster-fishing  is  carried  on,  he 
thought  that,  in  all  cases,  this  month  should  be  included  in  the  season 
of  protection." 

Regarding  §  3,  he  thought  that  the  strictness  of  the  protection  might 
be  relaxed  a  little  in  those  districts  where  the  summer  fisheries,  on 
account  of  peculiar  circumstances,  cannot  be  entirely  stopped  without 
immediate  loss  to  the  poor  coast-population.    He  thought,  moreover, 


252       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

that  by  protecting  only  the  female  lobsters  the  purpose  of  the  law  with 
regard  to  the  preservation  of  the  species  will  be  just  as  fully  answered 
as  by  protecting  both  sexes  during  the  same  period  of  time.  The  objec- 
tion may  be  raised  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  distinguish  between  a 
female  without  outside  roe  and  a  male ;  but  the  difference  of  sex  is  so 
great  that  a  fisherman  may  be  able  to  tell  it  at  the  first  glance.  Nor 
would  he  only  protect  those  lobsters  which  have  outside  roe,  as  this  may 
easily  be  scraped  off.  Irregularities  of  the  normal  sexual  relations  will 
be  of  very  little  importance,  as  most  of  the  females  which  have  been 
protected  will  be  caught  by  the  fishermen  when  the  season  of  protection 
is  over,  as  they  go  but  a  short  distance  from  the  place  where  they  stay. 
The  objection  made  to  the  law  that  it  would  force  the  fishermen  to 
return  the  products  of  the  sea  to  it,  he  considers  to  be  of  great  import- 
ance ;  but  he  hoped  that  they  would  see  what  a  great  risk  they  ran  by 
unlawful  fishing,  and  be  convinced  that  protection  will  in  the  long  run 
benefit  their  trade. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  gov- 
ernors of  Jarlsberg  and  Laurvig  and  two  of  the  lobster-agents,  all  local 
authorities  and  competent  men  were  in  favor  of  the  opinion  that  the 
decrease  in  the  number  of  lobsters  noticed  during  the  last  few  years 
had  been  caused  by  too  extensive  fishing  during  that  part  of  summer 
when  the  lobster  spawns,  and  had  considered  a  law  prohibiting  lobster- 
fishing  duriug  a  certain  period  of  summer  and  autumn  as  the  only 
effective  means  of  protecting  this  important  animal.  But  others,  we 
see,  wished  to  have  the  protection  extended  from  June  or  May  till 
October;  others  only  from  July  to  September;  and  others,  again,  only  to 
August  and  September.  Both  in  Swedeu  and  Heligoland  there  are  laws 
prohibiting  the  catching  and  selling  of  lobsters  from  July  1  till  Septem- 
ber 15,  and  in  Scotland  it  is  forbidden,  under  a  penalty  of  £5  each,  to 
catch  lobsters  from  June  1  till  September  1 ;  and  in  England  no  lobster 
is  allowed  to  be  sold  which  measures  less  than  8  inches.  The  govern- 
ment also  considered  that  protection  during  the  season  of  the  year  when 
the  hatching  is  chiefly  going  on  would  answer  the  purpose,  and  that  it 
could  be  more  easily  maintained  than  a  law  prohibiting  the  fishing  and 
selling  of  lobsters  below  a  certain  size.  As  the  young  are  chiefly  hatched 
during  the  month  of  August,  but  also  during  Juty  and  September,  the 
government  thought  that  August  should  be  included  in  every  close 
season,  while  it  should  be  left  to  the  local  authorities,  with  royal 
approbation,  to  extend  this  legal  season  of  protection  to  July  and  Sep- 
tember, in  accordance  with  the  local  circumstances  of  every  district. 
By  adopting  these  measures,  the  trade  would  not  be  restricted  to  any 
serious  extent.  This  was  also  granted  by  the  commissioners  of  the 
English  lobster-companies,  and,  as  far  as  the  fishermen  are  affected,  they 
can  easily  find  work  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  kingdom  during  August, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  protection  of  lobsters  during  a  certain 
period  will  make  the  fisheries  all  the  more  productive  during  the  months 


NORWEGIAN   LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  253 

when  fishing  is  allowed.  With  regard  to  the  other  objections  to  limit- 
ing the  fisheries  during  the  summer  months,  viz,  that  in  the  districts  of 
Eomsdal,  Jarlsberg,  and  Laurvig  they  are  only  carried  on  from  the 
beginning  of  spring  or  summer  till  some  time  in  fall,  the  government 
remarked  that  this  could  scarcely  be  caused  by  any  special  arrangements 
of  the  lobsters  on  these  parts  of  the  coast,  but  is  a  natural  consequence 
of  the  circumstance  that  the  fishermen  in  the  district  of  Eomsdal  during 
spring  and  autumn  are  employed  in  the  great  fisheries,  while  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Jarlsberg  and  Laurvig  this  is  caused  by  the  natural  hinderauces  of 
ice  and  storms  during  spriug  and  autumn.  But  especially  in  these  dis- 
tricts a  law  prohibiting  fishing  during  the  mouth  of  August  could  not 
limit  this  trade  very  much,  compared  with  the  beneficial  consequences 
which  such  a  law  would  have.  The  government  thought  that  the  pro- 
hibition should  extend  both  to  male  and  female  lobsters,  which  opinion 
was  finally  also  shared  by  Easch.  The  government  also  proposed  that 
the  law  forbidding  the  export  of  lobsters  should  extend  the  time  when 
export  was  not  allowed  eight  days  beyond  the  end  of  the  close  season, 
so  as  to  enable  the  fishermen  to  fish  up  to  the  very  commencement  of 
the  close  season. 

On  January  26,  1848,  the  king  signed  the  following  proposition  for  a, 
law  for  the  protection  of  lobsters,  to  be  laid  before  the  Storthing  during 
its  next  session : 

"  We,  Oscar,  &c,  make  known : 

"For  some  time  complaints  have  been  made  that  the  number  of  lob- 
sters on  the  coasts  of  the  kingdom  has  decreased  considerably,  espe- 
cially since  the  year  1830.  Competent  men  have  been  consulted  as  to 
the  possible  causes  of  this  phenomenon,  as  likewise  as  to  the  means  by 
which  the  lobster  might  be  preserved,  and  a  royal  proposition  for  a  law 
forbidding  the  catching  or  export  of  lobsters  measuring  less  than  8 
inches  in  length  was  laid  before  the  Storthing,  but  was  not  passed.  Ee- 
newed  complaints  of  the  great  decrease  in  the  number  of  lobsters  have 
recently  come  from  several  parts  of  the  country,  petitions  have  been 
sent  in  asking  that  the  catching  of  lobsters  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  might  be  forbidden,  and  from  the  information  received  on  this 
point  it  has  been  considered  absolutely  necessary,  for  the  preservation 
of  the  lobster,  to  fix  by  law  a  certain  season  of  protection  for  this  ma- 
rine auimal. 

"  His  Majesty  would  therefore  invite  the  attention  of  the  Storthing  of 
the  kingdom  of  Norway  to  this  subject,  and  ask  them  to  pass  a  law  re- 
garding the  protection  of  lobsters,  in  accordance  with  the  accompanying 
draft : 

"DRAFT   OF  A  LAW  REGARDING  THE  PROTECTION  OF   LOBSTERS. 

"  1.  It  shall  be  forbidden  to  catch  or  sell  lobsters  during  the  month 
of  August. 


254       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"2.  In  accordance  with  a  request  made  by  the  respective  local  au- 
thorities, the  above-uieutioued  period  may  be  extended  iu  the  different 
districts  by  the  king,  but  it  shall  in  no  place  last  longer  than  from  July 
1  to  September  30. 

"3.  The  fishing  or  selling  of  lobsters  during  a  period  when  it  is  for- 
bidden in  accordance  with  §  1  and  2  is  punished  with  a  fine  of  24  cents 
for  every  lobster  caught  or  offered  for  sale  contrary  to  law. 

"  4.  All  cases  arising  from  transgressions  of  the  regulations  con- 
tained iu  §  1  and  2  must  be  brought  before  the  police  courts.  If  any  one 
is  accused  of  such  transgression,  the  chief  of  police  in  the  district  shall 
get  his  declaration  whether  he  is  willing  to  pay  the  fines.  If  he  is  will- 
ing and  does  not  possess  the  necessary  amount  of  money,  it  shall  be 
levied  on  his  property.  If,  on  the  other  baud,  the  accused  denies  his 
guilt,  or  refuses  to  pay,  the  above-mentioned  officer  shall  have  the  mat- 
ter investigated  and  settled.  The  fines  shall  be  divided  between  the 
informer  and  the  local  poor-fund. 

"5.  During  the  period  when  in  accordance  with  §  1  and  2  it  is  forbidden 
to  catch  or  offer  for  sale  lobsters,  as  well  as  during  eight  days  following 
the  end  of  this  period,  it  shall  likewise  be  forbidden  to  ship  lobsters  to 
foreign  parts.  Attempted  or  actual  transgression  of  this  article  shall 
be  punished  in  the  same  manner  as  provided  in  the  law  of  September  20, 
1845,  regarding  attempted  or  actual  smuggling. 

"  6.  This  law  shall  take  effect  January  1,  1849." 

In  the  committee  to  which  the  royal  proposition  was  assigned  for  con- 
sideration, the  first  two  articles  were  changed,  so  as  to  make  the  season 
of  protection  stricter.  In  the  royal  proposition,  the  local  authorities 
could  under  special  circumstances  propose  that  the  season  of  protection 
be  extended  to  the  mouths  before  and  after  August;  but  the  committee 
were  of  the  opinion  that  the  law  should  be  enforced  during  a  longer 
period,  but  in  special  cases  the  local  authorities  might  propose  that  it 
should  be  limited  to  the  month  of  August,  to  such  a  degree  had  public 
opinion  changed  in  favor  of  such  a  protective  law. 

When  the  matter  was  discussed  in  the  Storthing  April  29,  1848,  not  a 
voice  was  raised  against  a  protective  law,  but  the  discussion  was  chiefly 
as  to  whether  the  law  should  be  adopted  in  its  stricter  form  as  recom- 
mended by  the  committee,  or  as  proposed  by  the  government.  The  law 
was  finally  adopted  in  the  form  recommended  by  the  committee,  modified 
by  an  amendment  that  the  season  of  protection  should  last  from  July  15 
till  the  end  of  September.  The  first  portion  of  §  5  was  also  changed  so 
as  to  read  as  follows:  "Eight  days  after  the  beginning  of  the  period 
during  which  iu  accordance  with  §  1  and  2  it  is  forbidden  to  catch  lob- 
sters or  offer  them  for  sale  till  eight  days  after  the  end  of  this  period,  it 
shall  be  likewise  forbidden  to  ship  lobsters  to  foreign  parts."  As  for  the 
rest,  the  law  was  passed  in  the  shape  recommended  by  the  committee  ; 
a  motion  to  change  the  above-mentioned  eight  days  to  twelve  days  or 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  255 

three  weeks  being  lost,  as  likewise  another  motion  that  the  law  should 
not  come  iu  force  till  January  1,  1850. 

The  law,  which  was  adopted  in  the  same  shape  by  both  houses  of  the 
Storthing,  and  was  sanctioned  by  the  king,  came  to  read  as  follows : 

"1.  It  shall  be  forbidden  to  catch  or  offer  for  sale  lobsters  during  the 
period  from  July  15  till  the  end  of  September. 

"  2.  In  accordance  with  a  request  from  the  respective  local  authorities, 
this  period  may  be  limited  in  different  districts  by  the  king ;  but  the 
season  of  prohibition  must  in  every  case  embrace  the  whole  month  of 
August." 

3  and  4  are  entirely  as  in  the  royal  proposition. 

"5.  From  eight  days  after  the  beginning  of  the  period  during  which, 
in  accordance  with  1  and  2,  it  is  forbidden  to  catch  lobsters  or  offer  them 
for  sale,  till  eight  days  after  the  end  of  this  period,  it  shall  likewise  be 
forbidden  to  export  lobsters  to  foreign  parts. 

"0.  This  law  shall  come  into  force  January  1,  1849." 

By  this  law,  which  forbids  all  fishing  during  two  and  a  half  months, 
the  yield  of  the  fisheries  was  of  course  somewhat  diminished  duriug  the 
first  years  following  its  passage,  till  the  protected  young  could  reach  the 
necessary  size.  Thus  fewer  were  exported  in  1S49  and  1850  than  during 
the  preceding  years,  so  that,  while  from  1840  to  1848  about  600,000  were 
exported,  the  number  had  sunk  to  408,310  in  1849  and  427,000  iu  1850. 
This  decrease,  however,  is  not  merely  owing  to  the  circumstance, 
that  the  number  which  were  usually  caught  during  the  close  months 
remained  in  the  sea,  but  likewise  to  the  fact  that  the  English  joint-stock 
company  which  carried  on  the  exportation  from  the  districts  of  Jarls- 
berg  and  Laurvig  began  to  pay  a  lower  price  for  the  lobsters,  so  that 
the  fishermeu  resolved  no  longer  to  catch  any  even  during  those  months 
when  they  were  permitted  to  do  so.  While  from  this  district  there 
were  from  1S46  to  181S  on  an  average  about  20,000  exported  every  year, 
only  7,9G0  were  exported  in  1849,  1,604  in  1850,  and  none  at  all  during 
the  following  years  ;  but,  in  1855,  14,470  were  again  exported,  chiefly  to 
Copenhagen.  Since  1850,  the  lobster-trade  has  steadily  increased,  and 
the  governors,  iu  their  quinquennial  reports  on  the  economical  condition 
of  their  respective  districts,  state  that  protection  seems  to  have  pro- 
duced this  result. 

In  the  district  of  Stavanger,  the  exports  rose,  from  1850,  when  they 
amounted  to  120,653,  to  204,S03  in  1854 ;  in  the  South  Bergen  district, 
it  is  also  stated  that  the  fisheries  have  increased.  Of  the  following 
years,  the  least  productive  was  1S58,  when  the  exports  from  the  whole 
kingdom  only  amounted  to  553,238,  on  account  of  unfavorable  weather 
during  the  whole  fishing-season ;  but,  in  1860,  the  number  had  again 
risen  to  1,333,037,  and  kept  tolerably  steady  during  the  following  years, 
so  that  the  exports  during  these  years  were  about  the  same  as  during 
the  years  1825-'30,  when  they  were  at  their  highest,  only  to  decrease 
very  rapidly  during  the  following  years.    In  I860,  the  exports  rose  to 


256       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

1,000,000,  and  increased  constantly,  till  in  1865  they  very  nearly  readied 
2,000,000,  viz,  1,056,270. 

The  complaints  regarding  the  protective  law  have  now  ceased,  since 
the  government  has  in  several  districts  limited  it  by  royal  decrees,  and 
in  many  places  the  people  are  rather  inclined  to  extend  the  season  of 
protection  than  to  limit  it  as,  in  the  district  of  Stavanger,  where 
two  years  ago  public  opinion  was  in  favor  of  prohibiting  all  fishing 
during  autumn  and  winter,  as  it  was  thought  that  thereby  the  spring 
and  summer  fisheries  would  become  all  the  more  productive.  As  a 
general  rule,  no  lobsters  are  exported  from  there  in  autumn  and  winter, 
except  when  some  new  English  companies  want  to  get  into  the  lobster- 
trade  and  therefore  buy  the  lobsters  at  a  higher  price  than  is  usually 
paid,  so  as  to  ruin  their  rivals.  Then  all  the  lobsters  that  can  be  got 
are  generally  bought  during  autumn,  as  was  the  case  in  1845  and  1816, 
and  to  some  extent  in  1861  and  1865.  During  the  last-mentioned  year, 
such  a  large  quantity  of  lobsters  was  caught  on  account  of  the  unusually 
calm  weather,  that  the  Englishman  who  had  urged  the  fishermen  to 
fish  could  not  take  more  than  one-third  of  all  that  had  been  caught, 
and  the  rest  died,  without  being  of  use  to  any  one.  One  reason  why  the 
fishermen  wish  to  see  this  autumn  fishing  forbidden  by  law  is  that  even 
if  they  were  unanimous  as  to  its  injurious  character,  all  of  them  would, 
though  unwillingly,  take  their  part  in  it,  if  a  small  number  of  fishermen 
moved  by  covetousness  were  to  catch  lobsters,  and  if  there  should  be  a 
chance  of  selling  them  at  that  season,  because  they  suppose  that  those 
lobsters  which  they  would  otherwise  get  in  spring  would  now  be  caught 
by  others  in  autumn,  which  would  injure  their  trade  very  much. 

As  the  privileges  which  at  different  times  had  been  granted  to  the 
lobster-shippers  were  not  the  same  in  every  place,  because  the  ports 
for  shipping  lobsters  were  established  as  necessity  arose,  and  on  that 
occasion  got  certain  privileges,  these  must  naturally  differ  a  great  deal 
according  to  the  views  prevalent  at  the  time  when  the  ports  were 
established.  Such  regulations  regarding  the  ports  of  Espevaer,  Salt- 
hellern,  and  Eognesuud  from  the  year  1708,  have  already  been  com- 
municated, and  similar  ones  have  existed  in  other  ports.  These  regula- 
tions were  certainly  modified  a  great  deal  in  course  of  time ;  but  the 
Danish-Norwegian  government  inclined  to  keep  privileges  that  had 
once  been  granted  unchanged  as  far  as  was  possible,  and  these  privi- 
leges could  consequently  not  become  uniform  till  our  days.  In  order  to 
do  this,  the  department  of  finance  and  customs  issued  a  circular,  dated 
December  11,  1865,  to  the  following  effect: 

"As  the  privileges  which  have  been  granted  by  decrees  published 
from  time  to  time  to  the  lobster-trade  in  different  places  of  the  kingdom 
partly  differ  somewhat  as  to  their  character  without  there  being  suffi- 
cient reason  therefor,  and  are  partly  scattered  in  a  manner  which  makes 
supervision  difficult,  the  department  has  thought  proper  to  make  the 
following  general  regulations  regarding  the  privileges  that  shall  be  in 


NORWEGIAN    LOBSTER-FISHERY    AND    ITS    HISTORY.  257 

force  with  regard  to  this  trade,  and  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
additional  regulation  regarding  the  calculation  of  ship-dues,  agree 
entirely  with  those  which  are  for  the  time  being  in  force  in  most  of  the 
custom-stations  on  the  southern  coast :  • 

"1.  Arriving  lobster- vessels  which  intend  to  take  lobsters  in  an  outer 
port,  if  they  do  not  contain  any  goods  subject  to  duty,  but  only  ballast, 
may  be  exempt  from  stopping  at  the  custom-house  to  which  the  outer 
port  belongs,  if  the  shipper  immediately  on  his  arrival  reports  himself 
to  the  custom-house  officer  who  may  be  stationed  at  that  place,  but  if 
there  is  no  such  custom-station  there,  at  the  nearest  custom  station, 
where  the  custom-house  officers  may  examine  the  vessel. 

"  2.  Such  vessels  as  have  arrived  in  the  outer  port  are  exempt  from 
making  their  declaration  at  the  custom-house  before  they  commence  to 
take  their  cargo  of  lobsters ;  but,  when  they  commence,  thev  shall  be 
obliged  to  mention  the  exact  number  of  lobsters  which  they  intend  to 
export. 

"  3.  Such  vessels  are  permitted  to  make  their  declaration  before  the 
custom-house  at  the  same  time  with  giving  the  quantity  of  lobsters  about 
to  be  exported. 

"  4.  Such  vessels,  after  having  thus  obtained  their  custom-house 
papers  for  a  certain  quantity  of  lobsters,  if  they  cannot  get  the  quantity 
mentioned  in  the  port  where  they  take  their  cargo,  may  take  the  lob- 
sters that  are  wanting  to  make  up  the  quantity  mentioned  in  the  papers, 
in  another  port,  either  in  the  same  custom-house  district  or  in  another. 
The  following,  however,  must  be  observed  : 

"a.  The  custom-house  officer  stationed  in  the  port  shall  mention  in 
the  papers  the  exact  number  of  lobsters  that  have  been  taken  there,  and 
the  custom-house  officers  in  the  port  or  ports  which  may  be  entered 
afterward  shall  examine  in  how  far  the  number  of  lobsters  received 
agrees  with  the  number  of  lobsters  specified  in  the  papers. 

"  b.  If  the  lobsters  are  shipped  in  places  where  there  is  no  custom- 
house, the  company's  commissioner,  or,  if  there  is  none,  the  person  who 
sorts  the  lobsters,  may  mention  in  the  papers  what  number  of  lobsters 
have  been  taken,  whereupon  the  vessel  may  sail;  but  a  copy  of  the 
papers  made  under  oath  must  immediately  be  sent  to  the  nearest  custom- 
house. 

u  c.  The  respective  custom-house  officer  thereupon  shall,  in  the  case 
mentioned  under  a,  send  a  report  regarding  the  insertion  in  the  papers  to 
the  custom-house  to  which  he  belongs,  and  shall,  in  the  cases  mentioned 
under  b,  send  the  declaration  of  the  persons  who  sorted  the  lobsters. 

"  d.  If  the  lading  is  completed  in  a  district  belonging  to  another 
custom-house  than  the  one  where  the  lobster- vessel  has  commenced  to 
lade,  the  reports  and  declarations  mentioned  under  b  and  c  shall  be 
immediately  sent  by  the  custom-house  where  they  have  been  received 
to  that  custom-house  where  the  lading  has  commenced,  so  that  the 
officers  belonging  to  the  latter  may  be  able  to  determine  ill  how  far  the 
17  F 


258       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

exports  from  all  the  ports  correspond  with  the  number  of  lobsters  for 
which  duty  has  been  paid.  It  is  of  course  understood  that  the  above- 
mentioned  reports  and  declarations  must  give  the  name  of  the  vessel 
and  itfs  captain,  as  well  as  the  number  and  date  of  the  custom-house 
passport,  and  state  by  which  custom-house  thelatter  has  been  issued. 

"5.  If  the  captains  of  lobster-vessels  find  occasion  to  take  a  larger  num- 
ber of  lobsters  than  is  mentioned  in  their  papers,  either  in  the  same  port 
or  other  ports,  this  may  be  done  without  any  hiuderance  by  the  custom- 
house officers,  and  in  this  case  everything  regarding  the  insertion  in  the 
papers  and  the  reports  and  declarations  that  are  to  be  given  is  to  be 
done  exactly  as  mentioned  in  No.  4.  This  is  done,  however,  under  the 
condition  that  the  shipper  immediately  pays  the  export-dues  for  the 
extra  number  of  lobsters  taken,  and  that  the  custom-house  officer  in 
the  above-mentioned  reports  and  declarations  certifies  that  the  vessel 
has  exported  this  extra  number.  In  so  far,  however,  as  an  arriving  lob- 
ster-vessel brings  goods  which  have  to  pay  duty,  the  regulations  men- 
tioned in  Nos.  1  and  2,  without  regard  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
goods,  cannot  be  applied  to  the  vessel,  but  it  must  first  get  the  required 
permit  to  pass  in,  and  therefore  go  up  to  the  custom-house,  and  there 
undergo  the  same  treatment  as  other  arriving  vessels,  whereupon  it 
may  proceed  to  the  place  of  lading.  If  it  is  found  that  exporters, 
sorters,  or  shippers  do  not  observe  the  conditions  under  which  the  above- 
mentioned  privileges  have  been  given,  these  shall  be  revoked,  according 
to  circumstances,  either  for  a  vessel,  for  a  port,  or  for  a  certain  part  of 
the  coast.  The  custom-house  officers  shall  see  to  it,  as  far  as  circum- 
stances and  the  above-mentioned  regulations  allow,  that  no  abuses  creep 
in,  and  that  if  there  should  be  any,  they  are  immediately  made  known 
to  the  respective  authorities. 

"With  regard  to  the  ship-dues  of  such  vessels  as  take  in  cargoes  of 
lobsters  outside  the  custom-houses,  in  conformity  with  the  privileges 
granted  to  them,  it  has  been  found  convenient,  in  order  to  have  a  uni- 
form mode  of  proceeding,  to  calculate  their  dues  in  future  always  as 
of  vessels  whose  cargo  exceeds  one-fourth  of  the  carrying  capacity." 


XIV.-TRANSPORTATION  OF  LOBSTERS  TO  CALIFORNIA. 


The  following  is  the  report  of  M.  L.  Perrin,  employed  by  Mr.  Livingston  Stone,  for 
the  California  Fish  Commission,  in  the  transportation  of  live  lobsters  upon  the  Cali- 
fornia aquarium  car,  June,  1874. — [S.  F.  Baird.] 

The  lobsters  were  procured  from  Messrs.  Johnson  &  Young's  lobster- 
house,  Charlestown-street  bridge,  Boston,  and  pains  were  taken  by 
these  gentlemen  to  give  all  the  aid  in  their  power  toward  the  undertak- 
ing. Upon  a  special  car  from  Boston  to  Charlestown,  1ST.  H.,  June  3, 
were  packed  the  150  lobsters  in  seven  pine  boxes  3 J  feet  long,  15  inches 
wide,  and  15  inches  deep.  The  boxes  were  divided  iuto  two  compart-* 
ments,  an  upper  and  a  lower,  by  a  partition,  making  two  tiers,  and  11 
lobsters  were  placed  in  each  tier,  save  one.  On  this  trip  to  Charlestown 
they  were  not  packed  with  straw  beneath  them,  but  lay  upon  the  wood, 
with  sponges  over  and  around  them.  We  were  sorry  at  the  time  for 
this  mistake,  but  from  experiments  afterward  I  decided  that  they  were 
as  well  situated  as  if  laid  upon  straw.  Six  casks  of  ocean-water,  each 
containing  149  gallons,  were  obtained  that  morning  and  loaded  upon 
the  car.  Most  of  the  sea-water  was  put  into  the  two  salt-water  tanks 
in  the  aquarium-car.  These  tanks  were  made  of  hard  wood  and 
smeared  with  a  mixture  of  resin  and  tallow  in  order  to  be  water-tight, 
and  during  part  of  the  overland  journey  salt-water  fish  were  in  these 
tanks.  One  cask  of  sea-water  was  loaded,  unopened,  upon  the  aqua- 
rium-car to  be  used  for  the  lobsters  during  the  last  days  of  the  trip, 
that  from  the  tanks  being  used  for  awhile.  The  sea-water  was  ob- 
tained outside  Boston  Harbor,  beyond  the  "  Graves,"  in  order  that  it 
might  be  purer.  That  which  had  been  got  two  days  previously  for  the 
same  purpose  was  procured  from  Nahant,  but  the  aquarium-car  not 
starting  that  day  made  it  necessary  to  get  some  more  so  as  to  have  it 
fresh.  We  procured  35  pounds  of  sponges,  most  of  which  were  used  in 
the  beginning  before  many  lobsters  had  died,  but  afterward  were  not 
needed.  The  sponges  were  soaked  with  salt  water,  aud  each  lobster 
was  completely  hidden  by  the  wet  sponges.  Salt  water  was  poured 
upon  all  the  lobsters,  and  all  the  sponges  newly  wetted  once  during  the 
trip  to  Cbarlestown.  The  lobsters  were  all  alive  when  reaching  Charles- 
town. 

At  Charlestown,  Thursday  morning,  June  4,  the  lobsters  were  taken 
from  the  boxes  in  which  they  had  been  brought  from  Boston  and  re- 
packed in  boxes  without  covers,  divided  by  partitions  into  twelve  apart- 
ments.   The  surface-extent  of  these  apartments  was  just  enough  to  ad- 


260       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

mit  one  lobster  lying  within  it — smaller  than  was  well  for  them.  The 
depth  of  the  apartments  was  about  G  inches,  and  the  bottoms  were  bored 
with  an  auger-hole  to  allow  drainage.  A  handful  of  wet  straw  was  put 
in  each  apartment  and  a  lobster  laid  upon  it,  theu  sponges  dripping 
with  salt  water  were  placed  above  and  around  it  until  quite  concealed 
from  sight  and  from  dry  air  by  this  stratum  of  wet  sponges. 

There  were  twelve  of  these  boxes,  each  containing  twelve  above-de- 
scribed apartments,  placed  in  the  aquarium-car,  one  upon  another,  in 
two  piles  of  six  boxes  each,  against  the  side  of  the  car.  In  going  over 
the  lobsters  twice  a  day,  the  boxes  were  taken  down  and  the  sponges 
were  removed  from  the  lobsters  one  at  a  time  and  squeezed  over  the 
animal,  which,  if  alive,  will  respond  to  it  by  blinking  its  eyes  and 
stretching  its  claws,  perhaps  moving  its  body  a  little.  The  sponges 
were  then  dipped  into  a  pailful  of  sea-water  and  wetted  again,  and  were 
carefully  arranged  as  before  about  the  lobster.  Pieces  of  ice  which  an- 
other person  had  been  breaking  up  meanwhile  were  strewn  over  each 
box,  among  the  apartments  and  sponges,  to  keep  cool  the  water  in  the 
sponges  and  the  moisture  in  the  straw  and  around  the  lobster.  It  was 
slow  work,  and  the  lobsters  were  too  much  exposed  during  the  opera- 
tions. Often,  after  the  boxes  were  piled  up  again,  pailsful  of  salt  water 
were  poured  over  the  whole.  During  the  first  two  or  three  days  only  a 
few  were  found  dead  when  they  were  repacked. 

At  noon,  Saturday,  June  6,  sixty  lobsters  were  put  into  one  of  the 
large  salt-water  tanks  with  the  striped  bass  and  some  other  salt-water 
fish.  Into  this  tank,  as  into  all  the  others,  air  was  continually  forced 
through  hose  from  the  air  force-pumps,  kept  in  motion  by  a  band  pass- 
ing around  the  axle  of  a  pair  of  the  car-wheels.  The  lobsters  in  this 
salt  water,  the  next  morning,  at  Chicago,  appeared  to  be  doing  very 
well ;  but  Sunday  afternoon  the  lid  of  this  tank  was  discovered  to  have 
fallen,  aud  upon  raising  it  all  the  lobsters  were  found  dead.  The  fish 
also  in  the  tank  were  dead.  Whether  the  falling  of  the  lid  was  the 
cause  of  their  death,  we  could  not  quite  decide ;  but  it  seemed  very 
probable  that  it  was  because  the  air  pumped  into  the  tank  after  the  lid 
fell,  having  no  means  of  escape  at  the  top  of  the  tank,  exerted  a  great 
pressure  upon  the  water  and  in  this  way  killed  them,  and  also  because 
of  the  impure  air  which  was  confined  inside  for  some  time  without  being 
replaced  by  purer.  The  fact  that  the  fish  died  also  shows  that  it  was 
some  external  calamity  common  to  them  both.  The  wooden  tanks,  the 
mixture  of  resin  and  tallow,  though  but  little,  with  which  the  tank  was 
smeared,  the  number  in  oue  tank,  aud  the  company  with  the  fish,  are 
also  variable  quantities  whose  effects  might  be  discussed  relative  to 
this  result  and  also  to  the  result  of  the  experiment  which  was  thus 
checked.  Therefore  this  case  should  not  be  considered  a  fair  experi- 
ment and  as  deciding  whether  lobsters  cannot  be  transported  healthily, 
in  an  open  tank  of  salt  water,  into  which  air  is  continually  forced, 
without  changing  the  salt  water  itself,  and  kept  constantly  at  a  low 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    LOBSTERS    TO    CALIFORNIA.  261 

temperature.  I  neglected  to  mention  that  upon  the  top  of  the  tank 
much  ice  had  heen  kept  and  stored ;  in  this  way  keeping  the  salt  water 
within  the  tank  quite  cold  without  freshening  it  and  diluting  it,  which 
would  have  been  caused  by  ice  put  into  the  salt  water  to  cool  it.  The 
death  of  these  sixty  reduced  the  number  of  lobsters  materially. 

About  this  time  on,  the  trip  slats  were  laid  upon  the  two  piles  of 
lobster-boxes,  and  about  500  pounds  of  ice  kept  on  them,  when  the 
lobsters  were  not  being  attended  to.  Lobsters  will  live  well  until 
the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  but  in  the  present  case,  if  at  any  time  of 
repacking  them  I  did  not  find  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  residue 
dead  each  time,  I  considered  it  very  fortunate.  I  went  over  them 
twice  a  day;  so  that  if,  at  every  time  of  repacking,  one-third  to  one-half 
were  to  be  thrown  away,  the  number  of  live  lobsters  would  be  rapidly 
reduced,  as  was  indeed  the  case.  Monday,  June  8,  there  were  only 
20  left  alive.  Nor  is  there  any  regularity  in  their  dying;  those  treated 
the  most  carefully  and  faithfully  die  as  readily  as  the  neglected ;  and 
those  handled  much  live  as  well  as  the  undisturbed.  After  the  fifth 
day  crowds  of  lobsters  take  offense  at  something,  and  revenge  them- 
selves by  dying.  The  reason  of  their  death  was  wrapt  in  mystery. 
Numerous  experiments  always  failed  to  bring  any  regular  results, 
and  nothing  certain  could  be  gleaned  from  them.  Theorizing  about 
lobsters'  chances  of  life  is  vain  when  applied  iu  practice.  There 
seems  to  be  a  wide  diversity  in  their  constitutions,  though  unseen  and 
imperceptible.  Certain  lobsters  live  well  and  persistently,  while  others 
destined  to  die  beforehand  do  so  irregularly  and  for  an  unassignable 
cause.  It  is  easy  to  decide  whether  a  lobster  is  dead.  If  so,  its  muscles 
are  all  relaxed,  and  when  lifted  up,  its  claws,  instead  of  remaining  hori- 
zontally out  from  the  body,  hang  down.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
large  front  claws,  but  not  always  of  the  small  ones,  which  sometimes 
hang  down  when  the  lobster  is  alive,  or  are  straightened  when  dead ; 
the  front  claws,  however,  are  decisive.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  crea- 
ture is  alive,  it  will  sometimes  move  its  long  feelers  when  the  sponge 
is  lifted,  and  move  its  claws,  and  often  its  body;  but  the  constant  as 
well  as  sure  criterion  is  that  when  a  sponge  full  of  salt  water 
is  squeezed  over  its  head,  it  will  always  answer  it  by  blinking  or  draw- 
ing in  its  eyes,  if  alive.  When  lifted  it  will  struggle;  but  it  is  a 
bad  plan  to  raise  them,  unless  necessary,  though  this  is  better  than  to 
molest  and  agitate  too  much,  without  lifting  them,  when  arranging  the 
sponges  or  ice  about  them. 

We  were  using  a  good  deal  of  salt  water,  and  Monday,  the  fifth  day 
from  starting,  it  became  evident  that  we  had  not  enough  on  board  for 
the  whole  journey.  We  disliked  to  use  the  salt  water  from  the  tanks  in 
which  fish  were  or  had  been  ;  and  there  was  not  much  of  that.  There- 
fore we  opened  the  reserve  cask  of  149  gallons  of  unused  salt  water, 
and  telegraphed  the  same  day  to  the  commissioners  of  California  to 


262      EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

send  by  freight  some  Pacific  Ocean  water  to  meet  us  on  the  route  as 
soon  as  possible. 

Being  afraid  that  the  ice  which  I  was  in  the  habit  of  putting  around 
the  sponges  and  among  the  apartments  was,  by  its  melting  and  the 
resultant  water,  making  too  fresh  the  atmosphere  with  which  the 
lobsters  were  surrounded,  inasmuch  as  it  diluted  the  salt  water,  I  tried 
with  some  the  effect  of  leaving  off  the  ice  for  a  few  times.  The  results 
were  not  satisfactory,  and  proved  that  omitting  the  ice  was  not  a 
good  thing ;  the  lobsters  would  not  do  as  well  without  it.  The  coldness 
gained  by  using  the  ice  was  even  more  indispensable  than  the  saltness 
of  the  water,  which  of  course  must  be  quite  necessary.  It  is  not  well  to 
use  too  small  pieces  of  broken  ice,  because  they  melt  more  rapidly ;  and 
in  order  to  exert  the  required  influence  in  producing  coldness,  the 
pieces  of  ice  must  be  so  near  the  lobsters  that,  in  melting  as  fast  as 
small  pieces  do,  the  salt  water  in  and  around  the  sponges  becomes 
more  fresliened  than  if  larger  pieces  of  ice  were  used.  It  is  much  better 
that  the  ice,  in  either  case,  should  not  touch  the  sponges,  if  the  requisite 
coldness  can  be  attained  without,  and  if  room  is  abundant;  and  still  bet- 
ter would  it  be  if  the  ice  could  be  so  arranged  that,  while  producing 
the  necessary  low  temperature,  the  water  resulting  from  its  melting 
should  not  mingle  with  the  salt  water  nor  strike  anything  connected 
with  the  lobsters.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  having  as  low  a 
temperature  as  possible  is  one  of  the  greatest  desiderata  in  the  care  of 
lobsters.  A  refrigerating  apparatus  would  avoid  the  troubles  with  the 
ice  spoken  of  above  and  be  much  more  effectual  than  the  primitive  method 
followed  on  this  trip.  The  protection  which  the  ice  rjrovided  in  this 
case  against  currents  of  warm  air  was  not  thorough  and  complete,  and 
great  harm  was  surely  done  at  the  places  and  times  where  the  defense 
was  insufficient ;  and  still  more  grew  out  of  the  fickleness  of  its  protec- 
tion. Every  time  the  car-doors  were  opened  or  the  atmosphere  around 
the  lobster-boxes  disturbed,  there  inevitably  rushed  upon  them  a  draught 
of  warm  and  dry  but  injurious  air,  fatal  at  once  to  a  lobster  in  case 
the  current  strikes  it.  There  must  be  some  medium,  as  a  wide  or  at 
least  constant  stratum  of  moist  atmosphere,  to  guard  the  lobster  against 
this  destructive  air;  and  at  the  same  time  that  it  would  prevent  this 
evil,  it  should  produce  the  needed  low  temperature.  A  refrigerating 
arrangement  would  naturally  make  the  care  of  the  lobsters  much  more 
convenient  as  well  as  more  successful.  Sometimes  when  lobsters  died 
1  put  ice  in  the  apartments  left  by  them  instead  of  upon  the  sponges  of 
the  live  lobsters.  The  dripping  of  this  ice  upon  the  apartments  below 
was  not  good  ;  but  when  the  lobsters  were  few  in  number,  I  arranged 
them  so  that  the  ice  apartments  all  came  under  each  other,  and  their 
dripping  did  not  affect  the  lobsters.  This  plan  seemed  to  work  favor- 
ably for  the  lobsters.  I  doubt  if  it  was  best  to  do  as  was  done  with 
the  boxes  on  this  trip.  Two  small  sticks  were  laid  across  the  top  of  each 
box  before  the  next  was  placed  upon  it.    In  this  way  a  'circulation  of 


TRANSPORTATION    OF   LOBSTERS    TO    CALIFORNIA.  2G3 

fresh  air  was  secured,  bat  I  suspect  that  other  qualities  iu  the  air  coun- 
terbalanced this,  and  did  much  harm. 

Tuesday,  Juue  9, 1  took  the  straw  from  beneath  every  living  lobster,, 
and  packed  them  all  entirely  with  sponges.    Tbe  rate  of  mortality  de- 
creased decidedly,  and   I  am   inclined  to  believe  that  without  this 
change  none  would  have  lived  to  the  end.    The  best  way  undoubtedly 
to  pack  a  lobster  is  with  sponges  above,  around,  and  beneath  it,  and 
also  a  small  one  directly  under  its  nose.    The  straw  is  quite  bad  for 
them  to  lie  upon,  because  their  claws  become  entangled  in  it,  and  it  re- 
strains them.    This  is  very  bad  for  a  lobster.    They  should  suffer  no 
pressure  or  restraint.    For  this  reason  we  were  afterward  glad  that  no 
straw  had  been  used  (by  mistake  as  we  thought)  iu  their  trip  from 
Boston  to  Charlestown.    I  also  tore  out  the  partitions  of  several  boxes, 
and  found  it  much  better;  they  were  more  active  when  opened,  and 
appeared  more  healthy.    Tbe  partitions  offer  a  restraint  to  them,  and 
are  consequently  injurious.    When  in  an  apartment  with  partitions,  they 
never  staid  in  the  middle,  but  worked  themselves  over  to  one  side,  and 
struggled  against  the  wooden  partition  ;  in  this  way  tiring  themselves 
out,  which  is  of  course  an  evil.    A  lobster  needs  room  to  stretch  all  its 
limbs,  if  it  wants  to  do  so.    For  this  reason  they  are  better  in  boxes 
without  partitions,  provided  they  are  not  near  enough  together  to  bite 
each  other.    Eubber  bands  around  the  claws  are  an  extreme  case  of 
restraint,  and  are  extremely  pernicious.    Treated  in  this  way,  the  ani- 
mals live  only  a  few  days.     Struggling  is  very  detrimental  to  the  vigor 
of  a  lobster;  therefore  they  should  not  be  restrained  ;  for  as  surely  as 
they  are  they  will  struggle  against  it,  and  not  violently,  but  slowly, 
almost  imperceptibly.    There  is  a  reacting  impulse  in  the  lobster  against 
confinement.    Though  they  do  not  move  much,  they  need  freedom  to 
move,   or  there  is  an  incentive  to  struggle.    Therefore  it  would  seem, 
as  is  truly  the  case,  that,  other  things  being  equal,  unrestrained  lob- 
sters have  the  best  chances  for  life. 

Pressure  is  as  injurious  as  restraint.  Sponges  exert  but  very  little 
pressure  upon  them,  and  they  can  easily  move  their  claws  among 
them.  Ice  must  not  cause  any  pressure  upon  the  animal,  nor  must 
it  freshen  the  water — another  requirement  met  by  a  refrigerating  ap- 
paratus. To  prevent  this  pressure  on  the  trip,  I  laid  the  ice  as  much 
as  possible  across  the  tops  of  the  partitions  and  not  above  the  lobsters. 
Wednesday,  June  10,  at  Ogden,  Utah,  we  left  one  pair  to  be  put  into 
Salt  Lake.  Two  very  healthy  and  active  lobsters  were  chosen,  to  make 
sure  of  this  attempt,  if  possible.  They  were  put  into  a  box  packed 
entirely  in  sponges,  and  I  gave  instructions,  and  -some  salt  water,  to 
Mr.  A.  P.  Eockwood,  of  Salt  Lake  City,  Superintendent  of  Fisheries, 
who  was  personally  to  take  charge  of  them.  When  leaving  Utah, 
Wednesday  night,  we  were  reduced  to  eight  lobsters  and  one  pail- 
ful of  salt  water.  Extra  salt  water  is  needed,  not  only  to  prevent 
the  moisture  in  and  around  the  sponges  from  becoming  too  fresh  by 


2G4      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ft 

melting  of  the  ice,  and  other  causes,  but  also  to  wet  the  sponges  with 
when  they  become  dry.  It  is  a  good  thing,  and  quite  necessary,  often  to 
pour  salt  water  over  the  lobsters  and  sponges,  without  unpacking,  in 
order  to  give  them  a  change  of  water.  It  is  well  to  repack  them  twice 
a  day;  but  a  liberal  supply  of  new  saltwater  should  be  poured  over 
them  at  least  once  in  three  hours.  The  shell  of  the  lobster  must  always 
be  wet.  Not  only  should  the  lobster  touch  nothing  else  but  wet  sponge, 
but  it  is  indispensable  also  that  it  should  be  everywhere  in  contact  with 
a  wet  sponge.  It  must  nowhere  be  bare  and  exposed  to  the  air,  for  the 
water  upon  its  surface  will  quickly  evaporate ;  and  should  you  see  a  lob- 
ster with  a  dry  spot  on  its  back,  you  may  be  sure  of  its  death  shortly.  A 
current  of  warm  dry  air,  if  endured  even  for  a  moment,  is  the  lobster's 
worst  enemy. 

Thursday,  June  11,  near  Beowawe,  Nevada,  a  freight-train  met  us, 
bringing  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  four  barrels  and  four  tin  tanks  of  salt 
water.  The  water  iu  the  tin  tanks  was  of  course  useless,  but  the  rest 
was  welcome  and  immediately  used.  The  effect  of  an  abundance  of  salt 
water  was  evident  in  the  appearance  of  the  lobsters.  Repacking  as 
often  as  three  hours  would  be  impossible  for  one  person,  if  many  lob- 
sters were  taken,  and  furthermore  useless,  and,  what  is  a  more  import- 
ant fact,  which  should  be  avoided ;  it  would  disturb  the  lobster,  and  if 
packed  entirely  in  sponge,  it  would  be  necessary  to  lift  the  animal  each 
time.  It  is  much  better  to  prepare  the  boxes  for  thorough  drainage, 
and  then  pour  on  a  good  supply  of  salt  water  as  -often  as  once  in  three 
hours.  The  ideal  condition  of  a  lobster  is,  unrestrained,  very  cold, 
(and  evenly  so,)  constantly  wet  with  salt  water,  which  should  not 
become  freshened  by  any  agency,  but  often  changed ;  and  when  in  as 
good  condition  as  possible,  then  disturb  them  just  as  little  as  possible. 
Lobsters  can  easily  be  killed  with  care.  • 

Upon  reaching  San  Francisco  Bay,  four  lobsters  were  alive.  These 
were  put  into  the  sea  at  Oakland  wharf,  Friday  afternoon,*  June  12, 
nine  days  after  they  had  been  taken  from  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It  would 
have  been  better  had  the  commissioners  ordered  them  to  be  put  farther 
out  to  sea,  where  the  water  was  not  so  warm,  and  more  salty.  The  four 
lobsters  themselves  probably  did  not  live ;  but  two  were  very  full  of 
spawn,  and  this  probably  matured.  The  death  of  a  female  lobster  does  not 
kill  the  spawn  attached,  which  may  live  quite  awhile  afterward ;  and  if,  as 
in  the  present  case,  the  spawn  reaches  again  the  natural  condition  of 
things  (of  the  ocean)  in  safety,  it  matters  not  whether  the  parent  lives. 
The  facts  that  these  four  lobsters  were  females,  and  that  their  spawn 
lived  and  hatched,  show  that  the  eggs  of  the  lobster  are  impregnated 
before  leaving  the  female,  and  not  afterward,  as  is  the  case  with  fishes. 
As  a  rule  the  females  of  lobsters  are  stronger  and  longer-lived,  under 
difficulties,  than  males ;  and  of  females,  spawning  ones  are  the  strongest. 

Lobsters  differ  so  much  in  constitution  that,  in  order  to  succeed  in 
the  transportation  of  say  ten  animals,  one  cannot  take  them  and  attend 


TRANSPORTATION    OF    LOBSTERS    TO    CALIFORNIA.  2G5 

to  thein  carefully,  thus  bringing  the  desired  result,  but  many  must  be 
taken  in  order  to  insure  the  chances  for  the  safety  and  success  of  the 
ten.  It  is  like  throwing  a  die  to  bring  a  certain  number :  it  is  ineffect- 
ual and  useless  to  throw  once  and  more  carefully  that  time,  but  many 
throws  must  be  bargained  for  to  insure  success  once.  In  the  same  way 
this  difference  in  the  constitution,  original  healthiness,  and  chances  of 
life,  affect  the  certainty  of  experimenting. 

In  order  to  transport  live  lobsters,  it  is  without  question  indispensa- 
ble to  have  a  special  car  for  the  purpose,  or  at  least  one  which  shall  run 
the  whole  journey.  An  excellent  degree  of  coldness  can  more  readily 
be  preserved  in  the  undisturbed  atmosphere  of  an  aquarium-car  than 
in  a  constantly  shifting  express-car.  The  ice  melts  less,  and  the  moist- 
ure does  not  evaporate  so  fast.  In  an  express-car  there  are  no  facili- 
ties for  soaking  and  drenching  the  lobsters  and  for  changing  the  water 
often  upon  them  by  pouring  from  pails  or  by  means  of  many  devices, 
which  can  easily  be  arranged  in  a  special  car.  In  such  a  car  the  water 
which  flows  off  the  lobsters  can  readily  run  out  of  the  car  or  through 
holes  bored  in  the  floor,  and  that  which  does  not  is  in  no  danger  of  ruin- 
ing any  valuable  express-matter.  An  excellent  refrigerating  arrange- 
ment can  be  prepared,  if  to  be  stationary,  and  to  go  from  beginning  to 
end  with  the  lobsters.  A  great  deal  of  room  in  which  to  work  is  very 
necessary,  and  cannot  be  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  express  which 
happens  to  be  on  board.  Draughts  of  warm  and  dry  air,  which  rush  in 
from  the  four  doors  of  an  express-car,  when  open  to  receive  or  deliver 
goods  at  every  station,  and  which,  as  we  have  seen,  are  extremely 
injurious,  are  avoided  by  a  special  car.  Lobsters  cannot  be  packed  so  as 
to  be  transferred  at  railroad  junctions  and  changes  of  express  compan- 
ies. They  cannot  with  success  be  portably  arranged,  but  must  be  so 
situated  that  they  can  easily  be  attended  to.  The  impracticability  of 
interrupting  the  person  in  charge,  when  repacking  the  lot  of  lobsters 
in  order  to  prepare  for  a  change  of  cars,  determines  at  once  as  infeasi- 
ble  the  plan  of  carrying  live  lobsters  by  express.  The  jarring  and  dis- 
turbance which  they  would  suffer  in  a  few  changes  of  cars  would  soon 
end  their  existence.  Furthermore,  the  transferring  of  the  numerous 
necessary  tools,  and  especially  the  casks  of  salt  water,  would  be  a  very 
weighty  item. 

Though  successful  in  the  life  of  the  innumerable  spawn  which  lived 
and  have  hatched  since  deposited  in  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  the  effort 
of  this  year  was  accompanied  with  many  results  which  need  not  be  con- 
sidered as  necessarily  attendant  upon  the  transportation  of  live  lobsters ; 
but  in  order  to  get  a  knowledge  of  these  needless  evils,  and  those  which 
are  to  be  avoided,  as  well  as  of  the  means  for  promoting  success,  it  is 
necessary  once  to  make  the  attempt  and  search  them  out  by  experience. 

Eespectfully  submitted. 

MAESHALL  L.  PEEEIN". 


XV.-Oft  THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  THE  LOBSTER/ 

[Translated  from  the  Danish.] 


There  is  one  point  in  the  natural  history  of  the  common  lobster 
(Homarus  vulgaris)  which,  till  quite  recently,  has  been  but  little  known, 
although  the  lobster  is  one  of  those  crustaceans  whose  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology have  been  studied  most  thoroughly,  and  that  is  the  period  of  its 
development  from  the  time  it  begins  to  lead  an  independent  life.  The 
roe  which  the  female  lobster  carries  under  the  back  part  of  its  body  has 
been  repeatedly  examined  as  far  as  that  stage  where  the  fully-developed 
embryo  is  surrounded  by  the  thin  white  of  the  egg ;  in  examiuing  the 
embryo  it  has  been  found  that,  as  in  other  crustaceans,  it  is  born  as  a 
being  unlike  the  grown  lobster,  and  that  during  its  later  development  it 
undergoes  metamorphoses. 

Prof.  G.  O.  Sars  of  Christiania  has  recently  endeavored  to  throw  more 
light  on  this  comparatively  dark  period  in  the  life  of  the  lobster,  and 
the  results  of  his  investigation  are  contained  in  his  treatise  uOm  Rum- 
merens  postembryonale  JJdmTding^  published  in  the  Christiana  "  Yidenslcabs- 
Selskalbs  Forhandlinger  "  for  1874.  He,  as  well  as  Prof.  Sidney  I.  Smith  in 
New  Haven,  who  about  the  same  time  examined  the  development 
of  the  American  lobster,  (Early  Stages  of  the  American  Lobster,  with  5 
plates,  by  Sidney  I.  Smith,  from  the  Transactions  of  the  Connecticut 
Academy,  vol.  ii,)  has  shown  three  larvse-stages  in  the  development  of 
the  lobster,  and  found  that  the  young  lobster  after  it  is  hatched  spends 
the  first  portion  of  its  life  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  where  it  be- 
comes an  easy  prey  to  its  many  enemies,  as,  especially  during  the  period 
when  it  changes  from  a  larvse  to  its  adult  form-,  it  is  but  little  skilled 


in  swimming. 


While  the  investigations  of  two  naturalists  have  thus  yielded  new 
and  valuable  contributions  to  the  natural  history  of  the  lobster,  inter- 
esting facts  regarding  the  young  lobster's  mode  of  life  have  been  dis- 
covered by  other  men. 

Along  that  part  of  the  Norwegian  coast  where  the  lobster-fisheries 
are  carried  on  on  a  large  scale,  and  where  they  become  a  source  of  con- 
siderable income  to  the  inhabitants,  there  are  ample  opportunities  for 
observing  what  an  enormous  number  of  young  lobsters  are  destroyed 
every  year,  partly  by  their  natural  enemies,  and  partly  by  the  strong 
wind  from  the  sea  which  drives  them  on  the  coast,  where  they  remaiu 
on  dry  land  when  the  tide  has  gone  out.    Several  men  in  the  district 

*0in  Forsog  med  kunstig  Udklaekniug  af  Hummer,  ny  rcekke=new  series,  in  "Nor- 
disk  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri,"  ny  Rcekke  of  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri,  2en  Aargang,  pp. 
184-188,  1875. 


268       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  Stavanger,  viz,  Mr.  Lorange,  a  civil  engineer,  Mr.  Olsen,  a  teacher, 
and  two  merchants,  Messrs.  Andr.  Hansen  and  H.  Hansen,  in  1873,  united 
with  a  view  to  making  experiments  whether  it  would  not  be  possible  to 
protect  the  tender  young  of  the  lobster  by  hatching  them  in  boxes  or 
small  basins,  where  they  could  find  a  place  of  refuge  till  they  were  so 
far  developed  as  to  take  care  of  themselves.  As  these  first  experiments 
seemed  to  augur  well,  they  received,  at  their  request,  aid  from  the  Eoyal 
Society  for  the  promotion  of  the  Industries  of  Norway,  (Kgl.  Selskab 
for  Norges  Vel.,)  to  enable  them  to  continue  their  experiments  iu  1874. 

For  this  purpose,  they  inclosed  a  sheet  of  water  by  building  a  strong 
wall  at  each  end  of  a  sound,  between  two  small  islands  in  the  Veafjord, 
not  far  from  Kopervig.  This  sheet  of  water  was  about  300  feet  long 
and  30  feet  broad;  its  bottom  consisted  partly  of  rough  gravel  and  partly 
of  rocks  stretching  along  one  of  the  sides,  and  its  average  depth  was 
about  5  feet.  Five  hatching-boxes  were  then  procured,  of  which  one 
was  placed  in  the  inclosed  water,  three  at  Aakrehavn,  and  one  at 
Kopervig.  These  boxes  were  made  of  cork,  and  were  5  feet  long  and  2 
feet  deep.  Both  at  the  bottom  and  at  the  sides,  there  was  an  opening 
of  oue-half  inch  between  the  boards,  which  was  covered  with  strips  of 
fine  wire-gauze.  The  boxes  at  Aakrehavn  were,  moreover,  furnished 
with  a  light  roof,  which,  without  excluding  the  light,  prevented  the 
boxes  from  being  filled  with  fresh  water  during  heavy  rains.  Only  one 
of  these  three  boxes  was  used  for  hatching ;  the  two  other  ones  being 
used  for  receiving  the  young  ones  as  their  number  became  too  large  for 
the  hatching-boxes,  and  for  making  experiments  whether  the  young 
lobster  can  be  kept  outside  an  inclosed  sheet  of  water,  which  it  might 
be  difficult  to  procure  in  some  places.  Twenty-two  female  lobsters,  hav- 
ing roe,  were  bought,  of  which  three  were  placed  in  the  inclosed  sheet 
of  water,  and  nineteen  in  the  boxes,  not  all  at  the  same  time,  however, 
but  by  degrees,  just  as  it  was  possible  to  procure  spawning  lobsters. 

Professor  Easeh,  president  of  the  section  for  fisheries  in  the  Eoyal 
Society  for  Furthering  the  Industries  of  Norway,  made  a  report  to  the 
society  on  the  hatching-experiments,  accompanied  by  prepared  speci- 
mens, showing  the  development  of  the  young  lobster  on  each  day  of  the 
first  week  after  the  hatching,  and  during  the  fourth  week.  In  this 
report,  he  says,  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  experiments  have  been  made 
carefully  and  skillfully,  and  that  thereby  several  facts  regarding  the 
natural  history  of  the  lobster  have  been  made  known,  which  hitherto 
were  either  entirely  unknown  or  not  sufficiently  proved  by  experiments. 
These  facts  are — 

a.  That  the  young  lobsters  swimming  near  the  surface  of  the  water  are 
killed  by  violent  rain,  which  was  successfully  avoided  by  having  the 
above-mentioned  light  roofs  over  the  boxes ; 

b.  That  the  older  of  the  young  lobsters,  when  their  shears  (claws)  are 
developed,  in  their  boxes  attack  and  eat  the  younger  ones  which  stay 
near  the  surface  ;  the  possibility  of  doing  this  was  diminished  by  hav- 


ARTIFICIAL    PROPAGATION    OF    THE    LOBSTER.  2G9 

ing  holes  in  the  sides  of  the  boxes  large  euough  to  let  the  larger  of  the 
young  ones  which  stay  deeper  under  the  water  slip  out  easily ; 

c.  That  the  female  lobsters  which  have  roe  under  the  back  part  of 
their  body  in  June  will  have  done  hatching  in  September ; 

d.  That  the  hatching  from  beginning,  to  end  occupies  a  period  of 
about  three  weeks ; 

e.  That  the  summer-hatching  does  not  begin  at  the  same  time  every 
year,  (in  1873  it  began  on  the  4th  July,  and  in  1874  between  the  17th 
and  2Gth  of  the  same  month,*)  which  undoubtedly  depends  on  the  higher 
aud  lower  temperature  of  the  water; 

/.  That  the  newly-hatched  young  of  the  lobster  keep  closely  together 
near  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  because  but  little  skilled  in  swim- 
ming become  an  easy  prey  to  their  enemies;   and, 

g.  That  the  young  lobsters  begin  to  go  toward  the  bottom  when  about 
three  to  four  weeks  old,  and  that  there  they  soon  assume  their  retro- 
grade motion. 

It  was  also  shown  that  when  the  young  lobsters  have  so  far  developed 
as  to  seek  the  bottom,  they  can  escape  their  enemies  with  comparative 
ease,  partly  on  account  of  their  quicker  motions  and  partly  by  hiding 
between  the  stones. 

These  experiments  have,  therefore,  not  only  thrown  considerable  light 
on  the  natural  history  of  the  lobster,  but  they  have  also  given  practical 
hints  how  it  may  be  possible  to  further  the  lobster-fisheries  by  adopting 
regulations  for  their  protection,  aud  by  establishing  in  suitable  localities 
hatching-places  where  the  young  can  be  protected  during  the  first  stages 
of  their  development.  To  keep  the  young  lobsters  in  inclosed  sheets  of 
water  till  they  are  large  euough  to  become  salable  will  scarcely  pay. 

One  of  our  largest  exporters  of  lobsters  on  the  western  coast  has 
tried  to  keep  large  quantities  of  grown  lobsters  in  an  inclosed  sheet  of 
Avater,  feeding  them  and  waiting  for  the  time  when  it  would  be  most 
profitable  to  ship  them ;  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  the  expenses 
were  too  great. 

These  experiments  will  be  continued  during  the  present  year  with  the 
aid  of  the  Royal  Society  for  Furthering  the  Industries  of  Norway. 

B. 


XVI.-ON  THE  OYSTER-INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


By  Lieut.  P.  de  Broca. 


[The  great  interest  taken  by  the  French  in  the  subject  of  oyster-cul- 
ture, in  view  of  the  threatened  failure  of  this  branch  of  industry  on  the 
shores  of  France,  induced  the  government  to  send  Lieutenant  de  Broca 
to  the  United  States,  in  1862,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  its  condi- 
tion in  this  country.  The  report  of  that  gentleman  was  first  published 
in  the  Revue  Maritime  et  Coloniale,  and  afterward  reprinted  in  separate 
form,  with  some  additions,  under  the  title  given  below.* 

As  nothing  so  elaborate  in  reference  to  the  oyster-culture  and  -indus- 
try in  the  United  States  has  been  published  elsewhere,  I  have  caused 
M.  de  Broca's  report  in  the  Revue  to  be  translated,  and  present  it  here- 
with, supplemented  by  some  additions  from  the  Etude.  I  hope  to  pre- 
sent before  long  the  present  condition  of  the  oyster-fisheries  of  the 
country  from  an  American  point  of  view. — S.  F.  Bated.] 

EEPORT. 

To  His  Excellency  the  Minister  of  Marine  and  Colonial  Affairs  : 

Honored  Sir  :  At  the  end  of  the  month  of  March,  1862,  your  excel- 
lency, at  the  request  of  M.  Coste,  Member  of  the  Institute,  instructed  me 
to  proceed  to  the  United  States,  in  order  to  study  the  Oyster-Fisheries  of 
that  country,  and  to  bring  back  specimens  of  two  kinds  of  edible  mol- 
lusks,  susceptible  of  acclimation  on  the  shores  of  France. 

Since  my  return  to  Havre,  on  the  2d  of  October,  I  have  hastened  to 
forward  to  your  excellency  a  summary  report  of  my  mission,  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  more  detailed  account,  containin  g  all  my  investigations  in 
regard  to  the  American  coasts. 

Leaving  Boston  on  the  17th  of  September,  in  the  steamer  Asia,  of  the 
Cunard  line,  I  reached  Liverpool  on  the  29th,  after  a  passage  of  twelve 
days  of  most  delightful  weather.  I  brought  with  me  a  number  of  mol- 
lusks,  principally  of  the  Mya  arenaria,  of  which,  notwithstanding  the 
greatest  care,  I  was  able  to  save  only  a  few  specimens.    I  was  more  for- 

*  Questions  niaritiiues  et  coloniales. — Peches  maritimes. — Etude  sur  l'industrie  bui- 
triere  des  Etats-Unis,  faite  par  ordre  de  S.  E.  M.  le  comte  de  Chasselonp  Laubat,  mi- 
nistre  de  la  marine  et  des  colonies.  Suivie  de  divers  apercus  sur  l'industrie  de  la  glace 
en  Arne'rique,  les  bateaux  de  pecbe  pourvus  de  glacieres,  les  reserves  flottantes  a  poisson, 
la  pecbe  du  inaquereau,  etc.  Par  M.  P.  de  Broca,  lieutenant  de  vaisseau,  directeur  des 
mouvements  du  port  du  Havre. — Nouvelle  Edition,  augmented  de  divers  documents  et 
de  notes.— Paris.    Challamel  alnd,  dditeur,  1865,  12  mo.,  2  p.  1.,  266  pp. 


272        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

tunate  with  the  Venus  mercenaria,  and  the  oysters  of  Virginia,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  landing  two  thousand  living  representatives  at  Havre,  from 
which  place  they  were  sent  immediately  to  the  Hougue  of  Saint-Waast. 

Your  excellency  will  permit  me,  before  entering  into  details  concern- 
ing my  commission,  to  mention  the  circumstances  which  preceded  it,  as 
the  experience  resulting  from  them  is  worthy  of  record. 

About  the  end  of  the  year  18G0  one  of  my  cousins,  M.  de  Ferussac, 
spoke  to  me  of  the  alimentary  supplies  afforded  the  people  of  the  United 
States  from  two  species  of  marine  mollusks,  known  in  the  country  under 
the  names  of  the  soft  clam  and  the  round  clam.  The  information  thus 
given  me  having  been  confirmed  by  several  American  captains  fre- 
quenting the  port  of  Havre,  I  hastened  to  communicate  with  M.  Coste, 
proposing,  if  he  considered  it  advisable,  to  import  some  specimens  of 
the  mollusks  in  question,  by  means  of  the  transatlantic  steamers,  from 
New  York.  This  proposition  was  immediately  accepted ;  funds  were 
placed  at  my  disposal  by  the  College  of  France ;  and  in  the  month  of 
May,  1861,  the  reliable  officer  in  charge  of  the  Arago,  who  cheerfully 
took  the  matter  in  charge,  brought  to  Havre  a  number  of  round  clams 
( Venus  mercenaria^  as  well  as  oysters  from  Virginia,  of  a  species  entirely 
different  from  those  found  on  our  shores. 

Some  time  after  this,  the  Emperor,  whose  attention  is  constantly 
directed  to  everything  that  tends  to  increase  our  alimentary  resources, 
took  himself  the  initiative  in  the  general  acclimation  of  American  edible 
mollusks.  To  facilitate  this  design  of  the  Emperor,  M.  de  Moutholon, 
consul-general  of  France  at  New  York,  was  invited  to  confer  with  the 
celebrated  Professor  Agassiz,  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  near  Bos- 
ton, in  the  United  States. 

M.  Coste,  Member  of  the  Institute,  was  instructed  by  His  Majesty  to 
take  all  necessary  measures  for  the  success  of  the  enterprise  in  France 

Mr.  Burkardt,  draughtsman  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  at. 
Cambridge,  left  Boston  in  the  month  of  September,  of  the  same  year, 
with  some  of  each  of  the  following  species,  collected  through  the  kind- 
ness of  Professor  Agassiz:  (1.)  Mya  arenaria ;  (2.)  Venus  mercenaria; 
(3.)  Pecten  concentricus ;  (4.)  Momarus  americanus ;  (5.)  Mactra  solid issima ; 
(6.)  Mytilus  edulis.*  The  voyage  to  Europe  was  accomplished  under 
such  unfavorable  circumstances  that  a  large  portion  of  these  perished 
during  the  passage ;  and  as  the  vessel  did  not  arrive  at  Liverpool  until 
after  the  departure  of  the  steamer  for  Havre,  Mr.  Burkardt  was  obliged 
to  convey  the  shell-fish,  which  were  still  alive,  entirely  across  England, 
in  order  to  embark  at  Southampton.  Of  all  the  mollusks  brought  from 
Boston  only  two  hundred  of  the  Venus  survived  to  reach  France  j  and 
these  were  immediately  placed  in  the  parks  of  Saint- Waast,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  instructions  of  M.  Coste. 

Such,  your  excellency,  were  the  first  attempts  at  acclimation;  and  if 

*(1.)  Soft  clam  ;  (2.)  Round  or  quahaug  clam ;  (3.)  Scallop;  (4.)  Lobster;  (5.)  Hen 
clam ;  (G.)  Mussel. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  273 

I  mention  them  here,  it  is  not  to  detract  in  the  least  from  what  was  then 
accomplished.  My  sole  purpose  is  to  show  that  the  probabilities  in 
favor  of  the  successful  acclimation  of  oysters  and  clams  are  very  great, 
since  they  have  lived  for  seventeen  months  in  the  waters  of  the  Mauche 
quite  as  thriftily  as  if  they  were  on  their  native  beds. 

By  the  close  of  the  year  1861  these  two  important  facts  were  satisfac- 
torily established :  first,  that  the  mollusks  in  question  can  easily  bear 
transportation  across  the  Atlantic;  and,  secondly,  that  our  salt  waters 
do  not  appear  to  affect  them  unfavorably.  The  number  of  specimens 
was  not  sufficient  to  warrant  the  planting  of  them  in  bays;  beside,  all 
the  species  with  which  it  was  desirable  to  experiment  had  not  survived 
to  reach  Europe.  These  two  reasons  induced  M.  Coste  to  request  your 
excellency  to  send  me  to  the  United  States,  not  only  to  bring  back  a 
large  number  of  mollusks,  but  also  to  examine  into  the  conditions  essen- 
tial to  their  healthy  growth ;  to  investigate  the  nature  of  the  soil  and 
the  character  of  the  waters  in  which  they  live ;  and,  in  short,  to  obtain 
information  upon  every  point  which  might  insure  the  success  of  the 
enterprise.  I  was  also  ordered  to  examine  everything  connected  with 
the  oyster-industry;  and,  in  compliance  with  these  instructions,  I  sailed 
from  Liverpool,  on  the  29th  of  March,  for  New  York,  by  the  steamer 
Asia. 

Owing  to  circumstances  beyond  my  control,  my  departure,  which 
ought  to  have  taken  place  in  February,  had  been  delayed ;  so  that  on 
my  arrival  in  America  I  was  obliged  (as  my  commission  embraced  but 
two  months)  to  arrange  matters  so  as  to  return  to  Europe  by  the  middle 
of  June,  a  season  of  the  year  when  transportation  is  difficult  on  account 
of  the  excessive  heat.  As  I  was  in  possession  of  very  uncertain  infor- 
mation with  regard  to  the  best  manner  of  treating  the  mollusks,  I  thought 
it  the  wisest  plan,  in  order  to  take  them  safely  across  the  Atlantic,  to 
ask  the  advice  of  competent  persons  in  the  country ;  and  it  may  be  well 
to  say  that  every  one  to  whom  I  mentioned  the  subject  predicted  a  fail- 
ure if  I  made  the  attempt  during  warm  weather. 

In  view  of  an  opinion  so  decidedly  expressed,  and  after  consultation 
with  the  consul-general  of  France,  I  concluded  to  dispatch  immediately 
a  number  of  the  mollusks,  by  the  steamer  Asia,  whose  captain,  a  very 
intelligent  gentleman,  had  offered  me  his  co-operation. 

On  the  23d  of  April,  I  put  on  board  the  steamer  3,000  of  the  Venus 
mercenaria,  and  600  of  Virginia  oysters,  gathered  from  beds  in  New 
York  Bay.  Some  time  after  this  I  sent  2,000  of  the  Venushy  the  Persia, 
the  fleetest  vessel  of  the  Cunard  line.  Your  excellency  will  permit  me 
to  observe  in  this  connection,  that  the  discontinuance  of  the  transat- 
lantic Havre  line  of  steamers,  the  vessels  of  which  were  required  by  the 
Federal  Government  for  the  exigencies  of  the  war  then  in  progress, 
disarranged  my  plans,  and  forced  me  to  send  my  collections  by  way  of 
England  ;  so  that  the  probabilities  of  failure  in  the  transportation  of 

the  shell-fish  were  greatly  increased. 
18  F 


274       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

After  remaining  two  weeks  in  New  York,  during  which  time  I  com- 
menced my  investigations  in  regard  to  the  shell-fisheries,  I  went  to 
Boston,  in  order  to  avail  myself  of  the  counsel  and  experience  of  Profes- 
sor Agassiz,  to  whom  M.  Coste  had  given  me  a  letter  of  introduction. 

With  the  utmost  readiness  and  kindness,  (for  which  I  tender  him  my 
thanks,)  the  professor  made  me  acquainted  with  the  best  means  of  pro- 
moting the  success  of  my  undertaking.  He  pointed  out  to  me  those  por- 
tions of  the  coast  of  the  Northern  States  which  I  ought  especially  to 
study,  and  generously  placed  himself  at  my  service  to  direct  me  in  the 
most  fruitful  path  of  investigation.  Nevertheless,  when  he  learned  that 
my  stay  in  America  cOuld  not  exceed  a  month,  he  did  not  hesitate  to 
express  his  opinion  of  the  great  difficulty  attendant  upon  so  limited  a 
period.  In  his  judgment  the  investigations  I  had  undertaken  in  regard 
to  the  oyster  fisheries  alone  would  require  much  more  time  than  had 
been  accorded  to  me  ;  for,  in  the  United  States,  where  there  is  no  fiscal 
import  duty  upon  fish,  as  in  France,  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  statis- 
tics of  amounts  consumed  ;  and  since  each  State  is  regulated  by  its  own 
laws,  it  is  only  by  personal  observation  that  exact  knowledge  could  be 
obtained. 

The  transportation  of  a  large  number  of  the  mollusks  in  the  month 
of  June,  seemed  to  Professor  Agassiz  extremely  hazardous,  and  he  also 
informed  me  that  in  consequence  of  the  interest  he  felt  in  the  success  of 
an  enterprise  which  had  been  initiated  by  His  Majesty  himself,  he 
dreaded  nothing  so  much  as  a  failure,  which  without  really  proving 
anything  against  the  undertaking,  might  yet  lead  to  its  relinquishment. 

It  is  evident  that  I  could  not  but  be  impressed  by  such  important 
considerations,  and  deeming  it  to  be  my  duty  not  to  act  without  positive 
orders  from  your  excellency,  I  requested  Professor  Agassiz  to  write  to 
M.  Coste,  and  explain  the  reasons  why  my  departure  from  the  United 
States  should  be  deferred. 

On  the  27th  of  April  I  received  from  Cambridge  the  following  com- 
munication : 

"  I  have  just  forwarded  to  M.  Coste  a  long  letter,  written  in  accord- 
ance with  the  opinion  I  expressed  to  you  in  regard  to  the  necessity  of 
prolonging  your  stay  in  the  United  States,  in  order  to  accomplish  the 
object  of  your  commission.  I  consider  it  indispensable  that  you  should 
pass  the  warm  season  here,  if  you  would  become  acquainted  with  all  that 
concerns  the  fishery  and  the  preservation  of  our  oysters,  and  that  you 
wait  until  autumn  to  transport  with  any  chance  of  success  the  mollusks 
which  are  to  be  acclimated  on  the  shores  of  France,  &c. 

"Agassiz." 

While  awaiting  a  reply  from  your  excellency,  I  began  at  Boston  some 
experiments  with  reference  to  the  best  mode  of  treating  the  mollusks 
during  their  passage  across  the  Atlantic.  I  bought  for  this  purpose  a 
number  of  Virginia  clams  and  oysters,  which  were  placed  in  tubs  or 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    SEATES.  275 

vats  npoii  a  bed  of  gravel,  and  supplied  every  morning  and  evening 
with  pure  water  from  the  sea,  taken  at  some  distance  from  the  harbor ; 
these  vats  being  emptied  after  the  water  had  remained  about  an  hour 
upon  the  shell-fish.  These  experiments  gave  the  following  results: 
Shortly  after  the  My  as  had  been  placed  in  the  vats,  they  evidently  began 
to  decline,  and  on  the  twelfth  day  there  was  not  one  alive.  So  far  the 
failure  was  almost  complete.  The  Venus  and  the  oysters,  on  the  con- 
trary, thrived  so  well,  under  this  mode  of  treatment,  that  at  the  end  of 
a  month  they  were  in  as  good  condition  as  on  the  first  day,  the  mortality 
among  them  having  been  insignificant  and  attributable  to  several  ex- 
traneous causes.  During  my  absence  Mr.  Higgens,  a  planter  and 
dealer  in  oysters,  cheerfully  consented  to  continue  these  experiments, 
and  to  keep  me  constantly  informed  of  their  results. 

Success  with  the  oysters  and  the  Venus  inspired  me  with  such  confi- 
dence that,  on  the  28th  of  May,  I  sent  ten  baskets  of  them  by  the 
steamer  Europa,  which  sailed  from  Boston.    . 

Having  been  informed  early  in  June,  through  a  dispatch  from  the 
admiral  of  the  Konciere,  that  your  excellency  had  extended  the  time  of 
my  commission,  I  made  arrangements  for  continuing  the  transportation. 

On  the  10th  of  June  the  captain  of  the  vessel  from  Selva,  in  com- 
mand of  the  frigate  la  Bellone,  consented  to  take  to  France  some  oys- 
ters and  some  of  the  Venus,  as  well  as  about  forty  fresh-water  turtles, 
which  I  sent  to  M.  Coste  as  specimens  of  the  American  species.  Having 
been  convinced  by  some  new  experiments,  undertaken  on  the  shore 
of  Long  Island,  that  it  was  possible  to  keep  Myas  alive  out  of  their 
native  element  for  twenty  days,  even  in  the  warm  season,  I  sent,  on 
the  18th  of  July,  800  of  these  mollusks  by  the  Europa,  with  six  baskets 
of  oysters,  gathered  in  Delaware  Bay.  The  Myas,  buried  in  cases,  filled 
with  sand,  as  in  their  natural  beds,  were  supplied  several  times  a  day 
during  the  passage  with  salt-water,  and  I  have  since  learned  that  400 
of  them  reached  Saint  Waast  alive. 

On  the  29th  of  July  the  Persia  carried  over  2,000  of  the  Venus  ;  and 
on  the  10th  of  August  I  put  on  board  the  Australia  thirty  fresh-water 
turtles ;  while,  on  the  3d  and  10th  of  September,  I  dispatched  by  the 
English  steamers  several  thousand  mollusks.  I  have  learned,  since  my 
return  to  Havre,  that  these  various  transportations  were  not  equally  sue- 
cessful.  Of  thirty  thousand  shell-fish  sent  from  America,  including 
those  I  brought  with  me,  and  others  constantly  arriving,  we  can  only 
count  upon  about  a  third.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  so  large  a 
number  failed  to  survive  the  perils  of  the  passage;  but  it  is  not  surpris- 
ing when  we  remember  that  I  was  obliged  to  confide  them  to  the  care 
of  persons  having  at  the  most  only  a  moderate  interest  in  their  preser- 
vation. I  sent  on  board  the  vessels  with  each  lot  written  instructions 
as  to  their  management;  but  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  these 
were  not  carefully  observed  by  the  subordinate  agents  intrusted  with 
their  execution.    As  I  have  mentioned  before  to  your  excellency,  nothing 


276      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OP   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

could  have  been  more  unfortunate  for  the  success  of  my  commission  thau 
the  suppression  of  the  American  line  of  steamers  from  Havre,  since  the 
sending  of  the  mollusks  by  the  English  vessels  necessitated  their  reship- 
nient  at  Liverpool,  thus  causing  them  to  pass  through  a  number  of 
hands,  increasing  the  length  of  the  passage  and  greatly  multiplying  the 
causes  of  mortality. 

The  directors  of  the  Cunard  line  at  New  York  and  Boston  gave  me, 
however,  their  ready  co-operation ;  and  as  soon  as  they  learned  that  the 
mollusks  were  sent  for  purposes  of  public  utility  they  declined  receiviug 
any  remuneration  for  their  transportation. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  these  unfavorable  circumstances,  we  have  now, 
at  Saint  Waast,  a  sufficient  number  for  the  proposed  attempt  at  acclima- 
tion ;  and,  as  a  result  of  the  arrangement  which  I  have  been  enabled  to 
make,  both  in  New  York  and  Liverpool,  with  the  directors  of  the  Cunard 
company,  nothing  is  easier  than  to  bring  over  new  specimens  during  the 
winter  should  it  be  deemed  necessary. 

During  my  sojourn  in  the  United  States  I  visited  all  those  portions  of 
the  northern  coast  where  the  oyster  fisheries  are  in  the  most  flourishing 
condition.  It  is  true  that  in  consequence  of  the  war  I  was  unable  to  in- 
vestigate the  oyster-beds  and  plantations  of  Chesapeake  Bay;  but  as 
the  mode  of  culture  in  all  important  points  is  the  same  throughout  the 
country,  I  should  probably  not  have  obtained  auy  additional  information. 

In  the  course  of  my  investigations  I  found  myself  in  constant  contact 
with  men  engaged  in  various  coast  fisheries,  and  I  availed  myself  of  the 
opportunity  offered  to  collect  facts  which  might  b©  of  value  to  similar 
establishments  in  France.  At  New  London,  where  I  went  to  examine 
the  clam  beds,  I  obtained  the  plans  of  several  fishing  vessels,  constructed 
by  Mr.  Beckwith,  who  is  one  of  the  best  builders  of  this  kind  of  boats. 
I  also  brought  away  with  me  plans  of  a  cutter  furnished  with  a  well, 
of  a  schooner  provided  with  an  ice-house,  and  of  another  schooner  hav- 
ing both  these  appendages. 

During  my  official  sojourn  in  America  I  forwarded,  from  time  to  time, 
to  M.  Coste,  in  accordance  with  the  directions  of  your  excellency,  re- 
ports upon  various  subjects,  such  as  the  ice- trade  in  the  United  States, 
and  its  employment  as  a  means  of  preserving  fish ;  the  establishment 
of  wells  and  ice-houses  on  board  fishing  vessels ;  the  floating  preserves 
for  fish  introduced  into  the  harbors ;  the  lobster  fishery  at  Boston ;  the 
mackerel  fisheries;  and  the  halibut  fisheries ;  which  it  would  be  greatly 
to  the  interest  of  our  Newfoundland  fishermen  to  combine  with  that  of 
the  codfish. 

These  reports,  rendered  more  complete  by  subsequent  observation,  I 
shall  have  the  honor  to  submit  to  your  excellency. 

In  the  course  of  my  investigations  I  endeavored  to  take  only  a  prac- 
tical view  of  things,  and  to  free  my  judgment  as  much  as  possible  from 
national  prejudices.  If  a  process  appeared  to  me  new,  I  examined  it 
with  attention,  and  was  careful  not  to  condemn  it  merely  because  it 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  277 

was  not  in  use  in  France.  On  the  other  hand,  I  guarded  myself  against 
a  too  ready  acceptance  of  statements  which  at  first  sight  were  plausi- 
ble, ami  never  accepted  them  without  confirmation.  In  the  United 
States,  more  perhaps  than  anywhere  else,  statements  should  be  ac- 
cepted with  allowance  ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  coldness,  seriousness, 
and  reserve  of  the  people,  they  are  singularly  prone  to  exaggeration 
in  everything  that  relates  to  the  commerce,  manufactures,  or  greatness 
of  their  country.  This  extreme  self-esteem,  which  is  to  some  extent 
meritorious,  is  one  of  their  most  prominent  characteristics.  During  my 
investigations  concerning  the  oyster-fisheries,  I  frequently  received  the 
most  conflicting  and  sometimes  erroneous  statements. 

Notwithstanding  the  most  presistent  efforts,  I  failed  to  find  in  the 
book-stores  or  libraries  either  in  Boston,  New  York,  or  Philadelphia  a 
single  treatise  upon  shell-fisheries.  I  could  only  obtain  a  few  incom- 
plete statistical  documents  and  newspaper  articles,  and  these  discussed 
the  subject  only  in  its  commercial  aspects. 

As  to  the  raising  of  the  mollusks  and  their  planting,  my  only  mode 
of  obtaining  information  was  to  visit  the  establishments,  and  talk  with 
the  fishermen  ;  and  I  ought  not  to  omit  to  commend  these  sea-faring 
people,  for,  their  reserve  once  thrown  aside,  I  found  them  uniformly 
obliging,  and  ready  to  furnish  me  with  the  information  I  required. 

In  closing,  your  excellency,  I  would  express  my  acknowledgments 
for  the  kind  aid  extended  to  me  by  the  French  consuls  at  New  York 
and  Boston,  and  also  my  sense  of  the  great  favor  conferred  upon  me, 
being  intrusted  with  a  commission  which  brought  me  into  such  close  re- 
lations with  those  eminent  scientists,  M.  Coste  and  Professor  Agassiz ; 
a  great  privilege  to  any  one  desirous  of  instruction. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  with  the  greatest  respect,  your  obedient  servant, 

DE  BEOCA, 

Lieutenant  of  the  Imperial  Marine  and  Director  of  the  Port  of  Havre. 

Havre,  October  12,  1862. 


CHAPTER    FIRST. 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  aphorism  of  Brillat  Savariu,  "  The  discovery  of  a  new  dish  does 
more  for  the  happiness  of  the  human  race  than  the  discovery  of  a  new 
star,"  has  never  proved  itself  more  true  than  in  our  time,  when  the  con- 
tinual increase  of  population  adds  each  day  to  the  importance  of  the  ques- 
tion of  public  alimentation.  France,  upon  a  comparatively  limited  ter- 
ritory, nows  numbers  over  forty  millions  of  inhabitants  j  and,  notwith. 
standing  the  fertility  of  her  soil,  the  perfection  of  her  agriculture,  and 
the  number  of  her  flocks  and  herds,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  rate 
of  her  production  is  begiuning  to  be  less  than  that  of  her  consumption. 


278       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

In  seasons  when  the  cereal  harvests  have  fallen  below  the  average,  we 
have  been  obliged  to  resort  to  foreign  nations  to  supply  the  deficit  j 
and  if  the  people  have  not  recently  suffered  serious  privation,  it  is  be- 
cause the  provident  solicitude  of  the  government  has  taken  in  time  the 
necessary  measures  to  prevent  such  a  calamity.  It  would  be  fatal  to 
rest  quietly  in  a  state  of  false  security,  and  far  better  to  recognize  the 
existence  of  a  permanent  danger  to  which  a  remedy  may  be  applied 
than  to  be  unprepared  for  some  casualty  (a  war  for  instance)  which 
might  be  of  such  a  nature  as  at  any  time  to  prevent  the  importation  of 
the  necessaries  which  we  require. 

To  insure  food  to  the  people  by  applying  the  discoveries  of  science  to 
the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  to  encourage  labor,  repeople  the  impover- 
ished streams,  and  make  the  most  of  the  sea-coast ;  in  a  word,  to  create 
more  abundant  and  cheaper  resources  of  nourishment  are  motives  which 
ought  to  enlist  the  most  intense  co-operation  of  all  who  have  at  heart 
the  prosperity  of  the  country. 

Among  the  means  which  we  have  in  our  power  for  this  desirable  end, 
one  of  the  most  effective  is  to  acclimate  in  France  the  vegetables  and 
animals  of  other  countries.  How  many  instances  of  the  acclimation  of 
vegetables  might  be  mentioned ;  and,  if  we  would  speak  of  any  one  in 
particular,  there  is  that  modest  plant,  the  potato.*  Imported  from 
America  in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  produced  such  a  revolution  in  pub- 
lic economy  that  entire  populations  now  depend  upon  it  for  subsistence. 
Maize  is  another  example  of  the  same  kind. 

The  acclimation  of  animals  also  has  added  greatly  to  the  national 
wealth.  The  Arabian  horse,  and  the  merino  sheep  from  Spain,  have 
renewed  our  degenerate  races.  The  turkey  from  America,  the  guinea-fowl 
from  Africa,  the  cock  from  China  and  India,  the  duck  from  Barbary, 
as  well  as  various  kinds  of  pigeons,  &c,  are  found  on  our  farms  in  great 
numbers,  and  by  crossing  them  with  indigenous  species  most  savory 
and  important  edible  products  have  been  furnished. 

For  several  years  the  Imperial  Society  of  Acclimation  has  made  the 
most  laudable  efforts  to  secure  for  France  new  resources  of  food  and 
trade,  while  similar  societies  iu  the  departments  have  concurred  in  this 
eminently  patriotic  undertaking.  Through  their  efforts  the  liemionus,  or 
wild  ass,  has  been  completely  domesticated,  and  is  about  to  become  an 
important  element  in  the  horse  trade,  of  which  it  will  form  a  most  grace- 
ful ornament.  The  Angora  sheep  is  now  reared  in  several  parts  of 
France  without  perceptible  degeneration ;  while  the  young  ostriches, 
born  and  raised  in  the  zoological  gardens  of  Algiers  and  Marseilles, 
give  us  ground  to  hope  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the 
flesh  of  these  birds  will  rank  among  the  choicest  viands  of  the  market. 

*  The  potato  was  imported  into  Ireland  in  1545,  by  Captain  John  Hawkins.  It 
was  cultivated  in  Lancashire  in  1084  ;  in  Saxe  in  1717  ;  in  Scotland  in  1728 ;  and  ten 
years  later  it  spread  over  Prussia.  In  France  it  was  cultivated  in  several  provinces  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Louis  XV ;  but  it  was  Parmentier,  who,  at  the  close  of  the  last  century* 
was  the  most  active  in  its  propagation  inour  country.    LouiUct,  (E:icyclor>t!die  Moderni.) 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  279 

Many  similar  experiments  are  in  course  of  trial  with  every  probability 
of  success. 

How  happens  it  that,  among  all  these  efforts,  so  few  have  had  for  their 
objects  the  fish,  the  crustaceans  and  the  mollusks  ?  With  the  exception 
of  the  carp  and  the  gold-fish  from  China,  which  may  be  considered 
merely  objects  of  luxury,  and  of  no  great  utility,  there  have  been  very 
few  cases  of  acclimation,  since  the  introduction  of  living  fish  into  our 
water-courses  from  localities  at  no  great  distance  cannot  be  properly 
considered  such.*  The  attempt  with  the  gourami  of  China,  the  most 
delicious  of  fresh-water  fish,  has  hitherto  been  without  result,  but  it  is 
gratifying  to  record  that  it  has  become  an  article  of  commerce  with 
Europe,  and  that  a  great  many  specimens  are  now  found  in  the  island  of 
Mauritius.  As  to  the  edible  mollusks,  the  very  first  effort  at  acclimation 
is  probably  that  now  undertaken  with  the  oysters  of  Virginia  and  the 
Venus  mercenaria. 

Before  the  use  of  steamboats  and  railroads,  those  two  great  levers 
of  modern  activity,  the  transportation  of  foreign  marine  or  fresh-water 
productions  was  attended  with  great  difficulties.  The  slow  progress  of 
navigation  by  sail  constituted  a  very  unfavorable  condition,  to  which 
should  be  added  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  proper  management  of  the 
animals.  With  perseverance,  however,  such  transportation  was  not  im- 
possible, as  is  proved  by  the  importation  of  the  gourami  into  the  Island 
of  Mauritius,  and  by  similar  instances  recorded  in  history .t 

M.  Milbert,  a  traveler  employed  by  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
succeeded,  in  1824,  in  bringing  to  Havre  some  fish  from  the  United 
States.  Unfortunately  they  all  perished  on  their  arrival,  through  the 
carelessness  of  the  captain  of  the  vessel,  who  left  them  upon  the  deck 
during  a  heavy  winter  frost.  Milbert  was  inconsolable  in  consequence 
of  the  failure.  We  have  another  instance,  in  the  case  of  an  American 
merchant,  who,  about  twenty-five  years  ago,  emptied  into  the  roadstead  of 
Boston  a  cargo  of  sea-bass,  taken  in  the  bay  of  New  York,  and  con- 
veyed to  their  destination  in  a  boat- well;  from  that  time  these  fish,  be- 
fore unknown  in  the  latitude  of  Boston,  have  multiplied  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  fishermen  capture  them  daily.  If,  at  the  time  when  sail- 
ing-vessels were  the  only  means  of  transportation,  there  were  very  few 

*  The  carp  was  introduced  in  England  in  1514,  by  Marshall ;  and  into  Denmark  in 
1550,  by  Pierre  Oxe.  In  our  time,  M.  Coste  has  naturalized  the  grayling  in  our 
waters.  At  the  commencement  of  the  century,  Peron  and  Lesueur  attempted  in  vain 
to  import  the  gourami  into  France,  and  a  few  years  later  Captain  Philbert  followed 
their  example  with  no  better  success.  He,  however,  kept  one  fish  alive  until  within 
sight  of  the  shores  of  France. 

t  In  ancient  times,  the  Romans,  not  content  with  having  naturalized,  in  several  of 
the  lakes  of  Italy,  different  kinds  offish,  such  as  the  vulsinum  and  the  ciminus  ordinarily 
found  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  introduced  into  the  Tuscan  Sea  the  Scams  onias  of  the 
seas  of  Syria.  This  remarkable  undertaking  was  accomplished  under  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  by  one  of  his  freedmen,  Elipertius  Optatus,  who  commanded  the  Roman 
fleet.  The  scaria  were  imported  in  boat-wells,  and  for  several  years  were  carefully 
thrown  back  into  the  sea  when  caught  in  the  nets  of  the  fishermen. 


280       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

attempts  made  for  the  acclimation  of  fish  and  mollusks,  there  was  in 
fact  no  urgent  necessity  for  it.  Before  the  water-courses  of  France 
were  monoplized  by  commerce,  they  were  filled  with  fish,  and  it  is  not 
a  great  while  since,  in  certain  localities  of  Great  Britain,  servants,  as 
well  as  the  Scotch  peasants,  were  not  content  if  they  were  obliged  to 
eat  salmon  more  than  three  times  a  week. 

The  increase  of  crops,  through  a  better  knowledge  of  agriculture,  the 
raising  and  improvement  of  various  breeds  of  cattle,  &c,  naturally 
occupied  the  public  mind,  as  a  means  of  increasing  alimentary  resources, 
mucli  more  than  enterprises  which  at  best  were  considered  very  pre- 
carious. In  our  day  it  is  very  different.  The  rivers  and  streams,  through 
a  deplorable  mismanagement,  yield  only  insignificant  products.  The 
beds  of  oysters  and  edible  mollusks  are  becoming  day  by  day  less 
productive,  and  it  is  absolately  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  fruit- 
ful sciences  of  pisciculture  and  ostriculture  to  retrieve  our  losses. 

On  the  other  hand,  at  no  period  have  circumstances  been  more  favor- 
able for  the  ultimate  success  of  the  projects  for  acclimation.  The  trans- 
atlantic and  other  steamers  have  opened  communication  with  the  most 
distant  countries,  while  the  completeness  of  their  construction  and  their 
rapidity  of  passage  are  about  as  perfect  as  we  may  ever  expect  to  secure.* 

Our  means  of  transportation  are  now  of  the  first  order,  without  taking 
into  account  the  vessels  of  the  imperial  navy,  which  would  assist  in  this 
■work  of  public  utility,  and  might,  in  certain  cases,  be  intrusted  with 
particular  installments,  incompatible  with  the  service  of  commercial 
steamers. 

It  ought  not  to  be  forgotten  that  fish  and  mollusks  possess  great  ad- 
vantages over  other  animals,  in  the  rapidity  with  which  they  multiply 
when  they  are  acclimated,  and  in  the  less  expense  of  their  introduction. 
Of  all  the  animals  subservient  to  the  use  of  man,  they  alone  live  in  an 
element  in  which  they  can  provide  nourishment  for  themselves.  They 
therefore  make  no  demands  upon  our  resources,  which  is  not  the  case 
with  other  kinds  of  game.  With  foreign  quadrupeds  years  must  elapse 
before  they  can  increase  greatly  in  number,  wjthout  taking  into  account 
the  diseases  which  may  attack  them.  How  many  disappointments  has 
the  Society  for  Acclimation  experienced  in  their  attempts  with  the  llama 
and  alpaca!  Birds  are  somewhat  more  satisfactory,  but  their  repro- 
duction is  also  very  slow;  while  fish  and  mollusks,  as  soon  as  they  become 
accustomed  to  the  character  of  our  waters,  will  increase  in  a  few  years 
to  millions.  The  astonishing  reproductive  power  of  the  oyster  and  the 
mussel  is  well  known.  Naturalists  have  numbered  the  eggs  of  the  pike 
by  the  hundred  thousand ;  of  the  carp  and  the  mackerel  by  the  half 
million ;  of  the  plaice  by  six  millions,  which  satisfactorily  accounts  for 

*  To  speak  only  of  France :  Marseilles,  besides  a  line  from  the  Mediterranean,  has 
recently  established  one  from  the  extreme  east.  Bordeaux  Las  one  from  Brazil  and 
La  Plata;  Saint  Nazaire  one  from  the  Antilles  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  certainly 
before  the  middle  of  next  year  Havre  will  inaugurate  a  line  from  the  United  States. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  281 

the  prodigious  increase  of  this  fish  in  the  ponds  of  eastern  Friesland, 
where  it  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch  at  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury. In  the  thick-lipped  mullet,  Professor  Valenciennes  has  counted 
not  less  than  thirteen  millions  of  eggs.  These  examples  show  how 
rapidly  they  multiply,  and  how  important  it  is  to  acclimate  species  with 
such  remarkable  powers  of  reproduction. 

The  experiment  with  the  gourami  will,  undoubtedly,  soon  be  tried 
again,  by  means  of  the  steamers  from  Iudo-China  and  those  of  the  line 
from  Alexandria. 

During  my  sojourn  in  the  United  States,  although  my  commission 
related  particularly  to  the  acclimation  of  mollusks,  I  extended  my 
researches  to  other  species  useful  for  food.  Among  others,  I  would 
mention  the  terrapin-turtle,  found  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  in  salt 
marshes,  and  which  is  a  very  delicious  article  of  food ;  the  lobster, 
larger,  but  less  agreeable  to  the  taste,  than  ours  j  and  several  exclu- 
sively fresh- water  tortoises,  of  which  the  red-belly  is  the  most  esteemed. 
The  learned  director  of  the  museum  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  has  engaged 
to  send  to  France,  next  spring,  a  sufficient  number  of  specimens  of  the 
latter  species  to  make  an  attempt  at  acclimation  in  the  ponds  in  the 
suburbs  of  Paris. 

Among  fresh-water  fish,  the  large  salmon-trout  (Salmo  amethystus) 
and  the  white  fish  (Coregonus  albus)  would  be  great  additions  to 
French  ichthyology,  if  they  could  be  transported  to  Europe.  Professor 
Agassiz,*  whose  opinion  is  authority  in  such  matters,  considers  artificial 
fecundation  a  certain  means  of  success,  as  he  himself  informed  the 
Emperor,  and  which  I  had  the  honor  to  explain  to  His  Majesty  in  an 
interview  accorded  me  at  St.  Cloud. 

Whatever  may  be  the  future  of  these  projects,  mentioned  only  to  show 
how  many  valuable  resources  we  may  render  available,  I  must  now  leave 
them  and  turn  my  attention  to  the  acclimation  of  the  mollusks,  the 
object  of  my  visit  to  America. 

The  shores  of  our  two  seas  are  singularly  deficient  in  specimens  of 
edible  mollusks,  there  being  only  a  few  scallops  on  the  coast  of  Great 
Britain ;  some  species  of  Venus,  not  at  all  abundant,  in  the  bays  of  the 
ocean  and  the  Mediterranean ;  a  few  cardiums,  &c.  Such  is  the  extent 
of  our  resources.  America,  on  the  contrary,  whose  Atlantic  coast  is 
rich  in  shell-fish,  is  probably  the  most  favored  country  in  the  world  for 
this  kind  of  production.!    The  oysters,  of  which  there  are  three  species, 

*  The  distinguished  professor  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  French  government  ought  to 
undertake  the  acclimation  of  the  nandou,  which  is  much  more  susceptible  of  naturali- 
zation in  France  than  the  ostrich  of  Sahara,  for  the  single  reason  that  it  is  a  native  of 
a  temperate  climate. 

In  1860 1  pointed  out  the  pearl  mussel  as  capable  of  introduction  upon  the  coast  of 
Algeria,  and  I  even  opened  a  correspondence  upon  the  subject  with  a  Greek  merchant 
of  Alexandria,  who  was  engaged  in  the  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Recently  Mr.  Lamiral  has  published  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societt Imp6riale  d'Acclimata- 
iion  a  very  interesting  article  upon  this  subject. 

tAs  regards  the  fish  commerce,  the  American  coast  presents  a  conformation  entirely 


282       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

form  immense  banks  along  the  shores,  and  the  fisheries  furnish  every 
year,  for  the  public  consumption,  a  mass  of  alimentary  matter  of  which 
it  is  impossible  to  form  any  idea  in  Europe.  There  are,  besides,  in  the 
bays,  inlets,  straits,  &c,  numerous  beds  of  mollusks,  known  under  the  gen- 
eral name  of  clams,  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  soft  clam  and 
the  round  clam,  the  Mya  armaria  and  Venus  mercenaria  of  naturalists. 

The  oysters,  the  Venus  mercenaria,  and  the  My  as,  to  speak  only  of 
these  species,  enter  so  largely  into  the  public  means  of  sustenance  that 
a  failure  of  these  products  would  be  a  material  calamity. 

In  the  city  of  New  York,  the  most  populous  center  of  the  United 
States,  the  commerce  in  oysters  is  estimated  at  35,000,000  francs,  or 
$5,000,000 ;  and  the  trade  of  the  whole  country  is  valued  at  100,000,000 
francs,  ($50,000,000,)  although  these  high  figures  do  not  represent  the 
total  amount  of  products,  since  along  the  coast  and  the  rivers  there  is  a 
daily  consumption  which  cannot  be  estimated. 

The  Merchants'  Magazine  and  Commercial  Eeview,  for  1850,  esti- 
mated the  trade  in  oysters  of  the  principal  cities  as  follows  : 

Bushels. 

Virginia,  (State) 1, 050, 000 

Baltimore 3,  500,  000 

Philadelphia 2,  500, 000 

New  York 6,  950,  000 

Fair  Haven 2,  000,  000 

Other  cities,  such  as  Boston  and  Providence 4,  000, 000 

Total 20,  000,  000 

Calculating  two  hundred  oysters  only  as  a  bushel  we  have  the  enor- 
mous amount  of  4,000,000,000  mollusks  consumed. 

Mr.  Meigs  asserted,  in  the  American  Institute  for  the  same  year,  that 
in  the  city  of  New  York  more  money  is  expended  for  oysters  than  for 
meat.  This  delicious  article  of  food  has  become  so  necessary  with  every 
class  of  the  population  that  scarcely  a  town  in  the  whole  country  can 
be  found  without  its  regular  supply.  By  means  of  railroads  and  water- 
channels,  oysters  in  the  shell,  or  out  of  the  shell,  preserved  in  ice,  in 
pickle,  or  canned,  are  carried  even  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  cities  of  Fair  Haven,  Boston,  and  Baltimore  are  at  the 
head  of  the  interior  trade,  which,  for  six  months  in  the  year,  gives 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  persons. 

unique.  From  Cape  Fear  to  the  extremity  of  Long  Island  sandy  beaches  are  almost 
universally  interposed  between  the  ocean  and  the  main  land,  which  run  parallel  with 
1he  shore  at  a  distance  of  from  one  to  several  miles.  These  sometimes  form  islands, 
varying  in  width  from  several  yards  to  a  half  milo,  and  of  great  length.  These  sandy 
formations  make  bays,  sounds,  lagunes,  &c,  in  the  most  favorble  condition  for  the 
multiplication  of  fish  and  mollusks.  Besides,  as  the  openings  communicating  with  the 
sea  are  not  very  numerous,  in  places  where  rivers  and  streams  empty,  the  water  is 
less  salt  than  in  the  open  sea,  which  still  further  increases  the  chances  for  the  pro- 
duction of  certain  kinds  of  fish  and  mollusks,  particularly  oysters. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  283 

The  soft  clam,  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  Mya  of  the  sands  which 
inhabits  the  seas  of  the  north  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  Scotland, 
multiplies  so  rapidly  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  that,  although  they 
are  in  constant  demand,  they  do  not  seem  to  decrease  in  number.  Al- 
though found  in  abundance  in  the  State  of  New  York,  their  real  home 
is  farther  north,  where  they  are  found  even  as  far  as  the  shores  of  New- 
foundland ;  but  they  are  nowhere  so  numerous  as  on  the  coasts  of  the 
counties  of  Essex  and  Barnstable,  in  Massachusetts.  Doctor  Gould,  in 
his  Natural  History  of  Invertebrata,  published  in  1841,  estimated  the 
quantity  of  soft  clams  consumed  in  Massachusetts  at  more  than  ten 
thousand  bushels ;  but  this  amount,  based  probably  upon  the  sales  by 
professed  fishermen  alone,  gives  no  idea  of  the  real  rate  of  consumption, 
since  the  laws  accord  to  each  citizeu  of  the  State  the  right  to  catch  as 
many  of  the  inollusks  as  he  may  need  for  his  family.  Not  even  an 
proximate  calculation  is  possible.  It  is  very  certain  that  Boston  con- 
sumes enormous  quantities  of  soft  clams  in  the  excellent  soups  which 
the  Americans  so  well  appreciate.  The  Myas  also  form  one  of  the  best 
baits  for  the  codfish,  and  every  year  Massachusetts  salts  down  thousands 
of  barrels  for  the  use  of  the  fisheries  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 
Freshly  caught,  they  are  sold  on  the  wharves  of  Boston  for  75  cents  a 
bushel. 

The  round  clam  of  large  size  is  similar  in  taste  to  the  Venus  verru- 
cosa, and,  like  it,  is  found  in  sheltered  and  shallow  bays,  where  it  buries 
itself  in  the  miry  sand.  As  prolific  as  the  Mya,  it  abounds  upon  that  por- 
tion of  the  coast  of  the  United  States  lying  south  of  Cape  Cod,  which 
appears  to  be  its  most  northern  limit.  It  is  met  with,  however,  in  the 
vicinity  of  Cape  Ann,  but  in  that  locality  is  not  an  article  of  commerce. 

The  most  important  fisheries  that  I  visited  are  those  of  the  suburbs  of 
New  York,  of  the  great  bay  south  of  Long  Island,  of  the  bay  of  New 
Haven,  and  of  Cape  Cod.  A  large  quantity  of  round  clams  is  consumed 
in  New  York  and  Philadelphia  during  the  summer  months,  taking,  at 
that  season,  the  place  of  oysters,  which  are  then  considered  by  some  as 
not  fit  for  food.    They  are  excellent,  either  cooked  or  raw. 

Oysters  from  Virginia,  Venus  mercenaria,  and  Mya  arenaria,  are  the 
three  species  of  bivalves  which  we  are  now  endeavoring  to  acclimate 
upon  our  shores,  with  the  probability  of  complete  success,  at  least  with 
the  first  two.  It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  replace  the  third  (of  which 
I  imported  only  a  few  specimens)  by  a  species  inhabiting  Scotland.  It 
will  be  quite  easy  to  bring  thence  a  sufficient  number. 

When  I  hadp  ersonally  investigated  the  resources  afforded  the  people 
of  the  United  States  by  the  inollusks  in  question,  I  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  oyster  ought  to  claim  the  especial  attention  of  the  imperial 
marine;  not  that  I  do  not  attach  an  equal  importance  to  the  acclimation  of 
the  Mya,  and  the  Venus  mercenaria,  but  since  these  two  species  develop 
slowly,  as  I  have  learned  from  an  examination  of  specimens  at  different 
ages,  that  several  years  must  elapse  before  they  would  be  sufficiently 
numerous  to  be  used  for  food.    Tne  oyster,  on  the  contrary?  as  prolific  as 


284      REPOKT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

our  own,  develops  so  rapidly  that  according  to  reliable  information 
which  I  have  received,  one  of  these  mollusks  planted  in  April,  and  about 
three  inches  in  length,  will  increase  by  more  than  half  that  size  before 
the  end  of  the  following  autumn. 

I  have  myself  seen  oysters  planted  in  the  bay  of  New  Haven  increase 
over  a  half  inch  in  two  months.  In  the  course  of  my  investigations,  I 
have  eaten  oysters  from  the  most  celebrated  localities,  and  must  say 
that  I  have  always  found  them  somewhat  insipid  in  taste,  a  marked 
characteristic  of  the  species.  In  Massachusetts,  I  found  them  much 
saltier,  which  is  due  both  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  water,  and  the 
soil  in  which  they  are  cultivated.* 

When  eaten  raw,  they  will  never  probably  be  as  highly  esteemed  by 
the  epicure  as  the  indigenous  species  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  will 
be  preferred  when  the  mariner  wishes  to  put  them  in  store,  or  when 
they  are  to  be  used  for  culinary  purposes,  which  deprives  them  of  none 
of  their  nutritive  properties.  It  would  be  impossible  to  find  anything 
more  acceptable  to  the  palate  than  certain  preparations  of  oysters  fur- 
nished by  the  good  restaurants  of  New  York,  such  as  Delmonico's. 

In  my  opinion  the  acclimation  of  this  species,  susceptible  of  rapid 
growth  and  richer  in  nutritive  substance  than  ours,  will,  in  one  respect, 
complete  the  oyster  trade  of  France,  bringing  into  it  elements  of  true 
alimentary  support,  while  up  to  this  time  its  contributions  have  been 
considered  merely  as  articles  of  luxury.  But  it  will  be  necessary  to 
bring  the  price  of  the  oyster  within  the  limits  of  every  purse,  as  is  the 
case  in  the  United  States,  where  it  is  considered  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon and  cheap  means  of  subsistence.  In  the  public  establishments  of 
New  York  a  most  excellent  soup,  made  of  these  mollusca,  can  be  ob- 
tained for  six  cents. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  have  assisted,  as  I  have  done  in  the  course  of  my 
investigations  in  the  daily  sale  of  several  thousand  oysters  by  the  same 
merchant,  to  have  witnessed  the  opening  of  eight  hundred  bushels  a 
day  in  the  establishments  of  Boston  and  Fair  Haven,  for  the  purpose  of 
sending  the  flesh,  packed  in  ice,  into  the  interior  of  the  country ;  it  is 
only  necessary,  I  say,  to  have  taken  part  in  such  scenes  to  become  pro- 
foundly convinced  that  the  raising  of  shell-fish  so  prolific  must  become 
in  France,  as  in  the  United  States,  a  most  important  element  for  the 
support  of  life.t 

I  should,  therefore,  consider  it  a  national  blessing  if  we  can  obtain 
their  reproduction  in  France,  a  consummation  which  we  have  every  rea- 
son to  hope  will  take  place  next  spring,  since  the  oysters  deposited  by 
M.  Coste  in  the  basin  of  Arcachon  have  developed  as  rapidly  as  in  the 
best  American  plantations.    As  soon  as  reproduction  allows  them  to  be 

*  The  oyster  merchants  divide  these  mollusks  into  "  fresh  "  and  "  salt "  oysters.  The 
latter  come  from  submarine  soil,  where  the  sea  is  not  mixed  with  fresh  water. 

tThe  American  oysters  have  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  endure  the  regimen 
of  the  parks ;  and  although  some  localities  suit  them  better  than  others,  on  account  of 
the  richness  of  the  soil,  they  prosper  on  almost  all  parts  of  the  coast.     Long  experi- 


OYSTER-INDUSTKIES    OF    THE    UNITED    SEATES.  285 

brought  into  the  market,  I  have  not  a  doubt  that  their  excellent  quali- 
ties will  readily  secure  consumers.* 

From  whatever  point  of  view  we  regard  the  shell-fisheries  of  the 
United  States,  they  present  remarkable  results.  The  food  provided  for 
the  people ;  the  resources  furnished  agriculture  by  use  of  the  shells ; 
the  influence  upon  coast  navigation,  which  is  so  greatly  developed  by 
th.em  5  the  work  provided  for  the  poorer  classes,  &c,  all  claim  the  earn- 
est attention  of  political  economists.  Oysters  and  clams  have  now  be- 
come necessities  of  the  first  importance  in  North  America,  and  show  how 
much  the  productions  of  the  sea  may  add  to  the  riches  of  a  country, 
whatever  may  be  the  means  employed  to  obtain  them  in  abundance. 

Apart  from  the  interesting  question  of  acclimation,  the  exposition  of 
this  industry  is  of  service,  in  showing  us  the  necessity  of  pursuing  the 
fruitful  field  opened  by  the  perseverance  of  M.  Coste.  The  marvelous 
results  obtained  in  a  few  years,  on  those  parts  of  the  coast  where  he  has 
experimented,  no  longer  admit  of  a  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  his  ingen- 
ious method  of  ostriculture.  It  will  certainly  be  necessary  to  make  a 
more  complete  study  of  our  shores  in  order  to  prevent  mistakes,  or 
rather  badly  conceived  enterprises ;  but  this  work  once  accomplished, 
there  are  few  industries  of  France  which  offer  as  many  probabilities  of 
success. 

I  have  often  heard  it  stated  as  a  reproach  to  ostriculture,  that  it  had  not 
produced  in  the  bay  of  St.  Brieuc  all  the  results  expected ;  that  although 
the  fascines  immersed  were  covered  with  embryos  during  the  breeding- 
season,  they  had  not  prospered  and  formed  new  banks.  Having  never 
been  in  circumstances  to  verify  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  I  cannot  say 
how  well  it  may  be  founded ;  but,  admitting  it  to  be  true,  I  cannot  see 
how  it  militates  against  ostriculture.  It  proves,  at  most,  the  utility  of 
transplanting  the  young  generations  attached  to  the  collecting  appara- 
tus, thus  putting  in  practice  means  employed  with  many  products  of  the 
soil.  To  expect  of  a  science,  which  dates  but  avery  few  years  back, 
the  unfailing  success  which  belongs  only  to  long  experience,  seems  to 
me  to  be  very  unreasonable. 

Pisciculture,  hirudiculture,  ostriculture — in  a  word,  all  the  industries 
which  relate  to  the  domain  and  constitute  the  agriculture  of  the  sea — 
must  necessarily  pass  through  all  the  stages  from  infancy  to  maturity  j 
but  in  order  that  they  may  rapidly  bring  forth  fruit,  thoughtless  pre- 
judgment should  not  interfere  with  their  progress. 

The  most  prejudiced  persons  with  whom  I  have  conversed  upon  the 
subject  of  ostriculture,  admit  that  the  embryos  can  be  obtained  in  un- 

ence  has  shown  that  those  from  the  Chesapeake  may  be  transplanted  to  all  the  North- 
ern States  without  deteriorating  in  quality ;  and  it  is  remarkable  how  much  they  will 
improve  under  certain  hydrographic  conditions.  The  salt-oysters  of  Massachusetts, 
so  highly  esteemed  in  New  York,  originally  come  from  Virginia  and  remain  several 
months  in  Boston  Bay  or  that  of  Wellneet,  (Cape  Cod.) 

*  By  a  remarkable  coincidence,  the  oyster  from  "Virginia,  which  we  are  endeavor- 
ing to  naturalize  in  the  basin  of  Arcachon,  is  found  in  the  fossil  state  in  the  neighbor- 
hood  of  Bordeaux. 


286       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

limited  numbers ;  but  there,  they  think,  all  useful  results  end.  Yet 
experience  in  the  United  States,  where  the  secret  of  the  culture  consists 
in  raising  upon  nutritive  soil  the  mollusks  removed  from  the  places  of 
production,  evidently  shows  the  fallacy  of  this  opinion. 

As  the  example  of  the  American  planters  proves,  nothing  is  easier 
than  to  remove  the  young  oysters  attached  to  the  collecting  apparatus, 
and  to  plant  them  in  hurdles  or  narrow  stalls  very  well  sheltered,  the 
bottom  of  which  is  firm  enough  to  prevent  their  being  smothered  by  the 
mud.  This  can  be  doue  at  no  great  expense,  and  with  no  complicated 
manipulation;  and,  in  a  few  months,  the  mollusks  will  be  strong  enough 
to  defend  themselves  from  ordinary  causes  of  mortality. 

It  is  an  unfortunate  error,  prevalent  among  mariners,  which  supposes 
that  what  appertains  to  the  productions  of  the  sea  should  not  be  modified 
by  the  hand  of  man,  and  they  consider  it,  to  say  the  least,  useless  to  at- 
tempt to  obtain  these  productions  by  artificial  means.  Such  an  idea,  which 
is  equivalent  to  the  negation  of  science,  is  as  absurd  as  the  fatalism 
of  the  Orientals,  who  leave  to  Providence  the  care  of  all  things,  and  so 
excuse  their  own  idleness  and  carelessness.  We  do  not  hesitate  to  say, 
that  it  shows  great  want  of  a  just  appreciation  of  the  mission  of  human- 
ity thus  to  limit  its  intelligence  and  powers  of  investigation. 

The  exploration  of  the  domain  of  the  sea  gains  in  public  opinion  every 
day.  The  people  of  the  coast  instinctively  feel  that  the  sea  is  destined 
to  be  to  them  a  most  fruitful  source  of  prosperity,  and  to  deliver  them 
from  the  miserable  condition  which  has  for  a  long  time  been  their  por 
tion.  In  a  few  years,  thanks  to  the  light  of  science,  profitable  fisheries 
will  be  established  upon  the  coast,  among  which  ostriculture  will  cer- 
tainly be  the  most  fruitful.  While,  on  the  one  hand,  by  means  of  intel- 
ligent regulation,  based  upon  careful  study  of  locality,  myriads  of  young 
fish  will  be  protected  from  wanton  destruction  by  ignorant  fisher- 
men, on  the  other  measures  will  be  taken  to  raise  in  reservoirs  such 
as  can  bear  the  regimen.  Shell-fisheries  will  also  be  developed  wherever 
they  can  be  established  with  success.  The  populace,  attracted  to  the 
coast  by  the  hope  of  a  better  livelihood,  will  become  acquainted  with 
the  sea ;  will  learn  to  consider  it  the  source  of  many  blessings ;  and 
will  finally  greatly  augment  the  elements  of  our  maritime  power. 

P.  DE  BROOA, 
Lieutenant,  and  Director  of  the  Port  of  Havre. 


CHAPTER    SECOND. 

OYSTERS   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES. 

Naturalists  divide  the  oysters  of  the  eastern  shores  of  North  America 
into  three  species,  namely :  the  oyster  of  Virginia,  (Ostrea  virginiana); 
the  northern  oyster,  {Ostrea  borealis);  the  Canadian  oyster,  {Ostrea 
canadensis).  Notwithstanding  this  classification,  based  upon  details 
of  form,  which  in  fact  vary  considerably,  the  mollusks  in  question, 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  287'' 

always  found  in  the  same  latitudes,  are  so  similar  in  taste  that  they 
may  be  considered  merely  as  varieties  of  the  same  species.  Dr.  Gould, 
an  American  naturalist,  admits  this  to  be  the  case  so  far  as  the  northern 
and  Canadian  oysters  are  concerned.  However  the  facts  may  be,  the 
difference  between  the  American  oyster  and  the  European  is  so  marked 
that  a  superficial  examination  is  sufficient  to  prove  that  they  are  of  dis- 
tinct species.  The  prominent  points  which  distinguish  those  bivalves  from 
ours  are  the  violet  color  of  the  muscular  impression,  and  the  greater 
insipidity  of  taste,  even  when  they  are  taken  from  banks  situated  on 
the  open  coast,  and  in  water  entirely  salt. 

{While  the  form  of  the  common  oyster  of  Europe,  growing  freely,  is 
almost  entirely  round,  that  of  the  American  is  always  more  or  less  elon. 
gated.  In  addition  to  this,  its  lower  valve  is  more  concave,  and  contains 
a  mollusc  thicker,  more  tender,  richer  in  nutritive  elements,  and  having 
also  a  less  salty  taste,  which  in  some  cases  resembles  that  of  the  mussel. 
When  it  attains  its  full  development,  which,  according  to  fishermen, 
requires  twenty  years,  its  dimensions  are  considerably  greater  than 
those  of  ours.  Its  shell  is  thicker  and  heavier,  and  the  interior  enamel 
rarely  presents  those  soft  parts  from  which  fetid  water  escapes  when 
they  are  accidentally  pierced. 

The  oyster  of  Virginia. — This,  most  common  of  the  three  species,  has 
a  narrow  shell,  increasing  gradually  in  size  from  the  top  and  moderately 
curved  in  the  plane  of  the  intersection  of  the  valves  when  it  is  allowed 
free  development.  The  specimens  taken  from  the  natural  banks" are 
generally  distorted,  on  account  of  certain  conditions  affecting  their 
growth ;  but  they  nevertheless  preserve  all  the  most  marked  character- 
istics of  the  species. 

As  in  Europe,  the  oyster  which  is  most  regularly  an  article  of  com- 
merce is  that  which  has  been  improved  by  culture.  The  beak  of  the 
Virginia  oyster,  very  pointed  when  old,  is  somewhat  bent,  and  the  oppo- 
site part  of  the  shell  is  rounded.  The  upper  valve,  almost  entirely  flat, 
is  the  smoother  of  the  two,  and  the  surface,  when  not  worn  by  friction, 
presents  numerous  laminae  more  regularly  disposed  than  in  the  other 
species.  The  muscular  impression,  very  often  central,  is  of  a  deep  violet 
color.  The  weakness  of  the  muscle  is  a  marked  characteristic  of  Amer- 
ican oysters  generally,  a  fact  which  I  have  not  seen  noticed  in  any  book 
upon  natural  history. 

Specimens  are  sometimes  found  measuring  15  English  inches  in  length, 
3£  in  width.  This  species,  known  in  the  market  under  the  name  of  the 
Chesapeake  oyster,  is  common  all  along  the  coast,  especially  in  the 
Southern  States.  In  the  North  it  is  found  in  as  high  latitudes  as  Prince 
Edward  Island  and  the  mouth  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  River.  Its  most 
essential  characteristics  are  its  great  length,  compared  with  its  width, 
and  the  pyramidal  form  of  the  beak. 

The  Northern  oyster  has  a  shell  rounded,  curved,  ordinarily  crooked, 
and  always  less  elongated  than  that  of  the  preceding  species.   The  upper 


288      REPORT    OP  'COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

valve  is  flat,  and  the  beak  short  and  bent  over.  The  surface  of  the 
shell  is  very  irregular,  and  formed  of  laminae  of  a  greenish  color,  dis- 
posed without  order.  Its  edges,  more  or  less  jagged  and  scalloped,  are 
calcareous  in  the  lower  valve,  while  in  the  upper  they  are  flexible,  and 
seem  to  be  membranous  in  nature.  The  muscular  impression  is  of  a 
deep  violet  color,  and  the  interior  of  the  valves  of  a  chalky  white,  or 
light  green.  The  lower  valve  is  deeper  than  that  of  the  Virginia 
species.  Some  specimens  are  a  foot  in  length,  by  six  inches  in 
width.  This  oyster  is  commonly  known  as  the  New  York  oyster,  as  it 
is  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  that  bay.  It  is  found  all  along  the 
coast,  and  even  in  the  Chesapeake,  were  it  is  mixed  with  the  principal 
species.    It  is  frequently  taken  in  Buzzard's  Bay,  (Massachusetts.) 

The  Canadian  oyster. — The  Canadian  oyster,  also  less  elongated  than 
that  of  Virginia,  is  generally  crooked,  with  the  beak  rounded.  The 
shell  is  wide,  expanded,  very  white,  and  laminiferous.  The  upper  valve 
is  slightly  convex.  It  is  common  on  the  Canadian  shore,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  as  well  as  upon  certain  parts  of  the  coast 
of  the  United  States,  particularly  in  the  latitude  of  New  York. 

The  American  oyster,  without  distinction  of  species,  exists  in  such 
profusion  that  it  seems  to  be  gathered  as  plenteously  as  manna  was  in 
the  exodus  of  Israel.  From  the  British  provinces  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
it  constitutes  inexhaustible  banks,  which  in  certain  localities,  were  it  not 
for  the  constant  fisheries,  would  form  reefs,  modify  currents,  obstruct 
channels — in  a  word,  interfere  greatly  with  navigation.  Abundant  on 
every  part  of  the  coast,  nevertheless  some  latitudes  seem  specially  to 
suit  it.  Such  are  the  shores  of  New  Jersey,  of  Long  Island,  of  Con- 
necticut, of  Rhode  Island,  of  the  mouth  of  fehe  Delaware,  and,  above  all, 
the  magnificent  bay  of  Chesapeake,  a  regular  magazine  of  abundance, 
where  every  year  vessels  are  loaded  with  the  precious  mollusks,  and 
transported  to  all  parts  of  the  coast. 

North  Carolina,  Albemarle,  and  Pamlico  Sounds  also  produce  excel- 
lent oysters.* 

The  Americans,  pre-eminently  practical  in  all  that  concerns  the  ma- 
terial interests  of  life,  have  not  neglected  this  great  source  of  wealth. 
They  realized,  at  a  very  early  period,  the  great  advantage  which  might 
be  derived  from  so  much  alimentary  substance,  obtained  almost  without 
expense ;  and  the  oyster-fisheries,  with  their  culture,  have  been,  with 
them,  fbr  a  long  time,  lucrative  industries,  becoming  $5ch  day  more 
extensive,  in  order  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  ever-increasing  number 
of  consumers. 

Disregarding  the  methods  of  culture  adopted  in  Europe,  they  have 

*  The  enormous  multiplication  of  this  species  has,  for  a  long  time,  attracted  the  attenr 
tion  of  philosophers  and  naturalists,  many  of  whom,  in  view  of  this  incessant  produc- 
tion of  the  mineral  matter  composing  the  shells,  are  of  the  opinion  that  most  of  the 
calcareous  deposits  have  no  other  origin.  Like  the  polyps  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  this 
mollusk,  if  left  to  itself,  would  change  the  hydrography  of  coasts. 


0YSTE1MNDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  289 

• 

chosen  one  which  is  very  economical,  and  which  yields  excellent  results, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  well-known  "plantation  system."  Their  mol- 
lusks,  like  ours,  require  beds  of  miry  sand,  rich  in  animal  production,  and 
sufficiently  exposed  to  the  open  sea.  The  brackish  water  at  the  mouths 
of  certain  rivers,  into  which  the  tide  rises,  constitutes  one  of  the  best 
conditions  for  the  success  of  this  industry.* 

Chesapeake  Bay,  from  which  is  gathered  a  large  proportion  of  the 
oysters  cultivated  in  America,  is  a  magnificent  basiu  in  which  Provi- 
dence seems  to  have  accumulated  every  necessary  condition  for  forming 
an  admirable  locality  for  the  fishery.  Its  entrance,  between  Capes 
Charles  and  Henry,  opens  from  the  east  to  the  west;  but  the  bay  soon 
changes  in  direction,  and  extends  toward  the  north  for  a  distance  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles,  with  a  width  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  in 
the  southern  part,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  in  the  northern.  It  is  access- 
ible to  the  largest  vessels.  A  number  of  rivers  empty  into  it,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  the  Potomac,  the  Eappahannock,  the  York, 
and  the  James.  The  amount  of  fresh  water  which  flows  into  this  bay 
daily  from  these  streams,  the  smallest  of  which  admits  the  rising  of  the 
tide,  renders  the  water  of  the  Chesapeake  less  salt  than  that  of  the 
ocean,  a  circumstance  which  we  have  already  mentioned  is  favorable  to 
the  natural  production  of  the  oyster.  The  shores  of  the  bay  are  indented 
by  a  multitude  of  gulfs,  creeks,  small  bays,  &c,  in  which  are  numerous 
islands.  The  extent  of  shore  is  thus  greatly  increased,  and  innumerable 
places  of  shelter  afforded  for  the  multiplication  of  fish  and  mollusks. 

The  quantity  of  fish  furnished  by  the  fisheries  is  very  great ;  and 
before  the  war  the  annual  estimate  at  Baltimore  was  four  hundred  thou- 
sand barrels  of  salt  fish,  principally  herring  and  shad.t 

The  oyster-industry  is  still  more  important;  and  the  production  from 
the  banks  in  the  bay,  in  185S,  was  twenty  millions  of  bushels.  At  that 
time  about  ten  thousand  persons  were  employed  in  the  fisheries  and  with 
work  on  the  plantations. 

The  oyster  of  the  Chesapeake,  in  consequence  of  the  favorable  condi- 
tions in  which  it  lives,  is  in  its  natural  condition  so  large,  that,  for  the 
most  part,  it  does  not  need  culture,  but  can  enter  the  market  immedi- 
ately. At  Fair  Haven  and  at  Boston,  where,  on  account  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  ice,  it  is  impossible  to  secure  a  supply  in  winter,  they  are, 
during  that  season,  brought  from  Virginia  in  sufficient  quantity  to  sup- 
ply the  needs  of  commerce.    The  schooners  which  transport  them  manage 

*  Pearls  are  found  in  many  American  oysters,  but  of  very  inferior  quality.  They  are 
of  a  chalky  white,  sometimes  having  a  faint  violet  tint.  It  seems  that  upon  the  coast 
of  New  Jersey  a  bank  of  oysters  was  found  a  few  years  ago  furnishing  beautiful  pearls. 
The  country  was  in  a  great  state  of  excitement ;  the  fishermen  supposed  they  had  mado 
a  valuable  discovery,  but  after  a  short  time  it  was  found  that  tho  hopes  excited  wero 
quite  fallacious. 

t  Chesapeake  Bay  abounds  in  fish  of  all  kinds — mackerel,  herring,  perch,  eels,  red 
mullet,  cat-fish,  shad  of  every  variety,  &c.  In  the  Potomac,  James,  and  other  rivers 
enormous  sturgeon  are  taken,  weighing  from  150  to  200  pounds. 


290       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

their  voyages  in  such  a  manner  that  the  merchants  are  regularly  sup- 
plied ;  and  the  mollusks  ordinarily  remain  in  the  hold  of  the  vessels  until 
the  cargo  is  sold.  However  cold  it  may  be,  they  will  live  for  several 
days,  provided  the  hatchway  is  not  opened  until  the  hour  for  removal. 
They  have  been  known  to  live  in  this  way  for  a  month. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  we  may  say  that  a  large  part  of  the  cultivated 
oysters  in  the  Northern  States  come  from  the  Chesapeake  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Delaware,  where  the  planters  can  procure  them  at  so  low 
a  price  as  to  make  it  unnecessary  to  take  part  in  the  local  fisheries. 

The  fishermen  of  Maryland  and  Virginia  sell  them  at  from  15  to  20 
cents  a  bushel,  containing  from  200  to  250,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
oyster.  It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that  these  oysters,  although 
they  may  be  improved  by  culture,  and  in  certain  cases  acquire  a  saltier 
taste,  are  never  quite  equal  to  those  of  the  coast  of  Connecticut,  of 
Rhode  Island,  of  certain  parts  of  Massachusetts,  &c.  The  native  oys- 
ters are  generally  consumed  in  the  neighborhood ;  are  sold  at  a  much 
higher  price;  and  are  never  sent  without  their  shells  into  the  interior. 
The  most  highly  esteemed  oysters  come  from  the  bays  of  New  York, 
New  Haven,  and  Providence;  from  different  parts  of  Long  Island  Sound, 
and  from  the  shores  of  New  Jersey,  (principally  from  Milk  Pond  and 
Absecom  Creek.)  In  my  opinion  those  taken  at  Blue  Point,  in  the  great 
bay  south  of  Long  Island,  are  the  most  delicate  of  all. 

When  not  consumed  raw,  the  oysters  are  prepared  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  They  are  pickled  and  preserved  by  the  Appert  process ;  they  are 
eaten  in  the  form  of  soup,  or  stewed,  broiled,  made  into  pat^s,  &c,  and 
they  serve,  besides,  as  accessories  to  numerous  culinary  preparations. 
The  consumption  is  so  extensive  that  in  the  towns  along  the  coast  dur- 
ing the  winter  season  it  forms  a  part  of  the  daily  food  of  almost  every 
family  in  moderate  circumstances. 

In  all  the  great  centers  of  population  there  are  large  establishments 
known  under  the  name  of  oyster-houses,  where  the  mollusks  are  sold, 
prepared  in  every  possible  way.  These  are,  in  fact,  restaurants,  and 
differ  from  the  ordinary  establishments  of  the  kind,  only  in  being  espec- 
ially intended  for  the  sale  of  every  variety  of  shell-fish.  In  New  York 
there  are  more  than  three  hundred  of  these  oyster-houses,  some  of  which 
are  handsomely  furnished,  and  situated  in  the  finest  portions  of  the 
city.  They  are  mainly  frequented  by  the  commercial  class,  who  take  a 
meal  here  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  Oysters  are  also  sold  in  small 
shops,  and  even  at  stalls  in  the  open  street,  where  the  working  classes 
supply  themselves.* 

Oyster-soup  (stew)  is  the  most  favorite  preparation  of  the  mollusk  with 
Americans;  and  during  the  winter  season  it  is  an  almost  universal  cus- 
tom with  them  to  call  for  it  at  the  oyster-houses  after  leaving  the  the- 
ater.   It  is  so  popular  that  it  is  even  introduced  as  a  refreshment  at  large 

*  During  the  summer  tho  oysters  are  preserved  in  the  oyster-houses  by  placing  them 
upon  a  block  of  ice ;  which  lowers  the  temperature,  so  that  they  live  for  several  days. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  291 

parties  and  balls,  invariably  making  its  appearance  toward  morning,  to 
repair  the  exhausted  forces  of  the  dancers. 

The  American  oyster,  when  cooked,  is  certainly  superior  to  ours,  and 
as  it  preserves  its  nutritive  properties  better  during  the  process,  it  is 
highly  regarded  by  physicians  as  an  article  of  food  for  convalescent  pa- 
tients. Many  persons  eat  them  throughout  the  year  without  experienc- 
ing any  injurious  effects.  On  this  point  I  would  hazard  an  observation, 
which,  it  seems  to  me,  has  sufficient  foundation.  Fishing,  during  the 
breeding  season,  is  prohibited  by  law,  so  that  all  the  oysters  then  sold 
come  from  the  plantations.  Now,  as  these  oysters  were  transported  in 
the  month  of  April,  a  time  when  the  process  of  generation  commences 
with  them,  it  is  very  probable  that  this  process  was  affected,  and  in 
most  cases  arrested  completely,  by  the  fatigue  of  the  voyage  and  the 
change  of  medium.  As  under  the  circumstances  they  rarely  become 
spawn-bearers,  they  can  hardly  be  injurious  in  the  warm  season,  although 
in  their  natural  condition  they  would  be  positively  unwholesome. 

The  price  of  oysters  for  consumption  varies  greatly.  It  depends  upon 
their  size,  quality,  the  reputation  of  the  plantations  in  which  they  are 
cultivated,  and  the  importance  of  the  establishments  in  which  they  are 
sold.  At  wholesale,  they  are  about  $1  a  bushel ;  while  in  the  markets, 
oyster-houses,  &c,  the  price  is  higher,  and  varies  from  50  cents  to  $2.50 
for  the  largest  size  used  in  choice  preparations.  The  merchants,  intel- 
ligent in  all  that  concerns  their  profession,  make  many  distinctions  in 
the  value  of  the  oysters,  in  order  to  derive  as  much  profit  as  possible 
from  them  ;  and  they  well  know  how  to  take  advantage  of  the  taste  of 
their  customers.  Fresh  oysters  can  be  procured  either  in  or  out  of  the 
shell  in  all  the  markets.  In  the  latter  condition  they  are  generally  sold 
to  restaurants,  hotel-keepers,  and  families  who  buy  them  for  immediate 
consumption. 
For  exportation  and  transportation  into  the  interior  they  are  sold — 

1.  In  the  natural  condition 

2.  Out  of  the  shell ; 

3.  Pickled; 

4.  Canned. 

The  oysters  in  shells  are  sent  in  great  quantities  into  the  interior 
during  the  winter  season.  They  are  put  in  barrels  about  a  quarter  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  flour-barrel,  and  tightly  packed  to  prevent  the  open- 
ing of  their  valves.  These  barrels  have,  at  regular  intervals,  openings 
for  ventilation. 

Naked  oysters,  intended  for  the  most  part  to  be  eaten  cooked,  are 
sent  into  the  interior  during  the  entire  year,  but  chiefly  in  winter.  As 
I  have  said,  the  cities  of  Baltimore,  Boston,  and  Fair  Haven  are  the 
principal  centers  of  the  trade,  and  form  the  most  important  branch  of 
the  oyster-industry.* 

Pickled  oysters. — Pickled  oysters  are  prepared,  as  in  Europe,  with  an 

*  Some  persons  eat  these  oysters  raw,  seasoning  them  with  salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar. 


292       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

addition  of  vinegar  and  spice  to  the  water  in  which  they  have  been 
cooked.  As  the  vinegar  used  is  inferior  to  that  employed  in  France 
they  are  not  equal  in  value  to  oars. 

Canned  oysters. — These  are  mostly  prepared  in  Baltimore.  The  mol- 
lusks  are  taken  from  the  shell,  slightly  cooked,  and  then  put  into  cylin- 
drical tin  boxes,  or  cases,  with  a  circular  hole  at  the  upper  end  about 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  diameter.  When  filled,  the  cans  are  closed  by 
soldering  a  small  round  piece  of  tin  over  the  opening. 

Use  of  the  shells. — The  shells  of  the  oyster  give  rise  to  various  indus- 
tries, which  are  also  very  important.  In  agriculture  they  are  used  for 
improving  the  soil  when  it  has  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  calcareous 
matter.  They  are  also  used  for  macadamizing  roads,  and  forming  paths 
in  pleasure-grounds,  which,  by  the  use  of  this  substance,  become  of  a 
dazzling  white.  Lastly,  they  are  burned,  and  an  excellent  lime  is  ob- 
tained, which  is  better  as  a  fertilizer  than  ordinary  lime,  inasmuch  as  it 
contains  no  magnesia.  Generally  the  oyster- dealers  give  away  the 
shells  gratuitously,  upon  condition  that  their  establishments  shall  be 
daily  relieved  of  them. 

It  was  estimated,  in  1857,  that  the  pecuniary  profits  derived  from 
the  shells,  from  the  various  oyster-establishments  in  Baltimore  alone, 
amounted  to  more  than  $120,000.  Before  the  war  the  lime-pits  of  Mr. 
Barns,  at  Fair  Haven,  burned  annually  more  than  250,000  bushels.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  upon  the  coast  of  the  United  States  a  great 
many  mills  employed  in  this  branch  of  industry.  A  bushel  of  oyster- 
shell  lime  sells  at  from  12  to  13  cents. 

MJDE   OF   OBTAINING  THE   OYSTEES 

Oysters  are  obtained  in  different  ways,  according  as  the  beds  are 
more  or  less  deeply  situated  in  the  water.  The  instruments  employed 
are  the  drag,  the  rake,  and  the  tongs,  which  is  a  peculiar  implement, 
unlike  anything  we  have  in  Europe. 

The  drag  is  very  much  like  that  in  use  in  France,  but  as  the  weight 
is  not  determined  by  law  it  is  generally  heavier.  The  part  intended  to 
hold  the  oysters  is  sometimes  made  of  rope  and  sometimes  of  iron  net- 
work. 

The  rake,  similar  in  form  to  that  employed  by  our  fishermen,  is  about 
14  inches  wide,  with  iron  teeth  from  0  to  10  inches  in  length,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  a  net  for  the  reception  of  the  mollusk.  Sometimes  it  is  made 
entirely  of  iron,  with  curved  teeth,  which  will  hold  a  certain  number. 
It  is  worked  by  hand,  by  means  of  a  pole  15  or  20  feet  in  length,  to 
which  it  is  fastened.  It  is  frequently  used  during  the  winter  season  in 
Bhode  Island  for  gathering  the  mollusks  from  the  ponds  of  Point  Judith, 
the  surface  of  which  is  frozen  sometimes  for  several  weeks.  Fishing  is 
then  accomplished  by  thrusting  the  rakes  through  holes  made  in  the  ice. 

The  tongs,  which  I  have  never  seen  except  in  America,  is  an  instru- 
ment which  ought  to  be  introduced  into  France,  as  it  would  be  of  great 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  293 

service  to  our  shell-fisheries  in  general.  It  is,  as  its  name  indicates,  an 
immense  pair  of  pincers,  with  rakes  attached  to  its  lower  extremities, 
the  teeth  of  which  interlock  when  the  instrument  is  closed.  These  rakes 
are  about  14  inches  in  width,  and  the  teeth,  placed  about  1£  inches 
apart,  are  only  4  inches  long.  The  handles  are  from  15  to  20  feet  in 
length,  and  the  point  of  intersection  is  about  a  yard  from  the  lower 
extremity.  To  take  the  oysters  with  this  instrument,  the  fisherman  first 
auchors  his  boat  oyer  the  bed  to  be  worked ;  then  seating  himself  at 
the  side,  he  takes  the  upper  extremities  of  the  two  poles,  one  in  each 
hand,  and  opening  and  closing  the  instrument  successively,  endeavors, 
as  it  were,  to  nibble  the  bank  with  the  rakes  and  pick  up  the  mollusks. 
As  soon  as  he  feels  that  he  has  a  sufficient  number,  he  draws  up  the 
instrument  and  deposits  the  captured  oysters  upon  the  deck.  A  large 
part  of  the  oysters  furnished  by  Chesapeake  Bay  are  taken  in  this 
manner.  The  tongs  is  also  used  on  the  plantations  and  in  fishing  for 
clams. 

The  boats  used  are  generally  of  small  tonnage.  Most  of  those  which 
I  saw  in  the  bay  of  New  York,  and  in  the  great  bay  south  of  Long 
Island,  were  constructed  with  flat  bottoms,  in  order  to  pass  easily  over 
the  banks,  and  provided  with  a  sail,  and  three  or  four  men  constitute 
their  crew. 

The  working  of  the  banks,  by  means  of  the  tongs,  is  eminently  pre- 
servative, as  there  is  no  loss  by  the  destruction  of  many  of  the  mol- 
lusks, as  is  the  case  with  the  drag.  Undoubtedly,  the  use  of  this  instru- 
ment is  impossible  on  many  of  the  banks  of  the  French  coast,  but  in  the 
basin  of  Arcachon,  in  the  salt  ponds  of  the  south,  and  those  of  Corsica, 
it  might  be  employed  to  advantage. 

Local  regulations. — Notwithstanding  the  extraordinary  richness  of  the 
oyster-production  on  their  coast,  the  Americans  have  felt  the  necessity 
of  protective  legislation  to  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  the  banks,  and  for 
this  purpose  the  various  seaboard  States  have  established  special  laws 
determining  the  time  of  the  fisheries,  and  the  mode  in  which  they  must 
be  worked. 

A  few  years  ago,  on  the  shores  of  Maryland  and  Virginia,  the  oysters 
were  taken  in  such  great  quantities  for  consumption,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  lime,  and  for  manure,  that  the  danger  of  diminishing  the  value 
of  the  fisheries  was  recognized,  and  very  severe  restrictive  laws  were 
passed  in  these  States.  In  general,  however,  the  legislation  which  con- 
trols the  oyster-industry  is  very  complicated,  since,  with  great  want  of 
uniformity,  each  State  enacts  its  own  laws  without  reference  to  those  of 
the  neighboring  States.    Its  objects  may  be  enumerated  thus : 

1.  To  prevent  the  destruction  of  the  natural  bauks,  by  determining 
the  time  and  mode  of  the  fisheries. 

2.  To  protect  the  plantations  from  lawless  depredations. 

3.  To  reserve,  with  a  few  exceptions,  for  the  residents  of  each  State, 
the  right  of  local  fishing. 


294       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

4.  To  reserve,  in  certain  cases,  the  fisheries  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
circumscribed  maritime  districts  in  which  they  are  situated. 

I  give  in  this  article,  and  in  the  one  which  treats  of  the  culture  of  oys- 
ters, a  summary  of  such  laws  as  appear  to  me  to  be  interesting. 

Massachusetts. — In  this  State  no  one,  in  a  maritime  district  defined 
by  law,  can  fish  for  oysters  without  a  written  permit  from  the  mayor 
or  the  selectmen*  of  the  locality.  This  permit  must  give  the  length  of 
time  of  the  fishing,  the  number  of  mollusks  to  be  taken,  and  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  to  be  used.  Any  resident  of  the  place  can 
take  oysters  from  the  banks,  for  the  use  of  his  family,  from  the  1st 
of  September  until  the  1st  of  June.  Trespassers  are  fined  $2  a  bushel 
for  oysters  illegally  obtained. 

Rhode  Island. — In  this  State,  where  legislation  is  most  stringent,  the 
oyster-fisheries,  reserved  exclusively  for  the  residents,  are  prohibited 
for  use  from  the  15th  of  May  till  the  15th  of  September,  under  a  pen- 
alty of  $20  for  every  bushel  taken.  And,  during  the  permitted  season, 
there  are  regulations  controlling  the  quantity  of  mollusks  to  be  taken 
daily,  which  quantity  varies  with  the  locality,  but  must  in  no  case  ex- 
ceed five  bushels.  To  protect  the  fisheries  as  much  as  possible  from 
depredation,  the  law  inflicts  a  fine  of  $500  on  any  person  convicted  ot 
damaging  the  oyster-banks  by  any  means  whatever.  Half  of  the  fine 
goes  to  the  State  and  the  other  half  to  the  person  commencing  the  pros- 
ecution or  lodging  information. 

The  fisheries  are  allowed  only  between  the  rising  and  the  setting  of 
the  sun,  and  it  is  required  that  all  oysters  not  of  marketable  size  shall 
be  thrown  back  into  the  water.  The  use  of  the  drag  is  positively  for- 
bidden, and  the  boats  using  them  are  confiscated,  with  all  that  they  con- 
tain, while  each  of  the  crew  is  condemned  to  pay  a  fine  of  $300. 

Connecticut. — According  to  the  legislation  now  in  force,  every  locality 
in  this  State,  containing  oyster  and  clam  fisheries,  has  a  right  to  enact 
laws  for  their  control,  and  may  impose  a  fine,  not  exceeding  $14,  for 
every  offense. 

The  fisheries  are  everywhere  prohibited  from  the  1st  of  March  till  the 
1st  of  November,  under  a  penalty  ranging  from  $7  to  $50,  or  by  impris- 
onment not  exceeding  thirty  days.  In  certain  cases  the  delinquents 
may  be  punished  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment. 

New  York. — The  ordinary  fisheries  in  this  State  are  prohibited  during 
the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  under  a  penalty  ranging  from 
$20  to  $30,  according  to  the  locality.  One-half  of  the  fine  goes  to  the 
superintendent  of  the  poor  of  the  district  in  which  the  Offense  occurred, 
and  the  other  half  to  the  prosecutor. 

To  take  oysters  from  the  Hudson  Biver,  in  order  to  transport  them 
out  of  the  State,  is  prohibited  under  a  penalty  of  $250.    The  use  of  the 

*  The  selectmen  are  public  officers,  elected  by  tbe  people,  to  administer  justice  in 
localities  where  there  is  no  mayor. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES  295 

drag  is  forbidden  in  the  county  of  Bichrnond,  and  several  of  the  local 
fisheries  are  reserved  for  the  maritime  district  to  which  they  belong. 

Neic  Jersey. — No  fishing  is  allowed  in  this  State  from  the  1st  of  May 
till  the  1st  of  September,  under  a  penalty  of  $10.  Any  person  convicted 
of  using  a  drag,  or  having  one  on  board  a  vessel  on  which  this  instru- 
ment is  usually  employed,  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  $50.  The  same  penalty 
is  imposed  upon  the  owner  of  the  boat.* 

No  one  who  has  resided  less  than  five  months  in  a  district  can  fish 
for  oysters  and  clams,  under  a  penalty  of  $20,  and  the  seizure  of  boat 
and  cargo.  A  boat-load  thus  condemned  is  sold,  and  half  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale,  after  expenses  have  been  deducted,  are  given  to  the  informer 
and  half  to  the  collector  of  the  county  in  which  the  offense  was  com- 
mitted. 

By  a  law  enacted  in  1857  any  fisherman  convicted  of  dragging  for 
oysters  in  Dennis  Creek  (county  of  Cape  May)  was  compelled  to  pay 
a  fine  varying  from  $10  to  $100,  to  have  the  boats  on  which  the  pio- 
hibited  instruments  were  found  confiscated,  and  to  be  imprisoned  from 
ten  to  thirty  days. 

Delaware. — Fishing  is  prohibited  in  this  State  from  the  1st  of  May  till 
the  1st  of  October,  under  a  penalty  of  $10,  and  the  same  fine  is  inflicted 
if  the  drag  is  used  in  any  of  the  creeks,  bays,  or  ponds  of  the  State, 
while  the  boats  employed  for  the  purpose  are  also  confiscated. 

During  the  regular  fishing  seasons  the  oysters  must  be  sorted  on  the 
spot,  and  those  not  marketable  thrown  back  immediately  into  the  water 
under  a  penalty  of  $10. 

No  one  not  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  can  fish  in  those  portions  of 
Delaware  Bay  belonging  to  the  State  without  a  permit  from  the  clerk  of 
the  district.  This  permit,  which  is  good  for  a  year,  can  be  used  only  by 
the  boat  named  in  it.  Its  cost  is  $50,  which  is  that  much  profit  to  the 
State.  Whoever  violates  this  law  is  punished  by  a  fine  of  $50,  with 
confiscation  of  the  boat,  and  all  it  contains.  Any  vessel  may  fish  for 
oysters  in  the  proper  season  if  they  are  for  its  own  consumption. 

Maryland. — Fishing  is  interdicted  from  the  1st  of  May  till  the  1st  of 
October,  and  no  one  is  permitted  to  engage  in  the  business  who  has  not 
resided  in  the  State  at  least  twelve  months,  under  a  penalty  of  $100. 
The  fishing-instruments  allowed  are  the  rake  and  the  tongs ;  the  drag, 
with  a  very  few  exceptions,  being  rigorously  prohibited,  under  a  penalty 
of  $100  and  the  confiscation  of  the  boat. 

The  laws  also  require  the  prosecution  of  fishermen  who  use  the  seine 
upon  the  oyster-banks,  as  the  nets  dragged  over  the  beds  either  carry 
off  a  number  of  mollusks  or  bury  them  in  the  mud. 

A  law  of  1835  forbids  fishing  for  oysters  for  the  mere  purpose  of 
procuring  a  fertilizer,  under  a  fine  ranging  from  $10  to  $50.  Finally, 
no  one  who  is  not  a  resident  of  the  State  can  fish  at  less  than  two  miles 
from  the  shore,  and  the  punishment  for  this  offense  is  a  fine  of  from  $5 

*  Those  who  reside  on  the  shores  of  Delaware  Bay  are  exempt  from  this  regulation. 


206      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

to  $50  and  the  confiscation  of  the  boat.  No  prosecution,  however,  can 
be  undertaken  without  a  special  order  from  a  justice  of  the  peace,  given 
upon  the  affirmation,  under  oath,  of  a  resident  of  the  State.  The  county 
sheriff,  the  constable,  and  civil  and  military  officers  are  expected  to 
assist  in  the  execution  of  these  laws. 

Virginia. — Fishing  for  oysters  in  waters  belonging  to  this  State 
during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August  is  prohibited  under  a  fine 
of  $50. 

On  the  shores  of  rivers  and  in  bays  the  only  instrument  allowed  by 
law  is  the  tongs,  excepting  always  localities  where  the  water  is  deep. 
In  the  sounds  of  Tangier  and  Pocomoke,  for  instance,  the  use  of  the 
drag  is  permitted,  but  never  in  the  mouths  of  rivers,  in  the  interior  of 
the  bays,  or  where  the  water  is  less  than  twenty  feet  in  depth. 

The  legislature  of  Virginia,  in  order  still  better  to  protect  an  industry 
which  is  a  great  source  of  wealth  to  the  State,  passed  a  law  in  1856  by 
which  each  county,  when  it  is  considered  necessary,  can  appoint  inspect- 
ors, whose  duty  it  is  to  arrest  persons  and  boats  suspected  of  having 
violated  the  laws.  These  inspectors  are  sworn  into  office,  and  receive 
the  half  of  the  fines  imposed  upon  the  delinquents  whom  they  bring  to 
justice.  With  a  very  few  exceptions,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  laws, 
the  taking  of  oysters  from  the  banks  for  enriching  the  soil,  or  for  the 
manufacture  of  lime,  is  punished  with  a  fine  of  $500. 

CULTURE  OF   OYSTERS. 

The  methods  adopted  by  the  Americans  for  the  culture,  or  rather  for 
the  improvement,  of  oysters  obtained  from  the  coast  fisheries  are  in  no 
respect  similar  to  the  complicated  and  expensive  processes  in  operation 
at  Marennes,  Ostend,  Courcelles,  or  other  such  localities  where  these 
moilusks  are  reared.  The  "pen,"  in  the  exact  sense  of  the  word  as  we 
use  it  in  France,  is  unknown  in  the  United  States ;  for  the  ponds  or 
reservoirs  for  oysters,  formed  in  certain  places  by  closing  the  mouths  of 
small  creeks,  with  sluice-dams,  can  hardly  be  so  called.  Establish- 
ments of  this  kind  are,  moreover,  very  rare,  and  I  had  not  an  oppor- 
tunity of  visiting  one. 

American  ostriculture,  more  simple  than  ours  in  all  its  details,  con- 
sists in  planting  the  moilusks  on  those  parts  of  the  coast  where  the  sub- 
marine soil  is  best  fitted  by  its  nature  to  fatten  them  and  promote  their 
growth.  The  process  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  adopted  at  Saint 
Waast  and  Oancale ;  and  in  the  United  States  the  results  are  so  satis- 
factory that  it  would  be  worse  than  useless  to  have  recourse  to  more 
complicated  methods,  which,  without  increasing  the  profit,  would  add 
greatly  to  the  expense. 

The  success  of  this  branch  of  the  oyster  industry  depends  upon  the 
hydrographical  configuration  of  the  locality  chosen  for  planting  the 
oysters,  upon  the  nature  of  the  submarine  soil,  and  upon  the  saltness 
of  the  water. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  297 

The  American  oysters,  like  our  own,  do  not  prosper  on  every  kind  of 
soil  indiscriminately.  In  pure  sand  they  do  not  fatten,  and  grow  very 
little ;  in  mud  they  contract  an  unpleasant  taste,  and  also  run  the  risk 
of  being  smothered ;  but  in  mixed  soils  of  sand  and  mud  they  develop 
to  an  astonishing  degree,  especially  when  the  water  is  slightly  salt.* 

These  artificial  deposits,  called  oyster-beds,  are  necessarily  formed  in 
accordance  with  circumstances  which  vary  with  the  locality.  Some- 
times ground  is  used  which  is  constantly -under  water.  Sometimes, 
on  the  contrary,  as  at  Boston,  Wellfleet,  and  New  Haven,  the  beds  are 
exposed  for  several  hours  each  day,  and  only  covered  at  high-tide. 

The  most  favorable  places  are  those  situated  in  bays,  creeks,  and  the 
mouths  of  rivers  in  which  the  tide  rises,  but  the  bottoms  of  which  are 
not  shifting;  in  estuaries  or  arms  of  the  sea;  in  salt  ponds;  in  short, 
in  all  places  so  sheltered  that  there  is  no  fear  that  the  waves  of  the  ocean 
will  wash  away  the  deposits.  The  action  of  currents,  if  not  too  strong, 
is  not  considered  injurious.  The  maximum  depth  at  which  the  oysters 
are  planted  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  at  low  tide;  but  more  commonly 
the  beds  are  only  four  or  five  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water,  which 
is  preferable,  as  the  oysters  can  be  taken  up  more  readily. 

The  most  important  plantations  are  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  centers 
of  population ;  but  with  the  facilities  for  transportation  which  exist  in 
the  United  States  they  are  found  on  all  parts  of  the  coast.t 

Whatever  may  be  the  locality  chosen  by  the  planters,  they  can  in  no 
case  pursue  their  industry  on  the  natural  banks  of  oysters,!  the  common 
property  of  the  people,  or  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  free  exercise  of 
navigation.  These  conditions  complied  with,  every  facility  is  generally 
afforded  them  by  law ;  but  in  some  States,  before  commencing  opera- 
tions, a  license  must  be  obtained  from  the  civil  authorities  of  the  mari- 
time district  in  which  they  are  to  be  located. 

The  limits  of  plantations  are  marked  by  slender  poles  inserted  in  the 

*  Oysters  planted,  iu  tidal  rivers,  or  in  ponds  of  brackish  water,  fatten  and  grow 
very  rapidly,  but  are  characterized  by  a  more  insipid  taste  than  those  cultivated  in 
purely  salt  water. 

tin  the  vicinity  of  New  York  the  principal  plantations  are  upon  the  shores  of  Staten 
Island,  particularly  at  Prince  Bay,  in  the  East  River;  in  the  Harlem  River  and  Shrews- 
bury inlet,  &c.  At  New  Haven  they  are  numerous  in  the  bay,  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Quinipiac.  At  Boston  the  most  celebrated  are  established  upon  the  projecting 
shores  of  Bird  Island  and  Hog  Island,  as  well  as  in  certain  parts  of  the  Saint  Charles 
and  Mystic  Rivers. 

t  By  a  natural  bank,  we  mean  a  conglomeration  of  mollusca  presenting  a  character 
of  continuity,  constituting  what  is  usually  called  an  oyster-bed.  The  natural  bank 
may  be  single  or  formed  of  several  small  banks,  separated  by  greater  or  less  spaces,  but 
always  sufficiently  connected  to  be  considered  parts  of  one  whole.  As  to  places  where, 
through  accidental  circumstances,  isolated  oysters  have  developed,  they  are  not  classed 
among  the  natural  beds,  since,  if  this  were  the  case,  the  largest  part  of  the  submarine 
soil  of  the  coast  would  be  under  interdiction  and  oyster  culture  would  bo  impossible. 
However  protective  the  American  laws  may  be  in  what  concerns  public  property,  they 
are  careful  not  to  interfere  with  private  enterprise  by  a  too  rigorous  interpretation  of 
the  term  public  property. 


298      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

soil  so  long  that  the  extremities,  garnished  with  small  branches,  are  two 
feet  at  least  above  the  level  of  the  highest  tide.  Similar  poles  divide 
the  entire  ground  into  squares  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  yards  at  the 
side.  These  divisions,  obligatory  in  most  of  the  States,  serve  to  indi- 
cate the  exact  position  of  the  plantations,  facilitate  their  surveillance 
by  the  police  or  coast-guard,  and  accelerate  the  labor  of  gathering.  The 
poles  are  so  flexible  that  they  do  not  endanger  vessels  which  may  acci- 
dentally run  against  them. 

The  oysters  are  planted  annually,  from  the  1st  of  March  until  the  1st 
of  May,  when  the  work  generally  ends.  The  vessels  which  bring  them 
from  the  Chesapeake,  the  Delaware,  or  any  other  place  of  production, 
are,  for  the  most  part,  schooners  of  100  or  150  tons  burden,  which  carry 
from  3,000  to  G,000  bushels  of  mollusks.  When  they  reach  their  desti- 
nation the  oysters  are  delivered  to  the  planters,  who  carry  them  to  the 
beds,  and  distribute  them  as  regularly  as  possible.  The  latter  operation 
is  of  great  importance,  since  if  planted  too  closely  together  the  mollusks 
will  interfere  with  each  other.  The  planting  is  done  in  the  following 
manner :  The  men  intrusted  MTith  the  work  load  the  oysters  into  long 
flat-boats,  and  carry  them  at  high  tide  to  the  plantations.  They  station 
the  boat  over  the  center  of  each  of  the  squares  mentioned  above  in  turn, 
and  by  means  of  a  large  shovel,  or  pitch-fork  having  twelve  teeth,  throw 
the  oysters  around  them  by  a  circular  movement,  very  much  like  that 
of  the  farmer  in  sowing  wheat.  This  is  probably  the  origin  of  the  term 
"planting"  or  "sowing"  oysters.  When  the  cargo  of  oysters  is  ex- 
hausted, the  mollusks  are  regularly  distributed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  in  order  that  they  may  not  injure  each  other.  This  part  of  the 
work,  which  is  accomplished  by  rakes,  is  much  more  easily  effected  on 
ground  which  is  sometimes  exposed  by  the  receding  tide  than  in  places 
always  covered  by  the  water.* 

As  I  have  already  said,  the  oysters  fatten  and  greatly  increase  in  size 
in  good  plantations,  and  even  change  considerably  in  taste.  No  longer 
impeded  in  their  development,  the  shells  become  more  regular,  spread, 
and  have  a  more  rounded  form.  In  places  where  they  are  always  cov- 
ered by  water,  and  there  is  no  fear  of  their  being  frozen,  they  are  fre- 
quently allowed  to  grow  for  several  years,  in  order  to  obtain  very  large 
specimens.  In  localities,  on  the  contrary,  where  the  severity  of  winter 
would  be  sure  to  destroy  them,  on  the  exposed  ground  where  they  are 
cultivated,  they  are  allowed  to  remain  only  during  the  warm  season, 
and  are  taken  up  before  cold  weather  commences.  In  any  case  they 
remain  at  least  three  months  on  the  ground  before  they  are  used,  other- 
wise the  benefit  of  culture  would  be  lost.    About  fifty  bushels  of  mol- 

*  The  position  of  the  oyster  upon  the  ground  is  of  no  importance,  provided  the  deeper 
valve  is  uppermost.  I  have  observed  several  times  in  the  bay  of  New  Haven  a  curi- 
ous phenomenon.  When  the  oyster  happened  to  rest  upon  this  valve,  the  growth  was 
affected  in  such  a  manner  that  the  edges  of  the  shell  turned  upward  toward  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  as  it"  the  animal  thus  endeavored  to  obviate  the  danger  arising  from 
its  abnormal  position. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  299 

lusks  are  generally  sown  upon  each  of  the  square  divisions  of  the  plan- 
tation. When  the  harvest  season  approaches  the  oysters  are  collected 
daily  at  low  tide  when  the  bed  is  exposed,  or  otherwise  by  rakes. 

There  is  a  very  prevalent  opinion  in  the  United  States  and  in  England 
that  oysters  may  be  fattened  by  pouring  Indian  meal  into  the  water 
which  covers  them,  It  is  said  that  certain  planters  in  New  Jersey  adopt 
this  method  in  small  ponds;  but  it  is  very  probable  the  meal  has  no  effect 
whatever  upon  the  oysters,  their  stomachs  being  too  delicate  to  digest 
such  nourishment.  Many  persons  reject  this  opinion  as  a  mere  prejudice 
without  foundation. 

The  culture  of  oysters  in  the  United  States  is  a  source  of  certain  rev- 
enue, since  it  is  an  industry  in  which  failure  is  unknown  ;  and  the  sur- 
vey of  those  parts  of  the  coast  where  they  can  best  be  established  is 
now  so  complete,  that  every  probability  of  success  is  secured  to  the 
planter.  A  few  years  ago  the  profit  upon  capital  engaged  amounted  to 
50  per  cent. ;  but  as  consumption  became  more  extended,  and  the  num- 
ber of  people  employed  in  the  commerce  increased,  profits,  although  still 
large,  were  reduced  to  a  more  ordinary  rate.  The  war  which  desolated 
the  country  also  interfered  with  the  fisheries,  since  they  were  forbidden 
on  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Virginia  by  the  Federal  authorities,  lest  the 
fishermen  might  establish  communication  with  the  enemy. 

The  effect  produced  upon  navigation  by  the  culture  of  oysters  is  very 
important.  According  to  the  information  furnished  me,  the  plantations 
of  the  bay  of  New  York  and  of  that  vicinity  employ  one  hundred  ves- 
sels, and  those  of  Boston  and  Cape  Cod  from  thirty-five  to  forty. 
Before  the  war,  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  schooners 
were  employed  during  six  months  in  the  year,  either  in  transporting 
oysters  for  plantations  or  in  supplying  the  merchants  of  Fair  Uaven 
during  the  winter. 

LAWS   CONCERNING   OYSTER-PLANTATIONS. 

The  oyster-planters  are  subject  to  laws  peculiar  to  the  different  States, 
but  which  in  every  case  are  sufficiently  stringent  to  protect  the  industry 
from  the  depredations  of  evil-disposed  persons.  This  is  very  necessary, 
for  as  the  plantations  are  for  the  most  part  in  isolated  places,  sometimes 
at  a  distance  from  the  shore,  only  very  rigorous  legislation  can  insure 
their  safety.  Misdemeanors  are  tried  by  the  public  officers,  such  as 
constables,  sheriffs,  harbor-masters,  police,  and  coast-guards,  and  any 
person  cognizant  of  an  offense  is  requested  to  report  the  same  to  the 
authorities. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  laws  in  force  in  the  Northern 
States : 

Maine. — Persons  wishing  to  cultivate  oysters  on  the  banks  of  rivers, 
bays,  or  creeks  belonging  to  the  State  must  first  obtain  a  permit  from 
the  local  authorities.  The  only  exception  is  in  favor  of  plantations 
situated  in  the  interior  of  bays  and  gulfs.  In  no  case  must  navigation 
be  impeded. 


300       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Massachusetts. — In  Massachusetts  the  mayor  and  selectmen  of  each 
maritime  locality  may  grant  a  written  permit,  to  any  inhabitant  of  the 
place,  to  plant  oysters  and  to  cultivate  them,  at  any  time  during  the 
year,  in  the  waters  of  their  district,  provided  the  natural  banks  are  re- 
spected. This  permit,  which  is  good  for  twenty  years,  indicates  exactly 
the  limits  and  character  of  the  ground,  and  must  be  registered  by  the 
county  clerk  before  it  can  be  used.  The  magistrate  who  has  granted  it 
receives  $2  as  his  fee,  and  the  clerk  50  cents.  This  proceeding  insures 
to  the  planter,  and  to  his  heirs  in  case  of  his  death,  the  right  to  the  ground 
conceded,  and  he  can  prosecute  any  one  who  trespasses  upon  it j  while 
the  offender  is  also  punished  by  the  law  with  a  fine  of  $20  for  each 
trespass. 

Rhode  Island. — In  the  Providence  Eiyer  the  commissioners  of  the 
shell-fisheries  can,  upon  their  own  responsibility,  rent,  for  the  good  of 
the  State,  to  any  citizen  of  the  State,  any  ground  covered  by  water 
where  there  are  no  natural  banks,  for  the  establishment  of  plantations. 
These  grants,  given  for  five  years,  have  a  tax  imposed  upon  them  which 
is  to  be  paid  into  the  general  treasury  of  the  State. 

When  a  citizen  applies  for  a  permit,  the  commissioners,  before  grant- 
ing it,  must  give  public  notice  of  the  day,  the  hour,  and  the  place  where 
the  matter  will  be  arranged.  This  notice,  containing  an  exact  descrip- 
tion of  the  ground  solicited,  is  published,  at  the  expense  of  the  solicitor, 
in  one  of  the  daily  papers  of  Providence,  at  least  two  weeks  before  the 
day  of  settlement,  in  order  that  the  transaction  may  be  generally  known, 
and  the  citizens  have  an  opportunity  of  bringing  before  the  commis- 
sioners any  objections  they  may  have  to  the  issuing  of  the  permit. 

In  no  case  can  more  than  one  acre  be  assigned  to  any  one  person,  and 
only  one  acre  a  head  to  members  of  a  company.  The  ground  granted  for 
the  formation  of  oyster-beds  cannot  be  rerented  during  the  continuation 
of  the  grant. 

A  double  copy  is  made  of  the  lease,  one  for  the  solicitor,  the  other  for 
the  general  treasurer,  and  if  the  commissioners  consider  it  worth  while, 
before  signing  it,  a  sketch  may  be  made  of  the  reservation  granted. 

The  boundaries  of  plantations  thus  assigned  must  be  determined 
exactly  by  landmarks  on  the  adjacent  shore,  and  by  poles  or  boughs 
placed  about  eleven  yards  from  each  other,  in  the  water;  being  so  ar- 
ranged as  not  to  interfere  with  navigation.  The  landmarks,  and  poles 
or  boughs,  are  renewed  whenever  the  commissioners  consider  it  neces- 
sary, and  these  officers  of  the  government  are  also  authorized  to  appoint 
a  special  guard,  provided  with  a  boat,  for  the  protection  of  the  planta- 
tions of  Providence  Iiiver  known  under  the  name  of  the  Great  Bed. 

When  the  conditions  specified  in  the  leases  are  not  complied  with,  or 
when  the  rent  is  not  paid  regularly,  the  grant  may  be  revoked. 

The  regulations  forbid  the  taking  of  oysters  upon  the  plantations 
before  the  rising  and  after  the  setting  of  the  sun,  under  a  penalty  of 
$20  and  the  confiscation  of  the  boat. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  301 

Whoever  robs  a  plantation  of  oysters  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  from  $20  to 
$100,  and,  in  default  of  payment,  may  be  imprisoned  for  a  term  not 
exceeding  a  year. 

When  a  planter  is  found  guilty  of  having  taken  oysters  from  a  neigh- 
boring plantation  his  grant  is  withdrawn,  and  all  the  products  confis- 
cated to  the  State,  while  he  is  also  subject  to  the  ordinary  punishment 
for  theft.  The  right  of  fishing  for  oysters  in  waters  belonging  to  the 
State  is  withdrawn  for  three  years  from  persons  twice  convicted  of 
transgressing  the  laws  concerning  plantations. 

Connecticut. — In  Connecticut  each  district  has  the  right,  in  a  special 
meeting  of  the  inhabitants,  to  nominate  a  committee  of  five  members  at 
the  most,  who  shall  designate  the  places  in  the  navigable  waters  where 
oysters  may  be  cultivated  without  infringing  upon  the  rights  of  citizens, 
and  without  detriment  to  navigation.  Persons  wishing  to  establish  a 
plantation  must  address  a  written  petition  to  the  committee,  clearly 
indicating  the  parts  of  the  sea  or  river  which  they  wish  to  occupy.  If 
nothing  asked  for  in  this  petition  is  contrary  to  the  public  interest,  the 
committee  may  issue  a  grant,  defining  the  situation  and  the  limits  of 
the  plantation,  and  the  time  it  may  be  held. 

The  extent  of  ground  occupied  by  any  one  person  must  not  exceed 
two  acres,  and  before  taking  effect  the  grant  must  be  registered  by  the 
clerk  of  the  district.  Plantations  must  be  surrounded  by  poles,  two 
feet  at  least  above  the  highest  water  mark. 

The  owner  of  land  on  which  there  is  a  small  creek  or  estuary  may, 
with  the  permission  of  the  selectmen,  close  it  with  a  sluice-dike,  in  order 
to  form  a  depot  for  oysters,  where  they  may  be  fattened.  He  must  pre- 
sent his  request  to  the  selectmen  of  the  district,  and  if,  in  their  opinion, 
the  dam  will  not  interfere  with  the  privileges  of  the  public,  or  be  an 
obstacle  to  navigation,  these  officers  will  represent  the  case  at  the  next 
annual  meeting,  and,  if  approved,  the  party  interested  may  construct 
the  dam  in  question. 

Any  person  convicted  of  taking  oysters  from  a  plantation  without 
permission,  or  of  removing  or  injuring  in  any  way  the  boundary-marks, 
is  punished,  for  the  first  offense,  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $7,  and  an 
imprisonment  of  not  more  than  thirty  days ;  for  the  second  offense,  by 
a  fine  of  from  $7  to  $10,  and  an  imprisonment  of  from  one  to  three 
months ;  and  for  every  subsequent  repetition  of  the  offense,  by  a  fine 
of  $50,  and  imprisonment  for  six  months.  The  guilty  party  is  also 
liable  to  punishment  by  the  State  authorities. 

Any  one  who  establishes  a  plantation  upon  a  bank  of  natural  oysters, 
without  permission,  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  from  $5  to  $50,  one-half  of 
which  goes  to  the  treasurer  of  the  district  in  which  the  offense  was  com- 
mitted, and  the  other  half  to  the  informant. 

New  YorTc. — In  the  State  of  New  York,  all  land-holders  on  the  banks 
of  the  Harlem  Eiver,  have  the  right  to  plant  oysters  in  the  bed  of  the 
river,  in  front  of  their  property,  provided  that  a  sign-board,  with  the 


O 


02       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


name  of  the  owner  plainly  inscribed  upon  it,  marks  the  spot  as  private 
property.  If  this  condition  is  fulfilled,  no  one  but  the  proprietor  or  his 
agents  can  take  the  oysters  from  the  plantation,  under  a  penalty  of  $50, 
in  additiou  to  the  value  of  the  oysters  stolen. 

In  Jamaica  Bay,  Queens  County,  land-owners  on  the  shores  of  the 
bay  and  its  tributaries,  may  plant  oysters  in  front  of  their  property, 
starting  from  the  line  of  low  tide  and  extending  the  beds  about  6G  feet. 
No  person,  or  association  of  persons,  is  allowed  to  occupy  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  along  the  shore.  In  this  locality  robbery  of  the 
plantations  is  punished  by  a  fine  of  $25. 

New  Jersey. — In  certain  parts  of  this  State  the  proprietors  of  tidal 
ground,  in  which  are  ponds,  creeks,  coves,  &c,  of  salt  water,  which  are 
not  required  for  any  public  purpose,  may  use  these  for  the  culture  or 
preservation  of  oysters  by  inclosing  them  with  a  dam. 

Persons  who,  without  permission,  take  oysters  from  the  plantations, 
are  punished  with  a  fine  of  $20,  without  taking  into  account  the  action 
the  owner  may  take  for  his  damaged  property. 

Delaware. — According  to  the  legislation  of  this  State  any  citizen  can 
establish  in  public  waters  a  plantation,  not  exceeding  one  acre  in  ex- 
tent, provided  it  is  not  on  a  natural  bank  of  oysters,  and  that  it  does 
not  interfere  with  navigation.  It  is  necessary  to  inclose  the  plantation 
with  poles  or  stakes,  and  to  mark  the  ownership  distinctly;  and  then 
any  person  who  commits  a  depredation  upon  it  is  punished  by  a  fine  of 
$20.  A  person  not  a  citizen  of  the  State  cannot,  under  any  pretext 
whatever,  deposit  oysters  in  the  bays,  creeks,  or  rivers,  under  a  penalty 
of  $20  and  confiscation  of  the  mollusks. 

Maryland. — Every  citizen  of  Maryland  may  appropriate  in  the  rivers, 
creeks,  bays,  &c,  of  the  State,  an  extent  of  maritime  ground,  not  ex- 
ceeding one  acre,  for  depositing  and  cultivating  oysters,  either  for  his 
own  personal  use,  or  for  commercial  purposes ;  provided  he  opposes  no 
obstacle  to  navigation,  and  does  not  iuterfere  with  the  rights  of  land- 
owners on  the  shore.  A  written  description  of  the  plantation  and  its 
limits,  given  under  oath,  must  be  registered  by  the  clerk  of  the  dis- 
trict. 

In  all  cases  the  land-owners  on  the  shore  have  a  right  of  priority 
over  one  acre  of  ground,  extending  from  the  ordinary  low-water  mark. 
The  plantations  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  rectangular. 

Landholders  having  upon  their  property  creek3  or  inlets,  with  mouths 
not  over  100  yards  wide,  may  use  them  for  oyster  plantations. 


CHAPTER    THIRD. 
THE   OYSTER-BUSINESS   IN   SEVERAL   CITIES  OF    THE  UNITED   STATES. 

A  complete  work  upon  the  American  oyster-fisheries  ought,  properly, 
to  include  all  the  localities  in  which  they  are  carried  on  to  any  extent ; 
but  the  length  of  time  such  an  extended  exposition  of  the  subject  would 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  303 

require,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  precise  information,  as  well  as 
the  constant  repetition  of  similar  statements,  would  make  the  subject  very 
tedious  to  the  reader.  I  have  therefore  preferred  to  confine  my  remarks 
to  those  cities  of  the  Northern  States  in  which  this  industry  has  reached 
its  greatest  importance,  as  a  sufficiently  approximate  estimate  can  thus 
be  obtained  of  its  valuable  addition  to  the  resources  of  public  alimenta- 
tion. These  cities,  which  I  have  had  occasion  to  mention  several  times 
in  the  course  of  this  treatise,  are  New  York,  Fair  Haven,  Boston,  and 
Baltimore.  They  alone  monopolize,  in  consumption  and  transportation 
into  the  interior,  more  than  half  the  entire  commerce  in  oysters  of  the 
entire  United  States. 

New  York. — New  York,  the  rich  and  populous  commercial  metropolis 
of  the  United  States,  contains  to-day  more  than  a  million  of  inhabitants, 
including  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  which  may  be  considered  only  one  of  its 
suburbs.  Nowhere  in  America  is  the  consumption  of  oysters  so  great 
as  in  this  city.  As  I  have  already  stated,  the  Merchants'  Magazine  esti- 
mated it  at  6,950,000  bushels  annually;  that  is  to  say,  19,000  bushels  a 
day,  on  an  average. 

The  culture  of  the  oyster  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  in  the  vicinity 
of  New  York,  partly  on  account  of  the  excellent  grounds  afforded  by  the 
bay  and  neighboring  waters,  and  partly  from  the  necessity  the  dealers 
experience  of  having  large  depots  for  these  mollusks  near  at  hand,  to 
supply  the  daily  needs  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  most  celebrated  plantations  are  situated,  on  the  one  hand,  on  the 
shores  of  Staten  Island  and  New  Jersey,  and,  on  the  other,  on  the  coast 
of  Long  Island  and  in  the  arm  of  the  sea  known  as  East  Eiver,  in  which 
there  are  innumerable  small  bays  and  creeks  in  a  most  favorable  condi- 
tion for  such  purposes. 

The  two  most  important  markets  for  the  wholesale  trade  in  these 
mollusks  are  Catharine  Market,  on  the  East  Eiver,  and  another  at  the 
foot  of  Spring  street,  on  the  Hudson  Eiver.  As  to  the  retail  sales,  they 
are  made  in  all  the  markets  of  the  city  indiscriminately,  in  the  oyster- 
houses,  and  in  markets  intended  especially  for  the  sale  of  fish. 

The  establishments  at  Catharine  Market  and  at  the  foot  of  Spring 
street  are  floating  houses,  constructed  on  rafts,  generally  one  story,  but 
sometimes  two,  in  height,  and  ornamented  more  or  less  elaborately. 
These  houses  are  generally  moored  together,  and  kept  in  communica- 
tion with  the  wharf  by  means  of  a  swing  bridge,  which  rises  and  falls 
with  the  tide.  They  are  usually  about  15  yards  long  by  10  wide,  and 
are  divided  into  three  distinct  compartments. 

1.  The  part  entered  from  the  bridge,  which  constitutes  the  only  room 
in  the  house. 

2.  That  which  I  will  call  the  cellar,  which  is  under  water,  and  extends 
from  the  platform  of  the  room  to  the  bottom  of  the  raft. 

3d.  The  attic,  which  is  formed  at  the  top  of  the  house  by  a  ceiling 
about  two  yards  and  a  half  above  the  floor  of  the  room. 


304       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

These  establishments,  called  oyster-boats  in  New  York,  are  eleven  in 
number  at  Catharine  Market,  and  twenty-three  in  number  at  the  foot  of 
Spriug  street.  They  are  generally  furnished  with  two  doors,  one  com- 
municating with  the  wharf,  the  other  opposite  the  first,  and  opening 
upon  a  small  platform  at  the  back  of  the  house.  This  arrangement  is 
for  the  convenience  of  the  fishermen,  who  are  thus  enabled  to  discharge 
their  cargoes  immediately  into  the  oyster-boat,  labor  as  well  as  time  be- 
ing thus  saved. 

These  floating  houses  possess  one  great  advantage,  which  is,  that  the 
oysters  can  be  preserved  in  them  alive  for  several  days  during  the 
winter  season,  however  low  the  temperature  may  be  ;  and  also  in  sum- 
mer during  the  greatest  heat,  since  the  part  under  water  is  always  cool. 

The  oysters,  or  clams,  placed  in  baskets  containing  about  a  bushel, 
are  stored  in  the  cellar  and  attic  of  the  oyster-boat.  In  the  room  are 
placed  only  specimens  of  the  different  qualities  for  sale,  from  which 

samples  purchasers  make  their  choice.      Here,  too,  all  the  packing 
which  the  necessities  of  the  trade  require  is  done. 

Although  there  are  always  a  great  many  oysters  in  these  establish- 
ments, they  never  remain  more  than  a  few  days,  and  arrangements  are 
made  with  the  plantations  for  constant  and  regular  supplies.  The  num- 
ber of  boats  of  all  kinds  employed  by  the  merchants  and  the  planters 
of  the  bay,  including  those  engaged  in  fishing  for  the  oysters  and  clams7 
is  estimated  at  15,000. 

Oyster-boats  are  obliged  to  pay  rent  for  the  place  they  occupy  along 
the  wharves. 

The  principal  places  for  the  retail  sale  of  the  mollusk  are  Fulton  Mar- 
ket and  Washington  Market. 

Fulton  Market,  on  the  East  River,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by 
the  width  of  the  wharf,  is  a  large,  ungainly  establishment,  where  all 
the  various  branches  of  the  trade  in  comestibles  are  united.  There  is 
some  regularity  in  the  disposition  of  stalls,  but  nothing  else  that  can 
compare  with  the  well-ordered  arrangements  of  the  large  markets  of 
Paris,  or  other  cities  of  France.  The  Americans  are  a  free  and  easy 
people,  but  their  love  of  liberty  sometimes  degenerates  into  lawless- 
ness. 

There  are  several  persons  in  Fulton  Market  engaged  in  selling  shell- 
fish, who,  notwithstanding  their  contracted  quarters,  keep  a  kind  of 
restaurant,  which  it  is  very  interesting  to  visit  about  noon,  when  mer- 
chants and  workmen  come  from  all  quarters  for  their  dinner.  They  are 
popular  establishments  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  and  oysters,  cooked 
in  various  ways,  constitute  almost  the  entire  repast. 

In  front  of  the  counters  of  these  traders  are  large  sheet-iron  furnaces, 
usually  rectangular,  about  six  feet  long,  six  feet  high,  and  three  feet  wide. 
The  upper  part  serving  as  areceptable  for  smoke  is  terminated  by  a  pipe, 
which  communicates  with  the  outer  air.  The  lower  part,  lined  with  bricks, 
holds  a  large  quantity  of  coal,  by  means  of  which  a  hot  fire  is  sustained. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  305 

Upon  the  fire,  and  touching  it,  a  gridiron  is  placed,  and  on  this  the 
mollusks  are  cooked,  particularly  the  roasted  oysters,  for  which  Ameri- 
cans have  a  special  predilection. 

I  do  not  intend  to  enter  into  details  in  regard  to  the  preparations  sold 
at  these  restaurants,  but  I  must  say  a  word  about  the  roasted  oyster,  as 
it  is  peculiar  to  the  United  States. 

The  mollusks  used  for  this  purpose  are  of  large  size,  and  generally 
come  from  New  Jersey  or  the  East  Biver.  They  are  placed  upon  the 
gridiron,  the  deeper  valve  below,  and  when  sufficiently  cooked  in  their 
own  juice  they  are  withdrawn  from  the  fire  and  served  to  the  customers. 
Large  oysters  prepared  in  this  way  are  excellent,  especially  when  seasoned 
with  a  little  pepper  and  a  few  drops  of  lemon-juice. 

There  is  no  better  way  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the  habits  of  the  American 
people  than  to  visit  their  restaurants,  where  at  the  same  table  are  found  pro- 
miscuously  representatives  from  all  classes  of  society.  There  is  a  number 
of  them  at  Fulton  Market,  and  their  business  is  very  profitable,  some  of 
them  selling  as  many  as  10,000  shell-fish  a  day  in  the  winter  season. 
At  Washington  Market  the  stalls  are  not  as  comfortable  as  those  nn 
Fulton  Market,  and  although  the  trade  in  oysters  is  considerable  there 
are  no  restaurants,  for  the  name  can  hardly  be  applied  to  the  small 
establishments  where  soup  is  sold. 

The  mollusks  are  sold  in  the  market  both  with  and  without  the  shells, 
and  a  certain  number  of  men  are  employed  by  all  the  dealers  to  open 
the  shells  and  take  out  the  oysters.  Each  man  has  before  him  a  kind  of 
small  anvil  several  inches  long,  and  upon  this  he  breaks  the  edge  of  the 
shell  with  the  assistance  of  a  fiat  piece  of  iron  called  a  knife,  one  end  of 
which  serves  as  a  hammer ;  he  then  turns  the  instrument  round  in  his 
hand  and  inserts  the  other  end,  formed  into  a  blade,  between  the  valves, 
takes  out  the  oyster  with  it,  and  throws  it  into  a  dish  half  full  of  water 
The  work  proceeds  in  this  way  very  rapidly,  and  the  men  earn  from  $8 
to  $10  a  week,  according  to  their  dexterity.  Some  earn  as  high  as  $15, 
but  these  are  generally  men  in  whom  the  proprietors  place  great  confi- 
dence, and  who  are  also  intrusted  with  the  sale  of  the  mollusks. 

New  Raven  and  Fair  Raven. — New  Haven,  the  capital  of  Connecticut, 
ranks  next  to  Boston  in  importance,  in  the  oyster-trade.  The  business 
is  divided  into  two  distinct  branches,  the  culture  of  oysters  and  the 
various  occupations  connected  with  their  transportation  tothe  towns  of 
the  interior. 

The  principal  plantations  are  situated  in  the  bay.  Commencing  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  head  of  the  greatpier,  they  extend  over  adistance 
of  about  three  miles,  almost  without  interruption ;  on  the  one  hand  to 
the  southern  part  of  the  sandy  point,  and  on  the  other  to  Morris  Creek, 
always  leaving  free  the  channels  of  navigation  leading  to  the  harbor. 

The  maritime  ground  on  which  they  are  established  is  partially  ex- 
posed at  low  tide.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  plantations  are  con- 
stantly submerged,  and  are  at  a  depth  varying  from  one  to  six  feet, 
20  F 


306       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

when  the  water  is  lowest.  The  soil  is  formed  of  sand  and  mud,  mingled 
with  sea-weed,  and  the  stratum  of  mud,  upon  which  the  oysters  rest,  is 
about  three  inches  thick. 

The  spectacle  presented  on  entering  the  harbor  is  most  curious.  As 
far  as  the  eye  can  see,  the  bay  is  covered  with  myriads  of  branches, 
waving  in  the  wind,  or  swayed  by  the  force  of  the  currents.  It  looks 
as  if  a  forest  were  submerged,  the  tops  of  the  trees  only  rising  above 
the  surface  of  the  water.* 

At  certain  distances  on  the  plantations,  large  boats  are  anchored  or 
moored  to  posts,  having  a  small  house  built  upon  them  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  men  appointed  to  watch  the  grounds.  They  are  four 
in  number.  The  wages  of  these  guardians  of  the  property  amount  to 
about  $30  a  month,  and  are  paid  by  the  association  of  planters.  This 
system  of  surveillance  is  indispensable,  since  most  of  the  plantations 
are  at  a  distance  from  the  harbor,  and  might  be  invaded  with  impunity, 
especially  at  night. 

The  oysters  cultivated  in  the  bay  remain,  for  the  most  part,  upon  the 
ground  until  autumn,  when  the  work  of  transporting  them  proceeds  on 
a  grand  scale.  They  are  also  consumed  at  that  time  in  great  numbers 
by  the  planters,  so  that  when  frost  commences  there  is  not  a  single  one 
left  upon  the  banks.  This  course  is  necessitated  by  the  severity  of  the 
winter  weather,  and  also  by  the  little  depth  at  which  the  oysters  are 

cultivated^ 

About  five  hundred  men  are  employed  in  planting  oysters  in  the 
spring,  and  in  gathering  them  in  the  proper  season  to  supply  the  neces- 
sities of  commerce. 

As  the  fishermen  must  visit  the  banks  at  all  states  of  the  tide,  they 
have  boats  of  very  peculiar  construction,  called  "  sharps,"  which  draw 
only  a  few  inches  of  water,  and  yet  are  very  swift.  Entirely  fiat  on  the 
bottom,  the  prow  is  sharply  pointed  and  the  stern  greatly  inclined. 
They  have  a  rudder  and  can  carry  a  sail.  These  sails  are  extremely 
simple,  consisting  of  one  or  two  triangular  pieces  fastened  to  a  mast, 
the  top  of  which  is  somewhat  flexible  and  terminates  in  a  point.  Light 
poles,  arranged  as  with  the  shoulder-of-mutton  sail,  serve  to  extend  the 
sails  of  the  "  sharp,"  so  that  they  are  entirely  flat.  The  result  is  that 
when  the  boat,  sailing  too  near  the  wind,  is  thrown  upon  its  side,  the 
wind  glides  over  the  sail,  and  the  boat  rights  itself.    This  system  of 

*  As  in  most  places  ■where  oysters  are  cultivated,  the  plantations  here,  also,  are  indi- 
cated by  poles  or  branches,  dividing  the  ground  into  regular  portions.  Although  very 
slight,  these  poles  are  fastened  so  firmly  in  the  ground  that  they  cannot  be  readily 
displaced ;  and  they  are  so  flexible  that  they  are  not  easily  broken.  When  I  visited 
the  plantations,  the  boat  which  carried  mo  was  in  full  sail,  and  pressed  upon  them,  first 
on  one  side,  then  on  the  other,  and  yet  not  one  was  injured.  The  boat,  I  ought  to  Bay, 
however,  was  managed  with  great  skill  in  passing  these  obstacles. 

tAlthough  many  of  these  oysters  come  from  a  warm  climate,  they  could  probably  be 
preserved  during  the  winter  in  the  bay  of  New  Haven,  if  they  were  planted  at  a 
greater  depth. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  307 

arranging  the  sails  seems  the  best  suited  to  the  purpose,  ami  has  been 
generally  adopted. 

The  "sharps"  generally  hold  from  seventy  to  eighty  bushels  of  oys- 
ters.* 

The  New  Haven  banks  have  a  very  high  reputation,  and  the  number 
of  bushels  planted  annually  is  estimated  at  250,000. 

The  establishments  engaged  in  the  transportation  business  are  mostly 
at  Fair  Haven,  a  charming  village,  beautifully  situated.!  Divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  Quinipiac  River,  they  have  been  connected  by  means  of 
a  viaduct  or  railroad  bridge.! 

The  establishments  of  the  dealers  are  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  and 
many  of  them  are  built  partly  in  the  water,  in  order  that  the  fishermen 
may  discharge  their  cargoes  with  greater  ease. 

The  operation  of  taking  the  oysters  from  the  shell  is  performed  ex- 
clusively by  women,  chiefly  Irish,  and  the  process  is  very  nearly  the 
same  as  in  New  York.  Seated  before  a  stand,  loaded  with  a  quantity 
of  oysters,  each  one  is  supplied  with  a  small  hammer,  with  which  she 
breaks  the  edge  of  the  shells  upon  a  blade  of  iron  inserted  in  the  stand. 
She  then  opens  the  oysters  with  a  thin  knife  and  throws  the  fish  into  a 
wooden  pail  placed  at  her  right  side.  These  women  receive  8  cents  a  gal- 
lon, including  the  juice.  They  can  earn  at  this  price,  if  skillful,  $2  a 
day  in  the  winter  season,  when  the  work  lasts  throughout  the  day ;  but 
ordinarily  they  do  not  make  more  than  a  dollar  and  a  half.  About 
seven  or  eight  hundred  women  earn  their  living  in  this  way  and  some  of 
the  dealers  employ  sixty  of  them  at  a  time. 

As  soon  as  a  woman  has  finished  a  measure,  the  inspector  of  the 
establishment  sets  it  down  to  her  account,  and  empties  it  immediately 
into  a  tin  trough,  pierced  with  holes  and  placed  under  the  spigot  of  a 
water-tank.  The  oysters  are  then  well  washed,  in  a  full  stream  of  water, 
and  moved  about  with  the  hands,  in  order  that  any  small -pieces  of  the 
shell  may  be  carried  off  by  the  ourreut.  They  are  then  thrown  into  a 
cask. 

The  dealers  send  raw  oysters  away  in  small  wooden  barrels,  called 
kegs,  or  in  tin  cans,  containing  about  a  quarter  of  a  gallon. 

During  the  winter,  wooden  barrels  are  considered  a  sufficient  pro- 
tection; but  in  warm  weather,  and  when  the  mollusks  are  to  be  sent  to 
a  distance,  tin  boxes  are  used  exclusively. 

The  work  of  packing  is  accomplished  in  the  same  building  where  the 

*  These  boats,  which  are  quite  graceful  in  form,  might  be  used  with  advantage  in 
France,  in  bays,  rivers,  ponds,  &c,  where  the  water  is  not  rough. 

+  Some  of  these  establishments  are  at  Oyster  Point,  on  the  western  part  of  the  bay. 

t  At  Fair  Haven  the  Quinipiac  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  wide,  and  is  protected 
from  the  winds  on  the  south  and  east  by  a  chain  of  wooded  hills,  lying  parallel  with 
its  course.  It  forms  a  beautiful  smooth  sheet  of  water,  until  its  entrance  into  the  bay, 
where  the  currents  are  very  strong,  but  not  sufficiently  so  to  disturb  the  plantations 
established  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  Some  of  the  dealers,  before  using  the  oysters, 
deposit  them  for  two  or  three  days  in  the  Quinipiac,  the  saltish  water  giving  the  flesh 
a  better  appearance. 


308       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

oysters  are  shelled,  or  in  one  near  at  hand;  and  whatever  may  be  the 
receptacle  used,  it  must  contain  only  a  quarter  of  its  capacity  of  juice.* 

A  tinner  is  employed  in  each  establishment  to  close  the  cases,  by 
soldering  a  small  round  piece  of  tin  over  the  opening.  The  cases  are 
then  placed  in  a  refrigerator,  where  they  remain  until  sent  to  the  rail- 
road. 

When  dispatched  to  distant  cities,  those  of  the  West  for  instance, 
the  cases  are  inclosed  in  a  box  of  pine  wood  containing  about  a  dozen. 
These  are  tightly  packed,  and  a  space  is  left  in  the  middle  of  the 
box  for  the  reception  of  a  piece  of  ice,  which  preserves  the  oysters 
until  they  reach  their  destination.! 

The  number  of  barrels  and  boxes  or  cases  required  annually,  at  Fair 
Haven,  is  so  great  that  two  large  manufactories  have  been  established 
for  the  manufacture  of  these  articles,  and  they  employ  about  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  persons.  That  for  the  making  of  kegs  uses  steam  as  a 
motive-power.  Everything  in  the  establishment  is  done  by  machinery. 
One  machine  cuts  out  the  staves,  a  second  the  bottom ;  others  pierce 
the  holes,  and  form  the  plugs.  The  kegs  at  wholesale  bring  the  follow- 
ing prices :  Kegs  containing  a  gallon,  81.08  a  dozen ;  kegs  containing  a 
half-gallon,  94  cents  a  dozen. J    Tin  cases  are  worth  $5.50  a  hundred. 

Oysters  without  the  shell  are  divided  into  two  classes — those  of  large 
size  selling  for  twenty  cents  a  gallon  more  than  the  others.  They  sell 
at  the  rate  of  $3  for  half  a  dozen  cases,  each  of  which  contains  from  sev- 
enty to  one  hundred  mollusks. 

In  1858  the  number  of  oysters  used  by  the  establishments  of  Fair 
Haven  amounted  to  2,000,000  bushels. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  few  occupations  in  America  are  more 
profitable  than  the  packing  and  transportation  of  oysters.  In  1856,  the 
Journal  of  Commerce  reported  that  a  single  house  at  Fair  Haven  had 
made  $100,000  in  the  last  four  years.  In  that  very  year  the  Levi  Eowe 
house,  which  has  agencies  at  Buffalo,  Detroit,  Cleveland,  &c,  alone 
transported  150,000  gallons.  Twenty  vessels  were  in  its  employ,  and 
from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  young  women  were  engaged  in  its 
workshops  during  the  winter.  Twenty-five  or  thirty  houses  engross  the 
largest  share  of  the  business,  some  of  them  transporting  as  many  as 
1,500  bushels  mollusks  a  day. 

The  oysters  planted  in  the  bay  of  New  Haven  and  in  the  Quinipiao 
are  all  disposed  of  before  winter,  and  during  that  season  the  establish- 
ments of  Fair  Haven  are  regularly  provided  with  mollusks  from  the 

*In  the  State  of  New  York,  dealers  found  guilty  of  selling  oysters  in  barrels  or  boxes 
containing  more  than  a  quarter  of  their  capacity  of  liquor,  are  liable  to  a  fine  of  $20. 

tWhen  sent  only  a  short  distance  the  dealers  adopt  a  more  economical  method.  The 
oysters,  mingled  with  pieces  of  ice,  are  put  into  a  kind  of  scuttle-cask,  provided  with 
a  cover,  and  thus  are  sent  to  Hartford,  Syracuse,  Utica,  and  to  places  even  more  dis- 
tant. 

tThe  kegs  are  made  to  contain  two  gallons,  one,  three-fourths,  one-half,  or  one-fourth 
of  a  gallon,  according  to  size. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  309 

Chesapeake  and  the  Delaware.  On  the  arrival  of  the  schooners  which 
bring  them,  they  are  either  landed  in  the  store-houses  immediately,  or 
remain  in  the  hold  of  the  vessels,  until  negotiations  concerning  them  are 
complete. 

A  few  years  ago  the  commerce  of  New  Haven  was  much  more  impor- 
tant than  at  present,  especially  with  the  West.  It  has  in  part  been 
supplanted  in  the  market  of  Saint  Louis  by  that  of  Baltimore,  which  has 
greater  facilities  of  communications  with  that  city. 

In  1857  from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  schooners  were 
employed,  for  six  months  in  the  year,  in  supplying  the  establishments  of 
Connecticut ;  now  the  number  does  not  exceed  one  hundred. 

Boston. — Massachusetts,  although  one  of  the  smallest  States,  is,  nev- 
ertheless, one  of  the  most  influential.  Through  its  commerce,  the  prac- 
tical intelligence  and  enterprising  spirit  of  its  inhabitants,  &c,  it  takes 
the  lead  in  all  the  industrial  movements  of  the  country,  and  it  is  unri- 
valed in  the  importance  of  its  literary  and  scientific  institutions.  Situ- 
ated upon  the  Atlantic  Coast,  in  a  most  favorable  position  for  maritime 
interests  in  general,  both  its  great  and.  its  small  fisheries  have  enjoyed 
remarkable  prosperity.  The  shores  of  Nantucket,  of  Cape  Cod,  of  Ply- 
mouth, and  of  Cape  Ann  nourish  enormous  quantities  of  lobsters,  and 
abound  with  edible  bivalves,  while  immense  shoals  of  migratory  fish,  va- 
rying with  the  season,  such  as  cod,  flounders,  mackerel,  shad,  and  her- 
ring, every  year  bring  wealth  to  its  hardy  fishermen. 

Of  the  whole  tonnage  of  American  fisheries  in  general,  Massachusetts 
counts  more  than  half.  Boston,  the  capital  of  the  State,  naturally  en- 
ters largely  into  this  industrial  and  maritime  movement ;  and  to  speak 
of  the  oyster-fisheries  alone,  this  city  plays  the  same  part  in  supplying 
the  Northern  States  as  Baltimore  and  Fair  Haven  do  for  the  Central 
and  the  Western.  Built  upon  ground  which  is  almost  an  island,  at  the 
head  of  a  bay,  and  protected  from  the  open  sea  by  a  chain  of  small 
islands,  it  is  almost  entirely  surrounded  with  vast  sheets  of  salt  water,  in 
which  are  found  united  the  best  conditions  for  the  culture  of  the  oyster 
according  to  the  American  method.  Four  rivers,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Charles  and  the  Mystic,  empty  into  the  bay,  and  increase 
facilities  for  the  fisheries.* 

Ten  principal  merchants  conduct  the  different  branches  of  the  oyster 
commerce.  One  of  them,  Mr.  Higgins,  senior,  furnished  me  with  much 
of  the  information  which  I  received,  and  supplied  me  with  most  of  the 
mollusks  which  I  sent  to  France.  At  once  dealer,  planter,  and  pro- 
prietor of  an  oyster-house,  no  one  could  be  better  fitted  to  furnish  me 
accurate  information  as  to  all  the  details  of  the  business.  His  estab- 
lishment, like  those  of  his  fellow-merchants,  is  situated  upon  the  wharf 

*The  oyster-plantations  are  numerous  in  the  bay,  upon  the  shores  of  Bird  Island  and 
Hog  Island.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  Saint  Charles  and  the  Mystic  Rivers  ; 
but  as  they  only  partially  supply  the  demands  of  commerce,  the  deficiency  is  made  up 
by  the  plantations  of  Cape  Cod,  from  which  the  markets  of  Boston  are  mostly  pro- 
visioned. Tlie  quantity  of  oysters  plauted  in  the  different  localities  in  the  spring 
amounts  to  about  one  hundred  thousaud  bushels. 


310       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  the  City  Wharf,  a  part  of  the  harbor  specially  reserved  as  a  depot  for 
fishing- boats.  It  is  a  building  consisting  of  but  one  room,  about  twelve 
yards  wide  and  ten  deep,  and  the  interior  arranged  with  reference  to  the 
utmost  economy  of  space.  All  round  the  apartment  is  a  horizontal 
stand,  breast-high,  and  almost  two  yards  wide,  on  which  the  oysters  are 
placed.  At  regular  intervals  a  small  square  of  wood,  about  an  inch 
thick,  is  nailed  to  the  stand,  which  separates  the  places  of  the  workmen, 
and  also  serves  as  a  convenient  support  for  opening  the  oysters.  The 
men  stand  side  by  side,  but  not  so  close  as  to  interfere  with  each  other's 
movements.  They  use  a  peculiar  knife,  consisting  of  a  thin  blade  of 
steel,  with  a  very  sharp  point  and  a  round  wooden  handle.  When  a 
workman  opens  an  oyster  he  takes  it  in  his  left  hand,  places  it  upon  the 
small  square  of  wood,  the  part  opposite  to  the  hinge  facing  him,  pierces 
the  edge  of  the  shell  with  the  sharp  point  of  the  knife,  so  that  he  can 
introduce  the  blade  between  the  valves,  then  cuts  the  muscle,  takes  out 
the  flesh,  and  throws  it  into  a  tin  measure  at  his  side. 

A  skillful  workman  can  open  eighteen  oysters  in  a  minute.  I  have 
nowhere  seen  work  executed  so  rapidly ;  and  as  the  edge  of  the  shell  is 
not  broken,  there  is  very  little  debris  mingled  with  the  oysters.  As  the 
supplies  of  oysters  diminish  upon  the  stand  they  are  renewed  by  persons 
detailed  for  the  purpose.  As  to  the  shells,  each  man  throws  them  into 
a  cask  placed  at  his  right  hand,  which,  when  filled,  he  carries  to  the 
door  of  the  apartment,  and  empties  on  the  public  road. 

Wages  are  10  cents  a  gallon  for  the  oysters  without  the  shells.  In 
winter,  skillful  workmen  can  earn  as  much  as  $3  a  day  when  the  oysters 
are  of  medium  size;  the  small  ones  require  much  more  time.*  Six  or 
seven  hundred  men  are  employed  auuually,  and  most  of  them  are  also 
engaged  upon  the  plantations  of  the  bay. 

The  work  of  packing,  of  closing  the  barrels  and  tin  cases,  and  of  re- 
packing in  boxes,  with  a  receptacle  for  ice,  &c,  is  carried  on  in  every 
respect  as  at  Fair  Haven.t 

Mr.  Higgins  keeps  the  oysters  until  the  time  for  packing  in  double 
cases  of  zinc,  containing  from  50  to  60  gallons,  and  pieces  of  ice  are 
mixed  with  them.  In  winter  the  establishments  for  transportation  are 
supplied  as  at  Fair  Haven. 

Baltimore. — Baltimore  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  cities  engaged 
in  the  oyster-trade,  as  far  as  regards  interior  and  foreign  transporta- 
tion. In  fact,  no  other  city  of  the  Union  is  as  advantageously  situated 
for  the  business.    In  consequence  of  its  position,  on  a  navigable  river 

*The  principal  markets  are  in  the  cities  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
and  Canada,  especially  Quebec  and  Montreal. 

tFor  short  distances,  during  the  warm  season,  it  is  customary  to  use  tin  vessels 
somewhat  like  our  milk- cans.  The  oysters  are  placed  in  these,  mixed  with  pieces  of 
ice,  which  keep  them  fresh  until  they  reach  their  destination.  The  merchants  of  Bos- 
ton are  in  constant  communication  with  the  merchants  of  the  neighboring  cities,  from 
whom  they  receive  daily  cans  marked  with  the  names  and  address  of  their  owners, 
and  they  are  immediately  returned,  filled  with  oysters.  When  they  arrive  the  oysters 
are  again  pat  upon  ice,  and  must  be  consumed  within  three  days. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  311 

emptying  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  expense  of  receiving  the  oysters  is 
not  great,  and  they  can  be  easily  dispatched  to  their  various  destinations, 
by  means  of  the  railroads  which  diverge  in  various  directions  from  the 
city. 

For  about  thirty  years,  Annapolis,  the  capital  of  Maryland,  has  been 
the  principal  market  from  which  the  cities  of  the  West  have  been  sup- 
plied with  this  article  of  food  which  every  year  has  become  more  popular. 
Yet,  strange  to  say,  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  public  atten- 
tion has  been  turned  to  the  commerce,  or  any  mention  made  of  it  in  the 
statistics  of  the  State.  The  only  satisfactory  document  I  could  procure 
upon  the  subject  dates  only  back  to  1856,  when  a  summary  article  ap- 
peared in  the  Baltimore  American. 

"  During  the  civil  war  all  business  matters  were  more  or  less  deranged, 
so  that  the  information  contained  in  this  treatise  relates  only  to  the 
condition  of  the  oyster  fisheries  or  trade  as  it  was  two  years  ago. 
The  facts  given  are,  for  the  most  part,  taken  from  an  excellent  publica- 
tion printed  in  New  York,  called  the  "  Merchants'  and  Commercial  Ee- 
view." 

Besides  the  oysters  consumed  in  the  city,  the  transportation-houses 
send  into  the  interior  oysters  in  the  natural  state,  without  shells,  or 
in  cans,  employing  exactly  the  same  processes  as  have  been  already 
described.* 

Oysters  in  the  shell,  as  well  as  out  of  the  shell,  are  sent  Jo  the  West 
and  Northwest.  Canned  and  pickled  oysters  go  for  the  most  part  in  the 
same  direction  ;  while  the  others  are  sent  to  California,  Australia,  the 
Antilles,  and  to  a  few  markets  in  Europe,  where  the  first  of  these  prep- 
arations are  highly  esteemed. 

The  city  of  Saint  Louis,  Mo.,  is  the  center  of  the  western  commerce 
for  transportation  into  the  interior. 

According  to  the  official  documents  of  the  State  of  Maryland,  for 
1840,  the  oysters  consumed  by  the  trade  at  that  time  amounted  to  710,- 
000  bushels. 

During  the  years  1856  and  1857,  September  to  May,  inclusive,  the  sta- 
tistics of  the  oyster-trade  were  as  follows  : 

Oysters  in  the  sJiell : 

Bushels. 

To  Cincinnati  and  Chicago 400, 000 

To  other  cities 400, 000 

Consumption  in  Baltimore „ 150,  000 

Total 950,000 

*Tke  oysters  required  by  the  trade  are  obtained  directly  from  the  banks,  or  from 
plantations  on  tho  shores  of  Maryland  and  Virginia.  Within  the  last  few  years  they 
have  been  brought  in  great  numbers  from  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk,  and  these  are  very 
highly  esteemed  both  for  their  size  and  their  quality.  The  most  important  plantations 
in  Maryland  are  in  the  counties  of  Saint  Mary's,  Dorchester,  Talbot,  and  Somerset : 
in  Virginia,  in  the  counties  of  Northampton,  Accomack,  York,  Gloucester,  Norfolk, 
Lancaster,  and  Middlesex. 


312       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Oysters  out  of  the  shell,  raw  or  canned : 

Bushels. 

To  California 200, 000 

To  Saint  Louis 150, 000 

To  other  cities 310, 000 

To  foreign  ports 50, 000 

Total 1,  G60, 000 

The  season  from  1859  to  1860  was  an  excellent  one  for  the  business, 
which  began  and  continued  with  great  activity.  In  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember the  demand  for  raw  oysters,  put  up  in  ice,  was  very  great,  as 
the  oysters  were  superior  to  those  of  preceding  years,  particularly  those 
of  large  size,  taken  from  banks  far  out  in  tbe  bay.*  The  price  of  the 
oysters  continued  good,  and  the  principal  merchants  were  busy  night 
and  day.  As  to  the  canned  article,  prepared  for  foreign  exportation,  it 
was  also  in  great  demand,  and  sold  at  a  reasonable  price,  although 
oysters  in  the  shell  had  advanced  in  price.  During  this  season,  the 
oysters  consumed  by  the  trade  amounted  to  25,000  bushels  a  day. 

One-half  of  the  principal  transportation  dealers  were  specially  occu- 
pied with  the  sale  of  raw  oysters  and  the  other  with  that  of  the  canned. 
The  number  of  vessels  employed  in  supplying  the  market  of  Baltimore 
was  estimated  at  from  800  to  l,200.t 

In  the  season  of  1860  and  1861,  notwithstanding  the  general  prostrate 
condition  of  commerce,  the  oyster  dealers  did  a  good  business,  espe- 
cially during  the  first  months.  From  the  1st  of  September  to  the  15th 
of  June,  3,000,000  of  bushels  were  consumed ;  that  is  to  say,  10,000 
bushels  a  day  on  the  average.  About  two-thirds  were  sent  to  the  West, 
in  a  raw  condition,  packed  in  ice. 

The  commercial  statistics  of  that  season  were  as  follows: 

Number  of  the  principal  houses  of  transportation 30 

Quantity  of  oysters  sold  in  the  market  of  Baltimore,  (bushels)    3,  000, 000 
Amount  of  the  reselling  of  the  oysters  at  $1.35  a  bushel. . .  $1, 050,  000 

Number  of  vessels  employed  in  the  transportation 500 

Number  of  persons  employed  in  the  various  labors  connected 

with  the  transportation  trade 3,  000 

Capital  engaged $1,  800, 000 

Commercial  value  of  the  canned  oysters $3,  000,  000 

To  avoid  repetition,  I  will  not  speak  of  the  manner  in  which  the  va- 
rious operations  of  the  transportation  trade  are  conducted,  since  it  is 
much  the  same  as  at  Fair  Haven.  The  oysters  are  generally  opened  by 
colored  persons,  of  both  sexes ;  while  the  white  workmen  are  employed 

"These  were  taken  from  the  great  banks  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  which,  as  they  are 
worked  less  than  the  others,  yield  oysters  of  larger  size. 

tSome  of  the  boats  used  in  the  bay  for  transporting  oysters  to  Baltimore  are  called 
"pungies."  They  are  a  kind  of  schooner  peculiar  to  the  Chesapeake,  moving  with 
great  rapidity,  and  holding  from  300  to  600  bushels  of  oysters. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES.  31 


n 


in  putting  them  in  boxes,  in  canning  them,  repacking  them,  &c.  It  is 
a  custom  in  Baltimore  to  pack  cases  of  raw  oysters  in  boxes  three  feet 
and  a  half  long  by  seventeen  inches  in  width  and  only  eight  in  depth. 
The  cases  are  handled  with  great  ease,  and  a  space  is  left  vacant  in  the 
middle  for  ice. 

Mr.  Maltby,  a  dealer  who  has  made  a  fortune  in  the  oyster-trade, 
informed  me  that,  during  the  warm  season,  the  boxes  were  placed  in  ice- 
wagons,  so  arranged  that  a  current  of  cold  air  might  pass  continually 
over  them. 

The  packing  of  raw  oysters,  taken  from  the  shell  and  canned,  forms 
one  of  the  most  lucrative  industries  of  Baltimore.  No  other  branch  of 
commerce  has  a  more  substantial  basis,  since  the  demand  for  the  article 
is  constant,  and  the  sales  are  ordinarily  for  cash.  The  importance  of 
the  business,  upon  which  I  cannot  dwell  too  strongly,  is  one  of  the  most 
convincing  proofs  of  the  influence  that  ostriculture,  conducted  on  a  grand 
scale,  may  have  upon  the  wealth  of  a  nation.  Two  or  three  thousand 
sailors  man  the  boats,  which  provide  the  establishments  with  oysters; 
two  thousand  persons  of  both  sexes  are  employed  in  opening  the  oys- 
ters; two  hundred  men  in  packing  and  closing  the  cans  and  in  making 
the  outside  boxes;  while  three  hundred  tinners  are  required  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  cans.  It  is  probable  that  the  value  of  the  tin  and  solder 
used  annually  amounts  to  $150,000,  while  the  number  of  feet  of  pine 
wood  used  for  boxes  must  be  nearly  a  million. 


CHAPTER    FOUETH. 

GENERAL  VIEWS  UPON  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  MARKET-CLAMS. 

Soft  clam  (Mya  arenaria.) — The  soft  clam  is,  next  to  the  oyster,  the 
most  important  bivalve  of  the  American  coast,  whether  we  view  it  as  a 
means  of  public  sustenance,  or  as  an  addition  to  the  fishing  industry  of 
the  country.  Its  great  abundance  on  the  coasts  where  it  is  found,  the 
good  market  it  commands,  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  obtained  from 
the  banks  at  low  tide,  all  render  it  a  most  valuable  source  of  sustenance 
for  the  poorer  classes.* 

Its  principal  characteristics  are  the  following:  the  shell  is  oval,  equi- 
valve,  almost  equilateral,  thin,  open  at  both  ends,  and  especially  at  the 
posterior  part,  which  can  never  be  closed  on  account  of  the  conformation 
of  the  valves.  The  exterior  surface  is  rugose,  and  marked  in  places  by 
the  raised  lines  of  growth.  Its  general  color  is  a  chalky  white,  some- 
times a  blue  black,  more  or  less  deep.  The  left  valve  has  a  cardinal 
tooth,  as  broad  as  it  is  long.  There  are  two  muscular  impressions,  and 
the  ligament  which  unites  the  two  valves  is  internal.  In  specimens  of 
large  size  the  siphons  are  nearly  two  inches  long. 

*  In  some  places  this  inollusk  has  retained  its  ancient  Indian  name  of  Maninose. 


314      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

As  I  have  said  in  the  introduction,  soft  clams  form  upon  the  coast  of 
New  England  immense  banks,  upon  which  constant  demands  are  made 
by  the  people,  without  any  apparent  diminution  in  the  products.  The 
places  where  the  mollusks  are  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  are  the 
emergent  sloping  beaches  of  the  counties  of  Barnstable  and  Essex,  in 
Massachusetts.  Farther  south  they  are  more  rare,  and  if  the  information 
given  me  is  correct,  they  are  not  found  below  the  latitude  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Delaware.  They  are  so  numerous  in  Boston  Harbor,  that  I  have 
myself  seen  more  than  a  hundred  of  different  sizes  taken  from  a  single 
square  foot  of  ground,  on  the  shores  of  Governor's  Island. 

The  soil  which  suits  them  best  is  sandy,  with  a  large  proportion  of 
mud,  in  which  they  can  bury  themselves  to  a  greater  or  less  depth, 
according  to  the  season.  In  pure  sand,  or  in  too  compact  gravel,  they 
do  not  develop  as  well,  and  attain  a  size  of  only  about  two  inches  and  a 
half  in  length ;  while  in  mud  they  generally  grow  full  three  inches  and 
a  half  long.  Dr.  Gould  had  a  specimen  which  measured  five  inches  and 
a  half  in  length. 

The  color  and  thickness  of  the  shells  vary  greatly,  according  to  the 
surroundings  of  the  animal.  In  sand,  they  are  almost  white.  If  gravel 
predominates,  they  are  more  yellowish ;  while  in  mud,  on  the  contrary, 
they  take  a  bluish  tint,  more  or  less  deep. 

Soft  clams  are,  in  the  full  acceptation  of  the  word,  inhabitants  of  the 
beach,  living  as  Solans,  Tellinas,  and  Donaces,  in  banks  which  are  un- 
covered at  low  tide.  In  certain  localities  they  are  found  only  a  few  feet 
from  the  point  reached  by  the  waves  at  the  highest  tide.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  during  the  great  heat  of  summer  they  are  exposed  for  a 
part  of  the  day  to  a  very  high  temperature.  During  the  winter,  when 
the  shores  of  New  England  are  often  covered  with  ice  for  several  weeks, 
the  fishermen  say  that  the  clams  leave  the  higher  banks,  and  move 
nearer  the  sea.  I  was  not  in  possession  of  the  data  by  which  I  could 
refute  this  statement,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  clams,  instead 
of  changing  their  locality,  only  bury  themselves  more  deeply  in  the 
sand  during  the  continuance  of  the  cold  weather.  A  fact  strongly  con- 
firmatory of  this  is,  that  they  can  be  obtained  during  the  winter  season, 
if  the  ice  is  broken.  Whatever  may  be  the  truth  in  regard  to  their 
moving  away  in  cold  weather,  it  is  certain  that  they  can  bear  a  very 
low  temperature,  since  Professor  Agassiz  has  frequently  found  in  the 
shells  of  these  mollusks  icicles,  which  did  not  seem  to  incommode  them 
in  the  least. 

The  spawning  season  occurs,  according  to  the  fishermen,  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July.  How  much  time  they  require  to  attain  full 
size  is  not  known,  the  American  naturalists  not  having  studied  the 
subject.  Judging  from  the  almost  imperceptible  difference  there  is  be- 
tween specimens  differing  considerably  in  age,  their  development  must 
be  very  slow. 

Clam-beds  are  generally  found  in  sheltered  parts  of  the  coast,  or  at 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  315 

least  in  places  where  the  action  of  the  waves  is  not  sufficiently  strong 
to  change  the  character  of  the  banks.  This  fact  I  observed  several 
times  at  Nahant,  the  summer  residence  of  a  portion  of  the  wealthy  in- 
habitants of  Boston.  On  all  the  eastern  shore  of  this  quasi-island, 
washed  by  the  open  sea,  not  a  single  soft-clam  is  to  be  found; 
while  on  the  western,  where  the  water  is  comparatively  calm,  they  ex- 
ist in  great  numbers.  They  are  taken  by  means  of  a  spade,  at  low- tide, 
when  the  banks  are  left  uncovered.  Their  hiding-place  is  betrayed  by 
a  number  of  small  holes,  through  which  they  eject  a  stream  of  water 
when  the  sand  is  pressed  down  upon  them,  or  shaken  by  the  spade. 
This  habit  has  won  for  them  a  very  descriptive,  although  not  very  poet- 
ical name.  On  some  parts  of  Long  Island  Sound  hogs  go  down  upon 
the  banks  at  low  water  to  hunt  for  clams,  of  which  they  are  very  fond. 
They  manifest  great  sagacity  in  finding  them,  and  know  exactly  when 
to  leave,  so  as  not  to  be  caught  by  the  returning  tide. 

The  consumption  of  these  mollusks  is  considerable  during  every  sea- 
son, but  especially  in  summer,  along  the  entire  coast  of  the  Northern 
States,  from  New  York  to  Maine;  but  nowhere  is  it  so  great  as  at  Boston. 

In  most  places  .regular  fishermen  sell  the  clams  in  their  natural  con- 
dition ;  but  in  some  localities,  like  New  York,  they  are  generally  taken 
from  the  shell  and  sent  to  market  in  packages  of  twenty-five,  which  are 
sold,  on  an  average,  at  75  cents  a  huudred. 

The  merchants  mix  pieces  of  ice  with  the  clams  in  summer  to  keep 
them  fresh ;  in  winter,  of  course,  this  precaution  is  unnecessary. 

The  extent  of  the  fisheries  throughout  the  year  depends  upon  the  rate 
of  consumption. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  use  clams  in  a  variety  of  culinary 
preparations,  the  most  popular  of  which  is,  undoubtedly,  a  kind  of  soup 
especially  esteemed  in  Boston.* 

*In  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts  clams  serve  as  a  pretext  for  fetes  of  a  very  pe- 
culiar kind,  called  clam-bakes.  The  following  description  is  taken  from  a  work  on 
natural  history  published  in  the  United  States  : 

"The  clam-bakes  which  take  place  every  year  near  Bristol,  as  well  as  in  several  other 
localities  of  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts,  have  their  origin  in  an  old  Indian  cus- 
tom. 

"  The  aborigines  of  these  States  were  accustomed  to  assemble  in  great  numbers  every 
year  for  a  feast  consisting  of  clams  and  green  corn  cooked  together  with  sea-weed* 
The  modern  clam-bake  is  an  improvement  on  the  old  one.  A  circular  hearth  or  bed 
is  first  made  in  the  sand,  with  large  flat  stones,  upon  which  a  fire  is  kept  up  until  they 
are  red  hot.  A  layer  of  sea-weed  is  then  placed  upon  them,  and  upon  the  sea-weed  a 
layer  of  clams  about  three  inches  thick  covered  by  more  sea-weed ;  then  follows  a 
layer  of  green  corn  in  the  husk,  intermixed  with  potatoes  and  other  vegetables ; 
then  a  layer  of  poultry  cooked  and  seasoned ;  then  more  sea-weed ;  then  fish  and 
lobsters,  again  covered  by  sea-weed.  This  arrangement  is  continued  according  to  the 
number  of  persons  to  take  part  in  tho  feast,  and  when  the  pile  is  complete  it  is  covered 
with  a  linen  cloth  to  prevent  the  steam  from  escaping.  When  the  whole  is  cooked 
each  one  helps  himself  without  ceremony.  These  feasts  are  delicious  beyond  descrip- 
tion, and  it  is  said  no  one  is  ever  made  ill  by  them.  In  former  times  the  most  renowned 
warriors  came  from  afar  to  take  part  in  them,  and  now  they  are  attended  by  persons 
of  the  highest  social  standing,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  several  hundreds. 


816       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  soft  clams  as  a  means  of  sustenance 
for  the  people  along  the  coasts,  they  are  still  more  important  to  the 
fisheries  of  the  country.  The  Americans  have  for  a  long  time  been  aware 
of  the  marked  predilection  which  many  fish,  particularly  those  of  the 
cod  species,  manifest  for  the  flesh  of  clams,  under  whatever  form  pre- 
sented to  them.  Before  this  fact  was  proved  by  experiment  the  sea. 
men  of  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  and  Saint  George  had  frequently 
observed  that  cod-fish  relied  to  a  great  degree  for  their  nourishment 
upon  bivalves  similar  to  the  coast  clam,  called  in  natural  history  Mya 
truncata,  and  which  is  frequently  found  in  the  stomachs  of  these  fish. 

Clams  are  used  for  bait,  either  alive  or  salted,  according  as  the  fishery 
is  on  the  coast  or  out  at  sea.  In  the  first  instance  they  are  enveloped 
in  pieces  of  net,  and  kept  in  the  wells  with  which  the  coasting-vessels 
are  generally  provided.  When  they  do  not  possess  this  convenience, 
they  can  still  be  preserved  for  several  days  by  keeping  them  in  a  cool 
place.  In  the  second  instance,  after  they  are  taken  from  the  shell,  they 
are  salted  and  then  carefully  packed  in  barrels,  and  are  sold  to  the  own- 
ers of  vessels  engaged  in  the  cod-fisheries  off  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land and  Sable  Island. 

Dr.  Gould  estimated  that  in  1840,  40,000  bushels  of  clams  were  con- 
sumed in  the  preparation  of  salt  bait,  in  addition  to  large  quantities 
used  in  a  natural  condition  by  the  coast  fisheries. 

Salted  clams  are  also  used  with  success  in  the  mackerel-fisheries,  in 
which  they  are  employed  like  the  roe  of  the  animal  to  attract  the  fish. 

Bound  clam  (Venus  mercenaria.)* — The  round  clam  is  a  species  of 
edible  Venus,  almost  as  abundant  upon  the  coast  as  the  Mya  armaria, 
and  rivals  that  mollusk  as  an  article  of  food,  although  it  is  of  far  less 
importance  as  bait  for  the  fisheries. 

In  some  i>laces  it  has  retained  its  ancient  name  of  quahog,  by  which 
it  was  known  to  the  aborigines  of  North  America.  The  Indians  man- 
ufactured out  of  the  violet  part  of  the  shell  colored  beads  called  wam- 
pum, which  served  them  as  money.  The  mollusks  which  they  used 
came  for  the  most  part  from  Long  Island,  called,  in  the  picturesque  lan- 
guage of  the  Mohicans,  "  tbe  Island  of  Shells." 

The  round  clam  has  a  regular,  thick  shell,  very  convex,  with  crenu- 
lated  margins,  and  three  cardinal  teeth  in  each  valve.  The  exterior  sur- 
face presents  numerous  concentric  lines,  and  a  few  more  prominent  ones. 
The  part  near  the  umbones  is  always  more  or  less  worn.  The  ligament, 
of  a  brown  color,  is  large  and  very  apparent ;  the  lunule  is  oval ;  the  ex- 
terior surface  is  ordinarily  of  a  dirty  white  color,  and  sometimes  bluish, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground  inhabited  by  the  animal.  There 
are  two  muscular  impressions,  and  the  interior  edges  of  the  valves  are 

*The  "  round  clam,  "  or  simply  "  clam,"  as  it  is  called  along  the  coast  of  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States,  differs  in  several  important  characters,  especially  the  armature 
of  the  hinge,  from  the  typical  species  of  Venus,  and  iB  therefore  now  generally  regarded 
as  the  representative  of  a  distinct  genus,  and  accordingly  called  Mercenaria  vioJacea. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  317 

of  a  violet  color,  more  or  less  deep  in  proportion  to  the  age  of  the  animal. 
These  mollusks,  when  fully  grown,  are  commonly  three  inches  and  a  half 
long,  two  inches  and  a  half  wide,  and  three  inches  thick. 

The  Venus  notata  is  a  species  of  clam  very  nearly  allied  to  the  one 
just  mentioned,  and  is  probably  only  one  of  its  varieties. 

Round  clams  exist  in  great  abundance  on  the  American  coast,  from 
Cape  Cod  almost  to  the  extremity  of  Florida.*  They  are  generally 
found  on  the  shores  of  gulfs,  of  bays,  and  of  the  mouths  of  large  rivers, 
which  are  less  exposed  to  tbe  action  of  the  waves  than  the  open  coast. 
Their  beds  are  at  a  depth  varying  from  6  to  25  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  low  tide.  Like  all  the  mollusks  of  that  family,  they  prefer 
a  large  proportion  of  mud  with  the  sand  in  which  they  live.  They  bury 
themselves  only  a  few  iuches  deep,  with  the  siphons  directed  upward. 
During  my  stay  on  Long  Island,  I  frequently  saw  clams  caught,  the 
shells  of  which  were  covered  with  sea-weed,  a  convincing  proof  of  the 
shallow  depth  at  which  they  are  buried  in  the  soil. 

Clams  are  caught  by  means  of  the  tongs  and  the  rake,  the  fishermen 
stationing  their  boats  over  the  beds  at  the  proper  state  of  the  tide. 
The  tongs  in  use  is  exactly  like  that  employed  in  taking  oysters.  As  to 
the  rake  it  is  entirely  of  iron,  about  two  feet  wide,  with  semicircular 
teeth,  the  curvature  of  which  answers  the  same  purpose  as  the  net-pouch 
in  the  ordinary  rake.  The  teeth  are  separated  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch,  and  are  about  two  feet  long.  The  rake  has  a  light  pole  for  a  han- 
dle, from  20  to  25  feet  in  length,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  water 
over  the  bottom  to  be  explored. 

I  would  repeat  here  what  I  before  said  in  connection  with  the  taking 
of  oysters,  that  these  instruments  are  exceedingly  well  adapted  for  use 
upon  small  beds.  They  not  only  do  not  destroy  a  large  number  of  mol- 
lusks to  no  purpose,  as  is  the  case  with  heavier  implements,  but,  on 
account  of  the  space  between  the  teeth,  small  specimens  are  rarely 
taken,  and  the  banks  are  consequently  not  depopulated. 

I  have  imported  from  the  United  States  models  of  the  tongs  and  the 
rake  for  the  fishery-bureau,  since  I  am  satisfied  that  if  they  were 
brought  into  common  use  upon  our  shores  they  would  be  of  great  serv- 
ice to  our  fishermen.  Besides,  I  have  no  doubt  that,  with  their  aid, 
beds  of  mollusks,  hitherto  unknown,  may  be  found  in  bays  of  the  ocean 
or  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  must  be  admitted  that  our  present  knowl- 
edge of  the  extent  of  our  wealth  in  shell-fish  is  still  very  imperfect,  on 
accouut  of  the  restraints  imposed  by  the  ancient  regulations  which  yet 
control  the  ordinary  fisheries.  The  use  of  the  instruments  in  question 
does  not,  however,  interfere  with  the  multiplication  of  fish  in  the  water 

*Clams  are  nowhere  so  abundant  as  in  Long  Island  Sound ;  in  the  great  bay  south 
of  this  island ;  in  the  bay  off  Sandy  Hook ;  upon  the  shores  of  Jersey,  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Delaware.  They  are  also  taken  in  great  quantities  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  in 
Albemarle  and  Pamlico  Sounds. 


318       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

•when  employed  to  explore  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  if  the  statements  of 
the  American  fishermen  are  to  be  relied  upon. 

Eouud  clams  are  the  object  of  an  especial  industry  designed  to  im- 
prove them  and  to  promote  the  rapidity  of  their  growth.  Like  the 
"  pa'ires  doubles  "  [  Venus  verrucosa]  or  clams  of  the  Mediterranean,  they 
are  never  as  delicate  in  flavor  as  when  freshly  caught.  Still,  in  many 
places  depots  are  formed  for  these  mollusks  in  sheltered  coves  or 
creeks,  in  order  to  be  ready  to  supply  the  exigencies  of  commerce.* 

The  fishermen  generally  supply  the  dealer  directly  from  the  banks, 
taking  care  to  proportion  the  supply,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  the  de- 
maud.  Clams  are  so  hardy,  however,  that  they  will  at  any  season  live 
for  several  days  out  of  the  water  if  placed  in  the  shade.  In  cool  weather 
they  will  survive  for  as  many  as  fifteen  days,  and  may  be  sent  by  rail 
to  distant  localities  in  the  interior  of  the  continent. 

In  summer,  the  consumption  of  clams  in  the  cities  of  New  Yorkt  and 
Philadelphia  is  very  considerable,  much  greater  than  that  of  the  Mya 
arenaria.  Like  the  latter,  sold  in  their  natural  condition,  or  out  of  the 
shell,  they  furnish  many  excellent  dishes,  the  most  esteemed  of  which 
is  clam  chowder.  Many  persons  eat  the  smaller  specimens  raw,  and 
when  flavored  with  a  few  drops  of  lemon-juice  they  seem  to  me  as  palat- 
able as  the  clovisses  [Tapes  virginea  and  Tapes  decussata,]  and  the  pa'ires 
doubles,  [  Venus  verrucosa,]  which  are  the  especial  favorites  of  the  people 
of  Marseilles. 

The  acclimation  of  round  clams  upon  the  shores  of  France  offers,  I 
believe,  as  many  chances  of  success  as  that  of  the  oysters  from  Virginia, 
of  which  the  specimens  I  brought  to  France,  numbering  five  or  six 
thousand,  are  now  living  on  our  coast,  without  appearing  to  suffer  in 
the  least  from  the  change  of  their  native  beds.  It  may  be  laid  down  as 
a  principle,  that  wherever  the  "pa'ires  doubles"  [Venus  verrucosa],  the 
cockles  [Cardium  edule],  or  the  "palourds"or  hen-clams  [Tapes  decus- 
sata]  are  found,  the  Venus  mercenaria  will  be  equally  sure  to  prosper; 
success  will  be  only  a  question  of  time. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  INTRODUCTION. 

Before  closing  this  exposition  of  the  shell-fisheries  of  the  United 
States,  I  must  insist  upon  the  utility  of  propagating  the  Mya  arenaria 
on  our  sea-coasts.  Since  my  return  from  the  United  States,  M.  Four- 
nier,  commissioner  of  maritime  inscription  at  Dunkirk,  has  furnished 
me  with  some  valuable  information  regarding  the  same  species  found 
in  the  northern  seas,  bearing  upon  this  question.    This  bivalve  is 

—   ■■  '  ■  ■  —  -  -  -  i 

*At  New  London  the  ship-merchants  build,  in  addition  to  their  establishments,  upon 
piles  at  the  edge  of  the  sea,  special  structures  for  the  preservation  of  round  clama. 
These  consist  sometimes  of  floating  tanks,  which  contain  several  thousands ;  some- 
times of  wooden  paddocks  or  pens,  shaded  from  the  sun  and  placed  between  the  piles  in 
6uch  a  way  as  to  be  covered  by  the  tide  several  hours  every  day.  The  mollusks  live 
for  a  long  time  in  these  reservations,  provided  too  many  are  not  crowded  into  them. 

t  At  the  Wasbington  and  Fulton  markets,  in  New  York,  clams  sell  for  $3.50  a  thousand. 


OYSTER-INDUSTRIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  319 

found  in  abundance  on  the  shores  of  Dunkirk,  especially  in  the  fish 
preserves.  To  determine  the  question  whether  it  and  those  of  America 
were  the  same,  M.  Burkardt  and  myself  endeavored  to  import  some 
from  the  United  States,  but  without  success.  I  sent  for  several  dozen 
of  them  by  the  captain  of  one  of  the  steamers  which  ply  between  Havre 
and  Dunkirk. 

The  specimens  sent  me  on  the  30th  of  June,  1863,  were  of  all  sizes, 
and  one  of  them  measured  a  little  over  three  inches  in  length  by  two  in 
width.  I  recognized  at  a  glance  the  soft  clams  of  New  England.  There 
were  the  shells  separated  at  the  ends,  with  the  same  twisted  conforma- 
tion, through  the  upper  opening  of  which  the  animal  projected  a  long 
muscular  siphon,  which  it  could  contract  so  as  to  draw  it  entirely  within 
the  valves ;  the  same  form  and  size  of  the  cardinal  tooth,  the  exterior 
color  of  the  shells,  of  a  dun  white,  in  some  parts  bluish  j  in  short,  these 
shell-fish  were,  in  every  respect,  identical  with  those  of  the  United 
States.  Carrying  my  examination  still  further,  I  ate  the  Myas  of  Dunkirk 
in  a  raw  condition,  as  well  as  cooked  in  various  ways,  and  found  them 
excellent.  As  they  came  from  a  basin  where  the  sea-water  was  not 
sufficiently  renewed,  they  were  somewhat  less  delicate  than  those  of  the 
banks  in  the  bay  of  Boston ;  but  if  transplanted  into  a  more  favorable 
medium,  they  would  undoubtedly  rival  the  latter. 

The  importance  of  the  fact  that  the  soft  clam  of  North  America  lives 
in  the  latitude  of  Dunkirk  is  evident,  as  it  shows  the  possibility,  I  may 
say  the  certainty,  of  realizing  Professor  Agassiz's  programme.  Once 
propagated  in  several  localities  on  the  coast,  this  mollusk  will  furnish 
a  bait  without  rival  for  the  coast  fisheries;  and  when  salted,  it  might 
be  used  for  the  cod-fishery  of  Iceland  and  Newfoundland.  "We  know  that 
at  certain  periods  of  the  year  the  fishermen  along  the  coast  find  it  dif- 
ficult to  obtain  bait ;  for  instance,  the  fishermen  of  Havre,  who,  at  the 
season  of  fishing  for  "  gross-yeux,"  sometimes  pay  five  centimes  apiece 
for  small  cuttle-fishes,  and  cannot  always  obtain  enough  even  at  that 
price.    The  Mya  arenaria  would  supply  this  want. 

.To  plant  the  exposed  sands  of  Britain  and  Normandy  with  these  shell- 
fish would  be  truly  a  benefit  to  the  maritime  population.  If  not  found 
there,  it  is  probably  owing  to  the  shifting  nature  of  the  banks  on  the 
shores  of  Dunkirk,  and  also  the  rapidity  of  the  currents.  In  short,  the 
hydrographic  conditions  are  such  that,  left  to  themselves,  the  Mya 
arenaria  is  not  able  to  traverse  the  spaces  which  separate  it  from 
other  portions  of  the  coast,  where,  if  transplanted  by  the  hand  of  man, 
it  would  thrive  wonderfully  well. 

The  experiment  might  at  least  be  tried  j  nor  would  it  cost  much,  as, 
the  locality  once  chosen,  it  would  require  only  a  few  days  to  transport 
a  sufficient  number  of  niollusks.  One  of  the  steamers  guarding  the 
fisheries  of  the  first  maritime  district  might  be  employed  for  the 
purpose. 


APPENDIX   B. 


THE  RIVER  FISHERIES. 


321 


21  f 


XVII -THE  PROPAGATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  SHAD. 


A— OPERATIONS  IN  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  SHAD  IN  1874. 

By  James  W.  Milxer. 
DISTRIBUTION  FROM  COEYMANS,  N.   T. 

The  work  of  shad-distribution  began  the  last  week  of  June;  the 
delay  in  the  control  of  available  funds  preventing  any  possibility  of 
propagation  in  the  Potomac  or  rivers  to  the  southward. 

The  services  of  experts  were  obtained  at  once  for  the  season,  and  four 
traveling  parties  organized  at  Coeymans,  N.  T.,  the  station  of  the  New 
York  State  commissioners. 

The  first  shipment  was  made  from  this  point  on  the  24th  of  June. 
Between  this  date  and  July  9,  seven  shipments  were  made  to  streams  in 
the  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Texas.  In  all  four  hundred 
thousand  shad  were  placed  in  tributaries  of  the  great  lakes,  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  in  the  Brazos  and  Colorado  Rivers  of  Texas. 

DISTRIBUTION  FROM  SOUTH  HADLEY  FALLS,  MASS. 

The  work  of  the  New  York  commissioners  ceased  about  the  3d  of 
July,  and  the  traveling  parties  moved  to  South  Hadley  Falls,  Mass., 
the  station  of  the  Connecticut  commissioners.  Mr.  Monroe  A.  Green 
had  the  direction  of  the  work  at  its  commencement  here  and  during  my 
absence  of  a  fortnight  in  Texas  and  elsewhere. 

Part  of  the  plan  at  this  station  was  to  move  a  portion  of  the  shad  into 
the  Connecticut  above  the  fish-way.  The  generally  accepted  fact  in  the 
habits  of  anadromous  fishes  that  they  are  disposed  to  return  to  almost 
the  exact  locality  where  they  passed  their  embryonic  and  earlier  stages 
of  growth  indicated  a  necessity  for  establishing  a  colony  above  the 
Holyoke  dam. 

There  is  a  large  amount  of  evidence  to  establish  the  fact  of  this  habit 
in  the  salmon  and  alewife,  and  many  fresh-water  fishes  seem  to  have 
as  strong  an  instinct  for  locality  as  have  the  birds  and  mammals.  It 
is  tolerably  evident  that  the  shad  possesses  the  same  disposition  to  find 
its  way  back  to  familiar  waters. 

Observation  of  the  shad  brought  to  the  large  markets  shows  consid- 
erable difference  in  the  physiognomy  and  general  contour  of  those  from 
different  rivers.  The. suggestion  is  natural  that*  they  are  distinct  and 
separate  colonies  of  the  same  species,  and  thus  slight  characteristics  are 
perpetuated  because  they  breed  in-and-in  and  do  not  mix  with  those  of 


324      KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

other  rivers.  If  they  have  the  instinct  of  locality  to  the  degree  that  the 
salmon  and  alewife  have,  there  would  be  likely  to  be  little  disposition  in 
the  shad  of  the  Lower  Connecticut  to  ascend  the  Holyoke  dam.  The 
Holyoke  dam  was  erected  in  1849.  The  present  colony  of  shad  in  the 
Connecticut  River  can  therefore  have  little  of  either  inherited  or  devel- 
oped instinct  to  extend  their  migrations  above  the  foot  of  the  dam. 

As  yet,  no  fish- way  has  proved  to  any  large  extent  successful  for 
shad.  Their  exceeding  timidity  is  supposed  to  be  the  chief  reason  why 
they  will  not  enter  a  fish- way.  Even  if  this  be  the  reason,  no  thorough 
test  can  be  made  until  a  colony  has  been  established  above  the  dam, 
because  of  the  evidence  there  exists  that  they  have  no  disposition  to 
ascend  higher  than  their  familiar  spawning-ground. 

The  proof  of  the  success  of  a  fish-way  as  a  means  'of  ascent  for  the  shad 
to  the  upper  waters  of  the  rivers  of  the  United  States  was  regarded  as  a 
matter  of  considerable  importance.  A  test  at  this  well-constructed  fish- 
way  will  probably  afford  all  the  evidence  as  to  their  desirability  and  their 
merits  in  deserving  outlay  where  their  purpose  is  principally  for  the 
ascent  of  shad.  About  565,000  were  placed  above  the  dam,  about  one- 
half  million  being  moved  above  Bellows  Falls,  in  the  State  of  Vermont. 
From  this  station,  over  two  millions  of  young  shad  were  seut  to  rivers  in 
New  England,  the  tributaries  of  the  great  lakes,  Lake  Champlain,  and 
the  Mississippi. 

The  German  government  during  1871  sent  out  Dr.  Otto  Finsch  to 
examine  into  the  fisheries  and  food-fishes  of  our  waters,  with  reference, 
if  possible,  to  a  better  development  of  the  resources  of  their  own  waters. 
On  his  return  he  had  strongly  recommended  the  shad  as  above  all  other 
fishes  the  most  important  acquisition  to  Germany.  This  country  is  trav- 
ersed by  long  rivers  like  the  Ehine,  the  Weser,  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and 
the  Vistula.  He  was  desirous,  as  a  first  experiment,  that  they  should 
be  introduced  into  the  Weser. 

The  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Company,  through  their  agents, 
Messrs.  Oelrichs  &  Company,  offered  to  transport  the  fish  and  attend- 
ants to  Bremen,  and  return  the  attendants  to  New  York,  without 
charge.  The  friendly  action  of  the  German  government  in  1873  in  their 
gift  of  250,000  salmon-eggs  prompted  a  ready  compliance  to  this  generous 
proposal,  and  100,000  fish  in  charge  of  Fred  Mather  and  A.  A.  Ander- 
son were  seut  from  Holyoke,  Mass.,  and  left  on  board  of  the  steamer 
Donau,  for  Bremen,  on  the  5th  of  August.  The  steamer  provided  for 
the  welfare  of  the  fish  a  large  clean  tank  containing  an  ample  supply  of 
Croton  water.  A  convenient  compartment  on  the  deck  contained  the 
cans  of  fish  swung  in  such  a  way  that  they  were  not  endangered  by  the 
movements  of  the  vessel. 

Mr.  Mather  reports  that  continual  care  was  given  them  and  they  re- 
mained in  vigorous  condition  until  the  sixth  day  out,  when  they  began  to 
suffer.*    A  fog  settling  down  over  the  surface  of  the  sea  increased  the 

*See  Mather's  reuort. 


THE    PROPAGATION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.      325 

temperature  until  the  mercury  stood  at  73°  in  the  atmosphere.  This 
seemed  to  lessen  the  vitality  of  the  fish  very  fast,  and  at  ten  days  out 
from  land  and  within  three  days  of  the  end  of  the  voyage  the  last  fish 
was  dead. 

An  apparatus  wasxlevised  by  Mr.  Mather  with  the  intention  of  taking 
a* quantity  of  partly-developed  eggs,  which  would  hatch  when  a  few  days 
out  from  land,  and  thereby  limit  the  period  of  time  the  living  fish  would 
have  to  remain  in  the  cans. 

This  apparatus  was  a  large  can,  with  a  capacity  of  about  twenty-five 
gallons;  within  it  a  cylinder  having  a  wire-cloth  bottom  and  a  tight  lid 
was  adjusted,  and  within  the  cylinder  the  eggs  were  to  be  put.  The 
cylinder  had  four  arms  soldered  to  it  near  the  top,  and  the  same  number 
near  the  bottom.  The  ends  of  these  arms  had  a  solid  rubber  ball  in- 
serted. The  ends  of  the  arms  with  the  rubber  surface  rested  against 
the  inside  of  the  can,  the  friction  sustaining  the  cylinder  at  any  height 
in  the  can  desired. 

The  plan  was  to  fill  the  can  to  a  convenient  height  with  water,  and  it 
was  thought  the  jolting  of  the  railway-trains  and  possibly  the  roll  of  the 
steamer  would  be  sufficient  to  give  the  eggs  the  necessary  motion. 

When  leaving  the  river  a  quantity  of  eggs  was  put  into  the  cylinder, 
but  the  wire-cloth  used  proved  to  be  too  coarse,  and  by  the  time  the  two 
miles  between  the  river  and  the  depot  had  been  traversed  the  eggs  had 
all  worked  through  the  meshes  of  the  wire-cloth  and  were  in  the  can 
below.    It  was,  of  course,  useless  to  take  the  can  farther. 

It  is  due  to  those  who  had  the  experiment  in  charge  to  say  that  they 
were  called  on  for  the  undertaking  suddenly  and  unexpectedly,  and 
that  no  time  for  experiment  was  afforded  them  before  the  start. 

Omitting  the  shipment  to  Europe,  I  am  able  to  report  a  very  general 
success  in  the  transfers  of  live  shad. 

The  longest  trip,  that  to  Texas,  suffered  a  loss  in  the  quantity  started 
with  of  15  per  cent.  In  most  of  the  shipments  the  loss  was  very  slight, 
not  more  than  one  or  two  per  cent.  A  slightly  larger  loss  was  reported 
once  or  twice  by  men  who  had  had  little  experience. 

A  very  general  appreciation  of  the  effort  was  displayed  in  the  regions 
benefited,  and  considerable  enthusiasm  shown  wherever  the  people 
were  at  all  informed  in  the  matter  of  fish  culture. 

Tables  are  herewith  appended  showing  the  distribution  of  shad  in  1874. 


326       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


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THE    PROPAGATION   AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.       327 

B— REPORT  ON  SHAD-HATCHING  IN  NEW  JERSEY. 

By  G.  A.  Anderson. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  report  of  shad-hatching 
Operations  on  the  Delaware  for  the  year  1874,  compiled  from  memoranda 
left  by  the  late  Dr.  J.  H.  Slack,  deputy  commissioner. 

In  response  to  your  telegram  of  June  23,  Dr.  Slack  took  the  evening 
train  to  New  York,  and  on  the  24th  called  on  you  and  received  instruc- 
tions. He  left  New  York  in  the  afternoon  and  reached  Point  Pleasant, 
Pa.,  (where  the  work  was  to  be  done,)  on  the  25th.  His  messenger  from 
Troutdale  met  him  with  apparatus  and  the  work  was  at  once  begun. 

Owing  to  the  very  great  drought  prevailing  at  the  time,  the  water  in 
the  river  was  very  low,  and  the  run  of  shad  was  small. 

Dr.  Slack  remained  at  his  post  until  the  afternoon  of  July  2,  when 
he  returned  to  Troutdale,  and  on  the  following  day  was  prostrated  by  a 
sudden  attack  of  pleuro-pneumouia  from  which  he  never  rallied,  and 
which  terminated  fatally  on  the  27th  of  August.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  exposure  on  the  river  at  night,  in  the  prosecution  of  his  work,  in- 
duced the  disorder. 

After  Dr.  Slack  went  away,  the  work  was  carried  on  by  his  assistant, 
William  H.  Swartz,  who  continued  it  until  the  13th  July,  when  he  was 
ordered  to  cease  operations.  The  number  of  spawn  taken  appears  by 
the  abstract  hereto  attached.  It  is  proper  to  say  that  the  water  in  the 
river  was  lower  than  had  been  known  for  many  years,  and  that  this 
interfered  materially  with  the  work.  There  appeared  to  be  at  all  times 
a  scarcity  of  male  fish,  and  this  fact  prevented  his  increasing  the  num- 
ber of  spawn  reported.  It  is  probable  that  had  Dr.  Slack  lived  to  con- 
tinue the  work  this  difficulty  would  have  been  overcome  by  keeping 
alive  a  few  hours  some  of  the  males  taken  through  the  day.*  An  ac- 
count of  expenditures  will  be  forwarded  herewith.  In  conlusion,  I  will 
say  that  the  importance  of  the  work  you  have  undertaken  is  beginning 
to  be  understood  and  appreciated  by  our  people,  and  it  is  hoped  you  may 
be  able  to  continue  it. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

'Attempts  to  keep  males  confined  for  a  few  iiours  have  usually  resulted  in  their  death. 


328      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Abstract  showing  spaivn  of  shad  taken  by  and  under  direclion  of  the  late  Dr.  J.  H.  Slack, 
deputy  United  States  commissioner  of  fish  and  fisheries,  on  the  Delaware  River,  at  Point 
Pleasant,  Pa.,  commencing  June  25  and  ending  July  12,  1874. 


Jane  25, 
June  26, 
June  27, 
Jane  28, 
June  29, 
June  30, 


July 
July- 
July 
July 
July 
July 

July 

July 
July 
July 
July  11, 
July  12, 


1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874. . 
1874*. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1874.. 
1674 1. 


Total. 


Time. 


8 
10 

8.30 
8.30 
1.30 

9 
5 

8 
4 
7 
5 
6 
7 
6 
5 
5 
5 


p.m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.m. 
a.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.m. 


Air. 


77 
77 


83 

97* 

83 

80 

85 

72J 

84 

70J 

77 

73 

80 

82 

83 

72 

75 


Water. 


74 
72i 


72* 
75 

76 

74 

81 

79 

79 

74 

79 

78£ 

80 

81 

80 

79 

74 


Spawn  taken. 


35,  000 
75, 000 
85,000 

(Sunday.) 

60,  000 

No  males  taken. 
90,  COO 

No  spawn. 

20,  000 
20,  000 
65,  000 
40,  000 

No  spawn. 

No  spawn. 

No  males. 

No  fishing. 

No  spawn. 


40,  000 


530,  000 


*  Eecord  from  July  2,  kept  by  W.  H.  Swartz.    t  Ordered  to  stop  by  telegram  from  Dr.  Slack. 

Prof.  Spencer  F.  Baird, 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries. 
Bloomsbury,  October  24,  1874. 


C— VOYAGE  TO  BREMERHAVEN,  GERMANY,  WITH  SHAD. 

By  Fred  Mather. 

Oil  the  morning  of  Tuesday,  August  4,  1874, 1  left  Holyoke,  Mass.,  for 
New  York  to  make  preparations  to  receive  the  fish  on  board  the  steamer 
Bonau,  advertised  to  sail  the  next  day.  At  midnight  the  fish  arrived  at 
the  Grand  Central  depot,  in  charge  of  two  men  of  the  commission.  There 
were  ten  cans,  each  containing  10,000  fry,  hatched  the  morning  before. 
The  cans  were  ordinary  milk-cans,  capable  of  holding  twelve  gallons; 
two  extra  cans  for  water,  and  a  double  set  of  siphons,  strainer-tubes, 
and  dippers  were  also  brought.  An  express- wagon  conveyed  them  to 
the  steamer's  wharf  at  Hoboken,  where  they  were  taken  on  board  the 
ship.  On  the  morning  of  the  5th  I  was  joined  by  Mr.  A.  Anderson, 
who  was  selected  to  assist  in  taking  care  of  the  fish  on  the  passage. 
The  cans  were  placed  in  a  room  15  feet  by  8.  This  room  was  a  pas- 
sage-way, between  the  gangways  of  the  lower  or  cabin  deck ;  it  had  also 
a  stair  leading  to  the  upper  deck  ;  a  door  at  each  gangway  and  at  the 
top  of  the  stairs,  which  when  closed  made  it  a  tight  room.  The  steamer 
had  two  tanks  filled  with  Croton  water,  expressly  for  our  use ;  these 
were  in  the  lower  hold,  and  were  of  cast  iron,  lined  with  cement. 

Mr.  Anderson  and  myself  divided  our  watches  into  six  hours  each, 


THE    PROPAGATION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.      329 

and  gave  the  fish  fresh  water  every  hour  for  the  first  six  clays,  and 
every  half-hour  the  four  remaining  ones  that  they  lived.  Our  manner 
of  giving  it  was  this :  about  two  gallons  would  be  drawn  from  each 
can,  and  a  dipper-full  added  each  hour.  In  addition,  on  each  watch 
the  cans  were  drawn  down  half  way,  and  the  water  aerated  by  pouring 
from  one  pail  to  another,  and  then  replaced. 

To  keep  the  water  in  the  cans  sweet  and  wholesome,  the  dead  were 
drawn  off  every  morning ;  this  was  accomplished  by  swirling  the  water 
with  a  dipper,  which  caused  all  dead  fish  to  collect  in  the  center  of  the 
can ;  a  siphon  was  then  filled  with  water,  and  kept  closed  until  it  rested 
on  this  mass,  when  it  was  allowed  to  flow  until  all  dead  fish  and  sedi- 
ment were  removed. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  temperatures  and  casualties : 


Date. 


Aug.  5 
6 

7 

S 

9 

10 

Jl 

12 
13 
14 


Temperature  in  cans. 


G  a.  m. 


70 
66 
64 
64 
62 
64 
69 

62 
63 
64 


Noon. 


68 
66 
62 
62 
62 
(55 
66 

64 
62 
59 


6  p.  m. 


66 
67 
63 
64 
64 
67 
64 

64 
62 
60 


Mid- 
night. 


66 
64 
64 
64 
64 
73 
64 

63 
62 
61 


Remarks. 


Gave  water  every  hour 

Emptied  each  can  and  cleaned  it 

Fog  at  night  and  hot 

Gave  water  every  half-hour  as  the  fish  were  get 
ting  weak 

Tried  to  feed  them 

All  dead  at  noon  but  1,000,  which  died  at  night. . . 


Loss. 


500 
200 

1,000 

20 

100 

3,000 

500 

1,200 
5,000 


The  fish,  in  my  opinion,  died  from  starvation  ;  hatched  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  4th,  they  were  probably  looking  for  food  about  the  third  or 
fourth  day  after,  but  appeared  strong  until  the  morning  of  the  12th, 
when  we  first  noticed  signs  of  weakness  by  a  slow  motion,  and  many 
alive  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  can. 

On  the  morning  of  the  13th  I  procured  a  piece  of  raw  beef,  and  washed 
it  in  water.  I  could  see  many  particles  in  it,  and  it  would  have  been 
good  food  for  any  of  the  salinonidee,  but  the  shad  did  not  appear  to 
notice  it.  I  very  much  doubt,  if  the  fish  had  been  turned  into  a  river 
full  of  their  natural  food  at  this  time,  that  they  would  have  lived,  for 
they  were  past  the  point  of  reviving.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  Croton  water 
that  we  had  on  board  the  ship  contained  the  minute  forms  of  animal 
life  upon  which  the  shad-fry  feed.  It  was  confined  in  tanks  below  three 
decks  in  the  dark. 

We  now  know  the  extreme-limit  of  their  endurance  without  food. 
They  have  been  taken  from  the  Hudson  River  to  California  in  seven 
days,  and  have  lived  and  will  probably  breed.  Ours  died  of  exhaustion 
in  a  trifle  over  ten  days. 

From  this,  and  the  reports  in  the  "Forest  and  Stream,"  of  the  experi- 
ments by  Comdr.  L.  A.  Beardslee,  at  Noank,  I  do  not  regard  the  trans- 
portation of  shad-fry  as  at  all  practicable  on  a  journey  occupying  over 


330       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

eight  days,  unless  we  can  discover  some  method  of  feeding  them.  This 
seems  at  present  difficult,  and  I  have  hope  of  a  better  result  from  taking 
the  eggs  and  hatching  the  fry  upon  the  passage.  This  seems  to  me  to 
be  the  most  practicable  and  easiest  method;  and  in  the  connection  I 
would  refer  to  the  hatching-can  which  I  invented  and  have  given  to  your 
commission.  This  was  done  too  late  for  trial  this  season,  and  although 
intended  for  use  on  railroad-cars  may  be  of  service  on  shipboard. 

The  deputy  commissioner,  Mr.  J.  W.  Milner,  who  had  the  charge  of 
the  shad-distribution,  intended  to  have  this  can  tried  on  our  voyage,  and 
when  the  fish  were  put  up  he  had  several  thousand  eggs  put  in  the  can ; 
but  on  arriving  at  the  railroad- station  it  was  found  that  the  wire  cloth 
was  of  too  large  mesh ;  and  that  from  the  jolting  of  the  wagon  in  which 
the  can  was  brought  to  the  depot  the  eggs  had  passed  through  to  the 
bottom  of  the  outer  can. 

If,  by  experiment,  we  find  that  we  can  hatch  the  eggs  at  sea,  and,  by 
the  use  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  60°  to  62°,  delay  the  hatching 
until  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  out,  then  we  may  reasonably  hope  for  success. 
The  passage  from  New  York  to  Bremerhaven  occupied  twelve  days,  and 
as  two  days  should  be  allowed  for  distribution  from  that  port,  it  will  be 
a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  get  them  through  in  eight  days  after 
hatching. 


D— LIVING  SHAD  ON  THEIR  WAY  TO  THE  WESER,* 

Translated  by  H.  Jacobson. 

As  has  previously  been  mentioned,  the  German  Fishing  Society  at 
Berlin  was  notified  in  June  by  Mr.  Roosevelt,  the  commissioner  of  fish- 
eries for  the  State  of  New  York,  that  a  number  of  live  shad  would  be 
sent,  which,  however,  never  arrived  in  Germany,  as,  on  account  of  the 
unusual  heat,  all  the  fish  had  died  before  they  reached  New  York. 
Although  we  must  acknowledge  the  earnest  endeavors  of  Mr.  Roosevelt, 
this  first  attempt  must  be  conceded  to  have  been  a  failure ;  and  it  is 
chiefly  owing  to  the  great  interest  which  Prof.  Spencer  F.  Baird,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  has  taken  in  this  matter, 
that  another  attempt  has  been  made  during  this  year.  The  circumstance 
that  this  year  the  migration-period  of  the  shad  in  the  Connecticut  River, 
which  generally  lasts  from  April  until  the  middle  of  July,  was  prolonged 
til'  near  the  end  of  July,  made  another  attempt  possible.  With  his 
peculiar  energy  Professor  Baird  knew  how  to  make  use  of  this  circum- 
stance, and  in  spite  of  the  short  time,  made  all  the  necessary  arrange- 
ments in  a  manner  which  augured  well  for  the  success  of  the  undertaking. 

As  early  as  the  7th  August,  Dr.  Finsch  received  a  cable  telegram 
from  Messrs.  Oelrichs  &  Co.,  agents  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  in  New 
York,  announcing  the  shipping  of  a  large  quantity  of  live  shad   by 

*From  the  "  Weser-Zeituug,"  August  28,  1874. 


THE    PROPAGATION   AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.      331 

the  steamer  Donau,  Captain  Neiuaber,  which  left  New  York  on  the  5th 
August.  The  German  Fishing  Society  thereupon  intrusted  Dr.  Finsch, 
its  corresponding  member,  with  the  care  of  placing  the  fish  in  the  Weser, 
who  was  in  this  matter  most  willingly  assisted  by  the  practical  advice 
of  Mr.  C.  Schieber,  the  experienced  fishing  superintendent  of  the  city 
of  Hamelu,  who,  fully  appreciating  the  importance  of  the  undertaking, 
personally  placed  himself  at  Dr.  Finsch's  disposal.  Although  no  de- 
tailed information  had  been  received  from  America  regarding  the  num- 
ber and  age  of  the  fish,  or  the  manner  of  transporting  them,  all  the 
necessary  preparations  were  made  for  receiving  the  rare  finny  guests, 
the  first  which  had  ever  crossed  the  ocean  to  be  domiciled  with  us.  All 
the  details  must  of  course  depend  on  the  condition  of  the  fish  at  their 
arrival ;  and,  in  order  to  be  informed  of  this  in  good  time,  Dr.  Finsch 
asked  Messrs.  Keller,  Wallis  &  Postlethwaite,  agents  of  the  Lloyd  in 
Southampton,  to  telegraph  immediately  on  the  arrival  of  the  fish  regard- 
ing their  condition.  These  gentlemen  sent  a  telegram  on  the  15th, 
which  arrived  here  on  the  16th,  saying  that  unfortunately  the  whole 
number  of  100,000  fish  had  died  on  the  day  previous.  A  letter  from 
Professor  Baird,  which  Consul  Schwab,  in  New  York,  had  dispatched 
by  the  Prussian  closed  mail,  announced  the  same  day  the  arrival  of 
Messrs.  Frederic  Mather  and  A.  A.  Anderson,  in  whose  charge  the  fish 
had  been  placed.  Dr.  Finsch  therefore  went  to  Bremerhaven  on  the 
17th  August,  and  got  from  the  above-mentioned  gentlemen  all  the  desired 
information  and  all  the  details,  from  which  it  is  evident,  beyond  a  doubt, 
that,  in  spite  of  the  failure  of  this  first  attempt,  the  successful  trans- 
portation of  young  shad  is  possible. 

To  understand  the  whole  matter,  we  must  speak  of  the  particular  diffi- 
culties attending  the  transportation  of  fish  of  the  Alosa  kind  in  a  live 
state,  which  are  much  greater  than  with  any  representative  of  the 
Salmonidce.  Mr.  Schieber  was  not  able  to  keep  our  European  Alosa, 
the  Alosa  vulgaris,  alive  more  thau  twelve  hours;  and  the  American 
representative  of  this  family,  the  shad,  (Alosa  prcestabilis,)  seems  to 
be  more  tender,  for,  as  Mr.  Mather  assured  us,  the  attempt  to  put  the 
mature  shad  in  a  vessel  would  prove  fatal.  The  idea  of  transporting 
grown  or  half-grown  shad  can  therefore  not  be  entertained,  just  as  little 
as  that  of  spawn,  as  in  this  respect  likewise  the  Alosa  is  subject  to  con- 
ditions of  life  differing  entirely  from  those  of  the  salmon.  While  in 
some  varieties  of  these  last-mentioned  fish  the  eggs  frequently  require 
weeks  for  their  development,  which,  moreover,  can  be  retarded  artifi- 
cially by  lowering  the  temperature — a  circumstances  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance for  transportation — this  cannot  be  done  with  shad-eggs.  These 
develop  as  early  as  the  third  or  fourth  day,  and  perish  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  less  than  72°  to  80°,  (Fahrenheit.)  Another  circumstance  which 
facilitates  the  transportation  of  young  salmon  is  this,  that  they  keep  the 
umbilical  bag,  which  gives  food  to  the  young  during  the  first  period  of 
their  existence,  from  one  to  six  weeks,  while  in  the  young  shad  this  bag 


332       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

is  very  small  and  is  lost  on  the  fourth  clay.  In  spite  of  all  these  pecu- 
liar difficulties,  the  transportation  of  young  shad  has  been  successfully 
carried  on  in  America.  Seth  Green  made  a  successful  introduction  of 
shad  into  California  in  1871,  and  later  Livingston  Stone  in  1873.  The 
first  grown  shad  was  during  this  year  caught  in  the  Sacramento  River, 
and  the  lucky  fisherman  received  the  State  premium  of  $25  for  it. 

As  the  American  pisciculturists  are  well  acquainted  with  the  difficul- 
ties attending  the  transportation  of  young  shad,  it  was  to  be  expected 
that  Professor  Baird  would  commission  competent  and  experienced  men 
to  convey  the  first  shad  to  Germany,  and  Messrs.  Mather  and  Anderson 
have  certainly  done  everything  in  their  power  to  justify  the  confidence 
placed  in  them.  It  must  here  be  mentioned  that  both  these  gentlemen  are 
experienced  pisciculturists,  the  former  possessing  a  piscicultural  estab- 
lishment of  his  own  for  brook-trout,  (Salmo  fonlinalis,)  near  Honeoye 
Falls,  on  the  Honeoye  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Genesee  River,  fourteen 
miles  south  of  Rochester,  in  the  State  of  New  York ;  while  Mr.  Ander- 
son is  successfully  raising  black  bass  (Grystes  nigricans)  and  salmon- 
trout  (Salmo  confinis)  at  Groton,  near  New  London,  Conn.  Both  these 
gentlemen  are  several  months  during  the  year  engaged  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Fisheries  to  transplant  young  fish,  and  possess  an 
experience  of  many  years,  especially  regarding  the  transportation  of 
shad. 

Mr.  William  Clift,  in  July,  1872,  succeeded  in  transporting  a  large  num- 
ber of  shad  to  the  Platte  River,  in  Colorado,  and,  though  of  course  losing 
quite  a  number,  in  planting  the  majority  near  Denver;  and  Mr.  Mather, 
before  undertaking  the  journey  to  Germany,  had  just  returned  from  Des 
Moines,  Iowa,  where  he  had  planted  90,000  shad  for  stocking  the  Mis- 
sissippi. During  the  railroad  journey  of  seventy-two  hours,  only  200 
out  of  this  large  number  had  died.  Both  these  gentlemen  received  their 
commission  by  letter  from  Professor  Baird,  and  had  just  enough  time  to 
hasten  to  New  York  to  receive  the  fish  at  the  Grand  Central  depot  and 
to  take  them  over  to  Hoboken  on  board  the  Douau  by  express. 

These  fish  came  from  the  piscicultural  establishment  for  raising  shad 
which  the  State  of  Massachusetts  established  some  years  ago  near 
Holyoke,  on  the  Connecticut  River,  and  which  has  been  instrumental  in 
re-stocking  that  river  with  shad  in  the  most  astonishing  manner.  This 
requires  no  expensive  buildings,  but  only  very  simple  appliances,  which 
consist  in  200  wooden  boxes,  2  feet  long  and  1£  feet  broad,  open  at  the 
top  and  having  a  wire-net  at  the  bottom,  being  placed  in  the  river. 
These  boxes  receive  the  impregnated  eggs  and  protect  the  young  fish 
till  they  lose  their  umbilical  bag.  The  shad-raising  establishments  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  on  the  Hudson,  ten  miles  below  Albany,  and  that 
on  the  Potomac  near  Washington,  are  similarly  orgauized.  The  young 
fish  scarcely  two  to  three  hours  old  were  shipped  by  railroad  from  Holy- 
oke on  the  1th  August,  at  2.30  p.  m.,  and  arrived  in  New  York  at  mid- 
night, via  Hartford  and  New  Haven  Railroad,  in  a  healthy  condition,  in 


THE    PROPAGATION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.      333 

the  same  milk-cans  in  which  they  were  to  continue  their  journey  across  the 
ocean.  These  cans,  which  in  America  are  very  generally  used  for  trans- 
porting milk  on  a  large  scale,  are  made  of  tin,  round  and  about  2^  feet 
high,  have  been  successfully  employed  in  transporting  fish.  Such  a  can 
holds  10  gallons  and  affords  ample  room  for  10,000  young  fish,  which  will 
seem  quite  plausible  if  we  inform  the  reader  that  the  young  shad  on 
emerging  from  the  eggs  scarcely  measure  more  than  f  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  whole  number  of  fish,  100,000,  could  therefore  easily  be  dis- 
tributed in  12  cans,  which,  through  the  kindness  of  Captain  Neinaber,had 
an  excellent  place  on  board  the  steamer  where  they  were  protected  both 
agaiust  too  violent  movements  and  against  the  influence  of  the  weather, 
as  fresh  air  could  constantly  be  admitted  by  means  of  a  door,  which 
could  be  closed  when  the  temperature  was  too  low.  There  was  likewise 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  water,  which  was  brought  by  a  small  steamer 
from  Oroton  Eiver,  and  which  filled  two  iron  tanks,  cemented  on  the 
inside,  holding  1,500  gallons  of  water,  destined  for  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  fish.  The  Croton  water-works  furnishes  60,000,000  gallons  per  day 
of  water  for  the  city  of  New  York. 

It  must  be  said  that  both  Messrs.  Oelrichs  &  Co.  and  Captain  Neinaber, 
with  a  zeal  worthy  of  the  cause,  willingly  did  everything  in  their  power 
to  assist  the  fish-commissioners  in  their  difficult  task,  and  we  express 
the  sentiments  of  the  American  gentlemen,  if  we  herewith  publicly 
express  their  thanks  to  the  above-mentioned  representatives  of  the 
Lloyd. 

As  soon  as  the  fish  had  been  placed  on  board  the  Donau,  which  left 
Hoboken  on  the  5th  August,  Messrs.  Mather  and  Anderson  took  them 
in  charge.  Their  care  for  them  consisted  in  the  first  place  in  filling  in 
fresh  water  and  introducing  oxygen  into  the  stale  water.  In  trans- 
porting large  fish  this  is  done  by  means  of  bellows  eonuected  with  the 
tank,  and  the  so-called  Freiburg  transportation-kegs  are  built  on  this 
plan.  Experience,  however,  has  taught  the  Americans,  who  are  well 
acquainted  with  this  method,  that  it  cannot  be  applied  to  young  fish, 
and  the  only  effectual  remedy  so  far  is  the  filling  up  of  fresh  water. 
This,  of  course,  requires  incessant  activity  by  day  and  by  night.  Messrs. 
Mather  and  Anderson  therefore  relieved  each  other  every  six  hours  with 
a  seaman-like  regularity,  which  did  not  even  suffer  any  interruption  by 
slight  attacks  of  sea-sickness.  The  business  of  filling  up  the  water  was 
attended  to  with  the  same  regularity.  By  means  of  a  tin  cylinder  and 
a  rubber  tube  two  gallons  of  water  were  carefully  taken  out  every  hour, 
and  during  the  last  part  of  the  voyage  even  every  half-hour.  This  water 
was  supplied  with  new  oxygen  by  pouring  it  continually  from  one  vessel 
into  another,  the  milky  foam  of  the  water  indicating  that  the  process  had 
been  finished.  This  water  was  then  carefully  filled  in  again  by  quarts, 
which  for  two  gallons  required  several  hours.  Every  three  hours  each  can 
was  up  to  one-third  of  its  contents  emptied  by  means  of  a  siphon  and 
filled  with  fresh  water  from  the  tanks.     Dead  fish  had  to  be  removed  as 


334       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

soon  as  possible,  and  the  temperature  had  to  be  kept  quite  even.  On 
the  third  day  of  the  voyage  the  fish  lost  their  sacs,  which  could  be  seen 
by  the  differeuce  of  their  movements.  While  before  this  they  had 
quietly  moved  round  in  a  circle,  they  now  made  rapid  jerking  move- 
ments from  one  side  of  the  can  to  the  other,  as  if  they  were  in  search  of 
food.  Two  days  after  losing  their  sacs,  9th  August,  the  fish  were  thriv- 
ing; but  from  this  time  they  gradually  fell  off,  their  bodies  became 
thinner,  more  thread-like  and  transparent,  whereby  the  large  head 
seemingly  increased  in  size.  On  the  13th  August  the  young  fish  were 
very  much  exhausted,  their  movements  grew  slow,  and  the  gentlemen 
prepared  themselves  for  a  total  loss,  which  took  place  during  the  night 
from  the  13th  to  the  14th  August,  in  the  English  Channel,  a  short  time 
before  the  arrival  of  the  vessel  in  Southampton,  after  the  little  fish  had 
been  kept  alive  two  hundred  and  fifty  hours  in  all.  According  to  Mr. 
Mather's  diary  the  daily  list  of  losses  was  as  follows :  5th  August,  no 
losses;  6th August, 200 lost;  7th,  1,000;  8th, 20;  9th,  100;  10th, 3,000;  11th, 
500;  12th,  1,200;  13th,  5,000;  the  14th,  all  the  remainder,  almost  90,000. 
It  need  not  be  said  how  painful  it  was  for  the  two  American  gentlemen, 
when  they  had  to  throw  overboard  the  object  of  their  incessant  care  dur- 
ing ten  days ;  for  this  deprived  them  of  th$  great  triumph  of  having  been 
the  first  to  transport  live  fish  across  the  ocean,  the  prize  for  which  they  had 
gone  to  so  much  trouble.  But  in  spite  of  their  failure  these  gentlemen  may 
feel  proud  of  the  result  of  their  undertaking,  for  while  young  shad  had 
hitherto  only  been  transported  alive  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  and 
a  half  hours,  they  succeeded  in  keeping  them  alive  two  hundred  and 
fifty  hours.  The  practical  experience  gained  is  likewise  of  great  im- 
portance, and  every  pisciculturist  will  agree  with  us  in  assuming  that 
the  possibility  of  success  can  no  longer  be  considered  doubtful.  Messrs. 
Mather  and  Anderson  shared  this  view,  and  we  rejoice  to  hear  that  so 
experienced  a  pisciculturist  as  Mr.  Schieber,  of  Hameln,  entirely  agrees 
with  them.  Mather  and  Anderson  felt  convinced  that  nothing  but  want 
of  food  was  the  cause  of  the  total  loss;  but  unfortunately  they  had  to 
see  the  fish  die  without  being  able  to  save  them,  as  so  far  but  very  little 
is  known  regarding  the  food  of  young  shad.  Very  small,  almost  micro- 
scopic animals  will  certainly  form  their  food  during  the  first  days,  but 
it  proved  impossible  to  supply  their  place  by  meat ;  and  blood,  which 
has  in  similar  cases  been  successfully  employed,  was  of  no  use.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  grown  shad  lives  on  various  crustaceans,  and  that, 
like  the  salmon,  it  takes  no  food  during  the  period  of  its  migration  in 
fresh .  water,  but  as  regards  the  food  of  the  young  shad,  we  are  so  far 
entirely  in  the  dark.  Messrs.  Mather  and  Anderson  are,  going  to  make 
extensive  experiments  during  next  year,  and  will  doubtless  be  in  every 
possible  way  assisted  by  Professor  Baird  in  his  influential  position  as 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  as  the  introduction  of 
the  shad  into  Europe  is  one  of  the  pet  plans  of  this  eminent  naturalist. 
To  his  energy  and  influence  we  owe  in  the  first  place  this  attempt,  the  ex- 


THE  PROPAGATION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.      335 

pertses  of  which,  as  far  as  the  fish  and  their  attendants  are  concerned, 
were  borne  by  the  United  States  Fishery  Commission,  while  the  directors 
of  the  North-German  Lloyd  afforded  a  free  passage,  in  order  to  give  also 
some  German  support  to  an  undertaking  which  promises  to  prove  of 
incalculable  benefit  to  our  country.* 

Convinced  that  the  interest  in  this  important  matter  will  not  decrease 
in  America,  we  hope  to  be  able  to  meet  the  two  experienced  piscicul- 
turists, Mather  and  Anderson,  again  next  year  on  the  Weser,  and  wish 
them  a  final  success  in  their  endeavor  to  transport  live  young  shad 
across  the  ocean. 


E— SHAD  HATCHING  AND  DISTRIBUTING  OPERATIONS  OF 

1875. 

1. — THE   NEUSE  RIVES,  STATION. 

The  shad  work  of  1875  began  on  the  Neuse  River  of  North  Carolina 
about  the  1st  day  of  April.  A  few  days  were  spent  in  a  reconnaissance 
of  the  river,  in  order  to  find  the  best  point  for  a  hatching-station,  and 
the  fishing  was  delayed  a  number  of  days  by  the  very  high  stage  of 
water.  Between  the  9th  and  the  12th,  the  river  rose  26  inches ;  after 
this  date  it  began  to  fall.  On  the  13th  of  April,  a  camp  was  established 
a  few  miles  below  Kinston.  Seine  hauling  began  on  the  14th.  The  water 
continued  to  fall  until  the  23d,  falling  in  all  5  feet  and  li  inches,  an 
average  of  5.5  inches  a  day ;  but  owing  to  the  continual  rains  in  the  region 
of  the  upper  waters,  the  fall  was  very  irregular,  and  varied  from  f  of  an 
inch  to  as  much  as  13£  inches  in  one  day. 

On  the  23d,  the  gauge  showed  a  rise  at  6  p.  m.  of  J  inch,  and 
the  water  continued  to  rise  from  2£  to  7£  inches  a  day  until  the  27th, 
when  it  had  gone  up  23  inches.  The  morning  of  the  28th  it  had 
fallen  1£  inches,  and  continued  to  fall,  in  all  30£  inches,  until  the  end  of 
the  month.  The  fall  on  the  29th  was  15  inches.  May  1  it  again 
began  to  rise,  and  on  May  5  had  risen  23  inches,  when  it  began  to 
fall,  and  on  the  7th  had  again  fallen  12  inches.  The  camp  was  broken 
up  on  the  10th,  and  no  records  kept  after  the  7th.  The  extent  of  oscil- 
lation in  the  twenty-nine  days  of  observation  was  about  5.7  feet.  The 
variations  of  temperature  were  in  the  air  between  32°  and  80°;  in  the 
water  53°  and  05°. 

The  fisheries  were  watched  continually,  and  the  examination  of  over 
600  shad  failed  to  find  any  ripe  ones,  with  the  exception  of  14  males, 
soon  after  the  camp  was  established.  No  eggs  were  obtained.  Short 
excursions  to  different  fisheries  a  few  miles  farther  down  the  river  were 
attended  with  no  better  success.  The  camp  moved  from  this  point  to 
the  Potomac. 


*  This  effort  on  Professor  Baird's  part  was  mainly  prompted  by  his  desire  to  make 
a  suitable  return  for  the  liberality  of  the  German  government  in  presenting  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  with  250,000  impregnated  eggs  of  the  salmon  of  the  Ehine. 


336        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
2.— THE  PAMTJNKEY  RIVER   STATION. 

In  the  mean  time,  a  reconnaissance  was  made  of  the  James,  York,  and 
Pamunkey  Rivers,  Virginia,  and  a  point  on  the  latter  near  the  historic 
White  House,  was  selected  for  the  hatching-station.  Mr.  Fred  Mather 
was  appointed  to  take  charge  of  this,  and  arrived  on  the  11th  of  May, 
and  continued  until  the  20th,  taking  a  few  shad-spawn,  which  did  not 
seem  to  be  healthy,  and  from  which  no  fish  resulted. 

3. — THE  POTOMAC  RIVER  STATIONS. 

The  work  on  the  Potomac  began  on  the  14th  of  May.  Previous  to 
this  time,  a  general  reconnaissance  of  the  fisheries  had  been  made  on  the 
steamer  Triana,  and  points  determined  upon  for  the  hatching-stations.* 

The  first  station,  placed  in  charge  of  Mr.  Jonathan  Mason,  was  estab- 
lished at  Free  Stone  Point,  Va.,  tbe  property  of  Mr.  J.  W.  Fairfax.  Mr. 
J.  D.  Faunce  had  the  fishery,  and  was  quite  willing  and  obliging  in 
all  our  relations  with  him,  affording  the  fishes  from  each  haul,  and 
furnishing  assistance  when  it  was  needed.  Ripe  fish  were  obtained 
from  the  time  we  arrived  here  until  the  fishing  stopped. 

The  temperature  of  the  river,  owing  to  the  cold  season,  was  quite  low 
and  at  first  the  development  of  the  eggs  was  very  slow.  On  the  15th, 
the  temperature  did  not  rise  above  64°,  and  this  was  the  highest  water 
temperature  until  the  20th,  when  a  gradual  rise  began.  The  young 
fish  also  seemed  to  suffer  a  degree  of  torpidity  in  the  cold  waters.  The 
first  fish  were  turned  loose  on  the  21st,  five  days  after  the  eggs  were 
impregnated.  The  seine  in  use  at  this  station  was  a  large  one,  and 
the  large  expenses  attending  the  fishing  with  the  poor  returns  did  not 
permit  its  continuance  later  than  the  21st. 

There  were  hatched  altogether  at  this  station  and  turned  into  the 
river  1,156,750  shad.  Mr.  Mason's  camp  was  removed  to  Moxley  Point, 
Md.,  at  J.  D.  Skidmore's  fishery  on  the  25th. 

In  the  mean  time,  on  the  18th  of  May,  a  station  was  established  at  the 
end  of  Long  Bridge,  opposite  Washington,  D.  C,  and  put  into  the  hands 
of  Mr.  H.  W.  Welsher.  This  was  continued  until  June  5,  and  1,072,800 
shad  were  turned  into  the  river  at  this  point. 

While  this  station  was  in  progress,  Mr.  Welsher  also  carried  on  opera- 
tions at  Ferry  Landing,  Va.,  near  Mount  Vernon.  This  station  pro- 
duced the  largest  results  of  any  one  established  on  the  river,  as  it  was 
begun  on  May  21  and  closed  on  May  29,  and  in  only  nine  days 
1,473,500  young  shad  were  turned  into  the  waters. 

The  Moxley  Point  (Md.)  station  continued  from  May  26  to  June  7, 
and  1,182,500  shad  were  turned  into  the  water. 

The  entire  number  hatched  and  put  into  the  Potomac  River  was 
4,885,550.t 

The  spawning-season  in  the  river  continues  longer  than  the  large 
seines  find  it  profitable  to  fish.  The  height  of  the  spawning-season 
begins  about  the  22d  of  May  and  lasts  during  the  first  week  of  June. 

*  See  report  on  the  Triana  trip  on  subsequent  page.  t  See  tables  on  subsequent 
page. 


THE    PROPAGATION   AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF   THE    SHAD.      337 

The  earliest  spawners  may  be  taken  during  the  latter  half  of 'April.  At 
this  time,  ripe  males  are  abundant  and  become  rather  scarce  late  in  the 
season.  The  large  seines  "cut  out"  at  the  fisheries  about  the  14th  of 
June,  and  the  fishing  is  continued  by  the  small  seines,  pound-nets,  and 
drift-nets  until  late  in  the  summer. 

4. — THE  DISTRIBUTION   OF   SHAD   FROM  THE   HUDSON   RIVER. 

The  different  camps  were  broken  up  entirely  about  June  7,  and  by  the 
10th  the  men  were  all  off  to  the  Hudson.  From  this  point,  the  first  ship- 
ment was  made  on  the  11th  of  June,  Messrs.  Frank  1ST.  Clark  and  H.  E. 
Quinn  starting  on  the  11th  for  the  White  River  of  Indiana  with  100,000 
shad. 

Shipments  were  made  from  here  to  the  Wliite,  the  Muskingum,  the 

Scioto,  the  Des  Moines,  and  to  the  Colorado  of  Texas ;  in  all  about 

four  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand  shad  were  distributed  from  this 

point.*  r 

5. — THE  CONNECTICUT  RIVER   STATION. 

On  the  1st  of  July,  the  parties  moved  to  Holyoke,  and  shipments  were 
begun  to  the  South  and  West.  The  fishery  below  Holyoke  was  visited, 
and  a  couple  of  seine-hauls  made  for  the  purpose  of  judging  of  its 
advantages  as  a  hatching-station.  A  small  catch  was  obtained,  and  the 
fact  of  the  availability  of  another  hatching-location  pretty  well  estab- 
lished, if  it  ever  should  be  found  necessary  to  use  a  second  one. 

Commissioner  Brackett,  of  Massachusetts,  and  Commissioner  Mud- 
son,  of  Connecticut,  canle  to  Holyoke,  and  with  them  the  general  plan 
of  the  work  was  discussed. 

It  was  decided  that  one-half  of  all  fishes  hatched  should  be  returned 
to  the  Connecticut ;  and  the  proposal  on  the  part  of  the  United  States 
was  made  to  place  one-fourth  of  the  fish  above  the  dam,  in  order  that  a 
colony  might  become  established  there  which  would  be  likely  to  have 
the  desire  for  returning  to  this  portion  of  the  river  when  they  had 
become  mature  fishes.  A  few  shad  of  8  to  12  inches  in  length,  taken  in 
the.  fishway,  were  thought  to  be  from  the  stock  placed  above  the  darn  at 
Bellows  Falls,  Vt.,  during  the  two  previous  years. 

There  were  distributed  in  waters  of  New  England,  other  than  the 
Connecticut,  320,000  shad  ;  distributed  in  waters  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  tributary  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  590,000; 
carried  to  the  Upper  Connecticut,  1,205,000;  hatched  and  put  in  below 
the  dam,  4,500,000;  sent  to  Germany,  400,000— about  7,000,000  in  all. 

Two  hundred  thousand  were  sent  from  the  Delaware,  one-half  to  the 
Stanton  River,  headwaters  of  the  Roanoke,  and  one-half  to  the  Pearl 
River  of  Mississippi  and  Louisiana.  The  total  of  fish  hatched  and 
turned  into  the  waters  of  the  rivers  which  afforded  the  ripe  fish  and  eggs 
and  those  sent  away  to  distant  waters  was  12,500,000. 

*See  Tables. 
22  F 


338        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

6. — EXPERIMENTS  WITH  A  VIEW  TO  TRANSPORTING  SHAD  TO  GERMANY. 

The  failure  of  the  German  expedition  the  previous  year  induced  a 
careful  series  of  experiments  with  reference  to  the  conditions  most  favor- 
able to  sustaining  shad-eggs  or  embryo-fish  for  a  prolonged  period  in 
transportation-vessels.  The  experiments  made  at  Noank,  Conn.,  the 
previous  summer,  proved  that  there  would  be  no  hope  in  attempting  to 
inure  the  shad  to  sea- water  so  as  to  depend  on  fresh  supplies  of  water 
from  the  ocean  after  the  steamer  was  under  way. 

The  first  experiment  begun  this  year  was  at  Washington,  D.  C.  Mr. 
Fred  Mather,  who  was  one  of  the  attendants  on  the  shipment  of  shad 
in  the  first  German  trip,  was  given  charge  of  the  work.  He  devised  a 
can  holding  about  eight  gallons,  and  having  the  form  of  a  cylinder  for 
about  two-thirds  of  its  upper  portion  ;  below  this,  the  remaining  third 
had  the  form  of  a  funnel.  This  was  hung  in  gimbals,  as  it  was  intended 
it  should  be  on  shipboard.  The  water-supply  entered  at  the  bottom 
coming  from  a  reservoir  at  a  higher  level,  and  flowed  upward  through  a 
screen  of  wire-cloth,  which  rested  upon  the  line  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylin- 
der and  top  of  the  funnel.    Upon  this  were  placed  about  20,000  shad-eggs. 

For  a  day  or  two,  they  seemed  to  survive  well,  but  soon  an  increasing 
mortality  was  evident,  and  after  four  days  the  last  one  was  dead.  Mr. 
Mather  left  Washington  on  June  11,  and  went  to  Point  Pleasant,  Pa., 
on  the  Delaware  Eiver,  and  began  an  experiment  with  a  similar  though 
smaller  apparatus,  and  with  little  success. 

An  apparatus  differing  in  being  entirely  of  a  funnel  form  and  having 
only  the  inlet-tube  covered  with  wire-cloth,*  w"as  the  suggestion  of  Mr. 
Mather's  assistant,  Mr.  Charles  Bell,  t  This  worked  admirably,  and 
young  shad  were  produced  seemingly  with  all  the  success  and  facility 
of  the  floating  shad-boxes. 

In  the  meanwhile  an  experiment  was  begun  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Welsher, 
at  the  New  York  shad-hatching  station  on  the  Hudson  River.  His 
attempt  was  to  retard  the  development  of  the  eggs  in  a  case  of  flan- 
nel screens,  upon  which  they  were  placed.  The  screens,  fitted  with  light 
covers  of  the  same  material,  slid  into  the  case  like  drawers,  one  above 
the  other, in  a  series  of  ten  or  twelve.  One  of  the  sides  of  the  case  was 
fitted  on  hinges  as  a  door.  Lumps  of  ice  were  placed  in  the  upper 
screen,  the  drippings  from  which  supplied  the  necessary  moisture  to  the 
eggs.  The  temperature  was  moderated  by  means  of  the  door.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  eggs  was  retarded  by  a  low  temperature,  so  as  to 
hatch  after  six  days  and  even  ten,  and  seemed,  when  put  into  the 
water,  just  before  the  release  of  the  fish,  to  be  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion, and  the  fish  when  hatched  seemed  vigorous. 

Mr.  Monroe  A.  Green  was  associated  with  Mr.  Welsher  just  before  it 
was  decided  to  make  the  attempt  of  a  trip  to  Germany  ;  the  announce- 
ment of  their  readiness  to  attempt  the  work  arriving  in  advance  of  that 
from  Mr.  Mather,  who  was  at  the  time  experimenting  on  the  Delaware. 

*  See  Apparatus  for  batching  shad-ova  while  enroute  to  new  waters,     t  Since  deceased. 


THE    PROPAGATION    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    THE    SHAD.     339 

Mr.  Green  now  arranged  a  can  made  in  similar  form  to  that  which 
Mr.  Bell  had  devised,  but  instead  of  agitating  the  water  and  eggs  by 
an  inflow  of  water  he  applied  a  current  of  air  from  an  air  force-pump, 
the  bubbles  and  force  of  the  air  rising  from  the  bottom  of  the  can  carry- 
ing upward  a  current  of  water  and  the  eggs,  which  slowly  fell  back 
toward  the  bottom,  to  again  be  carried  upward  by  the  in-rushing  air. 

The  purpose  of  the  can  was  to  receive  the  eggs  when  they  had  under- 
gone their  slow  development  in  the  screens  to  the  point  when  they  were 
nearly  ready  to  break  the  shell  and  release  the  young  shad  into  the  water. 

Mr.  Welsher  and  Mr.  Green  were  quite  confident  of  the  efficiency  of 
their  apparatus,  and  expected  to  make  a  success  of  the  trip. 

7. — THE   TRIP   TO   GERMANY. 

On  the  nights  of  the  15th  and  16th  July,  Mr.  Green  took  a  large 
quantity  of  shad-eggs  at  the  station  at  South  Hadley  Falls,  Mass.,  on 
the  Connecticut  River.  Those  chosen  for  the  voyage  were  very  carefully 
selected,  all  light  eggs  floating  to  the  surface  were  allowed  to  float  out  of 
the  pan,  and  the  manipulation  in  the  impregnation  of  the  eggs  was  very 
carefully  managed,  and  the  ripe  fish  critically  examined  before  eggs 
or  milt  were  taken. 

About  400,000  impregnated  eggs  were  placed  in  the  cases ;  large  boxes 
were  obtained  in  which  the  cases  of  eggs  were  packed.  The  method  of 
packing  was  to  lay  a  bottom  thickness  of  four  or  five  inches  of  turners' 
shavings,  upon  which  the  case  rested.  The  same  thickness  was  tamped 
in  around  the  side,  and  over  the  top  was  put  a  heavy  layer  of  the  shav- 
ings and  lumps  of  ice. 

The  boxes  were  put  into  the  baggage-car  on  the  morning  of  the  17th 
and  arrived  at  New  York  on  same  day.  They  were  moved  to  the 
steamer  Donau  in  a  light-spring  wagon,  and  put  on  board  about  1  p.  m» 

The  place  afforded  by  the  officers  of  the  steamer  was  the  middle  hatch- 
way, which  had  been  fitted  up  between  decks  into  a  commodious  room. 
Timber-posts  had  been  put  in  strengthening  the  hatch-cover  overhead, 
and  nine  of  the  cans  arranged  by  Mr.  Green,  each  of  about  ten  gallons' 
capacity,  were  suspended  by  chains.  A  rubber  hose  led  from  each  of 
these  to  an  air-chamber,  into  which  the  air  was  forced  by  an  air  force- 
pump,  and  through  the  hose  distributed  to  each  of  the  cans. 

The  cases  of  eggs  were  placed  on  the  floor  and  the  ice  kept  near  by 
in  a  small  ice- chest. 

The  steamer  left  on  the  17th.  After  getting  under  way,  Mr.  Welsher 
and  Mr.  Green  opened  the  cases  of  eggs,  and,  to  their  dismay,  perceived 
that  they  had  been  injured  during  the  transportation  from  the  Connec- 
ticut River  to  the  steamer. 

No  development  seemed  to  take  place  at  all  in  the  eggs,  and  no  fish 
were  hatched.  The  jolting  of  the  baggage-car  between  Holyoke,  Mass., 
and  New  York  had  evidently  entirely  destroyed  the  vitality  of  the  eggs. 

The  following  tables  exhibit  the  physical  observations,  the  number  of 
fish  taken,  and  the  number  of  fish  put  into  the  river  at  the  different 
stations. 


340       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


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XVIII.— *REPORT  OF  THE  TRIANA  TRIP. 


By  J.  W.  Milner. 


Dear  Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  report,  with  reference  to  the  expedi- 
tion among  the  fisheries  of  the  Potomac  and  Patuxent  Rivers,  that  we 
went  on  board  the  steam-tug  Triana  at  10  a.  m.  Tuesday,  April  27.  Our 
party  consisted  of  Mr.  T.  B.  Ferguson,  commissioner  of  Maryland  ;  Dr. 
W.  B.Robertson  and  Mr.  Alexander  Moseley,  commissioners  of  the  State 
of  Virginia;  Dr.  Pearson  Chapman,  of  Baltimore,  whose  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Potomac  afforded  us  valuable  aid;  and 
Mr.  G.  Brown  Goode,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  The  three  latter 
gentlemen  left  the  steamer  on  the  second  day  out,  at  Quantico,  Va. 

We  visited  two  localities  on  the  Potomac  River  the  first  day;  Gut 
Landing,  Md.,  fished  by  W.  M.  Elliott,  being  the  first.  This  gentle- 
man complained  severely  of  the  decrease  of  fish,  and  attributed  it 
largely  to  the  drift-nets  which  have  thronged  the  river  for  seasons  past. 
He  said  that  the  season  was  unusual  in  the  marked  decrease  of  herring. 
We  remained  at  this  fishery  an  hour  or  more,  conversing  with  the  pro- 
prietor and  examining  the  species  of  fishes  taken  in  the  net.  Very  many 
male  Rock-fish  (Roccus  lineatus),  measuring  from  12  to  IS  inches,  were 
found  to  be  ripe,  but  no  ripe  females  were  obtained. 

We  next  proceeded  to  Chapman's  Point  Fishery,  Md.,  where  a  seine 
haul  was  made  during  a  rain-storm.  Besides  shad  and  the  two  kinds  of 
herring,  constituting  the  bulk  of  the  food-fishes  there,  we  found,  in  the 
net,  Rock-fish,  White  perch  (2[orone  Americana);  Yellow  perch  (Pcrcsi 
flavescens);  Sun-fish  (Pomotis  aureus);  the  Gizzard  shad  (Dorosoma 
cepedianum);  the  Catfish  (Amiurus  albidus);  the  Bull-head  (Amiurus 
atrarius);  the  Mullet  sucker  (Ptychostomus  aureolus);  and  in  addition 
twelve  species,  of  forms  too  small  to  be  marketable,  and  of  which  we 

*  The  work  of  shad-propagation  for  the  Potomac,  inaugurated  iu  1673,  was  only 
moderately  successful  that  year,  as  the  station  at  Jackson  City,  Va.,  was  the  only  one 
employed.  Iu  view  of  the  proposed  increase  in  the  number  of  hatching-stations,  it 
became  necessary  to  obtain  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  fishing-grounds,  and  by 
the  kindness  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  the  steam-tug  Triana  was  placed  at  my  dis- 
posal for  a  trip  down  the  river  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Milner.  The  commissioners 
of  Virginia  and  Maryland  were  invited  to  be  of  the  party,  as  being  directly  interested 
in  the  results;  Dr.  Pearson  Chapman,  of  Baltimore,  because  of  his  knowledge  of  the 
fishery-interests  of  the  river  and  their  history  ;  and  Mr.  G.  Brown  Goode,  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  because  of  his  familiarity  with  the  species  inhabiting  the  river* 
and  brackish  waters  of  the  Atlantic  coast  both  south  and  north. — S.  F.  Baird. 


352       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

obtained  a  supply  of  specimens  and  preserved  them  in  alcohol.  We  were 
hospitably  entertained  for  the  night  at  Mr.  Chapman's  house. 

We  went  again  on  board  in  the  morning  and  proceeded  down  the 
river  to  Stony  Point,  Va.,  before  landing.  The  large  seine,  belonging  to 
the  Gibson  heirs,  is  worked  here.  This  is  over  1,G00  fathoms,  or  9,600 
feet,  in  length,  and  the  linear  extent  of  seine  and  lines  is  nearly  five 
miles.  A  steam-engine  is  employed  at  either  end,  one  of  fourteen  horse- 
power and  one  of  eight.  But  two  hauls  are  made  in  twenty-four  hours, 
one  on  each  ebb  of  tide.  The  haul  wkich  should  have  come  on  shore 
while  we  were  there  was  prevented  by  the  stubborn  churlishness  of  the 
captain  of  a  little  vessel,  who  anchored  within  the  circuit  of  the  seine 
while  it  was  being  laid  down,  and  refused  to  move  his  vessel  out  of  the 
way,  though  Gibson  proposed  to  send  his  men  on  board  to  lift  the  anchor. 
Calculating  the  time  lost  by  eighty  men,  the  lost  trip  of  the  tug  char- 
tered for  the  season,  and  the  sustenance  of  the  men  during  the  lost 
time,  which  is  by  no  means  the  whole  outlay,  the  amount  would  be 
about  $83. 

Mr.  Ferguson  and  I  crossed  over  to  High  Point,  Va.,  one  of  the  larger 
fisheries,  where  we  found  the  ordinary  1,000  fathoms  seine  managed 
with  one  eight  horse-power  engine.  Proceeding  to  the  Occoquan-Bay 
side  of  the  point,  we  examined  the  shores,  hoping  to  find  a  locality,  shel- 
tered from  the  winds  and  sea,  that  might  answer  as  a  shad-hatching 
station,  We  found  a  cove,  landlocked  from  all  points  save  southwest. 
Prom  this  direction  the  wind  had  a  sweep  of  the  entire  width  of  the 
Potomac  for' fifteen  miles,  and  the  bars  near  by,  that  might  cut  off  the 
action  of  the  waves,  were  not  shoal  enough  to  prevent  a  sea  sufficient  to 
affect  our  hatching-boxes. 

We  returned  to  the  steamer  with  additions  to  our  collections,  and 
steamed  for  Quantico,  Va.  Mr.  Goode,  Mr.  Moseley,  and  Dr.  Chapman 
left  us  at  this  point.  We  came  to  anchor  for  the  night  off  Blackistone 
Island. 

On  the  morning  of  the  29th  we  were  early  under  way,  and  entered 
Chesapeake  Bay,  keeping  close  along  the  west  shore.  The  Maryland 
State  steamer  "Lela"  was  seen  near  the  mouth.  At  Mr.  Ferguson's 
request,  the  captain  consented  that  we  should  obtain  a  pilot  for  the 
Patuxent  from  the  oyster  police  boat,  a  short  distance  up  the  river. 

We  found  the  State  oyster- boat  at  Drum  Point,  some  distance  up  the 
Patuxent  Bay,  and  took  on  board  Captain  Forrest,  who  was  to  pilot  us 
to  the  head  of  navigation  at  Bristol,  if  the  draught  of  our  steamer  would 
permit  her  to  ascend  so  far. 

At  the  lower  end  of  the  river,  numerous  oyster-dredging  schooners 
were  seen,  occasionally  of  considerable  size.  They  were  all  busily  en- 
gaged, as  it  was  near  the  end  of  the  season.  The  law  prohibiting  taking 
oysters  after  April  30,  the  entire  fleet  had  to  make  their  cargoes  by  the 
next  night,  when  they  would  all  set  sail  for  market. 

As  we  got  higher  up  the  river,  no  dredgers  were  seen,  the  tongs- men 


MILNER EEPORT    OF    THE    TKIANA    TRIP.  353 

in  small  boats  replacing  theni  on  the  oyster-beds.  An  eastern  schooner 
was  buying  their  cargoes  at  one  point,  and  a  large  fleet  of  the  "  tongs- 
men"  had  gathered  around  her,  some  of  them  alongside,  transferring 
'  their  stock  of  oysters  to  her  hold,  and  others  lying  anchored  near  by 
awaiting  their  turn. 

Our  pilot  carried  us  through  the  narrow  passage  of  the  Benedict 
Shoals  without  stopping.  The  channel  at  this  point  has  13  feet  of 
water,  but  is  very  narrow  and  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  shoal  with 
only  7  feet  soundings.  Opposite"  Northampton  we  ran  aground  in  the 
mud,  but  soon  got  off.  The  lead  was  thrown  continually  during  the 
afternoon.  The  navigation  was  difficult  for  a  steamer  drawing  nearly 
10  feet,  and  we  were  aground  several  times,  and  at  last  gave  up  the 
attempt  to  reach  Bristol,  and  tied  up  to  a  fishing-dock  on  the  west  shore 
known  as  "  Half  Pone." 

Seine-fishing  shores  were  seen  at  numerous  points  along  the  river, 
but  we  learned  that  fishing  was  stopped  as  soon  as  hot  weather  set  in. 
No  communication  by  railroad  is  available  for  the  shores,  and  the  use 
of  ice  for  shipping  by  steamer  has  not  been  introduced. 

The  boat  was  lowered  and  Mr.  Ferguson  and  1  started  for  Bristol. 
The  men  raised  a  sail,  as  the  wind  was  fair,  but  even  with  a  small  boat 
we  soon  ran  aground.  We  reached  Bristol  after  a  half-hour's  sail.  Mr. 
Oren  Chase,  with  an  assistant,  was  there  in  charge  of  the  Maryland  shad- 
hatching  station,  just  organized  by  Mr.  Ferguson.  About  50,000  shad- 
eggs  were  in  the  boxes,  but  the  temperature  was  48°  and  the  eggs  were 
in  bad  condition.  A  seine-haul  was  made  before  we  left,  but  no  ripe 
fish  were  taken.  But  little  success  was  looked  for  until  the  water  be- 
came warmer. 

It  was  very  dark,  and  blowing  hard,  when  we  started  to  return,  and 
we  were  soon  lost  in  the  shoals  and  mud-lumps;  and  the  men  pulled 
back  and  forth  for  two  hours  before  we  reached  the  steamer.  We  were 
early  on  our  way  on  the  30th,  and  passed  the  shoals  quite  successfully 
on  our  return,  though  we  were  aground  once.  We  steamed  into  the  Po- 
tomac and  came  to  anchor  for  the  night  at  Nanjemoy  Stores. 

At  Freestone  Landing,  Va.,  May  1,  a  little  after  8  a.  m.,  Captain 
Cook,  Dr.  Robertson,  Mr.  Ferguson,  Mr.  Gee,  and  I  landed  at  the 
fishery.  On  the  southwest  side  of  the  peninsula  on  which  the  lauding 
is  we  selected  a  site  for  a  station.  A  cove  formed  by  an  arm  of  land 
extending  into  Powell's  Creek  was  sheltered  from  nearlytall  directions  ; 
it  was  sufficiently  near  the  fishery  to  take  advantage  of  all  the  hauls, 
and  the  proprietors  expressed  their  willingness  to  afford  us  spawners,  as 
iu  fact  did  many  of  the  fishery-proprietors  at  other  points. 

Another  locality  which  would  be  quite  favorable  is  the  vicinity  of 
Fort  Washington,  where  the  Piscataway  Creek  flows  into  the  Potomac. 
Gunsen  Cove  and  Doag  Creek,  on  the  Virginia  side,  also  afford  shel- 
tered places  for  stations. 

At  Alexandria  Dr.  Robertson  returned  to  Richmond  bv  rail. 
23  F  J 


354       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  Triana  reached  the  navy-yard  a  little  after  4  p.  m.,  having  been 
away  about  four  days  and  six  hours. 

Throughout  the  Potomac  waters,  although  examining  the  shad  con- 
tinually, no  ripe  ones  were  found.  The  Patuxent-shad  eggs  which  had 
been  obtained  at  Bristol  were  suffering  from  the  low  temperature  of 
the  water,  and  will  fail  to  come  to  maturity ;  so  that  it  is  evident  that 
it  would  be  premature  to  begin  shad-hatching  operations  at  present, 
though  a  week  may  make  a  change  in  the  aspect  of  things. 

We  gathered  a  good  deal  of  valuable  information  with  reference  to  the 
fisheries.  A  list  of  the  fishing-shores,  from  Point  Lookout  northward,  is 
given  herewith,  and  the  seines  in  operation  this  season. 

The  quantity  of  shad  and  alewives  (herring,  as  they  are  called  here, 
Pomolobus  pseudoharengus),  is  said  to  be  far  below  that  of  any  preceding 
year.  The  larger  seine-proprietors  insist  that  they  are  losing  money 
daily,  which  is  probably  the  case  as  their  outlay  is  very  large. 

The  early  abundance  of  fishes  in  the  river  is  fresh  in  the  memory  of 
the  older  residents  on  the  Potomac,  and  is  but  the  repetition  of  the 
history  of  the  early  times  on  many  of  the  Atlantic  rivers. 

Mr.  Chapman  recollects  the  time  when  the  seine-hauls  on  the  shore 
piled  the  herring  up  from  the  water's  edge  12  or  15  feet  landward. 
The  men  walked  or  waded  knee-deep  among  them,  thrusting  in  their 
arms  to  find  and  select  out  the  shad,  and  allowed  the  herring  to  float 
off. at  high  tide.  In  Mr.  Chapman's  words,  "This  reckless,  destructive 
policy  has  brought  its  results,  and  this  year  the  fishery-owners  have  to 
bewail  the  scarcity  of  herring,"  which  they  would  be  very  glad  to  have 
in  abundance. 

In  the  *Gazetteer  of  Virginia,  published  in  1835,  is  the  statement, 
referring  to  "  the  immense  fisheries  of  the  Potomac,"  that  "  the  num- 
ber of  shad  frequently  obtained  at  a  haul  is  4,000  and  upward,  and  of 
herrings  from  100,000  to  300,000.  In  the  spring  of  1832  there  were 
taken  in  one  seine,  at  one  draught,  a  few  more  than  950,000,  accurately 
counted."  *  *  *  *  "  The  lowest  prices  at  which  these  fish  sell  when 
just  taken  are  25  cents  per  thousand  for  herrings,  and  $1.50  per  hundred 
for  shad,  but  they  generally  bring  higher  prices,  often  $1.50  per 
thousand  for  the  former,  and  from  $3  to  $4  per  hundred  for  the  latter. 
In  the  height  of  the  season,  a  single  shad,  weighing  from  6  to  8  pounds, 
is  sold  in  the  markets  of  the  District  for  6  cents.  Herrings,  however, 
are  sometimes -taken  so  plentifully  that  they  are  given  away  or  hauled 
on  the  land  as  manure  for  want  of  purchasers.  Some  idea  may  be 
formed  of  the  importance  of  these  fisheries  from  the  following  statement: 

Number  of  fisheries  on  the  Potomac,  about 150 

Number  of  laborers  required  at  the  landing 6, 500 

Number  of  vessels  employed 450 

*  A  New  and  Comprehensive  Gazetteer  of  Virginia  and  the  District  of  Columbia, 
containing,  &c.     *     *     *      By  Joseph  Martin.     To  which  is  added,  &c.     *     *     * 
Charlottesville.     Published  by  Joseph  Martin.    Moseley  &  Tompkins,  Printers,  1835. 
p.  480 


MILNER REPORT    OF    THE    TRIANA    TRIP.  355 

Number  of  men  to  navigate  these  vessels .    1, 350 

Number  of  shad  taken  in  good  season,  which  lasts  only 

about  six  weeks 22,500,000 

Number  of  herrings  under  similar  circumstances 750, 000, 000 

Quantity  of  salt  required  to  cure  the  fish,  bushels 995, 000 

Number  of  barrels  to  contain  the  fish 995, 000 

"  The  Potomac  Kiver  can  boast  of  the  largest  shad-fisheries  in  the 
United  States.  The  advantages  of  the  herring-fisheries  she  divides 
with  some  other  rivers  of  the  South,  but  it  is  equaled  by  none  unless  it 
be  the  Susquehanna." 

The  abundance  of  the  rock-fish  and  its  large  size  are  also  referred  to. 
The  record  of  a  seine-haul  is  given  at  Sycamore  Landing  about  1827, 
where  450  were  taken,  averaging  60  pounds  each. 

The  same  writer  refers  also  to  the  sturgeon  abounding  in  the  Potomac 
as  far  up  as  the  foot  of  the  first  falls.  A  peculiar  form  of  tackle  thought 
to  be  used  only  on  this  river  for  taking  sturgeon  is  described. 

In  Fleet's  Journal,  first  printed  in  1871,  the  following  entry  was  made, 
under  date  of  June  25,  1632  :  "  We  came  to  an  anchor  two  leagues  short 
of  the  falls,  [falls  of  the  Potomac]  This  place  without  all  question  is 
the  most  pleasant  and  healthful  place  in  all  this  country,  and  most  con- 
venient for  habitation ;  the  air  temperate  in  summer,  and  not  violent  in 
winter.  It  abounds  with  all  manner  of  fish.  The  Indian  in  one  night 
commonly  will  catch  thirty  sturgeons  in  a  place  where  the  river  is  not 
twelve  fathoms  broad." 

The  statistics  for  the  years  1874  and  1875  will  afford  an  interesting 
comparison  with  the  foregoing.  The  seine-fisheries  of  the  Potomac, 
from  Matthias  Point  northward,  numbered  about  thirty-three  seines  dur- 
ing the  shad-season  of  1874.  Since  the  time  the  Gazetteer  was  compiled, 
however,  the  drift-nets  have  come  into  the  river  and  capture  a  great 
many  shad  which  would  otherwise  find  their  way  to  the  seines.  A  few 
pound-nets  also  have  been  established,  and  come  in  for  a  small  share  of 
the  fish.  Still,  withal,  the  fishing  enterprise  must  be  considered  as  much 
diminished  since  the  record  given  in  the  Gazetteer. 

The  nets  in  operation  during  shad-fishing  of  1874  were  at  the  follow- 
ing shores : 

Virginia :  Caywood's,  Windmill  Point,  Tumps,  Gum,  Arkendale,  Clif- 
ton, Freestone  Point,  Stony  Point,  High  Point,  White  House,  Ferry 
Landing,  Jackson  City. 

Maryland :  Maryland  Point,  Budd's  Ferry,  Stump  Neck,  Chapman's 
Point,  Pamunkey,  Gut  Landing,  Greenway,  Bryant's  Point,  Moxley 
Point,  Kent,  Stick  Landing. 

The  total  for  the  Alexandria,  Washington,  and  Georgetown  markets 
for  Potomac  fish,  as  taken  from  the  report  of  Mr.  C.  Ludington,  inspect- 
or of  marine  products  for  the  Washington  board  of  hearth,  is  1,051,587 
shad;  15,006,940  herring ;  340,387  hickory -jacks  (Pomolobus  mediocris) ; 
616,791  bunches  fish  ;  and  1,650  sturgeon. 


356       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

In  1875  there  were  seine-fisheries  at — 

Virginia  :  White  Point ;  Cay  wood's  or  Foulk's  Shore,  fished  by  Joseph 
Cay  wood ;  Windmill  Point,  fished  by  Conrad  Faunce ;  Tump's,  by  a  man 
from  Baltimore;  Gum  Bar,  fished  by  Jerry  Bobbs;  Arkendale,  fished  by 
Joseph  Besley ;  Clifton,  fished  by  Withers  Waller  &  Montacure ;  Free- 
stone Point,  fished  by  Jacob  Faunce ;  Deep  Hole,  fished  by  McCuing 
&  Ticer  ;  Sandy  Point,  fished  by  D.  G.  Henderson  ;  High  Point,  fished 
by  John  Gibson  heirs;  Stony  Point,  fished  by  same;  Ccate's  Point, 
fished  by  Tucker  &  Hall ;  Cornfield  or  Barn  Landing,  fished  by  J. 
Haiser;  Gunzton  Hall  or  Tick  Landing,  fished  by  Jackson  Haiser; 
Ferry  Landing,  (formerly  owned  by  General  Washington,)  William 
Knight ;  Dangerfield  Island,  (a  small  seine ;)  Jackson  City,  fished  by 
John  Gibson  heirs.     Total,  18. 

Maryland  :  Maryland  Point,  fished  by  Price  Green ;  Budd's  Ferry, 
by  Cunningham  ;  Stumpneck,  by  same  ;  Rum  Point,  small  seine;  Chap- 
man's Point,  John  H.  Chapman,  esq.;  Pamunkey  Point,  S.  H.  Barrow; 
Government  Landing,  William  H.  Elliott;  Green  Ways,  Moore,  Smith 
&  Co.;  Bryan's  Point,  Conrad  Faunce ;  Moxley's  Point,  J.  H.  Skidmore ; 
Meadow  Bars,  a  small  seine;  Tent  Landing,  James  Guy;  Sandy  Bar, 
Jerry  Bobbs.     Total,  13. 

District  of  Columbia:  Berry's  Landing,  McKewen;  Stick  Landing, 
Miller;  Giesboro,  Luckett.     Total,  3. 

Of  pound-nets  there  were : 

Nanjemoy  Beach,  2  pound-nets,  Bainer;  season,  two  months  in  spring, 
three  months  in  fall :  4  pound-nets,  Lomax;  season,  two  months  in  spring, 
three  months  in  fall. 

Curriomen,  Va.,  2  pound-nets,  Beed ;  season,  two  months  in  spring, 
three  months  iu  fall. 

Freestone  Point,  Va.,  2  pound-nets,  Stewart;  season,  two  months; 
taken  up  before  season  was  over. 

Georgetown  Channel,  1  pound-net,  Frost;  season,  two  monthsin  spring. 

Georgetown  Channel,  1  pound-net,  Jenkins ;  season,  two  months  in 
spring. 

Total,  12. 

It  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  number  of  drift-nets  *  and  boats  accurately. 
Many  of  them  fish  regularly  and  continually,  and  many  others  are  very 
irregular  and  transient  in  their  work,  fishing  when  a  little  ready  money 
is  needed,  when  a  few  fish  are  wanted  for  the  table,  or  from  caprice. 

On  the  27th,  between  Washington  and  Pohick  Bay,  Mr.  Goode 
counted  33  boats  fishing.  As  it  was  during  a  continual  cold  rain  it  did 
not  represent  at  all  what  would  ordinarily  have  been  engaged. 

The  total  of  the  shad-season  fishing  on  the  Potomac  for  1875  is  33 
seines,  12  pound-nets,  and  a  large  number  of  drift  or  gill  nets  not 
counted. 

*  Mr.  O.  N.  Bryan,  of  Charles  County,  Maryland,  estimates  the  number  of  gill-net 
boats  for  the  whole  State  of  Maryland  at  2,000.— (Marlboro  Gazette,  Port  Tobacco,  Md., 
November,  1875.) 


MILNER REPORT    OF    THE    TRIANA    TRIP.  357 

The  following  comparative  table  of  inspections  for  the  Washington 
markets  during  the  years  1873, 1874,  and  1875,  is  taken  from  Mr.  C.  Lud- 
ington's  comparative  statement  of  the  inspection  of  marine  products  for 
these  years : 

Comparative  table  of  inspections  of  food-fishes*  in  the  Washington  market  for  the  years  1373,, 

1874,  and  1875. 


Inspections. 

Condemnations. 

Years. 

T3 
aj 

CO 

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B 

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n 

o 

'oj 

H 

O 

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C5J3 

.-  to 

■s* 

a 

p 

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a 
o 
<o 

H 

S 

CO 

DD 

a 

cj  o 

o 
H 

3 

CO 

fci 

a 

■a 

to 

<D 

w 

CO 

o 

'3 

H 

GH 

o 

03 

CO     ■ 

O 
P 

c 
o 
© 

E 

s 

CO 

1873 

852, 900 
628,  037 
464, 215 

3,  789,  800 
6,  567,  240 
1,  674,  465 

326, 200 
89,  841 
56,  430 

553, 761 
567, 291 
557,  203 

496 

919 

1,204 

8,  548,  851 

10,  827,  967 

7,  002,  049 

270 

149 

60 

52,  .600 

140 

2,125 

158 

5,153 

6,087 
8,315 

1874 

16 

1875 

18 

It  is  probable  that  the  Potomac  has  the  largest  seines  in  use  in  the 
United  States;  the  only  ones  at  all  approaching  them  in  size  are  the  large 
menhaden  seines  t  of  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  Atlantic  coasts  of 
Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey.  The  ordinary  1,000-fathom  seines  in 
use  at  the  present  time  are  very  much  the  same  in  dimensions  as  those 
of  former  years ;  so  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  quite  a  correct  compara- 
tive estimate  of  the  fisheries  of  former  times  and  the  present. 

A  large  number  of  the  seines  referred  to  above  are  of  1,000  fathoms 
length.  The  one  at  Stony  Point,  owned  by  the  Gibson  heirs,  is  1,600 
fathoms  long,J  and  lines  and  seine  together  measure  four  and  two- 

*  In  explanation  of  the  names  and  terms  used  in  the  table,  the  shad  is  the  ordinary 
Alosa  sapidissima ;  the  herring,  the  Alewife  of  the  north  (Pomolobus  pseudoharengus) ; 
the  Tailor,  sometimes  called  Hickory-shad  (Pomolobus  mediocris);  the  Sturgeon,  the 
ordinary  Acipenser  brevirostris ;  the  bunches  offish  include  white  perch  (Morone  Ameri- 
cana); yellow  perch  (Perca  flavescens)  ;  the  bull-heads  (Amiurus  atrarius) ;  the  catfish 
(Amiurus  albidus) ;  the  pickerel  (Esox  reticulatus) ;  and  several  species  of  Cenirarchidas, 
Catoslomidai,  &c. 

t  The  menhaden  seines  in  present  use  are  generally  "  purse-seines." 

t Description  of  Stony  Point  Seine. — Wings:  140  meshes  deep,  3-inch  meshes.  Back, 
100  fathoms  long,  225  meshes  deep,  2£-inch  meshes.  Entire  length  of  seine,  1,600 
fathoms.  Lines:  Land-end,  7  coils  rope  (150  fathoms  to  a  coil.)  Boat-end,  11  coils 
rope.  An  auxiliary  line  extends  to  the  under  side  of  the  bag  known  as  the  "quarter- 
line."  As  the  bag  approaches  shore  it  is  from  time  to  time  drawn  upon  to  relieve  the 
strain  upon  the  wings.  No  leads  are  used,  the  heavy  bottom  line  (3-inch  rope)  keep- 
ing the  net  down  sufficiently,  and  even  this  is  sometimes  supplied  with  block-runners 
to  keep  it  from  sinking  into  the  mud.  Cork  line,  2-inch  rope,  4  corks  to  a  fathom  on  the 
wings ;  6  corks  to  a  fathom  on  the  back.  Boat,  65  feet  long ;  11  feet  beam ;  round-bot- 
tomed ;  30  oars. 

Engine  at  land  end,  8  horse-power ;  engine  at  boat  end,  14  horse-power.  The  boat- 
line  is  shifted  from  time  to  time  to  sheaves  set  in  the  beach  as  the  brails  are  drawn 
together,  or  the  current  drifts  the  seine  down  stream. 

Men :  Two  seine  captains,  5  assistants,  2  engineers,  4  net-menders,  (white) ;  60  seine- 
haulers,  3  cooks,  (negroes.) 

One  lighter  scow,  30  tons  burden.  A  tug,  chartered  for  the  season,  tows  two  lighters 
and  a  schooner.  A  third  lighter  is  necessary,  as  an  empty  one  is  left  wheruthe  loaded 
one  is  taken  away.    The  yearly  expenditure  is  from  $12,000  to  $15,000  on  this  fishery. 


358       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

thirds  miles.  In  each  haul  of  the  seine  over  1,200  acres  of  bottom  are 
swept  by  the  bottom  line  and  the  larger  portion  of  the  fishes  in  this  area 
dragged  on  shore.  Two  hauls  are  made  each  day  of  twenty-four  hours; 
one  on  each  ebb-tide. 

In  1873,  while  on  a  visit  to  some  of  the  larger  fisheries,  I  saw  2,316 
shad  and  about  25,000  herring  taken  at  one  haul.  I  was  told  at  the  time 
that  4,000  shad  were  taken  two  years  before. 

Nearly  all  of  the  seine  fishermen  stated  that  this  season  they  were 
losing  more  and  more  money  the  longer  they  fished.  Instead  of  counting 
the  shad  by  thousands,  200  was  quite  above  the  average  haul  for  the 
large  seines.  It  was  apprehended  that  some  of  the  proprietors  would 
become  bankrupt. 

The  decrease  of  fishing  by  seines  is  made  evident  by  the  desertion 
of  many  of  the  once  most  famous  shores  of  the  river.  Opossum  Nose, 
Cockwit  Point,  Marshall  Hall,  White  House,  Urban's,  Scone's  Gut, 
Smith's  Point,  Indian  Head,  Craney  Island,  and  others,  have  been  aban- 
doned within  fifteen  years. 

The  abandonment  of  fishery-shores  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  failures 
to  make  profitable  captures  for  a  period  of  years.  These  have  arisen 
from  a  reduction  of  the  numbers  of  the  fishes,  primarily;  and,  also,  from 
variation  in  the  run- ways  of  the  fishes  because  of  changes  in  the  bed  of 
the  river  (as  at  Craney  Island)  and  of  the  obstacles  to  their  ascent, 
principally  the  drift-nets  and  the  pound-net  leaders.  The  large  rental 
which  certain  owners  have  demanded  has  also  left  certain  shores  idle. 

The  cause  of  the  dearth  of  fish  must  be  largely  owing  to  over-fishing ; 
the  immense  exhausting  sweeps  of  the  great  seines  j  the  continual  drift- 
ing of  the  gill-nets,  almost  invisible  to  the  fishes  in  the  roily  water,  yet 
reachiug  across  the  channels  often  three-quarters  of  a  mile  and  from  the 
surface  to  the  bed  of  the  river;  and  of  late  years  the  pound-nets,  fencing 
off  long  stretches  of  the  run- ways  of  the  fishes,  until  it  is  scarcely  an 
exaggeration  to  say  that  not  a  gallon  of  the  water  of  the  river  flows  into 
Chesapeake  Bay  without  being  strained  through  the  meshes  of  some  net. 
The  skim-nets  used  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Falls  are  of  small  con- 
sequence in  the  reduction,  as  the  total  of  their  catch  is  inconsiderable. 
It  is  the  custom,  without  exception,  in  all  fishing-localities  to  hear 
the  different  net  interests  attribute  the  decrease  of  fishes  to  the  abuses 
of  nets  different  from  their  own.  The  Potomac  is  not  unlike  other 
regions  in  this  particular. 

The  drift-netters  accuse  the  large  seines,  and  the  seine-owners  inveigh 
against  the  drift-nets  and  pound-nets,  and  ask  for  laws  and  regulations 
to  coutrol  and  prohibit  them. 

A  special  point  of  complaint,  is  the  incursion  of  "  foreign  fishermen" 
upon  the  fishing-grounds.  During  the  last  two  seasons  a  considerable 
number  of  drift-netters  have  come  upon  the  Potomac  during  the  shad 
season,  from  Pennsylvania  and  farther  north.  The  presence  of  these 
men  seems  to  the  resident  fishermen  and  proprietors  to  be  an  intrusion 
and  an  outrage,  and  their  strongest  desire  is  for  a  law  removing  them. 


MJLNEE BEPOET    OF    THE    TRIANA    TRIP.  359 

On  the  sea-coast  and  the  great  lakes,  fishermen  migrate  from  point 
to  point  during  ti;e  season  wherever  fish  are  to  be  found,  regardless  of 
teoiindary-lines  within  the  United  States,  and  no  interference  with  them 
is  thought  of  except  with  regard  to  shores  held  in  deed  or  lease.  On 
the  Atlantic- const  rivers  the  disposition  has  been  to  reserve  the  waters 
more  exclusively  for  the  people  of  the  State. 

A  strong  feeling  has  at  once  arisen  against  the  pound-nets.  It  is 
very  curious  to  observe  the  entire  coincidence  there  is  in  the  history  of 
the  introduction  of  nets,  and  the  rivalry  of  interest  in  different  locali- 
ties. From  Lake  Champlain,  the  several  great  lakes,  and  the  larger  rivers 
we  have  pretty  complete  reports  of  the  history  of  their  fisheries. 

In  all  of  these  localities,  in  their  first  settlement,  there  is  evidence  of  a 
seemingly  inexhaustible  abundance  of  the  fishes;  the  nets  necessary 
for  the  capture  of  large  quantities  being  small  and  easily  contrived. 
As  the  country  became  populated  an  increased  demand  for  the  fish, 
grew  up,  and  professional  fishermen  introduced  large  nets,  and  great 
quantities  were  taken  and  sold  at  low  prices,  and  frequently  used  for 
manure.  After  a  few  years  the  supply  became  diminished,  and  resort 
was  then  had  to  legislation.  The  laws  enacted  were  usually  good  ones, 
but  were  rarely  enforced. 

The  history  of  Jefferson  County,  Lake  Ontario,  by  F.  B.  Hough,  M.  D., 
affords  an  example  of  the  rivalry  of  nets. 

At  Chaumont  Bay  the  first  net-fishing  began  in  1808.  Scoop-nets  or 
scaff-nets  were  first  used.  These  were  flat  nets  12  feet  square,  stretched 
by  two  long  bows,  the  ends  of  which  were  attached  to  the  corners  of  the 
net,  and,  arched  up  high  above  it,  crossed  each  other  at  the  middle.  At 
the  point  of  intersection  of  the  bows,  the  end  of  a  pole  was  fastened  and 
reached  up  to  a  long  pole  or  sweep,  which  was  balanced  over  a  crotched 
stick  either  set  into  the  bank,  or  a  slight  pier  built  out  into  the  water.  Later 
the  same  contrivance  was  used  from  the  deck  of  a  scow.  The  mode  of 
fishing  was  to  force  the  net  down  into  the  water  until  it  lay  upon  the 
bottom,  and  when  the  fish  swam  over  it  to  suddenly  raise  it,  the  bal- 
ancing-pole relieving  the  fisherman  from  the  weight  of  the  net  and  fish. 
Mr.  LTough,  from  records  which  he  had  seen,  stated  that  as  many  as  300 
fish  were  taken  in  a  single  night. 

Seines  were  soon  after  introduced,  from  the  Hudson  Biver,  and  the 
fish  being  plentiful  no  opposition  was  made.  They  were  from  twenty 
to  one  hundred  rods  long.  The  products  of  a  haul  were  said  to  be  as 
high  as  75  barrels  of  white-fish,  and  the  average  6  or  7  barrels.  With 
the  multiplication  of  seines  there  was  a  sufficient  reduction  of  the  fish, 
to  arouse  the  animosity  of  the  people  against  the  gill-nets  when  they 
were  introduced  several  years  later.  In  time,  however,  they  came 
to  be  an  accepted  thing,  and  when,  about  fourteen  or  fifteen  years  ago, 
pound-nets  were  introduced,  the  whole  feeling  of  the  people  was  brought 
to  bear  against  them. 


360        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Throughout  the  great  lakes,  where  the  gill-net  interest  and  pound-net 
interest  are  nearly  divided,  each  inveighs  against  the  other,  and  shows 
the  advantages  pertaining  to  its  own  system  in  relation  to  preserving 
the  stock  of  fish  in  the  waters,  and  in  most  instances  (there  have  been 
favorable  exceptions,  however)  a  move  for  legislation  for  fishery  laws, 
emanating  from  fishermen,  will  be  found  to  bear  unjustly  on  a  certain 
class  of  nets,  while  the  rival  interest  is  not  interfered  with. 

These  facts  are  given  to  show  that  the  complaints  coming  from  the 
net  interests  are  calculated  to  misguide,  and  that  efficient,  just,  and  en- 
lightened legislation  should  base  its  conclusions  on  a  more  impartial, 
disinterested  investigation  of  the  matter. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  great  occasion  for  decrease  in  the  Poto- 
mac is  over-fishing,  and  in  this  all  kinds  of  nets  are  more  or  less  involved. 
Added  to  this,  impurities  carried  into  the  river  from  drainage  have 
some  minor  influence,*  the  disturbance  of  the  fish,  especially  the  shad 
from  its  well-known  timidity,  by  the  plashing  of  steamer-wheels;  and 
the  continual  obstructions  it  encounters  from  the  nets. 

In  those  causes  are  the  true  reasons  for  decrease.  The  remedies  are 
what  shall  influence  these  by  way  of  restriction  or  prohibition.  The 
latter  has  not  usually  worked  to  good  advantage,  as  it  has  occasioned 
too  strong  an  opposition  and  is  rather  un-American  in  spirit. 

The  true  policy  in  a  law  would  be  to  strike  at  abuses  in  all  nets,  and 
nothing  can  be  more  to  the  purpose  in  the  protection  of  anadromous 
fishes,  such  as  the  salmon,  shad,  and  alewife,  than  a  "  close-season  "  law 
prohibiting  all  fishing  during  a  portion  of  each  week — from  Friday 
night  to  Monday  morning,  or  such  other  time  as  may  be  considered 
necessary.  Eegulations  of  the  length  of  nets  and  the  size  of  mesh  are 
also  valuable  measures. 

The  great  reason  for  failure  in  the  effect  of  fishery-laws  has  not  been 
their  character,  but  the  fact  that  they  were  not  enforced.  This  has 
been  the  almost  universal  history  of  the  laws  except  in  Canada,  Scan- 
dinavia, and  portions  of  Russia.  It  has  been  notably  so  throughout 
the  United  States. 

A  suggestion  which  has  impressed  me  strongly  with  relation  to  the 
fisheries  of  the  Potomac  I  hesitate  to  propose,  as  it  is  so  opposed  to 
the  judgment  of  all  who  have  taken  fishery -laws  under  consideration, 
and  among  these  I  recognize  many  whose  opinions  I  have  reason  to 
treat  with  great  respect,  as  they  have  studied  this  question  with  earnest- 
ness and  fairness,  and  have  arrived  at  their  conclusions  from  a  consid- 
erable range  of  observation  and  thought. 

The  proposition  I  desire  to  make  must  be  premised  by  the  condition 
that  suitable  laws  be  enacted  and  efficient  means  be  provided  for  theii 

*It  is  quite  possible  that  the  abundance  of  the  shad  in  the  Georgetown  channel  has 
been  lessened  because  of  the  drainage  from  the  gas-works  at  G  street,  although  the 
amount  of  drainage  into  so  large  a  stream  as  the  Potomac  is  soon  dissipated,  and  doos 
not  influence  very  far  down  the  stream. 


MILNER REPORT    OF    THE    TRIANA    TRIP.  361 

enforcement.  How  this  may  be  done  I  will  discuss  further  on.  A  care- 
ful consideration  of  the  subject  of  the  Potomac  fisheries  as  we  may 
anticipate  it  through  years  to  come  induces  me  to  recommend  that 
pound-nets  be  encouraged  in  preference  to  all  others.  There  are  a  few 
important  reasons  why,  under  proper  control,  they  will  work  more 
advantageously  for  the  welfare  of  the  fisheries  than  seines  or  gill-nets. 

A  purpose  that  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  ardor  for  the  con- 
servation of  the  stocks  of  fishes  in  the  waters  is  the  productiveness  of 
the  fisheries.  They  are  one  of  the  resources  of  income  in  the  industries 
and  productions  of  a  State  favored  with  a  water  area  or  coast,  and  should 
be  made  to  produce  to  whatever  extent  they  can  without  endangering 
future  supplies. 

In  manufacturing  industries  and  agriculture  a  great  deal  of  attention 
is  paid  to  the  reduction  of  cost  of  production  and  improvement  in  ma- 
chinery, and  the  same  thing  should  be  applied  to  the  fisheries. 

The  pound-net,  where  it  has  been  employed  on  the  lakes  in  white-fish 
and  lake-herring  fisheries  ;  on  the  coast  in  the  scup;  blue-fish,  sea-bass, 
squeteague,  and  tautog  fisheries ;  on  the  Atlantic  rivers  and  bays  in 
the  salmon  and  theshad  fisheries,  more  especially  of  the  Connecticut  River 
and  Bay,  has  been  found  to  cost  very  much  less,  in  its  current  expenses, 
than  the  seine.  The  items  in  which  it  saves  expenditure  are  its  great 
reduction  of  the  labor-force,  its  saving  of  the  time  lost  between  hauls 
by  the  seine,  and  the  great  saving  of  wear  and  tear  that  a  stationary  net 
has  when  compared  with  hauling  seines. 

The  Stony  Point  seine  investment  *  would  establish  at  least  30  first- 
class  pound-nets  fully  equipped  for  work,  and  instead  of  two  steam- 
engines  and  crew  of  75  men,  30  men  would  be  an  ample  force  to 
attend  them  and  work  fewer  hours  than  the  seine-crews  have  to.  The 
twine  of  these  large  seines. would  not  have  to  be  thrown  away,  but 
would  nearly  all  come  into  use  in  making  up  the  pounds. 

That  many  pound-nets  properly  placed  and  efficiently  attended  should 
certainly  yield  much  more  than  the  seine.t 

The  pound-net  has  also  the  advantage  that  the  fish  remain  alive  until 
it  is  desirable  to  take  them  out  and  move  them  to  the  market,  and  come 
upon  the  stalls  in  the  freshest,  best  condition.  In  either  seine  or  gill-net 
this  is  not  the  case. 

Some  advantage  might  also  be  claimed  that  the  eggs  of  a  spawning- 
fish  would  be  preserved,  and  with  the  light  specific  gravity  of  theshad- 

*  I  have  estimated  the  investment  for  the  steam-engines,  the  lines  and  twine  of  this 
seine  at  $25,000,  which  is  well  within  the  original  cost ;  estimating  a  good  ordinary 
pound-net  at  $800,  30  of  them  could  he  erected  for  this  amount. 

t  The  fishermen  of  the  Potomac  at  present  have  but  little  confidence  in  the  pound-net 
as  a  means  of  capture  for  the  shad.  In  the  bay  and  lower  end  of  the  Connecticut 
River  they  are  constructed  so  as  to  capture  shad  very  successfully ;  in  fact,  quite  too 
much  so  in  the  estimation  of  the  people  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  river.  There  is  no 
reason  to  believe  the  Potomac  shad  should  differ  from  the  Connecticut  ones  in  the  par- 
ticular of  entering  a  pound-net. 


362        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

eggs,  would  float  out  of  the  net  and  have  some  chance  for  development 
and  the  production  of  young  fish. 

Another  important  advantage  would  be  that  as  a  stationary  net  the 
only  portion  of  the  bottom  on  which  eggs  might  be  deposited  that  would 
be  disturbed,  would  be  the  30  feet  square  of  the  bottom  of  the  movable 
pot,  and  even  this  would  be  slight.  A  contrast  very  favorable  to  the 
pound-net  is  with  the  1,200  or  more  acres  swept  by  the  seine  referred 
to,  twice  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  continual  trailing  of  the  drift- 
nets  over  miles  of  the  bottom  of  the  river. 

The  objections  that  have  been  advanced  against  the  pound-nets  on  the 
lakes  and  sea-coast  are  the  following :  First,  that  by  extending  the 
leaders  for  long  distances,  often  for  miles,  they  fence  off  the  run-ways  of 
the  fishes  and  guide  entire  shoals  of  fishes  into  the  pot  or  trap  portion ; 
second,  that  by  employing  small  meshes  in  the  pot  or  trap,  young  and 
immature  fishes  are  captured  in  large  numbers,  and  the  stock  of  fishes 
in  the  lakes  thereby  reduced  uselessly  and  in  an  anticipatory  manner,  as 
the  future  stocks  of  fishes  which  depend  on  the  progeny  of  these  are  of 
course  prevented.  These  are  the  objections  to  pound-nets,  and  they  are 
final  and  sufficient  to  condemn  them  for  all  waters  if  these  features  are 
necessarily  attendant  with  their  use. 

The  abuses,  it  will  be  seen,  are  the  extension  of  the  leader  to  unrea- 
sonable lengths,  and  the  use  of  a  mesh  so  small  that  immature  fishes  are 
destroyed  in  large  numbers. 

The  Potomac  has  the  advantage  of  the  old  pound-net  regions'  in  that 
the  interest  is  as  yet  very  small,  and  a  good  code  of  laws  for  their  regu- 
lation can  be  enacted  by  the  States  interested  without  the  opposition  of 
a  wealthy  and  determined  body  of  net-proprietors,  as  has  been  the  case 
on  the  sea-coast,  Connecticut  River,  and  the  lakes.  For  the  enforcement 
of  laws  after  they  have  been  established,  no  better  system  could  be  em- 
ployed than  that  which  controls  the  oyster-fisheries  of  Maryland.  The 
extension  of  the  duties  of  a  fishing-police  force,  with  properly-equipped 
vessels,  to  the  oyster-dredgings,  fisheries,  and  the  nets,  would  place  the 
whole  matter  under  efficient  control,  and  whatever  regulations  as  to 
close-season,  size  of  mesh,  length  of  nets,  and  even  number  and  charac- 
ter of  fisheries,  if  there  should  be  legislation  in  this  particular,  could  be 
efficiently  controlled. 

I  have  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  my  companions  during 
the  trip  for  many  suggestions  and  ideas  developed  in  our  conferences 
on  board  of  the  Triana. 

Admiral  Goldsborough,  of  the  navy-yard,  placed  all  facilities  pos- 
sible for  the  success  of  our  trip,  in  equipping  the  steamer,  and  Captain 
Cook,  commanding  the  Triana,  rendered  us  every  advantage  possible  to 
facilitate  our  inquiries. 

I  am,  yours,  respectfully, 

JAMES  W.  MILNEE, 
Prof.  S.  F.  Baird, 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries. 


XIX -OK  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  SHAD  FOR  LONG  DISTANCES. 


-EXPERIMENTS  WITH  A  VIEW  TO  TRANSPORTING  SHAD 

IN  SEA- WATER.* 


By  James  W.  Milner. 


In  order  to  discover  the  best  methods  for  transporting  shad  by  sea- 
going steamers,  a  series  of  experiments  was  made  at  Noank,  Conn.,  at 
the  close  of  the  spawning  season. 

Twelve  glazed  earthen-jars,  with  a  capacity  of  little  more  than  four 
gallons  each,  were  provided  to  contain  a  certain  number  of  shad,  and  a 
formula  for  the  treatment  of  each  jar  written  out. 

The  tests  thought  to  be  desirable  were  the  endurance  of  young  shad 
in  sea- water,  in  mixtures  of  fresh  water  and  sea- water,  and  in  fresh  water 
at  different  temperatures,  and  with  fresh  supplies  at  varying  prolonged 
intervals. 

The  young  fish  used  were  the  very  last  of  the  season's  hatchings. 
The  fish  began  to  make  their  appearance  freed  from  the  eggs  on  the 
morning  of  the  14th  of  August.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  15th,  about 
45,000  were  put  into  five  cans.  Tbe  train  left  Holyoke,  Mass.,  at  0.23 
a.  m.  The  water  on  the  fish  was  71°.  Fresh- water  supplies  were  given 
them  at  7.30,  at  9.30,  and  11.30  a.  m.,  and  at  1.30,  at  3.30,  and  6  p.  m. 

On  arriving  at  Noank,  Conn.,  on  Fisher's  Island  Sound,  a  small  building 
was  fitted  with  shelves,  at  a  convenient  height,  and  the  twelve  jars  were 
arranged  on  two  sides  of  the  room.  Jars  Nos.  1, 2,  3,  and  4  were  to  be 
devoted  to  experiments  with  definite  mixtures  of  fresh  and  sea-water, 
the  latter  gradually  increased ;  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  and  8  to  experiments  on 
temperature ;  Nos.  9  and  10  to  experiments  as  to  the  effect  of  ordinary 
changes  of  temperature ;  No.  11  to  pure  sea- water;  and  No.  12  to  sur- 
face-water from  the  bay  at  low  ebb  of  tide,  in  which  was  a  mingling  of 
the  fresh  water  from  the  drainage  of  the  land. 

At  9  p.  m.  the  series  of  experiments  was  begun,  the  jars  having  been 
supplied  with  a  rather  full  quantity  of  fishes;  by  estimate,  in  accordance 
with  our  usual  judgment  from  their  thickness  in  the  water,  about  4,000  to 
each  jar,  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  10  having  somewhat  less.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  jars  was  70°.    It  required  about  one-half  hour  to  apply  the 

"  Having  been  called  away  from  these  experiments  soon  after  inaugurating  them,  I 
have  to  thank  Mr.  C.  D.  Griswold,  Commander  L.  A.  Beardslee,  United  States  Navy,  and 
Mr.  G.  Brown  Goode,  for  their  interest  in  carrying  them  through  to  their  results. — J.  W. 
Milner. 


364       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER   OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

varying  treatment  to  the  series  of  jars,  but  as  it  was  always  begun 
with  No.  1,  and  carried  through  with  the  same  order,  the  interval  for  each 
jar  was  always  the  same,  and  in  recording,  the  hours  of  9, 12, 3,  and  6  were 
used  for  convenience  sake,  though  strictly  they  would  apply  only  to 
No.  1. 

The  purpose  of.  the  tests  with  1,  2,  3,  and  4  was  to  try  if  gradually 
increasing  proportions  of  sea- water  would  enable  the  young  shad  to  be- 
come accustomed  in  time  to  supplies  of  pure  or  nearly  pure  sea- water 
without  diminishing  their  vigor  and  vitality. 

No.  1,  at  9  p.  m.  August  15,  had  128  gills  of  fresh  water  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  71°  Fahrenheit.  Two  quarts  of  the  water  were  drawn  off,  and 
this  was  replaced  by  two  quarts  of  a  mixture,  15  gills  of  which  were  fresh 
water  and  1  gill  was  sea-water.  Three  hours  later,  at  12  midnight, 
two  quarts  were  again  removed  from  jar  No.  1  and  two  quarts  of  a  mix- 
ture of  14  gills  fresh  water  and  2  gills  sea- water  poured  in.  At  3  a.  m. 
of  the  16th  two  quarts  were  again  removed  and  a  mixture  supplied  of 
13  gills  of  fresh  water  and  3  of  sea- water. 

This  supply  of  a  mixture  amounting  to  one-eighth  the  contents  of  the 
jar,  with  a  continually  increasing  proportion  of  sea-water,  was  afforded 
every  three  hours.  At  the  end  of  45  hours  the  two  quarts  of  supply, 
having  the  sea-water  proportion  increased  one  gill  each  time,  would  be 
all  sea-water.  After  the  45  hours,  at  6  p.  in.  on  the  17th,  or  the  fifteenth 
supply  of  water  to  the  jar,  two  quarts  of  sea-water  were  afforded  every 
3  hours,  a  like  quantity  being  at  the  same  time  removed.  At  this 
rate  the  water  upon  the  fish  at  the  end  of  24  hours,  or  9  p.  in.  of  the 
16th,  would  be  about  25.6  per  centum  sea-water. 

At  the  end  of  48  hours,  or  9  p.  m.  of  the  17th,  the  jar  would  contain 
a  mixture  with  66.2  per  centum  sea-water.  At  the  end  of  72  hours,  or 
9  p.  m.  the  18th,  the  mixture  would  become  88i  per  centum  sea-water. 

The  temperature  remained  very  even  until  noon  of  the  17th,  when 
it  fell  to  about  67°,  3°  less  than  at  9  a.  m.  The  18th,  at  6  p.  m.,  it  had 
again  risen  4°. 

The  shad  seemed  to  retain  vigor  and  health  until  the  18th.  They 
showed  weakness  in  the  morning,  the  per  centum  of  sea-water  having 
reached  80J,  and  at  6  p.  m.  they  were  all  lying  on  the  bottom  of  the  jar, 
the  per  centum  of  sea-water  being  86.8.  A  few  of  these  were  taken  out 
and  put  into  a  glass  jar  which  contained  a  mixture  of  one  quart  fresh 
water  and  one  quart  sea- water ;  in  this  the  most  of  them  revived  and 
lived  from  6  p.  m.  August  18  to  6  p.  m.  August  22 — 96  hours  longer  than 
those  left  in  the  jar. 

In  the  jar  No.  1  they  were  soon  after  all  dead.  They  were  about  102 
hours  old,  and  had  been  kept  about  17  hours  in  the  hatching  boxes,  about 
16  hours  in  the  cans,  and  69  hours  in  the  jars  with  the  sea-water  mixtures. 
Those  revived  in  the  glass  jar  were  19S  hours  or  eight  and  one-fourth 
days  from  the  egg  at  the  time  of  death. 

The  treatment  of  No.  2  began  at  near  the  same  hour  as  No.  1,  the 


ON  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  SHAD.  365 

temperature  being  the  same.  In  this  jar  the  one-eighth  supply  of  mix- 
ture every  three  hours  had  a  more  slowly-increasing  proportion  of  sea- 
water.  The  first  supply  at  9  p.  m.,  August  15,  was  \  gill  of  sea-water 
and  15£  gills  of  fresh  water.  At  12,  midnight,  the  mixture  was  one  gill 
of  sea-water  and  15  gills  of  fresh  water,  and  at  3  a.  m.  of  the  16th  it 
was  1\  gills  sea-water  and  144  gills  fresh  water.  At  this  rate  of  increase 
the  supplies  would  become  all  sea- water  after  93  hours. 

In  this  much  more  gradual  increase  of  sea- water  the  young  shad 
began  to  show  weakness  on  the  19th,  the  contents  of  the  jar  having 
reached  a  per  centum  of  about  75  sea- water.  At  9  p.m.  of  that  date,  three 
hours  after  the  first  supply  of  all  sea- water,  they  were  observed  to  be 
dying.  At  this  time  the  sea- water  was  81  per  centum  of  the  whole  con- 
tents. At  6  a.  m.  of  the  20th,  there  were  considered  to  be  one-half  of 
them  dead,  and  on  the  22d,  at  9  a.  m.,  the  last  of  them  died.  The  jar 
contained  a  solution  of  sea-water,  98.8  per  centum  sea-water  and  1.2 
fresh  water. 

The  temperature  had  varied  from  C8°  to  78°.  The  latter,  occurring 
on  the  20th,  no  doubt  had  some  effect  in  reducing  their  vigor.  They 
were,  at  the  time  the  last  of  ttiem  succumbed,  189  hours  from  the  egg, 
and  had  been  in  the  jar  156  hours. 

The  iucreasing  proportion  of  sea-water  in  the  supplies  to  No.  3  was  at 
the  same  rate  as  No.  2.  It  was  continued  until  the  mixture  became 
half  sea- water  and  half  fresh,  and  the  supplies  from  that  time,  the 
17th  at  6  p.  m.,  forward,  were  in  this  proportion.  The  fish  began  dying 
at  9  a.  m.  of  the  22d,  the  per  centum  of  sea- water  being  49.80,  and  at  3 
a.  m.  of  the  23d  all  were  dead,  the  last  ones  being  about  207  hours  old, 
and  having  been  in  the  jar  174  hours.  The  water  had  become  49.93  sea- 
water. 

Jar  No.  4  proved  the  most  enduring  of  any  of  the  experiments  with 
sea-water.  Beginning  approximately  at  the  same  time,  and  with  tem- 
perature the  same  as  the  others,  in  this  jar  the  addition  of  sea- water 
to  the  supplies  was  at  the  same  rate  as  in  that  of  Nos.  2  and  3.  The  addi- 
tion of  £  gill  of  sea-water  at  each  interval  of  three  hours  to  the  mixture, 
with  a  corresponding  decrease  of  fresh  water,  made  the  proportions  of 
fresh  and  salt  water  in  the  supply,  at  the  end  of  30  hours,  about  one- 
third  of  the  latter  and  two-thirds  of  the  former.  This  proportion  was 
thereafter  retained.  The  fish  began  dying  at  6  a.  m.  of  the  23d,  when 
the  per  centum  of  sea-water  was  34.35.  At  6  p.  m.  of  the  23d  about 
seven-eighths  were  dead,  the  water  having  attained  a  per  centum  of 
34.30  sea-water.  At  7  p.  m.  of  the  25th  the  last  one  died  having  at- 
tained the  age  of  271  hours,  and  having  been  in  the  mixture  about  238 
hours.    The  sea- water  had  reached  the  percentage  of  34.37. 

These  were  all  the  experiments  made  with  proportions  of  sea-water. 
Others  were  made  with  pure  sea- water  and  with  surface-water  from  the 
bay  in  which  the  fresh-water  drainage  had  more  or  less  diluted  the  salt. 

A  jar  was  filled  with  sea-water  several  times  and  a  quantity  of  shad 
placed  in  it.    They  invariably  died  within  three  hours. 


366       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Jar  No.  12  was  filled  with  surface-water  from  the  bay ;  the  recent  rains 
had  diluted  this  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  treatment  of  the  jar  was 
to  afford  a  supply  of  this  water  every  three  hours.  At  8  a.  m.  of  the 
16th  they  were  put  in  the  jar,  and  at  noon  of  the  21st  they  were  all  dead, 
having  been  in  the  jar  124  hours. 

An  experiment  was  made  by  removing  fish,  nearly  exhausted  in  sea- 
water,  to  fresh  spring-water.  The  fish  survived  those  left  in  the  jar 
about  28  hours. 

Nos.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10  were  experiments  to  test  the  effect  of  differ- 
ent temperatures,  and  70°,  65°,  60°,  55°,  and  50°  were  prescribed  for 
these  jars.  The  temperatures  were  not,  however,  controlled  with  the 
facilities  at  hand.  No.  5  was  intended  to  retain  a  temperature  of  65°, 
which  it  did  quite  regularly  for  about  175  hours.  The  last  of  the 
fish  were  dead  at  3  a.  m.  of  the  23d,  being  then  207  hours  old  and  174 
hours  in  the  jar. 

The  record  for  No.  6  was  almost  identical  with  No.  5. 

No.  7,  with  a  temperature  of  64°,  kept  the  fish  alive  until  they  were 
225  hours  old,  192  hours  in  the  jar.  This  is  the  longest  period  of  life 
among  them ;  the  No.  4  sea- water  test,  however,  exceeded  it  some  13 
hours.  It  had  slightly  fewer  fish  than  Nos.  5  and  6,  which  was  of 
course  an  advantage. 

In  Nos.  9  and  10  the  water  remained  at  the  temperatures  of  the  room 
without  any  care  to  decrease  or  regulate  them  in  any  way.  The  waters 
varied  from  66°  to  78°.  The  fish  retained  life  219  hours,  186  hours  in 
the  jar. 

No.  8  it  was  intended  to  keep  at  50°,  but,  instead,  it  remained  for 
the  most  of  the  time  at  64°.  It  was  placed  about  the  time  the  fish  were 
six  days  old  in  the  refrigerator,  which  reduced  the  temperature  to  48°, 
at  which  the  fish  died  rather  rapidly.  They  were  seven  hours  in  the 
ioe-chest,  and  were  dead  within  three  hours  after  the  mercury  stood  at  50°. 

It  will  be  at  once  seen,  by  those  who  have  followed  the  published  ex- 
periences of  men  who  have  carried  young  shad  long  distances,  that  the 
longest  periods  recorded  for  transportation  of  shad  by  rail  (as  in  Seth 
Green's  trip  with  shad  to  California  in  1871,  184  hours,)  or  by  steamer 
(as  in  Mather's  and  Anderson's  trip  to  Bremen,  240  hours,)  are  not  much 
different  from  the  longest  period  in  which  shad  endured  the  treatment 
with  sea-water,  (as  in  No.  4,  238  hours,)  or  a  low  temperature,  (as  in 
No.  7,  192  hours.) 

The  movement  of  the  car  or  steamer  in  producing  a  moderate  agita- 
tion in  the  water  is  known  by  all  who  have  carried  shad  to  be  a  very 
large  advantage  in  favor  of  the  life  of  the  fish.  With  this  advantage 
the  fishes  in  the  jars  would  undoubtedly  have  prolonged  their  existence 
considerably,  as  the  use  of  water  from  the  same  source  continually  is 
an  advantage  not  at  command  when  traveling,  and  the  facilities  for 
cleansing  the  jars  and  keeping  the  temperature  regular  are  also  much 
greater. 


ON  THE  TRANSPORTATION  OF  SHAD.  367 

In  the  fresh-water  temperature  tests,  the  fish  did  not  endure  as  long 
as  in  the  sea-water  test,  No.  4. 

There  is  ample  evidence  in  the  experiences  in  the  treatment  of  shad 
that  they  are  in  need  of  food  when  about  six  or  seven  days  old,  and  if 
not  supplied  will  starve  to  death  in  from  70  to  80  hours,  so  that  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  that  the  presence  of  the  sea- water  in  the  last  test  killed 
the  shad.  No  practicable  methods  for  feeding  embryo-shad  and  white- 
fish  (Coregonus  albus)  have  been  discovered,  though  river-water  seems 
to  afford  them  some  supplies  of  nourishment.*  The  intestines  of  many 
of  the  embryo-shad  from  the  jars,  when  examined  under  the  microscope, 
failed  to  discover  auy  food. 

The  problem  of  the  transportation  of  embryo-fishes  like  those  of  the 
shad  and  white-fish  (Coregonus  albus)  long  distances,  which  occupy  a 
period  of  time  longer  than  a  week,  requires  study  and  experiment.  The 
probability  is  that  the  great  need  is  some  method  for  feeding  them 
en  route. 

To  devise  a  method  for  feeding  them  will  require  the  services  of  a 
microscopist  familiar  with  the  lower  forms  of  invertebrates  and  the  eggs 
and  larvae  of  higher  groups,  which  are  the  principal  minute  organic 
forms  available  as  food  in  the  waters  where  the  fish  breed  naturally. 
The  only  investigations  which  I  am  aware  of  are  the  observations  of 
Mr.  S.  A.  Briggs,  of  Chicago,  published  on  page  57  of  the  report  of 
1872-3,  and  those  observations  just  referred  to  in  these  experiments. 

The  experiment  may  also  be  carried  out  empirically  by  trying  young 
fishes  with  the  different  forms  of  the  groups  just  referred  to.  If  food 
can  be  found  among  these  forms,  experiments  as  to  the  feasibility  of 
breeding  them  en  route  will  be  in  order.  Many  of  them  have  been  de- 
veloped in  numbers  by  naturalists  for  purposes  of  study,  and  with  some 
it  is  very  easily  accomplished. 

Another,  and  probably  the  most  feasible  method  to  obviate  starva- 
tion, is,  in  the  case  of  the  shad,  to  retard  the  eggs  by  cold,  and  devise  a 
process  of  hatching  en  route.  If  this  can  be  accomplished  so  that  the 
fish  can  emerge  from  the  egg  when  six  days  out  from  land,  they  will  be 
likely  to  arrive  at  their  destination  with  vigor  and  strength. 

These  facts  and  experiences  in  regard  to  keeping  shad  alive  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  the  application  of  sea-water  with  a  very  gradual  increase  and 
in  small  proportions  has  not  a  sensibly  injurious  effect.  Where  fresh 
water  has  been  used,  no  greater  periods  of  life  have  been  attained  when 
the  fish  were  confined  in  small  vessels.  Still,  the  series  of  experiments 
indicates  that  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  sea-water  increases  the 
endurance  of  the  fish  diminishes;  and,  inversely,  the  less  and  more 
gradually  the  sea-water  is  applied,  the  longer  the  fish  endure.  A  paral- 
lel instance  would  be  that  a  little  overplus  of  oxygen  in  the  atmosphere 

"See  report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries,  1872-73,  p.  57;  and  fourth 
annual  report  of  commissioners  of  New  York,  1872.  p.  20. 


368       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  a  room  exhilarates  and  even  benefits  a  man,  while  a  greater  increase 
rapidly  becomes  injurious  and  fatal. 

Pure  sea-water,  in  repeated  experiments,  proved  fatal  iu  3  hours.  A 
rapid  increase  of  the  salt,  in  which  the  supplies  became  all  sea-water  in 
45  hours,  (jar  No.  1,)  and  the  contents  of  the  jar  became  S0£  per  centum 
sea- water  in  60  hours,  the  fish  showed  distress  and  weakness,  and  in 
69  hours  all  were  dead  or  dying  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar,  the  water 
having  become  86.8  per  centum  sea-water. 

In  a  more  slowly  increasing  proportion,  iu  which  the  supply  became 
all  sea-water  in  93  hours,  (jar  No.  2,)  after  96  hours  the  water  having 
become  81£  per  centum  sea-water,  the  fish  began  dying.  After  156 
hours  all  were  dead,  the  sea- water  being  .9S|-  of  the  whole. 

In  a  mixture  where  the  supply  was  one-half  sea-water  after  45  hours, 
(jar  No.  3,)  and  retained  at  that,  the  fish  began  dying  when  the  water 
had  become  49J  sea-water,  or  in  156  hours.  In  174  hours  they  were 
all  dead,  the  mixture  having  become  one-half  (49.9  per  centum)  sea- 
water. 

In  the  most  slowly  increasing  proportion  the  supply  became  one-third 
sea-water  after  30  hours,  (jar  No.  4,)  and  was  retained  at  that.  The 
fish  did  not  begin  dyiug  until  177  hours,  the  contents  of  the  jar  being 
one-third  sea-water.  After  189  hours  all  were  dead,  the  per  centum  of 
sea-water  being  34.3. 

There  seems  to  be  sufficient  in  the  results  of  these  experiments  to 
deter  any  one  from  attempting  to  move  shad  across  the  ocean,  depend- 
ing upon  the  use  of  sea-water  for  large  proportion  of  supplies;  though 
small  quantities  could  be  cautiously  used  for  improving  the  stale  fresh 
water. 

The  temperature  experiments  were  not  very  satisfactory,  as  the 
intended  reductions  were  not  readily  reached  and  controlled  with  the 
appliances  at  hand.  In  the  case  of  No.  8,  it  was  produced  by  placing 
the  jar  in  a  refrigerator  and  reducing  it  very  rapidly.  The  fish  were 
already  six  days  old,  and  probably  somewhat  reduced  in  strength.  They 
succumbed  at  once  to  the  rapid  reduction  of  temperature,  though  to 
have  completed  the  experiment  an  effort  should  have  been  made  to 
revive  them  by  gradually  raising  the  temperature. 

No.  7  had  the  advantage  of  having  fewer  fish  in  the  jar,  the  advan- 
tage of  a  larger  supply  of  water  sustaining  them  beyond  the  expiration 
of  5  and  6,  which  had  about  the  same  temperature.  The  indications  in 
the  temperature  tests  are  scarcely  worth  determining,  as  the  devices 
and  facilities  for  the  necessary  reductions  of  temperatures  according 
to  the  plan  laid  down  were  not  available,  and  the  rapid  reduction  of 
No.  8  in  the  refrigerator  would  not  afford  a  fair  comparison  of  endur- 
ance of  low  temperatures  with  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  9,  and  10. 

The  main  purpose  of  the  series  of  experiments,  that  of  testing  the 
value  of  sea- water,  was  well  carried  through,  and  I  believe  will  be  a 
final  decision  against  its  use,  except  perhaps  in  the  slight  quantity 
indicated. 


ON    THE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    SHAD. 


369 


s      w 


No.  4. — The  proportion  of  sea-water  in 
supply  increased  one-half  gill  each 
time  until  one-third  sea-water,  and 
retained  at  that. 

m 
M 

a 

a 

© 

Treatment  begins. 
Supply  becomes  t 
sea-wator. 

Fish  begin  dying. 
About     one  -  half 

dead. 
Ab't  seven-eighths 

dead. 
All  die. 

(-8.TD.oq  Hi) 
'.ret'  ui  poijaj 

■  o 

•  CO 

t*-  CO        O        00 

i^CO        OC         CO 

•Hrt        i-t        d 

(■sjnoqm)  'egy 

CO 

co 

■      •      ■            •         rH 
»     •      i            »        l- 

!  :  ;     \    °* 

•jajBA*. 

-BBS   ^U99  J9J 

■ 

LO 
LO    LO             O            I> 

ro  ro      co      co 

I  T^  ^<            '(J*            "tf 

'  CO  CO         CO         CO 

•ajnrBiadraax 

-  C3  en      co 

°co      to 

•  ^H         LO 

•LO 

No.  3.— The  proportion  of  sea-water  in 
supply  increased  one-half  gill  each 
time  until  one-half  sea-water,  aud 
rotained  at  that. 

CO 

cS 

a 
© 

9 

'Si 

o 

0 
© 

a 

"el 

& 

EH 

<-*7i 

CO 
CO 

a 

©  £ 
-P  ci 
>.£ 
"p-cj 
JTcc 
OQ 

bo 
a 

'So 

g 

< 

■ 

(•gjuoq  ui) 
'•ref  ni  pouaj 

; 

LO 

to 

LO 

rH 

(•sjuoqui)  'a§y 

co 
co 

: 

O 

•J9rBAV 
-B3S  ^aao  J9<J 

GO 

c; 

CO 

o 
ci 

•9JU}BJ9dni9X 

„    CO  00         CO 

0        CO     'O                 CO 

CO 

No.  2. — The  proportion  of  soa-wator  in 
supply  increased  one-half  gill  each 
time  until  all  sea-water. 

05 

a 

05 

q 

M 
CB 

,2 

a 
© 

a 

o 

EH 

©  o  ; 
§-§■= 

OS 

o 

a 

e 

0 

■ 

ad 

C    CD 

4 

< 

: 

(■s.moq  m) 
'jui  ui  poi-ia^r 

■ 

CO         to  KJ 

CI       o  o 

t-H 

to 

(•sjnoq  m)  'a§y 

m 

co 

;  ; 

00 
rH 

uareAi. 

-B9B   "!JuaO  J8J 

CJl-O 

ii  CO 

-J  t-^ 

00  oo 

CO 

00 

o 

•9.rQ4Bjadraax 

»   Offl       oo       co 
°    J-CO         CO         CO 

to 

p     coco 
J-       t-  to 

No.  1. — The  proportion  of  sea-water  in 
supply  increased  one  gill  each  time 
until  all  sea- water. 

33 

A) 

H 

a 

© 

in 

S   ! 
"So  I 

o   ■ 

^  : 
-m  . 

a   • 

o    ' 

a  : 

QJ        ■ 

h  : 

Supply  becomes  all 
sea-water. 

Fish  show  weak- 
ness. 

tFish  dyingat  bot- 
tom of  jar. 

(•gjnoq  ui) 
'.i«f  m  poiiaj 

•    ; 

o      o      o 
■«>     co     to 

(■sjnoqui)  'aSy 

co 

o» 

•      o 

-B8S    *;U90  J9J 

■  | 

CO       oo 

O        CO            '• 

CO       oo          ■ 

•aja^uaadtnax 

°    htO         CO         CO         t-            ' 

([[B  o-j  A"idde  0})  'juoji 

ss    s    a    a    a    aa    s  a  s  h  a  : 

P-  ci       (i      A       A      P*      P.  3       p.  re  P.  r:  -  o 

on      to      o      to      to      c:  to      to  cs  to  co  co  ?) 

a    a 

&    d 

to      t- 

Cne  oi 

24 

i;ddu  o})  'a^BQ; 
F 

1— 

XI 

* 

s 

* 

CO 

-1 

3 


C3 


O 

o 

T3 


a 
o 

o 
t« 

3 

-t3 
►J 

a 

c3 

_a 

'a 

'3 

a 
o 


cj 

3 

6 
3 


^  .2 
i;  ° 
^~  o 

si 

*3 


I! 


S"3 


5  S  SB 

'io 


C-.3 


Sc5 

2  ?  a 

p. a  cj 
c  2  = 

CO  o^ 

*     -»-    DO 


370       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

B— EXPERIMENTS  WITH  A  VIEW  TO  TRANSPORTING  SHAD 

A  FEW  MONTHS  OLD. 

By  Chakles  D.  Griswold. 

After  returning  from  Noauk,  Conn.,  at  the  close  of  the  experiments 
with  embryo-shad,  I  began  an  experiment  with  fish  of  greater  age  and 
development.  The  shad  were  obtained  from  the  Connecticut  River 
with  a  fine-mesh  seine.  The  experiments  were  made  with  a  view  of 
testing  the  endurance  of  fish  of  a  larger  growth  than  the  newly-hatched 
embryos  which  we  had  before  tried. 

Great  care  was  taken  in  their  capture  to  prevent  their  injuring  them- 
selves before  they  were  placed  in  the  jars.  They  were  dipped  from  the 
water,  before  the  net  was  drawn  entirely  out,  with  a  tin  dipper  and 
immediately  put  into  pails  of  fresh  water,  with  but  few  in  each  pail. 

There  was  some  difference  observed  in  the  color  of  the  young  shad, 
the  pale,  lighter-tinted  ones  proving  generally  the  weaker,  and  endur- 
ing much  less  than  the  others. 

The  shad  procured  measured  from  1£  inches  to  4  incbes  in  length ; 
those  of  about  2£  inches  being  rather  more  numerous.  They  were  taken 
in  the  evening,  the  net-hauls  in  the  early  part  of  the  day  taking 
nothing.  They  were  kept  in  the  transportation-cans,  in  stone  jars,  with 
and  without  gravel  in  the  bottom,  and  with  river  and  spring  water. 

The  first  experiment  was  made  on  September  5.  The  shad  were 
put  in  a  twelve-gallon  tin  can.  Supplies  of  fresh  water  were  afforded 
every  two  hours,  the  supply  being  about  one-eighth  the  contents  of 
the  can  or  jar  in  which  the  fish  were  placed.  The  air  temperature  was 
65°  and  the  water  (spring- water)  64°  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment, 
and  the  variation  from  this  was  very  slight.  The  last  was  dead  after  six 
Lours. 

The  second  experiment  was  made  September  7.  On  this  date  two 
day-time  hauls  resulted  in  no  captures.  In  the  evening  better  success 
attended  the  effort.  The  shad  were  put  into  the  twelve-gallon  cans.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  was  64°,  the  air  65°,  at  5  p.  m.  At  11  p.  m. 
the  water  showed  a  temperature  of  00°,  and  in  one  hour  afterward  they 
were  all  dead,  having  lived  seven  hours. 

The  8th  of  September  shad  were  put  into  the  cans  at  6  p.  m.  The 
spring-water  supplies  were  made  less  frequently.  The  temperature  at 
10  p.  m.  was  for  the  air  6G°,  for  the  water  CG°.  At  1  a.  m.  the  air 
was  55°,  the  water  60°.  At  4  a.  m.,  air  52°,  water  59°,  and  the  fish 
rapidly  died.     They  lived  ten  hours. 

On  September  11  a  number  of  shad  were  again  taken  and  placed  in  a 
four-gallon  stone  jar.  The  temperature  of  the  air  was  (56°,  of  the 
water  G4°.  They  were  supplied  every  two  hours  with  river-water  fresh 
from  the  river  each  time.  The  water  grew  colder  in  the  night.  Three 
died  after  seven  hours,  a  few  lived  about  thirteen,  and  one  died  after 
twenty-one  hours. 


ON    THE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    SHAD.  371' 

On  the  14th,  a  cloudy  day,  the  smallest  shad  during  the  season  were 
obtained.  Their  length  varied  from  1£  inches  to  2  inches.  A  compara- 
tive experiment  was  made  with  spring  and  river  water.  Four  shad 
were  put  into  the  jar  with  the  river-water.  The  water  of  the  river  at 
the  time  of  capture  was  70°.  A  supply  of  one-eighth  was  afforded  every 
two  hours  until  the  17th,  when  the  time  was  increased  to  three  hours, 
but  a  larger  supply  of  water  afforded.  The  temperature  remained  quite 
even,  the  variation  being  between  67°  and  70°. 

Of  the  four  fish  put  in  the  jar  with  the  river- water,  two  died  at  12 
p.  m.,  having  lived  about  seven  hours;  the  remaining  two  lived  forty- 
nine  hours. 

In  the  spring- water  test  the  fish  were  placed  in  the  jar  after  the  river- 
water  fish  had  all  died,  or  after  sixty  hours.  Three  had  died  in  the  can 
the  first  day.  Two  more  died  after  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  hours. 
One  of  those  remaining  died  after  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  hours, 
and  one  after  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  hours.  The  air-temperatures 
ranged  from  62°  to  70°,  and  the  water  from  64°  to  G7°. 

The  next  capture  of  shad  was  made  on  the  17th  of  September,  at  5 
p.  in.  Four  were  put  into  a  four-gallon  jar,  and  three  put  into  a  three- 
gallon  jar.  The  former  were  supplied  with  spring-water,  the  latter  with 
river-water.  After  sixty-one  hours  one  was  dead  in  the  spring- water 
and  two  in  the  river- water.  The  temperature  at  this  time  for  air  and 
water  both  had  varied  between  59°  and  66°. 

The  subsequent  variation  was  greater.  The  air  ranged  from  46°  to 
89°  and  the  water  from  50°  to  65°.  The  high  temperatures  of  the  air 
were  during  short  periods  of  the  day,  so  that  the  water  did  not  attain 
the  high  degrees  of  heat  which  the  atmosphere  did.  The  fluctuations 
in  one  day,  however,  amounted  to  from  50°  to  65°.  After  136  hours 
there  had  been  one  death  more  in  each.  After  1G0  hours  there  was 
another  death  in  the  spring-water,  and  one  lived  253  hours,  or  10  daya 
and  13  hours. 

An  experiment  was  made  in  keeping  five  or  six  fish  at  a  time  in  the 
hatching-boxes,  where  the  current  kept  a  good  change  of  water  contin- 
ually.   The  fish  lived  from  two  to  three  days. 

A  dozen  fish  were  put  in  a  forty-gallon  can,  and  the  water  was  renewed 
from  a  hose  continually.  They  varied  in  size  from  2  to  3£  inches.  The 
temperature  remained  quite  eveuly  at  60°.    A  few  lived  three  days. 

On  the  28th  an  experiment  was  made  with  shad,  the  water-supply 
being  afforded  every  three  hours.  Nine  fish  were  put  into  the  forty-gal- 
lon can.  The  temperatures  ranged  from,  for  the  air,  46°  to  66°,  and  the 
water,  50°  to  60°.  Six  fish  died  after  33  hours,  one  after  51  hours,  one 
after  66  hours,  and  one  after  87  hours. 

The  use  of  gravel  in  the  bottom  of  the  jars  evidently  provided  food 

to  some  extent.     Shad  retained  in  a  jar  until  quite  weak  worked  busily 

awhile  among  it,  and  revived  so  as  to  outlive  the  others  about  15  hours. 

In  the  stomach  of  a  shad  about  2 J  inches  long  I  took  fourteen  small 

black  flies.    The  contents  of  other  stomachs  were  of  a  reddish  hue. 


372        REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER  -  OF   FISH   AND -FISHERIES. 

These  are  the  results  of  the  series  of  experiments  which,  I  think,  show 
less  advantage  in  an  attempt  to  transport  shad  of  these  sizes,  from  1A  to 
4  inches,  than  in  the  littlethree-eighths-of-an-inch-longembryos.  Besides 
the  longer  endurance  of  artificial  confinement  of  the  embroy-shad  in  a 
mass  of  thousands  instead  of  four  or  five,  as  in  these  experiments,  the 
larger  shad  have  the  disadvantage  of  not  being  obtainable  in  anything 
near  the  same  numbers,  and  also  that  the  proportion  of  fish  to  the  quan- 
tity of  water  used  in  transportation  must  be  very  many  times  less. 
There  may  be  something  of  value  in  the  fact  that  our  experience  proved 
the  glazed-stone  jars  better  for  the  fishes  than  tin;  and  the  observation 
that  the  lighter-tinted  pale  fishes  invariably  succumb  first,  proves  that 
in  each  year's  stock  of  shad  there  is  a  considerable  variation  of  vigor 
and  constitution  in  different  individuals. 


C— APPARATUS     FOR   HATCHING    SHAD-OVA   WHILE    EN 

ROUTE   TO  NEW   WATERS. 

By  Fred   Mather. 

Honeoye  Falls,  N.  Y.,  September  16,  1875. 
I  send  report  of  shad-hatching  at  Point  Pleasant.    I  also  send  you  a 
drawing  of  the  improved  hatcher. 

I  believe,  notwithstanding  that  the  second  German  expedition  has 
failed,  that  I  can  get  fry  across,  and  that  running  water  is  superior  to 
the  use  of  an  air-pump.  I  cannot  conceive  of  a  more  perfect  approach 
to  the  river-boxes  than  this  can,  and  was  glad  to  show  you  its  perfect 
working  at  Holyoke  this  summer,  (July  20  to  25.)  Simple  as  it  seems,  it 
took  some  time  to  get  it  to  its  present  perfection.  The  original  idea  as 
tried  at  the  Smithsonian  worked  well  on  paper ;  but  this  one  will  bear 
trial  and  favorable  comparison  with  anything  of  the  kind. 
Very  truly,  yours, 

FRED  MATHER. 
Mr.  James  W.  Milner, 
Smithsonian  Institution. 


According  to  instructions,  I  went  to  Point  Pleasant,  Bucks  County, 
Pennsylvania,  to  observe  the  development  of  shad-eggs  in  the  hatching- 
can,  which  I  suggested  after  my  failure  to  transport  live  fish  to  Ger- 
many last  year. 

I  had  one  made  with  a  diameter  of  15  inches,  containing  a  screen  or 
tray  of  13  inches  diameter ;  and  after  searching  for-something  better  for 
reservoirs,  we  obtained  three  oak  whisky-barrels  which  had  been  used 
once,  and,  taking  out  one  head,  thoroughly  charred  the  inside  by  burn- 
ing straw  in  them ;  after  this,  they  were  soaked  in  water  twenty-four 
hours,  when  they  still  had  an  odor  of  alcohol. 


ON    THE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    SHAD. 


373 


I  had  used  whisky-barrels  similarly  treated  for  the  transportation  of 
fish,  and  once  carried  a  quantity  of  adult  grayling  on  a  journey  of 
thirty-four  hours  in  them  with  but  trifling  loss,  none  of  which  seemed  to 
be  due  to  the  slight  trace  of  alcohol  perceptible  to  the  sense  of  smell. 

Therefore,  with  a  slight  misgiving  that  so  delicate  a  creature  as  an 
embryo  shad  might  possibly  be  affected  by  the  homoeopathic  amount  of 
alcohol  still  present,  I  set  up  my  apparatus  on  the  shaded  piazza  of  the 
hotel.  One  barrel  was  used  for  ice-water  and  the  other  two  as  reser- 
voir and  receiver. 

The  first  trial  was  made  with  3,000  eggs,  which  were  taken  from  the 
fish  at  10  p.  m.  June  20,  and  were  put  in  the  river-boxes,  where  the 
water  was  from  76°  to  80°.  On  the  following  day,  at  4  p.  m.,  they  were 
brought  to  the  hotel,  and  the  temperature  gradually  lowered  to  68°  by 
8  p.  m.,  when  they  were  placed  in  the  hatching-can,  and  the  spigot  set 
to  flow  twenty  gallons  per  hour.  The  following  table  gives  the  temper- 
atures and  results : 


+z 

t— • 

Date. 

5 

n 

a 

'a 

a 

. 

o 

. 

rt 

as 

o 

& 

CO 

fc 

CO 

S 

% 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

June    20 

80 
04 

80 
66 

21 

68 

22 

62 

72 

74 

74 

70.5 

23 

74 

74 

70 

78 

75.5 

24 

70 

7fi 

76 

Average  mean... 

73.6 

Time  86 

hou 

'8. 

Remarks. 


Water  tastes  of  whisky. 

Gave  an  entire  change  of  water. 

Fish  visible  in  tho  eggs  ;  motion  at  daybreak  ;  fungns  on  dead  eggs. 

First  fish  hatched  at  8  a.  m. ;  1,000  at  noon ;  they  appeared  very 

weak,  and  there  was  no  deposit  of  pigment  in  the  eye  ;  put  them 

in  box  in  the  river  and  cleaned  tho  barrels. 


In  this  experiment,  nearly  the  same  results  were  attained  as  in  one 
that  I  conducted  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  some  two  weeks  before, 
viz,  the  fish  hatched,  without  any  perceptible  color  in  the  eye,  and  had 
little  vitality. 

In  the  former  trial  referred  to,  this  lack  of  vital  power  was  attributed 
to  the  bad  air  in  the  basement  where  the  hatcher  was  located,  arising 
from  the  absorption  of  gases  from  a  portion  of  a  whale  that  had  just 
arrived  in  bad  condition.  This  theory,  whether  correct  or  not,  was  the 
only  one  that  presented  itself  to  account  for  the  fact  that  the  fish  lived 
but  a  few  hours  after  hatching,  as  it  was  the  opinion  of  several  experts 
that,  as  the  flow  of  water  was  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  oxygen  required, 
and  that  a  movement  of  the  egg  was  not  necessary,  therefore  when  I 
attained  the  same  result  in  the  open  air  I  concluded  that  a  flavor  of 
whisky  in  the  water  produced  the  same  effects  as  the  deleterious  gases 
before  referred  to,  or  that  a  lack  of  motion  was  the  cause. 

To  test  the  latter  point,  I  had  a  new  can  made,  with  a  diameter  of  six 
inches,  and  screen  of  five,  which,  with  sixty  gallons  of  water  per  hour 
flowing  through  it,  gave  a  slight  movement  to  the  eggs.  TVhile  this  trial 
was  in  progress,  the  weather  was  very  hot,  at  midday  on  several  occa- 


374        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


sions  reaching  96°  in  the  shade,  causing  a  great  consumption  of  ice. 
The  following  table  gives  the  results  : 


-*^ 

*c 

Date. 

£ 

a 

S 

*E 

a 

to 

O 

o 

fa 

ft 

r— 

§ 

s 

o 

0 

o 

0 

o 

June    25 

.... 

— 

— 

82 

82 

26 

80 

65 

71 

72 

27 

70 

CO 

CO 

64 

65 

2b 

63 

63 

63 

70.5 

Time  92 

houi 

'8. 

Remarks. 


Eggs  taken  from  fish  10  p.  m.  on  the  25th  ;   put  2,000  in  hatcher  at 
10  a.  ni.  ;  water  in  river  85°. 

Motion  at  daybreak. 

Fish  livelier  than  any  former  ones;  still  no  color  in  the  eyes; 
turned  into  the  river  at  noon,  28th. 


As  the  increase  in  vitality  could  only  be  attributed  to  the  increased 
motion  due  to  flowing  three  times  the  quantity  of  water  through  a 
screen  of  less  diameter  than  on  the  former  trials,  it  appeared  evident 
that  the  failure  of  previous  experiments  was  due  to  lack  of  motion,  and 
as  all  water  had  to  be  dipped  from  the  receiving- barrel  standing  on  the 
floor  into  the  reservoir-cask  standing  on  the  table,  with  a  pail,  that  it 
would  require  too  much  labor  for  one  man  to  handle  double  the  quantity, 
and  so  would  require  at  least  four  men  to  attend  it,  running  night  and 
day,  and  another  objection  was  the  limited  capacity  of  this  small  can. 

Here  a  valuable  suggestion  was  made  by  my  assistant,  Mr.  Charles 
Bell,  and  a  hatcher  was  made  after  his  plan,  which  did  its  work  per- 
fectly. (See  illustration.)  It  was  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel,  with  a  tube 
below  like  the  others  to  connect  the  rubber  supply-pipe.  It  had  a  depth 
of  ten  inches  and  a  diameter  of  twelve  at  the  top,  to  which  was  soldered 
a  riin  of  wire-cloth  one  inch  and  a  half  high ;  outside  of  this  rim  was  a 
flange  with  a  tin  rim,  which  had  an  outlet-pipe  on  one  side. 

Near  the  bottom,  where  the  cone  was  two  inches  in  diameter,  a  screen 
of  tine  brass  wire  was  fastened.  This  passed  all  the  water  through  a 
screen  of  two  inches,  on  which  an  egg  could  not  rest.  They  were  sent 
up  with  a  gentle  motion  in  the  center  of  the  can,  and  separating  equally 
in  all  directions  toward  the  wire  rim,  through  which  the  flow  was  so 
gentle  that  the  eggs  began  to  drop  before  they  reached  it,  and,  falling 
on  the  sloping  sides,  gently  settled  toward  the  center,  to  be  again  lifted 
before  reaching  the  bottom. 

We  exchanged  our  whisky-barrels  for  old  casks  that  had  been  used 
for  catching  rain-water,  and  moved  from  the  hot  piazza  into  the  cellar, 
where  the  temperature  of  the  air  averaged  about  70°,  making  the  experi- 
ment without  the  use  of  ice,  the  temperature  variation  being  very  slight. 


ON   THE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    SHAD. 
The  following  table  exhibits  the  results: 


375 


Date. 


July  1 
2 


64 
65 

68 
63 


a 

o 
o 


66 

65 
66 

68 
•30 


65 

66 
66 
68 
72 


a 


64 

65 

68 
70 


Average  mean , 

Time  120  hoars  (5  days). 


65 

65 

66.25 
68.5 
70 


66.95 


Remarks. 


Eggs  from  fish  at  9  p.  m. ;  put  in  hatcher  at  10  a.  ra. ;  water 
in  river  82°  ;  found  a  flow  of  twenty  gallons  per  hour  suffi- 
cient. 


Eyes  showed  black  at  midnight ;  fish  lively  in  egg. 

A  few  hatched  at  noon,  and  swimming  at  night. 

About  half  hatched  at  noon  ;  all  batched  at  9  p.m.;  very 

strong  and  lively  ;   put  them  in  the  river  next  morning 

(7th). 


These  trials  have,  I  think,  proved  two  things :  first,  that  a  flow  of 
water  that  does  not  give  motion  to  the  egg  sufficient  to  hold  it  in  sus- 
pension will  not  hatch  strong  shad ;  and,  secondly,  that  it  is  possible  to 
hatch  them  in  transit  with  a  limited  supply  of  water.  The  same  water 
was  used  two  to  three  days,  and  was  well  aerated  in  its  fall  from  the 
hatcher  into  the  barrel  and  by  pouring  from  a  pail  from  there  into  the 
reservoir. 

As  I  found  in  my  attempt  to  carry  young  shad  already  hatched  to 
Germany  for  the  Commission  last  year  that  the  thermometer  varied  little 
from  62°,  I  think  it  possible  that  at  that  temperature  the  hatching  will 
be  delayed  from  six  to  seven  days,  and  the  fry  delivered  on  the  other 
side  before  they  have  suffered  much,  if  any,  from  lack  of  food. 

In  order  to  test  the  endurance  of  shad-eggs,  I  made  the  following  trial 
of  4,000  spawn  with  the  same  flow  of  water  as  before,  using  ice. 


'8 

Date. 

a 

a 

a 

4 

Remarks. 

O 

to 

P. 
to 

§ 

9 

0 

o 

0 

o 

O 

July  8 

70 

65 

60 

65 

Spawn  from  fish  at  9  p.  m.  7th ;  water  in  river  82°  at  8  a.  m. 
8th. 

9 

58 

58 

58 

56 

57.5 

10 

55 

56 

58 

60 

57.25 

Motion  in  morning. 

11 

58 

56 

54 

54 

55.5 

Eyes  visible,  but  embryo  small. 

12 

54 

54 

58 

60 

56.5 

No  ice  from  noon  till  6  p.  m. ;  fish  not  lively. 

13 

58 

59 

60 

62 

59.75 

Am  afraid  that  when  hatched,  they  will  not  have  vitality 
enough  to  live ;  let  temperature  go  up  to  see  if  possible  to 
revive  them. 

14 

61 

62 

65 

66 

63.5 

All  dead  at  6  a.  m. 

Average 
Time  7 < 

59.52 

lays  9 

hours. 

I  do  not  consider  the  average  mean  temperature  to  be  a  fair  test  in 
this  trial,  as  it  was  probably  the  lowest  point  that  did  the  damage ;  and 
if  the  temperature  of  the  river  for  the  twelve  hours  they  were  in  it  had 
been  figured  in,  the  mean  would  have  been  much  higher.  As  it  is,  the 
mean  was  only  about  5£°  below  the  former  trial,  which  was  so  successful, 


376 


REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES. 


and  in  my  opinion  a  steady  temperature  of  59°  to  60°  would  have  given 
far  different  results. 


Mather  and  Bell's  apparatus. 

The  above  tables  are  accurately  copied  from  the  record-sheet,  and  it  is 
proper  to  add  a  word  about  the  thermometers  used.  In  the  first  two  trials 
made  upon  the  piazza,  we  had  a  small  pocket-thermometer,  only  gradu- 
ated to  two  degrees,  and  which  registers  two  degrees  higher  than  the 
one  used  in  the  cellar  in  the  two  last  trials ;  but  having  no  opportunity 
to  correct  the  instruments,  I  give  the  record  as  it  appeared  at  the  time; 
but  if  the  pocket-instrument  was  correct,  then  the  records  of  the  last 
two  trials  should  read  two  degrees  lower  than  shown  in  the  tables. 

In  conclusion  I  will  say,  I  believe  that  shad-fry  can  be  taken  across 
the  Atlantic  by  hatching  the  eggs  in  transit  in  the  can  last  described  ; 
and  as  the  record  of  my  trip  last  season  showed  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  cans  at  sea  without  ice  to  be  about  62°,  that  would  seem, 
according  to  the  above  tables,  to  be  about  the  proper  point.  It  could 
probably  be  kept  from  60°  to  64°  without  the  use  of  much,  if  any,  ice, 
by  opening  or  closing  the  hatches. 


XX -REPORT  OF  OPERATIONS  IN  CALIFORNIA  IN  1873. 


By  Livixgstox  Stone. 


A— CLEAR  LAKE. 

1. — FIELD-WORK  IN  THE  WINTER  OF  1872-73. 

On  the  1st  of  January,  1873,  at  which  date  my  last  report  closes,  I 
was  at  San  Francisco,  making  observations  in  regard  to  the  fish  and 
fishing  of  the  Sacramento,  and  intending,  in  a  few  days,  to  go  to  Oregon 
to  look  for  a  suitable  location  on  the  Columbia  Eiver  for  obtaining  a 
supply  of  eggs  of  the  salmon  of  that  river. 

A  succession  of  storms  on  the  Pacific  coast  deferred  my  departure 
from  San  Francisco  for  this  purpose,  and,  while  waiting  for  fair  weather 
and  an  outward-bound  steamer,  advices  were  received  by  telegraph, 
stating  that  a  large  number  of  white-fish  eggs  were  on  their  way  to 
California  from  the  great  lakes. 

At  the  same  time,  Mr.  S.  E.  Throckmorton,  the  chairman  of  the  Cali- 
fornia fish-commission,  requested  me  to  assist  Mr.  John  G.  Woodbury, 
then  in  the  employ  of  the  State  commission,  in  selecting  a  favorable  site 
for  hatching  the  white-fish  eggs  on  their  arrival,  and  for  depositing  the 
young  fish  when  hatched. 

In  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  this  new  turn  of  affairs,  I 
abandoned  my  plan  of  going  to  the  Columbia,  and,  on  the  10th  of  Janu- 
ary, took  the  cars  for  Clear  Lake,  Lake  County,  California,  one  hundred 
and  twenty  miles  north  of  San  Francisco,  having  in  view  the  objects 
just  mentioned. 

2. — CHARACTER   OF  CLEAR  LAKE. 

After  two  or  three  days  spent  in  examination  of  various  waters,  it 
was  decided,  on  the  15th  of  January,  to  locate  the  hatching-works  for 
the  white-fish  eggs  at  Kelsey  Mills. 

These  mills  are  situated  on  Kelsey  Creek,  a  tributary  of  Clear  Lake, 
and  are  three  miles  above  Kelseyville,  Lake  County,  and  six  miles  from 
the  outlet  of  Kelsey  Creek  into  Clear  Lake. 

The  water-supply  was  taken  by  a  pipe  from  the  flume  of  the  mill,  and 
was  ample.    The  hatching- works  were  in  every  way  satisfactory. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  moss  in  the  Eastern  States  in 
midwinter,  the  first  lot  of  white-fish  eggs  forwarded  from  the  East 
were  packed  in  sponges. 


378       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

This  kind  of  packing,  though  suitable  for  short  trips,  was  not  ade- 
quate to  the  requirements  of  the  long  journey  across  the  continent,  and 
the  eggs  were  all  dead  when  they  arrived  at  Clear  Lake.  A  second 
lot,  sent  on  afterward,  to  take  the  place  of  those  which  were  lost,  arrived 
in  good  condition,  and  from  them  25,000  white-fish  were  hatched  under 
the  charge  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Woodbury.  About  the  time  of  the  absorption 
of  the  yolk-sac,  the  young  fish  were  placed  in  various  portions  of  Cleai 
Lake.  This  was  the  first  introduction  of  the  white-fish  (Coregonus  altos) 
into  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  slope. 

While  stopping  at  Clear  Lake,  I  gathered  the  following  items  in 
regard  to  its  waters  and  the  fishes  that  inhabit  them. 

It  is  a  singular  fact,  illustrating  the  inaptness  with  which  names  are 
often  given  to  natural  objects,  that  the  water  of  Clear  Lake  is  never 
clear.  It  is  so  cloudy,  to  use  a  mild  word,  that  you  cannot  see  three 
feet  below  the  surface.  The  color  of  the  water  is  a  yellowish  brown, 
varying  indefinitely  with  the  varying  light.  The  water  has  an  earthy 
taste,  like  swamp- water,  and  is  suggestive  of  moss  and  water-plants.  In 
fact,  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  except  in  deep  places,  is  covered  with  a 
deep,  dense  moss,  which  sometimes  rises  to  the  surface,  and  often  to 
such  an  extent  in  summer  as  to  seriously  obstruct  the  passage  of  boats 
through  the  water. 

There  are  large  soda-springs  boiling  up  at  various  points  in  the  bed 
of  the  lake,  which  discharge  into  it  vast  quantities  of  soda-water  daily. 
A  reddish-brown,  frothy  substance  is  produced  in  such  abundance  by 
the  natural  evaporation  of  the  soda-water  that  the  lake  in  places  seems 
to  be  full  of  it. 

In  winter,  the  water  is  cool  and  not  disagreeable,  in  spite  of  its  earthy 
taste ;  but,  in  summer,  it  grows  warm,  the  swampy  flavor  becomes  intensi- 
fied, the  frothy  substance  from  the  soda-water  increases,  the  plants  and 
moss  from  the  bottom  float  in  great  quantities  in  the  water,  and  it 
becomes  unfit  to  drink. 

These  conditions  would  seem  to  be  unfavorable  to  fish-life  in  the  lake  j 
but,  by  another  of  those  numerous  contradictions  for  which  California  is 
noted,  this  lake  seems  to  be  particularly  adapted  to  fish,  and  the  water 
teems  with  them.  In  the  spring,  when  they  run  up  Kelsey  Creek,  Cold 
Creek,  and  other  tributaries,  to  spawn,  they  swarm  in  these  streams  by 
millions,  forming  an  almost  solid  mass,  so  that  it  is  even  difficult  to  cross 
the  fords  with  a  horse  on  account  of  them. 

3. — LIST   OF  FISHES    INHABITING  THE  LAKE. 

The  local  names  of  the  fish  are  as  follows : 

1.  Perch.  5.  Chy.  9.  Black-fish. 

2.  Shapaulle.  6.  Eoach.  10.  Trout. 

3.  Hitch.  7.  Spotted  sun-fish.  11.  Bull-heads. 

4.  Suckers.  S.  Mud-fish,  (mud-suckers.)  12.  Viviparous  perch. 


OPEEATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  379 

Perch,  (Smithsonian  Collection,  No.  146.*) — The  perch  is  very  abun- 
dant, indeed.  It  resembles  in  color  and  shape  the  white  perch  of  the 
Potomac,  but  is  rather  deeper  and  shorter.  Those  that  I  saw  in  Feb- 
ruary were  about  six  inches  long  by  three  inches  in  depth.  Their  flesh 
is  excellent,  and  they  are  highly  prized  as  food  both  by  white  men  and 
Indians.  The  perch  spawn  in  May  around  the  margin  of  the  lake. 
Millions  of  young  perch  are  seen  in  June. 

Shapaulle,  (Smithsonian  collection,  No.  152.) — This  fish  is  a  cyprinoid, 
and  is  the  same  as  the  Sacramento  pike,  or  the  California  white-fish,  of 
which  several  specimens  have  been  forwarded  to  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution in  my  collections  on  the  Sacramento  and  McCloud  Eivers.  It 
averages  in  weight  about  five  or  six  pounds,  though  some  have  been 
caught  as  heavy  as  thirteen  pounds.  Their  flesh  is  white,  soft,  and  bony, 
and  they  are  only  a  medium  table-fish.  I  was  told  that  they  spawn  in  the 
sand  and  gravel  in  the  creeks  in  May ;  but,  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
caught  in  great  quantities  during  this  month  with  the  hook  and  line,  I 
am  inclined  to  think  they  spawn  earlier,  perhaps  as  soon  as  the  begin- 
ning of  March. 

Mitch. — This  is  a  small,  light-colored,  and  slender  fish,  about  a  foot  in 
length,  and  very  full  of  bones.  The  whites  do  not  consider  them  fit  to 
eat.  The  Indians  eat  them,  bones  and  all,  and  appear  to  like  them. 
They  run  up  the  streams  in  the  spring  to  spawn  in  countless  numbers. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  see  one  or  two  acres  of  ground  covered  with  hitch, 
which  the  Indians  have  dried  for  food. 

Suckers,  (Smithsonian  collection,  No.  152.) — These  resemble  the  com- 
mon suckers  of  other  localities.  They  are  poor  food,  except  the  large  red- 
finned  suckers,  which  are  esteemed  tolerably  good  eating.  They  spawn 
on  the  sand-beaches  of  the  lake  and  also  in  the  tributary  streams.  They 
dig  holes  for  their  nests  as  large  round  as  a  bushel-basket  and  from  six 
to  twelve  inches  in  depth.  They  run  up  the  creeks  in  March,  and  prob- 
ably spawn  about  that  time. 

Chy,  (Indian  name;)  silver  sides,  common  name;  (Smithsonian  collec- 
tion, No.  148.) — This  fish  is  quite  small,  and  is  said  to  be  all  bones.  They 
run  up  the  creeks  to  spawn  in  May  and  June  in  vast  numbers.  The 
Indians  eat  them,  but  they  are  not  valued  by  the  whites. 

Roach,  spotted  sunfish. — These  fish  are  edible,  and  are  seen  in  vast 
quantities  around  the  sand-beaches  in  May,  when  they  probably  spawn. 
They  are  not  of  much  account. 

Mud-fish,  or  mud-sucker. — This  fish  is  a  short,  thick  fish,  of  a  bluish 
color.  Its  flesh  is  soft,  and  is  of  no  value.  It  is  supposed  to  spawn  in 
May  around  the  beaches  and  among  the  tules. 

Black-fish. — I  could  not  obtain  a  specimen  of  this  fish  to  examine, 
but  I  heard  different  persons  say  that  it  was  a  very  excellent  fish  for  the 
table.    Some  ranked  it  next  to  the  trout,  while  others  placed  it  below 

*  The  numbers  attached  to  the  names  of  the  fishes  refer  to  my  catalogue  of  the  speci- 
mens collected  for  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


380      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

the  shapaulle.  It  grows  to  a  considerable  size,  the  full-grown  fish 
weighing  three  or  four  pounds.  It  is  not  abundant  as  a  rule,  although 
large  quantities  of  the  black-fish  collect  in  the  tules  in  May,  when  many 
are  killed  with  clubs.    This  is  undoubtedly  their  spawning-season. 

Salmon-trout,  (Smithsonian  collection,  No.  151.) — This  is  the  local  name 
of  a  fine,  large  trout  which  inhabits  the  lake,  and  runs  up  the  tributaries 
to  spawn  in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter.  It  is  highly  prized  for  the 
table.  In  summer,  when  the  water  is  warm,  the  trout  collect  around 
the  cold  springs  of  the  lake,  and  seem  to  live  there  exclusively ;  the 
water  of  the  rest  of  the  lake  probably  being  too  warm  for  them.  The 
Indians  fish  them  very  regularly  and  steadily.  These  trout  used  to  be 
very  abundant  in  the  lake,  but  the  whites  have  pursued  them  so  unre- 
lentingly on  their  spawning-grounds  that  they  are  rapidly  diminishing. 
It  is  difficult  to  find  one  now  where  hundreds  used  to  come  to  spawn. 
Those  that  I  saw  in  February,  1873,  were  about  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  averaged  nearly  two  pounds  in  weight. 

The  common  California  trout  is  also  abundant  in  the  brooks  and 
streams  in  the  vicinity  of  Clear  Lake,  but  cannot  properly  be  called  one 
of  the  fishes  of  the  lake. 

Bull-head. — I  did  not  learn  much  about  this  fish,  except  that  it  likes 
the  mud  and  is  an  inferior  fish.  It  is  not  the  bull-head,  (Pimelodus,)  or 
horn-pout,  of  the  Eastern  States. 

Small  perch,  (see  Nos.  244-250,  Smithsonian  collection ;)  {viviparous 
perch.) — This  is  a  beautiful  little  fish,  quite  small,  but  very  good  eating. 
It  is  the  same  as  the  viviparous  perch  of  the  Sacramento,  specimens  of 
which  are  included  in  my  Smithsonian  collection  of  1873.  As  its  name 
implies,  it  brings  forth  its  young  alive.  It  is  quite  abundant  in  Clear 
Lake. 

4. — THE    CONDITION    OF    THE    FISH    IN    CLEAR    LAKE    AT    DIFFERENT 

SEASONS. 

January. — In  January,  the  lake  rises  somewhat,  the  tributary  streams 
are  full  and  high,  and  the  trout  of  the  lake  run  up  the  streams  to  spawn. 
A  few  suckers  are  also  found  in  the  creeks  when  they  are  roiled  by  the 
rains.  It  is  said  that  black-fish  are  caught  with  the  hook  at  this  time, 
but  I  did  not  hear  of  any  being  taken  during  my  stay  in  January. 
The  Indians  fish  with  a  sweep-seine  during  this  month,  and  catch  vari- 
ous kinds  of  fish.  They  also  catch  the  lake-trout  with  hook  and  line, 
and  the  perch  with  nets. 

February. — In  February,  the  shapaulle  run  up  the  streams,  and  are 

caught  in  considerable  quantities.    The  lake-trout  return  to  the  lake. 

.  Black-fish  are  caught  this  month.     The  tributary  streams  are  very  high. 

March. — Suckers  and  shapaulle  abound  in  the  creeks.  The  shapaulle 
bite  somewhat  in  the  lake.  Black-fish  are  more  abundant  and  more 
easily  caught. 

April. — Hitch,  chy,   shapaulle,  and  suckers  abound  in  the  creeks. 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  381 

This  is  the  best  month  for  catching  shapanlle.  Perch,  shapaulle,  hitch, 
and  chy  are  caught  in  the  lake  with  hook  and  line  this  month.  Black- 
fish  are  abundant. 

May. — The  first  of  May  is  about  the  best  time  for  catching  perch.  In 
respect  to  the  other  fish,  this  month  is  very  much  like  the  last. 

June. — The  larger  part  of  the  fish  which  have  gone  up  the  creeks  in 
such  vast  numbers  have  returned  to  the  lake  by  this  time.  They  have 
also  left  the  sand-beaches  and  tules  where  they  have  been  spawn- 
ing, and  have  returned  to  deep  water.  Most  kinds  of  the  Clear  Lake 
fish  can  be  caught  in  the  lake  during  this  month  with  hook  and  line  j 
more  perch  being  caught,  however,  than  any  other  species.  The  Indians 
go  this  month  to  the  cold  feeding-springs  of  the  lake  to  catch  trout  with 
the  nets. 

July. — This  mouth  does  not  differ  much  from  the  last  in  respect  to 
the  fishing ;  but  the  water  during  this  month  becomes  warm,  and  the 
fish  get  soft,  and  are  not  good. 

August. — The  lake  is  not  fished  much  this  month,  the  water  being  warm 
and  the  fish  soft  and  inferior.  The  Indians,  however,  continue  to  fish 
for  trout  around  the  cold  springs  which  feed  the  lake.  There  is  one  spring 
in  particular  fished  by  the  Indians,  two  miles  east  of  Morgan  Young's, 
which  is  forty  feet  in  diameter,  and  which  boils  up  so  that  one  cannot  row 
a  boat  across  it.  This  spring  would  make  a  small  river  if  confined.  It 
is  thought  that  it  furnishes  the  chief  water-supply  of  the  lake  in  the 
summer.    It  is,  of  course,  cold  all  the  year  round. 

A  great  number  of  dead  black-fish  are  seen  about  the  lake  this  month, 
and  some  dead  perch  and  roach  around  the  shores  and  among  the  tules, 
which,  in  many  parts  of  the  lake,  line  the  edges  densely  to  a  depth  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet. 

September. — Fish  and  fishing  are  about  the  same  as  in  August.  The 
weather  is  a  little  warmer.  No  one  fishes  during  this  month  except  the 
Indians,  who  still  keep  after  the  trout.  The  water  this  month  is  in  its 
worst  condition.  It  is  full  of  the  frothy  product  of  the  soda-springs. 
A  green  scum  covers  a  large  part  of  the  surface,  and  it  is  not  only 
uncleanly  to  look  at,  but  unfit  to  drink ;  and  yet,  strangely  enough,  this 
lake,  which  oue  would  think  uninhabitable  by  fish,  fairly  teems  and 
swarms  with  them. 

October. — In  October  the  water  begins  to  cool  a  little,  but  as  yet  there 
have  been  no  rains,  and  there  is  no  other  improvement  in  the  water 
except  the  cooling  of  it.  There  is  no  more  fishing  done  this  month  than 
in  September. 

November. — The  water  is  colder  this  month.  The  wind  and  rain  clear 
off  the  stagnant  scum  which  collects  on  the  surface  in  the  summer. 
The  fish  are  better,  but  there  is  no  fishing  done. 

December. — The  lake  is  clear  again  on  the  surface,  and  begins  to  rise 
with  the  rains.  The  water  continues  to  grow  cooler,  and  the  fish  im- 
prove 5  but  there  is  no  fishing  of  any  consequence  done  before  the  new 
year. 


382       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

B— SACRAMENTO  EIVEE. 

After  leaving  Clear  Lake,  I  went  to  the  Sacramento  River  to  procure  a 
collection  of  the  fish  caught  at  this  season,  (February.) 

At  Rio  Vista  and  other  points,  I  gathered  the  following  fragmentary 
notes,  which  I  present  here  as  supplementary  to  my  report  on  the  fish 
of  the  Sacramento  River  for  1872. 


1. — CHARACTER  OF  FISHING-  ON  THE   SACRAMENTO. 

The  fishing  on  the  Sacramento  River  is  done  in  three  ways  :  1.  By 
drift-nets ;  2.  By  fyke-nets ;  3.  By  sweep-seines. 

Drift-nets. — The  drift-nets  are  used  exclusively  for  catching  salmon. 
They  have  an  8^-inch  mesh,  are  usually  40  meshes  deep,  and  from  150 
to  200  fathoms  long.  As  nearly  as  I  could  learn,  there  were  not  far 
from  a  hundred  salmon-nets  in  operation  on  the  Sacramento  River  in 
1872.  At  the  meeting  of  the  salmon-fishermen  of  the  Sacramento  that 
year,  there  were  ninety-five  boats  represented. 

These  nets  are  worked  by  simply  drifting  them  with  the  tide.  The 
salmon,  which,  of  course,  are  heading  against  the  tide,  are  gilled  in  the 
meshes.  The  turn  of  the  tide  is  the  most  favorable  time  for  this  sort 
of  fishing. 

The  nets  are  frequently  drifted  a  mile  before  being  hauled  in.  The 
salmon-fishing  is  conducted  entirely  by  white  men ;  no  Chinamen  being 
allowed  to  participate  in  it.  There  is  no  law  regulating  the  matterj 
but  public  opinion  is  so  strong  in  relation  to  it,  and  there  is  such  a  prej- 
udice against  the  Chinese,  that  any  attempt,  on  their  part,  to  engage 
in  salmon-fishing  would  meet  with  a  summary  and  probably  fatal 
retaliation. 

The  number  of  fresh  salmon  shipped  from  Rio  Vista  to  San  Francisco 
in  the  year  1872  is  as  follows  : 


January 792 

February 1, 581 

March 1,945 

April 3,  354 

May 4, 408 

June 1,  201 


July 1,145 

August 1,  496 

September 2, 335 

October 583 

November 441 

December 390 


On  one  day  in  February,  when  I  came  down  the  Sacramento,  there 
were  put  on  board  the  steamer,  at  Courtland,  7  fresh  salmon  ;  at  Rio 
Vista,  32  fresh  salmon ;  at  Sherman  Island,  32  fresh  salmon  ;  at  Collins- 
ville,  123  fresh  salmon. 

The  number  of  fresh  fish  (salmon  and  sturgeon)  brought  down  the 
Sacramento  River  to  San  Francisco  in  1872,  by  the  steamers  for  the 
Central  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  is  as  follows : 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  383 


August 15,  677 

September 14,706 

October 3, 0S2 

November 2, 367 

December 3,  716 


January 5, 514 

February 5,799 

March 11,  394 

April 15,  563 

May 27,394 

June... 5,561 

July 6,043  Total 105,796 

The  proportion  of  sturgeon  and  salmon  in  the  various  months  are 
estimated  as  follows : 

January :  10  per  cent,  salmon  ;  90  per  cent,  sturgeon. 

February :  10  per  cent,  salmon ;  90  per  cent,  sturgeon. 

March :  50  per  cent,  salmon  ;  50  per  cent,  sturgeon. 

April :  mostly  salmon. 

May :  all  salmon. 

June :   all  salmon. 

July :  all  salmon. 

August :  all  salmon. 

September :  all  salmon. 

October :   50  per  cent,  salmon ;  50  per  cent,  sturgeon. 

November :  50  per  cent,  salmon  ;  50  per  cent,  sturgeon. 

December :  10  per  cent,  salmon  ;  90  per  cent,  sturgeon. 

Besides  the  salmon  above  mentioned,  a  large  number  are  taken  by 
sailing-vessels  and  by  the  opposition-line  of  steamers  and  other  con- 
veyances to  San  Francisco  and  the  larger  towns. 

The  points  from  which  salmon  are  shipped  on  the  river- steamers  are 
Sacramento  City,  Courtland,  Emmatown,  Eio  Vista,  Collinsville,  Anti- 
och,  Benicia,  Martinez. 

In  the  spring  of  1872,  about  25,000  salted  salmon  came  from  the  Sac- 
ramento River  to  San  Francisco,  and  in  the  fall  about  9,000. 

The  Rio  Vista  salmon-fishermen  recommend  the  prohibition  of  fishing 
from  June  1  to  October  1  or  from  June  15  to  October  15. 

Fyke-net  fishing. — The  fyke-nets  have  a  mesh  of  2£  inches.  There 
were,  in  the  winter  of  1872-'73,  eighty-five  fyke-nets  on  the  Sacramento 
at  Rio  Vista.  They  are  stationary  of  course,  and  are  examined  every 
twenty-four  hours. 

All  the  kinds  of  fish  in  the  river  are  caught  in  these  nets.  Mr.  John 
D.  Ingersoll,  a  prominent  fyke-fisherman  of  Rio  Vista,  informed  me  that 
the  daily  catch  for  twenty  nets  is  now  about  seventy-five  pounds  of  fish. 
They  include:  chubs,*  (Eos.  210-216,  Smithsonian  collection;)  perch,  (Eos. 
217-231,  Smithsonian  collection ;)  hardheads,  (Eos.  231-236,  Smithsonian 
collection;)  Sacramento  pike,  (Eos.  237-243,  Smithsonian  collection;) 
viviparous  perch,  (Eos.  244-250,  Smithsonian  collection ;)  split-tails,  (Eos. 
251-262,  Smithsonian  collection ;)  suckers,  (Eos.  263-264,  Smithsonian 
collection;)  herrings,  (Eos.  265-270,  Smithsonian  collection;)  sturgeons, 
(Eos.  271-273,  Smithsonian  collection ;)  crabs,  (Eo.  275,  Smithsonian  col- 

*  Numbers  referable  to  catalogue  forwarded  with  specimens. 


384       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

lection.)    Of  these  varieties,  the  perch,  pike,  and  sturgeon  are  the  best 
food-fishes. 

There  has  been  a  vast  decrease  in  the  returns  of  the  fyke-nets  during 
the  last  twenty  years. 

In  1872  and  1873,  they  used  to  catch  700  or  800  pounds  a  day  in  one 
fyke-net.  An  average  of  250  pounds  a  day  for  one  net,  at  Sacramento 
City,  was  usually  expected  in  those  times.  The  present  catch  of  75 
pounds  a  day  in  20  nets  certainly  presents  an  alarming  contrast. 

The  fyke-net  fishing  is  conducted  wholly  by  white  men,  I  believe ;  the 
Chinese  fishermen  being  ruled  out  by  the  force  of  public  sentiment.  The 
fyke-nets  are  usually  visited  early  in  the  morning  of  each  day,  and  the 
catch  is  sent  down  to  San  Francisco  by  the  noon-boat.  The  fyke-net 
fishing  begins  in  November,  and  is  continued  till  May.  The  best  fishing 
is  when  a  rise  in  the  water  drives  the  fish  inshore  where  the  fyke-nets 
are  placed. 

During  the  summer-months,  the  water  is  warm,  the  fish  are  poor,  and 
the  fishing  is  discontinued. 

On  the  27th  of  February,  1873,  I  went  the  rounds  of  Mr.  Ingersoll's 
set  of  fyke-nets  with  him.  We  visited  twenty  nets  j  but,  as  some  of  them 
had  not  been  examined  for  over  twenty-four  hours,  the  yield  was  sup- 
posed to  be  equivalent  to  one  day's  fishing  for  thirty  nets.  The  nets 
had  four  hoops  each,  and  14-foot  wings.  We  took  about  120  pounds  of 
fish  in  all.  Hardheads  were  the  most  numerous,  and  the  Sacramento 
pike  next.  Mr.  Ingersoll  said  that  perch  used  to  rank  second  in  abun- 
dance, the  average  for  thirty  nets  being  200  or  300  pounds  a  day,  but 
on  this  day  the  perch  were  quite  insignificant  in  numbers.  We  found 
in  the  nets  seven  small  viviparous  perch  and  two  small  sturgeons.  I 
learned  also  that  minks,  beavers,  and  otters  are  sometimes  caught  in  the 
nets.  In  1872,  Mr.  Ingersoll  caught  eight  minks,  two  beavers,  and  one 
otter  in  his  fyke-nets. 

Sweep-seine  fishing. — The  sweep-seine  fishing  is  given  over  to  the 
Chinese,  who  are  not  allowed  by  public  sentiment  to  engage  in  either 
of  the  other  two  kinds  of  fishing  just  described.  What  they  are  not 
permitted  to  do  by  the  prohibited  methods,  they  make  ample  amends 
for  by  their  own  methods.  They  are,  I  should  say,  the  most  persistent 
and  industrious  fishermen  on  the  Sacramento.  They  fish  all  the  year 
round;  they  use  fine-mesh  nets,  with  which  they  sweep  every  part  of  the 
river,  especially  the  partially  stagnant  fresh-water  lagoons,  or  "  slews? 
as  they  are  called  in  California,  where  the  fish  collect  in  myriads  to 
spawn.  With  these  nets,  they  catch  vast  quantities  of  fish  of  all  sizes; 
and  so  destructive  has  their  fishing  been  on  the  Sacramento  that  all 
the  fish  except  salmon  are  disappearing  from  that  river  with  unexampled 
rapidity.  It  is  owing  to  this  kind  of  fishing  that  the  returns  of  the 
fyke-nets  have  diminished  so  alarmingly  the  last  few  years.  The  Chinese 
have  been  at  it  for  seven  or  eight  years ;  and,  if  they  keep  on  three  or 
four  years  more  at  this  rate,  the  small  fish  of  the  Sacramento  will  be 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  385 

practically  exterminated.  I  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  with,  any 
exactness  how  many  Chinese  fishermen  there  were  on  the  river,  but 
there  are  a  large  number,  and  Mr.  Ingersoll  said  that  they  were  increas- 
ing every  year.  Most  of  their  fish  they  send  to  the  San  Francisco 
market  as  soon  as  caught ;  but  they  also  dry  great  quantities  of  them 
on  bars  and  floors  prepared  for  the  purpose.  These  are  partly  eaten 
by  themselves,  and  the  balance  are  sent  packed  in  barrels  to  the  Chinese 
market  in  San  Francisco.  While  at  Eio  Vista,  in  February,  1873, 1  visited 
a  Chinese  fishing-station  on  the  Sacramento  Eiver.  It  was  located  about 
eighty  rods  above  the  Eio  Vista  steamboat-lauding,  and  consisted  of  a 
nest  of  Chinese  fishiug-boats,  numbering'  seven  small  boats  and  three 
large  ones.  There  were  also  on  the  shore,  just  across  the  road,  two  old 
tumble-down  buildings,  with  drying  bars  and  floors  near  by,  in  the  open 
air,  where  some  of  the  fishermen  lived,  and  attended  to  the  drying  of  the 
fish.  The  small  boats  were  common  flat-bottomed  dories,  square  at  the 
stern,  sharp  at  the  bow,  about  fifteen  feet  long,  and  strongly  built.  The 
large  boats  were  also  strongly  built,  but  narrow  and  pointed  at  both 
ends,  and  constructed  after  the  Chinese  fashion.  Two  of  these  large 
boats  had  one  mast,  and  the  other  one  had  two  masts,  considerably 
raking,  with  Chinese  sails,  which  were  not  like  any  sails  used  in  this 
country.  Nearly  amidships,  but  a  little  nearer  one  end  than  the  other, 
was  a  tent  iu  which  the  Chinamen  lived.  There  was  also  considerable 
space  in  the  hold  of  this  really  Chinese  junk,  which  added  a  good  deal 
to  their  house-room.  The  whole  air  and  look  of  these  crafts  was 
decidedly  foreign,  and  I  might  say  oriental.  If  I  understand  their  method 
rightly,  the  small  boats  are  to  visit  the  "  slews"  and  various  fishing-points 
with,  when  they  go  out  to  draw  the  seine,  and  the  large  boats  are  really 
only  movable  dwelling  and  store  houses,  where  they  live  and  receive  the 
fish  that  are  brought  in  by  the  small  boats,  and  which,  of  course,  they 
move  from  place  to  place  on  the  river  as  the  exigencies  of  the  changing 
fishing-seasons  may  require. 

C— CALIFQBNIA  AQUAEIUM  CAE. 

After  leaving  the  Sacramento  Eiver,  I  went  to  San  Francisco,  and 
immediately  began  making  preparations  forgoing  East  to  procure  a  car- 
load of  live  fish,  under  the  auspices  of  the  California  commissioners ;  but 
as  the  United  States  contributed  toward  defraying  the  expenses  of  this 
expedition,  I  will  introduce  the  following  account  of  it  here.  I  left  San 
Francisco  on  the  17th  of  March,  1873,  and  arrived  in  Boston  on  the  28th 
of  March,  having  made  a  short  stop  at  Sacrameuto  to  arrange  for  the 
transportation  of  the  car,  and  also  at  Salt  Lake  City  to  provide  for  the 
reception  and  hatching  of  a  consignment  of  shad  and  salmon  which 
Professor  Baird  proposed  to  send  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  Utah. 

I  quote  the  following  account  of  the  aquarium-car  trip  from  my  report 
to  the  California  commission  of  that  expedition  : 

"My  plan  of  operations  for  the  whole  undertaking  was,  first,  to 


386       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

collect  the  fish  at  some  favorable  point  at  the  East,  where  they  could 
be  kept  alive  until  everything  was  ready  for  the  journey  ;  secondly,  to 
fit  up  a  car  with  the  apparatus  most  suitable  for  transporting  living  fish : 
and,  thirdly,  to  take  this  car  when  loaded  to  California  in  the  least  pos- 
sible time,  and  without  any  transfer  of  its  contents.  This  plan  was 
successfully  carried  into  practice  up  to  the  time  of  the  accident  just 
beyond  Omaha. 

"The  first  installment  of  living  fish  intended  for  the  California  car 
arrived  at  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  the  point  of  rendezvous,  on  the  7th  of 
May.  It  consisted  of  eighty-two  black  bass,  (Grystes  fasciatus;)  glass- 
eyed  perch,  (Lucioperca;)  and  bull-heads,  (Pimelodus;)  and  about  300,000 
eggs  of  the  Perca  fiavescens  and  the  Lucioperca. 

"  These  fish  were  collected  at  Lake  Champlain,  and  at  the  Missisquoi 
River  in  Vermont,  and  were  taken  a  journey  of  thirty  hours  by  rail, 
before  reaching  Charlestown.  They,  nevertheless,  bore  their  trip  admi- 
rably, and  arrived  at  their  destination  in  first-rate  order. 

"  The  next  two  weeks  were  spent  in  fitting  up  the  car,  which  had 
arrived  at  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  and  making  other  preparations  for  the 
difficult  undertaking  in  prospect.  Arrangements  had  been  previously 
made,  at  the  suggestion  of  Hon.  Spencer  F.  Baird,  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Fisheries,  with  Mr.  Monroe  Green,  at  Castleton,  on  the 
Hudson,  for  a  supply  of  young  shad  and  fresh-water  eels  j  and  also, 
with  Capt.  Viual  Edwards,  of  Wood's  Hole,  Mass.,  for  young  lobsters 
and  other  salt-water  fish.  The  eastern  trout  (Salmo  fontlnalis)  were  to 
be  taken  from  the  Cold  Spring  trout-ponds  at  Charlestown ;  the  large 
lobsters  were  to  come  from  Johnson  &  Young's  establishment  at  Bos- 
ton ;  and  Mr.  Myron  Green  was  dispatched  to  the  Baritan  Biver  for  cat- 
fish. 

"  The  equipment  of  the  car  having  been  completed,  and  everything 
being  ready,  the  3d  day  of  June,  1873,  was  set  for  our  departure.  At 
midnight  of  June  2d,  Mr.  W.  S.  Perrin  arrived  from  Boston  with  a 
special  car,  having  on  board  the  lobsters,  oysters,  small  lobsters,  salt- 
water eels,  tautogs,  and  reserves  of  ocean-water.  We  began  at  daylight 
the  next  morning  filling  the  tanks  in  the  car  and  loading  in  the  fish,  and 
by  1  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  everything  was  ready,  and  at  a  quarter 
past  2  on  Tuesday,  June  3,  the  California  aquarium-car  started  on  its 
journey. 

"The  car  was  furnished  by  the  Central  Pacific  Bailroad  Company, 
and  was  one  of  their  fruit-cars,  intended  for  quick  trips  across  the  con- 
tinent. It  was  27  feet  long  and  8  feet  wide,  and  was  provided  with  a 
Westiughouse  air-brake  and  Miller  platform,  which  enabled  us  to  take 
it  along  with  passenger-trains. 

"At  one  end  of  the  car  was  a  stationary  tank,  built  of  2-inch  plank, 
lined  with  zinc,  and  occupying  the  whole  width  of  the  car  and  8  feet  of 
its  length.  This  tank  was  2  feet  and  8  inches  deep,  and  held,  when  full, 
about  five  tons  of  water.    At  the  other  end  of  the  car  was  a  large  ice- 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  387 

box,  the  reserves  of  sea-water,  six  large  cases  of  lobsters,  and  a  barrel 
of  oysters.  In  the  center  of  the  car,  and  occupying  nearly  all  the  room 
in  it,  were  the  other  portable  tanks  for  carrying  the  fish.  Our  beds  were 
on  the  top  of  the  large  stationary  tank,  which,  of  course,  was  covered. 
The  large  tank  was  also  arranged  so  that  we  could  take  on  water  on  a 
large  scale  from  the  water-works  at  the  railroad-stations  en  route.  This 
proved  to  be  a  very  great  convenience,  and  was,  in  fact,,  indispensable. 

"  When  we  left  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  the  car  contained  upward  of  60 
black  bass,  from  Lake  Ohamplain,  (Grystes  fasciatus :)  11  glass-eyed 
perch,  from  Lake  Champlain,  {Lucioperca,  Americana;)  110  yellow 
perch,  from  Missisquoi  .River,  (Perca flavescens ;)  80  young  yellow  perch, 
from  Missisquoi  Kiver,  {Perca  Jlavescens ;)  12  bull-heads,  (horn-pouts,) 
from  Missisquoi  River,  (Pimelodus  atrarius;)  110  cat-fish,  from  Raritan 
River,  (Pimeloclus ;)  20  tautogs,  from  near  Martha's  Vineyard,  (Tautoga 
Americana;)  1,500  salt-water  eels,  from  Martha's  Vineyard,  (Anguilla 
bostoniensis  ;)  1,000  young  trout,  from  Charlestown,  X.  H.,  (Salmo  fonti- 
nalis;)  162  lobsters,  from  Massachusetts  Bay  and  Wood's  Hole;  1  bar- 
rel of  oysters,  from  Massachusetts  Bay ;  supplies  of  minnows  for  feed- 
fish. 

"The  black  bass,  bull-heads,  cat-fish,  and  ftart  of  the  lobsters  were  full- 
grown  and  heavy  with  spawn. 

"  Besides  the  fish  above  enumerated,  I  took  on  at  Albany  40,000  fresh- 
water eels  from  the  Hudson,  and  arranged  tor  20,000  shad  and  shad- 
eggs  (Alosa  prccstabilis)  from  the  Hudson,  to  overtake  us  at  Chicago. 

"  The  receptacles  for  holding  the  fish  consisted  of  1  large  stationary 
tank,  8  feet/square  and  2  feet  8  inches  deep ;  1  round  wooden  70-gallon 
tank;  1  round  50-gailon  tank;  3  round  30-gallon  tanks;  3  conical- 
shaped  30-gallon  tanks:  6  conical  10-gallon  tin  cans;  1  conical  15-gal- 
lon  tin  can ;  3  round  9-gallon  tin  cans  'p  2  35-gallon  casks ;  6  large 
cases,  containing  the  lobsters ;  the  total  capacity  of  the  whole,  exclud- 
ing the  lobster-cases,  being  about  16,000  pounds  of  water. 

"  Besides  the  vessels  for  holding  the  fish,  the  car  contained  the  follow- 
ing articles :  1  large  120-gallon  cask,  filled  with  ocean- water  ;  1  00-gallon 
cask,  filled  with  ocean- water;  1  large  ice-box ;  £  barrel  of  live  moss;  £  bar- 
rel of  water-plants;  curd  and  meal  for  feed;  1  bushel  of  salt  for  killing 
parasites ;  the  aerating-apparatus  referred  to ;  1  alcohol-stove ;  1  set  car- 
penter's tools ;  2  lanterns ;  2  hammocks ;  2  spring-beds ;  2  mattresses 
and  pillow;  2  sets  bedclothes;  1  broom;  1  lot  green  sod ;  2  thermometers; 
pipes,  spouts,  and  siphons,  for  taking  in  and  letting  off  water ;  1  long-han- 
dled dip-net ;  2  short-handled  dip-nets ;  movable  steps  to  door  of  car ; 
sundry  barrels,  pails,  dippers,  &c. ;  maps,  with  stations  marked  where  we 
knew  the  water  to  be  good  or  bad  ;  our  trunks,  valises,  and  private  bag- 
gage. 

"  When  the  car  left  Charlestown,  there  were  four  of  us  in  it :  Mr.  W. 
T.Perrin,  of  Grantville,  Mass.;  Mr. Myron  Green,  of  Highgate,  Vt. ;  Mr. 
Edward  Osgood,  of  Charlestown,  X.  H. ;  and  myself.  We  arrived  at 
Albany  at  11.30  p.  m.  the  same  eveniug,  all  the  fish  doing  well,  and  the 


388       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

"water  in  the  tanks  standing  at  45°  F.  Here  we  took  on  the  40,000  eels 
mentioned  above  and  half  a  ton  of  ice.  We  also  left  Mr.  Myron  Green 
here  to  go  to  the  New  York  Shad-Hatching  Works  at  Castleton,  on  the 
Hudson,  and  get  a  supply  of  young  shad. 

"  On  my  urgent  application  to  the  New  York  Central  Eailroad  au- 
thorities, that  road  took  us  with  their  passenger-train,  which  was  due  to 
leave  Albany  at  2.40  a.  m.  on  the  same  night.  We  reached  Suspen- 
sion Bridge  about  noon,  and  left  for  Detroit  with  a  passenger-train 
on  the  Great  Western  Railroad.  We  took  on  ice  and  water  at  Ham- 
ilton, Canada,  and  reached  the  boat  at  Detroit  ferry  about  11  p.  m.  the 
same  day,  Wednesday,  June  4 ;  all  the  fish  being  in  good  order,  except 
the  lobsters,  which  were  dying  in  considerable  numbers.  The  track  on 
the  ferry-boat  being  just  filled  by  the  train,  without  the  aquarium-car, 
they  left  us  east  of  the  river  all  night,  and,  it  being  very  warm,  I  spent 
the  rest  of  the  night  till  daylight  looking  up  ice,  of  which  I  at  last 
obtained  about  a  ton  and  a  half. 

"Leaving  Detroit  that  morning — Thursday,  June  5 — we  proceeded 
directly  to  Niles,  Mich.,  with  a  passenger-train,  via  the  Michigan 
Central  Eailroad.  We  had  now  come  all  the  way  with  passenger- 
trains,  and  had  we  known  this  beforehand  we  need  not  have  lost  any 
time  in  bringing  on  the  shad;  as  it  was,  however,  we  expected  to  make 
slow  time  on  freight-trains  from  Albany  to  Chicago,  and  I  hence 
arranged  to  have  the  shad  brought  on  by  express  from  Albany  two  days 
after  we  left  that  point.  These  two  days  we  had  now  on  our  hands,  and 
it  was  very  aggravating  to  be  obliged  to  lose  so  much  time  when  time 
was  so  precious.  There  was  no  help  for  it,  however;  and  as  I  thought 
it  would  be  better  to  wait  part  of  the  time  on  the  road  than  to  spend  the 
whole  of  the  two  days  in  Chicago,  I  had  the  car  dropped  at  Niles,  Mich., 
and  we  remained  there  till  6.10  the  next  morning — Friday,  June  G — 
when  we  went  on  to  Chicago,  after  taking  on  ice  and  water,  and  catch- 
ing some  minnows  to  feed  the  large  fish  with.  We  entered  Chicago 
about  10  o'clock  on  Friday  morning,  all  the. fish  doing  well  except  the 
lobsters  and  eels. 

"  The  temperatures  at  which  I  aimed  to  keep  the  different  varieties  of 

fish  were  as  follows  : 

Degrees  Fahrenheit. 

"  Cat-fish 50 

u  Fresh-water  eels » .  45  to  50 

"Tautogs 45 

"  Salt-water  eels 45 

"  Black  bass 42 

"  Yellow  perch 42 

"Bull-heads 42 

"  Glass-eyed  perch 42 

"Trout 3S 

"  Lobsters 24  to  36 

"Oysters , 34  to  36 


OPERATIONS    IN   CALIFORNIA   IN   1873.  389 

"  From  the  experience  which  1  have  now  had,  however,  I  would  ad- 
vise a  change  with  some  of  the  fish,  which  would  make  the  temperature 

as  follows: 

Degrees  Fahrenheit. 

"  Cat-fish 50 

"  Fresh-water  eels ~ 50 

"  Bull-heads 48 

"  Glass-eyed  perch 48 

"  Yellow  perch 45  to  48 

"  Black  bass 42  to  45 

"Salt-water  eels 42  to  45 

"  Tautogs ~ 40 

"  Trout 36  to  38 

"  Lobsters 34  to  36 

"Oysters « 34  to  36 

"  Mr.  Myron  Green  rejoined  us  with  the  shad  the  next  morning,  Sat- 
urday, June  7th,  and  at  10.15  a.  m.  the  same  day,  after  having  taken  on 
three  tons  of  ice  and  three  tons  of  Lake  Michigan  water,  we  left  Chi- 
cago for  Omaha,  via  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Eailroad. 

"  We  took  on  water  again  at  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  and  arrived  at 
Omaha  at  11  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  Sunday,  June  8th.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Mr.  C.  B.  Havens,  the  train-dispatcher  of  the  Union  Pa- 
cific Eailroad,  who  detailed  an  engine  to  take  our  car  Jto  the  ice-house 
at  the  Union  Pacific  shops,  we  were  enabled  to  take  on  a  ton  and 
a  half  of  ice,  and  about  1  o'clock  we  started  westward  again.  We 
were  now  on  our  sixth  day  out,  and  everything  was  promising  well. 
All  the  dead  eels  had  been  removed,  and  we  had  20,000  or  30,000  left. 
The  mortality  of  the  lobsters  was  on  the  decrease,  and  we  still  had 
over  forty  alive  and  in  good  condition.  All  the  other  fish  were  in 
splendid  order.  We  had  ice  and  water  enough  on  board  to  take  us, 
if  necessary,  to  the  Sierra  Nevada — certainly  with  what  supplies  we 
could  get  in  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  where  the  water  is  good.  The 
circumstance  of  the  fish  having  lived  so  well  up  to  this  time  gave  us  a 
good  deal  of  confidence,  and  we  were  encouraged-  to  hope  that  they 
would  continue  to  do  well  to  the  end  of  their  journey. 

"After  leaving  Omaha,  we  stowed  away  as  well  as  we  could  the  im- 
mense amount  of  ice  we  had  on  the  car;  and,  having  regulated  the  tem- 
perature of  all  the  tanks,  and  aerated  the  water  all  round,  we  made  our 
tea  and  were  sitting  down  to  diuner,  when  suddenly  there  came  a  terri- 
ble crash,  and  tanks,  ice,  and  everything  in  the  car  seemed  to  strike  us 
in  every  direction.  We  were,  every  one  of  us,  at  once  wedged  in  by  the 
heavy  weights  upon  us,  so  that  we  could  not  move  or  stir.  A  moment  after 
the  car  began  to  fill  rapidly  with  water,  the  heavy  weights  upon  us  be- 
gan to  loosen,  and,  in  some  unaccountable  way,  we  were  washed  out  into 
the  river.  Swimming  around  our  car,  we  climbed  up  on  one  end  of  it, 
which  was  still  out  of  water,  and  looked  around  to  see  where  we  were. 


390      REPORT    CF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

We  found  our  car  detached  from  the  train,  and  nearly  all  under  water, 
both  couplings  having  parted.  The  tender  was  out  of  sight,  and  the 
upper  end  of  our  car  resting  on  it.  The  engine  was  three-fourths  under 
water,  and  one  man  in  the  engine-cab  crushed  to  death.  Two, men  wero 
floating  down  the  swift  current  in  a  drowning  condition,  and  the  balance 
of  the  train  still  stood  ou  the  track,  with  the  forward  car  within  a  very- 
few  inches  of  the  water's  edge.  The  Westinghouse  air-brake  had  saved 
the  train.  If  we  had  been  without  it,  the  destruction  would  have  been 
fearful. 

"  One  look  was  sufficient  to  show  that  the  contents  of  the  aquarium- 
car  were  a  total  loss.  No  care  or  labor  had  been  spared  in  bringing  the 
fish  to  this  point,  and  now,  almost  on  the  verge  of  success,  everything 
was  lost. 

u  I  immediately  telegraphed  the  state  of  affairs  to  Mr.  S.  R.  Throck- 
morton, chairman  of  the  California  fish-commissioners,  and  to  Hon. 
Spencer  F.  Baird,  the  head  of  the  United  States  Fish-Commission  at 
Washington.  1  received  instructions,  by  telegraph,  from  Washington 
the  next  morning,  to  return  east  immediately,  with  my  assistants,  and 
take  on  a  shipment  of  young  shad  to  California  under  the  auspices  of  the 
United  States  Fish-Commission." 

D— OVERLAND  JOURNEY  WITH  LIVE  SHAD. 

1. — PREPARATION  FOR   TEE   TRIP. 

As  soon  as  was  practicable  after  the  accident  to  the  first  California 
aquarium-car,  I  reported  to  Professor  Baird  at  Washington,  reaching 
that  city  on  the  morning  of  June  15th. 

Having  received  here  more  explicit  instructions  in  regard  to  the  trip 
with  shad,  I  made  immediate  preparations  for  undertaking  this  journey, 
and  arrived  at  Castleton,  on  the  Hudson,  with  my  men,  on  the  25th  day 
of  June.  The  New  York  State  shad-hatching  works,  under  the  immedi- 
ate charge  of  Mr.  Monroe  Green,  are  located  here,  and  it  was  at  this 
point  that  I  was  to  procure  my  consignment  of  shad  for  California. 

2. — THE  START. 

At  G  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same  day,  Wednesday,  June  25, 
I  left  the  shad-hatching  camp,  with  40,000  young  shad.  They  were 
packed  in  eight  10-gallon  cans,  each  can  containing  5,000  fish.  They 
had  been  just  taken  from  the  shad-hatching  boxes  in  the  river  by  Mr. 
Green,  and  appeared  very  healthy  and  lively ;  but  they  looked  so  frail 
and  delicate  that  it  seemed  almost  a  hopeless  task  to  undertake  to  carry 
them. alive  3,000  miles,  and  deposit  them  in  a  river  at  the  other 
extremity  of  the  continent,  and  I  certainly  despaired  of  getting  them 
there  safely. 

There  were  four  of  us  in  all  at  the  start :  Mr.  H.  W.  Welsher ;  Mr. 
W.  T.  Perrin  ;  Mr.  Myron   Green ;  and  myself.     Mr.  Welsher  accom- 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  391 

parried  us  as  far  as  Omaha,  and  the  success  of  the  expedition  is  largely 
owing  to  his  skill  and  experience.  The  remaining  three  went  through 
,to  California  with  the  shad. 

3, — THE   APPARATUS. 

Our  outfit  was  very  simple,  consisting  merely  of  the  eight  cans  con- 
taining the  fish,  one  similar  can  tilled  with  water  for  a  reserve,  two  or 
tbree  pails  and  dippers,  a  thermometer,  and  the  apparatus  for  changing 
the  water.  This  apparatus  and  its  use  demand  a  few  words  of  explana- 
tion. 

The  requirements  demanded  for  keeping  young  shad  alive  in  trausit 
are  radically  different  from  those  involved  in  carrying  any  other  fish,  1 
believe,  that  have  yet  been  experimented  with.  They  require  changes 
of  water,  of  course,  like  any  other  fish  ;  but  they  always  scatter  indis- 
criminately tbrough  all  portions  of  the  water  containing  them,  instead 
of  dropping  to  the  bottom  of  their  can,  and  remaining  quietly  there,  as 
is  the  custom  with  very  young  trout  and  salmon.  In  consequence  of  this, 
the  water  cannot  be  dipped  out  and  thrown  away  to  make  room  for 
fresh  supplies  without  dipping  out  and  tbrowingthe  fish  away  with  it. 

It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  separate  the  fish  from  the  water 
before  renewing  it.  To  accomplish  this,  the  apparatus  in  question  is  in- 
tended. It  consists  of  a  cylinder  2  inches  in  diameter,  made  of  very  fine 
copper-wire  netting,  and  about  as  long  as  the  can  is  deep.  The  bottom 
is  closed  with  the  same  netting.  The  top  is  open.  In  connection  with 
this  is  used  a  piece  of  £-inch  rubber  tubing  6  feet  long.  To  change  the 
water,  the  wire  cylinder  is  thrust  into  the  can  to  any  desirable  depth ; 
the  water  immediately  enters  the  cylinder  through  the  wire  net- work, 
which  also  keeps  the  fish  out.  One  end  of  the  rubber  hose  is  now  dropped 
into  the  cylinder,  the  other  end  being  placed  in  the  pail  or  can  intended 
for  the  waste  water.  The  water  being  started  in  the  hose  by  applying 
suction  at  the  lower  end  in  the  pail,  it  acts  at  once  as  a  siphon,  and 
begins  to  draw  the  water  out  of  the  cylinder.  As  the  fish  cannot  get 
into  the  cylinder,  the  water  is  drawn  off  without  drawing  off  the  fish. 
When  a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  removed,  the  cylinder  and  siphon 
are  taken  out,  and  the  spare  room  in  the  can  replaced  by  putting  in 
fresh  reserves  of  water  very  carefully  with  a  dipper.  Thus  the  chang- 
ing of  the  water  is  safely  accomplished.  This  very  simple,  ingenious, 
and   effective  method  is  the  invention  of  Seth  Green. 

4. — THE    CARE   OF    THE  FISH. 

The  points  about  carrying  living  young  shad  safely  are  such  as  to 
make  it  very  delicate  and  critical  work.  They  are  substantially  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  To  make  constant  changes  of  water. 

2.  To  keep  the  temperature  of  the  water  within  specified  limits. 


392       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

3.  To  avoid  sudden  changes  of  temperature  in  the  cans  containing  the 
fish. 

4.  To  avoid  any  agitation  of  the  water  in  the  cans. 

5.  To  furnish  constant  supplies  of  water  containing  minute  natural 
food. 

C.  To  guard  vigilantly  against  the  use  of  water  in  the  least  degree 
unwholesome. 

Any  failure  to  supply  the  above  conditions  will  be  immediately  followed 
by  fatal  results. 

Changes  of  water. — To  make  constant  changes  of  water,  experience 
has  shown  to  be  one  of  the  important  secrets  about  keeping  the  young 
fish  in  good  condition.  A  change  is  usually  made  once  in  two  hours. 
Any  temporary  neglect  of  this  precaution  soon  shows  its  effect  in  the 
weakening  of  the  fish,  and  prolonged  neglect  is  fatal. 

A  spare  can  containing  a  reserve  of  fresh  water  is  usually  carried  along 
with  the  other  cans,  and  is  filled  as  may  be  required  at  railroad-stations. 
The  changes  in  the  cans  are  made  as  just  described  under  the  head  of 
apparatus  for  changing  the  water.  In  our  case,  the  water  was  changed 
every  two  hours,  night  and  day,  for  the  first  half  of  the  trip,  and  almost 
every  hour  for  the  last  half.  As  we  had  eight  cans  of  fish,  and  were  seven 
days  and  nights  on  the  way,  we  made  almost  a  thousand  changes  of 
water.  The  labor,  of  course,  was  almost  incessant.  It  was  like  walking 
a  thousand  miles  in  a  thousand  hours. 

Temperature  of  the  icater. — It  has  been  ascertained  that  a  lower  degree 
of  temperature  than  G2°  Fahrenheit  or  a  higher  degree  than  75°  Fah- 
renheit is  unfavorable  to  young  shad.  It  becomes  necessary  therefore 
to  keep  the  water  in  the  cans  between  these  two  points,  viz,  62°  and  75°. 
This  is  done  by  cooling  the  water  used  for  changing  with  ice  when  too 
warm,  or  heating  it  with  artificial  heat  when  too  cold. 

It  is  not  usually  a  very  difficult  matter  to  obtain  water  of  the  right 
degree  for  changing  with,  because  most  trips  with  shad  are  made  in 
warm  weather,  and  in  a  warm  climate,  and  the  main  difficulty  is  to  get 
the  water  cool  enough,  which  can  easily  be  done  with  ice.  On  our  over- 
laud  journey,  however,  we  passed  through  a  very  cold  climate  in  cross- 
ing the  high  ridges  of  the  continent.  Indeed,  at  one  point  on  the  Eocky 
Mountains,  it  snowed  in  the  day-time,  although  almost  the  1st  of  July; 
and  at  these  high  altitudes  the  nights  were  always  very  cold.  To  keep 
the  temperature  of  the  water  up  to  a  safe  point  under  these  conditions, 
in  a  cold  car,  with  no  fire  in  it,  and  with  reserves  of  water  which  them- 
selves were  cold,  was  no  easy  matter,  as  will  appear  in  the  account  of 
the  journey.  Indeed,  at  one  time  there  seemed  to  be  no  possible  chance 
of  saving  the  fish,  though,  through  the  untiring  labor  and  perseverance 
of  Mr.  Perrin  and  Mr.  Green,  it  was  accomplished. 

Sudden  changes. — Sudden  changes  of  temperature  are  very  injurious, 
and  often  fatal,  to  shad.  So  important  is  the  precaution  thought  to  be  of 
guarding  against  this  danger  that  an  alteration  of  more  than  two  degrees 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  393 

in  the  cans  when  changing  the  water  is  avoided  if  possible.  This  end  is 
accomplished  by  preparing  the  reserve  water  in  a  pail  or  can  beforehand, 
and  having  it  within  two  or  three  degrees  of  the  temperature  of  the  shad- 
water  when  the  change  is  made.  This  can  usually  be  done,  but  it 
adds  very  much  to  the  labor  and  care.  If  we  could  simply  have  put  a 
piece  of  ice  in  the  shad-cans,  or  have  poured  in  some  warm  water  when 
it  became  necessary  to  depress  or  raise  the  temperature,  the  work  of 
keeping  it  right  would  have  been  comparatively  simple";  but  to  be 
obliged  to  grade  it  by  this  slow  process  of  preparing  the  water  before- 
hand, and  then  to  affect  the  temperature  of  the  cans  only  two  degrees 
at  each  change,  was  a  complicated  work,  and  required  constant  care  and 
vigilance,  as  is  evident  from  the  consideration  that  if  the  temperature  of 
the  shad-cans  took  to  rising  or  falling  rapidly,  it  would  get  the  advan- 
tage of  us,  so  that  we  could  not  change  the  temperature  fast  enough, 
at  the  rate  of  two  degrees  at  a  time,  to  keep  up  with  it,  and  to  restrain 
it  within  the  required  limits. 

Still  another  complication  comes  in  passing  through  cold  climates, 
which  is  that  the  character  of  hot  water  that  is  obtained  cannot  be  tested, 
(  and  it  therefore  cannot  be  safely  used  on  the  fish,  even  when  reduced  to 
the  right  temperature,  and  can  only  be  employed  as  a  warm  bath  to  place 
the  vessels  containing  the  reserve  water  in.  This  is  not  all.  The  only 
way,  at  times,  on  the  overland  journey  that  we  could  get  hot  water  was  to 
heat  bars  of  iron  in  the  engine-furnace,  and  thrust  them,  when  heated, 
into  a  vessel  of  water,  the  train,  of  course,  being  all  the  time  in  motion. 

Under  these  circumstances,  then,  five  steps  became  necessary  in  order 
to  regulate  the  temperature  of  the  shad-cans:  (a)  to  heat  the  irons  in  the 
engine-furnace  ;  (b)  to  heat  water  with  these  irons ;  (c)  to  warm  the  re- 
serve water  used  for  a  change  by  placing  a  vessel  of  it  in  the  water  heated 
by  the  irons  ;  (d)  to  make  the  change  with  the  prepared  reserve;  (e)  to 
continue  altering  the  temperature  in  this  way  two  degrees  at  a  time 
until  the  desired  point  was  reached. 

To  work  all  night  at  this,  in  a  moving  railway- car,  in  a  cold  climate, 
with  the  temperature  of  the  water  falling  faster  than  you  can  possibly 
raise  it  two  degrees  at  a  time  by  the  most  active  exertions,  while  all  the 
time  the  lives  of  the  fish  and  the  success  of  the  whole  expedition  are 
hanging  in  the  balance,  is  no  child's  play.  It  was  like  the  ancient  pun- 
ishment of  being  fastened  to  a  pump  up  to  one's  chin  in  water  which 
rose  as  fast  as  the  most  vigorous  pumping  could  keep  it  down. 

Agitation  of  the  ivater. — Contrary  to  the  requirements  of  young  trout 
and  salmon,  agitation  of  the  water,  which  is  to  the  utmost  degree  beneficial 
to  them,  is  equally  injurious  to  shad.  To  avoid  this  injurious  agitation, 
shad  are  carried  in  tall  and  (comparatively)  slender  cans,  instead  of  in  broad 
and  shallow  vessels.  These  cans,  which  have  rather  a  narrow  neck,  are 
tilled  up  to  the  narrowest  point.  By  these  precautions,  the  motion  of 
the  trains  is  almost  entirely  prevented  from  agitating  the  water.  In 
putting  in  the  fresh  reserves,  care  is  taken  to  place  the  water  in  gently, 


394      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AKD    FISHERIES. 

and  never  to  pour  it  in  hard,  with  the  same  object  of  avoiding  a  violent 
disturbance  of  the  water.  As  our  cans  were  properly  made,  having 
been  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  James  W.  Milner,  the  very- 
efficient  assistant  of  Professor  Baird,  we  had  no  trouble  from  the  motion 
of  the  train  agitating  the  water. 

Supply  of  minute  forms  of  life  as  food  to  the  fish. — To  furnish  the  fish 
with  constant  supplies  of  water  containing  minute  natural  food,  is  obvi- 
ously necessary  to  do  after  the  fish  are  two  or  three  days  old,  and  the 
yolk-sac  absorbed ;  for  then  they  are  ready  to  feed.  Nearly  all  creatures, 
as  is  well  known,  require,  with  great  frequency  when  first  born,  supplies 
of  nourishment  to  replace  the  waste  produced  by  the  vital  processes  ; 
but  with  fish  this  is  particularly  true,  and  especially  so  with  young  shad. 

To  supply  this  nourishment  is  usually  not  difficult,  all  but  very  cold 
water  containing  more  or  less  of  it.  The  main  precaution  to  be  observed 
is  to  take  on  sufficient  reserves  of  (relatively)  warm  water  when  oppor- 
tunity offers.  The  warmer  the  water,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
greater  is  the  amount  of  nutriment  in  it.  We  had  no  particular  trouble 
on  our  journey  on  this  score. 

Unwholesome  water. — To  avoid  the  use  of  water  in  the  least  degree 
unwholesome  is  a  precaution  the  necessity  for  which  is  apparent.  Un- 
wholesome water  will  kill  any  fish  even  when  not  confined,  and  espe- 
cially so  highly-organized  a  fish  as  a  young  shad.  And  if  this  is 
important  with  fish  in  their  free  state,  it  is  obvious  how  much  more  so 
it  must  be  with  fish  confined  by  thousands  in  small  cans,  where  all  the 
conditions,  to  begin  with,  are  unfavorable  to  life,  and  where  only  a 
slight  addition  to  the  increase  of  the  evils  of  their  situation  is  sufficient 
to  turn  the  scale  the  wrong  way  and  destroy  them. 

To  guard  against  unwholesome  water  in  traveling  with  live  shad, 
various  precautions  are  employed.  Passengers  and  railroad-employes  on 
the  train  are  consulted  as  to  the  character  of  the  water  ahead.  This  usu- 
ally helps  somewhat  in  a  great  many  cases  ;  though  great  caution  must 
be  exercised  in  accepting  the  information  so  obtained.  On  arriving  at 
any  given  water-station,  further  inquiries  are  made;  and  if  all  accounts 
agree  that  the  water  is  lime  or  alkaline  water,  or  otherwise  unsuitable,  it 
is  given  up;  but  if  nothing  is  learned  against  it,  it  is  then  tasted,  and, 
if  this  first  tasting  is  favorable,  a  supply  is  taken  on  board.  It  is  then 
more  carefully  and  deliberately  tasted,  and,  if  traces  of  lime  or  alkali  are 
discovered,  it  is  thrown  away;  if  not,  a  few  fish  are  placed  in  a  tumbler 
full  of  it,  and  their  movements  watched.  If  it  is  very  unwholesome, 
they  will  show  it  at  once  by  their  actions.  If  they  do  not  seem  uneasy 
in  it,  the  tumbler  may  be  set  aside  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  if,  at  the  end 
of  that  time,  the  fish  appear  to  be  doing  well,  it  is  considered  safe  to  use 
the  water.  I  may  add  here  that  it  is  surprising  how  sensitive  and 
accurate  one's  taste  will  become  after  a  few  days'  practice  in  detecting 
traces  of  lime  or  alkali  in  the  water.  The  improvement  in  this  respect 
during  the  journey  in  the  case  of  our  party  astonished  us.  Our  palates 
seemed  to  become  as  quick  and  positive  in  their  actions  as  the  most  sen- 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  395 

sitive  chemical  tests.  I  believe  at  the  end  of  the  journey  we  could  have 
detected  almost  the  slightest  traces  of  alkaline  mixture  in  the  water,  by 
the  taste. 

It  was  always  a  matter  of  great  anxiety  with  us,  at  every  change  of 
water,  lest  we  should  get  unwholesome  water  into  the  cans,  and  so 
destroy  in  a  moment  the  fruits  of  all  our  pains  and  care.  It  was  particu- 
larly so  at  first  before  we  had  acquired  confidence  in  our  judgment  of  the  . 
qualities  of  different  waters,  and  the  thought  that  one  mistake  in  all  the 
thousand  changes  oficater  to  come  would  be  fatal  to  the  enterprise  was  appall- 
ing. It  seemed  as  if  it  would  be  a  miracle  if  we  should  safely  run  the 
gauntlet  of  this  thousand  changes  in  passing  through  a  country  the  water 
of  which  for  two  thousand  miles  held  lime  or  alkali,  and  for  a  thousand 
miles  was  frequently  so  bad  that  cattle  could  not  drink  it. 

We  went  through  it  all,  however,  safely ;  and,  though  we  exercised  all 
the  caution  we  could  bring  to  bear  on  the  subject,  I  think  we  owed  it  as 
much  to  good  luck  as  to  our  own  care  that  we  escaped  the  danger  of 
using  bad  water. 

I  forwarded  to  you  at  Washington  a  list  of  the  places  en  route  where 
we  found  good  water,  so  that  hereafter,  with  this  for  a  guide,  there  need 
not  be  much  danger  of  going  wrong. 

5. — JOURNAL   OF   THE   TRIP. 

As  before  meutioned,  we  left  the  shad-hatching  works  at  Castleton,  on 
the  Hudson,  for  the  Castleton  railroad-station  at  6  o'clock  on  the  after- 
noon of  Wednesday,  June  25,  with  forty  thousand  young  shad  packed 
in  eight  cans  of  water,  each  holding  ten  gallons. 

On  arriving  at  the  Castleton  station,  we  changed  the  water  once,  and 
left  Castleton  for  Albany  at  9.15  p.  m.,  the  water  in  the  cans  standing 
at  70°.  At  Albany,  we  made  two  changes,  and  took  the  westward-bound 
train  for  Sacramento  at  11.30  p.  m.  We  took  on  water  at  Utica,  Syra- 
cuse, Rochester,  Buffalo,  Dunkirk,  Erie,  Painesville,  Cleveland,  Illyria, 
(well-water,  doubtful,)  Edgerton,  Elkhart,  South  Bend,  (lime-water, 
bad,)  and  Chicago,  keeping  the  temperature  of  the  cans  very  near  to  70°, 
and  arriving  at  Chicago  on  Friday  morning,  July  27,  with  the  fish  in 
good  order.  It  was  exceedingly  hot  at  Chicago,  the  mercury  standing 
at  100°  in  the  shade,  and  it  was  only  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  and  by 
constant  changes  of  water,  that  we  succeeded  in  keeping  the  water  down 
to  a  safe  point.  As  it  was,  the  heat  made  the  temperature  of  the  cans 
rise  to  74°. 

On  leaving  Chicago,  the  air  grew  cooler,  and  by  night  we  had 
brought  the  temperature  down  to  6S°;  but  approaching  Omaha  the  next 
morning,  it  went  up  again  to  70° ;  and  while  waiting  at  Omaha,  which 
we  reached  on  Saturday  noon,  July  26,  it  rose  to  73°,  though  we  tried 
hard  to  keep  it  down.  Between  Chicago  and  Omaha,  we  took  on  water 
at  La  Salle,  Bellows  station,  Bureau,  Tiskilwa,  Eock  Island,  Davenport, 


396       EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER   OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Kellogg,  Casey,  and  Avoca.  Mr.  Welsher  left  us  at  Omaha,  and  re- 
turned to  Bochester. 

"We  left  Omaha  on  the  Union  Pacific  road  at  3  o'clock  on  Saturday, 
with  the  fish  in  excellent  order.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  C.  B. 
Havens,  the  Union  Pacific  train-dispatcher,  I  was  permitted  to  stop  the 
train  at  the  Elkhorn  Biver,  where  the  aquarium-car  accident  happened, 
to  take  on  a  reserve  of  river-water  at  that  point ;  the  little  experience  I 
had  had  in  it  leading  me  to  think  that  it  would  be  good  for  the  shad. 

The  country  west  of  Omaha  for  fifteen  hundred  miles  is,  as  is  well  known, 
very  poorly  supplied  with  good  water.  It  therefore  seemed  necessary 
to  have  a  larger  reserve  of  water  on  board  than  the  10  gallons  which 
served  our  purpose  east  of  this  point.  I  accordingly  took  on  at  Omaha 
a  30-gallon  tank,  which  had  been  rescued  from  the  aquarium-car  wreck, 
which,  with  our  pails  and  spare  can,  gave  our  reserves  a  capacity  of  50 
gallons. 

On  arriving  at  the  Elkhorn  Biver,  the  train  stopped,  and  we  took  on  a 
full  reserve  of  50  gallons  of  the  river-water.  The  river  was  somewhat 
roily,  and  the  temperature  was  84°  to  85°,  but  the  water  tasted  good 
and  soft ;  and,  by  a  singular  coincidence,  it  proved  to  be  the  best  for  the 
shad  that  we  found  on  the  road. 

The  river  that  had  swallowed  up  so  unsparingly  the  car-load  of  Cali- 
fornia fish,  thus  contributed  more  than  any  other  toward  assisting  the 
shad  across  safely  to  that  State. 

After  taking  on  the  Elkhorn  water,  we  placed  a  few  shad  in  two  turn- 
biers  of  it,  and  observed  their  movements.  They  seemed  highly  pleased 
and  entirely  at  home  in  it.  Being  satisfied  from  their  movements  that 
the  water  was  good,  we  immediately  reduced  its  temperature  with  ice, 
and  began  making  changes  with  it.  The  afternoon  being  very  warm, 
however,  we  could  not  get  the  temperature  below  72°  till  night.  It 
grew  cooler  after  dark,  and  by  1  o'clock,  Sunday  morning,  we  had  the 
temperature  of  the  cans  down  to  69°  and  70°,  the  air  in  the  car  being 
at  09°.  We  took  on  ice  Saturday  night  at  Grand  Island,  Nebraska,  one 
hundred  and  fifty-four  miles  beyond  Omaha,  and  water  at  daylight  on 
Sunday  morning,  at  Big  Springs,  Nebraska,  three  hundred  and  sixty-one 
miles  from  Omaha.  The  water  at  Big  Springs  was  clear  and  very  good, 
with  a  temperature  of  58°.  The  shad  placed  in  a  tumbler  of  it  seemed 
to  like  it.  At  10  o'clock  on  Sunday,  June  29,  the  temperature  of  the 
cans  was  at  67°  to  69°.  We  were  now  gradually  climbing  up  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  continent.  The  air  was  cool  and  pleasant,  and  we  had  no 
difficulty  in  keeping  the  water  at  about  68°  all  day.  At  6  o'clock  p.  m., 
on  Sunday  afternoon,  we  reached  Laramie,  Wyoming  Territory,  and  took 
on  50  gallons  of  Laramie  Biver  water ;  temperature  62°  and  good  water. 
We  were  now  at  an  altitude  of  over  7,000  feet,  and  as  soon  as  the  sun 
set  the  air  grew  very  cold.  In  spite  of  our  best  efforts,  the  water  in  the 
cans  dropped  to  65°.  This  I  considered  too  rapid  a  decrease  from  the 
72°  of  Saturday  afternoon,  so  we  built  a  fire  in  the  stove  of  the  express- 


OPERATIONS    IN   CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  -      397 

car  in  which  the  cans  of  fish  were  carried,  and  heated  our  reserves,  but 
only  succeeded,  with  difficulty,  in  raising  the  temperature  of  the  cans  a 
degree  or  two,  to  66°  and  G7°. 

Monday  morning-,  June  30,  opened  with  a  warm,  bright  sun,  and  the 
promise  of  a  warm  day,  and  we  let  the  fire  in  the  stove  go  down  ;  but 
before  noon  it  became  very  cold  again,  with  a  squall  of  snow  at  Bryan, 
Wyoming  Territory.  There  was  also  snow  on  the  side  of  the  track. 
We  built  up  another  fire  in  the  stove,  and  kept  the  water  in  the  cans 
at  GOo. 

We  arrived  at  Evanstown,  Utah,  about  2  o'clock  p.  in.,  on  Monday, 
and  took  on  a  reserve  of  river-water.  It  was  clear  and  comparatively 
good,  with  a  temperature  of  57°.  As  we  descended  Weber  Canon,  to- 
ward Great  Salt  Lake,  the  weather  grew  warmer,  and  we  descended 
to  Ogden  without  mishap,  reaching  this  point  at  half  past  five,  Monday 
afternoon,  with  the  fish  all  in  first-rate  order.  Here  I  left  5,000  of  the 
shad,  as  fresh  and  lively  as  when  they  were  taken  from  the  Hudson,  in 
the  care  of  Mr.  Rockwood,  of  Salt  Lake  City,  who  deposited  them  in  the 
Jordan  River,  a  few  miles  above  its  outlet  into  Great  Salt  Lake.  We 
also  took  on  here  50  gallons  of  water  from  the  Weber  River,  and  started 
westward  again  on  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  15  minutes  earlier  than 
we  arrived,  according  to  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  time,  but  really 
about  two  hours  later. 

Everything  now  looked  exceedingly  favorable  and  encouraging.  We 
had  passed  through  more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  the  dangerous 
country  without  loss ;  the  shad  appeared  as  lively  and  healthy  as  when 
we  started ;  we  had  50  gallons  of  good  water  on  board,  and  only  four 
hundred  and  sixty  miles  to  run  to  the  beginning  of  good  water  again, 
at  Humboldt,  and  only  three  hundred  and  fourteen  miles  more  from 
there  to  Sacramento.  We  thought  we  had  reason  to  feel  encouraged. 
Our  spirits  rose  accordingly.  The  terrible  strain  of  the  past  five  days 
of  anxiety  began  to  slacken.  We  did  not  know  what  was  coming 
that  very  night,  or  we  should  not  have  felt  so  well  over  it,  for  the  next 
night  was  the  most  alarming  and  critical  of  the  whole  journey. 

The  temperature  of  the  cans  was  standing  at  65°,  or  within  3°  of  tlxa 
limit  of  danger ;  our  reserves  of  water  stood  at  60°,  or  2°  below  the 
limit.  The  night  came  on  extremely  cold ;  there  was  no  stove  or  place  for 
a  fire  in  the  car ;  and  the  temperature  of  the  cans  was  falling  every 
moment.  In  the  day-time,  hot  water  could  have  been  obtained  by  tele- 
graphing ahead;  but  at  night  this  was  quite  impracticable.  The  situa- 
tion was  exceedingly  alarming. 

Through  Mr.  Perrin's  foresight,  however,  at  Ogden  we  made  a  favor- 
able beginning  of  the  night.  While  I  was  busy  arranging  for  the  trans- 
fer of  the  shad  for  Salt  Lake,  and  attending  to  indispensable  matters 
which  absorbed  all  my  time  at  the  Ogden  depot,  Mr.  Perrin,  on  dis- 
covering that  there  was  no  stove  in  the  Central  Pacific  express-car, 
with  admirable  foresight  went  into  the  kitchen  of  the  depot-restaurant, 


398       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

and  procured  permission  to  heat  some  water  on  the  stove,  by  which  we 
obtained  eight  gallons  of  hot  water  and  got  a  good  start. 

I  also  took  the  first  opportunity  to  go  forward  into  the  postal  car  and 
obtain  permission  to  heat  water  on  the  mail-car  stove  during  the  night, 
The  danger  was  now  apparently  averted,  and,  it  being  my  night  for  sleep, 
I,  having  been  up  the  greater  part  of  the  night  previous,  retired,  leav- 
ing Mr.  Green  to  remain  on  duty  till  midnight,  and  Mr.  Perrin  from  mid- 
night till  daylight,  when  I  was  to  go  on  again. 

Mr.  Perrin  and  Mr.  Green  deserve  the  entire  credit  of  taking  the 
shad  through  the  critical  night  that  followed,  and  for  an  account  of  it 
I  will  quote  from  Mr.  Perriu's  journal : 

"As  we  left  Ogden  on  Monday  evening,  it  became  evident  that  we 
should  need  hot  water  during  the  night;  for  the  water  which  we  took  on 
at  Ogden  was,  I  think,  about  60°,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  prom- 
ised to  be  no  higher,  while  it  was  necessary  to  keep  the  temperature  of 
the  cans  above  62°.  Accordingly,  Mr.  Stone  made  arrangements  to  heat 
water,  if  necessary,  in  the  postal  car,  where  there  was  a  stove,  but  after 
he  went  back  to  the  sleeping-car,  the  man  in  charge  of  the  mail-car  came 
to  us  and  said  that  they  were  very  busy  and  did  not  see  how  they  could 
have  a  fire  in  the  car.  So  Mr.  Green  went  into  the  engine-cab  and  per- 
suaded the  engineer  to  heat  some  iron  couplings  in  the  furnace  of  the 
engine,  and  then  to  put  them  when  red  hot  into  our  pails  filled  with 
water.  This  water  was,  of  course,  dirty  and  unfit  for  use  in  many  other 
respects ;  so  Mr.  Green  took  the  larger  tin  pail,  and  filled  it  with  warm 
water,  and  set  into  it  a  smaller  one  with  good  water  in  it,  but  too  cold 
In  this  way,  he  heated  a  sufficient  quantity  for  immediate  use.  When 
he  woke  me  up  at  12  o'clock,  the  air  in  the  car  was  cold,  and  growing 
colder,  and  it  was  apparent  that  work  must  be  done  to  keep  the  temper- 
ature up  to  the  right  point.  At  the  first  stopping-place,  I  went  forward 
to  the  engine,  but  found  that  at  that  place  they  changed  engines  and 
also  engineers. 

"  The  new  engineer  hardly  understood  the  case,  and  was  at  first  un- 
willing to  do  what  I  desired.  The  conductor,  too,  seemed  averse  to  any 
delay,  and  was  not  very  pliable  ;  but  after  a  statement  of  our  necessities 
they  both  consented,  and  I  was  to  go  forward  for  hot  water  at  the  next 
stop.  This  I  did,  and  obtained  hot  water  heated  in  the  way  I  have  de- 
scribed. The  engineer  remarked  that  he  could  heat  no  more  till  he 
reached  Toano,  about  4  o'clock  a.  in.,  when  he  could  give  me  all  I  wanted. 
But  at  2.30  a.  m.  the  temperature  of  the  car  was  about  52°,  and  the 
water  in  the  cans  about  63°,  and,  of  course,  going  down.  I  was  getting 
a  little  nervous,  for  before  4  o'clock  the  water  would  surely  get  too  cold 
unless  something  was  done.  The  train  stopped,  and  I  ran  forward,  and 
after  the  engineer  heard  my  case,  he  told  me  that  they  were  going  to 
stop  for  water  in  about  20  minutes,  and  then  he  would  let  me  have 
another  supply  of  warm  water.  About  3  a.  m.  the  train  stopped,  and  I 
went  forward,  and  the  engineer  took  out  the  hot  irons  and  heated  the 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  399 

water,  and  I  was  enabled  to  keep  the  water  up  to  the  right  temperature 
until  we  reached  Toano,  where  I  got  another  supply.  At  Wells,  I  think 
it  was,  another  engineer  drew  off  boiling-hot  water  from  the  engine. 
This  took  some  time,  for  the  water  ran  very  slowly,  as  it  was  mostly 
steam  that  came  out.  I  could  not  have  gotten  enough  hot  water  in  this 
way  had  not;  the  train  made  a  stop  of  15  or  20  minutes  for  breakfast. 

"  In  this  way  I  got  through  the  night  without  letting  the  temperature 
fall  below  G2°  j  of  course,  it  kept  me  almost  constantly  at  work." 

On  Monday,  at  daylight,  I  joined  the  car  again,  and  was  quite  appalled 
to  hear  of  the  dangers  that  had  been  passed  the  night  before. 

The  water  in  the  cans  now  stood  at  G3° ;  we  were  on  a  descending 
grade ;  the  sun  was  quite  warm  ;  and  by  10  o'clock,  at  Carlin,  Nev., 
we  had  the  water  up  to  GG°.  The  sun  and  air  grew  warmer,  and  by  noon 
the  temperature  in  the  cans  rose  to  70°.  We  had  now  descended  1,600 
feet,  and  it  was  so  warm  that  we  began  to  use  ice  again  to  cool  the  water. 
I  did  not  allow  myself,  however,  to  be  deceived  by  appearances,  but 
telegraphed  ahead  to  Humboldt  for  hot  water.  I  also  telegraphed  to  Mr. 
Throckmorton,  of  the  California  fish-commission,  for  a  supply  of  ice 
and  river- water  at  Sacramento,  on  the  arrival  of  the  train. 

We  reached  Humboldt  at  half  past  G  the  same  day,  Tuesday,  July  1, 
and  took  on  8  gallons  of  hot  water  and  30  gallons  of  cold  water.  The 
water,  which  was  from  a  spring,  was  very  good  indeed,  and  had  a  tem- 
perature of  G5°.  In  three  hours  more,  to  our  great  consolation,  we  began 
climbing  the  Sierra  Nevada,  with  all  the  bad  water  left  behind  us  and 
only  good  water  before  us.  We  were  also  now  only  fourteen  hours  from 
Sacramento  City.  We  had  both  hot  water  and  ice  on  board,  and  the  fish 
were  in  splendid  condition.  We  therefore  had  great  hopes  of  bringing 
them  through  safely. 

The  rest  of  the  journey  was  comparatively  free  from  anxiety  or  danger, 
or  any  marked  events.  About  sunrise  on  the  morning  of  Wednesday, 
July  2,  our  last  day,  we  crossed  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and 
began  descending  the  Pacific  slope  into  California  ;  the  water  in  the  cans 
now  standing  at  65°  to  G6°.  At  9  o'clock  we  took  on  20  gallons  of  good 
water,  with  a  temperature  of  60°,  at  Alta,  Cal.,  and  arrived  at  Sacra- 
mento City  at  half  past  1  Wednesday  afternoon,  with  the  shad  as  fresh 
and  lively  as  when  they  left  the  Hudson  Eiver  a  week  before.    It  seemed 

like  a  miracle ! 

At  Sacramento,  we  met  Mr.  Throckmorton,  and  took  on  the  ice  and 

water  which  he  had  provided  at  the  depot. 

At  20  minutes  past  2  we  took  the  California  and  Oregon  cars  up  the 
Sacramento  River,  in  company  with  Mr.  John  G.  Woodbury,  the  Cal- 
ifornia State  fish-warden,  and,  after  several  changes  of  water  and  no  mis- 
haps, arrived  at  Tehama,  Tehama  County,  California,  about  9  o'clock  in 
the  evening.  In  a  few  minutes  we  were  at  the  river-side,  and  just  at  10 
minutes  past  9  on  the  evening  of  Wednesday,  July  2,  1873,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Mr.  Woodbury,  Mr.  Green,  Mr.  Perrin,  and  several  others,  cit« 


400      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

izens  of  Tehama,  the  35,000  shad  from  the  Hudson  River,  New  York, 
were  deposited  safely  and  in  good  order  in  the  Sacramento  River,  at 
Tehama,  Cal.;  and  we  turned  away  from  the  river  toward  our  hotel, 
feeling  as  if  a  load  of  incalculable  weight  had  been  lifted  from  us. 
I  ought  to  add  here  that,  at  Ggden  and  various  other  places  on  the 
road,,  we  removed  the  sediment  and  dead  fish  from  the  water  by  placing 
the  can-end  of  the  rubber  siphon  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  cans,  and 
starting  the  stream  through  the  siphon  without  using  the  protecting 
cylinder.  The  live  shad  not  resting  on  the  bottom  at  all,  this  simple 
method  will  clean  up  every  particle  of  impurity  that  has  settled  in  the 
water  without  drawing  off  the  live  fish.  This  device  serves  a  double 
purpose;  for  it  not  only  removes  all  the  dirt,  but  it  draws  off  all  the  dead 
fish,  where  they  can  be  seen  and  counted.  In  this  way  we  arrived  at  a 
very  near  estimate  of  the  loss  en  route,  which  we  placed  at  about  400 
fish,  or  only  1  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

In  regard  to  Mr.  Perrin  and  Mr.  Green,  and  their. work  on  the  car,  I 
must  say  that  two  better  men  for  the  undertaking  could  not  have  been 
found.  Faithful,  untiring,  and  nerved  by  the  most  resolute  determina- 
tion to  succeed,  tbey  did  all,  and  more  than  could  be  asked  of  them,  and 
the  extraordinary  success  of  the  expedition  is,  without  doubt,  greatly 
due  to  their  efforts. 

6. — EXPERIMENTS   TO  ASCERTAIN   THE   CHARACTER   OF   THE  WATER. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  used  in  the  experiments  given  below 
was  approximated  to  that  of  the  water  in  the  cans  at  the  time  the  experi- 
ments were  tried. 

Elkliorn  River  (Nebraska)  water. — Soft,  but  roily.  Saturday,  June  28, 
put  one  shad  in  tumbler,  containing  three  tablespoonfuls,  at  4  p.  m. 
He  appeared  to  like  it ;  was  alive  and  doing  well  at  midnight ;  showed 
signs  of  distress  toward  morning ;  at  sunrise  was  just  alive ;  at  7  a.  m., 
on  Sunday,  was  dead. 

Big  Spring  (Nebraska)  ivater. — Clear  but  a  little  hard.  Put  one  shad  in 
tumbler  containing  three  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  at  8  o'clock  a.  m., 
Sunday  morning;  showed  signs  of  distress  at  noon  ;  was  alive  at  2  p.  m.; 
died  soon  after. 

Laramie  River  ( Wyoming  Territory)  ivater. — Not  quite  clear.  Put  sev- 
eral shad  in  a  tumbler  full,  at  7  p.  m.,  on  Sunday ;  appeared  to  like  it 
at  first,  but  afterward  to  suffer  some ;  at  midnight  were  in  considera- 
ble distress ;  at  1  a.  m.,  Monday  morning,  they  began  to  die ;  at  4  a.  in., 
nearly  all  dead ;  at  sunrise,  all  dead. 

River-icater,  Evanstown,  Utah. — Somewhat  roily.  Put  two  shad  in  a 
tumbler  full,  at  3  p.  in.,  Monday,  June  30;  did  well  in  it. 

Humboldt  Spring  (Humboldt,  Nev.,)  water. — Put  several  shad  in  tumbler 
at  5  p.  m.,  on  Tuesday,  July  1 ;  seemed  to  like  it ;  appeared  well  most  of 
the  night;  in  a  good  deal  of  distress  at  daylight ;  died  in  the  forenoon. 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  401 

7. — STATIONS  AFFORDING  SUPPLIES  OF  WATER. 

West  of  Humboldt  all  the  water  is  good,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to 

test  it. 

We  took  on  water  east  of  Omaha  at  Albany,  Utica,  Syracuse,  Roches- 
ter, Buffalo,  Dunkirk,  Erie,  Painesville,  Cleveland,  Illyria,  (well-water, 
doubtful,)  Edgerton,  Elkhart,  South  Bend,  (bad  lime-water,)  Chicago, 
(Rock  Island  Railroad  depot,)  La  Salle,  Bellows  station,  Bureau,  (rain- 
water,) Tiskilwa,  (spring-water,)  Rock  Island,  (good,)  Davenport,  (from 
Mississippi  River,)  Kellogg,  Casey,  and  Avoca. 

West  of  Omaha,  we  took  on  water  at  Elkborn  River,  50  gallons,  81° 
F.,  roily  ;*  Big  Springs,  10  gallons,  58°  F.,  clear ;  Laramie  River,  50 
gallons,  G2°  F.,  clear ;  Evaustown,  (spring-water,)  10  gallons,  57°  F., 
clear;  Ogden,  (Weber  River,)  50  gallons,  00° F.,  roily;  Humboldt  sta- 
tion, (spring- water,)  50  gallons,  65°  F.,  clear ;  Alta,  20  gallons,  60°  F., 
clear ;  Sacramento,  20  gallons,  warm,  muddy. 

8. — TEMPERATURE   OF  WATER  IN  THE   CANS. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  in  tbe  cans  was  as  follows :  Hudson 
River  water,  70° ;  Albany  to  Chicago,  70°  to  74° ;  Chicago  to  Omaha, 
74°  to  GSc :  Omaha  to  Laramie,  73°,  67° ;  Laramie  to  Ogden,  67°,  65°, 
G7°,  6G°;  Ogden  to  Humboldt,  0G°,  02°,  70°;  Humboldt  to  Sacramento, 
70°,  06°,  67° ;  Sacramento  to  Tehama,  07°,  70° ;  Sacramento  River  water 
at  Tehama,  74°. 

9. — CONCLUSION. 

I  will  close  this  account  of  the  overland  journey  with  the  shad  by  say- 
ing that,  considering  all  the  liabilities  to  accident  and  delays  which  are 
incident  to  railway-travel,  especially  when  encumbered  as  we  were  with 
a  dozen  cans  and  pails,  weighing  in  the  aggregate  half  a  ton,  I  think  we 
were  surprisingly  fortunate  in  getting  along  as  well  as  we  did.  We 
made  numerous  changes  of  cars  and  transfers  of  our  freight  from  one 
train  to  another,  often  in  the  greatest  confusion  and  hurry,  with  trunks 
flying  about  our  heads  and  feet,  and  railroad-employes  pushing  and 
thrusting  us  and  our  cans  out  of  their  way.  We  were  often  ordered 
away  by  baggage-masters  and  express-agents,  though  we  could  not,  with 
safety,  leave  our  charge  for  a  moment ;  and  at  times,  especially  at  the 
junctions  of  the  great  lines  of  railways,  where  we  were  hardly  left  a 
place  to  stand,  and  where  at  the  same  time  in  all  the  confusion  and 
crowding  we  felt  obliged  to  take  on  water  and  even  to  change  the  wrater 
in  the  cans,  it  seemed  as  if  some  disaster  must  certainly  come — either 
that  the  fish  would  be  injured,  or  that  the  cans  would  be  upset,  or  left 
behind,  or  that  some  of  us  would  be  left,  or  enter  the  wrong  train, 
or  something  of  the  sort  happen. 

*  I  do  not  consider  roily  water  at  ail  objectionable,  but  the  reverse.      I  chink  it  much 
better  to  take  on  large  reserves  at  a  few  places  than  small  reserves  at  many  places, 
because  every  change  of  water  involves  a  risk. 
20  F 


402       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Yet,  though  it  seems  almost  incredible,  not  an  accident,  or  delay,  or 
drawback  of  any  kind  happened.  We  did  not  lose  a  fish  from  any  con- 
tingencies of  any  sort,  nor  meet  with  a  moment's  delay,  but  entered 
Sacramento  City  with  all  our  fish  alive,  just  on  the  moment  that  we 
were  due  to  reach  it  by  the  11.30  p.  m.  train  which  we  took  from 
Albany  on  Wednesday  the  week  before. 

E— THE  McCLOUD  EIVEE  STATION. 

The  next  evening,  after  depositing  the  shad  at  Tehama,  I  took  the 
train  for  Eedding,  and  the  stage  thence  for  the  McCloud  Eiver,  arriving 
at  the  river  at  daylight  of  the  following  day,  July  5,  1874.  My  object 
in  making  this  journey  was  to  see  in  what  condition  our  camp  of  last 
year  on  the  McCloud  might  be,  and  to  make  some  examinations  of  the 
river  itself,  with  special  reference  to  using  the  river-water  this  year  for 
maturing  the  salmon-eggs  for  shipment.  I  confess  I  was  somewhat  sur- 
prised, considering  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  country  and  the  pres- 
ence of  Indians,  to  find  the  house  and  belongings  exactly  as  we  had  left 
them.  Nothing  had  been  molested,  and  nothing  apparently  touched,  ex- 
cept some  spare  lumber  which  an  agent  of  the  California  and  Oregon  Stage 
Company  had  borrowed  in  an  emergency,  and  which  was  immediately 
settled  for.  An  examination  of  the  river  seemed  to  indicate  that  water 
for  the  hatching-house  could  be  obtained  by  carrying  it  in  a  ditch  from 
a  point  about  fifty  rods  above  the  site  selected  for  the  hatching- works. 

These  hasty  examinations  having  been  concluded,  I  went  to  Shasta 
City  to  engage  the  services  of  two  fishermen  who  had  assisted  us  the 
year  before,  and  thence  I  proceeded  to  San  Francisco.  Having  secured 
supplies  and  men  for  the  season's  campaign,  I  left  this  San  Francisco 
city  again  for  the  McCloud  Eiver  on  the  oth  of  August,  arriving  at  camp 
the  next  morning  at  daylight. 

The  year  before,  the  idea  of  using  the  McCloud  Eiver  water  not  hav- 
ing suggested  itself,  I  had  been  obliged  to  locate  the  camp  and  hatching- 
works  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  river,  in  order  to  obtain 
brook- water  for  maturing  the  eggs.  The  inconvenience  of  this  arrange- 
ment, which  placed  the  fishing-grounds  and  the  hatching-works  a  mile 
apart,  is  apparent.  In  fact,  the  constant  necessity  for  crossing  and 
carrying  materials  from  one  point  to  the  other,  frequently  in  a  tem- 
perature of  110°  in  the  shade,  became  so  intolerable  before  the  season 
was  over,  with  its  consequent  labor,  risk,  and  loss  of  time,  that  I  had 
resolved  if  possible,  the  next  season,  to  bring  the  camp,  hatching- works, 
fishing-grounds,  and  stage-communication  together  at  one  place.  This 
I  was  fortunately  enabled  to  do  by  using  the  river-water  for  hatching 
at  a  point  where  the  California  and  Oregon  stage-road  touches  the  west 
bank  of  the  McCloud.  The  first  plan  for  conveying  the  water  from  a 
higher  part  of  the  river  to  the  hatching- works  was  not  successful  on 
account  of  there  not  being  sufficient  fall  for  a  satisfactory  hatching- 
apparatus,  and  for  other  reasons.    This  plan  was  therefore  abandoned, 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    18/3.  403 

and  the  attempt  was  made  to  raise  water  from  the  river  by  a  wheel 
placed  in  the  current.  This  method,  which  worked  to  our  entire  satis- 
faction, will  be  more  particularly  described  hereafter. 

Previous  to  my  arrival,  I  had  dispatched  my  foreman,  Mr.  Woodbury, 
together  with  Mr.  Green  and  Mr.  Anderson,  to  the  McCloud,  with  in- 
structions to  move  the  camp  and  hatching-works  to  the  river-bank,  and 
to  make  preparations  for  using  the  river-water  for  hatching. 

When  I  arrived,  on  the  6th  day  of  August,  I  found  things  in  a  very 
satisfactory  condition.  The  house  had  been  moved  in  good  order,  and 
was  now  placed  just  at  the  water's  edge  a  few  rods  from  the  junction  of 
the  stage-road  with  the  river.  The  large  hatching-tent  had  been  erected, 
a  considerable  number  of  salmon  had  been  caught  and  corraled,  and  every- 
thing promised  well.  I  was  soon  after  waited  upon  by  a  deputation  of 
the  McCloud  tribe  of  Indians,  who,  at  the  time  of  their  visit,  expressed 
themselves  friendly  and  well-disposed. 

Our  camp  now  consisted  of  John  G.  Woodbury,  foreman;  Myron 
Green,  head-fisherman;  Oliver  Anderson,  man  of  all  work;  George 
Allen, carpenter ;  Benjamin  Eaton, steward ;  A.  Leschinsky,  fisherman; 
J.  Leschinsky,  fisherman;  Livingston  Stone,  in  charge;  Indians,  Lame 
Ben,  Uncle  John,  One-eyed  Jim,  and  others. 

The  eggs  in  the  parent  salmon  at  this  time  showed  an  advanced  state 
of  development,  indicating  that  the  spawning-season  was  not  far  dis- 
tant. As  there  was  a  great  deal  yet  to  be  done  to  get  ready  for  the  two 
million  salmon-eggs  which  I  hoped  to  take,  no  time  was  lost  in  pushing 
the  preparatory  work  to  completion ;  and  we  were  so  well  prospered  in 
our  labors  that  by  the  evening  of  the  19th  of  August  we  had  the  water 
running  through  the  hatching-troughs,  and  were  ready  for  the  first 
installment  of  eggs. 

1.— CATCHING  THE  PARENT  SALMON. 

I  will  now  leave  the  chronological  order  of  events,  and  will  speak  of 
some  of  the  branches  of  our  work,  beginning  with  the  capture  of  the 
parent  fishes  and  confining  the  parent  salmon.  I  was  very  undecided 
whether  to  capture  the  salmon  this  year  with  a  seine,  or  to  construct  a 
large  trap  in  the  river  which  would  take  advantage  of  their  instinct  to 
ascend  the  stream.  As  the  result  proved,  I  think  it  would  have  been 
easier  and  cheaper  to  build  the  trap,  but  I  decided  to  use  the  seine,  and 
continued  to  use  it,  and  nothing  else,  through  the  season.  My  reasons 
for  doing  this  were — 

1.  I  had  tried  the  seine-fishing,  and  knew  it  could  be  depended  upon. 

2.  I  had  not  tried  a  trap  on  any  extensive  scale,  such  as  would  be 
necessary  in  this  instance,  and  was  not  certain  that  it  could  be  relied 
upon. 

3.  The  building  of  the  trap  would  be  an  expensive  undertaking,  and 
the  means  at  my  command  were  such  as  rendered  economy  a  primary 
consideration. 


404       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


4.  I  had  all  the  implements  for  seine-fishing  on  hand,  and  no  expense 
for  an  outfit  would  be  incurred  in  using  the  seine. 

Had  we  been  able  to  keep  alive  all  the  fish  we  caught  till  we  had  taken 
their  eggs,  the  seining-method  would  have  been  the  best  and  cheapest; 
but,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on,  the  parent  salmon  in  our  inclosures  died 
so  fast  and  in  such  numbers  that  I  had  to  keep  up  the  seine-fishing  far 
beyond  the  expected  time,  which  made  it  very  expensive  and  probably 
less  economical  in  the  end  than  the  trap-project  would  have  been. 

Our  seine  was  a  short  one,  of  about  20  fathoms,  and  of  a  mesh  small 
enough  to  catch  half-pound  grilse  and  trout.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
fishing  in  July  and  first  part  of  August,  wre  caught  a  good  many  trout, 
but,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fishing  in  September,  very  rarely  one.  We 
drew  the  seine  at  first  in  still  places,  where  the  river  had  formed  a  large, 
broad,  and  deep  basin,  but  we  found  subsequently  that  we  caught  more 
fish  by  carrying  the  seine  up  the  river-channel  a  few  rods,  and  sweep- 
ing the  channel  as  well  as  the  basin.  In  fact,  our  experience  seemed  to 
show  that  there  were  more  salmon  in  the  narrower  channel  above  the 
deep  holes  than  in  the  holes  themselves.  Later  in  the  season,  while 
the  fish  were  spawning,  we  had  the  best  success  in  the  rapids  below  the 
holes,  or,  I  should  say,  as  near  the  rapids  as  we  could  go  with  the  boats 
and  seine;  the  rapids  themselves  being  too  swift  water  either  to  haul  a 
^eine  or  to  row  a  boat  in. 

At  times,  the  salmon  caught  would  be  mostly  males  ;  at  other  times, 
mostly  females;  and  at  other  times,  nearly  all  grilse,  which  seemed  to 
indicate  that  there  were  separate  runs  of  males  and  females  and  grilse, 
respectively.  "We  usually  began  fishing  at  dark,  and  fished  till  mid- 
night or  daylight,  according  to  circumstances.  Mr.  Myron  Green  had 
charge  of  the  fishing  most  of  the  time,  and  performed  his  part  very 

creditably  and  faithfully. 

• 

Table  shoicing  the  character  of  the  fishing  at  different  intervals. 


Date. 

Number  of 
tish  caught, 

Remarks. 

An*,    13 

18 

9  females. 

14 

80 

60  females. 

15... 

31 

Chiefly  females. 

16 

62 

Chiefly  females. 

Sept,     3 

4 

120 

Nearly  all  males  and  grilse. 

32 

Equal  number  of  males  and  females. 
Equal  number  of  males  and  females. 

5 

60 

6 

10 

8 

120 

20  females;  the  rest  males  and  grilse. 

Many  males  and  grilse  besides. 

Many  males  and  grilse  besides. 

7  had  spawned.    8  had  eggs. 

6  had  eggs.    3  had  spawned.    Last  day  of  fishing. 

9 

10 

19 

22 

20  females 

15  females 

9  females.... 

We  caught  about  1,000  salmon  altogether  during  the  summer's  fish- 


ing. 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  405 

The  weight  of  the  salmon  caught  (including  grilse)  varied  from  less 
than  a  half  a  pound  to  29  pounds.  The  smallest  and  the  largest  were 
males.  The  largest  male  was  caught  on  the  14th  of  September,  and 
weighed  29  pounds.  He  measured  41  inches  in  length,  and  was  22 
inches  round  just  in  front  of  the  dorsal  fin.  (See  No.  313  of  my  collec- 
tion for  the  Smithsonian  Institution.)  We  caught  the  smallest  salmon,  a 
grilse,  of  course,  and  a  male,  on  the  16th  of  September.  He  was  thin 
and  worn,  but  full  of  very  ripe  milt.  He  weighed  less  than  half  a  pound. 
(See  No.  314c.)  The  largest  female  which  was  weighed  was  caught  on  the 
2Sth  of  July.  She  weighed  22  pounds,  (see  No.  192c;)  girth  just  in  front 
of  dorsal  fin,  22£  inches.  I  think,  however,  that  later  in  the  season 
larger  females  were  caught,  which  were  not  weighed.  The  smallest 
female  was  caught  on  the  17th  of  September,  and  weighed  6  pounds 
after  being  spawned ;  girth,  12i  inches.  She  yielded  nearly  3,000  eggs. 
(See  No.  315c.) 

The  first  ripe  male  was  caught  on  the  17th  of  August.  The  milt  was 
ripe  and  good.  He  seemed  to  be  in  a  healthy  condition,  but  was  dark 
and  slimy.     Weight,  26  pounds;  girth,  23  inches.     (See  No.  280.) 

The  first  female  caught  ripe  in  the  net  was  taken  on  the  night  of  the 
29th  of  August.  Two  ripe  ones  were  taken  that  night,  but  the  weight 
was  not  observed.    The  two  together  yielded  13,000  eggs. 

We  found  ripe  females  in  the  corrals  three  days  before  this.  It 
might  be  inferred  at  first  sight  from  this  fact  that  confinement  hastened 
the  ripening  of  the  spawn  ;  but  this  does  not  necessarily  follow,  because 
the  fish  were,  when  caught,  on  their  way  to  a  higher  point  on  the  river, 
where  the  spawning-season  naturally  comes  on  earlier  than  it  does  lower 
down,  so  that  the  fish  previously  caught  and  now  confined  in  the  cor- 
rals were  really  earlier-spawning  fish  than  those  caught  on  the  spot 
with  ripe  spawn  in  them. 

The  comparative  weight  of  the  spawn  in  the  female  fish,  contrasted 
with  the  fish  itself,  may  be  inferred  from  the  following  specimen  caught 
August  14 : 

Female  salmon;  spawn  nearly  ripe ;  weight,  19  pounds;  length,  33 £ 
inches;  girth,  20£  inches;  weight  of  spawn,  2^  pounds.     (See  No.  206.) 

On  the  18th  of  August  we  caught  with  a  hook  a  trout  that  had  a  very 
peculiar  appearance,  on  account  of  the  unmistakable  marks  of  old  age 
which  it  presented.  It  was  very  thin  and  lank.  Its  fins  and  tail  were 
a  good  deal  worn.  Its  eyes  were  sunken,  and  its  whole  appearence  cor- 
responded to  that  of  an  old  dog  or  horse.  It  was  the  most  aged-look- 
ing fish  I  ever  saw.*    (See  No.  282.) 

2.— CONFINING  THE   SALMON. 

The  corral. — The  confinement  of  the  parent  salmon  in  suitable  inclo- 

*  For  a  description  of  the  appearance  of  the  salmon  of  the  McCloud  River,  and  the 
changes  which  they  undergo  at  the  approach  and  during  the  progress  of  the  spawn- 
ing-season, see  my  report  of  operations'  on  the  McCloud  River  printed  in  the  United 
States  Fisheries  Report  for  1872. 


406       REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

sores,  though  it  seems  so  simple  a  matter,  was  a  very  trying  and  diffi- 
cult problem  to  solve,  and  gave  us  no  end  of  trouble.  To  show  the 
character  of  this  difficulty,  I  will  give  my  experience  in  the  order  in 
which  it  came. 

We  began  building  our  inclosures  by  staking  down  a  small  circular 
fence  of  stakes  in  a  shallow  place  in  the  river  near  the  shore.  The 
stakes  were  driven  down  one  by  one  very  firmly,  and  then  firmly  bound 
together  and  held  in  their  place  by  withes.  The  main  objection  at  first 
to  this  was  that  it  was  on  too  small  a  scale.  "We  then  built  other  inclosures 
on  the  same  plan,  but  larger  and  deeper.  This  gave  the  fish  more  scope 
for  jumping,  and,  although  the  top  of  the  stakes  was  several  feet  above 
the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  inclosure,  the  salmon  easily  jumped  over 
them  and  escaped  into  the  river.  We  then  put  a  covering,  or  roof,  over 
the  corral  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  fence.  The  salmon  now, 
although  they  could  not  escape  by  jumping  out,  were  no  less  persistent 
in  their  attempts  to  do  so,  and  literally  wore  and  lashed  themselves  to 
death  in  their  frantic  and  ceaseless  efforts  to  escape.  I  then  built  a 
large  covered  wooden  box,  16  feet  long  and  about  4  feet  deep,  and  5 
feet  broad,  with  wide  seams  between  the  boards  to  let  the  water 
through,  and  anchored  it  in  the  current.  As  the  box  when  soaked  sank 
nearly  its  depth  in  the  water,  the  salmon  had  no  chance  to  jump  and 
lash  themselves  as  in  the  staked  inclosure,  and  we  flattered  ourselves 
we  had  found  the  solution  of  this  troublesome  problem  of  providing  a 
suitable  place  of  confinement ;  but  what  was  our  surprise  and  disap 
pointnient  when,  on  examining  the  salmon  in  the  box  a  few  days  after, 
we  found  them  all  dead.  The  close  confinement  of  the  box  had  really 
prevented  them  from  injuring  themselves  as  before  by  jumping,  but  at 
the  same  time  had  acted  so  unfavorably  in  other  ways  as  to  cause  their 
death. 

The  prospect  now  looked  very  discouraging.  We  could  catch  salmon 
enough  for  our  purpose,  but  we  could  not  keep  them  alive.  They 
were,  in  fact,  dying  as  fast  as  we  caught  them.  It  now  occurred  to 
us  that  an  open  pond,  supplied  by  a  good  stream  of  river- water,  would 
obviate  the  difficulties  presented,  as  then  the  fish,  having  nothing  but 
dry  land  to  jump  on  to,  would  give  up  jumping  and  remain  quiet.  I 
accordingly  put  on  a  force  of  Indians  at  once,  and  in  a  few  days  had  a 
pond  of  considerable  size  ready,  and  supplied  by  a  stream  of  water 
taken  from  the  flume  which  conveyed  the  river-water  from  the  wheel  to 
the  hatchiug-house.  A  large  number  of  salmon  were  then  put  in  here, 
and  we  felt  decidedly  encouraged.  But  now  a  new  difficulty  presented 
itself:  the  fish  would  not  ripen  in  the  pond.  Whether  it  was  that  the 
roiling  of  the  pond  by  their  movements  when  frightened  prevented  the 
eggs  and  milt  from  maturing,  or  whether  the  friction  produced  by  their 
incessant  jumping  is  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  of  their  ripening, 
I  do  not  know,  but  it  is  certain  that  neither  eggs  nor  milt  matured  in 
the  pond,  and  I  think  we  did  not  take  a  single  ripe  egg  or  any  first-rate 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  407 

milt  from  one  of  the  fish  there  confined.  My  next  move  was  to  build  a 
close  board  floor  over  the  staked  inclosures  in  the  river,  almost  touching 
the  surface  of  the  water.  This  prevented  the  fish  from  wearing  them- 
selves out  by  jumping,  and  did  not  seem  to  interfere  with  their 
ripening,  but  it  did  not  keep  them  wholly  from  dying.  At  last  I 
became  convinced,  and  am  still  of  the  opinion,  that  the  Sacramento 
spawning-salmon  cannot  be  kept  alive  in  any  inclosure  on  a  small 
scale.  There  seemed  now  to  be  but  one  alternative  left,  and  that  was 
to  let  those  die  that  were  confined,  and  to  keep  on  fishing  and  catch 
what  were  needed  as  we  went  along.  This  we  did ;  and  fortunately  there 
were  so  many  fish  running  in  the  river  that  we  were  able,  even  after 
this,  to  obtain  enough  to  furnish  the  requisite  supply  of  eggs. 

Our  experience  this  year  has  shown  one  thing,  and  that  is  that  if  a  seine 
is  used  exclusively  in  future  for  taking  the  parent  salmon,  the  true  way  will 
be  to  begin  fishing  only  j  ust  before  the  spawning-season  commences,  for  all 
the  spawn  that  we  took  from  fish  caught  and  confined  at  that  time 
amounted  to  very  few  indeed,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  was  no  dif- 
ficulty in  catching  enough  salmon  alter  the  season  commenced  to  yield 
our  quota  of  two  million  eggs. 

The  best  way,  however,  lor  catching  the  salmon  on  the  McCloud  is,  I 
think,  to  extend,  if  practicable,  some  impassable  barrier  across  the  river 
obliquely,  say  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  course  of  the  current,  and  to 
have  the  upper  end  lead  into  a  large  inclosure,  or  pound,  where  the  fish 
can  be  conveniently  taken  out  for  spawning. 

This  method,  though  involving  a  good  deal  of  labor  at  first,  will 
compel  all  the  fish  ascending  the  river  to  enter  the  pound,  and  will, 
of  course,  obviate  the  constant  labor  and  expense  of  drawing  the  seine, 
which  is  no  inconsiderable  item  when  kept  up  for  a  long  time. 

The  current  and  volume  of  the  McCloud  River  are  so  formidable  that 
it  may  be  impossible  to  construct  such  a  barrier ;  but  if  operations  are 
continued  on  that  river  another  year,  I  propose  to  make  the  attempt  to 
dispense  entirely  with  drawing  the  seine.  The  pound  will,  of  course,  be 
arranged  so  that  the  fish  not  required  for  our  purposes  can  be  allowed 
to  pass  up  the  river  to  spawn.  This,  in  fact,  would  be  necessary  for  an- 
other reason ;  for,  if  the  salmon  were  entirely  cut  off  from  ascending  the 
river,  the  Indians  above  us  would  be  sure  to  make  trouble. 

Moving  the  parent  salmon. — The  moving  of  the  living  parent  salmon 
across  the  river,  being  quite  an  important  feature  of  our  work,  deserves 
a  few  words  here. 

Theriverat  the  place  of  crossing  was  aboutsixty  yards  wide,  with  swift 
water  part  of  the  way,  and  rapids  just  below.  On  account  of  the  rapid 
current,  no  very  heavy  load  could  be  towed  across  in  safety.  Our  first  plan 
for  conveying  the  fish  across  was  to  bring  them  in  a  large  box  placed  on 
the  stern  of  the  boat.  This  answered  very  well  for  a  small  quantity, 
but  was  on  too  small  a  scale  for  the  carrying  of  large  numbers.  Our 
next  plan  was  to  tow  them  over  in  the  seine,  but  this  was  not  only  la- 


408       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

borious  work,  but  it  gave  the  fish  a  chance  to  injure  themselves.    The 
next  plan,  and  the  one  we  finally  adopted,  was  as  follows  : 

We  took  the  large  box  containing  about  2,000  gallons  of  water,  which 
was  first  used  to  keep  the  parent  salmon  in,  and  afterward  abandoned, 
and  placed  it  close  to  the  corral  where  the  salmon  were  confined ;  we 
then  lifted  the  salmon  out  from  the  inelosure  with  a  net  and  deposited 
them  in  the  box.  The  box  was  so  large  that  it  would  always  hold  all 
we  had  to  carry  across,  and  a  great  many  more.  The  salmon  being  all 
in,  the  cover  was  fastened  down,  and  the  box  was  ready  for  transport- 
ing. The  2,000  gallons  of  water  in  the  box  weighed  about  ten  tons,  so 
that  towing  it  through  the  current  with  the  boat  was  not  to  be  thought 
of,  and  we  had  not  a  strong  line  long  enough  to  reach  across  the  river. 
We  accordingly  attached  one  end  of  what  rope  we  had  to  the  box,  and 
made  the  other  end  fast  to  a  rock  as  high  up  above  the  box  on  the  same 
side  of  the  river  as  it  would  reach.  Then  the  box  being  ready,  the  boat- 
man unfastened  the  upper  end  of  the  rope,  and  started  across  the  river 
at  the  same  time  that  others  pushed  the  box  out  into  the  current.  By 
quick  rowing  he  could  cross  with  the  boat-end  of  the  rope  before  the  box 
had  become  unmanageable  in  the  current.  The  boat-end  of  the  rope  was 
then  made  fast  on  this  side  of  the  river,  and  the  box,  with  some  help 
from  the  boat,  gradually  swung  across  to  where  it  was  wanted.  This 
little  maneuver,  though  so  simple  as  to  seem  hardly  worth  mentioning, 
really  had  to  be  conducted  quite  dexterously  to  be  successful  in  our  rapid 
and  dangerous  river,  and  on  that  account  assumed  more  importance  than 
it  may  seem  to  possess. 

3. — THE  INDIAN  SENTIMENT    IN   REGARD  TO   CATCHING  THE    SALMON. 

Our  attempt  to  locate  a  camp  on  the  river-bank  was  received  by  the 
Indians  with  furious  and  threatening  demonstrations.  They  had  until 
this  time  succeeded  in  keeping  white  men  from  their  river,  with  the 
exception  of  one  settler,  a  Mr.  Crooks,  whom  they  murdered  a  few  weeks 
after  I  arrived.  Their  success  thus  far  in  keeping  white  men  off  had 
given  them  a  good  deal  of  assurance,  and  they  evidently  entertained  the 
belief  that  they  should  continue,  like  their  ancestors  before  them,  to  keep 
the  McCloud  Eiver  from  being  desecrated  by  the  presence  of  the  white 
man.  Their  resentment  was  consequently  very  violent  when  they  saw 
us  bringing  our  house  and  tents  and  camp-belongings  to  the  edge  of 
the  river,  and  taking  possession  of  the  land  which  they  claimed  as  their 
own,  and  settling  down  on  it.  They  assembled  in  force,  with  their  bows 
and  arrows,  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river,  and  spent  the  whole  day 
in  resentful  demonstrations,  or,  as  Mr.  Woodbury  expressed  it,  in  trying 
to  drive  us  off.  Had  they  thought  they  could  succeed  in  driving  us 
off  with  impunity  to  themselves,  they  undoubtedly  would  have  done  so, 
and  have  hesitated  at  nothing  to  accomplish  their  object ;  but  the  ter- 
rible punishments  which  they  have  suffered  from  the  hands  of  the 
whites  for  past  misdeeds  are  too  vivid  in  their  memories  to  allow  them 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  409 

to  attempt  any  open  or  punishable  violence.  So,  at  night,  they  went 
off',  and  seemed  subsequently  to  accept  in  general  the  situation.  Indi- 
viduals frequently  said  to  me  afterward,  however,  that  I  was  stealing 
their  salmon  and  occupying  their  land ;  but  it  was  more  as  a  protest 
against  existing  facts  than  as  an  endeavor  to  make  any  change  in  the 
situation.  Once,  when  I  was  walking  alone  in  the  woods  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  an  Indian  with  a  very  forbidding  aspect  met  me,  and 
said  in  the  Indian  dialect  that  he  wanted  to  talk  with  me.  I  expressed  my 
gratification  at  having  an  interview  with  him,  and  we  sat  down  on 
the  rocks,  and  the  talk  began.  He  was  very  much  excited  and  very 
wrathful.  He  told  me  that  this  was  his  land,  and  that  his  fathers 
had  always  lived  there,  and  that  I  had  no  right  to  be  there.  He  said 
the  salmon  were  his,  too ;  that  they  belonged  to  his  tribe,  and  that  I 
was  stealing  his  salmon.  He  ended  by  saying  that  the  white  men  had 
lands  and  fish  in  other  places,  that  the  Indians  did  not  go  there  and 
steal  their  lands  and  salmon,  and  that  white  men  ought  not  to  come 
here  and  take  what  belonged  to  the  Indians.  There  is  room  enough  in 
the  world  for  the  white  men,  he  said,  without  taking  this  river  from  the 
Indians  to  live  on. 

I  confess  that  his  arguments  seemed  sound.    The  whole  panorama  of 
the  Indian's  wrongs  and  sufferings,  as  the  history  of  this  country  por- 
trays it,  with  the  encroachments  and  injustice  of  the  white  man,  and 
the  gradual  but  certain  disappearance  of  the  red  man  before  the  advance 
of  civilization,  seemed  to  come  up  before  my  mind,  and  I  felt  that  though 
I  was  the  representative  of  a  powerful  and  enlightened  nation,  I  could 
not  answer  this  poor,  ignorant,  indignant  savage  before  me.    I  did  not 
try  to  answer  him,  but  I  told  him  I  was  his  friend ;  that  I  did  not  mean 
to  take  his  land  or  his  salmon ;  that  I  should  go  away  in  a  few  months ; 
that  I  only  wanted  the  spawn  of  the  salmon ;  and  that  the  Indians 
might  have  all  the  salmon  as  soon  as  I  had  taken  the  eggs.    He  was 
not  satisfied  or  appeased,  however,  and  left  me  in  the  same  disappointed 
and  indignant  spirit  with  which  he  met  me.    This  spirit  continued  to 
prevail  among  the  tribe  until  we  began  to  take  spawn  and  to  give  them 
the  salmon.    Then,  when  they  saw  that  they  received  only  kind  treat- 
ment from  us  always,  and  food  and  medicine  occasionally,  and  that  we 
gave  them  all  the  salmon  to  eat,  securing  only  the  spawn  for  ourselves, 
they  seemed  to  see  things  in  a  new  light.    The  public  sentiment,  I 
think,  became  entirely  changed,  and  was  pretty  correctly  expressed  in 
what  an  Indian  said  to  me,  about  that  time :  "  I  understand,"  said  he, 
"you  give  Indian  salmon  ;  you  only  want  spawn  ;  that  all  right!" 

I  had  one  man  in  my  employ  who  had  fished  on  theMcCloud  the  pre- 
vious season  for  salmon  on  his  own  account ;  and,  having  taken  some 
pains  to  clear  away  a  fishing-ground  for  drawing  the  seine  on  the  river- 
bank,  he  claimed  the  fishing  as  his  private  property.  I  allowed  his 
claim  at  first,  and  paid  him  a  considerable  sum  for  the  use  of  his  ground, 
as  he  called  it ;   but,  after  making  inquiries,  and  taking  legal  advice 


410       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

upon  the  point,  I  made  up  my  mind  that  if  any  one  had  rights  on  the 
river,  it  was  the  United  States  Government,  to  whom  it  belonged  and 
whom  I  represented.  The  demands  of  the  man  having  become  ex- 
orbitant, and  it  being  illegal  for  him  to  sell  his  salmon  if  he  caught  any, 
I  told  him  that,  after  a  certain  time,  I  should  fish  there  on  my  own 
responsibility  without  paying  any  toll.  He  was  exasperated  beyond 
measure  at  hearing  this,  and  when  he  found  that  I  was  in  earnest,  and 
meant  what  I  said,  he  became  dangerous,  and  attempted  violence,  which 
would  certainly  have  been  followed  by  fatal  results,  if  it  had  not  been 
for  the  vigilance  and  presence  of  mind  of  Mr.  Myron  Green,  who  had 
charge  of  him  for  nearly  three  hours,  part  of  which  time  he  acted  like 
a  raving  maniac.  I  fished  there,  however,  as  I  had  announced,  and  the 
man  acquiesced  at  last,  though  under  protest.  A  more  thorough  investi- 
gation of  the  facts  showed  conclusively  that  I  was  entirely  correct  in 
assuming  the  right  to  fish  on  the  grounds  in  question ;  no  one  under  the 
circumstances  having  exclusive  rights  to  fish  there. 

This  circumstance  led  me  to  think  that  it  might  be  desirable  for  the 
United  States  to  reserve  to  themselves  the  right  to  fish  in  a  certain  portion 
of  the  McCloud,  so  that,  under  no  circumstances,  could  its  representa- 
tives be  prevented  from  obtaining  spawning-fish  for  breeding-purposes. 

4. — SPAWNING   THE   FISH. 

The  first  spawn  was  taken  on  the  2Gth  of  August,  neither  the  males 
nor  females  being  very  ripe.  At  first,  we  thought  it  required  three  men 
to  spawn  the  fish :  one  at  the  head,  one  at  the  tail,  and  one  to  take  the 
eggs.  Afterward,  we  found  that  two  could  manage  it ;  and  Mr.  Green 
finally  brought  the  work  down  to  its  greatest  simplicity  by  putting  the 
salmon's  head  between  his  knees,  holding  the  tail  with  one  hand,  and 
taking  the  spawn  with  the  other.  As  we  did  not  undertake  to  save  the 
salmon  alive,  this  one-man  method  proved  perfectly  satisfactory,  ex- 
cept with  very  large  fish,  and,  of  course,  saved  employing  so  much  extra 
labor. 

At  first,  also,  all  the  eggs  that  we  took  came  from  the  salmon  confined 
in  the  corral ;  but,  as  the  season  advanced,  we  took  more  and  more  in 
the  net,  till  at  last  most  of  the  eggs  were  taken  from  the  fish  as  soon  as 
they  were  caught  in  the  seine.  The  parent  salmon  were  then  thrown 
on  shore  for  the  Indians,  and,  of  course,  not  confined  at  all. 

Below  will  be  found  a  daily  list  of  the  eggs  taken  during  the  season. 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873. 


411 


Daily  list  of  salmon-eggs  taken  at  the  United  States  salmon-breeding  estab- 
lishment, McCloud  River,  California,  during  the  season  of  1S73. 


August  26 . 
August  29 . 


Date  uurecorded 


September  6. . 
September  7 . . 
Septembers.. 
September  9 . . 
September  10 . 
September  11. 
September  12 . 
September  13. 
September  14. 
September  15. 
September  16. 
September  17. 
September  19. 
September  21 . 
September  22. 


Date. 


23, 000 

58, 000 

38, 000 

45, 000 

95, 000 

60, 000 

48,  000 

80, 000 

110,000 

93,  000 

30, 000 

120,  000 

140, 000 

55,  000 

195, 000 

70,000 

100,000 

100, 000 

40, 000 

100, 000 

110,000 

60, 000 

70,  000 

130, 000 

30, 000 


p      S 
<s  © 


- 
o 


23, 000 

81,000 

119,000 

164, 000 

259,  000 

319, 000 

367,000 

447, 000 

557,000 

650, 000 

680,  000 

800,000 

940, 000 

995, 000 

1,190,000 

1,260,000 

1,360,000 

1,  460, 000 

1,  500,  000 
1, 600,  000 
1,710,000 
1, 770, 000 
1, 840,  000 
1,970,000 

2,  000,  000 


5. — THE   HATCHING-APPAKATUS. 

The  water-supply. — In  the  season  of  1872,  I  used  water  for  hatching 
from  a  spring-brook  which  emptied  into  the  McCloud  a  short  distance 
above  the  site  of  our  present  camp,  and  which  had  its  sources  about  a 
mile  to  the  west  of  the  river.  This  brook  gave  us  no  end  of  trouble  on 
accountof  its  unsuitableness  to  its  purpose.  Its  average  ilowiu  the  morn- 
ing was  a  little  over  1,000  gallons  an  hour,  but  at  night,  after  a  very  hot 
day,  it  would  shrink  to  250  gallons.  It  would  also  heat  up  some  days  to  a 
very  dangerous  temperature ;  then,  again,  the  hogs,  which  run  in  the  woods 
in  a  semi-wild  state,  would  wallow  in  it  and  make  it  so  roily  that  all 
attempts  to  filter  it  clean  were  fruitless  ;  and,  last  but  not  least,  there 
was  present  in  the  water  all  the  time  a  vegetable  growth,  resembling 
our  eastern  Conferva,  yet  somewhat  dissimilar  to  it,  that  no  device  of 
ours  could  cleanse  the  water  of.  It  seemed  to  be  ubiquitous,  and  gave 
a  great  deal  of  trouble. 

These  combined  disadvantages  of  the  water-supply  of  1872  decided 
me  to  abandon  it  this  season,  and  to  look  elsewhere  for  water.  But  here 
a  new  difficulty  arose.  There  was  no  other  spring  or  brook  of  any  mag- 
nitude within  several  miles.    To  go  that  distance  to  locate  would  either 


412       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

destroy  onr  stage-communication  or  take  us  away  from  the  river.  There 
was  but  one  alternative  left,  and  that  was  to  take  the  water-supply  from 
the  McCloud.  To  accomplish  this,  a  ditch  was  commenced  from  a  point 
about  fifty  rods  above  the  new  hatching-house  site,  and  was  continued 
for  about  two  hundred  feet,  when  it  was  abandoned ;  the  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  its  successful  prosecution  making  it  practically  useless. 

We  were  now  left  without  any  water-supply  whatever.  There  were 
salmon  in  abundance  at  our  very  feet,  but  no  water  to  hatch  the  eggs 
with. 

The  wheel-pump. — In  this  emergency,  the  idea  of  raising  the  water  from 
the  river  itself  by  a  wheel  was  suggested,  and  immediately  put  into 
practice.  From  this  time  till  it  was  finished,  the  wheel  was  the  central 
object  of  interest  at  the  camp.  So  much  depended  upon  it  and  its  suc- 
cessful working,  and  the  project  was  so  novel  and  unprecedented,  that 
the  progress  of  the  work  on  it  was  watched  with  the  greatest  solicitude  ; 
and,  at  last,  when  it  was  completed,  and  actually  revolved  and  lifted  its 
G,G0O  gallons  of  water  an  hour  higher  than  our  heads,  and  poured  it 
down  the  flume  into  the  hatching-troughs,  our  relief  and  enthusiasm 
were  unbounded.  I  celebrated  the  occasion  by  raising  at  sunset  a  large 
American  flag  over  the  camp. 

I  consider  this  device  for  raising  water  for  hatching-purposes  one  of 
considerable  importance,  as  by  this  method  a  water-supply  can  be  ob- 
tained on  any  similar  salmon  or  trout  stream  when  all  other  resources- 
fail,  and  in  regionswhere  no  other  water-supply  is  available.  On  account, 
therefore,  of  its  possible  value  to  future  operations,  I  will  be  more  ex- 
plicit in  describing  the  wheel  than  might  otherwise  be  thought  appro- 
priate. The  wheel  was  placed  in  the  rapids,  just  below  the  hatching- 
house,  on  our  side  of  the  river ;  the  shore-pier  resting  on  the  river-bank. 
The  other  pier  was  built  at  the  required  distance  out  in  the  water,  and 
was  constructed  by  fastening  heavy  timbers  together  in  the  shape  of  ai 
triangle,  and  filling  the  inclosed  space  with  large  rocks ;  the  timbers  form: 
ing  the  triangle  being  12  feet  long  on  the  hypotenuse,  and  those  on  the 
sides  being  8  feet  long.  The  shaft  was  11  feet  long  and  9  inches  in 
diameter.  The  journals  were  9  inches  long  and  7  inches  in  diameter. 
The  journals  were  of  pine  and  the  boxes  were  of  oak.  The  wheel  was 
12  feet  in  diameter,  8  feet  wide,  and  had  16  paddles,  each  15  inches  wide. 
The  buckets,  containing  between  4  and  5  gallons  each,  were  arranged 
around  the  circumference  of  the  wheel,  on  the  shore-side  of  it,  and  were, 
of  course,  so  constructed  as  to  fill  at  every  revolution,  and  discharge  their 
contents  just  at  the  right  moment. 

A  margin  of  several  inches  was  allowed  for  raising  and  lowering  the 
wheel  in  the  water,  so  as  to  regulate  its  power  at  pleasure.  The  velocity 
of  the  current  in  which  it  was  placed  was  such  that,  with  my  utmost 
exertions,  I  could  just  hold  our  fishing-boat  against  it  with  a  good  pair 
of  oars. 

At  last,  after  many  trials  and  discomfitures,  and  renewed  efforts  in 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  413 

constructing  the  wheel,  it  was  finally  pronounced  complete,  and  our 
whole  camp  assembled  to  see  it  lowered  into  the  water.  To  say  that  we 
were  breathless  with  excitement  was  no  exaggeration.  Our  suspense 
cannot  be  overdrawn.  The  situation,  as  it  presented  itself  to  ourminds, 
was  simply  this:  if  the  wheel  worked  well,  our  efforts  to  obtain  salmon- 
eggs  would  be  a  success  ;  if  the  wheel  did  not  work,  our  whole  expedition 
would  be  a  failure.  No  wonder  we  watched  the  lowering  of  the  wheel 
with  absorbing  interest.  Our  disappointment  and  dismay  can  hardly 
be  exaggerated,  then,  when  we  perceived  the  wheel,  having  reached  its 
resting-place,  give  a  convulsive  start,  revolve  perhaps  a  third  of  the 
way  around  its  axis,  utter  a  groan,  and  stop  entirely.  There  was  not 
power  enough  to  lift  the  buckets  of  water.  We  then  went  to  work  to 
throw  out  a  wing-dam  on  the  river-side  of  the  wheel,  about  30  feet  in 
length  and  at  an  angle  of  nearly  45°  with  the  river-current.  This  was 
built  by  "making  fast  one  end  of  a  large  log  to  the  outer  pier  and  the 
other  end  to  a  point  on  the  shore  above  by  means  of  a  cable,  and  filling 
in  underneath  the  log  with  rocks  and  brush.  To  obtain  the  log  was  at 
first  quite  a  problem,  for  the  dam  required  one  that  our  whole  force 
could  not  move.  We  overcame  this  difficulty  by  going  half  a  mile 
or  so  up  the  river  and  felling  a  large  tree  into  the  current.  This 
as  it  lay  in  the  river,  we  sawed  into  the  requisite  length,  and  then,  with 
a  good  deal  of  labor  and  no  little  excitement  and  danger,  towed  down 
through  the  intervening  rapids  to  the  wheel.  This  dam  increased 
the  force  of  the  water  against  the  paddles  very  materially  To  gain  still 
more  power,  we  cleared  out  the  channel  below  the  wheel  by  exploding 
giant-powder  in  the  obstructing  rocks. 

Everything  being  again  ready,  the  wheel  was  once  more  lowered 
A  more  vigorous  start,  a  somewhat  longer  revolution,  another  groan, 
and  another  entire  stoppage  was  the  result.  Not  a  drop  of  water  was 
raised  up  to  the  flume. 

We  were,  however,  very  near  the  fulfillment  of  our  hopes.  We  now 
had  a  bucket  at  every  paddle,  making  sixteen  in  all.  The  wheel  was 
required,  therefore,  to  raise  16  buckets :  1G  times  4£  gallons,  or  72 
gallons  (720  pounds)  at  every  revolution.  There  was  evidently  not 
power  enough  for  that  amount  of  work.  So,  to  obviate  this  difficulty, 
v/e  knocked  off  every  other  bucket,  leaving  eight  only.  The  next  time 
the  wheel  was  lowered  it  creaked  and  groaned  as  the  buckets  filled,  but 
revolved  entirely  around,  and  continued  to  do  so  without  interruption, 
with  a  motion  that  seemed  to  our  gratified  eyes  really  majestic.  Our 
watches  showed  that  it  made  three  revolutions  a  minute,  raising  108 
gallons  in  that  time,  or  6,480  gallons  an  hour.  The  problem  of  obtain- 
ing hatching-water  was  solved,  and  our  minds  were  relieved  of  a  great 
suspense  and  anxiety.  The  working  of  the  wheel  was  from  this  time  to 
the  end  a  perfect  success.  The  river  was  fed  by  the  steadily-melting 
snows  of  Mount  Shasta,  so  that  it  never  fell,  and,  as  no  rains  occur  at 
that  season  in  California,  it  never  rose.    The  wheel  revolved  regularly, 


414       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

without  interruption  or  change,  until  the  eggs  were  matured  and  sent  to 
their  destinations. 

The  work  that  this  simple  contrivance  accomplished  really  seems  sur- 
prising. It  raised  1,080  pounds  10  feet,  or  10,800  foot-pounds  every 
minute.     This  was  648,000  foot-pounds  an  hour,  or  15,552,000  every  day. 

Our  water-supply  was  now  guaranteed,  and  the  rest  of  the  hatching- 
preparations  were  comparatively  simple. 

The  flume. — They  consisted  of  a  flume  from  the  wheel  to  the  filtering- 
apparatus,  the  filtering-apparatus,  and  the  hatching-troughs.  The 
flume  was  a  simple  structure  of  wood,  about  fifty  yards  long,  supported 
by  trestle-work. 

The  filtering-boxes. — The  filtering-boxes  were  made  unusually  large. 
This  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  spawning  of  the  salmon  in  the  river. 
In  building  and  covering  up  their  nests,  they  filled  the  water  with  par- 
ticles of  earth  and  vegetable  growth,  which,  at  that  season,  it  required 
a  great  deal  of  filtering  to  keep  out.  I  used  three  filtering-boxes,  one 
large  one,  which  first  received  the  water,  and  two  smaller  ones,  which 
received  the  water  from  the  larger  one.  The  larger  box  contained  one 
screen  of  two  thicknesses  of  mosquito-bar,  and  four  screens  of  flannel, 
each  measuring  3  J  by  3  feet,  yielding,  in  all,  63  square  feet  of  filtering- 
surface.  The  smaller  boxes  contained  one  screen  of  three  thicknesses 
of  mosquito-bar,  and  seven  flannel  screens,  having  each  about  2  square 
feet  of  filtering-surface. 

The  water  of  the  McCloud  River. — The  water  of  the  McCloud  at  the 
spawning-season  is  peculiar.  It  is  not  roily  in  the  common  sense  of  the 
word,  or  in  the  least  approaching  to  being  muddy,*  but  the  impurities 
in  it,  which  have  been  stirred  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  river  by  the 
working  of  the  parent  fish  while  spawning,  can  be  distinctly  seen,  me- 
chanically held  in  the  water,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  presence 
of  these  foreign  particles,  seems  very  clear  and  pure.  It  has  at  this 
season  more  the  appearance  of  water  in  which  fine  sand  has  been  stirred 
up  than  what  is  generally  considered  turbid  or  roily  water. 

The  distributing-spout. — The  filtering-tanks  conveyed  the  water  into 
the  distributing-spout,  and  the  distributing-spout  discharged  it  into  the 
hatching-troughs. 

The  hatching-troughs. — The  hatching-troughs  were  placed  parallel  with 
each  other,  and  at  right  angles  with  the  distributing-spout,  as  is  the 
usual  custom  in  hatching-houses.  There  were  teu  rows  of  troughs 
placed  in  pairs,  with  a  passage-way  between  each  pair,  and  in  each  row 
were  three  troughs,  each  sixteen  feet  long,  placed  end  to  end,  one  below 
the  other,  so  as  to  give  a  fall  from  the  first  to  the  second,  and  from  the 
second  to  the  third,  of  a  few  inches.  The  troughs  were  on  an  average 
about  breast-high,  and  were  furnished  with  covers  made  by  stretching 
white  cotton  cloth  on  a  light  frame  of  wood.  Most  of  the  eggs  rested 
on  the  charcoal  bottom  of  the  troughs  •  but  I  used  trays  to  a  consider- 
able extent  formed  of  iron- wire  netting,  coated  with  asphaltum,  and 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  415 

found  thesn  satisfactory  for  maturing  eggs  in  for  shipment,  though  I  do 
not  think  fish  hatched  in  the  asphaltum  troughs  are  as  healthy  as  those 
hatched  in  charcoal  troughs. 

Seth  Green's  shad-box. — I  also  used,  by  way  of  experiment  and  with 
Seth  Green's  permission,  half  a  dozen  of  his  shad-hatching  boxes,  anchor- 
ing them  in  the  river-current.  They  worked  so  well  that  I  have  no 
doubt  that,  in  a  river  of  a  warm- winter  temperature  like  that  of  the 
Sacramento,  salmon-eggs  could  be  hatched  in  them  with  perfectly  satis- 
factory results,  which  adds  another  merit  to  this  very  simple  but  won- 
derfully effective  invention.  The  only  difficulty  which  we  experienced 
with  the  boxes  was  the  inconvenience  of  getting  at  them  to  pick  out  the 
dead  eggs.  On  account  of  this  inconvenience,  I  would  prefer  the  station- 
ary hatching-troughs  if  I  had  my  choice,  but  should  feel  perfectly  confi- 
dent of  hatching  successfully  any  number  of  salmon-eggs  with  nothing 
but  the  shad-boxes. 

The  tent. — The  whole  hatching  apparatus  (excluding,  of  course,  the 
flume  and  wheel)  was  covered  in  as  before  mentioned  by  a  large  and 
substantial  tent  60  feet  by  30  feet.  The  hatching-house,  or,  more  prop- 
erly speaking,  hatching-tent,  contained  our  work-bench  and  tools,  and 
was  the  place  where  all  the  mechanical  work  was  done. 

0.— HATCHING  THE  EGGS. 

Considering  that  the  eggs  were  matured  under  so  many  entirely  new 
conditions,  and  where  eastern  experience  in  hatching  salmon-eggs  fur- 
nished in  many  points  no  precedent  for  a  guide,  I  think  the  hatching 
succeeded  remarkably  well. 

There  were  losses,  however,  the  causes  of  which  may  be  classed  chiefly 
under  six  heads : 

1.  Loss  by  suffocation. 

2.  Loss  from  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

3.  Loss  from  diffused  light  of  the  sun. 

4.  Loss  from  inherent  causes. 

5.  Loss  from  excessive  agitation. 

6.  Loss  from  want  of  impregnation. 

Death  of  eggs  by  suffocation. — The  loss  that  resulted  from  this  cause 
was  very  trifling.  At  the  lower  end  of  one  of  the  lower  troughs  con- 
taining some  of  the  most  advanced  eggs,  one  of  the  division-cleats 
separating  the  compartments  had  been  made  so  high  as  to  impede  the 
circulation  of  the  water  just  above  it,  in  consequence  of  which  some  of 
the  eggs  in  the  water  had  an  insufficient  supply  of  air,  and  were  suffo- 
cated. I  may  add  here  that  I  have  noticed  that  a  vast  amount  more  of 
circulation  in  the  hatching- water  is  demanded  by  trout  and  salmon  eggs 
at  a  late  period  of  their  development  than  at  the  earlier  stages.  When 
these  eggs  are  first  taken,  they  can  be  literally  piled  together  in  heaps, 
in  water  having  a  very  slight  movement,  without  danger ;  but  after  the 
embryo  has  shown  itself  distinctly  in  the  egg,  great  caution  must  be 


416      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

exercised  in  regard  to  crowding  them  or  placing  one  tier  above  another, 
and  an  abundant  circulation  must  be  provided  to  prevent  suffocation.  In 
the  case  in  question,  the  eggs  were  two  tiers  deep  ;  the  circulation  about 
the  eggs  of  the  lower  tier  was  insufficient,  and  loss  ensued.  The  mis- 
chief, however,  was  almost  immediately  discovered,  and  the  causes 
removed,  so  that  the  loss  did  not  exceed  900  eggs. 

Loss  from  direct  rays  of  the  sun. — The  lower  end  of  the  hatching- 
troughs  extended  almost  to  the  eastern  end  of  the  tent,  so  that  the 
morning  sun,  unless  the  canvas  covering  of  that  end  of  the  tent 
was  carefully  kept  down,  shone  directly  into  the  open  end  of  the 
hatching-troughs.  As  the  tent  was  made  a  thoroughfare  by  the  In- 
dians, and  by  our  own  household  also,  there  was  constant  passing 
through  it,  and  the  folds  of  the  canvas  were  sometimes  left  carelessly 
raised  at  night,  so  as  to  expose  the  eggs  of  the  lowest  compartments  of 
the  troughs  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  early  morning  sun.  The  conse- 
quence, of  course,  was  the  loss  of  all  the  eggs  so  exposed.  This  accident 
happened  with  what  might  have  justly  been  called  an  unpardonable 
frequency  had  we  not  all  of  us  had  our  hands  too  full  otherwise  to  look 
after  this  source  of  mischief.  The  mortality  from  this  cause  during  the 
whole  season,  including  both  before  and  after  we  discovered  the  cause, 
amounted  to  perhaps  30,000  eggs. 

Loss  from  the  diffused  light  of  the  sun. — This  was  the  main  cause  of 
mortality  among  the  eggs  this  season  ;  and  it  was  all  the  more  destruc- 
tive because  I  was  not  aware  before  then  that  sunlight  distributed  and 
diffused  through  a  barrier  of  canvas  was  fatal  to  the  life  of  the  eggs. 
This  proved  to  be  the  fact,  however.  The  fact  was  even  worse  than 
this ;  for  the  light,  after  passing  through  the  canvas  covering  of  the 
tent,  and  also  through  the  cloth  covering  of  the  troughs,  destroyed  the 
eggs.  This  was  so  unexpected,  and,  I  think,  so  unprecedented,  that  we 
were  a  long  time  discovering  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Some  simple 
experiments,  however,  revealed  the  fact  that  the  diffused  light  of  the 
tent  was  killing  the  eggs.  The  obvious  remedy,  of  course,  was  covers. 
To  provide  board  covers  was  out  of  the  question,  for  it  would  take  a 
week,  certainly,  and  perhaps  two  weeks,  to  get  the  lumber ;  so  I  sent  to 
the  nearest  town  for  some  cotton  cloth,  and  made  covers  from  it  by 
stretching  the  cloth  on  tight  wooden  frames.  These  were  placed  on  the 
troughs.  The  sunlight  had  now  the  tent-canvas  and  the  cloth  covers 
to  pass  through,  and  I  felt  safe.  But  they  were  insufficient,  and  the 
cause  being  of  so  extended  a  nature,  and  being  accompanied  by  conse- 
quences of  a  correspondingly  extensive  character,  a  great  many  eggs 
were  lost.  Even  in  the  few  troughs  to  which  we  could  afford  board 
covers,  the  diffused  light  through  the  cracks,  reflected  from  the  inner 
surface  of  the  sides  of  the  troughs,  destroyed  a  considerable  number  of 
eggs. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  total  number  of  eggs 
obtained  in  the  end  was  reduced  any  by  these  losses.    The  effect  of  the 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA   IN    1873.  417 

losses  was  not  to  diminish  the  total  number  of  eggs,  but  simply  to  make 
us  more  work  ;  for  the  fact  was  that  salmon-eggs  were  so  abundant  that 
any  loss  could  be  replaced  at  once,  and  was  actually  so  replaced  as  fast 
as  the  loss  occurred.  By  referring  to  the  daily  table  of  eggs  taken,  it 
will  be  seen  how  easily  this  was  done.  For  instance,  from  the  10th  day 
of  September  to  the  13th,  inclusive,  we  took  465,000,  which  was  more 
than  enough  to  cover  all  losses  to  the  impregnated  eggs  from  all  causes 
combined. 

Loss  from  inherent  causes. — I  include  under  this  head  losses  that 
occurred  with  eggs  that  were  already  injured  when  they  left  the  fish, 
and  which  could  not  live  under  any  circumstances,  as,  for  instance, 
eggs  taken  from  dead  fish,  (chiefly  by  way  of  experiment,)  and  eggs 
already  dead  when  in  the  fish.  This  loss — if  to  be  deprived  of  anything 
which  never  had  any  value  in  the  beginning  may  be  considered  a  loss — 
may  be  set  at  30,000. 

Loss  from  excessive  agitation. — This  loss  occurred,  of  course,  in  the  ear- 
lier stages  of  the  embryo;  agitation,  though  very  fatal  at  first,  being 
harmless  in  the  later  stages  of  the  eggs'  development.  The  agitation 
was  caused  (a)  by  the  action  of  the  supply-stream  on  eggs  placed  too 
near  the  point  where  the  stream  falls  into  the  hatching-troughs  ;  (b)  by 
carelessness  of  our  Indian  assistants  in  feathering  the  eggs  when  pick- 
ing them  over ;  (c)  by  the  action  of  the  river-current  on  the  eggs  which 
were  placed  in  Seth  Green's  shad-hatching  boxes. 

The  first  two  causes  need  no  comment.  In  regard  to  the  third,  I  will 
say  that  in  experimenting  with  the  shad-hatching  boxes,  we  placed 
some  of  them  at  first  in  too  active  a  current,  which  gave  the  eggs  so 
much  agitation  that  they  became  addled,  and  died.  After  a  little  expe- 
rience, we  learned  what  force  of  current  they  needed,  and  subsequently 
had  capital  success  with  them. 

Mr.  Woodbury  informed  me  tbat  after  my  departure  he  succeeded  in 
finding  just  what  degree  of  movement  in  the  water  was  required  for  the 
salmon-eggs,  so  that  his  later  experiments  were  attended  with  as  good 
success  as  we  met  with  in  the  hatching-troughs. 

The  losses  from  all  causes  of  agitation  combined  I  estimated  at  100,000. 

Loss  from  want  of  impregnation. — The  mortality  from  other  causes  was 
not  distinguishable  from  that  resulting  from  want  of  impregnation,  so 
that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  what  the  loss  from  this  cause  was  this 
season.  I  should  say,  however,  that  the  unimpregnated  eggs  numbered 
less  than  100,000,  or  5  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  This  would  place  the 
percentage  of  impregnated  eggs  at  95  per  cent.  I  may  add  here  that 
on  account  of  the  abundance  of  salmon-eggs  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
scarcity  of  time  on  the  other,  it  was  often  more  of  an  object  to  save 
time  than  to  get  a  very  high  rate  of  impregnation.  For  instance,  sup- 
posing that,  in  taking  100,000  eggs,  an  hour  should  be  consumed  in  tak- 
ing pains  to  save  2  per  cent,  in  the  impregnation,  the  gain  would  be  2,000 

eggs.    The  same  amount  of  time  spent  in  catching  additional  salmon  and 

27  F 


418        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

spawning  them  rapidly  would  have  yielded,  say  6  female  salmon,  or 
30,000  eggs,  of  which  28,000  would  be  impregnated.  This,  it  will  be 
seen,  is  fourteen  times  the  number  gained  in  the  same  time  by  careful 
impregnation,  which  shows  that  the  time  spent  in  getting  eggs  is  better 
rewarded  than  that  consumed  in  laboring  to  obtain  high  percentages  of 
impregnation. 

To  resume  now  the  chronological  order  of  events,  I  will  repeat  that 
by  the  19th  of  August  we  turned  the  water  through  the  hatching-house, 
and  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  what  I  had  long  looked  forward  to,  a 
successful  hatching-apparatus  in  perfect  working-order  in  the  salmon- 
breeding  regions  of  the  Pacific  slope.  There  seemed  to  be  something  in 
the  very  sound  of  the  rippling  and  plashing  water  to  exhilarate  our 
spirits  as  it  leaped  through  the  troughs  for  the  first  time.  I  celebrated 
the  day  by  collecting  our  whole  force  of  whites  and  Indians  at  sunset 
and  raising  a  large  American  flag  over  the  camp. 

We  continued  to  catch  more  salmon  and  to  build  more  corrals  for 
them,  and  to  extend  the  preparations  for  hatching  the  eggs.  The  female 
salmon  now  began  to  show  every  sign  of  being  nearly  ready  to  spawn,  and 
we  were  daily  expecting  to  find  some  ripe  eggs.  We  remained,  however, 
in  this  not  unpleasant  state  of  excitement  and  anticipation  until  the 
26th  of  August,  when  we  took  the  first  ripe  salmon-eggs  of  the  season, 
numbering  23,000. 

Now  came  a  new  and  unexpected  drawback.  The  salmon,  confined 
in  the  corrals,  had  been  literally  wearing  themselves  out  in  their  frantic 
endeavors  to  ascend  the  river.  Every  moment,  day  and  night,  impelled 
by  their  irrepressible  instinct,  they  kept  jumping  and  lashing  themselves 
against  the  sides  of  the  inclosures,  and  now,  comparatively  exhausted 
by  their  efforts  and  bruises,  they  were  beginning  to  die  from  the  effect 
of  them.  Fortunately,  there  were  enough  more  in  the  river  to  get  eggs 
from,  for  had  we  depended  on  our  stock  on  hand  when  the  first  eggs 
were  taken  we  should  have  obtained  a  very  meager  supply.  As  it  was, 
I  kept  on  fishing  and  replacing  the  dead  salmon  with  live  ones,  so  that 
we  had  no  lack  of  eggs,  and  obtained  in  the  end  the  full  two  millions, 
at  which  number  I  had  set  my  limit. 

Nothing  further  occurred  to  interrupt  our  steady  progress.  We  con- 
tinued to  take  eggs  every  twenty-four  hours,  both  night  and  day,  and 
the  number  in  the  troughs  increased  rapidly. 

On  the  10th  of  September,  at  noon,  we  had  a  million  eggs  laid  downjv 
on  the  14th  of  September,  at  daylight,  we  had  a  million  and  a  half;  and 
on  the  22d,  at  daylight,  the  quota  of  two  millions  was  complete.  On  the 
12th  of  September,  the  first  eye-spots  were  visible  in  the  eggs  taken  on  the 
26th  of  August,  making  sixteen  days  for  the  interval  between  the  extru- 
sion of  the  eggs  and  the  appearance  of  the  eye-spots,  (the  formation  of 
the  choroid  pigment.)  The  water  in  the  river  had  a  temperature  of  53° 
at  sunrise  when  the  first  eggs  were  taken ;  but  it  always  rose  in  the  hatch- 
ing-troughs during  the  day,  sometimes  to  58°,  and  sometimes  as  high  as 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  419 

G4°,  so  that  the  exact  average  temperature  of  the  water  for  the  whole 
time  cannot  be  stated. 

On  the  20th  of  September,  I  sent  300,000  eggs  to  t'he  Atlantic  coast ; 
and  on  the  30th  of  September,  I  went  east  myself  with  000,000  more, 
leaving  the  camp  in  charge  of  Mr.  Woodbury. 

On  the  Gth  of  October,  Mr.  Myron  Green  left  camp  with  a  third  lot  of 
a  quarter  of  a  million ;  and  about  a  week  later,  Mr.  Woodbury  forwarded 
by  express  the  balance  of  the  eggs,  amounting  to  another  quarter  of  a 
million,  or  more. 

7. — PACKING  AND   SHIPPING    THE   EGGS. 

The  taking  of  the  eggs  and  the  maturing  of  them  for  shipment  was  a 
marked  success.  Indeed,  I  have  never  seen  a  finer  lot  of  salmon-eggs 
than  we  had  in  the  hatching- troughs  under  the  mammoth  tent  at  the 
McCloud.  Nothing  could  be  wished  for  more  happy  and  prosperous 
than  our  progress  up  to  the  point  of  shipping  the  eggs ;  but  here  came 
a  formidable  and  threatening  difficulty. 

Between  our  camp  and  the  waters  which  were  awaiting  the  eggs,  there 
lay  a  long  stretch  of  three  thousand  miles  of  land,  which  must  be  crossed 
by  the  young  embryos  before  they  could  be  made  available  for  the 
service  for  which  they  were  intended.  It  was  enough  to  make  the  most 
confident  enthusiast  falter. 

We  all  looked  forward  to  this  dangerous  journey  of  the  eggs  with 
dread.  When  we  packed  them  in  the  moss,  and  screwed  down  the  cov- 
ers, it  seemed  like  burying  them  alive ;  and  when  we  saw  the  crates  con- 
taining them  loaded  into  the  wagons,  and  sent  off  to  the  railroad-station, 
and  thought  of  the  almost  interminable  journey  before  them,  and  the 
ten  thousand  chances  of  injury  that  these  frail  creatures  would  be  ex- 
posed to  on  the  way,  it  seemed  nothing  less  than  infatuation  to  expect 
that  they  would  survive  them  all  and  ever  see  the  light  again  alive. 

They  must  go,  however,  and  we  packed  them  as  well  as  we  could,  and 
sent  them  off.  The  boxes  in  which  they  were  packed  were  all  two  feet 
square  and  a  foot  deep.  The  eggs  were  packed  as  usual,  with  first  a 
layer  of  moss  at  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  then  a  layer  of  eggs,  then 
another  layer  of  moss,  and  so  on  to  the  top.  Midway  in  the  interior  of 
each  box,  there  was  a  thin  wooden  partition,  to  break  the  force  of  the 
superincumbent  mass  of  moss  and  eggs.  We  packed  about  75,000  in  a 
box.  When  the  box  was  filled,  the  cover  was  screwed  down,  and  it  was 
packed  with  another  one  of  the  same  size  in  a  crate,  which  was  three 
inches  and  a  half  larger  on  all  sides  than  the  combined  bulk  of  the  two 
boxes  inclosed ;  this  intervening  space  being  filled  with  hay  to  protect 
the  eggs  from  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  On  the  top  of  the  crates 
was  a  rack  for  ice.  The  nearest  and  only  suitable  moss  that  we  could 
hear  of  was  seventy  miles  away,  at  the  sources  of  the  Sacramento  River. 
I  accordingly  dispatched  Mr.  Woodbury  to  Mount  Shasta  to  procure  a 


420      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

supply.    He  returned  in  a  few  days  with  thirty-five  bushels  of  moss,  all 
of  which  we  used  in  packing. 

The  manner  of  the  packing  has  been  a  matter  of  considerable  criti- 
cism. Ou  this  point,  I  will  only  say  that  I  had  but  one  precedent  to  be 
guided  by,  viz,  the  shipment  of  salmon-eggs  from  the  same  place  the 
last  year.  It  was  reported  concerning  this  consignment  that  the  eggs 
which  did  not  hatch  on  the  way  arrived  in  excellent  order.  In  a  criti- 
cal and  difficult  undertaking  like  this  in  question,  there  seemed  to  be 
no  choice  between  adopting  a  method  which  had  succeeded  and  others 
which  had  never  been  tried,  so  I  adhered  to  the  plan  of  the  last  year's 
shipment,  and  packed  these  eggs  in  precisely  the  same  way. 

8. — THE  METHOD   OF  PACKING  DISCUSSED. 

To  give  the  pros  and  cons  of  this  method  of  packing  would  lead  to  a 
long  discussion,  which  would,  perhaps,  be  out  of  place  here ;  so  I  will 
simply  say  that  the  packing  was  no  hap-hazard  affair,  but  the  result  of 
careful  thought,  and  the  exercise  of  as  much  foresight  in  regard  to  the 
journey  as  we  could  bring  to  bear  upon  the  subject  j  and  even  now, 
after  plenty  of  leisure  for  reflection,  I  do  not  know  of  any  other  practi- 
cable method  of  packing  salmon-eggs  which  are  to  be  sent  this  over- 
land journey,  without  an  attendant,  which  secures  as  many  favorable 
combinations,  or  which  is  not  open  to  quite  as  many  objections,  as  the 
one  adopted.  Indeed,  I  think  the  results  were  a  decided  vindication  of 
the  merits  of  the  packing.  The  first  lot,  forwarded  in  September,  was 
undoubtedly  destroyed  by  the  heat ;  the  second  lot  arrived  in  as  good 
order  as  could  be  expected  5  the  third  lot  was  reported  to  arrive  in  ex- 
cellent condition ;  and  the  fourth  and  last  lot  came  the  best  of  all.  Of 
those  sent  to  Great  Salt  Lake,  distant  a  thousand  miles,  only  3  per 
cent,  were  lost.  What  more  could  be  asked  of  the  packing  ?  A  method 
that  will  carry  salmon-eggs  a  thousand  miles  with  a  loss  of  only  3 
per  ceut.  cannot  be  a  very  bad  one.  Seth  Green  reports  a  loss  on  the 
200,000  eggs  consigned  to  him  of  only  11  per  cent,  both  in  transpor- 
tation and  in  hatching.  This  certaiuly  does  not  seem  to  reflect  any  dis- 
credit on  the  packing  of  the  eggs;  and  when  we  remember  that  they 
came  from  a  climate  where  the  mercury  stood  at  110°  in  the  shade,  and 
that  they  were  conveyed  twenty-two  miles  in  a  wagon,  to  begin  with, 
over  a  very  rough  mountain-road,  and  after  that  three  thousand  miles 
by  rail,  I  think  it  is  rather  creditable  to  the  packing  than  otherwise. 
I  am  open  to  conviction,  however ;  and  if  there  is  any  better  way  of 
packing  the  salmon-eggs  for  their  overland  journey,  I  should  like  to 
know  it,  and  should  be  thankful  for  any  light  on  the  subject. 

9. — COST   OF  THE  EGGS. 

The  cost  of  getting  the  ova  and  preparing  them  for  transportation 
was  about  $4,000.  There  were  very  nearly  1,500,000  impregnated  eggs 
in  good  condition  for  shipment.    This  makes  the  cost  of  the  eggs  at  the 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  421 

hatching-works  $2.G6  a  thousand.  I  think  in  future,  with  the  experi- 
ence that  has  been  acquired  and  with  the  work  that  has  already  been, 
accomplished,  that' it  is  highly  probable  that  the  eggs  can  be  got  out  at 
a  still  less  expense  ;■  and  I  should  not  be  surprised,  in  the  event  of  the 
undertaking  being  repeated  on  the  McCloud  Eiver  another  year,  if 
5,000,000  eggs  could  be  secured  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,  gold,  or  at  the  rate 
of  $1  a  thousand,. 

10.— JOURNAL   OF   OVERLAND   TRIP  WITH   SALMON-EGGS. 

Below  will  be  found  an  account  of  an  overland  trip  with  one  lot  of 
California-salmon  eggs : 

At  4  o'clock  on  Tuesday  afternoon,  September  30,  1873,  all  the  eggs 
for  one  shipment,  to  the  number  of  600,000,  having  been  packed  in  three 
large  crates,  we  began  moving  them  to  the  wagon  which  was  to  carry 
them  to  the  railroad-station  at  Eedding,  Cal.  The  crates  containing 
the  eggs  averaged  in  weight  about  300  pounds  apiece,  and  it  was  a. 
difficult  job,  in  the  burning  sun,  to  get  them  up  the  long,  steep  hill  to? 
the  stage-road  where  the  wagon  was  waiting.  With  the  help  of  half  a 
dozen  Indians,  it  was  accomplished  at  last,  however,  and  at  about  5 
o'clock  I  started  for  Eedding,  distant  twenty-two  miles.  So  rough  and 
difficult  is  the  road  that  we  did  not  reach  our  destination  till  1  o'clock 
in  the  morning.  I  had  previously  arranged  to  have  200  pounds  of  ice 
provided  at  Eedding,  which  I  distributed  on  the  crates. 

The  eggs  were  consigued  as  follows:  To  Seth  Green,  Eochester, 
N.  Y.,  3  boxes,  200,000;  E.  G.  Pike,  Middletown,  Conn.,  2  boxes, 
150,000 ;  F.  W.  Webber,  Cold  Spring  trout-ponds,  Charlestown,  K  H., 
1  box,  50,000;  E.  A.  Brackett,  Winchester,  Mass.,  1  box,  50,000;  C.  G. 
Atkins,  Bucksport,  Me.,  1  box,  50,000. 

The  train  left  Eedding  at  3  o'clock  a.  in.,  on  Wednesday,  October  1,  for 
Sacramento  City,  which  I  reached  safely  at  1  p.  m.,  the  crates  apparently  in 
good  order.  I  left  Sacramento  on  the  Central  Pacific  Eailroad  on  the 
train  going  east  at  2  p.  m.  the  same  day ;  the  eggs  being  in  Wells  & 
Fargo's  express-car.  The  morning  was  warm ;  the  night  had  been  quite 
cool.  The  next  morning,  Thursday,  October  2,  I  telegraphed  for  ice  at 
Carlin,  which  was  furnished  when  the  train  reached  that  point,  and 
which  I  broke  up  and  put  on  the  crates. 

On  Friday  morning,  October  3,  at  7  a.  m.,  we  reached  Ogden,  and  the 
crates  were  transferred  to  the  express-car  of  the  Union  Pacific  Eailroad 
train,  which  connects  here  withthe  Central  Pacific  Eailroad.  During  the 
afternoon  of  Friday  I  opened  one  of  the  crates,  and  examined  the  top 
layer  of  eggs.  They  were  in  perfect  order,  and  looked  precisely  as  well 
as  when  they  were  first  packed.  I  put  on  more  ice  and  left  them  till 
morning.  On  Saturday  morning,  October  4, 1  got  up  early,  and  went  to 
the  express-car  to  examine  the  crates.  The  night  had  been  cool,  but 
the  express-messenger  had  kept  a  hot  coal-fire  iu  the  car  and  it  was  very 
hot.     I  procured  a  lot  of  ice  at  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  which  I  used  at  once, 


422       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

and  telegraphed  ahead  to  Laramie  for  more.  The  day  was  comfortably 
warm.  No  mishaps  occurred  except  the  iteating-up  of  the  car  the  night 
before. 

On  Sunday,  October  5,  at  1  p.  in.,  we  reached  Omaha,  crossed  the  Mis- 
souri Eiver,  and  left  Council  Bluffs  at  3  p.  m.,  on  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton and  Quincy  Bailroad.    That  night  was  quite  cool. 

On  Monday,  October  C,  at  3  p.  in.,  we  reached  Chicago.  The  last 
night  was  cold  and  favorable  for  the  eggs.  Left  Chicago  on  the  Michi- 
gan Central  at  5.15  p.  m.,  with  the  eggs  apparently  in  good  order.  Up 
to  this  time  I  had  kept  constantly  replenishing  the  crates  with  ice. 

On  Tuesday  morning,  October  7,  at  4  o'clock,  we  entered  Cauada  on 
the  Great  Western  Bailroad,  aud  the  Union  Pacific  express-car,  which 
still  accompanied  the  train,  was  sealed  up  by  the  custom-house  officers, 
so  that  I  could  not  enter  it  till  we  left  Suspension  Bridge  that  afternoon 
at  2  o'clock.  The  crates  had  been  well  provided  with  ice,  however,  the 
night  was  frosty,  and  the  day  was  cool,  so  I  did  not  feel  uneasy  about 
the  eggs.  The  car  which  contained  them  had  a  large  amount  of  gold 
and  silver  coin  and  bullion  in  it,  and  the  messengers  had  instructions 
to  keep  every  one  out  of  the  car.  Their  instructions  are  so  imperative 
in  this  particular  that  they  will  not  even  listen  to  any  explanations.  I 
had  fortunately  provided  myself  with  a  letter  from  Mr.  Tracy,  of  Sac- 
ramento, one  of  the  head  managers  of  Wells  &  Fargo's  express,  aud  by 
means  of  it  managed  to  get  aboard  the  express-car  and  attend  to  the 
crates.  Without  the  letter,  there  would  have  been  no  chance  whatever 
of  getting  at  the  eggs.  Even  with  such  a  letter  a  man  insisting  on  en- 
tering the  car  runs  a  risk  of  being  injured  by  the  messenger's  revolver. 
We  arrived  at  Rochester  about  5  p.  m.,  Tuesday,  October  7.  Here  I 
left  the  three  boxes  (a  crate  and  a  half)  for  Seth  Green. 

Tuesday  night,  at  2  a.  m.,  the  train  reached  Albauy  with  the  crates 
in  good  order.  I  went  to  bed  supposing  that  the  express-car  would  go 
on  with  the  train  to  Boston,  but  in  point  of  fact  it  is  the  custom  to 
leave  it  at  Albauy. 

On  Wednesday  morning,  October  8,  at  about  8  o'clock,  the  train  arrived 
at  Boston.  To  my  great  surprise  and  dismay  I  could  not  find  the  salmon- 
eggs  for  Mr.  Atkins  and  Mr.  Brackett,  and  now  learned  for  the  first  time 
that  they  had  been  left  with  the  car  at  Albany.  I  was  the  more  chagrined 
at  this  because  I  had  been  so  very  careful  to  keep  with  them.  I  might 
almost  say  I  had  hardly  let  them  go  out  of  my  sight,  and  now  at  the 
end  of  this  long  and  exceedingly  anxious  journey,  just  as  I  thought  my 
care  had  been  rewarded  with  success  and  was  at  an  end,  there  came  this 
disappointment  and  new  anxiety.  I  could  not  get  track  of  these  eggs 
again  or  learn  for  some  time  what  delayed  them;  and  it  was  three  days 
before  Mr.  Brackett  got  his  and  four  days  before  Mr.  Atkins  received 
his.  It  was  very  provoking,  when  time  was  so  precious,  to  reflect  that 
the  eggs  were  one-half  as  long  going  from  Albany  to  Winchester,  two 
hundred  miles,  as  from  our  camp  to  Albany,  three  thousand  two  hundred 
miles.    As  the  weather  was  very  warm  during  these  intervening  days, 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  423 

it  is  surprising  that  the  eggs  were  not  entirely  lost.  Mr.  Brackett, 
however,  saved  one-half  of  his,  and  Mr.  Atkins  one-tenth  of  his 
consignment.  The  eggs  for  Mr.  Pike  and  for  the  Cold  Spring  trout- 
ponds  were  put  off  at  Springfield,  Mass.  The  latter  arrived  in  good 
condition,  but  there  was  a  large  loss  in  the  former  lot.  I  learned  sub- 
sequently from  Seth  Geen  that  his  lot  of  200,000  arrived  in  excellent 
order,  and  that  only  11  per  cent,  of  the  eggs  were  lost,  both  in  trans- 
portation and  in  hatching. 

11. — DISTRIBUTION  OF   SALMON-EGGS. 

The  following  table  shows  how  the  eggs  were  shipped  and    dis- 
tributed . 

First  lot  was  shipped  September  20,  1873 300, 000 

Second  lot  was  shipped  September  30, 1873 500, 000 

Third  lot  was  shipped  October  7,  1873 330, 000 

Fourth  lot  was  shipped  October  14,  1873 250, 000 

Fifth  lot  was  shipped  October  19,  1873 « 20, 000 

1,  400, 000 
The  various  shipments  were  distributed  as  follows: 

First  shipment,  September  20,  1873 : 

To  J.  H.  Slack,  Bloomsbury,  N.  J 150, 000 

To  James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa. 150, 000 

Total 300, 000 

Second  shipment,  September  30,  1873 : 

To  Seth  Green,  Eochester,  N.  Y 200, 000 

To  R.  G.  Pike,  Middletown,  Conn 150, 000 

To  F.  W.  Webber,  for  United  States  Fishing-Com- 
mission, Cold  Spring  trout-ponds,  Charlestowu, 

N.  H - 50,  000 

To  E.  A.  Brackett,  Winchester,  Mass 50, 000 

To  Charles  J.  Atkins,  Bucksport,  Me 50, 000 

Total 500, 000 

Third  shipment,  October  7, 1873  : 

To  A.  P.  Eockwood,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah .  40, 000 

To  George  H.  Jerome,  Niles,  Mich 120, 000 

To  James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa 20, 000 

To  J.  H.  Slack,  Bloomsbury,  N.  J 150, 000 

Total , 330, 000 

Fourth  shipment,  October  14,  1873  : 
To  J.  H.  Slack,  Bloomsbury,  N.  J 250,000 

Fifth  shipment : 
To  Dr.  W.  A.  Newell,  San  Francisco,  Cal 20, 000 

Total 1,  400,  000 


424       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

F— CATALOGUE    OF    COLLECTIONS    SENT   TO    THE   SMITH- 
SONIAN INSTITUTION  IN  1873. 

190.  First  male  salmon  taken  ;  caught  with  a  hook  ;  weight,  8  pounds ; 

girth,  14  inches ;  McCloud  Eiver,  California,  July  27,  1873. 

191.  Male  salmon  ;  weight,  5  pounds ;  girth,  13  inches ;  McCloud  Eiver, 

July  27,  1873. 

192.  Salmon  caught  in  seine;  weight,  22  pounds  ;  girth,  22  inches;  fe- 

male ;  July  28,  1873. 
193. 
194. 

195.  Six  small  trout,  McCloud  Eiver,  California,  August  6,  1873. 

196.  Two  heads  of  small  male  salmon,  McCloud  Eiver,  August  6,  1873. 

197.  Female  salmon  ;  weight,  21  pounds  ;  girth,  21  inches  ;  caught  with 

seine  and  kept  some  time  in  pen  ;  fins  and  tail  partly  destroyed 
by  fungus  and  abrasion  ;  McCloud  Eiver,  California,  August  6, 
1873. 

198.  Trout,  McCloud  Eiver,  August  8,  1S73. 
199. 

200.  Trout,  McCloud  Eiver,  August  8,  1873. 

201.  Jar  of  trout,  McCloud  Eiver,  August  7, 1873. 

202.  Four  small  trout,  McCloud  Eiver,  August  7,  1873. 

203.  Skin  and  head  of  female  salmon  ;  weight,  10  pbunds  ;  full  of  spawn, 

not  separated,  but  nearly  ripe ;  meat,  dark  salmon-color ;  skin 
now  quite  dark,  slimy,  and  scales  nearly  absorbed ;  August  8, 
1873. 

204.  Female  salmon  ;  weight,  12  pounds ;  girth,  17  inches ;  August  13, 

1873 ;  McCloud  Eiver. 

205.  Male  salmon  ;  weight,  4  pounds  ;  girth,  11  inches  ;  McCloud  Eiver, 

California,  August  13,  1873. 

206.  Female  salmon;  very  slimy  and  dark;  weight,  19  pounds ;  girth, 

20^  inches  ;  length,  33£  ;  spawn  weighed  2^  pounds  and  was  nearly 
ripe  ;  August  14,  McCloud  Eiver,  California,  1873. 

207.  Pyloric  appendages  and  roe  of  206. 

208.  Male  salmon  ;  weight,  6  pounds  ;  girth,  13  inches ;  August  3, 1873, 

McCloud  Eiver,  California, 

209.  Male  salmou  ;  weight,  5  pounds  ;  girth,  12£  inches ;  McCloud  Eiver, 

California,  July  29,  1873. 

210.  Female  salmon;  weight,  21  pounds;  girth,  21  inches;    McCloud 

Eiver,  California,  August  6,  1873. 

211.  Male  salmon;  weight,  24  pounds;  girth,  21  inches;  McCloud  Eiver, 

California,  July  30,  1873. 

212.  Female  salmon;   weight,  20  pounds;  girth,  18  inches;   McCloud 

Eiver,  California,  July  25,  1873. 
213. 


OPERATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    IN    1873.  425 

277.  Female  salmon;  weight,  19  pounds;  girth,  19£  inches ;  full  of  eggs 

nearly  ripe ;  McCloud  River,  California,  August  15,  1873 ;  very 
slimy,  but  not  in  bad  condition. 

278.  Female  salmon  ;   weight,  8  pounds;    girth,  14  inches ;    McCloud 

River,  California,  August  15, 1873;  full  of  eggs  nearly  ripe. 

279.  Grilse ;  McCloud  River,  California,  August  15,  1873. 

280.  Large  male  salmon  ;  milt  ripe  and  good ;  weight,  26  pounds;  girth, 

23  inches ;  McCloud  River,  California,  August  17,  1873 ;  in  good 
condition,  but  dark  and  slimy  ;  first  ripe  male  taken. 

281.  Pyloric  appendages  of  280,  (in  jar.) 

282.  Trout,  (see  drawing;)  probably  an  aged  individual;  fins  and  tail 

worn  considerably  ;  thin  and  slab-sided ;  weight,  4  pounds  ;  girth, 
11  inches;  caught  with  a  hook;  McCloud  River,  California, 
August  18,  1873. 

283.  Lizard,  (local  name   "salamander";)  McCloud  River,  California, 

August  18, 1873. 

284.  Stomach  of  No.  282. 

285.  Male  salmon,  (see  drawing ;)  weight,  28  pounds ;  girth,  23  inches  ; 

scales  all  absorbed;    one  of   the  largest  caught  this  season; 

McCloud  River,  California,  August  20,  1873. 
280. 
287. 

288.  Trout,  Utah  Lake. 

289.  Snub-nosed  trout,  San  Andres  Lake  ;  spawning-season. 

290.  Fish  from  Utah  Lake. 

291.  Fish  from  Utah  Lake. , 

292.  Trout  from  Utah  Lake. 

293.  Trout  from  Utah  Lake. 

294.  Fish  from  Utah  Lake. 

295.  Trout  from  Utah  Lake. 
29G.  Trout  from  Utah  Lake. 

297.  Trout  from  McCloud  River,  July,  1873. 

298.  Salmon-skin,  McCloud  River,  August,  1873. 

299.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  August,  1873. 

300.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  August,  1873. 

301.  Split-tail,  (herring,)  same  as  Sacramento  split-tail,  McCloud  River, 

August  23, 1873. 

302.  Grilse,  McCloud,  August  26,  1873. 

303.  Grilse,  McCloud,  August  26,  1873. 

304.  Male  salmon  ;  weight, 28  pounds;  girth,  22  inches;  McCloud  River, 

September  1 ,  1873. 

305.  Male  salmon  ;  weight,  20  pounds;  girth,  21  inches;  McCloud  River, 

September  2,  1873. 

306.  Jar  of  young  trout  and  salmon,  McCloud  River,  September  2, 1873. 

307.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  3,  1873. 

308.  Trout,  September  3,  1873,  McCloud  River. 


426       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

309.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  3,  1873. 

310.  Head  of  male  salmon,  McCloud  River,  California. 

311.  Very  small  grilse,  McCloud  River,  September  9,  1873. 

312.  Female-salmon  skin  after  spawning,  September  9,  1873. 

313.  Very  large  male  salmon;  weight,  29  pounds;   girth,  22  inches; 

length,  3  feet  5  inches;  McCloud  River,  California,  September  14, 
1873. 

314.  The  smallest  grilse  caught  this  season,  thin  and  worn,  but  full  of 

milt  and  very  ripe,  McCloud  River,  California. 

315.  Smallest  female  caught  this  season ;   weight,  after  spawning,  6 

pounds;  girth,  12£  inches;  contained  about  2,500  eggs ;  McCloud 
River,  California,  September  17,  1873. 

316.  Salmon-trout,  McCloud  River,  September  19,  1873. 

317.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  19,  1873. 

318.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  19,  1873. 

319.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  21,  1873. 

320.  Trout-skin,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  22,  1873 

321.  Trout-skin,  McCloud  River,  California,  September  22,  1873. 

322.  Skin  of  female  salmon ;  weight,  13  pounds;  girth,  17  inches;  Mc- 

Cloud River,  California,  September  26,  1S73. 

323.  Skin  of  female  salmon ;  weight,  13  pounds ;  girth,  17  inches ;  Mc- 

Cloud River,  California,  September  20,  1873. 

324.  Coarse  tule  matting,  Clear  Lake  Indians,  Lake  County,  California, 

February,  1873. 

325.  Fine  tule  matting,  Clear  Lake  Indians,  Lake  County,  California, 

February,  1873. 

326.  Material  from  which  Indian  baskets  are  made,  Clear  Lake,  Lake 

County,  California,  February  10,  1873. 

327.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September,  1873. 

328.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  September,  1873. 

329.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  August,  1873. 

330.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  August,  1873. 

331.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  August,  1873. 

332.  Trout,  McCloud  River,  California,  August,  1873. 

333.  Trout-spawn,  McCloud  River,  California,  September,  1873. 

334.  Jar  containing  56  small  trout  (or  salmon)  and  three  packages  of 

pyloric  appendages,  McCloud  River,  California,  August  and  Sep- 
tember, 1873. 

335.  Jar  containing  small  trout  (or  salmon)  McCloud  River,  California, 

August  and  September,  1873. 

336.  Lizards,  (local  name  "salamander,")  McCloud  River,  California,  Au- 

gust, 1873. 

337.  Unknown  quadruped,  McCloud  River,  California,  August,  1873. 

338.  Bottle  of  exceptionally  large  salmon-eggs,  McCloud  River,  Califor- 

nia, September,  1873. 

339.  Jar  containing  three  California  lizards,  also  large  salmon  eggs,  Mc- 

Cloud River.  California,  September,  1873. 


OPERATIONS   IN   CALIFORNIA   IN   1873.  427 

340.  Sacramento  salmon,  artificially  hatched  at  Cold  Spring  trout-ponds, 

Charlestown,  IS.  H.,  December,  1873. 

341.  Hat  (or  basket)  of  McOloud  Indians,  McCloud  Eiver,  California, 

September,  1873.    (See  326.) 

342.  Spear-points,  made  of  ankle-bone  of  deer,  used  by  McCloud  Indians 

for  spearing  salmon,  October,  1873,  McCloud  River,  Shasta  County, 
California. 

343.  Indian  girdle,  badge  of  honor,  McCloud  Indians,  McCloud  Eiver, 

California,  September,  1873. 

344.  Indian  rope,  made  from  plant  which  grows  on  Little  Sacramento 

River,  McCloud  Indians,  California,  September,  1873. 

345.  Hat,  (or  basket,)  McCloud  Indians,  McCloud  River,  California,  Sep- 

tember, 1873.     (See  326.) 

346.  Manzanita-berries,  and  flour  made  from  berries  by  McCloud  Indians, 

McCloud  River,  California,  September,  1873. 

347.  Soaproot,  used  by  McCloud  River  Indians  for  soap,  and  to  make 

brushes,  McCloud  River,  California,  1873. 

348.  Omitted. 

349.  Insect  supposed  to  make  noise  at  night,  McCloud  River,  Cali- 

fornia, September  10,  1873.     (Contributed  by  B.  B.  Redding.) 

350.  Moth  from  Summit  station,  Central  Pacific  Railroad,  Sierra  Nevada, 

California,  December  22,  1873.     (Contributed  by  B.  B.  Redding.) 

351.  Plume  of  the  McCloud  Indians,  McCloud  River,  California,  Sep- 

tember, 1873. 

352.  Plume  of  McCloud  Indians,  McCloud  River,  California,  September, 

1873. 

353.  Plume  worn  by  Indian  Dick,  who  murdered  Mr.  Crooks,  a  white 

settler  on  the  McCloud  River,  California,  September  24,  1873. 

354.  TVater -ouzel's  nest,  headwaters  of  Little  Sacramento  River,  Siski- 

you County,  California,  September,  1873. 


G— A  LIST  OF  M'CLOUD  INDIAN  WORDS  SUPPLEMENTARY 
TO  A  LIST  CONTAINED  IN  THE  REPORT  OF  1872. 


By  Livingston  Stone. 


All-ale,  Up,  world  of  good  spirits. 
Ar-Jcal,  Gone,  used  up. 
Ar-nouka,  I  don't  care  to. 
Attle-nas,  Tattooing. 
Bar-widder,  Come  and  eat. 
Barla,  Irony,  a  joke  (or)  a  falsehood. 
-  beeda,  To  be  in  want  of. 
Bew-wy,  To  be  the  matter  with. 
•  bim,  (an  intensifier,)  Yery. 
Boolock  too  mah,  Not  big  enough. 
Chaw-awl,  Cooked,  done. 
Chee-oomay,  To  bury. 
Che-hammis,  Ax. 
Chil-chilch,  Bird, 
Chilluk,  Provoked. 
Chinny,  To  take. 
Chin-ou-lebarda,  I'll  take  it  by  and 

by. 

Chippeicinncm,  Midnight. 

Chocky,  Near  by. 

Choohay,  To  gamble. 

Choreic,  Wooden. 

Chuna,  Dance. 

ClarboorucJc,  Quartz. 

Col,  Lips. 

Colclia,  Pleasant  weather. 

Cou-yarda,  It  hurts  me. 

Bar-Mai,  Burned. 

Barnal,  Get  out! 

•de,  (a  pronoun   referring  to   the 

speaker.) 
De.e-ee,  Yes,  (very  emphatic.) 
JDokliy,  Chin. 
Doompcha,  To  bathe. 
Bllo-de-Jiestarmin,  Nothing  is   the 

matter  with  me. 


Elponna,  Come  in. 

E-icear,  I  don't  know  how. 

Furbiss,  New. 

Hareimar,  To  carry  away. 

Harlisspenarda,  I  don't  want  to  go. 

Harpa,  Father. 

Harrardar,  Good-by. 

Hebarlcy,  I  guess  so. 

Hestarm,  What's  the  matter  ? 

He-wyhy,  More. 

Hissarm,  How  much. 

Hissart,  How  many. 

Hornda,  A  long  time;  (also,)  al- 
ways. 

Hoo-roochook,  Needle. 

Kaiser,  Quick. 

Kar,  Cloudy. 

Kar-Jiar,  A  great  wind. 

KharJ:,  Insane,  crazy. 

Khra-ma,  Finished. 

Kellar,  Straight. 

Ken,  Down. 

Kentparna,  To  rise  up. 

Kettewintoon,  Twenty ;  (i.  e.,  one 
Indian,  all  his  fingers  and  toes.) 

Khal-lokh,  Plume. 

Khec-yay,  Uncle. 

Khlark,  Rattlesnake. 

Klarmet,  To  give. 

Klaw-ma,  To  kill. 

Kleetich-liss-penarda,  I  don't  want 
to  work. 

Koorcha,  Pig. 

Khlesh,  Soul,  spirit. 

Ktcee-yer,  Sick. 

Len-darda,  Long  time  ago. 


LIST    OF   M'CLOUD    INDIAN    WORDS. 


423 


Lcepida,   (used  only  with  mame; 

mameleepida,  I  am  thirsty.) 
Lor-e-ke,  Over  that  way. 
Ma-art,  Ear. 

Man,  Any  one,  (like  the  German.) 
Markh-us,  Leg. 
Ml-ee,  Foot. 
-minner,  Cannot. 
JUooty,  To  understand. 
Neechi,  Nephew. 
Nick-el,  Skin. 

Mss,  Me,  (objective  case  of  nett.) 
Xoic-oicse,  Cloth. 
Xun-narma,  True. 
Oh-my,  Enough. 
Oo-koo,  Yonder. 
Oosa,  Almost. 

Oose-lenda,  Day  before  yesterday. 
Oose-poppil,  Last  year. 
Oo-yool,  Grapes. 
Pahn-eetus,  Handkerchief. 
Park,  Body. 
Pee-echa,  To  make. 
Pice,  Manzanita. 
Poilam,  Little  while  ago. 
Po mmissim a,  "Winter. 
Pom-kenta,  Down,  world  of    bad 

spirits. 
Pooly,  There. 
Poo-re-icar,  Dark. 
Poo-tar,  Grandmother. 
Poppil,  Year. 
Po-Po-oppil,  This  year. 
Poppum-Po-poppil,  Next  year. 
Sawny-winnem,  Noon. 
JSee-ee,  Teeth. 
Seeokoos,  To  brush. 
See-icy,  WritiDg,  letters,  &c. 


Shonn,  Stone. 

Shono,  Nose. 

Shoohoo,  Dog. 

Shookoo,  Horse. 

Soo-hama,  Will  you  please  ? 

Sukey,  To  stand. 

Tabar,  Gambling-stick. 

Tar-kee,  Hat. 

Tay-rucli,  Tanned  buckskin. 

Tee-chellis,  Squirrel. 

Tilteeta,  To  go  visiting. 

■tole,  In,  (or)  on,  (or)  among;   e.  g., 

meetole,  in  a  tree. 
Toon-makh,  Bosom. 
Toon-oo,  Back. 
Too-too,  Mother. 
Tulich,  To  swim. 
Wawtcha,  To  cry. 
Way-ee-icorry,  Come  again. 
Weh!  Come  here! 
Werry-werry,  Hurry  up! 
Wilner,  To  get  up,  (from  bed.) 
Win !  Look  I 

Winne-harra,  To  go  in  search  of. 
Winnem,  Middle. 
W inne-squeea,  I  want  to  see. 
Wittelly,  Quickly. 
Wohar,  Cow. 
Woor-ous,  Fish-spawn. 
Ya-mutta,  Trail. 
Yar-loo,  Quit! 
Yaw-lar,  Snow. 
Yay-lo-cou-da,  Move  away ! 
Yet-u-nas,  Name. 
Yilkh-mar,  Heavy. 
Yolie,  Now. 

Yolie-poppum,  Pretty  soon. 
Yorkos,  Gold. 


XXI -HATCHING  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CALIFORNIA  SALMON. 


A— EEPORT    ON  CALIFORNIA    SALMON   SPAWN   HATCHED 

AND  DISTPvlBUTED. 

By  J.  H.  Slack,  M.  D. 

Sir:  The  first  consignment  of  spawn  from  California  arrived  on  the 
evening  of  September  30,  1873.  The  weather  for  the  previous  few  days 
had  been  warm,  the  thermometer  ranging  from  70°  to  75°  at  noon. 
The  spawn  was  contained  in  two  packing-boxes  inclosed  in  an  open 
crate,  the  spaces  between  the  boxes  and  crate  being  filled  with  hay. 
This  hay  was  rotten,  and  the  boxes  exhaled  a  peculiar  and,  alas,  too 
well-known  odor,  showing  that  a  portion  at  least  of  the  spawn  was  not 
only  dead,  but  decomposed.  The  boxes  were  at  once  removed  to  the 
hatching-house  and  opened.  Temperature  of  the  air,  62°;  interior  of 
upper  box,  74°;  lower  box,  84°.  The  temperature  of  the  water  being 
50°,  it  was  feared  that  if  at  once  unpacked,  the  sudden  change  would 
be  fatal.  Water  was  therefore  warmed  to  70°  and  allowed  slowly  to 
percolate  through  the  boxes,  the  temperature  being  gently  lowered. 
About  twelve  hours  elapsed  before  the  temperature  of  50°  was  obtained. 
The  work  of  unpacking  then  commenced.  Many  of  the  spawn  were 
completely  rotten;  others  had  burst,  and  long  vermiform  masses  of 
albumen  had  been  ejected;  these,  I  afterward  ascertained,  were  re- 
garded by  some  as  maggots.  From  the  entire  mass  of  spawn,  said  to 
number  150,000,  only  about  25,000  were  saved,  and  about  three  days 
labor  of  two  persons  was  required  for  the  unpacking.  The  living  spawn 
were  all  taken  from  the  upper  layers  of  the  upper  box;  the  entire  con- 
tents of  the  lower  box  appeared  putrid.  However,  they  were  emptied 
into  a  pond,  and  from  careful  examination  of  the  water  a  few  weeks 
subsequently,  a  number  of  living  fishes  were  found.  The  good  eggs 
were  placed  upon  grilles,  and  in  less  than  a  week  all  were  hatched. 
The  mortality  among  the  young  was  very  slight. 

The  second  lot  of  spawn  arrived  October  15,  at  8  p.  in.,  accompanied 
by  Mr.  Myron  Green.  On  inspection,  they  appeared  much  shrunken, 
but  otherwise  in  good  order.  Temperature  of  interior  of  boxes,  54°, 
56°;  air,  52°.  A  gentle  current  of  water  at  50°  was  allowed  to  pass 
through  the  boxes  for  fourteen  hours ;  at  the  end  of  which  period  the 
eggs  were  found  to  be  pluini)  and  the  embryos  lively.  Two  days  were 
employed  in  unpacking  them,  and  for  a  few  days  all  seemed  well,  the 


432       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

percentage  of  loss  being  very  small.  But,  to  my  surprise,  on  entering 
the  hatching-house  on  the  morning  of  October  21,  an  immense  number 
were  found  to  be  dead.  Every  precaution  had  been  taken,  the  water- 
supply  was  perfect,  and  the  troughs  had  been  carefully  and  tightly 
covered,  yet  for  some  days  the  loss  was  immense.  However,  in  a  few 
days  the  mortality  ceased,  and  but  little  trouble  was  afterward  expe- 
rienced. This  lot  of  eggs  was  said  to  number  175,000,  of  which  it  is 
estimated  130,000  were  hatched. 

The  last  lot,  said  to  number  250,000,  arrived  October  23.  These  were 
treated  similarly  to  the  previous  invoice,  with  the  exception  that,  fearing 
they  might  have  suffered  from  rough  handling  at  the  hands  of  my  as- 
sistants, every  egg  was  unpacked  by  my  own  hands.  The  result  was 
very  satisfactory,  about  200,000  spawn  being  safely  hatched.  It  was 
noticed  that  though  the  lots  No.  1  and  No.  2  were  all  hatched  within  a 
few  days  after  their  arrival,  lot  No.  3  did  not  commence  to  hatch  until 
about  two  weeks  after  their  arrival. 

The  after-treatment  of  the  young  fishes  presented  no  peculiar  points 
of  interest.  The  loss  of  young  was  very  small,  and  confined  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  crooked  fishes.  A  full  set  of  specimens  illustrative  of 
the  growth  of  these  fishes  will  accompany  this  report. 

The  method  of  packing  the  spawn  was  probably  the  best  that  could 
have  been  devised  under  the  circumstances.  I  would,  however,  propose 
that  in  the  next  shipment  the  eggs  be  laid  between  folds  of  mosquito- 
netting.  This  would  greatly  facilitate  the  operation  of  unpacking,  which 
with  the  simple  moss  is  very  tedious  and  severe. 

The  following  table  will  show  at  a  glance  the  details  of  reception  and 
number  of  fishes  hatched : 


Date. 

No.  spawn 

sent. 

No.  fishea 
hatched. 

Percentage 
saved. 

Temperature 
on  arrival. 

September  30 

150,  000 
175,000 
250, 000 

25,  000 
130,  000 
200, 000 

16.6 
74.2 

80.0 

74°  @  82° 

October  15 

54°  @  5ti° 

October  23 

52°  @  54° 

Total 

575,  000 

355,  000 

CI.  7 

By  January  1,  1874,  it  was  found  that  the  number  far  exceeded  the 
estimate  which  I  had  previously  made,  and  that  though  ample  accommo- 
dations for  the  hatching  of  fishes  had  been  prepared,  that  the  nursery- 
troughs  were  entirely  too  small  for  the  proper  rearing  of  them.  An  ad- 
dition of  20  feet  was  therefore  made  to  my  hatching-house,  at  a  cost  of 
about  $100.  As  this  was  done  exclusively  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  California  salmon,  it  is  hoped  that  the  Government  will  be  willing 
to  defray  at  least  a  portion  of  this  expense. 


HATCHING    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    CALIFORNIA    SALMON.    433 

The  following  table  will  show,  at  a  glance,  the  number  of  fishes  dis- 
tributed, and  the  streams  in  which  they  were  placed : 


Date. 

Number 
placed. 

Stream. 

Main  river. 

State. 

Placed  by- 

1373. 
Dec.   2 

8 

10,  000 
10,000 
10,  000 

10,  000 

12,  000 
10,  000 

13,  000 
30,  000 
30,  000 
25, 000 
20,  000 
10,  000 
30,  000 
35,  000 

*     50, 000 
50,  000 

Yellow  Breeches.. 

Conecogeaguo 

Makontougo 

Musconetkong 

Pattenbnrg  Creek . 

Pohatkong 

Musconetkong .... 

Susquehanna  . 

Pennsylvania . 

Pennsylvania  commissioners. 
Self,  per  Downs. 
Pennsylvania  commissioners. 

Self. 
Do. 

23 

Susquehanna  . 
Delaware 

.  ...do 

1874. 

Jan.    1 
3 

New  Jersey . . . 
....do. ........ 

10 

Delaware 

do 

Do. 

14 

...do  

....do 

Do. 

16 
23 

Cedar  Creek 

South  Side  Club. . 

Potomac 

Virginia 

New  York 

New  Jersey... 

Pennsylvania . 

do 

Self,  per  Downs. 
Self. 

26 
27 
30 

Musconetkong 

Bald  Eagle 

Delaware 

Susquehanna  . 
.do    

Do. 

Pennsylvania  commissioners. 
Do. 

Pel).   6 

7 

Musconetkong 

Pattenbnrg  Creek 

Musconetkong 

Pond 

Delaware 

Raritan 

New  Jersev... 
....do :... 

Self. 
Do. 

14 

Delaware 

do 

Do. 

16 

On  hand. 

355,  000 

Recapitulation. 

Given  to  Pennsylvania  commissioners 50,  000 

Placed  in  tributaries  of  Potomac ' 40,  000 

Placed  in  Long  Island  streams 30, 000 

Placed  in  tributaries  of  Karitan 47,  000 

Placed  in  tributaries  of  Delaware 13S,  000 

Still  on  hand  in  ponds 50,  000 


355,  000 

In  choosing  locations  for  planting  fishes  the  greatest  care  was  exer- 
cised. Streams  were  selected  as  near  as  possible  the  spring-heads,  and 
containing  no  other  fishes.  Most  of  these  small  streams  having  no 
names,  the  name  of  the  nearest  named  stream  is  given  in  the  table. 
The  small  streams  selected  were  admirably  suited  for  the  purpose,  the 
temperature  ranging  from  48°  to  52°,  and  every  stone  and  particle  of 
aquatic  plants  being  covered  with  minute  insects  or  crustaceans,  the 
latter,  of  which  I  send  specimens,  (Gammarusf),  being  very  abundant. 

On  February  21  a  careful  examination  was  made  of  the  Musconet- 
kong. I  found  large  numbers  of  salmon  beneath  projecting  roots  and 
rocks,  especially  at  the  points  where  small  streams  empty  into  the 
creek.  The  salmon  were  of  comparatively  enormous  size,  and  might  be 
readily  divided,  from  their  size,  into  three  classes;  the  largest  fish  taken 
being  over  2£  inches  in  length.  It  is  very  probable  that  these  largest 
fishes  are  from  spawn  thrown  out  from  the  first  invoice,  as  mentioned. 

The  rapid  growth  of  these  fishes  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  turn- 
ing them  loose  in  the  streams  which  they  are  destined  to  inhabit  at  an 
early  age,  in  fact  as  soon  as  the  yolk-sac  is  absorbed. 

28  f 


434       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  state  that  I  consider  this  attempt  at  trans- 
porting the  spawn  and  planting  the  young  of  the  Salmo  quinnat  in  our 
eastern  waters  a  perfect  success.  With  the  exception  of  lot  No.  1,  which 
were  literally  cooked  by  the  high  temperature  to  which  they  were  ex- 
posed, fully  75  per  cent,  were  hatched  and  reared,  a  proportion  rarely 
exceeded,  if  the  truth  be  told,  by  our  most  successful  fish-culturists, 
with  spawn  of  their  own  impregnation.  From  experiments  with  various 
kinds  of  fishes,  I  would  place  their  relative  vitality  as  follows: 

1st.  Salmo  quinnat. 

2d.    Salmo  cov finis. 
1 3d.    Salmo  salar. 

4th.  Salmo  fontinalis. 

I  might  state  that  the  number  of  fishes  on  hand  was  at  first  very 
much  underestimated.  As  an  example ;  one  trough,  containing  24  square 
feet  of  surface,  was  supposed  to  contain  about  20,000  fishes.  When 
placed  in  cans  for  transportation,  the  number  was  found  to  be  more 
than  double  the  estimate. 

The  method  of  counting  was  as  follows :  Fifty  fishes  were  repeatedly 
counted  and  placed  in  a  very  small  gauze  net  until  the  eye  was  familiar 
with  their  aggregate  bulk  ;  netfuls  were  then  taken  and  counted ;  this 
was  repeated  until  the  number  taken  could  be  accurately  estimated ;  in 
fact,  it  is  believed  that  the  total  is  rather  below  than  above  the  true 
number. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

Prof.  S.  F.  Baird, 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries. 


B— HATCHING    AND    DISTRIBUTION   OF  CALIFORNIA  SAL- 
MON IN  TRIBUTARIES  OF  GREAT  SALT  LAKE. 

By  A.  P.  Rockwood,  Superintendent  of  Fisheries  in  Utah  Territory. 

Sir  :  I  have  this  day  received  communication  from  Mr.  Webber, 
superintendent  of  your  fish-ponds  in  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  dated  Novem- 
ber 19,  1873.  He  purports  to  write  at  the  request  of  Professor  Baird, 
asking  statistics  in  regard  to  salmon-eggs  forwarded  me  from  Cali- 
fornia. I  received  them  at  the  junction  of  the  Utah  Central  and  Cen- 
tral Pacific  Railways,  on  the  12th  of  October ;  placed  them  in  my  hatch- 
ing-troughs the  same  evening  ;  they  were,  generally,  in  good  order.  I 
found  about  twelve  hundred  bad  eggs  out  of  the  forty  thousand.  Each 
day,  for  three  weeks,  the  eggs  were  examined,  and  the  bad  ones  thrown 
out,  which  amounted  to  .about  seventy-five  per  day  on  an  average ;  on 
the  third  day  I  found  two  dead  and  the  first  fish  hatched ;  on  the  seventh 
day  several  more  were  hatched ;  at  the  expiration  of  twenty  days  most 
of  the  hatching  was  through  with.  My  hatching-troughs  were  only  cal- 
culated for  30,000 ;  the  putting-in  of  40,000  covered  the"  nests  so  thick 
that  the  bottom  could  not  be  seen. 


HATCHING    AND    DISTRIBUTION    OF    CALIFORNIA    SALMON.    435 

The  umbilical  sac  was  absorbed  in  from  twenty  to  thirty  days  after 
hatching.  The  hatching-troughs  and  nursery-boxes  were  so  crowded 
that  I  tried  the  experiment  of  removing  some  of  them  to  the  nursery- 
ponds  before  the  umbilical  sac  was  absorbed.  My  nursery-ponds  are 
from  10  to  15  feet  square,  with  an  average  depth  of  12  inches  of  water, 
each  fed  by  a  spring  at  the  head  of  respective  ponds ;  the  flow  of  water 
in  each  is  from  25  to  30  gallons  per  minute,  and  about  3°  colder  than  the 
water  from  which  1  removed  them  ;  for  this,  or  for  some  other  cause, 
they  all  settled  to  the  bottom,  and  remained  in  an  apparently  dormant 
state  for  about  an  hour  when  they  then  began  to  revive,  and  in  less  than 
an  hour  they  were  all  bright  and  active.  Seeing  this  result,  I  immediately 
placed  about  four  thousand  more  in  the  same  pond,  and  about  the  same 
number  in  two  more  ponds  that  were  in  readiness.  Very  few  that  have 
been  thus  removed  have  died,  whereas  those  that  were  left  in  the 
hatching- troughs  have  died  in  a  much  greater  ratio.  A  portion  of  this 
mortality  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  cripples  were  left  in  the 
troughs  as  they  lay  near  the  bottom,  and  were  not  taken  up  in  the  dip- 
net  used  in  removing. 

I  feed  them  on  boiled  grated  liver.  They  are  thriving  well,  and  are 
much  larger  than  the  medium- sized  ones  of  the  same  age  referred  to  in 
"American  Fish-Culture." 

The  young  fry  are  now  about  thirty  days  old,  and  the  umbilical  sac 
is  nearly  all  absorbed.  The  fry  are  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  inches 
long,  and  are  not  so  full  and  plump  as  the  fish  of  this  age  are  repre- 
sented to  be  in  the  work  just  referred  to. 

The  shad  fry  which  I  received  from  you  about  the  1st  of  August  were 
placed  in  the  Jordan  River,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  mouth.  This 
river  is  the  outlet  of  Mato  Lake  and  empties  into  Salt  Lake.  I  have 
not  heard  of  any  of  them  being  seen  since  they  were  put  in.  I  presume 
they  will  be  like  the  "  bread  cast  upon  the  waters  to  be  gathered  after 
many  days." 

Any  suggestions  or  recommendations  you  will  please  furnish  me  will 
be  thankfully  received. 

Please  to  make  me  a  passing  call  at  your  convenience. 

My  respects  to  Professor  Baird  for  the  interest  he  has  taken  in  fish- 
culture  in  Utah. 

Mr.  Livingston  Stone, 

Charlestoicn,  N.  H. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  Territory,  December  2, 1873. 


XXII.— REPORT  OF  OPERATIONS  DURING  1874  AT  THE  UNITED 

STATES  SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT  ON 

THE  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CALIFORNIA. 


By  Livingston  Stone. 


Charlestown,  K.  H.,  April  5,  1875. 
Hon.  Spencer  F.  Baird  : 

I  beg  leave  to  report  as  follows:  I  arrived  at  San  Francisco  with  the 
second  California  aquarium-car  on  the  12th  day  of  June,  1874,  with  the 
intention  of  resuming  operations  at  the  United  States  salmon-breeding 
station  on  the  McCloud  Eiver,  California,  as  soon  as  possible.    Congress, 
however,  did  not  pass  the  required  appropriation  for  the  purpose  until 
the  latter  part  of  June.    As  soon  as  notice  of  this  appropriation  reached 
me,  I  proceeded  to  procure  supplies,  and  on  the  morning  of  the  4th 
of  July  I  left  San  Francisco,  and  arrived  at  the  United  States  camp 
on  the  McCloud  Eiver  on  the  morning  of  July  5.    The  rest  of  our  force 
arrived  on  Tuesday,  July  7.    We  then  numbered  nine  white  men  in  all 
J.  G.  Woodbury,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  foreman ;  Eichard  D.  Hubbard 
Charlestown,  N.  H.,  assistant;  E.  C.  Forbes,  Clinton,  Mass.,  assistant 
Waldo  F.  Hubbard,  Gharlestown,  N.  H.,  assistant ;  Oliver  A.  Anderson 
Eed  Bluff,  Cal.,  assistant;  Myron  Green,  High  gate,  Vt.,  head  fisherman 
E.  Conklin,  New  York  City,  photographer;  Marshall  L.  Perrin,  Grant 
ville,  Mass.,  secretary ;  Livingston  Stone,  United  States  Fish  Commis 
sion,  in  charge. 

Our  force  was  occasionally  increased  by  an  additional  man,  but  was  not 
diminished  till  the  first  shipment  of  eggs  was  forwarded  east.  I  brought 
up  from  San  Francisco  a  Chinese  cook,  Ah  Sing  by  name,  and  employed 
more  or  less  Indians  throughout  the  whole  season,  the  largest  number 
working  on  any  one  day  being  fourteen.  At  the  close  of  the  last  sea- 
son, 1873,  it  became  necessary  to  remove  the  hatching- troughs  and  water- 
wheel  to  higher  ground,  to  put  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  winter  fresh- 
ets, which  sometimes  raise  the  water  fifteen  feet  above  the  summer 
level.  The  dwelling-house,  although  not  above  high-water  mark,  was 
firmly  shored  up  with  timbers.  This  we  found  standing  and  in  good 
order.  Our  first  work  was  to  erect  the  hatching-tanks  and  replace  the 
wheel.  This  being  done,  we  proceeded  to  build  an  addition  to  the  dwell- 
ing-house to  accommodate  the  increased  force  of  this  year,  and  when 
this  was  finished  we  went  to  work  on  the  hatching-apparatus  and  the 
fence  across  the  river.  The  hatching-apparatus  consisted  of  the  troughs 
used  last  year,  with  some  additional  ones,  in  both  of  which  were  placed 

i 


438       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

hatching-trays  for  the  reception  of  the  eggs.  The  trays  employed  were 
made  of  the  usual  wire-netting  coated  with  asphaltum.  At  first,  we 
employed  trays  ten  inches  wide  by  twenty  inches  in  length,  and  very 
shallow,  placing  three  tiers  one  above  the  other  in  each  compartment 
of  troughs.  As  the  number  of  eggs  increased,  the  moving  of  the  trays 
every  day  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  eggs  became  a  great  annoy- 
ance, and  in  place  of  the  shallow  trays  we  substituted  deeper  ones  for 
the  remainder  of  the  eggs.  The  deeper  trays  answered  their  purpose 
to  perfection.  The  water,  entering  from  the  bottom  and  finding  its  exit 
from  above  the  eggs,  necessarily  permeated  all  of  them  continually.  It 
also  kept  the  eggs  to  a  certain  degree  suspended  in  the  water,  so  that  the 
underlying  tiers  were  partly  relieved  of  the  weight  of  those  above  them. 
At  first,  we  placed  the  eggs  in  these  trays  eight  layers  deep ;  but  as  the 
season  progressed,  the  deep  trays  worked  so  well  that  the  layers  were 
increased  to  twelve,  and,  as  far  as  could  be  learned,  without  detriment 
to  the  eggs. 

I  am  free  to  say  that  this  combination  of  deep  wire-netting  trays  with 
the  Williamson  plan  of  hatching-troughs  is  the  best  apparatus  for  ma- 
turing salmon-eggs  for  shipment  that  I  have  yet  seen.  It  is  simple, 
compact,  and  effective.  By  means  of  it,  we  hatched  eighteen  thousand 
eggs  to  the  superficial  foot  of  hatching-troughs  without  the  least  diffi- 
culty ;  so  that  in  one  length  of  our  hatching-troughs,  or  eighty  feet,  we 
matured  one  million  and  a  half  of  salmon-eggs. 

The  fence  across  the  river,  to  which  allusion  has  been  made,  was  a 
peculiar  feature  of  this  year's  operations.  Last  year,  we  depended 
wholly  on  the  seine  for  securing  parent  fish.  The  largest  number  which 
could  be  secured  in  this  way  being  inadequate  to  the  supply  of  eggs 
which  was  desired  this  year,  I  adopted  the  method  of  building  a  salmon- 
proof  fence  and  bridge  across  the  McCloud  River.  This  had  a  double 
effect.  It  enabled  us  to  capture  the  salmon  in  the  corrals,  or  traps,  con- 
nected with  the  bridge,  and  also  to  stop  all  the  salmon  from  ascending 
the  river,  in  consequence  of  which  vast  numbers  accumulated  in  the 
holes  just  below  the  bridge. 

With  the  time  and  men  at  my  command,  the  construction  of  the  bridge 
and  dam  was  an  undertaking  of  no  small  magnitude.  The  point  selected 
for  the  purpose  was  just  below  the  hatching-tents,  where  the  river  be- 
gins to  break  over  a  series  of  rapids.  It  was  necessary  to  do  the  work 
here,  or  at  some  similar  place,  in  order  to  avoid  the  deep  holes  and  irreg- 
ularities of  the  river-bed,  which  prevailed  everywhere  in  the  channel. 
This  necessity,  however,  involved  the  disadvantage  of  having  very  swift 
water  to  work  in — so  swift,  indeed,  that  a  boat  could  not  be  held  for  a 
moment  along  the  whole  line  of  the  bridge  without  being  made  fast  to 
the  shore.  This  disadvantage  was  the  more  serious  because  the  snow- 
water which  forms  the  river  is  so  cold  that  the  men  working  in  it,  as 
they  were  obliged  to,  a  great  deal  of  the  time  up  to  their  waists  and 
often  up  to  their  necks,  could  not  endure  it  long  without  severe  suffer- 
ing.   Fortunately,  I  had  with  me  a  force  of  loyal  and  resolute  men,  who 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  439 

were  daunted  at  nothing,  and  through  their  courage  and  resolution  these 
and  all  other  obstacles  were  overcome.    The  space  to  be  bridged  over 
was  one  hundred  and  five  feet,  or,  with  the  corral-extension,  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet.    The  line  was  made  across  the  river  at  nearly  right 
angles  with  the  current.    The  water  was  from  four  to  eight  feet  deep 
and  running  with  tremendous  force.  The  river-bed  was  of  loose,  detached 
rocks,  varying  from  a  pound  to  half  a  ton  in  weight.     We  began 
the  work  by  felling  logs  in  the  woods,  cutting  them  into  twelve- 
feet    lengths,    and    hewing    off   the   ends   square.     Three  of    these 
lengths  were  then  laid  together  horizontally  and  in  the  form  of  a 
triangle,   and    the    ends  firmly  pinned  together  with  wooden  pins. 
Another  similar  triangle  was  then  made  and  rested  on  the  first,  then 
another,  and  so  on  till   the  structure  reached  the  required    height 
to  support  the  bridge  at  a  suitable  distance  above  the  surface  of 
the  water.    When  this  was  finished,  the  men  waded  out  with  it,  with 
great  labor,  to  its  place  in  the  river,  wjth  one  angle  up  stream,  of  course, 
and  fastened  it  there  with  cables  till  it  was  banked  up  with  rocks,  and 
the  hollow  space  inside  was  also  filled  with  rocks.     When  it  was  done, 
we  had  a  solid  stone  pier,  resting  on  the  bottom  of  the  river,  which  the 
current  was  unable  to  move.    Another  similar  pier  was  then  built  and 
placed,  and  then  another  and  another,  at  suitable  intervals,  till  the  other 
side  was  reached.     The  tops  of  the  piers  were  then  connected  with  logs, 
hewed  square,  and  pinned  to  the  piers  with  strong,  wooden  pins.     This 
completed  the  bridge.    When  it  is  remembered  that  we  had  neither 
horses  nor  derricks,  but  relied  entirely  on  our  physical  strength  to  do  all 
the  work,  it  will  be  seen  that  it  was  no  trifling  undertaking.    JS"othing 
was  yet  accomplished,  however,  in  arresting  the  passage  of  the  salmon, 
as  the  space  below  the  bridge  was,  of  course,  except  at  the  piers,  en- 
tirely open  to  them.    It,  therefore,  now  remained  to  dam  the  rapid  and 
powerful  current,  so  that  the  salmon  could  not  pass.    After  some  delib- 
eration, it  was  decided  to  make  this  dam  of-  poles,  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  placed  perpendicularly  in  the  river,  with  the  upper  ends  rest- 
ing on  the  side  of  the  bridge,  and  the  lower  ends  against  the  bottom  of 
the  river.    To  facilitate  the  work  of  placing  the  poles,  we  concluded  to 
make  a  regular  fence  of  them,  laying  poles  side  by  side,  about  one  inch 
and  a  half  apart,  and  inserting  both  ends  of  each  pole  into  a  strong 
cross-piece  of  hewed  timber,  running  at  right  angles  with  the  poles. 
This  having  been  decided  on,  the  next  thing  was  to  get  the  poles.     We 
required  a  thousand.    The  nearest  that  could  be  found  iu  any  quantity 
were  iu  a  forest  four  miles  off,  over  a  rough  mountain-trail.    I  imme- 
diately fitted  out  an  expedition,  with  axes,  blankets,  and  provisions  for 
four  days.    The  thermometer  was  ranging  at  that  time  between  100° 
and  110°  in  the  shade.    In  the  sun,  it  was  hot  enough  to  cook  eggs.    This 
made  the  work  of  lumbering  rather  severe ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  four 
days  the  expedition  returned,  having  procured  several  hundred  poles. 

These  they  packed  on  their  shoulders  to  the  nearest  point  on  the  stage- 
road,  whence  they  were  brought  to  camp  by  the  mule-teams  returning 


440       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

from  Oregon.  I  continued  sending  to  this  spot  for  poles  until  they  re- 
ported the  stock  exhausted.  We  then  scoured  the  woods  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  the  camp,  and  gathered  in  all  the  scattering  ones 
that  could  be  found  till  these  were  gone.  There  were  still  many  more 
needed,  which  were  obtained  from  various  quarters,  and  packed  into 
camp  on  the  shoulders  of  the  men  employed. 

The  poles  having  been  secured,  the  fence  forming  the  dam  was  con- 
structed on  shore  in  sections,  which,  when  completed,  were  taken  to  the 
bridge,  and  dropped  into  the  water  at  an  angle  of  perhaps  thirty  degrees 
with  the  perpendicular  of  the  bridge.  The  upper  side  of  each  section 
being  now  firmly  spiked  to  the  timbers  of  the  bridge,  the  current,  strik- 
ing it  at  the  angle  mentioned,  forced  the  bottom  of  the  fence  very 
tightly  against  the  river-bed.  All  the  sections  being  thus  placed,  rocks 
were  then  piled  up  around  the  bottom  of  the  fence  and  thrust  into  any 
crevices  which  the  salmon  might  get  through,  and,  this  work  having 
been  extended  entirely  across  the  river,  the  bridge  and  dam  were  ren- 
dered complete. 

The  next  thing  was  to  build  the  corrals.  These  were  constructed  on 
the  plan  of  the  dam.  Two  of  them,  one  opening  into  the  other,  formed 
an  inclosure  of  about  50  by  20  feet.  They  were  built  on  the  east 
side  of  the  river,  and  communicated,  by  a  mouse-trap  gate  or  opening, 
with  the  main  stream,  so  that  the  salmon  could  run  up  into  the  corral, 
but  could  not  return.  The  other  corral  was  constructed  on  the  same 
plan,  about  the  middle  of  the  river.  As  an  illustration  of  the  work 
performed  on  the  bridge,  I  will  say  that  two  thousand  2-inch  auger- 
holes  were  bored  under  the  scorching  sun,  and  no  less  than  two  hundred 
tons  of  rocks  were  used  in  the  construction  of  the  dam  and  corrals,  all 
of  which  were  taken,  one  by  one,  and  put  in  their  place  by  hand. 

About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  a  few  days  after  the  passage 
of  the  salmon  was  obstructed,  and  before  the  corrals  were  made,  it  was 
announced  that  the  salmon  were  making  their  first  assault  upon  the 
dam.  The  whole  camp  collected  on  the  bridge  to  witness  the  attack. 
It  was  a  sight  never  to  be  forgotten.  Eor  several  rods  below  the  bridge 
the  salmon  formed  one  black,  writhing  mass  of  life.  Piled  together  one 
above  another,  they  charged  in  solid  columns  against  the  bridge  and 
dam,  which  trembled  and  shook  continually  under  their  blows.  Not 
daunted  by  their  repeated  failures,  they  led  attack  after  attack  upon 
the  fence,  one  column  succeeding  as  another  fell  back.  Encouraged  by 
their  numbers,  and  urged  on  by  their  irrepressible  instinct,  they  entirely 
disregarded  the  observers  on  the  bridge,  and  struggled  at  their  very 
best  to  pass  the  unwonted  obstruction.  Finding  the  fence  impassable, 
many  fell  back  a  little  and  tried  to  jump  the  bridge.  This  several  suc- 
ceeded in  doing,  sometimes  violently  striking  the  men  on  the  bridge  in 
their  leaps,  and  sometimes  actually  jumping  between  their  feet. 

For  an  hour  and  a  half  this  fierce  assault  continued,  when,  ex- 
hausted by  their  efforts  and  discouraged  by  many  failures,  they  fell 
back  to  the  deep  hole  just  below  the  rapids,  arrested,  for  the  first  time 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.    441 

since  the  McCloud  formed  its  channel,  in  their  progress  up  the  river. 
The  Indians,  who  were  watching  their  movements,  were  wild  with  excite- 
ment over  this  scene,  which,  even  after  a  residence  of  centuries  on  the 
river,  was  new  to  them,  and  they  begged  for  permission  to  spear  the 
salmon.  This,  however,  I  did  not  give,  as  I  felt  obliged  to  save  all  the 
fish  for  their  spawn. 

The  bridge  and  dam  were  completed,  and  the  river  rendered  impas- 
sable to  the  salmon,  on  the  10th  of  August.  From  that  time  to  the 
beginning  of  the  spawning-season,  all  hands  were  busy  about  the  prepa- 
rations for  taking  and  hatching  the  spawn,  which  were  barely  ready 
when  it  was  announced  that  the  first  ripe  salmon  had  been  taken.  This 
was  the  26th  day  of  August.  From  this  time  to  the  end  of  September, 
all  hands  were  kept  busy  in  gathering  and  taking  care  of  the  eggs  and 
extending  the  preparations  for  receiving  them. 

From  the  end  of  September  till  the  18th  of  October,  there  was  no 
work  done  in  taking  spawn,  but  the  time  was  occupied  in  caring  for 
what  had  been  taken,  and  shipping  the  eggs  to  their  eastern  destinations. 

Table  of  consignments  of  salmon-eggs,  according  to  order  of  shipments. 

1871. 

FIRST   SHIPMENT. 

Sept.  25.  Sent  by  Wells-Fargo's  Express,  in  charge  of  Mr.  E. 
Conklin,  to — 

A.  P.  Eockwood,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 150,  000 

B.  F.  Shaw,  Anamosa,  Iowa 150,  000 

David  Day,  Saint  Paul,  Minn 150,  000 

George  H.  Jerome,  Niles,  Mich 300,  000 

W.  A.  Newell,  for  New  Zealand 25,  000 

775, 000 

SECOND   SHIPMENT. 

Oct.  6.  Sent  by  express,  in  charge  of  Mr.  E.  C.  Forbes,  to — 

George  H.  Jerome,  Niles,  Mich » 300,  000 

Seth  Green,  Eochester,  N.  Y 150,  000 

B.  F.  Shaw,  Anamosa,  Iowa 150,  000 

David  Day,  Saint  Paul,  Minn.,  forward  to  Seth 

Green,  Eochester,  N.  Y 125,000 

725, 000 

THIRD  SHIPMENT. 

Oct.  9.  Sent  by  express,  without  an  attendant,  to — 

W.  W.  Clark,  Michigan 150,000 

George  H.  Jerome,  Niles,  Mich 150,  000 

A.  Palmer,  Boscobel,  Wis. 80, 000 

Seth  Green,.  Eochester,  N.  Y 150,  000 

530, 000 


442       KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

FOURTH   SHIPMENT. 

Oct.  11.  Sent  by  express,  in  charge  of  Mr.  Clinton  Johnson, 
to— 

E.  G.  Pike,  Middletown,  Conn 150,  000 

Mrs.  J.  H.  Slack,  Bloomsbury,  N.  J 225,  000 

James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa 150, 000 

Alexander  Kent,  Baltimore,  Md 225,  000 

750, 000 
FIFTH  SHIPMENT. 

Oct.  13.  Sent  by  express,  in  charge  of  Mr.  M.  L.  Perrin,  to — 

E.  G.  Pike,  Middletown,  Conn 150,  000 

James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa 150, 000 

Alexander  Kent,  Baltimore,  Md 150, 000 

J.  B.  Thompson,  New  Hope,  Pa 150,  000 

Alfred  A.  Eeed,  Providence,  E.  1 100,  000 

Samuel  Wilmot,  Newcastle,  Ontario,  Canada. . .  25,  000 
H.  H.  Thomas,  Eandolph,  Cattaraugus  County, 

N.  Y.,  afterward  forwarded  to  Seth  Green. . .  25,  000 

750,  000 

SIXTH  SHIPMENT. 

Oct.  IS.  Sent  by  express,  without  an  attendant,  to — 

E.  M.  Stillwell,  Bangor,  Me 150,  000 

E.  A.  Bracket,  Winchester,  Mass 200,  000 

Seth  Green,  Eochester,  K  Y 150,  000 

William  H.  Cushmau,  Georgetown,  Col 25, 000 

Jos.  E.  Andrews,  Eockford,  111 50,  000 

W.  B.  Eobertson,  Lynchburgh,  Va 50,  000 

625,  000 

SUMMARY. 

First  shipment 775,  000 

Second  shipment , ., 725,  000 

Third  shipment 530, 000 

Fourth  shipment 750, 000 

Fifth  shipment 750,  000 

Sixth  shipment 625,  000 

Total 4, 155,  000 

Distribution  of  the  eggs. 

A.  P.  Eockwood,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 150,  000 

B.  F.  Shaw,  Anamosa,  Iowa 300,000 

David  Day,  Saint  Paul,  Minn r 150,000 

George  H.  Jerome,  Niles,  Mich 750,  000 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  443 

Seth  Green,  Eochester,  N.  Y 575,  000 

E.  G.  Pike,  Middletown,  Conn 300,  000 

James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa 300,  000 

Alexander  Kent,  Baltimore,  Md 375,  000 

J.  B.  Thompson,  New  Hope,  Penn 150,  000 

Alfred  A.  Eeed,  Providence,  E.  1 100,  000 

Samuel  Wilmot,  Newcastle,  Ontario,  Canada 25,  000 

H.  H.  Thomas,  Eandolph,  N.  Y 25,  000 

E.  M.  Stillwell,  Bangor,  Me 150,000 

E.  A.  Bracket,  Winchester,  Mass «. .  200,  000 

W.  H.  Cushman,  Georgetown,  Col 25,  000 

J.  E.  Andrews,  Eockford,  111 50,  000 

W.  B.  Eobertson,  Lynchburgh,  Va 50,  000 

W.  W.  Clark,  Niles,  Mich , 150,000 

A.  Palmer,  Boscobel,  Minn 80,  000 

Mrs.  J.  H.  Slack 225,  000 

W.  A.  Newell,  for  New  Zealand 25,000 

Total  number  of  eggs  sent  out  of  California 4, 155, 000 

Hatched  and  placed  in  the  McCloud  Eiver,  California 850, 000 

Total  number  of  impregnated  eggs  taken 5, 005, 000 

Not  impregnated,  and  lost  from  other  causes 747, 500 

Total  number  of  eggs  taken 5,  752, 500 

From  the  18th  of  October  till  the  camp  was  closed  up,  November  30, 
the  time  was  taken  up  with  hatching  the  eggs  that  were  left,  amounting 
to  850,000,  and  placing  them  in  the  McCloud  Eiver ;  in  consideration  of 
which,  the  California  commissioners  of  fisheries  contributed  a  thousand 
dollars  toward  the  expenses  of  the  campaign. 

COST  OF  THE  EGGS. 

It  is  so  difficult  to  separate  the  expenses  of  shipping  the  eggs  from 
the  general  expenses  of  the  season  that  the  exact  cost  of  the  eggs  when 
ready  for  consignment  can  only  be  approximated.  The  expenses  of  this 
season's  operations  were  very  much  augmented  by  the  addition  of  per- 
manent improvements,  as,  for  instance,  a  large  tent  and  several  hundred 
hatching-trays.  These  improvements  ran  up  the  expense  of  procuring 
the  eggs  this  season  to  about  $9,000,  including  the  cost  of  hatching  the 
eggs  for  the  Sacramento,  for  which  the  California  commissioners  paid 
$1,000.  There  were  five  million  impregnated  eggs  obtained,  which 
makes  the  cost  per  thousand  at  the  McCloud  Eiver,  $1.80. 


CAMP-BUILDINGS,    ETC. 


The  general  plan  of  the  camp  this  year  was  the  same  as  that  of  last, 
with  some  improvements  and  extensions  added.    The  point  lowest  down 


444       EEPOKT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

on  the  river  that  we  occupied  was,  as  before,  the  lower  fishing- ground. 
Here  was  the  main  fishery;  the  other,  from  its  coming  above  the  damr 
being  practically  abandoned.  There  were  here  two  or  three  corrals  for 
salmon,  and  two  or  three  little  wooden  structures  forming  a  rude  camp 
for  the  fishermen.  Some  distance  above  this  point,  and  about  a  hun- 
dred yards  from  the  house,  were  the  bridge  and  upper  corrals.  The 
main  corrals  were  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  and  extended  about 
50  feet  down  to  the  farther  end  of  the  bridge.  The  bridge  reached  106 
feet  across  the  river  to  the  wheel  which  raised  the  water  for  the  hatch- 
ing-works. A  flume  connected  the  wheel  with  the  filtering-tanks  at  the 
upper  end  of  the  hatching- tents.  Next  came  the  distributing-spout,  and 
then  the  hatching-apparatus  proper,  which  extended  80  feet  farther  to 
the  end  of  the  hatching-tents.  Just  at  this  point  was  a  fishing-ground 
for  trout  and  "  Wyedar  deckets;"  and  a  little  farther  up  the  stream  was 
a  set  of  hatching-boxes,  with  wire  sides  and  bottom,  floating  horizon- 
tally in  the  current.  Only  a  few  steps  farther  up  the  river  came  the 
house  in  which  we  lived.  Behind  was  the  United  States  flag  on  a  50- 
feet  flag-staff,  and  a  little  farther  on  two  smaller  tents  and  a  brush-camp. 
About  ten  rods  up  the  river  from  this  point  was  an  inclosure,  or  pound, 
in  which  the  young  salmon  for  the  State  of  California  were  put  before 
they  were  old  enough  to  wholly  shift  for  themselves.  This  terminated 
our  series  of  works  in  this  direction. 

It  will  be  seen  by  comparison  with  last  year's  report,  that  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  camp  was  similar  to  that  of  1873 ;  the  river-corrals 
and  bridge  being  new,  however,  as  has  been  mentioned.  The  hatching- 
troughs  were  also  extended  40  feet  farther  in  length,  involving  the  use 
of  an  additional  tent  40  feet  by  30  feet.  This  made  the  hatching-tents 
this  year  100  feet  long.  The  addition  to  the  dwelling-house  nearly 
doubled  its  size,  making  it  28  feet  by  26  feet,  and  giving  us  three  new 
rooms,  one  of  which  was  employed  for  a  bed-room,  one  for  a  store-room, 
and  one  for  the  photographer's  use.  The  brush-camp  north  of  the 
dwelling-house  was  quite  a  valuable  addition  of  this  year.  It  was  very 
rudely  built,  after  the  fashion  of  the  aborigines,  but  it  ^ras  located  in  a 
shady  spot,  at  the  water's  edge,  and  proved  to  be  an  extremely  conven- 
ient place  to  transfer  my  office  to  during  the  warmer  portions  of  the  day, 
when  my  room  in  the  house  often  became  intolerably  hot.  The  only 
other  new  feature  at  the  station  this  year  were  the  inclosures,  or  pounds, 
for  receiving  the  young  salmon  intended  for  the  McCloud  River.  These 
were  built  of  rocks  and  covered  with  brush,  and  when  the  salmon  were 
approaching  the  period  of  the  absorption  of  the  yolk-sac,  they  were 
transferred  from  the  hatching-troughs  to  these  corrals,  where  they  had 
ample  space  to  move  about. 

THE  HATCHING-APPARATUS. 

This  was  on  a  much  larger  scale  as  well  as  on  a  different  plan  from 
that  of  last  year.    The  wheel  and  flume  were  the  same,  but  owing  to 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  445 

the  greater  pressure  of  water  against  the  wheel  caused  by  the  erection 
of  the  dam,  it  raised  three  or  four  times  as  much  water,  or  about  twenty 
thousand  gallons  an  hour.  If  necessary,  the  wheel  could  be  made 
to  pump  up  enough  water  to  hatch  a  hundred  million  salmon- 
eggs.  The  filtering-tanks  consisted  this  year  of  two  tanks  brought  out 
in  the  second  California  aquarium-car.  They  were  splendid  tanks, 
made  of  eastern  pine,  iron-bound,  and  holding  a  thousand  gallons  each. 
Tbe  hatching-troughs  this  year  were  all  made  on  the  Williamson  plan, 
which  obliges  the  water  to  run  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  each  com- 
partment, as  seen  in  the  diagram.  There  were  eight  rows  of  hatchiug- 
troughs  this  year,  each  eighty  feet  long.  In  some  of  the  troughs,  the 
shallow  trays  were  used  three  deep,  with  one  layer  of  eggs  in  each  tray. 
In  others,  one  deep  tray  was  substituted  for  the  three  tiers  of  shallow 
trays,  and  the  eggs  placed  eight  or  ten  layers  deep  instead  of  one.  This 
new  application  of  the  Williamson  troughs  was  suggested  by  my  fore- 
man, Mr.  Woodbury,  and  is,  I  believe,  the  best  and  simplest  method 
yet  discovered  for  maturing  salmon-eggs  for  shipment.  By  means  of  it, 
we  could  mature  forty  thousand  eggs  in  each  compartment,  a  quarter  of 
a  million  in  each  trough,  and  one  million  and  a  quarter  in  each  line  of 
troughs.  As  there  were  eight  lines  of  troughs  laid  down,  our  hatching- 
capacity  this  year  was  just  ten  millions ;  but  it  can  be  increased  indefi- 
nitely. All  the  troughs  were  excluded  from  the  light  by  covers  formed 
by  stretching  black  cloth  over  slight  wooden  frames.  All  the'  troughs, 
trays,  covers,  as  well  as  the  wheel,  bridge,  dam,  and  everything  else 
about  the  place,  were  made  by  ourselves  on  the  spot. 

THE  FISH  AND  THE  FISHING. 

The  upper  fishing-ground,  being  above  the  dam,  was  practically  aban- 
doned this  year,  and  almost  all  the  seining  was  done  at  the  lower 
ground,  where  the  fishing  was  good  enough  to  satisfy  any  one.  When 
the  salmon  had  made  an  unsuccessful  assault  upon  the  dam,  they  fell 
back  into  the  hole  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  which  formed  the  lower 
fishing-ground.  Here  they  were  practically  in  as  secure  confinement  as 
if  they  had  been  caught  and  placed  in  a  pound ;  for  the  dam  prevented 
them  from  going  up  the  stream,  and  their  irrepressible  instinct  to  ascend 
the  river  prevented  them  from  going  down.  Every  foot  of  this  hole  was 
swept  by  the  seine.  No  better  corral  or  inclosure  for  confining  the  fish 
could  be  constructed.  Here  they  had  their  natural  habitat  and  sur- 
roundings, the  whole  volume  of  the  McCloud  Eiver  for  a  water-supply, 
and  nothing  whatever  to  prevent  them  from  keeping  healthy  and  in 
first-rate  condition.  It  was  the  best  possible  kind  of  a  pound  for  them. 
Last  year,  they  lashed  themselves  to  pieces,  trying  to  escape  from  the 
artificial  pens.  This  year,  they  kept  as  fresh  and  well  as  could  be 
wished.  They  accumulated  in  this  hole  by  thousands.  When  any  were 
wanted,  it  was  only  necessary  to  extend  the  net  around  them  and  haul 
them  in.     Once  or  twice  no  less  than  fifteen  thousand  pounds  of  salmon 


446      REPORT    CF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

must  have  been  inclosed  in  the  net.  They  formed  a  solid  mass  reaching 
several  yards  from  the  shore,  and  filling  the  net  two  or  three  feet  deep. 
If  I  should  say  twenty  thousand  pounds,  I  do  not  think  it  would  be 
exaggerating.  For  some  reason  or  other,  my  method  of  confining  and 
capturing  the  salmon  has  been  spoken  of  disparagingly ;  but  if  anything 
more  simple,  more  natural,  or  more  effective  can  be  devised,  or  anything 
contrived  on  a  larger  scale,  I  can  only  say  I  should  like  to  see  it. 

The  seining  for  spawning-fish  was  usually  done  at  night,  and  what 
fish  were  needed  for  the  next  day  were  thrown  into  small  corrals  intended 
for  their  temporary  confinement.  The  spawning  was  done  under  a  little 
brush-camp  erected  just  where  the  seine  is  hauled  ashore.  The  salmon 
were  very  abundant  in  the  McCloud  Eiver  this  year,  apparently  more 
so  than  last  year,  although  our  conjectures  on  this  point  could  not  of 
course  be  verified.  Young  salmon  a  few  inches  long  were  very  plenti- 
ful, as  also  were  trout  of  all  sizes.  There  was  a  large  mixture  of  grilse 
among  the  older  salmon.  These  were  found  very  good  eating,  even  up 
to  the  time  of  spawning.  Occasionally,  we  captured  a  fresh  river  sal- 
mon, having  a  bright  silvery  surface,  and  scales  looking  exactly  as  if  he 
had  just  left  the  sea.  These  fish  were  all  very  large,  and  all  males. 
They  were  very  rare,  perhaps  one  in  a  thousand.  One  much-disputed 
point  about  the  McCloud  Eiver  salmon  was  settled  this  year  by  the 
presence  of  the  dam.  The  vexed  question  has  been  whether  the  salmon 
ascending  the  McCloud  River  to  spawn  ever  returned  to  the  sea.  Both 
sides  of  the  question  have  been  warmly  advocated ;  the  strongest  point 
urged  by  the  affirmative  side  being  that  the  yearly  run  of  salmon  could 
not  be  kept  up  if  all  the  spawning-fish  died  at  the  spawning-grounds, 
and  none  went  to  the  sea  to  return  the  following  year.  Whatever  may 
be  the  merits  of  the  arguments  advanced  on  either  side,  the  fact  has 
been  proved  this  year  that  the  spawning-salmon  do  not  return  to  the 
sea.  The  proof  is  this :  Our  dam  formed  an  impassable  barrier  to  the 
return  of  the  salmon  which  had  ascended  the  river  to  spawn.  Tens  of 
thousands,  not  to  say  hundreds  of  thousands,  which  would  perhaps  be 
nearer  the  truth,  passed  the  line  of  our  barricade  before  it  was  com- 
pleted. Not  one  of  these  salmon  repassed  that  point  on  their  return  to 
the  sea.  If  their  habit  had  been  to  return  seaward  after  spawning,  they 
would  have  crowded  up  to  the  upper  side  of  the  barricade,  as  the 
ascending  salmon  did  to  the  lower  side  of  it  two  months  previous ;  but, 
instead  of  this,  not  one  was  observed  to  even  show  the  least  disposition 
to  pass  it,  although  thousands  floated  down  dead  against  the  dam. 

What,  then,  must  be  said  of  their  disposition  to  return  to  the  sea  ? 

The  only  conclusion  that  we  can  come  to  is  that  they  have  no  such 
disposition ;  that  they  are  not  accustomed  to  do  so,  and  that  they  all 
die  in  the  upper  waters,  which  serve  for  their  breeding-grounds;  which 
last  statement  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  at  the  end  of  October  a  live 
salmon  can  hardly  be  found  in  the  whole  length  of  the  McCloud  River 
anywhere. 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  447 


THE  TAKING  AND  RIPENING  OF  THE  EGGS. 

The  eggs  were  taken  from  the  salmon,  as  before  mentioned,  close  to 
the  spot  where  the  se'ine  was  hauled  in,  and  where  a  small  brush  camp 
was  erected  for  the  purpose.  The  spawning  was  usually  done  in  the 
forenoon,  and  was  performed  very  rapidly.  The  fish,  when  spawned, 
"were  usually  given  to  the  Indians,  who  were  always  in  waiting,  like  fish- 
hawks  around  their  prey,  to  receive  them. 

.The  Russian  or  dry  method  of  taking  the  eggs  was  adopted  exclu- 
sively this  season,  and  the  rate  of  impregnation  obtained  was  very  good. 
The  largest  number  taken  in  any  one  day  was  457,000.  The  first  eggs 
were  taken  on  the  31st  of  August,  and  the  last  on  the  29th  of  Septem- 
ber. The  total  number  taken  was  5,75-2,500.  Below  will  be  found  the 
daily  record  of  eggs  taken. 

Daily  list  of  salmon-eggs,  taken  at  the  United  States  salmon-breeding  estab 
iishment  on  the  McCloud  River,  Bedding,  (Jal.,  1874. 


Date. 

Eggs  taken 
each  day. 

Total. 

Date. 

Eggs  taken 
each  day. 

Total. 

1874. 

1874. 

Aug.  31 

82, 000 

82, 000 

Sept.  15 

457, 000 

3, 276, 000 

Sept.  1 

25, 800 

108, 000 

16 

390, 000 

3, 666,  000 

2 

120, 900 

228, 900 

17 

364, 000 

4,030,000 

3 

102, 500 

331,400 

18 

252, 000 

4,282,000 

4 

331,400 

19 

290, 000 

4,  572,  000 

293, 400 

629, 800 

20 

217, 000 

4, 789,  000 

6 

234, GOO 

864, 400 

21 

126, 000 

4,  915,  000 

7 

864, 400 

22 

172, 000 

5, 087,  000 

.  8 

453, 000 

1,317,400 

23 

126, 000 

5, 213,  000 

9 

252, 600 

1,570,000 

24 

126, 000 

5, 339,  500 

10 

304, 000 

1,874,000 

25 

5, 339,  500 

11 

170, 000 

2,  044,  000 

26 

210, 000 

5, 549, 500 

12 

234, 500 

2, 278, 500 

27 

126,  000 

5,  675, 500 

13 

218,500 

2,497  000 

23 

5,  675,  500 

14 

322,  000 

2, 819, 000 

29 

77, 000 

5, 752,  500 

After  three  or  four  million  eggs  had  been  placed  in  the  troughs,  the 
work  of  daily  inspection  became  quite  a  task.  I  employed  chiefly  In- 
dians to  pick  out  the  dead  eggs,  and  they  did  it  extremely  well,  their  del- 
icate fingers  and  native  dexterity  making  them  quite  apt  and  expert  for 
the  work.  The  shallow  trays  did  very  well,  although  it  was  a  great  trouble 
to  lift  out  the  upper  ones  so  constantly,  in  order  to  get  at  the  lower  ones. 
This  was  all  obviated  when  we  came  to  use  the  deep  trays,  in  praise  of 
which  too  much  cannot  be  said.  With  these,  it  was  only  necessary,  in 
picking  out  the  white  eggs,  to  raise  the  tray  a  little  ways  out  of  the  water, 
and  then  gently  immerse  it  again.  The  upward  pressure  of  the  water 
would  throw  the  dead  eggs  to  the  surface,  where  they  could  be  picked 
out  without  even  the  touch  of  a  feather.  With  these  trays  the  hands 
are  never  wet,  the  trays  are  never  changed  from  their  places,  the  eggs 
never  flow  over  the  top,  and  the  feather  becomes  unnecessary.     In  addi- 


448      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

f 

tion  to  these  advantages,  all  sediment  accumulating  about  the  eggs  can 
be  easily  run  off  by  gently  moving  the  tray  up  and  down  a  few  times  in 
the  water.  Besides  the  tray  for  hatching  the  eggs  jn  the  troughs,  I  used 
floating  wire-boxes,  placed  in  the  river-current,  with  very  good  success. 
These,  unlike  the  famous  shad-hatching  boxes,  rested  horizontally  in  the 
water.  We  had  remarkably  good  lack  this  season;  not  a  single  mishap 
occurring  to  any  of  the  vast  number  of  eggs,  either  in  the  taking  or  the 
ripening  of  them. 

PACKING  THE  EGGS. 

The  eggs  were  packed  for  shipment  this  year  on  the  same  general  plan 
that  was  adopted  last  year.  The  packing-boxes  were  made  two  feet 
square  and  one  foot  deep.  At  the  bottom  of  the  box  was  placed  a  thick 
layer  of  moss,  then  came  one  thickness  of  mosquito-bar,  then  a  layer  of 
eggs,  then  mosquito-bar  again,  then  other  successive  layers  of  moss,  net- 
ting, eggs,  netting,  and  so  on  to  the  middle  of  the  box.  Here  a  firm  wood- 
en partition  was  fastened  in,  and  the  packing  renewed  above  the  parti- 
tion in  the  same  manner  as  below.  The  cover  was  then  screwed  on  the 
top  and  another  box  packed.  When  two  boxes  were  ready,  they  were 
placed  on  wooden  crates  made  large  enough  to  allow  a  space  of  three 
inches  on  all  sides  of  the  boxes.  This  space  was  filled  with  hay  to 
protect  the  eggs  against  changes  of  temperature.  The  cover  being  put 
on  the  crate  and  the  marking  done,  the  eggs  were  ready  to  ship. 

This  plan  of  packing,  in  spite  of  many  severe  criticisms  that  have 
been  made  upon  it,  seems  to  work  remarkably  well.  Of  those  sent  to 
Great  Salt  Lake  in  1873,  distant  a  thousand  miles,  only  3  per  cent,  were 
lost.  Seth  Green  reports  a  loss  on  the  200,000  eggs  consigned  to  him  in 
1S73,  of  only  11  per  cent,  in  both  the  transportation  and  hatching.  Mr. 
James  Thompson,  of  New  Hope,  Pa.,  writes  as  follows  of  the  eggs  sent 
him  this  season:  "The  150,000  salmon-eggs  shipped  from  Califor- 
nia arrived  in  splendid  order."  The  entire  loss  on  this  lot  in  transpor- 
tation and  hatching  was  only  6  per  cent. 

These  facts  seem  to  show  that  the  packing  is  all  right.  The  trouble 
with  those  who  found  fault  with  it  is  that  they  do  not  understand  what 
it  is  that  kills  the  eggs  in  the  lots  that  do  not  go  well.  The  mischief  is 
not  in  the  packing,  but  in  the  high  temperature  to  which  the  eggs  are 
exposed  in  transit.  I  will  agree  to  take  any  of  these  lots  of  eggs  to  New 
York  and  back  to  California  in  this  packing  without  serious  loss,  if  I 
can  have  entire  control  of  the  temperature  of  the  crates.  But  what  can 
be  expected  of  eggs  that  are  packed  in  a  hot  climate,  to  begin  with ;  are 
compelled  to  travel  a  whole  day  in  a  temperature  often  much  above 
100°,  and  then  for  several  days  either  where  the  weather  keeps  them 
warm  naturally  or  where  the  car  containing  them  is  artificially  heated 
to  an  excessive  degree,  as  is  the  case  with  the  express-cars  which  con- 
vey them ;  and  when,  in  addition  to  all  this,  they  are  delayed  by  negli- 
gent express-agents  several  days  beyond  the  regular  time  %  I  challenge 
any  one,  whatever  may  be  his  ingenuity  or  skill,  to  pack  salmon-eggs  so 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.   449 

that  they  will  make  the  overland  journey  safely  under  these  circum- 
stances. If  the  eggs  were  not  destroyed  in  any  other  way  with  those 
conditions,  they  would  hatch  out  on  the  road  from  the  heat,  and  so  per- 
ish. I  admit  that  sawdust  would  be  much  better  than  hay  for  the  out- 
side packing*,  but  we  should  have  to  haul  the  sawdust  sixty  miles  in 
order  to  get  it  at  all.  I  propose,  however,  to  use  it  next  year,  whatever 
may  be  the  expense  of  procuring  it. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  following  points  must  be  combined 
in  any  method  of  packing  the  salmon-eggs  that  is  adopted  for  the  over- 
land trip : 

1.  They  should  be  compactly  arranged,  in  order  to  reduce  the  express- 
charges,  which  are  enormous  at  best. 

2.  The  packages  should  be  large  and  heavy,  so  that  they  cannot  be 
knocked  about  the  express-car. 

3.  The  eggs  and  moss  should  be  massed  together  in  considerable  quan- 
tities, to  retain  the  moisture  in  the  eggs,  and  also  to  be  better  protected 
from  change  of  temperature. 

4.  The  method  that  is  adopted  should  be  one  that  facilitates  rapidity 
of  packing,  as  the  first  boxes  packed  suffer  while  the  others  are  being 
made  ready. 

5.  General  economy  in  regard  to  expense  should  be  studied,  as,  with 
such  a  large  number  of  eggs,  even  a  small  additional  expense  per  thou- 
sand makes  a  large  bill  in  the  aggregate. 

C.  No  method  that  I  have  been  made  aware  of  combines  these  advan- 
tages better  than  the  one  actually  employed  this  season  in  packing  the 
California  eggs. 

Many  of  the  incidental  causes  of  loss  after  the  eggs  left  the  McCloud 
Eiver  are  shown  in  the  appended  report  on  the  various  consignments; 
as  also  in  Mr.  Perrin's  account,  just  following,  of  his  journey  across  the 
continent  with  various  lots  of  salmon-eggs. 

THE  OVERLAND  JOURNEY  OF  THE  EGGS. 

The  very  full  account  of  my  secretary,  Mr.  Marshall  L.  Perrin,  of  his 
journey  with  some  of  the  California  salmon-eggs,  makes  it  unnecessary 
for  me  to  present  anything  on  this  subject  besides  his  report ;  which  I 
give  .here  with  pleasure  : 

"  Report  of  Marshall  L.  Perrin,  employed  by  Mr.  Livingston  Stone  for  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  to  accompany  the  fourth  lot  of  salmon- 
eggs  transported  from  the  United  States  salmon-breeding  establishment 
upon  the  McCloud  Eiver,  California,  to  various  States  on  the  eastern 
coast,  during  the  season  of  1874. 

"The  fourth  lot  of  salmon-eggs  left  McCloud  Eiver  camp  Tuesday 
afternoon,  October  13,  1874.  It  consisted  of  seven  crates,  not  of  uni- 
form size,  but  varying  according  to  the  number  of  eggs  within,  as  fol- 
lows, together  with  the  names  of  the  consignees,  which  were  marked 

upon  the  respective  crates  : 
29  f 


450        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"II.  G.  Pike,  Middletown,  Conn.,  150,000  salmon-eggs. 
"  James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa.,  150,000  salinou-eggs. 
uAlex.  Kent,  Baltimore,  Md.,  150,000  salmon-eggs. 
"James  B.  Thompson,  New  Hope, Bucks  County,  Pa.,  150,000  salmon- 
eggs. 
"  Alfred  A.  Keed,  jr.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  100,000  salmon-eggs. 
"  Samuel  Wilinot,  Newcastle,  Ontario,  Canada,  25,000  salmon-eggs. 
"H.  H.  Thomas,  Randolph,  Cattaraugus  County,  N.  Y.,  25,000  salmon- 

errors 

"  In  all,  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  salmon-eggs.  They  were 
packed  essentially  the  same  as  the  former  lots  had  been,  in  alternate 
layers,  with  moss  gathered  from  Mount  Shasta,  and  having  mosquito-net- 
ting above  and  below  each  layer  of  eggs,  so  that  they  could  be  more 
easily  gathered  from  out  of  the  moss.  Two  boxes  filled  in  this  way, 
containing  75,000  eggs  each,  were  placed  in  a  crate  slightly  larger  than 
the  sum  of  the  two  boxes,  and  the  space  between  the  crates  and  the 
boxes  was  stuffed  with  straw.  The  boxes  were  bored  on  all  sides  with 
auger-holes,  so  that  water  poured  from  outside  the  crate  upon  the  straw 
inside,  and  also  water  coming  from  the  melting  of  ice,  which  was  to  be 
kept  on  the  top  of  the  crates,  would  enter  the  boxes  and  moisten  the 
moss  in  which  the  eggs  were  placed. 

"It  was  especially  necessary  to  keep  this  lot  of  eggs  cold,  inasmuch  as 
it  was  a  later  lot  and  the  eggs  were  more  nearly  ready  to  hatch.  There- 
fore I  was  to  try  to  keep  them  as  nearly  torpid,  and  hence  as  cold,  as 
possible,  in  order  to  prevent  their  breaking  through  the  shell;  in  which 
case,  of  course,  they  would  begin  motion  and  animal  life,  and  would 
need  a  medium  of  water,  and  inevitably  perish  for  the  want  of  it.  Mr. 
Stone  also  wished  me  to  try  the  experiment  of  packing  hunks  of  ice,  in 
place  of  the  straw,  inside  of  the  crates,  as  soon  as  I  should  arrive  with 
the  eggs  upon  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  to  regions  where  ice  was 
more  abundant  and  obtainable,  and  keep  it  up  for  the  rest  of  the 
journey. 

"The  crates  were  thoroughly  soaked  for  a  while  before  they  were  loaded 
upon  the  large  team  with  which  they  were  conveyed  to  Bedding,  23 
miles  distant.  We  left  camp  at  about  4  o'clock  p.  m.,  and  reached  Bed- 
ding at  about  21  o'clock  a.  m.  The  load  was  very  heavy  and  the  road 
mountainous.  During  the  trip  it  rained  quite  heavily,  which  gave  the 
crates  a  further  soaking  with  which  to  begin  their  long  journey.  At 
Bedding  were  ready  250  pounds  of  ice,  which  had  been  ordered,  and  I 
put  this  in  pieces  upon  the  crates  after  they  were  loaded  in  the  Wells, 
Fargo  &  Co.'s  express-car.  The  train  started  at  about  half  past  3 
o'clock  a.  in.,  Wednesday  morning,  October  14.  The  morning  was  cold, 
and  the  forenoon  cool,  fortunately,  for  the  car  was  quite  small,  and  the 
crates  had  to  be  placed  one  upon  another ;  consequently,  ice  could  be 
upon  only  the  upper  ones,  except  so  far  as  the  under  ones  jutted  out. 
Therefore  I  changed  their  positions  twice,  and  often  poured  water  over 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  m'CLOUD  KIVER,  CAL.   451 

them  on  the  way  down  to  Sacramento,  which  we  reached  at  2  o'clock  p. 
in.,  running-  into  the  city  and  not  being  left  for  connections  at  the  junc- 
tion. 

"  I  found  my  time  here  (half  an  hour)  very  short  in  which  to  accomplish 
the  necessary  details,  and  so  had  to  hurry  in  order  to  soak  the  crates 
with  ice-water  5  to  attend  to  transferring  and  icing  them  with  300  pounds 
of  ice,  for  which  I  had  telegraphed;  to  go  to  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co.'s 
office  to  see  the  agent,  Mr.  Tracy,  about  expressing  and  rebilling  the 
crates,  and  to  obtain  from  him  a  letter  for  admittance  to  express-cars, 
which  I  never  used ;  to  buy  pail,  dipper,  and  thermometer,  besides  attend- 
ing to  my  personal  baggage,  tickets,  &c. 

"  The  afternoon  was  hot ;  and  when  we  left  Sacramento  the  tempera- 
tures of  the  crates  were  varying  from  60°  to  63° ;  but  they  were  loaded 
upon  the  coolest  part  of  the  car,  and  I  iced  them  well  during  the  after-, 
noon  and  soaked  them.  Soon  the  temperatures  were  from  56°  to  62°. 
At  evening,  the  messenger  telegraphed  for  ice  at  Summit,  Cal.,  which 
we  should  reach  in  the  night,  and  for  a  slight  recompense  he  consented 
to  be  without  "a  fire  over  night,  though  it  was  a  cold  night  and  he  had 
started  one.  Upon  arriving  at  Summit,  he  found  that  no  ice  (strangely) 
could  be  obtained  there,  and  obtained  a  quantity  at  Boca,  a  station  be- 
yond. On  the  morning  of  Thursday,  October  15,  the  temperatures  were 
from  50°  to  56°.  I  turned  the  crates  upside  down,  which  was  done 
every  day,  so  that  the  eggs  should  not  settle  down  in  one  direction, 
causing  in  this  way  too  much  pressure  upon  them.  We  moved  them  to 
a  rack  in  the  car  through  which  the  water  would  run  ;  and,  while  the 
travelers  breakfasted  at  Humboldt,  Nev.,  the  engineer  backed  the  train  so 
that  we  could  bring  a  hydrant-hose  into  the  car  and  give  the  crates  a 
thorough  drenching.  We  also  got  about  400  pounds  of  ice  from  a  trap- 
hole  in  the  station-platform.    At  Humboldt  the  messengers  changed. 

"Having  a  good  supply  of  ice,  I  commenced  the  experiment  of  taking 
out  the  straw  with  which  the  boxes  of  eggs  and  moss  were  packed  into 
the  crates,  and  substituting  pieces  of  ice,  pounded  so  as  to  fit  its  place, 
in  the  intervening  space  between  the  boxes  and  the  crates.  The  tem- 
peratures at  noon  were  5-1°  to  60°.  At  Carlin,  Nev.,  Gil  pounds  of  ice 
were  procured  and  cut  up  for  the  purpose  stated  above.  Finding  some 
of  the  boxes  had  no  holes  in  them,  at  Elko  I  got  an  auger  and  bored 
some.  From  Wells  onward,  the  rest  of  the  day,  at  every  station,  I  ob- 
tained a  pail  of  water,  and,  after  cooling  it  with  ice,  poured  it  over  the 
crates  in  turn.  As  was  also  one  of  my  motives  in  giving  them  so  much 
water  at  Humboldt  and  at  Ogden  the  next  morning,  I  wished  to  give 
them  all  the  water  possible  this  day,  for  the  water,  especially  beyond 
Ogden  through  a  long  region  of  country,  would  be  very  doubtful  in 
quality,  and  I  should  hesitate  about  using  it. 

"  The  temperatures  that  night  when  I  left  them  were  between  3S°  and 
50°  ',  and  the  next  morning,  Friday,  October  16th,  the}7  were  from  52° 
to  54°.  Early  in  the  forenoon  we  changed  cars  at  Ogden,  Utah,  and  ^yhile 


452       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

the  other  express  was  being  transferred,  I  gave  the  crates  a  heavy  soak- 
ing by  means  of  a  hose.  No  ice  could  be  obtained  at  Ogden,  but  there 
was  enough  to  last  easily  till  reaching  Evanston.  On  the  whole  I  think 
it  is  better  to  procure  ice  at  unimportant  towns  or  stations  en  route,  if 
possible,  than  at  large  cities  and  railroad  junctions;  for  the  quality  of 
the  ice  is  surely  just  as  good,  and  other  details,  as  necessary  as  they  are 
numerous,  will  use  the  time  at  the  large  places.  The  trouble  of  trans- 
ferring ice  does  not  compare  with  that  of  procuring  a  new  lot.  Fur- 
thermore, the  new  messenger  more  willingly  takes  it  from  the  previous 
messenger  than  when  it  is  freshly  imposed  upon  him,  for  certainly  it  is 
very  disagreeable  to  them  to  have  their  car  loaded  with  melting  ice. 

"The  Wells-Fargo  agent  at  Ogden  informed  me  that  Mr.  Tracy,  at 
Sacramento,  had  erroneously  billed  the  crates,  and  they  could  not  go 
,  over  the  routes  which  I  said  it  was  necessary  for  them  to  take  beyond 
Omaha.  He  was  in  a  hurry  and  unpleasant;  as  was  also  the  messenger 
(from  Ogden  onward)  at  first,  upon  seeing  seven  big,  heavy,  dripping 
crates  come  into  his  car.  It  is  not  so  great  an  evil  that  the  crates  of 
salmon-eggs  come  under  the  care  of  strangers  as  the  fact  that  they  are 
handled  by  constantly-changing  strangers.  There  is  a  need  of  some  one 
who  will  be  a  permanent  friend  to  them,  stand  by  them,  and  look  out 
for  their  welfare  in  emergencies,  and  when  the  express  messenger  on 
one  route  or  section  changes  for  the  uninitiated  one  who  takes  his  place. 
There  is,  then,  a  need  of  some  person  who  shall  get  this  new  messenger 
interested  in  the  cause,  and  willing  to  put  up  with  extra  and  unusual 
arrangements.  The  presence  of  a  man  in  charge  of  the  shipment  is  not 
merely  better,  but  I  think  it  is  absolutely  indispensable,  judging  from 
the  dealings  which  I  have  had  with  express-messengers  and  railroad 
employes;  who,  when  rightly  dealt  with,  are  a  very  obliging  class  of 
men.  The  gentlemanly  and  obliging  manner  in  which  I  was  treated 
during  the  whole  trip  deserves  commendation. 

"  Toward  noon,  Friday,  October  16,  I  got  some  ice  at  Evanston,  Utah, 
and  proceeded  for  the  rest  of  the  day  to  unpack  straw  from  more  crates, 
.and  put  in  the  abundant  ice  and  refilled  the  crates  where  the  ice  which 
I  had  previously  put  in  had  melted.  The  temperatures  at  noon  were  53° 
to  50°  ;  and  at  night  were  42°  to  50°.  As  I  should  have  stated  before,  the 
way  in  which  I  took  the  temperatures,  three  times  a  day,  was  by  thrust- 
ing a  thermometer  between  the  slats  of  the  crates  into  the  straw  which 
surrounded  the  boxes.  This,  of  course,  does  not  precisely  indicate  the 
temperature  of  the  eggs  inside  the  boxes  ;  they  may  be  warmer  or  they 
may  be  cooler.  If  not  attended  to,  and  left  to  grow  warm,  the  eggs 
must  either  increase  in  heat  from  the  center  outwards,  or  heat  from  the 
outside,  the  center  remaining  coolest.  Now,  when  care  is  taken  of  the 
eggs,  the  stratum  of  cold,  damp  straw,  in  not  allowing  hot  air  from  out- 
side to  touch  the  boxes,  prevents  the  eggs  from  heating  from  the  out- 
side. Hence,  when  properly  attended  to,  they  will  heat  only  from  the 
center  outward.    This  happens  by  the  spoiling  of  the  eggs  in  the  mid- 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  EIVER,  CAL.  453 

die;  the  fungus,  attaching  itself  to  the  next  egg,  spreads  outward  after 
the  manner  of  a  warm,  damp  mold.  This  suggests  two  improvements : 
First,  that  the  eggs  might  be  packed  in  smaller  boxes,  so  that  the  cen- 
ter eggs  might  not  be  so  far  away  from  the  ice  ;  and  secondly,  that  some 
method  might  be  devised  for  removing  the  decaying  eggs  during  the 
journey.  However,  if  the  crates  are  attended  to  in  a  thorough  man- 
ner, the  present  plan  of  packing  does  not  much  demand  the  proposed 
improvements;  and  as  to  removing  the  decayed  eggs,  the  loss  is  not  of 
a  greater  per  cent,  under  the  present  system  than  would  inevitably  be 
caused  by  the  disturbance  produced  by  any  method  of  removing  the 
diseased  eggs. 

"Friday  night  was  a  very  cold  night,  and  the  messenger  seemed  to  be 
of  that  opinion  the  next  morning,  having  walked  back  and  forth,  unable 
to  sleep  during  the  night,  in  the  icy  car,  which  they  are  not  allowed  to 
leave.  Saturday  morniug,  October  17,  the  crates  were  in  temperature 
from  440  to  47°.  They  were  turned  over,  and  we  moved  them  to  the 
coolest  part  of  the  car,  out  of  the  sunlight.  At  Laramie,  Wyoming,  I 
procured  a  large  quantity  of  ice,  and  watered  the  crates  with  ice-water, 
and  repacked  them  with  ice,  as  well  as  laid  large  pieces  on  the  top  of 
them. 

"After  having  once  removed  the  straw,  it  kept  me  almost  constantly 
busy  to  keep  the  crates  packed  with  ice.  The  intervening  spaces  between 
the  boxes  and  the  crates  were  very  narrow,  not  large  enough  to  admit 
pieces  of  ice  larger  than  an  apple,  and  the  slats  were  too  near  together 
to  crowd  ice  between  them.  To  pack  any  side  of  a  crate,  therefore,  it 
was  necessary  to  tear  off  the  slats  of  the  crate  each  time,  and  nail  them 
up  again ;  which  of  course  weakened  the  crates,  and  their  structure 
would  not  allow  any  of  the  slats  to  be  left  off.  This  method  of  packing 
with  ice  consumes  a  large  quantity  of  that  article,  and  in  the  present 
case  it  was  slow  work  to  break  it  up  into  pieces  of  requisite  size.  Fur- 
thermore, the  pieces  were  necessarily  so  small  that  they  rapidly  melted, 
and  the  finishing  one  round  of  filling  the  crates  with  ice  was  but  the  sig- 
nal to  begin  again  with  the  first  on  another  round.  Inasmuch  as  this 
method  of  packing  with  ice  was  a  primitive  experiment,  and  also  not  de- 
cided upon  in  time  to  construct  the  crates  otherwise,  many  of  these  in- 
conveniences were  present  in  this  case  which  need  not  be  considered  as 
necessarily  accompanying  the  packing  with  ice.  From  the  effects  of  my 
trial,  I  consider  that  the  packing  the  crates  with  ice  is  a  very  plausible 
and  practical  method,  and  a  decided  improvement,  if  the  crates  are  prop- 
erly constructed,  and  if  some  one  is  constantly  ready  to  renew  the  ice 
when  it  becomes  melted  to  even  a  slight  degree,  so  that  a  warm  draught 
of  air  may  not  be  allowed  to  strike  the  boxes  at  any  point.  The  water 
from  the  melting  ice  permeates  the  boxes  containing  the  moss  and  eggs, 
through  the  auger-holes,  which  is  an  additional  item  of  advantage. 

"The  temperatures  Saturday  noon  were  41°  to  47°.  When  the 
express  messengers  changed  at  Cheyenne,  Wyo.,  we  conjectured  that  the 


454      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

■wrong  billing  of  the  crates  could  be  rectified  at  Omaha,  but  matters  were 
worse  from  that  point  onward.  The  condition  of  things  was  as  follows : 
There  were  seven  crates ;  two  of  them  (for  Newcastle,  Canada,  and  for 
Bandolph,  N.  Y.,)  I  was  to  send  from  Chicago  by  northern  routes 
direct  to  their  destination;  the  others,  for  Marietta,  Penn.,  New  Hope, 
Penn.,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Middletown,  Conn.,  and  Providence,  E.  I.,  I  was 
to  take  with  me  over  more  southern  routes  from  Chicago,  and  send  the 
Baltimore  and  Marietta  crates  to  Harrisburg,  Penn.,  the  New  Hope 
crate  from  Philadelphia,  and  go  on  with  the  Middletown  and  Providence 
crates  to  New  York,  from  whence  I  should  send  them  to  their  respective 
cities.  This  was  the  only  plan  which  could  be  carried  out  with  success. 
Mr.  Tracy,  the  Wells,  Fargo  &  Co's.  agent  at  Sacramento,  billed  some 
of  the  crates  locally,  i.  e.,  to  be  rebilled  at  every  change  of  railroad  or 
express  company,  and  some  he  billed  through  to  New  York  City.  The 
billing,  though  he  emphatically  assured  me  it  was  right,  was  apparently 
indiscriminate.  One  of  those  which  I  wished  to  send  from  Chicago  was 
locally,  and  one  through  billed ;  three  of  those  which  were  to  go  over 
the  southern  routes  were  through,  and  two  of  them  locally  billed.  Those 
through-billed  must  all  go  to  New  York  City  by  northern  routes,  and  then 
come  around  to  Baltimore  and  their  other  destinations.  This  is  because 
the  southern  routes  from  Chicago  are  run  by  the  Adams  Express  Com- 
pany, and  the  northern  by  the  United  States  and  American  Express  Com- 
panies ;  as  the  Adams  runs  only  from  Chicago,  the  other  two  receive  the 
express  at  Omaha,  and  carry  it  by  their  own  northern  routes.  I  must,  in 
some  way,  have  all  together  with  me,  that  I  might  attend  to  them.  They 
could  not  all  go  by  the  northern  routes,  because  the  Baltimore,  New 
Hope,  and  Marietta  eggs  would  surely  perish  before  getting  to  New  York 
City  over  northern  routes  and  around  again  to  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. There  was  only  one  way  to  do :  they  must  all  go  the  south- 
ern route  from  Chicago,  billed  or  unbilled !  The  route  from  Omaha  to 
Chicago  was  also  quite  doubtful.  The  United  States  and  the  American 
Express  Companies  both  run  into  Omaha,  and  receive,  from  the  Union 
Pacific,  express  alternately,  one  receiving  the  locally  and  the  other  the 
through-billed  express." 

"The  temperatures  of  the  crates  Saturday  evening  were  42°  to  50°. 
The  night  was  going  to  be  very  cold  and  I  had  much  ice  in  the  car.  The 
messenger  was  willing  kindly  to  go  without  a  fire  for  me,  using  my  blank- 
ets in  addition  to  his  own.  An  accident  late  at  night  delayed  us  five 
and  a  half  hours  near  Sidney,  Neb.,  at  which  I  had  some  thought  of 
telegraphing  to  Mr.  Tracy,  at  Sacramento.  Sunday  morning,  October 
18th,  the  temperatures  of  the  crates  were  between  40°  and  4S°. 

"  The  crates  were  now  kept  full  of  broken  ice.  As  this  broken  ice 
rapidly  melted,  and  the  crates  needed  to  be  replenished  often,  I  decided 
that  should  the  crates  be  obliged  to  leave  me  in  divisions,  it  would  be 
much  better  for  them  to  be  packed  with  hay.  The  hay  would  keep  them 
much  cooler  and  more  moist,  and  hold  the  moisture  from  the  meltiug 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  m'cLOUD  RIVER,,  CAL.  455 

ice  on  the  top  ;  whereas,  if  no  hay  was  around  the  boxes  they  would  be 
directly  exposed  to  the  warm,  dry  air,  unless  the  crates  were  kept  con- 
stantly full  of  ice.  Therefore,  I  procured  75  pounds  of  hay  at  Grand 
Island,  Neb.,  together  with  400  pounds  of  ice,  and  during  the  day 
packed  up  the  crates  with  hay,  which,  of  course,  was  dry,  and  watered 
them  with  ice-water  at  every  station  until  they  were  very  wet  and  cold. 
The  temperatures  Sunday  noon  were  between  48°  and  57°.  An  accident 
delayed  us  until  we  were  almost  seven  hours  late. 

"  Eeaching  Omaha  the  circumstances  were  anything  but  propitious  for 
arranging  matters.  It  was  quite  dark  ;  it  was  Sunday  night,  conse- 
quently not  many  authorities  could  be  found  ;  the  only  agent  who  was 
at  the  station,  having  any  power  at  all,  was  intoxicated.  There  is  always 
hurry  and  confusion  about  the  transfer  across  the  Missouri,  and  espe- 
cially as  the  train  was  so  many  hours  late.  It  would  be  better  to  have 
the  crates  go  to  Chicago  by  the  United  States  Express  Company,  as  they 
were  then  more  likely  to  go  on  well  from  Chicago.  It  being  Sunday 
night,  however,  only  the  working  employes  were  around,  and  their 
orders  were  such  that  I  could  get  only  the  locally-billed  to  go  by  the 
United  States  Express,  the  others  going  by  the  American  Express  over 
another  route.  Therefore,  at  Chicago  I  must  persuade  the  authorities 
of  both  express  companies  to  give  up  their  crates  to  the  Adams  Express, 
which  runs  over  the  southern  routes  from  Chicago,  by  which  the  crates 
must  be  carried.  While  making  the  transfer  across  the  Missouri  Eiver 
I  found  it  could  be  possible  to  have  all  go  to  Chicago  by  the  American 
Express.  Hence,  in  Chicago  I  would  have  only  one  party  to  deal  with ; 
so  all  the  crates  unitedly,  and  myself,  went  to  Chicago  by  that  route. 
This  outline  of  express  troubles,  filled  in  with  a  numerous  amount  of 
stubborn  details  and  minutiae,  which  were  hard  to  overcome,  caused  me 
incessant  anxiety  concerning  the  preservation  and  final  safety  of  the 
eggs;  and,  indeed,  the  express  difficulties  with  this  lot  only  began  at 
Omaha,  to  continue  onward  to  the  end  of  the  trip :  but  in  this  report  it 
will  be  needless  to  particularize  them. 

;'xVt  Dunlap,  Iowa,  though  very  late,  I  procured  400  pounds  of  ice 
which  I  fixed  over  the  crates ;  before  which,  however,  I  removed  the 
slats  from  several  crates  and  opened  the  boxes  containing  the  eggs  to 
examine  them.  They  seemed  to  be  in  excellent  order,  at  which  I  was 
very  much  encouraged.  The  temperature  of  the  crates  was  warmer 
than  usual,  being  53°  to  56° ;  but  I  was  not  afraid  that  it  would  rise,  for 
the  night  was  to  be  quite  cool.  The  next  morning,  Monday,  October  19, 
the  temperatures  were  50°  to  50£.  I  obtained  some  ice  at  Clinton,  Iowa, 
in  the  forenoon.  The  day  was  warm,  and  a  good  deal  was  used.  At 
noon  the  temperatures  were  from  51°  to  52°.  Very  fortunately,  indeed, 
just  before  entering  the  city  of  Chicago,  the  superintendent  of  the  Amer- 
ican Express  Company,  (the  company  writh  which  the  crates  then  were,) 
came  into  the  express-car.  He  was  the  person  whom  I  could  influence 
to  the  best  advantage,  and  his  was  just  the  authority  I  was  in  need  of. 


456       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

It  was  through  his  intervention  only  that  the  agent  at  Chicago  would  be 
or  was  willing  to  do  what  I  desired ;  and  the  eggs  were  not  to  be  delayed 
longer  than  necessary.  We  rode  with  all  the  crates  to  the  Michigan 
Central  depot,  where  the  two  crates  for  Newcastle,  Canada,  and  Ran- 
dolph, N.  Y.,  were  left,  and  with  plenty  of  ice.  I  saw  the  agent  and  left  a 
note  for  the  superintendent,  and  instructions  were  also  given  to  all  the 
messengers  en  route.  The  five  remaining  crates  were  carried  to  the 
office  of  the  Adams  Express,  into  whose  hands  they  were  really  deliv- 
ered and  rightly  bound.  It  was  dark  and  cool,  so  they  did  not  suffer  by 
being  on  the  sidewalk  while  waiting  for  the  outward  express.  Leaving 
them  in  charge  of  a  policeman,  I  telegraphed  to  the  following  four  con- 
signees of  the  salmon-eggs : — H.  H.  Thomas,  Eaudolph,  Cattaraugus 
County,  N.  Y.;  Samuel  Wilmot,  Newcastle,  Ontario,  Canada;  Alex. 
Kent,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Pa. ; — stating  that  their 
crates  of  salmon-eggs  were  leaving  Chicago  that  night  by  certain  trains, 
which  I  specified. 

"  Soon  the  crates  were  loaded  into  the  express-car  at  the  depot  of  the 
Pittsburgh,  Fort  Wayne  and  Chicago  Eailroad ;  400  pounds  of  ice  were 
obtained,  so  that  they  kept  finely  through  the  night.  The  messenger 
made  a  great  ado,  and,  though  the  night  was  not  cold,  he  thought  it 
dreadful  to  go  without  a  fire.  The  eastern  men  on  medium  nights  were 
miich  more  appalled  at  going  without  a  fire  than  were  those  upon  the 
western  roads,  across  the  plains  and  mountains,  during  those  intensely 
cold  nights.  Nevertheless,  all  hands  went  without  a  fire  for  me,  and 
the  crates  were  not  in  the  presence  of  one  during  the  journey  across  the 
continent.  The  temperatures  of  the  crates  at  time  of  starting  from 
Chicago  were  46°  to  50°.  Being  very  tired  I  did  not  rise  early  the  next 
morning,  and  the  messenger  neglected  to  get  any  ice  at  Crestline,  Ohio, 
but  it  made  not  much  difference;  as  there  was  enough  to  last  to  Alliance, 
Ohio,  where  I  procured  250  pounds.  The  temperatures  of  the  crates 
Tuesday  morning,  October  20,  were  41°  to  43°,  and  at  noon  were  42°  to  47°. 
When  not  packed  with  ice  it  is  much  harder  to  keep  them  down  to  such 
an  excellent  degree  of  coldness,  but  I  managed  to  attain  this  end  by 
means  of  often  wetting  them  with  ice-water.  In  the  afternoon  I  looked 
into  the  eggs  again  and  they  appeared  very  satisfactorily  and  well, 
showing  a  much  less  mortality  than  I  had  feared  would  take  place 
through  so  many  changes.  Only  a  small  per  cent,  appeared  to  have 
perished  or  to  be  unhealthy.     The  temperatures  at  night  were  49°  to  50°. 

"Every  change  of  cars  had  brought  new  troubles;  and  especially  were 
large  cities  to  be  dreaded,  because  there  would  be  so  much  more  hurry 
and  business  going  on.  Therefore  I  was  anxious  riding  into  Pittsburgh. 
The  train  which  connected  at  Pittsburgh  for  New  York  with  our  train 
never  takes  any  express,  and  made  very  close  connection,  and  it  was  im- 
possible to  arrange  for  the  crates  with  that  train.  As  it  was,  the  ex- 
press-men at  Pittsburgh  said  they  could  not  make  special  arrangements, 
the  rules  and  customs  were  inflexible,  and  that  crates  bound  for  New 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  457 

Yoik  (Middletown  and  Providence)  must  go  the  next  morning,  and  the 
Marietta,  New  Hope,  and  Baltimore  crates  the  next  noon.  It  was  then 
about  S£  o'clock  in  the  evening.  This  proposed  delay  was  out  of  the 
question,  and  must  not  be  permitted,  if  I  could  possibly  avoid  it.  As  at 
Omaha,  it  was  night,  and  only  employes  about.  Finally  I  found  one 
who  appeared  to  have  more  authority  than  the  others.  He  agreed  that 
if  the  night-man  should  say  it  was  practicable,  he  would  authorize  him 
to  put  a  car  of  the  New  York  Pacific  Express  upon  the  night-train  at 
2.50  a.  in.,  though  in  doing  so  it  would  be  stepping  a  good  way  beyond 
his  official  power. 

"In  this  car  the  crates  were  put,  and  I  procured  two  or  three  hundred 
pounds  of  ice  and  arranged  the  crates.  There  was  no  messenger  to  go 
with  the  car,  and  the  strict  rules  of  the  express  company  require  that  in 
such  case  a  car  must  be  locked  and  sealed,  therefore  I  was  unable  to 
take  the  temperatures  the  next  day  regularly.  All  the  crates  went 
together,  as  the  agent  at  Pittsburgh  telegraphed  to  Harrisburg  to 
have  the  seal  broken  and  the  three  crates  for  Baltimore,  Marietta,  and 
New  Hope  taken  out,  and  also  to  have  400  pounds  of  ice  ready.  He 
also  telegraphed  to  the  agent  at  New  York  to  forward  the  other  two 
crates  quickly  upon  their  reception.  After  this  I  telegraphed  to  the 
following  five  consignees  of  salmon-eggs  :  James  Duffy,  Marietta,  Penu. ; 
Alex.  Kent,  Baltimore,  Md. ;  James  B.  Thompson,  New  Hope,  Bucks 
County,  Penu.;  Alfred  A.  Reed,  jr.,  Providence,  E.  I.;  and  E.  G.  Pike, 
Middletown,  Conn. ;  stating  by  what  route  and  train  their  crates  left 
Pittsburgh  that  night. 

"  At  Harrisburg,  which  we  reached  at  noon,  the  telegram  had  been 
received,  and  a  team  took  the  three  crates  to  the  office,  where  they 
would  remain  cooler  than  at  the  station  waiting  for  their  respective 
trains.  The  night  and  forenoon  had  been  cool,  and  the  crates  had  been 
by  themselves  in  the  closed  car  in  an  undisturbed  atmosphere,  with  so 
much  ice  that  they  were  very  cold,  being  about  37°,  and  the  ice  had 
melted  but  little.  Hence  the  ice  ordered  by  the  telegram  was  not 
needed,  and  I  put  most  of  it  on  the  crates  which  were  to  leave  me.  Also, 
I  gave  explicit  instructions  about  the  care  of  these  crates,  and  fastened 
upon  them  notes  to  the  messengers  in  charge  till  at  their  destinations. 
These  were  the  Marietta,  New  Hope,  and  Baltimore  crates.  The  other 
two  for  Middletown  and  Providence  were  again  shut  up  in  the  car  and 
it  was  sealed  until  it  should  reach  New  York. 

"We  arrived  in  New  York  at  about  7  o'clock  p.  m.  The  car  had  not 
come  with  us  farther  than  Philadelphia;  the  train  out  of  that  city  does 
not  take  express.  This  I  did  not  know,  but  it  was  just  as  well,  because 
in  the  cold  closed  car,  alone,  and  with  ice  through  the  night,  they  would 
be  in  a  better  situation  than  if  they  had  come  to  New  York  and  waited 
till  morning  in  the  warmer  office  of  the  Adams  Express.  They  came 
up  from  Philadelphia  early  the  next  morning. 

"The  admirable  manner  in  which  the  crates  of  eggs  kept,  and  the  fine 


458       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

condition  in  which  they  remained  during  their  30  hours  in  the  closed 
car  is  very  noteworthy  and  suggestive.  The  ice  melted  but  little ;  the 
moisture  and  water  evaporated  but  slightly  from  the  straw;  there  were 
no  currents  of  warm  or  of  dry  air  to  strike  the  boxes;,  and  the  crates  pre- 
served a  remarkably  low  degree  of  temperature,  colder  than  I  had  known 
them  to  be  at  any  other  time,  being  37°  when  I  noted  it  at  Harrisburg. 
I  think  they  could  have  remained  in  such  circumstances  for  a  much 
longer  time  than  they  did,  without  needing  much  care,  and  have  con- 
tinued in  excellent  order.  The  methods  and  irregular  times  and  inter- 
vals at  which  the  salmon-eggs  are  taken  from  the  parent-fish  and  ma- 
tured, make  the  lots  to  be  in  different  stages  of  advancement  at  a  given 
time.  If,  however,  some  way  could  be  devised  so  that  several  lots  or  a 
larger  number  of  crates  could  make  the  trip  at  one  time,  it  seems  to  me 
that  it  would  be  very  proper  to  provide  a  car  to  run  across  the  United 
States,  containing  only  crates  of  salmon-eggs.  It  would  not  only  make 
it  decidedly  more  convenient  to  take  care  of  the  crates,  but  it  would  im- 
prove greatly  the  means  for  the  preservation  and  safety  of  the  eggs. 
Beside  the  advantages  mentioned  above,  of  the  ice  not  melting,  the 
moisture  not  evaporating,  and  the  excellent  degree  of  coldness  pre- 
served in  an  undisturbed  atmosphere,  others  suggest  themselves. 
Judging  from  the  fact  that  the  eggs  at  all  other  times  are  placed  in 
running  water,  it  seems  probable  that  it  would  be  well  not  only  to  keep 
them  wet  and  in  wet  moss,  during  transportation,  but  also  allow  them 
more  changes  of  water,  by  drenching  and  soaking,  than  can  be  done 
easily  in  express-cars.  Many  modes  of  watering  and  soaking  could 
readily  be  devised ;  there  would  be  place  and  room  to  harbor  a  large 
quantity  of  ice  for  use,  to  carry  the  requisite  tools,  and  to  have  plenty  of 
room  to  work  in  ;  the  strong  draughts  of  warm,  dry  air  which  rush  in  upon 
the  crates  from  all  the  four  doors  of  au  express-car  when  opened  at  every 
station  would  be  avoided ;  some  refrigerating-apparatus  might  be 
prepared  which  would  preserve  a  regularly  low  temperature;  the  eggs 
might  be  carried  in  such  a  way  so  that  they  could  be  picked  over  on 
the  journey ;  for  if  better  otherwise,  they  need  not  be  packed  in  a  port- 
able manner,  since  not  to  be  transferred  so  often  ;  the  eggs  would  be 
entirely  freed  from  the  jarring  and  banging  which  is  injurious  to  them, 
and  which  they  receive  when  changing  cars ;  and  the  express  difficul- 
ties and  troubles  arising  from  the  billing,  transferring,  separating,  and 
losing  the  crates  would  be  entirely  done  away  with.  This  special  car, 
though  not  quite  so  necessary  in  this  case,  would  be  of  the  same  nature, 
and  have  similar  advantages,  as  those  which,  in  the  transportation  of 
live  fish  and  lobsters,  the  aquarium-car  possesses  over  the  inadequate 
facilities  of  the  express-car. 

"  The  sealed  car,  as  I  have  said,  reached  New  York  Thursday  morning, 
October  22,  and  the  crates  were  carried  to  the  Adams  Express  office, 
where  more  ice  was  immediately  put  upon  them.  I  saw  the  Middletown 
crate  off  by  the  forenoon  train  from  New  York,  and  the  Providence  one 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  m'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  459 

by  the  boat;  also  I  saw  the  messengers  who  were  to  accompany  them, 
and  instructed  them,  and  ordered  them  to  so  instruct  the  messengers 
who  should  take  their  place,  if  there  was  a  change  before  the  crates 
reached  their  destinations. 

"  I  learned  afterward  that  the  Providence  crate  was  several  days  before 
reaching  its  destination,  from  New  York,  through  some  carelessness  or 
oversight  on  the  part  of  those  having  charge  of  the  express  between  the 
two  cities.  Hence  this  crate  of  salmon-eggs  suffered  so  much  loss,  some 
30  per  cent.,  I  believe,  that  it  was  not  as  successful  as  the  rest  of  the 
lot.  This  incites  me  to  repeat  that  it  seems,  not  only  better,  but  very 
necessary  to  have  some  one  accompanying  the  crates  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end.  There  are  many  minute  details  also  which  will  be  overlooked, 
carelessly  or  otherwise,  by  the  messengers;  and  it  is  so  indispensable, 
in  order  to  insure  the  healthiness  of  the  eggs,  that  all  these  details 
should  be  performed,  that  if  anything  is  to  be  done,  the  person  accom- 
panying the  salmon-eggs  must  attend  to  it  himself,  or  superintend  it  per- 
sonally. 

"Respectfully  submitted. 

"MARSHALL   L.  PEREIN." 

LIFE  IN  CAMP. 

Owing  to  the  remoteness  of  the  situation  and  the  peculiar  nature  of 
our  surroundings,  a  few  words  about  our  life  in  camp  may  possibly  not 
be  out  of  place. 

The  time  passed  very  pleasantly  with  us  all  through  the  season.  The 
work  of  the  campaign  was  of  course  the  main  feature  of  the  life  here, 
and  in  this  all  seemed  equally  interested  and  bent  on  success.  There 
was  one  peculiarity  about  the  work :  it  was  always  driving  us,  even  to 
working  Sundays  and  nights,  while  we,  on  the  other  hand,  were  always 
looking  forward  to  a  time  of  comparative  rest.  This  time  of  rest  never 
came.  At  first  we  had  to  rush  the  work  with  all  our  might  to  get  the 
house  built  and  the  two  hatching-tents  put  up  in  season.  Then  came 
the  cutting  of  the  poles  and  felling  of  the  logs  for  the  bridge,  and  then 
the  building  of  the  bridge  itself.  No  time  was  to  be  lost  in  this  work, 
for  the  spawning-season  was  coming  on  rapidly,  and,  if  the  dam  was 
not  completed  in  good  season,  before  the  salmon  stopped  running,  it 
would  do  no  good.  The  bridge  was  no  sooner  finished  than  all  hands 
had  to  go  to  work  with  a  will  on  the  hatching-trays  and  hatching-appa- 
ratus, in  order  to  get  them  done  in  time  for  the  eggs.  This  seemed 
almost  an  endless  job,  so  many  hundred  wire  trays  had  to  be  made  and 
so  much  surface  covered  with  asphaltum. 

The  hatching-apparatus  was  hardly  ready  when  the  eggs  began  to 
come  on.  Then  the  camp  was  busier  than  ever,  and,  when  this  work  of 
ripening  the  eggs  was  at  its  height,  the  earlier  lots  had  become  ready 
for  shipment. 

Probably  no  one  inexperienced  in  packing  the  eggs  of  fishes  realizes 


4G0       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

how  much  work  there  is  in  packing  a  half  a  million  eggs ;  hut  if  he  will 
undertake  to  pack  5,000,  and  then  reflect  that  this  must  be  repeated  one 
hundred  times  to  make  a  half  a  million,  he  will  get  some  idea  of  it.  In 
the  first  place,  preparatory  to  the  packing,  the  moss  is  to  be  obtained. 
Mr.  Woodbury  had  charge  of  the  expedition  for  the  moss.  They  went 
sixty-five  miles  for  it,  and  returned  in  twelve  days  with  a  hundred 
bushels.  This  moss  had  to  be  all  carefully  washed,  picked  over,  and 
separated.  Theu  the  sixty  packing-boxes  were  to  be  made,  and  thirty 
crates  to  send  the  eggs  off  in. 

This  preparatory  work  being  done,  and  the  time  being  come  for 
making  a  shipment,  all  hands  took  hold  of  the  work  of  placing  the  eggs 
in  the  boxes.  We  usually  allowed  two  days  to  pack,  box  up,  and  mark 
a  lot  of  750,000,  but  on  one  occasion  we  packed  the  whole  750,000  in 
one  day.  Now  that  the  fishing,  spawning,  ripening,  and  packing  of  the 
eggs  was  all  going  on  at  once,  it  can  be  easily  seen  that  we  had  no  time 
to  rest.  The  first  lull  in  our  work  came  when  the  fishing  was  stopped 
and  the  seine  hauled  up  for  the  season.  This  relieved  the  night-gang; 
and  the  reduction  which  had  been  caused,  by  various  shipments,  in  the 
number  of  the  eggs  to  be  looked  after,  gave  us  a  slight  breathing-space, 
which  I  employed  in  making  slight  improvements  about  the  ranch,  such 
as  putting  an  open  fire-place  in  the  house,  for  the  nights  had  now  become 
very  cold,  and  in  bringing  up  incidental  work  that  had  fallen  behind  in 
the  hurry  of  the  previous  month.  From  this  time,  although  the  work 
did  not  drive  us  as  it  did  in  the  summer,  we  had  plenty  to  do.  There 
were  still  two  or  three  million  eggs  in  the  troughs,  nearly  a  million  of 
which  were  to  be  hatched  for  the  McCloud  Eiver.  The  hatching-troughs, 
bridge,  wheel,  flume,  dam,  and  tents  were  to  be  taken  down  and  packed 
away,  out  of  reach  of  the  winter  floods,  and  all  the  thousand  little  things 
to  be  attended  to  that  are  connected  with  the  closing  up  of  a  place  like 
this.  Still,  this  work  seemed  light,  compared  to  what  we  had  been 
through.  It  was  not  a  little  ludicrous  to  reflect,  afterwards,  that  when 
we  considered  our  work  all  done,  we  had  still  nearly  a  million  of  eggs 
to  hatch,  a  task  that,  under  other  circumstances,  would  seem  quite  for- 
midable ;  but  so  strong  was  the  contrast  between  it  and  the  larger  work 
which  had  been  accomplished,  that  it  seemed  almost  like  nothing  at  all. 

I  have  dwelt  longer  than  perhaps  appears  to  be  necessary  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  work  done  at  this  station  this  season,  because  I  am  aware 
that  to  some  it  may  appear  quite  incomprehensible  what  we  had  to  do 
with  so  many  men  for  so  long  a  time.  I  can  assure  them,  however,  that 
there  was  enough  to  do  every  moment,  and  such  things  as  idleness  or 
loafing  were  not  known  in  the  camp.  I  think  I  ought  to  mention  par- 
ticularly here  the  services  rendered  by  Eichard  and  Waldo  Hubbard, 
grandsons  of  Governor  Hubbard,  formerly  United  States  Senator  from 
Xew  Hampshire.  These  two  young  men  were  always  found  equal  to 
any  occasion,  whether  it  was  to  fell  trees  all  day  under  the  scorching 
California  sun,  or  to  work  for  hours  immersed  in  the  icy  water  of  the 


c 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  EIVER,  CAL.  4.G1 

McCloud ;  they  never  once  flinched  at  the  severity  of  their  work  or  hesi- 
tated to  do  anything  that  was  required  of  them.  Tall,  stalwart,  and 
muscular,  they  added  a  good  deal  to  our  reputation  with  the  aborigines 
of  the  McCloud  by  throwing  their  champion  wrestlers,  while  their 
strength,  at  the  same  time,  when  turned,  as,  indeed,  it  always  was  with 
undauntable  resolution  and  energy,  to  the  work  of  the  camp,  rendered 
their  services  invaluable. 

By  singling  out  these  two,  I  do  not  mean  to  disparage  the  others,  for 
all  worked  well,  and  the  Hubbard  boys  typified  rather  than  contrasted 
with  the  work  that  was  done  by*all.  As  an  illustration,  I  will  quote 
the  following  paragraph  from  the  Sacramanto  Record  of  August  29, 
1874: 

"  They  (the  party  at  the  McCloud  canip)  have  demonstrated  that,  for 
rapidity  of  action,  endurance,  hard  labor,  and  practical  accomplish- 
ments, their  physical  training  is  of  a  high  order.  Sleeping  upon  the 
rough  planks  of  the  living-room ;  draped  in  coarse  woolen  shirts  and 
heavy  pantaloons;  with  bare  feet,  or  in  jack-boots  or  moccasins;  arms 
and  breasts  bared ;  tanned  brown ;  muscles  wrought  up  like  iron,  and 
all  grim  with  the  marks  of  labor,  Mr.  Stone  has  a  party  about  him  of 
both  brain  and  muscle,  proving  that  hard  and  serious  labor  can  be 
evoked  from  students'  arms,  and  that  cultured  intelligence  and  horny 
hands  may  meet  in  harmony.  Look  about  the  camp ;  every  artificial 
thing  is  their  handiwork;  they  are  at  once  plumbers,  fitters,  carpenters, 
tailors,  fishermen,  geologists,  chemists,  artists,  blacksmiths,  lumbermen, 
loggers,  and  so  on." 

At  the  busiest  part  of  the  season  the  work  was  distributed  somewhat 
as  follows : 

September  28. — Total  number  of  hands  employed,  24. 

Picking  over  moss 4 

In  the  hatching-house 7 

In  kitchen  and  about  buildings 3 

Hauling  seine « 5 

Spawning  salmon u 3 

In  office  and  superintending , 2 

24 

The  nature  of  our  labors  did  not  cut  us  off  wholly  from  recreations, 
for  which  all  found  some  time  on  summer  evenings  and  on  Sundays. 
There  being  no  church  within  fifty  miles,  the  time  on  Sundays  was  usu- 
ally taken  up  with  excursions  to  neighboring  points  of  interest.  Some- 
times we  went  to  Copper  City,  a  settlement  of  two  houses  and  five  men, 
about  fourteen  miles  from  the  McCloud  River.  Sometimes  we  went  to  the 
iron  mountain,  two  miles  distant,  where  a  vast  deposit  of  iron-ore  has 
been  recently  discovered.  Sometimes  we  went  up  the  river  to  hunt  for 
game,  or  climbed  the  steep-pinnacled  rocks  of  Mount  Persephone,  just 
opposite  the  camp.    The  summit  of  these  extremely  interesting  lime- 


462       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

stone  rocks  we  ascertained  by  the  aneroid  barometer  to  be  3,400  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  or  2,600  above  the  McOloud  River. 

In  these  limestone  mountains  we  found  two  caves.  One  was  an  almost 
circular  cavity  in  the  side  of  the  mountain,  about  30  feet  in  diameter  and 
109  feet  in  length,  with  a  floor  nearly  level,  forming  a  magnificent  cham- 
ber, with  .fresh  green  maiden's  hair  growing  in  large  clusters  downward 
from  the  roof.  This  cave  is  at  an  altitude  of  about  2,000  feet  and  is 
very  difficult  of  access. 

The  other  cave  is  similar  and  more  easily  reached,  but  has  in  addition 
a  dark  narrow  passage-way  leading  fhrough  the  interior  of  the  moun- 
tain to  a  deep  perpendicular  abyss  with  re-entrant  sides,  from  the  bot- 
tom of  which  nothing,  having  once  fallen  in,  could  ever  escape  without 
wings  or  help  from  the  outside.  It  is  a  place  of  such  peculiar  terror 
that  I  will  describe  our  exploration  of  it.  Having  resolved  to  visit  the 
cave,  and  having  secured  a  guide  in  the  person  of  Dr.  Silverthorne,  an 
old  resident  of  this  locality,  we  finished  work  at  5  o'clock  on  Saturday 
afternoon,  and  taking  our  blankets  and  necessary  provisions,  together 
with  candles,  lanterns,  axes,  ropes,  &c,  we  proceeded  to  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  that  evening,  and,  having  cooked  our  supper,  camped  there 
over  night.  In  the  morning,  after  an  early  breakfast,  we  started  for  the 
cave. 

Entering  the  main  opening,  we  proceeded  about  50  feet  to  a  smaller 
opening  in  the  right-hand  wall  of  the  cave  and  about  ten  feet  from  the 
floor.  Climbing  up  into  this  we  kept  on  through  a  narrow  passage-way 
to  a  point  about  30  feet  from  the  entrance,  where  the  passage  dwindled 
into  a  small  hole  just  large  enough  to  admit  a  man's  body.  Here  we  all 
hesitated  for  an  instant.  Horrible  visions  of  rattlesnakes  and  tarantulas 
and  bottomless  pits  rose  up  before  us  and  kept  us  back,  but  only  for  an 
instant.  I  happened  to  be  the  first  through  on  the  other  side,  and  found 
this  low  archway  led  to  another  passage  similar  to  the  one  we  had  left. 
On  we  went,  turning  several  corners,  but  along  a  floor  which  kept  nearly 
level  until  we  came  to  a  second  archway,  supported  by  round  crystal- 
line limestone  pillars  on  either  side.  Here  the  level  line  of  the  floor 
became  depressed  to  an  angle  of  perhaps  30  degrees.  The  very  black- 
ness of  darkness  prevailed,  which  the  candle  we  had  with  us  seemed  to 
only  make  visible.  So  intense  was  the  darkness  that  the  candle  rays 
did  not  enable  us  to  see  six  feet  before  us.  Every  one  stopped  involun- 
tarily. No  one  wanted  to  begin  the  descent  before  us,  and  it  is  fortu- 
nate no  one  did,  as  the  sequel  will  show.  Presently  some  one  proposed 
to  throw  a  stone  down  the  incline  and  listen  to  its  descent.  We  did  so. 
There  was  a  breathless  silence.  The  stone  rolled  along  the  incline,  then 
bounded  off  and  struck  again  far  below,  then  again,  and  again,  the 
sound  reverberating  as  if  it  came  from  the  depths  of  the  earth.  We 
were  appalled.  Two  steps  farther  in  the  dark  passage-way  before  us 
would  have  been  instant  death.  Eopes  were  now  brought  and  more 
lights,  and  before  long  we  had  a  rope-ladder  constructed,  about  20  feet 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  463 

in  length.  It  was  lowered  down  the  abyss,  but  did  not  reach  the  bottom. 
A  strong  line  was  fastened  to  it  and  it  was  again  lowered.  After  pay- 
ing out  30  feet  of  the  rope  the  lower  end  of  the  ladder  rested  on  some- 
thing solid.  A  lantern  attached  to  a  60-foot  rope  was  then  lowered 
down,  and  though  its  very  feeble  light  was  wholly  inadequate  to  the 
requirements  of  the  situation,  we  could  see  that  there  was  a  landing- 
place  of  some  sort  at  the  foot  of  the  ladder,  though  whether  it  was  at 
the  edge  of  another  abyss  or  not,  or  whether  there  was  any  substantial 
foothold  there,  could  not  be  discovered.  The  place  might  be  full  of 
rattlesnakes  or  tarantulas,  or  it  might  be  a  bear-cave  with  other  open- 
ings on  its  own  level,  for  all  we  knew.  I  confess  I  had  no  disposition  to 
swing  off  and  slide  down  the  dangling  rope  into  the  impenetrable  dark- 
ness, without  any  assurance  of  foothold  at  the  end  of  it.  But  not  so 
with  the  brave  fellows  who  were  with  me.  They  even  coutended  among 
themselves  as  to  who  should  be  first  to  make  the  descent,  and  as  soon 
as  the  word  was  given  they  sprang  eagerly  to  the  rope  and  swung  them- 
selves off  without  a  faltering  motion.  Imagine  a  rope  dangling  loosely 
from  a  church-tower  fifty  feet  in  height,  in  the  middle  of  a  dark  night, 
and  a  man  without  any  special  experience  in  that  sort  of  thing  swinging 
himself  out  on  it  for  a  descent,  without  knowing  what  was  at  the  lower 
end  of  it.  The  case  in  question  was  worse  if  anything,  for  here  there 
were  all  the  grim  surroundings  and  mysterious  associations  of  a  dark, 
forbidding,  and  unexplored  cavern. 

Dick  (Richard  Hubbard)  begged  earnestly  to  be  the  first  to  descend, 
but  the  lot  had  fallen  to  Green,  (Myron  Green,)  and  in  a  moment  more 
he  was  seen  on  the  rope  dangling  in  mid-air,  and  in  the  next  he  became 
lost  entirely  to  the  sight  of  those  above. 

It  seemed  an  age  before  he  called  out  that  he  had  reached  the  ladder. 
This  hung  so  loosely  that  it  was  hardly  better  than  the  single  rope,  ex- 
cept that  it  gave  a  chance  to  rest.  Another  long  silence,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  shouted  that  he  had  reached  the  bottom,  when  Dick  sprang 
to  the  rope  and  swung  off.  Just  at  this  moment  the  lantern  which  had 
been  lowered  to  Green  fell  over  and  went  out,  and  he  was  left  in  the 
impenetrable  darkness.  With  perfect  presence  of  mind,  however,  he 
felt  for  it,  found  it,  and  lighted  it  again,  and  reported  a  foothold  at  the 
bottom  sufficiently  large  at  least  for  a  landing-place.  Waldo  Hubbard 
immediately  followed  Dick,  and  soon  all  three  were  at  the  bottom  ready 
to  proceed  with  further  explorations.  The  opportunity  was  now  afforded 
to  the  rest  to  make  the  descent,  but  no  one  came  forward,  and  it  soon 
became  evident  that  Dick,  Waldo,  and  Green  would  be  the  onty  ones 
that  day  to  explore  the  abyss.  This  having  been  announced  to  those 
below,  the  exploration  began,  the  result  of  which  was  as  follows : 

A  chamber  was  found,  150  feet  long  and  40  feet  wide,  with  a  floor 
sloping  slightly  downward  from  the  point  of  entrance,  The  chamber 
was,  of  course^  the  depth  of  the  descent,  or  from  50  to  GO  feet.  Stalac- 
tites and  stalagmites  of  beautiful  crystalline  structures,  as  is  common  in 


464       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

limestone  formations,  were  found,  and  all  the  usual  curiosities  of  a  lime- 
stone cave ;  but  what  surprised  all  of  us  most  was  the  discovery  of  sev- 
eral bones,  partly  coated  with  a  limstone  petrifaction.  Whether  they 
were  human  bones  or  otherwise  we  could  not  tell,  but  no  one  could 
help  reflecting  on  the  awful  death  that  the  creature,  whether  man  or 
beast,  to  whom  the  bones  belonged,  must  have  endured,  under  the  com- 
bined horrors  of  solitude,  darkness,  thirst,  and  starvation ;  nor  could 
we  help  indulging  in  curious,  though  profitless,  speculations  as  to  the 
circumstances  which  led  this  hapless  creature  on  to  its  terrible  end. 
After  spending  about  an  hour  and  a  half  in  exploring  the  cave,  without 
finding  an  outlet,  the  explorers  cut  the  letters  U.  S.  F.  0.  in  the  rock,  and 
filled  a  sack  with  the  curiosities  they  had  collected,  which  was  fastened  to 
the  end  of  a  rope,  and  pulled  up  by  those  outside.  Then  commenced  the 
difficult  and  dangerous  ascent.  All  three  reached  the  top  safely,  though 
nearly  exhausted ;  and,  after  retracing  our  steps  to  where  we  could  once 
more  see  the  welcome  light  of  day,  the  party  cheered  the  explorers, 
fired  a  salute,  and  returned  to  the  camp. 

The  recreations  in  summer  evenings  usually  consisted  in  boxing, 
wrestling,  running,  jumping,  bathing,  and  target-shooting  with  rifles, 
revolvers,  or  Indian  bows  and  arrows,  and  other  similar  outdoor  amuse- 
ments. Occasionally  a  gold-fever  would  strike  the  camp,  and  parties 
would  hunt  for  gold  around  the  house,  but  never  with  any  paying  re- 
turns, though  considerable  gold-dust  was  collected  altogether. 

Our  table  this  year  was  well  supplied.  Possibly  relying  upon  the 
general  protection  afforded  by  the  presence  of  so  many  white  men  at  our 
camp,  one  of  the  neighboring  ranchmen  did  what  had  never  been  at- 
tempted before  on  the  McCloud,  namely,  to  drive  a  flock  of  sheep  into  the 
Indian  country  on  the  east  side  of  the  river.  Hitherto  this  land  had 
always  been  given  up  to  the  Indians  for  pasture  for  their  horses,  and 
when  the  sheep  came,  destroying  every  blade  of  grass,  and  leaving  a 
desolate  waste  for  their  horses,  the  Indians  resented  it,  as  well  they 
might.  It  certainly  seemed  cruel  in  the  extreme,  but,  agreeably  to  the 
maxim  that  there  is  no  great  loss  without  some  small  gain,  our  camp 
was  kept  in  capital  mutton  (it  has  not  its  superior  in  the  world)  from 
the  sheep  which  brought  such  calamity  upon  the  original  owners  of  the 
soil.  Besides  the  mutton,  which  was  regarded  as  the  principal  luxury 
of  our  table,  we  had  for  fresh  meats,  venison,  and  occasionally,  but  not 
often,  beef;  and  for  cured  meat,  ham  and  bacon.  Salmon  and  trout, 
of  course,  we  had  in  abundance,  and  they  were,  each  in  its  season,  ex- 
cellent. Of  fresh  vegetables,  we  had  potatoes,  onions,  and  tomatoes  in 
abundance,  with  some  turnips,  green  corn,  and  string  beans.  Baked 
beans  were  on  the  table  at  every  meal. 

The  camp  was  kept  well  supplied  with  fruit,  especially  grapes,  apples, 
and  peaches,  through  the  kindness  of  one  of  our  neighbors,  Mr.  Clinton 
Johnson,  who  would  take  no  return  for  his  generous  supplies,  except 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  MvCLOUD  KIVER,  CAL    465 

an  occasional  present  of  salmon.  The  grapes  in  magnificent  bunches 
■were  especially  delicious. 

Ak-Siu,  our  Chinaman,  was  a  good  cook,  he  made  excellent  bread, 
and  always  succeeded  in  giving  us  a  very  palatable  meal. 

The  weather  was  of  course  pleasant  till  the  end  of  the  dry-season. 
Once  we  bad  a  shower  in  the  air,  as  it  migbt  be  called,  for  it  really  did 
not  wet  the  ground,  and  on  a  few  days  there  were  clouds  in  the  sky; 
but  with  these  exceptions  the  days  were  perfectly  cloudless. 

This  summer  was  an  unusually  cool  one,  and  there  were  but  very  few 
occasions  when  the  weather  was  uncomfortably  hot,  although  on  one 
day  the  thermometer  rose  to  157°  in  the  sand  near  the  house;  and  we 
actually  cooked  an  egg  in  the  heated  sand. 

The  nights  were  very  cold,  as  is  usual  in  this  mountain  region,  the 
difference  between  the  temperature  at  3  p.  in.  and  7  a.  m.  of  the  same 
day  usually  being  as  much  as  40°,  and  sometimes  50°;  e.g.,  July  9,  July 
20,  September  3,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  table  of  temperatures.    (See  p.     .) 

The  heat  of  the  sun  in  the  middle  of  the  day  was,  of  course,  severe, 
and  extremely  so  on  the  exceptionally  hot  days.  The  wonder  is  that  the 
young  men  from  New  England  were  able  to  endure  it  as  they  did. 

The  rainy  season  came  on  about  the  middle  of  October,  two  or  three 
weeks  earlier  than  was  expected.  From  that  time  till  our  camp  broke 
up,  in  the  latter  part  of  November,  it  rained,  with  an  occasionally  pleas- 
ant day  now  and  then  almost  all  the  time.  One  morning  early  it 
snowed,  though  no  snow  remained  on  the  ground ;  one  of  the  rains  was 
terrific. 

It  did  not  seem  possible  that  the  clouds  could  pour  down  such  a 
deluge  of  water  in  so  short  a  time.  The  rain  fell  in  sheets  and  columns. 
The  dry  gulches  about  the  camp  became,  in  ten  minutes,  river  channels, 
which  would  float  a  boat.  The  McCloud  rose  six  inches  in  half  an 
hour,  and  became  apparently  as  turbid  as  the  Sacramento.  The  gutters 
to  the  roof  overflowed;  the  water  poured  down  the  chimney,  and  extin- 
guished the  fires ;  the  swollen  current  of  the  river  snapped  the  bridge 
in  two  in  the  middle,  and  carried  one  of  the  20-ton  stone  piers  a  rod 
down  the  stream.  It  was  literally  a  deluge  while  it  lasted;  then  suddenly 
it  stopped  raining,  the  clouds  vanished,  the  sun  came  out,  and  as  lovely 
a  day  followed  as  ever  was  seen. 

Two  wind  storms  visited  the  McCloud  Valley  while  we  were  there. 
The  first  lifted  the  large  tent  like  a  feather,  and  brought  it  to  the  ground 
with  a  collapse  as  sudden  as  it  was  unexpected  to  those  working  inside. 
The  second  was  equally  severe,  and  would  have  done  the  same  mischief, 
had  we  not  taken  the  precaution  to  wire  the  tent  down  with  coarse  iron 
wires. 

Our  quarters  were  tolerably  comfortable.  They  consisted  of  a  one- 
story  building  24  feet  by  26  feet,  containing  six  rooms.  They  were  the 
bunk-room,  12  feet  square,  containing  8  bunks,  a  fire-place,  and  nothing 
else;  a  store-room,  6  feet  by  8  feet,  where  the  supplies  were  kept,  with 

the  bunk  for  the  Chinese  cook ;  a  front  room,  12  feet  by  14  feet,  with: 
30  F 


46  6       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

four  bunks ;  a  kitchen.  12  feet  by  6  feet ;  Mr.  Woodbury's  room,  6  feet 
by  12  feet,  with  two  bunks;  and  my  own  room,  of  the  same  size,  with 
one  bunk. 

These  quarters  would  be  considered  rather  small  in  New  England 
for  our  large  force,  but  in  this  climate  people  really  live  out  of  doors, 
and  most  of  our  Indians  slept  outside,  either  in  the  small  tents  or  under 
the  open  sky. 

Through  the  dry  season  we  dined,  and,  indeed,  had  all  our  meals  on 
the  large  piazza  in  front  of  the  house,  which  was  protected  from  the 
sun's  rays  by  means  of  an  awning.  During  the  fishing  season,  the  fish- 
ermen slept  at  the  camp  at  the  lower  fishing-ground. 

Of  the  natural  surroundings  of  our  camp,  an  idea  can  be  obtained 
from  the  following  paragraph  taken  from  an  article  by  Mr.  William  M. 
Turner  in  the  Overland  Monthly  of  January,  1875  : 

"  This  stream  has  been  selected  with  good  judgment.  Fed  by  the 
eternal  streams  of  Shasta,  some  seventy  miles  from  its  mouth,  its  waters 
are  icy  cold,  and,  as  yet,  undisturbed  by  the  miner's  pick,  as  clear  as 
the  sunlight  that  pierces  its  azure  pools  and  whirling  eddies.  No  dams 
or  other  artificial  obstacles  obstruct  its  course,  and  it  is  now  the  most 
prolific  and  favorite  spawning  ground  of  the  Pacific.  A  point  on  the 
river  about  twenty  miles  from  Eeading,  the  present  terminus  of  the 
Oregon  and  California  Eailroad,  and  about  three  miles  from  its  junction 
with  the  Pit  River,  one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the  Sacramento,  has 
been  selected  for  the  hatching  works,  and,  among  all  the  beautiful  spots 
in  California,  none  more  lovely  nor  more  grandly  picturesque  than  this 
could  have  been  chosen. 

"  The  grade  of  the  California  stage-road  curves  over  the  hill  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  fishery,  and  from  this  point  the  view  is  magnificent. 
Eastward  Mount  Persephone,  an  immense  wall  of  granite,  shoots  up 
athwart  the  sky,  rising  abruptly  over  2,000  feet  from  the  water's  edge, 
seamed  and  scarred  by  the  by-gone  ages,  and  frowning  down  sullenly,  as 
if  jealous  of  the  innovations  below.  Pound  the  base  of  'Big  Mountain,' 
the  beautiful  river  sweeps  like  a  blue  ribbon,  flecked  and  sparkling  here 
and  there  with  bits  of  silver  spray  that  bubble  up  from  its  ever-chang- 
ing, restless  current.  Willows  and  water  plants  fringe  the  banks  wilh 
their  graceful  drapery ;  wild  flowers  of  brilliant  hue  light  up  the  rugged 
hdlsides ;  the  bright,  airy  green  of  the  manzanita  shimmers  on  ridge  and 
mountain  crest;  and  the  great  moss-covered  oaks,  swinging  their 
gnarled  branches  amid  the  music  of  the  waters,  lend  a  charm  to  the 
scene  of  peaceful  beauty." 

OUR  NEIGHBORS. 

Our  neighbors  were  Mr.  George  Allen  and  wife,  who  kept  the  stage 
station  a  mile  and  a  half  west  of  the  camp;  the  ferryman  at  Pitt  Eiver 
Crossing,  four  miles  down  the  river,  Mr.  O'Conuer,  commonly  called 
"  Old  Jack,"  who  lived  alone,  four  miles  up  the  stage-road ;  Dr. 
Silverthorne,  who  lived  with  an  Indian  wife,  seven  miles  from  camp  on 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  467' 

Cow  Creek,  and  Mr.  Campbell,  eight  miles  up  the  river,  -who  also  has  an 
Indian  wife.  We  had  no  other  white  neighbors  within  twelve  or  four- 
teen miles. 

We  were  surrounded  by  Indians,  of  course,  this  being  an  Indian 
country. 

Concholooloo,  the  head-chief  of  the  tribe,  lived  very  near  us  on  the 
bank  of  the  river.  "  Jim  Mitchell,"  the  other  chief,  has  a  rancherie  and 
"  porum  boss,"  (council-house  or  theatre,)  in  the  forest  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  the  camp. 

There  was  a  marked  improvement  this  year  in  the  disposition  of  the 
Indians  towards  our  party.  The  first  two  years,  1872  and  1873,  they 
regarded  us  with  more  or  less  dislike  and  suspicion.  This  year  there 
was  an  entire  change  in  them.  They  seemed  to  have  learned  that  we 
were  their  friends,  that  we  had  a  genuine  consideration  for  their  welfare 
and  were  opposed  to  anything  like  tyranny  or  oppression,  and  when  I 
passed  over  to  them  the  thousands  of  salmon  which  we  caught  and  bad 
used  for  spawning,  their  hearts  were  entirely  won  over,  and  I  think 
that  we  now  have  as  individuals  the  confidence  and  friendship  of  the 
tribe. 

They  express  their  sense  of  the  difference  between  us  whom  they  call 
"the  far-off  white  men,"  and  the  whites  they  have  been  accustomed  to, 
by  a  saying  they  often  use:  Cbocky  yapitoo  chipkalla ;  kelail  yapitoo 
challa.  "  Tbe  white  men  near  here,  bod  ;  the  far-off  white  men,  good." 
At  all  events  I  thought  I  noticed  this  year  an  entire  change  for  the 
better  in  their  disposition  toward  us,  though  it  should  be  remembered, 
that  all  the  time  in  the  depth  of  their  hearts  they  wish  that  the  whole 
race  of  white  intruders  were  cleared  out  of  the  country,  and  if  this  much- 
desired  consummation  conld  be  accomplished  with  impunity  all  personal 
considerations  for  us  would  be  sacrificed  to  the  common  good. 

Near  our  camp  is  the  graveyard  of  their  chiefs  and  magnates,  where 
good  Indians  of  the  McCloud  have  been  buried  for  centuries.  The  living 
members  of  the  tribe  are  in  constant  fear  lest  we  should  dig  up  these 
graves  for  relics.  This  fear,  caused  without  doubt  by  the  casual  re- 
marks of  our  party  on  the  subject,  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following 
unique  petition  brought  to  me  one  day,  with  great  formality  and  serious- 
ness. The  Indian  woman  who  brought  it  had  employed  some  white 
friend  to  draw  it  up  for  her.    It  reads  thus : 

"Shasta,  September  11, 1874. 
"  This  is  to  certify  that  Mrs.  Matilda  Charles  Empire,  one  of  the  old 
settlers  of  Shasta  County,  is  now  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  graves  of  their 
ancestors,  and  she  prays  Commissioner  Stone  not  to  disturb  any  of  her 
friends  and  relatives  who  have  gone  the  way  of  all  flesh,  and  thus  they 
will  ever  pray  ;  by 

"Her  husband, 

"EMPIRE  CHARLEY. 

"MATILDA  CHARLEY. 

"Their  sister,  KATE  CHARLEY." 


468       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

GAME. 

The  large  game,  I  regret  to  say,  is  disappearing  from  this  locality, 
owing,  without  doubt,  to  the  approach  of  the  railroad  and  the  increasing 
facilities  which  it  affords  for  hunting  in  this  vicinity.  I  noticed  a  marked 
change  even  in  the  two  years  of  my  experience  here.  In  1S72  it  was  a 
common  thing  to  get  a  deer  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  camp  :  now 
it  is  a  rare  thing.  During  our  stay  on  the  McCloud  fresh  bear-tracks 
were  continually  seen,  and  several  bears  were  killed :  this  year  I  have 
not  heard  of  the  killing  of  a  single  bear,  and  their  tracks  are  not  abun- 
dant. Only  a  few  years  ago  grizzly  bears  used  to  occupy,  almost  undis- 
turbed, a  wild,  rocky  canon  not  two  miles  from  the  site  of  our  camp: 
now  the  grizzlies  have  all  retired  for  several  miles. 

Smaller  game,  as  quails  and  water-fowl,  still  remain,  however;  and 
there  are  minks  and  wild-cats  enough  left  to  make  it  very  unsafe  for 
poultry. 

EXTRACTS  FROM  JOURNAL. 

1874. 

July  5. — Eeached  camp  at  3£  a.  m.  All  hands  set  to  work  on  the 
fishing-ground. 

July  G. — Made  a  corral  for  the  cow.  First  haul  of  the  seine.  Visit 
from  a  Warm  Spring  Iudiau  engaged  in  the  Modoc  wax  last  year. 

July  7. — Mr.  Woodbury  arrived  with  Ah  Sin,  the  cook. 

July  8. — Mr.  Myron  Green  caught  a  salmon  with  a  fly.  Supplies 
arrived  at  noon.     A  busy  afternoon. 

July  9. — Visit  from  Conchoolooloo,  the  Indian  chief.  Mercury  in  ther- 
mometer, in  the  sun,  159° — in  the  sand  near  the  house.  Chinaman  very 
sick. 

July  1.0. — Mr.  Woodbury  killed  a  rattlesnake,  making  seven  that  have 
been  killed  in  the  neighborhood  this  summer.  Launched  the  boat  to- 
day.    Target-shooting  in  the  evening. 

July  11. — The  Chinaman  went  out  in  the  boat  and  was  carried  over 
the  rapids  but  not  injured. 

Sunday,  July  12. — A  party  of  us  made  the  very  steep  ascent  of  the 
lower  summit  of  Mount  Persephone.  Unpleasantness  between  the  Chi- 
naman and  Indians.     United  States  flag  raised  to-day. 

July  13. — First  photographs  taken.  All  hands  went  to  an  Indian 
dance  in  the  evening.  Comet  seen  to-night  for  the  last  time  in  the 
evening  here. 

July  15. — Timber  came  to-day  and  we  laid  the  floor  of  the  new  house. 

July  16. — Bought  cow  and  calf. 

July  20. — Moved  headquarters  to-day  to  Brush  Camp,  out  of  doors. 
Felled  several  large  trees  for  the  bridge. 

July  21. — Rattlesnake  was  killed  opposite  the  house.  Twenty  minutes' 
exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  this  afternoon  cooked  an  egg. 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL    469 

July  22. — Blew  up  rocks  in  the  river-channel,  below  the  wheel,  with 
giant  powder. 

July  23. — Thunder  was  heard  to-day;  there  was  a  slight  rain  in  the 
afternoon. 

Jtdy  24. — Water  from  a  strong  sulphur-spring  near  by  is  used  quite 
extensively  in  camp,  and  with  beneficial  results.  The  second  pier  in  the 
bridge  was  placed  to-day. 

July  25. — After  the  day's  work  was  done,  a  party  started  in  search  of 
a  cave  in  Mount  Persephone. 

July  26. — A  large  limestone  cave,  forming  a  very  handsome  grotto, 
was  found  in  the  mountain.     Two  rattlesnakes  were  encountered. 

July  27. — A  little  gold-digging  was  done  to-day,  and  some  gold  found. 
A  camping  expedition  was  sent  out  to-day  in  search  of  poles. 

July  30. — Camping  expedition  returned,  having  felled  five  hundred 
trees. 

July  31. — Bridge  across  the  McCloud  was  completed  to-day.  Quails 
very  abundant  around  the  house. 

August  1. — A  load  of  lumber  having  come  yesterday,  additional  bunks 
were  constructed,  and  other  improvements  were  made. 

August  2. — Nearly  all  the  camp  turned  out  to-day,  it  being  Sunday,  in 
search  of  another  cave  in  the  mountain,  of  which  we  had  heard  rumors. 
The  cave  was  found  after  some  difficulty,  and  extended  through  a  long, 
winding  passage-way,  which  ended  in  a  chamber  50  feet  high,  150  feet 
long,  and  40  feet  wide. 

August  5. — An  unusual  number  of  Indians  about  the  camp  to-day. 
Took  a  photograph  of  Conchoolooloo,  the  chief  of  the  tribe. 

August  7. — Several  minks  were  seen  playing  in  the  water,  just  in  front 
of  the  house.  One  hundred  and  forty-seven  salmon,  weighing  about  a 
ton,  were  caught  in  one  haul  to-night. 

August  10. — The  dam  across  the  McCloud  River,  obstructing  the  ascent 
of  the  salmon,  was  completed  to  day. 

August  13. — All  hands  at  work  to-day  in  the  tent  on  the  hatching- 
apparatus.  The  Indians  fish  a  good  deal  in  the  river  about  this  time, 
at  night,  diving,  themselves,  for  the  salmon  with  a  hand-net,  which  they 
use  in  the  water  with  wonderful  skill. 

August  16. — Made  the  ascent  of  the  summit  of  Mount  Persephone. 
Height  found  by  aneroid  barometer  to  be  4,100  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea. 

August  18. — An  Indian  woman  came  to  the  camp  for  protection,  being 
pursued  by  an  Indian,  whose  brother  she  had  killed. 

August  19. — The  Indian  in  pursuit  arrived  in  camp  this  morning, 
armed  with  a  six-shooter.  Danger  of  another  murder.  The  Indian,  after 
some  flourishing  of  his  revolver,  was  peremptorily  ordered  to  leave  the 
camp,  which  he  did. 

August  20. — Quails  very  abundant  around  the  camp. 


470       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

August  23. — Our  poultry  has  been  nearly  all  killed  by  niinks  aud  wild- 
cats. 

August  25. — A  thunder- shower  at  night. 

August  26. — First  ripe  pair  of  salmon.  About  two  hundred  salmon 
caught  at  one  haul  of  the  seine. 

August  27. — Water  below  the  bridge  is  black  with  salmon,  trying  to 
pass  it. 

August  29. — Wild  plutns  ripe  and  abundant. 

August  30. — Another  rattlesnake  killed. 

September  1. — A  wiud-storui  blew  down  the  large  tent. 

September  3. — Indians  hold  a  large  council  in  an  immense  underground 
council-house. 

September  4. — The  seine  was  caught  on  a  rock  in  the  rapids,  and  torn 
in  pieces. 

September  5. — A  large  salmon,  fresh  from  the  sea,  was  caught. 

September  10. — Expedition  for  moss  left  today  for  Mount  Shasta. 

September  13. — A  party  of  Indians,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  graves  of 
their  ancestors,  arrived  to-day,  and  presented  a  petition,  requesting  us 
not  to  disturb  the  bones  of  the  buried  forefathers. 

September  15. — Large  trout  very  abundant  in  the  river,  where  the 
white  salmon-eggs  had  been  thrown. 

September  19. — Water  in  the  river  getting  too  cold  to  bathe  in,  its 
temperature  being  at  50°  in  the  morning. 

September  20. — The  eye-spots  of  the  eggs  taken  the  first  part  of  this 
month  are  now  very  distinctly  seen. 

September  25. — The  first  shipment  of  the  eggs  was  made  to-day. 

September  28. — Grand  festival  of  the  McCloud  Indians  at  their  under- 
ground council-house. 

October  1. — Very  violent  and  copious  rain  ;  the  McCloud  River  rose  a 
foot,  and  carried  away  a  section  of  the  bridge.  Sent  a  second  expedi- 
tion after  moss. 

October  5. — Packed  750,000  eggs  to-day. 

October  6. — Sent  second  lot  of  salmon-eggs. 

October  7. — Hear  coyotes  howling  at  night.  Found  some  excellent 
raisins  to-day,  formed  from  grapes  which  had  been  accidentally  left  in 
the  sun. 

October  9. — Sent  third  lot  of  eggs  by  express. 

October  10. — Another  violent  rain  last  night. 

October  11. — Fourth  lot  of  salmon-eggs  sent  off  to-day. 

October  12. — Very  violent  wind-storm  this  afternoon.  The  rainy  sea- 
sou  seems  to  have  set  in,  although  it  is  not  expected  till  three  weeks 
later. 

October  13.— Fifth  lot  of  eggs  sent  off. 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M7CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  471 


Record  of  temperature  at  the  United  States  fishery,  McCloud  Biver,  California. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  AIR. 


Date. 

6  a.  m. 

3  p.  m., 
shade. 

3  p.  m., 

suu. 

6  p.  m. 

Date. 

6  a.  m. 

3  p.  ra., 
stride. 

3  p.  ra., 
sun. 

6  p.  ra. 

1874. 
July  8 

o 
55 
54 
68 
58 
64 
57 
60 
56 
58 
49 
51i 

0 

100 
106 
100 
102 

97 
100 
100 

98 

95 

93 

91 

96 

98 
101 
100 

72 

99 

93 

90 

82 

87 

92 

94 
§92 

90 

90 

89J 

87 

o 

126 
*138-9 
123 
112 
112 
120 
110 
128 
107 
113 
113 
115 
120 
130J 
129 
t72 
119 
106 
116 
100 

98 
120 
114 
106 
112 
102 
100 

96 

o 
75 
73 
74 
82 
74 

74 
73 
80 
80 
74 
70 
72 
80 
70-} 
J70 
76 

72 
69 
68 
711 

72" 

73 

73 

68 

68 

76 

67 

68 

72 

73 

66 

74 

74 

73 

71 

07} 

69 

74 

74 

74 

69* 

69" 

69 

74 

74 

74* 

79" 

78 

74 

74 

1874. 
Sept.  9 

Q 

37* 

38 

54 

46 

46 

64 

46 

65 

30 

64 

48 

68 

48 

43 

43 

44 

45 

o 

86 

76 

77 

88 

96 

98 

92 

93 

90 

90 

92 

90 

86 

84 

80 

84 

o   ' 

90 

98 

99 
100 
103 
116 
112 
113 
100 
110 
108 
110 
104 
100 
101 
104 

o 
65 

9 

10  

11 

60 

10 

65 

11  . 

12  

69 

12 

13 

(ill} 

13 

14 

66 

14 

15  

78 

15  

16  

65 

16  

17 

70 

17  

18 

70 

18 

19 

63 

19 

20 • 

21 

22 

63 

20 

21 

48 
60 
58 
58 
67 
62 

66 

67 

oo 

23 

68 

23 

24 

64 

24 

25 

50 

25 

29 

90 
82 
64 
61 
78 
81 
80 
79 
96 
94 
80 
78 
83 
72 

110 
Cloudy. 
Rainy. 

102J 

100" 

96 

99 

110 

115 

91 

92 

100 

96 

58 

26 

30 

49 
40 
41 
52 
50 
55 
48 
50 
53 
54 
50 
52 
51 

61* 
59 

27 

Oct.   1 

23 

62 

53 

63 

51 

50 

48} 

48* 

48i 

52 

47* 

47* 

50" 

50 

50 

48 

50 

53 

59 

48 

51 

50 

52 

50 

46 

43 

43' 

o 

3 

4 

50 

29 

30 

59 
60 

31 

5  

6 

58 

56 

o 

7 

60 

3 

8 

9 

68 

4 

64 

5 

10 

60 

6 

93 

88 

88 

90 

91J 

86 

81 

85 

85 

84 

99 

94 

96 

90 

84 

87 

884 

88 

84 

93 

95 

93 

97 

95 

104 
102 
100 
110 
103 

95 

95 
100 
100 

98J 
1101 
118 
117} 
100 
105 
103 

99 
100 
106 
114 
115 
102 
116 
115 

11 

60 

12 

53 

g 

13 

GO 

9.. 

14 

47 
65 
51 
51 
56 
57 
52 
53 
53 
51 
47 
32 
40 
41 
38 
35 
35 
35 

82 

80} 

84 

73 

53 

59 

66 

100 
100 
95 
82 
58 
59 
82 

63 

10 

11 

15  

16 

17 

63 
63 

12 

61 

13 

18 

54 

14 

19 

51 

15 

20 

55 

16 

21 

58 

17 

22 

51 

56 

37 
42 

63 
56 

37 

42 

56 

18 

23 

53 

19 

24 

46 

20 

25 

26 

37 

21 

40 

Ol 

27 

43 

23 

23 

52 
50 
57 
57 

74 
87* 
90" 
90 

43 

24 

50 
52 

58 
56 
58 
52 

29 

•  43J 

25 

30 

42 

26 

31 

42 

27 

Nov   1 

45 

o 

35 
38 
50 
53 
33 
42 
46 
50 
50 
53 
52 

48 

29 

3 

53} 

30 

4 

51 

50 

54 
52 

52 

31 

44 
64 
67 
48 
52 
52 
40 
44 
52 

93 

89 

93 

100 

115 
108 
118 
122 

74 
73 
68 
73 
73 
74 
08 
03 
67 

5 

6 

45 

Sept  1 

47 

2 

7 

45 
50* 
54" 
53 

53 

45 

51 
54 
53 
62 

45 

3 

8 

51 

4 

9 

52 

5 

84 

83 
79 
70 

100 

100 

92 

86 

10 

53 

6 

11 

50 

7 

12 

49 

8 

*In  sand,  157°. 

J  Thunder,  with  rain,  all  the  afternoon. 


t  Cloudy. 
§  5  a.  m. 


472       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Record  of  temperature  of  McCloud  River  at  the  United  States  fishery,  California. 


Date. 

6  a.m. 

12  m. 

7  p.  m. 

Date. 

6  a.  m. 

3  p.  in. 

7  p.  ni. 

o 
54 
56 

56 
56 
56 
56 
57 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
58 

o 
58 
58 

0 

58 
58 

Sept.  3 

o 

52 

52 

52 

56 

52* 

52J 

51 

49 

49J 

50 

50 

50 

52 

52 

51 

511 

50 

52 

57 

50 

50 

50 

50 

•o 
57 

57 
57 
57 
59 
55 
54 
54 
54 
55 
56 
57 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
56 
53 
55 
55 

o 

7 

4 

56 

5 

56 

3  p.  m. 

6  p.  m. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

56 
56 
56J 

60 

60 

60 

62 

62 

62 

62 

61 

61 

61 

60 

60 

60 

62 

62 

58* 

61" 

62 

61 
60 
58J 
59* 
59 
f59 
60 
59J 
59J 

58} 

58* 

58 

58 

58 

58 

58 

58 

59 

59 

58 

60 

59 

59* 

59* 

58J 

57* 

57 

58 

58 

58* 

52" 

58* 

60 

59 

58 
58 
58 
60 
61 

61 
61 

61 
60 
59 
50 
58 
60 
60 
58 
CO 
(*) 

55 

8 

10 

11.. 

54 

9 

54 

10 

12 

54 

11  

13.. 

55 

12 

14  . 

56 

13 

15  

56 

14  

16  ., 

56 

15 

17 

56 

1C 

18 

56 

17 

19 

56 

18 

20 

56 

19 

21 

54 

20 

56 
55 
56 
56 
56 
56 

22 

54} 
55 

21 

23 

22  

24 

54 

23 

25 

24 

29  . 

55 
55 
53 
54 
53 
55 
54 
55 
55 
54 
54 
55 
55 
54 
53 
53 
51 
54 
51 
50 
51 
49 
49 
50 
50 

431 
43 

m 

47 

46} 

40 

53 

25 

30 

50 
50 
49 
50 
50 
50 
51 
50 
50 
51 
51 
51 
50 
48 
48 
49 
48 
48 
49 
49 
48 
58 
48 
49 
48 
44 
42 
43 
44 
44 
44 
42 

53J 
51* 
50 
52 

Oct.   1 

7  p.  m. 

2.... 

3 

4 

54 

60 

58 

57* 

58* 

58 

58} 

58* 

58" 

58 

57* 

57} 

57* 

57* 

57* 

57 

57 

57 

57 

58 

58 

57* 

58 

58 

58 

58 

56 

57 

56 

57 

57* 

58 

58 

58 

58 

5 

53 

26 

6 

53 

27 

7 

53 

28 

55 
55 

55 
54 
54 

8 

53 

29 

9 

10..     

53 

30 

54 

31 

11 

53 

12.. 

51 

AUg"  .2 ".'. 

13 

51 

3 

54 
54* 
53* 
53| 

53* 

54 

53*, 

53} 

53 

54 

54 

53} 

53 

54 

54 

54 

53} 

53 

52 

14 

52 

4 

15 

16 

51 

5 

52 

6 

17 

51 

7 

18 

49 

8 

19 

50 

9 

20 

49 

10 

21 

50 

11 

22 

49 

12 

23 

49 

13 

24 

25 

49 

14 

45 

15 

26 

43 

10 

27 

45 

17 

28 

47 

18 

29  

47 

19 

30 

46 

20 

31  

45 

21 

46 

22 

2 

42 
44 

47 
48 

48 
48 

45 

23 

3 

47 

24 

53 

53} 

54 

54 

54 

54 

4 

5  

47 

25 

48 

20 

6 

47 

27 

7 

44 
44 
47 
48 
49 
49 

45 
47 
49 
48 
50 

45 

28 

8 

46 

29 

9  

47 

30 

10 

48 

31 

52J 
52J 
53 

58} 
57* 

58" 

58 

571 

56 

11 

50 

Sept.  l 

2 

12  

*  Thunder,  with  rain  all  the  afternoon ;  rain  during  night. 


t  5  a.  m. 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  m'CLOUD  KIVER,  CAL     473 
Temperature  of  water  in  hatching-troughs. 


Date. 

7a 

m. 

3p 

m. 

Vp 

in. 

Inlet. 

Outlet. 

Inlet. 

Outlet. 

Inlet. 

Outlet. 

Sept.  10  

o 

49 
49 
49 
50 
50 
51 
52 
51 
51* 
50 
52 
51 
50 
50 
50 
50 

o 

48 

49 

49 

50 

50 

50 

52 

51 

51* 

50" 

52 

51 

50 

50 

50 

50 

0 

54*. 

56 

56 

57 

57 

58 

561 

50* 

56J 

56 

56 

56 

55 

55 

54 

0 

56 

50*. 

56* 

58 

60 

59 

58 

57 

58 

5G£ 

561 

56 

56 

56 

55 

o 

54 

54 

55 

56 

56 

57 

56 

56 

56 

56 

57 

54 

54j 

55 

54 

o 
59 

11 

54 

12  

55 

13 

56 

14 

58 

15 

57* 
56 

16 

17 

56 

18 

19 

56 
56 

20 

56 

21 

54 

22 

55 

23 

55 

24 

54 

25  

29 

54 

54 
53 
53 
52 
55 
54 
54 
55 
54 
54 
55 
55 
53 

55* 

55 

54 

56 

52 

55 

55 

55 

56 

55 

55 

55* 

56 

54 

53 

53 

52 

50 

52 

54 

53 

54 

53 

53 

53 

54 

53 

51 

51 

52 

51 

51 

51 

49 

49*. 

49" 

50 

49 

49 

49 

45 

43 

45 

47 

45 

46 

45 

45 

45 

47 

48 

48 

53 

30 

50 

50 

49* 

48" 

50 

50 

51 

50 

50 

51 

51 

51 

50 

50 
50 
50 
48 
50 
51 
51 
50 
50 
51 
51 
51 
50 

54 

Oct.   1 

53 

2 

52 

3 

53 

4 

54 

5 

54 

6 

54 

7 

54 

8 

53 

9 

53 

10 

541 
54 

11 

12 

51 

13 

53 

14 

47 
49 
48 
48 
49 
49 
48 
48 
49 
49 
48 
44 
42 
43 
44 
44 
44 
42 
42 
42 
44 
47 
48 

47 
49 
49 
48 
49 
49 
48 
48 
49 
49 
48 
44 
42 
43 
44 
44 
44 
42 
42 
42 
44 
47 
48 

53 

52 
52 
51 
50 
50 
49£ 

54 
52 
52 
51 

50 
50 

49*. 

52 

15 

51 

16 

51 

17 

51 

18 

19 

49 
49 

20 

49 

21 

50 

22 

50 
50 

50 
50 

49 

23 

49 

24 

49 

25 

431 
43 

43* 

43" 

45 

26 

43 

27 

45 

28 

47 
46 
47 
40 

47 
46 
47 
40 

47 

29 

45 

30 

31 

46 
45 

Nov.  1  .          

45 

o 

45 

3 

47 

4 

48 
48 

48 
48 

48 

5 

48 

474       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Temperature  of  the  Sacramento  River,  taken  at  Teliama  bridge,  for  the  month  of  May.,  1874, 

at  3  p.  m. 


Date. 


May     7 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 


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tw 

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to 

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3*  ^ 

a 

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a 

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o 

CO 

H 

H 

H 

0 

o 

o 

64 

54 

54 

74 

57 

54 

70 

56 

56 

76 

53 

58 

79 

59 

59 

86 

CO 

60 

85 

60 

60 

90 

60 

60 

SO 

61 

61 

92 

62 

62 

68 

62 

62 

88 

63 

63 

80 

62 

62 

Date. 


May  20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 


«w 

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O 

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© 

© 

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82 

61 

88 

62 

72 

60 

82 

60 

84 

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60 

78 

60 

72 

60 

73 

60 

86 

60 

92 

62 

86 

64 

<t-> 
o 


c  g 

a 


o 
61 
62 
(0 
60 
C2 
10 
60 
60 
CO 
CO 
62 
C4 


Temperature  of  the  Sacramento  River,  taken  at  Sacramento  City,  for  the  months  of  April  and 

May,  1874,  at  3  p.  to. 


Date. 


April  9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

May  1 
o 

3 

4 
5 


■H 

5H 

o 

© 

© 

©  © 
t.  © 

£3 

T3 

p.<3 

C  o 

c3 

p 

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f-  5 

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a 

Ph  © 

P.  o 

h 

-5 

S3 
©  ■*-' 

£3 

< 

< 

H 

H 

o 

0 

0 

o 

74 

80 

50 

54 

54 

54 

53 

C2 

68 

54 

53 

56 

53 

53 

52 

CO 

53 

52 

62 

81 

53 

52 

02 

85 

54 

53 

66 

73 

54 

53 

07 

81 

55 

54 

70 

55 

55 

70 

75 

56 

55 

66 

74 

57 

57 

68 

84 

57 

57 

70 

84 

57 

57 

78 

86 

57 

57 

74 

78 

58 

57 

68 

74 

57 

57 

69 

96 

53 

57 

76 

81 

58 

57 

78 

98 

59 

58 

69 

59 

57 

64 

66 

57 

56 

65 

87 

57 

56 

75 

73 

56 

55 

76 

97 

57 

56 

64 

70 

57 

56 

59 

No  sun. 

57 

56 

Date. 


May  6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 


«H 

O 

© 

©  © 
>-   © 

"3 

a 

p 

-£-  """• 

A 

a 

ca  zt 

'H 

CO 

<*  ? 

a 

a 

P<o 

a  ~ 

< 

< 

H 

0 

o 

0 

CO 

66 

57 

58 

91 

57 

73 

78 

57 

73 

77 

57 

75 

97 

58* 

76 

93 

61 

83. 

110 

62 

77 

85 

62 

81 

95 

62 

86 

100 

63 

87 

107 

03* 

87 

90 

63 

84 

94 

63 

70 

85 

62$ 

80 

No  snn. 

C3 

82 

85 

C3J 

72 

No  sun. 

62i 

82 

106 

C4 

81 

85 

63$ 

82 

88 

03 

75 

83 

63i 

57 

No  sun. 

63 

73 

88 

64 

78 

91 

64 

83 

102 

64 

77 

83 

C4A 

o 
©  ~ 

5  3 

V~ 
t° 

©-= 
P.© 

B-3 


57 

57 

56J 

57 

58 

CI 

62 

61 

61 

61 

62 

62 

62 

61 

61 

61 

61 

G2 

62 

61 J 

62 

63 

62 

63 

63 

63 


Catalogue  of  Collection  to  Smithsonian  Institution,  contributed  in  1874. 

35G.  Wyedardeeket.    McCloud  Camp.    July  2,  1874. 

357.  Trout.    McCloud  Camp.     July  15,  1874. 

35S.  Wyedardeeket.    July  8,  1874. 

359.  Catfish.     Elklioru  River,  Nebraska.     June  8,  1874. 

300.  Wyedardeeket,    McCloud  Camp.    July  5,  1874. 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.    475 

361.  Trout.    Lake  Tahoe,  California.    June  11,  1874. 

362.  Wyedardeeket    McCloud  Camp.    July  1,  1874. 

363.  Wyedardeeket.    McCloud  Camp.    July  4,  1874. 
364. 

365.  Trout.    McCloud  Camp.    July  10,  1874. 

367.  Trout.    McCloud  Camp.    August,  1873. 

368.  Male  salmon.    McCloud  Camp.    July  12,  1874. 

369.  Wyedardeeket.    McCloud  Camp.    July  2,  1874. 

370.  Fish,     (sp?)     San  Francisco.    June  20,  1874. 

371.  Trout.     McCloud  Camp.     August,  1873. 

372.  Trout.     McCloud  Camp.     August,  1873. 

373.  Trout.    McCloud  Camp.    August,  1873. 

374.  Salmon.    McCloud  Camp.     July  12,  1874. 

375.  Trout.    Lake  Tahoe.    June  11,  1874. 

376.  Bass.    Elkhorn  River,  Nebraska.    June  8,  1874. 

377.  Catfish.    Elkhorn  Eiver.     June  8,  1874. 

378.  Female  trout,  caught  with  hook.    McCloud  Camp.  July  16, 1874. 

379.  Female  trout,  caught  with  hook.  McCloud  Camp.  July  16, 1874. 
"Weight  1^  pounds,  girth  9f  inches. 

380.  Catfish.    Elkhorn  Eiver.    June  8,  1874. 

381.  Catfish.     Elkhorn  River.    June  8,  1874. 

382.  Female  salmon.  McCloud  Eiver.  July  14,  1874.  Weight  13 
pounds,  girth  15  inches. 

383.  Wyedardeeket.  United  States  Salmon  Camp.  Caught  with  hook. 
July  16,  1874. 

384.  Catfish.    Elkhorn  Eiver. 

385.  Salmon  milt.     July  8,  1874.     McCloud  Camp. 

386.  Catfish.    Elkhorn  Eiver,  Nebraska.    June  8,  1874. 

387.  Skin  of  female  salmon,  taken  same  day  as  382.  Eggs  were  much 
less  developed  than  382.  Skin  has  a  marked  reddish  tinge.  Weight  22 
pounds,  girth  17  inches.    McCloud  Eiver.     July  14,  1874. 

389.  Trout.    McCloud  Eiver.    July  15, 1874. 

390.  Catfish.    Elkhorn  Eiver,  Nebraska.    June  8,  1874. 

391.  Trout.     McCloud  Camp.     July  15,  1874. 

393.  Bass.     Elkhorn  Eiver,  Nebraska;    June  8,  18*74. 

394.  Female  trout.    McCloud  Camp.    July  10,  1874. 

395.  Trout,     McCloud  Camp.     July  10,  1874. 

396.  Bass.    Elkhorn  Eiver,  Nebraska,     July  12,  1874. 

397.  Catfish.     Elkhorn  Eiver.    June  8,  1874. 

398.  Crawfish.     Santa  Barbara,  Cal.     June  19,  1874. 

399.  Trout.    McCloud  Eiver,  California.    July  16,  1874. 

401.  Wyedardeeket.    McCloud  Camp.    July  4,  1874. 

402.  Trout.  Independence  Lake,  headwaters  of  little  Truckee  Eiver. 
Spawn  and  milt,  ripe.     July  3,  1874. 

403.  Trout.  Independence  Lake.  These  fish  were  spawning;  there 
was  snow  about  the  lakes. 


476       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

404.  Trout;  male.  McCloud  River.  Handsome  fish;  weight,  2  pounds; 
girth,  2\  inches.    July  17,  1874. 

405.  Salmon;  male.  July  18,  1874.  McCloud  Camp.  Length,  27 
inches ;  girth,  14  inches ;  weight,  6  pounds. 

406.  Salinou;  male.  July  18,  1874.  McCloud  Camp.  Length,  30 
inches ;  girth,  10  inches ;  weight,  8  pounds. 

407.  Young  grilse.     McCloud  Camp.    July  18, 1874. 

408.  Grilse.  July  18,  1874.  Length,  20  inches;  girth,  11  inches; 
weight,  2 \  pounds. 

409.  Small  trout.    July  18,  1874.    McCloud  Camp. 

410.  Small  trout.     July  18,  1874.     McCloud  Camp. 

411.  Alcohol  bottle  of  salmonidse.     McCloud  Camp.    July  18, 1874. 
412-416.    Heads  of  salmon,  all  male,  taken  August  1, 1874,  and  packed 

in  strong  salt  brine. 

417.  Male  salmon.     McCloud  River.     August  28,  1874. 

418.  Female  salmon.     McCloud  River.     August  28,  1874. 

410.  Male  salmon  head,  taken  at  spawning  time,  September  3.  Mc- 
Cloud River. 

420.  Female  salmon  head,  taken  at  spawning  time,  September  3. 
McCloud  River. 

421.  Male  salmon,  taken  after  ripe  season  partly  over.  Girth,  1  foot 
3  inches ;  weight,  10  pounds ;  length,  30  inches;  dark-colored  skin.  Sep- 
tember 4,  1874.    McCloud  River. 

422.  Female  salmon,  partly  spawned,  taken  September  4.  McCloud 
River  fishery.  Girth,  1  foot  5  inches ;  weight,  12  pounds ;  length,  13 
inches  ;  beautiful  spotted  tawny  skin  ;  and  unusually  long  for  the  size. 

423.  Head  of  a  very  large  male  salmon.  Girth,  little  over  2  feet; 
length,  about  40  inches.  Caught  in  McCloud  River,  September  5, 1874. 
Looked  as  if  it  had  come  directly  from  the  sea,  the  scales  not  being  yet 
absorbed  into  the  skin,  as  is  the  common  rule  among  other  fish  taken 
here. 

424.  Large  male  salmon,  from  the  sea,  with  scales  upon  him.  Girth, 
1  foot  9  inches ;  length,  3  feet ;  weight,  19  pounds ;  eyes  very  small ;  sil- 
very, very  thin  and  greasy  skin. 

425.  Young  trout.  McCloud  River.  September  22,  1874.  Very  hand- 
some, and  with  silvery  scales. 

426.  Youug  trout.     McCloud  River.     September  24,  1874. 

427.  Very  large,  fierce  male  salmon.  McCloud  River.  September  26, 
1874.     Girth,  23  inches;  weight,  30  pounds  ;  length  42  iuches. 

*428.  Young  trout.  McCloud  River.  September  27,  1874. 

429.  Youug  trout,  McCloud  River.  September  27,  1874. 

430.  Young  trout.  McCloud  River.  September  25,  1874. 

431.  Youug  trout.  McCloud  River.  September  25,  1874. 

432.  Young  trout.  McCloud  River.  September  25,  1874. 

433.  Young  trout.  McCloud  River.  September  25,  1874. 
434-435.     Wyedardeeket.     McCloud  River.     September  18. 1874. 


SALMON-HATCHING  ESTABLISHMENT,  M'CLOUD  RIVER,  CAL.  477 

430.  Specimens  of  young  salmonidse.  McCloud  Eiver,  California. 
From  September  1  to  October  1,  1874. 

437.  Jar  of  various  specimeus  from  McCloud  River  Camp.  Lizards, 
Poison  lizard,  (local  name,)  tree-toad,  beetle,  snails. 

438.  Trout.  Soda  Creek,  Siskiyou  County,  California.  September 
12,  1874.     Contributed  by  R.  D.  Hubbard. 

439.  Wyedardeeket  skin  and  bead.  McCloud  River,  California.  Eggs 
very  little  developed. 

440.  Wyedardeeket.  McCloud  River,  California.  United  States 
fishery.     Very  large  for  this  locality. 

441.  Water  ouzel.  (Sourciuny,  Indian  name.)  McCloud  River.  United 
States  fishery,  California.    October  17, 1874. 

SECOND   CALIFORNIA  AQUARIUM  CAR. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  California  fish  commission,  I  left  Charles- 
town,  N.  H.,  on  the  4th  of  June,  1874,  with  a  car-load  of  living  eastern 
fish,  and  arrived  in  California  on  the  12th  of  June,  after  a  journey  of 
eight  days. 

Below  will  be  found  a  tabulated  statement  of  the  results  of  the  expe- 
dition. 

SECOND  CALIFORNIA  AQUARIUM  CAR,  1874. 

List  of  fishes  which  arrived  alive  at  their  destinations,  and  the  waters  into  which  they  were 

introduced. 


Numbers  started  with.. 


FRESH-WATER  FISH. 

75  full-srown  black  bass,    (Micropterus 

salmoides.) 

24  small  black  bass,  (Micropterus  sal- 
moides.) 

18  full-grown  glass-eyed  pike,  (Stizoste- 
diou.) 

76  large  Schuylkill  catfish 

Mississippi  catfish 

71  horn-pouts,  ( Amiurus) 

4  cans  small  silver-eels,  ( Anguilla) 

450  small  Peuobscot  salmon,  (Salmo  salar) 

6  f ull-growu  rock  bass 

SALT-WATER  FISH. 

24  small  tautogs,  (Tautoga  onitis) 

2  cans  small  salt-water  eels,  (Anguilla) 

150  full-grown  spawning  lobsters 

1  barrel  of  oysters 


"Where  procured. 


Lake  Champlain,  Vermont 

Saint  Joseph's  Eiver,  Michigan 

Missisquoi  Eiver,  Vermont . . . 

Earitan  Eiver,  New  Jersey 

Elkhorn  Eiver,  Nebraska' 

Lake  Champlain,  Vermont 


Hudson  Eiver,  New  York. 
Penobscot  Eiver,  Maine. .. 


Missisquoi  Eiver,  Vermont . . . 


Wood's  Hole,  Massachusetts . 
New  York  Harbor 


Massachusetts  Bay- 
Massachusetts  Bay 


73 

12 
10 

74 


70 

1  can, 
305 


23 

1  can, 

2 

4 

lbbl. 


Place  of  deposit. 


Napa  Creek. 

Alameda  Creek. 

Sacramento  Eiver. 

San  Joaquin  Eiver. 
San  Joaquin  Eiver. 
Ponds  or  sloughsnear 

Sacramento. 
Sacramento  Eiver. 
Sicrainento      Eiver, 

near  Beading. 
Napa  Creek. 


Bay  of  San  Francisco. 
BayofSan  Francisco. 
Great  Salt  Lake. 
BayofSan  Francisco. 
Great  Salt  Lake. 


Times  of  starting  and  arrival  of  the  second  aquarium  car. 

Car  left  Charlestowu,  IS".  H.,  June  4,  1874. 

Reached  Albany,  N.  Y.,  Thursday,  June  4,  at  12  p.  m. 

Reached  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  Friday,  June  5,  at  10.30  a.  m. 


478        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Beached  Suspension  Bridge,  N.  Y.,  Friday,  June  5,  at  2  p.  m. 
Beached  Niles,  Mich.,  Saturday,  June  6,  at  4.20  p.  in. 
Arrived  at  Chicago,  111.,  Saturday,  June  6,  at  8.30  p.  m. 
Left  Chicago,  111.,  Sunday,  June  7,  at  10.15  a.  in. 
Left  Cedar  Bapids,  Sunday,  June  7,  at  8  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Omaha,  Nebr.,  Monday,  June  8,  at  10.30  a.  m. 
Left  Omaha,  Nebr.,  Monday,  June  8,  at  1  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Elkhorn  Biver,  Nebraska,  Monday,  June  8,  at  2.30  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Grand  Island,  Nebraska,  Monday,  June  8,  at  9.15  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Big  Springs,  Nebr.,  Tuesday,  June  9,  at  8.15  a.  m. 
Arrived  at  Sidney,  Nebr.,  Tuesday,  June  9,  at  11.30  a.  m. 
Arrived  at  Laramie,  Wyo.,  Tuesday,  June  9,  at  7.10  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Green  Biver,  Wyo.,  "Wednesday,  June  10,  at  8.30  a.  m. 
Arrived  at  Evanston,  Utah,  Wednesday,  June  10,  at  3.20  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Ogden,  Utah,  Wednesday,  June  10,  at  6  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Elko,  Nev.,  Thursday,  June  11,  at  8.45  a.  m. 
Arrived  at  Carlin,  Nev.,  Thursday,  June  11,  at  10.15  a.  m. 
Arrived  at  Humboldt,  Nev.,  Thursday,  June  11,  at  6.15  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  Wadsworth,  Nev.,  Thursday,  June  11,  at  midnight. 
Arrived  at  Truckee,  Cak,  Friday,  June  12,  at  4.55  a.  m. 
Arrived  at  Sacramento,  Cak,  Friday,  June  12,  at  1.30  p.  m. 
Arrived  at  San  Francisco,  Cak,  Friday,  June  12,  at  8.15  p.  m. 


XXIII— CORRESPONDENCE  RELATING  TO  'I HE  SAN  JOAQUIN 

RIVER  AND  ITS  FISHES. 


San  Francisco,  Cal.,  April  14, 1875. 

Dear  Sir  :  Your  letter  39419,  addressed  to  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Logan, 
has  been  handed  to  ine. 

I  have  made  the  request  of  Mr.  S.  S.  Montague,  chief  engineer,  and 
he  has  issued  the  orders  for  the  temperature  of  the  San  Joaquin  River 
to  be  taken  at  the  railroad-crossing  from  this  on.  It  will  be  taken  aud 
returned  to  you  as  it  has  been  in  the  case  of  the  Sacramento  River. 

I  have  not  much  information  as  to  the  run  of  salmon  in  the  San  Joa- 
quin. Some  salmon  go  up  the  San  Joaquin,  and,  it  is  said,  spawn  in  the 
headwaters  of  the  main  stream,  and  some  in  the  Merced,  near  the 
Yosemite  Valley.    This  is  not  from  personal  knowledge,  but  report. 

Formerly  there  was  considerable  work  done  in  the  catching  of  salmon 
in  the  San  Joaquin,  but  of  late  years  it  has  been  abandoned,  as  it  has 
been  partially  in  the  Sacramento,  above  Sacramento  City.  The  fisher- 
men here  have  found  by  experience,  what  had  been  previously  ascer- 
tained in  Scotland,  that  the  fish,  after  they  come  in  from  the  ocean, 
remain  for  a  time,  and  run  back  and  forth  from  fresh  and  salt  water, 
probably  to  get  rid  of  parasites,  and  then  start  for  the  spawning- 
grounds  ;  therefore,  they  fish  for  them  with  more  profit  in  the  vicinity 
of  where  the  fresh  and  salt  water  meet,  than  they  do  above  in  the  fresh 
water,  where  they  do  not  remain,  but  continue  as  rapidly  as  possible  on 
their  journey  to  the  spawning-grounds. 

I  suppose  that  the  fish  are  still  going  up  the  San  Joaquin  to  spawn, 
but,  if  taken  at  all,  are  only  now  takeu  by  Indians  on  the  Merced,  the 
Chowchiila,  the  Fresno,  and  the  other  branches  of  the  San  Joaquin,  and 
I  have  no  doubt  they  continue  to  do  so.  Many  branches  of  the  San 
Joaquin  take  their  rise  in  the  highest  mountains  of  the  continent,  and 
as  the  streams  are  unvexed  by  miners,  they  are  admirably  adapted  for 
spawning  purposes. 

Our  commission  will  probably,  in  another  year,  put  some  McCloud 
River  salmon  into  the  Kern  River,  which  empties  into  Kern  Lake  and 
Buena  Vista  slough,  and,  so  on,  into  Tulare  Lake.  We  may  also  put 
some  salmon  into  the  main  San  Joaquin  and  its  branches. 

I  will  attempt  to  obtain  positive  and  definite  information  as  to  the 
present  condition  of  the  salmon  in  the  San  Joaquin  and  its  branches.  ] 
think  that  the  evidence,  when  obtained,  will  show  that  the  San  Joaquin 
is  very  much  warmer  than  the  Sacramento,  for  if  you  will  look  at  the 


480         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

map  you  will  see  that  although  it  drams  a  higher  range  of  mountains, 
yet,  that  it  runs  one  hundred  fifty  and  miles,  at  least,  through  the 
center  of  an  almost  tropical  valley. 
Very  respectfully,  &c, 

B.  B.  BEDDING. 
Prof.  Spencer  F.  Baird, 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  JJ.  C. 

P.  S. — We  hatched  out  about  20,000  white-fish  of  those  you  so  kindly 

forwarded,  and  on  the  28th  ultimo  I  turned  them  out  in  Tulare  Lake.     I 

have  no  doubt  they  will  thrive,  as  there  is  abundance  of  food.     Tulare 

is  a  peculiar  lake.     On  its  entire  eastern  shore  its  bottom  has  a  descent 

of  only  about  a  foot  in  a  mile;  it  is  quite  deep  on  the  western  shore; 

the  evaporation  is  so  great  on  the  eastern  shore  that  the  water  becomes 

slightly  alkaline,  and  is  always  warm,  while  in  the  center  and  on  the 

western  shore  it  is  cold  and  pure.     For  two  miles  or  more  wide  and  thirty 

miles  long,  the  water  on  the  eastern  shore  is  filled  with  minute  animal 

life.     Its  fish  are  as  yet,  I  believe,  uudescribed.     I  have  seen  a  perch  and 

some  very  coarse-scaled  suckers  {Catostomus.)    There  is  a  fine  large 

white-fleshed  fish,  about  2  feet  6  inches  long,  which  the  people  call  "lake 

trout."    It  is  not  a  "salmon."    It  is  excellent  food,  quite  abundant,  and 

in  constant  demand.    It  looks  to  me  to  be  a  carp,  and  of  finer  flavor 

than  any  1  ate  in  Europe. 

B.  B.  R. 


Fresno,  April  25, 1875. 

Dear  Sir  :  In  regard  to  catching  fish  and  the  different  kinds  that 
are  in  the  San  Joaquin  River,  as  far  as  1  have  been  able  to  find  out,  is 
as  follows : 

During  the  summer  there  is  no  fish  of  any  consequence,  except  a  large 
kind  of  what  is  called  sucker,  but  in  the  fall  the  salmon  and  salmon- 
trout  find  their  way  up  here  in  large  quantities.  Last  fall  I  helped  to 
spear  quite  a  number,  as  tbat  is  about  the  only  way  of  fishing  in  this 
part  of  the  country ;  but  below  the  San  Joaquin  bridge  I  understand 
they  were  trapped  in  a  wire  corral  by  ranchers  and  fed  to  hogs ;  they 
were  so  plentiful.  Besides  the  two  kinds  mentioned  there  are  small 
rock-bass,  and  I  have  seen  something  resembling  black  bass,  but  in 
rather  scant  numbers. 

If  I  can  furnish  you  with  any  more  information  on  this  subject,  please 

let  me  know. 

Yours, 

WALTER  NETHEROLIFT. 
Mr.  B.  B.  Redding. 


San  Francisco,  Cal.,  May  11, 1875. 
Dear  Sir  :  Your  letter  of  April  29  just  received.     I  am  making 
inquiries  and  gathering  information  relative  to  the  salmon  in  the  San 


THE    SAN   JOAQUIN    KIVER   AND    ITS    FISHES.  481 

Joaquin,  and  as  the  general  result  of  this  information,  am  satisfied  they 
make  their  annual  immigrations  to  the  headwaters  for  spawning  in 
large  quantities.  A  few  years  since,  they  spawned  near  the  Yosemite 
Valley.  A  dam  built  for  mining  purposes,  some  four  or  five  years  since, 
prevented  them  from  reaching  this  spawning-ground.  Last  year  the 
dam  was  removed  and  the  hsh  have  again  free  access  to  the  headwa- 
ters of  the  Merced,  but  whether  they  have  returned  to  tbeir  former 
spawning-grounds  on  this  river,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  San  Joaquin, 
I  have  not  learned.  I  will  write  to  Millerton,  near  the  headwaters  of 
the  San  Joaquin,  so  as  to  have  information  as  soon  as  they  reach  that 
point  this  spring,  and  I  will  again  communicate  with  you. 

I  thiuk  it  would  be  advisable  for  you  to  instruct  Mr.  Stone  to  send 
one  or  more  of  his  assistants  to  the  San  Joaquin  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
serving the  salmon  on  their  way  to  the  spawning-ground  and  having 
some  caught  and  forwarded  to  you.  I  think,  from  all  I  can  learn,  that 
they  differ  somewhat  from  the  McCloud  River  salmon,  and  that  they 
remain  for  weeks  and  months  in  the  rivers,  in  a  climate  much  warmer 
than  Florida  or  Mississippi.  In  fact  I  have  no  doubt  that  you  will  hud 
in  the  San  Joaquin  a  salmon  which  might  be  successfully  introduced 
into  rivers  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

I  will  try  and  procure  for  you  some  of  the  carp  brought  by  Mr.  Poppy 
from  Hamburg,  and  which  he  is  now  successfully  raising  in  Sonoma 
County,  and  sending  to  market  here. 

We  have  done  nothing  about  introducing  the  Gourami  from  China. 
We  find  it  very  difficult  to  make  business  connection  with  people  in 
China  in  relation  to  these  matters.  All  Americans  in  business  in  that 
country  appear  to  be  entirely  absorbed  in  other  matters,  and  have  no 
knowledge  or  take  no  interest  in  fish-culture,  or  of  obtaining  new  vari- 
eties of  fish. 

I  g-ave  Mr.  Stone  a  letter  of  introduction  to  United  States  Minister 
Avery,  who  formerly  resided  here.  He  is  a  man  of  culture,  and  alive 
to  every  interest  that  would  benefit  the  United  States  or,  especially,  this 
State.  When  Mr.  Stone  shall  have  received  a  reply,  I  Mill  then  open  a 
correspondence  with  Minister  Avery  a-ud  see  what  we  can  do  in  relation 
to  this  matter.  By-the-bye,  Ex-United  States  Minister  F.  F.  Low  in- 
forms me  that  there  are  in  the  rivers  of  China  a  much  larger  and 
finer-flavored  shad*  than  that  of  the  Atlantic  States.  It  is  largely  con- 
sumed in  China,  and  it  is  considered  a  great  delicacy.  He  is  convinced 
that  it  would  be  a  valuable  acquisition.  I  also  learn  that  there  is  on 
the  coast  of  Japan  a  shrimp,  averaging  from  four  to  six  inches  long, 
and  very  delicate  in  flavor,  but  how  we  are  to  get  either  the  shad  from 
China  or  the  shrimp  from  Japan  here,  I  do  not  know. 

I  will  send  you  by  express  soon  a  box  containing  two  of  the  Idaho 
red-fish,  which  you  will  see  are  a  new  variety  of  lake-trout,  or  laud- 
locked  salmon,  as  yet  undescribed. 


'Probably  the  Sain  lai  (Alosa  Rcevesii,  Rich.) 
31  F 


482         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH !'  AND    FISHERIES. 

V 

The  gentleman  from  whom  I  procured  them  writes  me  that  when 
alive  in  the  water  they  are  all  of  a  beautiful  vermilion,  very  nearly  the 
color  of  gold-fish,  and  that  they  are  considered  excellent  eating.  I  would 
be  pleased,  if  after  their  receipt  and  examination,  you  will  give  me  your 
views  in  relation  to  these  fish.  Unfortunately,  instead  of  being  placed 
in  alcohol,  they  were  packed  in  a  box  of  salt,  but  still  I  think  they  are 
not  so  shrunk  but  that  you  can  determine  their  class. 

I  trust  that  when  your  carp  come  from  Germany  we  may  receive  a 
few  for  propagation.  We  have  any  quantity  of  lakes,  surrounded  by 
tule  and  other  vegetable  growth,  admirably  adapted  to  carp,  filled  now 
with  only  very  poor  and  coarse  suckers  and  chubs,  except  in  the  case  of 
Tulare  Lake,  where  there  is  a  large,  fine  fish,  locally  called  lake-trout, 
but  which  I  believe  to  be  of  the  carp  kind.  I  will  try  and  procure  one 
of  them  and  forward  to  you. 

Very  respectfully,  &c,  B.  B.  BEDDING, 

Secretary  California  Fish  Commission. 

Prof.  S.  F.  Baird, 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 


San  Francisco,  Cal.,  August  25,  1875. 

Sir  :  I  have  received  some  further  information  relative  to  salmon  in 
the  San  Joaquin  Fiver.  Mr.  O'Neil,  who  has  charge  of  the  railroad- 
bridge  crossing  the  San  Joaquin  Riser,  in  latitude  36°  30'  north  and 
longitude  120°  west,  writes  me,  on  the  13th  August,  that  the  salmon 
have  commenced  running  up  and  are  passing  by  the  bridge  in  quanti- 
ties. He  states  that  they  do  not  appear  to  be  any  different  from  the 
Sacramento  salmon. 

The  run  of  salmon  in  this  river,  at  this  particular  season  of  the  year, 
seems  somewhat  extraordinary,  from  the  fact  that  it  is  in  the  midst  of 
the  summer,  and  to  reach  this  point  they  have  passed  for  one  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  through  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  where  the  temperature  of 
the  air  at  noon  is,  at  this  season  of  the  year,  never  less  than  80°,  and  is 
often  as  high  as  110°. 

The  record  of  temperature  of  air  and  water  is  kept  at  that  point  and 
forwarded  regularly  to  you.  I  find,  on  examination,  that  the  mean  from 
the  16th  to  the  31st,  was,  for  the  air,  104f°,  water  at  the  surface,  80°, 
water  at  the  bottom,  79°,  mean  of  the  depth  of  the  river,  4  feet  7f  iuches. 
The  record,  when  received,  will  show  that  the  mean  of  both  air  and  water 
in  July  was  higher. 

It  seems  very  extraordinary  to  me  that  there  should  be  a  run  of  sal- 
mon at  this  season  of  the  year  come  in  from  the  ocean  for  the  purpose 
of  spawning,  and  passing  up  a  river  for  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  where  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  water  are  so  high  as 
these  figures  show.  It  but  confirms  Mr.  Livingston  Stone's  theory,  in 
his  report  to  you,  that  somewhere  in  California  the  salmon  are  spawn- 


THE    SAN    JOAQUIN    RIVER    AND    ITS    FISHES.  483 

ing  about  every  month  in  the  year,  bat  until  the  receipt  of  this  report 
from  O'Neil,  I  did  not  suppose  that  there  were  any  salmon  that  pass 
through  the  hottest  portion  of  the  State  for  the  purpose  of  spawning 
during  the  hottest  season  of  the  year.  It  appears  to  me  that  these  sal- 
mon might  be  introduced  into  any  of  the  southern  rivers  of  the  United 
States  and  possibly  into  the  Bio  Grande. 

Should  I  receive  further  information  I  will  forward  it  to  you. 
•    I  would  like  to  know  if  you  received  the  box,  containing  two  red-fish, 
from  Idaho,  packed  in  salt  and  sent  to  your  address,  at  the  Smithso- 
nian Institute. 

Very  respectfully,  &c, 

B.  B.  BEDDING. 
Prof.  S.  F.  Baird, 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  CJ. 


XXIV.-THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON  (SALMO  SALAH). 


A— REPORT  ON  THE  COLLECTION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
PENOBSCOT  SALMON  IN  1873-74  AND  lS74-'75. 

By  Charles  G.  Atkins, 
1. — METHODS. 

The  modes  employed  in  the  collection  of  salmon-eggs  at  Bucksport 
iu  1873  and  1874,  and  in  their  development  and  distribution,  have  been 
so  closely  like  those  of  1872-?73,  fully  described  in  the  report  for  that 
season,  that  it  will  be  simply  necessary  to  specify  the  changes  and  new 
features  introduced. 

No  changes  were  made  in  the  mode  of  collecting  breeding-fish  from 
the  weirs,  save  the  larger  use  of  boxes  in  bringing  them  together  from 
the  several  weirs  where  they  were  caught  to  the  boat  wherein  they  were 
to  be  brought  to  Bucksport,  and  some  improvement  in  the  fittings  of 
the  tran sporting-boats  and  in  the  materials  of  the  dipping-bags.  The 
latter  were  at  first  made  of  cotton- duck,  pierced  by  brass  grommet- 
holes.  Hemp  was  found  to  be  superior  to  cotton,  having  greater  flexi- 
bility, strength,  and  durability,  but  the  brass  grommets  are  still  used. 

At  the  pond,  a  much  larger  inclosure  was  made  than  in  1872,  embrac- 
ing about  twelve  acres  at  time  of  high  water,  and  probably  nine  acres 
at  low  water,  with  an  area  of  at  least  six  acres  5  to  9  feet  deep  at  the 
lowest  stage.  The  650  salmon  inclosed  in  1873  had  therefore  very 
nearly  a  square  rod  of  deep  water  for  each.  For  the  brush-hedge, 
which  proved  so  ineffectual  iu  1872,  there  was  substituted  a  strong  net, 
its  top  suspended  on  stakes  and  its  lower  edge  held  down  by  a  heavy 
chain.  Owing  to  the  favorable  natural  contour  of  the  pond,  this  large 
inclosure  required  a  net  only  640  feet  long  and  about  18  feet  deep. 
Within  this  inclosure,  the  arrangements  for  catching  the  salmon  at  the 
breeding-season  were  the  same,  with  some  extension,  as  before,  and 
in  1874  nets  were  stretched  along  all  the  inclosed  shores  with  the  view  of 
shutting  them  off  from  gravel  to  spawn  on,  that  they  might  be  more 
certain  to  enter  the  brook  or  the  pounds  and  thus  come  within  reach. 

In  the  brook  itself  there  was  built  a  board  sluice  about  20  inches 
wide,  rising  and  falling  with  the  water,  to  lead  the  salmon  directly  from 

485 


486       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


\ 


the  outlet-gate  to  the  pens  at  the  spawning-shed.  This  contrivance,  for 
which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Alfred  Swazey,  effected  a  great  saving  in 
the  labor  of  collecting  the  fish,  and  in  the  eggs,  of  which  a  good  many 
were  formerly  lost  here  when  the  fish  had  access  to  the  gravelly  bottom 
of  the  brook. 

The  arrangement  of  the  hatching-house  and  apparatus  has  remained 
as  shown  in  the  cuts  of  the  previous  report. 

In  the  mode  of  packing  eggs  for  transportation,  some  change  has 
been  made.  The  apparatus  which  received  the  p'reference  the  former 
season  consisted  of  tin  boxes  5  or  6  inches  in  diameter  and  the  same  in 
depth,  in  which  the  eggs  were  placed  in  alternate  layers  with  damp 
meadowt-moss,  disks  of  mosquito-net  or  similar  material  being  placed 
above  and  beneath  each  layer  of  eggs  to  separate  them  from  the  moss 
and  facilitate  unpacking,  the  tins  to  be  inclosed  in  boxes  of  sawdust  to 
protect  against  frost.  These  tins  have  latterly  been  superseded  by 
wooden  trays,  which  afford  a  more  expeditious  and  economical  mode  of 
packing.  The  trays  mostly  used  have  been  3  inches  deep,  and  in 
length  and  breadth  either  24  inches  by  18  or  18  by  12.  The  larger 
size  was  found  to  be  objectionable  because  it  afforded  room  for  the  eggs 
to  get  out  of  place  by  the  slidiug  of  the  mass  of  eggs  and  moss  from 
side  to  side,  when,  as  is  often  the  case  in  transport,  the  boxes  are  care- 
lessly allowed  to  ride  upon  their  sides.  This  was  remedied  by  dividing 
the  trays  by  a  partition  in  the  middle ;  and  in  the  smaller  trays  no 
serious  trouble  of  that  sort  was  experienced.  The  depth  adopted  was 
found  to  be  sufficient  to  admit  three  or  four  layers  of  eggs  in  moss, 
separated,  as  before,  by  mosquito-net.  "When  filled,  the  trays  were 
placed  in  stacks,  four  or  five  deep,  and  secured  together  by  strips  of 
wood  tacked  on  the  sides,  making  a  rectangular  package  easily  fitted 
with  an  outside  case  and  an  intermediate  space  for  sawdust.  This 
package,  when  all  complete,  ready  for  shipment,  holds  from  5,000  to 
10,000  eggs  per  cubic  foot,  and  is  at  once  the  cheapest  and  most  com- 
pact consistent  with  the  safety  of  the  eggs. 

2. — PURCHASE  OF  BREEDING-SALMON. 

The  run  of  salmon  in  the  Penobscot  in  1873  was  better  than  average, 
though  hardly  so  good  as  that  of  1872.  The  weather  prevailing  in 
June  was  very  favorable,  and  the  catch  of  the  weirs  from  which  I  was 
buying  salmon  was  so  large  that  the  requisite  number  of  breeders  was 
secured  in  a  very  short  time.  The  work  of  collection  began  June  7 
and  closed  June  21 ;  in  the  intervening  sixteen  working-days,  650  sal- 
mon were  collected,  being  something  over  40  per  day.  The  best  day's 
work  was  on  the  10th,  when  105  salmon  were  received  and  placed  in 
the  pond. 

In  1874,  however,  the  weather  and  the  supply  of  salmon  were  both 
against  us,  and  we  were  engaged  from  June  9  to  July  21,  including 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON. 


487 


thirty-seven  working-days,  in  collecting  601  salmon.  In  quality,  how- 
ever, the  salmon  of  1874  were  superior  to  any  received  since  the  estab- 
lishment was  founded,  being  uncommonly  stout  and  fat.  This  was 
more  noticeable  among  those  of  the  smaller  class,  which  may  be  held  to 
include  all  those  uuder  15  pounds  in  weight.  Among  this  class,  the 
most  common  weights  are,  in  ordinary  seasons,  10  aud  11  pounds,  a  few 
exceeding  12  or  falling  below  10  pounds.  This  year  a  very  large  num- 
ber weighed  13  or  14  pounds  apiece;  while  of  10-pouud  salmon  and 
smaller  there  were  far  fewer  than  usual.  This  superiority  in  weight 
was  also  characteristic  in  a  less  degree  of  the  salmon  of  1873.  The 
general  average  weight  for  thyee  years  was  as  follows : 


Size  of  salmon. 

Year. 

When 

bought. 

When  used   in 
spawning. 

Weight, 

Weight. 

Length. 

1872 

PoiliUli. 

12.3 
13. 28 
14.03 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

1873 

12.  as 

12. 73 

32  24 

1874 

32  19 

The  weight  at  time  of  purchase  was  estimated;  in  the  fall, it  was 
obtained  by  weighing.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  results  correspond. 

The  extension  of  the  period  of  collecting  salmon  to  so  late  a  date  as 
July  24  was  not  from  choice  but  from  necessity.  It  was  thought  that 
there  was  a  larger  proportion  of  males  among  the  salmon  in  the  later 
than  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season  ;  and  since,  at  the  best,  we  should 
have  a  surplus  of  that  sex,  it  was  considered  very  undesirable  to  increase 
their  proportion.  The  result  of  the  examination  at  the  spawning-sea- 
son, however,  dispelled  all  fears  on  that  score.  The  ratio  of  male  fish 
was  no  larger  than  usual.     Thus  we  had — 


Males,  per  cent. 

Females,  per  cent 

In  1872 

36.  G 

63.4 

In  1873 

33.9 

66.1 

In  1874 

34.2 

65.8 

The  mortality  of  salmon  during  and  after  transportation  has  become 
less  each  season.  This  is  to  be  attributed  largely  to  improved  apparatus 
and  modes  of  handling  and  greater  care  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
fishermen.  As  in  the  first  season,  the  deaths  of  salmon  occurred  almost 
wholly  immediately  on  arrival  at  the  pond  or  within  ten  days  there- 
after. There  is  no  evidence  that  the  extreme  heat  of  the  water  in  the 
pond  has  had  an  injurious  effect,  though  the  observations  show  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  has  been  considered   compatible  with   the 


488        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

healthy  existence  of  salmon.  Between  the  28th  day  of  June  and  the 
13th  day.  of  August,  1873,  there  were  only  five  days  when  the  water  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pond  stood  below  70°  Fahrenheit,  and  on  one  occa- 
sion, July  31,  it  rose  as  high  as  76°  Fahrenheit.  Not  only  did  no  sal- 
mon die  during  this  heated  term,  but  at  the  succeeding  spawning-sea- 
son they  came  out  in  perfect  condition,  and  yielded  eggs  of  the  highest 
degree  of  health  and  vigor. 

The  weather  has  been  less  favorable  to  spawning-operations  than  in 
1872.  There  was  less  rain,  and  the  water  in  the  pond  and  brook  was  at 
a  lower  stage  in  1873  and  still  lower  in  1874.  One  of  the  results  was 
that  the  salmon  found  the  descent  into  the  brook  more  difficult,  a^d 
were  more  reluctant  to  try  it.  We  were  therefore  compelled  to  resort 
more  to  pounds  and  seines  for  catching  them.  These  were  so  far  suc- 
cessful that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  salmon  were  caught  than  the  first 
season.  In  1873,  the  number  unaccounted  for  was  111,  quite  a  serious 
loss;  but,  in  1874,  this  number  was  reduced  to  40,  which  is  a  very  satis- 
factory result. 

The  process  of  spawning  was  conducted  in  the  usual  way,  the  dry 
method  of  impregnation  being  exclusively  employed  with  the  usual  suc- 
cess. In  1873,  a  careful  examination  of  the  eggs  showed  the  rate  of 
impregnation  to  be  97  per  cent.  The  following  year  the  examination 
was  less  thorough,  but  indicated  about  the  same  rate.  There  was  no 
material  variation  in  the  season.  Spawning  began  in  1873  on  the  27th 
of  October,  and  in  1874  on  the  31st  of  October.  Each  year  the  most  of 
the  eggs  were  taken  before  November  20,  but  small  lots  as  late  as  the 
first  week  in  December. 

3. — DEVELOPMENT  AND  DISTRIBUTION. 

In  the  winter  of  1873  and  1874,  the  development  of  the  eggs  proceeded  in: 
a  manner  highly  satisfactory.  Up  to  the  time  of  distribution,  there  were 
taken  out,  by  count,  160,903  white  eggs,  or  about  G£  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  stock.  Since  the  unimpregnated  eggs  amounted  to  only  3  per  cent., 
or  73,000,  and  some  remained  among  those  that  were  sent  away,  it  is 
probable  that  about  100,000  of  the  white  eggs  had  been  impregnated. 
The  cause  of  this  death  of  impregnated  eggs  is  not  well  understood. 
Rough  handling  will  cause  it,  but  when  handled  in  the  most  careful  man- 
ner there  is  still  a  percentage  of  white  eggs.  The  shipment  of  the  eggs 
was  commenced  February  11,  and  closed  March  30.  Including  those 
retained  at  Eueksport  to  be  hatched  for  the  State  of  Maine,  there  were 
distributed  1,300,000  eggs  on  account  of  the  United  States  Commission, 
and  991,G75  on  account  of  the  several  States  interested,  making  a  total 
of  2,291,075.  If  to  this  sum  we  add  the  total  of  the  bad  eggs  rejected, 
160,903,  we  find  the  original  number  to  have  been  2,453,038.  At  the 
time  of  taking  them,  however,  they  were  estimated  at  only  2,321,934. 

In  1874  and  1875,  the  eggs  gave  no  si  gn  of  any  defect  until  packing 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  489 

for  shipment  was  began.  It  was  then  discovered  that  they  did  not 
resist  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  as  well  as  usual.  In  a  few  hours 
after  being  taken  from  the  water,  even  though  enveloped  in  very  damp 
moss,  the  outer  shell  was  found  to  have  shrunken.  Some  of  the  recip- 
ients of  the  packages  remarked  that  the  eggs  were  shrunken  like  raisins. 
In  many  cases,  even  on  short  journeys,  a  good  many  of  the  eggs  burst 
open  prematurely,  and  even  of  those  that  held  together  many  were  so 
injured  that  they  died  before  hatching  or  soon  after.*  Nearly  all  the 
lots  of  eggs  that  were  sent  away  suffered  severely,  and  in  the  end  so 
many  of  the  young  fish  perished  that  the  number  set  free  in  the  rivers 
was  but  56  percent,  of  the  number  of  eggs  taken.  Those  that  remained 
in  the  house  at  Bucksport  until  hatched  succeeded  much  better  than 
those  sent  away.  About  260,000  eggs  were  left  there,  and  234,000  healthy 
young  fish  obtained  from  them;  and  the  loss  would  have  been  smaller 
still  had  not  there  been  among  the  eggs  a  few  thousand  that  had  been 
packed  for  shipment  and  afterward  returned  to  the  troughs. 

So  generally  were  the  eggs  affected  that  the  malady  cannot  be  attrib- 
uted to  any  local  cause  in  the  hatching-house.  The  cause  must  have 
been  one  that  operated  on  all  the  eggs  this  season  and  not  at  all  in  other 
seasons.  Our  observations  show  that  the  water  used  in  the  hatching- 
house,  in  which  all  the  eggs  developed,  was,  in  November  of  this  year, 
in  an  unusually  low  and  turbid  condition, — turbid  with  microscopic  veg- 
etation and  saturated  with  solutions  from  the  muddy  bottom  and  shores 
of  the  pond, — was,  in  short,  entirely  unlike  the  clear  new  water  that  the 
autuinu  rains  usually  bring  in  before  the  cl.ose.of  October.  In  the  action 
of  this  water  on  the  eggs,  either  after  spawning  or  before  it  had  left  the 
ovaries  of  the  mother  fish,  it  seems  most  reasonable  to  look  for  an  expla- 
nation of  the  imperfect  condition  of  the  shells,  t  In  all  other  respects, 
so  far  as  known,  these  eggs  had  the  same  treatment  as  those  of  other 
years  when  they  turned  out  healthy. 

Means  were  taken  to  guard  against  a  similar  misfortune  the  next 
season,  by  preparations  for  the  development  of  the  eggs  in  another 
place,  commanding  a  supply  of  better  water,  should  circumstances  de- 
mand it ;  but  fortunately  the  water  was  renewed  by  the  wonted  rains, 
and  at  the  time  of  this  writing  it  is  late  enough  to  say  that  the  eggs 
and  young  fry  of  1875  and  1876  were  perfectly  healthy. 

The  eggs  taken  in  1874  were  estimated,  when  they  were  measured  into 
the  troughs,  at  3,056,500;  but  the  measurement  at  time  of  distribution 
showed  2,842,977  divided  among  the  subscribers,  and  previous  to  that 

*In  examining  some  of  these  weak  eggs  that  had  been  standing  at  rest,  I  discovered 
that  the  weakest  place  in  the  shell  was  in  each  case  just  over  the  eyes  of  the  embryo, 
and  at  that  point  the  shell  gave  way  on  application  of  pressure.  I  do  not  know  how 
to  explain  this  phenomenon,  unless  it  be  that  the  shell  of  the  egg  is  in  normal  cases 
softened  by  some  secretion  of  the  embryo  at  the  proper  time  for  birth,  and  that  in  the 
defective  specimens  the  secretion  was  simply  exuded  prematurely. 

tit  is  to  be  noted  that  the  parent  fish  showed  no  signs  of  disease  at  anytime,  being  in 
the  fall  remarkably  fine. 


490        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

division  there  had  been  picked  out  203,479  bad  eggs,  which  would  make 
the  original  number  3,106,456.  I  am  inclined  to  think  the  former  esti- 
mate is  nearest  to  the  truth;  but  as  the  latter  has  been  used  by  all  the 
recipients  of  eggs  in  estimating  their  balances,  I  have  used  it  in  the 
statement  of  hatching  and  distribution,  to  be  given  below. 

4. — MARKING   SALMON  FOR  FUTURE  IDENTIFICATION. 

At  your  suggestion,  I  undertook,  iu  1872,  to  mark  the  salmon  that 
had  been  used  as  breeders  and  set  free  again  in  the  river,  so  that  some- 
thing might  be  ascertained  in  relation  to  the  length  of  their  absence 
from  the  river,  their  rate  of  growth,  &c. 

The  first  mode  adopted  was  the  use  of  an  aluminum  tag  about  half 
an  inch  long  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  wide,  stamped  with  a  number 
wbicb  corresponded  with  a  record  showing  the  sex,  length,  and  weight 
of  the  fish,  and  the  date  of  liberation.  This  tag  was  at  first  attached 
to  a  rubber  band  that  slipped  on  over  the  tail  of  the  fish.  This  mode 
was  quite  defective,  and  led  to  no  favorable  results.  Those  bauds  that 
were  loose  probably  slipped  off,  and  those  that  were  tight  enough  to  stay 
on  cut  through  the  skin  of  the  fish,  and  produced  a  wound  that  probably 
resulted  in  death.  "When  the  impracticability  of  this  mode  became 
manifest,  it  was  abandoned,  and  the  tag  was  attached  to  the  rear  margin 
of  the  first  dorsal  fin,  where  it  would  least  interfere  with  the  motion  of 
the  fish,  and  where  the  action  of  the  latter  in  swimming  would  give  it 
the  least  lateral  motion,  and  it  would  therefore  be  least  likely  to  wear 
out  of  its  place.  The  attachment  was  by  means  of  a  piece  of  fine 
platinum  wire  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  tag,  and  by  means  of  a 
needle  through  the  edge  of  the  fin,  the  ends  being  carefully  twisted 
together  and  trimmed  with  scissors.  This  mode  was  exclusively  em- 
ployed in  1873,  and  was  partially  successful.  The  tags,  to  be  sure,  did 
not  stay  so  long  as  was  desired.  Five  or  six  months  after  the  liberation 
of  the  salmon  in  the  river,  a  good  many  specimens  were  taken  with  the 
tag  still  adherent,  but  of  those  that  were  taken  a  year  and  a  half  after- 
ward not  one  was  found  with  the  tag  on.  Probably  it  was  attacked  by 
some  destructive  acid  in  the  water  and  so  softened  that  the  wire  on 
which  it  swung  cut  its  way  out  and  let  it  fall  off.  Some  of  the  tags  on 
salmon  turned  into  the  fresh  pond  were  found  after  a  while  to  be  in  a 
soft  and  brittle  condition.  The  wire,  however,  remained  in  a  good  many 
cases,  and  the  kind  of  wire  and  mode  of  attachment  served  to  identify 
a  number  of  salmon  afterward  caught  as  of  the  number  marked  and 
liberated  in  1873. 

The  first  marking  was.  as  stated  above,  in  1872.  In  the  spring  of 
1873,  a  reward  was  offered  and  thoroughly  advertised  among  the  fish- 
ermen, for  the  return  of  any  tagged  salmon,  with  statements  of  the  time 
and  place  of  capture.  Not  one  was  brought.  In  1874,  the  offer  was 
repeated,  and  was  so  far  successful  that  twenty  of  the  salmon  turned  out 
the  preceding  autumn  were  returned  to  me  between  the  first  of  Janu- 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  491 

ary  and  the  first  of  June,  mostly  in  April  and  May.  These  were,  with- 
out exception,  poorer  than  when  turned  out.  They  had  evidently  not 
been  to  their  feeding-grounds,  and  had  not  even  left  the  river.  Twelve 
of  them  were  caught  above  Bucksport,  and  nine  of  them  at  Veazie, 
above  Bangor,  25  miles  above  Bucksport,  at  the  head  of  the  tide,  and  at 
the  foot  of  the  first  dam,  which  alone,  it  seems,  had  prevented  their 
ascending  the  river  still  higher.  Only  four  out  of  the  twenty  had  lost 
the  tags,  and  these  retained  the  wire.  Of  nine  that  were  weighed,  one 
had  lost  only  eight  ounces  since  November ;  the  others  had  lost  from  one 
to  two  pounds.  The  males  still  retained  the  hook  on  the  lower  jaw,  but  it 
was  smaller  than  in  the  autumn  ;  the  red  spots  on  their  sides,  and  the 
oculated  spots  on  their  backs  were  a  good  deal  faded,  but  still  distinctly 
visible;  in  their  spermaries  appeared  to  be  the  remains  of  last  year's 
milt.  The  females  were  almost  as  bright  and  silvery  as  when  in  prime 
condition ;  in  almost  every  case,  they  carried  in  their  abdomens  a  few 
remaining  eggs  of  the  last  litter,  and  in  their  ovaries  appeared  the  germs 
of  the  next  litter  already  well  established,  though  exceedingly  small. 
No  food  could  be  found  in  the  stomachs  of  either  sex. 

In  the  autumn  of  1S74,  no  salmon  were  marked.  In  the  spring  of  1875, 
the  offers  of  reward  for  the  return  of  marked  salmon  were  renewed. 
Any  that  could  be  returned  at  this  time  would  have  been  absent  for  a 
year  and  a  half.  We  were  partially  successful.  Eight  salmon  were 
brought  in  and  examined.  They  weighed  from  16  to  24^  pounds,  and 
were  from  34i  to  40J  inches  long.  There  were  four  females,  two  males, 
and  two  not  determined.  All  were  in  prime  condition.  One  of  the  fe- 
males was  placed  alive  in  the  pond,  and  yielded  in  the  fall  about  11,500 
eggs.  As  explained  above,  the  tag  itself  had  fallen  off,  so  that  we  could 
not  trace  the  individual  salmon  back  to  the  record  of  liberation,  but  the 
wire  was  still  there,  and  proved  beyond  doubt  that  these  were  the  sal- 
mon liberated  in  November,  1873.  In  addition  to  these  eight,  there  was 
a  large  male,  weighing  24  pounds,  found  among  the  salmon  in  the  pond 
at  the  spawning-season,  making  the  whole  number  known  to  have  been 
caught  nine.  There  were  reports  of  others  having  been  taken  and  sent 
to  market;  and  from  the  fact  that  a  very  close  scrutiny  was  necessary 
to  detect  the  presence  of  the  wire,  I  am  quite  confident  that  a  good 
many  more  were  actually  taken  and  escaped  notice.  However,  enough 
were  caught  to  establish  the  fact  of  their  return  this  season,  the  second 
season  since  their  liberation ;  and  as  none  did  return  in  prime  condition 
or  in  breeding  condition  the  first  season,  we  may  consider  it  pretty  well 
established  that  the  Penobscot  salmon  enter  the  river  to  breed  only 
once  in  two  years. 

This  experiment  will  be  renewed  with  the  substitution  of  a  platinum 
tag  for  that  of  aluminum. 


492        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

5.— SUMMARIES. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  of  salmon  bought  for 
breeding  stock,  and  the  number  brought  to  hand  in  the  spawning-season, 
for  three  years  past : 


Year. 

Salmon 
bought. 

Salmon  brought  to  hand  at 
spa  w  n  i  n  g-  season. 

Males. 

Females. 

Total. 

1872 

692 
650 
601 

130 
143 

178 

225 
279 
343 

np-j* 

1873 

422 

1874 

521 

1,943 

451 

847 

1, 298 

The  following  exhibits  the  number  of  salmon-eggs  taken,  lost,  and 
distributed  at  Bucksport,  and  the  number  of  young  set  free  as  the 
result  of  their  hatching,  for  three  years : 


Eggs  taken. 

Young   sal- 
mon    set 
free. 

Year. 

First    esti- 
mate.** 

Second  es- 
timate." 

Eggs    lost 
by  count. 

Eggs    dis- 
tributed. 

1872 

1,560,044 
2, 321, 934 
3, 056, 500 

1.241,800 

876, 000 

1873 

"2,  453, 638 
3, 106,  479 

160,  963 
263, 479 

2, 291, 175 
2, 842. 977 

2,  064,  445 

1874 

1,726,668 

Sv.ms -.. .. 

6,  938,  478 

6, 375,  952 

4,  667, 113 

*  The  first  estimate  -was  obtained  by  measurement  of  the  egga  at  the  time  they  -were  taken  and 
placed  in  the  hatching-troughs.  The  second  estimate  is  obtained  by  adding  the  number  known  to  have 
been  thrown  ont  to  the  number  distributed  among  the  subscribers.  The  discrepancy  between  the  two 
estimates  is,  in  1873,  nearly  G  per  cent,  of  the  original  estimate ;  in  1&74,  less  than  2  per  cent. 


THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON. 


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494        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


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THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON. 


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496        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


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498       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Table  III. — Statement  of  salmon  examined  and  eggs  obtained  in  October,  November,  and 

December,  1873. 


Salmon  can 

ght. 

Condition  of  females. 

Eggs 

obtained. 

Date. 

8 

a 

a 

o 
H 

o 

.5* 
p 

o5 

4^ 

as 

—  a 

c  5 

3 
'3 

Approximate 
number. 

1873. 
Oct,.    20                 

4 
4 

5 

8 

9 
12 

ibs.  oz. 

21                       

27         

8 
1 

5 
4 
3 

9 

19 

6 

8 
8 
7 
8 
2 
65 

2 

13 
4 
3 
9 

20 
6 
8 
8 

1 

8 

2 

67 

4  14 
17    0 

9    3 
35    2 
59    9 

29  3 
26  154 

30  84 
19    5 
25  134 

5  13 
214    0i 

.             41,000 

28          

1 

1 
5 
,15 
0 
3 
0 
0 
1 
4 

28 
2 
1 
1 
4 

36 
5 
1 

4 

3 

9 

20 

0 

8 

8 

7 

8 

5 

64 

5 

8 

10 

21 

34 

9 

6 

5 

4 

14 

35 
12 

11 

8 

7 

9 

9 

92 

7 

9 

11 

25 

70 

14 

7 

45,300 

29     

27,  000 

30  

101.  500 

31 

174,  400 

Nov.    1 

84,600 

3     .      

80,  600 

4       

84,200 

5     

56,700 

6 

74,800 

7  

16,  500 

8     

603,  300 

9                  

10 

11 
8 
19 
27 
14 
4 

1 

2 
4 
3 
1 

12 
8 
21 
31 
17 
5 

43    3 

23  14 

58    2 
85    7i 
39  144 
13    6 
2 

17     7 
8  12 

24  04 

2  0 

3  2 
10    34 

3  13 
H 

118,900 

11 

71,400 

12  

158,  000 

13  

243, 200 

14 

109, 000 

15      

37,800 

17     

400 

18  

5 

10 
1 
2 
2 
1 
0 

7 
9 
4 
2 
2 

5 
o 

12 
19 
5 
4 
4 
6 
2 

5 
2 
10 
1 
1 
2 
1 

2 

o 
2 

7 
2 
10 
1 
3 
2 
3 

46,000 

19  

24,  700 

20     .             

70,  000 

22 

5,300 

25 

9,500 

26  

28,  000 

Dec.    3 

10,600 

4 

234 

Sums 

143 

279 

422 

9 

249 

19 

277 

820  154 

%  321,  934 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON. 


499 


Table  IV. — Statement  of  salmon  examined  and  eggs  obtained  in  October,  November,  and 

December,  1874. 


Salmon  caught. 

Condition  of  females. 

Eggs  obtained. 

Date. 

CD 

**- 

to 

a 

» 

"as 

45 

o 
H 

a 
P 

e 

Pi 
'J2 

—  a 

~  i 

'3 

Approximate 
number. 

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Oct.  31 

.Nov.  2 

44 
37 

8 
32 

7 

4 
11 

8 
10 
10 

1 
1 

0 

80 
51 
18 
42 
12 
12 
31 
21 
12 
17 
16 
11 
1 

124 

88 

26 

74 

19 

16 

42 

29 

22 

27 

17 

12 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 

3 

4 

3 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

28 
9 
1 

52 
42 
17 
42 
12 
12 
31 
21 
12 
J6 
15 
11 
1 

1 
1 

80 
51 
18 
42 
12 
12 
31 
21 
12 
17 
16 
11 
1 

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157    6 
128    3 
64     4 
122    8i 
145     lj 
47  11 
110     3 
87  13 
55    0i 
66    2i 
21     7 
78    9 

431,700 
342,  000 
170, 000 
3r>l   000 

3 

4 

5 

375,  000 
126  000 

6 

7 

9 

10 

282,  000 
228,  000 
150  000 

11 

189,  300 
59  0JO 

12 

13 

196  000 

14 

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20 

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21 

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23 

0 
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1 
1 

26    4 
3  14 
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25 

9  IJ00 

28 

7  000 

Dec.    1 

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1 

1 

4    6i 
2    0 

12  000 

8 

5  500 

178 

343 

521 

38 

303 

2 

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506       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISII    AND    FISHERIES. 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  from  June  1,  1873,  to  May  31,  1875, 

inclusive. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  pond. 

Date. 

a 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Remarks. 

a 
p. 

I—* 

a 

a 

i. 

1873. 
June    1 
2 
3 

48 
50 
46 
50 
50 
52 
49 
55 
52 
54 
51 
62 
58 
52 
52 
62 
65 
54 
58 
56 
58 
57 
54 
54 
62 
62 
66 
65 
70 
60 

75 
88 
60 
49 
64 
72 
56 
66 
68 
77 
68 
68 
70 
68 
66 
80 
66 
69 
77 
86 
77 
71 
80 
78 
83 
88 
86 
84 
84 
70 

Clear. 

do 

Do. 

Do. 

4 

Rain. 

5 

Cloudy. 

g 

Easterly 

do 

Rain. 

Do. 

g 

Clear. 

f\ 

Do. 

10 

do 

Do. 

Rain  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

12 

Clear. 

13 

Southwesterly 

Westerly 

Do. 

14 

Do. 

15 

Northerly 

Do. 

16 

Southwest 

Do. 

17 

Do. 

18 

Do. 

19 

Do. 

20 

Do. 

21 
22 
23 
24 

68 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
71 
73 
72 

70 
70 
70 
68 
72 
71 
72 
75 
74 
72 

68 
66 
66 
66 
67 
68 
69 
69 
70 
70 

68 
68 
66 
66 
67 
68 
68 
70 
71 
70 

do  '. 

Partly  clear. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

do    ■ 

Do. 

26 

27 
28 
29 
30 

Southerly,  light 

Westerly,  light 

do  ' ...  I 

Do. 
Do. 
Cloudy  and  showery. 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Clear. 

Cloudy ;  showery  a.  m. 

•Sums  ... 

1684 

2194 

695 

714 

679 

682 

Means . . 

56.13 

73.13 

69.5 

71.4 

67.9 

68.2 

i 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON.  5(^7 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Buclcsport,  §-c. — Continued. 


Date. 


1873. 
July  1 


7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

Sums  . . 

Means  . 


Temperature. 


Air  at  H.  R 


a 


63 
63 

66 

68 
63 

68 

58 
57 
60 

70 
57 
59 
59 
60 
70 
60 
60 
60 

55 
58 
57 
61 
66 
72 
68 
68 
63 
63 
61 
62 
70 

1950 

62.9 


a 
p. 


69 
89 

86 

87 
80 

80 

77 
76 
82 

82 
76 
74 

80 
88 
89 
75 

78 
77 


2462 
80.06 


"Water  at  pond. 


Surface.  Bottom. 


t- 


72 
70 

72 

73 
74 


73 
72 
72 

73 
72 
72 
72 
70 
73 
72 
71 
70 


52 

69 

69 

78 

67 

70 

84 

68 

71 

84 

69 

74 

92 

71 

77 

84 

72 

75 

81 

73 

72 

82 

73 

73 

67 

72 

,73 

84 

73 

80 

72 

74 

74 

87 

72 

74 

90 

75 

80 

2225 
71.77 


a 

ft 


71 

78 

73 

74 
76 

77 

78 
74 
74 

74 
74 
73 
71 
72 
75 
73 
74 
72 


2295 
74.03 


03 


71 
70 

70 

72 
72 

72 


71 

71 

71 
71 
70 
70 
70 
72 
72 
70 
70 

69 
67 
67 
68 
69 
70 
72 
71 
72 
72 
73 
72 
74 

2193 

70.74 


a 


Wind. 


71 
71 

71 

72 
73 

74 

75 

72 


72 
72 

72 
70 
70 
74 
72 
72 
70 

68 
68 
69 
70 
70 
73 
70 
71 
72 
73 
73 
72 
76 

2220 

71.61 


Southeast,  light 

Easterly  a.  ui. ;  west- 
erly p.  in. 

Southeast  a.  m.;  south- 
west p.  in. 

Southwest 

Southerly 


Northerly,     strong 
breeze. 

Northerly,  light 

Southwest,  strong 

Southerly,  light 


do 

Southwest 

Northerly,  strong 

Southwest,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

Northerly . 

do 

Northerly,  light 

Easterly  a.  m.  j  south- 
erly p.  m. 

Southeast 

Northerly,  light 

do.....   

do 

Westerly 

Northerly 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  strong 

Southeast 

Westerly 

Southerly,  light 

do  -' 

Northerly 


Remarks. 


Rain  most  of  day. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear 


p.  ni. 


Do. 

Clear. 

Foggy  in  a,  m. ; 

p.  m. 
Clear. 


partly  clear 


Do. 
Partly  clear ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;     partly    clear 

p.  m. 
Clear. 

Foggy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Partly  clear. 

Partly  clear ;  showery  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Clear  and  cloudy  p.  m. 
Cloudy  and  partly  clear. 

Rain  all  day. 
Mostly  clear. 
Cloudy  part  of  day. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 
Partly  clear. 
Clear. 

Rain  most  of  day. 
Clear. 

Foggy  all  day. 

Foggy9a.m. ;  clear afterwaii. 
Clear. 


508       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  BucJcsport,  $c. — Continued. 


• 

Temperature. 

Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

"Water  at  pond. 

Date. 

a 

a 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Bemarks. 

a 

a 

a 

a 

a 
a 

1873. 
Aug.     1 

2 

3 

61 
71 

62 
65 
57 
55 
63 
63 
62 
60 
57 
58 
52 
55 
64 
57 
64 
57 
58 
62 
58 
58 
59 
56 
52 
52 
52 
46 
49 
58 
63 

66 

83 

86 
76 
73 

85 

76 

83 

84" 

78 

75 

80 

80 

80 

67 

75 

77 

82 

67 

73 

80 

72 

84 

60 

65 

66 

71 

78 

82 

77 

80 

75 
73 

73 
74 
74 
73 
72 
72 
72 
71 
70 
70 
70 
70 
69 
68 
68 
69 
69 
68 
68 
68 
68 
66 
60 
62 
62 
63 
64 
64 
66 

74 
77 

75 
75 
75 
76 
72 
76 
74 
72 
72 
76 
71 
70 
69 
70 
70 
70 
70 
70 
76 
68 
70 
60 
62 
63 
65 
69 
■    66 
66 
70 

74 
73 

72 
73 
73 
73 
72 
71 
72 
71 
70 
70 
69 
68 
69 
68 
68 
69 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
66 
58 
62 
62 
63 
63 
63 
64 

74 

74 

74 
74 
74 
73 
72 
72 
73 
71 
71 
70 
68 
68 
69 
68 
69 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
68 
66 
61 
62 
64 
65 
63 
64 
66 

Southerly,  light 

Northeast  a.  m.;  south- 
west p.  m. 
Southerly 

Foggy. 

Cloudy  a.  m.;  clear  p.  m. 

Clear ;  showery  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Clear  ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

4 
3 
6 

7 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

do 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Northerly,  light 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

12 
13 
14 

Northwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Do. 

Do. 
Cloudy. 
Bain. 

15 

Easterly 

1G 
17 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northerly 

Clear. 
Do. 

18 

Northwest 

Do. 

19 

Easterly 

Bain  ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 

Cloudy. 

Clear ;  showery  p.  m. 

Cloudy. 

Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Clear. 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 

Easterly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Northeast,  very  strong 

Northerly,  fresh 

Easterly^  light 

Northerly 

28 
29 
30 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Do. 
Do. 

Mostly  clear. 
Showery  in  p.  m. 

31 

Variable 

Snms  .. . 

1606 

2361 

2131 

2195 

2116 

2133 

Means  . . 

58. 26 

76.16 

68.74 

70.8 

68.26 

68.8 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON.  509 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  <Jf'c. — Continued. 


Date. 


1873. 
Sept. 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
lfi 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 


Sums  . . . 
Means . . 


Temperature. 


Air  at  H.  H. 


53 

60 
56 
51 
CO 
54 
44 
57 

43 

46 
52 
51 
55 
52 
40 
57 
42 
37 
56 
48 
45 
37 
46 
52 
43 
52 
43 
57 
58 
48 


1495 
49.83 


a 


70 
77 
70 
59 
75 
65 
65 
59 

66 
67 
63 
69 
69 
49 
53 
57 
57 
64 
64 
57 
58 
61 
55 
57 
62 
69 
67 
84 
70 
56 


"Water  at  pond. 


1919 
63.97 


Surface.  Bottom 


66 
64 
64 
64 
63 
64 
63 
63 

62 
62 
62 
62 
63 
64 
60 
60 
58 
58 
53 
53 
57 
56 
56 
57 
56 
57 
53 
59 
59 
59 


1812 
CO.  4 


66 
66 
66 
64 
65 
66 
66 
63 

62 
63 
65 
64 
64 
62 
64 
60 
60 
58 
59 
59 
58 
58 
57 
57 
CO 
59 
59 
53 
62 
60 


65 
64 
64 
63 
6S 
63 
63 
C2 

C2 
CO 
61 
62 
62 
62 
60 
59 
57 
58 
53 
53 
57 
57 
57 
57 
56 
57 
58 
59 
59 
59 


1350     180 


61.67 


60.07 


£ 
P. 


65 

65 

64 
6i 
64 
64 
63 
63 

63 

62 
62 
62 
63 
62 
61 
59 
58 
57 
59 
59 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
57 
58 
61 
61 
60 


1820 
60.67 


Wind. 


Southerly,  light 

Variable 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly 

Southerly  a.  m. ;  north 
erly  p.  m. 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Southwest 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Northeast  

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

do 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

do 

do 

do 

Northerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Southwest,  fresh 

Northerly , 


Remarks. 


Rain  4  p.  m. 

Showery. 

Clear. 

Rainy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

Clear.' 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Rainy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Do: 

Foggv  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

Do. 
Clear. 
Rarny. 
Clear. 

Cloudy  ;  showery  in  p  m. 
Mostly  clear. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  at  4  p.  m. 
Mostly  clear. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Rainy. 

Rainy  in  a.  m. ;  clear  iu  p.  tu 
Mostly  clear. 

Do. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Foagv  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 


510       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Buclcsport,  <|c. — Continued. 


• 

Temperature. 

"Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  pond. 

Date. 

a 

* 

a 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

Remarks. 

a 

ci 
t- 

a 

Pi 

a 

03 

a 

Pi 

1873. 
Oct,      1 

2 
3 

4 
5 

31 
37 
39 
34 
56 
57 
44 
39 
39 
36 
34 
49 
46 
40 
35 
32 
42 
27 
52 
59 
55 
38 
46 
48 
42 
30 
49 
33 
32 
30 
36 

52 
58 
57 
50 
57 
69 
44 
54 
52 
60 
65 
64 
50 
58 
53 
55 
49 
52 
62 
67 
57 
54 
54 
61 
52 
49 
56 
53 
45 
40 
42 

58 
57 
56 
54 
54 
54 
56 
52 
46 
51 
51 
53 
54 
52 
52 
52 
52 
50 
5! 
52 
54 
54 
54 
53 
52 
50 
51 
50 
49 
47 
47 

59 
59 
57 
54 
54 
56 
55 
53 
52 
57 
56 
57 
54 
54 
53 
52 
52 
51 
51 
54 
54 
56 
56 
54 
53 
52 
52 
51 
50 
48 
47 

57 

57 

56 

54 

54 

54 

54 

52 

51 

50 

50 

52 

53 

52 

52 

51 

51 

50 

51 

53 

54 

54 

54 

52 

52 

51 

50 

50 

48 

47 

47 

57 
57 
56 
54 
54 
55 
55 
52 
52 
52 
52 
54 
53 
53 
52 
53 
52 
50 
51 
54 
55 
54 
54 
53 
52 
51 
52 
49 
49 
48 
47 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

do 

Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 
Rainy. 

6 

7 

a 
9 

Southwest,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

do 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Rainy. 
Mostly  clear. 
C  lear . 

10 

n 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Do. 
Do. 

12 

do 

Wind  southerly  in  p.  m. 
Mostly  clear. 
Partly  clear. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 
Cloudy  in  a.  m. ;  clear  in  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 
Partly  clear. 
Rainy. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy  in  a.  m. ;  clear  in  p.  in. 
Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 
Rainy. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Cloudy  in  a.  m. ;  clear  in  p.  m. 
Clear/ 
Rainy. 

13 

14 

Northerly,  fresh 

Variable 

15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

Northerly,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Nor ti east,  fresh 

Southwest,  i  resh 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

do 

22 
23 
24 

Southerly,  light 

do 

25 

26 

Northerly,  light 

Variable 

27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Stints  . .. 

1267 

1G91 

1618 

1663 

1613 

1632 

Means  .. 

40.87 

54.  54  |  52. 19 

53.65 

52.03 

52.  65 

THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  511 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temjwature  at  Bucksport,  $c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  pond. 

Water    at 
H.  H. 

Date. 

a 

CO 

a 

Surface. 

Bottom. 

a 

a* 
p. 

— H 

Remarks. 

a 

s 

p. 

a 

a 

1873. 
Nov.     1 

o 
3 

4 

5 

1) 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

39 

33 
46 

22 
38 
21 
17 
38 
37 
28 
20 
28 

31 

15 
17 
14 
21 
31 
26 
18 
12 
14 
5 

16 

20 

17 

—2.5 

2 

—1 

3 

45 

46 

48 

41 
34 
31 
32 
40 
45 
31 
28 
36 

37 

24 
26 
24 
30 
38 
32 
28 
27 
31 
23 

23 
30 

22 
22 

20 
15 
12 

40 

44 
44 

42 
42 
39 
38 
38 
38 
38 
37 
34 

32 

32 
32 
32 
32 
32 
32 

46 

45 
44 

42 
42 
40 
38 
38 
38 
38 
36 
35 

34 

34 
32 
32 
32 
32 

46 

44 
•44 

42 
42 
39 
39 
38 
38 
38 
37 
36 

36 

44 

44 
44 

42 
42 
39 
38 
38 
38 
38 
36 
36 

36.5 

47 

45 
45 

42 
43 
40 
38 
40 
39 
37 
35 
36 

36 

35 

34 

35J 

34 

34* 

35 

35 

35* 

36" 

35 

35 
35£ 
36 
35 

33 
33 
33 

48 

48 

48 

45 
45 
42 
41 
40 
41 
38 
37 
37 

37 

36 
36 
36 
35 
35 
35 
36 
37 
36 
36 

35 
36* 
35 
34 

34 
33 

33* 

Westerly,  light  . . . 

Southerly,  light... 
Westerly,  fresh. . . 

Westerly,  light  . . . 
Northerly,  fresh. . . 
Northerly,  light. . . 
Westerly,  light  . .. 

Easterly,  light 

Northerly,  light . . . 
Northeast,  fresh  . . 
Northerly,  tight. . . 
Easterly,  light 

....do 

Showery  a.  m.j  clear 

p.  m. 
Clear. 
Showery  a.  m.;  clear 

p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Rainy. 

Mostly  cloudy. 
Cloudy  ;  snow  p.  ni. 
Clear." 
Snow  a.  m. ;  rain  p. 

m. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  clovdv 

14 

Northerly,  light . . . 
Northwest,  light .. 

p.  m. 

Clear. 

15 

Do. 

16 

Snow. 

17 

Northeast 

Northeast,  light. .. 
Northwest,  light .. 
Northerly,  light. .. 
Westerly,  light 

Cloudy. 

18 

Rainy. 

19 

"  Clear. 

20 

Do. 

21 

Do. 

22 

Mostly  clear. 
Snow  a.  m. ;  clear  p, 

m. 
Snow. 

23 

....do  

24 

Easterly,  light 

do 

25 

Cloudy. 
Clear. 

20 

Northwest,  light.. 
Southeast,  light. . . 

Northerly,  light . . . 
do 

27 

Cloudy  a.  ni. ;   snow 

28 

p.  m. 
Clear. 

29 

Do. 

30 

Northerly,  fresh  .. 

Do. 



Sums  . .. 

025k 

921 

704 

678 

519 

515* 

1113 

11451 

Means . . 

20.85 

30.7 

37.05 

3T.  66 

39.  92 

3".  65 

37.1 

38.  IS 

512  REPORT  OF  COMMISSIONER  OF  FISH  AND  FISHERIES. 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Buelsport,  $-c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remarks. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.m. 

1873. 

Dec.     1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

—  7 

—  22 
22 
42 
33 
20 
12 

6 
36 
28 

6 
30 
26 
15 
12 
12 

4 
30 
24 
23 

4 
18 

—  10 

4 
27 

5 
12 
18 
20 
13 
13 

6 
8 
38 
44 
37 
24 
23 
26 
38 
23 
24 
34 
22 
22 
13 
33 
30 
33 
35 
29 
17 
31 
28 
22 
31 
16 
18 
20 
32 
27 
31 

33 

33 

33 

34 

34 

33* 

33* 

34" 

344 

34 

34 

35 

34* 

33" 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33* 

33" 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34* 

34 

34 

35 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

33* 

34 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

32* 

33* 

33" 

33 

Northerly,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

South  wes  t,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Clear. 

Cloudy  ;  snow  5  r>.  m. 

Foggy. 

Fog,  a.  m. ;  rain  in  p.  m. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rainy  in  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy ;  snow  at  3  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 

Snowing  all  day. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Mostly  clear. 

13 

14 
15 
16 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  light 

South  west,  light 

do 

\l 

Westerly,  light 

Calm 

Do. 

Foggy. 
Do. 

19 

do 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 

Northeast,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Westerly,  light 

do 

..do 

Snow. 
Clear. 

Partly  cloudy. 
Clear. 
Do. 

25 
26 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

Cloudy. 

Cloudy,  some  snow. 

Snow  all  day. 

Cloudy  with  snow. 

Mostlj'  clear. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

Westerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Sums  . .. 

461 

820 

1040 

1044* 

Means .. 

15.52 

26.45 

33.54 

33.69 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON.  513 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  BucJcsport,  <fc. — Continued 


Temperature. 

"Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remarks. 

7  a.m. 

1p.m. 

7  a.  m. 

lp.  m. 

1874. 
Jan.     1 

2 

10 
30$ 
17 
36 
45 
14 
31 
41 
30 
30 
24 
20 
6 
12 

—  4 
3 
0 

—  9 
34 
16 

—  4 
25 
38 
19 
16 

—13 

—12 

6 

8 

2i 

—12" 

31 
35 
34 
40 
32 
16 
34 
50 
39 
38 
34 
24 
16 
15 
13 

9 
16 
31 
40 
16 
14 
26 
40 
24 

9 
—13 

4 
14 
20 

1 

2 

33 

33 

33 

33 

34 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33$ 

33 

33 

33$ 

34 

33$ 

33$ 

33 

33J 

33i 

33 

33$ 

33$ 

33$ 

33$ 

33 

34 

34 

33 

33 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

33 

33 

33$ 

33$ 

33 

33 

34 

33 

33 

34 

34 

34 

33* 

33* 

34" 

34 

34 

34 

33i 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Mostly  clear. 
Snow  at  10  a.  ni. 

3 
4 

do 

do 

Foggy. 
Do. 

5 
6 

** 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

Northerly,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Northwest,  light 

do 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  and  enow  p.  ni. 
Rain  most  of  the  day. 

Do. 
Rain  all  day. 
Clear. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  rainy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

14 
15 
16 
17 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

do 

Snow. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

18 
IS 
20 
21 
22 
23 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

do 

Do. 
Rain. 
Clear. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  snow  p.  m. 
Foggy. 

Do. 

24 
25 

2(5 

Northerly,  fresh 

do 

Clear. 
Do. 
Do. 

27 

28 

Northeast,  light 

do.... 

Snow. 

Cloudy,  with  snow  and  rain. 

Cleanna.m.;  cloudyaudsnowp.m. 

Clear. 

Snow. 

29 
30 
31 

Northwest,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northeast,  light 

Sums ... 

460 

704 

1029 

1041$ 

Means . . 

14.84 

22.71 

33.19 

33.59 

33  F 


514.       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  Jjc. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Dato. 

AiratH.H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Eemarks. 

1 
7  a.m. 

1  p.  m. 

2 
—  2 
16 
28 
7 
9 
10 
19 
30 
30J 
22 
21 
39 
45 
31 
33 
29 
23 
34 
37 
38 
34 
33 
28 
27 
27 
32 
22 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

1874. 
Fob.      1 

—  7 
—21 

Zi 

22 

—  H 

—  6 

—  8 
3 
C 
8 

16 

5 

2 

41 
13 
24 
22 
~9 
0 
32 
24 
31 
27 
22 

—  2 
12 
18 

5 

34 

33 

334 

33 

33 

32* 

33 

33£ 

33 

33 

33 

334 

33 

34 

34 

334 

334 

334 

334 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

334 

33 

334 

33 

34 

33 

33 

33J 

33 

33 

33 

33 

334 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

344 

34 

34 

34 

344 

344 

344 

344 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

.  .do 

Clear. 
Do. 

3 

4 
5 

c 

Northeast,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Snowing  all  day. 
Snowy  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m 
Clear. 
Do. 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

Westerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Nort  herly ,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Westerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Westerly,  light 

Variable 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Cloudy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Cloudy ;  rain  at  5  p.  m. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Cloudy  ;  snow  in  a.  m. 

Clear. 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. 

Eain  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Snow  and  rain. 

17 
18 
19 
20 

Northwest,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

do 

21 

do 

22 
23 
24 
25 

26 
27 

28 

Northerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Cloudy. 

Snow  and  rain. 

Clear  in  a.  m. ;  cloudy  in  p.  m. 

Cloudy. 

Mostly  clear. 

Partly  clear. 

Clear. 

Sums . . . 

285 

704  i 

936 

9474- 

Means  . . 

10.54 

25.16 

33.43 

33.83 

THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  515 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  <fc. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remark  a. 

7a.m. 

1  p.m. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.m. 

1874. 

Mar.    1 
o 

2 
32 
31 

40 
19 

9 
12 
25 

7 
22 
14 

8 

8 
20 
15 
20 
27 
37 
37 
36 
30 
30 

24 

18 
35 
27 
25 
20 
16 
23 

30 
46 
44 
42 
28 
25 
30 
27 
44 
30 
30 
26 
25 
31 
32 
40 
40 
42 
44 
36 
41 
36 

30} 

12 

37 

41 

30 

36 

24 

39 

25 

33 

334 

33* 

334 

33 

33 

33 

34 

33 

33 

33 

33 

0-2 

33 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

334 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34* 

34" 

35 

34 

344 

344 

34 

334 

334 

334 

34 

34 

334 

34 

34 

334 

34 

36 

36 

354 

35 

35 

36 

36 

36 

35 

36 

35 

36 

36 

36 

37 

364 

37* 

do ■ 

Clear  a.  m.;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

3 
4 
5 
6 

Southwest,  fresh 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  fresh 

do 

Partially  clear. 
Rain. 
Clear. 
Do. 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

Southerly,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Southerly,  light  

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Westerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Calm 

Mostly  clear. 

Snow  all  day. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Snowing  all  day. 

Clear. 

Cloudy. 

Partially  clear. 

Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

17 
18 

Southerly,  light 

.  do    

Clear  a.m.;  cloudy  and  rain  p.m. 
Rain  most  of  the  day. 
Foggy ;  thunder-shower. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Snow  a.  m. ;    squalls   from   north 

p.  m. 
Snow  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ,  clear  p.  m. 
Cloudy  a.  m.;  rainy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

A  little  snow  a.  m.;  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

19 

. .  do 

20 
21 
22 

23 

Westerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  fresh 

Variable 

24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

Westerly,  fresh  . .'. 

Southerly,  light 

Northwest,  fresh 

Easterly 

Northwest,  fresh 

Westerly,  fresh 

Northwest,  fresh 

Sums  .. 

670 

1043.  5 

1043 

1035 

Meaus  . . 

21.61 

33.36 

33.64 

35 

516       KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX.— Observations  on  temperature  at  Buclcsport,  fa — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Remarks. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

1?74. 
April   1 
2 
3 

4 

r> 

0 

7 
8 

5 

17 
30, 

17 

20 

34 
31 
3-2 
29 
22 
15 
2fi 
31 
40 

38J 

30 

33 

36 

33 

34 

33 

33 

35 

29 

30 

32 

32* 

351 

33J 

21 
33 
36 

27 
32 

40 

39 
35 
36 
31 
36 
23 
34 
46 
53 

42 

37 

42 

45 

46 

39 

47 

43 

45 

47 

34 

44* 

47 

35 

36 

34i 
35" 
35J 

35J 
36 

35A 

36^ 

36A 

36" 

354 

35 

35 

35 

35 

31J 

35 
35 
344 

344 

35A 

35A 

36" 

36 

36i 

36* 

36" 

34 

36 

37i- 

36i 

37 
38 
36  i 

36* 
39 

38 

33 

37 

37 

35J 

37 

38 

38 

38 

37i 

3?J 

36 

38J 

39 

38 

37 

39i 

39" 

39 

42 

36 

38 

41 

37i 

39" 

1139 

Westerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly  a.  m„  west- 
erly p.  in.,  light. 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly  a.  m.,  south- 
erly p.  m. 

Southeast  a.  m.,  south- 
west p.  in. 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Clear. 

Do. 
A  little  snow  a.  m. ;  clear  p 

Clear. 
Do. 

Snow  a.  m.  j  clear  p.  m. 

Cloudy. 

Do. 

Do. 
Snowing  all  day. 
Cloudy  a.m. ;  snow  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Mostly  clear. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Rain  9  a.  m. ;     afterward 

cloudy. 
Clear. 

Cloudy  ;  snow  at  4  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy  ;  snow  at  5  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 
Mostly  cloudy. 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. 
Snowing  all  day. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Raining  all  day. 
Snow  a.  m. ;  cioudy  p.  m. 

.  m. 

p 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

Northeast,  light 

Northeast,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Variable,  li<*ht 

Southerly,  light 

do 

mostly 

10 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
23 
23 
21 

Northerly,  fresh 

Variable^  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

do 

23 

do 

26 
2T 
2^ 

Northeast,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do 

29 
30 

Easterly,  light 

Westerly,  fresh 

Sums ... 

877.5 

1151.5 

1066 

Meats .. 

21.25 

38.38 

35.53 

37.97 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON. 


517 


Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  <f  c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at 
H.  H. 

Water  at 
pomi. 

Date. 

9  a.  m. 

Remarks. 

a 

t- 

351 
34| 
40 
42 
38 
35 
38 
37 
38$ 
43" 
41 
42 
44 
55 
46 
45 
48 
52i 
47 
42 
52 
44 
45 
48 
48 
52 
56 
52 
61 
56 
•    62 

a 
p. 

a 

a 

A 

1-1 

a 

3 
W 

a 

o 

O 

n 

1874. 
May     1 
2 

44 

42 

48 

60 

52 

53 

51 

51 

44 

47 

58 

65$ 

64 

74 

60 

44 

64 

66 

55 

61 

59$ 

55 

62$ 

66 

621 

66 

74i 

67 

69 

76 

66 

38 

37$ 

38 

40 

43 

44$ 

44 

45 

45 

46 

47$ 

48 

43$ 

52 

54 

54 

52 

54 

57 

55$ 

55 

55 

57 

56 

57 

56 

58 

59 

62 

62$ 

61 

39 

39$ 

41 

44 

47 

461 

49" 

48 

46$ 

48 

51$ 

51 

53 

57 

56 

54$ 

55 

57 

57 

58 

58 

57$ 

60 

61 

57 

58 

62 

62 

64 

64$ 

63 

Northerly,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  light 

..do 

Cloudy. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  ni. 

Clear 

3 

4 

41 

43$ 

46 

45 

47 

47 

47 

48 

50$ 

52 

54 

56 

55 

54 

56 

57 

57 

57* 

56$ 

56$ 

58 

58 

57 

59$ 

60$ 

62 

66 

63 

40 

42$ 

44 

44 

46 

46 

46$ 

47 

46* 

484 

49 

52 

52 

52 

53 

53 

53 

53 

524 

55$ 

56$ 

56 

55$ 

56 

56$ 

58 

58 

56$ 

Do. 

5 
6 
7 

8 
9 

Northeast,  fresh 

Southwest,  fresh 

Variable,  light 

do 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  in. 
Cloudy. 
Cloudy  and  rainv. 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 

Northeast,  light 

do 

Southerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southeast,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Cloudy ;  rain  at  3  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Rainy. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 
Rain. 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Variable,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Variable,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  li ght 

Southerly,  fresh 

Clear. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  rain  4  p.  m. 

Rain  a.  in. ;  cloudy  p.  ni. 

Clear. 

Do. 
Rain  all  day. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  thunder  shower 
p.  ni. 

Sums .. 

1420 

1827.  5 

1582 

1765. 5 

1510. 5 

1431 

Means . . 

45.81 

58.94 

51. 03 

53.38 

53.95 

51.11 

518        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  $-c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at 
H.H. 

"Water  at 
pond: 

Date. 

9  a.m. 

Remarks. 

a 

J- 

a 

a 

a 
p. 

u 
72 

a 

o 

"o 

1874. 
June    1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

52 

45 

50 

47 

54*. 

57 

63 

54 

54 

474 

46 

46 

48 

60 

56 

66 

54 

54 

48*. 

48 

52 

60 

57 

57 

54  i 

64" 

54 

59 

64 

58 

56 

60 

67 

56 

70 

64 

64 

74 

64 

57*. 

64* 

45 

64 

72 

74 

78 

55 

59* 

47 

50 

64 

79 

84 

64 

72 

77* 

82 

79 

74 

75 

61 

59*. 

60 

59 

60 

62 

63 

61 

63* 

62" 

60*. 

60* 

59£ 

60 

62 

64 

59 

59 

56 

56 

56 

59* 

60* 

62" 

58 

62 

63* 

62 

66 

62$ 

63* 

63" 

63 

60* 

62 

64 

64 

65* 

67 

63 

67 

60 

63* 

66 

69 

65 

60 

62 

59 

57 

59 

63* 

64* 

67* 

6  * 

70* 

74" 

71 

70 

72J 

62 
61| 

62 

61 

62 

63 

64 

62* 

64 

63*. 

62 

61 

611 

62 

64 

68 

63 

61 

59* 

57" 

57 

63 

64 

64 

62J 

64 

67 

67 

69 

67 

58 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60* 

60| 

60 

61 

60 

59* 

59 

59* 

59 

59 

60 

59*. 

57 

57 

58*. 

59 

61 

61 

62 

62 

63 

62 

62 

Northeast,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

do    

Cloudy. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Rain  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Foggy  and  clear. 
Rain  most  of  day. 
Rain  and  fog. 
Foggy  and  clear. 
Mostly  clear. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Rain. 

Mostly  clear. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  showery  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 
Rainy. 

Do. 

Do. 
Clondy  a.  m. ;  rain  p.  m. 
Mostly  clear. 
Clear. 

Mostly  clear. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Shower  a.  m;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

Easterly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Variable,  light 

Northeast ,  ligli  t 

Variable,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Easterly',  light 

Northerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

do    

18 
19 
20 

Northeast,  fresh 

Easterly,  fresh 

do 

21 
22 
23 

Northeast,  light 

Southerly,  light 

do 

24 
25 
26 
27 

28 
29 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northwest,  fresh 

Northwest,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Variable 

30 

Variable,  light 

Sums  . . . 

1630 

1992 

1819.5 

1945 

1889 

1800 

Means.. 

54.33 

66.4 

60.65 

64.83 

62.97 

60 

THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  519 

*  i 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Buclcsport,  fyc. — Continued. 


Date. 


Air  at  H.  H. 


1874, 
July 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 

18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 


Sums  . . 
Means  . 


Temperature. 


i- 


57 
57 
50 
54 
52 
55 
51 
61 
66 
64 

66 
62 
56 
64 
64 
67 

68i 

62} 

64 

60 

63 

58,| 

57 

60 

652, 

68 

61 

62 

62V 

64 

60 

1882^ 

60.73 


s 


7H 

69 

52 

70 

56 

74 

62 

78J 

80* 

81 

80 

59 

694 

84 

69: 

89} 

77 

80 

76J 

69 

75 

73 

78 

79J 

77 

70 

72 

81 

73 

71 

76 

2279 

73.52 


Water  at 
U.K. 


66 

67 

62 

62 

62 

62 

60J 

62 

654 

68 

67 
68 
64 

64 
694 


970 
64.67 


S 


70 

68J 

63 

65 

63 

68 

64 

67 

74 

72 

71 
69 
68 

75 
70* 


1031 
68.73 


Water  at 
pond. 


9  a.  m. 


3 
02 


674 

67 

64 

63 

63 

65 

62 

64 

68 

71 

70 
70 
68 
69 
72 
73 

72 

75 

73 

70 

70 

70J 

72 

71* 

72 

71 

70 

70 

70 

70 

72 

2145.  5 

09.21 


•a 

o 

-4-> 
O 

M 


64 

64 

64 

63 

63 

63 

60J 

62J 

634 

64 

63i 

64 

64 

64 

64 

64 

66 
66 
66 

654 

68 

70 

69 

69 

684 

70 

69i 

69i 

69" 

69 

694 

2039.  5 

65.73 


Wind. 


Northeast,  light.. 
Southerly,  light . , 

do 

Variable,  light... 
Easterly,  light . . . 
Variable,  light. .. 
Southerly,  fresh., 
Southwest,  light 
Northerly,  light. , 
Southerly,  light. 


do 

Easterly,  light . . 
Southerly,  light. 
Westerly,  light  . 
Southerly,  fresh. 
Variable,  light . . 


Northerly,  light. . 
Southerly,  light . . 
Southerly,  fresh  . 
Southerly,  light  . 
Northerly,  light.. 

do 

Southwest,  light  . 
Southerly,  light. . 
Southwest,  fresh  . 
Southerly,  fresh.. 

do 

Southerly,  light. . 
Southerly,  fresh . . 
Northerly,  light. . 
Southwest,  fresh 


Kemarks. 


Mostly  clear. 

Cloudy  a.  ra. ;  rain  p.  m. 

Kain  all  day. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Rainy. 

Clear. 

Cloudy. 

Clear. 

Do. 
Clear   a.  m. ;    cloudy   p. 

rain  at  5  p.  m. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Eain  all  day. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a. 
showers 
Clear. 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. 
Cloudy. 
Cloudy  a.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Foggy  and  clear. 
Clear. 

Foggy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Cloudy  most  of  day. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  p.  m. 
Partly  clear. 

Do. 


m. ;   clouds 
p.  m. 

cloudy  p.  m. 
clear  p  m. 


with 


520 


REPORT   OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

» 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  $c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

"Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  pond. 

Date. 

a 

0 

A 

.-I 

9  a.  in. 

Remarks. 

o 
a 
J8 

g 

a 
m 

a 

o 
"o 

pa 

1874. 
Aug.  1 
2 
3 

63 

60 

56 

52i 

58 

60 

59 

58 

61 

65 

63 

m 

64 1 

57 

57* 

55.J 

54J 

57 

55 

57 

63 

56 

41 

51 

48 

48 

48 

50 

55 

64 

57 

71 

82 

63 

69 

72 

69£- 

76 

60 

67 

71i 

79 

72 

66 

56 

69 

72 

70 

74 

721 

72 

75* 

66 

72 

66J 

71 

68 

72 

74J 

74 

74 

77 

70J 

70 

69£ 

f8 

68 

68 

71 

68 

65 

64 

66 

67 

69 

66 

64J 

65 

65* 

66 

68 

67 

67 

68 

67 

66 

67 

66 

66 

66 

68 

69 

68 

68*. 

69 

68 

68 

68 

68 

69 

66 

62 

62 

62*. 

62*. 

64 

62J 

64 

64 

64 

64*. 

66J 

66 

66 

67 

66 

64* 

65* 

r.ij 

64 

64* 
64j 
65 
641. 

Southerly,  light 

Westerly,  light 

Northerly  fresh 

Rainy  a.  m. ;  shower  at  4  p.  m. 
Clear  a.  m.  j  showery  p.  m. 
Clear. 

4 

Variable,  light 

Do. 

5 
6 

7 

Northerly,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Westerly,  light 

Do. 
Partly  clear. 
Clear. 

8 
9 

Southerly,  light 

Southeast,  light 

Rain  all  day. 
Do. 

10 

11 
12 
13 
14 

Northeast,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Northeast,  light 

do 

Cloudy  and    rainy  a.  m. ;    partly 

cloudy  p.  in. 
Clear. 

Foggy  and  clear. 
Rainy  all  day. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  Rainy  p.  m. 

Do. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Hazy. 
Clear. 

15 
16 
17 
18 
19 

Northerly,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

20 

Southeast,  light 

Rain  p.  m. ;  Clear  p.  m. 

Partly  cloudy. 

Clear. 

Clear  a.  m.;  cloudy  p.m. 

Clear. 

21 
22 
23 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Variable,  light 

24 

Westerly,  light 

25 
26 
27 

Northerly,  light 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Do. 

28 

..do 

Clear  a.  m . ;    hazy  p.  m. 

Hazy. 

Clear. 

Foggy  and  clear. 

29 

Variable,  light 

30 
31 

Southwest,  light 

Sums  .. 

1760 

2199 

2084 

2025 

Means . 

56.84 

70.94 

67.23 

65.32 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON.  521 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  §c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  pond. 

Date. 

8 

A 
r- 

a 

Pi 

9  a.  m. 

Remarks. 

o 
a 

u 

a 

a 

o 
o 

w 

1874. 
Sept.  1 
2 

56 

56 

52 

45 

50 

57 

58 

59J 

58 

56J 

54 

44 

48J 

52 

57A 

60 

56 

50 

54 

69 

6Si 

704 

64 

63 

65 

72 

68 

694 

81J 

684 

60 

69 

66 

65 

71 

58 

53J 

59 

67 

66 

66 

64J 

64J 

64* 

64 

641 

65 

65J 

654 

64 

66 

64 

63 

U\ 

64 

61  b 

60 

65 

66 

65J 

634 

634 

634 

63J 

64 

64 

64 

64 

64 

64 

63 

63 

634 

64 

604 

60 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Partly  cloudy. 

Hazy  a.m.;  rain  at  5  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy. 
Mostly  clear. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  showery  p.  m. 
Cloudy  and  clear. 

3 

4 
5 

6 

Southwest,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

7 
8 

Northerly,  light 

do 

9 

Variable,  light 

10 

do 

11 
12 
13 

14 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northeast,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light ......... 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  hazy  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 

Do. 

15 

16 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

17 

Northeast,  light . 

Do. 

18 

do 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  p.  m. 

19 

Easterly,  light 

20 

..do    

21 

22 
23 

56£ 

42 

40 

47 

54 

53* 

52$ 

48| 

61 

60 

62 

58 

60 

65 

64 

60 

56 

62 

59i 

60 

604 

60 

60 

61 

60 

60 

594 

59J 

60* 

60 

60 
59J 

58J 
58J 

W 

58i 

5ei 

59* 
60 

Northerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.m. 
Clear. 
Do. 

24 

do 

Do. 

25 

do 

Cloudy. 
Do.     - 

26 

Calm 

27 

Southerly,  light 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Cloudy  ;  rain  at  4  p.  ni. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rainy  p.  m. 
Cloudy  and  rain  a.  in.;  clear  p.  m. 

28 
29 

Northeast,  light 

Southerly,  light 

30 

Southerly  ana  westerly, 
light. 

Sams  . . 

1530 

1867.  5 

1825 

1799 

Means  . 

5X07 

64.38 

62.93 

62.04 

522 


EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  $c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

"Wind. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  pond. 

Date. 

a 

c! 

a* 
p. 

9  a.m. 

Kemarks. 

a 

<2 
u 
3 
W 

a 

"o 

n 

1874. 

Oct.      1 

2 

3 

4 

40 

45 

43 

34  V 

42 

45 

3?4 

411 

48 

45 

50 

41 
40 

40* 

33 1 

38 

33 

50 

34J 

36 

40V 

33j 

28 

30 

44 

38 

48 

49 

37 

52 

42 

1262 

51 

554 

534 

50 

54J 

60 

57 

59 

56 

59 

60 

57 

50 

49 

52J 

584 

57" 

52 

47 

52 

48 

58 

47J 

52 

57J 

57  V 

53d 

58 

50 

52 

50 

59 

57 

56 

54 

534 

54 

54 

54 

53i 

54 

54 

534 

52 

51 

50 

50 

50 

50 

48 

47 

47J 

48 

48 

48 

48 

49 

484 

50 

50 

50 

50 

58 

56 

55* 

54 

534 

53! 

53 

53 

53 

53V 

53A 

52* 

52" 

51 

50 

50 

49* 

Northwest,  fresh 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Clear  a.  m. 

Cloudy  and  rainy. 

Cloudy. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Mostly  clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Hazy. 

Foggy  and  clear. 

Rainy  a.m. ;  cloudy  p.  in. 

Foggy  and  rain  at  4  p.  m. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Showers. 
Clear. 

Mostly  clear. 
Clear. 

5 

do 

6 

do 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 
14 

Southwest,  light 

Westerly,  light 

do 

Northwest  and  varia- 
ble, light. 

Westerly,  light 

Northerly,  light 

do 

15 

do 

16 

17 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Rainy  a.  m. ;   cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Hazy  a.  m.  ;  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 
Foggy  and  clear. 
Clear. 

Foggy  all  day. 
Cloudy  a.  m.  ;  clear  p.  m. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Mostly  clear. 

18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

50 

47* 

46 

47 

48 

48 

47* 

47* 

48" 

48 

49 

50 

50 

50 

Variable,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Variable,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Calm 

26 
517 

Southwest,  light 

do 

28 
2!) 
30 
31 

Northerly,  light 

Variable,"  light 

do 

Sums  . .. 

16744 

1591.  5 

1578 

Means  .. 

40.71 

54.02 

51.34 

50.90 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON.  523 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  ijc. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

AiratH.H. 

Water  at 
H.H. 

Water  at 
pond. 

Date. 

9  a.  m. 

Remarks. 

5 

d 
t- 

a 

A 

a 

eg 

a 

A 

93 
O 

a 

o 

43 
O 

w 

1874. 

36 
23 
25 
29 
42 
43 
41 
28 
42 
36 
29 
25 
25 
26 
16 
29 
19 
41 
16 
9 
29 
13 
11 
36 
29 
19 
14 
27 
49 
20 

41 
42 
46 
48 
50 
50 
42 
45 
43 
44 
47 
34 
31 
30 
31 
34 
34 
47 
22 
23 
35 
17 
28 
39 
33 
23 
36 
41 
50 
22 

50 
48 
47 
46 
46 
46 
45 
44 
45 
44 
44 
41 
40 
37 
34 

49 

48 

46J 

45i 

45J 

45* 

45 

44 

44* 

43J 

43J 

414 
40 
38 
37J 

Southwest,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

do 

Cloudy. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Hazy. 

Rain  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 

Do. 
Cloudy ;  rain  at  4  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Mostly  clear. 
Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 

1)0. 

o 

3 

4 
5 
6 

42 
42 
43 
43 
43 
39 
43 
41 
40 
33 
37 
34 
34 
35 
34 
36 
33 
34 
35 
34 
34 
34 
34 
34 
34 
35 
3G 
35 

45* 

45 

47 

46 

44 

42 

43 

44 

44 

41 

38 

37 

36 

36 

36 

38 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

31 

35 

35 

37 

37 

35 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12' 
13 
14. 
15 
16 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Northerl v,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

17 

Do. 

18 

Northwest,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Variable,  light 

Northwest,  Iresh 

Southeast,  light 

Southwest,  fresh 

Westerly,  light 

do 

Cloudy  till  9  a.m.;  then  clear. 
Cloudy  in  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  in. 
Cloudy ;  snow  p.  m. 
Snow  in  ii.  in  ;  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23  ' 

Snow  all  day. 

Partly  clear. 

Clear  a.  ni. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

24 

25 

26 

27 

Southwest,  light 

Sout  herly,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Westerly,  light 

Partly  clear. 
Clear. 

28 

29 

Rain  all  day. 
Clear. 

30 

Sums  . .. 

832     1113 

1033 

1085.  r, 

657 

657.5 

Means  .. 

27.73 

37. 27 

37.07 

33. 7J 

43.8 

43.83 

524       EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Buclcsport,  $c. — Continued. 


Date. 


1874. 

Dec.     1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

»o 

23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 

30 
31 

Sums  ... 

Means . . 


Temperature. 


Air  at  H.  H.      Water  at  H.  H. 


7a.m. 


4 

18 

37 

33 

10 

15 

33 

28 

13 

25 

29 
3 
8i 

15" 
-11 

-  8 
12 
20 
18 
10 

3 

-  8 
35 
31i 
26 
It 
14 
34i 
34 

1 

-  6 

488.5 
15.76 


1  p.  m. 


16 
30 
44 
30 
26 
32 
34 
33 
29 
30J 
33J 
15 
19 
9 

w 

14 

26 
14 
34J; 
34£ 
8 
26 
42 
38 
30 
29 
32 
30| 
39 

12 

4 

805 
25.97 


7  a.  m. 


35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

36 

36 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

34J 

34J 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

36 

35 
35 

1037 

35.06 


1  p.  m. 


36 

36 

37 

36 

35 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

35j 

35 

34J 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

36 

35J 

35£ 

35£ 

35 

36 

36 

35J 
35£ 

1101.5 

35.53 


Wind. 


Remarks. 


Variable,  light 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

Easterly,  light 

do 

Northeast,  light - 

Southerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Southerly,  light , 

Northwest,  light , 

Northerly,  light 

Northeast,  fresh 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northwest,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Westerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

do 

do 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Southerly,  light 

Southerly  a.  in.,  north- 
erly p.  m.,  light. 

Northwest,  fresh 

do 


Clear. 
Hazy. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 
Hazy. 
Cloudy. 

Cloudy  and  snow- 
Cloudy. 

Do. 
Clear. 
Snow. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Snow  all  day 
Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  snow  p.  m. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  rn. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 
Cloudy  mostly. 

Cloudy  a.  ni.;  suow  and  rain  in  p.  in. 
Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 
Cloudy. 

Commenced  raining  at  10  a.  m. 
Squalls. 


Clear. 


Do. 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  525 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  §-c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remarks. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

7  a.m. 

1  p.m. 

1875. 

Jan.     1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

2 
10 
18 

o 

2 

—16 

"i 

13 

6 

—  1 
—18 
—22 

4 
15 

—  1 
0 

—  2 

—  71 
—13* 
—28 
—14 

8 
6 

—  3 
17 

1 

—  li 
1 

28 

11 

1 

171 

19 

24  i 

30 

23 

18 

22 

20 

22* 

7 
15* 
15 
16 
211 

2 
15 

7 

3* 
14 

8* 

9 
19 
17 
181 
33 
11* 
13 
23 
321 
22 
31 

35 

36 

36 

35* 

351 

35 

35* 

35| 

35J 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

34* 

344 

35 

35 

35 

361 

37 

37 

37 

37 

36J 

36 

351 

351 

35 

351 

351 

351 

351 

351 

35J 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

351 

35 

351 

35 

35 

35 

35 

34} 

35 

Northwest,  fresh 

Easterly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Southwest.light 

Easterly,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Northwest,  fresh 

Westerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Northwest,  fresh 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light  

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Hazy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  snow  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Cloudy. 

("loudy  in  a.  m. ;  snow  in  p.  m. 

Clear  in  a.  m. ;  hazy  in  p.  m. 

Snow  all  day. 

Cloudy  a.  m.  ;  clear  p.  m. 

Snow. 

Clear. 

Clouds  till  9  a.  m. ;  then  clear. 

Clear. 

Cloudy  ;  snow  at  4  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Do. 
Hazy. 
Clear. 
Hazy. 
Clear. 

20 

do 

Do. 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
.26 

do 

Easterly,  light 

Nort  hwest,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Mostly  cloudy. 
Snowing  all  day. 
Clear. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  hazy  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Do. 

27 
28 
29 
30 

Northwest,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

Northeast,  light 

do 

Do. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  hazy  in  p.  m. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Cloudy. 
Hazy. 

31 

Southwest,  light 

Sums  ... 

31 

550.5 

1088.5 

1101.5 

Means . . 

1 

17.76 

35.11 

35.53 

526       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  BucJcsport,  §-c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

"Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remarks. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

1875. 
Feb.     1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

20 
14 
20 

2'i 

—  1 
10 

—  12 

—  6 

—  16J 

—  3 
9 

10J 

—  18 

—  17 

-  34 

-  64 

-  12* 

l" 

314- 

27 

4 

314 

35 

33 

25 

13 

12 

224 

25 

28 

38* 

24" 

14 

19 

-       4 

1 

4 

11 

30 

13 

9 

94 
4 

14 
18 
11 
26 
39 
29 
224 
414 
43 
41 
29J 
27 
13 

580.5 

35 
35 
35 
34 

344 

344 

34 

34 

33J 

34 

34 

34 

34 

334 

33< 

334 

334 

33* 

334 

334 

334 

334 

33i 

34 

34 

34 

34 

334 

344 

344 

35 

35 

35 

35 

35 

34 

34 

34J 

34 

34 

34 

334 

334 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

34 

344 

344 

35 

35 

34 

334 

Northeast,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Northwest,  tresh 

Westerly,  fresh    

Northwest,  fresh 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do    

Mostly  clear. 

Hazy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  p.  m. 

Mostly  clear. 

Clear.' 

Do. 

Do. 
Snowing  all  day. 
Clear. 

Do. 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 

Southerly,  fresh 

]>'  ortberl  v,  fresh 

Northwest,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Northerly,  fi  esh 

Northerly,  light 

Sout  beast,  li  ght 

Northeast,  litjht 

Northwest,  fresh 

Westerly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Westony,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Snowiug  all  day. 
Clear 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  snow  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Mostly  cloudy. 
Rain  a.  m. 
Kain  10  a.  m. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 
Clear. 

Sums  . . . 

950 

960 

Means  . . 

8 

20.73 

33.93 

34.29 

THE   ATLANTIC    SALMON.  527 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  BucJcsport,  $c. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remarks. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.  m. 

7  a.  m. 

1  p.m. 

1875. 

Mar.     1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

—  2 
19 

2 
9} 

—  3 
27 
33 
22 
1(54 
274 
33 
33 
27 
11 
31^ 
33 
334 
15 
12J 
12 
H 

Hi 

10 
4 
29J 
17J 
35 
31 
84 
17 
28 

17 

20 

214 

194 

32 

40 

40 

31 

374 

34 

41 

39i 

41" 

41 

424 

374 

394 

21 

25 

18 

28 

18 

22 

32 

314 

39 

47 

37 

41 

43 

41 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

324 

324 

324 

324 

324 

324 

324 

324 

324 

324 

33 

324 

324 

324 

33 

33 

334 

33 

334 

334 

334 

33 

33 

334 

33 

334 

33i 

334 

34 

334 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

334 

334 

334 

334 

334 

34 

Westerly,  li<rht 

Northeast,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Easterly,  fresh 

Easterly,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Nortlieast,  light 

Southerly,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Variable,  light 

Easterly,  light 

.  .do    

Mostly  cloudy. 

Cloudy. 

Clear  a.  m.;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Snow. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Cloudy  ;  snow  in  p.  m. 

Cloudy. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Cloudy  ;  snow  at  4  p.  m. 

Snowing  all  day. 

Mostly  clear. 

Snow  a.  m.;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Clear. 

Do. 
Cloudy. 

Do. 

Southwest,  light 

Northwest,  fresh. 

..do 

Clear. 
Do. 
Do. 

Easterly,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  snow  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Do. 

do             

Do. 

Southerly,  fresh 

Northeast,  fresh 

Southwest,  light 

do 

Clear  till  10  a.  m. ;  snow  in  p.  m. 
Snowing  all  day. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  hazy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Southerly,  light 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Sums  . . . 

569 

1018 

1016.  5 

1032 

• 

Means . . 

19.23 

32.84 

32. 79 

33.29 

528        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FJSH    AND    FISHERIES. 
Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  <fe. — Continued. 


Temperature. 

Wind. 

Date. 

Air  at  H.  H. 

Water  at  H.  H. 

Remarks. 

7  a.  m. 

1p.m. 

7a.m. 

1  p.m. 

1S75. 
April  1 
2 
3 

35 
35 
40 
35 

344 

284 

22J 

25 

264 

38 

41J 

29 

304 

284 

31 

404 

434 

27 

25 

19 

21 

314 

39 

41 

42 

41 

33 

31 

29 

38 

374 

47 

43 

38 

35 

36 

35 

46 

43 

48 

39 

38 

35 

40 

45 

44 

414 

37i 

37 

29 

334 

45 

55 

60 

564 

49 

48 

47 

52 

484 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33 

33* 

334 

334 

334 

334 

334 

334 

334 

35 

36 

36 

364 

38 

39 

384 

334 

34 

34 

33 

33 

33 

334 

334 

344 

34 

34 

344 

34 

34 

344 

34i 

344 

35 

354 

354 

35 

39 

41 

411 

42 

40 

424 

44 

44 

43 

Southerly,  fresh 

Southerly,  light 

do 

Cloudy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  mostly  cloudy  p.  m. 

Cloudy  and  rain. 

4 
5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northerly,  light 

do 

Rain  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Snow  a.  m. ;  partly  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Clear  a.  in. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Mostly  clear. 
Squalls. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 
Partly  clear. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Cloudy. 

Rain  a.  m. ;  mostly  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

11 
12 

13 
14 
15 
10 

17 

Northerly,  light 

Easterly,  light 

Northeast,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southeast,  light 

do 

13 
19 

Northerly,  light 

do 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northeast,  light 

Northerly,  light 

Northwest,  light 

Westerly,  light . .     ... 

Northerly,  fresh 

Northeast,  light 

Northwest,  fresh 

Northeast,  light 

Southwest,  light 

Southerly,  fresh 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  snow  p.  m. 
Snow  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Cloudy  a.  m. ;  clear  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  hazy  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Mostly  clouds. 

Sums  . . . 

982 

1289 

1022 

1094 

Means  . . 

32.73 

42.97 

34.07 

36.47 

THE    ATLANTIC    SALMON.  529 

Table  IX. — Observations  on  temperature  at  Bucksport,  $& — Continued. 


Temperature. 

AiratH.H. 

WateratH.H. 

Water  at 
pond. 

Date. 

a 

a 

a 

a 

7  a.  in. 

a 

o 

a 

& 

rt 

Ch 

~ 

t- 

^H 

1- 

r* 

m 

M 

1875. 

May  1 

40 

52 

38* 

43 

39 

39 

o 

37* 

39* 

39 

39 

39 

:!!i 

3 

36 

47 

38* 

41 

39 

39 

4 

41 

52* 

39 

42* 

39 

39 

5 

39 

53 

39 

43* 

40 

40 

6 

43* 

58 

41 

45 

42 

41* 

7 

44 

61 

42* 

50 

44 

43 

8 

44* 

54* 

45 

48* 

46 

45 

9 

39 

41.', 

45 

46 

46* 

45 

10 

42 

50 

45* 

47 

47 

46 

11 

42 

61 

46 

54 

47 

46 

13 

46 

57.1- 

49 

51 

49* 

48 

13 

46 

61 

49 

57 

50 

49 

14 

45 

671 

51* 

59 

53 

49* 

IS 

48 

49 

52 

53 

53 

50 

ic> 

46 

45 

52 

52 

53 

50 

17 

42 

57 

51 

56 

51 

51 

18 

41 

59* 

51* 

57 

53 

51* 

19 

43 

49 

51 

53 

51* 

51* 

20 

45 

46 

51 

53 

514 

51* 

21 

4!) 

66 

51 

57.( 

51* 

51* 

22 

50J 

69 

53 

58* 

54 

52 

23 

55 

63* 

55* 

09 

55* 

54* 

24 

51 

64 

56* 

61 

57* 

54 

25 

58 

75 

57 

64 

58* 

57 

26 

61* 

74 

61* 

69 

62 

57* 

27 

54 

0* 

61 

67 

61* 

00 

28 

54 

68* 

60 

67 

61* 

61 

29 

58* 

67* 

61 

67 

62 

61 

30 

50 

62 

59* 

63 

61 

60* 

31 

55 

63 

59* 

65* 

61 

60* 

Sums  . . . 

1447 

1802 

1552.  5 

1699 

1580 

1544 

Means  . . 

40.68 

58.13 

49.  74 

54.80 

50.  97 

50.13 

Northerly,  light. 
Southeast,  light. 
Westerly,  fresh  . 
Northerly,  light. 
Variable,  light  . . 
Southerly,  light  . 
Variable,  light  .. 
Southerly,  light. 

...do  .... 

...do 

Southwest,  fresh 

...do  

Northwest,  fresh 
Southwest,  light 
Southeast,  light. 
Northeast,  light. 
Northerly,  fresh 
Northeast,  fresh 
Easterly,  light  .. 
Southerly,  fresh. 
Northerly,  fresh 
Southwest,  light 
Northerly,  light. 
Southwest,  fresh 
Southwest,  light 
Northwest,  fresh 
Northerly,  fresh 

...do  

Variable,  fresh.. 
Southerly,  light. 
Variable,  light  .. 


Remarks. 


Partly  cloudy. 

Rainy. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Mostly  clear  a.  m.;  cloudy  p.m. 

Clear  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Partly  clear  a.m.;  cloudy  p.m. 

Clear. 

Ilazj-  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 

Raiiiing  all  day. 

Cloudy. 

Clear. 

Mostly  cloudy. 

Clear. 

Po. 
Rainy  from  9  a.  m. 
Rainy  a.  m. ;  cloudy  p.  m. 
Clear. 
Hazy. 
Rainy. 

Cloudy  a.  m. ;  rain  p.  m. 
Clear. 

Do. 

Do. 
Clear. 
Hazy. 
Clear. 

Do. 
Clear. 
Cloudy. 

Do. 
Mostly  clear. 


>4  v 


530 


EEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


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THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  531 


B— THE    SALMON   OF   LAKE  CHAMPLALN  AND  ITS   TRIBU- 

T  ARIES. 

By  W.  C.  Watson. 

Sir:  I  take  great  pleasure  in  complying  with' your  request  "to  pre- 
pare a  paper  on  the  salmon  of  Lake  Champlain  and  its  tributaries".  I 
fear,  however,  that  I  shall  not  succeed  in  furnishing  anything  novel  or 
interesting,  or  add  essentially  to  the  views  I  have  already  published. 

1.  — ABUNDANCE  OF  THE  SALMON  IN  EARLY  TIMES. 

Since  the  receipt  of  your  favor,  I  have  sedulously  tried  to  trace  old 
residents,  from  whom  1  might  derive  some  new  facts  or  incidents,  illus- 
trating the  prevalence  of  the  salmon  at  the  early  stages  of  the  settle- 
ment of  the  region,  or  for  observations  disclosing  fresh  or  unfamiliar 
traits  in  their  habits.  My  efforts  have  been  attended  with  only  trifling 
success.  When  I  first  engaged  in  the  investigation  of  this  interesting 
subject,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  I  secured  information  from 
many  persons,  whose  recollections  extended  almost  to  the  period  when 
the  fisheries  of  the  country  were  in  their  normal  condition,  or  of  those 
who  had  received  traditions  of  the  salmon  from  their  immediate  ancestors, 
which  imparted  much  valuable  intelligence.  I  garnered  up  from  such 
sources  many  important  facts;  but  now,  when  I  attempt  to  renew 
these  inquiries,  I  find  that  few  of  that  class  of  persons  remain,  and  that 
the  field  of  research  is  very  limited. 

One  fact,  which  is  fully  established  in  the  traditions  of  the  salmon-fish- 
eries, has,  I  conceive,  important  bearing  on  the  scheme  in  which  you  are 
so  deeply  and  efficiently  interested,  and  presents  most  favorable  auguries 
of  the  success  of  the  undertaking.  I  refer  to  the  wonderful  exuberance 
of  this  fish  when  the  country  was  first  occupied.  I  base  the  opinion 
upon  the  idea  that  this  exuberance  indicates  that  the  locality  was  conge- 
nial to  their  habits,  and  that  they  were  attracted  to  these  haunts  by 
peculiar  causes.  I  will  venture  to  suggest  a  few  speculations  on  the  sub- 
ject, although  they  may  appear  crude  and  unphilosophical  to  your  great 
experience  and  attainments. 

I  believe  tbat  no  other  waters,  not  even  the  tributaries  of  the  Onion,* 
ever  exhibited  so  extraordinary  a  copiousness  of  these  fish — and  certainly 
they  could  not  have  exceeded  it — as  they  appeared  to  the  occupants  of 
the  Champlain  Valley  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  and  early  in 
the  nineteenth.  The  natural  causes  are  very  obvious  which  produced  this 
result,  and  among  them  a  few  circumstances  may  be  indicated.  Lake 
Champlain  was  readily  accessible  to  the  salmon  from  the  ocean  by  the  way 
of  the  Saint  Lawrence  and  Sorelle  or  Richelieu  Rivers,  and  was  also  com- 
paratively contiguous  to  the  cold  northern  seas.  The  streams  emptying 
into  the  lake  have  generally  a  short  course,  and  usually  with  long  reaches 

*  Now  called  Wiuooski  River. 


532         REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  gravelly  bottoms,  are  rapid  iu  their  currents,  and  start  from  cool  lakes 
and  ponds,  and  in  their  passages  at  that  time  were  largely  fed  by  cold 
springs,  and  shielded  in  their  whole  progress  by  the  canopying  of  heavy 
umbrageous  trees  and  bushes,  which  effectually  shielded  them  from  the 
influence  of  the  sun's  rays  and  the  warm  air.  A  coolness  of  the  water  not 
exceeding  probably  45°,  a  temperature  so  delightful  to  the  salmon,  was 
thus  maintained.  Each  of  these  qualities  of  the  streams,  impetuosity 
of  the  current,  a  gravelly  bottom,  a  low  temperature,  to  which  may  be 
added  great  purity,  is  a  condition  of  nature  eminently  attractive  to  the 
salmon.  They  enjoyed  repose  and  impunity  amid  the  utter  silence  and 
seclusion  they  loved.  They  were  not  hunted  by  the  ruthless  sportsman, 
or  even  disturbed  by  the  spears  and  nets  of  the  Indian.  They  had  easy 
and  safe  access  to  their  favorite  breeding-grounds.  When  Champlaiu 
entered  the  lake  iu  1G09,  he  found  its  shores  unpeopled  and  silent.  The 
smoke  of  not  a  single  wigwam  arose  in  the  atmosphere  on  either  shore. 
The  bloody  and  perpetual  incursions,  along  the  common  highway  it 
afforded,  of  the  Mohawks  and  Algonquins  in  their  reciprocal  attacks, 
had  driven  the  savages  that  once  inhabited  the  beautiful  territory  into 
the  recesses  of  the  interior  for  security.  The  region  bordering  on  the 
lake  was  a  scene  of  total  desolation,  and  continued  iu  that  condition  to 
the  middle  of  the  succeeding  century,  and  was  but  sparsely  occupied 
until  near  its  close.  In  the  view  I  have  embraced,  this  aspect  of  nature 
rendered  the  lake  and  its  affluents  singularly  adapted  to  the  habits  of 
the  salmon,  and  attracted  them  in  the  remarkable  abundance  which  we 
shall  see  did  exist. 

The  fact  of  the  exuberance  of  the  salmon  in  these  waters  when  the 
environs  were  first  occupied  by  civilized  man  is  established  by  the  most 
ample  and  satisfactory  testimony,  and  appears  to  me  worthy  of  perpetua- 
tion, as  interesting  in  its  relation  to  natural  history,  and  as  calculated 
to  aid  and  illustrate  the  future  researches  of  the  student  of  nature. 

The  first  historic  notice  of  the  prevalence  of  salmon  in  the  region,  I 
think,  appears  in  the  correspondence  between  William  Gilliland,  the 
pioneer  of  the  Champlaiu  Valley,  and  Arnold,  who  was  cruising  on  the 
lake  with  the  American  flotilla  iu  the  summer  of  1776.  His  letter 
states  that  on  a  single  occasion  Gilliland  had  presented  seventy-five 
salmon  to  a  petty-officer  of  Arnold,  and  asked  the  services  of  the  ship's 
carpenters  to  repair  his  "salmon-crib  and  apparatus,  which  had  been 
carried  away  by  a  great  flood  ".  He  also  affirms,  in  a  memorial  to  Con- 
gress in  1777,  that  he  "  had  complimented  the  American  Army  with 
fifteen  hundred  salmon  in  one  year  ".  When  the  writer  first  became  a 
resident  of  the  district  in  1824,  many  of  the  original  settlers  of  the 
country  were  yet  living,  who  were  men  of  respectability  and  position, 
and  of  undoubted  veracity.  Their  tales  of  the  abundance  of  the  salmon 
which  prevailed  at  that  time  demanded  lor  their  acceptance  an  exercise 
of  the  strongest  faith  in  the  truthfulness  of  the  narrators.  Coming 
from  the  unimpeachable  sources  they  did,  and  corroborated  by  uniform 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  533 

traditions  and  the  current  of  universal  testimony  by  actual  observers  or 
participants  of  the  incidents,  there  was  no  hesitation  in  receiving  the 
statements  as  authentic  and  true.  I  have  heard  the  account  from  several 
of  these  individuals  that  when  they  immigrated  many  streams  were  so 
thronged  by  the  salmon  that  it  was  unsafe  at  particular  seasons  to  ride 
a  spirited  horse  into  them,  for  the  reason  that  the  fish  were  so  abundant 
and  bold  that  they  would  fearlessly  approach  the  horse  and  strike  him 
with  great  force  by  the  powerful  muscular  action  of  their  bodies.  It 
was  often  represented  that  it  was  a  common  pastime,  as  well  as  a  most 
desirable  means  of  obtaining  food  at  that  time,  to  drive  a  team  into 
some  of  the  shallow  tributaries  of  the  river,  and  from  the  wagon  spear 
the  salmon  with  pitchforks,  and  thus  obtain  in  a  few  minutes  all  the  fish 
needed  for  consumption.  Many  of  the  salmon  taken  in  this  primitive 
method  would  reach  twenty  pounds  in  weight. 

Among  the  various  persons  from  whom  I  have  received  interesting 
information  in  aid  of  my  inquiries,  I  am  particularly  indebted  to  Silas 
Arnold,  esq.,  of  Eeeseville,  for  seveial  facts  which  were  communicated 
to  him  by  his  father,  Hon.  Elisha  Arnold.  This  gentleman  was  one  of 
the  earliest  prominent  settlers,  and  subsequently  attained  high  social 
and  political  standing  in  the  district.  Among  these  incidents,  Mr. 
Arnold  recalls  the  following  circumstauce,  which  coming  from  so  intel- 
ligent and  reliable  an  authority  amply  corroborates  the  almost  incredible 
traditions  of  the  former  copious  prevalence  of  the  salmon  in  these  waters. 
About  the  year  1800,  or  possibly  a  year  or  two  previous,  at  any  rate 
it  was  at  so  early  a  period  in  the  occupation  of  the  country  that  the  path- 
way through  the  woods,  leading  from  the  residence  of  Judge  Arnold, 
situated  near  the  center  of  the  present  town  of  Peru,  to  Plattsburgh, 
was  marked  by  a  series  of  blazed  trees.  As  he  was  proceeding  to  the 
latter  place,  in  fording  the  Little  An  Sable,  a  small  shallow  stream,  near 
itsmouth,  the  passage  of  his  wagon  was  largely  impeded  by  the  throng  of 
salmon  which  was  in  the  stream,  and  he  readily  caught  and  threw  upon 
the  bank  all  he  wished  to  take. 

Mr.  Arnold  has  called  my  attention  to  a  familiar  fact,  which  is  ob- 
served among  all  gregarious  fishes,  and  is  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the 
salmon  family,  and  tends  to  relieve  the  marvelous  tales  of  the  early 
exuberance  in  the  Champlain  region  of  the  salmon  from  their  incredible 
aspect.  He  says  that  they  ascended  the  streams  in  shoals,  or  schools, 
which  intermitted  in  their  progress,  and  that  the  flow  of  the  fishes  was 
not  constant  or  continuous  as  might  be  inferred  by  the  language  of  the 
traditions ;  that  when  encountered  in  the  vast  masses  so  often  described, 
they  were  passing  a  particular  locality,  consolidated  in  one  of  these 
shoals,  or  schools. 

Mr.  Oscar  F.  Sheldon,  formerly  of  Willsborough,  Essex  County,  com- 
municated to  me  a  record,  which  he  deems  perfectly  authentic,  of  five 
hundred  salmon  being  taken  in  a  single  afternoon  early  in  the  present 
century,  from  the  river  Bouquet.    The  Bouquet  is  a  tributary  of  Lake 


534       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Champlain,  and  may  be  regarded  almost  as  an  estuary  up  to  the  falls, 
a  distance  of  about  three  miles,  and  is  navigable  to  that  point  by  ves- 
sels of  light  draught.  It  was  therefore  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  habits 
of  the  salmon,  and  beyond  the  falls  I  thiuk  they  could  not  penetrate. 

The  record  of  the  circumstance  of  capturing  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of 
salmon  in  the  year  1823,  at  a  single  haul  of  the  seine,  near  Port  Kendall, 
iu  the  town  of  Chesterfield,  in  the  county  of  Essex,  was  said  to  have  been 
among  the  papers  of  Levi  Highby,  esq.,  in  1852.  -lie  was  a  man  of  high 
character,  and  was,  I  understood,  an  actor  iu  the  achievement.  This  fact 
isnotonly  memorable  for  the  extraordinary  quantity  of  the  fish  taken,  but 
it  also  illustrates  the  singularly  erratic  and  inscrutable  habits  of  the  sal- 
mon. Iu  all  my  investigations  on  the  subject,  this  is  theonly  instance  that 
I  have  learned  of  the  salmon  being  taken  in  any  great  quantities  except 
from  the  rivers  and  their  branches.  The  facts  connected  with  this  incident 
seem  to  claim  some  attention,  as  calculated  to  throw  a  little  light  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  fish.  Between  the  Bouquet  and  Au  Sable  Rivers,  no  stream  of 
any  magnitude  enters  the  lake  except  the  brook  that  debouches  at  Port 
Kendall.  This  brook  plunges  over  a  sheer  precipice  of  at  least  forty  feet, 
directly  into  the  waters  of  the  lake,  without  any  or  scarcely  any  space  in- 
tervening. The  immense  catch  of  salmon  recorded  could  not  therefore 
have  been  taken  while  they  were  attempting  to  reach  their  spawning- 
grounds,  but  were  found  near  the  shore,  although  in  the  open  waters  of 
the  lake.  They  must  necessarily  wander  through  the  lake  in  schools; 
but  this  is  the  only  case  which  I  have  been  able  to  trace  where  they  have 
been  captured  except  in  streams  or  in  the  act  of  entering  into  them. 

These  facts,  which  might,  I  think,  be  accumulated  by  a  large  cata- 
logue of  similar  incidents,  are  sufficient,  in  my  judgment,  to  sustain  the 
proposition  that  the  waters  and  the  tributaries  of  Lake  Champlain  were 
teeming  at  a  former  epoch  with  salmon  to  an  extraordinary,  if  not  un- 
exampled, extent. 

2. — THE   DISAPPEARANCE   OF   THE   SALMON,   AND   ITS   CAUSES. 

Unhappily,  another  fact,  alike  regretted  by  the  sportsman  and  the 
political  economist,  is  equally  clear — the  total  disappearance  for  many 
past  years  of  this  prince  of  fishes  from  all  the  region.  An  event  of  such 
importance  has  elicited  much  inquiry  and  speculation,  but  it  still 
remains  a  problem  that  will  probably  never  receive  a  satisfactory 
solution.  Various  theories  iu  regard  to  the  agencies  which  have 
caused  this  singular  revolution  have  been  suggested  and  may  claim 
investigation.  If  any  physical  condition  of  the  country,  or  the  waters,  or 
their  channels,  formed  allurements  that  attracted  the  salmon,  the  decay 
or  removal  of  these  conditions  would  necessarily  dispel  such  attractions, 
and  tend  to  the  abandonment  of  the  region  by  the  fish.  I  have  referred 
to  the  uncommon  repose  and  seclusion,  even  in  a  wilderness  region,  that 
marked  the  borders  of  the  lake,  as  one  explanation  of  the  original 
exuberance  of  salmon  in  these  tranquil  scenes.     The  first  occupation  of 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  535 

the  country  began  to  disturb  that  repose ;  and,  as  the  population 
increased,  the  solitude  and  quiet  of  the  fish  were  more  and  more  invaded, 
until  ultimately  the  clangor  of  machinery,  the  tumult  of  business,  and, 
with  far  greater  effect  than  all  the  rest,  the  jarring  of  the  engines  of 
steamboats  and  their  fierce  disturbance,  expelled  the  salmon  from  their 
ancient  and  loved  haunts. 

In  regard  to  the  effect  of  steamboats  on  the  salmon-fishery,  the  Hon. 
Thomas  B.  Watson,  of  Peru,  Clinton  County,  communicates  to  me  the 
following  statements,  which  he  received  from  an  aged  man  whose  whole 
life  has  been  devoted  to  fishing.  He  says  that  the  salmon  run  from  the 
lake  into  the  rivers  daring  the  night,  and  that  he  has  frequently  seen 
them,  when  a  steamer  was  merely  crossing  the  mouth  of  a  stream,  so 
excited  by  alarm  and  panic  at  the  noise  and  agitation  as  to  rush  im- 
petuously over  a  shallow  bar  into  the  deep  water  of  the  lake.  The  same 
person  informed  Judge  Watson  that  the  opinion  prevailed  among  old 
fishermen,  when  the  decadence  of  the  salmon-supply  first  began  to  be 
observed,  that  it  was  caused  by  their  disturbance  on  the  Richelieu  River 
from  the  steamboats ;  and,  in  support  of  this  idea,  he  said  that  he  was 
engaged  in  1838  in  capturing  between  fifty  and  sixty  salmon  in  the  Au 
Sable  River,  and  that  no  salmon  had  appeared  in  that  stream  for  the 
fifteen  preceding  years,  and  by  a  singular  coincidence,  which  confirmed 
in  their  minds  this  theory,  the  only  steamer  plying  on  the  Richelieu  had 
been  burned  the  same  season.  However  correct  may  be  this  conclusion, 
any  impediment  or  disturbance  which  may  have  existed  in  that  narrow 
and  shallow  stream  may  be  enumerated  among  the  possible  causes  of 
the  expulsion  of  salmon  from  the  lake.  That  all  fishes  (and  the  fact 
may  be  exhibited  especially  in  a  family  so  sensitive  and  shy  in  its 
nervous  organization  as  the  salmon)  are  frightened  from  their  haunts  by 
noise  and  agitation  has  been  sufficiently  demonstrated  on  Lake  Cham- 
plain  in  the  recent  construction  of  the  New  York  and  Canada  Railroad. 
This  work  was  attended  by  heavy  explosions  near  the  waters,  which  fish 
had  been  accustomed  to  frequent  in  great  copiousness.  I  have  under- 
stood that  immediately  afterward  these  resorts  were  generally,  at  least 
for  the  time,  abandoned  by  the  fish.  The  quiet  the  salmon  constitution- 
ally delights  in  and  its  sense  of  security  have  been  invaded,  with  con- 
sequences still  more  effective,  by  another  agency,  which  became  aug- 
mented by  the  increase  of  population.  I  refer  to  the  persistent  and 
inexorable  hunting  that  not  only  assailed  them  by  the  net  and  the  jack- 
light  and  spear,  but  pursued  them  to  their  gravelly  beds  and  breeding- 
grounds,  and  there  not  only  ruthlessly  slaughtered  the  mothers  and 
millions  of  the  embryo,  but  drove  innumerable  multitudes  in  panic  and 
alarm  from  the  waters,  probably  never  to  return  to  their  former  haunts. 

Another  reason  may  be  assigned,  and  I  conceive  with  much  force,  for 
the  salmon  relinquishing  localities  which  were  once  their  favorite 
reports.  They  love,  as  I  have  stated,  to  seek  cool  waters,  and  this  grati- 
fication they  attained  in  the  normal  condition  of  the  region ;  but  when 


53 G        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

in  the  progress  of  improvement  "  the  forests  primeval"'  that  embowered 
the  streams,  and  aided  in  imparting  a  delightful  coolness  to  the  waters, 
were  removed,  and  the  waters  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air, 
while  the  cold  spriugs  that  fed  them  were  desiccated,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  was  raised  higher  than  to  be  congenial  to  the  habits  of  the 
salmon.  This  condition  may  be  discerned  in  nearly  every  stream  that 
flows  into  the  lake.  Another  qualification  of  the  water  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  comfort  and  enjoyment  of  the  salmon  is  that  it  should  be 
pure,  and,  in  the  words  of  Judge  Watson,  "  highly  aerated".  The  rapid 
erection  of  saw-mills,  until  they  occupied  almost  every  water-power,  lit- 
erally extinguished  in  almost  every  stream  this  native  condition.  The 
sawdust  stained  and  polluted  the  water,  and  the  sediments  and  debris 
of  the  mills  settled  largely  on  the  gravelly  bottoms,  which  had  been  so 
alluring  to  the  salmon,  changed  their  character,  and  revolted  the  cleanly 
habits  of  the  fish.  Mr.  Arnold  mentions  another  effect  from  this  cause, 
which  may  have  exerted  a  greater  influence.  He  has  observed,  in  his 
own  experience,  that  the  sawdust  with  which  the  water  was  charged 
was  necessarily  inhaled  by  the  fish  with  the  fluid,  and  that  particles  of 
it  were  not  ejected,  but  remained  adhering  to  the  gills.  This  mechanical 
effect  must  have  produced  annoyance  to  the  creature,  with  succeeding 
suffering  and  possible  death. 

The  most  formidable  and  indeed  insuperable  obstacle  to  the  ascent 
of  the  salmon  were  the  innumerable  dams  constructed  on  almost  all  the 
streams  near  their  mouths.  These  were  usually  of  a  perpendicular 
height  so  great  as  to  utterly  repel  the  attempts  of  the  fish  to  overcome 
them.  This  cause  of  the  disappearance  of  the  salmon  is  so  paramount 
and  obvious  that  the  discussion  of  any  other  would  be  superfluous  were 
it  not  that  it  seems  appropriate  in  a  paper  like  this  to  present  every 
possible  view  of  the  question  before  us,  and  for  the  very  conclusive  rea- 
son that  several  streams,  of  which  the  Au  Sable  Eiver  is  a  striking 
instance,  that  have  equally  suffered  with  the  others  from  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  salmon,  have  never  impeded  the  run  of  the  fish  by  dams  or 
any  other  artificial  obstruction.  Had  the  advent  of  the  salmon  in  the 
rivers  been  coincident  with  the  season  of  high  water,  their  ascent  of 
these  impediments  would  have  been  immensely  facilitated,  but  their  run 
was  precisely  at  the  usual  occurrence  of  the  lowest  flow  of  the  streams. 
The  volume  of  water  was  almost  totally  exhausted  by  the  flumes,  and  at 
times  scarcely  trickling  over  the  apron  of  the  dam,  without  furnishing 
any  supply  to  the  slopes  or  sluices  constructed  in  accordance  with  the 
statute.  The  popular  excitement  became  at  length  so  deeply  inflamed 
by  acts  which  were  then  regarded  as  encroachment  on  public  immuni- 
ties that  the  grand  jury  of  Clinton  County,  New  York,  were  impelled, 
in  the  year  1819,  to  present  an  indictment  against  the  proprietors  of  the 
dam  erected  at  the  mouth  of  the  Saranac  Kiver  in  Plattsburgh.  The 
indictment,  among  other  averments,  alleged  that  previous  to  the  erec- 
tion of  this  dam  "  salmon  were  accustomed  to  pass,  and  actually  did 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  537 

pass,  from  Lake  Ghamplain  into  and  up  the  Saranac  Elver  for  a  distance 
of  twenty  miles;  *  *  *  that  before  the  dam  was  built  salmon  were 
seen  above  the  site;"  and  that  "after  it  was  built  many  were  caught  at 
the  foot  of  the  dam,  but  none  above  it;"'  "  that  salmon  begin  to  ascend 
the  river  from  the  lake  in  June  and  July,  but  largely  in  August 
and  September1'.  It  appeared  that  the  dam  was  fourteen  feet  high,  and 
the  sluice-way  forty  feet  long,  and  arranged  at  an  angle  of  30°. 

This  indictment  was  vehemently  pressed,  and  resulted  in  a  protracted 
and  bitter  trial  in  the  circuit  court.  It  was  calculated  to  open  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  habits  and  movements  of  the  salmon  in  connection 
with  that  particular  stream.  A  great  mass  of  witnesses,  embracing 
most  of  the  early  settlers  then  living,  were  introduced,  and,  had  the 
great  volume  of  testimony  taken  on  that  occasion  been  preserved,  we 
should  now  be  in  possession  of  all  the  essential  facts  and  incidents  neces- 
sary to  form  a  history  of  the  salmon-fishery  of  that  period  and  locality. 
Although  the  case  was  elaborately  argued  in  the  supreme  court  (John- 
sous  Eeports,  17,  page  195)  both  on  the  merits  and  the  law,  the  decision, 
which  was  in  favor  of  the  defendants,  unfortunately  rested  purely  on  legal 
and  technical  views,  and  we  have  but  slight  references  to  the  facts  in 
the  report.  We  detect,  however,  faint  glimmerings  of  the  evidence  in 
the  arguments  of  counsel.  It  seems  to  have  been  in  proof  that  the 
water  in  the  sluice-way  was  too  shallow  to  admit  the  passage  of  the  fish. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  one  point  of  Mr.  Walworth,  the  future  emi- 
nent chancellor,  as  counsel  for  the  defense,  and  evidently  based  on  some 
features  of  the  testimony,  was  that  "no  fish  visit  the  lake  from  the 
ocean ;  the  salmon  ascend  from  the  lake,  and  are  fresh-water  fish". 

And  it  appears  from  a  point  made  by  the  opposing  counsel  that  "the 
evidence  in  the  case  is  that  salmon  abounded  at  the  foot  of  the  dam, 
and  would  ascend  the  river  if  not  hindered  by  that  obstacle". 

We  may  perhaps  appropriately  refer,  as  a  subordinate  cause  of  these 
results,  to  the  depredations  of  other  fish  upon  the  salmon  by  assailing 
them  on  their  spawning-grounds,  destroying  the  ova,  killing  the  young 
fish  on  their  passage  to  the  sea,  and  frightening  the  salmon  from  their 
usual  haunts.  This  cause,  of  course,  always  existed,  but  circumstances 
might  have  stimulated  its  development. 

These  changes  in  the  physical  condition  of  the  region  seem  adequate 
to  producing  the  abandonment  by  the  salmon  of  the  Champlain  waters, 
but  they  were  eutirely  local.  The  eccentric  and  capricious  nature 
of  all  fish,  which  produces  many  strange  phases  in  their  movement, 
and  from  the  general  operation  of  which  the  salmon  is  not  ex- 
empt, may  be  referred  to  as  another  possible  cause  of  their  disap- 
pearance from  these  waters.  The  idea  is  probably  fanciful;  but  as  my 
purpose  is  to  unfold  the  whole  subject,  it  may  not  be  unworthy  of  a 
moments  inquiry.  Is  it  wholly  improbable  that  the  abandonment  of  the 
Champlain  waters  by  the  salmon  may  be  due  to  their  finding  more 
genial  resorts  and  fresh  and  more  attractive  feeding-grounds  ?  I  will 
venture  to  present  a  few  facts  in  support  of  this  suggestion.   During  my 


538        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

long  residence  on  the  borders  of  Lake  Champlain,  I  have  observed  that  a 
particular  kind  of  fish  will  occasionally,  through  several  successive 
seasons,  be  very  abundant;  that  the  supply  gradually  diminishes,  until, 
in  the  end,  they  nearly  disappear,  while  another  variety  becomes 
predominant,  rapidly  increases  as  the  first  decreases,  and  they  also 
pass  through  the  same  changes.  Tbe  smelt,  a  marine  fish,  was,  until, 
a  comparatively  recent  period,  almost  unknown  to  the  fishermen  of  the 
lake;  but  in  late  years  it  is  often  taken  in  vast  quantities  through  the 
ice,  while  in  some  seasons  it  is  rarely  seen.  Such,  also,  has  been  largely 
the  history  of  a  choice  fish  known  in  this  region  as  the  lake-shad. 

3. — TRAITS   OF    THE   SALMON. 

The  pertinacity  of  the  salmon  in  renewing,  after  repeated  failures, 
their  attempts  to  leap  up  falls  too  high  for  their  powers,  and  the  vast 
muscular  force  they  exhibited,  was  witnessed  by  the  settlers  with  equal 
worfder  and  admiration.  I  do  not  kuow  that  the  myth,  which  once 
prevailed  in  the  popular  faith  of  England  and  Scotland,  that  the  salmon 
taking  the  tail  in  its  mouth  formed  a  wheel  and  thus  rolled  up  the  cas- 
cade, ever  obtained  in  this  region ;  but  the  stories  of  tbe  pioneers 
and  old  fishermen  were  almost  equally  marvelous.  The  fish  ascended 
the  precipice  by  the  mere  exertion  of  physical  strength;  but  the  method 
which  it  is  said  they  adopted  to  secure  a  safe  descent  reveals  a  wonder- 
ful instinct  or  a  rare  exercise  of  sagacity  and  intelligence.  They  were 
accustomed,  it  is  related,  to  approach  very  near  the  verge  of  a  fall,  and 
instead  of  allowing  themselves  to  be  precipitated  headlong  or  rolled 
sideways  down  the  current,  with  the  imminent  peril  of  being  dashed  upon 
the  rocks  below  or  drowned,  they  would  deliberately  turn  their  tails 
toward  the  cascade  and  by  the  vigorous  action  of  their  fins  and  motion 
of  their  bodies  would  maintain  their  position  and  be  borne  safely  down 
the  obstacle. 

The  progress  of  the  salmon  in  their  annual  migration  from  the  sea  to 
the  tributaries  of  the  lake  seems  to  have  been  singularly  slow  and 
methodical.  Instead  of  diffusing  themselves  at  once  and  promiscuously 
through  the  lake,  the  advance  from  the  north  was  apparently  controlled 
by  a  system  or  some  law  of  instinct.  The  old  fishermen  all  concur  in 
the  recollection  that  a  considerable  interval,  varying  in  their  statements 
from  one  week  to  a  month,  always  occurred  between  the  time  of  arrival 
of  the  fish  in  the  Saranac  and  their  appearance  in  the  Au  Sable, 
although  the  mouths  of  these  streams  are  only  separated  by  a  space  of 
about  twelve  miles.  Incidents  in  the  habits  of  the  salmon,  which  came 
under  my  personal  observation  more  than  fifty  years  ago,  expose  some 
traits  which  possibly  may  be  regarded  in  the  measures  in  progress  to 
rehabilitate  the  streams  with  these  fish.  A  high  bridge  spanned  the 
Saranac,  near  its  mouth,  in  the  village  of  Plattsburgh;  a  massive  dam 
stood  a  few  rods  above,  as  it  did  at  the  commencement  of  the  century ; 
on  the  west  end  of  the  dam,  the  statutory  trough  or  slope  had  been 
constructed,  and  on  the  opposite  end  was  situated  a  large  saw-mill, 


THE  ATLANTIC  SALMON.  539 

which  discharged  a  strong  and  impetuous  volume  of  water  through  a 
race-way.  I  saw  schools  of  salmon  swimming  below  the  bridge,  and 
individuals  speared  from  it  at  a  height  of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet.  They 
seemed  to  be  wandering  in  confusion,  ascended  to  the  foot  of  the  dam 
and  returned,  paying  no  attention  to  the  sluice-way,  which  was  indeed 
impracticable  for  their  ascent  from  the  slight  supply  of  water  that 
passed  down  the  slope.  They  were  constantly  attracted  to  the  race- 
way, and  plunged  into  it  as  if  its  rushing  current  was  congenial  to  their 
habits,  or  perhaps  in  the  vain  hope  of  reaching  by  that  channel  their 
appropriate  breeding-grounds.  A  weir  was  built  in  tli is  race-way,  in 
which,  during  the  season,  salmon  were  daily  captured. 

4.— THE   AU  SAELE    RIVEE. 

The  contemplated  scope  of  this  paper  does  not  embrace  any  notice  of 
the  policy  which  has  been  initiated  for  restoring  salmon  to  the  waters 
of  this  region ;  but  I  will  venture  to  express  a  regret  that  the  experi- 
ment was  not  extended  to  the  An  Sable  Eiver.  The  reasons  for  this  view 
will  best  appear  from  a  brief  notice  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  stream  and 
the  salmon-fishery  connected  with  it.  It  will  be  seen  that  it  retains, 
more  than  any  other  tributary  of  the  lake,  its  original  qualities  and 
conditions. 

The  river  measures  from  the  lake  to  a  high  vertical  fall,  which  was 
never  surmounted  by  the  salmon,  a  distance  of  about  six  miles.  Nearly 
one-half  of  this  space  is  below  the  chasm,  and  occupied  by  heavy  rapids 
or  gentler  ripples,  with  occasional  short  ranges  of  slackwater.  A  placid 
and  deep  pool  lies  immediately  at  the  foot  of  the  chasm,  where  the 
water  seems  to  rest  after  its  turbulent  passage  through  the  gorge. 
Above  this  point,  the  water  rushes  with  impetuous  violence,  and  in  part 
of  its  course  is  compressed  within  a  narrow  natural  canal,  where  a 
human  foothold  cannot  be  maintained  for  a  moment,  and  which  no  fish 
but  the  salmon  could  ascend.  In  the  short  space  between  this  canal 
and  the  falls,  the  stream  somewhat  expands  and  although  rapid  is  less 
vehement  than  below.  Through  its  whole  course,  with  brief  intervals, 
it  is  overshadowed  by  masses  of  trees  and  thick  bushes,  or  it  leaps  and 
roars  beneath  lofty  precipices  that  cast  a  perpetual  shade,  where  the 
rays  of  the  sun  have  never  penetrated.  At  one  period,  the  whole  line  of 
the  river  above  this  fall  was  studded  with  saw-mills;  but  to-day  not  one 
of  any  magnitude  exists  within  twenty  miles  of  the  lake,  while  below  this 
point  no  dam  or  other  artificial  obstruction  has  ever  been  erected  on  the 
river.  Such  is  the  present  aspect  of  the  Au  Sable,  and  such  was  nearly 
its  condition  a  hundred  years  ago.  In  the  six  miles  I  have  described, 
it  is  as  quiet  and  secluded  as  it  is  possible  any  stream  can  be  in  the 
midst  of  a  populous  and  cultivated  territory.  The  remarkable  circum- 
stance to  which  I  have  adverted  of  the  appearance  of  the  salmon  in  the 
Au  Sable  River  in  the  year  1838,  and  long  after  they  had  abandoned  all 
the  waters  of  the  Champlain  system,  while  it  is  highly  significant  in 


540        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

several  respects,  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  point  we  are  examin- 
ing-. Were  they  allured  back  to  the  stream  by  its  peculiar  and  excep- 
tional condition  f  Were  they  an  advance-party  exploring  their  former 
haunts,  with  a  purpose  of  recolonization  by  their  tribe?  The  Au  Sable 
never  abounded  with  salmon  to  the  extent  that  characterized  other 
streams  in  the  vicinity.  No  tradition's  exist  of  its  having  teemed  with 
vast  schools  of  the  fish.  They  frequented  it,  however,  in  numbers  to 
make  the  fishery  highly  satisfactory.  The  salmon,  it  is  supposed,  left 
this  river  simultaneously  v.ith  their  abandonment  of  all  the  other 
tributaries  of  the  lake.  We  have  seen  that  no  dam  or  other  artificial 
obstruction  ever  existed  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  river,  and  therefore 
the  disappearance  of  the  fish  from  that  particular  stream  cannot  be  im- 
puted to  the  existence  of  any  of  these  impediments.  We  must  account 
for  this  result  on  some  different  theory.  Modern  improvement  has 
created  structures  over  the  Au  Sable  which  may  affect  the  successful 
introduction  of  the  salmon  into  the  stream.  The  New  York  and  Canada 
Railroad  crosses  the  river  not  far  from  its  mouth,  and  has  constructed 
a  bridge  over  both  the  branches,  which  form  a  delta  of  the  river.  The 
bridges  are  much  elevated  above  the  usual  level  of  the  water ;  I  have 
felt  apprehensive  that  these  structures  and  their  use  might  impair  the 
value  even  of  the  common  fisheries  on  the  stream.  The  hunting  of  the 
salmon  at  that  period  in  the  Au  Sable  was  by  unusual  methods  and 
specially  exciting.  An  aged  man  is  still  living  who  informed  Dr. 
George  F.  Bixby,  of  Plattsburgh,  that,  in  his  boyhood,  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  carrying  a  torch  or  jack-light  for  a  sportsman  to  spear  salmon 
in  this  stream,  and  that  they  killed  them,  often  weighing  twenty  pounds. 
They  would  descend  the  high  bank  and  enter  the  river  near  the  head  of 
the  natural  canal,  and,  wading  in  the  water  toward  the  fall,  fduud  the 
fish  lying  upon  the  bottom,  who,  either  dazzled  by  the  light  or 
careless  in  their  refuge,  would  allow  the  spearsman  to  approach  them 
sufficiently  near  to  strike.  He  represented  the  fish  as  appearing,  when 
the  torch-light  was  reflected  from  their  mottled  backs,  like  bunches  of 
hay  sunken  in  the  water. 

The  valued  correspondent  from  whom  I  have  frequently  quoted,  writes 
me  that  when  a  child  he  saw  a  man  sitting  in  a  boat  at  the  head  of  one 
of  the  rapids  I  have  described,  and  drawing  in  the  salmon  with  great 
rapidity  ;  that  he  cast  a  long  line  and  a  common  hook  baited  with  a 
piece  of  pork  into  the  rapids,  and  that  even  before  the  hook  touched 
the  water  the  fish  would  seize  it  with  the  eagerness  that  is  often  dis- 
played by  the  trout.  This  is  the  only  instance  that  my  inquiries  have 
disclosed  of  salmon  being  taken  in  these  waters  by  the  hook.  It  was  a 
common  sport,  fifty  years  ago,  to  seek  the  salmon  on  the  falls,  where 
they  were  speared  in  great  numbers,  as  they  attempted  to  leap  up  the 
precipice. 


APPENDIX    C. 


FISH-CTJLTUKE, 


RELATING   MORE  ESPECIALLY   TO 


SPECIES  OF   CYPRINIDzE. 


XXV -NOTES  ON  PISCICULTURE  IN  KIANGSI.' 


By  IT.  Kopsch. 


Fish-culture  Laving  attracted  rnucb  atteution  of  late  years  in  Europe 
and  America,  a  few  notes  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  conducted  in 
this  part  of  China  may  be  of  interest. 

It  is  well  known  that  "the  Chinese  have  long  bestowed  more  atten- 
tion on  pisciculture  than  any  other  nation,  and  with  them  it  is  truly  a 
branch  of  economy,  tending  to  the  increase  of  the  supply  of  food  and 
the  national  wealth — not  merely,  as  it  seems  to  have  been  among  the 
Romans,  an  appliance  of  the  luxury  of  the  great. 

"  The  art  of  breeding  and  fattening  fish  was  well  known  to  the  luxurious 
Romans,  and  many  stories  are  related  about  the  fanciful  flavors  which  were 
imparted  to  such  pet  fishes  as  were  chosen  for  the  sumptuous  banquets  of 
Lucullus,  Sergius  Orata,  and  others.  The  art  had  doubtless  been  bor- 
rowed from  the  ingenious  Chinese,  who  are  understood  to  have  prac- 
ticed the  art  of  collecting  fisli-eggs,  and  nursing  young  fish,  from  a  very 
early  period.  Fish  forms  to  the  Chinese  a  very  important  article  of 
diet,  and  from  the  extent  of  the  watery  territory  of  China,  and  the  quan- 
tities that  can  be  cultivated,  it  is  very  cheap.  The  plan  adopted  for 
procuring  fish-eggs  in  China  is  to  skim  off  the  impregnated  ova  from  the 
surface  of  the  great  rivers  at  the  spawning  season,  which  are  sold  for  the 
purpose  of  being  hatched  in  canals,  paddy-fields,  &c,  and  all  that  is 
necessary  to  insure  a  Large  growth  is  simply  to  throw  into  the  water  a 
few  yolks  of  eggs,  by  which  means  an  incredible  quantity  of  the  young 
fry  is  saved  from  destruction." 

Such  is  the  description  given  in  Chambers's  Encyclopedia,  of  pisci- 
culture in  China,  but  as  all  details  are  omitted,  it  is  proposed  to  supply 
a  few  from  observations  made  in  this  vicinity.  Fry-fishing  commences 
here  (Kiu-Kiang,  on  the  Yangtse)  about  the  middle  of  May,  and  lasts 
from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  The  preliminaries  for  this  kind  of  fishing  are 
not  numerous.  The  net,  which  is  of  coarse  gauze,  dyed  brown,  is  fixed 
on  its  proper  frame,  and  the  whole  cast  alongside  the  river-bank,  where 
there  is  a  moderate  current,  sufficient,  Lowever,  to  keep  the  net  in  posi- 
tion, and  to  sweep  the  fry  into  the  trap. 

A  single  frame  as  it  floats  upon  the  water  represents  our  letter  V,  and 
measures  about  15  feet  long,  and  S  feet  across  the  mouth.    The  net 

*  Land  and  Water,  XX,  No.  510,  October  30,  1875,  pp.  338-339. 


544        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

attached  to  it  is  submerged  about  a  foot,  thus  serving  to  collect  the  fry 
as  they  are  drifted  by  the  current  into  the  trap  at  the  end  of  the  frame. 
The  bottom  of  this  V-shaped  frame  is  not  closed  together,  a  little  space 
being  left  to  allow  the  spawn  to  pass  through  the  throat  of  the  net  leading 
into  the  trap,  which  floats  perpendicularly  and  to  prevent  its  collapsing; 
it  is  tied  to  splints  run  through  the  four  corners  of  its  frame,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  drawing  forwarded.* 

As  many  as  four  or  six  of  these  Y-shaped  frames  are  attached  to  a 
long  bamboo  moored  close  to  the  river-bank  in  rows  one  above  the 
other,  at  distances  of  from  15  to  20  feet  apart,  where  they  are  loft  all 
night  and  day. 

But  let  us  look  into  one  of  these  traps.  The  net-tender,  who  lives  in 
a  mat-hut  on  the  river-bank  hard  by,  or  in  the  sampan  (small  boat)  used 
to  visit  the  nets,  readily  gratifies  our  curiosity. 

Taking  an  ordinary-sized  rice-bowl,  he  dips  it  into  one  of  these  cages, 
which  it  should  be  noted  appear  to  require  emptying  every  hour,  and 
hands  us  about  a  quart  of  muddy  river- water,  perfectly  alive  with  wrig- 
gling, transparent-looking  fry,  measuring  from  an  eighth  to  two-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  length,  with  heads  and  eyes  greatly  out  of  proportion  to 
the  size  of  their  bodies.  Even  in  the  muddy  water  there  was  no  diffi- 
culty in  discerning  them,  as  one  would  be  led  to  suppose  from  Abbe 
Hue's  statement  "  that  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the  smallest  ani- 
malculce  with  the  naked  eye."  Experts  are  said  to  be  able  to  detect  the 
different  kinds  of  fry  as  soon  as  they  are  caught ;  but  as  they  would  be 
too  small  to  handle,  their  knowledge  would  be  of  little  practical  value. 
In  a  week  or  so  they  become  large  enough  to  distinguish  one  from  the 
other.  After  the  fry  are  collected  from  the  small  traps  they  are  put 
into  a  floating  reservoir  made  of  net,  exactly  like  the  trap  shown  in  the 
sketch,  but  much  larger  in  size,  where  they  are  kept  until  purchased 
for  conveyance  inland. 

Those  sold  for  breeding  in  the  neighborhood  are  carried  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  coolies  in  water-tight  baskets  to  the  ponds  and  lakes,  of  which 
there  are  a  great  number  in  this  circuit.  Along  the  Yangtse  fry,  is  sold 
by  the  jar  or  bowl,  according  to  the  quantity  of  fish  it  contains, 
and  from  five  to  six  hundred  cash  (equal  Is.  Sd.  to  2s.)  appears  to  be 
the  average  price  per  jar,  according  to  the  statement  of  the  boatmen. 

Most  of  the  fry  is  conveyed  inland  by  boats,  which  come  from  the  in- 
terior for  the  especial  purpose  of  loading  with  this  freight.  These  pecu- 
liar looking  craft  generally  hail  from  Kan  chow-fu,  a  large  town  to  the 
south  of  the  province,  on  the  Khan  River;  also  from  Kuei-hsi-hsieu,  in 
Kuanghism  department,  to  the  east  of  the  province ;  and  those  that 
load  here  generally  rendezvous  at  Kuan-pai-chia,  a  small  village  about  a 
mile  west  of  Kiu  Kiang,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river.  Tea-boats  are 
likewise  used  to  carry  fry,  but  not  so  extensively  as  those  from  Kau- 

*  Sketches  illustrating  tin;  article  were  forwarded  to  the  office  of  "  Land  ar>d  Water," 
London. 


NOTES    ON    PISCICULTURE    IN    KIANGSI.  545 

chow.    Foreign  residents  on  the  Yaugtse  are  too  well  acquainted  with 
the  craft  to  need  any  description. 

The  Kan-chow  boats,  or  yu-miao-chuan  (spawn-boats),  are  of  much 
larger  carrying  capacity,  and  measure  about  78  feet  long,  15  feet  beam, 
11  feet  from  bottom  to  top  of  mat-cover,  and  draw,  when  loaded,  from  3 
to  4  feet.  They  are  built  in  water-tight  compartments,  and  are  pro- 
pelled by  sails,  tracking,  or  yuloeing — that  is,  by  long  sculls  rigged  out 
about  18  inches  or  two  feet  from  either  side  of  the  boat,  on  outriggers, 
forward  of  the  mainmast,  and  worked  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  boat 
by  four  or  six  men  at  each  scull.  About  twenty  men  comprise  the 
boat's  crew,  who  also  attend  to  the  fish  in  turns,  their  wages  averaging 
2,000  cash  (equal  6s.  Sd.)  per  month,  with  food.  The  boats  are  worth 
from  450  to  500  taels  each  (£150  to  £167).  Their  cargoes  brought  to  this 
port  consist  chiefly  of  timber  (hewn  as  if  for  railway  sleepers),  wood 
for  making  coffins,  planks,  water-chestnuts,  water-chestnut  flour,  grass- 
cloth,  and  sundry  sweet-smelliug  flowers ;  probably  small  speculations 
of  the  crew,  such  as  Knei  hua  (Oleafragrans),  Moli-liua  (Jasminum),  Lan- 
hua  (Epideiidruni),  and  Taylaihsiang  (Stephanotis),  &c,  which  fetch  a 
good  price  here. 

But  as  several  of  these  boats  are  nearly  laden,  it  will  be  curious  to 
see  how  they  stow  their  freight.  From  the  bottom  boards  of  the  boat 
to  the  level  of  the  gunwale  we  find  the  holes  filled  with  red  earthen- 
ware jars  (made  of  flower-pot  clay),  each  measuring  18  inches  in  diam- 
eter and  12  inches  deep,  arranged  in  tiers,  one  above  the  other,  five 
high,  and  as  we  counted  eleven  jars  on  the  top  row  amidships  of  the 
two  tiers  put  into  a  compartment,  between  which  room  is  left  for  a  man 
to  pass,  we  may  roughly  estimate  one  hundred  jars  in  each  compart- 
ment, or  five  hundred  jars  in  the  five  sections  into  which  the  hold  is 
divided.  A  stout  plank,  about  5  inches  broad,  is  laid  across  the  wide- 
mouthed  jars  to  support  the  upper  ones,  and  to  spread  the  weight  more 
evenly,  but  the  plank  is  not  so  wide  as  to  interfere  with  the  bailing  out 
of  the  vessels.  The  jars  are  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  compartmeut 
by  a  little  splint  of  bamboo,  made  fast  to  an  eye  in  the  bulk-head,  and 
which  is  made  to  catch  under  the  unturned  rim  of  the  jar,  on  the  same 
principle  that  a  small-mouthed  vessel  is  lifted  by  a  piece  of  wood  being 
put  crosswise  into  the  opening.  To  strengthen  the  rim,  it  is  sometimes 
bound  round  with  a  bamboo  hoop.  On  the  upper  row  of  jars  another 
plank  is  laid  to  receive  the  water-tight  baskets,  which,  being  much 
lighter  than  the  jars,  are  placed  on  the  top,  and  piled  up  from  the  level 
of  the  gunwale  to  the  roof  of  the  boat.  The  baskets  are  securely 
lashed  to  poles  braced  athwart  the  boat  to  prevent  their  sliding  out  of 
position,  as  at  such  a  height  a  slight  knock  would  capsize  them,  although 
they  are  placed  in  a  wicker-stand  to  steady  them  and  ease  the  strain  on 
the  sides  of  the  baskets. 

As  the  number  of  these  baskets  appears  to  be  about  the  same  as  that 
of  the  jars,  we  have  a  total  of  say  one  thousand  jars  and  baskets  of 
35  f 


546       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

fry  in  one  boat.  After  all  the  internal  arrangements  are  completed  the 
fry  are  poured  into  the  jars  and  baskets,  and  when  all  are  full,  the  boat 
proceeds  on  her  voyage.  Kan-chow-fu,  as  I  have  remarked,  is  the  chief 
market  for  spawn,  but  much  of  it  finds  its  way  into  the  Canton,  Fo-kien, 
and  (Jhekiang  provinces,  when  it  has  to  be  carried  across  the  boundary 
range  of  mountains,  about  a  day's  journey,  before  gaining  the  water- 
ways of  the  neighboring  provinces. 

The  water  is  changed  day  and  night,  and  after  the  muddy  Yangtse 
and  Po-yang  Lake  have  been  left  the  young  fish  require  feeding, 
chopped  yolk  of  hard-boiled  egg  being  the  food  administered  to  them, 
with  a  certain  amount  of  bread  paste.  A  cargo  of  fry  is  estimated  to  be 
worth  from  400  to  500  taels  (£133  to  £167),  but  on  arrival  at  its  desti- 
nation realizes  fnlly  1,000  taels  or  £300,  the  fish  being  then  sold  at  so 
much  apiece  instead  of  by  the  jar. 

Eeliable  information  as  to  the  mortality  en  route  could  not  be  ascer- 
tained, but  all  agreed  that  it  was  considerable,  though  chiefly  dependent 
on  the  "  good  luck"  accompanying  the  boat.  The  distance  by  water  to 
Kan-chow  is  1,055  li  or  350  miles,  and  occupies  from  ten  to  fifteen  days, 
according  to  the  weather.  The  navigation  is  against  the  stream  all  the 
way  after  entering  the  Po-yang  Lake.  During  the  journey  the  fish  are 
separated  into  different  jars;  the  most  important  thing  to  be  observed 
is  to  keep  the  wild  fish  (yay  yu)  from  the  domestic  fish  (chia  yu);  the 
former,  said  our  informant,  being  of  a  restless  nature,  will  not  live 
peaceably  in  confinement,  but  commences  to  prey  on  the  others. 

The  Kan  yii  or  pike  appeared  to  be  the  wildest  fish,  and  most  to  be 
dreaded.  The  fry  caught  here  and  conveyed  inland  is  chiefly  that  of 
the  Pang  tou  yii,  Kuei  yu  (perch),  Lien  yii  (bream),  and  Huen  yii,  draw- 
ings of  which  are  given. 

The  Pang  tou  yii  measured  24  inches  long,  13  inches  girth,  and 
weighed  7  pounds,  but  it  often  attains  a  weight  of  20  pounds  to  24 
pounds,  and  4  feet  in  length.  Its  flesh  is  rather  coarse  and  flavorless, 
which  is  the  chief  complaint  of  most  Yangtse  fish.  It  is  sold  here  at 
this  season  of  the  year  (May)  for  40  cash,  say  l$d.  per  catty,  equal 
to  a  pound  and  a  third.  This  is,  of  course,  river-caught  fish.  Kuei  yii 
(perch),  or  "Mandarin  fish,"  as  our  "boys"  often  call  it,  from  the 
fact  of  its  being  the  best  fish  to  be  found  in  the  market  almost  at  all 
times  of  the  year,  grows  to  a  large  size,  is  of  excellent  flavor,  and  very 
firm  if  full-sized.  The  specimen  in  the  illustration  is  only  average  size, 
and  measured  23  inches  in  length,  18  inches  round  the  body,  and 
weighed  between  7  pounds  and  8  pounds.  The  price  ranges  from  40  to 
60  cash,  equal  2d.  to  M.  per  catty  (Impounds),  according  to  season 
and  time  of  day;  but  even  at  the  latter  price,  "Mandarin  "  fish  would 
not  be  a  very  expensive  luxury,  yet  the  lower  classes  seldom  indulge  in 
it.  After  the  Kuei  yii,  the  Lien  yii  ranks  next,  being  a  rich  and  firm 
fish.  It  often  grows  3  feet  long  and  20  pounds  in  weight,  but  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  one  in  the  illustration  were  22  inches  long,  13  inches  girth, 


NOTES    ON   PISCICULTURE   IN   KIANGSI.  547 

and  weight  C  pounds.  The  Huen  yii,  though  a  coarse-looking  fish,  has 
an  excellent  flavor,  and  in  the  proper  season  is  a  very  acceptable  change 
at  one's  table,  after  the  everlasting  perch  with  which  our  cooks  con- 
tinually supply  us.  The  length  of  the  specimen  given  was  17  inches, 
S^  inches  round,  and  weighed  between  7  pounds  and  8  pounds.  The  fry 
of  the  Shih  yu^ov  shad,  which  ascends  the  river  in  May  to  spawn,  does 
not  appear  to  be  caught  or  bred  in  ponds  or  lakes.  It  is  greatly 
esteemed  by  the  Chinese,  and  is  undoubtedly  the  best  fish  of  their  rivers. 
The  season  for  it  is  soon  over,  lasting  from  about  the  middle  of  May  to 
the  third  week  in  June.  In  former  years  this  fish  used  to  be  taken  from 
Nanking  to  Peking  for  the  Emperor's  table,  but  the  labor  of  getting  it 
there  fresh  was  so  trying  to  the  people  engaged  to  carry  it,  that  the 
Emperor  was  induced  to  forego  this  luxury,  and  the  practice  was  dis- 
continued. 

The  pike  of  these  waters  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  cut  forwarded,  the  dimensions  of  which  were  49  inches  long, 
21  girth,  and  weight  36  pounds.  All  attempts  made  by  Europeans  at 
fishing  with  hooks  appear  to  have  failed,  few  even  being  rewarded  with 
as  much  as  a  bite,  nor  are  Chinese  often  seen  angling  with  rod  and  line 
on  the  Yangtse.  The  system  of  taking  spawn  by  forcible  parturition 
as  practiced  in  the  United  States — a  long  description  of  which  was 
given  in  Harper's  Magazine  for  June,  1874 — does  not  appear  to  be 
known  along  the  Yangtse,  and  it  is  a  question  which  fish-culturists 
can  decide,  whether  the  Chinese  method  of  spawn  collecting,  or  that 
adopted  in  America  and  Europe,  is  the  most  effective. 

It  is  said  that  at  Canton  fish  are  caught  and  their  spawn  expelled, 
and  afterward  impregnated  with  the  milt  of  the  male  fish,  as  described 
iu  the  magazine  quoted,  but  the  statement  has  yet  to  be  verified. 


XXVI.-ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  CARP. 


A.— ON  CAEP-PONDS.* 

As  the  price  of  fish  and  of  other  articles  of  food  is  gradually  increas- 
ing, greater  attention  is  given  to  fish-culture,  in  order  to  have  constantly 
on  hand  an  adequate  supply  in  ponds.  These  reservoirs  are  either 
natural  sheets  of  water  or  artificial  excavations.  Those  artificially  con- 
structed are,  of  course,  preferable,  especially  when  the  greatest  care  has 
been  taken  to  provide  everything  that  will  secure  a  good  supply.  Fish 
can  also  be  reared  in  marl  or  peat  bogs;  yet,  as  a  general  rule,  these  are 
suitable  places  of  abode  only  for  the  crucian  carp,  the  roach,  &c. ;  and 
fish  from  such  bogs  can  be  used  only  as  food  for  other  fish,  such  as  pike 
and  trout. 

The  two  kinds  of  fish  to  which  we  direct  our  attention  at  present,  in 
connection  with  pond-culture,  are  the  trout  and  the  carp.  We  shall  con- 
fine  ourselves  in  this  article  to  carp-ponds,  as  these  seem  to  be  the  more 
popular  with  us.  In  former  times  such  ponds  were  quite  common  in 
Denmark,  and  traces  of  them  may  still  be  seen  near  many  of  our  old 
castles  and  manor-houses. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  rearing  carp  is,  that  a  large  number  of  ponds 
is  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  meet  the  expense  of  culture,  and  to 
make  the  time  and  labor  bestowed  upon  it  remunerative.  Wherever 
carps  are  raised,  a  complete  system  of  ponds  is  arranged,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  those  designed  for  the  young  carp,  and  those  pro- 
vided for  the  mature  fish. 

The  pond  for  young  carp  forms,  as  it  were,  the  basis  of  the  whole  estab- 
lishment, and  must  be  large  enough  to  furnish  young  carp  for  the  other 
ponds.  If  this  is  not  the  case,  it  is  best  to  have  several  ponds  for  the 
young.  Ponds  having  an  area  of  from  six  to  ten  acres  are  considered  the 
best.  Such  a  pond  must  only  be  fed  from  field-ditches,  and  must  by  no 
means  be  connected  with  other  ponds,  brooks,  or  streams.  In  this  way 
only  is  it  possible  to  preserve  the  pond  free  from  pike,  which  are  the 
most  dangerous  enemies  of  the  young  carp.  Immediately  in  front  of 
the  chief  embankment,  the  pond  must  have  a  depth  of  at  least  five  feet, 
while  in  other  places  two  feet  is  sufficient.  At  its  bottom  a  main  ditch 
is  dug  out,  into  which  several  smaller  ditches  lead  from  the  sides,  so 
that  in  emptying  the  pond  all  the  water  can  be  drawn  into  a  deeper 

*Lidt  om  Karpedamme.  [anon.  Af  A.  F.]  <  Nordisk  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri. — My 
Rcekke  af  Tidsskrift  for  Fiskeri.    Anden  Aargang.    Kjebenhavn.     1874.    (pp.  79-84.) 


550       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ditch  outside.  By  this  means  the  young  carp  can  gather  in  the  inner 
ditches  of  the  pond,  from  which  they  are  taken.  It  is  necessary  to  do 
this  as  quietly  and  quickly  as  possible,  as  the  young  fish  are  very  tender, 
and  speedily  perish. 

The  pond  for  young  carp  should  have  flat  and  even  banks,  so  that 
the  sun  may  readily  warm  the  water  and  thus  quickly  hatch  the  eggs 
which  are  pasted  to  plants  and  roots.  Hence  it  is  not  necessary  to  in- 
troduce much  fresh  water  during  the  spawning  season,  as  the  water  in 
the  pond  would  thus  become  too  cold,  and  so  retard,  and  even  completely 
frustrate,  the  spawning  and  hatching  process.  During  the  spawning 
season  (from  the  end  of  May  till  some  time  in  July)  the  plants  which 
grow  in  the  shallow  places  should  not  be  removed,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  neither  cattle,  ducks,  nor  crows,  as  well  as  other  birds,  ap- 
proach the  pond.  Nor  should  perch,  tench,  or  other  fish  be  allowed  to 
enter  it. 

In  those  countries  where  carp  are  reared  on  a  large  scale,  any  piece 
of  ground  which  seems  suitable  is  taken  as  a  site  for  a  pond  for  the 
young  fish,  on  the  principle  that  the  risk  in  raising  any  sort  of  grain  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  rearing  carp.  In  consequence  of  the  high 
price  of  fish,  carp-ponds  are  now  generally  used  year  after  year  contin- 
uously, while  formerly  the  piece  of  ground  was  used  one  year  as  a  fish- 
pond and  the  next  as  a  corn-field.  It  seems  now  to  be  the  general  opin- 
ion that  the  keeping  of  fish  year  after  year  continuously  in  the  same 
pond  has  no  deteriorating  influence  on  their  growth.  When,  however, 
the  grass  at  the  bottom  of  the  pond  begins  to  disappear  and  gives  way 
to  reeds,-  the  pond  ought  to  be  drained,  and  then  plowed  and  sowed  with 
some  grain.  It  is  an  easy  matter,  however,  to  arrange  the  ponds  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  be  proof  against  such  contingencies.  It  is  of  course 
necessary  that  the  pond  should  be  secure  from  inundations,  and  it  is 
always  an  advantage  if  no  spring  flows  into  it  or  issues  from  the  bottom. 
It  is  likewise  important  that  the  embankments  should  be  made  so  strong 
as  not  to  be  easily  broken.  A  clayey  or  pulverulent  bottom  is  prefera- 
ble to  any  other. 

It  is  best  to  stock  the  pond  for  young  fish  in  the  spring,  when  there 
is  no  longer  any  danger  of  severe  cold  or  snow.  Two  male  carp,  which 
ought  not  to  be  less  than  four  nor  more  than  seven  years  of  age,  are 
taken  from  the  winter  pond  and  placed  in  the  pond  for  young  fish,  the 
number  of  fish  taken,  however,  being  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
pond.  Besides  these  fish,  there  are  put  into  the  pond  about  ten  strong 
carp,  three  years  old  ;  from  forty  to  fifty  two  years  old ;  and  about  six 
hundred  one  year  old.  Care  should  be  taken  that  all  these  fish  be  placed 
in  the  pond  in  as  perfect  a  condition  as  possible,  and  that  they  be  put 
down  carefully  in  shallow  places,  so  that  it  may  be  readily  seen  whether 
the  fish  continue  strong  and  healthy.  Fish  which  have  lost  some  of  their 
scales,  or  which  have  been  injured  in  any  other  manner,  grow  slowly. 
The  experience  of  many  years  has  proved  that  carp  which  are  ready  to 


CULTURE    OF    THE    CARP.  551 

spawn,  spawn  but  rarely,  if  there  are  no  young  carp  in  the  same  pond. 
But  even  if  the  mother  carp,  notwithstanding  all  the  care  taken,  should 
not  spawn,  the  pond  would  thus  still  yield  some  profit. 

We  cannot  give  here,  in  full,  all  the  different  regulations  to  be  ob- 
served in  transplanting  fish  ;  they  are,  on  the  whole,  the  same  as  those 
used  in  shipping  any  live  fish.  The  main  thing  to  mention  is,  that  in 
emptying  a  pond  for  young  fish,  it  should  be  done  slowly,  so  as  to  allow 
the  fish  sufficient  time  to  collect  in  the  ditches  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pond.  While  the  process  of  emptying  is  going  on,  every  other  opening 
should  be  closed  in  order  to  prevent  the  carp  escaping. 

The  ponds  for  grown  Jish  may  cover  an  area  of  about  sixty  acres. 
Carp  two  and  three  years  old  are  kept  in  these  ponds,  and  even  some- 
times those  only  one  year  old,  provided  the  pond  can  be  preserved  free 
of  pike.  If,  however,  fish  one  year  old  are  not  placed  in  these  ponds,  no 
fear  need  be  entertained  of  pike,  especially  if  a  grating  has  been  placed 
at  the  openings  where  the  water  flows  in  and  out,  since  this  permits  the 
passage  of  small  pike  only.  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the 
fish  to  slip  out.  When  it  rains  hard  and  the  flow  of  water  is  consider- 
ably increased,  the  young  carp  will  immediately  swim  against  the  cur- 
rent even  into  narrow  and  shallow  ditches ;  there  it  becomes  an  easy 
prey  to  various  animals,  or  else,  remaining  there  after  the  water  has 
flowed  off,  dies  on  the  dry  ground. 

Carp  ponds  are  used  exclusively  for  rearing  carp  that  are  more  than 
two  years  old.  Two-year-old  carp,  after  having  been  kept  for  two  full 
years  in  these  ponds,  ought  to  be  fit  for  sale ;  and  three-year-old  carp 
ought  likewise  to  be  ready  for  sale  after  having  been  kept  there  for  one 
year,  or,  at  any  rate  during  one  whole  summer.  The  growth  of  the  fish 
will  be  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  character  of  the  wa- 
ter. The  water  will  be  most  suitable  if  it  flows  from  all  the  neighbor- 
ing farms.  The  bottom  of  a  carp  pond  should  be  as  even  as  possible, 
and  not  rise  in  any  place  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  as  such  small 
islands  easily  become  the  abodes  of  the  enemies  of  the  fish. 

Small  pike,  perch,  and  tench  may  also  be  kept  in  these  ponds.  The 
pike  will  find  ample  food  in  the  perch,  which  increase  very  rapidly,  and 
the  tench  generally  keep  themselves  so  well  concealed  in  the  mud  that 
they  escape  the  pike.  The  pike,  perch,  and  tench  alone  will,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  repay  all  the  expenses  of  constructing  the  reservoir.  Carp- 
ponds  are  emptied  in  October. 

Winter  ponds  are  used  for  preventing  the  fish  from  perishing  in  very 
severe  winters,  when  the  other  shallow  ponds  easily  freeze  to  such  a 
depth  and  for  such  a  length  of  time  as  to  cause  the  death  of  the  carp. 
It  is  best  that  these  ponds  be  so  arranged  that  the  fish  may  be  sup- 
plied with  good  fresh  water  during  the  entire  winter.  The  other  ponds 
can  easily  be  so  arranged  as  to  preserve  fish  in  them  over  winter ;  but 
although  in  this  way  the  difficult  labor  of  emptying  the  ponds  in  the 
spring  and  autumn  is  avoided,  it  will  always  be  best  to  have  separate 


552       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

winter-ponds,  since,  at  any  rate,  the  tench  cannot  be  left  over  winter 
with  the  carp  in  the  shallow  ponds,  inasmuch  as  they  constantly  stir 
up  the  sediment  at  the  bottom  and  thereby  disturb  the  young  carp.  In 
the  winter-ponds  the  different  kinds  of  carp  can  easily  be  kept  together, 
as  they  generally  remain  very  quietly  at  the  bottom  as  soon  as  they 
have  found  a  place  to  suit  them. 

Sale-ponds  are  receptacles  only  for  fish  ready  to  be  sold.  They  should 
not  be  too  large,  since  it  is  desirable  that  the  fish  may  easily  be  taken 
out  with  a  bag-net.  It  is  best  to  have  them  near  the  house,  or  at  any 
rate  well  guarded  and  locked.  A  constant  stream  of  water  should  pass 
through  them,  and  at  the  place  where  the  water  flows  in  there  should 
be  a  strong  wooden  embankment,  as  the  carp  are  apt  to  excavate  the 
earth  round  the  opening.  The  sides  of  these  ponds  are  sodded,  and  the 
channel  through  which  the  water  flows  off  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
be  proof  against  every  danger  of  a  break.  These  ponds  ought  to  be 
examined  and  cleaned  every  summer.  They  should  have  a  depth  of  6 
feet,  so  that  the  bottom  may  not  freeze. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  winter  to  keep  some  openings  in  the  ice  and 
maintain  the  inward  and  outward  flow  of  the  water.  This  object  is 
most  effectually  secured  by  placing  bundles  of  straw  or  reeds  in  both 
the  openings.  One  or  more  holes,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  pond, 
should  constantly  be  kept  open  in  the  ice. 

It  must  be  understood  that  there  are  many  rules  to  be  observed,  and 
much  work  to  be  done,  which,  if  minutely  treated,  would  require  a  very 
lengthy  and  detailed  description,  and  which,  indeed,  would  be  out  of 
place  here,  as  there  are  so  many  local  differences  to  be  taken  into  ac- 
count in  deciding  what  is  the  best  plan  to  pursue. 

In  Holstein,  where  carp-raising  on  a  large  scale  has  been  carried  on 
from  very  early  times,  almost  every  farm  has  its  own  method  of  pro- 
cedure. In  one  thing,  however,  all  are  agreed,  viz,  that  carp-raising 
can  only  be  carried  on  regularly  and  profitably  by  the  most  judicious 
treatment.  A  careful  choice  of  ponds,  the  selection  of  a  superior  breed 
of  carp,  and  careful  treatment  of  the  fish  will  always  yield  the  largest 
profits. 

B— CARP-CULTUKE  IN  EAST  PEUSSIA. 
By  R.  Struvy.* 

The  undulating  character  of  the  surface  of  East  Prussia  favors  the 
construction  of  ponds,  and  led  to  extensive  breeding  of  fish  at  an  early 
day,  the  heavy  rains  of  that  northern  climate  furnishing  the  necessary 
water  in  abundance. 

At  the  time  of  the  Teutonic  Order  the  province  is  said  to  have  pos- 
sessed an  uuusual  supply  of  fish,  and  traces  of  that  period  are  even  yet 
to  be  seen,  not  only  in  the  numerous  ruined  dams,  but  also  in  some  that 

"Unsere  Karpfenzucht.  <Xaudwirthschaft  und  Industrie.  Herausgegeben  von 
August  Wieneke.     Berlin  :  7.    Jahrgang,  1875,  Jan.,  p.  8, 9. 


CULTURE    OF    THE    CARP.  553 

are  still  well  preserved,  on  account  of  the  practical  plan  upon  which 
they  were  constructed.  A  heavy  pine  tree,  more  rarely  an  oak  one,  was 
simply  dug  out  in  such  a  way  that  it  was  hollow  four  feet  from  the 
butt,  and  for  the  rest  of  its  length  was  hewn  out  trough-shaped,  and 
covered  with  heavy  cross-boards.  It  was  supplied  with  a  round  hole 
near  the  butt  from  which  a  tap  projected  at  right  angles.  This  was  laid 
as  a  discharging-pipe  beneath  the  dam,  the  latter  beiug  formed,  on  the 
side  toward  the  pond,  of  planks  or  hewn  timber,  over  the  middle  of  the 
hollow  portion  of  the  log,  which  was  four  feet  long,  as  before  stated.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  loss  of  fish,  when  the  water  was  drawn  off,  screens 
were  placed  at  the  tap  and  tap-hole.  The  dam  was  then  banked  up  high 
enough  to  cause  the  water  to  overflow  upon  a  piece  of  gently-sloping 
meadow-land.  Flood-gates  could  therefore  be  dispensed  with,  it  being 
only  necessary  to  see  that  the  water  never  passed  over  the  dam.  If 
this  was  sodded  at  first,  and  the  pond  did  not  remain  dry  too  long,  it 
never  leaked,  since  moles  and  rats  only  penetrated  dams  when  the  ponds  , 
were  dry.  Strong  streams  should  not  be  led  into  such  dams  unless  the 
escape  for  the  water  around  them  is  well  situated,  otherwise  it  may  be 
washed  out,  and  afford  an  outlet  for  the  water. 

The  abandonment  of  a  large  number  of  these  works  occurred,  chiefly, 
between  the  years  1830  and  I860,  because  it  seemed  more  profitable  to 
convert  the  land  into  meadows  or  farming-land.  Afterward  the  dams 
necessarily  disappeared  entirely,  as  the  land  was  drained  and  leveled. 
The  price  of  fish  consequently  advanced  so  high,  on  account  of  their 
scarcity,  th  at  those  who  had  retained  their  ponds  fouud  their  business  very 
profitable.  In  the  last  few  years  the  larger  farmers  have  turned  their 
attention  again,  with  more  earnestness,  to  this  branch  of  production,  but 
skill  and  knowledge  in  regard  to  it  have  been  lost,  and  such  losses  have 
been  suffered  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  consider  the  matter 
practically  and  resort  to  exchanges  of  experience,  since  theory  alone 
does  not  answer. 

Three  annual  courses  of  spawn,  fry,  and  table-carp  mainly  require 
attention.  How,  then,  are  good  eggs  to  be  obtained  ?  Theory  suggests 
that  a  shallow  pond  be  constructed  which  can  be  kept  free  from  preda- 
cious fish,  and  that  about  five  males  and  five  females,  of  at  least  five 
pounds  in  weight  to  the  acre,  be  placed  in  it  in  the  spring,  and  that  ten 
to  twelve  young  carp  be  added  for  chasing ;  old  carp  are  said  to  be  too 
inactive  about  spawning-time,  and  the  more  the  water  is  disturbed  the 
better  the  eggs  will  be  fertilized.  The  writer,  in  spite  of  having  followed 
these  directions  closely,  obtained  no  eggs  during  the  past  year,  but  pur- 
chased 108,000  from  a  relative,  who,  in  consequence  of  inability  to  finish 
his  spawning-pond  in  time,  had  placed  his  eighteen  spawning-carp  in  a 
pond  of  twelve  and  one:half  acres,  among  the  fry,  and  some  table-carp 
that  had  been  left.    The  fry  also  grew  finely. 

The  cause  of  the  failure  to  obtain  any  eggs  became  very  apparent. 
When  the  pond  was  drawn  off  in  the  spring,  before  setting  out  the 


554      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

spawning-fish,  by  way  of  precaution,  on  account  of  previous  high  water, 
a  number  of  large  pike  and  perch  were  found,  and  carefully  removed ; 
but  in  the  operation  they  lost  their  spawn.  The  pond  was  therefore  al- 
lowed to  remain  dry  for  eight  days.  This,  however,  was  not  sufficient, 
since,  instead  of  the  expected  carp,  six  bucketfuls  of  pike  and  perch,  as 
long  as  a  hand,  were  obtained,  and  the  workmen  repeated  the  old  ab- 
surdity, that  in  some  years  carp  spawn  pike.  Predacious  fish  make 
their  appearance  of  themselves  where  carp  are  bred.  They  seek  the 
ponds  from  the  nearest  streams  during  high  water.  The  writer  had  the 
opportunity,  during  the  past  spring,  of  witnessing  the  persistent  efforts 
of  a  pike,  of  four  pounds  in  weight,  in  attempting  to  reach  a  carp  in  a 
ditch  so  shallow  that  he  was  easily  killed  with  a  cane.  But  pike  and 
perch  are  not  alone  to  be  feared  on  account  of  their  ravages ;  the  green 
edible  frog  is  also  suspected  of  consuming  the  spawn.  Large  bastard- 
carp  are  also  supposed  to  injure  the  eggs  by  their  attempts  to  fertilize 
them,  thus  rendering  them  unproductive.  The  writer,  however,  doubts 
this,  as  he  has  obtained  pure  carp-eggs  among  bastard-carp.  In  order 
to  produce  valuable  carp-eggs,  the  milters  and  spawners  should  be  large 
and  healthy,  rather  more  of  the  former  than  of  the  latter,  and,  above  all, 
they  should  receive  gentle  treatment  in  the  spring,  and  neither  be 
squeezed  nor  struck.  The  pond  should  be  preserved  absolutely  free  from 
predacious  fish,  and  should  have  gently-sloping,  sunny,  grass-covered 
banks ;  it  is  even  more  beautiful  if  the  grass  grows  down  into  the  pond. 
Ducks  and  geese,  like  all  water-fowl,  are  injurious.  The  water  must  be 
pure  and  not  too  cold,  (spring,)  nor  in  any  degree  fouled,  since  the  form- 
ation of  mold  may  injure  the  whole  lot  of  spawn.  Only  the  strictest  at- 
tention in  this  particular  can  insure  success,  for  one  instance  of  neg- 
lect generally  injures  the  whole  yield. 

At  the  end  of  October,  or  the  beginning  of  November,. the  ponds  are 
drawn  off  and  the  eggs,  fry,  and  spawning- fish  are  removed  to  their 
winter-quarters  from  all  that  are  not  kept  up  during  the  winter.  From 
this  time  to  spring  carp  eat  exceedingly  little,  and  can  be  kept, 
if  necessary,  in  very  small  inclosures,  which  are  not  liable  to  freeze, 
or  which  are  fed  by  water  continually  splattering  into  them.  In  East 
Prussia  preservation  for  the  winter  presents  great  difficulties,  and 
is  attended  too  frequently  with  decided  losses.  If  the  pond  is  large 
enough,  and  is  supplied  by  a  never-failing  source  of  water,  no  air-holes 
should  be  cut  in  the  ice ;  but  if  once  made,  they  must  be  kept  open 
throughout  the  winter.  The  appearance  of  carp  at  these  holes  is  always 
a  suspicious  circumstance,  as  healthy  fish  are  seldom  seen  at  them. 
Turbid  snow-water,  dammed  back,  also  often  destroys  the  whole  winter- 
stock  in  a  short  time.  Where  fish  are  crowded  together  light  feeding, 
of  soaked  peas  and  chopped  bread,  is  advisable ;  care,  however,  is  neces- 
sary with  all  easily  putrescible  matter,  as  animal  offal,  &c.  Much  has 
been  said  in  regard  to  the  good  or  bad  character  of  ponds,  with  refer- 
ence  to  the  flavor  of  the  fish.    This  may,  however,  be  regarded  as  a  mat- 


CULTURE    OF    THE    CARP.  555 

ter  of  secondary  importance,  for  although  carp  may  acquire  a  moldy  fla- 
vor in  ponds  with  marshy  and  turfy  bottoms,  this  unpleasant  quality  often 
disappears  a  few  days  after  they  are  placed  in  pure  water,  so  that  when 
carp  of  very  fine  flavor  are  desired  by  the  writer,  he  places  them  in  the 
basin  of  his  fountain  for  two  to  three  weeks.  In  case  there  are  several 
ponds,  therefore,  the  worst  should  contain  the  fry,  and  the  better  ones 
the  marketable  fish.  With  a  liberal  supply  of  food,  carp,  three  years 
old,  will  have  a  weight  of  three  to  four  pounds,  and  they  are  then  in  the 
best  condition  for  the  table,  since  old  carp  are  tough  and  fibrous,  and 
those  under  three  pounds  are  generally  too  full  of  small  bones.  For  this 
reason  the  ponds  should  never  be  overstocked.  From  15  to  24  dozen  of 
eggs  should  be  allowed  to  the  acre,  because  of  considerable  loss,  and  45 
young  fish,  and,  only  where  there  is  great  abundance  of  food,  double  this 
number.  In  this  way  a  clear  return  of  10  to  25  pounds  per  hundred 
square  yards  will  be  obtained,  and  even  more  if  no  accident  prevents. 

If  old  carp-culturists  are  disposed  to  smile  at  this  brief  account,  and 
to  find  nothing  new  in  it,  they  are  earnestly  requested  to  communicate 
their  experience,  as  it  was  admitted  in  the  beginning  that  skill  and  ex- 
perience have  both  been  lost,  and  everything  must  be  learned  anew. 
The  losses  experienced,  too,  have  been  too  great  to  permit  the  business 
to  get  fairly  under  way ;  in  fact  a  large  company  failed  for  want  of  the 
necessary  experience.  Since,  however,  there  is  no  intention  of  abandon- 
ing the  enterprise  until  fine,  fat  carp,  from  East  Prussia,  appear  as  del- 
icacies on  the  tables  of  Berlin,  further  information  is  desired. 

C— CARP-PONDS.* 

The  value  of  a  fish-pond  depends  upon  an  adequate  supply  of  water, 
and  the  amount  of  food  for  fish  it  affords.  The  latter  condition  is 
affected,  to  a  great  degree,  by  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  depth 
of  the  pond.  Thus  a  sandy  soil  yields  but  little  food,  but  of  excellent 
quality,  while  loamy  and  peaty  soils  are  good,  and  a  loamy  mold  excel- 
lent indeed ;  but  those  of  tenacious  meager  clay,  as  well  as  stony  soils, 
are  very  inferior.  These  statements  are  especially  true  in  regard  to 
ponds  for  carp.  The  first  consideration  in  laying  out  new  ponds  is  the 
power  to  regulate  perfectly  the  supply  and  discharge  of  the  water.  A 
pond  is  seldom  formed  by  excavating  the  earth,  but  generally  by  con- 
structing an  embankment  across  the  lowest  part  of  an  uneven  piece  of 
ground.  By  employing  the  earth  adjoining  for  this  purpose  the  fish-pit 
is  generally  formed  at  the  same  time.  The  best  material  for  the  dam  is 
loam  and  clay.  When  the  soil  is  sandy  a  foundation  of  loam  must  be 
prepared  in  order  to  retain  the  water,  wben  a  supply  of  the  latter  is  not 
at  command.  A  new  soil  yields  the  largest  return,  which  is  diminished 
by  reedy  growths  and  muddy  sediment.  A  pipe  for  draining  the  pond, 
which  can  be  opened  or  closed  on  the  water-side  at  pleasure,  is  laid 

*  Laudwirtbscbaft;  uud  Industrie,  Berlin,  Dec.  1,  1875,  i?0.    Translated  by  Prof.  C. 
1'.  Hirnes. 


556        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

through  the  dam  at  its  lowest  point.  It  usually  consists  of  heavy 
hollowed  logs,  imbedded  in  soft  moss.  These  will  last  much  longer  if  the 
bark  is  uninjured.  It  may  also  be  constructed  of  bricks,  or  of  earthen- 
ware pipes,  with  cement.  On  the  water-side  it  passes  through  sheet- 
piling,  or  a  cemented  wall,  and  is  closed  by  a  plug,  or  better,  by  means 
of  a  drop- valve,  which  can  be  opened  by  ay  rod  with  a  screw  attached. 
A  stand-pipe  is  also  often  placed  vertically  upon  the  horizontal  discharge- 
pipe.  It  is  closed  on  the  front,  from  the  bottom  to  the  water-level,  with 
sluice-boards  placed  on  top  of  each  other.  These  may  be  placed  in  posi- 
tion or  removed  at  will,  according  as  it  may  be  desired  to  raise  or  lower 
the  water  in  the  pond.  Where  small  streams  flow  through  the  pond, 
this  arrangement  affords  the  additional  advantage  of  keeping  the  depth 
of  water  uniform,  since  it  flows  out  over  the  top  board  through  the 
drain-pipe.  A  wooden  grate  is  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  drain- 
pipe, to  prevent  the  fish  from  passing  into  it.  It  is  entirely  sub- 
merged to  preserve  it  from  decay.  Iron  grates  are  altogether  unsuit- 
able, ou  account  of  their  rapid  destruction  by  rust.  The  fish-pit  is  an 
excavation  in  which  the  fish  collect  when  the  pond  is  emptied.  It  must 
be  capable  of  being  completely  drained,  and  in  loose,  soft  soil  it  is  well 
to  line  it  with  wooden  or  stone  walls,  and  give  it  a  firm  bottom  of  sand, 
stone,  or  boards.  The  greatest  attention  should  be  given  to  the  fish- 
pit,  and  it  should  be  carefully  freed  from  all  mud  whenever  fish  are 
caught.  It  is  also  advisable  to  form  a  pit,  called  in  Bohemia  the  sluice- 
pit,  at  the  outlet  of  the  drain-pipe,  in  order  to  catch  any  fish  that  may 
escape  through  a  defective  grate;  and  for  this  reason  it  should  also  be 
supplied  with  a  grate  at  its  outlet.  When  the  ponds  are  large,  this  is 
lined  with  wood  or  stone.  It  should  be  kept  full  of  water  that  the  dis- 
charge-pipe may  be  preserved  from  decay.  After  some  time  the  flow  of 
water  renders  the  interior  of  the  drain-pipe  so  rough  that  the  fish  are  so 
injured  in  their  passage  through  it,  that  it  is  very  undesirable  that  they 
should  be  found  in  the  sluice-pit.  The  bottom  of  the  pond  is  traversed 
with  ditches,  so  that  the  water  may  flow  off  freely  and  rapidly  from  all 
sides,  and  the  fish  find  their  way  easily  into  the  fish-pit,  and  also  that 
the  rich,  muddy  soil  may  dry  off  rapidly,  and  soon  permit  the  passage 
of  draught-animals  over  it,  if  the  pond  is  to  be  put  in  order.  Depres- 
sions in  the  pond,  from  which  the  water  cannot  be  completely  drained, 
are  very  objectionable,  since  a  great  number  of  fish  are  lost  in  them, 
and  the  removal  of  the  predaceous  fish  is  prevented.  No  trouble  should 
therefore  be  spared  to  drain  such  depressions.  If  the  supply  of  water 
is  such  that  the  pond  can  be  filled  with  certainty  in  the  spring,  it  is 
well  to  allow  it  to  become  dry  after  the  fall  fishing,  in  order  that  the 
soil  may  be  freshened,  and  a  portion  of  the  enemies  of  the  fish  may  be 
destroyed.  Ponds  which  are  supplied  exclusively  by  rain  or  snow  water 
must  be  filled  again  in  the  fall  immediately  after  they  have  been  emptied. 
The  water  from  villages  and  cultivated  land  is  very  advantageous,  on 
account  of  the  nutriment  contained  in  it,  and  in  Wittiugau  ponds  are, 


CULTURE    OF    THE    CARP.  557 

fed  from  the  drainage  of  the  soil  rather  than  from  streams,  be- 
cause the  former  is  richer  iu  nutriment.  By  leading  in  water 
from  the  adjoining  water-sheds,  from  cultivated  land,  and  villages, 
the  ponds  are  much  improved.  When  creeks  or  brooks  flow 
through  the  pond,  a  brush-weir,  formed  of  layers  of  uutrimmed 
brush-wood,  in  such  a  way  that  the  fish  cannot  pass  over  it,  must 
be  placed  so  as  to  prevent  the  ascent  of  the  fish  in  the  stream.  The 
water-level  should,  as  a  rule,  be  maintained  as  constant  as  possible ; 
and,  in  summer,  a  sudden,  large  influx  of  water  should  be  prevented, 
because  the  fish  swim  very  eagerly  toward  the  current  of  fresh  water, 
and  are  thus  drawn  from  their  feeding-ground  and  are  liable  to  be 
stolen.  In  a  dry  season,  if  the  addition  of  water  is  unavoidable,  it 
should  only  be  allowed  to  flow  in  during  the  day  and  be  stopped  at 
night.  It  is  important  to  be  able  to  turn  fresh  water  into  the  fish-pit, 
when  the  pond  is  fished  out,  in  order  to  revive  the  fish  when  they 
become  languid.  If  the  water  falls  in  dry  weather,  the  borders  become 
dry,  fermentation  and  putrefaction  of  the  marsh-vegetation  occur,  and 
the  carp  leave  their  feeding-ground  for  deep  water.  The  spawn  laid  on 
the  grass  iu  the  breeding- ponds  also  become  dry  and  dead.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  advantageous  to  allow  ponds,  prepared  the  summer 
before,  to  dam  up  gradually,  so  that  the  higher  portions  may  be  pas- 
tured, and  breeding-places  be  afforded  to  insects.  As  these  portions 
are  in  succession  rendered  accessible  to  the  carp,  by  the  gradual  rise  of 
the  water,  they  are  eagerly  sought  out  by  them.  This  plan  has  greatly 
increased  the  productiveness  of  the  ponds  in  Peiz,  as  well  as  in  Wittin- 
gau.  Since  carp  find  their  food,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  flat  margins 
of  the  pond,  it  is  in  general  better  to  lay  out  several  small,  shallow 
ponds  than  one  large,  deep  one.  Floating  masses  of  vegetable  matter 
and  marshy  growth  reduce  the  productiveness.  Eepeated  mowing  in 
summer,  under  water,  and  burning  the  roots  when  draiued  and  dried  by 
exposure,  are  employed  to  prevent  the  latter  ;  the  former  are  intersected 
in  different  directions  by  ditches,  when  the  knots  of  vegetable  matter 
will  float  to  the  shore,  and  may  be  drawn  out ;  or  the  marsh  may  be 
covered,  when  drained,  if  necessary  when  frozen,  to  the  depth  of  several 
inches  with  sand,  which  will  prevent  their  floating  when  the  pond  is 
filled.  In  the  winter  it  is  beneficial  to  allow  the  water  to  flow  in  and 
out  of  the  pond.  If  it  becomes  covered  with  ice,  this  is  removed,  at 
such  a  distance  from  the  wintering-place  of  the  fish  that  they  may  not 
be  reached  with  a  spear.  In  Wittingau,  such  openings  in  the  ice,  in 
the  larger  ponds,  are  cut  from  40  to  65  feet  long  and  3  to  4  feet  wide, 
and  the  ice  is  removed  twice  a  day  by  means  of  hooks.  If  a  decided 
thaw  occurs,  when  the  ice  is  covered  with  a  considerable  depth  of  snow, 
and  the  latter  becomes  saturated  with  water,  and  freezing  weather  fol- 
lows, the  preservation  of  the  fish  through  the  winter  becomes  doubtful. 
The  water  generally  changes  color  to  yellowish,  milky-white,  or  brown- 
ish ;  and  sluggish  insects  appear  at  the  openings  in  the  ice  and  die,  and 


558        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

also  fish  that  are  weak  and  gasping  after  air.  The  craw-fish  perish 
first,  next  the  frogs,  then  the  predaceous  fish,  and  finally  the  carp,  and 
the  openings  are  surrounded  by  crows.  The  remedies  for  dangers  from 
these  sources  are  increase  of  the  number  of  openings,  flooding,  and 
finally  immediate  fishing-out  of  the  pond.  A  general  destruction  of  fish 
may  also  occur  in  summer,  if  the  water  becomes  so  low  in  hot  weather 
that  vegetable  and  animal  matter  begins  to  putrefy  and  scum  becomes 
prevalent,  or  also  if  much  manure  or  ditch-water  flows  into  the  pond. 
The  fish,  in  such  cases,  swim  along  the  surface,  gasping  after  air,  and 
finally  die.  A  heavy  rain  is  usually  the  most  efficient  remedy,  in  the 
absence  of  which  nothing  remains  but  copious  additions  of  water,  or 
immediate  capturing  of  the  fish.  A  pond  in  which  the  fish  have  died  in 
this  way  should  be  drained  dry  and  put  in  order.  It  is  very  important 
not  to  stock  the  pond  too  full.  This  was  considered  impossible  in 
Bohemia  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  but  the  evidence  in  recent 
times  is  conclusive  that  not  only  smaller  fish  are  obtained,  but  also  less 
total  weight  of  fish,  when  the  stock  exceeds  certain  limits  established 
by  experience.  In  Schleswig-Holstein  it  is  assumed  that,  in  a  good 
pond,  one  carp  can  be  fattened  per  150  square  feet,  but  that  generally 
70  to  80  fish  to  about  two-thirds  of  an  acre  are  plenty.  The  carp  in 
ponds  there  are  marketable  at  three  years,  but  generally  only  after  four 
years.  Small  ponds  may  be  stocked  proportionally  heavier  than  large 
ones.  In  general,  it  is  not  advisable  to  stock  a  pond  with  carp  of  differ- 
ent sizes. 


XXVII.— THE  GOLD  ORFE,  (CYPRINUS  ORFUS.)* 


A  —  ON  THE  RAISING  OF  THE   "GOLD   ORFE,"   (CYPRINUS 

ORFUS.) 

Br  M.  Kirsch,  Director  of  Fisheries  at  Wiesbaden. 

The  "Orfe,"  Cyprinus  orfus  Linn.,  "Porfe"  in  French,  and  bearing  a  va- 
riety of  names  in  German,  such  as  "Nerfling,"  "Gold  nerfling,"  "  Erfel," 
"Elft,"  "  Urs,"  "Urf,"  "  Rotlling,"  and  "  Ladies'  Fish,"  is  distinguished 
by  its  beautiful  orange-colored  back,  and  its  belly-scales,  which  glitter 
like  silver.  Taking  into  account  its  slender,  trout-like  shape,  it  may 
well  be  called  the  most  beautiful  fish  of  our  country. 

Having  been  for  many  years  occupied  in  raising  the  "  Gold-orfe,"  in 
addition  to  my  raising  large  quantities  of  trout,  pike,  and  carp,  I  desire 
to  state  briefly  the  reasons  why  the  Nassen  Fishing  Society  has  devoted 
so  much  attention  to  this  fish,  and  has  spared  no  pains  in  raising  it. 

We  think  that  it  is  not  only  the  duty  of  all  larger  piscicultural  estab- 
lishments to  prevent  the  entire  disappearance  of  a  species  offish  so  near 
extinction,  but  have  also  found  after  careful  examination  of  everything 
that  has  been  said  concerning  this  fish  in  old  works,  and  of  all  we  had 
gleaned  from  our  own  experience,  that  the  raising  of  the  Cyprinus  orfus 
is  of  incalculable  value  to  the  practical  pisciculturist. 

There  is  scarcely  a  fish  which  as  an  ornamental  fish  so  satisfactorily 
meets  all  the  demands  made  of  it,  as  the  Cyprinus  orfus,  which,  in 
summer  and  winter,  is  constantly  seen  near  the  surface  of  the  water. 
It  does  not  sleep  in  winter  like  the  carp  and  tench,  and  never  makes 
the  water  muddy.  Ever  restless,  the  Cyprinus  orfus  constantly  swims 
near  the  surface  to  seek  its  food,  and  even  when  ice  thickly  covers  the 
ponds,  red  spots  indicate  that  this  active  fish  is  alive. 

Gold-fish,  gold  tench,  and  carp  only  occasionally  rise  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  while  they  seek  their  food  at  the  bottom,  and  thus  make  the 
water  continually  muddy. 

The  raising  of  the  Cyprinus  orfus  as  an  ornamental  fish  has  a  peculiar 
advantage  over  that  of  the  gold-fish,  which  in  early  youth  is  black,  and 
only  assumes  its  golden  color  during  the  second  year,  while  the  nu- 
merous young  of  the  Cyprinus  orfus,  floating  about  in  large  schools,  even 
when  leaving  the  eggs  present  a  remarkably  beautiful  appearance. 

*Froni  "  Circular  No.  4,"  published  by  the  Deutsche  Fischerei-Verein}  Berlin,  March, 

1872. 


560       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Having  a  thickness  of  about  two  lines,  and  a  length  of  one-half  to  one 
centimeter,  their  color  being  a  bright  red  with  a  black  head,  the  easily 
frightened  shoal  swim  with  lightning-like  rapidity  from  one  place  to  the 
other.  Among  the  many  hundreds  which  we  have  raised,  there  was 
not  a  single  one  which  had  even  a  black  spot  or  any  change  of  color, 
thus  proving  that  the  red  "orfe"  is  no  variety  of  the  black  "orfe," 
which,  with  us,  spawn  more  than  a  month  later.  It  is  certain  that  a  fish 
which  immediately  on  leaving  the  egg  answers  its  purpose  as  an  orna- 
mental fish  so  completely,  is  preferable  to  the  gold-fish,  which  does  not, 
till  the  second  year,  assume  a  brilliant  color. 

In  the  year  1558,  Gessner  wrote,  in  his  "  Natural  History,"  p.  1268, 
that  the  "orfe"  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  an  article  of  food, 
especially  when  fried,  particularly  in  the  months  of  April  and  May  (a 
season  when  with  us  trout  can  scarcely  be  recommended).  Permission 
to  sell  the  "orfe"  was  only  given  when  it  had  reached  a  certain  size, 
as  tbey  were  considered  an  excellent  food  for  the  sick,  and  conse- 
quently it  was  desirable  not  to  let  the  species  die  out.  This  fish  was 
also  considered  a  wholesome  and  strengthening  food  for  women  in  con- 
finement. 

Dr.  BlocJi,  in  "  Our  Fishes,"  Parts  1,  II,  III,  published  in  1782,  pp. 
138  and  139,  acknowledges  the  excellence  of  the  "orfe"  as  an  article  of 
food,  even  giving  the  best  mode  of  preparing  them  in  the  most  palatable 
manner,  which  this  naturalist  certainly  would  not  have  done  if  he  had 
not  considered  it  his  duty  to  awaken  a  more  general  interest  in  behalf 
of  this  fish. 

JocMsch, in  his  "Manual  of  Fisheries,"  1802,  p.  39,  says:  "The  flesh 
of  the  orfe  has  an  excellent  flavor,  is  very  digestible,"  &c. 

Bose,  in  his  "  Dictionary  of  Fisheries,"  1811,  p.  103,  likewise  says  that 
the  "  orfe  "  has  a  most  delicious  flavor. 

La  Cepede,  in  his  "  Histoire  naturelle  des  poissons,"  1796,  states  that 
the  "orfe"  excels  other  fish,  through  its  fine  flavor. 

Oken,  the  famous  naturalist,  says  in  his  great  "Natural  History," 
vol.  vi,  p.  303,  that  the  "orfe"  is  distinguished  by  its  beautiful  color, 
and  the  wholesomeuess  and  excellent  flavor  of  its  flesh. 

I  therefore  think  that  I  am  not  too  bold  if,  relying  on  the  words  of 
these  authorities,  I  recommend  the  raising  of  the  "orfe"  as  a  whole- 
some, palatable  article  of  food,  for  I  am  convinced  that  people  in  1558, 
1782,  1796,  1802,  1811,  and  1836  knew  just  as  well  as  we  whether  a  fish 
had  a  good  flavor  or  not ;  and  it  is  evident  that  such  authorities  would 
only  recommend  as  good  what  was  generally  acknowledged  to  be  so. 

Besides  the  excellence  of  the  Cyprinus  or/us  as  an  ornamental  fish 
and  as  an  article  of  food,  it  possesses  a  still  greater  importance  for  the 
ichthyologist,  because  it  is  very  hardy  and  can  be  more  easily  trans- 
ported to  far  distances  than  most  other  fish. 

Our  reports  regarding  the  result  of  sending  the  Cyprinus  or/us  to 
Cologne,    Berlin,    Lubbiuchen,  Dresden,  Hanover,    Cassel,  Freiburg, 


THE    GOLDE-ORFE,    (CYPRINUS    ORFUS.)  561 

and  to  still  more  distant  places,  tbe  fish  being  ou  the  road  two  days  and 
longer  without  being  accompanied  by  a  fish-breeder  to  pump  in  fresh 
air  or  change  the  water,  &c,  will  with  pleasure  be  submitted  for  exam- 
ination to  any  one  who  desires  to  see  them ;  and  it  will  be  found  that 
j ven  when  several  hundred  were  sent  together,  not  a  single  one  was  lost, 
Xhe  reader  will  know  that  none  of  the  other  superior  kinds  of  fish  could 
stand  such  long  journeys. 

All  the  fish  belonging  to  the  family  of  salmonoids  require  for  their 
well-being  cool  and  deep  or  pure  and  running  water,  and  whether 
their  flesh,  which  is  mostly  very  fat,  can  be  considered  a  wholesome, 
digestible  food,  such  as  the  "orfe7'  makes,  I  will  leave  to  the  physicians 
to  decide. 

It  is,  at  any  rate,  certain  that  there  are  a  large  number  of  stagnant 
waters  in  which  no  salmonoids  can  be  raised,  because  these  waters 
contain  such  large  quantities  of  noxious  substances  that  not  even  tench, 
carp,  or  pike  can  live  in  them  ;  in  such  waters  I  advise  the  reader  to 
place  Cyprinus  or/us.  As  was  mentioned  above,  they  live  near  the  sur- 
face, making  use  of  the  purest  portion  of  the  water,  do  not  touch  the 
noxious  substances  accumulating  at  the  bottom,  and  seek  their  food  near 
the  surface. 

But  if  any  one  should  distrust  my  experience  of  many  years,  I  refer 
%o  the  above-mentioned  authorities,  who  tell  us  in  every  place  that  the 
Cyprinus  or/us  has  in  former  times  been  raised  in  the  muddy,  stagnant 
water  of  the  moats  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Nuremberg  and  Augsburg. 

Let  every  unemployed  and  unproductive  pool  of  stagnant  water  be  a 
reproach  to  German  pisciculturists,  and  an  incentive  to  free  themselves 
from  their  old  unpractical  methods,  and  to  raise  not  only  fish  which 
fashion  momentarily  favors,  but  such  fish  as  are  suitable  for  the  exist 
\ng  sheets  of  water. 

Our  guide  for  the  future  of  pisciculture  is  not  only  the  little  knowl 
edge  of  our  times,  but  let  us  examine  what  has  been  done  in  the  dim 
past,  and  let  us  gratefully  adopt  that  which  is  really  useful  and  profit- 
able. 


B  — CORRESPONDENCE  RELATING  TO  THE  GOLDE-ORFE.* 

By  Prof.  C.  Th.  E.  v.  Siebold. 

In  a  letter  which  the  bureau  of  the  German  Piscicultural  Society  at 
Berlin  has  addressed  to  the  president  of  the  Fishing  Society  at  Munich, 
dated  December  5,  1871,  the  question  is  asked  whether  this  society  pos- 
sesses any  information  regarding  the  breeding  and  the  value  of  the 
gold-orfe  (Cyprinus  orf us),  which  at  present  is  raised  at  Weisbaden  in  large 
quantities,  which  would  justify  its  introduction  into  other  regions,  es- 
pecially North  Germany  %    If  such  were  the  case,  the  German  Piscicul- 

*  From  "  Circular  No.  1,"  published  by  the  Deutsche  Fischerei-Yerein,  Berlin,  1872. 
36  F 


56*2        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

tural  Society  would  gladly  lend  a  helping  hand  in  furthering  any  ex- 
periments in  raising  it. 

As  far  as  the  undersigned  knows,  the  gold-orfe  has  so  far  only  been 
raised  in  South  Germany,  by  Mr.  Scheuermann,  at  Dinkelsbiikl,  Bavaria, 
chiefly  with  a  view  of  providing  the  aquaria  with  an  ornamental  fish. 
If  people  in  Wiesbaden  have  succeeded  in  raising  this  fish  as  a  palat- 
able article  of  food,  the  cause  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  circumstance 
that  the  neighborhood  of  Wiesbaden  must  be  entirely  destitute  of  bet- 
ter-flavored fish,  for,  otherwise,  the  gold-orfe  would  certainly  not  have 
been  used  as  an  article  of  food.  Judging  of  the  experience  of  our 
well-supplied  Miiuich  fish-market,  it  appears  that  this  fish  does  not  at 
all  find  a  ready  market  among  the  fish-loving  Munich  public,  since 
scarcely  any  of  this  fish  and  its  variety  (the  Leuciscus  or/us)  are  sold  as 
articles  of  food,  their  flesh  being  very  insipid  and  full  of  bones. 

Young  "gold-orfe"  are  only  sought  after  by  keepers  of  aquaria,  as, 
on  account  of  their  beauty,  they  form  a  very  good  and  cheap  substitute 
for  the  Chinese  gold-fish.  The  larger  fish  of  this  kind  are  mostly  used 
for  ornamenting  lakes  in  parks  and  the  basins  of  fountains.  The  under- 
signed very  much  doubts  whether  even  the  most  expert  cook  could  so 
heighten  the  flavor  of  the  "goldorfe"  as  to  compete  successfully  with 
the  salmon. 

Munich,  Becemher  15, 1871. 


XXVIII.— DIRECTIONS  FOR   USING  BLANKS  FOR  RECORDING 
THE  PROPAGATION  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FISH. 


A  series  of  blanks  has  been  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  record  of  the  artificial  propagation  and  distribution  of  fishes  in  the 
United  States.  They  will  also,  if  carefully  and  fully  filled  out,  supply 
excellent  data  for  determining  the  influences  of  natural  agencies  upon 
the  abundance  of  the  food-fishes,  their  periods  of  migration,  and  the 
hatching  of  the  spawn.  For  example,  the  record  of  the  temperature  of 
the  air  and  water,  together  with  that  of  the  fish  taken,  will  afford  defi- 
nite conclusions  as  to  the  effect  of  a  cold  late  spring  in  retarding  the 
migrations  of  the  shad ;  while  a  comparison  of  the  same  temperatures 
with  the  numbers  of  spawn  taken  and  hatched  will  show  the  effect  of  a 
high  temperature  upon  the  vitality  of  the  eggs. 

Table  A  is  intended  to  record  the  operations  at  a  hatching-station 
where  the  eggs  are  taken  from  the  parent  fish  and  either  hatched,  or 
distributed  after  the  development  has  partially  advanced. 

Thus  if  the  operation  of  hatching  shad  is  being  carried  on  at  South 
Hadley  Falls,  Mass.,  the  reading  would  then  be  : 

Becokd  of  shad-Jiatcliing  operations  conducted  at  South  Hadley  Falls, 
Mass.,  on  the  Connecticut  River,  from  July  20,  1874,  to  August  22,  1874, 
on  account  of  Connecticut  State  Commissioners,  by  Charles  C.  Smith. 

The  column  under  Line,  No.,  relates  to  the  numbering  of  the  lines  from 
top  to  bottom.  The  column  under  Date  relates  to  the  day  of  the  month 
in  which  the  work  was  performed.  In  the  Hous-column  are  to  be  given 
the  hours  of  the  day  in  which  the  physical  observations  of  temperature, 
wind,  condition  of  sky  and  water  and  of  tide  are  made.  As  many  suc- 
cessive lines  should  be  appropriated  for  these  records  as  observations 
have  been  repeated  at  different  hours  during  the  day.  Thus,  if  observa- 
tions are  made  at  7  a.  m.,  12  m.,  and  7  p.  m.,  three  lines  are  required. 
The  record  of  Air  and  Surface-water  temperatures  needs  no  explanation. 
In  the  record  for  -Bo^ow-temperature,  the  depth  should  be  specified.  If 
it  is  always  at  the  same  depth,  recording  it  at  the  head  of  the  column 
once  is  sufficient.  The  Direction  of  the  Wind  may  be  given  approxi- 
mately from  the  eight  points  of  the  compass  most  commonly  referred 
to.  The  Intensity  may  also  be  expressed  in  the  words  Gentle,  Fresh, 
Strong,  Gale,  Hurricane,  &c.  The  Condition  of  Shy  may  be  specified 
by  the  words  Clear,  A  few  light  clouds,  Cloudy,  Cloudy  with  showers, 
rain,  &c.j  the  Condition  of  Water  as  Clear,  Muddied,  Very  turbid,  &c. 
Tide  can  be  referred  to  by  using  L  for  low  water  and  H  for  high  water; 
approximately  half-way  between  these  points  of  the  tide  by  \.   The  record 


564       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

under  Seine  hauled  should  give  the  hours  of  the  day  between  which 
successive  hauls  were  made,  and  the  number  of  seine-hauls  in  the  time 
specified.  Under  Fish  taken  should  be  recorded  the  entire  number  of 
shad  from  the  seine-hauls,  divided,  according  to  sex,  under  Males  and  Fe- 
males; under  Elpe  fish,  the  number  of  "spawners"  and  "milters"  under 
Male  and  Female  respectively.  Eggs  obtained  is  intended  for  the  total 
number  of  eggs  for  the  day.  The  Period  of  hatching  can  be  obtained 
without  difficulty  or  error  if  the  spawning-boxes  are  numbered  and  a 
record  made  of  the  date  and  hour  when  the  eggs  are  placed  in  each 
box.  This  record  and  the  following  ones  have,  of  course,  no  reference 
to  the  date  in  the  preceding  column.  The  Loss  will  be  estimated  with 
more  or  less  accuracy  according  to  the  method  used  for  the  purpose. 
Under  Remarks,  a  variety  of  record  incident  to  the  day  may  be  inserted : 
as,  "  The  temperature  of  the  water  was  so  high  that  the  eggs  impreg- 
nated showed  no  vitality ;"  or,  "  The  heavy  northwest  wind  and  sea  cap- 
sized twenty-five  of  the  boxes;1'  or,  "  50,000  young  fish  from  eggs  impreg- 
nated on  July  24  and  25  were  released  into  the  river." 

Table  B  is  for  the  operations  of  hatching-houses  which  have  received 
eggs  from  stations  at  the  streams  where  they  have  been  impregnated 
and  carried  forward  to  the  point  of  development  when  they  can  be 
shipped  with  safety. 
The  blank,  if  filled  out  for  Vermont,  would  read  : 
Record  of  operations  of  M.  G.  Edmunds,  fish-commissioner  of  Ver- 
mont, conducted  at  Charlestown,  N.  H.,  in  hatching  and  distributing 
young  of  Penobscot  River  salmon,  from  October  22,  1874,  to  January  5, 
1875. 

The.  heading  Line,  No.,  relates  to  the  numbering  of  the  lines  from  the 
top  of  the  page  downward ;  the  Date  refers  to  the  time  at  which  the 
eggs  were  received;  under  Received  from,  the  Government  or  State 
commission  or  other  source  contributing  the  eggs  is  to  be  recorded ; 
Whence  received  relates  to  the  locality  of  the  spawn-procuring  sta- 
tion ;  Time  of  journey,  from  the  date  at  which  the  eggs  were  packed 
for  shipment  to  the  time  of  their  arrival  at  the  hatching-station  and 
the  transfer  to  the  hatching-troughs;  General  condition  refers  to 
their  condition  on  arrival ;  under  Number  of  eggs  received  :  From 
the  United  States,  relates  to  those  supplied  by  the  United  States  Com- 
mission; From  other  sources,  all  others,  and  Total  the  sum  of  these  two 
supplies ;  Loss  in  unpacking  means  the  bad  eggs  that  have  been  in- 
jured before  arrival,  which  may  include  all  that  give  evidence  of  loss  of 
vitality  within  twenty-four  hours  after  they  have  been  put  in  the  hatch- 
ing-apparatus, providing,  of  course,  that  there  is  no  evidence  apparent 
of  injury  from  other  causes  than  those  incurred  in  transportation; 
Fish  hatched  is  intended  to  include  all  that  emerge  from  the  egg, 
except  such  as  may  hatch  prematurely  from  injuries  received  during  the 
transportation  of  the  eggs ;  the  Young  distributed  relates  to  the 
number  that  are  put  alive  into  their  destined  waters ;  Where  planted 


DIRECTIONS    FOE    USING    BLANKS.  565 

should  include  the  name  of  the  main  river,  the  name  of  the  tributary, 
and  the  name  of  the  town,  city,  or  village  near  where  the  fish  are 
planted  ;  the  column  of  Remarks  may  include  anything  important  inci- 
dent to  the  series  of  facts  recorded,  as  loss  in  journey  to  point  of  distri- 
bution ;  as,  "Bellows  Falls,  Vt.,  only  five  fishes;"  or,  "An  accident  to  the 
railroad  delayed  the  train  some  hours,  the  weather  was  warm,  and  the 
fish  in  such  precarious  condition  that  they  were  put  into  the  Connecti- 
cut River  to  save  them,  though  they  were  intended  for  the  Merrimack 
River." 

Table  C  is  for  record  of  distribution  of  any  species  of  fish  from  the 
hatching-establishment  to  the  waters  in  which  they  are  planted.  It 
should  be  filled  out  even  where  reference  has  been  made  to  the  distribu- 
tion in  Table  B,  as  it  contains  the  details  of  the  transfer  and  planting 
more  fully  than  the  latter.  Filled  out  it  might  read  :  Record  of  distri- 
bution of  shad  made  from  June  23,  1875,  to  July  5,  1875,  by  Jonathan 
Mason,  under  the  direction  of  the  United  States  Commission  of  Fish  and 
Fisheries. 

No.  of  line  refers  to  the  numbering  of  lines  from  the  top  of  the  page 
downward ;  Date  of  transfer,  the  time  of  placing  the  fish  into  the 
cans  ;  Obtained  from,  the  fish-commission  or  private  source  supplying 
the  eggs;  Place  where  taken,  the  name  of  the  hatching-station 
whence  fish  were  obtained;  Period  of  journey,  the  time  the  fish 
were  in  the  cans ;  Number  of  fish  Originally  taken,  the  number 
put  alive  into  the  cans;  Actually  planted,  the  number  put  alive  into 
the  destined  waters ;  Introduction  of  fish  includes  Place,  name  of 
nearest  town,  village,  or  city ;  Stream  refers  to  the  name  of  the  tribu- 
tary in  which  the  fish  are  placed,  and  Tributary  of,  to  the  name  of  the 
main  river ;  Transfer  in  charge  of,  to  the  person  having  the  respon- 
sibility of  the  fish  en  route  ;  Remarks,  to  any  important  incident  of  the 
transfer. 

The  following  specimen -tables  will  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  data  to 
be  recorded : 


56G       REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 


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APPENDIX    D. 


THE  RESTORATION  OF  THE  INLAND  FISHERIES. 


569 


CONTENTS 


Tage. 

A.  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 571 

1.  Early  protective  measures 571 

2.  Improved  appreciation  of  the  interest 572 

3.  The  object  of  fishery-legislation 573 

B.  THE  FISHERIES 575 

4.  The  former  condition  of  the  Austrian  fisheries 575 

5.  The  present  condition  of  the  fisheries,  and  its  causes 576 

0.  Artificial  fish-breeding 580 

7.  Progress  of  foreign  fisheries 585 

Great  Britain 585 

France „ 586 

Germany . 587 

8.  Condition  of  pisciculture  in  Austria. 589 

9.  Value  of  the  products  of  the  fisheries 598 

10.  Fishery-statistics 601 

11.  Scientific  investigations 603 

C.  THE  IMPORTANT  FRESH-WATER  FISHES 605 

12.  The  Salmon  family  (Salmonoidei) 606 

13.  The  Pike  family  (Esccini) 613 

14.  The  Catfish  family  (Sunroidei) 613 

15.  The  Cod  family  ( Gadoidei) 613 

16.  The  Eels  (Marcenoidei) 614 

17.  The  Carp  family  ( Cyprinoidei) 614 

18.  The  Perch  family  (Percoidei) 616 

19.  The  Sturgeon  family  (Acipenserini) , 616 

20.  The  Crawfish  (Astacus  fluviatilis) 617 

D.  PROTECTIVE  LEGISLATION 618 

21.  Fishing-privileges 618 

22.  Foreign  fishery-laws 619 

Prussia 619 

Bavaria , 630 

Wiirtemberg 631 

Baden 631 

Saxony 632 

Liibeck 633 

Switzerland 633 

France : 635 

Italy 635 

Denmark  and  Sweden  and  Norway 637 

Russia 637 

United  States 637 

Great  Britain 638 

23.  Fishing-privileges  and  fishing-laws  in  Austria 643 

Old  fishing-laws 643 

The  present  fishing-law 650 

24.  The  buying-off  of  fishing-privileges 665 

25.  International  fishery-treaties 669 

26.  Salt-water  fisheries  and  the  laws  relating  to  them 674 

E.  CONCLUSION 677 


70 


XXIX  -FISHERIES  AND  FISHERY  LAWS  IN  AUSTRIA  AND  OF 

THE  WORLD  IN  GENERAL. 


By  Carl  Peyrer. 


[The  following  article  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Carl  Peyrer,  at  the  request 
of  the  department  of  agriculture  of  Austria,  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
an  account  of  the  present  condition  of  the  fresh- water  fisheries  of  that 
empire,  and  incidentally  of  Europe  in  general,  as  also  to  furnish  an 
explanation  of  the  causes  which  have  made  it  necessary  to  provide  by 
legislative  enactment  and  by  various  methods  of  artificial  propagation 
for  the  preservation  and  further  increase  of  the  fish. 

The  article  concludes  with  an  account  of  the  legislation  which  has 
been  adopted,  and  the  general  principles  on  which  such  legislation  is 
founded.  All  the  points  brought  forward  by  the  author  apply  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  to  the  United  States ;  and  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  the  general  history  of  the  subject  up  to  the  present  date,  and 
of  showing  the  necessities  of  other  countries  and  what  has  been  done 
to  meet  them,  I  have  thought  it  proper  to  translate  and  publish  the 
report  of  Peyrer,  so  as  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  national  system  ot 
uniform  regulations  for  the  protection  and  improvement  of  the  fisheries 
of  the  United  States. 

Spencer,  F.  Baird.] 

A— GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

1. — EARLY  PROTECTIVE  MEASURES. 

Reports  have  been  made  at  different  times  on  the  state  of  the  fish- 
eries, and  on  the  existing  fishing-privileges,  in  the  different  provinces 
of  Austria,  as  well  as  on  the  means  of  improving  them,  and  especially 
upon  changes  or  complete  reforms  in  the  fishery  laws.  Draughts  of 
new  laws  have  repeatedly  been  made,  and  have  been  thoroughly  exam- 
ined and  discussed  by  committees  appointed  for  the  purpose,  these 
committees  being  assisted  by  persons  who  had  made  fishing  a  special 
study,  by  representatives  of  the  central  government,  by  the  provincial 
authorities,  and  by  agricultural  societies. 

In  looking  over  the  reports  made  at  different  times  on  one  and  the 

*  Fiscbereibetrieb  uud  Fiscbereirecbt  in  Osterreicb.  Erne  vergleicbeude  Darstelluug 
des  osterreicbiscben  Fiscbereiweseus  mit  dein  Fiscbereibetriebe  und  der  Fiscberei- 
gesetgebung  auderer  Lander,  insbesondere  Deutscblands,  verfasst  im  Auftrage  des  k.  k. 
Ackerbaumiuisteriurns  von  Carl  Peyrer,  Sectionsratb  im  k.  k.  Ackerbauuiinisterium. 
Wien.  Druck  der  k.  k.  Hof-  uud  Sfiaatsdruckerei.  1874.     8  vo.  pp.  iii,  159. 


572       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

same  fishery-law,  one  is  struck  by  the  peculiar  changes  of  views  regard- 
ing the  most  important  points  in  question. 

Prior  to  the  year  1848,  the  fishing-privileges  were  nearly  everywhere 
considered  as  an  essential  part  of  the  rights  belonging  to  every  land- 
owner, and  a  strict  fishery-law  would  have  appeared  as  an  attempt  to 
give  renewed  stability  to  the  claims  of  land-owners,  which,  even  at  that 
time,  were  frequently  attacked,  and  considered  as  untenable ;  the  de- 
sire for  such  a  law,  which  was  expressed  by  several  persons,  conse- 
quently found  but  little  support. 

In  the  following  years,  after  the  fishing-privilege  had  come  to  be 
considered  as  only  an  individual  claim,  which  any  one  might  obtain, 
when  new  landed  properties  had  been  formed  and  were  still  forming, 
such  a  law  appeared  to  many  as  an  unjustifiable  infringement  ou  the 
rights  of  individuals,  while  most  people  thought  it  an  unnecessary 
measure,  justified  by  no  actual  want ;  others  thought  it  a  very  small 
matter  that  the  government  should  make  laws  regarding  the  size  of 
meshes,  the  size  of  fish  which  might  be  caught,  the  seasons  for  fishing, 
&c.  Such  laws,  they  said,  could  never  be  fully  carried  out,  and  would 
only  produce  a  hateful  and  inefficient  police  surveillance ;  the  gov- 
ernment, in  its  zeal  to  promote  the  fishing  interests,  should  confine  itself 
to  the  diffusion  of  useful  information,  to  money-grants,  and  similar  favors. 
But  even  at  that  time,  these  views  found  their  opponents.  Zealous 
naturalists  and  sound  political  economists  joined  the  intelligent  pro- 
prietors in  showing  the  pernicious  consequences  of  neglecting  the  fish- 
eries, and  also  showed  the  possibility  of  improving  them  by  laws  based 
on  sound  scientific  principles.  The  certain  hope  was  expressed  that 
the  constant  growth  of  intelligence  among  the  population  would  make 
the  belief  in  the  usefulness  and  the  necessity  of  such  laws  more  uni- 
versal, and  increase  the  possibility  of  carrying  them  out.  These  views, 
however,  did  not  succeed,  as  their  opponents  were  still  too  powerful. 

2. — IMPROVED  APPRECIATION   OF   THE   INTEREST. 

The  reports  of  the  last  few  years  are  in  every  respect  more  satisfac- 
tory. Natural  sciences,  which  have  become  better  known,  having 
taught  men  not  to  surrender  unconditionally  to  the  powers  in  nature, 
but  to  combine  them  in  a  practical  manner  with  human  activity,  this 
principle  was  also  applied  to  the  fisheries.  Here,  more  than  in  many 
other  fields,  have  the  scientific  and  economical  interests,  which  called 
to  life  the  artificial  propagation  of  fish,  and  the  consequent  system  of 
scientific  fish-culture,  produced  a  radical  change.  The  growing  produc- 
tiveness of  the  fisheries  in  those  countries  in  which  the  right  to  fish  is 
restrained  by  strict  laws;  the  better  knowledge  of  the  actual  condition 
of  the  fisheries  and  of  the  historical  development  of  the  fishing-privi- 
leges in  the  several  provinces  of  Austria;  the  acquaintance  with  foreign 
laws  in  all  their  details,  and  the  manner  iu  which  they  are  carried  out; 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  573 

and  the  glaring  evils  in  the  Austrian  system:  all  these  causes  have 
combined  to  eradicate  the  former  indifference  and  have,  among  those 
men  in  Austria  who  take  an  interest  in  the  subject,  produced  an  over- 
whelming majority  in  favor  of  suitable  laws  for  protecting  and  improv- 
ing this  branch  of  industry. 

The  objection  that  such  laws  could  not,  under  existing  circumstances, 
be  carried  out,  has  become  powerless ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  fully  expected 
that  the  laws  themselves  will  pave  the  way  for  more  correct  views,  for 
greater  energy  in  carrying  on  the  fisheries,  for  order  and  respect  for  law ; 
and  that,  through  the  better  understanding  and  the  awakened  interest 
of  the  population,  the  laws  will  gradually  grow  in  efficiency. 

At  first  we  shall  have  to  be  satisfied  with  small  beginnings,  and  leave 
it  to  the  educating  force  of  legislation  gradually  to  produce  a  better  state 
of  affairs.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  fishery-law  may  even  now 
bear  its  full  fruit,  and  be  put  into  practical  execution  in  all  its  details ; 
in  other  parts,  however,  where,  for  the  time  being,  the  conditions  are 
not  so  favorable,  individual  intelligence  and  perseverance  will  no  doubt 
secure  a  firm  footing  for  the  more  important  regulations. 

The  greatest  change  of  views,  however,  is  observable  not  only  regard- 
ing the  question  of  the  necessity  and  feasibility  of  a  fishery-law,  but 
also  regarding  the  extent  of  such  a  law.  While  the  former  laws  did  not 
go  beyond  sporadic  regulations,  having  the  character  of  police-ordi- 
nances, such  as  might  seem  desirable  to  a  local  observer,  the  more 
recent  reports  have  aimed  at  a  thorough  exposition  of  the  object  and 
basis  of  the  new  legislation,  as  well  as  of  the  several  conditions  on 
which  the  healthy  development  of  the  fisheries  depends;  they  endeav- 
ored to  define  clearly  all  the  judicial  points  growing  out  of  these  con- 
ditions, and  to  urge  the  settlement  of  all  these  points  by  a  fishery-law 
which  should  be  as  nearly  complete  as  possible.  They  also  aimed  to 
call  into  life  institutions  calculated  to  improve  the  fisheries  still  further. 
From  a  mere  police  ordinance,  the  fishery-regulation  is  to  rise  to  the 
dignity  of  an  organic  law. 

3. — THE   OBJECT  OF  FISHERY  LEGISLATION. 

The  object  of  fishery  legislation,  as  of  all  other  economical  enact- 
ments, is  to  make  a  lasting  and  advantageous  use  of  the  waters  con- 
taining valuable  food-fishes,  and  to  place  this  interest  in  its  proper 
relation  to  all  the  other  industries,  i.  e.,  to  increase  the  quantity  of 
fish  as  much  as  the  due  regard  to  other  industries  will  permit.  As, 
according  to  Roscher,  every  industry  rests  on  scientific,  technical,  and 
economical  principles,  which  are  combined  for  reaching  a  certain  defi- 
nite, practical  object,  viz,  the  most  advantageous  carrying  on  of  this 
industry,  therefore  must  all  economical  legislation,  with  a  view  to  the 
right  adjustment  of  these,  be  made  scientific,  technical,  and  economical 
principles. 

Fishery  legislation  must  have  due  regard  to  the  teachings  of  science 


574       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

concerning  the  nature  of  fish,  their  different  species,  propagation, 
growth,  location,  migrations,  &c. ;  to  the  teachings  of  technology  con- 
cerning the  different  methods  of  catching  fish,  the  implements  employed, 
the  contrivances  for  protecting  fish  against  hurtful  influences,  for  favor- 
ing their  migration,  &c. ;  but  no  less  must  it  study  the  principles  of  polit- 
ical economy,  the  ways  and  means  of  carrying  on  business  in  the  most  ad- 
vantageous manner,  the  mode  of  holding  property  and  the  uses  made  of 
it  which  are  hostile  to  modern  civilization,  in  order  to  replace  them  by 
such  as  Avill  suit  the  fisheries  and  further  their  interests;  it  must  like 
wise  study  the  true  relation  toward  each  other  of  all  the  industries  car 
ried  on  by  means  of  water,  the  effect  of  laws  on  industrial  pursuits  so 
as  not  to  make  laws  which  would-  decrease  the  net  profits  and  would 
deter  people  from  engaging  in  fishing  industries. 

Fishery  legislation  must  also  have  due  regard  to  judicial  and  admin- 
istrative considerations ;  it  must  be  based  on  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  condition  of  fisheries  in  other  countries,  of  the  fishery -laws  of  these 
countries,  as  well  as  of  the  laws  and  administrative  regulations  of  all 
branches  of  industry  related  to  fishing;  and  it  must  study  the  manner  in 
which  laws  are  carried  out  in  foreign  countries  and  the  effect  of  such 
laws  on  the  fishing  interests. 

These  several  elements  of  fishery  legislation  had,  therefore,  to  be 
studied  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  and  made  perfectly  clear,  before  a  law 
could  be  drawn  up. 

All  the  legal  questions  regarding  fisheries  cannot  be  settled  at  once 
by  passing  fishery-laws,  since  many  of  them  will  have  to  be  solved  by 
different  forms  of  legislation,  such  as  penal  laws,  special  laws,  &c. ;  but 
even  for  such  laws,  the  study  of  the  above-mentioned  principles  will  be 
of  great  use. 

Although  the  passing  of  fishery  laws  is  an  important  step  toward 
furthering  the  fishing  interests,  it  is  neither  the  law  nor  the  government 
which  calls  fisheries  into  life  ;  the  law  would  be  powerless  if  it  were  not 
energetically  supported  by  the  will  of  the  people ;  the  activity  of  those 
persons  who  possess  fishing-privileges,  and  the  spirit  of  enterprise  in 
individuals  can  alone,  under  the  protection  of  the  law,  bring  about  con- 
tinued improvements;  and  further  changes  in  the  fishing-privileges  will 
favor  the  formation  of  societies,  produce  equitable  methods  of  renting 
out  the  fisheries,  and  common  regulations  for  their  protection  and  im- 
provement. Such  individual  activity  must  then  be  followed  by  further 
administrative  measures  on  the  part  of  the  communities,  the  provincial 
assemblies,  and  the  central  government,  for  clearing  away  hiuderanccs 
and  creating  new  means  of  promoting  the  fisheries. 

From  the  government,  we  must,  above  everything  else,  expect  that  it 
wdl  strictly  carry  out  the  laws  made  for  protecting  the  fisheries  against 
illegal  encroachments,  and  against  the  unwise  exhaustion  of  the  waters 
by  those  who  possess  fishing-privileges,  as  well  as  against  interruptions 
in  fishing  by  the  unlimited  extension  of  the  rights  of  third  parties;  to 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  575 

the  government  we  must  likewise  look  for  those  general,  far-reaching, 
and,  therefore,  successful  measures  which  the  fishing  interests  require 
from  time  to  time  even  where  there  is  a  good  fishery-law.  Such  meas- 
ures likewise  demand  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  on  which 
the  fishery-laws  are  based. 

The  sad  experiences  of  the  Austrian  fisheries,  which  are  related  in 
every  one  of  the  reports  of  competent  men  from  all  the  provinces  of 
the  Austrian  empire,  and  which  could  not  be  passed  over  silently  in  this 
report,  will  increase  conviction  that  the  former  neglect  and  the  conse- 
quent exhaustion  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  cannot  go  on  without  this  in- 
dispensable harvest  of  the  waters  dwindling  down  to  utter  insignificance, 
and  the  supplies  of  this  wholesome  and  cheap  food  diminishing.  It 
must  become  a  question  of  vital  interest  to  the  whole  population  to  put 
an  end  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  waters  by  cultivating  them. 

B— THE  FISHERIES. 
4. — THE  FORMER  CONDITION   OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  FISHERIES. 

In  olden  times,  the  waters  of  Austria  were  rich  in  fish  of  every  kind, 
supplying  the  population  with  a  considerable  quantity  of  cheap  and 
wholesome  food,  and  the  fishers  with  a  fruitful  source  of  income.  On 
all  the  more  important  waters,  there  were  well  organized  fishing-associa- 
tions, guilds  of  fishermen  and  traders ;  in  all  the  larger  towns,  there  were 
fish-markets,  the  names  of  which  are  alone  left  in  many  cases.  Old  ac- 
count-books giving  the  quantities  of  fish  used  and  sold,  market-statistics 
and  service-lists  of  the  number  of  fish  to  be  paid  to  landed  proprietors, 
convents,  cities,  and  markets,  by  their  dependents,  show  in  figures  the 
immense  wealth  of  fish  in  the  olden  times ;  not  to  mention  the  many 
almost  legendary  reports  of  enormous  hauls  of  fish,  of  the  complaints 
of  servants  that  they  were  nauseated  by  the  too  frequent  appearance  on 
the  table  of  salmon  and  trout,  which  are  found  in  the  often  quoted  regu- 
lations and  service-compacts  of  many  cities  on  rivers  flowing  into  the 
Baltic  and  the  North  Sea,  as  well  as  on  the  Danube,  in  Salzburg,  Bohe- 
mia, and  in  other  provinces  of  Austria.  As  late  as  the  first  decades  of 
our  century,  the  wealth  of  fish  in  the  several  provinces  of  Austria  was 
very  considerable.  Some  rivers  of  Moravia,  as  late  as  thirty  years  ago, 
furnished  so  many  trout  that  these  fish  formed  the  common  food  of  the 
laborers,  a  good  sized  tubful  being  sold  for  about  5  cents. 

Even  during  the  period  1S50-'5S,  trout  were  so  numerous  in  the 
rivers  and  rivulets  of  the  Bohmer  Wald  that  an  observer  counted 
one  trout  to  every  fathom,  the  breadth  of  the  water  being  4  feet  and 
its  depth  1  foot,  (Woldrich,  Ueber  die  Fische  und  ihr  Leben  in  den 
Waldbiichen  des  Centralstockes  des  Bohmerwaldes,  1858,)  while  the 
same  observer,  in  1870,  found  the  same  streams  almost  without  any 
fish  whatever,  on  account  of  fishing  during  the  spawning  season. 


576       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Twenty -five  years  ago  one  might  have  seen,  in  the  Vienna  markets, 
immense  sturgeons,  frequently  10  to  15,  each  weighing  250  to  500  pounds. 

The  wealth  offish  in  our  beautiful  mountain  lakes  and  in  the  numer- 
ous rivers  and  streams  in  the  Austrian  Alps  was  world-renowned. 

The  saying  of  M.  Coste,  who,  imitating  a  well-known  wish  of  Henry 
IV,  promised,  after  the  introduction  of  artificial  fish-breeding,  a  trout  to 
every  Frenchman,  seemed  to  be  fulfilled  in  Austria. 

5. — THE  PRESENT   CONDITION  OF  THE   FISHERIES  AND  ITS  CAUSES. 

In  our  day,  most  of  the  waters  are  almost  depopulated  ;  salmon  and 
trout  formerly  nearly  worthless,  being  counted  among  dainties  which 
only  the  wealthy  can  enjoy.  In  many  waters  formerly  visited  by  migra- 
tory fish,  especially  salmon,  these  migrations  have  ceased  entirely  ; 
fishing-privileges,  once  highly  valued,  have  in  most  places  become 
worthless,  and  the  fishing  trade  is  languishing.  Not  only  has  the  quan- 
tity of  fish  decreased,  but  the  number  of  fine  and  full-grown  specimens 
of  the  better  kind  of  fish  has  also  diminished  considerably.  In  former 
times,  when  fishing  in  our  rivers  and  lakes  was  carried  on  with  due 
regard  to  the  protection  of  the  younger  generations  of  fish,  they  grew 
to  a  considerable  size,  aud  the  pictures  in  some  of  our  old  castles  and 
town  halls,  of  fish  caught  in  the  olden  times,  represent  them  of  aston- 
ishing dimensions.  In  many  cases,  the  cause  of  this  depopulation  of 
the  waters  must  be  found  in  the  advance  of  human  civilization,  driving 
back  animal  creation. 

The  waves  produced  by  steamers  disturb  and  drive  away  the  fish, 
throw  a  large  number  of  eggs  and  young  fish  on  shore,  or  cover  them 
with  mud  in  the  spawning  places.  Embankments  and  other  river  im- 
provements made  in  the  interest  of  navigation,  or  as  a  protection  against 
inundations  or  the  formation  of  marshes,  make  the  water-courses  nar- 
rower, destroying  many  favorable  spawning  and  breeding  places,  and 
drying  many  sheets  of  water  entirely.  The  lowering  of  lakes  destroys 
many  of  the  old  overgrown  spawning  places  among  the  reeds  and  bushes 
on  the  shores;  the  increased  number  of  water- works,  especially  of  weirs 
aud  sluices  for  industrial  purposes,  likewise  disturbs  the  propagation  of 
fish,  and  makes  their  migration  to  the  spawning  grounds  either  very  diffi- 
cult or  entirely  impossible.  Of  the  so-called  salmon  and  trout  paths,  so 
successfully  introduced  in  other  countries,  so  far  but  little  use  has  been 
made  with  us. 

The  constantly  increasing  devices  for  irrigation  and  for  draining, 
made  with  a  view  to  heightened  agricultural  productiveness ;  contriv- 
ances for  floating  lumber  down  the  streams  ;  the  introduction  into  the 
water  of  hurtful  salts,  coloring  matter,  and  other  refuse  of  industrial  and 
agricultural  establishments  ;  the  filth  of  cities;  the  innumerable  small 
particles  of  coal  from  steamers  and  factories,  gas  works,  &c,  are  all 
injurious  to  the  fisheries,  as  they  are  apt  to  kill  the  young  fish.  After 
every  violent  rain,  which  washes  out  the  old  heaps  of  rubbish  near  alum 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  577 

and  vitriol  works  and  other  manufacturing  establishments,  masses  of 
dead  or  stunned  fish  may  be  seen  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  waters. 

Still  more  does  the  decrease  of  food  in  the  fishing  waters,  which  is 
brought  about  by  various  causes,  diminish  the  number  of  fish  to  a 
great  extent.  The  number  of  fish  is  in  due  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  organic  matter  which  annually  passes  into  the  water.  The  culti- 
vation of  the  banks;  the  felling  of  trees;  the  clearing  away  of  bushes; 
the  frequent  cleaning  of  the  river  beds ;  the  rootiug  out  of  aquatic 
plants,  which  purify  the  air  in  the  water  and  develop  oxygen ;  the 
taking  away  of  sand  and  mud;  all  these  causes  tend  to  diminish  the 
conditions  under  which  alone  a  healthy  growth  of  fish  can  be  expected. 
The  consequent  want  of  food,  as  supplied  by  aquatic  plants  and  by  the 
numerous  insects  living  in  the  mud,  decreases  the  number  of  fish,  even 
in  such  waters  as  had  the  reputation  of  possessing  inexhaustible  wealth 
of  fish.  As  man  takes  away  more  and  more  grain  and  straw  from  the 
fields  and  grass  from  the  meadows,  rain  and  snow-water  can  no  longer 
bring  as  much  organic  matter  into  the  lakes  and  rivers.  Such  organic 
matter  as  is  carried  along  by  the  water  is,  moreover,  hurried  on  in  its 
rush,  made  more  rapid  by  river  improvements,  and  not  permitted 
to  become  food  for  fish  by  settling  in  calmer  waters  and  undergoing  a 
series  of  chemical  changes. 

The  combination  of  all  these  unfavorable  conditions,  which  cannot  be 
entirely  removed,  will  always  keep  the  productiveness  of  the  fisheries 
in  most  of  our  waters  below  the  average  of  former  times.  But  even 
that  degree  of  productiveness  which  might  be  reached  has  never  been 
attained ;  and  it  can  boldly  be  affirmed  that  the  inland  fisheries  owe 
their  decline  more  to  themselves  than  to  those  outward  causes  men- 
tioned above.  The  destruction  of  fish  even  extended  to  those  numerous 
waters  which  had  either  entirely  or  partly  escaped  the  hurtful  influences 
described  above,  or  which  could,  by  suitable  arrangements,  be  freed 
from  such  influences,  and,  even  in  spite  of  such  unfavorable  circum- 
stances, still  contain  all  the  conditions  necessary  for  successful  fish- 
breeding. 

The  number  of  bodies  of  waters  and  rivers  which  are  rich  in  fish  is, 
even  now,  very  considerable  in  several  provinces  of  Austria ;  by  proper 
care  and  cultivation,  their  number  can  be  increased;  and,  considering  the 
almost  inexhaustible  strength  which  nature  develops  in  the  increase  of 
fish,  even  the  smallest  body  of  water  can,  from  a  state  of  poverty  and 
'  neglect,  be  changed  into  a  rich  harvest  field  for  the  proprietor.  We 
are  sorry  to  see  that  hitherto  but  very  little  has  been  done  in  the  way 
of  caring  for  and  and  cultivating  the  waters,  for  keeping  away  hurtful 
influences,  and  for  taking  proper  steps  to  promote  pisciculture. 

The  want  of  the  spirit  of  industry  on  the  part  of  those  who  possess 

fishing-privileges,  especially    among    the    poorer  and   more   ignorant. 

neither  permitted  the  employment  of  the  proper  means  for  promoting 
37  F 


578       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

the   fishing  interests,  nor  would  it  allow  any  clear  light  to  be  thrown 
upon  the  hurtful  character  of  most  methods  now  in  use. 

The  young  fish,  amounting  to  millions,  are  carelessly  thrown  on  shore 
or  allowed  to  perish,  when  their  preservation  would  bean  easy  and  inex- 
pensive matter.  Everywhere  the  business  is  carried  on  with  hurtful  im- 
plements, destroying  the  eggs  and  the  young  fish.  Because  there  is  no 
season  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  the  fishermen  destroy  millions  of  eggs 
by  catching  during  the  spawning  season,  thus  sacrificing  great  future 
wealth  for  the  sake  of  inconsiderable  present  gain. 

Nowhere  are  any  efforts  made  to  neutralize  the  hurtful  influences  of 
industrial  pursuits  on  the  life  and  propagation  of  fish  ;  scarcely  any- 
where has  an  attempt  been  made  to  harmonize  conflicting  interests  by 
such  measures  as  are  suggested  by  the  advancement  of  science. 

The  legal  relations  of  the  fisheries,  especially  those  pertaining  to  their 
renting  or  farming,  are  everywhere  arranged  in  such  a  miserable  manner 
as  to  lead  to  the  total  exhaustion  of  the  waters.  In  no  portion  of 
political  economy  do  we  find  so  many  antiquated  legal  forms,  which 
are  hostile  to  civilization,  and  so  many  unpractical  and  useless  regula- 
tions, as  here.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  not  only  encourages  individual 
proprietors  either  to  make  the  most  reckless  use  of  their  privileges  or 
to  neglect  them  totally,  but  makes  a  rational  fish-culture  in  larger 
bodies  of  water  by  all  other  privileged  persons  almost  a  matter  of  im- 
possibility. 

There  are  privileges  for  employing  certain  specified  fishing  imple- 
ments, fish-weirs,  automatic  traps,  &c,  and  for  small  spaces  in  larger 
bodies  of  water ;  privileges  extending  only  over  one-half  of  a  stream, 
and  those  which  change  their  possessor  every  year;  privileges  of  a 
doubtful  or  disputed  character  in  private  bodies  of  water ;  fishing  wa- 
ters where  any  one  or  where  all  the  members  of  a  certain  village  or 
town  may  fish  ;  and  fishing  waters  which  do  not  go  beyond  the  extent 
of  the  shore,  &c.  The  fisheries  are  nearly  everywhere  leased  in  small 
portions  and  on  short  time,  thus  preventing  the  lessee  from  making  any 
improvements.  Large  estates  possessing  fisheries  lease  them  frequently 
to  their  officials,  to  foresters,  &c,  who  catch  a  few  fish  for  their  own 
use,  or  lease  the  fisheries  to  others.  Even  sheets  of  water  belonging  to 
the  state  frequently  find  no  lessee  on  account  of  the  arduous  conditions 
of  the  lease.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  where  fishing  has  been  car- 
ried on  in  a  reckless  manner  by  the  farmers  or  proprietors  of  the  banks,, 
the  fisheries  have,  even  in  brooks  that  formerly  possessed  an  endless 
wealth  of  trout,  dwindled  down  to  a  mere  pastime  for  boys,  or  are  fre- 
quently carried  on  by  vagrants,  poor  day-laborers,  and  mechanics  not 
at  all  in  a  concealed  manner,  but  quite  openly  and  with  the  knowledge 
of  the  proprietors. 

.    But  very  rarely  are  the  fisheries  in  the  hands  of  men  who,  by  the 
intelligent  and  persevering  application  of  sound   principles  follow  a 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  579 

practical  aim  that  is  likely  to  preserve  them  from  exhaustion.  Legisla- 
tion in  our  country  so  far  has  not  endeavored  to  transfer  the  fisheries 
to  a  better  class  of  men  by  regulating  the  system  of  leases,  and  by  limit- 
ing the  powers  of  possessors  whose  titles  to  property  are  drawn  up  in  a 
form  which  is  hostile  to  general  civilization. 

The  state  itself  has  hitherto  set  a  bad  example  by  leasing  its  waters 
in  small  portions  and  on  short  time  to  ignorant  fishermen.  Nowhere 
has  the  lease  been  made  on  scientific  principles  ;  frequently,  the  reeds 
of  lakes  and  ponds  are  leased  separately,  or  they  are  given  away  to 
poor  peasants,  in  payment  for  work  done,  who  capture  the  fish  at  all 
times,  even  during  their  spawning  season,  thus  destroying  even  the 
very  germs  of  a  rational  protection. 

Nowhere  have  new  species  been  introduced  into  waters  rich  in  inferior 
fish  and  suited  for  the  finest  breeds,  nor  has  any  care  been  taken  to 
increase  the  quantity,  to  improve  the  breed  by  crossing  it,  or  to  estab- 
lish places  where  fishing  should  be  actually  prohibited,  in  which  places 
artificial  propagation  might  be  utilized,  or,  in  fact,  to  take  any  practical 
measures  for  bringing  to  greater  perfection  this  important  industry. 

The  organization  of  companies  on  a  legal  basis  has  not  been  at- 
tempted anywhere ;  associations  of  all  the  persons  privileged  to  fish, 
such  as  existed  in  great  number  in  olden  times,  have  nowhere  been 
formed,  although  they  had  proved  eminently  useful  for  making  good 
fishing  regulations,  for  organizing  the  fisheries  either  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  them  on  in  common  or  only  for  taking  uniform  meas- 
ures for  protecting  and  increasing  the  fish,  for  doing  away  with  obnox- 
ious privileges,  for  establishing  fish-passages  and  places  where  fishing 
was  prohibited,  for  stocking  the  waters  with  a  superior  breed  of  fish, 
for  common  protection,  and  for  common  sales. 

No  wonder  that  our  beautiful  lakes,  even  those  where  no  steamer  nor 
factory  disturbs  the  fish,  have  gradually  become  just  as  depopulated  as 
our  large  rivers  and  streams. 

The  increase  of  population  and  the  easier  means  of  transportation 
have  produced  a  much  larger  market  for  fish,  and  made  them  the 
object  of  an  eager  pursuit  by  privileged  and  non-privileged  fishermen* 
Instead  of  satisfying  the  increased  demand  brought  about  by  the 
increase  of  population,  through  greater  care  in  the  breeding  of  fish 
and  by  strict  protective  measures,  a  perfect  system  of  plunder  has  been 
introduced  aud  is  tolerated.  Only  the  immediate  demand  is  looked  to 
and  is  satisfied  by  every  means;  fish-thieves  of  every  kind  plunder 
the  waters,  especially  peddlers,  traveling  musicians,  and  actors,  who 
seek  the  placidly  flowing  waters,  the  old  river  beds,  and  stupefy  the  fish 
by  the  seeds  of  Cocculus  indicus  mixed  with  other  bait.  Since  the 
building  of  railroads  has  made  blasting  with  dynamite  more  frequent, 
not  only  the  laborers  on  the  railroads,  but,  to  their  disgrace  be  it  said, 
persons  possessing  fishing-privileges  and  farmers,  have  made  great 
havoc  by  using  explosives  for  catching  fish.    Those  which  have  been 


580       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

killed  or  stunned  in  this  manner  or  by  the  use  of  Cocculus  indicus  float  on 
the  surface,  the  larger  ones  are  taken  out,  and  the  smaller  oues  perish 
uselessly.*  Carl  Vogt,  the  well-known  naturalist,  says,  in  his  work 
on  artificial  fish- breeding,  t  "As  far  as  the  article  of  food  is  concerned 
which  is  found  in  our  waters  in  the  shape  of  fish,  we  occupy  entirely 
the  stand-point  of  the  hunter,  or  at  best  that  of  the  roving  shepherd, 
who  seeks  safe  retreats  for  his  flocks,  but  leaves  all  the  rest  to  nature. 
Our  fishery-laws  do  not  even  go  as  far  as  our  game-laws,  which  at  least 
protect  the  animals  of  the  forest  during  their  breeding  time." 

In  reviewing  all  of  the  above-mentioned  facts,  we  must,  to  our  deep 
regret,  consider  the  reproach  justified,  "  that  the  present  state  of  our 
fisheries  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  carried  on,  are  one  of  the  most 
unpardonable  crimes  against  bountiful  nature,  against  our  own  palpable 
advantage,  against  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  and  the  civilization  of  our 
age."  Men  have  actually,  in  their  inexcusable  blindness,  done  everything 
to  destroy  not  only  the  treasures  of  nature,  but  even  the  fountains  from 
which  these  treasures  flow,  while  the  means  of  preserving,  protecting, 
and  increasing  them  are  nowhere  applied  with  true  understanding,  with 
energy,  and  perseverance. 

6. — ARTIFICIAL  FISH-BREEDING. 

The  power  of  propagating  is  extraordinarily  developed  in  fish.  Of  the 
food-fishes  trout  deposit  6,000  eggs  per  annum;  salmon,  25,000;  tench, 
70,000;  pike,  100,000;  perch,  200,000;  sturgeon,  upward  of  2,000,000. 
This  circumstance,  as  well  as  the  high  price  of  fish,  but  more  particu- 
larly the  invention  and  further  development  of  artificial  fish-breeding, 
have  again  awakened  the  desire  for  an  extensive  and  well-regulated  fish- 
culture;  aud  in  spite  of  all  the  hiuderances  mentioned  above,  which  can- 
not be  obviated,  and  in  spite  of  the  demands  for  the  most  unlimited 
use  of  the  waters  which  navigation,  industry,  and  agriculture  are 
making,  there  is  a  possibility  of  again  gradually  making  pisciculture  a 
remunerative  source  of  income  in  our  country. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  delusive  hope  if,  from  the  "  mere  possibility 
of  multiplying  young  fish,"  we  would  at  once  deduct  its  practical  real- 
ization on  an  extensive  scale,  and  expect  that  the  artificial  impregna- 
tion of  thousands  of  eggs,  which,  by  means  of  a  couple  of  fish,  had 

*  From  Daubrawka,  near  Pilsen,  in  Bohemia,  the  "Nar.  Listy"  communicates  the  follow- 
ing as  the  result  of  catching  fish  by  means  of  dynamite  :  "  The  effect  of  the  dynamite 
thrown  into  the  water  soon  became  apparent.  A  large  number  of  fish  floated  on  the 
surface  ;  these,  however,  were  such  as  had  only  been  stunned  by  the  explosion.  When 
after  the  lapse  of  about  half  an  hour  the  water  had  again  become  calm,  so  that  one 
could  see  the  bottom,  a  large  number  of  dead  fish  could  be  seen,  which,  when  taken 
out,  proved  useless,  as  they  had  spots  and  smelled  very  disagreeably.  On  the  second 
day,  the  place  became  almost  impassable,  because  the  fish  had  commenced  to  putrefy. 
The  result  of  this  attempt  was  that  the  lessee  of  the  fishery  got  about  40  pounds  of 
fish,  while  at  least  400  pounds  had  been  killed  and  become  useless." 

t  Die  kiinstliche  Fischzucht,  Leipzig  :  Brockhaus,  1859,  p.  2.  * 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  581 

proved  astonishingly  successful,  would  immediately  tend  to  restock  all 
our  lakes  and  rivers. 

The  law  of  nature  by  which  fish  are  increased  by  the  enormous  fruit- 
fulness  of  a  single  pair  is  counterbalanced  by  another  law  of  nature, 
which  permits  the  destruction  of  equally  large  numbers  of  fish  during  their 
period  of  development,  thus  restoring  the  proper  balance  in  the  house- 
hold of  nature.  Hitherto,  man  has  only  disturbed  this  balance,  and  no 
endeavors  were  made  to  counteract  destruction  by  taking  measures  for 
preservation  and  increase. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  many  races  of  animals  that  were  hostile 
to  man,  or  at  least  useless,  have,  by  this  continued  war  of  destruction, 
either  been  entirely  annihilated  or  very  much  diminished,  in  numbers ; 
those,  however,  whose  preservation  and  propagation  are  protected  by 
human  laws  and  customs,  those  which  have  enjoyed  the  care  of  man, 
have  not  only  been  preserved  and  increased,  but  also  considerably  im- 
proved. Just  as  man  in  the  care  of  his  domestic  animals  does  not  leave 
everything  to  nature  alone,  but  rears  them  on  practical  and  scientific 
principles,  he  must  also  carry  on  fish-breeding  in  a  similar  manner. 

It  is  the  object  of  artificial  pisciculture  to  make  use  of  the  spawn 
which  nature  provides  in  rich  profusion,  and  to  protect  it  against  all 
hurtful  influences  in  nature,  as  well  as  to  provide  the  fish  in  a  plentiful 
manner  with  the  food  which  they  require  for  their  development. 

Of  the  enormous  number  of  fish-eggs,  a  large  portion  is  never  fertil- 
ized, the  cause  of  this  being  the  peculiar  manner  of  impregnation, 
which  takes  place  outside  of  the  body,  as  the  female  lets  the  eggs 
(roe)  drop  into  the  water,  and  the  male  pours  the  semen  (milt)  over 
them.  The  eggs  of  most  species  of  fish  lie  free  on  the  bottom,  only  cov- 
ered a  little  by  pebbles  and  sand,  or  are  by  some,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  perch;  pasted  on  aquatic  plants  and  stones.  During  the  breeding- 
season,  which  lasts  several  weeks,  the  eggs  are  exposed  to  numberless 
enemies.  Wherever  the  spawning  places  have  not  been  properly  pre- 
pared, many  of  the  eggs  are  either  washed  away  by  the  water,  or  thrown 
on  the  dry  land  by  the  waves,  or  scattered  by  removing  the  plants  or 
the  sand.  Some  fish,  which  are  in  the  habit  of  gliding  along  the  bottom, 
such  as  the  turbot,  the  groundling,  and  likewise  the  perch,  feed  almost 
entirely  on  fish-eggs  during  the  spawning-season.  No  less  hurtful  are 
the  numberless  lar  of  insects,  diminutive  crabs,  water-mice?  and  all 
aquatic  birds,  such  as  ducks,  geese,  &c.  The  vegetable  kingdom  also 
contains  many  enemies  of  the  fish-eggs,  such  as  the  small  plants  of 
which  mold  is  composed,  whose  germs  sticking  to  the  outer  skin  of  the 
egg,  soon  commence  to  sprout  forth,  and  destroy  enormous  quantities  of 
them.  The  eggs  of  those  fish  which  spawn  in  winter,  among  which 
there  are  some  of  the  finest  species,  are  frequently  exposed  to  the  dan- 
ger of  freezing  to  death.  The  young  fish  during  the  period  when  they 
lie  helpless  at  the  bottom,  and  receive  their  food  from  the  umbilical  bag, 
are  threatened  by  numberless  enemies  such  as  fish  of  prey,  insects 


582       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

and  their  larvse,  water  bugs  and  their  larvae,  salamanders,  wagtails,  &c, 
so  that  by  computation  out  of  1,000  eggs  laid  by  the  trout  or  salmon 
under  favorable  circumstances,  ouly  oue  young  fish  reaches  the  age  of 
one  year.  Nature  scatters  the  seed  with  inexhaustible  prodigality,  but 
seems  to  make  the  least  use  of  it  in  the  water.  Besides  this  it  must  be 
remembered  that  during  the  spawning  season  most  fish  come  in  large 
schools  to  the  surface  and  to  shallow  places,  and  are  therefore  more  ex-- 
posed  to  the  persecutions  of  man  in  the  spawning  places  than  any- 
where else.  It  is,  therefore,  all  the  more  the  duty  of  legislation  to  protect 
these  places  in  every  possible  way,  and,  wherever  it  can  be  done,  to  pre- 
pare them  in  a  suitable  manner. 

As  in  artificial  impregnation  the  roe  and  milt  of  the  spawning  fish  are 
pressed  out  by  human  hands,  and  brought  into  contact  by  stirring  them 
carefully  in  w7ater,  the  fertilization  becomes  more  complete  than  in 
nature ;  by  suitable  breeding-apparatus  the  further  development  of  the 
eggs  and  the  young  fish  are  cared  for.  The  better  science  succeeds  in 
finding  out  the  conditions  of  life  of  the  several  species  of  fish,  the  nearer 
nature  can  be  imitated  in  this  respect  in  the  fish-breeding  establishments, 
the  better  one  succeeds  in  removing  all  hurtful  influences  from  the  fish, 
the  richer  will  be  the  harvest,  and  the  greater  the  economical  usefulness 
of  such  establishments. 

In  selecting  the  species  of  fish,  the  quality  of  the  water,  as  well  as  local 
and  commercial  conditions,  have  to  be  taken  into  account. 

For  artificial  breeding,  the  finest  and  healthiest  specimens  of  fish  should 
always  be  selected.  Brook-trout,  for  instance,  should  weigh  at  least  a 
pound  and  be  without  a  blemish.  As  with  other  useful  animals,  so  espe- 
cially with  fish,  the  species  selected  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  a  favor- 
able result  of  the  trial,  since  it  often  requires  long  experience  to  find 
out  the  proper  places  from  which  to  get  breeding  fish. 

Streams  or  springs  which  have  a  considerable  fall,  fresh  pure  water, 
and  even  temperature,  are  essential  conditions  to  a  favorable  result  of 
artificial  fish-breeding ;  before  entering  the  establishment,  they  should 
have  run  for  some  time  above  «the  ground,  and  received  the  oxygen, 
which  is  necessary  for  the  respiration  of  the  fish ;  they  should  likewise 
be  located  near  to  good  means  of  communication,  especially  railroads,  so 
that  the  impregnated  eggs  can  be  rapidly  shipped  to  their  destination  ; 
favorable  places  for  catching  small  fish  should  be  near;  clearbrooks,  which 
are  not  so  deep  as  to  allow  the  entrance  of  large  fish  of  prey,  into 
which  the  fish  are  to  be  transplanted  from  the  hatching-houses,  either 
iu  the  immediate  neighborhood  or  at  least  so  located  that  they  can 
easily  be  reached  ;  finally,  larger  bodies  of  water,  in  which  the  fish- 
ing-privileges  are  regulated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  to  the  propri- 
etors of  the  hatching-houses  the  full  benefit  of  their  efforts.  The 
chief  and  most  essential  point  in  artificial  fish-breeding,  however,  is 
in  all  cases  to  supply  the  growing  fish  with  cheap  and  sufficient  food. 
The  gain  will  be  greatest  iu  those  places  where  the  food  grows  as  it  were 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    Q?    AUSTRIA.  583 

in  the  same  water  with  the  fish.  This  result  is  most  easily  obtained  if, 
besides  the  breeding  fish,  small  fish  are  raised  to  serve  for  their  food. 
Tne  eggs  of  the  pollard,  the  ray,  the  minnow,  &c,  develop  during  the 
summer  months,  up  to  July,  in  as  many  days  as  during  the  winter  season 
it  takes  weeks  for  the  eggs  of  trout  to  develop.  The  manner  of  feeding 
with  water  insects  and  plants  is  a  very  simple  one.  Care  should  there- 
fore be  taken  that  they  should  be  protected  during  the  spawning  season ; 
that  the  banks  should  be  planted  with  trees  or  bushes ;  that  the  water 
should  contain  aquatic  plants,  to  which  insects  come  of  their  own  ac- 
cord ;  that  the  scum  of  the  water,  which  always  attracts  numerous  in- 
sects, should  not  be  allowed  to  escape,  &c.  At  a  later  period,  other  food 
is  used,  such  as  various  refuse,  horse-flesh,  coagulated  blood,  &c.  The 
views  of  pisciculturists  on  the  best  manner  of  feeding  fish  still  vary  a 
great  deal ;  many  attempts,  especially  in  feeding  large  numbers,  have 
been  made  in  vain ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  it  can  be  said  that  a  great 
deal  of  inventive  genius  has  been  displayed  in  procuring  articles  of 
food,  which  nearly  everywhere  vary  according  to  local  circumstances, 
(see  the  numerous  propositions  in  the  circulars  of  the  Deutsche  Fischerei- 
verein.) 

Never  were  fish  more  plentifully  supplied  with  food  than  by  the  lake- 
dwellers.  All  the  refuse  of  the  kitchen,  remains  of  vegetables,  and  of 
wild  and  domestic  animals,  which  the  inhabitants  had  brought  from  the 
shore  into  their  villages  built  over  the  water,  became  the  food  of  the  fish 
or  of  those  aquatic  animals  which  formed  part  of  their  food.  This  ex- 
plains the  fact,  which  Herodotus  relates  in  that  passage  of  his  works 
which  has  become  so  famous  since  the  discovery  of  the  remains  of  lake- 
dwellings  where  he  says  that  the  inhabitants  let  down  a  basket  into  the 
water,  which,  after  a  short  time,  they  drew  out  filled  with  fish. 

Fish-breediug  has  also  made  it  possible  to  stock  bodies  of  water  with 
water  with  fine  species,  which  hitherto  were  not  found  there.  Although 
acclimatization  is  not  yet  entirely  founded  on  scientific  principles,  many 
of  the  questions  pertaining  thereto  are  being  gradually  solved  by  con- 
tinued experiments.  Instances  of  magnificent  results  in  experiments  on 
fish  rearing  are  not  wanting. 

The  breeding-establishment  founded  by  the  French  government  at 
Hiiningen,  on  the  Upper  Ehine,  possesses  vast  arrangements,  so  that 
eight  millions  of  eggs  of  various  species  of  trout  are  hatched  at  the 
same  time ;  these  eggs  are  partly  obtained  in  the  establishment,  but 
the  larger  number  come  from  Switzerland,  the  Vosges  Mountains,  the 
Black  Forest,  from  Bavaria,  and  even  from  Upper  Austria,  and  are 
shipped  when  properly  matured.  The  raising  of  fish  is  here  only  a 
secondary  consideration ;  the  chief  object  in  view  is  to  collect  the  largest 
possible  number  of  fish-eggs,  and  when  these  have  become  impregnated 
to  send  them  to  all  parts  of  the  world  either  as  an  article  of  merchandise 
or  as  presents.  The  eggs  sent  to  Hiiningen  by  agents  of  the  establish- 
ment are  carefully  counted,  which  is  done  by  weighing,  and  registered, 


584       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

they  are  then  put  into  the  breeding-boxes  which  are  covered  by  fresh 
running  water  protected  against  all  hurtful  influences,  and  they  are 
shipped  as  soon  as  the  eyes  of  the  little  fish  can  be  seen  through  the 
skin  of  the  egg.  Up  to  the  autumn  of  1864  more  than  110,000,000  eggs 
of  fresh- water  fish,  among  these  41,000,000  salmon  and  trout,  had  been 
impregnated  at  Hiiuingen,  and  shipped  from  there.  This  number  has  no 
doubt  since  then  increased  more  than  double. 

The  new  German  government,  recognizing  the  beneficial  influence 
which  this  establishment  has  had  on  the  increase  of  fish  in  France, 
through  the  Deutsche  Fisherei-verein  takes  all  the  necessary  measures 
to  make  this  new  acquisition  a  benefit  to  the  German  fisheries.  It  has 
been  made  an  imperial  establishment,  and  the  shipping  of  eggs  is  con- 
tinued, no  longer  gratis,  however,  but  at  a  moderate  price — GO  cents  per 
thousand  for  impregnated  eggs  of  the  salmon-trout. 

Eecently  successful  experiments  in  sending  fish-eggs  to  a  consid- 
erable distance  have  been  made  in  other  establishments,  as  at  Freiburg  in 
Baden,  but  especially  at  Salzburg.  From  England,  100,000  salmon  and 
3,000  trout  eggs,  packed  first  in  moss,  and  then  in  ice,  were  some  years 
ago  sent  to  Australia,  where  they  arrived  safely.  In  the  autumn  of  1869, 
110,000  salmon-eggs  were  sent  to  iSTew  Zealand.  Now  they  have  in 
Australia  trout  measuring  19£  inches  in  length  and  weighing  3£  pounds ; 
two-year-old  salmon  have  also  been  seen,  and  some  of  them  have  been 
observed  spawning.     (Zeitschrift  fur  wissenscJiaftliche  Zoologie,  1869.) 

The  most  famous  British  fish-breeding  establishment  is  at  Stormont- 
field,  on  the  river  Tay,  where  the  young  salmon  raised  from  artificially- 
impregnated  eggs  are  cared  for  and  fed  in  several  ponds  till  they  are 
able  to  commence  their  journey  to  the  sea  as  smolts.  Originally  calcu- 
lated for  300,000  eggs,  this  establishment  has  been  considerably  en- 
larged. A  similar  establishment  is  located  on  the  river  Dee,  in  Scot- 
land, which  makes  a  business  of  raising  and  selling  eggs  and  young  fish, 
and  realizes  a  considerable  profit,  although  the  managers  pay  an  annual 
rent  of  $6,000. 

The  Irish  "salmon-factory"  of  Thomas  Ashworth,  in  Galway,  like- 
wise raises  millions  of  eggs  every  year,  and  increases  in  importance 
from  year  to  year.  The  establishments  founded  by  private  individuals, 
by  associations,  or  joint-stock  companies,  seem  to  flourish  most,  while 
those  which  have  been  founded  and  are  supported  by  the  government 
have  not  in  all  cases  been  as  successful.  It  seems  to  be  sufficient  if 
the  government  confines  its  activity  to  giving  encouragement  and  as- 
sistance to  these  local  enterprises. 

The  organization  of  artificial  fish-breeding  asssociations  involves 
expenses  which,  in  smaller  bodies  of  water,  are  not  in  due  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  water,  nor  does  every  fishing  water  offer  a  suitable  place. 
For  this  reason,  many  proprietors  of  small  fisheries  prefer  to  buy  im- 
pregnated eggs  from  the  larger  establishments,  and  place  them  in  suit- 
able places  in  the  waters,  in  shallow  and  quiet  sand  bottoms  near  to 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  585 

reeds  or  bushes,  or  put  them  in  wicker-baskets  or  boxes  in  streams, 
leaving  the  hatching  to  nature. 

7. — PROGRESS  OF  FOREIGN  FISHERIES. 

Great  Britain. — The  most  brilliant  example  of  progress  is  in  Scotland, 
whose  rivers  had  for  a  long  period  been  almost  entirely  depopulated  by 
reckless  fishing.  The  river  Spey  in  Scotland  scarcely  contained  any  fish 
up  to  the  year  1854 ;  since  then,  and  up  to  1860,  it  has  annually  produced 
upward  of  $10,000  worth  of  fish;  this  bas  even  been  increased  of  late 
years,  so  that  a  single  fishing-station  belonging'  to  the  Duke  of  Eich- 
mond  yields  an  annual  income  of  $52,500  to  $60,000.  The  annual  yield 
of  the  river  Tay  has,  in  a  few  years,  risen  from  $40,000  to  $90,000,  net 
income,  not  counting  the  large  number  of  fish  given  to  the  fishermen ; 
and  all  this  in  consequence  of  feeding,  watching,  and  protecting  the 
fisb,  and  of  introducing  artificial  breeding.  By  the  same  means,  and  in 
consequence  of  excellent  laws  and  strict  protection  of  the  fish  during 
the  spawning  season,  the  yield  of  some  of  the  Irish  fisheries  has  in  a 
few  years  increased  fourfold.  In  1858,  the  revenues  from  the  salmon 
and  trout  fisheries  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  amounted  to  $3,500,000, 
while  in  1863  they  had  increased  to  twice  that  sum.  * 

The  constantly  improved  British  fishery-laws,  and  many  institutions 
called  to  life  by  the  government,  or  at  least  encouraged  by  it,  such 
as  the  appointing  of  inspectors  of  fisheries,  are  perseveringly  following 
the  object  in  view,  to  clear  away  all  impediments  to  the  progress  of  the 
fisheries,  and  to  extend  them  by  every  possible  means. 

The  report  on  the  British  salmon  fisheries  for  the  year  1870,  by  the 
inspectors  Buckland  and  Walpole,  shows  a  considerably  increased  har- 
vest during  the  year  1869  in  consequence  of  artificial  breeding  and  proper 
protection  of  the  fish  ;  there  are,  however,  still  some  complaints  of  hin- 
derances  and  plundering  the  fisheries.  In  the  seventeen  salmon -rivers, 
the  fish  are  still  excluded  from  7,990  square  miles  by  weirs,  and  from 
3,600  square  miles  by  industrial  poisoning  of  the  water,  so  that,  there 
are  only  remaining  6,600  square  miles  for  spawning  and  raising  young 
fish.  In  order  to  do  away  with  the  weirs,  water-mills  are  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  be  changed  to  steam-mills,  and  those  which  are  still  in  existence 
are  to  be  made  harmless  by  salmon-paths. 

The  poisoning  of  the  rivers  by  factories  is  strongly  condemned  not 
only  on  account  of  the  salmon  but  likewise  on  account  of  human  beings, 
as  it  not  only  kills  the  fish,  but  has  likewise  been  generally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  a  means  of  breeding  fatal  contagious  diseases.  Great 
efforts  are  therefore  made  in  England  to  purify  the  rivers,  whereby  the 
industries  are  likewise  brought  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfection,  as  the 

*Die  rationelle  Zucht  der  Siisswasserfische  und  einiger  in  der  Volkswirthschaft 
wichtigen  Wasserthiere.     R.  Molin,  Wien,  1864.    p.  212. 

Die  Bewirthschaftung  des  Wassers  und  die  Eraten  darans.  H.  Beta,  Leipzig  urid 
Heidelberg,  1868.    p.  67. 


586        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES, 

factories  are  obliged  to  put  the  refuse,  which  formerly  was  thrown  into 
the  river,  to  some  use.  Rivers  which  at  an  expense  of  many  millions  of 
dollars  have  been  purified  of  the  refuse  of  sewers  and  other  poisonous 
matter,  amply  repay  this  outlay  by  the  better  health  of  the  population 
and  by  the  increase  in  fine  fish.  During  the  year  1869,  33,321  barrels 
of  salmon  each  weighing  100  pounds,  the  whole  valued  at  more  than  a 
million  dollars,  arrived  at  tbe  wholesale  market  in  Billingsgate ;  2,405 
of  these  barrels  came  from  English  rivers,  which  in  1864  had  only  sup- 
plied 752.* 

France. — The  French,  in  their  establishment  at  Hiiningen,  have  imme- 
diately carried  out,  on  a  large  scale,  the  system  of  artificial  impregnation, 
which  was  first  discovered  by  a  German,  Jacobi,  and  much  later  by  two 
Frenchmen,  Gehin  and  Reiny,  and  have  thereby  exercised  a  very  bene- 
ficial influence  on  pisciculture  throughout  the  whole  country. 

Even  small  bodies  of  water  are  cultivated,  and  the  best  possible  use 
is  made  of  the  different  character  of  the  water :  thus,  in  marshy  places, 
eels  are  raised ;  in  otherwise  useless  small  streams,  crawfish,  imported 
from  Germany,  are  increasing  rapidly ;  and  in  the  clear  brooks  number- 
less trout  are  found. 

The  cultivation  of  the  oyster,  which  had  been  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  the  former  system  of  plundering,  begins,  though  slowly,  to 
revive  on  many  parts  of  the  coast. 

Even  the  raising  of  turtles  has  been  commenced ;  their  eggs  are 
gathered,  and  the  young  ones  cared  for  and  protected  till  they  are  old 
enough  to  take  care  of  themselves. 

In  all  parts  of  France,  there  are  numerous  private  individuals  who 
breed  and  raise  all  sorts  of  marine  animals,  partly  as  a  pastime  and 
partly  for  the  sake  of  gain.  The  exaggerated  expectations  which  in 
the  beginning  were  connected  with  artificial  fish-breeding  in  France 
have,  however,  not  been  fulfilled.  Ignorance  of  the  subject,  which  was 
Arery  prevalent  till  better  methods  gradually  gained  ground  by  long 
experience  and  by  many  failures,  demanded  many  sacrifices.  It  must, 
nevertheless,  be  acknowledged  that,  through  the  better  cultivation  of  the 
water  since  the  year  1849,  when  a  beginning  was  made  to  extend  the 
system  of  artificial  breeding  to  the  French  rivers,  and  at  first  to  those 
where  there  was  the  greatest  amount  of  poverty,  a  new  life  has  been 
developed  along  these  rivers,  so  that  many  a  poor  fisher  and  farmer  has 
become  a  man  of  means  through  his  little  fish-pond  and  his  few  pots 
for  artificial  impregnation. 

One  establishment  belonging  to  the  Marquis  de  Folleville  at  Imsle- 
ville  in  Normandy  yields  an  annual  income  of  $750  to  8900  from  one 
stream  and  pond  which  ten  years  ago  did  not  produce  a  single  dollar. 

Before  the  war,  France  possessed  about  4,600  (English)  miles  of  nav- 
igable rivers;  nearly  as  many  miles  of  canals;  322  miles  of  mouths  of 
rivers  and  bays;  about  920  miles  of  private  waters;  more  than  92,000 

*  Beta,  (H.)  op.  cit.    p.  31. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  587 

miles  of  not  navigable  rivers  and  streams ;  and  more  than  4,600  miles  of 
lakes  and  ponds.  The  navigable  rivers  and  canals  belong  to  the  gov- 
ernment, and  are  leased  to  private  individuals.  In  order  to  avoid  all 
trouble,  the  sheets  of  water  are  carefully  measured  and  accurately- 
marked  on  special  maps,  so  that  every  one  knows  the  exact  limits  of  his 
watery  domain,  within  which  he  can  fish  with  nets  for  an  annual  rent 
of  $4.50  to  $22.50.  French  statisticians  compute  the  annual  gain  from 
the  fresh-water  fisheries  at  $4,000,000,  and  the  average  annual  rent  of 
every  hectare  (1  hectare=2.47  acres)  of  water  at  $15.  The  fisheries, 
however,  are  not  yet  able  to  supply  the  home  demand.  * 

Germany. — Compared  with  the  gratifying  results  in  England,  Scot- 
land, and  America,  those  obtained  by  the  German  fisheries  can  only  be 
considered  as  small  beginnings,  and  the  complaints  of  the  various  hin- 
derances  to  success  are  no  less  loud  and  numerous  than  in  Austria, 
although  it  must  be  owned  that  of  late  years  Germany  has  made  con- 
siderable progress. 

In  Munich,  the  city-fisherman,  Kuffer  carries  on  fish-breeding,  and 
has,  according  to  a  report  published  some  years  ago,  during  the  last 
eight  years  impregnated  about  300,000  eggs  of  the  Bavarian  salmon  per 
aunum,  partly  for  the  Bavarian  waters,  and  partly  for  Switzerland, 
Austria,  France,  Italy,  Bussia,  Denmark,  and  Prussia.  During  the  last 
few  years,  he  has  shipped  about  half  a  million  per  annum.  The  estab- 
lishment is  well  conducted,  its  location  and  the  quality  of  the  water  are 
excellent.  Kuffer  has  therefore  often  been  commissioned  to  organize 
such  enterprises  in  other  countries,  as  for  instance  in  Austria. 

TViirteniberg  only  possesses  some  small  breeding-establishments, 
which  owe  their  existence  and  success  chiefly  to  the  efforts  of  the  royal 
agricultural  department,  (Konigllche  Gentralstelle  fur  Landwirthschaft.) 
This  department,  since  1861,  has  endeavored  to  encourage  pisciculture 
among  small  proprietors  by  offering  prizes  for  hatching-houses  in  con- 
nection with  ponds ;  to  persons  who  stock  open  waters  with  fish ;  for  a 
rational  system  of  pond-fisheries;  for  the  union  of  small  fishing  districts 
Tvith  a  view  to  carrying  on  the  fisheries  in  a  more  systematic  manner. 
Information  is  freely  given  to  all  who  desire  it,  as  well  as  impregnated 
and  hatched  trout-eggs. 

A  report,  made  in  the  year  1871,  shows  that  nearly  all  these  organi- 
zations were  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

In  Baden,  a  joint-stock  company  was  formed  in  1865  with  a  capital  of 
$20,000.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Freiburg,  the  seat  of  this  company, 
a  breeding-establishment  has  been  founded,  which  annually  produces 
about  half  a  million  young  fish.  All  of  their  fish  which  were  placed  in 
open  waters,  were  flourishing.  The  company  possesses  several  trout- 
brooks,  which  they  lease  for  an  annual  sum  of  $600. 

The  joint-stock  fishery-company  at  Wiesbaden,  besides  raising  fish  in 
closed  waters  to  sell,  has  also  set  itself  the  praiseworthy  task  to  re- 

*  Beta,  op.  cit.    pp.  46,  50. 


588       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

stock  all  the  neighboring  waters,  which  had  been  almost  entirely  de- 
populated. Besides  the  numerous  bodies  of  water  owned  by  the  com- 
pany, about  forty  lakes  and  rivers  have  been  leased  by  them  on  the 
longest  possible  time;  new  trout-ponds  have  been  made  in  shady  forests ; 
nor  has  the  commercial  portion  of  the  enterprise  been  neglected,  since 
in  addition  to  the  model  and  experimenting  branches,  a  flourishing  busi- 
ness has  been  started  with  a  capital  of  $62,500  in  shares. 

The  fish-breeding  establishment  at  Hameln,  (Hanover,)  originally 
founded  by  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Zelle,  but  which  in  later  years 
has  been  taken  and  further  enlargeed  by  the  city  of  Zelle,  has,  during 
the  last  twelve  years,  placed  316,000  artificially-raised  young  salmon 
into  the  river  Weser,  and  its  revenue  has  been  constantly  on  the  increase. 
Other  Prussian  organizations  have,  according  to  the  report  of  the  eco- 
nomical department  (Landes-Oelconomie- Collegium)  for  1868,  done  well, 
although,  as  the  report  says,  the  artificial  breeding  of  fish  is  not  appre- 
ciated as  much  as  it  deserves,  and  there  is  as  yet  a  great  want  of  larger 
piscicultural  institutions. 

The  fish-breeding  companies  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Silesia  have 
have  for  four  years  made  efforts  to  introduce  the  cultivation  of  salmon 
into  the  Upper  Oder  and  its  tributaries,  into  which  they  placed  no  less 
than  307,000  young  ones  during  the  year  1872.  The  eggs  were  provided 
by  the  department  of  agriculture  in  Berlin,  from  the  establishment 
at  Hiiningen,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Deutsche  Fisherei-verein. 

In  accordance  with  an  order  of  the  Prussian  commissioner  of  agricul- 
ture, dated  January  23,  1871,  the  fish-breeding  establishments  in  the 
Bhine  province  are  to  be  subsidized  in  the  following  manner:  A  cer- 
tain number  of  Bhine  salmon,  salmon-trout,  and  brook-trout,  which 
must  be  at  least  five  months  old,  shall  be  bought  at  a  moderate  price, 
which  is  to  be  settled  every  year,  and  placed  directly  into  the  water. 
A  competent  person  shall  be  charged  with  buying  the  fish  and  placing 
them  in  the  water.  As  the  method  of  raising  fish  in  the  several  estab- 
lishments and  the  manner  of  feeding  the  young  has  the  greatest  influ- 
ence on  their  ability  to  keep  alive  after  they  have  been  placed  in  the 
waters,  the  price  of  the  fish  bought  will  be  regulated  by  the  manner 
in  which  they  have  been  raised. 

The  Deutsche  Fischerei-verein,  founded  at  Berlin  in  the  year  1870,  will 
doubtless  prove  a  great  benefit  to  the  craft  in  that  country.  Its  object 
is  to  further  sea.  and  inland  fisheries  throughout  the  whole  of  Germany, 
and  to  assist  the  several  state  governments  in  this  direction.  The 
society  has  resolved  itself  into  five  committees:  for  facilitating  the 
transportation  of  stock;  for  the  sea  and  inland  fisheries;  for  the 
artificial  breeding  and  raising  of  fish;  for  fishery  legislation ;  and  for  the 
culture  of  the  crawfish.  It  will  also  direct  its  attention  to  scientific 
investigations  which  will  diffuse  correct  views  regarding  the  true  wants 
of  the  sea  and  inland  fisheries. 

The  society  intends  to  place  itself  in  communication  with  piscicultur- 


THE    FISHEEY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  589 

ists  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  to  form  a  central  agency  for  pro- 
moting the  fisheries,  and  for  facilitating  the  raising  and  shipping  of  fish 
so  as  to  benefit  the  whole  population. 

Through  the  efforts  of  this  society,  Berlin  and  other  inland  cities 
receive  an  increased  supply  of  fresh  sea  fish;  it  has  also  suggested 
the  introduction  of  the  sterlet  and  other  finer  species  of  fishes  instead  of 
the  common  food-fishes,  which  have  hitherto  been  supplied  to  the  mark- 
ets from  sadly  neglected  fish-ponds. 

In  May,  1871,  the  society  addressed  a  petition  to  the  chancellor  of 
the  German  empire  that,  for  a  number  of  years,  an  annual  sum  of  $37,500 
should  be  appropriated  from  the  imperial  German  treasury  to  extend 
pecuniary  aid  to  deserving  pisciculturists  and  piscicultural  societies, 
and  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  sea-fisheries  by  procuring  models 
of  vessels  and  implements. 

The  circulars  of  the  Deutsche  FiscJwrei-verein,  which  are  edited  in 
a  model  way,  give  from  time  to  time  information  both  on  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  society  and  on  all  matters  of  interest  to  pisciculturists. 

The  society  likewise  directs  its  attention  to  the  improvement  of  exist- 
ing legislation.  Thus,  in  its  second  session,  it  was  urged  to  remedy  the 
existing  defects  in  the  fishery-laws  of  North  Germany,  which  at  present 
contain  no  clauses  enforcing  the  building  of  weirs  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  leave  a  free  passage  for  migratory  fish.  The  draught  of  a  new  fishery- 
law  for  Prussia,  which  has  been  published  recently,  owes  its  origin  to  a 
great  degree  in  the  exertions  of  this  society. 

8. — CONDITION  OF  PISCICULTURE  IN  AUSTRIA. 

From  the  report  of  the  ministry  of  agriculture  for  1868,  and  from 
numerous  special  reports  on  piscicultural  establishments,  it  will  be  seen  ' 
that  fish-rearing  is  gaining  ground  in  Austria,  and  private  enterprise 
has  been  successfully  employed  in  this  branch  of  industry.  In  nearly 
all  the  provinces  of  Austria  there  are  piscicultural  establishments, 
several  of  which  have  been  very  successful.  Although  there  are  no 
complete  statistics,  we  shall,  in  the  followiug  pages,  give  all  the  inform- 
ation which  can  be  gathered  from  the  official  reports  and  from  articles  in 
various  journals.  In  comparison  with  the  vast  arrangements  of  other 
countries  as  described  above,  we  can  only  chronicle  small  beginnings. 

In  Salzburg,  a  central  establishment  for  fish-breeding  was  founded 
in  1864,  by  a  joint-stock  company,  which  has  not,  so  far,  been  a  pe- 
cuniary success,  but  which,  nevertheless,  has  exercised  a  most  bene- 
ficial influence  on  fish-culture  throughout  Austria.  Since  its  founda- 
tion, it  has  sent  a  large  number  of  eggs  to  nearly  all  the  provinces  of 
Austria  and  to  foreign  parts.  During  the  season  1867-'68,  it  shipped 
253,000  eggs  of  lake- trout,  Rhine  salmon,  brook-trout,  and  pike.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  1869-'70,  orders  for  815,000  eggs  were  received  at  the 
establishment,  but  only  572,000  could  be  shipped,  partly  because  there 
was  a  lack  of  eggs  on  account  of  unfavorable  weather  and  inundations 


590       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

which  had  interfered  with  the  spawning,  and  partly  because  some 
of  these  orders  came  too  late.  The  arrangements  for  raising  fish  were 
unfortunately  very  poor;  the  ponds  were  badly  located  and  soon  became 
marshy ;  there  were  no  shade-trees,  and  the  supply  of  fresh  running  water 
was  insufficient.  Attempts  had  also  beeu  made  in  the  beginning  to  breed 
a  great  variety  of  fish,  while  at  present  only  salmon  are  raised,  and 
the  arrangements  have  beeu  much  improved.  The  rearing  of  fish  in 
several  lakes  which  the  government  has  given  to  the  institution  has 
been  much  more  successful. 

In  the  Waller  Lake,  19,000  young  Ehine  salmon  were  placed  in  1S69> 
and,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  they  are  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

Last  year,  a  new  hatching-house  for  300,000  eggs  was  built  on  the 
shore  of  the  Hinter  Lake. 

On  the  headwaters  of  the  Waller  Lake,  simple  breeding-apparatus 
has  been  placed,  so  as  to  enable  the  stocking  of  all  the  streams  with 
young  fish  from  the  lakes. 

There  is  a  constant  improvement  from  year  to  year  in  the  growth  of 
the  embryo  business  and  in  the  stocking  of  the  rented  lakes. 

During  the  season  1870-'71,  the  total  number  of  impregnated  eggs 
was  1,157,000,  of  which  575,000  were  sold,  while  the  rest  were  either 
hatched  in  the  establishment  or  placed  in  the  lakes.  For  two  years,  a 
considerable  number  of  fish  have  been  sold  as  food  from  the  estab- 
lishment at  Hellbrunn  ;  during  the  last  year,  many  defects  of  the  origi- 
nal plan  were  remedied  and  many  new  improvements  were  introduced. 

The  central  establishment  has  recently  begun  to  obtain  impregnated 
eggs  of  brook-trout  from  the  fishers  on  the  rivers  Vokla  and  Ager ;  of 
the  Salmo  hucho  from  the  river  Salzach,  as  well  as  from  the  streams  of 
Upper  Austria ;  spawn  of  the  lake-salmon,  of  the  Salmo  salvelinus,  and  of 
the  Coregonns  Wartmanni  from  the  Matt,  Mond,  Fuschl,  Wolfganger,  and 
Atter  Lakes ;  and  to  ship  them  at  the  proper  time. 

In  Upper  Austria,  fish-culture  has  been  carried  on  for  some  time 
by  the  convent-chapter  of  Kremsmiiuster,  which  annually  places  20,000 
to  40,000  young  trout  hatched  in  the  establishment,  into  the  Aim  Lake, 
as  soon  as  the  umbilical  bag  has  disappeared,  (usually  in  February,) 
so  that  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of  fish  in  this  lake  can 
already  be  noticed.  Salmo  salvelinus  is  raised  in  the  lake  itself.  The  fish- 
ponds belonging  to  the  chapter  have  been  famous  from  time  immemorial 
for  their  great  wealth  of  fine  fish.  Some  of  the  small  landed  proprietors, 
such  as  Bettenbaeher  at  Sulzbach  near  Ischl,  Kottlat  Neukirchen  near 
zipf,  Schedl  in  Fischelham,  and  the  Ischl  Piscicultural  Society,  have, 
with  comparatively  small  means,founded  establishments  which  to  some 
extent  have  proved  a  pecuniary  success,  thus  furnishing  another  proof 
that  this  branch  of  industry  is  suitable  for  private  individuals  of  limited 
means.  Special  mention  must  be  made  of  Franz  Rettenbacher,  a  miner, 
who  on  his  little  piece  of  ground  at  Sulzbach  near  Ischl,  has  for  some 
years,  without  any  assistance  whatever,  but  with  great  enthusiasm,  car- 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  591 

ried  on,  in  a  small  way,  pisciculture.  Only  by  the  strictest  econo- 
my lie  was  enabled  to  raise  the  required  capital ;  with  his  own  hand, 
in  the  spare  time  which  the  arduous  life  of  a  miner  left  him,  he  erected 
all  the  buildings,  &c,  so  that  the  Upper  Austria  Agricultural  Society, 
acknowledging  his  apparatus  to  be  the  most  perfect  in  the  whole 
province,  gave  him,  in  1870,  $100,  the  first  government  prize  for  pisci- 
culture. We  give  here  the  full  report  of  the  committee  sent  by  the 
Agricultural  Society,  as  it  is  in  every  respect  very  suggestive  and  in- 
structive : 

"  The  piscicultural  establishment  of  Franz  Eettenbacher  consists  of 
two  hatching-houses,  five  ponds  for  the  growing  fish,  (Streckleiche,)  and 
one  floating  hut  with  a  boat.  In  the  two  larger  connected  ponds,  which 
cover  an  area  of  about  1£  acres,  a  very  pretty  watch-house,  with  many 
exceedingly  practical  contrivances,  has  been  erected,  from  which  all  the 
ponds  of  the  establishment  can  be  seen  and  watched  ;  all  the  buildings 
and  apparatus,  by  their  simplicity,  cleanliness,'  and  practical  arrange- 
ment, show  the  enthusiastic,  enterprising,  and  rational  pisciculturist, 
whose  fish,  both  in  the  houses  and  in  the  ponds,  are  all  exceptionally 
fine  and  healthy  specimens.  Franz  Eettenbacher  commenced  his  enter- 
prise in  1858,  on  a  very  small  scale  ;  up  to  1864,  his  work  consisted  of 
nothing  else  than  the  impregnation  of  several  hundred,  occasionally, 
several  thousand,  trout-eggs,  and  the  placing  of  young  fish  in  the  run- 
ning water  (his  own  property)  near  his  house.  After  having  labored  six 
years,  no  increase  in  the  number  of  fish  was  observable,  which  doubt- 
less was  caused  by  the  fact  that  the  fish,  when  they  had  grown  larger, 
got  into  the  government  waters,  into  which  his  little  stream  flowed,  and 
even,  when  there  was  a  means  of  communication,  into  the  Traun  Lake. 

"In  1864,  Eettenbacher  resolved  to  raise  and  feed  the  young  fish  which 
might  be  hatched  during  the  following  winter  in  a  closed  house ;  in  this 
he  was  entirely  successful,  as  the  800  young  fish  (Salmo  salvelinus)  when 
one  year  old  weighed  from  two  to  seven  ounces.  Unfortunately,  many  of 
the  fish  died  after  they  had  reached  the  age  of  one  and  a  half  years, 
without  exhibiting  any  outward  sign  of  sickness,  and  in  the  course  of 
half  a  year  one-half  of  the  whole  number  had  perished ;  then  this 
strange  mortality  ceased  of  itself.  According  to  later  experience,  Eet- 
tenbacher believes  that  he  fed  the  fish  too  much ;  for,  since  he  possesses 
a  larger  number  of  fish,  and  therefore  has  not  been  able  to  feed  them  so 
much  as  formerly,  this  mortality  has  ceased. 

"Since  1865,  Eettenbacher  annually  has  raised  several  thousand  fish, 
Salmo  salvelinus,  trout,  and  cross-breeds.  Thecross-breeding,  produced 
by  impregnating  the  roe  of  the  Salmo ,  salvelinus  with  the  milt  of  brook- 
trout,  has  been  very  successful,  as  also  the  raising  of  the  Salmo  salvelinus 
itself.  Trout  do  not  succeed  so  well,  which  seems  to  be  caused  by  their 
being  fed  with  meat.  During  their  infancy,  the  fish  get  calves'  liver  and 
brains;  later,  lungs,  entrails,  and  other  cheap  offal ;  also,  horse-flesh. 
To  every  hundred-weight  of  live  fish,  Eettenbacher,  on  an  average, 
allows  five  pounds  of  food  per  day. 


592       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OP    PISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"To  feed  such  a  large  number  offish  with  insects  is  almost  impossible, 
as  insects,  such  as  water-palmers,  flies,  their  larvae,  &c,  are  very  scarce 
in  that  neighborhood,  and  frog-spawn  and  cheap  fish  cannot  be  had. 
In  Eettenbacher's  opinion,  every  pisciculturist  who  cannot  obtain  insects 
and  whose  space  is  limited,  should  only  raise  the  Salmo  salvelinus,  since 
this  fish  alone  can  in  a  small  space  be  fed  on  meat  from  its  infancy  till 
it  is  ripe  for  the  market,  and  has  the  lowest  percentage  (7  per  cent.)  of 
mortality.  It  is  a  very  gregarious  and  tame  fish,  which  does  not  seem 
to  be  disturbed  by  being  placed  among  fish  of  different  species  and  size, 
while  the  trout  is  always  shy  and  of  an  unfriendly  disposition,  especially 
toward  small  fish. 

"  Eettenbacher  sells  his  fish  at  the  age  of  two  and  one-half  to  three  and 
one-half  years,  and  only  those  whose  growth  has  been  retarded,  at  the 
age  of  four  and  one-half  and  five  and  one-half  years.  Kecently,  he  has 
commenced  to  hatch  a  larger  number  of  fish  than  he  requires,  and,  after 
a  year  or  more,  he  throws  those  whose  growth  has  been  retarded  into  the 
open  water,  leaving  them  to  shift  for  themselves,  because,  according  to 
his  theory,  the  gain  is  much  greater  if  the  expensive  food  is  given  to 
such  fish  as  promise  a  better  growth.  His  spawn  he  gets  from  the 
Aussee  Lakes  in  Styria,  where,  during  the  spawning  season,  he  annually 
buys  several  hundred  female  fish,  impregnating  their  eggs  with  milt 
from  male  fish  of  his  own  raising,  as  very  few  male  specimens  of  the 
Salmo  salvelinus  are  found  in  those  lakes,  and  as  those  few  are  mostly 
worthless.  The  female  fish  he  keeps  till  next  summer,  when  he  sells 
them.  In  1870,  Eettenbacher  did  not  hatch  any  fish,  since  he  had  such  a 
large  number  left  over  from  the  year  before  as  to  make  it  impossible 
for  him  to  supply  all  the  necessary  food.  The  water  used  in  his  estab- 
lishment consists  of  several  hundred  small  and  large  springs  flowing 
from  the  ground,  with  a  temperature  of  5£  degrees  Eeauinur  in  winter, 
6£  in  summer ;  near  the  Traun  river  3  degrees  in  winter  and  9  in  summer. 
In  this  water,  the  young  fish  leave  the  eggs  after  fifty  or  sixty  days. 

"  Up  to  1864,  Eettenbacher  had  only  two  small  hatching-boxes.  In 
1864,  he  built  a  hatching-house  with  four  boxes  and  two  tanks  for  the 
young  fish;  in  1865,  he  built  a  covered  tank  with  three  divisions;  in 
1866,  he  dug  the  two  ponds;  in  1867,  he  built  a  new  hatching-house  J 
and  in  the  same  year,  after  having  obtained  the  upper  portion  of  the 
Altwasser  stream  from  the  imperial  forest  office,  in  exchange  for  a 
portion  of  forest  belonging  to  him,  he  stopped  the  communication  be- 
tween his  springs  and  the  Traun  Eiver  by  a  stationary  wooden  gate  of 
lattice- work,  and  built  his  floating  hut  and  boat,  and,  in  1868,  the  watch- 
house,  resting  on  pales.  The  total  capital  invested  was  $258.25.  The 
location  was  extremely  favorable  for  making  the  ponds,  as  but  very 
little  digging  had  to  be  done.  According  to  the  inventory  taken,  with 
a  view  to  his  obtaining  the  government  prize,  on  the  29th  and  30th  of 
June,  1870,  when  all  the  fish  were  carefully  counted  and  weighed,  his 
establishment  contained  the  following  number  of  fish  : 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA. 


593 


'  Location. 


1  In  the  building  for  young  fish,  No.  3 
'  In  the  building  for  young  iish,  No.  4 

'  In  the  hatching-house,  No.  2 

1  In  the  hatching-house,  No.  1 

1  In  the  small  pond 

'  In  the  larger  pond 

'  In  the  largest  pond 


"Total 


Age. 


One  and  a  half  years. . . 

do 

do 

Two  and  a  half  years  . . 

do '. 

Various 

Three  and  a  half  years. 


Number. 


3,700 
2,100 
3,000 
1,010 
1,400 
944 
250 


12,  454 


Weight. 


Pounds, 
avoirdupois. 
54 
67£ 
171J 

277A 
lti<5§ 

150 


982$ 


"Of  this  number,  2G2£  pounds  of  fish  could  be  sold  during  1870. 

u  Tbe  quality  of  tbe  fish  was  very  good,  since,  even  at  a  high  price, 
they  found  a  ready  market.  The  capital  invested  has  therefore  borne 
its  fall  interest.'* 

A  further  proof  that  it  only  requires  some  encouragement  in  order  to 
have  our  smaller  pisciculturists  make  practical  inventions  and  improve- 
ments is  furnished  by  Mr.  Kottl,  a  miller  of  Neukirchen.  Formerly, 
the  better  kind  of  food-fish  were  brought  direct  to  Vienna  from  the 
lakes  and  streams  of  Upper  Austria;  the  fishermen  not  taking  the  least 
care  of  the  eggs  contained  in  many  of  these  fish.  Kottl,  at  present, 
gets  what  he  can  of  these  eggs,  and  immediately  impregnates  them. 
Tbe  female  lake  and  brook  trout  which  are  on  the  point  of  spawning 
when  caught  by  the  fishermen  are  brought  to  him,  and  their  eggs  are 
impregnated  by  the  male  brook-trout  from  his  establishment.  In  this 
manner  he  has,  in  a  short  time,  impregnated  200,000  eggs  of  brook  and 
lake  trout,  which,  without  his  intervention,  would  have  been  sold  in 
Vienna  with  the  fish. 

In  Upper  Austria,  a  fishing-club  has  recently  been  formed,  and  its 
preparations  for  pisciculture  are  progressing  favorably.  The  headwaters 
at  St.  Peter,  near  Linz,  have  been  secured  by  a  lease  of  ten  years,  a 
hatching-house  has  been  built,  a  covered  pond  for  young  fish  is  almost 
finished,  and  the  digging  of  an  open  pond  has  been  commenced.  (Re- 
port for  1871.) 

Another  hatching-house  has  recently  been  started  by  Werndl  in  Steyer. 

In  Lower  Austria,  there  is  a  piscicultural  establishment  at  Hollenburg. 
Mr.  Fichtner,  in  Atzgersdorf,  diffuses  a  knowledge  of  pisciculture  by 
lectures  and  publications.  No  noteworthy  results,  however,  have  so  far 
been  obtained.  That  encouragement  is  wanting  which  this  branch  of 
industry  seems  to  require  in  its  beginning. 

In  Styria,  Baron  de  Washington,  at  Pols,  has  made  the  most  praise- 
worthy efforts  to  further  tbe  cause  of  pisciculture  by  tbe  exhibition  of 
models,  by  lectures,  and  by  giving  general  encouragement. 

The  farmers  and  the  middle  class  begin  to  take  an  interest  in  pisci- 
culture, and  there  are  small  establishments  at  Werndorf,  Voitsberg, 
Kofiach,  Hirschegg,  Altaussee,  and  other  places. 

Baron  de  Washington  has  succeeded  in  making  the  raising  of  gold- 
fish more  common.    These  fish,  which  originally  came  from  China,  but 

DO     F 


594       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

with  us  increase  almost  as  fast  as  the  herring,  are  now  raised  by  many- 
farmers,  whose  income  is  by  this  means  considerably  increased. 

In  Carinthia,  the  only  fish-breeding  institution  is  at  present  at  Lolling, 
which,  however,  on  account  of  the  limited  extent  of  water,  confines  its 
rpoduction  to  the  hatching  and  raising  of  young  fish,  (annually  12,000  to 
18,000  Salmo  salvelinus,  lake  and  brook  trout.) 

In  Tyrol,  a  fishing-club  has  been  formed  at  Innsbruck,  which,  in 
December,  1870,  received  20,000  impregnated  salmon-eggs  from  Mr. 
Kuffer  in  Munich,  from  which,  however,  no  more  than  2,000  fish  were 
raised.  The  club  has  not  been  discouraged  by  this  failure,  but  believes 
if  the  hatching  proves  successful,  if  the  eggs  are  carefully  watched  and 
treated,  if  the  young  fish  are  placed  in  favorable  localities,  and  if  some 
perseverance  is  shown,  that  it  may  do  a  great  deal  of  good  to  Tyrol. 

Mr.  Glanzl,  the  city-fisher  of  Lienz,  in  Tyrol,  has  been  more  success, 
ful,  as,  according  to  his  report,  he  was  able,  from  18G5  to  1870,  to  transfer 
260,000  young  fish  from  his  establishment  at  Moosbruunen,  near  Lavaut, 
o  other  waters.  He  raises  principally  trout  and  the  Thymallus:  and, 
as  the  spawning  seasons  of  these  two  species  of  fish  are  far  apart,  the 
same  establishment  can  be  used  for  both.  The  finer  the  specimens 
which  have  been  employed  in  artificial  hatching  the  healthier  and  bet- 
ter will  the  young  fish  be.  The  catching  of  the  adult  fish  previous  to 
the  spawning  season,  and  their  being  kept  in  boxes  till  the  spawn  has 
matured,  is  considered  useless  by  Glanzl,  as  they  do  not  ripen  properly, 
and  as  the  female  fish  frequently  does  not  let  the  eggs  go. 

According  to  the  observations  made  by  others,  the  catching  of  fish 
about  to  spawn  is  only  considered  hurtful  if  the  eggs  are  not  pressed 
out  at  once,  while  fish  caught  prior  to  the  spawning-season  mature  their 
ova  even  in  an  inclosed  space. 

Glanzl  made  the  observation  that  the  hatching  of  the  eggs  in  metal 
troughs,  especially  those  made  of  zinc,  succeeded  much  better  when  glass 
rods  were  laid  in  the  vessels,  which,  as  he  thinks,  neutralize  the  bad 
effects  of  oxidation. 

He  expresses  his  conviction  that  only  by  the  artificial  process,  and  by 
their  more  general  industrial  application,  can  an  increase  of  fish  be  pro- 
duced in  the  particularly  suitable  territory  of  the  Drau  and  Isel,  which 
is  so  rich  in  springs. 

At  the  suggestion  of  the  agricultural  society,  he  accepted  a  subsidy 
of  $200  from  the  ministry  of  agriculture. 

In  Trius,  a  fisherman  by  the  name  of  Schliereczauer  has  stocked  sev- 
eral brooks  with  trout;  and  in  Tliiersee,  Mr.  Lerperger,  a  merchant,  has 
devoted  much  time  to  this  industry. 

In  Vorarlberg,  the  artificial  hatching  of  fish  has  been  introduced  by 
Mr.  Tiefenthaler,  a  landed  proprietor  of  Meiningen,  in  the  district  of 
Feldkirch.  As  early  as  1802,  he  endeavored  to  obtain  fish-eggs  for  the 
purpose  of  hatching  them,  in  which,  however,  he  was  unsuccessful  for  a 
long  time  on  account  of  the  prejudices  of  the  fishermen  in  that  neigh- 


THE    FISHEEY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  595 

borhood,  who  were  afraid  that  their  trade  might  thereby  be  injured.  It 
was  not  till  1864  that  he  was  enabled  to  impregnate  1,500  eggs  of  the 
lake-trout,  which  flourishes  in  Lake  Constauce  and  its  tributaries;  he 
was  so  successful  in  this  that  scarcely  10  per  cent,  were  lost.  He  has 
now  on  his  property  several  large  basins  after  the  best  foreign  models  ; 
bought  of  the  village  of  Baukweil  the  privilege  to  fish  in  the  Ehe  or 
Malanka  stream,  which  flows  near  his  property,  for  $300 ;  improved  his 
establishment  constantly  on  his  own  ideas;  and,  as  early  as  18G7,  he  was 
able  to  raise  30,000  young  fish.  As  there  was  a  great  want  of  water, 
the  ministry  of  finance  placed  the  remaining  streams  in  that  neighbor- 
hood which  belonged  to  the  government  at  his  disposal ;  and  the  min- 
istry of  agriculture  has  repeatedly  granted  him  subsidies  for  meeting 
the  considerable  expenses  of  his  first  establishment. 

His  example  was  imitated  by  other  landed  proprietors  in  Vorarlberg. 
With  the  subsidy  granted  in  1869,  the  agricultural  society  procured 
the  model  of  a  new  hatching-box,  and  distributed  six  of  them  among  the 
several  pisciculturists  of  the  province.  We  have  reports  of  successful 
experiments  made  by  some  of  these,  which,  on  the  one  hand,  have  been 
favored  by  the  excellent  quality  of  the  Vorarlberg  water,  but  which,  on 
the  other  hand,  as  the  reporter  of  the  agricultural  society  says,  have 
been  much  impeded  by  the  defective  fishery-laws. 

Bohemia  in  former  times  excelled  all  other  provinces  of  Austria  in 
her  famous  lake-culture ;  and,  although  a  large  number  of  lakes  have 
been  drained,  this  province  has  still  maintained  her  old  fame.  Thus, 
370,500  to  492,000  pounds  of  carp  are  every  year  sent  to  Vienna  from 
the  estate  of  Wittingau  in  the  south  of  Bohemia.  (Die  TeicMcirthschaft 
mit  besonderer  Riicksiclit  auf  das  sudliche  Bohmen.  Wenzel  Horak, 
1869.)  The  great  Rosenberg  Lake  in  1870  produced  192,660  pounds  of 
different  fish,  which  shows  what  large  revenues  can,  with  proper  care, 
be  derived  from  water. 

The  high  prices  have  of  late  years  made  lake-culture  more  remunera- 
tive, and  more  attention  is  consequently  given  to  it.  This  industry  is 
particularly  successful  if  there  are  separate  lakes  for  spawning,  for  the 
raising  of  fish,  and  for  those  which  are  to  be  sold,  and  if  they  are  several 
times  transferred  from  one  lake  to  the  another.  As  in  raising  cattle  and 
sheep,  great  care  is  likewise  taken  in  fish-culture  to  select  for  breeding 
purposes  the  most  perfect  specimens;  wherever  artificial  spawning  can- 
not be  applied,  great  care  is  taken  to  protect  the  young  ones  against  all 
possible  dangers ;  the  different  species  are  kept  separate,  and  the  lake- 
fish  are  well  fed  on  various  agricultural  refuse,  on  refuse  fish,  and  even 
frog-spawn,  which  is  found  in  all  marshes. 

The  occasional  draining  of  the  lakes,  and  the  planting  of  their  beds 
with  corn  or  grass  at  the  end  of  summer,  usually  every  third  or  fourth 
year,  has  not  only  a  very  beneficial  influence  on  pisciculture,  but  as  also 
advantageous  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view  by  adding  the  rich 
harvest  of  one  year. 


596       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

In  making  estimates  as  to  whether  lake-culture  will  pay,  the  value  of 
the  soil,  which  thereby  is  abstracted  from  another  culture,  has  to  be 
taken  into  account ;  while  the  restocking  of  depopulated  brooks,  rivers, 
and  lakes  does  not  monopolize  soil  devoted  to  any  other  purposes. 

In  1824,  the  artificial  impregnation  and  raising  of  salmon  was  suc- 
cessfully carried  out  on  the  Horazdovic  estate  in  Bohemia,  but  it  was 
not  developed  any  further  at  the  time,  and  was  soon  given  up. 

Quite  recently,  fish-eggs  have  been  artificially  impregnated  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Brauuau,  on  the  estates  of  Mabec  and  Tachau,  in 
Glashiitten  near  Pribram,  in  Opocno,  in  Hammer  near  Beichor,  in 
Krumau,  in.  Nedosim  near  Leitomischl,  and  in  Frauenberg.  Further 
successful  experiments  in  brooks  and  lakes  were  made  with  salmon-eggs, 
which  mostly  came  from  Salzburg.  The  most  successful  experiments 
were  those  made  by  Mr.  Yacek^  of  Nedosin,  whose  brook,  in  consequence 
of  culture  and  protection,  produced  a  constant  increase  of  fish,  62J 
pounds  of  trout  in  1865,  and  250  pounds  in  1870.  The  amonnt  of 
trout  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  brook,  where  there  was  no  protection 
and  culture,  was  likewise  increased  to  about  500  pouuds,  the  trout  from 
the  upper  portion  being  carried  down  especially  in  consequence  of  high 
water  in  spring ;  while  the  fish-thieves  of  that  neighborhood  did  a  still 
more  flourishing  business.  In  consequence  of  the  37,000  trout-eggs  placed 
there  by  Mr.  Vacek,  the  number  of  fish  has  considerably  increased  in 
every  portion  of  this  brook.  In  1871,  the  salmon-breeding  establishment 
founded  by  Dr.  Fric  at  Herrenskretschen,  near  the  Saxon  boundary -line, 
commenced  to  place  young  fish  in  the  Kamnitz,  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Elbe.    Preparations  have  been  made  to  found  another  on  a  larger  scale. 

The  fishing-waters  of  Moravia  were  formerly  counted  among  the 
richest  of  the  Austrian  monarchy.  Of  late  years,  the  fisheries  have  been 
almost  totally  destroyed,  as  in  other  places,  by  the  want  of  any  legal 
protection,  and  especially  by  the  poisoning  of  the  streams  by  the  refuse 
from  factories.  The  statistics  which  were  published  in  the  report 
of  the  Moravian  and  Silesian  Agricultural  Society  for  1871  show,  in 
spite  of  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  fisheries,  the  beginnings  of 
improvement.  There  are  small  piscicultural  establishments  in  several 
places,  as  in  Wisowitz,  on  the  estates  of  Baron  de  Stillfried,  whither, 
in  18G8,  20,000  eggs  of  the  trout,  the  Salmo  salvclinus,  the  salmon-trout, 
and  the  salmon  were  brought  from  Salzburg.  After  the  eggs  had  been 
successfully  hatched,  the  young  fish  were  placed  in  a  mountain-stream, 
and  in  small  lakes  made  specially  for  this  purpose,  where  the  trout  are 
flourishing,  while  the  salmon-trout  and  the  salmon  grow  but  slowly, 
most  likely  because  the  water  is  not  sufficiently  deep. 

In  Moravia,  as  in  other  countries,  it  is  proposed  to  prohibit  fishing, 
at  least  with  nets,  entirely,  for  at  least  three  years. 

In  Silesia,  Mr.  Ernst  Giebner,  of  Bielitz,  has  a  very  successful  hatch- 
ing-establishment. 

In  Galicia,  there  is  one  at  Dublany,  and  another  was  founded  in  1867 


THE    FISHERY   INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  597 

at  Lubatowka,  by  Mr.  Ludwig  Lindes,  of  which  he  gives  the  following 
account  in  the  Vienna  Agricultural  Journal,  No.  51,  1869 : 

"  From  my  own  experience,  I  can  testify  to  the  fact  that  in  a  wild 
mountain-region,  where,  two  years  ago,  the  name  salmon  was  entirely 
unknown,  nobody  having  any  idea  how  such  a  fish  looked,  at  this  day, 
ever5r  peasant  is  able  to  distinguish  the  trout  from  the  Salmo  salveli- 
mis,  and  this  from  the  lake-trout,  &c. ;  that  where  formerly  there  were 
marshy  openings,  which,  from  times  immemorial,  had  been  entirely 
unproductive,  there  are  now  pleasant  lakes,  which  are  densely  populated 
with  all  sorts  of  trout  and  salmon,  which  received  the  germ  of  life  at 
the  piscicuitural  establishment  of  Salzburg,  and  which,  in  an  embryonic 
state,  traveled  a  distance  of  553  miles  in  order  to  reach  their  present 
dwelling-place.     This  became  possible  only  through  artificial  hatching!" 

According  to  later  information,  (Der  Wiener  landicirthschaftlichen 
Zeitung,  November  5,  1870,)  the  establishment  at  present  comprises 
thirty  basins,  or  small  lakes,  covering  a  total  area  of  6  acres.  From  the 
year  I860  there  were  left  over  4,000  tish,  (Salmo  salvelinus,  salmon-trout, 
and  lake-trout,)  which  in  eighteen  months  had  reached  an  average 
length  of  11  inches,  and  a  weight  of  23  ounces,  besides  these  there  were 
2,000  perch  and  3,200  crawfish;  of  young  fish,  from  18G9,  18,000,  which, 
during  the  first  six  months  of  their  life,  reached  an  average  length  of  5 
inches. 

In  Hungary,  the  government  has  recently  appropriated  $10,000  for 
fish-culture,  of  which  $5,000  are  to  go  toward  the  foundation  of  a  pisci- 
cuitural establishment,  which  will  be  supported  by  the  government,  and 
$2,500  apiece  to  the  assistance  of  two  existing  private  enterprises. 

A  fisherman  who  was  educated  in  Salzburg  is  at  the  head  of  the 
well-managed  private  piscicuitural  establishment  at  Szomolany,  in  the 
district  of  Pressburg. 

In  Transylvania,  fish-culture,  according  to  the  Hermannstadt  Gazette, 
is  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  there  are  several  piscicuitural  societies. 
The  trout-raising  establishment  in  Ireck,  founded  in  1869,  got  its  spawn 
from  Salzburg  and  Tartlau ;  the  result  was  a  very  favorable  one,  and 
it  has  now  on  hand  1,200  trout,  varying  in  length  from  4  to  6  inches, 
which  might  have  been  sent  to  market  in  the  autumn  of  1870. 

From  this  review,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  results  which  fish-culture 
has  so  far  obtained  in  Austria  are  very  small,  as  far  as  the  increase  of  fish 
in  the  open  waters,  viz,  in  the  lakes,  rivers,  and  brooks,  is  concerned. 
There  are  ouly  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  the  Aim  Lake,  belonging  to 
the  chapter  of  Kremsmiinster,  a  few  lakes  and  brooks  in  Salzburg,  &c. 

It  is  ouly  recently  that  the  Salzburg  company  has  made  a  begin- 
ning of  placing  impregnated  spawn  iu  the  open  waters  which  were 
placed  at  its  disposal.  Most  of  our  organizations  have  limited  their 
activity  to  the  trade  in  fish-eggs,  or  to  the  raising  of -a  few  fish,  for 
which  the  small  enclosed  waters  belonging  to  them  were  sufficient. 

Agents  of  foreign  piscicuitural  establishments,  especially  Hiiningen 
and  Stormontfield,  visit  several  of  the  provinces  of  Austria  every  year, 


598       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

in  order  to  buy  trout  and  salmon  spawn  from  the  Austrian  fishermen,  as 
the  irregular  way  in  which  our  fisheries  are  managed  does  not,  for  the 
time  being,  offer  any  chances  for  an  extensive  use  of  this  spawn  at  home. 
The  smaller  pisciculturists  are  not  inclined  to  give  it  up  to  the  larger 
waters,  in  which  they  have  not  the  right  to  fish ;  while  the  proprietors 
of  these  larger  waters  do  not  feel  encouraged  to  buy  spawn,  on  account 
of  the  irregular  manner  in  which  fishing  is  carried  on  and  the  little  pro- 
tection it  enjoys.  Our  smaller  hatching-establishments  are,  neverthe- 
less, of  importance  to  fish-culture,  because  they  have  at  least  awakened 
an  interest  in  this  matter,  and  because  they  undoubtedly  are  the  sources 
from  which  our  domestic  waters  will  be  restocked. 

9. — VALUE   OF   THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  FISHERIES. 

Fish,  crawfish,  and  many  other  marine  products,  form  an  easily 
digestible  and  pleasant  food,  which,  it  is  maintained,  is  also  calculated 
to  stimulate  mental  activity.  Civilized  nations  cannot  do  without  this 
important  aliment  without  detriment  to  themselves.  Fish,  even  with- 
out any  elaborate  dressing,  form  a  good  and  easily-prepared  meal  for 
the  laboring  classes. 

Their  flesh  contains  as  large  a  quantity  of  proteine  as  pork ;  100 
pounds  (Austrian)  offish-flesh  contain  as  much  nourishing  matter  as  200 
pounds  of  wheat-bread  or  700  pounds  of  potatoes. 

It  is  an  essential  advantage  of  the  fisheries  that  their  products  supply 
delicacies  for  the  table  of  the  rich,  and  wholesome  cheap  food  for  the 
poorer  classes. 

It  is  a  great  defect  in  the  Austrian  fisheries  that  the  extraordinary 
quantity  of  fish  procured  by  occasional  lucky  hauls  does  not  find  a 
ready  market.  The  great  number  of  huso  caught  in  the  Danube,  occa- 
sional rich  hauls  in  the  Alpine  lakes,  or  even  on  the  sea-shore,  prove  of 
no  benefit  to  the  fishermen,  and  the  dead  ones  have  frequently  to  be  cast 
back  into  the  water. 

All  this  should  be  remedied  by  better  arrangements  for  preserving 
and  shipping,  by  a  well  organized  fish-trade,  by  improvements  in  the 
manner  of  smoking  fish  on  the  Euglish  plan,  and  finally  by  making  use 
of  the  refuse  for  various  purposes,  as  for  fish-oil,  and  even  for  manure. 

In  1865,  Dr.  Lorenz,  as  also  quite  recently  Professor  Gohren,  [Land- 
wirthschaftlichen  Wochenblatt  des  K.  K.  Adccrbauministeriums,  18G9,  p. 
114,)  has  directed  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  fish-guano,  which 
might,  with  great  advantage  to  our  Austrian  agriculture,  be  made  from 
the  refuse  of  our  fish,  especially  on  the  coast. 

It  must  certainly  be  considered  as  in  part  the  effect  of  a  better  sys- 
tem of  fish-culture,  of  a  well -organized  fish-trade  and  stricter  laws,  that, 
according  to  calculations  made  some  years  ago,  the  daily  consumption  of 
fish  per  head  amounts  to  i  pound  (avoidupois)  in  London,  -fa  pound  in 
Paris,  and  -fa  pound  in  Berlin;  while  in  Vienua,  the  capital  of  a  country 
so  rich  in  lakes  and  rivers,  it  is  only  ^  pound.     While  in  other  cities 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA. 


599 


the  best  kind  of  fish  are  seen  in  the  markets,  only  inferior  fish,  frequently 
nothing  but  carps  from  the  Bohemian  lakes,  are  brought  to  Vienna. 

Accordiug  to  the  report  of  the  market-commissioner,  the  following- 
quantities  of  fish  were  brought  to  the  Vienna  markets  from  October, 
1867.  till  October,  1870  : 


Place  from  which  the  fish  were 
brought. 


From  the  Lower  Danube 

Upper  Danube,  Trann 

A ussee  

Gmund  Lake  and  Atter  Lake 

Southern  Bohemia 

Mayence 

Upper  Austria 


Kind. 


Hanson,  (Acipenser  huso) . . 
Dick,  (Acipenser  schypa  .. 
Schnidon,  (Silurus glanis) . . 
Schill,  (Lucioperea  sandra) 

Hucbo  (Sahno  hucho)  * 

Prute(?) 

Forelle,  (Trutta  fario) 

Saibling,  (Salmo  salvelinus) 
Lachsforelle,  (Trutta  lacus- 

tris)    

Carp 

Hecbt,  (Esostlucius) 

Lachs,  (Trutta  salar) 

Sea-fishes 

Crawfishes 


Weight  in  pounds,  avoirdupois. 


1867-'68. 


2,  346*. 


18, 154  J 
45,  695 


714,925 
29,  207} 

741 
78,  669* 
39, 051,  300 


1868-69. 


679J 
185i 
17,  290 
61,997 
370.} 


5,  5571 


30, 


247 

897,  845 

20,  950J 

8,367 

287,  384j 

220,  450 


1869-'70. 


l,llli 


17,  413J 
67,  554J 


12, 226£ 


1,729 

911,800* 

28,  281 1 

12,  955* 

209,  703 

123,  554,  950 


To  this  must  be  added  the  sales  made  outside  of  the  fish-market, 
which,  however,  are  said  not  to  amount  to  much. 

Formerly,  the  Neusiedler  Lake  alone  supplied  Vienna  with  8G4,500 
pounds  of  fish  ;  it  has,  however,  been  nearly  drained. 

The  price  of  fish  has  increased  considerably  during  late  years, 
a  pound  of  huso  (1  Austrian  pound  equal  to  about  3^  pounds  avoirdupois) 
now  costing  from  40  cents  to  90  cents,  carp  from  10  cents  to  40  cents, 
white-fish  12|  cents  to  15  cents.  In  spite  of  good  railroad-communica- 
tions, but  very  small  quantities  of  salt-water  fish  are  brought  to  Vienna, 
aud  no  other  cause  can  be  assigned  for  this  but  the  high  price  of  fish. 
Although  salt-water  fish  are  very  cheap  in  Trieste,  and  the  freight  is  low, 
their  price  in  Vienna  is  high,  because  there  is  no  wholesale  trade,  the 
whole  of  this  traffic  being  in  the  hands  of  a  few  fishermen,  aud  because 
there  is  no  suitable  fish-market.  When  the  market  commissioners  made 
an  attempt  to  organize  this  trade,  many  fish  were  brought  to  Vienna,  but 
they  were — as  is  shown  by  a  report  on  the  subject — left  lying  too  long  out- 
side the  city  custom-line,  (a  small  duty  has  to  be  paid  on  all  provisions 
entering  Vienna,)  or  on  the  railroad,  so  that  many  were  spoiled  before 
they  reached  the  market,  and  soon  no  more  were  sent.  Poor  people 
can  only  buy  white-fish,  (a  small  species  of  carp.) 

It  cau  safely  be  asserted  that  a  well-organized  system  of  fisheries, 
aud  suitable  fish-markets,  would,  in  Vienna,  as  in  other  large  cities, 
increase  the  demand  for  salt  and  fresh-water  fish,  and  all  classes  of 
society  would  be  glad  to  buy  them  if,  at  all  times  good  fish  could  be 
procured  at  reasonable  prices. 

The  duty  on  provisions  is,  unfortunately,  very  high,  not  merely  on  rare 


600       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

fisb,  but  also  on  the  inferior  kinds,  which  alone  are  within  the  reach  of 
the  poorer  classes. 

If,  with  this  deplorable  condition  of  the  Austrian  fish-trade,  one  com- 
pares the  vast  proportions  of  the  London  wholesale  fish-market  in  Bil- 
lingsgate, as  graphically  described  by  Beta,  the  enormous  difference 
between  neglected  fisheries  and  those  which  are  protected  by  suitable 
laws,  and  carried  on  with  a  spirit  of  enterprise,  is  placed  in  bold  relief. 
"A  large  fleet  of  fishing- vessels,  carrying  a  greater  supply  of  fish  for  one 
day  than  Germany  draws  from  the  inexhaustible  harvest-field  of  the  sea, 
the  lakes,  and  rivers  during  a  whole  year,  supplies  every  night  the  daily 
demand  for  fish  of  the  three-million  city.  While  half  a  century  ago 
fifty  fishermen  supplied  London  with  fish,  a  fleet  of  a  thousand  vessels 
scarcely  suffices  in  our  day.  The  daily  supply  of  fish  is  bought  by  the 
wholesale  dealers ;  and  the  finny  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  as  well  as  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  are  offered  for  sale  in  every  imaginable  shape,  in  heaps, 
and  boxes,  smoked,  salted,  and  fresh,  in  barrels,  baskets,  bundles,  and 
kegs,  by  the  hundred-weight  and  by  the  million.  A  magnificent  market- 
hall,  with  clean  and  airy  apartments  of  every  size,  tempts  even  the 
finest  gentlemen  to  buy  and  eat  on  the  spot  marine  delicacies  of  every 
kind,  while  in  other  places  the  poorer  classes  buy  their  daily  supply. 
The  inferior  kinds  of  fish,  such  as  herring,  eels,  &c,  are  sold  in  'fisher- 
hundreds,'  at  140  fish,  in  quantities  of  20  pounds,  or  by  the  bushel,  to 
the  retail  dealers.  The  more  aristocratic  fish,  such  as  salmon  and 
salmon-trout,  which  in  summer  reach  London  by  railroad,  packed  in  ice 
in  barrels  and  boxes,  are  sold  by  the  pound." 

According  to  a  report  by  District- Judge  Friedel,in  Circular  No.,  1  of 
the  Deutsche  Fisherei-verein  for  1872,  on  the  English  fisheries,  the 
city  of  London  consumed,  in  1870,  400,000,000  pounds  of  meat  and 
450,000,000  pounds  of  fish  and  shell-fish. 

As  a  proof  of  the  great  number  of  fish  brought  to  the  London  fish- 
market  and  the  strict  regulations  of  the  fish-trade,  it  may  be  mentioned 
here  that  during  the  month  of  April,  1870,  the  officers  of  the  London 
Fishmongers'  Society  condemned  51,877  fish,  340  bushels  of  shell-fish, 
and  138  gallons  of  crabs,  lobsters,  and  crawfish,  weighing  in  all  56,439i 
pounds  avoirdupois.  (Circular  No.  4,]1870,  of  the  Deutsche  Fisherei-verein, 
p.  21.) 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  better  organization  of  the  hitherto 
much  neglected  fish-trade  in  our  larger  cities  would  be  the  best  means 
of  reviving  our  fisheries. 

In  some  other  respects  our  Austrian  fish-markets  deserve  the  sharp 
criticism  which  Beta  passes  on  those  of  interior  Germany.  Everywhere 
fish  are  offered  for  sale  either  half-dead  on  account  of  bad  water,  or 
sick,  of  an  insipid  flavor,  and  expensive,  while  they  might  be  had  much 
healthier,  fresher,  and  finer  flavored  if,  immediately  after  having  been 
caught,  they  were  killed  by  an  incision  between  the  brain  and  the  spine, 
and  were  packed  in  some  moist  substance,  and  during  summer  in  ice. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  601 

Ice  has  repeatedly  during  winter  been  sent  by  railroad  to  Vienna  from 
our  Alpine  lakes ;  aud  if  people  were  acquainted  with  the  well-known 
easy  methods  of  preserving  ice,  fish  could  be  sent  fresh  to  Vienna  even 
in  the  height  of  summer. 

The  construction  of  a  proper  fish-market  in  Vienna,  which  has  been 
suggested  by  the  committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  causes  of  the 
rise  in  the  price  of  provisions,  would  be  greeted  with  joy  as  a  welcome 
beginning  to  improving  the  condition  of  the  Austrian  fisheries. 

10.— FISHERY-STATISTICS. 

In  our  Austrian  Cataster*  the  fishing-waters  have  been  treated  in 
a  very  superficial  manner.  The  several  lakes,  rivers,  streams,  and 
brooks  have,  it  is  true,  been  surveyed,  aud  their  areas  have  been  put 
down ;  but  since  water,  as  a  general  rule,  is  not  subject  to  any  land-tax, 
the  lakes,  rivers,  streams,  and  brooks  have  been  thrown  together  with  the 
roads,  marshes,  rocks,  rubbish,  heaps  of  broken  stones,  sand-hills,  and 
other  waste  places,  and  have  been  given  under  the  head  of  u  unproductive 
lands."  t  The  area  of  our  fishing-waters  can,  therefore,  not  be  given 
approximately,  neither  arranged  according  to  their  character,  nor  as  a 
whole,  important  as  such  a  statement  would  be  for  statistical  aud  other 
purposes.  The  ministry  of  agriculture  has  taken  steps  to  have  a  special 
survey  taken  aud  published. 

There  is,  unfortunately,  an  almost  entire  want  of  accurate  statistics 
of  the  products  of  our  fisheries.  Czornig  states  that  in  1801  the  Aus- 
trian fisheries  produced  145,000,000  pounds  offish,  valued  at  $10,500,000; 
but  these  figures  are  only  the  result  of  approximate  estimates.  They 
give,  however,  some  idea  of  the  still  considerable  value  of  this  portion 
of  our  national  wealth,  which  surely  could,  by  good  fishing-laws,  be 
increased  many  millions. 

There  are  no  reliable  statistical  data  as  to  the  market-prices  at  the 
capitals  of  all  the  provinces,  and  all  that  can  be  found  are  scattered 
statistics  from  a  few  cities. 

It  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter  to  gather  the  statistics  of  fish- 
eries, since  persons  who  have  leased  them  are  very  loth  to  state  the 
exact  truth  with  regard  to  the  income  derived  therefrom,  for  fear  that 
their  rent  might  be  raised.  The  importance  of  such  statistics  for  legis- 
lation and  other  government  measures  is,  however,  daily  becoming  more 
evident;  for  which  reason  the  sixth  international  statistical  congress, 
which  met  at  the  Hague  in  September,  1S69,  placed  fishing-statistics 
on  its  programme. 

In  accordance  with  suggestious  made  by  the  above  mentioned  con- 
gress, the  Austrian  central  committee  for  statistics  has  resolved  to 

*  Tho  record-book  of  the  titles,  boundaries,  and  ownership  of  lands. 

\  The  law  of  May  24, 1869,  No.  88,  regarding  land-tax,  declares  as  free  from  this  tax, 
among  other  things,  marshes,  lakes,  and  ponds,  in  as  far  as  they  do  not  yield  a  revenue 
from  their  fisheries,  &c,  as  also  the  beds  of  rivers  and  brooks. 


602       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

collect  the  accounts  of  the  Austrian  fisheries,  and  has  adopted  the 
schedules  which  were  recommended  by  a  select  committee. 

With  a  view  to  this,  the  statistics  of  the  several  species  of  fish,  fishing- 
implements,  as  well  as  the  fishing-seasons  given  in  Heckel  and  Kner's 
work,  "  Die  Susswasserfisehe  der  Ostreichischen  Monarchies  are  to  be 
thoroughly  examined  and  revised  by  the  agricultural  societies  of  the 
various  provinces  ;  and  it  is  to  be  ascertained  what  is  the  average  price 
of  fishing-implements,  how  many  persons  are  employed  in  the  fisheries, 
how  many  of  each  kind  are  on  an  average  caught  per  annum,  what 
has  been  the  influeuce  of  artificial  hatching  on  the  increase  of  fish  in 
depopulated  waters,  at  what  seasons  the  different  kinds  of  fish  spawn, 
and,  finally,  what  proportion  the  actual  season  of  fishing  in  fresh- waters 
bears  to  the  legally  prescribed  fishing  season. 

Exact  or  even  approximately  reliable  data  must  not,  however,  be 
expected,  as  the  agricultural  societies  have  not  the  means  of  obtaining 
such.  To  obtain  fishing-statistics,  it  is  indispensable  that  a  law  should 
be  passed  requiring  correct  lists  of  all  the  fisheries,  of  the  waters  where 
they  are  carried  on,  and  of  the  different  fishing-privileges,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  receut  law  ordered  the  registering  of  all  the  existing  hy- 
draulic constructions  and  water-privileges.  On  these  official  lists,  the 
statistical  reports  of  competent  men  should  be  based. 

Mr.  Hey,  a  forest-inspector  of  Lolling  in  Cariuthia,  has,    from  very 

incomplete  material,  which  he  had  increased  and  corrected  as  much  as 

possible  from  personal  observations,  made  a  report  on  the  fisheries  of  his 

province,  which  has  been  published  in   the  reports  of  the  Cariuthia 

Agricultural  Society  for  1872,  Nos.  18  and  19.    According  to  this  report, 

the  following  is  the  area  of  the  fishing  waters  in  Cariuthia  : 

Acres. 

Large  lakes , -  •     12,  773 

Small  lakes  and  ponds 706 

Rivers  and  brooks 8,  912 

Total 22,401 

The  quantity  of  fish  which  might  be  caught  if  there  were  sufficient  pro- 
tection against  thieving  and  the  present  reckless  system  of  plunder,  is, 
for  running  waters,  estimated  at  50  pounds  avoirdupois  per  annum  to 
1£  acres,  for  lakes  and  ponds  at  87£  pounds,  making  a  total  of  7,483,600, 
including  617,500  pounds  of  fine  fish  valued  at  835  for  every  hundred 
weight,  (Austrian :  equal  to  123J  pounds  avoirdupois,)  and  0,866,106 
pounds  common  fish  at  $15  per  Austrian  hundredweight.  This  gives 
a  total  annual  revenue  of  $258,394.  The  expenses  for  implements 
salaries,  aud  taxes  are  estimated  at  $55,2S0,  making  the  net  rev- 
enue $203,114,  or  $9  per  acre.  These  estimates  appear  by  no  means 
too  high  if  compared  with  the  revenues  of  other  countries  where  the 
fisheries  are  well  protected. 
The  Deutsche  Fishereiverein  has  also  given  its  full  attention  to  fish- 


THE    FISHEKY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  603 

erv- statistics.  This  society  has,  in  its  Circular  ISTo.  4  for  1872,  published 
a  form  containing  questions  regarding  the  number,  nature,  and  econom- 
ical value  of  the  useful  fish  and  crawfish,  thus  paving  the  way  for  reli- 
able information. 

More  reliable  data  regarding  the  numbers,  the  different  species  of  fish, 
and  their  geographical  location  in  the  provinces  of  Austria  have  been 
collected  by  zealous  naturalists.  Fish-culture  has,  undoubtedly,  of  late 
years  been  studied  very  thoroughly  on  the  before-mentioned  basis  of 
legislation. 

11. — SCIENTIFIC  INVESTIGATIONS. 

Scientific  researches,  which  have  made  us  better  acquainted  with  the 
mode  of  life  of  various  animals,  have  encouraged  numerous  inven- 
tions, by  which  man  has  been  enabled  to  derive  the  greatest  possible 
benefit  from  the  animal  kingdom. 

The  excellent  works  of  ichthyologists  from  those  of  Artedi  and 
Linue-  down  to  Siebold's  classic  work,  "  Die  Siissicasserjische  von  Mittel- 
Europa,"  as  also  very  thorough  works  on  fish-culture,  such  as  Carl  Vogt's 
"Die  kunstliche  FisckzucM,n  Coste's  u  Instructions  pratiques  sur  la  pisci- 
culture" and  others,  give  the  most  important  suggestions  for  fishing- 
legislation. 

Brehra,  in  the  last  volume  of  his  u  Illustrirtes  TMerleben^  gives  a 
masterly  description  of  the  life  of  fishes ;  Beta,  in  his  work  u  Die  Be- 
ivirthschaftung  des  Wassers  und  die  Ernten  daraus,v  by  describing  the  un- 
told wealth  which  is  still  hidden  therein,  endeavors  to  give  a  new  impetus 
to  its  cultivation. 

We  owe  it  to  the  high  degree  of  perfection  to  which  scientific  obser- 
vations in  general  have  been  carried,  and  especially  to  the  intelligent, 
thorough,  and  careful  investigations  of  two  Austrian  naturalists,  Heckel 
and  Kner,  in  numerous  essays  by  the  former,  and  in  the  work  on  the 
fresh- water  fish  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  published  by  them  in  com- 
mon, as  well  as  to  the  before-mentioned  work  by  Siebold,  for  a  faithful 
and  complete  natural  history  of  the  Austrian  fresh-water  fish,  includ- 
ing the  distribution  of  their  species  in  the  different  waters,  an  exact 
description  of  the  manner  in  which  they  are  caught,  and  the  implements 
employed  in  fishing. 

Becently,  several  governments  have  endeavored  to  further  scientific 
investigations  by  special  institutions  and  by  granting  subsidies  from  the 
public  treasury. 

In  1862,  the  Austrian  government  sent  Professor  Molin  to  France  and 
Western  Germany  to  gather  full  information,  both  practical  and  theo- 
retical, on  the  progress  of  the  artificial  culture  of  useful  aquatic  animals. 
He  has  published  his  reports  on  this  journey  as  well  as  his  important 
suggestions  for  fishery-legislation  in  his  work,  "  Die  rationelle  Zuclit  der 
Siiswasserjische  und  einiger  in  derVoUcsicirthsckaft  wiclitigenWasserthiere" 
li.  Molin,  Vienna  :  Braumiiller,  1SG1. 

In  1870  and  1871,  the  Bohemian  ichthyologist  Dr.  Fric  made  a  jour- 


604       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ney  through  Bohemia  and  other  countries  on  the  Elbe,  with  a  view  to 
studying  the  condition  of  the  fisheries,  especially  the  salmon  fisheries  and 
their  international  regulation,  upon  which  journey  he  has  likewise  pub- 
lished a  report. 

In  1868,  Professor  Schmarda  was  sent  to  France  by  the  Austrian  min- 
istry of  agriculture,  in  order  to  report  on  the  condition  of  fish-culture 
along  the  French  coasts.  Besides  many  excellent  features,  he  observed 
many  failures,  and  therefore  recommends,  above  everything  else,  accu- 
rate scientific  investigations  as  the  only  safe  basis  of  future  progress. 

Schmarda  remarks  that  economical  progress  can  only  be  made  by 
establishing  experimental  stations ;  these  are  just  as  important  for  a 
rational  cultivation  of  the  sea-coasts  as  for  agriculture,  and  even  more 
so,  because  the  leading  principles  of  water  culture  have  yet  to  be  learned. 
That  something  of  the  kind  is  necessary  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the 
purely  empirical  system  of  exhausting  and  plundering  will  even  now  be 
clear  to  the  unbiased  observer  of  a  large  portion  of  the  coasts  of  Europe. 
No  half-measure,  however,  should  be  taken  in  founding  such  institu- 
tions, but  they  should  be  supplied  with  all  the  necessary  scientific  appa- 
ratus, and  naturalists  should  be  permanently  stationed  there.  They 
will  then  flourish  better  than  if  some  famous  man  whose  time  is  neces- 
sarily occupied  otherwise  give  his  name  to  some  expensive  institution, 
buc  never  visit  it  in  person. 

With  the  advancement  of  political  economy,  the  advancement  of  fish- 
culture  must  go  hand  in  hand. 

In  this  respect,  likewise,  the  great  exertions  of  the  Americans  and  En- 
glish in  investigating  all  the  mysteries  in  the  life  of  aquatic  fauna,  but 
more  particularly  the  efforts  made  by  France,  deserve  to  be  imitated. 
Everywhere,  aquaria  have  been  established  for  observing  the  mode  of  life 
of  these  animals.  They  have  partly  been  founded  by  the  governments, 
partly  by  scientific  associations.  One  of  the  fiuest  is  the  salt-water  aqua- 
rium at  Arcachon.  A  great  deal  has  been  done  for  fresh-water  fish  at 
Hiiuiugen,  and  for  other  useful  aquatic  animals  by  the  institution  at  Con- 
carneau,  which  theFreuch  governmenthas  established  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  Professor  Goste,  at  an  expense  of  $20,000.  (See  Professor  Sch- 
marda's  report  on  his  visit  to  Concarneau,  in  the  annual  report  of  the  min- 
istry of  agriculture  for  18G8,  p.  349.)  In  Berlin,  a  magnificent  aquarium 
for  fresh  and  salt  water  fish  and  artificial  fish-culture  has  been  erected  on 
plans  made  by  Dr.  Brehm.  Large  aquaria  are  at  present  beiug  con- 
structed in  Triest  and  Vienna,  (in  the  Prater.) 

The  international  maritime  congress  held  at  Naples  in  1871  passed 
the  following  resolutions  on  the  promotion  of  fish-culture,  and  more 
especially  of  the  salt-water  fisheries : 

"This  congress,  acknowledging  the  importance  of  several  inquiries 
made  with  the  view  of  ascertaining  the  fruitfulness  of  the  different 
species  of  fish,  the  number  of  those  which  reach  the  age  of  maturity,  the 
laws  of  individual  increase,  and  the  places  and  seasons  best  suited  for 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  605 

fishing,  and  taking  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  necessary 
studies  and  observations  may  vary  according  to  the  location,  circum- 
stances, and  personal  views  of  the  observer,  expresses  a  desire  that  the 
investigations  which  have  beeu  suggested  be  left  to  the  private  enter- 
prise of  the  several  practical  scientific  institutions ;  that  such  researches 
should  be  encouraged  by  these  institutions,  and  by  the  several  gov- 
ernments by  granting  subsidies  and  by  offering  prizes;  and  that  every 
possible  means  should  be  employed  to  support  and  further  them. 

Austria   so  far  does  not  possess  any  means  for  making   scientific 
investigations  in  the  interest  of  fish-culture.    The  central  establishment 
for  pisciculture  at  Salzburg  would  be  well  qualified  to  prosecute  such 
inquiries.    From  inaccurate  observations,  which  have  not  been  made 
in  a  truly  reliable  and  scientific  manner,  incorrect  information  may  be 
spread  even  by  the  institutions  themselves,  such  as  the  report  of  the  fruit 
fulness  of  a  cross-breed  between  the  Salmo  salvelinus  and  the  trout 
which  had  been  raised  in  the  Salzburg  establishment,  a  report  which 
after  repeated  and  more  careful  experiments,  has  not  been  confirmed 

As  late  as  1871,  the  best  modern  works  on  lake-culture,  fish-culture 
and  ichthyology  could  not  be  found  in  the  library  of  this  establishment 

It  is  an  essential  condition  of  the  well-being  of  every  economical  in 
stitution,  by  which  it  also  serves  the  cause  of  science,  to  supply  the 
means  of  study  to  the  officials  employed. 

Recently,  exhibitions  have  become  a  popular  means  of  promoting  fish- 
culture  and  spreading  a  knowledge  of  ichthyology.  Large  exhibitions 
of  fishery-products,  fishing-implements,  &c,  were  held  at  Amsterdam 
in  1SG1,  at  Bergen  in  1865,  at  Havre  in  1868.  At  the  Paris  exposition 
of  1867,  there  was  a  special  department  for  fisheries;  at  the  Gottenburg 
exposition  of  1871,  the  fish-sections  formed  the  chief  attraction.  Nearly 
every  one  of  our  agricultural  exhibitions  also  displays  some  fishery- 
products,  improved  fishing  implements,  and  especially  improved  appa- 
ratus for  piscicuture  to  show  the  progress  which  has  been  made,  and 
to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  matter.  We  may  surely  expect  that 
the  Vienna  world's  fair  of  1873  will  prove  of  great  benefit  to  the  fisheries. 

C— THE  IMPORTANT  FRESH-WATER  FISHES. 

According  to  Heckel's  and  Kner's  accurate  observations,  the  chief 
mountain  ranges  exercise  the  greatest  influence  on  the  distribution  of 
the  different  species  of  fish,  so  that  those  rivers  and  streams  whose 
springs  are  on  the  same  mountain  slope  have  generally  the  same 
species  of  fish,  even  if  finally  they  empty  into  far  distant  seas.  Since 
all  the  great  rivers  of  Central  Europe,  for  longer  or  shorter  distances, 
flow  through  Austrian  territory,  and  empty  from  the  various  slopes 
into  four  different  seas,  we  can  easily  explain  Austria's  wealth  in  fish 
of  all  kinds,  which  from  here  spreads  into  all  the  neighboring  countries. 

Nearly  all  species  of  Central  Europeau  fish  are,  therefore,  represented 
in  the  Austrian  waters,  but  distributed  among  the  several  provinces  in 


606       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

accordance  with  the  various  slopes  of  the  central  mountain  range,  the 
Alps. 

The  following  list  of  those  fresh-water  fish  which  are  of  most  import- 
ance to  our  legislation  has  been  compiled  from  the  scientific  works  men- 
tioned above,  as  well  as  from  the  reports  of  the  several  agricultural 
societies,  and  of  many  naturalists  in  the  various  provinces  of  Austria.* 

12. — SALMON  FAMILY,    (SALMONOIDEI.) 

The  species  of  this  family  take  the  first  place  among  fresh-water  fish 
in  regard  to  fishery  legislation,  both  on  account  of  their  great  value, 
and  the  exquisite  flavor  of  their  tender  and  boneless  flesh,  their  rapid 
growth,  their  existence  in  nearly  all  the  Austrian  waters,  aud,  finally, 
on  account  of  their  special  adaptation  to  pisciculture,  in  which  latter 
respect  they  excel  most  other  species. 

At  the  first  glance,  we  can  distinguish  the  individuals  belonging  to  this 
kind  by  a  double  dorsal  fin,  consisting  of  a  front  one  placed  about  the 
middle  of  the  back,  composed  of  soft  rays  of  several  joints,  and  a  posterior 
one,  being  only  a  small  piece  of  skin,  a  so-called  fat  fin.  They  have 
mostly  very  small  scales,  thus  differing  entirely  from  the  large-scaled 
fish  of  the  carp  kind. 

Among  the  numerous  genera  of  Salmonoidei,  the  following  are  the 
most  important : 

a.  Trutta,  comprising  all  salmon  and  trout,  distinguished  by  a  wide 
mouth  with  even  teeth,  and  long  vomer  bone  ; 

b.  Salmo,  with  short  vomer  bone,  the  short  front  part  of  which  alone 
has  teeth ; 

c.  Thymallus,  with  small  mouth,  fine  teeth  in  the  jaws,  and  powerful 
dorsal  fin ; 

d.  Coregonus,  with  a  toothless  mouth,  fine  bent  teeth  on  the  tongue, 
and  a  silvery-white  body. 

Carl  Vogt  divides  the  salmonoids  of  the  genera  Salmo  and  Trutta, 
according  to  their  mode  of  life,  a  manner  which  is  equally  suitable  for 
piscicultural  and  legislative  purposes,  into  the  sea  salmon,  the  lake 
salmon  or  lake  trout,  and  the  brook  trout.  All  the  different  varieties  of 
this  kind  which  are  spread  through  Europe,  Asia,  aud  North  America, 
as  far  as  the  northernmost  limit  of  the  circum-polar  regions,  are  fish  of 
prey,  and  have  many  characteristics  in  common. 

Among  the  sea  salmon  we  must  count  the  common  salmon,  (Rhine 
salmon,)  Trutta  salar,  the  hook-salmon  and  silver-salmon,  distinguished 
as  different  kinds  by  some  naturalists,  being  only  varieties  of  one  and 
the  same  kind,  and  the  sea-trout,  Trutta  trutta;  these  all  spend  a  part 
of  their  life  in  the  ocean. 
.   The  salmon  are  found  in  all  northern  seas,  in  the  North  Sea,  and  Bal- 

*  Along  the  coasts  of  Austria  and  Dalmatia  the  salt-water  fisheries  are  of  the  greatest 
importance.  These,  however,  require  a  separate  treatise,  and  we  therefore  limit  our- 
selves in  this  review  to  the  fresh-water  fish. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  607 

tic;  in  spring,  they  leave,  and,  favored  by  the  sea-winds,  come  into 
the  rivers  flowing  into  these  waters,  and  into  their  tributaries.  In  a 
short  time,  they  reach  a  length  of  3  and  even  5  feet,  leap  over  weirs  and 
embankments  if  they  are  not  too  high,  especially  if  contrivances,  called 
salmon-paths  or  salmon-ladders,  for  making  the  leap  easier  have  been 
placed  there. 

In  order  to  find  the  best  spawning  and  hatching  places,  they  go  very 
far  up  the  rivers.  They  ascend  the  Elbe,  and  from  thence  into  the 
Moldau,  also,  into  the  Oder  and  its  headwaters  in  Moravia  and  Silesia; 
from  the  Vistula  into  the  Dunajec,  and  into  the  Sau  and  its  tributaries; 
the  hook-salmon  go  into  a  small  tributary  of  the  Bug,  and  also  into 
the  Rhine  as  far  as  the  falls  at  Schaffhausen. 

Numerous  experiments  by  markiug  fish  have  proved  the  fact  that  the 
salmon  return  to  the  same  rivers  and  spawning  places  where  they  were 
born.  In  the  establishment  at  Stormontfield.  on  the  river  Tay,  more 
than  24,000  salmon  were  caught  up  to  1867,  all  of  which  had  formerly 
been  marked  and  placed  in  the  sea  as  smolts. 

In  England,  the  young  salmon  born  in  the  rivers,  which  as  yet  have 
no  scales  and  cannot  endure  salt  water,  are  called  parrs  ;  the  older  fish, 
•which  have  scales  and  eagerly  seek  the  sea,  smolts;  those  which,  for  the 
first  time,  return  from  their  voyage  to  the  sea,  grilse  ;  and  the  fully-ma- 
tured salmon,  salms. 

The  spawning  season  usually  commences  in  September,  and  lasts  till 
the  end  of  December ;  the  smaller  female  fish  frequently  spawning  from 
two  weeks  to  a  month  sooner  than  the  larger  ones.  During  their  stay  in 
fresh  water,  and. during  the  gradual  development  of  the  ova  and  milt, 
the  salmon  assume  a  darker  color,  and  the  male  fish  frequently  show 
red  spots  on  the  sides  and  on  the  covering  of  the  gills;  old  male  fish 
show  the  most  brilliant  colors  during  the  spawning-season,  which  disap- 
pear immediately  when  this  season  is  over,  and  the  salmou  begin  to 
return  to  the  sea  in  a  very  emaciated  condition.  Like  most  of  our  food- 
fish,  the  salmon  are  fattest  just  previous  to  the  spawning-season,  but  do 
not  eat  anything  during  this  time,  and  are  afterward  scarcely  fit  for 
food.  The  old  salmon  are  the  first  to  go  to  the  sea,  while,  of  the  young 
ones,  only  about  one-half  lea ve  the  rivers  somewhat  later  the  first  year, 
(as  smolts;)  the  other  half  remaining  another  year,  (as  parrs.)  In  the 
sea,  they  rapidly  increase  in  weight  and  size. 

The  well-known  ichthyologist  Dr.  Erie  has  recently  made  some  very 
interesting  observations  on  the  life  and  habits  of  the  Bohemian  salmon. 
He  says  that  there  are  in  Bohemia  three  different  ascents  of  the  salmon 
during  the  year. 

The  first  ascent  frequently  commences  at  the  end  of  February  under 
the  ice,  as  a  general  rule  in  March,  and  lasts  till  May.  These  salmon 
are  mostly  large  and  strong,  weighing  from  25  to  50  pounds  avoirdu- 
pois, and  are  famous  in  Bohemia  under  the  name  of  "violet-salmon." 

The  second  ascent  begins  in  the  middle  of  June,  and  lasts  till  August, 


608        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

if  the  rivers  are  not  too  low.  These  fish  have  a  reddish  flesh,  and  weigh 
from  12£  to  22£  pounds  avoirdupois,  and  are  known  by  the  name  of 
"  rose-salmon." 

These  two  classes  of  salmon  are  not  ready  to  spawn  when  they  arrive 
in  Bohemia,  and  require  a  considerable  stay  in  fresh  water  to  develop 
their  ova  and  milt. 

The  third  ascent  begins  during  the  first  half  of  September,  and  lasts 
till  the  end  of  November,  in  mild  winters  even  till  December.  These 
fish  are  mostly  weak,  weighing  from  3  to  10  and  sometimes  15  pounds 
avoirdupois.  Their  flesh  is  of  a  pale  color,  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
usually  called  "  silver-salmon."  They  are  fully  prepared  to  spawn  im- 
mediately on  their  arrival.  The  process  commences  in  the  mountain 
streams  which  flow  into  the  Elbe,  the  Wild  Adler,  the  Moldau,  the 
Wotawa,  and  other  small  rivers. 

Among  the  chief  causes  of  the  decrease  of  salmon  in  Bohemia,  which 
formerly  had  large  numbers  of  this  fish,  Dr.  Fric  places  the  high  weirs 
built  across  the  rivers  which  the  salmon  cannot  leap  over,  especially  at 
low- water ;  the  stationary  fishing  apparatus,  which  frequently  span  the 
whole  breadth  of  a  river,  especially  near  the  weirs ;  the  unprotected 
•condition  of  the  spawning  places  ;  the  spearing  of  the  fish  with  tridents 
during  the  spawning  season,  when  they  are  half  .stupefied ;  and,  finally, 
the  want  of  well-protected  hatching  places,  where  the  young  fish  can  be 
safe  from  their  numerous  enemies  on  laud  and  in  the  water. 

No  fisheries  require  proper  legislation  as  much  as  those  for  salmon. 
On  account  of  the  large  schools  which  ascend  the  rivers,  the  whole 
stream  should  be  subjected  to  uniform  laws  and  a  uniform  system  of 
fishing,  which  only  becomes  possible  by  international  treaties. 

The  sea-trout  (Trutta  trutta)  does  not  reach  the  size  of  the  common 
salmon,  but  is  otherwise  very  much  like  it  so  far  as  its  propagation  and 
the  localities  which  it  seeks  are  concerned.  Like  the  salmon,  it 
ascends  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Oder  and  the  Vistula,  but  does  not  go 
as  far  in  the  Elbe. 

The  lake-trout,  lake-salmon,  or  salmon-trout,  (Trutta  lacustris,)  are 
found  exclusively  in  the  fresh-water  lakes  of  the  alpine  regions  of  Cen- 
tral Europe,  from  which,  during  the  spawning  season,  they  go  up  or 
down  the  stream  in  the  rivers  or  brooks  connected  with  them.  Only 
in  lakes  whose  tributaries  do  not  have  much  water,  or  mostly  consist  of 
rapids,  they  are  obliged  to  seek  flat  gravelly  places  near  the  shores 
to  spawn.  Most  of  them  spend  the  greater  portion  of  their  lives  in 
inaccessible  depths,  and  only  ascend  to  the  surface  under  peculiar 
conditions  of  temperature,  in  order  to  catch  small  fish  and  insects 
During  the  spawning  season,  they  come  to  the  surface  in  larger  numbers, 
their  excursions  in  the  brooks  and  rivers  sometimes  extend  to  a  great 
distance,  sometimes  only  to  a  few  miles  from  their  dwelling-place. 

Those  which  ascend  the  brooks  and  rivers  are  caught  with  bow 
and  stationary  nets,  which  are  placed  near  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  or 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  609 

at  the  spawning  places ;  in  the  lakes,  however,  they  are  caught  with 
hooks  and  flies,  which  have  been  introduced  from  England. 

Ichthyologists  and  fishermen  have  frequently  confounded  the  lake- 
trout  belonging  to  the  alpine  lakes  with  the  sea-trout  (Trutta  trutta)  of 
the  Korth  Sea  and  the  Baltic.  Those  of  different  age  and  sex  have 
also  been  mistaken  for  separate  species.  The  lake  species,  with  com- 
pletely developed  sexual  organs,  which,  in  some  lakes,  as  in  the  Chiem 
Lake,  is  called  salmon-trout,  and  on  the  Lake  of  Constance  ground-trout, 
is  distinguished  by  a  plumper  shape,  grows  rapidly  like  the  other  kind 
of  salmon,  and  reaches  a  weight  of  31^  to  G2£  pounds  avoirdupois, 
and  even  more.  Those  which  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  are  called 
"  floating-trout,"  (Schwebforellen,)  and  on  the  Austrian  lakes  May  trout, 
remain  barren  and  develop  in  a  totally  different  manner  from  the  fruit- 
ful lake-trout.    They  are  less  fleshy  than  the  ground-trout. 

The  male  of  the  lake  trout  changes  considerably  in  color  and  quality 
of  skin  during  the  spawning  season  while  he  sojourns  in  running  waters. 
According  to  whetber  they  are  caught  in  spring  or  autumn,  in  different 
localities,  of  different  color  or  size,  they  are  called  by  different  names 
among  the  fishermen. 

The  brook  trout  to  which,  besides  the  common  brook  trout,  (Trutta 
fario,)  some  Dalmatian  species  belong,  such  as  the  Trotta  and  Pastrova. 
The  Trutta  fario  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  protect,  because  it  is 
found  in  nearly  all  clear  waters,  especially  mountain  and  forest  streams 
to  a  height  of  5,000  feet;  its  flesh  is  universally  esteemed,  and  its  cul- 
ture, both  natural  and  artificial,  is  very  productive,  while  it  is  easily 
kept  and  fed.  It  is  therefore  considered  one  of  the  most  important  fish 
to  cultivate.  The  color,  and  partly  also  the  size  which  it  reaches,  vary 
according  to  its  location,  the  influence  of  light,  the  seasou,  water,  and 
food,  and  therefore  several  varieties  are  distinguished,  such  as  the 
forest  or  stone  trout,  the  alpine  or  mountain  trout,  the  gold  or  pond 
trout,  the  lake-trout,  and,  according  to  the  lighter  or  darker  coloring 
the  white  trout,  the  black  trout,  &c.  In  this  species,  some  are  likewise 
found  which  are  barren,  and  never  spawn., 

In  the  smaller  and  rapid  mountain  streams,  which  do  not  afford  much 
food,  the  trout  scarcely  reach  a  length  of  12  to  15  inches ;  while,  in 
larger  waters,  such  as  lakes  and  ponds,  with  good  and  plentiful  food,  they 
occasionally  reach  a  weight  of  18|  to  25  pounds.  They  can  easily  be 
fed  with  insects,  small  fish,  &c.  A  beginning  has  even  made  on  the 
the  sandy  plains  near  Berlin,  to  dig  artificial  springs,  in  which  trout  are 
raised  and  fed.  In  our  alpine  regions,  where  nearly  every  village  has  a 
superabundance  of  fresh  springs  and  brooks,  much  larger  gains  might 
be  realized  in  a  short  time  by  imitating  this  example. 

The  brook-trout  go  up  the  stream  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  but 

only  for  short  distances,  and  make  the  most  astonishing  leaps  over  weirs 

and  small  water-falls  j  in  winter,  they  go  to  the  deeper  waters,  in  ord«er 

not  to  be  overtaken  by  the  ice  in  the  small  streams. 
3d  F 


610       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

The  female  lays  her  eggs,  which  are  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  from  Septem- 
ber to  January,  according  to  different  climatic  influences,  in  shallow  peb- 
bly places,  between  stones,  logs  of  wood,  and  in  little  holes  which  they 
hollow  out  in  the  sand.  The  male,  which  follows  the  female  with  a  sort 
of  rage,  squirts  the  milt  over  the  eggs  as  they  are  laid.  After  the  eggs 
have  been  impregnated,  the  fish  do  not  care  for  them  any  more,  but  leave 
them  to  the  stream.  In  comparison  with  other  fish,  the  female  of  the 
brook-trout  lays  only  a  small  number  of  eggs.  By  artificial  culture, 
trout  have  been  placed  in  many  brooks  where  formerly  they  were  not 
found.  The  spawning  place  is  usually  a  small  bay  with  a  fiat  bottom, 
and  with  as  much  pure  gravel  as  possible,  so  that  the  young  fish  may  be 
protected  against  their  numerous  enemies.  Such  artificial  spawning 
places  should  be  guarded  as  much  as  possible  by  law. 

As  the  trout  do  not  make  long  migrations  like  the  salmon,  even  the 
proprietor  of  small  fisheries  has  them  constantly  within  his  reach,  and 
can  easily  raise  and  feed  them. 

Beta,  in  his  work  so  frequently  referred  to,  on  page  189,  gives  the 
following  advice  on  trout-raising : 

"Trout  require  very  pure  running  spring- water,  of  the  greatest  possi* 
ble  evenness  of  temperature,  which  should  be  cool  in  summer  and  warm 
in  winter,  a  gravelly  bottom,  and  a  shady  forest  or  bushes  on  the  banks. 

"  In  order  to  hatch  artificially  impregnated  trout-eggs,  and  to  raise 
young  fish,  they  have,  in  their  brook  or  river,  to  go  through  a  series 
of  ponds.  These  consist  of  a  succession  of  artificial  ponds  or  wideniugs, 
which  increase  in  size  toward  the  mouth  of  the  stream.  In  the  first, 
which  is  the  one  occupying  the  highest  ground,  the  young  fish  are  kept 
for  about  a  year,  from  the  beginning  of  spring.  Here  care  should 
be  taken  that  they  find  natural  food  enough  either  on  the  gravelly 
bottom  or  between  the  aquatic  plants  near  the  banks,  the  water-cresses, 
&c,  or  artificial  food  has  to  be  provided  for  them.  Meat  that  has  been 
chopped  very  fine  and  every  kind  of  small  worms  are  best  suited  for  this. 
Pieces  of  spoiled  meat  can  also  be  suspended  over  the  water,  from  which, 
during  summer,  larva3  and  maggots  will  soon  fall  down  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity as  a  welcome  food  for  the  fish.  They  should  be  separated  from 
the  following  division  by  a  fine  wire-work.  In  this  division,  the  larger 
trout  are  kept  till  the  end  of  the  second  year,  and  are  during  this  time 
fed  with  snails,  worms,  young  pike  that  have  just  been  hatched,  and 
bleak.  In  the  third  and  fourth  divisions,  they  commence  to  catch  iusects 
that  fly  over  the  water,  but  larger  bleak  should  be  thrown  in  to  them  or 
placed  in  the  water  for  their  food.  In  the  third  division,  they  are  kept 
till  the  end  of  the  third  year;  and  in  the  fourth,  the  grown  trout  remain 
till  the  proprietor  either  sells  them  or  uses  them  in  his  own  household. 

"The  transfers  from  one  division  to  another  are  generally  made  in  the 
beginning  of  spring,  when  the  weather  gets  warmer,  say  about  March. 
The  trout  which  are  ready  for  the  market  weigh,  on  an  average,  1£ 
pounds  each,  and  are  so  strong  and  active  that  they  are  no  longer  at- 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  Ql\ 

tacked  by  their  larger  colleagues,  and  can  undisturbedly  chase  the  young 
fishes  which  have  been  placed  in  the  water  for  them.  No  other  fish 
should  be  kept  in  the  ponds,  and  special  care  should  be  taken  that  young 
pike,  which  have  been  put  in  as  food,  do  not  escape  the  trout,  a,nd  grow 
up  to  become  merciless  robbers."  * 

The  genus  Salmo  was  formerly,  by  most  ichthyologists,  confounded 
with  the  Trutta,  although  there  are  very  characteristic  differences  be- 
tween the  two.  The  chief  representatives  of  the  former  are  the  Salmo 
hucho  and  the  Salmo  salvelinus. 

The  hucho,  (Salmo  hucho,)  also  called  Danube  salmon,  is  a  fish  belonging 
to  the  Salmonoidei,  found  in  the  territory  of  the  Danube,  in  size  and 
weight  exceeding  the  salmon.  The  hucho  reaches  a  weight  of  50  to  75 
and  occasionally  125  pounds  avoirdupois.  Its  sexual  organs  are  not 
fully  developed  till  it  weighs  about  5  pounds.  It  is  not  a  migratory  fish, 
like  the  salmon,  returning  to  the  ocean  every  year,  but  only  leaves 
its  dwelling-place  during  the  spawning  season  to  seek  shallow  and 
gravelly  places.  It  is  found  in  Austria,  in  the  whole  territory  of  the 
Danube,  from  Passau  downward,  but  most  frequently  in  the  larger  and 
smaller  tributaries  of  the  Danube  flowing  down  from  the  Alps,  especially 
in  the  Inn,  the  Salzach,  Ager,  Bnns,  Steyer,  Traun,  as  far  as  the  falls  of 
the  Traun,  in  the  Traisen,  Save,  and  Drau.  It  grows  so  rapidly  that 
its  weight  annually  increases  about  2£  pounds.  Its  flesh  is  somewhat 
inferior  to  that  of  the  salmon,  but  is  nevertheless  considered  a  great 
delicacy. 

For  the  Austrian  fisheries,  the  hucho  is  of  the  greatest  importance  on 
account  of  the  large  extent  of  country — the  Danube  and  its  tributaries — 
where  it  is  found,  and  its  rapid  growth,  produced  through  its  great 
voracity.  It  is  so  fond  of  bleak  that  it  can  easily  be  caught  with  a 
hook  baited  with  artificial  fish  of  a  whitish  color. 

The  hucho  does  not  spawn  in  winter,  like  all  the  other  Salmonoidei,  but 
usually  in  April  and  May.  The  eggs,  sometimes  40,000  from  one  single 
female  fish  weighing  about  50  pounds,  mature  much  sooner  than  those  of 
other  salmon ;  the  young  fish  weigh  about  1£  pounds  after  one  year, 
while  specimens  weighing  5  pounds  in  the  third  year  are  quite  frequent. 

The  chief  causes  of  the  decrease  of  the  number  of  hucho  are  the  weira 
which  recently  have  been  built  in  the  Upper  Danube  and  its  tributaries  j 
no  passage  ways  having  as  yet  been*  left  for  them. 

The  Salmo  salvelinus,  also  called  red  trout,  is  a  lazy  fish,  but  little 
inclined  to  prey  upon  other  fish,  and  leaves  the  lakes  during  the  spawn- 
ing season.  Its  form  is  exceedingly  variable,  according  to  age,  sex,  and 
location,  so  that  ichthyologists  have  frequently  considered  one  or  the 
other  of  the  different  forms  in  which  it  occurs  as  a  separate  species.  It 
may  be  recognized  by  the  color  of  its  belly,  which  is  orange,  and  even 
borders  on  vermilion,  which  colors  are  particularly  bright  in  the  male. 
It  is  found  in  the  clear  mountain  lakes  of  the  Alps  of  Upper  Austria, 
Tyrol,  Bavaria,  Switzerland,  as  also  in  the  Carpathian  mountain  lakes 


612       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER   OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

at  a  height  of  6,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  These  fish  increase 
very  rapidly,  but  grow  slower  than  the  lake- salmon.  Their  flesh  is, 
according  to  the  season,  the  lake  in  which  they  live,  and  the  water  in 
■which  they  have  been  kept  either  of  a  reddish  or  a  whitish  color,  but 
has  always  been  considered  a  great  delicacy. 

The  Salmo  salvelinus  of  the  Fuschler  Lake  is  distinguished  by  its  rapid 
growth  in  size  and  weight.  Here,  as  well  as  in  the  Hinter  Lake  near 
Bercktesgaden,  rare  specimens  are  sometimes  caught,  weighing  22£ 
to  25  pounds.  This  fish  has  likewise  been  transferred  to  lakes  where 
formerly  it  was  not  found.  In  Upper  Austria,  they  are  caught  with 
seines  drawn  by  four  men  in  two  boats. 

Artificial  fish-culture  has  produced  many  cross-breeds,  especially  of 
the  Salmo  salvelinus  and  the  trout,  which  excel  the  pure  breed  in  many 
respects.  In  Upper  Austria,  the  eggs  of  the  Salmo  salvelinus  are  mostly 
impregnated  with  the  milt  of  brook-trout. 

The  third  genus  of  the  Salmonoidei  includes  the  "Asch,"  called 
"Aesche,"  in  North  Germany,  (Thymallus  vulgaris.)  It  is  found  through- 
out the  whole  of  Central  Europe,  in  clear,  shallow,  running  water,  with  a 
stony  bottom,  less  frequently  in  lakes  near  the  shore  and  the  mouths  of 
rivers.  Its  flesh  comes  nearest  to  that  of  the  trout ;  and  they  are  caught 
in  a  similar  manner  to  the  trout,  but  in  a  peculiar  manner  in  the  river 
Yokla,  in  Upper  Austria,  by  tying  a  female  which  is  on  the  point  of 
spawning  to  a  pole  rammed  in  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  by  means  of  a 
thread  fastened  to  the  dorsal  fin ;  when  the  males  approach  the  female, 
they  are  quickly  raised  out  of  the  water  by  the  net  spread  out  below. 

The  Thymallus  vulgaris  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  Salmonoidei 
by  its  remarkably  large  dorsal  fin  and  by  the  great  beauty  of  its  vary- 
ing colors. 

In  the  ancient  Austrian  fishery-regulations,  the  Thymallus  vulgaris  is 
frequently  mentioned,  the  young  fish  being  valued  very  highly.  At 
times  it  could  only  be  caught  for  the  imperial  table,  for  sick  persons,  or 
pregnant  women.  In  Upper  Austria  these  fish  are  in  the  first  year 
called  tl  Sprenzling  f  in  the  second,  "  Mailing ;';  in  the  third,  "Aeseh- 
ling;"  and,  finally,  "Asch." 

The  fourth  genus  of  the  Salmonoidei,  the  Coregonus,  especially  the 
species  Coregonus  Wartmanni  and  Coregonus  /era,  live  almost  exclu- 
sively in  lakes,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  spawning  season  gather  in 
such  large  numbers  that  many  are  killed  by  the  pressure  of  the  crowd ; 
at  this  time  they  may  frequently  be  seen  leaping  out  of  the  water. 
Closely  pressed  together,  they  drop  roe  and  milt  in  the  water.  In  large 
schools,  they  swim  noisily  at  the  surface,  especially  at  night-time,  and 
immense  quantities  are  caught  near  the  shore  with  floating  drag-nets, 
and,  where  the  water  is  deeper,  withv. stationary  nets.  Their  flesh  is 
esteemed  very  highly;  and,  in  some  lakes  where  this  industry  is  carried 
on  a  large  scale,  it  is  of  as  much  importance  as  the  herring-fishery. 
They  cannot  be  easily  caught  with  a  hook  and  line.    When  taken  out 


THE    FISHEKY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  613 

of  the  water  and  exposed  to  the  air,  they  die  almost  immediately.  Like 
herrings,  they  are  salted,  smoked,  and  pickled,  and  form  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  several  varieties, 
as  they  mostly  live  together  in  large  numbers;  the  different  species  of 
the  same  age  keeping  together,  changing  their  outward  appearance 
according  to  the  season,  the  weather,  the  method  of  propagation,  location, 
and  mode  of  life,  and  being  called  by  different  names  by  the  fishermen. 
The  more  important  varieties  are  the  lavaret,  (Goregonus  Wartmmmi,) 
called  "Keinanken"  in  Upper  Austria  and  "Renken"  in  Tyrol  and 
Vorarlberg ;  it  weighs  1§  to  2  pounds,  sometimes  even  3§  to  5  pounds  j 
it  is  found  in  the  Atter,  Gmunden,  and  Fuschler  Lakes,  but  in  particu- 
larly large  numbers  in  the  Lake  of  Constance. 

The  Goregonus  /era,  called  "  Sandgangfish"  in  the  Lake  of  Constance, 
"Knopfling"  in  the  Atter  Lake,  and  "Eindling"  in  the  Traun  Lake, 
weighs  little  more  than  one-half  pound. 

The  Goregonus  maroena  weighs  as  much  as  12£  pounds,  is  found  in 
the  lakes  of  Pomerania,  and  deserves  to  be  acclimatized  in  the  Austrian 
waters. 

13. — THE  PIKE  FAMILY,   (ESOCINI.) 

These  fishes  are  easily  recognizable  by  their  broad,  flat  mouth  and 
their  strong  teeth.  They  are  represented  in  the  fresh  waters  of  Europe 
by  the  common  pike,  (Esox  lucius,)  the  shark  of  the  fresh  waters, 
which,  unless  purposely  destroyed,  is  found  in  all  large  streams  and 
their  tributaries,  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  marshes.  It  feeds  on  any  live 
animals  found  in  the  water,  and  reaches  a  weight  of  more  than  50 
pounds ;  a  female  pike  of  medium  size  will  contain  00,000  eggs.  It  loves 
to  spawn  on  inundated  meadows  and  peat-bogs,  and  in  their  ditches. 
Its  flesh  resembles  that  of  the  trout. 

14. — THE   CATFISH  FAMILY,   (SILTJEOIDEI.) 

The  fishes  of  this  family  have  no  scales,  and  a  broad  low  head. 
Many  species  are  found  in  North  America.  With  us  only  one  is  found, 
the  common  "  Wels,"  or  "Schaide,"  (Silurus  glanis,)  a  fish  of  prey,  living 
in  the  Danube  and  its  tributaries,  also  in  Moravia,  Galicia,  and  other 
countries.  Next  to  the  sturgeon  and  huso,  it  is  the  largest  fresh-water 
fish,  and  in  the  Danube  reaches  a  weight  of  494  to  617^  pounds; 
although  its  flesh  is  not  universally  esteemed,  it  is  well  suited  for  pond 
culture  in  peat-bog  water. 

15. — THE   COD   FAMILY,    (GADOIDEI.) 

The  fresh-water  representative  is  the  Lota  vulgaris,  with  a  slender 
eel-like  body.  They  spawn  at  different  seasons,  usually  in  December. 
During  this  season,  they  gather  in  schools  of  about  100.  In  the  Danube, 
it  weighs  from  3f  to  5  pounds  ;  in  the  Fuschler  and  Atter  Lake,  10  to  15 
and  even  20  pounds;  and  is  found  in  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 


614       REPORT    OP    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

16.— THE  EELS,   (MTJR^NOIDEI.) 

This  group  comprises  long-bodied,  snake-like  fish  of  prey,  without 
ventral  fins.  To  this  family  belongs  the  river-eel,  (Anguilla  vulgaris,) 
which  lives  both  in  fresh  and  salt  water,  and  flourishes  particularly  in 
peat-bog  marshes.  The  manner  in  which  it  propagates  its  species  is  not 
yet  thoroughly  known. 

The  young  of  those  eels  which  spawn  in  the  sea  ascend  the  rivers 
in  spring  by  millions,  and  frequently  go  to  running  and  stagnant  waters 
which  are  far  distant  from  the  sea. 

The  ascent  of  the  young  eels  into  fresh  water,  called  montata  in  Italy 
and  montee  in  France,  lasts  three  or  four  months  in  the  spring-season. 
Their  return  to  the  sea  (calata)  is  made  from  October  to  December, 
usually  not  until  they  have  lived  for  several  years  in  fresh  water.  It 
invariably  takes  place  during  very  stormy  and  dark  nights.  On  the 
Austrian  coasts  and  in  Italy,  many  fishermen  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers 
are  employed  in  catching  the  migrating  eels,  which  in  some  places  are 
by  means  of  special  canals  led  into  entirely  closed  caves.  The  river- 
eel  spawns  during  summer  on  sandy  and  gravelly  banks,  where  the 
eggs  are  hatched  in  October,  and  where  the  young  remain  till  April  or 
May. 

The  flesh  of  the  eel  is  valued  very  highly,  forms  the  exclusive  flesh- 
food  of  large  populations,  and,  salted,  smoked,  or  pickled,  is  an  im- 
portant article  of  trade.  The  eel  is  found  in  the  larger  part  of  Europe, 
especially  in  all  those  rivers  and  standing  waters  which  are  connected 
with  the  Baltic,  the  North  Sea,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Mediterranean, 
and  the  Adriatic;  but  it  is  entirely  wanting  in  those  lakes  and  rivers 
which  send  their  waters  into  the  Black  Sea. 

As  soon  as  that  care  which  it  deserves  is  given  to  the  eel-fishery,  and 
especially  to  its  culture  in  our  waters,  this  fish  would  with  us,  just 
as  in  England,  become  a  cheap  food  for  the  whole  people.  Numerous 
little  ponds,  with  marshy  bottom,  which  at  present  are  useless,  and 
even  injurious,  might  be  populated  with  eels,  and  would,  with  some 
care,  yield  a  rich  harvest,  if,  during  the  first  weeks  of  spring  and  in  the 
latter  part  of  autumn,  they  were  properly  fed. 

17. — THE   CARP  FAMILY,    (CYPRINOIDEI.) 

The  Cyprinoids  are  distinguished  from  all  other  fish  by  small  tooth- 
less mouths,  the  well-known  carp-mouth.  The  greater  number  of  our 
fish  belong  to  this  family ;  among  them  the  numerous  varieties  of  the 
bleak,  the  carp,  the  loach,  the  barbel,  the  tench,  &c,  which  chiefly  inhabit 
the  fresh  waters  of  the  temperate  zone,  and  "  which  are  valued  in 
places  where  there  are  no  better  fish,"  (Vogt.) 

By  transferring  the  various  kinds  of  carp  into  waters  where  they 
were  not  originally  found,  by  different  modes  of  life  to  which  they  have 


THE    FISHERY   INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  Gl£ 

been  accustomed,  by  artificial  culture,  &c,  numerous  varieties  of  them 
have  been  produced. 

The  common  carp,  (Cgprinus  carpio,)  for  centuries  the  fish  belonging 
to  our  civilization,  loves  sluggish  water,  with  a  marshy  bottom.  Dur- 
ing the  spawning  season,  May  and  June,  it  retires  to  warm,  brackish 
waters,  which  are  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  females,  while  surrounded 
by  the  male,  paste  their  eggs  to  water-plants.  A  medium-sized  female 
carp  is  supposed  to  produce  annually  200,000  to  250,000  eggs.  In  lakes, 
they  reach  a  weight  of  5  to  6£  pounds  in  three  years.  All  vegetable 
and  animal  kitchen-refuse,  agricultural  and  economical  products  of  little 
value,  the  refuse  of  slaughter-houses,  &c,  supply  a  welcome  food  for 
them,  if  it  is  given  to  them  in  small  soft  pieces,  so  that  they  ca.n  easily 
grasp  it  with,  their  toothless  mouth  and  swallow  it. 

In  some  countries  carps  form  an  important  article  of  trade,  and  are 
shipped  to  a  great  distance.  In  Austria,  the  "  Danube  carp  "  was  once 
a  favorite  and  cheap  food  of  the  common  people ;  but,  by  the  neglect 
of  years,  and  by  the  reckless  plunder  of  the  tributaries  of  this  noble 
river,  once  so  rich  in  fish,  their  number  has  decreased  very  much. 

The  so-called  mirror-carp,  with  disproportionately  large  scales ;  the 
leather-carp,  which  has  no  scales  at  all ;  and  others,  are  only  varieties 
of  one  and  the  same  species.  The  barren  carp,  called  "  Laiinar"  in  South 
Germany,  and  "  Gelte  carp "  in  North  Germany,  which  is  mentioned 
by  Aristotle,  and  by  him  counted  among  the  best  fish,  is  also  in  our 
days  highly  esteemed  on  account  of  its  tender  flesh. 

In  Oarniolia,  the  two  varieties  of  the  carp  called  "Alant"  and  "Je- 
ses"  are  very  much  esteemed. 

The  crucian  (Carassius  vulgaris)  usually  weighs  about  2  pounds,  and 
is  found  all  through  Central  Europe.  Like  the  carp,  it  is  cultivated,  and 
its  flesh  is  much  esteemed. 

The  tench  (Tinea  vulgaris)  has  a  yellowish-green  color,  and  is  a  lazjr 
fish,  which  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe  in  rivers,  lakes,  ponds, 
and  clayey  marshes.  It  can  easily  be  shipped,  and  in  clayey  ponds 
which  are  too  poor  for  other  fish  it  can  be  cultivated  with  great  profit. 
The  barbel  (Barbus  fluviatilis)  grows  rapidly,  usually  weighs  10  to  12 
pounds,  and  is  frequently  caught  with  a  so-called  Pater-noster  line. 
The  roe  of  the  barbel  when  eaten  causes  vomiting  and  diarrhoea. 

The  bream  (Abramis  brama)  lives  in  lakes,  gently-flowing  rivers, 
ponds,  and  marshes.  It  is  caught  in  large  numbers  with  seines.  In  the 
spring  of  1858,  from  24,700  to  37,050  pounds  of  bream  were  in  one  day 
caught  near  Ermattingen  on  the  Lake  of  Constance. 

The  bleak,  (Albumus  lucidus,)  called  "  Uckelei"  in  North  Germany,  is 
found  in  all  the  running  and  standing  waters  of  Central  Europe  with  the 
exception  of  mountain  lakes  and  streams.  From  their  scales,  the  so- 
called  essence  cVorient  is  prepared,  by  which  glass  beads  are  made  to 
sparkle  almost  like  the  genuine  oriental  pearls. 
Numerous  other  fish,  besides  the  above  mentioned,  mostly  designated 


616       REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

as  white  fishes,  belong  to  the  carp  family.  The  smaller  of  these  are 
mostly  used  for  feeding  other  fish.  As  they  live  on  plants  and  refuse, 
their  food  is  easily  supplied,  and  during  spring  and  summer  numerous 
young  fish  are  in  a  very  short  time  developed  from  the  eggs. 

18.— THE  PERCH  FAMILY,  (PERCOLDEI.) 

The  perch  has  a  bright  and  beautiful  color,  and  usually  a  wholesome 
finely  flavored  flesh.  The  front  rays  of  their  dorsal  fin  are  actually  like 
thorns,  leaning  backward  like  the  bayonets  of  a  column  of  marching 
soldiers. 

To  the  perch  proper  (Perca)  belongs  the  river-perch,  (Perca  fluviatUis,) 
with  light-red  ventral  and  anal  fins,  found  nearly  everywhere  in  large 
and  small  rivers  and  lakes.  It  is  very  voracious,  readily  takes  the  hook, 
and  spawns  in  March,  April,  and  May  in  calm  water  on  a  reedy  bottom. 
A  medium-sized  female  perch  lays  on  an  average  80,000  eggs  per  an- 
num, which,  pasted  together  in  the  shape  of  ribbons  or  lumps,  stick  to 
stones  and  water-plants.  Its  weight  seldom  exceeds  1%  pounds;  but  in 
the  Zeller  Lake,  (in  the  Pinzgau,)  where  it  is  found  in  very  large  num- 
bers, it  sometimes  weighs  from  4  to  5  pounds. 

To  the  genus  Lucioperca  belongs  the  Lucioperca  sandra,  called  "  Zan- 
der" in  North  Germany,  and  in  Hungary,  when  young,  "  Sziillo;"  when 
old,  "Fogas."  It  lives  in  lakes,  larger  streams  and  their  tributaries,  keeps 
at  the  bottom,  in  its  voracity  spares  not  even  its  own  young,  spawns 
from  April  till  the  beginning  of  June  in  shallow  places  near  the  shore 
where  there  are  water-plants,  thrives  likewise  in  deep  ponds,  and 
grows  as  rapidly  as  the  pike,  to  which  also  in  other  respects  it  bears  a 
great  similarity,  and  is,  therefore,  in  Latin  as  well  as  in  German,  called 
pike-perch.  If  well  fed,  it  weighs  in  a  few  years  about  25  pounds.  This 
fish  was  by  an  archbishop  of  Salzburg  brought  from  the  Neusiedler  Lake 
and  placed  in  the  Waller  Lake. 

19. — THE   STURGEON  FAMILY,   (ACIPENSERINI.) 

The  species  of  this  family  have  no  bones  like  the  fish  that  have 
been  spoken  of,  but  instead,  soft,  flexible  gristle.  The  sturgeon  is  for 
some  countries  as  important  as  the  salmon;  it  is  mostly  found  in  Eastern 
Europe,  lives  both  in  the  sea  and  in  large  lakes,  but  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  ascends  the  rivers  in  large  schools,  never  going  beyond  a 
certain  place.  If  supplied  with  good  food,  they  reach  a  very  large  size; 
specimens  weighing  from  800  to  1,000  pounds  having  frequently  been 
caught  in  the  Danube  in  olden  times. 

There  are  few  other  fishes  which  are  of  greater  use  to  man  than  the 
sturgeon.  In  Eussia,  a  large  portion  of  the  population  is  supported  by 
the  sturgeon  fisheries.  Its  flesh  combines  a  certain  firmness  with  excel- 
lent flavor,  and  is  even  preferred  to  veal  by  many  persons.  They  are 
salted,  dried  in  the  sun,  or  smoked,  and  shipped  to  a  great  distance;  the 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  617 

roe,  packed  in  kegs,  comes  into  the  trade  as  caviar,  and  the  inner  skin 
of  the  air-bladder  is  made  into  isinglass. 

Most  fish  of  the  sturgeon  family  are  found  in  the  Black  Sea,  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  and  the  rivers  flowing  into  them  ;  some  of  them  are  found  in  the 
Danube  beyond  Pressburg. 

All  attempts  to  hatch  sturgeon -eggs  and  to  raise  the  young  artificially 
have  so  far  been  failures;  and,  only  recently,  Dr.  Koch,  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, is  said  to  have  succeeded  in  solving  this  problem. 

The  common  sturgeon  (Acipenser  sturio)  is  found  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  the  Mediterranean,  the  Adriatic  Sea,  the  North  Sea,  and  Baltic, 
and  ascends  very  far  up  the  rivers. 

The  huso  (Acipenser  huso)  weighs  as  high  as  2,500  pounds,  and  ascends 
the  Danube  and  some  of  its  tributaries.  On  account  of  the  persecutions 
to  which  it  has  been  exposed  on  the  Lower  Danube,  it  has  at  present 
become  very  rare  in  Austria. 

The  finest  kind  of  sturgeon,  whose  flesh  is  almost  as  high-priced  as 
that  of  the  salmon,  is  the  sterlet,  (Acipenser  ruthenus,)  which  seldom 
measures  more  than  two  feet,  and  weighs  from  8 \  to  about  9  pounds. 
It  stays  longer  in  the  rivers  than  the  other  sturgeons,  requires  spawning 
places  with  gravelly  bottoms  and  considerable  fall,  and  is  found  in  the 
Danube  as  far  as  Bavaria,  in  the  Salzach,  the  Drau,  and  other  tribu- 
taries, as  well  as  in  the  Dniester,  &c.  Its  air-bladder  makes  the  finest 
isinglass. 

The  sterlet  has  recently  been  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
North  Germany  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Deutsche  Fischerei-verein.  The 
Prussian  ministry  of  agriculture,  in  1872,  accepted  an  offer  of  Dr.  Koch, 
in  St.  Petersburg,  to  bring  100,000  young  sterlets  from  the  Yolga 
to  Germany,  where  they  are  to  be  distributed  among  the  public  rivers, 
private  waters,  and  especially  to  piscicultural  establishments. 

20.— THE   CRAWFISH,  (ASTACUS  FLTJVIATILIS.) 

The  river  crawfish  (Astacus  fluviatilis)*  is  considered  to  be  very  different 
from  fish  in  the  systems  of  naturalists  ;  but,  in  the  practical  fisheries,  it 
has  to  be  treated  in  common  with  them,  and  the  same  legislation  should 
apply  to  both.  It  is  found  in  nearly  all  of  our  rivers,  brooks,  and  even  in 
ponds,  though  not  always  in  such  quantities  as  to  supply  cheap  food  for 
the  masses  of  the  people.  With  proper  care,  their  numbers  could  easily 
be  increased;  all  that  has  to  be  done  is  to  give  them  cheap  food,  to 
observe  the  times  when  they  should  not  be  caught,  and  to  plant  alders 
and  other  bushes  on  the  banks  of  those  streams  which,  by  too  extensive 
fishing,  have  become  drained  of  crawfish. 

In  France,  the  government  has  granted  an  appropriation  by  which 
more  than  300  rivers  and  brooks  can  be  stocked  with  German  crawfish. 
Even  these  are  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  great  demand,  and  large  num- 

*One  species  of  Astacus  is  considered  a  great  table  delicacy  in  Europe  and  sells  at 
high  prices. — S.  F.  B. 


618       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

bers  are  still  imported  from  Germany.  From  Styria,  fattened  crawfish 
have  been  sent  to  Paris  by  Baron  de  Washington.  Crawfish,  likewise, 
increase  very  rapidly.  Our  present  experience  has  shown  that  the  eggs 
perish  when  torn  off  from  the  animals,  so  that  it  will  not  do  to  press 
them  out  and  throw  them  into  the  water ;  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  give 
ample  protection  to  the  female  crawfish.  In  some  places,  young  craw- 
fish are  kept  and  fed  till  they  are  able  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Con- 
sidering the  enormous  demand  for  them,  crawfish-culture  in  our  num- 
berless small  brooks  might  soon  become  a  remunerative  occupation. 

C— PROTECTIVE  LEGISLATION. 

21. — THE  FISHING-PRIVILEGES. 

We  possess  a  great  deal  of  valuable  information  on  all  the  legal  ques- 
tions pertaining  to  fisheries  in  the  thorough  and  exhaustive  researches 
made  by  eminent  jurists  upon  the  historical  development  of  the  fishing- 
privileges  in  Austria  and  in  other  countries  possessing  similar  laws,  and 
also  in  special  investigations  of  the  subject. 

The  historical  development  of  the  fishing-privileges  was,  especially 
in  olden  times,  very  much  the  same  in  different  countries. 

Lette  and  Eonne,  the  well-known  commentators  on  the  "Agrarian 
Laws  of  Prussia,"  (vol.  ii,  p.  760,)  briefly  describe  this  development  as 
follows : 

"  Originally,  and  far  into  the  Middle  Ages,  every  landed  proprietor 
had  the  right  to  fish  on  his  property  j  those  who  owned  lands  bordering 
on  rivers  could  fish  in  these  streams,  and  citizens  of  towns  or  villages 
had  the  right  to  fish  in  all  the  waters  belonging  to  these  communities. 
At  a  later  period,  the  royal  water  and  fishing  privileges  were  established 
in  connection  with  the  hunting-privileges  of  kings  and  princes,  and  were 
in  later  times  extended  to  nearly  all  the  public  rivers  and  streams, 
and  either  given  or  rented  to  private  individuals.  The  right  to  fish  in 
private  waters,  both  standing  and  running,  was,  contrary  to  ancient 
usage,  appropriated  by  the  owners  of  estates  and  the  local  authorities 
to  the  entire  exclusion  of  the  vassals,  (farmers.)  These,  as  well  as  those 
inhabitants  who  did  not  possess  any  property,  were  frequently  only 
allowed  to  fish  with  purse-nets  and  lines. 

"  Exclusive  fishing-privileges  are  not  acknowleged  by  the  common 
law,  and  a  person  claiming  such  rights,  as  well  as  any  others,  must 
prove  his  lawful  title  to  them.  The  right  to  fish  in  private  waters  is 
considered  a  natural  consequence  of  owning  property,  and  in  running 
waters  as  belonging  to  persons  holding  landed  property  on  the  shores, 
all  of  which,  however,  varies  according  to  the  special  laws  and  usages 
of  different  countries. 

"Fishing  privileges  on  foreign  property  must  be  considered  as  pre- 
rogatives of  possession,  (Gr^lndgerecht^g]celten.y, 

Most  jurists  express  the  same  view,  as  in  the  text-books  of  German 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  619 

private  law  by  Runde,  §  110;    Eiehhorn,  §§  268  and  269;  Mittermaier, 
§  290;  Gerber,  p.  2L4,  &c. 

In  the  following,  it  will  be  shown  by  various  instances  that  these  views 
on  the  historical  development  of  the  fishing-privileges  are  confirmed  by 
the  old  Austrian  law-books. 

22 — FOREIGN  FISHERY  LAWS. 

Most  European  states  have  of  late  years  directed  their  special  atten- 
tion to  the  fishing-privileges  and  the  fishery-laws,  with  the  view  to 
reforming  the  whole  system  of  the  industry  in  conformity  with  the 
demands  of  the  natural  sciences,  of  changed  social  conditions,  and  the 
requirements  of  political  economy. 

From  the  great  mass  of  material  at  our  disposal,  we  shall  only  select 
a  few  paragraphs  of  foreign  laws  which  are  of  special  importance  to 
Austrian  legislation. 

Prussia. — Prussian  legislators  have  given  much  attention  both  to  the 
fishing-privileges  and  to  the  fishery-laws.  Besides  those  provisions  of 
the  common  code  of  the  Prussian  monarchy,  treating  of  the  privileges  of 
private  individuals,  there  are  numerous  provincial  laws  and  local  regu- 
lations dating  from  different  centuries,  so  that  at  present  twelve  differ- 
ent laws  may  be  distinguished  in  Prussia. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged,  even  there,  that  these  laws  and  regu- 
lations do  not  afford  sufficient  protection  to  the  fisheries;  that  they 
are  defective  in  many  points,  and  not  sufficiently  uniform;  that,  regard- 
ing the  nature  and  life  of  fish,  they  have  not  kept  pace  with  the  advance- 
ment of  natural  sciences;  and  that,  even  including  the  recent  laws  of 
the  provinces  of  Prussia,  Pomerania,  and  Posen,  which  in  most  respects 
have  proved  satisfactory,  they  leave  great  room  for  improvement.  The 
draught  of  a  new  fishery-law  has,  therefore,  been  prepared. 

The  present  Prussian  legislation,  in  its  most  essential  features,  does, 
nevertheless,  deserve  our  full  attention.  The  regulations  concerning 
private  fishing-privileges,  the  laws  on  the  abolition  of  such  privileges, 
numerous  regulations  regarding  supervision,  &c,  are  not  touched  at  all 
by  the  new  laws;  other  provisions  are  changed  but  very  inconsiderably; 
and  it  is  of  great  interest  in  every  respect  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  progressive  steps  of  this  important  legislation. 

According  to  the  common  law  of  Prussia,  fishing  in  public  running 
waters  is  a  royal  prerogative.  Those  persons  who  have  been  granted 
fishing- privileges  by  the  state,  without  defining  certain  limits,  can  only 
avail  themselves  as  far  as  their  property  on  shore  extends.  No  person 
possessing  them  can  extend  his  fisheries  beyond  their  lawfully  restricted 
limits. 

Fishing  in  closed  waters  which  do  not  extend  beyond  the  boundaries 
of  the  estate  in  which  they  are  located  is  as  a  rule  the  privilege  of  the 
proprietor  of  such  estate.  As  a  general  rule,  fishing  in  streams,  lakes, 
and  other  waters  can  only  be  carried  on  by  such  persons  as  have  re- 


620       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

ceived  especial  grants.  In  some  fishing-regulations,  as  in  the  case  of 
those  relating  to  the  gulfs  of  Dantzig  and  of  Memel,  those  persons  are 
allowed  to  fish  who  possess  the  privilege  either  by  grants  from  the  local 
authorities,  by  special  arrangement  with  the  treasury,  or  by  prescription. 
The  law  of  March  2,  1850,  says  that  fishing-privileges  in  private  waters, 
in  as  far  as  they  are  based  on  any  relations  of  servitude,  may  be  abol- 
ished by  buying  off,  at  the  motion  of  either  the  landlord  or  of  the  one 
under  obligations,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of  the  agrarian  law 
of  June  7,  1821.  The  net  annual  revenue  is  to  be  estimated  by  compe- 
tent persons,  who  have  to  take  into  account  the  average  profit  derived 
from  the  enterprise  by  those  conducting  it  during  the  last  ten  years. 
The  privilege  can  then  be  bought  off  either  by  payment  of  the  annual 
iuterest  or  of  the  appraised  value.  In  case  the  person  under  obliga- 
tions has  signified  his  willingness  to  buy  off  a  privilege,  the  one  hold- 
ing it  is  entitled  to  have  his  fishing-implements  likewise  bought  at  their 
true  value. 

Some  provincial  laws  contain  still  farther  fishing-regulations.  Accord- 
ing to  those  of  the  former  Saxon  provinces,  fishing  in  the  rivers  Elbe, 
Mulde,  Elster,  Saale,  and  Unstrut  is  a  royal  prerogative.  Fisheries 
belonging  to  towns  or  villages  are  to  be  rented  out  for  the  benefit  of  the 
community,  or  are  to  be  carried  on  by  two  citizens  successively,  limited 
in  this  privilege  to  two  days  in  the  week. 

In  East  and  West  Prussia,  the  right  to  fish  in  public  .waters  can 
only  be  lost  by  its  not  having  been  exercised  for  forty  years. 

In  the  Prussian  Rhine  Province,  especially  in  the  district  of  Treves, 
the  government  alone  has  the  right  to  fish  in  navigable  rivers,  while  in 
private  streams  the  persons  owning  the  shores  have  this  right.  (Article 
538  of  the  civil  law,  law  of  the  17th  day  of  Floreal,  year  X  of  the 
Erench  Republic,  royal  cabinet  order  of  June  23, 1838.)  In  navigable 
rivers,  the  governments  rent  out  the  fisheries. 

The  fishing-regulations,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  carried  out 
differ  in  the  several  provinces. 

The  ordinance  of  1669,  Tit.  31,  for  the  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  prohibits  fishing  during  the  spawning  season,  the  employment  of 
certain  implements  and  methods  of  capture,  and  the  taking  of  several 
species  of  fish  below  a  certain  size. 

Special  fishing-regulations  were  made  in  1845^  partly  for  different  prov- 
inces, such  as  Posen  and  West  Prussia,  partly  for  certain  waters,  such  as 
the  gulfs  of  Dantzig  and  Memel,  in  1859  for  the  province  of  Pomerania, 
others  for  the  district  of  Coslin,  and  in  1865  for  the  district  of  Stralsund. 
Any  closing  of  the  fish-waters,  hindering  the  migration  of  fish,  espe- 
cially salmon  and  sturgeon  weirs  and  eel-traps,  are  prohibited,  unless  the 
government  has  granted  special  privileges  for  using  such  contrivances. 
New  appliances  disturbing  the  migration  of  fish  cannot  be  permitted, 
unless  they  have  been  rendered  harmless,  or  can  be  made  so  by  cer- 
tain conditions  imposed  on  the  owners.  The  police-authorities  have 
to  see  to  it  that  the  conditions  imposed,  when  privileges  for  such  appli- 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  621 

ances  are  granted,  are  strictly  fulfilled.  Should  such  appliances,  be  of 
great  benefit  to  navigation,  agriculture,  or  industry,  the  authorities  may 
permit  their  use,  even  if  they  should  be  injurious  to  the  fisheries,  pro- 
vided that  the  persons  owning  the  fishing-privileges  are  properly 
indemnified.  In  as  far  as  no  existing  rights  are  infringed  on,  the  police- 
authorities  have  to  prohibit  every  pollution  of  the  water  which,  in  their 
opinion,  is  injurious  to  the  fish  or  fisheries  ;  to  remove  all  industrial  or 
other  establishments  whose  refuse  makes  the  water  impure;  and  to 
permit  new  establishments,  whose  refuse  is  to  flow  into  the  water,  only  on 
condition  that  competent  men  shall  decide  that  such  refuse  will  not 
hurt  the  fisheries.  The  authorities  may,  however,  permit  such  estab- 
lishments, if  they  will  prove  a  considerable  advantage  to  agriculture  or 
industry  ;  it  being,  of  course,  understood  that  the  persons  holding  the 
fishing-privileges  are  properly  indemnified. 

Towns,  villages,  or  other  corporations  holding  fishing-privileges,  if 
they  have  not  obtained  a  special  grant  to  carry  on  the  business, 
must  transfer  it,  either  as  a  whole  or  in  suitable  portions,  to  compe- 
tent and  reliable  persons. 

Fishing  can  only  be  carried  on  in  such  a  manner  and  with  such  imple- 
ments as  are  not  injurious  to  the  preservation  and  increase  of  the  stock 
of  fish.  The  local  authorities  are  entitled,  and  in  duty  bound,  to  enact 
more  detailed  restrictions  on  this  jjoint,  in  conformity  with  the  local 
wants.  Methods  of  capture  and  fishing-implements,  whose  injurious  char- 
acter is  universally  acknowledged,  are  prohibited  by  the  laws. 

According  to  some  fishery-laws,  only  such  implements  can  be  em- 
ployed as  are  mentioned  in  the  respective  deeds,  feudal  documents, 
written  agreements,  &c,  in  so  far  as  their  use  is  not  interdicted  by  the 
existing  code. 

The  size  of  the  meshes  of  nets  is  fixed  by  law.  The  authorities  are, 
however,  empowered  to  prescribe  the  use  of  those  with  wider  meshes  for 
certain  species  of  fish  in  certain  localities,  and  to  permit  the  use  of  such 
nets  exceptionally  for  a  period  not  exceeding  five  years  in  places  where 
those  with  narrower  meshes  have  hitherto  been  employed.  Some  fish- 
ing-laws prescribe  in  detail  the  methods  of  capture  and  the  implements 
allowed  in  certain  waters,  and  make  the  use  of  new  implements  and 
methods  entirely  dependent  on  the  special  permission  of  the  government. 
The  seasons  when  the  different  kinds  of  fish  in  certain  waters  must 
not  be  caught  are  specially  defined  by  government  ordinances,  and  fish- 
ing during  such  seasons  is  either  totally  prohibited  or  limited  according 
to  local  circumstances.  In  later  ordinances,  the  seasons  when  the  dif- 
ferent species  of  fish  cannot  be  caught  are  defined  by  legal  provisions, 
and  the  capture  and  sale  of  spawning-fish  and  young  fish  are  prohibited. 
In  fishing,  the  running  waters  must  not  be  obstructed,  and  bags,  station- 
ary nets,  as  well  as  other  implements,  tools,  and  contrivances  used, 
must  never  occupy  more  than  one-half  the  breadth  of  a  river  or  stream. 
The  spawning-places  of  the  finer  kinds  of  fish  are  to  be  made  known 
to  the  fishermen  in  a  manner  to  be  defined  by  the  government.   Fishing- 


622       REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

apparatus  -which  has  not  been  removed  from  these  hatching-grounds 
within  twelve  hours  after  notification,  or  which  has  been  placed  there 
after  notice  has  been  given,  is  to  be  confiscated,  as  well  as  all  the  fish 
which  have  been  caught. 

The  fishery-laws  of  1845  gave  permission  to  persons  holding  fishing- 
privileges  in  one  or  more  sheets  of  water,  in  case  they  unanimously  agree 
to  it,  to  abolish  the  confining  regulations,  either  totally  or  in  part,  by  a 
treaty  which  must  be  laid  before  the  governing  counselor  (Landrath)  of 
the  district.  The  regulations  of  the  district  of  Coslin,  passed  in  1859, 
permit  such  deviations  from  certain  specially  mentioned  rules,  as  have 
been  agreed  on  by  all  the  holders  of  fishing-privileges,  inasmuch  as  a  still 
greater  protection  of  the  industry  is  aimed  at,  and  also  the  destruction 
of  fish  of  prey,  such  as  pike,  or  the  stocking  of  the  waters  with  fish,  or 
the  further  increase  of  certain  species  of  them,  or  the  promotion  of  pis- 
ciculture. Such  a  contract  must  be  approved  by  the  governing  counselor 
of  the  district,  and  the  modified  regulations  must  be  clearly  defined  by 
the  local  police-authorities,  and  be  properly  promulgated  throughout 
the  whole  district. 

In  some  districts,  special  government  officers  are  appointed  to  super- 
vise the  fisheries,  such  as  higher  fish-masters,  fish-masters,  fish-keepers, 
fishery-overseers,  &c,  all  wearing  a  special  uniform,  and  having  their 
boats  conspicuously  marked,  so  as  to  be  easily  recognizable.  Those  pri- 
vate watchmen  and  other  officers  who  are  appointed  by  the  proprietors  of 
large  fisheries  are  subordinate  to  the  royal  fish-master. 

In  other  districts,  the  government  has  the  right,  in  case  the  fishing- 
laws  are  violated  by  holders  of  privileges,  and  the  fisheries  are  large 
and  important,  to  appoint  overseers  at  the  expense  of  the  proprietors. 
Fishing-permits  have  been  allowed  in  some  waters;  they  are  to  be  issued 
on  a  mere  request  by  the  higher  fish- master,  but  in  case  of  litigation  these 
permits  cannot  be  used  in  giving  judgment  as  to  the  rights  of  persons. 
The  local  police-authorities  must  every  year  make  a  list  of  all  holders  of 
fishing-privileges,  and  must  exhibit  them  publicly  for  a  certain  period  of 
time.  Violations  of  the  law  are  usually  punished  by  a  fine  not  to  exceed 
the  sum  of  $37.50.  In  punishing  transgressors,  prohibited  implements 
are  as  a  rule  to  be  confiscated. 

These  cases  come  into  the  police-courts,  (law  of  April  14, 1856,)  before 
which  the  district-attorney  makes  his  charges.  According  to  the  circular 
of  September  19, 1864,  forest-officers  can  be  appointed  as  attorneys  for  all 
violations  of  the  fishing-law  occurring  within  their  jurisdiction,  whenever 
they  have  no  private  interest  in  the  fisheries,  as  lessees,  &c,  in  which 
case  the  regular  district-attorney  prosecutes  the  case. 

According  to  fl  370  of  the  imperial  German  penal  code  of  May  15, 1871, 
persons  catching  fish  or  crawfish  without  having  a  privilege  or  a  permit, 
are  punishable  by  a  fine  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of  $37.50,  or  by  imprison- 
ment. 

According   to  fl  296  of  the  same  code,  persons  who  at  night-time 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OP    AUSTRIA.  623 

catcli  fish  or  crawfish  by  torch-light,  or,  in  fishing,  use  injurious  or  ex- 
plosive matter,  are  to  be  punished  with  a  fine  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of 
8150,  or  by  imprisonment  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  six  months. 

In  both  cases  of  violation  of  the  law,  persons  are  prosecuted  only  if 
proper  information  has  been  given  to  the  authorities. 

Great  as  had  been  the  care  which  the  Prussian  government  had  de- 
voted to  the. framing  of  the  several  fishing-laws,  many  provisions  had 
to  be  changed  after  a  few  years,  showing  how  difficult  it  is  to  hit  the 
right  path  at  once  in  framing  such  a  code.  The  published  reasons  for 
passing  the  law  of  April  22, 1869,  changing  the  fishing-regulations  of  the 
law  of  August  30, 1S65,  in  the  district  or  Stralsund,  contain  the  following: 

"  The  law  of  August  30,  1805,  is  the  result  of  thorough  discussion^ 
during  many  years.  The  provincial  authorities  have  gathered  a  vast 
mass  of  material  for  this  purpose,  which  has  been  sifted  and  arranged 
by  the  ministry ;  and  the  provincial  assemblies,  as  well  as  the  Prussian 
parliament,  have  carefully  considered  all  the  propositions.  If  this  law, 
nevertheless,  after  having  been  in  force  scarcely  two  years,  is  found  to 
require  a  change,  the  cause  of  this  is  not  a  want  of  preliminary  consid- 
eration, but  the  impossibility  of  making  such  consideration  entirely 
exhaustive." 

The  published  reasons  for  passing  the  law  point  out  the  fact  that  the 
criticising  of  the  many  views  of  private  individuals  and  fishermen,  often 
differing  in  the  m.ost  essential  points,  requires  a  fund  of  general,  local, 
and  technical  knowledge  not  often  found  in  one  man,  so  that  the  defects 
of  the  first  law  can  be  remedied  only  by  experience. 

It  is  a  peculiar  phenomenon  that  in  the  Ehine  province,  the  fisheries 
have  been  regulated  by  an  order  of  Minister  Stein,  of  August  18,  1814 — 
to  whom  Prussia  owes  her  best  agrarian  laws — on  those  principles  which 
are  even  now  recognized  there,  viz,  the  formation  of  fishing-associations 
by  government  order,  in  all  cases  where  the  persons  holding  fishing- 
privileges  cannot  agree.  This  very  excellent  order  was  rescinded  by  the 
law  of  July  23,  1833,  and  when,  in  consequence  of  this,  the  rentiug-out 
of  the  fisheries  in  private  waters  was  entirely  stopped,  the  fisheries  were 
completely  ruined.  During  the  last  thirty  years,  fisbing  in  private 
streams  in  the  Ehine  province  has  decreased  very  much,  because  they 
were  almost  depopulatedby  the  reckless  conduct  of  privileged  and  non- 
privileged  persons.  As  nothing  was  done  either  to  protect  the  propaga- 
tion of  fish,  or  to  prevent  abuses,  the  business  has  become  almost  the 
exclusive  property  of  fish-thieves. 

From  these  and  similar  reasons,  several  agricultural  societies,  and 
especially  the  Deutsche  Fiselierei-  Verein,  have  recently  pointed  out  the 
necessity  of  regulating  the  fisheries  in  the  larger  waters  by  the  formation 
of  protective  societies. 

In  the  Ehine  province,  these  protective  associations  begin  to  find  favor, 
although  they  have  no  legal  basis,  as  is  shown  by  those  at  Polch  and  on 
the  IsTiins,  in  the  Bitburg  district.    The  mayors,  who  usually  start  theso 


624       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

enterprises,  are  unfortunately  obliged,  through  the  lack  of  a  law,  to  have 
recourse  to  ancient,  almost  fictitious  laws,  as  for  instance  that  those 
holders  of  fishing-privileges  who  were  not  present  when  a  resolution  was 
passed  must  be  considered  as  having  voted  in  the  affirmative,  that  a 
resolution  passed  by  the  majority  was  binding  on  the  minority,  &c,  all 
of  which  can  only  be  enforced  till  one  of  the  privilege-holders  raises 
objections.  (See  Beck,  Beschreibung  des  RegierungsbezirJces  Trier.,  vol.  i, 
549;  iii,  305.) 

In  the  autumn  of  1872,  the  draught  of  a  new  fishing-law  for  the  Prus- 
sian monarchy  was  published,  and  in  December,  1872,  brought,  in  a 
somewhat  amended  form,  into  the  lower  house  of  the  Prussian  parlia- 
ment. This  document  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  history  of 
fishing-legislation,  and  deserves  our  full  attention  also  with  a  view  to 
the  adoption  of  a  similar  law  in  Austria. 

In  assigning  reasons  for  passing  such  a  law,  the  question  is  discussed 
whether  it  would  be  profitable  to  settle  the  whole  matter  as  hitherto,  by 
leaving  it  to  the  action  of  the  local  and  provincial  authorities,  or  whether 
a  uniform  fishing-law  should  be  passed  for  the  whole  Prussian  monarchy. 

A  careful  consideration  of  this  question  showed  that,  although  the 
fisheries  differ  very  much  in  many  respects,  legislation  for  their  benefit 
ought  to  be  the  same  for  all  the  provinces  of  the  monarchy.  In  study- 
ing the  different  means  of  promoting  the  fisheries,  no  interests  are  fount! 
which  are  peculiar  to  any  one  province ;  they  are,*  on  the  contrary, 
entirely  independent  of  differences  in  the  methods  produced  by  local 
and  climatic  influences. 

This  being  the  case,  an  economical  legislation  demands  general  and 
uniform  regulations.  The  means  employed  for  promoting  the  fisheries 
will  only  then  be  successful  if  they  are  impartially  applied  to  all  portions 
of  the  country.  It  is  true  that,  with  regard  to  the  inland  waters,  the 
body  of  every  river  flowing  into  the  sea  forms,  so  to  speak,  a  sepa- 
rate and  independent  province ;  legislation,  however,  cannot  follow  the 
frequently  not  very  clearly  defined  limits  of  these  territories,  whose 
tributaries  often  extend  from  one  to  the  other,  without  getting  confused 
and  missing  the  object  in  view,  viz :  to  establish  firm  and  comprehensi- 
ble rules  for  the  fisheries,  which  gradually  become  indelibly  impressed 
on  the  legal  conscience  of  all  parties  concerned. 

A  fishing-law  for  the  Prussian  monarchy  cannot  entirely  exhaust  this 
matter,  but  must  leave  out  some  points  which  are  to  be  settled  accord- 
ing to  local  wants  and  by  international  treaties. 

Kules  which  come  under  this  head  would  mostly  refer  to  the  weight 
and  measure  below  which  certain  fish  could  not  be  caught,  sold,  or 
shipped,  as  also  to  the  limits  of  those  seasons  when  fish  are  to  be  pro- 
tected, and  to  the  use  and  character  of  the  fishing-apparatus. 

These  rules  must  be  in  conformity  with  the  different  methods  in  which 
the  fisheries- are  carried  on  in  the  several  provinces;  but  they  must  also 
have  regard  to  the  different  species  of  fish  found  in  the  different  waters 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  625 

and  to  local  and  climatic  circumstances.  If  such  rules  were  embodied 
in  the  general  law,  this  would  become  unnecessarily  large,  and  would 
no  doubt  frequently  require  to  be  changed ;  and  would  doubtless,  to 
the  injury  of  the  industry,  of  which  science  and  experience  are  con- 
stantly developing  new  aspects,  it  would  be  prematurely  settled. 

The  existing  law  of  Prussia,  like  all  the  older  fishing-laws,  is,  with 
few  exceptions,  confined  to  this  field,  and  in  most  of  the  provioces  there 
are  rules  regulating  details. 

The  proposed  law  leaves  these  regulations  unchanged  for  the  present j 
but  takes  into  consideration  a  uniform  settlement  of  all  these  points  in 
territories  which  belong  together  by  a  royal  ordinance,  which  in  many 
cases  will  have  to  be  preceded  by  treaties  with  neighboring  states. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  provisions  of  this  code,  by 
which  existing  laws  are  to  be  amended  or  changed : 

Fishing-privileges,  which  are  not  connected  with  some  specified  landed 
property,  and  which  have  hitherto  been  enjoyed  by  all  the  inhabitants 
of  a  village  or  city,  shall,  in  future,  to  their  present  extent  belong  to  the 
body  politic,     (fl  5.) 

In  those  waters  which  form  the  boundary-line  between  two  or  more 
communities,  without  belonging  to  either,  these  communities  shall  enjoy 
equal  privileges  in  that  part  of  the  water  which  is  bordered  by  their 
territory,     (ft  6.) 

Existing  privileges  which  refer  to  the  use  of  certain  specified  appa- 
ratus for  fishing,  fixed  contrivances,  (weirs,  fences,  automatic  traps  for 
salmon,  eels,  &c.,)  stationary  nets,  those  that  obstruct  the  greater  part 
of  the  river,  &c,  can  be  limited  or  abolished  by  completely  indemnify  - 
nifying  the  persons  holding  them. 

Further  limitation  or  abolition  of  such  privileges  can  be  claimed : 

1.  By  the  state  for  the  public  welfare ; 

2.  By  holders  of  fishing-privileges,  or  by  fishing-associations,  in  the 
lower  or  upper  portion  of  any  water,  if  it  can  be  proved  that  these  ope- 
rations are  of  lasting  injury  to  the  industry,  impeding  the  introduction  of 
a  rational  and  economical  system  of  conducting  it. 

The  petitions  of  holders  of  privileges  and  of  fishing-associations  are 
decided  on  by  the  district  government,  after  they  have  been  thor- 
oughly examined  by  competent  men. 

If  the  parties  cannot  agree  upon  the  indemnity  which  is  to  be  paid, 
the  authorities  will  fix  the  amount,  which  must  be  settled  by  the  person 
or  persons  petitioning  for  the  abolition  of  privileges. 

The  existing  ordinances  regarding  the  abolition  of  servitude  for  the 
fisheries  are  not  touched  by  any  of  the  preceding  regulations,     (ft  4.) 

It  is  said  in  the  law  that  the  abolition  of  fishing-privileges  on  for- 
eign soil  does  not  come  within  its  jurisdiction;  and  reference  is  made 
to  the  above  quoted  abolition-law  of  March  2,  1850,  which,  as  far  as 
is  required,  is  to  be  amended  and  completed.  It  is,  however,  consid- 
ered as  coming  within  the  scope  of  this  law  to  leave  open  a  way  for 
40  f 


626       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

abolishing  such  fishing-privileges  as  form  a  lasting  opposition  to  a 
rational  culture  of  the  waters  and  the  preservation  and  increase  of  the 
stock  of  fish. 

Towns  or  villages  can  only  make  use  of  the  inland  waters  belonging  to 
them  through  specially  appointed  fishermen  or  by  renting  them.  It  is 
not  permitted  to  make  the  fisheries  free  to  all  persons  belonging  to  the 
community. 

The  period  of  lease  must,  as  a  rule,  not  be  shorter  than  twelve  years, 
and  exceptions  to  this  regulation  can  only  be  allowed  by  the  local 
authorities  in  special  cases. 

If  the  fisheries  belonging  to  one  community  are  to  be  subdivided  into 
several  districts  which  are  to  be  rented  separately,  such  action  must  be 
approved  by  the  local  authorities,  who  have  to  see  to  it  that  they  are 
not  subdivided  too  much. 

The  local  authorities  are  empowered  to  fix  the  number  of  fishing- 
apparatus  in  the  several  districts,  which  is  not  to  be  exceeded. 

If  two  communities  possess  equal  privileges  iu  the  waters  bordering 
on  their  territory,  they  can  only  carry  on  the  fisheries  in  common.  If 
such  communities  cannot  agree  as  to  the  manner  in  which  this  is  to  be 
done,  the  local  authorities  will  decide  the  matter,    (fl  7.) 

Persons  holding  fishing- privileges  in  a  larger  connected  sheet  of  water 
may,  with  a  view  to  better  supervision  and  protection  of  the  craft,  form 
themselves  into  an  association,  with  a  statute,  which  must  be  approved 
by  the  government;  such  association  must  be  represented  by  a  board, 
to  be  elected  by  all  the  members  according  to  the  statute. 

Before  such  statute  can  be  approved,  the  privileged  persons  must  be 
heard  on  the  formation  of  the  association  and  its  statute,  and,  if  one 
of  these  raises  objections,  the  representative  assemblies  of  the  district 
in  which  the  sheet  of  water  in  question  is  located  are  consulted.  By  the 
consent  of  all  parties  concerned,  the  object  of  the  association  may  by 
the  law  be  extended  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fish-waters  in  common. 
(flff  8  and  9.) 

The  draught  of  the  law  discusses  the  question  whether,  after  the 
example  of  several  old  provincial  codes  and  after  the  model  of  some 
modern  German  fishing-laws,  such  as  those  of  the  Baden  and  Wiirtem- 
berg,  a  rule  should  be  made  that  every  person  who  desires  to  fish  should 
have  a  permit.    This  rule,  says  the  draught,  is  taken  from  the  game-laws. 

Hunting  and  fishing  are  industries  which  in  some  respects  are  closely 
related  to  each  other,  and  which,  nevertheless,  are  totally  different  in 
the  very  points  in  question. 

The  economical  value  of  fishing  to  the  life  of  a  nation  very  consider- 
ably exceeds  that  of  hunting.  Fishing  is  the  chief  industry  and  fre- 
quently the  only  means  of  earning  a  living  in  numerous  families,  in 
entire  villages  and  districts,  while  hunting  nearly  everywhere  is  an 
occupation  carried  on  outside  of  the  various  trades  or  industries. 

If  hunting  privileges  have  unhesitatingly  been  granted  on  permits, 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  627 

and  a  tax  could  be  imposed  on  such  favors,  such  taxation  could  scarcely 
be  borne  by  the  fishermen,  who  are  as  a  general  rule  poor. 

The  most  important  reason  for  obliging  all  hunters  to  carry  a  permit 
is  doubtless  to  insure  public  safety,  and  this  reason  entirely  falls  to  the 
ground  with  the  fishermen,  not  to  mention  other  differences  between  the 
two  occupations. 

The  introduction  of  such  a  measure  to  the  above-mentioned  extent  is 
therefore  not  favored,  as  it  would  very  much  incommode  the  craft  and 
the  authorities  charged  with  issuing  or  certifying  the  permits. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  considered  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  non- 
privileged  persons  from  fishing,  to  demand  some  sort  of  identification 
of  those  persons  who  fish  in  the  waters  belonging  to  the  holders  of  priv- 
ileges, in  the  shape  of  some  paper  which  such  persons  should  carry  with 
them  when  at  work,  and  should  exhibit.,  if  requested  to  do  so  by  an  over- 
seer. Those,  however,  who  fish  in  their  own  waters  would  not  require 
such  a  paper. 

The  right  to  issue  permits  to  third  persons  should  belong  to  the  holder 
of  a  privilege  within  the  limits  of  his  jurisdiction  j  to  the  lessee  of  a 
fishing-district  within  the  limits  of  his  contract ;  and  to  the  board  of 
directors  in  waters  belonging  to  an  association. 

Assistants  employed  in  the  presence  of  holders  of  privileges,  or  of 
persons  having  a  permit,  require  no  special  permit. 

The  certifying  of  fishing-permits  by  the  local  police-authorities  must 
be  done  without  any  stamp  or  fee  whatever,    (fffl  10  to  15.) 

The  draught  contains  but  very  few  regulations  on  the  methods  of 
fishing  and  the  apparatus  used.  Apparatus,  which  is  set  for  the  purpose 
of  fishing,  in  the  absence  of  its  owner  must  have  a  specified  mark  of 
recognition,  (fl  16.)  Fishing  with  poisonous  bait,  or  by  other  means 
which  stun  or  poison  the  fish,  such  as  explosives,  is  prohibited,  (fl  17,) 
as  likewise  the  obstruction  of  more  than  one-half  of  any  stream  of  water, 

(U  18-) 

All  other  regulations  regarding  methods  of  fishing,  apparatus,  the 
weight  or  measure  below  which  fish  are  not  to  be  caught,  the  days 
and  seasons  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  the  rules  to  be  observed  by  fish- 
ermen for  avoiding  mutual  disturbances,  and  in  the  interest  of  public 
traffic  and  navigation,  as  well  as  for  making  supervision  easier,  are  left 
to  government  ordinances,  which,  as  far  as  required,  are  to  be  passed 
for  connected  territories,     (fl  10.) 

The  code  also  contains  prohibitions  as  to  the  sale  of  fish  the  catching 
of  which  is  not  permitted,     (flfl  22  to  25.) 

Great  attention  is  given  in  this  law  to  the  establishment  of  places  of 
safety,  where  the  fish  are  to  be  absolutely  protected ;  such  places  being 
considered  as  among  the  most  important  measures  for  protecting  and 
preserving  them. 

The  proposed  law  distinguishes  two  kinds  of  such  places,  viz : 

a.  Places  of  safety  for  spawning,  i.  e.,  those  localities  which,  in  the 


628        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

opinion  of  competent  men,  are  specially  suited  to  the  spawning  of  fine 
fish  ami  the  development  of  the  young ; 

b.  Places  of  safety  for  fish,  i.  e.,  such  portions  of  water  in  and  before 
the  mouths  of  rivers  as  command  the  entrance  of  fish  from  the  sea  into 
the  inland  waters. 

Such  localities  (a  and  b)  can  be  declared  places  of  safety  by  the  min- 
ister of  agriculture,  after  having  consulted  with  all  the  holders  of  privi- 
leges concerned ;  in  association-districts,  with  the  board  of  directors. 

The  limits  of  sach  places  of  safety  are  to  be  made  known  to  all  per- 
sons concerned  by  public  proclamation ;  and  they  should  be,  as  far  as 
the  locality  permits,  marked  by  special  signs.  In  these  spots,  fishing  of 
any  kind  is  entirely  prohibited. 

In  places  of  safety  for  spawning,  all  disturbances  which  tend  to 
endanger  the  propagation  of  fish,  such  as  their  being  cleaned  out,  the 
mowing  of  reeds  and  grass,  the  carrying  away  of  sand,  stones,  mud,  &c, 
should  be  avoided  during  the  spawning  season,  as  far  as  the  tide  and  the 
claims  of  agriculture  permit.  More  detailed  regulations  on  these  points 
as  well  as  on  the  supervision  of  places  of  safety  are,  if  necessary,  to  be 
made  by  the  district  authorities. 

In  selecting  places  of  safety ,  preference  should  be  given  to  those  bodies 
of  water  in  which  the  government  has  the  exclusive  fishing-privilege, 
or  in  which  this  has  been  transferred  by  law  to  political  communities. 

In  these  cases,  no  indemnity  is  paid  for  withdrawing  the  privilege  of 
fishing  in  the  places  of  safety. 

If,  however,  the  preservation  or  improvement  of  the  fisheries  demands 
the  including  of  other  waters  as  places  of  safety,  the  rights  connected 
with  such  waters  are  withdrawn,  and  the  holders  of  privileges  must  be 
fully  indemnified  from  the  public  treasury ;  the  amount  of  such  indem- 
nity, if  not  mutually  agreed  on,  to  be  settled  by  a  court  of  law. . 

If  it  should  no  longer  be  desirable  to  keep  up  a  place  of  safety,  it  can 
be  abolished  by  an  ordinance  of  the  minister  of  agriculture.  In  this 
case,  the  former  laws  and  privileges  regarding  fishing  come  again  into 
force.  If,  however,  an  indemnity  for  the  withdrawal  of  fishing-privileges 
has  been  paid  from  the  public  treasury,  they  shall  then  remain  in  the 
possession  of  the  government,     (flff  27  to  31.) 

Fish-passes  (trout-paths,  salmon-ladders,  &c.)  are  considered  essential 
conditions  for  the  lasting  preservation  of  remunerative  fisheries. 

The  bill  makes  a  distinction  between  new  hydraulic  constructions  and 
existing  ones  which  hinder  the  passage  of  migratory  fish. 

In  constructing  new  hydraulic  works,  or  extending  them,  the  propri- 
etor has,  at  his  own  expense,  to  make  such  arrangements  as  are  neces- 
sary for  letting  the  fish  pass  through. 

If  any  such  work  is  only  constructed  for  a  certain  period  of  time,  e.  g., 
while  brooks  and  small  rivers  are  temporarily  dammed  for  the  purpose 
of  irrigating  meadow-lauds,  or  if  the  passage  of  migratory  fish  in  the 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  629 

respective  waters  is  for  the  time  being  excluded  by  existing  construc- 
tions or  from  other  reasons,  exceptions  may  be  allowed  under  protest. 

Proprietors  of  existing  hydraulic  works  are  obliged  to  permit  the 
construction  of  fish-passes,  if,  «,  the  government  demands  such  con- 
structions in  the  public  interest ;  or  if,  &,  holders  of  fishing-privileges  or 
fishing-associations  intend  to  establish  such  passes  in  the  upper  or  lower 
portions  of  the  waters  in  question. 

These  rules  only  apply  to  natural  waters,  but  not  to  artificial  streams 
and  to  those  hydraulic  works  which  protect  the  lowlands  against  the  flood 
from  outside. 

The  proprietors  of  existing  hydraulic  works  are  to  be  fully  indemni- 
fied for  any  injury  done  to  such  works.  No  indemnity  is  paid  for  any 
decrease  in  the  value  of  the  fisheries  occasioned  by  the  construction  of 
a  fish-pass. 

The  ground  required  for  constructing  a  fish-pass  must  be  given  up  by 
the  proprietor ;  the  full  value  thereof  being  paid  to  him. 

In  the  fish-passes,  any  kind  of  fishing  is  prohibited,  (flfl  33  to  39.) 

The  introduction  into  the  waters  of  agricultural  or  industrial  refuse 
of  such  quality  and  in  such  quantities  as  to  injure  the  fish  is  prohibited. 

In  cases  where  the  agricultural  or  industrial  interests  are  of  greater 
value  than  the  fisheries,  the  introduction  into  the  water  of  any  of  the 
above-mentioned  refuse  may  be  permitted  by  the  authorities,  provided 
that  measures  are  taken  to  limit  the  possible  injury  of  the  fish  to  the 
smallest  practicable  amount. 

If,  through  existing  channels,  agricultural  or  industrial  refuse  of  an 
injurious  character  is  introduced  into  the  water  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
destroy  or  seriously  endanger  the  fish,  the  proprietor  of  the  establish- 
ments from  which  such  refuse  comes  can,  on  the  complaint  of  those  per- 
sons whose  fisheries  are  injured,  be  obliged  by  the  authorities,  after  the 
case  has  been  thoroughly  examined,  to  make  such  arrangements  as  will 
remedy  or  at  least  diminish  the  damage  that  has  been  done,  without; 
however,  injuring  his  own  establishment.  The  expenses  of  making  such 
arrangements  are  to  be  refunded  to  the  proprietor  of  the  establishment 
by  the  complainants,     (fl  40.) 

The  rotting  of  flax  and  hemp  in  running  waters  is  prohibited.  Ex- 
ceptions from  this  rule  can  be  made  by  the  local  authorities,  always 
under  protest,  however,  in  such  districts  where  the  locality  is  not  suited 
for  making  rotting- pits,  and  where  the  use  of  running  water  for  prepar- 
ing flax  and  hemp  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  time  being.     (Tf  41.) 

The  immediate  supervision  of  the  fisheries  belongs  to  the  government 
and  local  police-officers ;  in  association-districts,  besides  these,  to*  the 
board  of  directors;  in  all  inland  fisheries  not  belonging  to  associations, 
to  each  community  within  the  limits  of  its  own  jurisdiction ;  in  both 
cases  under  the  superintendence  of  the  local  authorities,     (fl  42.) 

The  first  draught  of  the  law  contained  the  following  regulation  in  fl  43 : 

In  superintending  the  operations,  in  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the 


630       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

law,  and  in  supervising  all  measures  for  furthering  the  industry,  the 
district  authorities  shall,  if  necessary,  be  assisted  by  inspectors  of  fish- 
eries. The  relation  of  these  inspectors  to  the  superior  and  subordinate 
officers  is  regulated  by  ordinances  of  the  government.     (1j  43.) 

Eegarding  the  inspectors  of  fisheries,  the  preliminary  report  says : 

"The  appointment  of  inspectors  of  fisheries  as-competent  counselors 
of  the  supervising  officers  has  long  since  been  recognized  as  an  undis- 
puted want,  and  becomes  indispensable  when  all  those  measures  are  to 
be  executed  by  which  the  sea  and  inland  fisheries  are  to  be  promoted. 
It  need  scarcely  be  said  that  it  is  not  intended  to  appoint  at  once  an 
inspector  of  fisheries  for  every  province;  their  number  will,  on  the 
contrary,  be  at  first  a  limited  one,  and  will  be  increased  as  time  and 
occasion  demand." 

The  second  draught  does  not  contain  the  above  paragraph ;  but  the 
preliminary  report  says  expressly  that  the  appointment  of  commis- 
sioners in  chief  as  counselors  to  the  principal  supervising  authorities, 
and  as  their  referees  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  fisheries,  will  in  all 
probability  become  necessary,  but  that  their  number  will  have  to  be  as 
limited  as  possible.  It  seems,  therefore,  to  be  the  intention  to  regulate 
this  whole  matter  by  some  future  ordinance. 

Whenever  the  general  German  penal  code  does  not  provide  for  (flfl 
29G  and  370)  violations  of  the  fishing-law,  the  punishment  inflicted  will 
be  by  fines  of  $7.50,  $22.50,  and  $37.50,  or  with  imprisonment. 

Any  person  who  violates  the  law  through  his  servants,  apprentices, 
or  day-laborers  is,  besides  being  punished  himself,  made  responsible  for 
the  payment  of  fines  imposed  on  these  assistants  in  case  they  are  not 
able  to  pay  them.    (f[  47.) 

Bavaria. — In  Bavaria,  the  government,  in  1854,  recommended  that 
artificial  fish-culture  should,  with  the  assistance  of  the  agricultural 
society,  be  introduced  as  far  as  possible,  and  that,  through  it,  natural 
propagation  should  be  carried  out  by  placing  spawn  of  the  finer  species 
in  the  rivers. 

By  giving  information  and  encouragement,  the  authorities  should  aim 
at  having  smaller  fisheries  combined,  and  see  to  it  that  they  are  leased 
as  a  whole  for  a  longer  period  to  enterprising  fishermen,  on  condition  of 
their  being  carried  on  in  a  rational  manner.  The  several  villages  and 
towns  should  be  urged  to  do  the  same  with  those  under  their  control. 

The  police-authorities  were  ordered  to  afford  the  greatest  possible 
X)rotection  to  fish-culture;  to  remedy  existing  evils  as  soon  as  possible; 
and,  wherever  practicable,  to  fix  the  amount  of  the  fines. 

In  1S55,  the  fishing  and  fish-market  regulations,  which  were  partly 
revised  and  partly  new,  were  promulgated  throughout  the  kingdom. 

Violations  of  the  fishing-law  were  spoken  of  in  article  231  of  the 
penal  code. 

The  example  of  the  neighboring  states  will  soon  prompt  Bavaria  to 
reform  her  antiquated  regulations,  which  will  also  exercise  a  beneficial 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  631 

influence  on  the  Austrian  fisheries,  since  many  of  the  Austrian  and 
Bavarian  waters  are  closely  connected. 

Wurtemherg. — The  Wiirteniberg  fishing-law  of  November  27,  1865,  is 
the  result  of  discussions  which  were  carried  on  for  several  years  in  the 
parliament.  It  contains  regulations  regarding  permits,  the  leasing  of 
the  waters  for  several  years  by  the  communities,  and  prohibitions  of 
entirely  free  fisheries  ;  also  full  regulations  on  the  rights  of  land-holders 
on  the  shores  of  the  waters.  In  case  of  inundations,  privileged  persons 
can  fish  even  beyond  their  shores,  but  are  obliged  to  pay  for  any  dam- 
age done  to  the  land ;  after  the  waters  have  receded,  every  proprietor 
can  catch  the  fish  and  crawfish  left  on  his  property,  but  must  not  place 
any  contrivances  which  might  hinder  them  from  returning  to  the  waters. 
During  the  spawning  season  of  the  finer  species  of  fish,  the  cutting  of 
wood  near  the  shore,  the  mowing  of  reeds,  &c,  are  prohibited. 

Authorities  and  associations  are  urged  to  see  to  it  that  holders  of 
fishing-privileges  either  carry  on  the  enterprises  in  common,  or  lease 
them  as  a  whole;  the  too  great  subdivisions  of  fisheries  being  in  all 
cases  considered  as  injurious. 

Baden.— In  Baden,  the  laws  of  March  29,  1852,  and  of  March  20, 1853, 
provided  that  fishing-privileges  on  foreign  soil  could  be  bought  off  by 
paying  a  sum  equal  to  twelve  times  the  average  annual  revenue,  to  be 
paid  in  ten  yearly  installments,  at  5  per  cent,  interest. 

The  law  of  March  3,  1870,  provides  that  smaller  waters  may  be  united 
into  a  whole  by  the  privilege-holders,  with  the  consent  of  the  district 
authorities,  if  the  interests  of  the  fisheries  require  it. 

The  privilege-holders  of  such  a  united  fishing-district  form  an  associ- 
ation ;  resolutions  passed  by  the  majority,  and  approved  by  the  authori- 
ties, decide  where  the  permanent  seat  of  the  association  is  to  be,  and  on 
its  constitution,  duties  and  rights,  its  members,  organs,  and  the  manner 
in  which  business  is  to  be  transacted.  Before  the  law,  those  privilege- 
holders  who  combined  own  the  largest  extent  of  water,  form  a  majority, 
even  though,  in  point  of  numbers,  they  should  be  in  the  minority. 

The  associations  mentioned  here,  as  well  as  communities  and  corpora- 
tions, can  only  carry  on  their  operations  through  specially  appointed 
fishermen,  or  by  renting  them;  the  term  of  the  lease  not  to  be  less  than 
twelve  years. 

The  draught  of  the  law  contains  detailed  regulations  forbidding  in- 
jurious fishing- apparatus,  mischievous  transgression  of  the  law,  &c. 
Special  ordinances  are  to  regulate  the  weight  below  which  fish  must  not 
be  caught,  days  and  seasons  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  and  to  mention 
those  implements  which  are  forbidden.  All  engaged  must  have  permits, 
and,  during  the  seasons  of  protection,  fish  are  not  to  be  caught,  or  sold, 
or  offered  as  food  in  restaurants. 

Fines  for  violating  the  fishing-laws,  to  which  also  assistants  are  liable, 
as  well  as  confiscated  nets  and  apparatus,  shall  go  to  the  holders  of 


632        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

fishing-privileges.  No  one  is  to  be  prosecuted  unless  on  the  complaint  of 
privilege-holders,  their  representatives,  or  one  of  the  lawful  overseers. 

An  ordinance  of  January  11,  1871,  contains  more  detailed  regulations 
on  the  formation  of  fishing-associations  and  on  the  establishment  of 
spawning  places  and  of  places  of  safety.  A  minimum  length  has  only  been 
prescribed  for  Trutta  lacustris  Agass.,  Trutta  trutta  Lin.,  (7|  inches,)  and 
for  Trutta  fario  and  Thymallus  vulgaris  Miss.,  (5|  inches.)  These  fish, 
with  the  exception  of  the  last  mentioned,  must  not  be  caught  from  Octo- 
ber 20  to  January  20  j  all  others  may  be  taken,  as  well  as  the  crawfish, 
from  April  15  till  the  end  of  May. 

The  salmon-fisheries  are  to  be  regulated  by  future  laws. 

Fishing  at  night-time  is  prohibited,  but  exceptions  may  occasionally 
be  made ;  the  number  of  fish-weirs  in  public  waters  is  to  be  limited  as 
much  as  possible  5  the  regular  width  of  meshes  and  openings  is  fixed  at 
0.78  inch ;  spears  and  guns  can  only  be  employed  in  exceptional  cases ; 
automatic  fish -traps  connected  with  mills  or  other  water-works  are  pro- 
hibited. 

The  public  treasury  may  offer  prizes  for  the  best  piscicultural  estab- 
lishments and  for  artificially  hatched  fish. 

-Saxony. — In  Saxony,  a  new  fishing-law  was  promulgated  on  the  15th 
October,  1868.  By  this  law,  the  right  to  fish  in  running  waters  and 
their  tributaries — if  not  otherwise  settled  by  government  grant  or  pri- 
vate title — belongs,  a,  in  the  original  portions  of  the  kingdom,  to  the 
proprietors  of  the  shore  as  far  as  this  extends,  and,  if  both  shores  do 
not  belong  to  the  same  person,  as  far  as  the  middle  of  the  stream  ;  b,  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  to  the  landed  proprietors ;  c,  in  the  rivers  Elbe,  Mulde, 
Elster,  and  in  the  Grodler  and  Elster  Canals,  to  the  state.  If  the  fish- 
ing-privilege belongs  to  a  community,  or  to  the  members  of  the  commu- 
nity at  large,  or  to  a  privileged  class  of  citizens,  or  to  a  corporation,  it 
can  only  be  exercised  through  renting  it  or  by  appointing  a  special 
fisherman.  Fisheries  can  only  be  leased  to  a  corporation  of  professional 
fishermen  or  to  one  individual.  Fishing-permits  are  issued,  but  only  to 
such  persons  as  are  not  privilege-holders,  lessees,  or  professional  fisher- 
men. All  persons,  including  holders  of  privileges  and  manufacturers, 
are  prohibited  from  hindering  the  migration  of  fish  by  permanent 
arrangements,  and  manufacturers  must,  as  far  as  practicable,  make 
passages  in  their  weirs.  Also,  in  other  ways,  the  law  endeavors  to 
harmonize  the  water-privileges  with  the  interests  of  fishing  and  pisci- 
culture. Various  ordinances  regulate  the  employment  of  injurious  ap- 
paratus, the  time  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  the  minimum  weight  of 
fish  that  can  be  caught,  &c.  So  far,  only  one  ordinance  has  been  passed 
in  regard  to  these  matters,  that  of  October  1G,  1868. 

Dr.  Fric,  in  his  report,  says  that  the  carrying-out  of  the  law  leaves 
much  to  be  desired.  Many  fishermen  seem  scarcely  to  be  aware  of  the 
existence  of  a  law  at  all,  and  are  still  waiting  for  one.  The  fixing  of 
the  time  when  salmon  are  to  be  protected  has  been  deferred  till  treaties 


THE    FISHERY   INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  633 

can  bo  concluded  with  all  the  other  states  bordering  on  the  Elbe. 
The  authorities  seem  to  delay  the  carrying-out  of  the  law,  because  they 
wait  for  a  general  fishing-code  for  the  whole  of  the  German  empire. 

Dr.  Fric  remarks  that  the  fact  of  most  of  the  shores  and  streams 
being  under  one  and  the  same  authority  greatly  favors  the  execution 
of  the  laws  in  Germany. 

IAibeck. — In  Lubeck,  the  piscicultural  society  has  drawn  up  rules  for 
the  protection  of  fish  during  the  spawning  season,  the  size  of  meshes, 
the  minimum  size  of  fish  that  may  be  offered  for  sale,  &c. ;  all  of  which 
rules  have  been  adopted  by  the  senate  in  its  fishing-law  of  December 
16,  1868.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  senate  has  been  induced  by 
the  representations  of  selfish  men,  who  were  afraid  to  see  their  income 
diminished  for  a  short  time,  to  change  some  of  the  most  important  reg- 
ulations by  an  amendment  of  February  15,  1869.  Complaints  are  also 
made  that  the  supervision  of  the  fisheries  is  very  defective;  the  market- 
police  do  not  exercise  the  necessary  control,  from  ignorance  and  want  of 
interest;  the  directors  of  the  fishermen's  guild,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
superintend  the  fisheries,  are  themselves  fishermen,  and  therefore  but 
rarely  inclined  to  use  the  proper  severity  in  proceeding  against  mem- 
bers of  their  guild.  It  is  therefore  the  aim  of  the  piscicultural  society 
to  have  a  fish-master  appointed,  who  is  to  possess  special  powers,  and 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  superintend  the  fisheries.  This  aim  has  not 
yet  been  attained,  from  purely  financial  reasons. 

Switzerland. — In  Switzerland,  there  are  different  fishing-laws  in  the 
different  cantons.  The  most  recent  law  is  the  one  passed  by  the  great 
council  of  the  canton  of  St.  Gall,  December  25,  1870. 

According  to  this  law,  the  right  to  fish  in  the  waters  of  the  canton, 
whenever  there  are  no  special  privileges  of  communities,  corporations,  or 
private  individuals,  belongs  to  the  government. 

The  right  to  fish  in  government  waters  may  be  obtained  by  a  lease  or 
by  buying  a  permit,  ("  patent.")  The  lease  may  be  for  a  term  of  ten  years 
and  shall  be  sold  at  public  auction. 

A  fishing-permit  must  be  renewed  every  year.  Certain  specified  per- 
sons are  excluded  from  taking  out  permits.  A  permit  to  fish  with  nets 
and  other  implements  costs  $1,  and  $2  for  every  assistant;  and  a  permit 
to  fish  with  hook  and  line,  $1.20 ;  which  sums  go  to  the  treasury  of  the 
canton. 

The  law  contains  the  usual  regulations  as  to  prohibited  fishing-im- 
plements, the  seasons  when  there  is  to  be  no  fishing,  and  the  buying 
and  selling  offish. 

In  some  waters,  such  as  the  rivers  Thnr  and  Rhine,  and  in  the  streams 
flowing  into  the  Lake  of  Constance,  the  Wallen  Lake,  and  the  Lake 
of  Zurich,  fishing  with  hook  and  line  is  alone  permitted j  all  other 
implements  being  entirely  prohibited.  The  great  council  is,  however, 
empowered  to  permit  the  use  of  nets,  if  in  future  times  the  increased 
number  offish  in  one  or  all  these  waters  should  justify  such  use. 


634       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

The  council  is  likewise  empowered  to  extend  the  time  when  the  fish- 
ing of  salmon,  salmon-trout,  and  trout  is  prohibited,  in  any  water  or 
in  portions  of  it,  to  a  whole  year  or  several  years,  if  their  preservation 
demands  such  a  measure. 

The  council  can  only  make  exceptions  in  the  case  of  piscicultural 
establishments,  allowing  fish  to  be  caught  during  the  season  of  protec- 
tion, or  spawn  to  be  taken  for  the  purpose  of  hatching,  if  the  establish- 
ment in  question  contributes  its  share  toward  restocking  the  waters  of 
the  canton.  Such  establishments  are,  if  necessary,  to  be  placed  under 
special  police  protection. 

It  is  forbidden  to  throw  or  otherwise  introduce  into  fishing- waters 
refuse  from  factories  or  other  injurious  substances.  Such  refuse  must 
be  buried  in  pits.  If  the  agricultural  or  industrial  interests  are  of  more 
importance  than  the  fisheries,  the  council  may  permit  exceptions  to 
this  rule. 

The  owners  of  water-privileges  are  obliged  to  build  their  weirs  and 
dams  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  fish  to  swim  up  the  stream. 
Proper  arrangements  shall  also  be  provided  to  prevent  fish  from  getting 
entangled  in  mill-wheels,  &c. 

Violations  of  this  law  are  punished — 

a.  By  fines,  varying  from  81  to  $20,  or  by  imprisonment; 

b.  Withdrawal  of  the  lease,  or  of  the  fishing-permit,  for  a  certain 
period,  or  forever ; 

c.  By  confiscation  of  prohibited  implements,  or  of  fish  bought  or  sold 
contrary  to  the  regulations  as  to  size  and  fishing-season. 

The  council  is  empowered  to  conclude  treaties  with  the  neighboring 
cantons  or  states,  regarding  the  fisheries  in  waters  which  form  boundary- 
lines,  and,  if  circumstances  require,  to  suspend  some  of  the  regulations 
of  this  law  as  far  as  boundary- waters  are  concerned,  and  to  make  special 
rules  for  such  waters.  It  is  also  charged  with  carrying  the  law  into 
effect  by  special  ordinances. 

Such  an  ordinance  was  promulgated  by  the  council  May  17,  1871. 

This  statute  gives. the  division  of  the  canton  into  districts  which  are 
rented,  and  districts  where  fishing  can  be  carried  on  by  permit;  like- 
wise regulations  as  to  renting  and  issuing  fishing-permits. 

If  no  bid  should  be  made  on  any  district,  permits  may  be  issued  for 
such  a  district ;  and,  vice  versa,  if  no  permits  are  taken  out,  it  may  be 
rented. 

An  exception  from  the  regulations  contained  in  this  law  is  made  with 
regard  to  the  fisheries  in  the  Bhine,  both  as  to  the  implements  and  the 
seasons  of  protection,  as  long  as  these  fisheries  are  not  regulated  by 
treaties,  or  whenever  the  fishermen  on  the  opposite  shore  do  not  of 
their  own  accord  submit  to  these  regulations.  The  obstruction  of  the 
Bhine  by  nets  or  other  apparatus  for  more  than  half  its  breadth  is  even 
now  strictly  prohibited  on  both  banks. 

Lessees  of  fisheries  who  carry  on  artificial  breeding,  and  can  prove 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  635 

that  they  do  this  in  a  productive  maimer,  not  only  can  claim  all  those 
favors  which  the  law  accords  during  the  season  of  protection,  &c.,but 
their  rent  may  also  be  lowered  in  proportion  as  they  give  young  fish  to 
other  waters  of  the  canton. 

The  district-offices  keep  lists  of  all  waters,  leases,  and  fishing-permits. 
The  local,  district,  and  cantonal  police-officers  are  to  see  that  all  the 
provisions  of  this  law  are  fulfilled.  If  necessary,  special  overseers  over 
the  fisheries  in  one  or  more  waters  may  be  appointed. 

France. — In  France,  exclusive  fishing-privileges  were  abolished  by 
the  laws  of  July  G,  July  30,  and  September  26  1793,  as  being  a  remnant 
of  the  age  of  feudalism.  Navigable  rivers  and  streams  belong  to  the 
state,  and  are  usually  rented. 

The  fisheries  have  since  been  regulated  by  the  law  of  April  15,  1829, 
which  gives  full  details  of  the  rights  of  the  fishing-guards  to  examine 
implements,  vessels,  huts,  tanks,  &c.  A  few  changes  have  been  made 
by  the  law  of  May  31,  1865,  and  by  an  imperial  decree  of  November 
28,  1868. 

The  instructions  given  to  the  authorities  to  protect  the  fisheries  in 
every  way,  to  use  all  means  for  improving  them,  to  stock  rivers  and 
streams  with  fish  and  crawfish,  to  establish  places  of  safety,  to  plant  the 
banks  with  trees  and  shrubs,  &c,  deserve  great  praise. 

Italy. — In  Italy,  a  special  committee  was  appointed  as  early  as  1861 
to  prepare  the  draught  of  a  fishing-law ;  and  a  new  committee  for  the 
same  purpose  was  appointed  in  1870. 

The  government,  in  1870,  had  reports  drawn  up  by  the  prefects  of  all 
the  provinces  relating  to  the  several  species  of  fish  found  in  each  pro- 
vince, the  implements  used  in  fishing,  the  spawning  seasons  offish,  &c, 
the  number  of  piscicultural  establishments,  the  number  of  fishermen, 
their  relation  to  each  other,  the  total  area  of  water,  and  the  existing 
rules  and  regulations  ;  inquiries  were  also  made  regarding  foreign  fish- 
eries and  laws. 

On  the  basis  of  these  reports,  the  ministry  of  agriculture,  industry  and 
commerce,  in  the  session  of  the  chamber  of  deputies  of  January  24, 
1871,  laid  before  the  chambers  the  draught  of  a  fishing-law,  together 
with  a  lengthy  report  containing  the  results  of  all  the  inquiries. 

The  annual  value  of  the  salt-water  fisheries  is  estimated  at  $8,000,000, 
and  that  of  the  fresh-water  fisheries  at  from  $600,000  to  $800,000. 

As  interesting  to  Austrian  fishermen,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  on  the 
Italian  portion  of  Lake  Garda  500  fishing- vessels,  manned  by  1,400  fish- 
ermen, are  employed.  The  fisheries  on  this  water,  belonging  partly  to 
Austria  and  partly  to  Italy,  must  be  regulated  by  an  international 
arrangement,  to  arrive  at  which  the  first  steps  have  been  taken  by 
the  Austrian  ministry  of  agriculture. 

The  draught  of  the  new  Italian  fishing-law  contains  54  paragraphs. 
The  separate  laws  of  the  provinces  are  abolished,  and  a  uniform  code 


636       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Italy  is  to  be  introduced,  extending  also  to  the 
salt-water  fisheries. 

The  details  of  the  code  are  modeled  after  the  best  modern  fishing-laws, 
especially  those  of  Germany,  and  contain  not  only  provisions  for  the 
proper  protection  of  the  fisheries  against  reckless  plundering  by  priv- 
ilege-holders, but  likewise  such  as  are  intended  to  regulate  the  legal 
relation  to  third  persons.  Many  points  are  left  to  be  settled  by  special 
ordinances. 

These  ordinances  are  to  fix  the  boundaries  between  salt-water  and 
fresh-water  fisheries ;  to  make  rules  and  regulations  regarding  the  time, 
place,  methods,  and  implements  of  fishing ;  regarding  the  transportation 
of  implements  and  fish  and  the  sale  of  the  latter ;  and,  finally,  regarding 
the  supervision  of  the  fisheries,  which  the  proper  protection  and  care  of 
them  requires.  The  nets  and  apparatus  by  which  spawn  and  young  fish 
might  be  injured  are  to  be  prohibited. 

The  ordinances  have  also  to  fix  the  limits  of  time  and  space  of  such  pro- 
hibitory measures,  and  also  the  extent  to  which  contrivances  can  be  per- 
mitted which  would  hinder  or  disturb  the  free  passage  of  fish.  Special 
regulations  are  to  be  made  for  cases  in  which  spawn  and  young  fish  may 
be  used  for  scientific  purposes,  for  piscicultural  establishments,  or  as 
bait.  Eules  will  be  adopted  as  to  the  extent  of  regulations  for  the 
transportation  and  sale  of  water-products  according  as  these  come 
from  private  waters,  from  the  open  sea,  or  from  foreign  countries. 
Other  regulations  will  decide  how  far  weirs,  sluices,  and  other  hy- 
draulic constructions  which  hinder  the  free  passage  of  fish  can  be  per- 
mitted in  the  interest  of  industry  or  agriculture,  providing  in  all  cases 
for  the  construction  of  passage-ways.  Special  decrees  will  decide  how 
far  refuse  which  is  injurious  to  the  growth  and  development  offish  can 
be  introduced  into  the  water  in  the  interest  of  industry  or  agriculture, 
or  how  far  industrial  or  agricultural  pursuits,  which  have  the  same 
effect,  may  be  carried  on  near  fishing-waters. 

Without  special  permit,  no  water-plants,  sand,  stones,  or  mud  can  be 
removed  from  inland  waters. 

The  ordinances  will  point  out  those  private  waters  to  which  the  fore- 
going provisions  are  to  apply.  The  proper  police-regulations  for  super- 
vising the  fisheries  are  also  to  be  made. 

By  royal  decree,  a  central  commission  of  fisheries  is  to  be  appointed, 
besides  the  ministry  of  agriculture.  It  belongs  to  this  commission  to 
pass  an  opinion  on  the  regulations  of  the  above-mentioned  ordinances, 
and  to  propose  all  those  measures  which  they  consider  to  be  of  benefit 
to  the  fisheries.  Within  one  year,  the  provincial  assemblies — and,  in 
behalf  of  the  salt-water  fisheries,  special  committees  from  each  district — 
have  to  hand  in  their  draughts  of  these  ordinances;  the  ministry  pro- 
mulgating them  without  delay  in  case  of  non-compliance  with  this 
decree.  The  ordinances  may  refer  to  several  provinces  and  several 
districts  or  only  to  certain  waters. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  637 

The  ministry  of  finance  will  make  proper  regulations  for  the  assistance 
which  coast-guards  and  officers  of  the  customs  are  to  give  in  superin- 
tending the  fisheries  and  in  hunting  up  persons  who  have  violated  the 
laws.  The  ordinances  will  also  decide  how  far  the  various  communities 
have  to  assist  in  supervising  the  transportation  and  sale  of  fish  and 
other  water-products.  Violations  of  the  law  are  to  be  punished  by  fines 
not  to  exceed  $60,  and  $200  in  case  of  the  tunny-fisheries. 

The  ordinances  will  also  decide  in  what  cases  the  implements  of  vio- 
lators of  the  law  shall  be  confiscated. 

Two-thirds  of  the  money  coming  from  fines  and  the  sale  of  confis* 
cated  articles  is  to  go  to  the  officers  or  agents  who  have  discovered  the 
violations,  and  one-third  is  to  go  to  the  public  treasury  or  to  special 
benevolent  funds.  The  harbor-officers,  as  well  as  the  prefects,  may  be 
present  in  court,  in  person  or  by  proxy,  when  cases  of  violation  of  the 
fishery-law  are  brought  up,  in  order  to  express  their  views  on  the  case 
and  to  decide  legal  questions. 

Professional  fishermen  may  form  themselves  into  associations,  and 
elect  from  their  number  a  board  of  directors,  called  "  The  trusty  men  of 
the  fisheries,"  (probi  viri  della  pesca.)  These  men  shall  pass  decisions 
in  private  quarrels,  shall  assist  in  the  superintendence  of  the  fisheries, 
and  they  are  entitled  to  propose  changes  in  the  ordinances  to  the  min- 
istry, and  to  suggest  new  measures  which,  in  their  opinion,  will  be 
beneficial  to  the  industry.  Special  ordinances  will  prescribe  the  manner 
in  which  associations  are  to  be  formed,  what  persons  may  be  active  and 
honorary  members,  as  well  as  rules  for  the  guidance  of  the  board  of 
directors,  in  cases  laid  before  them. 

Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. — The  Scandinavian  countries,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Norway,  have  also  regulated  their  fisheries,  both 
salt-water  and  fresh-water,  during  the  last  twenty  years,  by  new  laws  ; 
Denmark,  1857-'G0,  18C1,  and  1867  ;  Sweden,  1852  and  1869  ;  and  Nor- 
way, 1854,  1863,  and  1869. 

The  many  changes  in  the  fishing-laws  which  have  been  made  in  these 
countries  during  so  short  a  period  afford  another  proof  of  the  difficulty 
of  passing  such  definite  laws  as  will  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

Russia. — Of  the  Eussian  fisheries  in  the  Dniester,  Dnieper,  the  Volga, 
and  the  Black  Sea,  it  is  said  "  that  laws,  discipline,  and  work  are  so 
strictly  and  suitably  regulated  that  other  nations  which  consider  them- 
selves far  more  civilized  might  learn  a  great  deal  from  them." 

United  States. — Even  in  the  United  States  of  North  America,  where 
hitherto  the  large  lakes,  streams,  and  seas  have  been  plundered  shame- 
fully, and  with  most  ingeniously-contrived  nets,  the  people  have  now 
become  afraid  of  exhausting  their  wealth  of  fish,  and  are  endeavoring 
to  bring  about  order  and  a  system  of  protection  by  laws,  treaties,  and 
other  measures.  The  last  reports  of  the  commissioners  of  the  different 
States,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  to  the  proper  execution  of  the  laws,  to 


638       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

propose  new  ones,  and  to  promote  the  fisheries  in  every  possible  way, 
have  been  spoken  of  above. 

Great  Britain. — The  British  fishing-laws  deserve  our  fullest  attention. 
Since,  about  eighty  years  ago,  the  discovery  was  made  that  salmon 
packed  in  ice  could  be  brought  to  London  in  a  fresh  condition,  the 
demand  for  it,  and  the  price  paid,  have  been  increasing  so  rapidly  that 
there  was  imminent  danger  of  seeing  the  British  seas  and  streams  en- 
tirely depopulated,  and  of  having  the  traffic  in  salmon,  the  pride  of  the 
English  fisheries,  entirely  destroyed. 

Dire  necessity  has  compelled  Great  Britain  to  protect  and  improve 
its  fisheries  in  every  possible  manner.  All  technical  inventions  and  im- 
provements, artificial  fish-culture,  passage-ways  for  fish,  &c,  are  put  to 
the  best  practical  use.  Immense  capital  is  invested  in  the  fisheries  by 
private  individuals  or  by  joint-stock  companies.  The  laws  afford  the 
fullest  protection  to  these  enterprises.  Holders  of  fishing-privileges 
have  formed  themselves  into  well-managed  organizations,  so  that  the 
majority  is  enabled  to  pass  resolutions  which  will  prove  beneficial.  The 
British  fishing-laws  afford  protection  against  the  factories,  the  poison- 
ing of  the  waters,  and  their  being  obstructed  by  weirs ;  they  pro- 
tect the  spawning  places;  see  to  it  that  the  spawning  seasons  are 
properly  observed  ;  do  away  with  injurious  stationary  nets  ;  prevent  the 
capture  and  sale  of  young  fish,  &c.  Inspectors  of  fisheries  possess  full 
powers  to  control  the  privileges  of  angling  in  salmon  rivers  and  of  using 
a  specified  kind  of  nets ;  to  have  a  strict  eye  to  stationary  nets  and  other 
apparatus ;  and  to  punish  all  violation  of  the  law  severely. 

Although  occasional  complaints  are  raised  that  the  acts  of  parliament 
are  getting  more  and  more  confused,  their  complication  is  not  so  great  as 
to  injure  the  fisheries,  and,  with  sensible  firmness,  injurious  influences 
are  constantly  overcome,  and  improvements  are  made. 

Many  antiquated  and  impracticable  laws  have  been  replaced  by  new 
and  better  ones,  especially  since  the  beginning  of  Queen  Victoria's  reign. 
Still  more  important  are  the  acts  of  parliament  of  1828,  1812,  1850, 
1857,  and  1861.  They  refer  either  to  special  branches  of  the  trade 
such  as  salt-water  fishing,  shell-fish  and  oyster  dredging,  and  salmon 
catching,  or  to  the  fisheries  in  the  several  different  countries  composing 
the  British  monarchy,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  or  to  certain  lakes  or 
streams,  as  for  instance  the  act  of  1857,  concerning  the  Tweed  fisheries, 
which  was  ameuded  in  1859. 

In  discussing  the  act  of  1861,  relating  to  salmon-fisheries,  many  were 
of  the  opinion  that  this  entirely  neglected  British  industry,  the  profits 
of  which  amounted  to  almost  nothing,  could  never  again  be  brought  to 
a  flourishing  condition. 

These  opinions  have  proved  to  be  erroneous,  since  that  law  has  pro- 
duced such  favorable  results;  and  it  is  expected  that  these  results  will 
be  still  more  brilliant  in  the  future.  A  commission  was  appointed  in 
1S70,  charged  with  considering  the  question  in  what  respects  the  salmon- 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  639 

fishery  laws  could  be  still  farther  amended.  Improvements  had  been 
introduced  into  Scotland  some  time  before  this. 

From  the  law  of  July  31,  1888,  concerning  the  salmon-fisheries  in 
Scotland,  and  from  some  older  laws,  which  have  been  incorporated  with 
it,  we  quote  the  following  as  of  special  interest  for  Austria: 

"All  the  waters,  streams,  and  rivers  in  Scotland  which  are  of  im- 
portance to  the  fisheries  have  been  accurately  described  by  special  com- 
missioners, and  their  limits  toward  the  sea  have  been  defined;  as  a 
general  rule,  they  have  been  divided  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  portion 
by  a  boundary-line.  These  commissioners  have  fixed  the  annual  as 
well  as  the  weekly  period  of  protection  for  each  sheet  of  water  or  stream, 
when  salmon-fishing  is  either  entirely  prohibited  or  only  permitted  with 
hook-and-line,  and  their  decisions  have  been  published  in  an  axjpendix 
to  the  law.  The  different  contrivances  to  be  used  in  nets,  salmon-traps, 
&c,  in  order  to  keep  the  seasons  of  protection,  the  size  of  the  meshes, 
and  certain  precautions  in  using  the  nets,  are  separately  prescribed 
for  each  body  of  water. 

"  If  two  owners  of  salmon-fisheries  in  a  continuous  district — no  matter 
whether  the  waters  at  the  time  contain  salmon  or  not — apply  to  the 
county  sheriff  to  have  a  district-board  appointed,  such  application  must 
be  granted.  The  clerk  of  the  sheriff  has  to  draw  up  a  list  of  the  upper 
and  lower  fishery  owners,  and  call  separate  meetings  of  both,  for 
electing  a  district-board.  The  district-board  appoints  an  officer,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  keep  the  list  of  owners  constantly  revised.  If  names  have 
been  left  out  of  this  list,  or  have  been  entered  in  a  faulty  manner,  a 
complaint  may  be  made  to  the  district-board;  and  if  its  decision  is  unfav- 
orable, the  matter  can  be  referred  to  the  sheriff,  whose  decision  is  final, 
except  in  cases  of  hereditary  rights. 

"The  district-board,  at  its  meetings,  decides  all  questions  pertaining  to 
fisheries  by  an  absolute  majority.  The  minutes  of  the  meetings  of  the 
board,  signed  b}r  the  chairman,  are  considered  evidence  in  a  court  of 
law. 

"  The  district-board  may,  by  a  resolution  to  that  effect,  petition  the 
ministry  to  make  the  following  regulations: 

"1.  Change  of  the  annual  season  of  protection  in  the  district, 
fixed  by  the  commissioners ;  which  season,  however,  is  never  to  be  less 
than  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  days.  (It  generally  embraces  the 
period  from  the  27th  August  till  the  10th  February,  and  for  line-fish- 
ing from  November  1  till  February  10.) 

"  2.  Change  of  the  weekly  season  of  protection  in  the  district  or  in 
portions  of  it ;  such  season  to  be  no  less  than  thirty-six  hours  per  week. 
(From  G  p.  m.  on  Saturday  till  0  a.  m.  on  Monday.) 

"3.  Change  of  the  rules  applying  to  the  j'early  or  weekly  season  of 
protection. 


640        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"4.  Change  of  the  rules  concerning  'cruives,'*  and  the  dams  and 
weirs  belonging  thereto,  within  the  district  limits. 

"5.  Changes  regarding  the  establishment  of  mill-dams,  aqueducts, 
and  water-wheels,  the  placing  of  heks  or  gratings,  the  closing  of  sluices 
wherever  they  open  into  or  from  aqueducts  within  the  limits  of  the  dis- 
trict ;  provided  that  by  such  changes  the  supply  of  water  to  which  persons 
are  entitled  who  have  the  right  to  use  an  existing  salmon-dam  as  a 
weir  is  not  diminished. 

"  The  votes  of  the  district-board  deciding  such  changes  must  be  pub- 
lished in  some  paper  of  the  district  before  they  can  be  officially  presented 
to  the  minister.  The  minister  may  collect  information  on  the  subject; 
and  if  the  proposed  change  is  not  in  opposition  to  any  rights  belonging 
to  persons  by  royal  grant,  privileges,  or  immemorial  possession,  the 
minister  shall  consent  to  .the  change  and  publish  it  in  the  Edinburgh 
Gazette. 

"Until  some  change  shall  have  been  made,  the  regulations  settled  for 
each  district  by  the  act  of  1868  remain  in  force. 

"The  district-board  is  empowered  to  buy,  from  the  proprietors,  dams, 
weirs,  cruives,  and  other  stationary  contrivances,  whose  removal  they 
consider  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the  fisheries ;  heirs  of  entailed 
estates  are  likewise  entitled  to  conclude  such  transactions  with  the  dis- 
trict-board, even  without  the  consent  of  their  guardians. 

"The  district-board  is  also  empowered  to  remove  every  natural 
hinderance  in  the  bed  of  a  river  which  might  impede  the  passage  of  fish ; 
to  make  fish-passes  near  the  water-falls ;  to  take  all  the  measures  and 
meet  all  the  expenses  which  in  their  opinion  appear  necessary  for  the 
protection  or  improvement  of  the  fisheries  in  the  district,  as  well  as  for 
stocking  the  waters  with  fish. 

"  The  above-mentioned  right  of  buying  weirs,  &c,  can  only  be  applied 
if  the  resolution  of  the  district-board  relating  thereto  has  the  sanction 
of  the  owners  of  four-fifths  of  the  total  value  of  the  district  fisheries. 

"  The  members  of  the  district-board  shall  not  receive  any  salary  or 
fee. 

"  The  board  is  empowered,  with  the  consent  of  the  minister,  to  con- 
tract loans  for  carrying  into  effect  the  above  regulations ;  such  loans  not 
to  be  made  for  any  period  exceeding  two  years. 

"A  fine,  not  to  exceed  $25,  is  to  be  imposed  on  any  person  who  fishes 
during  the  yearly  or  weekly  season  of  protection,  or  assists  in  fishing, 
or  violates  a  law  relating  to  the  season  of  protection,  or  uses  nets  with 
too  narrow  meshes,  or  catches  salmon  as  they  leap  over  a  water-fall  or 
some  other  impediment,  or  keeps  them  back  after  the  leap,  or  prevents 
salmon  from  going  through  fish-passes,  or  catches  them  in  such  passes, 
or  throws  sawdust,  chaff,  or  corn  husks  into  fishing  waters,  or  causes  it 
to  be  thrown  into  it.    For  every  salmon  caught  or  killed  contrary  to 

*  A  cruive  is  an  inclosed  space  in  a  dam-wall,  so  contrived  that  when  the  fish  enter 
it  in  their  passage  up  stream  they  cannot  escape. — S.  F.  B. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  641 

law,  a  further  fine,  not  to  exceed  $10,  is  to  be  imposed;  and  the  fish  are 
to  be  confiscated. 

"A  fine  of  $25  is  to  be  imposed  on  any  person  who  fishes  with  a  light 
or  fire,  a  spear,  lance,  harpoon,  or  similar  implement,  with  a  cross-line 
or  a  drag-net,  or  who  is  found  in  possession  of  any  of  the  above-mentioned 
implements  under  circumstances  which  convince  the  court  before  which 
he  has  been  brought  that  he  intended  to  catch  salmon  ;  his  implements 
and  the  fish  found  in  his  possession  are  to  be  confiscated. 

"A  fine,  not  to  exceed  $10,  is  imposed  on  any  person  who  uses  fish- 
spawn  for  fishing,  who  buys,  sells,  exhibits  for  sale,  or  has  in  his  pos- 
session, with  a  view  to  selling  it,  any  salmon-spawn.  This  does  not 
apply  to  spawn  used  in  artificial  fish-culture  or  for  scientific  purposes. 

"A  fine,  not  to  exceed  $25,  is  imposed  on  any  person  who  catches, 
has  in  his  possession,  or  sells  a  smolt,  (young  salmon  ;)  who  places 
contrivances  in  the  water  which  delay  the  salmon  on  their  journey ; 
who  intentionally  damages  salmon  ;  who  disturbs  fish-spawn,  spawning 
places,  or  shallow  places  where  there  might  be  salmon-spawn ;  or  who 
prevents  salmon  from  going  to  the  spawning  places. 

"  The  district-board  is  empowered  to  use  all  suitable  means  for  pre- 
venting the  entrance  of  salmon  into  narrow  streams  or  into  spawning 
places  where  the  eggs  might  be  exposed  to  destruction ;  provided  that 
industrial  or  agricultural  establishments,  and  especially  drainage,  or  any 
water-rights,  shall  not  be  injured  thereby. 

"A  fine,  not  to  exceed  $25  for  every  fish,  is  imposed  on  any  person 
who  catches  spawning  salmon,  or  who  buys,  sells,  or  has  such  in  his 
possession. 

"  Salmon  which  are  intended  for  exportation  must  be  registered  by 
special  officers  of  customs,  in  order  that  the  law  providing  seasons  of 
protection  may  not  be  violated.  Persons  who  violate  this  rule,  including 
those  who  ship  the  fish,  are  punished  with  a  fine,  not  to  exceed  $10,  for 
every  salmon.  Custom-house  officers  have  the  unlimited  right  of  search- 
ing after  salmon. 

"The  owner  or  lessee  of  a  fishery  must  remove  all  fishing- vessels, 
oars,  nets,  and  other  apparatus  used  in  salmon-fishing  from  the  waters, 
from  the  landing-places  and  the  portions  of  ground  near  to  them  within 
thirty-six  hours  after  the  commencement  of  the  annual  season  of  pro- 
tection, and  secure  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  their  use  during 
this  season.  Exceptions  are  made  only  for  boats  and  oars  used  in  line- 
fishing.  At  the  same  time,  all  lielcs  of  the  cruives  must  be  removed,  as 
well  as  all  planks  and  contrivances  which  might  hinder  the  free  passage 
of  the  fish  through  the  cruives.  Persons  who  violate  these  rules  have 
their  boats,  nets,  &c,  confiscated,  and  are  punished  with  a  fine,  not  to 
exceed  $50,  for  every  day  after  the  time  mentioned. 

"Ferry-boats  must  be  marked  with  the  name  of  the  owner,  and  must, 

when  not  used,  be  kept  under  lock  and  key. 

"The  by-laws  for  the  separate  waters  contain  suitable  regulations  for 
41  F 


642       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    A.ND    FISHERIES. 

observing  the  weekly  season  of  protection,  for  using  poles,  weirs,  pole- 
nets,  fly-nets,  and  sack-nets.  Persons  violating  any  of  these  regulations 
are  punished  with  a  general  fine,  not  to  exceed  $50  for  every  net  used, 
and  a  special  fine,  not  to  exceed  $10  for  every  salmon  caught,  during 
the  weekly  season  of  protection. 

"Every  constable,  overseer,  or  officer  of  the  district-board,  as  well  as 
every  police-officer,  has  the  right  to  examine  every  boat,  net,  and  other 
fishing-apparatus  in  the  water,  or  to  have  them  brought  on  shore,  and  to 
confiscate  any  salmon  which  have  been  caught  contrary  to  law  or  which 
are  found  in  the  possession  of  non-privileged  persons.  For  the  right  to 
fish  in  waters  beyond  the  district,  a  written  order  from  the  sheriff  or 
justice  of  the  peace  is  required,  which  must  be  issued  on  the  oath  of  some 
police-officer  of  the  district  that  the  person  desiring  such  order  is  not  in 
any  way  a  suspicious  person. 

"Any  person  can,  even  without  a  special  order,  take  up  any  violator  of 
the  above  regulations,  and  take  him  before  a  sheriff*  or  justice  of  the 
peace  or  any  other  magistrate,  or  have  him  taken  there  by  a  constable. 
He  is  then  to  be  heard  immediately,  and  according  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  case,  or,  in  default  of  bail,  be  kept  in  confinement  till  the  next 
meeting  of  the  court. 

"All  violators  of  the  ordinance  can  be  prosecuted  before  any  sheriff, 
or  before  two  or  more  judges  who  have  the  jurisdiction  in  the  place 
where  the  law  was  violated,  even  if  the  clerk  of  the  district  court  or  any 
other  person  possessing  the  right  should  interfere;  and  the  fines  men- 
tioned in  the  act  can  be  imposed  by  such  courts.  The  act  prescribes  a 
special  summary  procedure  for  such  cases. 

"  Conviction  in  any  case  of  violating  the  aforesaid  act  also  involves 
the  loss  of  all  boats,  nets,  lines,  hooks,  spears,  lances,  or  other  imple- 
ments used,  as  well  as  of  all  the  salmon  found  in  the  possession  of  the 
transgressor.  The  objects  which  have  been  confiscated  are  either  to  be 
destroyed  or  handed  to  the  district-board  or  to  any  person  who  acts  as 
plaintiff  in  the  case. 

"  If  a  person  is  convicted  of  two  violations  of  the  law  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  the  fine  must  not  be  less  than  one-half  of  the  highest  amount 
for  each  violation .;  and,  if  convicted  a  third  time,  not  below  the  highest 
amount  fixed  by  law. 

"  No  justice  of  the  peace  should  be  considered  incompetent  because 
he  is  a  member  of  a  district-board.  No  judge,  however,  shall  preside  in 
a  case  of  violation  of  law  committed  in  his  own  waters. 

"  If  a  law  has  been  violated  on  some  water  forming  the  boundary-line 
between  two  counties,  the  case  may  be  prosecuted  iu  either  county. 
If  the  law  has  been  violated  on  the  sea-coast  or  on  the  sea  beyond  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  sheriff  or  justice  of  the  peace,  it  is  to  be  considered  as 
if  committed  within  the  limits  of  some  county  bordering  on  the  coast. 

"All  fines  imposed  by  this  act,  and  costs,  can  be  assessed  on  a  com- 
mon complaint' or  before  the  debtors'  court.    The- clerk  of  the  district- 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  643 

board  is  entitled  to  receive  all  such  moneys.  The  district-board  may 
use  all  money  coming  from  such  sources  iu  meeting  the  expenses  of 
carrying  out  the  regulations  of  this  act." 

23. — FISHING-PRIVILEGES  AND  FISHING-LAWS  IN  AUSTRIA. 

A  review  of  the  fishing-privileges  granted  iu  olden  times  in  the  sev- 
eral provinces  of  Austria,  and  of  the  old  fishing-laws,  possesses  not  merely 
a  great  historic  interest,  but  is  likewise  useful,  because  a  portion  of 
these,  even  some  very  old  ones,  have  not  been  changed  in  the  course 
of  time,  and  because  all  of  them  frequently  throw  much  light  on  the 
various  demands  which  even  a  modern  law  must  take  into  account. 
Many  of  the  older  laws,  though  their  form  be  antiquated,  therefore 
in  many  respects  form  tbe  best  guides  for  the  framers  of  new  ones. 

The  question  which  of  the  older  laws  are  still  in  force  is  a  very  diffi- 
cult one,  and  the  following  review,  which  divides  them  into  old  and  still 
existiug  fishing-laws  does  not  claim  to  be  complete  nor  to  be  entirely 
free  from  errors. 

Old  fishing-laics. — A  large  portion  of  legislation,  especially  with  re- 
gard to  economical  matters,  and  therefore  also  to  the  fisheries,  was 
formerly  in  tbe  hands  of  lower  autonomous  bodies,  such  as  villages, 
towns,  and  corporations,  and  of  smaller  landed  proprietors. 

We  therefore  find  numerous  fishing-regulations  from  the  oldest  times 
in  the  legal  documents  containing  the  privileges  of  villages  and  landed 
proprietors.  These  ordinances  partly  define  the  limits  of  the  fisheries, 
and  partly  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  carried  on. 

The  older  documents  frequently  consider  the  catching  of  fish  as  a  priv- 
ilege belonging  to  the  community  or  to  the  landed  proprietors  ;  but  from 
the  fifteenth  century  the  right  had  fallen  almost  entirely  into  the  hands 
of  the  government. 

To  mention  a  few  examples :  the  Lower  Austrian  Law-Book  of  Mollers- 
dorf,  in  the  archbishopric  of  Vienna,  gives  the  right  to  fish  in  the  water 
called  the  Mull  to  the  community  of  Mollersdorf.  The  king's  bailiff  and 
the  bailiff  of  the  convent-chapter  are  allowed  to  go  to  the  water  on 
Fridays  and  catch  a  "  dish  of  fish."  Strangers  are  not  allowed  to  catch 
fish  or  crawfish,  either  with  "tools"  or  with  their  hands.  (Kal  ten  back, 
Osterreichische  Reclitsbiichcr^  I,  482.)  In  Oberwaltersdorf,  the  community 
likewise  possess  a  fishing  grounds;  the  fisherman  is  appointed  by  the 
community,  but  is  not  allowed  to  sell  fish  to  any  one,  unless  he  has 
called  them  three  times  on  the  bridge.  Every  person  who  sits  "at  his 
own  fire-place"  may  fish  in  the  stream  with  hook  and  line,  (I,  35.)  Sim- 
ilar regulations  are  given  in  the  Lebarn  Law-Book,  (II,  114.) 

According  to  the  old  Law-Book  of  IsTeunkirchen,  the  citizens  of  the 
town  have  the  right  to  fish  ;  servants  who  fish  when  not  in  the  company 
of  their  master  are  punished.  A  later  appendix  to  this  law-book  like- 
wise indicates  the  trausfer  of  the  fishing-privileges  iu  the  following 
words:   "  When  the  market  was  changed,  the  fisheries  were  likewise 


644        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

changed,  so  that  henceforth  neither  citizen  nor  servant  is  allowed  to 
fish/    (I,  4S8.) 

In  Mmkendorf,  every  miller  is  allowed  to  fish  as  far  as  he  can  throw 
his  "Mile"  (instrument  used  for  sharpening  the  millstones)  from  his  mill- 
wheel,  either  up  or  down  the  stream,  (I,  541.) 

In  Moravia,  the  neighbors  of  millers'  wives  are  allowed  to  fish  every 
Thursday  in  the  afternoon,  and  every  Friday  in  the  forenoon,  and  during 
the  season  when  the  ice  and  water  flow  from  the  mountains  for  three 
days  in  succession.  (Chlumecky,  Mdrische  Dorfiveisthiimcr,  Archivfiir 
Kunde  osterreichischer  Geschichtsquellen,  XVII,  70.) 

In  villages  or  towns  where  all  the  ground  belongs  to  a  landed  pro- 
prietor, the  fisheries  likewise  belong  to  him.  The  old  law-books  say,  in 
such  cases,  that  to  him  belong  "the  fish  in  the  water,"  "the  fish  in  the 
stream,"  "the  fish  in  the  pond,"  "  the  fish  on  the  sand,"  &c.  In  all  such 
domains,  there  were,  however,  free  waters  in  which  every  one  was 
allowed  to  fish. 

On  lakes  and  rivers  where  fishing  is  carried  on  as  a  trade,  the  privilege 
holders  form  an  association,  and  have  as  such  their  own  law-books, 
their  autonomous  and  judicial  power.  They  make  their  own  regulations, 
and  in  their  own  court  of  justice  decide  all  disputes  between  members 
of  the  association,  and  punish  violations  of  the  law.  The  lord  of  the 
manor,  or  his  representative,  presides  at  these  courts  of  fishing-associa- 
tions, as  well  as  in  village-courts.  This  applies  as  well  to  those  free  com- 
munities which  elect  their  own  presiding  officers  as  in  domaius  in  which 
the  fishing  grounds  belongs  to  the  lord  of  the  manor,  while  the  villagers 
have  only  certain  rights,  either  hereditary  or  temporary,  which  must  be 
paid  for  in  a  certain  annual  number  of  fish  or  by  some  work. 

On  the  Gmunden  Lake,  the  fishery  court  was  held  every  year  on  the 
days  of  the  fishing  apostles  Philip  and  James,  and,  later,  on  St.  Peter's 
day,  and  the  mayor  of  the  village  of  Ort  presided,  under  the  title,  "Lake- 
judge."  In  special  cases,  the  lord  of  the  manor  may  call  the  court 
together  on  other  days. 

The  prelate  of  Klosterneuburg  holds  an  annual  fish-court  at  that  place, 
with  the  master-fishers  of  the  Danube  and  their  servants.  Similar 
courts  are  held  at  St.  Georgeu  on  the  Traisen.  (Kaltenbiick,  I,  GOO;  II, 
107  and  108.) 

The  law-book  of  Ort,  on  the  fisheries  of  the  Traun  and  Gmunden  Lakes, 
gives  very  exact  rules  regarding  nets  and  other  fishing-implements;  on 
the  seasons  when  the  various  kinds  offish  in  these  lakes  may  be  caught ; 
on  the  minimum  length  below  which  they  must  not  be  caught ;  of  the 
rightsof  the  individual  fishermen  ;  thefish-trade;  punishments;  theduties 
which  fishermen  owe  to  the  lord  of  the  manor,  and  especially  the  right 
of  the  latter  to  be  the  first  bidder  on  all  fish  caught,  &c. 

This  law-book  is,  like  many  old  documents  of  the  kind,  arranged  in  the 
form  of  questions  and  answers.  The  questions  are,  as  in  our  modern 
courts  of  law,  addressed  by  the  presidiug  judge  to  the  jurors,  or,  as  they 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  645 

are  here  called,  "  Scbranne,"  (Old-Gerinan;)  arid  the  foreman  of  the  jury, 
appointed  by  the  community,  gives  the  answers  in  the  name  of  the 
jurors,  and  all  the  assembled  citizens  of  the  community  or  members  of 
the  association.  If  these  answers  meet  with  no  objections  from  the 
assembly,  they  are  considered  as  "judgments."  The  fish-court  is  opened 
by  the  judge  with  the  well-known  introductory  questions,  "Is  this  the 
right  hour,  day,  and  time  that  I  should  open  the  fish-court"  on  the  Traun 
Lake,  as  has  been  done  from  times  of  old?"  The  foreman  answers, 
"  Your  honor,  the  judge  of  the  fish-court,  since  you  ask  me  whether  this 
be  the  right  time  that  you  should  hold  a  fish-court  in  the  county  of  Ort, 
I  solemnly  affirm  that  this  is  the  day,  hour,  and  time  that  such  fish- 
court  should  be  held,  seeing  that  this  is  St.  James's  Day."  In  this  man- 
ner, the  fishing-laws,  as  they  have  been  in  force  on  this  lake  from  time 
immemorial,  are  given,  with  occasional  later  additions  or  changes,  by 
"  question  and  judgment,-"'  on  every  article  of  the  law,  on  each  command- 
ment or  probibition. 

From  all  these  old  documents  we  see  that  the  fishermen's  trade  in  its 
connection  with  agriculture  was  organized  in  a  practical  and  liberal 
manner,  with  much  of  that  spirit  of  self-government  which  does  not 
shrink  from  energetic  measures  whenever  these  are  considered  neces- 
sary and  practical. 

The  oftener  attempts  are  made,  on  the  one  hand,  especially  in  the  larger 
waters,  streams,  and  lakes,  to  enforce  the  royal  prerogatives  in  the  matter 
of  fishing-privileges,  and  the  more,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ownership  of 
the  fisheries  by  the  monarch  incites  his  disposition  to  control  them, 
the  more  does  this  autonomous  legislation  of  the  lower  classes  dis- 
appear. From  the  sixteenth  century,  we  find  the  fisheries  more  and 
more  regulated  by  state  legislation,  by  rules  and  regulations  for  cer- 
tain provinces  or  for  certain  waters,  and  from  time  to  time  measures 
taken  to  make  them  more  productive,  and  to  prevent  the  reckless  plun- 
dering of  the  waters  by  the  lower  classes. 

Some  of  these  government  fishing-regulations  date  very  far  back. 
Instead  of  merely  enumerating  a  great  many  of  these  provisions  with 
their  date,  we  shall  attempt  to  give  a  fuller  review  of  some  of  the  laws 
enacted  by  the  Upper  Austrian  government. 

But  few  traces  are  found  in  these  regulations  of  the  fishing-priv- 
ileges of  olden  times,  when  they  formed  an  integral  part  of  the  common 
rights  of  each  community  to  field  and  forest,  because  these  societies, 
or,  as  they  are  usually  called  in  Austria,  these  "  neighborhoods," 
which  had  fields  and  meadows  in  common,  still  retained  the  right  of 
fishing  in  those  waters  which  were  the  property  of  the  people  at  large. 
In  the  larger  waters,  especially  in  the  lakes,  the  right  to  fish  was  in 
most  cases  a  special  privilege,  some  of  these  dating  back  as  far  as  the 
time  of  Charlemagne.  In  granting  such  favors,  a  distinction  is  made 
between  "large"  and  "small*  privileges,  differing  according  to  the 
fishing-implements  used.    Thus,  we  read,  in  a  document  dated  813, 


646       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"  Segena  una  ad  piscandum!1  (Man.  Boic,  85.)  By  the  term  "  segena" 
is  meant  a  large  drag-net,  with  all  the  fishing-apparatus  belonging  to 
it,  large  and  small  boats,  and  implements  of  every  kind  ;  sometimes  this 
word  also  implies  the  fishing-privilege,  and  occasionally  the  district 
where  such  privilege  may  be  exercised. 

Besides  the  segena],  or  great  fishers,  there  were  small  "carriers,"  or 
small  fishers,  who  again  were  subdivided  into  "  Ganders?  (literally 
"  netters,")  who  were  allowed  to  use  bow-nets,  and  "  Schniirer,n  (literally 
"  liners,")  who  were  only  allowed  to  use  hooks  and  lines. 

The  oldest  fishing-law  of  Upper  Austria  is  that  established  by  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  I,  March  7, 1499,  which  is  preserved  in  the  archives 
at  Linz.  In  this  law,  the  emperor  charges  his  vice-regent  in  the  country 
above  the  Enns,  George  von  Losersteiu,  to  regulate  the  fisheries  in  the 
river  Traun  from  the  Falls  to  the  Danub.e. 

This  law  contains  a  paragraph  ordering  the  fishermen  only  to  use 
segenw,  or  bow-nets,  with  meshes  of  a  certain  size,  and  to  throw  out  all 
all  fish  which  have  not  the  prescribed  length. 

The  government  prescribed  the  size  of  the  meshes  on  certain  small 
stamped  pieces  of  board,  which  were  to  serve  as  models  for  those  blocks 
on  which  the  fishermen  knit  their  nets.  Illustrations  of  such  model 
blocks  are  frequently  met  with  in  old  fishing-laws,  and  also  pictures  of 
fish  of  the  exact  size  below  which  they  must  not  be  caught.  Such  pic- 
tures were  frequently  hung  up  in  town  and  city  halls,  and  may  yet  be 
seen  there,  as  in  the  city-hall  of  Zurich. 

A  very  similar  fishing-law  was  proclaimed  February  1,  1537,  by  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  I.  This  law  enumerates  those  fishiugimplements 
which  are  entirely  prohibited,  such  as  double  drag-nets,  the  outer  one 
having  smaller  meshes  than  the  inner  one.  It  also  prohibits  the  catch- 
ing of  fish  during  the  spawning  season.  Specially  appointed  fish-mas- 
ters are  to  examine  the  fish-tanks  frequently. 

A  third  fishing-law  for  Upper  Austria  was  enacted  by  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  II,  December  31, 1573,  which  is  kept  in  the  register's  office  for 
Upper  Austria.  This  law  for  the  greater  part  is  a  repetition  of  former 
laws,  and  contains  certain  limitations  for  protecting  navigation  on  the 
river  Traun. 

Complaints  having  been  raised  by  the  provincial  assembly  against  the 
former  fishing-laws,  a  new  one  was  proclaimed  by  the  Emperor  Rudolf  II, 
June  3, 1583,  which  has  not  been  displaced  by  any  later  code,  but  which 
has  practically  everywhere  fallen  into  disuse.  It  is  contained  in  the 
Codex  Anstriacus,  I,  p.  354,  and  relates  chiefly  "  to  the  waters,  rivers,  and 
streams  containing  the  greatest  wealth  of  fish,  viz,  the  Danube,  Traun, 
Vokla,  Ager,  Aim,  Krems,  Enns,  and  Heier." 

For  the  lakes,  especially  for  the  Mond,  After,  Wolfganger,  Hallstiidter, 
and  Gmunder  Lakes,  there  were  special  laws,  which  the  emperor  in 
former  times  had,  to  a  great  extent,  examined  and  amended  through  his 
commissioners. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  647 

In  the  general  fishing-law,  the  size  of  the  meshes  in  all  nets  is  exactly 
prescribed  by  a  model  block,  of  which  an  illustration  is  given  in  the  text. 
Such  a  block  is  to  be  kept  in  every  town  and  in  every  market.  The 
exact  size  of  the  openings  in  box-nets  is  likewise  given.  They  must  not 
be  placed  in  such  a  manuer  as  to  disturb  navigation  in  the  rivers. 

]STo  fisherman  is  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  fisheries  of  another. 
Fishing  in  the  Traun  at  night-time  is  entirely  prohibited.  The  drag-nets 
forbidden  by  former  fishing-laws  are  now  permitted,  but  only  for  smaller 
fish,  and  during  the  period  from  St.  Martin's  Day  (November  11)  till 
Shrove  Tuesday. 

The  owners  or  lessees  of  hereditary  fisheries  must  observe  the  same 

rules. 

Millers,  owners  of  founderies,  and  other  manufacturers  shall  abstain 
from  all  fishing  in  the  waters  flowing  past  their  establishments,  because 
thereby  the  finer  kinds  of  fish  might  be  exterminated,  even  if  some  of 
them  should  possess  the  privilege  to  fish  as  far  as  they  can  throw  a  ham- 
mer or  pick.  They  are  forbidden  to  fish  with  bow-nets,  and  even  with 
hook  and  line,  unless  they  have  received  a  special  permit.  When,  in 
cases  of  necessity,  they  wish  to  turn  off  the  mill-streams,  they  must  an- 
nounce their  intention  to  the  privilege-holder  three  days  beforehand, 
in  order  that  the  stock  of  fish  be  not  destroyed.  The  privilege-holders 
are  obliged  to  permit  this  fqur  times  a  year.  In  the  common  or  free  fish- 
ing-waters, no  person  is  allowed  to  fish,  unless  he  possesses  fields  and 
meadows  in  common  with  his  neighbors. 

The  neighbors  are  only  allowed  to  fish  two  days  in  every  week,  viz, 
Thursdays  and  Fridays,  with  small  nets  with  the  meshes  made  of  the  size 
of  the  model  block.  Fishing  at  night  and  the  taking  of  crawfish  in  the 
free  streams  are  entirely  prohibited.  Those  living  near  the  waters  who 
find  any  one  violating  this  rule  are  empowered  to  take  all  his  fishing- 
tackle  and  fish,  and  it  is  provided  that  the  government  shall  punish 
the  transgressor. 

Any  person  who  stuns  the  fish  with  prepared  pellets  so  as  to  enable 
him  to  catch  them  with  his  hand  shall  undergo  a  severe  corporal  pun- 
ishment. 

No  one  is  allowed  to  dig  pits  or  to  make  marshes  alongside  of  a  fishing- 
water,  for  the  purpose  of  fishing.  Wherever  there  are  such  pits  or 
marshes,  they  shall  not  be  shut  up  when  the  water  rises  and  fills  them, 
so  as  to  prevent  fish  which  a  higher  water  has  brought  into  them  Irom 
returning. 

Fish  remaining  in  uuiuclosed  pits  or  marshes  may  be  caught  by  the 
proprietor  thereof,  who  is,  however,  obliged  to  throw  all  the  young  ones 
into  the  water.  The  rotting  of  hemp  and  flax  in  ponds,  streams,  and 
fishing-waters  is  strictly  prohibited,  and  the  government  shall  see  to 
it  that  special  pits  and  pools  for  rotting  flax  and  hemp  are  prepared  at 
a  suitable  distance  from  these  waters.  As  the  fish  at  times  go  from 
the  Traun,  the  Enns,  and  other  waters,  into  the  Danube,  and  back  again 


648       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

to  those  rivers,  and  are  frequently  prevented  from  leaving  and  entering 
by  the  fishermen  of  the  Danube,  it  is  decreed  that  henceforth  neither  the 
Danube  fishers  nor  any  other  fishermen  shall  close  the  streams  flowing 
into  that  river 'with  stationary  nets  or  any  other  contrivances. 

Fishermen  shall  be  allowed  to  catch  injurious  birds  in  traps  all  the  year- 
round,  but  shall  not  injure  swans  and  herons.  Koyal  and  other  fishermen 
shall  not  catch,  confine,  or  sell  any  fish  of  the  genus  Thymallus,  any  pike, 
carp,  or  Salmo  hucho,  in  private,  free,  and  other  waters,  unless  their  length 
from  head  to  tail  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  given  on  the  model  board 
as  represented  at  the  end  of  the  fishing-law.  If  smaller  fish  get  into  the 
nets,  which  cannot  always  be  prevented,  they  are  immediately  to  be 
thrown  back  into  the  water.  In  order  to  carry  out  this  provision  of  the 
law,  the  authorities,  the  fish-masters,  the  market-overseers,  shall  ex- 
amine the  fish  as  well  in  the  open  markets  as  in  the  fishing-huts,  fish- 
tanks,  and  fish-boxes,  and  shall  punish  any  persons  violating  this  law. 

During  one  month  after  St.  Simon's  Day,  (18th  February,)  no  fish  ex- 
cept salmon  shall  be  confined,  caught,  or  sold,  and  no  fish  of  the  genus 
Thymallus  for  two  weeks  before  and  two  weeks  after  St.  George's  Day, 
(13th  April.)  The  seasons  of  protection  for  other  fish,  as  given  in  older 
laws,  shall  be  abolished,  because  there  are  a  number  of  objections  to 
such  an  arrangement,  and  because  it  can  never  do  full  justice  to  all  the 
different  kinds  of  fish. 

The  reckless  fishing  for  the  Thymallus  vulgaris,  by  which  the  Traun, 
one  of  our  finest  waters,  has  almost  been  depopulated,  is  for  the  time 
being  entirely  forbidden,  till  the  number  of  this  fish  has  again  increased 
in  that  river.  An  exception  is  made  for  the  imperial  table  only,  which 
may  be  provided  with  young  fish  caught  before  St.  Catharine's  Day, 
(30th  April.) 

During  the  seasons  when  fishing  is  prohibited,  the  authorities,  lords 
of  the  manor,  &c,  cauuot  demand  the  professional  services  of  the  fish- 
ermen. 

In  the  other  forest  streams  not  mentioned  in  the  law,  the  lords  of  the 
manor,  and  those  of  their  subjects  who  own  fisheries  or  fishing  priv- 
ileges, shall  see  that  the  laws  are  observed;  and  wherever  several  per- 
sons own  a  fishing  ground  in  common,  they  may  make  an  agreement 
among  themselves  not  to  catch  fish  out  of  seasou,  nor  to  catch  any 
which  have  not  the  prescribed  length,  nor  to  sell  or  send  to  market  any 
such  fish. 

The  fishing-law  was  considerably  modified  to  suit  the  prejudices  of 
the  times,  which  is  shown  by  the  introduction  of  certificates  of  sale, 
and  by  the  close  supervision  exercised  over  the  sellers  of  fish,  "  in  order 
that  fish  may  be  sold  cheap."  From  this  reason,  the  arbitrary  market- 
laws  of  the  period  regulated  the  sale  of  fish.  Salmon  shall,  at  the  market 
in  Linz,  be  sold  at  14  pfennige  (value  at  the  time  a  little  more  than  4 
cents)  apiece,  and  at  12  kreuzer  (somewhat  more  than  14  cents)  the 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  649 

pound,  and  a  young  fish  of  the  genus  Thymallus  at  1  kreuzer  2  pfennige, 
(nearly  2  cents,)  &c. 

With  fish  imported  from  Bohemia  or  Bavaria,  the  regulations  regard- 
ing size  have  nothing  to  do.  The  ordinances  regarding  the  proper  car- 
rying-out of  all  the  provisions  of  the  fishing-law  by  specially  appointed 
fish-masters  are  very  strict. 

For  the  lakes,  there  were  special  fish-laws.  Such  a  law  was  passed  in 
1544  for  the  Mond  Lake  in  Upper  Austria. 

Wheu,  in  1858,  the  district  officers  of  Upper  Austria  were  asked  to 
report  on  the  fishing-privileges  in  their  respective  sections,  the  officer 
in  whose  district  the  Mond  Lake  is  located  reported  that  the  law  of  1544 
was  still  in  force  on  this  lake  so  far  as  police-regulations  were  concerned  ; 
that,  as  a  general  rule,  these  ordinances  were  well  observed,  and  were 
in  many  respects  more  practical  than  the  draught  of  the  new  law  which 
had  been  sent  to  him. 

The  jurisdiction  over  the  Mond  Lake  belongs  partly  to  the  archbishop 
of  Salzburg  and  partly  to  the  abbot  of  the  Mond  Lake  convent.  Of 
the  fines,  one-third  belongs  to  the  archbishop  and  two-thirds  to  the 
abbot,  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  division  of  fines  prescribed  in 
the  law-books  of  Charlemagne,  is  made  between  the  country  law-courts 
and  the  lords  of  the  manor.  In  the  country-sessions,  the  fishery-courts 
are  held  every  year,  and  the  mutual  rights  and  duties  of  the  lords  and 
other  proprietors  are  defined. 

Quarrels  and  abuses  were  the  causes  which,  in  1544,  led  to  the  fisheries 
being  regulated  anew  by  a  treaty  between  Archbishop  Ernst  of  Salzburg 
and  Sigmuud,  abbot  of  the  Mond  Lake  convent. 

The  owners  of  the  buildings  called  segena  houses,  do  not  possess  the 
right  to  fish  iu  the  lake  as  a  free  property,  nor  after  the  manner  of  a 
lease,  but  as  a  hereditary  privilege,  and  have  in  exchange  to  render 
service  to  the  lords  of  the  manor. 

To  the  archbishop,  and  to  his  hereditary  lessees,  there  belong  5£  fish- 
eries ;  to  the  abbot  of  the  Mond  Lake  convent,  10  fisheries  ;  and  to  the 
Lord  of  Thury,  1.  The  abbot  possesses,  besides  the  10  fisheries  men- 
tioned, which  it  seems  were  all  rented  on  hereditary  leases,  two  large 
fisheries,  which  supply  the  convent  with  fish,  called  the  dipper  and  the 
long  segena. 

The  length  of  each  of  these  segenw  (seines)  is  accurately  described. 
The  clipper  may  be  360  feet  long,  and  the  "  long  segena"  27G  feet.  With 
the  dipper,  fishing  was  permitted  during  Lent,  from  the  fourth  Sunday 
thereof  till  Easter;  at  other  times,  only  when  the  reigning  prince  comes 
to  the  Mond  Lake.  Fishing  with  the  long  segena  was  permitted  twice  a 
week,  from  Saint  George's  till  Saint  Michael's  Day,  (29th  September.) 

Every  hereditary  lessee  has  one  broad  segena  1G8  to  180  feet  long,  and  a 
narrow  segena  120  to  138  feet  long.  The  size  of  the  meshes  iu  each 
segena  is  fixed  very  accurately  according  to  the  measure  given  in  the 
fishery-law.     Besides  drag-nets  and  bow-nets,  stationary  nets  are  per- 


650       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

nritted  for  catching  A bramis  brama,  Coregonus  Wartmanni,  Salmo  salveli- 
nns,  and  pike;  tbeir  number  and  size  is  accurately  given;  angles  are 
prohibited  as  well  as  several  other  fishing-implements,  because  the  lake 
had  thereby  been  almost  depopulated;  the  places  where  each  fisherman 
may  operate,  and  the  fishing  seasons  are  very  accurately  defined. 

By  a  special  regulation,  the  peasants  near  the  Mond  Lake  are  forbid- 
den to  dig  ponds  and  stock  them  with  fish,  because  they  are  in  the  habit 
of  taking  the  food-fish  which  they  require  for  their  ponds  from  the  lake. 
The  peasants  had  at  that  time  dug  a  great  number  of  such  ponds.  The 
hereditary  lessees  of  fisheries,  however,  were  permitted  to  have  ponds 
for  finer  fish,  especially  for  pike. 

The  length  below  which  pike,  Abramis  brama,  Coregonus  Wartmanni, 
and  Salmo  salvelimis,  must  not  be  caught,  is  exactly  prescribed;  the  law 
contains  drawings  of  these  fish  in  their  natural  size  and  of  the  meshes  of 
nets.  If  smaller  fish  get  into  the  nets,  they  shall,  without  injuring  them, 
be  put  back  into  the  lake. 

The  number  of  fishing-boats,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  used, 
and  the  rules  regarding  the  sale  of  fish  are  exactly  prescribed.  The 
government  has  the  first  bid,  as  merchants  must  first  offer  their  fish 
for  sale  to  the  lords  of  the  manor.  Even  those  sent  to  the  court  of 
the  archbishop  of  Salzburg  are  to  be  supplied  by  the  fish-merchants 
in  accordance  with  rules  set  down  by  the  archi-episcopal  fish-master. 

The  archbishop  and  the  abbot  each  appoints  an  overseer  of  fisheries 
from  the  number  of  his  officers.  These  overseers  are  to  punish  all 
violations  of  the  law,  and  shall,  once  or  twice  a  year,  examine  all  fishing- 
implements  and  remedy  all  defects.  The  fishing-law,  like  all  similar 
laws,  is  to  be  read  and  revised  at  the  annual  fishery-courts. 

A  law  on  the  catching  of  fish  and  crawfish,  made  for  the  fishermen 
and  fish-merchants  of  the  city  of  Vienna  in  1557  by  the  Emperor  Ferdi- 
nand, regulates  the  trade  in  Vienna  and  shows  the  great  wealth  of  the 
industry  at  the  time;  numerous  places  in  the  city  being  assigned  to 
the  fishermen  for  selling  their  stock. 

The  present  fishing -law. — In  1864,  reports  on  the  fishing-privileges  and 
fishing-laws  of  the  several  provinces  of  Austria  were  prepared  by  the 
minister  of  the  interior.  These  reports  and  other  more  recent  investi- 
gations have  shown  that  there  is  the  greatest  variety  of  privileges 
and  laws  in  the  different  provinces.  The  right  to  fish,  especially  in 
public  waters  and  lakes,  sometimes  is  claimed  by  the  state  as  a  royal 
prerogative,  sometimes  by  communities,  convents,  former  lords  of  the 
manor  or  other  private  individuals,  in  the  shape  of  a  privilege  or  a  free 
possession,  either  tor  or  without  payment,  or  is  exercised  without  any 
privilege  or  title  whatever.  Fishing  in  private  waters  is  sometimes  car- 
ried on  by  the  owners  of  the  waters  or  of  the  shores,  sometimes  by 
third  persons  as  an  independent  right  on  soil  not  their  own,  mostly  by 
former  lords  of  the  manor  ami  other  private  individuals,  by  convents 
and  communities;  all  of  these  basing  their  rights  on  widely  different 
titles. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OP    AUSTRIA.  651 

As  the  middle  of  running  waters  is  usually  considered  the  boundary- 
line  between  villages  and  townships,  judicial  and  manorial  districts,  as 
well  as  between  private  properties,  and  as  fishing-privileges  usually 
belong  to  one  of  the  above  mentioned  divisions,  it  is  easily  explained 
why  numerous  grants  of  this  kind  in  all  provinces  only  extend  to  the 
middle  of  a  stream,  while  other  parties  have  the  right  to  fish  in  the 
other  half. 

In  some  provinces  there  are  so-called  alternate  fisheries,  in  which  the 
right  to  fish  successively  passes  from  one  person  to  another  at  certain 
stated  periods,  usually  one  year. 

Many  fishing-privileges  of  different  kinds  are  connected  with  mills 
and  other  water-works;  such  grants  being  mostly  limited  to  mill-dams 
or  to  running  water  as  far  as  a  hammer  can  be  thrown  both  up  and 
down  the  stream,  a  custom  evidently  a  remnant  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Fishing  is  sometimes  an  independent  right,  recorded  in  the  law-books 
as  a  special  grant ;  sometimes  a  right  connected  with  some  other  privi- 
leges, or  a  right  which  may  be  sold,  and  as  such  entered  on  the  public 
records.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  the  fishing- waters  are  entirely 
free  as  they  were  in  the  Middle  Ages;  in  others,  they  are  the  co-mmou 
property  of  communities ;  in  the  former,  any  one  may  fish,  and  in  the 
latter,  all  citizens  of  the  community.  As  the  old  limitations  for  such 
waters,  such  as  that  of*  fishing  on  certain  days  of  the  week  and  the  use 
of  prescribed  fishing-implements,  have  been  abolished,  such  waters  have 
been  recklessly  plundered,  and  have  consequently  been  almost  depopu- 
lated. 

In  many  lakes  of  Upper  Austria,  the  fishing-privileges  are  very 
ancient,  and  entered  on  the  oldest  documents,  which  prove  how  carefully 
such  rights  were  maintained  in  the  olden  times.  In  later  times,  how- 
ever, we  hear  of  complaints  that  these  rights  were  no  longer  properly 
respected;  that  irregularities  began  to  occur;  and  that  at  present  the 
actual  possession  no  longer  tallies  with  the  long  neglected  books  ;  and 
that  there  is  a  universal  desire  to  have  order  restored. 

The  question  whether  courts  of  law  or  the  executive  officers  have  to 
decide  on  fishing-privileges  has,  for  a  long  time,  been  in  practice  answered 
in  different  ways.  The  ministry  of  the  interior  and  the  ministry  of 
agriculture,  to  which  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  fisheries  have  been 
referred,  have  repeatedly  decided  that,  in  accordance  with  existing  laws, 
the  ultimate  decision  regarding  the  title  to,  and  the  possession  of,  waters, 
and  the  legal  and  actual  possession  of  rights  to  fish  in  waters  not  one's 
own,  wherever  such  matters  do  not  come  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
authorities  appointed  for  regulating  the  buying-off  of  privileges,  should 
rest  with  the  courts. 

The  regulations  regarding  fishing  are,  in  the  older  laws,  usually  com- 
bined with  those  regarding  fishing-privileges.  Most  of  these  laws  only 
relate  to  one  province,  and  frequently  only  to  one  lake  or  stream. 

Several  river  police-regulations  also  contain  paragraphs  on  fishing ; 


652        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

thus,  in  Lower  Austria,  those  for  the  lower  part  of  the  river  March, 
dated  May  7,  1825,  Z*  2739 ;  those  for  the  Danube  of  March  30,  1828, 
Z.  10198,  §  23,  (both  in  the  Lower  Austrian  collection  of  laws  No.  29  and 
No.  62.)  The  Styrian  river  police-regulations  of  October  9,  1826,  section 
IV,  contain  such  paragraphs  for  the  rivers  Mur,  Drau,  Save,  and  Sann, 
as  well  as  special  paragraphs  regarding  the  other  rivers  and  streams. 
[Provincial  Gesetz-sammlung  1826,  vol.  8,  page  228.) 

Among  the  special  laws  which  relate  to  the  fishing-privileges,  and  to 
some  extent  also  to  the  fisheries,  the  following  deserve  especial  mention. 
The  ordinance  of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  of  March  21,  1771,  is 
almost  universally  recognized  as  a  binding  law,  though  rarely  carried 
out  in  practice,  (Gesetz-sammlung  Kaiser  Josef  II.,  vol.  8,  page  506.) 
Referring  to  the  ordinances  of  June  3,  1583,  June  25,  1720,  and  June 
12,  1728,  this  ordinance  decides  that  no  person  is  allowed  to  fish  except 
owners  of  the  waters,  and  those  who,  having  learned  the  fishing-trade, 
have  rented  a  privilege ;  fish  of  all  those  kinds  which  reach  a  heavier 
weight  than  one  pound,  such  as  pike,  carp,  &c,  must  not  be  caught  if 
they  weigh  less ;  aud  those  which  do  not  reach  a  heavier  weight,  such  as 
the  perch,  tench,  &c.,  if  they  weigh  less  than  one-fourth  of  a  pound.  The 
catching  of  young  fish  with  narrow  meshed  nets  of  any  kind  is  con- 
sidered injurious  to  the  fisheries;  very  narrow  meshes  are  forbidden; 
their  width  shall  not  be  less  than  one  square  inch ;  only  exceptionally 
are  smaller  meshes  allowed  for  catching  very  small  fry  to  be  used  as 
fish-food.     The  use  of  hook  and  line  is  only  prohibited  in  shallow  water. 

For  fishing  under  the  ice,  a  special  permit  is  required.  Forbidden  fish- 
ing-tackle will  be  confiscated,  and  all  persons  violating  these  regulations 
will  be  punished  in  such  a  manner  as  the  judge  considers  proper. 

The  royal  ordinances  of  July  18,  1819,  Z.  21529,  (Folitiache  Gesetz- 
sammlung,  1S19,  vol.  47,)  and  of  July  23,  1829,  Z.  9827,  prohibitthe  use  of 
cocculus  indicus  and  of  nux  vomica  in  fishing,  and  are  in  force  in  all  the 
provinces  of  Austria. 

For  Lower  Austria,  a  tractatus  de  juribus  incorporations  was  prom nl 
gated  in  1679.  It  is  contained  in  the  Codex  Austriacus,  I,  p.  599,  and 
partly  also  applies  to  other  provinces,  especially  to  Upper  Austria.  In 
its  tenth  section  it  treats  of  the  fisheries.  Unlawful  fishing  is  prohib- 
ited bv  several  ordinances,  such  as  those  of  May  9,  1799,  and  May  30, 
1823. 

The  inquiries  with  regard  to  the  statistics  of  Lower  Austria,  made  by 
the  agricultural  district  societies,  have  shown  that  in  most  parts  of  this 
province  the  present  arrangement  of  the  fishing-privileges  throws  the 
greatest  impediment  in  the  way  of  all  progress. 

In  some  parts  of  the  province,  the  domains  rent  their  fishing-privi- 
leges in  several  small  portions,  in  order  to  keep  themselves  in  possession 
for  the  time  being;  for  the  division  of  privileges  and  disputes  with  the 

*  Z.,  abbreviation  for  "Ziffer, "  meaning  figure,  usually  referring  to  the  page  of  the 
law-book. — Translator. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  653 

lessees  do  not  allow  regular  fisheries  to  be  carried  on.  As  an  example, 
we  mention  those  in  the  river  Ybbs. 

In  this  river,  which  once  possessed  a  great  wealth  of  fish.,  the  right  to 
catch  on  one  bank  belongs  to  the  domain  of  Waidhofeu,  which  rents  it 
to  numerous  small  lessees,  while  on  the  other  bank  it  belongs  to  several 
peasants.  All  this  does  more  harm  to  the  fisheries  than  the  floating  of 
lumber  in  long  rafts,  recently  introduced  in  the  Ybbs,  which,  in  some 
places,  turn  up  the  ground,  and  which,  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  river, 
are  moved  by  a  rapid  stream  of  Water,  which  has  been  dammed  up  and 
suddenly  let  loose. 

On  account  of  the  greater  economical  value  of  the  lumber-trade,  these 
evils  have  to  be  borne;  if  the  fishing  privileges,  however,  were  better 
regulated,  the  protected  portions  of  the  Ybbs  and  its  tributaries  might 
still  contain  a  reasonable  number  of  fish. 

Salzburg  is  an  example  of  a  most  fully-developed  royal  fishing-pre- 
rogative. Even  here  the  privileges  were  in  olden  times  considered 
as  being  an  essential  portion  of  landed  possessions,  and  were  in  the 
oldest  deeds  of  transfer  of  real  estate  given  over  to  the  new  proprietor, 
with  all  other  water-rights  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  property,  as  is 
shown  by  the  usual  form  of  such  documents:  "  una  cum  campis,  silvis, 
acquis  acquarumque  decursibus.-  In  the  lakes,  however,  there  existed, 
even  in  the  oldest  times,  special  fishing-privileges,  so-called  segence,  as 
in  other  provinces. 

As  in  Salzburg  the  game  and  forest  prerogatives  of  the  archbishops 
have  been  established  since  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  the 
fisheries  were  in  nearly  all  places  included  in  these  prerogatives  and 
declared  as  such  in  the  law-books,  particularly  in  thearchiepiscopal  fish- 
ing-law. 

The  Salzburg  fisheries  were  therefore  organized  in  the  following  man- 
ner.   There  were : 

1.  Archiepiscopal  lakes,  or  kitchen-lakes,  in  which  no  one  was  allowed 
to  fish  except  the  specially  appointed  court-fishers,  who  had  to  sell 
their  stock,  for  a  certain  stipulated  price,  to  the  archiepiscopal  kitchen. 
These  were  the  Fuschel,  Hinter,  Tappenkar,  and  the  Little  Ael  Lakes, 
likewise  the  Abbot  Lake  in  Bavaria. 

2.  Lakes  with  hereditary  leases,  the  Zeller,  Matt,  Waller,  and  Aber 
Lakes,  and  the  Waginger  Lake  in  Bavaria.  In  some  of  these  the  leases 
were  given  by  the  archbishop,  some  by  the  cathedral  chapter,  by  other 
chapters,  domains,  &c. 

On  the  After,  Moncl,  Irr,  and  Zeller  Lakes,  in  the  neighboring  prov- 
ince of  Upper  Austria,  the  archbishop  likewise  possessed  some  fishing- 
privileges. 

3.  The  fisheries  in  the  streams  and  rivers  of  Salzach  were  either  under 
the  protection  of  the  archbishop,  and  given  to  specially  appointed  fish- 
ermen in  exchange  for  a  certain  amount  of  fish  and  money,  which  helped 
to  suppy  the  court  kitchen,  or  they  were  rented  out  annually  for  a  cer- 


654       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

tain  amount  of  fish  and  money.    Tbe  officers  of  the  government  and 
clergymen  received  a  stipulated  supply  of  fish  yearly. 

The  following  list  shows  the  number  caught,  of  which  an  account  was 
taken  in  1804,  at  the  Salzburg  fishery-office ;  these  being  partly  used 

in  the  court- kitchen  and  partly  sold  or  given  away. 

Pounds  avoirdupois. 

Saibling,  (Salmo  salvelinus) ...  5, 166| 

Eutte,  (Lota  vulgaris) 240§ 

Forelle,  (Truttafario) 3,  909§ 

Asch,  ( Thymallus  vulgaris)  ...    123£ 

Lake-trout,  ( Trutta  lacustris) 480$ 

Hucho,  (Salmo  liucho) 310 

Perch,  (Pereafluviatilis) S^tV 

Waller,  (Silurus  glanis) 197£ 

Hecht,  (Esox  lucius) - 4,  8S5 

Carp,  ( Cyprinus  carpio  and  var) 2,  038^ 

Kenke,  ( Coregonus  Wartmanni,)  (fresh) 5,  850 

Eenke,  (Coregonus  Wartmanni,)  (salted) 2,  4G5 

Schleihe,  ( Tinea  vulgaris) 431T9£ 

Weissfisch,  (Alburnus  lueidus) 40 

Schratzer,  (Acerina  Sehraitzer) 70| 

Brachsen,  (Abram is  brama) 

Alte,  (Squalius  eephalus) 198^ 

Gruudel,  ( Gobio  fluviatilis) 

Koppen,  (Cottus  Gobio) 218f 

Pfrille,  (Phoxiuus  Uevis) 62 £ 

Table  crawfish 16,  452£ 

Soup-crawfish G5| 

From  the  archbishops,  the  fishing-privileges  were  transferred  to  the 
crown;  and  of  late  years  they  have  been  leased  to  some  extent  to 
private  individuals. 

Exceptions  are  only  made  with  regard  to  a  few  small  bodies  of  water, 
which  convents  or  chapters  have  possessed  as  special  grants  from  time 
immemorial,  or  which  fishermen  have  held  on  hereditary  leases,  and 
which  now,  in  consequence  of  the  buying-up  of  all  old  privileges  or 
servitude-rights  resting  upon  the  lands,  are  held  by  the  fisherman  in 
free  possession. 

The  archbishops  had  preserved  the  fisheries  as  their  property  through 
numerous  fishing-laws,  as  in  the  case  of  that  of  1507,  made  by  Archbishop 
Leonhard  Kreutschach  ;  of  1590,  by  Wolf  Dietrich ;  of  1767,  by  Sigis- 
mund  von  Schrattenbach.  For  the  lakes,  there  were  special  laws,  which 
have  never  been  officially  rescinded,  but  which  have  gradually  fallen 
into  disuse.  The  Salzburg  Historical  Society  has  published  some  of 
them  in  its  reports,  vols.  V  and  VI,  among  others  the  law  relating  to 
the  Waller  Lake,  made  by  the  Archbishop  Cardinal  Mattbaus  Lang, 
(1519~'40;)  another  one  of  1567:  the  revised  fishing-code  relating  to  the 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  655 

Matt  Lake,  made  by  the  Archbishop  Marcus  Sitticus,  in  1G17  ;  one  relat- 
ing to  the  Aber  Lake,  of  1C92 ;  and  one  for  the  Zeller  Lake,  of  1G41. 

Some  provisions  of  these  laws  are  also  entered  on  the  old  statute-books. 
The  common  law  of  Altenthan,  a  district  of  Salzburg,  dated  1625,  pro- 
hibits the  building  of  weirs  in  waters  without  special  permission, 
"  since  the  streams  belong  to  the  authorities,  and  because  the  fish  would 
be  much  disturbed  thereby."  (Salzburgische  Taidinge,  lierausgegefen  von 
der  Akademie  der  Wlssenscltaftcn,  p.  24.) 

A  more  recent  law  is  the  one  passed  by  the  Salzburg  provincial  gov- 
ernment February  13,  1856,  Z.  13666,  which  forbids  fishing  in  the 
so-called  "beaver-dams,"  marshy  ponds  much  frequented  by  the  beavers 
on  account  of  the  many  willows.  The  same  law  allows  fishing  at  night 
only  after  previous  announcement  to  the  forest- officers,  and  obliges 
fishermen  to  submit  to  the  examination  of  their  fish,  baskets,  boxes,  or 
tanks  by  the  officers,  whenever  these  think  it  necessary. 

The  injudicious  manner  in  which  the  Salzburg  government  till  quite 
recently  cut  up  its  fishing-waters  by  either  selling  or  renting  them  on 
short  time  in  very  small  divisions — the  lakes  in  very  insiguificant  little 
patches,  and  the  running  waters  frequently  by  shores — caused  a  peti- 
tion to  be  addressed  to  the  Salzburg  assembly,  asking  that  these  small 
subdivisions  be  discontinued. 

In  Styria,  great  attention  was  in  olden  times  given  to  the  fisheries  and 
the  fishing-laws.  A  court  fish-master  was  appointed,  having  his  resi- 
dence at  Graz,  and  an  inspector  for  Upper  Styria  to  watch  over  the 
several  privileges,  especially  the  royal  prerogatives,  both  possessing  the 
most  unlimited  judicial  and  police  powers.  Since  1790,  when  a  regular 
police  was  introduced,  "the  authority  of  these  two  mentioned  officers 
began  to  be  ignored,"  as  we  learn  from  a  report.  The  court  fish-master 
gradually  became  a  privileged  fish-merchant ;  the  office  of  inspector  dis- 
appeared entirely  ;  and  the  numerous  fishing-laws,  such  as  those  of  March 
24, 1G41,  March  9,  1G73,  February  27,  1676,  May  30,  1699,  May  24,  1747, 
March  21,  1771,  fell  into  disuse,  were  lost  from  the  archives,  and  forgot- 
ten by  the  people.  In  place  of  a  regular  system  of  fisheries,  we  find 
plundering  expeditions  by  foreigners,  and  the  most  reckless  capture  of 
fish  by  privilege-holders  and  lessees. 

A  circular  of  the  imperial  government  for  the  central  provinces  of 
Austria,  dated  February  24, 1790,  had  to  be  published  to  counteract  the 
wide-spread  "  erroneous  idea  of  the  general  freedom  of  fishing  and  hunt- 
ing," and  urged  the  holders  of  privileges  to  maintain  themselves  in  their 
undisturbed  possession,  for  the  reason  that  they  had  obtained  them 
"  titulo  onerosoP 

At  present,  we  see  nothing  else  in  Styria  but  constant  quarrels  be- 
tween privilege-holders  and  communities,  over  small  domain  fishing- 
privileges,  which  partly  had  their  root  in  the  feudal  system,  aud  which 
form  a  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  progress,  as  such  small  waters  are 


656       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Dot  infrequently  leased  in  smaller  subdivisions,  and  are  thoroughly 
exhausted  by  the  lessees. 

Owners  of  land  even  now  consider  themselves  in  most  places  as  priv- 
ileged to  fish,  and  do  not  allow  any  fisherman  or  lessee  to  come  on  their 
property,  even  if  no  damage  is  done,  threatening  them  and  driving  them 
away.  Everybody  fishes,  and  there  is  no  supervision  attempted,  as  it 
could  scarcely  be  carried  through.  No  more  complaints  are  therefore 
made  as  to  unlawful  fishing ;  many  of  the  privilege-holders  consider 
their  rights  as  almost  lost,  and  wish  to  sell  them  out. 

This,  of  course,  strengthens  the  erroneous  views  which  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  population  entertain. 

Even  in  those  parts  where  fishing-privileges  are  still  somewhat  re- 
spected, the  organization  of  the  industry  is  not  much  better.  The  privi- 
lege-holders rent  their  grounds  in  small  portions  and  on  short  time, 
and  the  lessees  catch  everything  that  swims  in  the  water. 

Here  and  there  we  find  fishing-privileges  belonging  to  a  number  of 
persons  in  common  ;  also  so-called  alternate  fishing-privileges,  (see 
above.)  A  reporter  calls  all  these,  "  privileges  for  plundering  and  de- 
stroying." 

In  CarintMaj  provisions  are  made  for  the  fisheries  in  the  law  made  by 
Charles  VI,  1577,  §  29,  and  also  by  a  special  resolution  of  the  Carin- 
thiau  assembly,  passed  June  17,  1715,  and  the  privileges  of  lords  and 
landed  proprietors  have  been  protected.  Towns  and  market-places 
which  have  their  own  independent  law-courts  likewise  possess  the 
fishing-privilege. 

The  last  reports  complain  very  much  of  the  senseless  system  of  plun- 
dering, thieving,  insufficient  protection,  and  of  the  antiquated  forms 
which  are  in  the  way  of  a  healthy  development  of  the  fisheries.  By 
these  evils,  it  is  said,  the  finest  fish-waters  are  depopulated,  and  this,  as 
well  as  the  low  price  paid  for  the  products,  sufficiently  explains  the 
decline  of  the  Carinthian  fisheries. 

At  the  general  meeting  of  the  Carinthian  Agricultural  Society,  held 
January  25, 1872,  a  strong  and  almost  universal  desire  was  expressed  to 
have  the  fishing-privileges  bought  off.  Although  the  necessity  for  such 
a  measure  was  fully  recognized,  no  resolution  was  passed. 

In  Carniola,  the  state  of  affairs  is  very  similar.  Here  also  there  are 
in  some  parts  of  the  country  alternate  fishing-privileges,  the  fisheries 
changing  owners  every  year  or  at  longer  intervals.  No  one  doubts  that 
such  privileges  are  injurious  to  the  fisheries,  and  both  the  Carniola  as- 
sembly and  the  agricultural  society  have  strongly  urged  their  abolition. 

By  government  ordinances  of  June  27,  1S52,  Z.  4881,  (Landesgcsetz- 
blatt,  XXV,  p.  510,)  and  of  September  18,  1852,  Z.  8045,  fishing-permits 
have  been  introduced  in  Carniola. 

Istria  does  not  possess  any  fresh- water  fisheries  of  importance.  The 
forest-streams  mostly  dry  up  during  the  summer;   the  Arsa  Canal, 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  657 

which  is  fed  from  the  Lake  of  Ceppich,  the  lake  itself,  and  the  small 
rivers  Quieto  and  Kisano,  are  but  little  suited  for  fisheries. 

Gorz  and  Gradisca  possess  fresh-water  fisheries  in  the  Isonzo  and  its 
tributaries,  and  in  Wippach.  The  other  streams  have  a  full  supply  of 
water  only  during  continued  heavy  rains,  and  the  coast  streams  and 
canals  are  of  no  importance. 

During  the  sessions  of  the  Ecumenical  Council  of  1870,  trout  were  for 
the  first  time  sent  regularly  from  Gorz  to  Koine.  It  is  thought  that  arti- 
ficial fish-culture  could  be  successfully  introduced  through  associations. 
At  present,  there  are  no  fishing-laws  whatever. 

Dalmatia  is,  according  to  Heckel  and  Kner,  a  very  interesting  country 
for  ichthyologists,  not  on  account  of  its  wealth  offish,  but  on  account  of 
its  great  number  of  fresh-water  species.  In  this  respect,  it  is  the  most  in- 
teresting portion  of  Austria ;  for,  in  its,  for  the  greater  part,  insignificant 
streams,  it  has  not  only  many  species  of  fish  similar  to  those  of  Lom- 
bardy  and  Southern  Italy,  but  likewise  a  great  many  which  are  peculiar 
to  this  province,  and  which,  continuing  through  Bosnia  toward  the  East, 
are  related  to  Syrian  fish,  and  through  these  again  to  those  of  India. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  regretted,  from  a  purely  scientific  point  of  view, 
that  pisciculture,  like  nearly  all  other  branahes  of  culture,  is  entirely  neg- 
lected in  this  province. 

Besides  numerous  smaller  streams,  which  are  entirely  dry  daring  sum- 
mer, Dalmatia  has  several  coast  rivers  and  lakes.  The  former  are 
particularly  rich  in  fish  near  their  mouths,  which  actually  form  arms  or 
bays  of  the  sea.  Especially  is  this  the  case  with  the  river  Narenta, 
which  is  rich  in  eels,  pike,  and  other  fish.  The  total  absence  of  any 
fishing-laws  and  regulations  has  prevented  fishing  in  the  rivers  and 
lakes  from  becoming  a  source  of  income  to  the  population. 

Eishiug  in  the  rivers  is  generally  free;  only  in  some  portions  thereof 
the  privilege  to  catch  trout  and  eels  has  been  reserved  to  private  indi- 
viduals, communities,  or  corporations,  such  as  convents,  through  so- 
called  "investitures  ;"  legal  documents  dating  from  the  times  of  the  Vene- 
tian Republic :  thus,  the  Franciscan  convent  of  Vissovaz  has  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  fish  in  the  river  Kerka,  from  the  Slap  Falls  to  the  Scardona 
Falls ;  and  the  village  of  Almissa  has  the  same  exclusive  right  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Cettina.  In  many  waters,  the  fisheries  were  rented 
by  the  government,  which  is  still  the  case  at  the  mouth  of  the  Narenta. 
Fresh-water  fish  are  never  offered  for  sale,  and  there  is  no  market  for 
them. 

In  the  marshes  and  waters  of  the  Narenta  Valley,  there  were,  in  former 
times,  extensive  eel-fisheries ;  but  these  have  likewise  decreased  very 
much  in  value  through  the  unpardonable  neglect  of  the  last  few  years. 

The  government  has  the  right  to  fish  at  the  mouths  of  the  Torino  and 

Pranjak,  in  the  Jesero  Malo  and  the  Cernarizza,  in  the  valley  of  Cutti, 

likewise  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pulinica,  in  the  district  of  Logorie,  which 

right  is  mostly  rented.    The  total  annual  revenue  was,  however,  only 
42  F 


658       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

about  $56.  The  village  of  Fort  Opus  has,  through  a  grant  from  the 
former  republic  of  Venice,  the  right  to  catch  eels  in  the  lake  of  Dragace, 
and  in  the  river  Jassenica-Struga.  The  income  from  these  fisheries 
scarcely  amounts  to  $100  per  annum. 

In  Tyrol,  there  were  fishing-laws  enacted  in  1575,  1753,  and  3  7G8; 
sections  XVI  to  XXI  of  the  4th  book  of  the  common  law  of  Tyrol,  of 
1573,  also  treat  of  the  fisheries.  In  many  parts  of  Tyrol,  fishing  is  free; 
and  in  the  remaining  rivers,  streams,  and  lakes,  the  fisheries  belong  to 
private  individuals,  village-communities,  and  landed  proprietors,  but 
especially  to  the  state.  The  right  to  fish  has  frequently  been  acquired 
by  purchase-deeds  and  other  documents,  and  is  in  some  cases  subjected 
to  taxation. 

In  the  district  of  Bozen,  there  are  several  important  fishing-grounds, 
which  are  considered  as  belonging  to  no  one  in  particular,  and  where, 
consequently,  anybody  may  fish. 

Tyrol  has  several  lakes,  rivers,  and  numerous  clear,  mountain  streams, 
which  formerly  were  full  of  fish,  and  which  in  every  respect  are  well 
suited  for  spawning  places,  places  of  safety,  and  waters  where  the  finer 
kinds  might  be  successfully  raised. 

According  to  a  report  of  the  fish-master,  Wolfgang  Hochleituer,  of 
the  year  1504,  whole  wagon-loads  of  fish  came  annually  to  Innsbruck 
from  the  Achen  Lake  alone. 

Even  to  this  day,  the  finer  kind  of  fish  are  represented,  some  of  them 
in  Northern  Tyrol,  in  the  territory  of  the  Danube,  some  of  them  in 
Southern  Tyrol,  in  the  territory  of  the  Etsch,  some  again  in  the  lakes, 
and  some  throughout  the  whole  province ;  but  their  number  has  de- 
creased very  much,  through  reckless  plundering,  carelessness,  and  com- 
plete want  of  protection,  so  that  in  the  markets,  especially  those  of 
Southern  Tyrol,  only  foreign  fish  are  offered  for  sale. 

In  Vorarlberg,  a  full  report  on  fishing-privileges  has  been  made  at  the 
suggestion  of  Mr.  Joseph  Tiefenthaler. 

Small  as  is  this  province,  it,  nevertheless,  possesses  the  greatest 
variety  of  fishing-privileges.  There  are  waters  in  which  the  state  pos- 
sesses the  royal  prerogative,  and  which  are  rented  to  private  individuals, 
waters  belonging  to  domains,  waters  which  belong  to  the  villages  on 
whose  territory  they  are  found,  and  waters  in  which  only  those  living 
near  the  shore  have  the  right  to  fish.  Some  waters  are  partly  in  the 
possession  of  private  persons,  possessing  their  rights  to  fish  through 
deeds  of  purchase;  while  other  portions  of  the  same  waters  are  entirely 
free,  fishing  in  them  being  carried  on  only  by  peasant  boys ;  and  of  some 
waters  it  could  not,  even  after  the  most  thorough  investigation,  be 
ascertained  to  whom  they  belong. 

Of  the  state  fishing-privilege  in  the  Ehine,  small  portions  were  sold 
to  private  individuals  in  1858,  so  that  only  the  following  sections  are  left 
to  it :  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  111  to  the  Lichtenstein  boundary, 
about  0,000  feet  on  the  Austrian  side  of  the  river ;  the  111  from  Feldkirch 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  659 

upward  to  its  source  in  the  Montafone  Valley  ;  and  the  Dornbirner-Acli 
to  its  mouth. 

The  Vorarlberg  Agricultural  Society  justly  regrets  that  the  senseless 
subdivision  of  the  fishing- waters  into  insignificant  patches  throws  almost 
insurmountable  obstacles  in  the  way  of  successful  fish- culture;  and  these 
small  patches  of  water  have  recently  been  still  further  subdivided,  thus 
lowering  the  value  of  the  fisheries  still  more. 

In  Galicia,  several  reports  have  during  the  last  years  been  made 
regarding  the  fishing-privileges.  These,  on  the  strength  of  some  old 
Polish  and  other  laws,  in  some  cases  have  been  defined  as  rights  per- 
taining to  domains  ;  in  others,  as  royal  prerogatives,  or  as  rights  belong- 
ing to  the  inhabitants  of  the  shores  or  banks. 

By  a  statute  of  Casimir  the  Great,  dated  134G,  fishing  in  rivers  and 
streams  in  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland  was  declared  to  be  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns  or  villages  located  on  their  banks; 
such  right  to  belong  to  them  as  long  as  these  rivers  and  streams 
remain  in  their  original  beds. 

From  this,  as  well  as  from  a  second  statute  of  Casimir,  dated  1457, 
and  from  another  published  by  King  Sigismund  II,  dated  1507,  we 
see  that  even  the  common  laboring  people  were  permitted  to  fish. 

By  the  statutes  of  Casimir  Jagello,  1447,  and  Johann  Albert,  1496, 
the  rivers  were  distinguished  as  royal  and  free,  in  order  to  diminish 
abuses;  and  it  was  ordered  that  no  weirs  or  poles  should  be  allowed, 
but  only  nets. 

It  was  claimed  in  the  reports,  in  favor  of  the  domains,  that,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  by  its  old  constitution,  all  land  lying  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  landed  proprietor  was  his  absolute  property;  and  that 
the  lands  given  to  the  serfs,  who  themselves  were  property,  only  be- 
longed to  them  as  long  as  their  master  thought  proper;  and  that  conse- 
quently the  fisheries  on  his  land  were  likewise  his  absolute  property. 
It  was  maintained  that,  by  the  charter  which  King  Stephen  Bathory 
signed  at  his  election  in  1576,  the  entire  usufruct  from  lands  had  been 
made  over  to  the  owners ;  neither  tbe  king  nor  his  successors  having 
any  right  to  deprive  them  of  it.  When  Galicia  became  an  Austrian 
province,  the  privileges  of  the  landed  proprietors  were  not  interfered 
with.  The  government  ordinance  of  May  6,  1808,  was  also  thought  to 
be  in  favor  of  the  landed  proprietors,  as  it  says  that  the  Soltyssen  (free 
peasants)  did  not  possess  the  right  to  grind  corn,  to  cut  wood,  to  sell 
beer,  wine,  and  liquor,  and  to  fish,  even  if  these  pursuits  should  be  men- 
tioned in  the  privileges  of  the  Soltyssen,  and  they  should  actually  be  in 
the  enjoyment  of  such  rights.  It  was  finally  claimed  that  the  imperial 
decree  of  January  31,  1823,  had  declared  fishing  to  be  among  the  pre- 
rogatives of  landed  proprietors. 

To  all  these  claims  it  was  objected  that  the  statute  of  Casimir,  given 
in  1346,  did  not  speak  of  landed  proprietors,  but  of  the  inhabitants  of 
villages  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams;  that  later  statutes  declared 


660       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES 

the  rivers  to  be  royal  and  free;  that  Stephen  Bathory's  charter  only 
guaranteed  to  the  nobility  the  usufruct  of  lands  belonging  to  them,  and 
not  of  the  royal  rivers;  that  the  government  ordinance  of  1808  had  been 
expressly  annulled  by  the  ordinance  of  March  26, 1826.  It  was  said  that 
the  royal  decree  of  January  31,  1823,  had  only  exempted  the  fisheries 
from  the  tax  on  landed  property,  and  had  placed  them  under  the  cate- 
gory of  trade-taxes ;  §§  3  to  6  and  9  of  part  II,  as  well  as  §§  108,  110, 
111,  and  113  of  the  old  Galician  law  of  1797,  proved  that  fishing  in  the 
public  waters  was  not  an  exclusive  right  of  the  landed  proprietors,  but 
a  prerogative  of  the  state  or  of  those  persons  to  whom  the  state  had 
granted  it. 

When  these  different  views  of  the  Galician  authorities  were  laid 
before  the  imperial  ministries  in  1864,  they  resolved  that  in  Galicia  also 
the  fishing  privilege  should  be  considered  a  private  right,  because 
the  general  law  in  its  §  414  had  enumerated  it  among  the  other  private 
privileges,  aud  that  no  other  explanation  was  possible ;  that,  therefore, 
in  Galicia,  in  public  as  well  as  in  private  waters,  the  actual  possession, 
based  on  many  different  titles,  should  be  recognized  before  the  law  as 
the  only  valid  one.  In  this  sense,  the  ministry  of  finance,  in  its  decree  of 
June  19,  1865,  Z.  2711,  directed  the  provincial  finance-office  at  Lemberg 
not  to  enforce  an  exclusive  fishing-privilege  of  the  state  in  the  rivers 
of  Galicia,  and  that  matters  in  this  respect  should  remain  in  statu  quo 
till  otherwise  regulated  by  some  new  law. 

The  reports  of  former  Galician  officials  and  of  the  Galician  agri- 
cultural societies  faithfully  depict  the  chaotic  state  of  the  fishing-laws, 
which,  in  many  parts  of  the  province,  had  almost  entirely  exhausted  this 
source  of  national  wealth,  and  had  seriously  injured  the  salmon  and 
sturgeon  fisheries  in  the  Galician  rivers,  which  had  formerly  been  very 
extensive.  In  some  districts,  the  fisheries  are  carried  on  by  the  land- 
owners ;  in  others,  they  are  managed  by  the  village-communities  as  the 
common  property  thereof,  and  the  revenues  derived  from  them  are  used 
for  meeting  the  common  expenditure ;  while,  in  other  parts,  they  are 
the  independent  property  of  private  individuals. 

One  of  the  reporters  writes  :  "The  lower  classes  consider  fishing  in 
rivers  and  streams  as  belonging  to  nobody ;  at  every  season  of  the  year, 
people  practice  it  in  the  most  reckless  manner,  and  the  privileges  of 
other  persons  are  entirely  disregarded,  since  they  are  in  no  wise  pro- 
tected. The  disorder  exceeds  all  bounds ;  the  most  injurious  methods 
of  fishing  are  freely  employed;  and,  contrary  to  common  sense  and  law, 
the  fishing  in  the  rivers  is  carried  on  in  such  a  manner  as  to  hasten  its 
entire  destruction." 

In  Bukoicina,  which,  since  its  incorporation  into  the  Austrian  mon- 
archy, has  been  treated  like  Galicia,  even  in  matters  concerning  which 
formerly  a  difference  had  existed,  the  condition  of  affairs  has  been  very 
much  the  same. 

Bukowina  has,  in  proportion  to  its  area,  the  largest  number  of  rivers 


THE   FISHERY   INTERESTS    OP,  AUSTRIA.  661 

and  streams  of  any  Austrian  province,  and,  in  former  times,  had,  besides 
these  streams,  more  than  15,000  acres  of  ponds.  These  latter  have 
gradually  been  decreased  to  000  acres  ;  most  of  the  ground  gained  by 
draining  the  ponds  being  planted  with  corn,  which,  so  far,  has  not 
proved  a  very  profitable  speculation. 

The  majority  of  the  population,  especially  in  the  rural  districts,  belong 
to  the  Greek  Church,  and  have  to  observe  one  hundred  and  ninety -four 
strict  fast-days  during  the  year,  so  that  the  demand  for  fish  is  conse- 
quently very  large.  It  has  been  estimated  that  $56,000  worth  of  fish 
is  annually  imported  into  Bukowina  from  Moldavia  and  the  cities  on 
the  North  Sea.  On  account  of  their  high  price,  these  fish  are  mostly 
eaten  only  by  the  wealthier  classes. 

The  agricultual  society  at  Czernowitz  deserves  great  praise  for  hav- 
ing recently  given  its  full  attention  to  the  fisheries  hitherto  neglected. 

With  the  exception  of  the  ponds  and  a  few  mountain  streams,  nearly 
all  waters  in  Bukowina  are  almost  entirely  deprived  of  their  former 
wealth  of  fish  by  reason  of  the  utter  want  of  system  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  fisheries ;  and  it  will  take  a  long  time  for  a  fishing-law 
to  gain  ground. 

In  Bohemia,  the  revised  law  of  Ferdinand  II,  dated  May  19, 1627,  was, 
till  the  year  1848,  considered  the  constitution  of  the  country.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  events  which  took  place  then,  the  political  rights  of  the 
assembly  were  limited,  but  the  rights  of  private  persons  {jura  priva- 
torum)  were  not  touched,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  preface  of  the  law 
and  from  a  comparison  of  its  provisions  with  those  of  Maximilian's 
ordinance  of  15G4,  and  King  Vladislaw's  ordinance  of  1500,  which  served 
as  bases  for  the  former,  as  well  as  from  the  charters  of  the  Bohemian 
cities.  In  all  these  laws,  the  fisheries  are  protected  against  "  arrogance 
and  violence." 

This  protection,  however,  was  only  afforded  to  members  of  the  assem- 
bly in  their  relations  toward  each  other,  and,  according  to  Maximilian's 
ordinance,  especially  against  their  vassals  and  their  servants ;  the  vas- 
sals themselves  had  at  that  time  no  property  of  their  own,  and  could 
only  exceptionally  enjoy  the  usufruct  of  property  given  to  them  by  their 
masters  for  a  short  period,  but  could  never  be  the  actual  possessors  of 
any  lands. 

The  laws  of  Maria  Theresa  and  Joseph  II  were  the  first  to  afford 
thorough  protection  to  subjects  and  their  property;  the  ordinance  of 
November  1,  1781,  abolishing  serfdom,  gave  a  firmer  basis  to  the 
security  of  subjects;  and  the  common  law  declared  that  they  might 
also  hold  property. 

Thus  it  came  that  the  fishing-privileges  were  transferred  from  their 
originally  exclusive  owners,  the  landed  proprietors  and  the  cities,  to 
private  individuals,  by  gift,  sale,  or  exchange;  and  that  they  were  exer- 
cised tie  facto  on  the  ground  of  these  various  titles.* 

*  See  Bericht  der  znr  Revision  der  Fischereigesetze  fur  Bohmen  gevriihlteu  Laudtags- 
comuiission  of  February  14,  1886, 


662       REPOET    OF  '  COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

Even  in  former  times,  numerous  great  and  small  fishing-privileges  in 
rivers  and  brooks  had  been  hereditary  in  certain  Bohemian 'families; 
and  the  salmon  and  eel  fisheries  in  the  Elbe  are  carried  on  by  nearly  all 
millers  on  a  large  scale  at  their  weirs  with  an  apparatus  called  Slup. 

The  small  fishing-privileges  connected  with  mills  and  other  water- 
works, especially  the  right  to  set  so-called  automatic  traps,  are  in  all 
countries  considered  as  hostile  to  our  modern  civilization  and  as  great 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  rational  fish-culture.  A  Bohemian  inspector, 
Director  Horak,  of  Wittingau,  calls  the  salmon  and  eel  traps  of  the 
millers  on  the  Elbe  and  Moldau  infernal  machines,  and  remarks  that, 
like  the  shark,  they  devour  all  fish,  both  young  and  old.  In  interna- 
tional treaties,  the  contracting  parties  usually  agree  to  abolish  such 
privileges  as  far  as  possible. 

Among  the  Bohemian  fishing-laws,  we  mention  as  important  an  article 
from  the  Bohemian  river-police-regulations  of  February  10, 1854,  which 
says  that  a  permit  from  the  authorities  is  required  for  setting  salmon- 
traps  in  navigable  rivers,  and  likewise  decrees  that  the  placing  of  bow- 
nets,  catch-poles,  &c,  must  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  navigation. 

In  Moravia,  the  state  of  affairs  up  to  1849  was  very  similar  to  that  of 
Bohemia.  According  to  the  report,  there  were  many  waters  in  which 
fishing  with  hook  and  line  had  never  been  prohibited;  and  the  free 
catching  of  crawfish  in  many  running  waters  has  been  practiced  for 
centuries. 

The  practices  allowed  by  the  law  of  1859,  which  we  shall  give  more 
in  detail,  have,  with  regard  to  those  fishing-privileges  which  hitherto 
belonged  to  the  landed  proprietors,  produced  a  state  of  disorder  and 
uncertainty,  which  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  neglect  of  the 
fisheries,  so  that  reforms  are  urgently  demanded. 

In  Silesia,  the  government,  at  the  request  of  the  assembly  in  1866, 
had  reports  made  on  the  fishing-privileges  by  the  district  officers,  to  be 
made  use  of  in  the  preparation  of  a  new  law,  by  which  they  should  be 
regulated. 

Here,  likewise,  the  titles  to  possession  vary  very  much,  and  their 
validity  has  frequently  been  questioned.  The  bishop  of  Breslau  had,  from 
times  immemorial,  the  fishing-privilege  of  numerous  waters,  but  had 
likewise  many  obligations  toward  the  communities,  especially  with 
regard  to  keeping  the  beds  of  rivers  in  order,  protecting  the  banks,  fur- 
nishing the  wood  for  bridges,  &c.  Since  these  obligations  have  ceased, 
the  fishing-privilege  of  the  bishop  is,  as  the  agricultural  society  com- 
plains, found  to  be  a  heavy  burden. 

On  the  actual  state  of  affairs  in  Silesia,  the  report  of  1869  says : 

"  In  many  waters,  everybody  is  allowed  to  fish ;  in  some,  the  com- 
munity is  considered  to  possess  this  right,  without  its  being  clear 
whether  it  possesses  it  as  a  corporation,  or  whether  it  merely  means 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  663 

that  any  person  belonging  to  such  community  has  the  right  to  fish ; 
sometimes  the  mayor  of  a  village  is  mentioned  as  the  privilege-holder, 
or  the  clergyman,  or  some  landed  proprietor ;  the  fisheries  are  mostly 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  former  proprietors  of  the  lands,  among 
them  the  cities;  and,  in  other  cases,  the  privilege  is  said  to  belong  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  banks,  and  occasionally  to  these  and  to  every- 
body." 

In  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia,  these  privileges  are  placed  in  a 
peculiar  position  by  the  regulations  for  buying  them  off. 

In  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  fishing-privileges  on  the  land  of  others  have 
been  abolished  by  the  ordinances  relating  to  the  buying-off  of  privileges 
of  June  27,  1849,  §  4,  Z.  3;  and  in  Silesia,  by  the  ordinances  of  July  11, 
1849;  and  an  indemnity  has  only  been  conceded  to  the  former  holders 
in  cases  where  it  could  be  proved  that  the  privilege  was  based  on  a 
special  contract  with  the  owner  of  the  soil. 

The  regulations  for  buying  off"  privileges  in  the  other  provinces  do 
not  contain  any  paragraphs  relating  to  the  fisheries. 

When,  somewhat  later,  doubts  were  raised  as  to  the  proper  meaning 
of  different  regulations,  the  ministries  to  whom  this  matter  was  referred 
consulted  on  them  in  common.  The  ministry  of  justice,  in  its  note  of 
December  30,  1851,  Z.  13740,  said  that  the  fishing-privileges  based  on 
different  titles  had  not  been  changed  in  the  other  provinces ;  but  that 
in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia,  this  whole  question  had  a  different 
aspect.  In  these  provinces,  a  change  had  already  been  made  by  the 
ordinances,  (§  4,)  and,  based  on  the  abolition  of  all  fishing-privileges  on 
the  soil  of  others,  many  new  property-rights  had  been  established,  with, 
to  some  extent,  respect  for  legal  forms.  If  the  state  of  affairs  existing 
prior  to  the  year  1848  was  to  be  continued,  or,  properly  speaking,  cre- 
ated anew,  any  measure  tending  to  this  end  must  be  preceded  by  a 
special  law  sanctioned  by  the  emperor,  declaring  the  above-mentioned 
§  4  null  and  void. 

The  ministry  of  the  interior  thereupon,  by  its  ordinance  of  January 
31,  1852,  Z.  4G0,  informed  the  commissions  for  regulating  the  buying- 
off  of  privileges,  as  well  as  the  assemblies  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Silesia,  that,  conditionally  on  some  future  possible  regulation  of  these 
matters,  every  fishing-privilege  which  is  not  exercised  in  waters  be- 
longing to  others  shall  be  maintained ;  and  that  any  one  who  desires  to 
have  his  property  freed  from  the  burdensome,  fishing-privileges,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  above-mentioned  §  4,  must  bring  absolute  proof  that 
he  is  the  exclusive  owner  of  the  property  in  question,  viz,  the  water,  it 
being  understood  that  all  doubts  as  to  the  ownership  will  have  to  be 
decided  only  before  the  proper  court.  Wherever  the  mutual  relations  of 
the  owner  of  the  property  and  the  holder  of  the  fishing-privilege  come 
under  the  law  of  September  7, 1848,  the  commissions  named  above  have, 
conditionally  on  some  future  regulation  of  the  fishing-privileges,  to  act 
in  accordance  with  existing  rules. 


664:.      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

The  other  commissions  for  buying  off  privileges,  and  the  assemblies, 
■were  at  the  same  time  informed  by  the  ordinance  of  January  31, 1852, 
Z.  460,  that  by  the  laws  regarding  the  purchasing  of  these  rights,  the 
fishing-privileges  had  not  been  abolished,  and  should  therefore  remain 
as  they  were  in  1847,  and  that  no  buyiug-off  should  be  allowed. 

These  ordinances  have  also  been  published  in  the  official  journals  of 
several  provinces. 

The  government  of  Silesia  has  at  its  request  been  informed  by  an 
ordinance  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  of  April  9,  1852,  Z.  7997,  that 
protection  was  not  to  be  afforded  to  the  arbitrary  practices  introduced 
in  1848,  but  to  the  laws  as  existing  in  1847. 

The  ministry  of  justice,  in  its  note  of  December  30,  1851,  Z.  13740, 
declared  that  it  did  not  consider  it  proper  to  construe  the  regulations 
for  buying  off  privileges  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  proof  of  own- 
ership of  ground  bordering  on  the  water  sufficient  evidence  as  to  the 
ownership  of  the  water,  because  such  an  explanation  would  exceed  the 
legally  prescribed  functions  of  the  ministry,  and  would  scarcely  be  no- 
ticed by  the  civil  courts.  It  would  then  also  be  necessary,  if  any  one, 
in  accordance  with  §  4,  had  put  himself  in  possession  of  some  fishing- 
privilege,  and  a  dispute  should  arise  on  this  point  with  the  former'holder, 
that  the  decision,  and  therefore  also  the  explanation  of  the  law,  should 
belong  to  the  judge,  inasmuch  as  the  commissions  themselves  are  not 
competent  judges  in  disputes  relating  to  titles  of  possession. 

In  reviewing  the  different  notes  and  proclamations  of  the  ministries  in 
their  connection,  we  are  assured,  beyond  a  doubt,  that,  in  1851  and  1852, 
they  did  not  consider  themselves  justified  in  annulling,  by  a  ministerial 
ordinance,  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  statutes  of  June  27,  1849,  and 
the  Silesian  statute  of  July  11,  1849 ;  and  that  such  action  was  by  no 
means  intended  by  the  ministerial  ordinance  of  January  31, 1852,  Z.  4G0, 
even  if  a  faulty  practice  occasionally  led  to  such  erroneous  views. 

That  the  practice  was  not  the  same  everywhere  is  stated  expressly  in 
a  report  on  fishing-privileges  of  the  Silesian  assembly,  {StenograpMsclw 
Sitzungsberichte,  1869,  p.  310,)  in  which  it  is  said  that  in  that  province 
the  landed  proprietors  did  not  always  succeed,  and  that  in  fact  they 
made  no  great  exertions  to  restore  the  state  of  affairs  that  had  existed 
before  1848. 

In  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  fishing  is  likewise  carried  on  in  some  waters 
by  communities,  or  owners  of  the  shore,  without  any  dispute  arising 
from  this.  It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  fisheries  in  these  provinces 
have  been  declining  rapidly  since  the  year  1849,  since  the  innumerable 
small  subdivisions  of  the  fishing- waters,  where  frequently  the  left  bank 
of  a  stream  has  another  owner  than  the  right,  do  not  admit  of  a  rational 
and  profitable  culture,  and  since,  so  far,  all  attempts  at  reform  have 
proved  failures. 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  665 

24. — THE  BUYING-OFF  OF  FISHING-PRIVILEGES. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  what  confusion  was  occasioned 
among  the  fishing-privileges  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia  by  carry- 
ing out  the  buying-off  measures  only  to  a  limited  extent.  There  has  been 
no  lack  of  attempts  to  solve  the  many  difficult  problems  which  in  this 
respect  present  themselves  in  all  the  provinces  of  Austria. 

The  Silesian  assembly,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  this  confusion,  by 
enforcing  the  ordinance  of  July  11, 1849,  and  to  give  an  ear  to  complaints 
which  were  comiug  in  thick  and  fast,  proposed  to  make  a  new  law  de- 
claring fishing  in  the  waters  of  others,  in  brooks,  and  non-navigable 
rivers,  to  be  abolished,  and  to  give  the  right  to  the  owner  of  the  river  or 
brook,  and,  wherever  the  ownership  cannot  be  properly  proved,  to  the 
inhabitants  on  the  banks,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  property  they 
possess.  If  the  fisheries  are  to  be  developed,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  not,  there  is  no  other  way  but  to  gain  over  to  this  cause 
the  owner  of  the  river-bed  and  the  owner  of  the  bank. 

The  assembly  also  recommended  the  method  of  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  indemnity  mentioned  in  the  ministerial  ordinance  of  July 
11,  1849,  in  those  cases  where  it  could  be  proved  that  the  fishing- 
privilege  was  based  on  a  contract  made  with  the  owner  of  the  ground. 

At  the  same  time,  it  was  proposed  to  establish,  as  far  as  possible, 
large  fishing-districts,  where  the  business  could  be  carried  on  in  a 
rational  manner,  and  to  lease  them  on  long  time.  The  net  profits  from 
these  leases  should  be  distributed  among  the  inhabitants  on  the  shores 
in  due  proportion  to  the  extent  of  their  property  along  the  water's  edge. 

The  above  recommendations  were  referred  to  the  committee  on  agri- 
culture, but  no  discussion  was  reached  in  the  assembly. 

In  the  other  provinces,  the  very  important  question  was  also  frequent- 
ly discussed,  whether  there  should  be  any  legal  provisions  prescribing 
the  buying-off  of  those  fishing-privileges  which  were  exercised  in  the 
waters  of  others,  or  in  those  between  banks  owned  by  others  in  accord- 
ance with  the  older  laws. 

The  imperial  law  of  May  30,  1869,  on  those  regulations  regarding 
water-rights  which  are  left  to  the  decision  of  the  imperial  parliament, 
in  §§  2  to  7,  establishes  principles  on  the  juridical  character  of  waters 
which  have  been  of  great  importance  to  the  fisheries,  and,  in  its  §  2,  says 
expressly  that  rivers  and  streams  and  their  tributaries  shall  be  public 
property  from  the  place  where  they  become  navigable  for  ships  or  rafts; 
in  §  3,  the  same  is  said  with  certain  limitations  of  other  waters ;  and  in 
§  5,  private  brooks  and  other  running  waters  shall,  unless  otherwise 
decreed,  belong  to  those  tracts  of  ground  over  which  or  between  which 
they  flow,  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  bank  occupied  by  each  piece 
of  ground. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  proposed  to  turn  over  to  the  state  or  province 
all  the  fisheries,  or  at  least  those  in  the  so-called  public  waters  in 


666      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH  AND    FISHERIES. 

streams,  rivers,  lakes,  and  large  brooks ;  a  proper  indemnity  being,  of 
course,  paid  to  the  former  privilege-holders.  In  making  such  a  change, 
three  methods  or  systems  of  developing  the  fisheries  may  be  distin- 
guished. 

The  first  method  would  be  for  the  state  to  lease  the  fisheries  in  large 
portions,  and  by  the  terms  of  the  lease  oblige  the  lessee  to  protect  and 
increase  the  stock  of  fish.  This  system  is  at  present  in  vogue  in  France 
and  Belgium. 

The  second  method  would  be  for  the  state  to  sell  the  different  water- 
courses and  sheets  of  water  in  large  and  properly  connected  portions,  as 
is  done  at  the  present  time  in  England. 

According  to  the  third  method,  the  state  makes  the  fisheries  free  by 
issuing  a  certain  limited  number  of  fishing-permits,  as  is  done  in  several 
cantons  of  Switzerland. 

The  two  first  mentioned  methods  presuppose  that  there  is  a  sufficient 
number  of  capitalists  who  are  willing  to  rent  or  buy  the  fisheries  in 
large  portions,  and  to  carry  them  on  in  a  rational  manner ;  and  all  three 
methods  presuppose  that  the  state  has  become  the  exclusive  pro- 
prietor of  all  the  fishing-privileges,  either  by  free  agreement,  or,  as  this 
can  be  hoped  for  only  in  a  few  exceptional  cases,  by  an  intricate  and 
uncertain  buying-off  system,  so  that,  at  any  rate,  all  those  persons  who 
earned  their  living  from  the  fisheries  should  have  no  cause  to  complain. 

All  these  different  suppositions  and  conditions  on  which  a  radical 
change  of  the  fishing-privileges  would  be  beneficial  to  the  fisheries  do 
not  exist  with  us,  and  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  reform  would  be 
almost  insurmountable. 

Similar  propositions  have  recently  also  been  made  in  other  countries, 
as  in  Italy.  But  even  there,  where  there  is  no  opposition  from  principle  to 
such  propositions,  it  is  considered  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  make  a  good 
fishing-law.  The  Italian  report  says,  "As  soon  as  such  a  law  shall  have 
shown  its  beneficial  effect,  capitalists  will  be  easily  found  willing  to  buy 
or  rent  our  lake-fisheries,  and  then  the  time  will  have  arrived  to  carry 
out  the  bold  reform  which  has  been  proposed." 

There  is  another  proposition,  to  turn  over  the  fisheries  in  large  waters 
to  the  town  or  village  communities  owning  the  rights  of  the  shore;  and 
in  other  waters,  ponds  excepted,  to  the  owners  of  the  ground  along  the 
shore;  to  facilitate  the  buying-off  in  both  cases  by  a  law,  which  law 
should  also,  by  forming  suitable  fishing-districts,  regulate  operations 
still  further,  such  districts  either  to  be  leased  or  worked  in  the  interest 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  shores. 

The  fisheries,  or  the  usufruct  thereof,  were  in  future  to  be  under  con- 
trol of  districts,  communities,  or  private  individuals,  or  of  whichever 
of  these  had  paid  the  indemnity.  The  transfer  should  either  be  made 
on  a  certain  day  by  law,  and  the  indemnity  paid  later,  just  as  in  buying 
off  privileges  resting  on  landed  property,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
ordinance  of  September  7,  1848,  or,  only  after  the  indemnity  had  been 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  667 

paid,  iii  accordance  with  the  ordinance  of  July  5, 1853.  It  should  be 
made  either  by  the  authorities  or  by  mutual  agreement  between  the 
contracting  parties. 

Some  think  the  provinces  ought  to  issue  bonds  covering  the  amount 
of  the  exemption,  while  others  would  have  the  communities  or  private 
individuals  owning  the  shores  furnish  the  money  required  to  pay  the 
former  privilege-holders. 

Leaving  out  of  view  certain  minor  details,  which  could  be  arranged 
without  much  difficulty,  the  solution  of  the  chief  question  should  have 
proper  regard  to  the  fisheries  as  well  as  to  social  and  other  relations. 

In  order  to  make  the  owners  of  the  river-beds,  or,  more  properly  speak- 
ing, of  the  shores,  interested  in  the  development  of  this  industry,  it 
should  be  considered  an  important  point,  when  buying  off  the  privileges, 
to  remove  out  of  the  way  the  many  causes  of  disputes  between  privi- 
lege-holders and  owners  of  the  shore ;  and  to  produce  a  well-estab- 
lished state  of  affairs  on  a  secure  legal  basis.  This  has  been  done  in 
Silesia,  where  the  assembly,  guided  by  the  above-mentioned  considera- 
tions, has  taken  measures  to  continue  the  buying-off  of  fishing-privi- 
leges, which  had  been  commenced  in  accordance  with  the  general  regu- 
lations for  buying  off  liens  resting  on  landed  property,  but  which  so  far 
had  not  yet  beeu  fully  carried  out. 

In  several  reports,  we  find  the  remark  that  serious  complications  had 
arisen  since  1848  where  former  rulers  exercise  the  right  of  fishing  be- 
tweeu  lauds  belonging  to  their  former  subjects ;  and  that  the  abolition 
of  fishing-privileges  on  the  waters  of  others  in  the  three  provinces  of 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia  had  produced  a  desire  in  many  other 
provinces  to  see  the  same  thing  accomplished  with  them.  Fishing- 
privileges  have  frequently  remained  objects  of  dispute  in  the  three 
above-mentioned  provinces,  because  the  regulations  regarding  them 
had  not  yet  been  fully  carried  out,  and  in  other  provinces,  because  the 
titles  to  property  were  in  many  cases  not  perfectly  clear.  This  applies 
particularly  to  the  fisheries  in  mill-streams,  or  in  small  tributary  rivers, 
in  small  brooks,  where  fishing  was  rarely  carried  on,  and  where  the  area 
of  the  brook  was  frequently  entered  in  the  Kataster*  as  belonging  to 
village-communities,  or  to  the  persons  owning  the  lands  bordering  on 
such  brooks;  they,  at  any  rate,  paying  the  taxes  on  such  property.  It  is 
a  natural  consequence  of  such  doubts  and  disputes  that  the  owners  of 
the  shore  endeavor  to  keep  privilege-holders  and  superintending  officers 
away  from  it,  and  seek  to  hinder  all  measures  tending  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fisheries. 

Wherever  such  circumstances  prevail,  we  cannot  hope  to  see  the  fish- 
ing-laws carried  out  vigorously,  or  to  see  piscicultural  establishments 
founded ;  and  since  the  voluntary  abolition  of  the  fishing-privileges 
presents  too  many  difficulties,  most  holders  of  them,  communities,  and 

*  A  book  containing  the  surveys,  titles,  and  ownership  of  the  lands. 


668       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

owners  of  shore-lands  would  consider  a  law  regulating  the  buying-off 
of  privileges  a  great  benefit. 

Leases  calculated  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  fisheries  would  take 
the  place  of  worthless  fishing-privileges,  from  which  the  owners  derive 
no  real  benefit ;  former  privilege-holders,  especially  where  they  own  part 
of  the  shore,  would,  be  afforded  a  chance  to  lease,  and  smaller  owners 
of  shore  lands  would  see  their  income  increasing  by  the  rising  rent. 

It  is  hoped  that,  just  as  landed  proprietors  have  quietly  permitted  their 
farmers  to  hunt  on  their  property  ever  since  the  right  has  been  recog- 
nized by  the  law  as  forming  an  integral  part  of  such  property,  and.  since 
the  rent  forms  part  of  their  revenue,  so  also  they  will  permit  the  lessees 
of  fisheries,  not  only  to  catch,  but  also  to  protect  fish,  and  to  introduce 
all  those  measures,  such  as  fish-passes,  places  of  protection,  planting  of 
banks  with  trees,  &c,  which  are  essential  to  successful  fish-culture,  but 
which  at  present  are  almost  unknown  in  Austria.  Such  a  hope  is  also 
encouraged,  by  the  fact  that  even  an  extraordinarily  large  number  of 
fish  would  do  no  injury  to  agriculture,  which  can  certainly  not  be  said  of 
game. 

It  must  not,  on  the  other  hand,  be  overlooked  that,  by  abolishing  the 
old.  fishing-privileges,  and  simply  turning  the  fisheries  over  to  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  banks,  a  condition  of  affairs  may  be  produced  which  is 
calculated  to  decrease  rather  than  to  increase  the  number  of  fish.  This 
applies  particularly  to  countries  where  it  is  difficult  to  execute  the  fish- 
ing-laws in  an  efficient  manner. 

The  conditions  on  which  privileges  can  be  bought  off  should  form  the 
subject  of  another  law.  In  this  matter,  regard  should  be  had  to  the  dif- 
ferent wants  of  the  several  provinces  regarding  the  fisheries,  as  also  to 
all  other  circumstances  which  may  be  of  influence,  so  that  the  question 
whether  the  time  has  arrived  when  such  a  law  can  be  really  beneficial 
should  be  answered  separately  for  every  province. 

Whether  the  question  of  abolishing  the  privileges  in  any  of  our  prov- 
inces is  being  discussed  at  the  present  time,  or  whether  it  is  referred  to 
some  future  period,  it  will,  under  all  circumstances,  be  desirable  that 
such  abolition  should  not  take  place  before  a  good  fishing-law  has  defi- 
nitely settled  all  questions  relating  to  the  protection  and  practice  of  the 
fisheries,  especially  those  belonging  to  communities  and  owners  of  shore 
lands,  fishing-associations,  &c.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  abolition  of  privi- 
leges and  the  transfer  of  the  fisheries  to  communities  and  owners  of 
shore  lands  will  do  more  harm  than  good  to  the  industry.  It  would  also 
be  an  inestimable  benefit  if  the  new  owners  could  enter  on  their  pos- 
sessions with  that  feeling  of  security  which  only  a  practical  and  well- 
executed  law  produces,  and  if  the  great  landed  proprietors,  who  at 
present  own  fisheries,  could  have  the  chance  of  improving  them  further 
and  of  making  them  more  valuable. 

The  question  of  abolishing  the  fishing-privileges  has  not  yet  been 
fully  discussed  in  all  the  provinces,  nor  has  an  accurate  list  of  all  such 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  669 

privileges  been  made  out.  The  above  remarks  on  this  subject,  suggested 
by  the  material  at  my  command,  will  suffice  for  the  present ;  any  further 
discussion  being  at  this  time  neither  desirable  nor  possible. 

25. — INTERNATIONAL  FISHERY-TREATIES. 

Many  of  the  finer  kinds  of  Austrian  fish  are  migratory  species,  some 
of  which  live  part  of  the  time  in  the  sea.  The  salmon  come  from  the 
sea  into  the  Bohemian,  Moravian,  Silesian,  and  Galician  rivers  and 
their  tributaries,  spawn  there,  and  then  return.  In  the  Rhine,  the 
salmon  only  go  as  far  as  the  falls  near  Schaffhausen.  The  eels,  on  the 
other  hand,  usually  spawn  in  the  sea ;  the  young  ones  ascend  into  the 
fresh  water,  and  live  there  till  they  are  able  to  propagate  their  species, 
when  they  return  to  the  sea. 

Other  fish  remain  in  fresh  water,  lakes,  rivers,  and  brooks,  but  change 
their  location  according  to  their  size,  the  character  and  depth  of  the 
water,  temperature,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  food  found,  and  the 
more  or  less  favorable  location  of  the  spawning  places.  What  has  been 
said  of  salt-water  fish  applies  likewise  to  several  lake  species,  and  to 
some  living  in  large  rivers,  which,  during  the  spawning  season,  ascend 
the  tributaries  and  brooks. 

These  migrations  cause  a  community  of  interests  in  all  the  countries 
of  one  connected  water-system,  chiefly  with  regard  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  fish  and  the  protection  of  the  fisheries. 

If,  for  example,  the  free  passage  of  the  salmon  and  eel  from  the  Lower 
Elbe  is  prevented  by  the  fishermen  of  that  region,  if  they  are  there 
caught  at  the  wrong  season,  or  in  too  great  numbers,  all  the  fisheries  on 
the  Upper  Elbe  will  suffer  from  this,  and  all  the  efforts  to  improve  those 
of  Bohemia  will  prove  futile. 

In  the  Netherlands,  especially  in  the  mouths  of  the  Bhine,  the  salmon- 
fisheries  are  at  present  carried  on  in  such  a  destructive  manner,  with 
immense  seines,  that  only  in  very  exceptional  cases,  high  water,  &c, 
the  fish  escape  and  ascend  to  the  spawning  places;  for  during  the  sea- 
son when  the  salmon  ascend  the  rivers,  these  seines  are  hauled  uninter- 
ruptedly, even  on  Sundays;  they  take  up  the  whole  stream,  and  a  few  of 
them,  worked  at  short  distances  from  each  other,  are  sufficient  to  catch 
every  salmon  entering  the  river. 

The  lower  fishers,  however,  are  likewise  entirely  dependent  on  those 
higher  up  ;  for,  if  the  latter  disturb  the  salmon  while  they  are  spawning, 
and  catch  and  destroy  the  young  fish,  none  go  to  the  sea,  and  conse- 
quently none  return  from  there. 

In  large  connected  fishing  territories,  divided  between  several  coun- 
tries, each  one  is  dependent  on  the  others  for  its  fisheries.  Every 
country  by  itself  can  do  much  to  destroy  the  fisheries  of  the  whole  ter- 
ritory ;  but,  without  the  co-operation  of  the  other  countries,  it  is  not  able 
to  keep  them  up,  even  with  the  best  and  strictest  fishing-laws. 


670        REPORT   OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

The  community  of  interests  is  still  more  striking  in  rivers  which  fcrin 
the  boundary -line  between  different  countries.  Of  what  use  would  it 
be  to  prescribe  times  of  protection  when  the  fishermen  on  the  right 
bank  were  not  allowed  to  fish,  if  those  on  the  left  bank  were  allowed 
to  catch  all  through  the  spawning  season  ? 

In  such  a  manner  are  the  Austrian  fisheries,  especially  the  more  valu- 
able ones,  such  as  those  for  salmon  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and 
Galicia,  dependent  on  those  of  the  neighboring  countries.  The  absence 
of  a  good  fishing-law  in  North  Germany,  more  especially  respecting 
lawful  seasons  of  protection;  the  lack  of  any  law  regarding  places  of 
protection ;  the  utterly  destructive  way  in  which  here  and  there  salmon 
are  caught  with  seines;  the  many  weirs  and  other  hydraulic  construc- 
tions in  most  North  German  rivers,  which  hitherto  have  not  been  made 
harmless  by  fish-passes;  the  poisoning  of  the  waters  by  the  introduction 
of  noxious  substances;  the  numerous  automatic  salmon  and  eel  traps 
near  the  mills  in  those  rivers  and  streams  which  from  our  country  flow 
into  North  Germany  ;  all  these  causes  combined  have  injured  our  sal- 
mon-fisheries to  such  a  degree  that  at  present  but  few  salmon  ascend 
to  our  waters  from  the  sea. 

The  Austrian  government,  for  these  reasons,  endeavored  to  conclude 
treaties  with  all  the  states  bordering  on  the  Elbe,  as  early  as  1857,  so 
as  to  secure  the  free  passage  of  salmon  and  eels  from  the  sea  to  the 
Bohemian  waters  and  vice  versa.  These  negotiations  have  been  inter- 
rupted, but  will  be  taken  up  again. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  conclude  treaties  establishing  uniform  regu- 
lations between  Baden,  Bavaria,  Lichtenstein,  Austria,  Wiirtemberg, 
and  several  cantons  of  Switzerland  for  the  benefit  of  the  fisheries  in 
the  Lake  of  Constance  and  its  tributaries.  Such  a  treaty  was,  on  De- 
cember 9,  1869,  concluded  between  the  Baden  government  and  the 
Swiss  federal  council. 

A  similar  treaty  was  concluded  November  27,  18G9,  by  the  delegates 
of  all  the  states  on  the  Lower  Bhine,  from  Basle  downward,  but  failed 
to  be  ratified  by  the  Dutch  government,  as  the  lower  house  of  the  par- 
liament, by  a  majority  of  four,  voted  against  the  treaty;  and  it  is  sought 
to  reach  a  uniform  legislation  by  other  means. 

In  the  Netherlands,  there  is  at  present  a  new  law  in  preparation, 
which  is  to  regulate  the  salmon-fisheries  in  the  Bhine;  and  the  Deutsche 
Fisherei-  Verein  hopes,  by  laying  its  suggestions  before  the  most  famous 
ichthyologists,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  to  induce  the  Dutch  gov- 
ernment, in  its  own  interest,  to  pass  not  only  such  laws  as  will  include 
the  Mannheim  propositions,  but  will  even  be  an  improvement  on  them 
by  prohibiting  the  catching  of  salmon  in  the  Bhine  for  at  least  thirty- 
six  hours  every  week. 

A  fishing-treaty  between  all  the  states  bordering  on  the  Danube  has 
been  proposed,  as  likewise  one  relating  to  the  fisheries  in  Lake  Garda 
between  the  Austrian  and  Italian  governments. 


THE    FISHERY   INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  671 

Such  treaties  make  it  necessary  that  the  fishing-laws  of  the  several 
countries  should  accord  with  all  the  points  touched  in  the  treaties. 

We  give  below  the  full  text  of  the  treaty  between  Baden  and  Switzer- 
land, relating  to  the  fisheries  in  the  Ehine,  including  the  Unter  Lake,  (a 
portion  of  the  Lake  of  Constance.)  This  treaty  is  based  on  scientific 
principles,  and  on  the  experience  of  countries  where  strict  fishing-laws 
have  been  successfully  in  force  for  some  time. 

"  For  the  protection  and  increase  of  the  valuable  kinds  of  fish  in  the 
Ehine,  including  the  Unter  Lake  and  its  tributaries,  between  Constance 
and  Basle,  the  government  of  Baden  and  the  federal  council  of  Switzer- 
land have  resolved  to  draw  up  uniform  rules  for  the  fisheries  in  these 
waters,  and  have,  for  this  purpose,  appointed  the  following  delegates : 
His  Royal  Highness  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  his  Privy-Counselor  in 
the  Ministry  of  Commerce,  Dr.  Eudolph  Dietz ;  the  Federal  Council  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation,  the  Federal  Counselor,  Dr.  Karl  Schenk :  between 
whom,  after  their  credentials  had  been  found  to  be  correct,  the  follow- 
ing treaty,  waiting  a  future  ratification,  was  drawn  up : 

"Article  1.  In  the  Ehine  fisheries,  including  those  of  the  Unter 
Lake  and  its  tributaries,  between  Constance  and  Basle  all  stationary 
apparatus  (fish-weirs)  and  the  use  of  stationary  nets,  which  at  the  com- 
mon low- water  mark  on  a  line  drawn  at  right  angles  from  the  bank 
obstructs  more  than  one-half  of  the  breadth  of  the  river,  thus  hindering 
the  migration  of  fish,  are  prohibited.  'This  prohibition  only  applies  to 
those  waters  which*  contain  salmon.  The  distance  between  the  several 
poles  forming  the  fish-weir  intended  to  catch  salmon,  as  well  as  the 
distance  between  the  connecting  cross-poles,  must  be  at  least  10  centime- 
ters, (1  centimeter=0.39  inch.)  If  several  such  stationary  apparatus,  or 
several  stationary  nets,  are  set  at  the  same  time,  near  one  and  the  same 
bank,  or  on  the  opposite  bank,  they  must  be  placed  at  a  distance  from 
each  other  amounting  to  at  least  twice  that  of  the  largest  apparatus. 

"Article  2.  No  fishing-implements  of  any  kind  or  name  must  be 
used,  if,  when  moist,  their  openings  do  not  have  the  following  dimen- 
sions: a,  for  salmon-fishing, — bow-nets,  0  centimeters,  inside  4  centime- 
ters; &,  for  catching  other  large  fish, — 3  centimeters;  c,  for  catching 
small  fish, — 1^  centimeters.  Implements  used  in  taking  fish  for  bait  are 
not  subject  to  these  regulations. 

"  In  the  Ehine  between  SchaffLiausen  and  Basle  no  nets  are  to  be  used 
whose  openings  are  larger  than  3  centimeters. 

"In  regulating  nets  and  other  implements,  the  difference  of  one-tenth 
centimeter  shall  not  be  counted. 

"Article  3.  Floating  nets  must  not  be  placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
stick  to  the  bottom  or  remain  attached  to  anything. 

"Article  4.  All  means  employed  to  stun  fish,  as  well  as  the  use  of 
traps  with  springs,  spears,  guns,  or  pistols,  explosive  cartridges,  poles, 
and  other  contrivances  tending  to  wound  the  fish,  are  forbidden. 


672       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"  The  authorities  in  the  different  parts  of  the  country  may  permit 
exceptions  as  to  the  use  of  spears  and  guns  or  pistols. 

"  Fishing  with  hooks  and  lines  is  allowed. 

"  It  is  forbidden  to  drain  any  water-courses  dry  for  the  purpose  of  fish- 
ing. 

"The  governments  which  adopt  this  treaty  will  see  to  it  that  the 
so-called  automatic  traps  connected  with  mills  and  other  water-works 
are  as  much  as  possible  removed. 

"  The  placing  of  new  traps  of  this  kind  is  forbidden. 

"  Article  5.  The  following  kinds  of  fish  must  neither  be  offered  for 
sale  nor  sold,  if,  from  the  eye  to  the  commencement  of  the  anal  fin, 
they  have  not  at  least  the  following  length :  Salmon,  (Trutta  salar  Lin.,) 
35  centimeters;  lake-trout,  (Trutta  lacustris  Agass.,)  20  centimeters; 
brook-trout,  (Trutta  fario  Lin.,)  grayling  (Thymallus  vulgaris  Nilss.,) 
Eotheli,  (Salmo  salvelinus),  15  centimeters.  The  authorities  of  the  two 
countries  may,  for  these  measures,  substitute  the  corresponding  weights. 

"  If  fish  are  caught  which  have  not  this  weight  or  measure,  they  must 
immediately  be  thrown  back  into  the  water. 

"Article  6.  In  order  to  increase  the  number  of  salmon,  fishing 
is  every  year  entirely  suspended  in  the  Ehine  and  its  tributaries,  from 
Basle  upward,  from  the  15th  October  till  the  1st  January. 

"  In  the  time  from  the  1st  September  till  the  1st  January,  it  is  for- 
bidden to  offer  for  sale,  to  sell,  or  to  transport  Khine  salmon  which  are 
capable  of  spawning. 

"  During  the  seasons  of  protection,  the  respective  authorities  may 
allow  the  taking  of  salmon  to  be  used  in  piscicultural  establishments 
for  impregnating  eggs.  These  fish,  after  they  have  been  used  for  this 
purpose,  may,  under  the  proper  supervision  of  the  authorities,  be  offered 
for  sale,  sold,  or  transported. 

"  Article  7.  From  the  20th  October  till  the  20th  January,  it  is  for- 
bidden to  fish,  offer  for  sale,  or  to  sell  lake-trout,  salmon-trout,  and  brook- 
trout.  If,  during  this  period  fish  of  these  kinds  are  caught  accidentally, 
they  are  to  be  thrown  back  into  the  water  immediately. 

"  The  respective  authorities  may  permit  the  taking  of  these  kinds  of 
fish,  during  the  seasons  of  protection,  for  piscicultural  purposes,  and  also 
the  offering  for  sale  and  the  sale  of  lake-trout  after  these  have  been 
used  for  impregnation,  under  proper  supervision. 

"Article  8.  From  the  15th  April  till  the  end  of  May,  the  catching  of 
any  kind  of  fish — except  salmon  and  lake-trout — with  nets  and  bow-nets 
of  any  kind,  is  prohibited. 

"Article  9.  The  taking  of  fish  for  artificial  culture,  and  the  catching 
of  small  fry  to  serve  as  food  for  the  fish  in  the  piscicultural  establish- 
ments, may,  by  the  respective  authorities,  be  permitted  even  during 
the  season  of  protection  mentioned  in  article  8. 

"Article  10.  It  is  prohibited  to  throw  refuse  from  factories  or  other 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF   AUSTRIA.  67 


<■> 


substances  of  a  like  character  into  the  waters  in  such  quantities  as  to 
injure  the  fish  thereby. 

"  If,  in  some  places,  the  agricultural  or  industrial  interests  are  of 
greater  value  than  the  fisheries,  the  respective  authorities  may  permit 
such  substances  to  be  thrown  into  the  water,  taking  measures,  however, 
to  limit  the  injury  as  much  as  possible. 

"  The  respective  authorities  will  likewise  decide  whether  and  how 
far  the  above  regulations  shall  apply  to  existing  conduits  for  leading 
agricultural  or  industrial  refuse  into  the  water. 

"Article  11.  Both  contracting  states  will  see  to  it  that  the  number 
of  salmon  in  the  Ehine  and  its  tributaries  is  increased  by  hatching  a 
number  of  eggs  every  year,  and  by  placing  the  young  in  suitable  por- 
tions of  the  above-mentioned  waters.  They  will  likewise  see  to  it  that 
so-called  salmon-ladders  are  put  in  suitable  places,  to  assist  the  salmon 
and  trout  in  ascending  the  river. 

"Article  12.  Each  of  the  contracting  states  engages  to  make  the 
necessary  regulations  for  carrying  out  the  articles  of  this  treaty,  to 
repay  violations  by  suitable  punishments,  and  to  appoint  the  necessary 
officers  for  this  purpose. 

"The  present  treaty  shall  not  prevent  either  of  the  contracting  states 
from  making  still  stricter  regulations  for  the  protection  of  fish  on  their 
territory. 

"Article  13.  Each  of  the  contracting  states  shall  appoint  a  commis- 
sioner of  fisheries  for  its  territory. 

"  These  commissioners  are  to  inform  each  other  of  all  new  measures 
regarding  the  fisheries  which  their  governments  have  adopted  j  com- 
municate to  each  other  the  annual  reports  on  the  results  of  the  salmon- 
fisheries,  as  well  as  on  the  young  salmon  which  have  been  artificially 
hatched,  and  placed  in  the  water  j  and  shall,  by  correspondence  and 
occasional  meetings,  further  the  mutual  interests  of  the  fisheries  in  the 
Rhine  and  its  tributaries. 

"Article  14.  The  contracting  governments  will,  according  to  some 
plan  to  be  agreed  on  at  some  future  time,  make  investigations  as  to  the 
nature  and  life  of  fish,  especially  of  the  Salmonoidei,  and  communicate 
to  each  other  the  results  of  these  investigations. 

"Article  15.  This  treaty  will  take  effect  on  the  1st  of  July,  1870, 
and  remain  in  force  for  ten  years  counting  from  that  day ;  and  if  no 
warning  shall  have  been  given  by  either  of  the  contracting  parties  twelve 
months  before  the  end  of  the  period  mentioned,  it  shall  continue  from 
year  to  year  till  the  end  of  a  year  after  the  day  on  which  either  of  the 
contracting  parties  will  have  given  warning. 

"Article  1G.  If  the  treaty  concluded  November  27,  1SG9,  between  all 

the  states  bordering  on  the  Rhine  should  from  some  cause  not  take 

effect  on  the  1st  July,  1870,  but  at  a  later  date,  the  present  treaty  will 

likewise  not  take  effect  till  this  later  date. 

"Article  17.  Those  governments  on  whose  territory  there  are  portions 
43  f 


674       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

of  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  its  tributaries  may  become  parties  to 
this  treaty. 

"Those  portions  of  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  its  tributaries  which 
are  either  on  Swiss  or  Baden  territory  are  subject  to  the  articles  of 
this  treaty  as  soon  as  all  the  other  governments  holding  portions  of  the 
Lake  of  Constance  and  its  tributaries  will  have  become  parties  to  this 
treaty. 

"Article  IS.  This  treaty  shall  be  ratified,  and  the  customary  docu- 
ments exchanged,  on  the  1st  March,  1870,  or,  if  possible,  at  an  earlier 
date,  in  the  city  of  Berne. 

"In  witness  whereof  we  have  signed  this  treaty  and  affixed  our  seals. 

"  Done  in  the  city  of  Berne,  December  9,  1869." 

2G. — SALT-WATER   FISHERIES,  AND   THE  LAWS  RELATING  TO   THEM. 

There  are  very  important  salt-water  fisheries  on  the  Austrian  coasts, 
viz,  in  the  districts  of  Triest,  Gorz,  Gradisca,  and  Istria,  and  in  the 
kingdom  of  Dalmatia. 

These  may  be  considered  under  the  divisions  of  high-sea  fisheries  and 
coast-fisheries.  The  former  are  carried  on  in  the  open  sea,  and  the  latter 
in  gulfs  and  inlets  and  all  along  the  coast  as  far  as  a  gun-shot  will  reach. 

From  many  sources  we  glean  the  fact  that  the  salt-water  fisheries  in 
olden  times  contributed  more  to  the  thrift  and  wealth  of  the  towns  on 
the  coast  than  nowadays.  Of  the  high  prices  which  the  products  of 
the  sea  bring  in  far  distant  markets,  the  poor  fishermen  reap  but  little 
benefit.  It  often  happens  that  they  sell  the  results  of  their  laborious 
and  dangerous  trade  on  board  their  vessels  to  speculators  for  a  trifling 
sum,  and  these  latter  reap  the  profit  of  the  valuable  products  which 
the  fishermen  have  brought  up  from  the  store-houses  of  the  sea.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  a  suitable  organization  of  the  salt-water  fisheries  on  a  legal 
basis,  the  encouragement  of  such  institutions  as  the  valli  dipesca,  (see 
below,)  and  of  the  trade  in  salt-water  fish  with  Vienna  and  other  large 
cities,  would  increase  the  profits  of  the  fishermen  considerably. 

As  being  of  special  importance,  we  mention  the  so-called  valli  di 
pesca,  which  includes  inlets,  canals,  or  brackish  ponds  near  the  coast, 
that  have  been  artificially  closed,  and  are  used  for  raising  salt-water 
fish  and  shell-fish.  As  is  done  by  the  French  ministry  of  marine,  we 
likewise  grant  small  strips  of  land  near  the  coast  to  private  individuals 
for  establishing  such  artificial  waters,  so  that  every  inhabitant  of  the 
coast  is  enabled  to  have  his  own  little  fish-pond  or  oyster-bed. 

Mr.  Smarda  says  that  the  arrangements  of  these  brackish  ponds  on 
the  Austrian  coast  far  excel  anything  of  the  kind  in  France. 

The  taking  of  some  kinds  of  salt-water  fish,  such  as  sardines, 
mackerel,  and  tunnies,  is  most  profitable  if  carried  on  in  common  by 
a  number  of  fishermen,  and  should  therefore  be  regulated  with  a  view 
to  founding  properly  organized  associations. 

The  attention  of  legislators  has  most  frequently  been  given  to  the 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  675 

methods  of  fishing  termed  a  cocchia  or  alfondo,  and  those  termed  a  bra- 
gozzo  or  a  tartana. 

Fishing  a  cocchia  is  carried  on  with  a  deep,  narrow-meshed  net,  taper- 
ing off  into  a  long  bag,  which  by  leaden  weights  is  lowered  to  a  great 
depth,  even  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  where  it  is  dragged  along  by  two 
boats  sailing  parallel  with  each  other  at  a  small  distance  apart.  Fishing  a 
hragozzo  or  a  tartana  is  carried  on  with  a  similar  net,  which,  however,  is 
only  fastened  to  one  boat  by  means  of  poles.  As  these  nets,  which  are 
frequently  many  hundred  feet  long,  are  for  hours  dragged  along  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  before  the  fishermen  haul  them  in  at  some  point 
which  long  experience  has  indicated  to  them  as  particularly  favorable, 
they  catch  not  merely  all  the  fish  in  those  portions  of  the  sea,  but  like- 
wise destroy  the  algoe  and  sea-weeds  growing  on  the  bottom. 

Fishing  a  tartana  has  been  carried  on  from  time  immemorial,  while 
fishing  a  cocchia  came  into  use  on  our  coasts  only  during  the  last  cent- 
ury. 

The  greatest  masters  of  fishing  a  cocchia  are  the  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Chioggia  near  Venice,  who  visit  all  the  Austrian  coasts, 
especially  those  of  Dalmatia. 

Since  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  there  has  been  no  lack  of  prohi- 
bitions against  both  these  methods  of  fishing,  which,  however,  have  in- 
variably soon  been  revoked  or  permitted  to  fall  into  disuse. 

There  have  been  different  causes  for  such  contradictory  measures.  It 
could  not,  on  the  one  hand,  be  proved  that  these  methods  of  fishing  had 
diminished  the  number  of  fish  very  materially.  Just  as  the  harvests 
of  fields  vary  in  different  years,  so  was  the  decrease  in  the  quantity 
of  marine  products  only  a  temporary  one  ;  in  a  few  years,  the  fish  came 
again  in  large  numbers,  and  certain  species  which  had  disappeared 
entirely,  returned  after  some  time. 

It  must  be  granted,  on  the  other  hand,  that  fishing  a  cocchia  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  ingenious  and  efficient  method  employed  on  our 
coasts,  which  has  been  settled  on  by  the  fishermen  after  long  thought, 
and  the  experience  of  many  years,  and  that  it  would  be  exceedingly 
difficult  to  substitute  any  other  method.  It  was  not  only  a  feeling  of 
pity  for  the  families  of  poor  fishermen  which  prompted  the  authorities 
to  relax  their  severe  measures,  which  generally  were  caused  by  the  loud 
complaints  of  some  community  on  the  coast,  desirous  of  obtaining  a 
secure  monopoly  by  excluding  all  strangers  ;  but  as  long  as  no  sufficient 
proof  has  been  adduced  of  the  injurious  character  of  these  methods  of 
fishing,  such  prohibitory  measures  would  only  tend  to  raise  the  price  of 
fish,  and,  in  this  manner,  they  would  be  anything  but  beneficial  to  the 
poor  fishermen  and  the  general  public. 

Fishing  a  cocchia  is,  at  any  rate,  almost  impossible  on  most  coasts  on 
account  of  the  uneven,  and  especially  the  rising  bottom,  and  the  dense 
growth  of  sea-weeds  on  which  fish  deposit  their  spawn  ;  if,  therefore,  a  few 


676       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

spawning  places  should  be  destroyed  by  the  large  nets,  the  number 
remaining  would  still  be  very  large. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  the  entire  prohibition  of  this  and  of  simi- 
lar methods  of  fishing  is  scarcely  justified,  it  is  necessary  that  there 
should  be  certain  legally  prescribed  limitations ;  economical  and,  still 
more,  administrative  reasons  demand  the  proper  regulation  of  the  coast- 
fisheries,  and  certain  rules  as  to  the  formation,  rights,  and  duties  of  asso- 
ciations. 

In  this  respect,  the  coast-fisheries,  especially  those  carried  on  in  bays 
and  inlets,  do  not  differ  much  from  the  inland.  In  such  places,  the  ex- 
clusive rights  of  communities  and  landed  proprietors  have  been  respected ; 
while,  outside  of  such  narrow  limits,  salt-water  fishing  has  been  free. 

Legislation  has,  therefore,  directed  its  attention  to  the  above-men- 
tioned limited  portions  of  the  sea,  although  not  to  the  same  extent  as  to  the 
inland  fisheries.  As  an  example,  we  mention  that,  till  the  definite  regu- 
lation of  the  coast-fisheries,  the  use  of  torpedoes  and  other  explosives 
has  been  prohibited. 

With  regard  to  the  high-sea  or  open  sea  fisheries,  other  considerations 
prevail. 

The  productive  power  of  the  ocean,  in  its  unlimited  extent  and  its 
unfathomable  depths,  is,  with  regard  to  its  various  processes  and  their 
causes,  far  less  known  and  far  less  accessible  to  human  observation 
than  that  of  the  inland  waters. 

It  is  true  that  there  have  been  complaints  of  the  decrease  in  the 
wealth  of  fish  in  the  ocean ;  and  the  injurious  methods  of  fishing  are 
partly  assigned  as  the  cause. 

It  is  maintained  that  some  species  of  the  most  valuable  and  numerous 
salt-water  fish,  from  which  millions  of  money  were  formerly  gained, 
have  been  almost  totally  destroyed.  This  is  certainly  true  of  the  gigan- 
tic whales,  which,  even  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago,  were  so  numerous 
on  the  coasts  of  the  islands  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  It  is  likewise 
said  that  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  sardines,  cod-fish,  &c,  has  been 
observed  ;  while  others  deny  this,  especially  as  far  as  the  sardines  are 
concerned. 

We  consequently  find  two  opposing  views  on  the  high-sea  fisheries: 
the  one  demanding  complete  freedom  frorn  all  those  limitations  which 
only  quench  the  spirit  of  enterprise,  and  do  not  benefit  the  fisheries;  the 
other  fearing  that  the  erroneous  idea  of  an  unlimited  and  indestructible 
supply  of  fish,  the  disregard  of  all  protective  measures,  and  of  all  reg- 
ulations limiting  the  methods  of  fishing,  will,  in  the  end,  prove  disastrous 
to  the  salt-water  fisheries,  in  the  same  way  as  with  our  river  and  lake 
fisheries,  and  with  the  oyster-beds,  which  have  been  almost  totally 
destroyed  in  some  parts. 

Of  late  years,  there  have  been  many  attempts  to  obtain  a  legal  and 
economical  basis  for  the  high-sea  fisheries ;  and  seasons  of  protection, 
artificial  impregnation,  and  hatching,  &c,  have  been  spoken  of.     The 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  677 

difficulties  in  the  way  of  legislation  are  much  greater,  however,  than 
with  the  fresh-water  fisheries. 

The  open  sea,  beyond  the  reach  of  a  gun  on  shore,  is  the  common 
property  of  all  nations,  and  individual  states  have  no  right  to  legislate 
concerning  it. 

From  the  oldest  times,  fishing  in  the  open  sea  has  been  a  free  trade, 
bound  by  no  guilds  or  other  limitations.  As  an  old  document  says, 
"  The  fishermen  are  here  allowed  to  fish  as  far  as  they  want  to  risk 
their  necks." 

No  individual  state  would  desire  to  limit  the  enterprise  of  its  subjects 
on  the  open  sea,  thus  offering  a  chance  for  foreign  fishermen ;  and,  as  to 
international  legislation,  there  has  been  too  little  material  collected  on 
which  to  build  up  such  a  code  in  spite  of  the  numerous  reports  on  the 
subject  made  by  individual  states,  and  the  trustworthy  investigations 
of  the  influence  of  certain  methods  of  capture  on  the  fisheries. 

E.— CONCLUSION. 

In  reviewing  the  whole  subject  under  consideration,  we  can  briefly 
give  the  following  more  important  points,  which  should  be  kept  in  view 
for  any  future  regulation  of  the  Austrian  fresh-water  fisheries. 

The  reports  from  all  provinces  of  Austria  agree  that  the  fisheries 
which  formerly  were  in  a  very  flourishing  condition  have  declined.  The 
causes  of  this  decline  are  nearly  the  same  in  all  provinces.  Not 
to  meution  those  unavoidable  injuries  which  they  have  suffered 
from  the  progress  of  civilization  in  other  directions,  we  must  assign,  as 
prominent  causes,  the  entire  want  of  protection ;  numerous  rights 
and  privileges  which  absolutely  hinder  or  even  destroy  them  ;  the 
reckless  plundering  of  the  large  connected  waters  by  privilege-holders, 
each  one  being  at  war  with  the  other ;  and  the  total  neglect  of  all 
measures  which  tend  to  do  justice  to  the  fisheries  in  the  exercise  of 
water-rights,  even  in  cases  where  conflicting  interests  might  easily  have 
been  harmonized.  All  reports  agree  as  to  the  necessity  of  passing  laws 
for  protecting  and  promoting  them. 

In  some  provinces  of  Austria,  there  are  at  present,  if  we  except  laws 
applying  to  the  whole  monarchy  and  a  few  regulations  in  general  ordi- 
nances, no  laws  whatever  relating  to  the  fisheries.  Other  provinces 
possess  old  fishing-laws;  but  although  we  see  in  them  the  proof  that 
our  ancestors  desired  to  protect  this  important  branch  of  economy, 
although  they  might  in  many  respects — with  regard  to  the  formation  of 
associations  and  the  establishment  of  proper  protective  regulations — 
serve  as  models,  it  is  doubtful  whether  these  laws,  which  in  many  points 
are  utterly  at  variance  with  modern  ideas  and  statutes,  could  at  this  day 
be  enforced,  either  as  a  whole  or  in  part.  Many  of  the  provisions  of 
these  old  laws  no  longer  agree  with  the  present  advanced  state  of 
natural  sciences  and  technology.  The  most  important  relations  which 
a    statute    is  intended  to  regulate,    especially   with  regard  to  other 


678       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

trades  or  industries,  are  not  touched  in  the  fishing-laws  of  the  several 
provinces.  The  regulations  regarding  punishments  are  entirely  anti- 
quated, and  there  were  no  measures  for  making  tbe  law  more  effective, 
even  in  the  olden  times.  Most  of  these  statutes  have  fallen  into  oblivion, 
so  that  it  may  justly  be  said  tbat  in  none  of  the  provinces  of  Austria 
do  tbe  fisheries  enjoy  that  protection  by  laws  which  is  an  essential  condi- 
tion of  their  success. 

Tbe  decline  of  tbe  fisheries  must,  therefore,  be  mostly  ascribed  to 
defective  legislation,  or,  more  correctly  expressed,  to  the  utter  want 
of  legislation  regarding  the  protection  and  practice  thereof.  Most 
civilized  nations  are  either  ahead  of  us  in  making  new  fishing-laws 
suited  to  the  demands  of  modern  science,  or  are  on  the  point  of  re-or- 
ganizing tbeir  old  ones. 

The  beneficial  influence  of  such  practical  laws,  and  of  the  institutions 
called  to  life  by  them,  is  universally  recognized  among  these  nations, 
and  has  in  many  cases  been  proved  by  figures. 

There  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  natural  conditions  in  Aus- 
tria are  extremely  favorable  to  the  improvement  of  the  fisheries.  Few 
other  countries  possess  such  a  wealth  of  inland  waters,  streams, 
rivers,  brooks,  lakes,  and  ponds ;  most  of  these  have,  even  at  the 
present  day,  an  ample  supply  of  fish,  somewhat  diminished  as  to  num- 
bers, but  still  excelling  through  its  great  variety  of  fine  and  valuable 
sorts.  Science  and  experience  have  in  our  time  produced  such  a  num- 
ber of  improvements  in  the  fishing-trade — such  as  the  different  ways  of 
preserving  fish,  and  the  different  uses  to  which  the  products  of  the 
water  are  put — that  by  their  aid  it  becomes  possible  to  revive  our  fish- 
eries, in  spite  of  unfavorable  influences  to  which  they  are  exposed,  and 
without  in  the  least  injuring  the  more  important  interests  of  navigation, 
industry,  and  agriculture. 

Tbe  spirit  of  enterprise  has  also  in  Austria  again  turned  toward  this 
branch  of  productive  industry  ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  great  satisfaction 
that  not  only  many  great  landed  proprietors,  but  also  many  small  land- 
owners, peasants,  mechanics,  and  workingmen  have  founded  establish- 
ments for  artificial  fish-culture,  and  derive  considerable  profit  from  small 
sheets  of  water  either  owned  or  rented  by  them. 

In  some  provinces,  associations  have  been  formed,  having  for  their 
object  a  system  of  rational  fishing  and  fish-culture  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt 
tbat  such  associations,  adapted  to  the  peculiar  wants  of  the  fisheries, 
will,  if  supported  by  legislative  measures,  gain  ground  constantly. 

The  above  mentioned  manifold  evils,  which  have  hastened  the  decline 
of  the  fisheries,  have  also  prevented  any  practical  benefit  being  derived 
from  the  numerous  modem  inrprovenients  in  fishing  and  the  fish-trade. 

If  one  considers  the  enormous  profit  which  other  countries  derive 
from  their  lawfully  protected  fisheries,  and  then  applies  this  staudard  to 
our  extensive  waters,  it  becomes  absolutely  certain  that  as  soon  as 
a  proper  legislation  has  paved  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  all  the 


THE    FISHERY    INTERESTS    OF    AUSTRIA.  679 

modern  improvements  and  institutions,  the  results  of  the  fisheries  in 
Austria  will  be  no  less  brilliant ;  our  national  income  will  then  likewise 
increase,  and  these  advantages  must  be  rated  all  the  higher,  because 
the  point  in  question  is  to  provide  a  cheap  and  wholesome  article  of 
food,  accessible  to  all  classes  of  our  population,  for  which  no  substitute 
of  equal  value  can  be  found. 

Our  government  is  earnestly  endeavoring  to  extend  such  favors  to  the 
fisheries,  at  first  in  the  inland  waters,  as  are  commensurate  with  their 
importance  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  and  is  at  present  discussing  the 
draught  of  a  new  fishing-law,  based  on  the  most  careful  consideration  of 
all  the  reports  sent  to  the  ministries.  Our  review  may  serve  as  a  fore- 
runner of  this  law,  and  in  some  portions  as  a  fuller  commentary  on  the 
subject,  than  the  necessarily  limited  report  preceding  the  law  is  able 
to  give. 


XXX.-HOW  CAN  OUR  LAKES  AND  RIVERS  BE  AGAIN  STOCKED 
WITH  FISH  IN  THE  SHORTEST  POSSIBLE  TIME?* 


By  Mr.  von  dem  Borne, 
Landed  Proprietor  at  Berneuchen,  near  Wusterwltz.  Neumark,  t'russia. 


The  decline  of  our  fisheries  is  only  in  part  to  be  ascribed  to  the  prog- 
ress of  civilization ;  for,  to  a  great  extent,  it  has  been  caused  by  the 
senseless  manner  in  which  the  fisheries  have  been  carried  on.  If,  there- 
fore, the  fisheries  are  carried  on  in  a  rational  manner,  it  would  certainly 
be  easy  to  stock  our  waters  completely,  especially  if  we  take  into  con- 
sideration the  extraordinary  fruitfulness  and  the  rapid  growth  of  fish. 
Mr.  Horak,  the  superintendent  of  the  immense  ponds  at  Wittingau  in  Bo- 
hemia (covering  an  area  of  about  15,043  acres),  told  me  he  was  confi- 
dent that  he  could  in  a  few  years  stock  the  Elbe  to  its  utmost  capacity 
with  fish,  if  a  stop  were  put  to  the  plundering  of  the  river ;  and  I  am 
thoroughly  convinced  that  Mr.  Horak  is  right. 

The  first  question  to  be  settled  would  be  what  kinds  of  fish  would 
be  best  suited  for  making  our  waters  productive.  We  have  migratory 
fish,  like  the  salmon  and  the  May-fish,  which  live  in  the  sea,  but  spawn 
and  spend  their  first  youth  in  the  rivers ;  for  the  brooks  with  gravelly 
bottom,  we  have  the  trout  and  the  grayling;  and  for  the  deep  lakes, 
the  saibliug,  the  different  varieties  of  the  muraena,  the  raaken,  &c,  are 
of  importance.  For  shallow  lakes,  and  for  rivers  and  brooks  which 
have  no  gravelly  bottom  and  flow  slowly,  the  carp  is  undoubtedly  the 
most  suitable  fish.  We  will  now  devote  our  attention  to  the  last-men- 
tioned kinds  of  waters. 

Our  lakes  and  rivers  contain  fish  which  require  very  different  food, 
and  we  accordingly  divide  the  fish  into  fish  of  prey  and  peaceful  fish,  or 
mto  fish  living  on  fish,  those  living  on  insects,  and  those  living  on  plants. 
The  pike  chiefly  lives  on  fish,  the  perch  lives  on  fish  and  insects,  and  the 
carp  on  plants  and  insects.  In  the  household  of  nature,  the  occurrence 
of  fish  of  prey  aud  peaceful  fish  side  by  side  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 
Those  fish  which  live  on  plants  are  important,  because  they  find  most  of 
their  food  in  the  water,  and  consequently  produce  the  greatest  quantity 
of  flesh  in  a  given  sheet  of  water.  But  if  their  number  exceeds  a  certain 
limit,  so  that  the  quantity  of  food  does  no  longer  suffice  to  supply  the 
demand,  the  fish  not  only  decrease  in  size  but  also  in  number,  so  that 
the  total  weight  of  fish  produced  by  that  sheet  of  water  declines  steadily 
from  year  to  year.  This  is  remedied  by  the  fish  of  prey,  especially  the 
pike,  not  only  because  they  eat  the  small  fish,  but  also  because  they 

"From  Circular  No.  1,  1876,  of  the  Deutsche  Fisherei-Verein. 

6S1 


682       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

prevent  the  fully-matured  fish,  particularly  the  carp,  from  spawning. 
In  lakes  where  one  wishes  to  produce  a  great  quantity  of  young  fish,  it 
will,  therefore,  be  advantageous  to  have  no  fish  of  prey  ;  but  where  one 
intends  to  produce  large  and  heavy  fish  by  preventing  the  water  from 
one  lake  to  enter  another,  the  presence  of  fish  of  prey  offers  the  double 
advantage,  that  they  make  use  of  the  small  and  worthless  fish,  and  that 
they  further  the  growth  of  the  other  fish  by  diminishing  the  number. 

Among  the  fish  living  on  plants,  the  carp  is  the  most  valuable,  on 
account  of  its  rapid  growth  and  its  great  value  for  the  table.  It  has, 
moreover,  the  following  qualities,  which  are  very  desirable  for  the  pisci- 
culturist :  it  is  very  easy  to  produce  a  very  great  quantity  of  young- 
carps  ;  the  carp  is  a  very  hardy  fish,  and  has  but  few  wants ;  and,  finally, 
there  is  scarcely  a  fish  with  whose  conditions  and  mode  of  living  we  are 
so  well  acquainted,  as  it  has  been  raised  for  centuries  and  has  almost 
become  a  domestic  animal. 

The  carp  flourishes  so  well  in  our  stagnating  and  slow-flowing  waters 
that,  more  than  any  other  fish,  it  is  suited  to  make  our  fisheries  pro- 
ductive in  a  very  short  time. 

For  producing  great  quantities  of  young  carps,  shallow  ponds  are 
required,  which  contain  no  fish  of  prey,  and  can  be  drained  entirely.  It 
will  be  well  to  protect  the  young  fish  from  fish  of  prey  for  one  year,  and 
place  fish  two  years  old  into  the  open  waters.  They  are  at  that  age  so 
large  that  fish  of  prey  cannot  hurt  them  much.  If  there  are  no  ponds 
where  the  young  fish  can  be  placed,  thus  making  it  necessary  to  let  the 
young  fish  free  at  an  age  of  one  year,  this  should,  if  it  is  in  any  way 
possible,  be  done  in  spring.  During  winter,  the  carp  is  in  a  state  of 
torpor,  and  is  so  lazy  that  it  becomes  an  easy  prey  to  the  pike,  which  is 
particularly  voracious  at  that  season.  In  spring,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
carp  is  lively,  while  the  pike,  on  account  of  his  spawning,  has  become 
languid  and  sickly. 

Unless  the  country  is  perfectly  level,  there  is  nearly  everywhere  a 
chance  to  make  ponds  for  the  young  fish  ("  Streichteiche7,)j  as  nearly 
every  flowing  water  is  suitable  for  filling  such  ponds,  and  as  in  case  of 
necessity  even  rain  and  snow  will  supply  the  required  quantity  of  water. 

We  will  now,  in  accordance  with  the  experiments  made  on  the  estate 
of  Cottbus-Peitz,  in  Lusatia,  calculate  what  sized  sheets  of  water  can  be 
stocked  in  one  year  from  a  pond  of  a  given  size.  The  areas  of  the  differ- 
ent ponds  at  Peitz  are  as  follows  : 

For  fish  of  the  first  year,  (spawning  and  young  fish),  1  Morgen*. 

For  fish  of  the  second  year,  (growing  fish),  2  Morgen. 

For  fish  of  the  third  year,  3.4  Morgen. 

For  fish  of  the  fourth  year,  (when  the  fish  reach  their  full  size),  12 
Morgen. 

If  one  wishes  to  raise  two-year-old  fish  for  the  market,  15.4  Morgen 
water-area  would  be  required  for  the  next  two  years  for  every  3  ilior- 

*One  Morgen  =0.f>8Q8  of  an  acre. 


ON   STOCKING    LAKES   AND    RIVERS   WITH   FISH.  683 

gen,  occupied  the  first  year  with  young  fish,  if  such  ponds  are  used  as 
the  ones  in  Peitz.  If,  as  I  propose,  the  open  waters  shall  be  used  for 
the  complete  development  of  the  young  fish,  the  fact  must  be  taken  into 
account  that  our  lakes  and  rivers  contain  fish  of  prey,  and  that,  because 
they  cannot  be  drained,  they  can  never  become  so  entirely  exhausted  as 
the  ponds.  The  open  waters  can,  therefore,  not  be  stocked  as  fully  as 
the  "Abwaclisteiclie"  (ponds  where  the  fish  reach  their  full  size)  with- 
out running  the  risk  of  crowding  them  too  much,  particularly  as  the 
increase  of  the  carp  in  the  open  water  must  be  taken  into  account. 
I  would,  therefore,  propose  that  ponds  used  for  raising  two-year-old 
carp  for  the  market  should  every  year  stock  an  area  ten  times  their  size, 
believing  that  such  an  area  will  then  get  its  full  supply  of  fish. 

If,  for  instance,- the  Wittingau  lakes  in  Bohemia,  which  have  an  area 
of  15,043  acres,  were  to  be  used  for  restocking  the  open  waters  with  fish, 
150,430  acres  would  have  to  be  completely  stocked  every  year,  and  in 
ten  years  100  German  square  miles  of  water  would  be  fully  supplied 
with  fish. 

All  our  waters  could  doubtless  reach  the  highest  degree  of  product- 
iveness in  a  few  years,  if  we  were  to  raise  two-year-old  carp  in  our 
ponds,  and  let  the  open  waters  take  the  place  of  the  ponds  where  the 
fish  reach  their  full  size. 

That  the  owners  of  ponds  would  be  fully  repaid  for  their  trouble  will 
be  evident  from  the  following  instance :  On  the  estate  of  Baron  von 
Eothschild,  iu  Upper  Silesia,  2  to  3  feet  deep  puddles  in  the  villages 
are  used  as  ponds  for  raising  two-year-old  carp  for  stocking-purposes, 
and  are  drained  every  year.  These  ponds,  by  the  sale  of  such  two-year- 
old  carp,  yield  annually  a  net  profit  of  150  Mark  (about  $37.50)  per 
Morgen.  They  yield,  consequently,  ten  times  as  much  as  good  carp- 
ponds,  in  which  fish  are  raised  for  the  table,  and  more  than  the  best 
arable  land.  An  owner  of  ponds  can,  therefore,  best  increase  his  income 
by  favoring  as  much  as  possible  the  production  of  two-year-old  carp  for 
stocking-purposes. 

As  many  proprietors  of  fisheries  fear  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  catch 
carp  in  the  open  water,  I  can  assure  them,  from  personal  experience, 
that  if  the  waters  are  well  stocked,  large  quantities  of  fish  can  be  caught 
with  the  different  nets,  both  in  winter  and  summer. 

In  accordance  with  the  above,  1  Morgen  would  have  to  be  stocked 
with  about  sixty  two-year-old  carp. 


APPENDIX   E. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


XXXL— PRELIMINARY  REPORT  ON  A  SERIES  OF  DREDGINGS 

MADE  ON  THE   UNITED  STATES   COAST  SURVEY 

STEAMER  BACHE,  IN  THE  GULF  OF  MAINE, 

UNDER  THE  DIRECTION  OF  PROF.  S.  F.  BAIRD,  UNITED  STATES  FISH  COM- 
MISSIONER, DURING  SEPTEMBER,  1873. 


By  A.  S.  Packard,  Jk.,  M.  D. 


Though  it  was  the  original  intention  to  devote  the  month  to  an  ex- 
ploration of  the  Saint  George's  Banks,  it  was  decided,  on  account  of  our 
defective  boilers,  to  work  nearer  shore,  and  extend  the  work  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  for  the  season  located  in  Casco  Bay, 
the  dredging  operations  being  conducted  under  the  charge  of  Professor 
Verrill.  This  involved  an  examination  of  certain  unexplored  portions 
of  that  great  indentation  lying  between  Cape  Sable,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Cape  Cod,  which  is  laid  down  on  the  charts  as  the  "  Gulf  of  Maine." 

Through  the  researches  of  Messrs.  Stimpson,Verrill,  myself,  and  others, 
in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  of  Drs.  Gould,  Wheatland,  Stimpson,  and 
others,  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  together  with  the  very  thorough  examina- 
tion of  Casco  Bay  and  vicinity,  pursued  during  the  past  summer  by 
Professors  Baird  and  Verrill,  we  had  obtained  a  very  complete  knowl- 
edge of  the  coast-fauna  of  New  England  north  of  Cape  Cod.  Moreover, 
the  exploration  of  Saint  George's  Banks,  made  by  Messrs.  Smith,  Harger, 
and  myself  last  year  in  the  Bache,  had  given  us  some  idea  of  the 
nature  of  the  sea-bottom,  dredging  having  been  carried  on  at  a  depth  of 
432  fathoms  by  Messrs.  Smith  and  Harger. 

It  now  remained  to  explore  some  interesting  localities  within  Saint 
George's  Banks,  and  at  a  distance  from  the  coast.  This  report  embraces 
an  account  of  a  reconnaissance  of  Jeffrey's  Bank,  lying  south  of  Mount 
Desert  Island  ;  Cash's  Ledge,  another  bank  lying  southwest  of  Jeffrey's 
Bank ;  of  Jeffrey's  Ledge,  a  northeastern  submarine  prolongation  of 
Cape  Ann  ;  and  Stellwageu's  Bank,  a  northerly  submarine  extension  of 
Cape  Cod.  As  intermediate  points  were  investigated,  the  series  of 
dredgings  may  be  regarded  as  conducted  along  six  main  lines  running 
out  easterly  from  the  shore  between  Portland  and  Cape  Cod. 

On  the  2d  of  September,  the  Bache,  with  Lieutenant  Jaques  tempora- 
rily in  command,  left  Peak's  Island,  Casco  Bay,  the  headquarters  of 
Professor  Baird,  and  made  a  harbor  for  the  night  at  Booth  Bay.  Early 
the  next,  morning,  we  ran  out  and  dredged  about  "  Monhegan  Falls"  in 
60  fathoms,  searching  with  dredge,  tangles,  and  trawl  for  the  arctic 


G88        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

coral,  Primnoa  lepadifera,  a  species  of  sea-fan,  which  grows  about  three 
feet  in  height.  It  is  occasionally  met  with  in  the  fiords  of  Norway  at  a 
depth  of  300  fathoms,  while  fishermen  have  been  said  to  find  it  on  the 
ground  known  as  "  Monhegan  Falls",  and  a  specimen  two  feet  high, 
from  Saint  George's  Banks,  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Acad- 
emy of  Science  at  Salem,  Mass.  Our  efforts  to  find  it  were,  however, 
unavailing. 

We  then  ran  out  to  Jeffrey's  Bank,  and  trawled  in  82  fathoms,  bring- 
ing up  a  fine  Alecto  or  Coniatula,  a  near  ally  to  the  Crinoids.  This  was 
the  first  specimen  taken  by  the  Fish  Commission  during  the  summer. 
The  head  of  another  specimen  was  captured  on  Cash's  Ledge.  Near 
Jeffrey's  Bank,  we  also  dredged  in  deep  brown  mud,  at  a  depth  of  107 
fathoms,  with  a  temperature  of  39J°,  Hyalonema,  apparently  interme- 
diate between  H.  boreale  of  Loven  and  H.  longissimum  of  Sars  from 
Northern  Europe.  This  had  previously  been  found  off  Casco  Bay  by 
Professor  Yerrill.  Interesting  sponges,  allied  to  Holtenia,  also  occurred. 
Everywhere  on  Jeffrey's  Bank  and  Cash's  Ledge  the  mud  was  reddish- 
brown,  and  was  possibly  brought  by  currents  from  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 
This  red  mud  probably  extends  as  far  west  as  the  mouth  of  Kennebec 
River.  The  mud  about  Jeffrey's  Ledge  and  in  Massachusetts  Bay  is  of 
the  ordinary  blue  color. 

At  noon  of  September  4  the  sea  became  too  rough  to  dredge,  and  we 
ran  into  a  harbor  at  George's  Island,  north  of  Monhegan,  for  shelter, 
and  on  the  succeeding  day  returned  to  Portland  for  repairs. 

On  September  12  the  Bache  left  Portland  for  a  farther  exploration  of 
Jeffrey's  Bank,  and  on  the  loth  a  series  of  dredgings  was  made  on  each 
side  of  the  southern  extremity  of  it,  at  depths  of  GO,  105,  and  100  fathoms, 
with  excellent  success.  The  weather  appearing  threatening,  we  ran 
into  Portsmouth. 

On  the  16th  we  began  to  dredge  on  a  line  extending  from  Portsmouth  to 
Cash's  Ledge.  Stopping  to  dredge  on  either  side  of  Jeffrey's  Ledge, 
we  found,  in  a  deep- mud-hole,  95  to  98  fathoms,  fourteen  miles  S.  E.  J 
E.  of  Boon  Island  light,  with  a  temperature  of  37£°  and  41°,*  living 
ticliizaster  fragilis,  a  beautiful  sea-urchin;  Molpadia  oolitica,  a  sea-cu- 
cumber, not  previously  recorded  so  far  north  on  the  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica ;  Macoma  proximo,  and  Aporrhais  occidentalism  two  shells  rivaling  in 
size  individuals  dredged  by  the  reporter  in  shallow  water  in  Labrador ; 
and  tubes  of  Spioclicciopterus  typicus  Sars.  This  abyss,  so  near  the  shore, 
afforded  the  lowest  temperature  found  during  the  month's  work. 

The  results  of  the  exploration  on  Cash's  Ledge  were  extremely  inter- 
esting. At  depths  ranging  from  fifty  to  eighty  fathoms,  over  a  hard, 
gravelly  bottom,  characterized  by  multitudes  of  Ascidia  callosa,  or  sea- 
potatoes,  the  richest  assemblage  of  life  was  found  that  we  met  with  in 


#  The  readings  of  both  thermometers  used  are  given,  the  lowest  temperature,  that 
given  by  a  new  Casella-Miller  thermometer  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
probably  nearly  correct. 


DREDGINGS  MADE  IN  THE  GULF  OF  MAINE.       689 

the  gulf.  It  was  a  rare  sight  to  see  the  tangle  come  in  over  the  ship's 
side  hung  with  that  gorgeous  star-fish,  the  bright-red  Astrogonium  phry- 
gianum,  measuring  fully  eight  inches  across,  with  lesser  forms  of  sea- 
stars,  Asterias,  Cribella,  and  sand-stars,  an  enormous  sea-spider  or 
Nymphon,  Hyas  ara?iea,  an  arctic  spider-crab,  and  a  species  of  Janira, 
with  beautiful  sponges  allied  to  Tethya,  Thecophora,  and  Holtenia -\ike 
forms  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter,  these  latter  appearing  in  the 
trawl  with  Tealia  and  tubes  of  Cerianthus  borealis  of  Verrill,  a  large  sea- 
anemone.  The  excitement  was  shared  by  the  crew,  some  of  whom  aided 
in  the  tedious  work  of  separating  the  collections  from  the  strands  of  the 
tangle. 

On  our  way  back  to  Gloucester  we  again  dredged  on  each  side  of 
Jeffrey's  Ledge  at  depths  of  112  and  118  fathoms,  at  the  former  station 
east  of  the  bank  dredging  the  rare  Myxine  limpsa  Girard,  (bag-fish,)  in 
soft  mud,  with  a  bottom  temperature  in  both  stations  of  39°. 

On  the  23d,  dredgings  were  made  in  Salem  Harbor  and  off  Marble- 
head.  Two  days,  the  25th  and  26tb,  were  devoted  to  investigating  the 
summit  of  Jeffrey's  Ledge,  at  a  distance  of  nine  to  eighteen  miles  east 
of  Cape  Ann.  The  temperature  here  was  between  40°  and  49°  in  about 
twenty-five  fathoms,  a  difference  of  about  ten  degrees  from  that  of  the 
abysses  on  each  side  of  this  submarine  elevation.  Both  here  and  after- 
ward we  used  two  dredges,  one  being  thrown  over  from  the  bows,  the 
other  cast  from  the  stern  of  the  vessel,  while  the  tangle  was  put  over 
from  the  side. 

On  the  27th,  we  began  to  run  a  line  of  dredgings  and  soundings  from 
Oape  Ann  to  Cape  Cod,  crossing  the  middle  of  Stellwagen's  Bank. 

Dredging  in  depths  between  fifty  and  sixty  fathoms  in  soft,  blue  mud, 
northwest  of  Stellwagen's  Bank,  in  the  deepest  portions  of  Massachu- 
setts Bay,  the  fauna  was  found  to  closely  resemble  that  of  similar 
localities  on  each  side  of  Jeffrey's  Ledge,  the  assemblage  not  more 
southern  in  character,  while  the  temperature  of  the  bottom  water 
ranged  between  41J°  and  45°  (two  thermometers  being  used  as  before). 
In  one  haul  of  the  tangle,  ninety-five  Ctenodiscus  crispatus,  the  common 
pentagonal  star-fish  of  muddy  bottoms,  were  brought  up,  with  several 
very  large  Asterias  vulgaris  f  and  several  young  Solaster  endeca  and 
papposa  ;  also  a  gigantic  Corymorplia,  a  hydroid  polyp,  six  inches  in 
height,  and  fully  half  an  inch  in  diameter  near  the  base.  We  found  on 
Stellwagen's  Bank,  in  22-30  fathoms,  coarse  sand,  temperature  4S^°  to 
50J°,  an  abundance  of  Mactra  polynema,  the  hen-clam,  Cyprina  islandica, 
a  shell  resembling  the  quahaug,  and  Glycimeris  siliqua,  with  five  sponges. 
The  Corymorplia  was  abundant  here,  and  the  tangle  brought  up  at  a 
single  haul  from  300  to  400  star-fish,  mostly  Asterias.  At  night,  about 
ten  miles  north  of  Cape  Bace,  the  tangle  was  kept  over  from  half  past 
ten  until  two  o'clock,  when  it  came  up  loaded  with  Astrophyton,  or 
Medusa's-head,  and  other  kinds  of  star-fish,  the  temperature  being 

between  48°  and  50°,  at  a  depth  of  34  fathoms. 
44  f 


690        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

But  by  far  the  most  interesting  results  were  obtained  at  a  distance  of 
about  20  miles  east  of  Cape  Race,  in  deptbs  of  117  and  142  fathoms,  with 
a  bottom  temperature  of  39°  to  43£°,  the  former  (39°)  probably  the  more 
accurate  determination.  Here,  in  a  remarkably  tenacious  soft  blue  mud, 
we  found  indications  of  an  intermixture  of  the  abyssal  fauna,  character- 
istic of  depths  in  the  North  Atlantic,  between  100  and  1,000  fathoms,  with 
a  temperature  of  about  39°  Fahrenheit.  At  the  first  station  examined, 
in  142  fathoms,  temperature  39°  to  42°,  a  large  female  Geryon,  of  a  deep- 
reddish  flesh  color,  occurred,  having  more  spines  on  the  carapace  than 
in  G.  tridens,  and  with  eggs.  Associated  with  this  arctic  crab  occurred 
two  fragments  of  a  true  cup-coral,  allied  to  Cyathopliyllum.  On  submit- 
ting the  specimen  to  Count  Pourtales,  he  at  once  pronounced  it  a  species 
of  Deltocyatlms,  and,  on  comparison  with  specimens  of  D.  Agassizii, 
Pourtales,*  from  depths  ranging  from  60  to  327  fathoms  between  Cuba 
and  Florida,  our  specimens  did  not  differ  specifically.  Pourtales  re- 
marks (page  15)  that  this  coral  has  been  pronounced  by  Dr.  Duncan 
identical  with  the  fossil  species  D.  italicus,  and,  though  closely  allied, 
yet  readily  distinguished  by  the  costse  and  other  characters.  I  may 
say  here  that  the  indications  are  that  the  coral  was  not  transported  to 
this  spot.  This  is  the  only  truly  southern  form  which  has  occurred  so 
far  north.  With  the  crab  and  coral  occurred  Schizaster  fragilis  and 
certain  shells  and  worms. 

The  other  station  was  ten  miles  northwest,  in  117  fathoms,  with  the 
same  soft,  tenacious  mud,  the  temperature  394°  to  43|°.  Here  occurred 
a  smaller  Geryon,  perhaps  a  male,  and  apparently,  judging  by  Wyville 
Thomson's  figures  in  his  work  "The  Depths  of  the  Sea"  (page  88), 
identical  with  Kroyer's  Geryon  tridens.  With  this  crab  were  associated 
shells  and  worms.  This  day  ended  our  explorations,  and  at  night  the 
Bache  arrived  in  Salem. 

In  my  work  1  was  assisted  by  Mr.  C.  Cooke,  assistant  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Science  at  Salem.  I  would  also  express  my 
obligations  to  Captain  Howell  and  the  officers  of  the  Bache  for  the  effi- 
cient aid  they  rendered  me. 

*  Illustrated  Catalogue  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  iv.  Deep  Sea  Corals. 
By  L.  F.  de  Pourtales,  assistant,  United  States  Coast  Survey.    1871. 


XXXII.— LIST  OF  THE  MARINE  ALGiE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


By  W.  G.  Farlow,  M.  D. 


Class  ALG^. 
Subclass  FLORIDE^. 

Order  EHODOMELE^J 
(inc.  Laurenciele). 

Amansia  multifida,  Lmx. 

Key  West;  West  Indies ;  Brazil. 
Dasya  Gibbesii,  Harv. 

Key  West ;  Cuba. 

Dasya  elegans,  Ag.    Chenille. 

Key  West  to  Cape  Cod;  Salem,  Mass?;  Southern  Europe;  West 

Indies. 

Dasya  ramosissema,  Harv. 

Key  West. 
Dasya  Harveyi,  Ashmead. 

Key  West. 
Dasya  mollis,  Harv. 

Key  West ;  Cuba. 
Dasya  mucronata,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

Dasya  Wurdemanni,  Bailey. 
Key  West. 

Dasya  Callithamnion,  Harv. 

San  Diego ;  Santa  Barbara,  Cal. 

Dasya  Tumanowiczi,  Gatty. 

Key  West. 
Dasya  lophocladqs,  Mont. 

Key  West.  i 

Dasya  plumosa,  Bail,  and  Harv. 
Pacific  coast. 

*  The  classification  adopted  is  a  modification  of  that  given  by  Thuret  in  Le  Jolis's 
Liste  des  Algues  Marines  de  Cherbourg. 


692      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
BOSTRYCHIA  MONTAGNEI,  Hai'V. 

Key  West. 

BOSTRYCHIA  CALAMISTRATA,  Mont. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies  ;  Pacific  Ocean. 

BOSTRYCHIA  RIVULARIS,  Harv. 

Isle  of  Shoals,  N.  H.,  to  Florida;  Australia. 
Bostrychia  Tuomeyi,  Harv. 

Florida ;  Pacific  Ocean. 
BOSTRYCHIA  MORITZIANA,  Mont. 

Florida;  Guiana;  and  the  West  Indies. 

POLYSIPHONIA  URCEOLATA,  Grev. 

New  York,  northward ;  California.  North  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 
Var.  patens,  Cape  Ann,  Mass.;  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.  Var.  formosa, 
New  England. 

POLYSIPHONIA  SENTICULOSA,  Harv. 

Santa  Cruz,  Cal.;  Vancouver's  Island. 

POLYSIPHONIA  HAVANENSIS,  Mont. 

Yar.  Binneyi,  Ag.,  Key  West ;  France ;  West  Indies. 

POLYSIPHONIA  FERULACEA,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies ;  Pacific  Ocean  ;  Australia. 

POLYSIPHONIA  SUBTILISSIMA,  Mont. 

Jackson's  Ferry,  West  Point,  N.  Y. ;  Providence,  R.  I. ;  New- 
buryport,  Mass. ;  southward  to  Guiana. 

POLYSIPHONIA  SECUNDA,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Southern  Europe. 

POLYSIPHONIA  FRACTA,   Ilarv. 

Key  West. 

POLYSIPHONIA  ECHINATA,   Harv. 

Key  West. 

POLYSIPHONIA  HAPALACANTHA,   Harv. 

Key  West. 

POLYSIPHONIA   GORGONLS!,   Harv. 

Key  West ;  Loo  Choo  Islands. 
Polysiphonia  Olneyi,  Harv.    Dough-balls. 
Long  Island  Sound. 

Polysiphonia  Harveyi,  Bail.    Nigger-hair. 

New  York,  northward.     Yar.  arietina,  Harv.,  same  limits. 
Polysiphonia  hirta,  Ag. 

•    Key  West ;  Mediterranean. 

Polysiphonia  elongata,  Grev.    Lobster-claws. 

Long  Island  Souud  to  Lynn,  Mass. ;  Europe. 
Polysiphonia  violacea,  Grev. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe. 


MARINE    ALG2E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  693 

POLYSIPHONIA  FIBRILLOSA,   Grev. 

Noank,  Conn.;  Orient  Point,  L.  I.  ;  Wood's  Hole,  Mass.;  Europe. 

POLYSIPHONIA  COLLABENS,  Ag. 

San  Diego,  Cal.?;  Southern  Europe. 

POLYSIPHONIA  VARIEGATA,  Ag. 

Cape  Cod,  southward ;  Europe. 

POLYSIPHONIA   PENNATA,    Ag. 

Southern  California ;  Southern  Europe ;  Australia. 

POLYSIPHONIA  PARASITICA,   GrCV. 

California  ;  Rhode  Island  % ;  Europe.    Var.  dendroidea,  Ag.,  Cali- 
fornia ;  Chili. 

POLYSIPHONIA  BAILEYI,  Ag. 

Pacific  coast. 
Polysiphonia  Pecten-veneris,  Harv. 

Florida. 
Polysiphonia  exilis,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

Polysiphonia  atrorubescens,  Grev. 

New  York  to  Cape  Ann;  west  coast?;  Europe;  Africa;  Falk- 
land Isles. 
Polysiphonia  bipinnata,  Post,  and  Rupr. 

West  coast ;  North  Pacific. 
Polysiphonia  Woodii,  Harv. 

West  coast. 
Polysiphonia  nigrescens,  Grev. 

East  and  west  coasts;  Europe. 
Polysiphonia  verticillata,  Harv. 

California. 

Polysiphonia  fastigiata,  Grev. 

New  York,  northward ;  California  ? ;  Europe. 

Odonthalia  aleutica,  Ag. 

Oregon ;  North  Pacific. 
Odonthalia  Lyallii,  Harv. 

Vancouver's  Island. 
Odonthalia  dentata,  Lyngb. 

California  ;  New  England  ?  ;    Northern  Europe ;   Nova  Scotia ; 
Canada. 
Rhodomela  Larix,  Ag. 

Oregon  and  California ;  North  Pacific. 
Rhodomela  floccosa,  Ag. 

Oregon  and  California ;  North  Pacific. 
Rhodomela  subfusca,  Ag. 

New  York  northward.    Var.  gracilis,  same  limits.    Var.  Rochei, 
Long  Island  Sound ;  North  Atlantic,  and  Pacific 


694      REPORT    OF   COMMISSIONER    0*    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
DlGENIA  SIMPLEX,  Ag. 

Key  West;  Southern  Europe ;  Indian  Ocean ;  Red  Sea. 
Bryothamnion  triangulare,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indes  ;  Brazil. 
Bryothajvxnion  Seaforthii,  Ag. 

Florida  to  Brazil. 
Alsidium  Blodgettii,  Harv. 

North  Carolina  and  southward. 

ACANTHOPHORA  THIERII,  Lmx. 

Florida  to  Brazil ;  Pacific  Ocean. 

ACANTHOPHORA  MUSCOIDES,  Ag. 

Florida  to  Brazil ;  east  coast  of  Africa. 

ACANTHOPHORA  DELILEI,  LniX. 

Florida  ;  Mediterranean  and  Bed  Seas. 

Chondria  dasyphylla,  Ag. 

Cape  Cod,  southward  ;  Europe  ;  Australia. 

Chondria  striolata,  Ag.  (C.  Baileyana,  Mont.). 
Cape  Cod,  southward  ;  Adriatic  Sea. 

Chondria  tenuissima,  Ag. 

Long  Island  Sound  ;  Europe  ;  Australia. 

Chondria  littoralis,  Harv. 

Wood's  Hole,  Mass.;  Florida  ;  Mexico. 
Chondria  atropurpurea,  Harv. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  and  southward  ;  California. 

Chondria  nidifica,  Harv. 

Pacific  coast. 
Laurencia  pinnatifida,  Lmx.    Pepper-dulse. 

California;  Europe;  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  and  Bed  Sea. 
Laurencia  virgata,  Ag. 

California ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Laurencia  obtusa,  Lmx. 

Florida :  California ;  common  in  all  tropical  seas. 
Laurencia  implicata,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

Laurencia  cervicornis,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Laurencia  gemmifera,  Harv. 

Florida. 
Laurencia  papillosa,  Grev. 

Florida ;  common  in  all  tropical  seas. 
Laurencia  paniculata,  Ag. 

Key  West;  Atlantic  coast  of  Spain ;  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic 
Seas. 


MARINE    ALG.E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  695 

Order  CHYLOCLADIEiE. 

Chylocladia  ovalis,  Hook.    (Lomentaria,  Endl.) 

California.    Var.  Coulteri,  Harv.,  California;  Europe. 

*?  LOMENTARIA  SACCATA,  J.  Ag. 

California. 

Order  SPHiEROCOCCOIDEiE. 

Grinnellia  Americana,  Harv. 

Long  Island  Sound  to  Norfolk,  Va. 

Delesseria  sinuosa,  Linx. 

Long  Island  Sound,  northward  ;  Europe;  Arctic  Ocean. 
Delesseria  quercifolia,  Bory. 

California  ;  Cape  Horn  and  Antarctic  Ocean. 

Delesseria  alata,  Lmx. 

Nahant,  Mass.,  northward  ;  Northern  Europe. 

Delesseria  angustissima,  Griff. 

Gloucester,  Mass. ;  Great  Britain. 

Delesseria  Woodii,  Ag.,  Bidrag. 
Vancouver's  Island. 

Delesseria  Hypoglossum,  Lmx. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  and  southward ;  Europe. 

Delesseria  tenuifolia,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Delesseria  involvens,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Delesseria  Leprieurii,  Mont. 

West  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  southward ;  in  tropical  and  subtropical 
seas. 
Delesseria  decipiens,  Ag.,  Bidrag. 

West  coast. 

Nitophyllum  punctatum,  var.  ocellatum,  Grev. 

Sinithville,  N.  C. ;  Key  West;  Europe;  Tasmania. 

Nitophyllum  spectable,  Eaton,  mscr. 
California. 

NlTOPHYLLUM  LACERATUM,  Grev. 

California;  Europe. 
Nitophyllum  LATissiMUM,  Ag.,  Bidrag. 

California. 
Nitophyllum  AREOLATUM,  Eaton,  mscr. 

California. 

Nitophyllum  Fryeanum,  Harv. 
California. 


696       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 
NlTOPHYLLUM  (NeUROGLOSSUM)  ANDERSONII,  Ag. 

California, 

NlTOPHYLLUM  EUPRECHTIANUM,  Ag.,  Bidrag. 

West  coast. 
Nitophyllum  fissum,  Ag.,  Bidrag. 

West  coast  % ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Peru. 

Calliblephaeis  ciliata,  Kiitz. 

Cape  Add,  Mass.,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Gracilaria  multipartita,  Ag. 

East  and  west  coasts;  Europe.    Var.  angustissima,  Harv.,  New 
York  to  Cape  Cod. 

Gracilaria  compressa,  Grev. 

Key  West ;  Europe. 
Gracilaria  cervicornis,  Ag. 

Key  West  to  Brazil. 

Gracilaria  confervoides,  Grev. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  and  southward;  California;  Oregon;  Europe; 
East  and  West  Indies  ;  Australia. 

Gracilaria  armata,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic  Seas. 

Gracilaria  divaricata,  Harv. 

KejT  West. 
Gracilaria  Poitei,  Lmx. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

?  Gracilaria  dam^cornis,  Ag. 
Atlantic  coast. 

Gracilaria?  Blodgettii,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

Order  CORALLINES. 

*CORALLINA  OFFICINALIS,  L. 

New  York,  northward;   California  and  Oregon;  Europe;  North 
Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

CORALLINA  SQUAMATA,  Ellis  and  Sol. 

California;  Europe. 

Jania  rubens,  Lmx. 

Key  West;  San  Diego,  Cal.j  Europe;  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Pa- 
cific Ocean. 

Jania  Cubensis,  Mont. 

Key  West;  Cuba. 
Jania  capillacea,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

Amphiroa  fragillissima,  Lmx. 
Florida;  West  Indies. 


MARINE    ALGiE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  697 

Amphiroa  debilis,  Kiitz. 

Florida ;  West  Indies. 
Amphiroa  Californica,  Deeaisue. 

West  eoast. 
Melobesia  membranacea,  Linx. 

East  coast;  Europe;  Australia. 
Melobesia  farinosa,  Lmx. 

East  coast;  Europe;  Australia. 
Melobesia  pustulata,  Linx.  • 

East  and  west  coasts;  Europe;  Australia. 

LlTHOTHAMNION  POLYMORPHUM,  Aresch. 

Eastport,  Me.;  Europe. 

HlLDENBRANDTIA  ROSEA,  Kiitz. 

New  England  coast;  Europe. 

Order  GELIDIE.E. 

Gelidium  corneum,  Linx. 

Florida;  California.  Var.  crinale,  Charleston,  S.  C;  New  Haven, 
Conn. ;  Wood's  Hole,  Mass. ;  Portland,  Me.  Found  in  almost 
all  seas. 

Gelidium  cartilagineum,  Grev. 

Santa  Cruz;  San  Diego,  Cal. ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Madagascar; 
Philippine  Islands ;  Brazil. 

Gelidium  Coulteri,  Harv. 
California. 

WURDEMANNIA  SETACEA,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

EUCHEUMA  ISIFORME,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 
Eucheuma1?  ACANTHOCLADUM,  Ag.  (Chrijsymenia,  Harv.) 
Key  West. 

Order  HYPNEA 

Hypnea  musoiformis,  Lmx. 

Wood's  Hole,  Mass.,  and  southward;  California.  In  nearly  all 
temperate  and  tropical  seas. 

Hypnea?  crinalis,  Harv. 
California. 

Hypnea  divaricata,  Grev. 

Key  West ;  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  Australia. 
Hypnea  cornuta,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Pacific  Ocean. 


698       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Order  BHODYMENIE^. 

Ehodymenia  palmata,  Grev.     Common  dulse. 

North  Carolina,  northward ;  west  coast?;  Europe;  Cape  Horn,  &c. 
Ehodymenia  Palmetta,  Grev. 

Halifax,  N.  S.;  Southern  California ;  Europe.     , 
Ehodymenia  corallina,  Grev. 

Southern  California;  Chili;  New  Zealand  ;  Antarctic  Ocean. 

EUTHORA  CRISTATA,  Ag. 

Nahant,   Mass.,    and   ndrthward,   common ;    dredged  off   Block 
Island,  E.  I.,  and  off  Gay  Head,  Mass.;  Northern  Europe. 
Plooamium  coccineum,  Lyngb. 

West  coast,  common  ;  East  coast  H ;  found  in  some  form  in  nearly 
all  seas. 
Stenogramma  interrtjpta,  Mont. 

California;  Australia;  Europe. 
Pikea  Californica,  Harv. 

California. 
Champia  paryula,  Harv. 

Cape  Cod,  southward  ;  Europe. 
Lomentaria  Baileyana,  Farlow  (Chylocladia,  Harv.). 

Cape  Cod  southward  to  West  Indies. 
Lomentaria  rosea,  Thuret. 

Newport.  E.  I. ;  Gay  Head,  Mass.;  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ;  Europe. 
Ehabdonia  tenera,  Ag.,  Bidrag  (Solieria  chordalis,  Ner.  Am.  Bor.). 

Cape  Cod,  southward  ;  West  Indies. 
Ehabdonia  Coulteri,  Harv. 

California. 
Ehabdonia  ramosissima,  Ag.,  Bidrag  (Chrysymenia,  Harv.). 

Key  West. 

?CORDYLECLADIA  HUNTH,  Harv. 

Narragansett  Bay. 
Cordylecladia?  IRREGULARIS,  Harv.  (Chylocladia  rigens,  Ag.). 
Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

CORDYLECLADIA  CONFERTA,  Ag. 

San  Diego,  Cal. ;  Spain  ;  Algeria. 

Order   SPONGIOCAEPE^J. 

POLYIDES  ROTUNDUS,  Ag. 

New  York,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Order  SQUAMAEIE^E. 

Peyssonnelia  atro-purpurea,  Crouan?. 
Key  West ;  Eastport,  Me. ;  Europe. 


MAEINE    ALG^E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  699 

Order  BATRACHOSPERME^E. 

Helminthora  divaricata,  Ag. 
Key  West;  Europe. 

Nemalion  multifidum,  Ag. 

Watch  Hill,  R.  I.,  and  northward ;  Europe. 

SCINAIA  FURCELLATA,  Bivon. 

Newport,  R.  I. ;  Gay  Head,  Katama,  Mass. ;  California.    Var.  un- 
dulata,  San  Diego,  Cal.  ;  Europe.    Generally  in  the  warmer  seas. 

LlAGORA  VALIDA,  Harv. 

Florida. 

LlAGORA  PINNATA,  Harv. 

Florida. 
LlAGORA  LEPROSA,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  Loo  Choo  Islands. 

Ltagora  pulverulenta,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  Japan. 

Liagora  farionicolor,  Melville. 
Key  West. 

Liagora  Cayohuesonica,  Melville. 

Key  West. 

Order  WRANGELIE^. 

Wrangelia  penioillata,  Ag. 

Key  West;  Southern  Europe. 
Wrangelia  multifida,  Ag. 

Key  West;  Europe. 

Order  GIGARTLNE^. 

Phyllophora  Brodlei,  Ag. 

Long  Island  Sound,  northward  ;  Northern  Europe. 

Phyllophora  membranifolia,  Ag. 

Long  Island  Sound  and  northward ;  Northern  Europe. 
Phyllophora  Clevelandii,  Farlow. 

San  Diego,  Cal. 

Gymnogongrus  Norvegicus,  Ag.  (inc.  G.  Torreyi,  Ag.). 

Penobscot  Bay;  Peak's  Island,  Me.,;  Beverly,  Nahaufc,  Mass.; 
also  near  New  York  ;  Europe. 

Gymnogongrus  tenuis,  Ag. 
California ;  West  Indies. 

Gymnogongrus  Griffithsle,  Ag. 
California;  Europe. 

Gymnogongrus  linearis,  Ag. 
California. 


700      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER   OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 
AHNFELTIA  GIGARTINOIDES,  Ag. 

West  coast. 

AHNFELTIA  PLICATA,  Fr. 

New  York,  northward  ;  west  coast ;  Europe. 

AHNFELTIA?  PINNULATA,  Hai'V. 

Key  West. 

Cystoclonium  purpurascens,  Kiitz. 

New  York,  northward  ;  Europe. 
Callophyllis  laciniata,  Kiitz. 

Cape  Heniopeu,  N.  C. ;  California ;  Europe. 

Callophyllis  variegata,  Ag. 

California  ;  Peru  ;  Antarctic  Ocean. 

Callophyllis  obtusifqlia,  Ag. 

San  Diego,  Cal. ;  Southern  Ocean.  , 

Callophyllis  dtscigera,  Ag. 

California ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Callophyllis  ornata,  Mont. 

California  "I ;  Auckland  Islands. 

Callophyllis  flabellulata,  Harv. 

California ;  Vancouver's  Island. 
Constantinea  Sitchensis,  Post,  and  Eupr. 

Oregon  ;  Santa  Cruz,  Cal. ;  Alaska. 

Gigartina  acicularis,  Lmx. 

Florida ;  Europe ;  Indian  and  Southern  Ocean. 

Gigartina  canaliculata,  Harv. 

West  coast. 
Gigartina  mollis,  Bail,  and  Harv. 

Puget  Sound. 
Gigartina  mamillosa,  Ag. 

Massachusetts    Bay,   northward ;    Oregon ;    Santa  Cruz,   Cal. ; 
Europe ;  North  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 
Gigartina  microphylla,  Harv. 

California. 

Gigartina  Jardini,  Ag.,  Bidrag. 
California. 

Gigartina  volans,  Ag. 
West  coast  % . 

Gigartina  spinosa,  Kiitz. 
California. 

Gigartina  radula,  Ag. 

Westcoast.    Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Australia;  Auckland  Islands; 
Var.  exasperata,  West  coast. 


MARINE    ALG^    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  701 

GlGARTINA  CHAMISSOI,   Mout. 

California1?;  Peru;  Brazil. 

*Chondeus  crispus,  Lyngb.    Irish  moss. 

North  Carolina ;  New  York,  and  northward.     Very  common. 

Chqndrtjs  affinis,  Harv. 
California. 

Chondrus  canalioulatus,  Ag. 

California ;  west  coast  of  South  America. 

Ieidjea  laminarioides,  Bory.  (including  Iridwa  minor  and  Iridcea 
dichotoma). 

West  coast  of  North  and  South  America. 
Iridwa  punicea,  Post,  and  Eupr. 

Santa  Cruz,  Gal.?;  Sitka. 

Endocladia  muricata,  Ag. 
West  coast. 

Gloiopeltis  furcata,  Ag. 
Oregon ;  North  Pacific. 

Order  GRYPTONEMIE.E. 

Cryptonemia  crenulata,  Ag. 
Key  West  to  Brazil. 

Cryptonemia  lttxurians,  Ag. 
Key  West  to  Brazil. 

Chrysymenia  Enteromorpha,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Chrysymenia  halymenioides,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Chrysymenia  Agardhii,  Harv. 
Key  Wrest. 

Chrysymenia  ttvaria,  Ag. 

Key  West  to  Brazil ;  Europe. 
Halymenia  ligulata,  Ag. 

Key  West.     Var.  Californica;  Santa  Cruz,  Gal.;  Europe. 

Halymenia  Floresia,  Ag. 
Key  West;  Europe. 

Corynomorpha  clavata,  Ag.,  Bidrag  (Acrotylus,  Harv.). 
Key  West. 

Prionitis  lanceolata,  Harv. 
West  coast. 

Prionitis  Andersonii,  Eaton,  mscr. 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal. 

*  SCHIZYMENIA  EDULIS,  Ag. 

Oregon;  Europe;  Japan. 


702       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND   FISHERIES 
SCHIZYMENIA  ?  COCCINEA,  Harv. 

Santa  Cruz,  Gal.;  Vancouver's  Island. 

Grateloupia  Gibbesii,  Harv. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  and  southward. 

Grateloupia  Cutlerle,  Kiitz. 
California;  Chili. 

Grateloupia  filicina,  Ag. 

Florida ;  West  Indies ;  Europe  ;  Indian  Ocean 
Nemastoma?  Bairdii,  Farlow. 

Gay  Head,  Mass. 

Order  DUMONTIE^E. 

Halosaccion  Hydrophora,  Ag. 

West  coast. 
Halosaccion  fucicola,  Post,  and  Rupr. 

West  coast. 
Halosaccion  ramentaceum,  Ag. 

Gloucester,  Mass.,  and  northward ;  Northern  Europe 

Catanella  pinnata,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Order  SPYRIDIE^S. 

Spyridia  aculeata,  Kiitz. 

Florida ;  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  Europe ;   Eed  Sea. 

Spyridia  filamentosa,  Harv. 

Massachusetts  Bay,  southward;  Europe;  all  warm  seas. 

Order  CERAMIE^E. 

MlCROCLADIA  COULTERI,  HARV. 

West  coast. 
Microcladia  Californica,  Farlow. 

California. 
Microcladia  Borealis,  Rupr. 

West  coast. 
Centroceras  clavulatum,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  California.    Common  in  all  tropical  and  subtropical 
seas. 

Centroceras  Eatonianum,  Farlow. 
West  coast. 

Ceramium  nitens,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 
Ceramium  rubrum,  Ag. 

Everywhere. 


MARINE    ALGiE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  703 

CERAMIUM    DESLONGCHAMPSII,  Ch. 

Nahant,  Mass.,  and  northward ;  Europe:  Tasmania. 

Ceramium  diapiianum,  Roth. 

Occasionally  found  on  the  New  England  coast;  California; 
Europe  ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Australia. 

Ceramium  stricttjm,  Harv. 

New  England  ;  Europe. 
Ceramium  Youngii,  Farlow,  mscr. 

Canarsie,  L.  I. 
Ceramium  tenuissimum,  Lyngb. 

Key  West ;  Europe. 

Ceramium  fastigiatum,  Harv. 

Southern  New  England  ;  Europe. 

Ceramium  byssoideum,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Ptilota  densa,  Ag. 

Southern  California. 

Ptilota  hypnoides,  Harv. 
California. 

Ptilota  asplenioides,  Ag. 
Oregon,  northward. 

Ptilota  plumosa,  Ag. 

East  and  west  coasts.  Var.  JiUcina,  west  coast.  Var.  serrata. 
New  England  from  Nahant  northward  ;  also  northwest  coast; 
Northern  Europe. 

Ptilota  elegans,  Bonnem. 

New  York,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Gloiosiphonia  capillaris,  Carm. 

Long  Island  Sound  to  Cape  Ann,  Mass.;  Europe. 

Crouania  attenuata,  J.  Ag. 

Key  West;  Europe;  Australia. 

Halurus  equisetifolius,  Kiitz. 
New  York  *? ;  Europe. 

Griffithsia  corallina?,  Ag. 

New  York  to  Gloucester,  Mass. ;  Europe;  Australia. 

Callithamnion  arbuscula,  var.  Pacijica,  Ag.  (0.  Pikeanum,  Harv.). 
California. 

Callithamnion  tetragonum,  Ag. 

New  York  to  Cape  Cod ;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  Baileyi,  Harv. 
New  York,  southward. 

Callithamnion  ptilophora,  Eaton,  mscr. 
California. 


704       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Callithamnion  squareulosum,  Harv. 
California. 

Callithamnion  Boreeri,  Ag. 

New  York  to  Nantucket ;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  polyspermum,  Ag. 

New  York,  southward  ;  west  coast ;  Europe. 
Callithamnion  byssoideum,  Arn. 

Nabaut  to  New  York  ;  Europe. 
Callithamnion  Diktzije,  Hooper. 

Long  Island  Sound. 
Callithamnion  corymbosum,  Ag. 

New  York,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  versicolor,  Ag.,  var.  seirospermum,  Harv. 
New  York,  northward;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  plumula,  Lyngb. 

Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  to  Gay  Head,  Mass.;    Europe;    Southern 
Ocean. 

Callithamnion  heteromorphum,  Ag.,  mscr. 
California. 

Callithamnion  Americanum,  Harv. 

New  York,  northward  ;  Vancouver's  Island. 
Callithamnion  PYLAisiEi,  Moat. 

Orient,  L.  I.,  and  northward  ;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  floccosum,  Ag. 

Massachusetts  Bay,  northward ;   Northern  Europe.    Var.  Pacifi- 
cum,  Harv.  Santa  Cruz,  Cal. 

Callithamnium  cruciatum,  Ag. 

New  York  to  Cape  Cod ;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  Lejoltsia,  Farlow,  rascr. 
San  Diego,  Cal. 

Callithamnion  Turneri,  Ag. 

New  York  to  Cape  Cod;  Europe. 

Callithamnion  Eotiiii,  Lyngb. 

New  England  coast;  Europe. 

f  Order  POPPHYREvE. 

*  PORPIIYRA  VULGARIS,  Ag.      Laver. 
Everywhere. 

BANGIA  VEEMICULARIS,  Harv. 

West  coast. 

Bangia  fuscopurpurea,  Lyngb. 
East  coast ;  Europe. 


MARINE    ALG.E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  705 

?FLOBIDE^. 

INCERTJE  SEDIS. 

Chantransia  Daviesii,  Thur. 

Gloucester,  Gay  Head,  Mass. ;  Europe. 

Chantransia  secundata,  Thur. 

Peak's  Islaud,  Me. 
Chantransia  virgatula,  Thuret. 

New  York,  northward  j  Europe. 
Erythrotrichia  ciliaris,  Thuret. 

Charleston,  S.  C. ;  Europe. 
Erythrotrichia  ceramicola,  Aresch. 

Buzzard's  Bay,  Cape  Ann,  Mass. ;  Portland  Harbor,  Me. 
Goniotrichum  elegans,  Zanard. 

Cotuit  Port,  Mass. 

•   •  Subclass  MELANOSPORiE. 

Order  DICTYOTEJE. 

Halyseris  polypodioides,  Ag. 

North  Carolina ;  Europe. 
Padina  pavonia,  Lmx.    Peacock- s-tail. 

East  coast  from   North  Carolina  southward ;  Europe ;  in  most 
warm  seas. 

ZONARIA  LOBATA,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Brazil ;  Pacific 
Ocean. 

ZONARIA  FLAVA,  Ag. 

California?;  Southern  Europe  and  Northern  Africa. 

ZONARIA  INTERRUPTA,  Ag. 

California ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  Australia  j  New  Zealand. 

TAONIA   ?  SCHECEDERI,  Ag. 

Florida  to  Brazil. 

DlCTYOTA  FASCIOLA,  Lmx. 

Florida ;  Mediterranean  Sea. 

DlCTYOTA  DICHOTOMA,  D.  C. 

Charleston,  southward ;  common  in  all  warm  seas. 

DlCTYOTA  CILIATA,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

DlCTYOTA  KUNTHII,  Ag. 

San  Diego,  Cal. ;  Peru ;  New  Zealand. 
45  f 


706        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

DlCTYOTA  Bartayresiana,  Lmx. 
Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

DlCTYOTA  ACUTILOBA,  Ag. 

Key  West?;  Sandwich  Islands. 

Order   FUCACE^E. 

Sargassum  vulgare,  Ag. 

Atlantic  coast,  from  Cape  Cod  south  ;  Atlantic  Ocean  generally ; 
Australia. 

Sargassum  affine,  Ag. 

Florida  ;  West  Indies. 

Sargassum  bacciferum,  Ag.      Gulf-weed. 

Gulf  Stream  and  floating  off  the  southern  coast ;  Europe ;  Indian 
and  Pacific  Oceans;  Australia;  New  Zealand;  forming  great 
masses  in  what  is  known  as  the  Sargasso  Sea  in  the  Atlantic. 

Sargassum  filipendula,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Sargassum  dentifolium,  Ag. 

Kev  West ;  lied  Sea. 
Sargassum  Agardianum,  Farlow,  inscr. 

San  Diego,  Cal. 
Sargassum  piluliferum,  Ag. 

Guadeloupe  Island,  off  California ;  Japan. 

TURBINARIA  VULGARIS,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies  ;  Eed  Sea ;  China ;  Indian  Ocean ;  Aus- 
tralia. 

Phyllospora  Menziesii,  Ag. 
Var.  glabra,  west  coast. 

Halidrys  OS3IUNDACEA,  Harv. 
West  coast. 

Fucus  fastigiatus,  Ag. 
West  coast. 

*  Fucus  (Ozothallia)  nodosus,  L.    Rock-iceed. 

East  coast,  north  of  Charleston  ;  Europe ;  North  Atlantic. 

Fucus  distichus,  L.  (F.  filiformis,  Gm.). 

Marblehead,  Mass. ;  Europe. 
* Fucus  furcatus,  Ag. 

Nahant,  Mass.,  and  northward  ;  California. 

FUCUS  CERANOIDES,  L. 

East  coast ;   Europe. 

Fucus  Harveyanus,  D.c.  ne. 
Monterey,  Cal. 


MARINE    ALG.E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  707 

*Fucus  vesiculosus,  L.    Rock-weed. 

East  coast,  north  of   Charleston  ;  west  coast ;  Europe ;  North 
Atlantic  and  Pacific;  Australia1?. 

FUCUS  SERRATUS,  L. 

Newbury  port,  Mass. ;  Nova  Scotia  ;  Europe. 

Order    PH^OSPOEE^. 

Suborder  LAMINARIE^E. 

•Microcystis  pyrifera,  Ag.     Great  kelp  of  Oregon  and.  California. 
West  coast  of  North  and  South  America ;  Australia ;  and  An- 
tarctic Ocean. 

Lessonia  nigeescens,  Bory. 

Oregon  ;  Chili ;  southward. 

♦Nereocystis  Lutkeana,  Post,  and  Eupr.     Great  bladder-weed. 
Monterey,  Cal.,  and  northward. 

Postelsia  palm^foemis,  Euprecht.    Kakgum-chale. 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  and  northward. 

Pterygophora  Californioa,  Euprecht.    Ecliabalba;  Mangai. 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  northward. 

♦Alaria  esculenta,  Grev.  Badderlocks.    Senicare. 

Cape  Cod,  northward  ;  Monterey,  Cal.,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Alaria  fistulosa,  Post,  and  Eupr. 

Northwest  coast. 
Alaria  marginata,  Post,  and  Eupr. 

Northwest  coast. 

Costaria  Turneri,  Grev. 
Northwest  coast. 

Dictyoneuron  Californicum,  Euprecht. 
Northwest  coast. 

Laminaria  dermatodea,  De  la  Pyl. 

Peak's  Island,  Me.;  Eastport, Me. ;  Newfoundland;  Katntschatka; 
Vancouver's  Island. 

♦Laminaria  saccarhina,  Lmx.    DeviVs  apron  ;  Kelp. 

New  York, northward  ;  west  coast;  Europe;  Japan?. 
♦Laminaria  longicruris,  De  la  Pyl.    DeviVs  Apron;  Kelp. 

New  England,  northward;  Northern  Europe;  North  Atlantic  and 
Pacific. 

♦Laminaria  flexicaulis,  Le  Jolis.    DeviVs  apron;  Kelp. 

New  England  ;  Europe ;  California?. 
♦Laminaria  platymeris,  De  la  Pyl. 

New  England?;  Newfoundland. 


708       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

AG  ARUM  Tueneei,  Post,  and  Eupr.     Sea-colander. 
Nahant,  Mass.,  northward;  northwest  coast. 

Thalassiophyllum  Clathrus,  Post,  and  Eupr. 
Northwest  coast. 

Subokder  SPOROCHNE.&. 

Stilophora  ehizodes,  Ag. 

Long  Island  and  Vineyard  Sounds ;  Europe ;  Tasmania ;  South- 
ern Ocean. 

Stilophoea  papillosa,  Ag. 

Chesapeake  Bay  ;  Adriatic  and  Mediterranean  Seas. 
Steiaeia  attenuata,  Grev. 

Flushing,  L.  I. ;  Europe. 

Suborder  ASPEROCOCCE&, 
ASPEEOCOCCUS   COMPEESSUS,  Griff. 

Gloucester,  Mass.;  Europe. 
Asperoooccus  sinuosus,  Bory. 

Key  West;  San  Diego,  Cal.;  Southern  Europe ;  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical oceans  generally. 

Aspeeococcus  echinatus,  Grev. 
New  England  coast ;  Europe. 

Hydboclatheus  cancellatus,  Bory. 

Florida  to  Brazil ;  Mauritius  ;  Australia. 

Ealfsia  verrucosa,  Aresch. 

Nabant,  northward ;  Europe. 

Suborder  CHORDARIE^. 

Chorda  filum,  Stack. 

New  York,  northward;  Europe. 

Chordaria  flagelliformis,  Ag. 

New  York,  northward;  Europe;   North  Atlantic  and  Pacific; 
Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Chili. 

Chordaria  abietina,  Eupr. 

Santa  Cruz,  Cal.,  northward. 

Choedaeia  divaeicata,  Ag. 

New  York  to  Gloucester,  Mass. ;  Europe. 

Castagnea  vieescens,  Thuret. 

Wood's  Hole,   Gloucester,   Mass. ;    Portland,  Me. ;    Sand   Key, 
Fla. 
Castagnea  Zoster^e,  Thuret. 

Woods  Hole,  Mass. ;  Europe. 

Liebmannia  Leyeillei,  Ag. 
West  coast ;  Europe. 


MARINE    ALG.E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  709 

Suborder  MYRIONEMEJ3. 

* 

Leatfiesia  tubertformis,  Gray. 

New  York,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Elachista  fucicola,  Fr. 

New  England :  Europe. 

Myrionema  strangulans,  Grev. 

Fisher's  Island,  N.  Y.;    Wood's  Hole,   Mass.;   probably  every- 
where. 
Myrionema  Leclancherii,  Harv. 

Gay  Head,  Mass. 

Suborder  ARTHEOCLADIE^. 

Arthrocladia  villosa,  Duby. 
Wilmington,  ST.  C. ;  Europe. 

Suborder  SPHACELARIE^. 

Cladostephus  spongiosus,  Ag. 

New  England  coast;  Europe;  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Australia; 
Cape  Horn,  &e. 

Cladostephus  vertictllatus,  Ag. 

New  England  coast ;  Europe. 
Sphacelaria  fusca,  Ag. 

On  Ampliiroa  Californica,  San  Diego,  Cal. ;  England. 
Sphacelaria  radicans,  Ag. 

New  England  coast;  Europe. 
Sphacelaria  cirrhosa,  Ag. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe. 

Suborer  ECTOCARPE.2E. 

Myriotrichia  filiformis,  Harv. 

Penobscot  Bay  ;  Ehode  Island  ;  Europe. 

ECTOCARPUS  BRACHIATUS,  Harv. 

Boston,  northward ;  Europe. 

Ectocarpus  firmus,  Ag.  (E.  UttoraUs,  Harv.). 

New  England  coast  ? ;  Europe. 
Ectocarpus  Farlowii,  Thuret. 

Peak's  Island,  Me. ;  Marblehead,  Mass. 

Ectocarpus  longifructus,  Harv. 
Penobscot  Bay. 

Ectocarpus  siliculosus,  Lyngb. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  northward ;  Europe  ;  Australia. 

Ectocarpus  amphibius,  Harv. 
New  York ;  Great  Britain. 


710      KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Ectocarpus  viridis,  Harv. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  and  uorthward. 
Ectocarpus  lutosus,  Harv 

Greenport,  L.  I. 

Ectocarpus  tomentosus,  Lyngb. 

Boston,  northward  ;  Europe  5  Cape  Horn. 

Ectocarpus  fasciculatus,  Harv. 
New  England  coast ;  Europe. 

Ectocarpus  granulosus,  Ag. 

Boston  Harbor ;  Santa  Cruz,  Cal.  ;  Europe. 

Ectocarpus  Durkeei,  Harv. 

Portsmouth,  N.  H. ;  Woodrs  Hole,  Mass.  ? 

Ectocarpus  Mitchellje,  Harv. 
Nantucket. 

Ectocarpus  Hooperi,  Harv. 

Greenport,  L.  I. 
Ectocarpus  Dietzl^:,  Harv. 

Greenport,  L.  I. 

Suborder  DICTYOSIPHONKffl. 
DlCTYOSIPHON  FCENICULACBUS,  Grev. 

Long  Island  Sound,  northward  ;  Europe. 

Suborder  DESMARESTIEJ3. 
Desmarestia  aculeata,  Lmx. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe;  Kamtscbatka. 
Desmarestia  viridis,  Lmx. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe;  North  Pacific;  southern  part  of 
South  America ;  Kerguelen's  Land,  &c. 

Desmarestia  ligulata,  Lmx. 

Monterey,  Cal.,  northward  ;  Europe ;  Cape  Horn  ;  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  Australia. 

Desmarestia  latifrons,  Kiitz. 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal. 

Suborder  PUNCTARIE^E. 

PUNCTARIA  LAT1FOLIA,  Grev. 

New  York,  northward.     Var.  Zosterce,  Le  Jolis,  same  limits;  Eu- 
rope. 

PUNCTARIA   PLANTAGINEA,  Grev. 

New  England  coast ;  Europe. 

Suborder  SCYTOSIPHONE.E. 

Phyllitis  Fascia,  Ktz. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe ;  Cape  Horn,  &c. 

SCYTOSIPHON  LOMENTARIUS,  Ag. 

New  York,   northward;    California;    Europe;    very    generally 
diffused  all  over  the  world. 


MARINE    ALG.E    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  711 


Subclass  CHLOROSPOR^. 

Order  SIPHONED. 

Caulerpa  prolifera,  Lmx. 

Florida ;  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Caulerpa  crassifolia,  Ag.,  var.  Mexi'cana. 
Florida ;  West  Indies. 

Caulerpa  plumaris,  Ag. 

Florida;  West  Indies;  generally  in  the  warmer  seas. 

Caulerpa  Ashmeadii,  Harv. 
Key  West. 

Caulerpa  ericifolia,  Ag. 

Florida ;  West  Indies. 
Caulerpa  cupressoides,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

Caulerpa  lanuginosa,  Ag. 
Key  West. 

Caulerpa  Paspaloides,  Bory. 
Florida  to  Brazil. 

Caulerpa  clavifera,  Ag. 

Florida ;  in  all  warm  seas. 

Halimeda  Opuntia,  Lmx. 

Florida ;  in  most  warm  seas. 

Halimeda  incrassata,  Lmx. 
Florida;  West  Indies. 

Halimeda  tuna,  Lmx. 

Florida ;  Mediterranean  Sea  ;  Pacific  Ocean. 

Halimeda  tridens,  Lmx. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

Udotea  flabellata,  Lmx. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 
Odotea  cong-lutinata,  Lmx. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 
C  odium  tomentosum,  Stack. 

Florida;   west  coast;    Europe;   in  all  tropical  and   subtropical 
seas. 
Chlorodesmis  ?  Vaucherleformis,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

Bryopsis  plumosa,  Lmx. 

Whole  eastern  coast ;  nearly  all  temperate  oceans. 


712      KEPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

BRYorsis  HYPNOIDES,  Lmx. 

Key  West;  Europe;  warmer  seas  generally. 

Vaucheria  piloboloides,  Thuret. 
Wood's  Hole,  Mass.  % ;  Europe. 

Order  DASYCLADE^E. 

Dasycladus  ocgidentalis,  Harv. 
Florida ;  West  Id  dies. 

.Dasycladus  clav^eformis,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies ;  Mediterranean. 

ACETABULARIA  CRENULATA,  Lmx. 

Florida  and  West  Indies. 

Cymopolia  barbata,  Lmx. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 

Order  YALOXIEJB. 

Cham^edoris  anntjlata,  Mont. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies ;  Mauritius. 

Penicilltjs  dumetosus,  Dne. 
Florida;  West  Indies.. 

Penicilltjs  capitattjs,  Lmx.    MermaiiPs  shaving-brash. 

Florida ;  West  Indies. 
Penicilltjs  Phgenix,  Lmk. 

Florida ;  West  Indies. 

Blodgettia  1  conferyoides,  Harv. 

Key  West ;  West  Indies. 
Anadyomene  flaeellata,  Lmx. 

Key  West ;  all  tropical  seas. 

DlCTYOSPHJERIA  FAVULOSA,  Dne. 

Key  West;  all  tropical  seas. 

ASCOTHAMNION  INTRICATUM,  Kiltz. 

Key  West;  Mediterranean. 

Order  ZOOSPOBE^E. 

Enteromorpha  intestinalis,  Link. 

Everywhere. 
Enteromorpha  compressa,  Grev. 

Everywhere. 
Enteromorpha  clathrata,  Grev. 

New  England  coast;  west  coast;  Europe. 

*  Olva  latissima,  Linn.     Sea-lettuce. 
Everywhere. 


MARINE   ALG.E    OF    THE   UNITED    STATES.  713 

Ulva  lactuca,  Linn. 

With  the  last,  but  not  so  common. 

Ulva  fasciata,  Delile. 
California. 

Cladophora  repens,  Ag. 

Key  West ;  Europe. 
Cladophora  membranacea,  Ag. 

Key  West;  Mediterranean. 

Cladophora  rupestris,  L. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  cartilaginea,  Rupr. 

California. 
Cladophora  arcta,  Dillw. 

New  York,  northward ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  lanosa,  Roth. 
Boston  ? ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  uncialis,  Fl.  Dan. 
New  England  coast ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  glaucescens,  Griff. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  northward ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  flexuosa,  Griff. 

New  England  coast;  Europe. 

Cladophora  refracta,  Roth. 

Charleston,  S.  C,  northward ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  Morrisijs,  Harv. 
Elsinborough,  Del. 

Cladophora  albida,  Huds. 

New  York  and  New  Jersey ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  Rudolphiana,  Ag. 

Jackson's  Ferry,  N.  Y. ;  Europe. 

Cladophora  gracilis,  Griff. 

Beesley's  Point,  N.  J. ;  Rhode  Island ;•  Nahant,  Mass.:  Europe; 
Australia. 
Cladophora  brachyclados,  Mont. 

Texas. 
Cladophora  ltjteola,  Harv. 

Key  West ;  Cuba. 
Cladophora  l^tevirens,  Dillw. 

New  York  Bay;  Boston  Bay;  California;  Europe. 

Cladophora  diffusa,  Harv. 
New  York  !. 

Cladophora  fraota,  Fl.  Dan. 

Eastern  coast ;  in  fresh  and  brackish  water  all  over  the  world. 


714       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Ch^tomorpha  Picquotiana,  Mont. 

New  York,  northward. 
Ch^tomorpha  melagonium,  Web.  and  Mohr. 

Boston  Harbor,  northward ;  Europe. 

OH^TOMORrHA  ^IREA,  Dillw. 

East  coast  ;  Europe ;  North  Pacific ;  Australia. 

Chjetomorpha  Olneyi,  Harv. 
Rbode  Island. 

CH^ETOMORPHA  L0NG1ARTICULATA,  Harv. 

Massachusetts  and  Ebode  Island. 

Ch^tomorpha  sutoria,  Berk. 

Stonington,  Conn.  5  Europe. 

Ch^tomorpha  erachygona,  Harv. 

Key  West. 
Ch^etomorpha  tortuosa,  Dillw. 

Nahant,  Mass.,  northward;  Europe. 
HORMOTRICHUM  YOUNGANUM,  Dillw. 

New  England  coast ;  Europe;  Northern  Atl a u tic  and  Pacific 

HORMOTRICHUM  Carmichaelh,  Harv. 
Boston  i 

Order  CYANOPHYCE^. 

Suborder  OSCILLARIEiE. 

Lyngbya  majuscula,  Harv. 

Cape  Cod,  southward;  Europe;  Pacific  Ocean,  &c. 
Lyngbya  ferruginea,  Ag. 

New  England  coast ;  Europe. 

Lyngbya  luteo-fusca,  Ag.  (inc.  L.fulva,  Harv.). 

Stonington,  Conn. ;  Noauk,  Conn. 
Lyngbya  nigrescens,  Harv. 

Peconic  Bay,  L.  I. 

Lyngbya  confervoides,  Ag. 

Charleston,  S.  C. ;  Europe. 

Lyngbya  pusilla,  Harv. 

Sullivan's  Islands,  S.  C. 
Lyngbya  hyalina,  Harv. 

Key  West. 
Calothrix  confervicola,  Ag. 

Everywhere. 

Calothrix  scopulorum,  Ag. 
Everywhere. 

Calothrix  vivipara,  Harv. 
Seaconuet  Point,  R.  I. 


MARINE   ALG^    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  715 

Calothrix  pilosa,  Harv. 

Key  West. 
Calothrix  dura,  Harv. 

Key  West. 
Microcoleus  corymbosus,  Harv. 

Key  West. 

Suborder  NOSTOCHINE.E. 

Sph^erozyga  Carmichaelii,  Harv. 

Noank,  Conn. ;  Wood's  Hole,  Mass. ;  Europe. 

Suborder  RIVULARIE^E. 

ElVULARIA  ATRA,  Eotll. 

New  England ;  Europe. 
Eivularia  plicata,  Carni. 

Cobasset  Narrows,  Mass.;  Europe. 

Order  PALMELLE^. 

Cryptocoocus  roseus,  Kiitz. 
New  England;  Europe. 

addenda.* 

LlTHOTHAMNION  FASCICULATUM,  Aresch. 

Eobbiustown,  Me. ;  Europe. 

AMPHIROA  NODULOSA,  Kiitz. 

San  Diego,  Cal. ;  Venezuela. 

Griffithsia  opuntioides,  J.  Ag.l 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal. 

Petrocelis  cruenta,  Ag.  i 

Nabant,  Mass. ;  Eastport,  Me. ;  Europe. 
Fucus  platycarpus,  Tburet. 

Eastport,  Me. ;  Europe. 

Laminaria  Andersonii,  Eaton,  mscr. 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal. 

Mesogloia  Andersonii,  Farlow,  mscr. 
Santa  Cruz,  Cal. 

Ealfsia  clavata,  Crouau. 
Eastport,  Me. ;  Europe. 

Spirulina  tenuissima,  Kiitz. 
Eastport,  Me. ;  Europe. 

ElVULARIA  NITIDA,  Ag.l 

Wood's  Hole,  Mass. 
Protococous  crepidinum:,  Thuret. 
Eastport,  Me. 


716      -REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AMD    FISHERIES. 

LIST  OF  THE  PEINCIPAL  USEFUL  SEA-WEEDS  OCCUBBING 
ON  THE  UNITED  STATES  COAST. 

USED  AS  FOOD. 

1.  Chondrus  crispus,  Lyngb.,  commonly  called  Irish  moss.    Is  abun- 

dant on  tbe  New  England  coast,  particularly  to  tbe  north  of  Cape 
Cod,  growing  just  below  low-water  mark.  It  is  gathered  in  large 
quantities  at  Hingham,  Mass.,  and  sold  for  making  blanc  mange, 
puddings,  and  sea-moss  farine.  It  is  also  used  by  brewers  for  clar- 
ifying, and  by  calico-printers. 

2.  Schizymenia  EDULis,  Ag.    Found  on  the  west  coast;  is  eaten  in 

Europe. 

3.  Bhodymenia  palmata,  Grew     Common  dulse.    Sold  rough-dried  in 

the  seaport  towns  of  the  Northern  States;  principally  eaten  by 
sailors  and  children.  That  found  in  our  markets  is  generally 
imported  from  the  British  provinces,  although  the  plant  is  very 
common  in  New  England. 

4.  Porphyra  vulgaris,  Ag.    Laver.    Eaten  stewed  in  some  parts  of 

Europe.    Imported  from  China  by  the  Chinese  living  in  this  coun- 
try, even  by  those  as  far  east  as  Massachusetts,  although  rhe  plant 
is  common  on  the  Massachusetts  shore. 
o.  Alaria  esculenta,  Grev.  .Common  on  the  New  England  coast  north 
of  Cape  Cod.    Is  eaten  in  Scotland,  but  not  in  the  United  States. 
No  doubt,  Eucheuma  isiforme  of  Key  West,  Gigartina  mammil- 
losa,  often  gathered  by  mistake  for  the  true  Irish  moss,  the  Californian 
species  of  Chondrus,  and  some  of  the  species  of  Gracilaria  are  quite 
as  good  for  culinary  purposes  as  the  Irish  moss. 

Ulya  latissima,  L.,  sea-lettuce,  is  used  by  owners  of  aquaria  for  feed- 
ing some  of  the  marine  animals,  particularly  Mollusca. 

USED   AS   FERTILIZERS. 

The  larger  dark-colored  sea-weeds  are  roughly  distinguished  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  shore  as  rocJe-iceeds,  or  those  furnished  with  small 
bladders  or  snappers,  and  Icelp.  The  rock-weed,  of  New  England  is 
composed  almost  entirely  of  three  species  of  Fucus,  F.  vesiculosus, 
F.  nodosus,  and  F.  furcatus.  The  Jcelp  of  New  England  is  composed 
of  the  Deri's  aprons,  species  of  Laminaria,  the  sea-colander,  Agarum 
Turneri,  and  Alaria  esculenta.  The  rock-weeds  and  kelp  are  all 
useful  for  manure,  and  are  either  scattered  over  the  land  and  allowed 
to  rot,  or  else  manufactured  together  with  other  substances  into  mar- 
ketable fertilizers. 

The  red  sea-weed,  Polysiphonia  Haryeyi,  is  said,  at  times,  to  be 
washed  ashore  in  Peconic  Bay  in  such  quantities  that  it  is  used  as  ma- 
nure. 


MAEINE    ALG^    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  717 

USED  FOR   THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  IODINE. 

The  rock-weeds'  and  kelp  furnish  nearly  all  the  iodine  of  commerce. 
The  largest  manufactories  of  iodine  are  in  Scotland,  where  use  is  made 
of  the  same  species  of  JFucus  and  Laminaria  as  are  common  on  the 
New  England  coast. 

THE  GREAT  KELP  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Macrocystis  pyrifera  forms  entangled  masses,  which  serve  as 
natural  breakwaters  on  the  exposed  portion  of  the  California  coast. 
The  leaf-bladders  of  the  same  plant  are  used  by  sailors  in  high  southern 
latitudes  for  rolling  up  into  cigarettes. 

The  very  long  slender  stems  of  Nereocystis  Lutkeana,  the  Great 
bladder -weed,  of  the  west  coast,  are  used  as  fish-lines  by  the  Indians  of 
the  Northwest. 

The  rough-dried  stems  of  Laminaria  saccarhina,  L.  longicruris, 
L.  flexicaulis,  and  other  large  species  of  Laminaria,  under  the  name 
of  Artificial  staghorn,  are  used  for  making  handles  to  knives,  paper-cut- 
ters, and  other  ornamental  purposes.  At  one  time,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  establish  a  manufactory  of  buttons  out  of  dried  Laminaria  stems  at 
Marblehead ;  but  the  attempt  was  given  up,  as  the  buttons  did  not  bear 
washing. 

The  dry  stems  of  the  Laminariae,  particularly  the  digitate  species,  as 
L.  flexicaulis,  are  used  by  surgical-instrument  makers  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sponge-tents. 

Corallina  officinalis,  L.,  was  formerly  used  in  medicine  as  a  tonic. 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 


Page. 

Acarithophora 4 

Acetabularia 22 

Acrotylus 11 

Agaruni 18 

Ahnfeltia 10 

Alaria 17 

Alsidruni 4 

Amausia 1 

Amphiroa 6,25 

Anadyomene 22 

Arthrocladia 19 

Arthrocladieae 19 

Ascotharnnion 22 

Asperococcese 18 

Asperococcus 18 

Bangia... 14 

Batrachospermeas ...  9 

Blodgettia 22 

Bostrychia 2 

Bryopsi8 21 

Bryothamcion 4 

Calliblepharis C 

Callitbamnion 13 

Callophyllis 10 

Calothrix 24 

Castagnea 18 

Catanella 12 

Caulerpa 21 

Centroceras 12 

Ceramieae 12 

Ceraminm 12 

Cbaetomorpha  .. 24 

Cbaniaedoria 22 

Champia 8 

Cbantransia 15 

Chlorodesmis 21 

Chlorosporae 21 

Chondria 4 

Cbondrus 11 

Chorda 18 

Cbordaria 18 

Chordarieae 18 

Chrysymenia 7,  8, 1 1 

Cbylocladia 5,8 

ChylocladieaB 5 

Cladophora 23 

Cladostephns 19 

Codinm 21 

Constan  tinea 10 

Corallina 6 

Coralline® C 


Page, 

Cordylecladia 8 

Corynojcorpha 11 

Costaria 17 

Cronania 13 

Cryptococcns 25 

Cryptonemia 11 

Cryptonetaieae 11 

Cyanophyceas 24 

Cympolia   22 

CystoeloniiiLQ 10 

Dasya 1 

Dasycladieas 22 

Dasycladus  . . 22 

Delesseria 5 

Desmarestia 20 

Desmarestiens 20 

Dietyoneuron 17 

Dictyosiphon 20 

Eictyosiphoneae 20 

Dictyosphasria 22 

Dictyota 15 

Dictyoteae 15 

Digenia 4 

Dumontieas 12 

Ectocarpeae 19 

Ectocarpus 19 

Elachista 19 

Endoeladia 11 

Enteromorpha 22 

Erythrotrichia 15 

Enchenma 7 

Euthora 8 

Elorideae 1 

Florideae    incertae 

6edis 15 

Fncaceas 1C 

Fncns 16,25 

GelidieaB 7 

Golidin-m 7 

Gigartica 10 

Gigarticeae 9 

Gloiopeltis 11 

Gloiosipboaia 13 

Gouiotrichum 15 

Graeilaria 6 

Gratelonpia 12 

Griffithsia 13,25 

Grinnellia 5 

GymnogoDgrus 9 

Halidrys 16 

Halimeda 21 


Page. 

Kalosacciou 12 

Halurns 13 

Halynienia 11 

Halyseris 15 

Helmintbora 9 

Hildenbrandtia 7 

Hormotricbuin 24 

Hydroclatbrus 18 

Hypnea 7 

Hypaeae 7 

Iridsea 11 

Jania 6 

Lamicaria 17,  25 

Laminariea?. 17 

Lanrencia 4 

Lanreneieaa 1 

Lt.;.thesia 19 

Lessouia 17 

Liagora 9 

Liebrnannia 18 

Litbotbamnion 7, 25 

Lomeiitaria 5,  8 

Lycgbeya 24 

Macrocystis 17 

Melauosporas 15 

Melobesia 7 

Mesogloia 25 

Microcladia 12 

ilicrocoleus 25 

Myrionema 19 

Myrionemeas 19 

Myriotricbia 19 

Nemalion 9 

Nemastoma 12 

Ner.  ocystis 17 

Neuroglossum 6 

Nitopbyllnm 5 

Nostocbineae 25 

Odonthalia 3 

Osciilarieae 24 

Padina 15 

Palmelleae 25 

Penicillus 22 

Petroeelis 25 

Peyesoiinelia 8 

PbaeosporeaB 17 

Pbyllitis 20 

Pbyllophora 9 

Pbyllospora 16 

Pikea 8 

Plocamium 8 


Page. 

Polyides 8 

Polysipbouia 2 

Porpbyra 14 

Porpbyreas 14 

Postelsia 17 

Prionitis 11 

Protococcus 25 

Pterygophora 17 

Ptilota 13 

Pmictaria 20 

Punctarieas 20 

Kalfsia IS,  25 

KhabdoDia 8 

Kbodomela 3 

Ebodomeleas 1 

Ebodymenia 8 

Ebodymeniea3 8 

Rivitlaria 25 

Eivularieae 25 

Sargassuiii 16 

Scbizymeaia 11 

Scinaia 9 

Scytosipbon 20 

Scytosipboneae 20 

Sipboneas 21 

Solieria 8 

Sphacelaria 19 

SpbacelarieaB 19 

Spbasrococooidea3  .  5 

Spbasrozyga 25 

Spirulina 25 

Spongiocarpeae 8 

Sporocbneas 18 

Spyridia 12 

Spyridieas 12 

Squamarieas 8 

Stenograruma 8 

Stilopbora 18 

Striaria 18 

Taonia 15 

Thalassiphyllum.  18 

Turbicaria 16 

Valonieae 22 

Vaucheria 22 

Udotea 21 

tTlva 22 

^Vrangelia 9 

"W  rangelieae 9 

"Wurdemannia 7 

Zonaria 15 

Zocisporeae 22 


XXXIII.— LECTURE  ON  THE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION  AND 
THE  FECUNDATION  OF  FISHES  AND  ESPECIALLY  OF  EELS.* 


By  Dr.  Syrski. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  subject  which  I  propose  to  speak  of  on  this  occasion  is  "  On  the 
organs  of  reproduction  of  fishes,  and  especially  of  eels",  a  subject  belong- 
ing to  zoology. 

Every  one  knows  what  this  word  means,  and  its  derivation  is  quite 
clear,  viz,  from  the  Greek  word  "zoowP,  a  living  being,  an  animal, 
and  "  logos ",  a  word,  a  rational  discourse.  Any  further  definition  of 
this  branch  of  natural  science  might  therefore  seem  superfluous.  And 
still  we  hear  people  call  "  zoology  "  what  is  taught  in  the  lower  classes  of 
our  "  real-schools  "  as  well  as  what  is  studied  in  the  higher  courses  of  the 
university.  Most  people  understand  by  this  name  the  description  of  the 
external  forms  of  animals.  In  general,  by  zoology  is  meant  a  descrip- 
tion of  animals. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  only  an  exposition  of  some  zoological  data ;  in 
the  second  place,  it  is  the  expression  of  what  is  known  of  the  inner  life  oi 
animals  during  a  certain  given  period,  and  indicates  a  simple  period  in 
the  development  of  zoology,  the  standard  of  the  first  and  last  develop- 
ment, L  e.,  the  genealogical  as  well  as  philogenetic  and  individual  develop- 
ment of  animals,  the  conformity  of  their  outer  forms  to  their  inner  organi- 
zation, of  their  functions,  of  the  mutual  relations  between  them  and  the  rest 
of  nature,  and  finally  the  manner  in  which  man  makes  use  of  them.  Zo- 
ology therefore  embraces  soogeny,  treating  of  the  origin  of  animals;  philo 
geny,  i  e.,  the  development  of  the  species ;  ontogeny,  also  called  embry- 
ology, i.  e.,the  development  of  the  individual  being;  morphology,  which 
treats  of  the  form  ;  anatomy,  which  relates  to  structure ;  physiology,  which 
concerns  itself  with  functions,  and  which,  in  a  wider  sense,  also  comprises 
ontogeny,  the  geographical  distribution  of  animals,  and  their  uses. 

The  classification  of  animals  according  to  their  affinities,  being  noth- 
ing but  the  result  of  a  knowledge  of  the  animals,  must  therefore  natur- 
ally be  modified  as  this  knowledge  increases. 

Some  also  comprise  zoology  together  with  botany,  mineralogy,  geoh 
ogy,  paleontology,  in  some  cases  even  geography,  under  the  common 
name  natural  history,  only  applying  the  designation  natural  science  to 

*  Degli  organi  della  riproduzione  e  della  fecondazione  dei  pesci  ed  in  inspecialit& 
delle  anguille,  in  Bollettino  della  Sociela  Adriatica  di  Scienze  naturali  in  Trieste,  No. 
1,  pp.  10-32,  December,  1874.    Trieste,  1875. 


720        REPORT   OF   COMMISSIONER   OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

chemistry,  physics,  and  astronomy.  But  the  objects  of  the  first,  which 
consist  of  organic  and  inorganic  forms  and  vital  phenomena,  being  noth- 
ing but  the  results  of  chemico-physical  forces,  also  properly  belong  to 
the  domain  of  natural  science.  My  lecture  to-day  will  be  confined  to 
the  description  of  the  organs  of  reproduction  in  fish,  in  so  far  as  relates 
to  anatomy  and  in  part  to  physiology. 

THE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION  AND  FECUNDATION  IN  FISH  IN 

GENERAL. 

The  organs  of  reproduction  in  nearly  all  fish  are  distributed  between 
two  individuals,  in  which  the  sexes  are  separate,  viz,  female  and  male. 
So  far  we  know  only  three  species  of  hermaphrodites,  in  which  the  male 
and  female  organs  are  found  united  in  one  and  the  same  individual. 
These  hermaphrodites  are  the  well-known  " Perga  comune"  (Serranus 
scriba),  "  Perga  dahnata"  (Serra?ms  cabrilla),  and  the  "  Sacchetto"  (Ser- 
ranus hepatus).* 

There  are  three  typical  forms  of  the  female  organs,  or  ovaries,  in  fish. 

Figl.-  Fig.  2. 


d. 

e. 
f 


J- 
k. 


Fig.  2.  Ovaries,  seen  from  the  right  side  of  the 
abdomen. 

a.  Abdominal  wall. 

b.  Dorsal  wall. 

c.  Left  ovary. 

d.  Intestine. 

e.  Urinary  bladder. 
/.   Anus. 

g.  Genital  orifice,  with  its  outlet  in  the- 
ft. Urethral  orifice. 


Fig.  1.  Ovaries  ivilh  oviducts,  seen  from  below. 

a.  (Esophagus,  front  part. 

b.  Peritonasuni. 

c.  Inner  opening,   common  to  the    two 

oviducts. 

(Esophagus,  rear  part. 

Left  ovary. 

Oviduct,  front  part. 
g.  Glandula  of  the  oviduct. 
h.  Uterine  part  of  the  oviduct. 

Intestine,  partly  split  open  lengthwise. 

Urinary  bladder. 

Separate  outer  openings  of   the  ovi- 
ducts. 
I.  Urethral  papilla, 
m.  Outlet  of  the  urethra. 

The  first  form  (fig.  1),  peculiar  to  the  plagiostomes,  among  which  we 
mention  the  "  pesci-cani  "  (dog-fish,  or  Mustelus),  the"  gatte"  (Scyllium), 

*  Hermaphroditism  also  occurs  in  the  genus  Lutjanus  or  Ocyurua,  Poey  having  dis- 
covered a  hermaphrodite  of  his  Ocyurua  ambiguus. — (T.  G.) 


SYRSKI ON  THE   ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION   OF    FISHES.     721 

"squsene"  (Squatina),  "tremoli"  (cramp-fish,  or  Torpedo),  "rase"  (ray,  or 
Raja),  consists  of  one  or  two  masses  of  eggs  inclosed  in  a  cellular  tissue 
which  resembles  that  of  the  ovaries  of  birds.  The  eggs,  when  loosened 
from  the  ovary  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  enter  two  tubes,  placed  later- 
ally, called  the  oviducts,  across  their  inner,  common  orifice ;  and  in  some 
species,  such  as  the  majority  of  the  dog-fishes  (Mustelus),  the  cramp- 
fish  (Torpedo),  &c,  develop  there  till  they  become  perfect  animals,  while 
in  others  the  eggs  are  surrounded  by  a  solid  horny  shell,  and  their  devel- 
opment is  completed  in  the  water.  The  oviducts  debouch  in  the  termi- 
nal part  of  the  intestine. 

The  second  form  (fig.  2),  which  is  the  most  common  among  fish,  is 
found  in  nearly  all  osseous  fishes,  and  consists  of  two  sacs  (one  in  the 
"girai,"  &c),  uniting  toward  the  posterior  end  in  a  single  oviduct,  which 
discharges  outside  behind  the  anus.  Of  a  similar  form  are  also  the  ova- 
ries of  the  hermaphrodites,  so  far  known  (fig.  3),  in  the  parietes  of  which 
are  found  the  spermatic  organs,  and  of  which  the  vasa  deferentia  dis- 
charge into  the  orifice  of  the  oviduct.  The  ova  contained  in  such  sacs 
taken  from  the  "  vol  pine"  and  the  "  branzini"  during  the  spawning-season 
are  sold  by  our  fishermen  under  the  name  of  "Bottarga  ". 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  3.  Hermaphrodite  organs. 

a.  Abdominal  wall. 

b.  Dorsal  wall. 

c.  Left  ovary. 

d.  Left  testicle. 

e.  Abdominal  commissure. 
/.  Dorsal  commissure. 

ff.  Intestine. 

h.  Urin?,ry  bladder. 

i.    Anus. 

Genital  orifice. 

Urethral  orifice. 


J- 
k. 


Fig.  4.  Ovaries. 

a.  Eight  ovary. 

b.  Left  ovary. 

c.  Intestine. 

d.  Part  of  the  abdominal  wall. 

e.  Urinary  bladder. 
/.   Anus. 

g.  Genital  orifice. 
h.  Urethral  orifice. 


In  nearly  all  fish  (except  the  "scarpene,"  &c),  these  sacs  have  on  their 

inner  surface  leaflets,  placed  crosswise  or  lengthwise,  and  containing  the 

eggs  by  thousands,  which  increase  in  number  and  size  during  the  spawn- 

and  distend  the  ovarian  sacs. 
46  f 


ing-season, 


722        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

In  some  other  fishes,  the  ovaries  resemble  two  ribbons  (fig.  4),  more  or 
less  twisted,  running  along  both  sides  of  the  intestine  to  the  dorsal  wall 
of  the  abdominal  cavity,  as  in  the  sturgeons,  salmons,  and  also  in  the 
eels.  The  ripe  egg,  when  it  separates  from  the  ovary  in  the  abdominal 
cavity,  passes  through  a  hole  which  opens  on  the  outside  behind  the 
anus. 

The  male  organs  of  fish,  or  spermatic  organs,  commonly  called  milts 
[testicles,]  which  produce  the  sperm — i.  e.,  a  fluid  containing  small  organic 
bodies,  which,  moving  about,  penetrate  the  egg,  impregnate  it,  and  start 
the  development  of  the  embryo — are  likewise  of  different  forms. 

In  the  "  pesci-cani "  (dog-fish7  i.  e.,  Mustelus),  the  "rase  "  (ray,  i.  e., 
Raja),  &c,  the  male  organs  resemble  two  thin  laminae  (fig.  5)  elongated, 
twisted,  and  partly  lobate,  composed  of  partitions,  from  which  small 
tubes  start,  which  unite  and  compose  a  somewhat  larger  tube,  terminat- 
ing in  the  right  as  well  as  the  left  side  in  a  canal,  which  serves  for  the 
emission  of  the  sperm. 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  5.  Testicles. 

a.  Left  testicle. 

b.  Vasa  efferentia. 

c.  Left  epididymis. 

d.  Deferent  canal. 

e.  Intestine. 

/.   Urinary  bladder. 

cj.  Left  seminal  vesicle. 

h.  Opening  of  the  deferent  canals. 

i.   Urethral  orifice. 
j.    Cloaca. 


Fig.  6.  Testicles. 

a.  Abdominal  wall. 

b.  Dorsal  wall. 

c.  Left  testicle. 

d.  Left  deferent  canal. 

e.  Intestine. 

/.   Urinary  bladder. 
g.  Anus. 
■'    i.  Genital  orifice. 
j.  Urethral  orifice. 


In  the  greater  number  of  osseous  Jish,  the  spermatic  organs  consist  of 
two  elongated  bodies  (fig.  G),  more  or  less  triangular,  or  in  the  form  of 
thin  laminae,  composed  of  compartments,  which,  beginning  on  the  outer 
surface,  converge  toward  the  interior  of  the  organ,  giving  rise  to  a 
canal  called  "  vas  deferens",  which  in  many  fishes  consists  of  a  net-work  of 
conduits;  which  "  vasa",  those  of  the  opposite  sides  uniting,  form  a 
single  excretory  canal,  which  debouches  in  many  fish  first  in  the  urethra, 
usually  on  a  small  papilla  placed  behind  the  anus. 


Fig.  7. 


Pig.  8. 


Fig.  8.  Young  transparent  egg. 

a.  Yolk. 

b.  Germinative  vesicle. 
e.  Germinative  dot. 


Fig.  9. 


SYESKI ON  THE   OEGANS  OF  EEPEODUCTION  OF    FISHES.     723 

In  other  fishes,  the  spermatic  organs  are  composed  of  lobes  united  by 
means  of  vasa  deferentia. 

In  the  male  eel, 
these  lobes  form  two 
lateral  rows  (fig.  7), 
extending  nearly 
the  whole  length  of 
the  abdominal 
cavity. 

The  eggs  of  fish 
(like  those  of  other 
animals)  are,  in  the 
beginning  of  their 
development,  of  mi- 
croscopic size,  and 
consist  of  a  trans- 
parent yolk,  which 
incloses  the  germi- 
nal cell  (fig.  8).  In 
the  state  of  matur- 
ity, however,  they 
differ  considerably 
in  size,  and  in  some  cases,  though  rarely,  in  form,  as  to  their  contents, 
and  in  their  covering.    The  mature  eggs  of  the  "pesci-cani"  (dog-fish), 

the  "  tremoli"  (Torpedo),  &c,  which  are  as  large 
as  hen  or  goose  eggs,  consist  of  a  yellow  yolk  in- 
closed in  a  membrane,  and  a  germinative  disk, 
measuring  about  three  millimeters  in  diameter, 
placed  on  the  surface  of  the  yolk  under  the 
membrane,  and  which  contains  the  germinative 
cell  (fig.  9).  From  the  disk  of  the  fecundated  egg 
is  formed  the  embryo,  to  which  the  yolk  serves 
as  food. 

When  the  egg  has  entered  the  oviduct,  it  be- 
comes covered  with  a  layer  of  gelatinous  matter, 
and  in  the  agatte"   (Scyllium),  "rase"  (Raja), 


Fig.  7.  Testicles. 

a.  Eight  testicle. 

b.  Left  testicle. 

c.  Deferent  canal. 

d.  Intestine. 

e.  Seminal  pouch. 

/.  Part  of  the  abdominal  wall 

g.  Anns. 

h.  Uro-genital  orifice. 

i.  Urinary  bladder. 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  9.  Egg. 

a.  Yolk. 

b.  Germinative  vesicle. 

c.  Germinative  dot. 


&c.j  also  with  a  solid  horny  case,  produced  by 
the  glands  of  the  oviduct  (fig.  10). 

The  mature  eggs  of  osseous  fish  (fig.  11)  are 
about  one  to  six  millimeters  in  diameter,  and 
sometimes  even  less  than  one.  When  they  are 
half-matured,  they    are  of  a  yellow    or    white 

t.  Gelatinous   matter         ,  ,       ,  .,  ,-,  -, 

surrounding  the  color ;  and  when  quite  mature,  they  are  almost 

yolk   in   the  same 

manner  as  the  white    transparent. 

of  the  egg  in  birds'  _,.  „  „    ,  ,  .,     ,  .,,    . 

eggs.  The  sperm  of  fish,  commonly  called  milt,  is  a 

thick,  white  liquid,  containing  innumerable  small  spermatic  bodies,  or 


Fig.  10.  Egg. 

a.  Corner  of  the  shell. 
6.  Horney  shell  of  the 

egg. 
e.  Yolk  of  the  egg  or 

nutrive  yolk. 
d.  Germinative  disk,  or 

yolk  of  evolution. 


724       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 


spermatozoa,  formiugthe  essential  part  of  the  sperm,  and  moving  about 
when  in  a  fresh  condition.  They  consist  of  an  anterior  thicker  part,  the 
so-called  head,  and  a  more  attenuated  part,  or  tail. 

The  spermatic  corpuscules  vary  both  in  size  and  shape.  In  the 
"  pesci-cani"  (Mustelus),  the  "  rase  "  (Raja),  &c,  they  are  larger,  with  the 
head  more  or  less  fusiform,  and  the  tail  more  or  less  spiral  (fig.  12). 

In  the  osseous  fishes,  the  spermatic  corpuscules  are,  as  a  general  rule, 
smaller,  with  the  head  rounder,  and  the  tail  quite  attenuated  and  fili- 
form (fig.  13). 


Pis.  11. 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  11.  Eipc  egg  of  the  Pike  (E.?0x 
lucius),  seen  from  above. 

a.  Nutritive  yolk. 

b.  Germinative  disk. 


Fig.  13.  Spermatic  corpuscle. 

a.  Head  nearly  round. 

b.  Filiform  tail. 


Fig.  12.  Spermatic  corpuscle. 

a.  The  elongated  head. 

b.  The  spiral-formed  tail. 
These  corpuscles  exe- 
cute  rotary   move- 

ments 'with  their 
spiral  part,  while 
the  other  part  has  a 
trembling,  vibrat- 
ing, and  darting 
motion. 

The  fecundation  of  the  egg  consists  in  the  entry  of  the  spermatic  cor- 
puscules into  the  egg  (fig.  14),  and  in  the  production  of  a  division  of  the 
germinative  disk,  which  phenomenon  is  called  the  process  of  segmenta- 
tion, or  furrowing  (fig.  15),  followed  by  a  series  of  successive  changes, 
of  which  the  final  result  is  the  embryo,  which,  feeding  on  the  yolk, 
gradually  develops  into  the  perfect  fish. 


Fig.  14. 


Fig.  15. 


Fig.  15.  Egg  after  fecundation,  during  the  period 
of  segmentation,  or  sulcation,  of  the 
germinative  disk. 

„  _  a.  Nutritive  volk. 

Fig.  14.  Ripe  transparent  egg  of  the     Rayno  6>  Germinative  disk,  or  yolk  of  evolu- 

( Trc5HJcr=TRACHiNUS  kadiatus),  with  ti0Dj  divided  into  four  segments. 

spermatic  corpuscles. 

a.  Yolk. 

b.  Lump  of  fat. 

c.  Supermatic  corpuscles. 

The  fecundation  of  the  egg  is  effected  in  the  "  pesci-cani "  (3iustehis) 
and  other  viviparous  species  inside  the  body  of  the  animal,  while  in 
the  great  majority  of  fish  it  takes  place  outside  the  body  in  the  water, 
where  the  male  fish,  during  the  spawning-season,  pursues  the  female, 
squirting  his  sperm  over  the  eggs  ;  and  this  fact  makes  artificial  fecun- 
dation and  pisciculture  possible. 


SYRSKI ON  THE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION  OF  FISHES.  725 

THE  REPRODUCTIVE  ORGANS  OF  THE  EEL. 

Although  the  eel  is  one  of  the  most  common  fishes,  it  is,  nevertheless, 
one  of  the  least  known.  As,  even  up  to  the  present  day,  only  the  female 
of  the  eel  is  known,  and  this  even  imperfectly,  some  naturalists  have 
supposed  that  the  females  propagate  the  species  without  the  help  of  the 
male,  which  mode  of  reproduction  actually  takes  place  in  some  insects, 
and  is  called  parthenogenesis  ;  while  others,  having  recently  recognized 
iu  a  fatty  formation,  which  is  found  in  the  abddminal  cavity  by  the  side 
of  the  ovaries,  the  male  organs  of  the  eel,  have  declared  it  be  a  hermaph- 
rodite— i.  e.,  an  animal  in  which  both  male  and  female  organs  are  found 
in  the  same  individual. 

Only  a  few  naturalists  have  maintained,  and  as  we  shall  see  not  with- 
out reason,  that  male  individuals  must  be  found  among  the  eels. 

Basing  their  opinion  on  the  reproductive  organs,  the  majority  of  nat- 
uralists have  with  good  reason  supposed  that  the  eels  are  oviparous  ani- 
mals, while  others,  almost  exclusively  amateurs,  have  always  considered 
them  as  viviparous  animals. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  cast  a  glance  on  the  endeavors  of  the  more 
distinguished  naturalists  to  find  the  ovaries  and  the  spermatic  organs 
of  the  eel,  and  on  some  erroneous  assertions  with  regard  to  this  matter, 
in  order  to  bring  out  in  bolder  relief  the  object  in  view,  viz,  to  give 
through  a  history  of  a  science  an  outline  of  this  science. 

Aristotle  (fourth  century  before  Christ1),  the  greatest  naturalist  of 
antiquity,  the  founder  of  zoology,  recognized  the  ovaries  of  the  "  grongo" 
{Conger  vulgaris)  by  the  crackling  of  the  eggs  when  placed  over  the  fire, 
but  maintained  that  the  eel,  notwithstanding  that  its  ovaries  resemble 
those  of  the  "grongo"  in  every  respect,  is  born  from  worms  produced 
by  mud. 

Pliny  (first  century  A.  D.2),  who,  in  great  part,  like  the  majority  of 
his  compatriots,  only  copied  Greek  works,  especially  those  of  Aristotle, 
differs  from  him  as  regards  the  reproduction  of  the  eel,  maintaining 
that  it  rubs  itself  against  rocks,  and  that  from  the  fragments  coming 
off  during  this  rubbing  process  the  young  eels  are  born. 

Albertus  Magnus  (thirteenth  century  A.  D.3)  accepts  Pliny's  hypoth- 
esis, but  says  that  he  has  heard  that  eels  are  also  born  alive  from  eels. 

Rondelet  (sixteenth  century4)  asserts  that  eels  are  born  not  only 
from  putrefied  matter,  but  also  from  eggs  produced  by  the  copulation 
of  male  and  female  eels. 

x  Aristotle:  Tlepl  tjbuv  laropiag,  lib.  iii,  cap.  10,  §  1 ;  lib.  v,  cap.  3,  §2,  and  cap.  9,  $  4 ; 
lib.  vi,  cap.  15,  §  1-2,  and  cap.  16,  §  6. 

2  C.  Plinii  Secundi  Naturalis  historise,  lib.  ix,  cap.  51. 

3  Albertus  Magnus:  De  aninialibus  libri  viginti  sex;  written  about  tbe  year  1254,  and 
published  at  Venice  1495. 

*Bondeletii  Universse  aquatium  historiae  pars  altera.  De  piscibns  fluviatilibns  liberi 
p.  200,  An.  1555. 


726       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Conrad  Gesner  (sixteenth  century1)  attributes  the  reproduction  of 
eels  to  putrefying  matter,  and  also  to  copulation. 

MalpigM  (seventeenth  century2),  a  great  anatomist  and  expert  micro- 
scopist,  declares  that  the  ovaries  not  only  of  the  eels  but  also  of  similar 
fish,  such  as  the  "grongo"  and  the  i4murena"  {Murama  helena),  are  fatty 
productions,  and  calls  them  "  striae  adiposes? 

Eedi  (toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 3),  who  has  dissected 
many  eels  and  "inurenas,"  (Murcerta  helena),  and  also  illustrated  as  such 
the  ovaries  of  the  last-mentioned  fish,  nevertheless,  does  not  recognize 
the  ovaries  of  the  eel. 

He  opposes  the  hypothesis  that  the  eel  can  be  reproduced  from  putre- 
fying matter;  he  proves,  moreover,  that  what  are  called  young  eels  are 
nothing  but  intestinal  worms,  and  that  therefore  eels  are  not  viviparous 
animals,  but  are  reproduced  by  means  of  eggs'in  the  same  manner  as 
other  fish. 

LeeuicenhoeJc  (toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century4),  who  has 
occupied  himself  much  with  microscopic  observations,  and  was  the 
first  who  made  known  the  infusoria,  having  found,  in  the  urinary  bladder 
of  an  eel,  very  small  parasitic  worms,  mistook  them  for  young  eels,  and 
the  bladder  itself  for  the  uterus. 

Gcorg  Eisner5  relates  that  a  fish- vender  showed  him  an  eel  whose 
uterus  was  full  of  young  ones,  which,  to  quote  his  own  words,  hwrebdnt 
in  diversis  membranis  involulce  anguillw. 

Yallisneri  (beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century6)  has  given  illustra- 
tions of  the  true  ovaries  of  the  eel,  but,  following  Malpighi  and  Eedi, 
calls  them  vasi  adiposi  [fatty  vessels];  and,  having  accidentally  found 
in  an  eel  a  pathologically-deformed  swimming-bladder,  announced  with 
great  joy  to  the  Academy  of  Bologna  and  the  whole  scientific  world 
that  he  had  found  the  true  ovary  of  the  eel. 

Linne1  maintains  that  eels  are  viviparous. 

Carlo  Mwndini, 8  professor  of  anatomy  at  the  University  of  Bologna, 
was  the  first  discoverer  of  the  ovary  of  the  eel,  of  which  he  gave  a 
detailed  description  to  the  Academy  of  Bologna  the  19th  day  of  May, 
1777,  which,  however,  was  not  published  till  1783. 

Otto  Milller9  writes,  in  1780,  that  he  has  found  eggs  in  the  fringed 

1  Conradi  Gesneri  Historise  animalium  liber  iv.  Tiguri  1558. 
2 Tetras  epistolarum,  &c.    DissertatiodeOinento,  1665. 

3  Osservazioni  iutorno  agli  auimali  viventi  che  si  trovano  negli  auimali  viventi. 
Floreut.  1684. 

4  Arcana  naturae.    Epistola  75.     An.  1692. 

6  Acad.  Cass.  Leopold.  Miscellanea  medico-pbysica.     Observat.  119,  p.  219. 
6Pritnaraccolta  d'osservazioni  &c.    Venice,  1710. — De  ovario  anguillaruin.     Epbeme- 

rides  Acad.  Nat.  Curios,  ad  Centur.  I  et  II  appendix,  p.  152,  fig.  h;  An.  1712. — La  terza 
volta  lo  stesso:  Nuova  scoperta  delle  uova,  ovaje  delle  anguille  &c.  nelle  opere  Fisico- 
Medicbe,  raccolta  del  suo  figliulo.    An.  1733. 

7  Systenia  naturte,  1750.  » 

8De  anguillae  ovariis.    De  Bononiensi  Scientiaruni  et  Artium  Institute  atque  Acade- 
mia  Conimentarii.     Vol.  vi.     1783. 
•Scbriften  der  Berliner  Gesellscbaft  naturforscbender  Freuude.    Vol.  i,  p.  204.    1780. 


SYRSKI ON  THE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION  OF   FISHES.     727 

bodies;  bat  the  description  which  he  gives  of  them  being  in  some  respects 
inaccurate,  pre-eminence  must  be  accorded  to  that  of  Mundini. 

Spallanzani,1  a  distinguished  naturalist  who  lived  toward  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  basing  his 
opinion  on  the  examination  of  497  eels,  casts  doubts  on  the  discovery  of 
Mundini,  remarking  "  that  not  content  with  destroying,  he  wishes  to 
erect  on  the  Yallisuerian  ruins  a  new  edifice."  These  words,  however, 
lead  us  to  suppose  that  a  certain  animosity  toward  the  anatomist 
Mundini,  whom  he  possibly  considered  as  an  intruder  among  the  zoolo- 
gists, has  led  his  judgment  astray.  In  another  place,  moreover,  he  contra- 
dicts himself  when  he  adds:  "  If  the  masses  of  little  globules  were  eggs, 
and  if  they  were  found  united  with  the  fecundating  semen,  the  eels 
would  be  true  hermaphrodites." 

EathJce,2  who  first,  since  Mundini,  has  in  detail  described  (1824,  1838, 
and  1850)  the  ovaries  of  the  eel,  is  considered  by  some  to  have  recog- 
nized them ;  but  this,  however,  is  not  true,  the  additions  made  by  him 
to  Mundini's  description  being  to  a  great  extent  erroneous.  It  is  not 
true  that  the  transverse  leaflets  are  wanting  in  the  ovaries  of  the  eel,  as 
he  asserts  in  his  last  work,  contrary  to  his  former  description,  which  was 
probably  based  on  the  law  of  analogy,  and  that  thereby  they  are  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  the  salmon  and  sturgeon.  It  is  not  true,  what 
Eathke  likewise  asserts,  that  the  genital  opening  of  the  eel  consists  of 
two  small  canals,  for  I  have  invariably  only  found  one,  which  opens  in 
the  urethra.  Eathke  has  certainly  described  the  eggs  quite  exactly, 
distinguishing  the  larger  whitish  ones,  having  a  diameter  of  about  one- 
fifteenth  of  a  line,  and  the  smaller  transparent  ones,  with  the  germinal 
vesicle  inside;  but  Mundini  likewise  says:  " innumeras  sphcerulas  mini- 
mas,  (equates,  pellucidas,  divisas  tamen,  qua;  in  centro  maculam  ostendebant 
ecc.  vidi",  thus  showing  the  true  nature  of  the  ovaries  and  the  eggs,  and 
contrasting  them  with  the  fatty  formation  and  with  the  ovaries  and 
eggs  of  other  osseous  fish. 

If,  as  we  have  thus  seen,  it  took  more  than  two  thousand  years  to 
find  out,  and  this  even  inaccurately,  the  ovaries,  which  are  much  larger 
than  the  spermatic  organs,  it  is  but  natural  that  it  was  no  easy  matter 
to  find  these,  which  resemble  two  rows  of  small  lobes,  about  two  to  three 
millimeters  large,  and  are  of  almost  glassy  appearance,  starting  from 
the  same  place  where  in  the  females  the  ovaries  are  found,  and  running 
both  on  the  right  and  left  side  along  the  whole  length  of  the  abdominal 
cavity. 

Mundini3  and  Spallanzani  have  sought  the  spermatic  organs  of  the  eel 
in  vain. 

1  Due  opuscoli  sulle  anguille.    Appeuclice  ai  viaggi  alle  due  Sicilie.    Vol.  vi.     1792. 

4  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Thierwelt.  Halle,  1824. — Wiegmann's  Archiv  far  Natur- 
geschichte.  Vol.  i.  p.  299.  1838. — Muller's  Archiv  fur  Anatomie,  Physiologic,  &c.  Vol. 
i,  p.  203.     1850. 

8  Memoria  autografa  del  Mundini,  del  1788,  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Gualtiero  Sac- 
chetti,  engineer. 


V28       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Hombaum-HornschucJi,1  who  re-ecboes  Bathke's  erroneous  assertions, 
claims  to  have  found  in  the  fringed  bodies  of  many  eels?  instead  of  eggs, 
round  bodies  inclosing  small  granules,  and  has  declared  tbat  such  eels 
are  male  individuals. 

Schlilsser2  was  not  able  to  confirm  Hornbaum-Hornscbucb's  assertion. 

I  have  found  only  once,  and  that  in  an  eel  390  millimeters  long,  dis- 
sected on  the  5th  July,  in  the  fringed  organs,  besides  eggs,  the  above- 
described  small  bodies  in  compartments  similar  to  those  of  the  testicles 
of  eels  and  other  fish. 

The  rare  phenomenon  of  spermatic  compartments  and  ovarian  leaflets 
occurring  side  by  side,  I  also  found  once  in  OpMdium  barbatum  and  Smarts 
alcedo,  where  the  compartments  were  interlarded  with  groups  of  eggs. 

Professor  Sieboldf  after  having  passed  in  review  the  different  hypotheses 
regarding  the  male  organs  of  reproduction  in  the  eel,  and  having  reached 
a  negative  conclusion,  says  that  eels  may  reproduce  by  means  of 
parthenogenesis,  or  by  being  of  different  sex,  or  also  by  being  her- 
maphrodites. 

In  1872  was  published  a  memoir,4  accompanied  by  an  illustrative  plate, 
by  Prof.  Gr.  B.  Ercolani,  in  which  the  author  distinguishes,  as  a  rudi- 
mental  testicle,  the  fat  which  is  found  attached  to  the  swimming-bladder 
between  the  intestine  and  the  right  ovary  and  the  intestine  itself/while 
he  calls  "  true  testicle  "  a  sac  on  the  left  side,  formed  exceptionally  by 
the  peritoneum,  and  found  in  the  place  which  corresponds  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  fat  on  the  right  side.  In  the  parietes  of  this  sac,  Professor 
Ercolani  found  fat  and  self-moving  spermatozoa,  which  movements, 
however,  seem  to  be  nothing  else  but  the  molecular  movement  of  the 
granules  found  so  frequently  in  the  tissues  of  the  animal  body.  I  have, 
instead  of  all  this,  found  in  the  same  place  a  fatty  formation,  resembling 
that  of  the  right  side,  and  only  in  two  eels  have  I  found  a  sac  which 
could  be  inflated  through  the  genital  opening. 

The  so-called  alveolar  or  proligeuous  cells  of  the  testicle  are,  therefore, 
— as  the  illustration  in  Ercolani's  article  also  shows — nothing  else  than 
the  common  and  well-known  alveolar  vessels  of  the  adipose'  tissue. 

In  the  same  year  (1S72)  was  published  the  results  of  researches  by 
O.  Balsamo  Crivelli  and  L.  Maggif  professors  at  the  University  of  Pavia, 
who,  contrary  to  the  assertions  of  Professor  Ercolani,  maintained  that  the 
fat  on  the  right  side  was  a  well-developed  testicle,  and  that  of  the  left 
an  atrophied  testicle.  They,  too,  have  therein  found,  and  also  given 
illustrations  of,  spermatozoa.    . 

1  De  Anguillaruin  sexu  ac  generatione.     Gryphiae,  1842. 

2  De  Petromyzoutuni  et  Auguillaruui  sexu.    Dorpati,  1849. 

3  Die  Siisswasseriische  vou  Mittel-Europa,  p.  348.     Leipzig,  1863. 

4  Del  perfetto  ermafroditismo  delle  anguille.  Meruoria  del  Prof.  Coram.  G.  B.  Erco- 
3aui,  uelle  Memorie  dell'Accademia  delle  Scienze  dell'Istituto  di  Bologua.  Serie  iii, 
tomo  i,  fascicolo  4.     Bologua,  1872. 

5  Iutorno  agli  organi  esseuziali  della  riproduzione  delle  anguille  &c.  uelle  Memorie 
<lel  Reale  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Scienze  e  Lettere,  vol.  xii-xiii,  della  serie  iii,  fasci- 
ola  4.     Milauo,  1872. 


SYKSKI ON  THE  ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION   OF   FISHES.     729 

I  have  found  similar  formations  in  almost  all  eels,  usually  more  devel- 
oped on  the  right  side  than  on  the  left,  sometimes  fringed,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration  accompanying  Ercolaui's  article,  or  with  long  borders, 
as  shown  in  Professor  Maggi's  illustration,  but  always  of  a  structure 
which  is,  so  to  speak,  typical  of  adipose  tissues. 

Receutly  there  appeared  in  No.  7  for  the  year  1874,  of  the  German 
periodical  "Die  Gartenlaubev,  an  article,  accompanied  by  an  illustration, 
which  represents  a  pseudo-embryo  of  an  eel  of  the  length  of  24  milli- 
meters, with  the  head  and  eyes  very  large,  the  belly  swollen,  and  a  yel- 
low yolk-sac,  described  by  Dr.  Eberhard,  of  Rostock,  who  says  that  he 
received  it  in  December  last  from  a  student,  who  again  had  got  it  from 
a  woman  who  had  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  an  eel  a  net-like  sac 
containing  about  a  thousand  similar  embryos.  This  story  reminds  one 
of  that  told  more  than  a  century  ago  by  George  Eisner. 

With  regard  to  this  matter,  Professor  Grube,  at  a  session  of  the  Society 
of  Natural  History  in  Breslau  (Prussia),  expressed  himself  in  the  follow- 
ing manner: — 

"  The  journals  have  recently  brought  us  from  Rostock  the  intelligence 
that  an  eel  had  given  birth  to  living  young  ones.  Similar  statements 
have  been  made  in  former  times,  but  afterward  corrected,  to  the  effect  that 
the  parasitic  worms  which  are  frequently  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
or,  in  the  urinary  bladder,  had  been  mistaken  for  young  eels.  The  state- 
ment, however,  which  has  come  to  us  from  Rostock  owes  its  origin  to 
the  fact  that  a  really  viviparous  fish,  the  Zoarces  vivlpants,  has  been 
mistaken  for  an  eel,  as  was  proved  when  the  supposed  young  eel  was 
sent  to  me  by  Professor  Aubert.  Young  eels  have  never  been  found  in 
the  bodies  of  mother  eels." 

During  the  month  of  March  or  April  of  this  year  (1874),  there  appeared 
in  the  Miscellanea  of  the  "  Neue  Ereie  Presse "  of  Vienna,  a  notice 
entitled  "  The  reproduction  of  eels ",  where  it  is  stated,  "  Not  unfre- 
quently  persons  ignorant  of  zoology  believe  that  they  have  found  in  the 
bodies  of  eels  young  living  eels,  which,  however — as  was  recently 
brought  out  strongly  by  Professor  Miinter,  director  of  the  Zoological 
Museum  of  Greifswald— when  subjected  to  the  critical  examination  of 
competent  persons  were  found  to  be  intestinal  worms.  The  above-men- 
tioned professor  observes  :  '  It  is  not  difficult  to  find  in  the  eels  of  the 
Baltic  Sea  curled  ovaries  resembling  a  drapery  ;  I  myself  [Miinter]  hav- 
ing invariably  found  ovaries  in  about  3,000  eels  examined  by  me  for  that 
purpose.  Unfortunately,  my  numerous  observations  have  never  yet  been 
rewarded  with  the  discovery  of  a  male  eel — i.  e.,  a  milter ;  all  the  eels 
examined  by  me  with  all  possible  care  for  a  number  of  years  having 
turned  out  to  be  females.  I  must  therefore  admit  that  eels  are  repro- 
duced by  parthenogenesis,  i.  e.,  from  non -fecundated  eggs,  as  is  the  case 
with  some  insects.  In  all  probability,  the  eggs  are  deposited  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Baltic  Sea  from  the  middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April, 
and  the  young  eels,  one-half  to  two  inches  long,  born  from  such  eggs, 
migrate  into  fresh  water  about  the  beginning  of  May.'" 


T^ 


730      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Thus  but  few  results  have  been  obtained  with  great  difficulty  in  all 
the  numerous  researches,  and  the  observations  have  frequently  been 
erroneous.  This  historical  review  is  also,  from  an  anthropologic  point 
of  view,  very  instructive,  showing  that  not  only  the  masses  of  the 
people  but  also  highly  intelligent  and  cultivated  men  are  liable  to  err. 

I  commenced  my  investigations  on  the  29th  November  lastyear  (1873), 
and  already  in  the  second  eel  which  1  dissected  on  that  day  I  found  the 
testicles,  and  therefore  a  male  individual  of  the  eel.  I  sent  in  March  of 
the  following  year  (1874)  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Vienna  a  pre- 
liminary communication,  which  was  read  at  the  public  session  held  the 
loth  April,  and  printed  in  the  Eeports  of  the  Academy. 

Having  in  the  course  of  my  investigations  met  with  similar  errors 
regarding  the  female  organs  of  reproduction  in  the  descriptions  hitherto 
given  of  them,  with  the  view  of  rectifying  and  completing  the  details, 
and  also  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  with  the  male  organs,  I  deter- 
miued  to  commence  by  describing  the  former,  i.  e.,  female  organs. 

THE   OVARIES   OF  THE  EEL. 

These  organs  (fig.  16),  two  in  number,  are  ribbon-shaped,  with  leaf- 
lets on  their  outer  face,  and  with  transverse  folds.  In  the  natural 
position  of  the  live  fish,  the  one  extends  to  the  left  and  the  other  to  the 
right  of  the  alimentary  tube,  following  most  of  its  angles  nearly  the  whole 
length  of  the  abdominal  cavity  to  the  place  where  the  dorsal  parietes  is 
confluent  with  the  lateral. 

The  right  ovary  commences  at  a  point  nearly  corresponding  to  that 
where  on  the  outside  the  right  pectoral  fin  ends,  and  the  left  ovary  com- 
mences about  two  centimeters  and  ends  three  to  four  centimeters  behind 
the  former.  They  extend  three  to  six  centimeters  back  of  the  anus,  into  the 
caudal  part  of  the  animal's  body ;  they  do  not,  however,  unite  in  a  single 
body,  as  some  have  asserted,  but  both  are  toward  the  end  inclosed  in  a 
peritoneal  membrane,  and  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  union  of 
these  membranes,  having  each  on  their  inner  face  an  accessory  ovary 
(pars  recur  rem  ovarii).  In  rare  cases  is  such  an  accessory  ovary  want- 
ing either  on  the  right  or  on  the  left  side. 

The  ovaries  in  fully-grown  eels  are  in  the  middle  about  two  centimeters 
larger,  and  posteriorly  terminate  in  a  thread-like  form.  They  are  not 
smooth  on  both  sides,  but  have,  as  was  said  above,  on  their  outer  side 
numerous  transverse  folds  (fig.  17)  full  of  eggs  (fig.  18). 

It  is  another  of  Rathke's  erroneous  assertions,  likewise  maintained 
by  others,  that  the  genital  opening  through  which  the  eggs  pass  out 
from  the  abdominal  cavity  is  formed  by  two  holes,  a  right  one  and  a 
left  one.  I  have  invariably  found  in  all  specimens  examined  a  simple 
hole,  which  communicated  with  the  right  and  left  half  of  the  abdominal 
cavity  by  means  of  a  transverse  fissure  between  the  straight  intestine 
and  the  urinary  bladder  (fissura  recto-vesicalis)  and  opens  in  the  urethra 
(fig.  19). 


SYKSKI ON  THE.  ORGANS   OF  REPRODUCTION   OF   FISHES.     731 


Fig.  16. 


m  ' 


V.-T-- 


IJJaV  VJTfc 


rO  — 


lifcs- 


Af 


Fig.  17.  Piece  of  the  ovary,  twice  its  natural  size,  with  ova- 
rian leaflets  arranged  in  transversal  rows,  on  its 
outer  surface. 
The  shorter  border  attached  to  the  dorsal  wall  of 
the  abdominal  cavity ;  the  longer  being  free. 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  18.  Piece  of  a  somewhat  developed  ovary,  one  hundred 
times  the  natural  size,  showing  the  transparent 
eggs  ivith  the  germinative  vesicles  and  the  germin- 
ative  dots. 


o  4 


Fig.  16.  Female  eel,  longitudinal  section 
of  the  abdomen ;  natural  size. 

a.  Right  ovary. 

b.  Left  ovary. 

c.  Accessory  part  of  the  right 

ovary. 

d.  Left  accessory  part. 

e.  Dividing  membrane. 
/.    Anal  depression. 

g.  Urinary  bladder. 

h.  Fat  on  the  right  side  erro- 
neously taken  for  the  testi- 
cles by  some. 

h'.  Similar  fat,  covering  the 
stomach. 

i.    Fat  on  the  left  side. 

k.    Stomach. 

I.    Pylorus. 

m.  Liver. 

n.  Gall-bladder. 

oo.  Pectoral  fins 


Fig.  19.  Anal  part  of  a  female  eel,  twice  the  natural  size. 

a.  Straight  intestine. 

b.  Fissura  recto-vesicalis. 

c.  "Urinary  bladder. 

d.  Annus. 

e.  Partition. 

/.  TJro-genital  opening. 

g.  Outlet  of  the  genital  opening  in  the  urethra. 


732       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  eggs,  when  loosened  from  the  ova- 
ries, fall  indiscriminately  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  but  it  is  not  said 
which  w,.y  they  take  in  order  to  go  out  through  the  genital  aperture. 
As  I  have  invariably  found  that  the  fully-developed  ovaries  lean  with 
their  onter  surface  against  tbe  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  approach 
with  their  free  edges  the  lower  portion  of  this  side,  forming,  so  to  speak, 
a  furrow,  I  must  conclude  that  the  loosened  eggs  descend  between  the 
abdominal  partition  and  the  folds  and  leaflets  of  the  ovary  in  the  above- 
mentioned  furrow,  and  from  it  pass  to  the  genital  aperture  without 
scattering  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

As  to  the  development  which  the  ovaries  undergo,  I  have  observed, 
from  the  end  of  November  till  the  beginning  of  March,  in  many  adult 
eels,  of  the  length  of  530  millimeters  and  more,  that  the  ovaries  were  of 
the  breadth  of  15  to  25  millimeters,  and  of  a  yellowish  and  sometimes  red- 
dish-white color,  produced  by  the  development  of  adipose  tissues  and  of 
the  blood-vessels,  and  not  by  the  eggs  filled  with  little  globules  of  fat ; 
the  genital  aperture  and  the  Jissura  recto-vesicalis  were  open. 

In  other  eels  of  a  length  sometimes  of  600  millimeters  and  more,  I 
found  the  ovaries  less  broad,  with  but  little  fat,  and  of  a  mucous  and 
almost  glassy  appearance,  so  that  I  could  discern  the  so-called  vesicles 
and  germiuative  dots  {nuclei  and  nucleoli))  the  genital  aperture  and 
the  Jissura  recto-vesicalis  were  closed. 

The  ovaries  of  young  eels,  of  the  length  of  about  500  millimeters,  con- 
tained invariably  but  little  fat,  and  the  eggs  were  without  globules. 
The  gradual  growth  and  enlargement  of  the  ovaries  go  on  simultane- 
ously with  the  opening  of  the  genital  orifice.  According  to  the  quantity  of 
fat  contained  in  the  ovaries,  they  have  a  mucous  and  glassy,  or  more  or 
less  opaque  or  white,  appearance,  or  have  small  shining  white  dots. 

From  the  end  of  March  till  October,  I  found  in  the  majority  of  eels 
which  I  examined,  measuring  600  to  700  millimeters  in  length,  that  the 
ovaries  were  scarcely  white,  and  that  the  genital  aperture  was  closed. 

The  number  of  eggs  contained  in  both  developed  ovaries  reaches, 
according  to  my  calculation,  five  millions.  Tbe  larger  eggs  measured  by 
me  had  a  diameter  of  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  millimeter,  while  the  eggs  of 
an  adult  "grongo"  (Conger)  had,  accordingto  my  measurements,  a 
diameter  of  one-third  of  a  millimeter,  and  those  of  the  "  murena"  (Murama 
helena)  almost  one  millimeter,  which  explains  to  me  why  the  ovaries  of 
the  two  last-mentioned  species  of  fish  have  long  since  become  known. 

In  an  eel  measuring  590  millimeters,  examined  on  the  6th  July,  the 
left  ovary  was  entirely  wanting,  aud  replaced  by  a  mass  of  fat. 

THE   SPERMATIC   ORGANS. 

The  position  of  these  organs,  (fig.  20),  which  are  not  ribbon-shaped 
like  the  ovaries,  but  represent  two  longitudinal  rows  each  with  about 
fifty  lobules  (fig.  21)  of  the  width  at  most  of  three  millimeters,  and  found 


'Q 1; 


y 


SYRSKI ON  THE   ORGANS  OF  REPRODUCTION  OF   FISHES. 

Fig.  20. 

only  in  eels  not  more  than  430  millimeters  long, 

corresponds  entirely  with  that  of  tlie  ovaries.    In 

these  organs  are  likewise  found,  toward  the  pos- 
terior end,  the  spermatic  accessory  organs  (partes 

recitrrcntes),  which,  however,  as  is  the  case  with 

the  ovaries,  are  sometimes  wanting. 
The    spermatic   organs  can  be   distinguished 

at  the  first  glance  from  the  ovaries  of  the  adult 

eels  and  those  of  young  eels,  not  only  by  their 

lobular  form,  but  also  by  their  shining  glassy 

appearance,   by  the  surface  of   the  individual 

lobes,  which  is  smooth  and  without  leaflets,  and 

by  the  much  greater  density  of  the  tissue,  so  that 

with  a  pair  of  pincers  one  can  take  off  a  large 

portion  of  the  organ,  which  could  not  possibly 

be  done  with  a  more  developed  ovary  whose  tissue 

is  as  tender  as  a  cobweb,  and.  is  composed  of 

small  vessels  formed  of  a  thin  membrane  and 

filled  with  eggs  and  fat. 
The  fibrous  tissue  of  the  spermatic  organs  is 

composed  of  vascular  compartments  with  thicker 

partitions,  inclosing,  according  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  organ,  granular  globules  (fig.  22). 

These  compartments  are  joined  toward  the  in- 
side and  the  base  of  the  lobes,  which  are  united 
to  a  tube  (vas  deferens),  which,  crecal  at  the  com- 
mencement, runs  along  the  entire  length  of  the  m-  \  ml 
abdominal  cavity,  and  opens  near  the  straight 
intestine  (rectum)  in  a  triangular  pouch,  which 
likewise  contains  a  vas  deferens  starting  from  the 
caudal  part  of  the  spermatic  organ.  This  pouch 
has  its  outlet  in  the  genital  orifice,  which  opens  in 
the  urethra  (fig.  23). 

As  regards  the  development  of  the  spermatic 
organs,  I  have  observed  that  the  lobes  of  these 
organs  in  young  eels,  measuring  not  more  than 
200  to  300  millimeters  in  length,  are       FlG- 20-  Male  eel 
not  yet  very  distinct,  forming  two 
thin  ribbons  differing  but  little  from 
ovaries  of  the  female  in  their  aver- 
age size.    In  eels  measring  about 
400  millimeters  in  length,  the  tes- 
ticles can  easily  be  distinguished 
from    the    ovaries.      The    former, 
much  straighter,  and  with  tissue, 
as    has    been    already    remarked, 
much  more  solid,  are  provided  with 


733 


-« 


-8 


-«■ 


V 


a  great 


Eight  testicle. 

Left  testicle. 

Right  accessory  part. 

Lett  accessory  part. 

Dividing  membrane. 

Deferent  canal. 

Seminal  pouch. 

Anal  degression. 

TTriuary  bladder,  covered  to 
extent  by  the  seminal  pouch. 

Fat  on  the  right  side. 

Similar  fat  covering  the  stomach. 

Fat  on  the  left  side. 

Stomach. 
n.  Pylorus. 

o.   Liver,  turned  up  to  show  the  inner 
surface  adhering  to  the  oesophagus 
and  the  stomach. 
p.  Gall-bladder. 
qq.  Pectoral  fins. 


a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 
f. 
O- 
h. 
i. 

k. 
k'. 
I. 
m. 


734      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 


a  much  more  developed  net-work  of  vessels;  their  lobes  are  very  dis- 
tinct, and  tbe  deferent  canals  are  usually  open,  while  the  ovaries  present 
the  appearance  of  two  continuous  ribbons,  have  a  more  delicate  tissue, 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  21.  Three  lobes  of  the  right  testicle,  with  the  deferent  canal  (enlarged  ten  times). 

a.  Lobes,  seen  from  their  outer  surface. 

b.  Lobe,  seen  from  its  inner  surface. 

c.  Deferent  canal. 

d.  Anterior  part  of  the  same. 


and  contain  the 


eggs 


with  the 


and  an  almost  mucous  appearance, 
germinative  vesicles. 

The  deferent  canals  and  the  genital  orifice  are  closed  in  young  eels  of 
the  male  sex,  and  open  simultaneously  with  the  development  of  the  lobes. 

In  the  male  eels  examined  by  me  from  March  to  October,  I  have  found 
individuals  of  400  millimeters  and  more  in  length,  whose  genital  orifice 
and  deferent  canals  were  invariably  open,  while  in  some  of  the  smaller 
ones  they  were  closed  and  in  others  open. 

Fig.  23. 


TIG.  22.  Piece  of  the  testicle  (one  hundred  and 
sixty  times  enlarged),  showing 
the  vascular  tissue  and  the  small 
granules. 


Fig.  23.  Anal  part  of  the  male  eel,  enlarged  twice. 

a.  Straight  intestine. 

b.  Fisstira    rectovesicalis,  covered   by  the 

outside  wall  of  the  seminal  pouch. 
cc.  Outlet  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  part 

of  the  deferent  canal  in  the  pouch. 
d.    Urinary  bladder. 


Of  the  258  eels  examined  by  me,  the  males  and  females  were  in  about 
even  proportion;  the  greatest  length  of  the  former  was  about  430  milli- 
meters, while  the  latter  were  of  all  sizes  up  to  1,050  millimeters,  which 
shows  that  the  males  are  smaller  than  the  females. 


XXXIV -THE  FOOD  AND  MODE  OF  LIVING  OF  THE  SALMON, 

THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD. 


By  D.  Barfurth.* 


PREFATORY   NOTE. 

A  few  preliminary  remarks  are  demanded  in  explanation  of  this  article. 

The  question  investigated  is  whether  the  catching  of  what  is  called 
"  Ruinpchen  "  in  certain  parts  of  Germany  (and  in  this  case  in  the  vicinity 
of  Bonn)  is  injurious  in  reference  to  the  species  of  economical  importance. 
As  the  investigation  has  reference  to  forms  or  combinations  which  have 
certain  technical  designations  without  exact  English  synonyms,  those 
designations  are  retained  in  the  translation.  They  may  be  explained  as 
follows : 

"  Ruinpchen  "  is  the  collective  name  for  small  fresh-water  fishes  in 
Western  Germany,  and  under  it  are  confounded  small  full-grown  fishes 
as  well  as  the  young  of  larger  species.  There  is  no  exact  English  equiv- 
alent for  the  term  ;  the  word  "  minnows"  being  restricted  properly  to 
small  cyprinoids,  while  "  fry,"  although  sometimes  used  as  a  collective 
name  for  small  fishes,  is  in  intention  applicable  rather  to  the  very  young 
of  various  species. 

It  has  been  also  deemed  expedient  to  retain  the  German  names  of 
the  several  species  in  question.  These,  however,  have  exact  English 
synonyms,  viz  : 

The  "  Lutter-Riimpchen,"  or  "  Siisse  Rumpchen, "  (Cobitis  barbatula,) 
is  the  "  loach  "  of  the  English. 

The  "  Riedlingchen,"  or  "  Bitter-Riimpchen,"  (PJioximis  Icevis,)  is  the 
"minnow"  of  the  English. 

The  "Gliwchen"  (Gobio  flunatilis)  is  the  "gudgeon"  of  the  English. 

The  "Kaulkopf"  (Uranidea  or  Cottus  gobio)  is  the  "ruiller's-thuinb"  of 
the  English. 

The  word  "Gesams"  corresponds  as  nearly  as  may  be  with  the  En- 
glish word  "fry." 

The  species  whose  food  has  been  especially  examined  have  been 
named  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  Siebold,  and  are  respectively 

*  Ueber  Nahrung  und  Lebensweise  der  Saline,  Forellen  uud  Maifische. — Inaugural- 
Dissertation  zur  Erlauguug  der  Doctorwiirde  bei  der  philosopbischen  Facultiit  der 
Rheinischen  Friedrick-Wilhelms-Universitat  zu  Bonn  eingereicbtuud  mitden  beigefiig- 
ten  Tbesen  vertbeidigt  am  19.  December  1874    von  D.  Barfurth,  stud.  rer.  nat.  aus 

Dinslaken Bonn,  Druck  von  CarlGeorgi.  1874.     [8vo,  41  pp.] — Reprinted  from 

Archiv  fiir  Naturgeschichte.    Translated  by  O.  Jacobsou. 


736       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH   AND    FISHERIES. 

(1)  the  salmon,  (2)  the  sea-trout,  (3)  the  common  river-trout  of  Europe, 
and  (4)  the  Allice  shad.  These,  in  accordance  with  the  nomenclature 
generally  prevalent,  are  (1)  Salmo  salar,  (2)  Salmo  trutta,  (3)  Salmo  fario, 
and  (4)  Alausa  vulgaris.  The  old  genus  Salmo  has  been  differentiated 
by  Siebold  into  two  genera :  (1)  Salmo,  including  the  charrs  and  hucho, 
distinguished  by  the  vomer  being  abbreviated,  the  anterior  short  portion 
thereof  alone  armed  with  teeth,  the  hinder  louger  portion  (shaft)  being 
wholly  toothless  in  the  old  as  well  as  in  the  young;  and  (2)  Trutta, 
including  the  salmon,  sea-trout,  river-trout,  and  related  species,  whose 
vomer  is  elongated,  (the  anterior  short  portion  being  with  or  without 
teeth.)  and  the  hinder  elongated  portion  (shaft)  armed  along  its  entire 
length  with  teeth,  which,  however,  in  the  very  old  are  more  or  less  lost. 
These  would  respectively  correspond  to  (1)  Salvelinus  Bon.  emend. 
(= Salmo  Siebold)  and  (2)  Salmo  Linn.  Bon.  emend.  (= Trutta  Siebold). 
The  "  Maifische"  of  the  Germans  is  the  common  shad  or  Allice  shad  of 
the  English,  (Alosa  vulgaris,)  and  is  very  closely  related  to  the  sbad  of 
the  American  coast  (Alosa  sapidissima). 

THEO.  GILL. 


THE    SALMON,    THE    TROUT,    AND    THE    SHAD.  737 


INTRODUCTION". 

In  the  year  1852,  the  Prussian  government  proposed  to  forbid  the 
"Biimpcheu-fishery,"  as  it  was  believed  that,  in  consequence  of  such 
fishery,  species  which  when  larger  might  be  useful  were  destroyed.  Pro- 
fessor Troschel,  of  Bonn,  thereupon  examined  the  young  fish  which, under 
.the  name  of  "  Biiinpchen,"  are  brought  to  market,  and  found  that  the 
"Lutter-Biitnpchen,"  or  "SiisseBumpchen,"  was  the  Cobitis  barbatida  L., 
the  "Biedlingchen"  or  "Bitter-Biiinpchen,"  the  Phoxinus  Icevis  Ag.,  the 
"Guwchen,"  the  Gobio  fluviatilis  C,  and  the  "Kaulkopf,"  the  Coitus  go- 
bio  L.  The  "  Biimpchen,"  brought  to  market  under  the  name  of  "  Ge- 
sams,"  consist,  according  to  Troschel,  of  the  young  of  all  the  fish  living  in 
the  river  Ahr;  consequently,  besides  the  young  of  the  species  mentioned, 
those  of  Alburniis  lucidus  H.,  Squalius  cephalus  L.,  Zeuciscus  rutilus  L., 
Barbus  Jluviatilis  Ag.,  and  Trutta  fario  Lin.1  (Sicbold.)  On  the  strength 
of  these  investigations,2  Troschel  declared  that,  as  most  of  the  "Biimp- 
chen" are  entirety  worthless  for  fishery-purposes,  they  might  be  caught 
without  any  injury  to  the  fisheries.  But  when  this  problem  had  been 
solved,  the  assertion  was  made  that  it  would,  nevertheless,  be  injurious 
to  catch  the  "Biimpchen,"  because  thereby  the  better  kinds  of  fish  were 
deprived  of  their  necessary  food,3  and  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the 
Friedrich-Wilhelms  University  of  Bonn,  during  the  year  1873-'7I,  pro- 
posed a  prize  for  answering  the  following  questions : 

"It  is  asserted  that  the  catching  of  'Biimpchen,'  although  these  fish 
are  in  themselves  worthless,  still  proves  injurious  to  the  Bhine  fisheries, 
because  the  larger  fish,  Salmo  solar,  Salmo  hamaius,  and  Salmo  fario, 
are  thereby  deprived  of  their  most  necessary  food.  The  salmon  go  into 
the  sea,  where  they  feed  on  other  fish,  and  only  come  into  the  rivers  for 
the  purpose  of  spawning.  The  trout  always  keep  in  the  mountain- 
brooks.  By  examining  the  entrails  of  the  above-mentioned  fish  at  dif- 
ferent seasons  of  the  year,  it  is  to  be  ascertained  of  what  their  food  con- 
sists while  in  fresh  water,  in  order  to  decide  whether  it  is  injurious  to  the 
fisheries  to  catch  '  Biimpchen.'  It  is  desired  to  extend  these  investiga- 
tions to  the  'Maifische,'  (Alausa  vulgaris,)  as  these  likewise  live  in  the 
sea  and  only  ascend  the  rivers  in  May." 

1  Salmo  fario  of  most  authors,  the  common  trout  of  Europe. 

2  Published  in  "  Verhandluugeu  des  naturhistorischen  Vereina  der  Preussischeu 
Rheinlande  und  Westphalens,"  8  Jahrg.,  Bonn,  1851,  p.  563. 

3Siebold,  Die  Slisswasserhsche  von  Mitteleuropa,  Leipzig.  1863,  p.  420. 

.  47  F 


738      REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

With  a  view  to  answering  the  above  questions  as  far  as  possible  satis- 
factorily, I  have  made  the  following  investigations : 

I. 

The  food  of  trutta  salar  Siebold,  (Sahno  salar  and  hamatus  Yal.,) 
and  trutta  trutta  Siebold  (Fario  argenteus  Yal.)  IN  THE  KIVER 
Ehine. 

The  fishes  belonging  to  the  genus  Salmo  occurring  in  the  Ehine  are,  by 
the  fishermen,  distinguished  as  "Salm,"  "Lachs,"  and  " Lachsforelle." 
The  Lachsforelle  has  been  described  as  Fario  argenteus  by  Valenciennes,1 
and  as  Trutta  trutta  by  Siebold.2  But,  respecting  the  proper  ichthyological 
definition  of  the  species  which  are  brought  to  market  under  the  popular 
name  of  "Salin"  and  "Lachs,"  the  views  of  zoologists  still  differ  con- 
siderably. Cuvier  was  the  first  to  distinguish  two  species,  and  Valen- 
ciennes described  them  at  length  as  Salmo  salmo,  le  saumon  commun,z 
and  Salmo  hamatus,  le  becard.*  lie  was  followed  by  Heckel  and  Kner,5 
Troschel,6  and  others ;  while  Agassiz  considered  the  Salmo  hamatus  as  the 
old  male  of  the  Salmo  salar,  and  recognized  only  this  latter  species. 
The  same  view  was -taken  by  Siebold,1  Gunther,6  and  many  others. 

Such  a  diversity  of  opinions  seems  surprising,  as  the  question  is  about 
such  valuable  and  well-known  fishes.  It  must,  however,  be  remarked  that 
no  other  genus  of  fishes  Las  given  the  ichthyologists  so  much  trouble  as 
the  genus  Salmo.  Even  such  a  thorough  systematist  as  Gunther9  says: 
"  There  is  no  other  group  of  fishes  which  offers  so  many  difficulties  to 
the  ichthyologist  with  regard  to  the  distinction  of  the  species,  as  well  as 
to  certain  points  in  their  life-history,  as  this  genus." 

Although  a  critical  examination  of  these  different  views,  properly 
speaking,  does  not  come  within  the  reach  of  this  treatise,  and  would 
lead  us  too  far,  the  nature  of  the  question  demands  that  I  take  my  part 
in  this  dispute. 

After  the  investigations  which  I  have  made  in  this  matter,  I  agree 
with  Agassiz  and  Siebold;  i.  e.,  I  recognize  only  one  species,  viz,  the 
Salmo  salar.    My  reasons  for  this  I  will  state  in  brief. 

Valenciennes  mentions  the  following  chief  distinguishing  marks  be- 
tween Salmo  salar  and  Salmo  hamatus : 

1.  The  Salmo  hamatus  has  more  pyloric  cceca  (appendices  pyloricce) 
than  the  Salmo  salar.10 

1  Valenciennes,  Histoire  naturelle  des  poissons,  Paris,  1848,  tome  xxi,  p.  294. 

2  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  314. 

'J  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  169. 
4  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  212. 

6  Heckel  and  Kncr,  Die  Siisswasserfisclie  der  osterreicbiscben  Monarcliie,  Leipzig,  1858, 
pp.  273  and  276. 

e  Troschel,  Handbuch  der  Zoologie,  7tb  ed.,  1871,  p.  266. 

7  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  293. 

8  Gunther,  Catalogue  of  tbe  fisbes  in  tbe  Britisb  Museum,  London,  1866,  vol.  vi,  p.  11. 
»  Gunther,  op.  cit.,  p.  3. 

'5  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  pp.  176  and  217. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       739 

2.  The  Salmo  hamatus  has  invariably  only  one  tooth  on  the  front  plate 
of  the  vomer,  while  the  Salmo  salar  has  several  teeth.1 

3.  The  Salmo  hamatus  has  a  reddish-gray  back,  the  color  becoming  more 
lively  on  the  lower  portions  of  the  sides ;  the  color  of  the  belly  is  a 
dull  white.  The  Salmo  salar,  on  the  other  hand,  is  slate-colored  on  the 
back,  of  a  subdued  silver-color  on  the  sides,  and  of  a  silvery-white, 
shining  like  mother  of  pearl,  on  the  belly.2 

4.  The  flesh  of  the  Salmo  hamatus  has  much  less  color  and  is  drier 
than  that  of  the  Salmo  salar.3 

5.  The  Salmo  hamatus  has  at  the  end  of  the  lower  jaw  a  protuberance, 
("  tuuercule")  which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  fits  exactly  into  a  con- 
siderable concavity  ("  enfoncement  considerable'''')  of  the  upper  jaw. 4  The 
lower  jaw  thus  forms  a  projecting  hook,  so  that  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws  cannot  be  pressed  against  each  other.  The  Salmo  salar  does  not 
have  this  hook. 

With  regard  to  the  above  assertions,  the  following  remarks  are  to  be 
made: 

To  1 :  The  number  of  pyloric  cceca  in  one  and  the  same  species  of  sal- 
mons varies  greatly.5 

Valenciennes  found  in  the  Salmo  salar  GO  and  in  the  Salmo  hamatus  07 
appendices  pyloricce.  In  the  enumerations  which  I  have  made,  I  was  led 
to  the  result  that  in  the  salmonoids  which  Valenciennes  differentiated  as 
two  species,  the  number  of  cceca  is  no  safe  distinctive  character,  as  it 
varied  from  5G  to  72,  and  was  frequently  larger  in  those  which  had  no 
hook  than  in  the  so-called  "hook-salmon."  Giinther  states  that  the 
number  of  cceca  varies  from  53  to  77 ;  Richardson^  from  G3  to  08.  Kner7 
has  also  shown  that  the  number  of  cceca  in  one  and  the  same  species  of 
salmonoids  is  extremely  varying. 

To  2:  The  arrangement  of  the  teeth  on  the  vomer  has  been  errone- 
ously described  by  Valenciennes,  as  has  been  shown  by  Siebold.8  Tlie 
short  front  plate  (chevron)  of  the  vomer  of  the  Salmo  salar  (and  the  S. 
hamatus)  is  invariably  toothless,  and  only  the  long  point  of  the  vomer 
has  teeth.  But,  as  the  fish  grows  older,  these  teeth  fall  out  gradually, 
and  no  new  ones  take  their  place,  so  that  an  entirely  toothless  vomer 
is  frequently  found  in  old  fish.  It  is  evident  from  this — as  I  also 
found  in  my  investigations — that  the  number  of  vomerine  teeth  differs 
very  much.     In  our  Bonn  Museum,  there  are  two  old  specimens,  labeled 

1  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  pp.  172  and  213. 

2  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  pp.  174  and  217. 

3  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  222. 
*  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  215. 
6  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  314. 

6  Giinther,  op.  cit.,  p.  13. 

7  B.  Kner,  Uber  die  Verschiedeuheiten  der  Blinddiirme  bei  den  Salmonen  (in  "Sitz-< 
ungsbericbte  der  mathem.-naturw.    Classe  der  kaiserl.  Akademie  der  Wissenscbaften," 
vol.  viii,  1852,  p.  201). 

8  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  301. 


740       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

"Salmj  liamatus?  of  which  the  one  has  only  two  teeth  in  the  vomer,  and 
the  other  none  at  all.  A  younger  specimen,  marked  likewise  Salmo 
liamatus,  has  four  teeth  in  two  rows,  one  behind  the  other;  while  another 
somewhat  younger  specimen,  marked  Salmo  solar,  has  only  two  vomerine 
teeth. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  further  details,  as  Siebold  has  explained 
this  whole  matter  sufficiently,  and  has  satisfactorily  proved  Valenciennes' s 
errors. 

To  3  :  "In  none  of  our  native  fish  is  there  such  variety  of  color,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  influences  of  food,  water,  light,  and  temperature, 
as  in  the  toothed  salmons."1  Giinther  likewise  lays  special  stress  on 
this  change  of  color  in  the  Salmo  solar.  Scientifically,  we  are  scarcely 
justified  in  distinguishing  two  different  species  merely  on  account  of 
this  difference  in  color,  when  the  other  distinguishing  marks  cannot  be 
sustained.2 

To  4  :  Block  has  shown  how  much  the  color  and  quality  of  the  flesh 
varies  in  one  and  the  same  species  of  salmonoids.3  Siebold  likewise,  in 
several  places,4  has  directed  attention  to  this  peculiar  variation.  It  must 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  all  species  of  animals  the  flesh  of  old 
ones5  which  have  propagated  for  many  years  has  become  of  au  inferior 
quality.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Bhine  salmon  is  more  savory  than 
that  of  the  Oder,  the  Weser,  and  the  Vistula  j  but  nobody  ever  enter- 
tained the  idea  that  they  were  different  species. 

To  5  :  The  projecting  hook  of  the  lower  jaw  in  some  specimens  is  so 
peculiar,  that  certain  ichthyologists  were  thereby  induced  to  distinguish  a 
separate  species — Salmo  hamatus,  i.  e.,  the  hooked  salmon.  But  Block 
had  already  proved  that  these  hooks  occur  only  in  old  male  fish.  Agassiz, 
all  the  modern  English  ichthyologists,6  Siebold,7  Scklegel,8  and  others  are 
of  the  same  opinion.  The  observations  which  I  made  on  this  point,  and 
the  information  which  I  gathered  from  experienced  fishermen,  led  to  the 
same  result :  the  hook  is  only  found  in  male  fishes,  and — I  must  empha- 
size it — only  in  such  as  have  milt  nearly  ready  for  impregnation.  I 
have,  by  observing  a  large  number  of  specimens,  convinced  myself  that 
this  hook  gradually  forms  in  the  male  fish  as  it  is  growing  old  and  the 
milt  is  getting  mature ;  fishermen,  by  this  mark,  distinguish  even  the 
young  male  from  the  young  female.    If,  therefore,  Valenciennes  (p.  213) 

1  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  276. 

2 1  may  as  well  remark  here  that,  according  to  my  observations,  this  difference  of 
color,  which  Valenciennes  considered  as  a  distinguishing  mark  of  the  species,  can  only 
serve  as  such  for  distinguishing  the  fruitful  specimens  of  the  Salmo  salar  from  tempo- 
rarily barren  ones. 

3  Block,  Oekonomische  Naturgeschichte  der  Fische,  Berlin,  1782,  p.  139. 

*  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  pp.  276,  299,  &c. 

6  It  will  bo  presently  seen  why  I  only  speak  of  old  animals. 

6  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  22.4. 

7  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  293. 

8  Schlegel,  Do  Dieren  van  Nederlandj  Visschen,  p.  127. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       741 

says  that  the  female  Las  jnst  as  strongly  curved  a  hook,  it  must  be 
considered  an  error.  Why  this  peculiarity  occurs  only  in  the  one  sex 
and  not  in  the  other  has  not  yet  been  explained.  It  has  been  said  that 
too  long  a  sojourn  in  fresh  water,  and  swimming  against  the  stream, 
had  caused  it  j  but  there  is  no  reason  why  the  hook  should  not  develop 
itself  just  as  much  in  the  female  as  in  the  male. 

This  hook  occurs  likewise  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the  males  of  other  spe- 
cies of  salmonoids.  Thus,  Wartmann1  has  found  it  in  Trulta  lacustris 
(Siebold) ;  Meckel,2  in  Trulta  fario  (Siebold) )  he  also  thinks  that  this 
peculiarity  is  found  in  most  of  the  species  of  the  salmonoids. 

On  the  strength  of  these  facts,  I  must  presume  that  of  the  salmonoids 
belonging  to  the  ocean  only  two  species  occur  in  the  Rhine :  1.  The 
"  Lachsforelle,"  (sea-trout,)  Fario  argenteus  Yal. ;  Trutta  trutta  ac- 
cording to  Siebold  ;  2.  The  "  Salm,"  (salmon,)  Salmo  salar  Lin.;  Trutta 
salar  according  to  Siebold.  I  cannot  in  this  place  refrain  from  making 
the  remark  that  people  have  been  induced  to  accept  the  two  species, 
Salmo  salar  and  Salmo  hamatus,  only  by  the  occurrence  together  of 
fruitful  and  temporarily  barren  specimens  of  one  and  the  same  species 
of  Salmo  salar. 

Henceforth,  I  shall  exclusively  use  SieboWs  nomenclature,  as  by  his 
investigations  the  position  of  our  salmonoids  in  the  general  system  has 
been  definitely  settled. 

I  now  turn  to  the  investigation  of  the  food  of  Trutta  trutta  and  Trutta 
salar  in  fresh  water — the  Rhine. 

The  question,  What  is  the  food  of  our  salmonoids  in  fresh  water  and 
in  the  ocean,  is  not  only  of  scientific  but  also  of  great  economical 
interest.  It  is,  however,  very  strange  that  the  ichthyological  works 
contain  scarcely  any  or  wrong  data  regarding  this  point. 

Valenciennes  speaks  only  in  one  place  of  the  food  of  Trutta  salar : 3 
"La  nourriture  consisteen  poissons  etl'ou  dit  qu'il  pr6fere  l'ammodite — 
Ammodytes  tobianus.m  As  the  fish  in  question  (Sard-launce)  lives  in  the 
North  Sea  and  in  the  Baltic,  this  fact  would  refer  to  the  food  of  the  fish 
while  in  the  ocean  ;  but  nothing  is  said  regarding  its  food  in  fresh  water. 

Figuier,  on  the  other  hand,  says  : 5  "  On  n'a  pu  faire  jusqu'ici  que  des 
conjectures  sur  leur  genre  d'alimentation  dans  la  mer,  raais  on  est  plus 
instruit  de  leur  maniere  de  vivre  dans  les  eaux  douces  (?).  Pendant  leur 
premier  age,  ils  vivent  d'insectes,  de  frai,  et  aussi  de  petits  poissons, 
des  qu'ils  ont  atteint  une  certaine  taille.    A  l'etat  de  grilse  et  a  l'etat 

1  Wartmann,  Von  den  Rheinanken  oder  Illanken,  in  ''Scbriften  der  Berlinischen 
Gesellschaft  natnrforsckender  Freunde,"  vol.  iv,  1783,  p.  55.  (Quoted  from  Siebold, 
op.  cit.,  p.  32.) 

2HccJcel,  Bericht  einer  iclithyologischen  Reise,  in  the  "  Sitznngsberickte  der  kaiserl. 
Akademie  der  Wissenchaften,"  vol.  viii,  1852,  p.  355. 

3  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  197. 

4 Its  food  consists  of  fish,  and  it  is  said  that  it  prefers  the  SnrdAimnce-Ammodytcs  to- 
bianus. 

5Figuier,  La  vie  et  les  mcenrs  des  animaux,  Paris,  18G8,  p.  106. 


742       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

adulte  ils  devorent  une  foule  de  poisson  (?).'n  Block 2  says  that  the  salmon 
lives  011  small  fish,  aquatic  insects,  and  worms,  and  that  it  could  be 
enticed  by  dragon-flies,  worms,  and  small  fish  if  these  were  attached  to 
the  hook  (?). 

In  Heckel  and  Kner's  work,3 1  find,  regarding  the  food  of  Truita  trutta, 
only  the  very  general  remark  that  "it  is  a  powerful  fish  of  prey."  SieboWs 
excellent  work4  contains  several  observations  regarding  the  food  of  our 
salmonoids  while  in  fresh  water.5  The  most  important,  and,  as  will  be 
seen  afterward,  the  most  correct,  (p.  246,)  is  the  following :  "  I  cannot 
in  this  place  pass  over  in  silence  the  fact  that  in  observing  and  describ- 
ing the  digestive  organs  of  the  salmonoids,  no  attention  whatever  has 
been  paid  to  the  circumstance  that  these  fishes  do  not  eat  anything  before 
and  during  their  spawning-season,  but  are  merely  intent  upon  spawning, 
during  which  process  their  empty  stomach  is  unusually  contracted ;  the 
' appendices  pyloricce1  and  the  gut  itself  being  filled  only  with  the  differ- 
ent secretions  of  the  digestive  organs.-'  From  the  following,  it  will  be 
seen  whether  and  in  how  far  the  remarks  of  the  above-quoted  ichthyolo- 
gists are  correct. 

On  the  20th  September,  1873,  I  examined  the  stomachs  of  the  first 
two  specimens  of  Trutta  salar,  which  had  been  caught  in  the  Ehine,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Bonn.  They  were  female  spawn-salmon  ("Laichsalme") ; 
{.  e.,  salmon  which  had  ascended  the  Ehine  for  the  purpose  of  spawning. 
The  eggs  of  both  these  specimens  were  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  ripe 
for  impregnation.  The  sides  of  the  stomach  were  strongly  contracted, 
and  the  pyloric  cceca  were  exposed ;  i.  e.,  they  were  not  covered  with 
masses  of  fat,  as  is  the  case  with  other  specimens — as  I  shall  detail 
later — of  the  same  species.  The  section  of  the  whole  digestive  organs 
showed  the  following :  The  oesophagus  and  the  stomach  itself  contained 
nothing  but  the  secretion  of  the  mucous  membrane,  a  white  and  mostly 
very  sticky  mucus,  which  is  always  there,  whether  there  is  food  in  the 
stomach  or  not.  At  the  place  where  the  stomach  proper  joins  the  in- 
testiue,  and  where  the  "appendices  pyloricce"  commence,  this  mucus 
increased  in  quantity,  and  at  the  same  time  assumed  a  yellowish-green 

1  So  far,  we  have  only  been  able  to  to  make  conjectures  regarding  their  food  while  in 
the  ocean,  but  we  are  better  informed  regarding  the  mode  of  living  while  in  fresh 
water  (?).  When  quite  young,  they  feed  on  insects,  spawn,  and  small  fish,  until  they 
have  attained  to  a  certain  size.  In  their  third  year  and  when  fully  grown,  they  devour 
great  quantities  offish  (?). 

2  Block,  Oekonomische  Naturgeschichte  der  Fische,  Berlin,  1732,  pp.  133  and  137. 

3  Heckel  and  Kner,  op.  cit.,  p.  266. 

4  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  pp.  246,  276,  299,  &c. 

6 After  I  had  completed  this  treatise,  there  appeared  in  the  "Acta  Universitatis  Lun- 
deusis,"  Lund,  1871-72,  a  work  by  P.  OUson— Jakttagelser  ofver  skandinaviska  Fiskar 
Foda— in  which  I  find  very  valuable  information  regarding  the  food  of  Truita  salar  and 
Trutta  trutta  while  in  the  ocean.  I  shall  again  refer  to  this  work,  as  thi3  information 
has  enabled  me  to  yive  fuller  details  in  one  place. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.        743 

color  from  the  secretions  of  the  "  appendices^  these  themselves  being 
filled  with  the  same  matter.  Nearer  to  the  anus,  this  mucus  became 
darker,  and  finally  assumed  a  reddish-black  color.  In  no  part  of  the 
whole  digestive  organ  did  I  find  anything  which  might  lead  to  the 
supposition  that  any  solid  food  had  been  taken.  Near  the  pylorus,  I 
found  in  one  of  the  specimens  several  tapeworms  {taenia)  with  their 
heads  sticking  in  the  appendices.  In  the  tissues  surrounding  all  these 
organs,  but  more  especially  in  the  pyloric  cceca,  I  found  a  large  number 
of  entozoa.1 

I  have  continued  these  investigations  during  the  months  of  September, 
October,  November,  and  December,  and  invariably  with  the  same  result. 

The  digestive  organs  of  Trutta  trutta  likewise  showed  the  char- 
acters detailed  above.  In  both  species,  males  as  well  as  females,  in 
such  as  had  already  propagated  their  kind  and  likewise  in  such  as 
still  contained  roe  or  milt,  the  character  of  the  stomach  and  intestine 
was  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  first  two  specimens  of  Trutta  salar 
examined  by  me  ;  and  I  never  found  any  food  or  anything  which  might 
be  considered  as  remnants  of  food.  Three  times  I  thought  I  had  found 
a  fishbone,  but  a  closer  examination  showed  it  to  be  particles  of  wood 
or  bast  which  had  become  enveloped  in  mucus,  and  stuck  to  the  side  of 
the  stomach  or  gut.  The  thick  or  corky  cellulose  had  withstood  the 
digestive  power,  which, at  any  rate  had  been  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
and  no  new  food  had  been  taken  in  through  which  these  indigestible 
particles  could  have  been  carried  out.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  January, 
1874,  I  thus  examined  stomachs  of  forty-four  such  spawn-salmon 
{uLaichsahnev) — Trutta  salar  and  Trutta  trutta — and  never  found  any 
food.  I  must  here  state  expressly  that  these  investigations  were  made 
during  the  spawning-season  proper  of  both  species.2 

In  the  following,  only  Trutta  salar  is  spoken  of,  as  Trutta  trutta  ascends 
the  Rhine  for  the  purpose  of  spawning  only  till  the  beginning  of  Jan- 
uary. From  January  on,  salmon  {Trutta  salar)  are  but  rarely  caught 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bonn,  while  on  the  Lower  Rhine  (near  Wesel) 
many  are  caught  about  this  season.    In  Wesel,  I  succeeded  in  obtaining 

1  Regarding  these,  as  well  as  the  entozoa  which  I  found  in  those  species  of  fish  which 
I  examined,  later — Trutta  fario  and  Alausa  vulgaris — see  Gurlt's  "  Verzeichniss  der 
Thicre,  bei  welchen  Entozoen  gefunden  worden  sind  "  in  Wiegmann'a  "Archiv  fur  Natur- 
geschichte,"  XI  Jahrg.,  vol.  i,  1845,  p.  223. 

2  The  spawning-season  of  the  salmon  extends,  according  to  Valenciennes,  (p.  179,)  from 
the  end  of  May  till  the  end  of  February  ;  according  to  Siebold,  (p.  £99,)  from  May  till 
November.  According  to  the  information  which  I  gathered  from  experienced  fisher- 
men and  my  personal  observations,  a  spawn-salmon  is  scarcely  ever  seen  in  the 
Rhine  before  the  end  of  August.  Those  which  show  themselves  in  the  Rhine  at  an 
earlier  date  do  not  ascend  the  river  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  As  I  have  never 
seen  a  spawn-salmon  after  the  10th  January,  I  feel  justified  in  assuming  that  the 
spawning-season  proper  extends  from  the  beginning  of  September  till  the  beginning 
of  January.  This  explains  the  fact  that  the  season  when  the  Dutch  are  not  permitted 
to  fish  for  salmon  lasts  from  September  15  till  November  15. — (From  information  com- 
municated by  Mr.  Lisner,  a  fish-merchant  of  Wesel.) 


744       REPORT    CF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

and  examining  stomachs  of  several  specimens.1  All  these  salmon, 
and  also  those  which  I  saw  in  March,  May,  and  Jane,  showed  a  very 
striking  difference  from  those  which  bad  been  caught  during  the  spawn- 
ing-season proper.  Tbe  fishermen  call  them  iiWintersalme'n  (winter-sal- 
mon). They  are  highly  esteemedou  accountof  their  excellent  flavor,  which 
far  exceeds  that  of  the  spawniug-salmon,  (at  least  during  the  spawning- 
season  proper,)  and  the  character  of  their  inner  parts  likewise  differs 
very  much  from  that  of  the  latter. 

This  winter-salmon  is  found  in  the  river  nearly  all  the  year  round,  as 
well  as  during  the  spawning-season  proper,3  but  is  specially  called  "  Win- 
tersalm"  by  the  fishermen  during  the  winter-months,  when  its  flesh 
is  of  the  finest  quality. 

When  I  said  before  that  the  inner  parts  of  these  fish  differ  very  much 
from  those  of  the  spawn-salmon,  I  referred  to  the  sexual  organs  and 
the  surroundings  of  the  entrails.  Of  the  former  difference  I  shall  speak 
later,  and  will  confine  myself  here  to  the  latter.  The  whole  fish  has  a 
much  better  and  fatter  texture  than  the  spawn-salmon,  and  its  en- 
trails are  entirely  overgrown  with  fat,  so  that  tbe  united  appendages 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  intestine  (the  appendices  pyloricce)  resemble 
a  lump  of  fat.4  When  I  commenced  to  examine  the  stomach,  I  obtained 
nearly  the  same  result  as  in  my  examination  of  the  spawn-salmon  j 
for  in  by  far  the  majority  of  cases  no  trace  of  food  could  be  discovered. 
In  one  stomacb,  I  found  parts  of  the  hard  covering  and  of  the  wing  of 
a  beetle;  and  in  another,  the  skin  of  an  insect-larva,  which  could  not  be 
satisfactorily  identified.  In  a  third  specimen,  I  found,  in  the  back  part 
of  the  intestinal  canal,  the  scale  of  a  fish,  seemingly  a  cycloid  scale.  It 
was  lying  behind  one  of  the  numerous  ring-shaped  lids,  which  are  found 
all  through  the  lower  portion  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  had  not  yet 
been  expelled  with  the  other  excrements. 

Besides  these,  I  examined  twenty-three  stomachs,  but  found  no  rem- 
nants of  food.    The  three  fish  in  whose  digestive  organs  I  found  some 

'Through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Bidder,  of  Wesel.  In  Bonn,  I  obtained  the  material  for 
my  investigations  chiefly  through  Mr.  Brenner,  but  in  part  from  Mr.  Schumacher.  I  must 
also  thank  the  following-named  gentlemen  for  much  valuable  information  concerning 
the  food  of  the  Salmon  :  Messrs  Lisner  and  Bidder,  in  Wesel ;  Brenner,  in  Bonn  ;  Josten, 
in  Dinslakon  ;  and  Bennings,  in  Rnhrort. 

3In  this  and  the  following  I  make  a  distinction  between  Wintersalme and  Laichsalme, 
although  they  both  belong  to  the  same  species,  viz,  Trutia  salar.  I  shall  later  charac- 
terize this  distinction  more  exactly  ;  but  I  may  state  here  that  by  Laichsalme  I  mean 
those  fish  which,  during  the  spawning-season,  ascend  the  rivers  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning,  while  I  call  Wintersalme  those  which,  from  October  on,  appear  nearly  all  the 
year  round,  and  which  do  not  come  directly  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  as  their  sexual 
organs  are  entirely  undeveloped  from  October  to  May,  and  only  begin  to  develop  from 
the  month  of  May. 

3  Mr.  Bidder,  of  Wesel,  got  the  first  TVintersalm  on  the  3d  October,  and  Mr.  Brenner, 
of  Bonn,  on  the  6th  October,  1873. 

4  There  are  such  large  quantities  of  fat,  that  it  is  extracted  by  boiling,  and  used  for 
various  purposes. — (According  to  information  received  from  Mr.  Lisner,  of  Wesel.) 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       745 

remnants  of  food  had  been  caught  near  Wesel.  The  food  may  there- 
fore have  been  taken  partly  in  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and  partly  in  the 
ocean. 

I  will  here  mention  an  interesting  observation,  which  was  communi- 
cated to  me  by  the  Messrs.  Bidder  and  Lindner.  The  Dutch  fishermen 
have  occasionally  found  in  the  stomachs  of  those  salmon  which  were 
caught  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ehine  remnants  of  fish  which  they  said 
came  from  the  herring  {Clupea  liarengus).  But,  according  to  the  unani- 
mous testimony  of  the  fishermen,  there  never  were  found  remnants  of 
fish  or  any  other  food  in  the  stomachs  of  salmon  which  had  ascended 
higher  up  the  Ehine.  This  observation  agrees  in  every  particular  with 
those  made  by  me. 

These  investigations  therefore  lead  me  to  the  following  result:  Trutta 
salar  and  Trutta  trutta,  while  in  the  Ehine,  do  not  take  food  at  any 
season  of  the  year,  which  explains  the  fact  that  all  attempts  to  keep 
salmon  and  raise  them  artificially  in  fresh  water  have  proved  failures.1 
There  are  artificial  hatching-establishments  (e.  g.,  in  Hiiniugeu,  near 
Strasburg,  and  in  Arnheim)  where  the  ripe  salmon-eggs  are  artificially 
impregnated  and  hatched,  and  where  the  young  salmon,  called  Salmlinge, 
[in  English  samlets,]  obtained  in  this  manner,  are  kept  for  some  time 
(perhaps  one  to  three  years) ;  but,  if  these  fish  are  to  become  full-grown 
salmon,  they  must  be  let  loose  so  that  they  can  reach  the  ocean,  there 
to  feed  and  grow.  A  friend  of  mine  communicated  to  me  the  following: 
The  institution  near  Arnheim,  on  the  Yssel,  has,  during  this  spring,  arti- 
ficially raised  300,000  young  salmon  and  placed  them  in  the  Yssel. 
These  are  to  go  to  the  ocean,  return  to  the  Yssel2  during  the  following 
years,  and  then  be  caught  as  salmon.  The  young  salmon  are  fed  in  the 
water  of  the  Yssel,  which  is  pumped  into  reservoirs  from  the  river,  and 
then  led  through  the  tanks  in  which  the  fish  are  kept.  They  are  not 
supplied  with  any  food,  but  find  it  in  the  water  (infusoria,  larvae,  &c.) 
If  these  young  salmon  are  to  be  sent  away,  they  are  placed  in  special 
boxes,  and  fed  on  calves'  brain  and  worms. 

The  following  observation,  communicated  by  Sander  in  the  "  Naturfor- 
scher,"3  is  explained  in  the  same  manner:  "A  reliable  fisherman  kept 
young  salmon  for  many  years,  and  fed  them — on  what  %  Unfortunately, 
he  did  not  inform  me.     He  paid  great  attention  to  them,  but  found  that 

1  G Untlier  says  on  this  point,  (p.  9:)  "The  question  "whether  any  of  the  migratory 
species  (of  the  genus  Sahno)  can  he  retained  in  fresh  water,  and  finally  accommodate 
themselves  to  a  permanent  sojourn  therein,  must  be  negatived  for  the  present." 

2  It  may  be  considered  as  an  established  fact  that  the  salmon  return  to  the  river  in 
which  they  were  born  and  raised.  In  Brittauy,  a  dozen  young  salmon  were  marked 
with  copper  rings  on  the  tail.  Of  these,  five  were  caught  in  the  following  year,  three 
in  the  second,  and  three  in  the  third. — (Cornelius,  Zng-  and  Wanderthiere, Berlin,  1865, 
p.  202.)  During  the  summer  of  1873, 500  youug  salmon,  twenty-one  months  old,  5  to 
6  inches  long,  were  marked  and  placed  in  the  Rhine,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they 
will  return  to  the  same  river. — (From  a  newspaper.) 

3Der  Naturforscher,  15.  Stuck,  1781,  p.  170. 


746       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF   FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

not  only  did  they  not  grow  larger,  remaining  always  the  same  size,  but 
also  that  they  did  not  increase  at  all  in  number." 

Siebold  has  therefore  come  nearest  the  truth  regarding  the  salmonoids 
found  in  the  Rhine,  (Trutta  salar  and  Trutta  trutta,)  when  he  says  that 
the  salmon  just  before  and  after  their  spawning-season  do  not  eat  any- 
thing for  weeks.  I  even  go  a  little  further,  and  maintain  that  these 
salmonoids  do  not  eat  at  all  as  soon  as  they  have  entered  the  Rhine 
from  the  ocean.1 

The  circumstance  that,  as  I  mentioned  above,  I  found  remnants  of 
food  in  the  stomachs  of  three  winter-salmon  is  not  against,  but  rather 
in  favor,  of  my  assertion.  These  three  salmon  were  caught  below  Wesel, 
therefore  comparatively  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  The  food  whose 
few  undigested  remnants  I  found  might  therefore  have  beeu  taken  in 
the  ocean,  or  when  the  fish  had  not  yet  lived  in  fresh  water  for  any 
length  of  time,2  and  the  desire  for  food  had  not  yet  become  quite  extinct. 
The  best  proof  of  it  is  the  fact  that  nothing  was  found  in  the  stomachs 
of  those  salmon  which  had  been  caught  farther  up  the  Rhine.  This 
likewise  explains,  in  a  very  simple  manner,  the  above-mentioned  obser- 
vation of  the  fishermen,  that  the  stomachs  of  those  salmon  which  are 
caught  in  Holland  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  occasionally  contain 
parts  of  fish. 

The  result  of  this  whole  investigation  is  therefore  the  astonishing  fact, 
that  fish  which  stay  in  the  Rhine  a  long  time,  and  move  about  a  great 
deal  and  in  a  very  vigorous  manner,3  take  no  food  at  all. 

Such  a  very  astonishing  fact  might  well  awaken  the  belief  among  the 
common  people  that  the  salmon  digests  everything  it  eats  in  three  min- 
utes (!),  although  this  is  a  physiological  impossibility.4  I  myself  for  a 
moment*  entertained  the  thought  that  the  salmon  might  be  able  to 
digest  food  taken  after  it  had  been  caught,  as  it  is  frequently  kept  alive 
in  the  fish- tanks  for  some  time.  But  the  fact  that  most  salmon  are 
killed  by  the  fishermen  immediately  after  they  are  caught  by  being 

1  It  certainly  does  not  follow  directly  from  my  investigations  that  they  do  not  eat 
anything  at  all  in  fresh  water;  but  it  is  very  probable  that  the  facts  are  the  same  in 
the  Oder,  Elbe,  Weser,  Vistula,  and  other  rivers  frequented  by  the  salmon.  (Of  the 
English  rivers,  I  shall  speak  below.) 

2 This  would  apply  to  those  two  specimens  iu  whose  stomachs  I  found  remnants  of 
insects,  as  no  insects  live  in  the  ocean. 

3  See,  on  this  point,  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  297 ;   Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  pp.  194,  200,  &c. 

4 James  G.  Bertram  (The  Harvest  of  the  Sea,  Loudon,  1365)  says  "that  one  gentle- 
man who  writes  on  this  subject  accounts  for  the  emptiness  of  the  stomach  by  asserting 
that  the  salmon  vomits  at  the  moment  of  beiug  taken  "  (p.  192).  Independently  of 
the  fact  that  the  fishermen  know  nothing  of  this  strange  act  of  vomiting,  the  salmon 
could  not  well  empty  its  intestines  in  this  manner  But  remnants  of  food  are  found 
neither  in  the  intestines  nor  in  the  stomach.  Bertram,  whose  book  I  unfortunately  only 
got  after  I  had  finished  my  treatise,  confesses  that  hundreds  of  fish  had  been  exam- 
ined, and  that  but  rarely  traces  of  food  had  been  found.  He  likewise  confesses  that 
the  salmon  does  not  grow  in  fresh  water,  and  still  ho  asserts  that  it  takes  food  when  in 
fresh  water.    A  recent  publication  will  oblige  me  to  refer  once  more  to  this  point. 


THE    SALMON,    TIIE    TROUT,    AND    THE    SHAD.  747 

knocked  on  the  head,  and  that  their  stomachs  never  contain  remnants 
of  food,  militates  against  that  supposition.  All  the  fishermen  whom  I 
questioned  assured  me  that  they  never  had  found  food  in  the  salmon 
even  if  cut  open  immediately  after  having  been  caught. 

In  view  of  this  remarkable  fact,  two  questions  naturally  arise:  1. 
How  can  the  salmon  live  for  a  comparatively  long  time  without  food 
without  (as  is  the  case  at  least  with  the  winter-salmon)  growing  visibly 
thinner  %  2.  How  does  it  happen  that  the  salmon  does  not  eat  any  more 
after  having  entered  fresh  water  ?  The  first  of  these  questions  is  less 
difficult  to  answer  than  the  second.  I  shall  now  briefly  examine  the 
first. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  change  of  matter  (Stoffwechsel)  and  the  heat 
of  the  animal  body  resulting  from  it  reach  their  highest  degree  in  birds 
and  mammals,  but  that  they  are  much  less  in  amphibious  animals  and 
fishes,  because  the  organs  of  respiration  and  of  circulation  are  much  less 
complete  in  those  vertebrates  than  in  the  two  higher  classes.  This  also 
explains  the  well-known  fact  that  amphibious  animals  and  fishes  can. 
live  without  food  for  a  much  longer  time  than  the  higher  vertebrates. 
This  circumstance,  however,  does  not  yet  sufficiently  explain  the  fact 
that  the  salmon  can  live  so  long  without  food  without  growing  visibly 
thinner,  as  the  winter-salmon.  One  might  feel  tempted  to  think  of 
the  somewhat  analogous  winter-sleep  of  many  animals,  if  this  was  not 
made  impossible  by  the  violent  motions  of  the  salmon.  If  the  swim- 
ming and  leaps  of  the  salmon,  like  every  motion  of  this  kind,  are  noth- 
ing but  a  change  from  the  molecular  to  the  mass  motion,  and  if  this 
molecular  motion  can  only  be  the  result  of  a  burning  process,  there  must 
be  some  matter  which  makes  such  a  burning  process  possible  ;  and  if 
this  matter  is  not,  as  is  usually  the  case,  supplied  by  the  taking  of  food, 
the  body  itself  must  furnish  it ;  and  this  is  actually  the  case  with  the 
salmon.  As  regards  the  winter-salmon,  I  have  stated  above  that  its 
stomach  is  surrounded  by  a  very  considerable  mass  of  fat.  This  fat 
forms,  so  to  speak,  the  reserve  fand  from  which  the  expenses  of  this 
burning  process  are  paid.  This  fund  is  large,  and  lasts  long  enough 
to  make  the  winter-salmon  during  all  the  time  of  its  sojourn  in  the 
Ehine  (which  is  not  as  long  as  is  generally  supposed)  a  highly-esteemed 
fish. 

The  case  is  different  with  the  spawn- salmon.  When  it  ascends  the 
Ehine,  its  eggs  are  already  as  large  as  pease,  and  the  milt  is  almost  ready 
for  impregnating.  Even  while  out  in  the  ocean,  the  inner  organs  were 
chiefly  engaged  in  developing  the  eggs  and  the  milt.  On  entering  the 
Ehine,  it  is  well  developed,  but  compared  to  the  winter-salmon  it  has 
only  a  small  reserve  fund.  This  is  considerably  diminished  by  the  very 
violent  motions  of  the  fish,  and  the  remainder  is  so  completely  used  up 
in  fully  forming  the  sexual  organs  that  the  quality  of  the  flesh  deteri- 
orates considerably,  and  the  fish  becomes  weak  and  miserable.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  astonishing  to  see  these  fish,  after  having  finished  spawn- 


748       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

Log,  utterly  exhausted,  "  flottaut  a  la  surface  de  l'eau  sans  faire  aueun 
mouveuient ;  ou  peut  les  prendre  alors  facilement  a  la  main."1 

As  regards  the  second  question,  how  does  it  come  that  th,e  salmon 
does  not  eat  anything  in  fresh  water,  there  are  two  ways  of  explain- 
ing this  fact.  Either  the  fresh  water  (the  Ehine)  does  not  offer  any  suit- 
able food,  so  that  it  cannot  eat  anything,  or  the  salmon  on  entering  the 
fresh  water  loses  all  desire  for  food,  so  tbat  it  does  not  want  to  eat  any- 
thing. Regarding  the  first  point,  it  is  well  known  that  the  Rhine  at  any 
rate  does  not  offer  much  food  for  fish.  The  salmon,  especially,  finds  but 
little  of  its  favorite  food  in  the  Rhine.  T.  Olsson2  has  made  observations 
regarding  the  food  of  different  species  of  fish  on  the  coast  of  Scandi- 
navia, and  has,  among  the  rest,  also  examined  twelve  specimens  of 
Irutta  solar.  He  says,  regarding  the  contents  of  the  stomach  :  u  It  is 
often  empty,  or  contains  a  yellow  mucus,  (from  the  fresh-water  crus- 
taceans?) small  fishes,  (in  seven  specimens,)  especially  Ammodytes  and 
Gasterosteus  aculeatus,  (in  twelve  specimens,)  young  fish,  likewise  crus- 
taceans, viz,  small  decapoda  macroura  and  isopoda,  and  Mysis  vulgaris, 
according  to  Lilljeborg,  (K.  Vetensk.  Ak.  Fork.,  1852,)  and,  in  one  case, 
a  large  coleopterous  insect  {carabusf  was  found."  If  we  inquire  into 
the  place  of  sojourn  of  these  animals,  we  find  tbat  the  Ammodytes  lives 
exclusively,  and  the  above-mentioned  crustaceans  almost  exclusively,  in 
the  sea.  Gasterosteus  aculeatus  is  frequently  found  in  the  region  of  the 
Rhine,  u  but  prefers  the  small  brooks  flowing  into  the  Rhine,  Main, 
and  jSTeckar,"  (Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  67,)  and  it  would,  therefore,  be  dif- 
ficult for  the  salmon  to  get  at  it.  The  carabus  must  have  been  eaten 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast  or  the  mouth  of  a  river,  as  no  insects 
are  found  in  the  ocean.  As  regards  the  mucus,  Olsson  would,  on  exam- 
ining it  microscopically,  in  all  probability  only  have  found  torn  epithe- 
lial cells,  blood-atoms,  &c.  If,  therefore,  the  absence  of  its  favorite 
food  would  force  the  salmon  to  eat  less  while  in  the  Rhine,  it  is  very  hard 
to  believe  that  the  salmon  would  not  be  able  to  find  a  substitute  for  its 
favorite  food  in  the  river.  If  it  eats  young  fish  while  in  the  ocean,  why 
should  it  not  do  the  same  while  in  the  river,  though,  perhaps,  the  young 
of  different  species  of  fish?  If  in  the  ocean,  or  near  the  mouth  of  a 
river,  it  eats  a  carabus,  why  should  it  not  hunt  for  insects  while  in  the 
river!  It  seems  to  me  that  the  want  of  suitable  food  is  not  the  reason 
why  it  does  not  eat  anything  in  the  river.  I  am  rather  inclined  to  think 
that  life  in  fresh  water  produces  a  certain  morbid  disgust  with  all  food 
in  the  salmon;  and  not  only  in  the  spawning  salmon,  in  which  this  pecu- 
liarity is  not  so  striking,  but  also  in  the  winter-salmon,  which  does  not 

1  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  179.  (Floating  motionless  at  the  surface  of  the  water  ;  they 
may  then  easily  be  caught  with  the  hand.) 

*Ols8on,  Iakttagelser,  &c,  p.  G. 

3  Ohson  examined  two  specimens  of  Tratta  irutta;  in  the  one,  he  found  nothing,  and, 
in  the  otber,  fourteen  CUpea  ftprattus  and  three  Ammodytes. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       749 

ascend  the  Ehine  for  the  express  purpose  of  spawning.1  With  regard  to 
this  winter-salmon,  which  I  have  mentioned  so  often,  I  have  made  some 
observations,  up  to  this  date,  (October,  1874,)  which  I  will  give  in  this 
place.2 

Till  quite  recently,  the  opinion  was  prevalent,  that  the  Trutta  salar 
spawned  every  year.  An  anonymous  writer  in  Loudon's  Magazine3  was 
tho  first  to  show  that  this  opinion  is  erroneous.  This  writer  says: 
"  Neither  the  salmon  nor  the  trout  spawns  every  year,  for  specimens  of 
both  kinds  are  frequently  caught  in  January  whose  roe  is  smaller  than 
mustard-seed,  which,  therefore,  could  not  have  spawned  in  that  year; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  red  fish,  (spawn-fish,)  which  ascends  the 
rivers  in  November  and  December,  the  spawn  is  almost  ripe,  and  in  March 
and  April  no  trace  of  roe  is  found."  This  observation  is  correct.  From 
September  till  May,  specimens  of  Trutta  salar  appear  in  the  Ehine  whose 
sexual  organs  are  entirely  undeveloped.  The  fishermen  call  these  "TVin- 
tersalme,"  (winter-salmon,)  and  esteem  them  very  highly  on  account  of 
their  fat  red  flesh  (Rhine  salmon).  It  is  absolutely  certain  that  these 
fishes  cannot  have  spawned  in  that  one  year,  for  they>  appear  at  the 
same  time  as  the  spawn-salmon,  whose  eggs  have  the  size  of  pease.4 
The  question  is  only  whether  this  barrenness  is  permanent  or  temporary. 

Siebold,  who  was  the  first  to  show  that  permanently  barren  individ- 
uals occur  in  several  species  of  salmonoids,4  is  inclined  likewise  to  con- 
sider these  winter-salmon  as  permanently  barren  individuals;5  audi 
thought  at  first  that  he  was  right,  from  reasons  which  I  will  proceed  to 
give. 

Siebold  shows  that,  in  Truttalacustris,  the  barren  ones  arc  distinguished 
from  the  fruitful  ones  by  some  unimportant  differences ;  the  body  of  the 
barren  ones  is  much  more  slender,  and  does  not  reach  so  large  a  weight 
as  that  of  the  fruitful  ones ;  the  mouth  seems  to  be  cleft  deeper ;  the 
caudal  fin  does  not  so  soon  lose  its  emargination ;  no  hook  is  formed  on 
the  lower  jaw  in  old  males ;  and,  in  their  color,  they  differ  much  from  the 
fruitful  ones. 

1  Siebold,  Die  Siisswasserfische,  &c,  p.  !£)9. 

2 1  will  not  deny  that,  in  exceptional  cases,  the  salmon,  while  in  the  Rhine,  feels  a 
desire  for  taking  food,  for  this  is  quite  natural.  Thus  von  clem  Borne,  in  his  interesting 
"  Handbuch  der  Angelfischerei,"  Berneuchen,  1875,  says  that  an  Englishman,  Mr.  Sachs, 
near  Schaffhausen,  caught  a  salmon,  -weighing  16|  pounds,  with  an  articficial  Squalius 
leueiscus.  According  to  von  clem  Borne,  it  seems  that  the  salmon  is  more  inclined  to 
seek  food  in  the  English  rivers  than  in  the  Rhine.  It  is  true  that  he  says,  "  While 
ascending  the  rivers,  the  salmon  eats  but  little.  BucMancl  has  examined  the  entrails 
of  hundreds  of  salmon,  and  always  found  them  without  food,  and  only  containing 
entozoa;"  but  afterward  he  mentions  various  bait  (insects,  fish,  &c.)  with  which  the 
salmon  is  caught  in  England. 

3  Loudon,  The  Magazine  of  Natural  History,  vol.  ii,  1834,  p.  207,  in  an  extract  in  TFieg- 
mann's  "  Archiv  fur  Naturgeschicbte,"  1835,  vol.  ii,  p.  267. 

4  From  Mr.  Bidder,  in  Wesel,  I  reoeived  the  entrails  of  the  first  Winlersalm  during 
this  period  (1874)  on  September  24. 

5  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  pp.  276,  302,  321. 

6  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  277. 


750        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

I  have  likewise  found  that  the  lower  jaw  of  the  older  male  individuals 
of  the  winter-salmon  never  shows  such  a  striking  hook  as  the  fruitful 
male  of  the  salmon  (the  hooked  salmon).  There  is  also  a  difference  in  the 
color  of  the  winter-salmon  and  spawn-salmon.  The  winter-salmon  has  a 
grayish-blue  back  and  silver-white  sides,  while  the  spawn-salmon  has  a 
darker,  frequently  reddish-gray,  color.  The  former  has  on  the  sides  only 
a  few  black  spots,  and  the  latter  lias  on  the  sides  and  the  gill-covers  num-% 
erous  red  spots.  The  urogenital  papilla  is  scarcely  noticeable  in  the 
winter-salmon,  while  it  is  large,  protruding,  and  swollen  on  the  edges  in 
the  spawn-sal mou.  The  winter-salmon,  on  the  other  hand,  generally 
reaches  a  greater  weight  than  the  spawn-salmou,  and  its  flesh  is  redder 
and  fatter.  With  regard  to  size  and  weight,  therefore,  the  case  seems  here 
to  be  just  the  opposite  to  what  Siebold  has  found  in  Trutta  lacustris.1 

All  these  facts,  therefore,  seem  to  be  in  favor  of  the  supposition  that 
the  winter-salmon  is  the  permanently  barren  variety  of  Trutta  salar. 
But,  in  spite  of  this,  I  have  arrived  at  the  conviction  that  this  barren- 
ness is  only  temporary,2  and  that  those  fish  which  one  autumn  and 
winter  appear  as  barren  wiuter-salmon  probably  spawn  as  spawn-salmon 
during  the  next  spawning-period.3    After  I  had  continued  my  observa- 

1  The  opposite  from  the  winter-salmon  seems  ^o  be  the  case  in  the  barren  Ti-utta 
lacustris,  also  with  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  ilesh.  Siehold,  at  least,  says  that,  in  the 
Lake  of  Constance,  the  thin  and  barren  "  Schwebforelle"  is  esteemed  much  less  than 
the  fruitful  "  Grundforelle,"  (p.  309.)  The  barren  Trutta  fario,  (common  trout,)  on  the 
other  hand,  has  a  better  flesh  than  the  fruitful  one. 

iGiinther  (op.  cit.,  p.  8)  says:  Siebold  "appears  to  have  gone  too  far  when  he  stated 
that  this  state  of  sterility  extends  over  the  whole  period  of  existence  of  such  indi- 
viduals." In  "  Nya  Bidrag  till  Kiinnedommen  om  Sveriges  Salmonider,"  communi- 
cated in  the  "  Kougl.  Vetenskaps-Akademiens  Forhaudliugar,"  Stockholm,  1865,  Wide- 
gren  has  shown  in  very  young  (one  to  three  years'  old)  individuals  of  Trutta  trutta 
and  Trutta  salar  that  this  barrenness,  which  occurs  in  nearly  one-half  of  all  these  fish, 
is  only  temporary.  He  mentions,  as  the  chief  difference  between  barren  and  fruitful 
fish,  that  in  the  barren  ones  the  shorter  middle  ray  of  the  caudal  fin  is  not  as  much  as, 
or,  at  most,  not  more  than,  half  the  length  of  the  lougest  outer  ray,  while  in  the  fruitful 
ones  the  shortest  ray  exceeds  a  little  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  longest  one. 
This,  in  itself  somewhat  subtle  distinguishing  mark,  (he  gives,  e.  g.,  the  proportions  of 
19:40  mm.  in  the  sterile  against  20:38  mm.  in  the  fertile,  p.  290,)  which  is  subject  to  ex- 
ceptions (p.  280,)  forms  no  criterion  in  the  case  of  older  individuals,  as  the  caudal  fin 
more  and  more  loses  its  emargination  as  the  fish  grow  old. — (See  Siebold,  p.  295.)  TYide- 
grcn  then  goes  on  to  show  that  in  the  barren  fish  the  sexual  organs  develop  gradually  ; 
that  the  proportion  between  the  longest  and  shortest  ray  of  the  caudal  fin  gradually 
becomes  the  same  as  in  the  fruitful  ones  ;  that  the  color  changes,  &c. 

3  TYidegren  thinks  that  several  years  may  elapse  before  the  barren  ones  become  fruit- 
ful (p. 202).  William  Broun,  on  the  other  hand,  ("Natural  History  of  the  Salmon  by 
the  Recent  Experiments  at  Stormontfield,"  quoted  from  TYidegren,  p.  294,)  says  (p.  48) 
that  of  the  young  female  fish  which  had  been  marked  before  going  to  the  ocean,  some 
returned  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  while  others 
did  not  return  till  the  autumn  of  the  following  year.  Von  dem  Borne  says  (p.  339)  : 
"  There  are  among  the  salmon  some  which  spawn  only  every  other  year,  just  as  there 
are  among  the  young  salmon  some  which  only  leave  the  fresh  water  after  two  years. 
(I  must  here  remark  that  von  dem  Borne  cites  this  fact  from  English  sources,  which 
were  not  accessible  to  me.)  I,  therefore,  think  that  the  same  applies  to  those  salmon 
whose  home  is  the  Rhine. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       751 

tions  for  more  than  a  year,  (from  September,  1873,  till  October,  1874,)  I 
became  convinced  that  all  the  above-mentioned  differences  between  the 
winter-salmon  and  the  spawn-salmon  disappear  with  the  advancing  season 
of  the  year  and  the  progressing  sexual  development.  From  September 
till  about  May,  the  differences  between  the  two  are  so  striking  that, 
without  knowing  the  further  development  of  the  winter-salmon,  they 
would  forthwith  be  declared  to  be  two  different  species.  I  am,  there- 
fore, not  at  all  astonished  that  the  spawn-salmon  (Salmo  liamatus)  has 
been  distinguished  as  a  separate  species  from  the  winter-salmon  (Salmo 
salar)  when  both  were  seen  together,  without  knowing  that  the  differences 
between  the  two  were  only  temporary.  From  May  onwards,  the  whole  ap- 
pearance of  the  winter-salmon  changes,  and  gradually  approaches  that  of 
the  spawn-salmon.  The  spots  become  more  numerous;  besides  the  black 
ones,  red  ones  make  their  appearance;  the  silver- white  sides  assume  a 
dirty -white  color,  while  the  back  changes  from  a  slate  blue  to  a  dingy 
gray;  the  jaw  of  the  male  becomes  elongated,  and  the  hook  is  formed 
in  the  lower  jaw;  the  cceca  lose  their  fat ;  the  flesh  becomes  paler  and 
drier;  the  milt  and  the  eggs  become  larger  in  proportion ;  and  the  edges  of 
the  urogenital  papilla  back  of  the  anus  swell  and  become  more  prominent. 
It  is  interesting  to  watch  the  growth  of  the  ovaries.  The  ovary  of  the 
above-mentioned  winter-salmon,  caught  near  Wesel  on  the  22d  Septem- 
ber, weighed  at  that  date  13  grams.1  According  to  my  observations 
of  last  winter,  the  weight  of  the  ovaries  increases  very  little  up  to  April. 
The  ovary  of  a  winter-salmon,  caught  in  April  of  this  year,  weighed  19 
grams ;  of  one  caught  in  May,  22  grams ;  in  June,  48 ;  in  July,  91 ;  in 
August,  211;  and  the  ripe  ovary  of  a  fish  ready  for  spawning,  (in  Novem- 
ber,) 800  to  1,000  grams.2 

Two  questions  arise  here :  (1)  Why  does  the  winter-salmon  ascend 
the  Ehiue  long  before  it  is  able  to  spawn  ?  and  (2)  How  long  does 
it  remain  in  the  river  ? 

The  first  question  is  difficult  to  answer.  In  such  cases,  resort  is  had 
to  an  "  obscure  instinct."  This  would  in  this  case  be  the  desire  for  pro- 
pagating, although  this  cannot  as  yet  be  realized.  It  is  true  that  all 
salmons  require  a  longer  or  shorter  sojourn  in  fresh  water  for  develop- 
ing their  sexual  organs.3  It  is  possible  that,  in  the  winter  salmon,  a 
sojourn  in  fresh  water,  even  if  it  be  only  temporary,  gives  the  first  impe- 
tus toward  the  formation  of  the  sexual  organs ;  this  is,  in  fact,  highly 
probable.  While  in  the  sea,  the  fish  has  fattened  so  much  that,  if  it 
continued  to  take  plenty  of  food,  the  milt  and  eggs  would  not  develop 
at  all — a  physiological  fact  which  has  long  since  been  observed  in  other 
animals.  This  development  becomes  possible  by  the  fish's  abstaining 
from  food  while  in  the  Ehiue. 

1 1  gram  =  15.434  grains  troy. 

2  In  these  figures,  it  must,  of  course,  be  taken  into  consideration  that  the  fish  from 
which  the  ovaries  were  taken  were  not  absolutely  equal  in  age,  size,  and  weight ;  on 
an  average,  they  weighed  9  kilograms,  (1  kilogram  =2.205  pounds  avoirdupois.) 

3  See  Siebold,  op.  pit.,  p.  208. 


752        REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

In  many  cases,  some  outward  cause  may  induce  the  fish  to  ascend  the 
Ehine  long  before  they  are  able  to  spawn.  I  will  give  the  following 
observations  on  this  point  which  I  have  made. 

On  the  bodies  of  the  winter-salmon  I  frequently  found  wounds  caused 
by  the  teeth  of  other  animals.  These  bites  I  found  on  different  parts  of 
the  body ;  they  were  of  different  size,  and  most  of  them  had  healed 
over.  The  fishermen  of  the  Ehine  are  well  acquainted  with  this  fact, 
and  the  Messrs.  Bidder  and  Lisner,  in  Wesel,  furnished  me  with  the 
interesting  information  that  a  rich  salmon-year  (with  regard  to  winter- 
salmon)  might  be  expected  if  comparatively  many  fish  appeared  having 
such  wounds.  It  is  but  natural  to  draw  certain  conclusions  from  these 
observations.  Not  only  man  but  also  other  beings  are  eager  for  the 
fine  flesh  of  the  winter-salmon.  The  greatest  enemy  of  the  salmon 
are  the  seals  (Phoca  vitulina  and  annellata1).  These  nimble  robbers 
pursue  the  salmon,2  which  seeks  a  place  of  refuge  in  the  Ehine.  If  its 
enemies  increase  in  number  and  their  attacks  become  more  violent,  the 
winter-salmon  in  consequence  appears  in  the  Ehine  more  frequently,  and 
the  above-mentioned  observation  would  thereby  be  explained.  Eegard- 
ing  the  second  question,  "  How  long  does  the  winter-salmon  remain  in 
the  Ehine,"  I  think  I  can  assert  on  the  strength  of  my  observations 
that  from  September  till  May  it  only  makes  a  temporary  sojourn  in  the 
Ehine.3  and  that  it  becomes  permanent  ouly  from  May.4 

Of  the  temporarily  barren  salmon  which  occurs  in  the  English  rivers, 
von  dem  Borne  says  (p.  338)  that  it  remains  in  the  river  nearly  a  whole 
year.  This  may  be  possible  in  the  English  rivers;  but,  as  far  as  the 
Ehine  is  regarded,  I  must  deny  it  emphatically,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  the  winter-salmon  while  in  the  Ehine  eats  next  to  nothing.  The 
fishermen  say  that  it  gets  into  the  Ehine  only  by  "  losing  its  way."  It  is  a 
fact  that  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ehine  it  is  caught  frequently  all  the 
year  round;  near  \v~esel  quite  frequently,  but  near  Bonn  only  rarely,  up 
to  May.  As  the  growth  of  the  eggs — as  I  have  remarked  above — becomes 
considerable  only  from  May,  I  believe  that  its  sojourn  in  the  Ehine 
becomes  settled  only  from  that  time. 

The  results  of  the  investigations  which  I  have  been  able  to  make  so  far 
regarding  the  salmonoids  occurring  in  the  Ehine  are  briefly  the  following : 
In  the  Ehine,  only  two  species  are  found,  viz,  Trutta  salar  and  Trutta 
trutta ;  neither  take  any  food  while  in  the  Ehine.    Of  Trutta  salar,  a 

1  See  on  this  point  Block,  op.  cit.,  p.  139. 

s  This  probably  takes  place  chiefly  in  winter,  because  the  seal  is  at  that  season 
without  any  other  food,  and  because  the  wiuter-salinon  does  not,  like  other  fish,  live 
deep  in  the  water,  but  rather  near  the  surface.  Thus,  Mangold  (quoted  after  Sicbold, 
p.  309)  says  that  the  barren  Trutta  lacustris  lives  near  the  surface,  while  the  fruitful 
Grundforelle  keeps  near  the  bottom  of  the  lake. 

5  The  great  strength  of  its  muscles  enables  it  to  travel  long  distances  in  a  very  short 
time.  According  to  Cornelius,  (p.  199,)  it  can  swim  twenty-three  to  thirty  English 
miles ;  according  to  von  dem  Borne,  (p.  338,)  it  swims  about  1,500  feet  in  one  minute. 

4  N.  Loberg,  Norges  Fiskerier,  Christiauia,  1864,  p.  280,  says  of  the  Norwegian  salmon 
that  they  stay  in  the  rivers  all  summer. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       753 

fruitful  variety  (spawn-salmon)  and  a  temporarily  barren  one  (winter- 
salmon1)  exist.  The  former  ascends  the  Rhine  for  the  purpose  of  spawn- 
ing from  September  till  November  ;  the  latter  appears  sporadically,  and 
for  a  brief  season  from  September  till  May,  and  probably  remains  in  the 
Ehine  for  a  longer  time,  or  permanently  from  May  till  the  spawning- 
season.  These  results  answer — at  least  as  far  as  the  grown  salmons 
are  concerned — the  question,  Is  it  injurious  to  catch  "Eiimpchen"  be- 
cause thereby  valuable  fish  are  deprived  of  their  food.  As  these 
salmons  do  not  eat  anything  while  in  the  Ehine,  the  catching  of  the 
"  Etimpchen"  cannot  possibly  deprive  them  of  any  food.  The  case  will 
be  somewhat  different  with  the  young  "  Salnilinge,"  (salmon  one  to  three 
years  old,  which  have  never  yet  made  the  journey  to  the  sea.)  Prof,  de 
La  Valette  St.  George,  who  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  our  native  fishes, 
and  occupies  himself  with  artificial  pisciculture,  has  informed  me  that 
he  feeds  his  u  Salmlinge"  (specimens  of  Trutta  trutta  and  Trutta  lacus- 
tris  measuring  on  an  average.  8  inches  in  length)  chiefly  on  "Eiimp- 
chen," and  that  they  devour  them  eagerly.  As  this  in  all  probability 
will  also  be  the  case  in  the  Ehine,  and  as  the  young  Trutta  trutta  cer- 
tainly does  not  differ  from  the  Trutta  salar  with  regard  to  the  taking  of 
food,  the  catching  of  "  Eiimpchen"  will  deprive  these  young  salmon  of 
a  considerable  amount  of  food.2 

I  shall  secondly  examine  the  question  whether  the  catching  of  "Etiuip- 
chen"  deprives  the  trout  (Trutta  fario)  to  any  extent  of  their  food. 

II. 

The  food  of  Trutta  fario. 

Next  to  the  two  above-mentioned  species,  the  trout3  is  with  us  the  most 
common  salmonoid,  and  is  highly  esteemed  on  account  of  the  delicate 
flavor  of  its  flesh.  It  prefers  small,  rapidly-flowing,  clear  waters,  and  is 
therefore  chiefly  caught  in  small  rivers  and  mountain-streams — the 
Ahr,  Sieg,  Eoer,  Wupper,  Wied,  and  Anbach  near  Neuwied,  and  the 
Kyll  near  Gerolstein.  But  as  the  "Eiimpchen"  are  likewise  caught  in 
these  very  waters,  it  is  of  special  importance  to  ascertain  whether  the 
catching  of  the  "  Eiimpchen"  deprives  the  trout  of  food. 

The  first  material  for  my  investigations  I  obtained  November  25, 1873, 
from  Mr.  Brenner  in  Bonn.4     Among  twenty-two  fishes,  I  found  four- 

1  This  must  be  understood  in  this  manner  :  that  of  those  salmon  which  return  to  the 
sea  from  the  Rhine  after  having  done  spawning,  quite  a  number  remain  barren  the 
nest  year,  as  probably  the  too  rich  food  and  the  rapid  accumulation  of  fat  prevent 
the  development  of  the  sexual  organs. 

*  I  must,  however,  remark  here  that  these  young  salmon  go  into  the  sea  at  a  very 
early  age— according  to  Siebold  (p.  2W)  in  their  second  year,  when  they  are  about  4 
inches  long ;  according  to  the  recent  observations  of  English  naturalists,  in  their  third 
year,  when  they  are  about  8  inchea  long — and  that  therefore  the  existence  of  the 
Riimpchen  is  no  matter  of  life  and  death  with  them. 

3  As  to  the  character  of  this  kind,  see  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  and  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  320. 

4  To  this  gentleman  I  am  also  indebted  for  the  material  for  all  my  later  investiga- 
tions; also  those  made  on  Alausa  vulgaris. 

48  F 


754       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

teen  females  and  eight  males;  in  two  of  the  females,  the  eggs  were 
entirely  undeveloped,  and  the  same  was  the  case  with  the  milt  in  one 
male  fish,  while  in  the  others  the  sexual  organs  were  fully  developed.  The 
fins  in  these  three  fish  were  likewise  much  less  developed,  and  the  char- 
acteristic modification  of  the  skin  found  in  the  trout  during  the  spawning- 
season  was  wanting;  in  short,  I  recognized  in  these  the  barren  variety 
of  the  trout.  As  Siebold1  has  proved  with  absolute  certainty  the  exist- 
ence of  such  barren  varieties,  and  has  accurately  described  their  char- 
acteristic distinguishing  marks,  I  will  not  enter  further  on  this  matter, 
but  will  only  remark  that  since  I  have  continually  found  specimens  of 
barren  trout.  I  will  here  add  that  there  is  no  difference  between  barren 
and  fruitful  trout  with  regard  to  their  food. 

The  section  of  the  digestive  organs  showed  immediately  that  their  char- 
acter was  entirely  different  from  those  of  Trutta  solar  and  Trutta  trutta. 
The  oesophagus  and  stomach  were  not  contracted,  but  in  most  cases 
considerably  extended  and  showed  symptoms  of  a — for  the  spawning- 
season — very  considerable  feeding  activity.  Nearly  all  the  organs 
which  play  a  part  in  digestion,  from  the  oesophagus  down  to  the  anus, 
contained  remnants  of  food.  Among  the  twenty-two  which  I  examined 
1  only  found  one  whose  digestive  organs  contained  no  remnants  of  food 
whatever.  Among  the  others  there  were  several  whose  stomach  con- 
tained no  food-substance,  but  in  the  entrails  I  found  the  indigestible 
remnants  of  food. 

I  will  now  briefly  state  what  I  found  in  these  twenty-one  trout:2 

1.  Twenty-one  wings  of  insects  (mostly  neuroptera). 

2.  Twenty-six  parts  of  integuments,  heads  and  wings  of  coleoptera  and 
orthoptera,  as  well  as  crustaceans  and  myriopods. 

3.  Thirty-five  tarsi  and  other  portions  of  the  legs  of  the  same  insects. 

4.  Twenty-six  larvae  of  Pkryganidce  or  their  cases,  composed  of  parti- 
cles of  quartz  and  plants. 

What  I  looked  for  most  eagerly — viz,  remnants  of  fish — I  did  not  find 
in  any  of  these  twenty-one  trout.  The  stomach  occasionally  contained 
large  connected  parts  of  insects,  and  in  some  stomachs  I  found  the  toler- 
ably well  preserved  larvae  of  Sialis  lutaria.  On  one  occasion,  I  found  six 
cases  of  Phryganidm  in  a  fish,  and  several  times  three  or  four  were 
packed  closely  together,  so  that  they  extended  the  stomach  and  could 
be  seen  from  outside.  In  some  cases,  the  larvae  of  these  cases  were  well- 
preserved.  I  found  no  lime  in  these  cases,  and  in  bringing  them  in  con- 
tact with  muriatic  acid  they  did  not  effervesce.  It  was  surprising  to  me 
that  in  three  fishes  I  found  large  portions  of  the  bast  of  a  plant  (perhaps 

1  Siebold,  op.  cifc.,  p.  233. 

3  Any  one  occupied  with  similar  observations  will  know  that  in  most  cases  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  draw  any  conclusion,  as  to  genus  and  species  of  the  animals  which 
have  been  devoured,  from  the  half-digested  and  torn  fragments  which  are  found. 
Although  in  most  cases  the  accurate  definition  of  these  animals  is  of  no  practical  value, 
it  is  of  great  interest  to  the  zoologist  to  get  as  near  the  truth  as  possible.  I  have, 
therefore,  attempted  a  definition  wherever  it  was  possible. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       755 

Juncus  or  Garex)  folded  together,  and  measuring  from  one  to  four  inches 
in  length.  It  is  not  possible  that  the  trout  had  taken  this  as  food,  and  I 
explain  its  occurrence  in  the  following  manner  :  On  these  plants,  some 
insect  or  larva  had  settled,  the  trout  had  eagerly  rushed  toward  it,1  and 
had  seized  the  insect  with  the  plant  or  portion  of  it.  I  was  likewise 
surprised  to  find  in  the  stomachs  of  some  individuals  ripe  eggs  of  the  size 
of  pease,  which,  on  closer  examination,  completely  resembled  the  eggs 
of  the  trout.  I  thought  at  first  that  these  eggs  had  got  in  accidentally 
while  the  fish  was  being  dissected,2  but  I  soon  changed  my  opinion. 
These  eggs  occurred,  as  I  found  later,  in  other  specimens,  not  only  in 
the  stomach  but  also  in  the  entrails  of  trout,  but  when  in  the  entrails 
always  deprived  of  their  contents  by  having  been  digested,  the  empty 
shells  being  folded  together.  This  circumstance  proves  that  this  vora- 
cious fish  devours  the  spawn  of  its  own  species. 

Similar  contents  of  stomach  and  entrails  I  found  in  ten  other  trout, 
which  I  examined  on  the  6th  December.  In  the  entrails  of  one  I  found 
besides,  remnants  of  fish — vertebrae  and  bones  enveloped  in  the  reddish 
mucus  of  the  entrails.  It  was,  of  course,  impossible  to  ascertain  to  what 
species  this  fish  belonged. 

On  the  14th  December,  I  received  fifteen,  and  on  the  16th,  eight  trout- 
stomachs.  In  examining  these,  I  was  at  once  struck  by  the  fact  that 
the  remnants  of  food  had  considerably  diminished.  I  found  a  large 
quantity  of  partly-digested  trout-eggs  and  a  number  of  phrygauid 
cases,  but  very  few  parts  of  other  insects.  The  cause  of  this  striking 
diminution  of  food  was,  no  doubt,  the  change  in  the  weather.  Till  the 
18th  of  December  we  had  had  mild  sunny  weather,  but  from  that  date 
there  had  been  considerable  frosts.  Two  explanations  of  this  diminu- 
tion of  food  now  became  possible.  The  insects,  larvse,  &c,  had  either 
sought  a  refuge  from  the  severity  of  the  weather  in  hidden  nooks  where 
they  were  safe  from  the  persecutions  of  the  trout,  or  the  lower  tempera- 
ture had  diminished  the  liveliness  of  the  trout  and  their  desire  for  food. 
The  most  probable  explanation  is  that  the  two  circumstances  combined 
in  diminishing  the  quantity  of  food  taken.  On  the  7th  January,  1874, 
I  examined  the  last  thirteen  trout.  The  result,  on  the  whole,  was  the 
same  as  in  the  first  instance.  The  weather  had  again  become  somewhat 
milder,  and  the  remnants  of  food  had  consequently  increased.  In  two 
of  these  trout,  I  at  last  found  distinct  remains  of  a  fish.  In  one,  I 
found  scales,  bones,  and  barbels ;  in  the  other,  the  tolerably  well-pre- 
served skeleton  of  a  small  fish.  In  this  latter,  the  whole  vertebral  col- 
umn, with  portions  of  the  bones  and  of  the  head,  with  three  barbels, 
)tad  been  preserved  ;  the  total  length  of  the  skeleton  was  about  four 
inches.    The  trout  in  which  I  found  this  fish  was  about  ten  inches  long, 

1  It  is  well  known  that  the  troat,  when  rushing  toward  the  bait,  also  devours  the 
hook.     Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  330. 

9  In  dissecting  the  entrails,  it  occasionally  happens  that  fresh  scales  of  the  same  or 
ether  fish  get  in  the  oesophagus. 


756       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

and  the  larger  portion  of  the  fish  stuck  in  the  lower  half  of  the  oesoph- 
agus,1 as  there  was  no  room  for  it  in  the  stomach.  From  the  charac- 
ter of  the  skeleton,  I  feel  justified  in  inferring  that  the  fish  was  a  Cobitis 
barbatula,  which,  like  the  trout,  loves  clear  running  water. 

Quite  recently,  (I  Oth  June,  1874,)  I  succeeded,  through  the  kindness  of 
a  friend,  in  getting  six  stomachs  of  trout  which  had  been  caught  in  the 
Kyll  near  Gerolstein.  The  examination  of  the  stomach  and  entrails 
showed  entirely  different  results  from  those  of  trout  which  had  been  caught 
during  the  spawning-season.  In  the  first,  I  found  four  cases  of  Phry- 
ganidw,  which  were  shorter  and  thinner  than  those  which  I  had  obtained 
in  winter;  in  the  second,  I  found  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  such  cases, 
one  insect,  (half  digested,)  one  dragon-fly's  wing,  and  the  remains  of  a 
fish ;  in  the  third,  five  hundred  and  eighty-five  (!)  cases,  one  insect,  and  the 
scale  of  a  fish ;  in  the  fourth,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  cases,  one  insect, 
and  the  remains  of  a  fish ;  in  the  fifth,  one  hundred  and  eighty-six 
cases  and  the  flower  of  a  graminaceous  plant  ;  in  the  sixth,  one  hun- 
dred and  fifteen  cases,  a  small  caterpillar,  a  number  of  fish-eggs,  and 
the  lower  half  of  a  small  fish  about  four  inches  in  length.  The  cases 
of  the  Phryganidse  were  found  in  all  the  stomachs,  and  also  in  the 
entrails;  in  one,  the  intestinal  canal  as  far  as  the  anus  was  completely 
stuffed  with  these  cases.  I  should  expressly  state  that  all  these  six  fishes 
were  well  fed. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  trout  takes  much  more  food  before  than 
during  the  spawning-season,  but  that  even  during  that  season  its 
chief  food  does  not  consist  of  small  fish  but  of  insects  and  their  larvse. 
I  draw  from  this  the  further  conclusion  that  the  quality  of  the  flesh  of 
the  trout  does  not  deteriorate  by  this  insect- diet,  but  that  the  delicacy 
of  its  flavor  is  heightened. 

The  results  of  these  investigations  therefore  in  general  agree  with  the 
statements  of  other  authors.  Giinther2  says :  "  The  trout  is  a  very 
voracious  fish,  and  its  food  consists,  besides  insects,  their  larvae,  and 
worms,  particularly  (?)  of  young  fish."  Valenciennes,3  Heclcel*  and  Kner 
make  similar  statements. 

If  from  these  investigations  I  now  draw  a  conclusion  as  to  whether 
the  fishing  for  "  Eiimpchen"  is  injurious  or  not,  I  find  that  among  the 
fifty-three  trout  which  had  been  caught  during  the  spawning-season 
there  were  three  which  had  eaten  fish,  and  among  the  six  caught  before 
the  spawning-season  there  were  four  whose  stomachs  contained  remains 
of  fish.  The  fish,  at  any  rate,  formed  but  a  very  small  portion  of  the 
food.    If  I  now  assume  as  highly  probable  that  these  fish  belonged  to 

1  "  This  part  of  the  digestive  organs  lying  immediately  in  front  of  the  first  curvature 
takes  the  part  of  a  stomach,  and  digestion  in  it  becomes  far  advanced." — Kner,  "  Ueber 
die  Miigen  und  Blinddiirme  der  Salmoniden,"  in  the  "  Sitzungsberichte  der  Kaiser- 
lichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,"  vol.  viiit  1852,  p.  203. 

2  Giinther,  Die  Fische  des  Neckars,  Stuttgart,  1853,  p.  116. 

3  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  330. 

4  Bedel  and  Kner,  op.  cit.,  p.  252. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       757 

the  genera  Cobitis,  Phoxmus,  Leuciscus,  or  some  other  of  the  "  Eumpchen" 
kind,  the  catching  of  these  fish  would  in  the  worst  case  only  deprive 
the  trout  of  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  food.  And  as  the  trout  are 
flourishing,  even  if  they  feed  almost  exclusively  on  insects,  it  follows 
that  they  can  live  without  any  fish-food,  and  that  no  particular  harm  is 
done  by  the  catching  of  the  "  Etimpchen."  In  conclusion,  I  will  give  the 
result  of  investigations  which  I  have  made  regarding  the  food  of  the 
"Maifisch,"  (Alausa  vulgaris,)  so  as  to  enable  us  to  pass  a  final  judg- 
ment on  the  fishing  of  "  Riimpchen." 

III. 

The  food  of  Alausa  vulgaris  while  in  the  Ehine. 

The  three  species  spoken  of  above  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Saluion- 
oids,  while  the  Alausa  vulgaris  is  a  representative  of  the  Clupeoid  fam- 
ily.1 The  "  Maifisch "  takes  its  German  name  from  the  month  during 
which  it  ascends  the  Ehine  for  the  purpose  of  spawning,  and  during 
which  it  is  mostly  caught.  It  is  not  so  highly  esteemed  as  an  article  of 
food  as  the  salmon,  but  its  flesh  still  forms  a  favorite  and  valuable  food, 
so  that  the  question  whether  by  the  catching  of  the  "  Eiimpchen  "  it  is 
deprived  of  food  well  deserves  an  answer  based  on  scientific  investiga- 
tions. Till  quite  recently,  the  " Maifisch  "  (Alausa  vulgaris)  was  identified 
with  the  "  Finte :?  ( Alausa  finta) — even  by  Heclcel  and  Kner.  Cuvier2  and 
other  ichthyologists  had  tried  to  show  certain  differences  between  the 
two,  but  Valenciennes3  had  showed  these  to  be  untenable,  and  therefore 
declared  that  both  fish  were  one  and  the  same  species,  viz,  Alausa 
vulgaris.  But  since  Troschel4  has  examined  these  fish  more  thoroughly, 
and  has  shown  the  actual  differences  between  them,  it  has  become  possi- 
ble to  distinguish  them.  The  chief  difference  is  in  the  gills ;  Alausa 
vulgaris  has,  on  the  first  branchial  arch,  99  to  118  long,  slender,  and 
thin  lamella?;  on  the  second,  96  to  112 ;  on  the  third,  74  to  88;  and  on 
the  fourth,  50  to  G5 ;  while  Alausa  finta  has,  on  the  first  and  second 
arch,  only  39  to  43  short  and  thick  protuberances  ;  on  the  third,  33  to 
31 ;  and  on  the  fourth,  23  to  27. 

The  flesh  of  the  Alausa  finta  has  a  bad  odor,  and  is  not  nearly  as  fat 
and  delicately-flavored  as  that  of  Alausa  vulgaris ,5  so  that  the  fishermen 

1  As  to  the  family  and  specific  characters,  see  Meckel  arid  Kner,  p.  228 ;  Siebold,  p.  328 ; 
Valenciennes,  vol.  xx,  1847,  p.  391. 

2  Cuvier,  Regno  animal,  tome  ii,  1829,  p.  319. 
s  Valenciennes,  op.  cit.,  p.  403. 

4  Troschel,  in  Wiegmann's  "  Archiv  fur  Naturgeschichte,"  1852,  vol.  i,  p.  228,  and 
"Lehrbuch  der  Zoologie,"  1859,  p.  229 ;  7th  ed.,  1871,  p.  268. 

5  Siebold,  op.  cit.,  p.  334,  erroneously  doubts  whether  the  difference  in  flavor  between 
Alausa  vulgaris  and  Alausa  finta  has  anything  to  do  with  the  specific  differences  of  the 
fishes.  Not  only  after  the  spawing,  but  also  during  the  whole  time  of  their  sojourn  iu 
the  Rhine,  (therefore,  also,  at  a  time  when  they  have  not  yet  become  worthless  through 
spawning,)  the  Alausa  finia  has  poor  flesh,  so  that  many  fish-dealers  do  not  keep  it  at  all. 


758       REPORT    OF    COMMISSIONER    OF    FISH    AND    FISHERIES. 

do  not  esteem  it  at  all.  As  the  Alausa  finta,  consequently,  does  not  come 
within  the  scope  of  my  observations,1 1  have  confined  myself  to  the 
examination  of  the  food  of  Alausa  vulgaris. 

In  the  above-mentioned  authors,  I  find  no  statement  regarding  the 
food  of  Alausa  vulgaris.  Only  Giinther  (who,  however,  had  not  been 
able  to  examine  any  of  those  which  occur  in  the  Neckar,  p.  121)  says, 
{p.  124:)  "The  food  of  the  'Maifisch'  consists  chiefly  of  worms  and  in- 
sects. It  is  said,  however,  that  it  can  also  be  caught  with  boiled  pease." 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  following  in  how  far  he  is  right. 

The  first  two  stomachs  of  Alausa  vulgaris  I  received  on  the  3d  May; 
later  I  gradually  got  eighteen  more,  so  that  the  total  number  of  speci- 
mens which  I  examined  was  twenty.  The  result  was,  on  the  whole,  the 
same  in  all.  In  most  of  them,  I  found  that  the  stomach  had  some  con- 
tents; only  in  a  few  I  found  little  or  nothing.  The  examination  of  the 
contents  showed  the  following :  Inside  the  stomach  proper,  which  was 
strongly  contracted,  there  was  a  cylindrical  mass,  pointed  at  the  lower 
end,  toward  the  pylorus;  it  seemed  to  consist  of  a  stringy,  white  mu- 
cus, and  showed  the  impression  of  the  folds  of  the  stomach.  By  a  longi- 
tudinal section,  the  inside  was  laid  open,  and  it  became  evident  that  the 
mucus  only  formed  an  outer  covering,  enveloping  a  reddish  or  gray 
grained  substance.  The  microscopic  examination  of  this  substance 
showed  a  large  number  of  remnants  of  diminutive  animal  organs  and 
well-developed  cell-like  formations.  As  regards  the  former,  I  recognized 
tarsi,  antennae,  &c,  of  microscopic  entomostracans  and  other  crustace- 
ans. Occasionally,  I  found  larger  connected  parts  of  these  diminutive 
animals.  It  is  possible  that  these  tarsi,  &c,  belonged  to  insects;  but  I 
have  never  been  able  to  find  wings  or  parts  of  the  skeleton,  &c.,  of  an 
insect.  I  must  also  state  that  I  have  not  found  remains  of  fish  in  any 
of  the  specimens  which  I  examined. 

Among  the  cell-like  formations  which  I  found  in  the  stomach  of 
Alausa  vulgaris,  there  were  (as  shown  by  a  microscopic  examination) 
two  varieties,  a  ball-shaped  one  and  a  tube-shaped  one.  In  the  ball- 
shaped  ones,  I  recognized  animal  eggs  (probably  of  Ascaris  adunca, 
.  which  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  stomach  of  the  "  Maifisch"); 
the  tube  shaped  ones  seemed  to  be  encysted  embryos  of  nematoids. 
But  as  I  could  not  bring  my  investigations  of  this  point  to  a  final  con- 
clusion, and  as  its  further  discussion  goes  beyond  the  aim  of  this  trea- 
tise, I  confine  myself  to  what  has  been  said  above. 

conclusion. 

Nothing  remains  but  to  give  a  brief  resume  of  these  investigations 
and  their  results,  so  as  to  definitely  answer  the  question  whether  or  not 
the  catching  of  "Eiimpchen"  is  injurious  to  other  fishes. 

1  In  examining  the  question  as  to  whether  the  catching  of  the  "  Riimpcheu  "  is  injuri- 
ous to  other  fish,  only  such  fish  can  he  spoken  of  which  exceed  the  "Riimpchcn"  in 
quality;  for  one  certainly  -would  not  think  of  sparing  the  "  Eiimpchen,"  e.  g.,  for  the 
pike. 


THE  SALMON,  THE  TROUT,  AND  THE  SHAD.       759 

Of  the  valuable  fishes  which,  coming  from  the  sea,  ascend  the  Rhine  and 
its  tributaries,  (Trutta  salar,  Trutta  trutta,  and  Alausa  vulgaris.)  the  two 
first-mentioned  species  do  not  eat  anything,  and  the  third  only  crusta- 
ceans and  insects.  The  young  salmon  living  in  the  Ehine  seem  to  show 
a  preference  for  the  "  Eiimpchen"  as  an  article  of  food ;  but  they  only 
spend  that  part  of  their  life  in  fresh  water  when  they  are  too  small  to 
hunt  for  "  Eiiinpchen."  The  food  of  Trutta  fario  consists  chiefly  of 
insects  and  their  larvas,  and  only  to  a  small  extent  of  small  fish  which 
must  be  classed  with  the  "  Eiimpchen."  By  the  catching  of  the  "  Eiimp- 
chen," only  a  small  portion  therefore  of  the  young  salmon  and  the  trout 
are  to  a  limited  extent  deprived  of  food.  Since,  therefore,  as  Troschel 
has  shown,  no  valuable  young  fish  are  destroyed  by  the  fishing  of 
"  Eiimpchen,"  since  thereby  the  more  valuable  large  fish  are  not  deprived 
of  any  absolutely  necessary  food,  and  since,  finally,  the  "Eiimpchen" 
form  a  good  and  well-flavored  article  of  food,  thus  amply  making  up  for 
the  damage  which  their  being  fished  may  do  to  the  great  fisheries,  I 
must  declare  the  fishing  of  "  BUmpcken  "  to  ~be  entirely  harmless. 


IISTDEX. 


Pago. 

Abramis  ballerus 62 

brama 015 

Abundarce  of  salmon 531 

Acanthophora 694 

Acclimatization 583 

Acetabnlaria 712 

Acipenser  guldenstiidt  ii 61 

huso 58,02 

ruthenus 44,62,617 

stellatus 61,67 

Acrotylus 701 

iEliauus 7 

Agarum  ., 708 

turneri 716 

Agassiz,  Professor,  221,  272,  274,281,314, 

738, 740 

Abnfeltia 700 

Ah  Sing,  Chinese 437,  465 

Alaria 707 

esculenta 716 

Alausa  finta 757 

vulgaris 737 

food  of 757 

Albertus  Magnus  on  reproduction  of 

the  eel 725 

Albarnus  lucidus 615, 737 

Aldrovandi's  list  of  fishes 8 

Algae 691 

Allen,  Mr.  George 403,460 

Alosa  reevesii 481 

vulgaris 331 

Alsidium 094 

Aluminum  tag  for  marking 490 

Amansia 091 

Ambrosius,  D 12 

Ammody tes  Iancea 45, 222 

tobianus 741,748 

Amphiroa 090,715 

Anadyomene 712 

Anchovies 151, 154, 183 

Anderson,  Mr 130,137,403 

Mr.  Aron 157 

Mr.  A.  A 324,328,331 

Mr.  G.A 327 

Mr.  Johann 105 

Mr.O.A 437 


Pago. 

Angora  sheep 278 

Anguilla  vulgaris 014 

Aporrhais  occidentals 088 

Apparatus  for  changing  the  water. .  391 
hatching  shad-ova,  338,  372 

Appendices  pyloricce 742, 744 

Appendix  A 1 

B 321 

C 539 

D 569 

E 085 

A  quaria  for  investigation 100 

Aquarium  at  Arcachon 004 

Berlin,  Vienna,  &c  .. .  004 

car,  California 385 

indispensable  for 
transporting  lob- 
sters   265 

second  California  . .  477 

, Arcachon,  aquarium  at 004 

Arctic  Ocean  fisheries 44 

Areuicola  piscatorum 45 

Aristoteies  on  reproduction  of  the 

eel 725 

Arnold.  Hon.  Elisha 533 

Mr 532 

Mr.  Silas 533 

Artedi,Mr 603 

Arthrocladia 709 

Arthrocladiese 709 

Artificial  fish-breeding 580 

Ascaris  adunca 758 

Ascidia  callosa 688 

Ascothamnion 712 

Asellus  or  squamus 12 

Ash  worth,  Mr.  Thomas 584 

Asperococcese 708 

Asperococcus 708 

Aspius  clupeoides 61 

Astacus  fluviatilis ., 224, 017 

Asterias  vulgaris 089 

Astrogonium  phrygianum 089 

Atkins,  Mr.  C.  G 421,422,485 

Atlas  maritimus  et  commercialis —  105 

Aubert,  Prof 729 

Audouin,  Mr 98 


762 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Au  Sable  Eiver 539 

Australia,  fish-eggs  from  England..      534 

fishery-laws  in 571, 643 

fish-markets "     600 

Austria,  pisciculture  in 589 

salt-water  fisheries 674 

Austrian  fisheries,  former  condition 

of 575 

present  condition      576 

Autumn-herring 129 

Avery,  United  States  minister 4S1 

Bache,  dredgings  by  steamer 687 

Baden,,  a  joint-stock  company  in  . . .       587 

fishery -laws  in C31 

Baer.Mr 63 

Baird,  Prof.  Spencer  F.  .25, 35, 100, 107, 2.39, 

271, 328, 330, 332, 351, 

362, 385, 386, 390,  434, 

571, 687 

Bait  for  lino-fishing 7 

in  net-fishing 7 

Baltimore's  oyster-business 310 

Balyk,  manufacture  of 88 

Bangia 704 

Barbusfluviatilis 615,737 

Barfurth,  Mr.  D 735 

Barren  salmon 749 

Barrow,  Mr.  S.  H 356 

Baskets  for  catching  lobsters 229, 233 

Batrachospermeoj 699 

Bavaria,  fishery-laws  in 630 

Bavarian  salmon 587 

Beardslce,  Comdr.  L.  A 329, 363 

Beckwith,  Mr 276 

Bell,  Mr.  Charles 338, 374 

Berlin,  aquarium  at 604 

Fiseherei-verein 588 

Bertram,  Mr.  James  G 746 

Besley,  Mr.  Joseph 356 

Beta,  Mr.  H 585,603,610 

Beyer,  Absalom  Pedersen 117, 121 

Bixby,  Dr.  George  F 540 

Black-fish 379 

Blank  form  A 563,566 

B 564,567 

C 565,468 

Blocb.Mr 106,560,740,742 

Blodgettia '  712 

Boeck,  A.,  and  O.  Sars,  Messrs 195 

Boeck,  Mr.  Axel . .  .26, 97, 100, 103, 105, 115, 

120, 127, 136, 139, 145, 

195,199,204,223 

Prof.  C 245,246 


Page. 

Bohemia's  lake-culture 595 

Borne,  Mr.  von  dem 631, 749 

Bose's  Dictionary  of  Fisheries 560 

Boston's  oyster-business 300 

Bostrychia 692 

Bow-net 174, 175 

Brackett,  Commissioner 337 

Mr.  E.  A 421,422 

Brehm,  Mr 603,604 

Brenner,  Mr 744,753 

Briggs,  Mr.  S.  A „,„       367 

Broca,  Lieut.  P.  de 169, 271, 277, 286 

Brook-trout :       609 

Brown,  Mr.  William 750 

Bryan,  Mr.  O.  N 356 

Bryopsis 711 

Bryothamnion 694 

Buckland  and  Walpole,  Messrs 585 

Buckland,  Mr 749 

Bucksport,    temperature     observa- 
tions at 506,  530 

Budstikken  for  catching  lobsters..       228 

Buffon,  Mr 3,4 

Bull-head 380 

Burkardt,  Mr 272,319 

Buying-off  of  fishing-privileges  ....       665 

Bystrom,  Dr.  C 34 

California  aquarium-car 385 

second 477 

operations  in,  1873 377 

operations  in,  1S74 437 

salmon,  hatching 431,  434 

transportation  of  lobsters 

to 259 

Calliblepharis 696 

Callithamnion 703 

Callophyllis 700 

Calotkrix 714 

Cambridge  Museu  m 281 

Campbell,  Mr 467 

Camp-buildings 443 

Canadian  oyster 288 

Canned  oysters 292 

Carabus 748 

Carassus  vulgaris 615 

Care    cf    fish    during    transporta- 
tion        391 

for  shad  on  board 333 

Carinthia,  area  of  fishing-waters.. .      602 

Carp,  culture  of 549 

culture  in  East  Prussia 552 

Carp  family 614,682 

from  Hamburg 481 


INDEX. 


763 


Page. 

Carp  inEngland 279 

ponds —  549,  551,  555 

Caspian  Sea,  fishing  and  seal-hunt- 
ing   58 

fishing-basins 64 

seal-hunting 92 

spawning  of  the  fish . .  '  > ! 
value  of  the  fisheries.  Co- 
wealth  of  fish  in 62 

Cassianus  bassus 7 

Castagnea 708 

Casting-net,  model  and  price  of 174 

Catawella 702 

Catch  i  og  lobsters 228 

the  parent  salmon 403 

Cat-fish / 351 

family G13 

Caulerpa 711 

Cause  of  decrease  of  salmon 534,538 

Caves  in  limestone  mountains 462 

Caviar  and  isinglass 617 

manufacture  of 84 

Cay-wood,  Mr.  Joseph 356 

Cederstrom,  Baron  C.  G 34 

Mr.  G.C 135,136 

Centroceras 702 

Ceramium 702 

Ceramieaa 702 

Cerianthus  borealis 689 

Chajtomorpha 714 

Chainsedoris 712 

Champia -  -  -  -  698 

Chantransia =.- 705 

Chapman,  Dr.  Pearson 351 

Mr.  John  H 356 

Charley's,  Empire,  petition 467 

Chase,  Mr.  Oreu 353 

Chase  of  the  white  orca 55 

Chinese  fishing  in  Sacramento 384 

pisciculture 4 

Chlorodesmis 711 

Chlorosporos 711 

Chondria 694 

Chondrus 701 

crispus 716 

Chorda 708 

Chordaria 708 

Chordar  iece 708 

Chrysymenia 697, 698, 701 

Chy,  (silver  sides) 379 

Chylocladia 695,698 

Chylocladiea? 695 

Cladophora 713 

Cladostephus 709 


Page. 

Clam-bakes 315 

beds 314 

rakes 317 

the  round 272,316 

the  soft 272,313 

Ciams,  natural  history  of 313 

as  bait. 316 

in  Boston  Harbor 344 

Claxk,  Frank  N.3  and  H.  E.  Quin ....       337 

Clear  Lake 377,  378 

Clif t,  Mr.  William 332 

Close  time  for  lobster-catehing  in 

Norway 253,254 

Clupea  alba 126 

bahusica 133 

cimbrica 126 

harengus 37, 183 

harengus  (3  membras 125 

leachii 126 

majalis 128 

membras 126 

schoneveldi 143, 146 

sprattus 146, 183 

sprattus  (Brisling) 196 

Cobit  is  barbatula 735, 737, 756 

Cocculus  indicus 579 

Cod  family 12, 613 

Codfish-chase  of  herrings Ill 

mixed  with  the  herrings. . .       Ill 

spawning,  &c 213 

Codium  711 

Cold  Creek 378 

Collections  sent  to  the  Smithsonian 

Institution 424,474 

Commachio,  fish-colony 5 

Concarneau,  institution  at 604 

Concholooloo,  Indian  chief 467 

Conditions  unfavorable  to  fisheries,  576, 577 

Conger  vulgaris 725 

Congress,  statistical 601 

Conklin,  Mr.  E 437 

Connecticut's  laws  on  oyster-fishing.       294 

Connecticut  River  station 337 

Consignments  of  salmon-eggs,  table 

of 441 

Constantinea 700 

Contributions  to  the  herring-ques- 
tion, new 195 

Cook,  Captain 353,362 

Cooke,Mr.C 690 

Corallina 696 

officinalis 717 

Corallinese 696 

Cordylecladia 696 


764 


INDEX. 


Pago. 
Coregonns 608,612 


albus 

leuciclithya . 

omul 

polkur. 


378 

44 

44 

44 

Wartinanni 590,612 

Cornelius,  Mr 745,752 

Correspondence  relating  to  the  San 

Joaquin  River 479 

Corymorpha 689 

Corynomorpha 701 

Costaria 707 

Coste.Mr 4,19,271,272,274,284,604 

Cost  of  salmon-eggs 420, 443 

Cottus  gobio 735,737 

Crawfish,  the - 617 

Crivelli,  Prof.  G.  Balsamo,  on  repro- 
duction of  the  eel 728 

Crouania - 703 

Crooks,  Mr 408 

Cross-breeding 591 

breeds  of  salmon 612 

Crnstaceous  animals  food  for  her- 
rings     1)  187 

Cryptococcus 715 

Cryptonemia 701 

CryptonemieEB 701 

Ctenodiscus  crispatus 689 

Culture  of  oysters 296 

the  carp 549 

Cunningham,  Mr 356 

Cup-coral 690 

Custom-regulations  for  lobster-trado      240 

Cuttle-fish  against  herring 118 

Cuvier,Mr 738,757 

and  Valenciennes,  Messrs.,  102, 107, 

109 

Cyanophycese 

Cympolia 

Cyprina  islandica 689 

Cyprinidse 538 

species  of 541 

Cyprinus  carpio 61,  614 

Cyprinus  orfus 559,  561 

Cystoclonium 700 

Cy stophora  cristata 52 

Czornig,  Mr 601 

Dahl,  Mr 201 

Dalyell,  Sir  John  Graham 225 

Dambeck,  Mr.  Carl 21 

Danilevsky,  Mr 63,66 

Dasya 691 

Dasycladiese 712 

Dasycladus 712 


714 
712 


Page. 

Decapoda  mocroura 748 

Decrease  of  fishes 360 

De  laBlanchere 162 

Delaware's  laws  on  oyster-fishing..    ,  295 

Delesseria 695 

Delphinapterus  leucas 53,55 

Deltocyathus 690 

Denmark,  fishery-statistics  from 22 

Suekkersteen  and   Skot- 

terup  in 173 

Sweden,  and  Norway,  fish- 
ery-laws in 637 

Desmarestia 710 

Desinarestiece 71Q 

Deutsche  Fischerei-Verein 600, 623,  681 

Dictyoneuron 707 

Dictyota . 705 

Dictyoteoe 705 

Dictyosphoeria 712 

Dictyosiphon 710 

Dictyosiphonere 710 

Digenia 694 

Directions  for  using  blanks  for  re- 
cording the  propagation,  &c 563 

Disappearance  of  the  salmon 534 

Distribution  of  salmon-eggs 423 

salmon,  table 433 

Distributing-spout 414 

Dodd,  Mr 105,136 

Dog-fish  or  mustelus 720, 722 

nets  for  herring 156 

Drag,  for  oysters 292 

Drag-nets  for  herring 157 

Drift-nets 382 

Dubb,  Dr.  P,  125, 136, 137, 144, 148, 155, 162 

Duffy,  Mr.  James 450,456 

Duke  of  Richmond 585 

Dumontiese 702 

Duncan,  Dr 690 

Dutch  manner  of  preparing  Baltic 

herring 192 

Eaton,  Mr.  Benjamin 403 

Eberhard,  Dr 729 

Ectocarpeoo 709 

Ectocarpus 709 

Edenhjelm.Mr.  G 142 

Edwards,  Capt.  Vinal 386 

Eel-trap 174,175 

Eels,  organs  of  reproduction 719,725 

ovaries  of  the 730 

spermatic  organs  of  the 732 

the 614 

Eggs,  cost  of 420,443 

death  by  suffocation '. 415 


INDEX. 


765 


Page. 
Eggs,  death  from  direct  rays  of  the 

sun 41G 

from  diffused   light  of 

the  srtn 416 

from  inherent  causes..  417 
from    excessive    agita- 
tion   417 

from  want  of  i  mpregna- 

tion 417 

of  cod,  dark  spot  on 216 

Penobscot  salmon  suffered 

severely 489 

sbad  preparing  for  the  trip 

to  Germany 339 

packing 448 

and  shipping 419 

taking  and  ripening... 447 

to  he  kept  cold 450 

two  millions  obtained 418 

Ekman,  Mr.  F 147 

Ekstrom,  Mr 102,128,132,142,155, 

166, 164 

Elachista 709 

Elliott,  Mr.  W.  M 351 

William  H 356 

Elsinore,  exhibition   of  fishing-im- 
plements at 173 

Eisner  on  reproduction  of  the  eel . . .  726 

Endocladia 701 

Enemies  to  young  fish 581,  582 

Enteromorpha 712 

Ereolaui,  Prof.  G.  B.,  on  reproduc- 
tion of  the  eel 728 

Eris,  Mr.  von 227 

Erslev,  Mr.  Jacob 183 

Erythrotrichia 705 

Esox  lucius 61 

Eucheuma 697 

isiforme 716 

Euthora 698 

Exhibition  of  fishing-implements  at 

Elsinore,  1872 173 

to  promote  fish-culture.  605 

Expenses  for  investigations 167 

Experiments  on  treating mollusks..  275 
with  a  view  of  trans- 
porting shad  a  long 

distance 338,363 

with  shad  of  greater 
age  as  to  transporta- 
tion   370 

with  water 400 

Explosives  for  catching  fish 579 

Export  of  lobsters 242 


Page. 

Fagraeus,  Dr 136 

FuhraBus,  Mr.  O.  1 153, 160, 163 

Fairfax,  Mr.  J.  W 336 

Fario  argenteus 738,741 

Farlow,  Dr.  W.  G 691 

Fathering 196,206 

Faunce,  Mr.  Conrad 356 

Mr.J.D 336 

Mr.  Jacob 356 

Feddersen,  Mr.  A 97,183 

Feeding  fish 591 

young  fish 583 

Ferguson,  Mr.  T.  B 351 

Ferry  Landing,  Va.,  shad-hatching 

operations  in  1875 346 

Fe"russac,  Mr.  de 272 

Fichtner,  Mr 593 

Fiedler,  H.  V 3,97,183,224 

Field-work  in  the  winter,  1872-73.       377 

Figuier,  Mr 741 

Filtering-boxes 414 

Finsch,  Dr.  Otto 324,330 

Fish  and  mollusks,  advantage  of  in- 
troducing        280 

breeding,  artificial 580 

caught  at  Salzburg  in  1804 654 

culture 539 

found  in  the  Caspian  Sea  ....        58 

gigs 80 

glue  from  scales 87 

increase  of 280,281 

in  Washington  Market 357 

oyster,  and  snail  ponds 18 

preparations  in  ancient  Greece  6 

preparing,  (arctic) 47 

preparing 82 

selling  at  Athens 5 

selling  in  Vienna 5 

thieves 579 

ways  not  successful  for  shad..       324 
Fisheries  and  fishery -laws  in  Austria      571 
and   seal-hunting    in    the 
White  Sea,  Arctic  Ocean, 

&c 35 

at  Novaya-Zemlya 52 

in  the  Arctic  Ocean 44,49 

in  the  territory  of  the 
T6rek  Cossacks  and  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Man- 

gyschlak 67 

in  the  territory  of  the  Ural 

Cossacks 67 

in  the  Kattegat 33 

of  Norway 25 


-  .-• 


G6 


INDEX. 


Fisheries  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 

Romans 3 

on  the  Monrman  coast 44 

progress  of  foreign 585 

time  and  place  of  herring  -  150 

Fishery-laws 610,  643 

laws  not  enforced 360 

legislation,  object  of 573 

products,  value  of 598,  602 

shores  abandoned 358 

statistics 60 1 

treaties,  international 669 

Fishes  in  China 546 

in  Clear  Lake,  list  of 378 

Fishing  and  seal-hunting  in  the  Cas- 
pian Sea 58 

basins  in  the  Caspian  Sea..  64 

by  torch-light 8 

implements 45 

implements,  (Caspian Sea).  72 

implements  for  herring 154 

implements  at  Elsinore 180 

lines  on  exhibition  at  Elsi- 
nore  176 

privileges 618,643 

privileges,  buyirig-off  of 605 

Flies,  artificial 8 

Floating  trout 609 

Florideao 691 

incertsB  sedis 705 

Flounder-net 1804 

Flume,  the 414 

Folleville,  Marquis  do 586 

Food  and  mode  of    living  of   the 

salmon.  &c 735 

fishes  in  Washington  Market, 

names  of 357 

for  herring 186 

for  the  fish  during  transporta- 
tion    394 

of  alausa  vulgaris 757 

of  trutta  fario 753 

Forbcs,Mr.  E.  C 437 

Foreign  fisheries 585 

fishermen  complained  of. .  358 

Forests  kept  the  water  cool 536 

P'orrest,  Captain 352 

Fournier,  Mr 318 

France,  fishery -laws  in 635 

fishery-statistics  from 24 

Free  Stone  Point,  Va.,  shad-batch- 
ing operations  in  1875 343 


French  fisheries. 


386 


Fresh- water  fishes,  important 605 


Page. 

Fric,  Dr 596,  60:5,  607, 632 

Friedel,  District  Judge 600 

Frog  eats  spawn 554 

Frost.Mr 3C6 

Fry-fishing  in  China 543 

food  for,  (China) 546 

price  of 1 .  . .  i . . .       546 

selling  for  breeding  in  China..       544 

Fucaceae 706 

Fucus...... 706,715 

furcatu3 716 

nodosus 716 

vesiculosus 716 

Fyke-net  fishing 383 

Gadus  seglefinus 45,47,220 

carbonarius 222 

merluccius 12 

morrhua 45,  47,213 

navaga 43 

virens 45,  47 

Galenus 16 

on  oysters 20 

Galicia  fisheries 595 

Gal  way,  salmon-f  actory  in 584 

Game  on  McCloud  River 468 

Gartenlaube,  Die 729 

Garum  sociorurn 16 

Gasterosteus  aculeatus 748 

Gee,Mr 353 

Gchin  and  Remy,  Messrs 586 

Gelidiese 697 

Gelidium 697 

Gernmn  fisheries 587 

Piscicultural  Society 561,588 

Germany,  fishery-statistics  from 22 

Geryon 690 

Gesner,  Conrad,  on  reproduction  of 

the  eel 726 

Gessner's  Natural  History 560 

Gibson,  heirs,  John 356 

Gigartina 700 

mammilosa 716 

Gigartineas 699 

Gili.Theo .....       736 

Gilliland,  Mr.  William 532 

Gilpin,  Mr.  John 106 

Guy,  Mr.  James 356 

Glauzl.Mr 594 

Gloiopeltis 701 

Gloiosiphonia 703 

Glycomeris  siliqua 689 

Gobio  fluviatilis 735,737 

Gohren,  Professor 598 

Gold-orfe,  the 559,561 


INDEX. 


767 


Page. 
Gokl-orfe,  correspondence  about...       561 

Goldsborough,  Admiral 362 

Goniotricbum *05 

Goode,  Mr.  G.  Brown 351,363 

Gould,  Dr 283, 287,  314, 316,  687 

Gonrumi 281 

from  Cbina 481 

Graabensild 199 

Gracilaria *. 696 

Grass-herring 129, 154 

Grateloupia 702 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  fishery- 
statistics  from 23 

fisheries  in 585 

fisbery-la  ws  in 638 

Salt  Lake  and  tributaries.. .       434 
Greeks  and  Romans,  fisheries  of  the 

ancient 3 

Green,  Mr.  Monroe  A 323, 338, 339,  386 

Mr.Myron,386, 387, 399, 404, 410, 437 

Mr.  Price 356 

Setb 332.391,  420,  421,  448 

Griebner,  Mr.  Ernst 596 

Griffitbsia 703,715 

Grinnellia 695 

Griswold,  Mr.  C.  D 363,  370 

Gjertsen,Mr 242,248 

Grube,  Professor,  on  reproduction  of 

tbe  eel 729 

Gulf  of  Maine,  dredgings  in 687 

Giintber,  Mr 738, 739, 745, 750, 756, 758 

Gymnogongrus 699 

Haddock-catching 176, 180 

Hag-fish 689 

Haiser,  Mr.  J 356 

Halibut  at  Newfoundland  Bank 170 

fishery  of  the  United  States.       169 

in  New  England 170 

line 180 

prejudice    of    the    French. 

against 170 

Halidrys 708 

Halimeda 711 

Halosaccion 702 

Halurus...., 703 

Halymenia 701 

Halyseris 705 

Hameln,  establishment  at 583 

Hansen,  Andr.,  and  H.  Hansen 288 

Hatching  and  distribution  of  Cali- 
fornia salmon 431,  434 

apparatus,  (salmon) 411 

in  1874 444 

415 


the  eggs. 


Page. 

Hatching-troughs 414 

works  at  Kelhey  Mills  . . .  377 

Havens,  Mr.  C.  B 389,398 

Hawkins,  Capt.  John 278 

Heckel,  Mr 741 

and  Kner's  work 602, 603 

Kner,  Messrs  ....  733, 742, 756 

Hellbrun,  establishment  at 590 

Helminthora 699 

Hemionns,  or  wild  ass 278 

Hemp  preferable  for  dipping-bags.  485 

Henderson,  Mr.  D.  G 358 

Herbst.Mr 234 

Hermaphrodites 720, 725 

Herring,  the 37 

and  small-heri'iug,different 

species 125 

as  an  article  of  trade 183 

catcher 176 

cause  of  disappearing ....  116, 138 

common  salt  Baltic 183 

preparation  of : 183 

crustacean 209 

delikatess 188 

difference    between    great 

and  spring 113 

difference  between  young 

and  old 112 

.  driven  off  by  noise  or  strong 

light 118 

fisheries,  implements 38 

Norwegian 97 

in  Sweden 32 

on    the   coast  of 

Sweden 123 

organization 37 

scientific     obser- 
vations, &c  .. .  165 
table  of  contents.  168 
time  and  place  .150, 152 

fishing  implements 154 

foodfor 186 

growth  of 186 

inclosing  of  young  in  small 

basins 188 

insects  (Gaueskar)  as  food .  148 

migrations 147 

markets  for 191 

mode  of  life 147 

nets,  large 154 

middle-sized 155 

small 154 

old,  (gamla) 133 

preparation  of  extra-fine..  192 


768 


INDEX. 


Pago. 
Herring,  preparation  of  the  spiced.       193 

preparing 39, 188 

price  of 191 

propagation  and  growth . .       143 
question,     new     contribu- 

.   tions 195 

re-appearance  of  the  old..       137 
roe  as  fertilizer  and  food 

for  hogs 112 

sea 128,130 

seine-fishing  of 188 

smoking  of 40 

spawning-places  of 187 

spawning-time  of 185 

spawning  in  autumn.  29, 133, 151 

spring 128 

stationary  nets  for 156 

theory  of  migrations 195,205 

time    for  development    of 

spawn 188 

wandering 128, 132 

Hertzberg,  Rev.  C 110 

Hey,  Mr 602 

Higgins,Mr 275,309 

Highby,  Mr.  Levi 534 

Hildenbrandtia 697 

Himes,Prof.  C.F 555 

Hitch 379 

Hippoglossus  maximus 45 

Holleuburg,  establishment  at 593 

Holm,  Governor 234,239 

Homarus  americanus 224,272 

capensis 224 

grammarus 223 

vulgaris 267 

Homer's  Odyssey 4 

Horak,  Mr.  Wenzel 595,681 

Hormotrichum 714 

Hornbaum-Hornschuch,    on  repro- 
duction of  the  eel 728 

Hough,  F.  B.,  M.  D 359 

Hoven,  for  catching  shrimps 175 

How  can  our  own  lakes  and  rivers 

be  again  stocked  with  fish? 681 

Howell,  Captain 690 

Hubbard,  Richard  D 437, 460 

W.F 437,460 

Huobo,  ealmo 611 

Hudson,  Commissioner 337 

River,  shad  from 337 

Hue,Abb6 544 

Hungary's  fish-culture 597 

Hiiningen,  establishment  at 586, 604 


Page. 
Hunting  the  walrus  and  the  polar 

bear 56 

Huso,tbe 617 

Hyalonema 688 

Hyas  aranea 689 

Hydroclathrus 708 

Hypnea 697 

Hypnese 697 

Ice-openings  for  carp's 557 

Idaho  red-fish 481 

Important  fresh-water  fishes 605 

Increase  of  fish 280,281 

Indian  grave-yard  near  camp 487 

meal  for  oystero 299 

sentiment  on  catching  the 

salmon 408 

words,  supplementary  list . .       428 

Ingersoll,  Mr.  John  D 383,385 

Inland  fisheries,  restoration  of 571 

International  fishery-treaties 669 

Introduction  of  clams  recommend- 
ed         318 

Iodine  manufacture 717 

Ireck,    trout-raising   establishment 

at 597 

Iridffia 701 

Isinglass,  manufacture  of 86 

Italy,  fishery-laws  in 635 

Jacobson,  Mr.  H 21,31,97,123,213 

Jackson   City,  Va.,    shad-hatching 

operations  in  1875 344,  345 

Jania 696 

Jaqnes,  Lieutenant 687 

Jenkins,  Mr 356 

Jockisch,  Mr ..       560 

Johnson,  Mr.  Clinton 464 

and  Young,  Messrs 259,  386 

Josten ,  Mr 744 

Journal,  1874,  extracts  from 468 

of  tbe  trip  to  California  ..       395 

Jovius,  Paul 11,12,17 

Juel,  Governor  Povel 233,234,236 

Keller,  Wallis    and   Postlethwaite, 

Messrs 331 

Kelp 716,717 

Kelsey  Creek 378 

Mills,  hatching- works  at . . .       377 

Kent,  Mr.  Alexander 450, 456 

Kiangsi,  pisciculture  in 543 

Kinston,  N.   C,  shad-hatching  op- 
erations in  1875 340,  341 

Kirsch,Mr.M 559 

Kjelland  &  Son,  Messrs 101,239 


INDEX. 


769 


Page. 

Kner,  Mr.  R 739 

Knight,  Mr.  William 356 

Koch,  Dr 617 

Konow,  Consul  Carl   101 

Kopach,  Mr.  H 543 

Kottl,Mr 593 

Kraft,  Lieutenant 99 

Krdyer,  Professor 98,99, 107, 117, 126, 

139, 143, 146 

Kryger,  Mr •> 228 

KufferrMr 587,594 

Kulla-herring 196 

Lagaboter  Magnus,  law  of 116 

Lake  and  coast  fisheries  in  Sweden.  31 

Champlain,  salmon  of 531 

dwellers 583 

trout 609 

Laminaria 707,715,716,717 

flexicaulis 717 

longicruris    717 

saccharina 717 

LaniinariesB 707 

Lamiral,  Mr 281 

Landmark,  Judge 248 

Lam  prey-oil 90 

Lampreys,  pickling 61 

Lauhat,  Cointe  de  Ghassoloup 271 

Laurencia 694 

Laurencieae 691 

Law  regarding    the   protection   of 

lobsters 253 

Laws  on  fishing  in  Norway 26 

relating  to  oyster- fisheries.  ..294, 295 

Leathesia 709 

Lecture    on    reproduction    and  fe- 

cuudation  of  fishes 719 

Leeuwenhoek    on    reproduction   of 

the  eel 726 

Legislation,  protective 618 

Leru,Mr 224 

Lerperger,  Mr 594 

Leschinsky,  Mr.  A 403 

Mr.  J 403 

Lessonia 707 

Loth,  Judge 236,238 

Lette  and  Ronue,  Messrs 618 

Leuciscus  orfus 562 

rutilus 61,63,737 

Liagora 699 

Liciuian  law 6 

Liciuius  mureua 19 

Liebmannia 708 

Life  in  camp 459 

Liudes,  Mi.Ludwig 597 

49  F 


Page, 

Line-fishing  by  the  Romans 7 

Linnd,  Carl 229 

maintains  that  eels  are  vivi- 
parous        726 

Lisner,  Mr 744,752 

List  of  fishes  in  Greek  and  Latin 

seas 8 

McCloud  Indian  words 428,  429 

useful  sea-weeds 716 

Lithothamnion  , 697, 715 

Liver,  boiled,  and  grated  as  food..  -       435 

Ljungman,  Mr.  Axel  Vilhelm 123,167 

Loberg,  Mr.  O.  N 26, 125, 132, 137, 139 

Mr.N 752 

Lobster 17,281 

artificial  propagation  of  . ..       267 
development  of  the  embryos      226 
fisheries,     protection     pro- 
posed  248,251,253 

fishery,  Norwegian 223 

impregnation  of  the  roe 226 

shedding  the  shell 227 

trade,  &c 232,240 

trap.. 229 

Lobsters, catching  and  shipping...       228 

caught  by  crows 228 

export  of 242 

keeping  in  an  inclosed 
sheet  of  water  not  prof- 
itable       269 

price  of 231,233,235 

transportation  to  Califor- 
nia        259 

Locations  for  planting  fishes 433 

Lofoten  Islands 213 

Logan,  Dr.  Thomas 479 

Lolling,  establishment  at 594 

Lorn,  Judge 238,242,248 

Lomax,  Mr 356 

Lomentaria 695,698 

London  fish-market 600 

Lorange,  Mr 268 

Lorenz,  Dr 598 

Lota  vulgaris 44,613 

Lottsill 128,131 

Loudon's  Magazine 749 

Louillet,  Encyclopedie  moderne 278 

Low,  F.  F.,  United  States  minister.      481 

Lubeck,  fishery-laws  in 633 

Lucioperca 616 

Luckett,  Mr.. 356 

Ludingtou,  Mr.  C 355 

Lund,  Mr.  Hans  G 243 

Mr.  Jochum  Birch 241 


770 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Lundbeck,  Mr 142 

Lundsgaard,  Mr.  T 244,  248 

Lyman,  Mr.  Theodore 221 

Lyngbeya .- 714 

McCloud  River  establishment 437 

station 402 

McCuing  and  Ticer,  Messrs 356 

McKewen,Mr 35G 

Mackerel-nets 179 

Ma  coma  proxima 688 

Macrocystis 707 

pyrifera 717 

Mactra  polynema 689 

solidissima 272 

Maine,  dredgings  in  Gulf  of 687 

Malaga's  tunny-fisheries 16 

Mallotus  arcticus 45 

Malpigki,   on  reproduction   of   the 

eel 726 

Maltby,  Mr 313 

Mangold,  Mr 752 

Manufacture  of  balyk 88 

caviar 84 

isinglass  86 

oil 89 

seal-oil 95 

veziga 87 

Marine  algae,  list  of 691 

Marked  salmon's  return 607 

Market-price  of  fish,  &c 90 

Marking  salmon  for  future  identifi- 
cation    490 

Marshall, Mr 279 

Maryland's  laws  on  oyster-fishing..  295 

Mason,  Mr.  Jonathan 336,343 

Massachusetts'  laws  ahout  oyster- 
fishing  294 

Mather,  Mr.  Fred..  .324. 328, 331,  336,  338, 

342, 372 

and  Bell's  apparatus 376 

May -herring 129, 144, 150 

Meigs,  Mr 282 

Melanosporse 705 

Melobesia 697 

Meltzer,  Consul 248 

Menhaden  seines 357 

Mercenaria  violacea 316 

Merchants' herring 199 

Mesogloia 715 

Microcladia  ..: 702 

Microcoleus 714 

Migrations  of  the  herring 195,205 

of  salmon,  annual 538 

theory  of  herrings 106, 107 


Page. 

Milbert,  Mr 279 

Miller,  Mr 356 

Milne-Edwards,  Mr 98, 224 

Miluer,  Mr.   James  W..323,  326,  330,  351, 

362, 372,  394 

Minnow 735 

Mirror-carp,  the 615 

Mitchell,  Mr.  J.  M 148,  162 

Jim,  Indian  chief 467 

Mixed  herring ..» 209 

Mode  of  obtaining  the  oysters 292 

Model  of  a  casting-net 174 

a  transport-boat 173 

fishing-boats 174 

Mohn,  Professor 211 

meteorological   ob- 
servations of 206 

Mohr's  Islandske  Naturhistorie 224 

Molin,  Mr.  R.,  Professor 585,603 

Mollersdorf,  law-book  of 643 

Molpadia  oolitica 688 

Monsen,  chief  pilot 248 

Montague.  Mr.  S.  S 479 

Montholon,  Mr.  de   272 

Moore,  Smith  &  Co.,  Messrs 356 

Moosbrunnen,  establishment  at 594 

Moravia's  fisheries 596 

Morch,  Mr.  Jacob 232 

Moriniero,  Noel  de  la 4, 7, 13, 20 

Mormy rus  of  the  Nile,  the 15 

Moseley,  Mr.  Alexander 351 

Moss  for  packing 419 

to  be  obtained  and  prepared..       460 

Monrman  coast,  fisheries .-. .         44 

Moxley   Point,  Md.,  shad-hatching 

operations  in  1875 347 

Mud-fish,  mud-sucker 379 

Miiller,  Otto,  on  reproduction  of  the 

eel 726 

Mullet,  the 9 

Mundini,  Carlo,  discovers  the  ovary 

of  the  eel 726 

Munich  Fishing-Society 561 

Munter,  Professor. 99, 104, 107, 196 

on  reproduction  of 

the  eel 729 

Muraema,  the 11 

helena 726 

Mya  arenaria 271, 272, 313 

Myrionema 709 

Myrioneineae 709 

Myriotrichia 709 

Mysis  vulgaris 748 

Mytilus  edulis 272 


INDEX 


771 


Pago. 

Myxine  limosa 689 

Natural  History 685 

Navaga,  the 43 

Neinaber,  Captain 331,  333 

Neighbors  of  the  camp 466 

Nemalion 699 

Nemastorua 702 

Nereocystis 707 

Liitkeana 717 

Netherclif t,  Mr.  Walter 480 

Nets  for  catching  herrings 178 

for  catching  horn-hsh 178 

for  catching  mackerel 179 

for  catching  porpoises 180 

rivalry  of 357,358 

Neuroglossum 696 

Neuse  River  station 335 

New  Haven's  and  Fair  Haven's  oys- 
ter-business   305 

New  Jersey,  shad-hatching  in 327 

New   Jersey's  laws  on   oyster-fish- 
ing  .* 295 

New  York's  laws  on  oyster  Ashing.  294 

oyster-business 303 

Nicolayseri,  Mr.  N 101 

Nillson's  and  Ekstrom's  report 198 

Nilsson, Professor  .... 98, 107, 116, 120, 125, 
128, 134, 136,  139, 158 

Nitophyllum 695 

North     America,     fishery-statistics 

from 24 

North  Atlantic  fisheries 21 

North  German  Lloyd 324,  330 

Northern  oyster 287 

Norway,  fishery-statistics  from 21,25 

Norwegian  government  commission  213 

herring-fisheries 97 

lobster-fishery 223 

Nostochinea? 715 

Novuja-Zemlya  fisheries 52 

Object  of  fishery-legislation 573 

O'Conner,  Mr 466 

Odonthalia 693 

Oelrichs  &  Co.,  Messrs 324,  330,  333 

Oetker,Mr 229 

Oftedahl.Mr 243 

Oil,  manufacture  of 89 

preparing  the 57 

Oken's  Natural  History  560 

Old  fishing-laws  in  Austria 643 

Olrik.Mr 240 

01sen,Mr 268 

01sson,Mr.  P 748 

0'Neil,Mr 482 


Page. 

Oppianus 7, 13, 17 

Optatus,  Elipertius 279 

Orca,  chase  of  the  white 55 

Organs  of  reproduction 719,720 

Oscillarieas 714 

Osgood,  Mr.  Edward  H 387 

Osmerus  eperlanus 44 

Ostrea  borealis 286 

canadensis 285 

virginiana 286 

Ostriculture 285 

Ovaries  of  the  eel 730 

Overland  journey  with  live  shad  ..  390 

trip  with  salmon-eggs.. ..  421 
trip  with  salmon-eggs  in 

1874 449 

Oxe,  Mr.  Pierre 279 

Oyster  beds 297 

business,  the 302 

cultivation  in  France 5H6 

culture 19 

houses 290 

industries  of  theUnited  States  271 

of  Virginia 287 

opening 307,310 

plantations,  laws  concerning  299 

planting 298 

shells,  use  of 292 

soup  or  stew 290 

statistics 311,312 

trade  in  1859 282 

Oysters,  culture  of .  296 

fattening,  by  Indian  meal.  299 

mode  of  obtaining 292 

of  the  United  States 286 

price  of 291 

Packard,  Dr.  A.S.J  r 687 

Packing  and  shipping  the  eggs 419 

boxes  and  crates    460 

the  eggs 448 

method  discussed 420 

Padina 705 

Palangres,  cable-lines,  and  bottom- 
lines 78 

Palrnellese 715 

Pamunkey  River  station 336 

Parmentier,  Mr 278 

Parthenogenesis  of  tho  eel 725,729 

Pecten  coucentricus 272 

Penicillus 712 

Pennant.Mr 136 

Penobscot  salmon 485 

Perca  fiuviatilis 616 

Perch 379 


772 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Perch  family 616 

white 351 

yellow 351 

Peron  and  Lesueur.  Messrs 279 

Perriii,  Mr.  M.  L 259, 265,  437,  449, 459 

Mr.  W.  S 386,  387,  397,  399 

Petrocelis 715 

Petromyzon  flnviatilis 44,61 

Peyrer,  Mr.  Carl 571 

Peyssonnelia 698 

PhreosporeaB 707 

Philbert,  Mr 279 

Phoca  caspica 92 

anneallta 52 

barbata 52 

groenlandiea 52 

vituliua 52 

Phoxinus  Isevis 735,  737 

Phrygauidso 756 

Phyllitis 710 

Phyllophora '. 699,706 

Pickled  lamprey 61 

oysters 291 

Pike,  Mr.  R.  G 421,457 

Pike,  an  enemy  to  carps 549 

family,  the 613 

Pikea 698 

Pisciculture  in  Kiangsi 543 

Planz  &  Sunt,  Messrs 239 

Pleiuonectes  fiesus 43,  45 

platessa 43,  45 

Pliny  on  oysters 20 

on  reproduction  of  the  eel.. .       725 

Plocamium 698 

Ploug  &  Sundt,  Messrs 101 

Polyides 696 

Polysiphonia 692 

Harveyi 716 

Pomolobus  mediocris 355 

Ponds,  fish,  oyster,  and  snail 18 

Pontoppidan,  Mr 225, 229, 232 

Poppy,  Mr 481 

Porpbyra 704 

Porphyrese  704 

Porphyria  vulgaris 716 

Postelsia 707 

Potato  introduced  from  America.. .       278 

Potomac  River  station 336 

fisheries 351,  355 

former  yield  of. . .       354 

Poulsen,  Dr 224 

Pound-nets  to  be  encouraged 361 

Pourtales,  Count 690 


Page. 

Predacious  fish  in  carp-ponds 554 

Preparation  of  herring  for  trade.. .  183 
extra  fine  herring..  192 
the  common   Baltic 

herring 189 

the  spiced  herring..       193 

Price  of  fish  in  Vienna 599 

herring 191 

small-herring 153 

Prices  of  a  casting-net 174 

Prionitis 701 

Profits  from  oyster-shells 292 

Propagation     and    distribution    of 

shad 323,335 

and  growth  of  herring      143 
of  tbe  lobster,  artifi- 
cial        267 

Protection  of  lobster-fisheries,  248, 251,253 

Protective  legislation 618 

Protococcus 715 

Prussia,  (East,)  carp-culture  in 552 

fishery-laws  in 619 

Pfcerygophora 707 

Ptilota 703 

Punctaria 710 

Punctariese 710 

Purchase  of  breeding-salmon 486 

Purse-net  for  herring  157 

Quinn,  Mr 340 

Raiuer,  Mr 356 

Raja 721,722,723 

Rake  for  oysters 292 

Ralfsia 708,715 

Rantzau,  Couut 238 

Rasch,  H.,  and  Berg,  B.  M.,  Messrs .  130, 147 

151, 155, 160 

Professor 250, 268 

Rathke,  Professor 118, 245, 247 

on  reproduction  of  the  eel,  727,  730 

Ray -herring 209 

Record  of  distribution  of  shad   iu 

1874 326 

Redding,  Mr.  B.  B 480,  482, 483 

Redi  on  reproduction  of  the  eel 726 

Reed,  Mr.  Alfred 356,  450,  457 

Regulations  relating  to  oyster-fish- 
ery        293 

Rennings,  Mr 744 

Report  of  operations  iu  California 

in  1873 377 

operations  in  California 

in  1874  437 

Mr.  M.  L.  Perriu 449 


INDEX. 


773 


Pago. 

Eeport   of  Triana  trip 351 

on  the  collection  of  Penob- 
scot salmon  in  187:3-74 

and  1874-75 486 

the  herring-fisheries  on 

"the  coast  of  Sweden  ..  123 

Reseudius 15 

Restoration  of  the  inland  fisheries..  569 
Results  from  apparatus  for  hatching 

shad    375 

Rettenbacher,  Mr.  Franz 591 

Rhabdouia 698 

Rhine, food  of  alausa  vulgaris  in  the.  757 
trutta  in  the  river  . ..  738 
Rhode  Island's  laws  on  oyster-fish- 
ing   294 

Rhodomela 693 

Rhodomelese 691 

Rbody  menia 698 

Rhodymeniapalmata 716 

Rhodymeniese  698 

Bidder,  Mr 744, 752 

River  and  lake  fish 44 

fisheries 321 

Rivers,  to  purify  the 585 

Rivularia 715 

Rivularieaj 715 

Roach,  spotted  suufish 379 

Robbs,  Mr.  Terry 356 

Robertson,  Dr.  W.  B 351 

Rock-fish 351 

weed 716,717 

Rock  wood,  Mr.  A.  P 263,397,434, 

Roe  of  herring  in  great:  mass. 112 

Roevar,  Mr.  Henrik '. 101 

Rogenia  alba 126 

Roily  water  not  objectionable 401 

Roudelet  on  reproduct  ion  of  the  eel .  725 

Roosevelt,  Mr 330 

Rosen,  Count 99 

Rothschild,  Baron  von 683 

Rumpchen 735, 753, 757, 759 

Russia,  fishery-laws  in 637 

Russian  government's  fisheries  sta- 
tistics    71 

Sabourow,  Mr 90 

Sacramento  record 461 

River,  character  of  fish- 
ing on 382 

Sale-ponds  for  carps 552 

Salm ...  741 

Salmo 606,611 

amethystus 281 

fario 737 


Page. 

Salmo  hamulus 737, 738, 749 

hucho 590 

salar 485,737,738 

salmo 738 

salvelinus 590, 592, 61 1 

Salmon,  the 40 

and  sturgeon   sent   to  San 

Francisco  in  1*72 332 

average  weight  of  breeding  4  37 
bought  alive  atBucksport — 

in  1873 493 

in  1874 495 

confining  the 405 

catching  in  the  Sacramento  382 

catching  the  parent ... .  403 

corral  for 405 

disappearance  of 534 

distribution,  table  of 433 

eggs,  distribution  of 423 

taken,  daily  list  of. .411,  417 

tables  of  consignments  411 

factory  in  Galway 584 

family 606 

fisheries  in  Sweden 32 

fishery,  effect  of  steamboats 

on 535 

fishing  implements 40 

former  abundance 531 

how  can  it  live  without  food  747 
in  the  San  Joaquin..  .480.  481,  482 

leaping  up  falls 533 

marking  of 490 

migratory  species  cannot  be 

retained  in  fresh  water..  745 

moving  the  parent 407 

of  Lake  C  ham  plai  u 53 1 

percentage  of  sex 4-^7 

preparing 43 

-proof- fence    and      bridge 

across  McCloud  River...  433 

purchase  of  breeding- 486 

spawn  hatched,  &c 431 ,  432 

spawning  the 410 

spearing  by  torch-light 540 

trout 380 

Salpaj  near  the  coast. 209 

Salting  fish  by  the  Romans 14 

Salt-water  fisheries  674 

Salzburg,  esta  blishment  at 589 

number  of  fish  caught  in 

1804 654 

Sander,  Mr 745 

Sand-worms  as  bait 176 

San  Joacpiin  River 479,480 


774 


INDEX. 


Pago. 

Sapojnikow  Brothers 59 

Sariuac  River,  dam  erected  iu 53(5 

Sardine-fishing,  bait  for 7 

Sargassum 706 

Sars,  Prof.  G.  O..  .26, 131, 136, 138, 140, 143, 

145, 195, 203, 213, 221, 

245,248,267 

Savariu,  Mr.  Brillat 277 

Sawdust  in  rivers 536 

Saxony,  fishery-laws  in 632 

Scardinins  erytbrophthalinus 61 

Scarus,  the 10 

Scheuermann,  Mr 562 

Schieber,  M.  C 331 

Schiller  and  Mjoberg,  Messrs 141 

Schi6nning,  Mr 239 

Schizaster  fragilis 683, 690 

Sehizyrueuia 701 

edulis 716 

Schlegel,  Mr 740 

Scblierenzauer,  Mr. . .  . : 594 

Schm  arda,  Professor 604 

Schultz,  Mr.  Alexander 35 

Schumacher,  Mr 744 

Schiisser  on  reproduction  of  the  eel .  728 

Schwab,  Consul 331 

Scientific  investigations 603 

observations  and  experi- 
ments   165 

Scinaia 699 

Scotch  fisheries 585 

Scyllinm 720, 723 

Scymnus  borealis 45 

Scytosiphon 710 

Scytosiphoneao 710 

Sea-eel 15 

fisheries 1 

herring 128,130 

herring  and  coast-herring 125 

herring  and  currents  of  the  sea.  149 

police  in  Norway 26, 28 

trout 608 

water  and  fresh  mixed  for  trans- 
porting shad 363 

weeds,  list  of  useful 716 

Seal-hunting  in  Novaya-Zemlya  ..  53 

hunting  in  the  Caspian  Sea.. .  92 

oil  manufacture 95 

skins 96 

Seasons, influence  in  Clear  Lake.. .  380 

Seatus,  Casper 117 

Seine,  large,    belonging  to    Gibson 

heirs 352 


Page. 
Seine,  probably  largest   in    United 

States 357 

fisheries  of  the  Potomac 355,  356 

fishing  of  herriugs 183 

Selache  maxima 45 

Sergius  Orata 19 

Serrauus  cabrilla 720 

hepatus 720 

scriba 720 

Shad-box,  Soth  Green's 415 

Shad,  difference  from  different  rivers  323 

difficulties  in  transportation  .  331 
distributed  in  waters  of  New 

England 337 

distribution  from  Coeymans, 

N.Y 323 

distribution  from  South  Had- 

ley  Falls,  Mass 323 

distribution  iu  1874 326 

eggs,  the  batching  retarded  by 

cold 367 

for  Germany 324,  328 

from  the  Hudson  River 337 

fry  in  the  Jordan  River 435 

hatching  operations  at  Ferry 

Landing,  Va.,  in  1875 346 

hatching  operations  at   Free 

Stone  Point,  Va.,  in  1875  . .  343 
hatching  operations  at  Jack- 
son City,  Va.,  in  1875 344,  345 

hatchingoperations  near  Kins- 
ton,  N.  C,  in  1875 340,341 

hatching  operations  at  Mox- 

ley  Point,  Md.,  in  1875  ....  347 

hatching  in  New  Jersey 327 

hatching  operations  at  South 
Hadley    Falls,     Conn.,     in 

1875 348,349 

hatching  operations  at  West 

Island,  Va.,  in  1875 342 

in  China 481 

on  the  voyage   to  Germany, 

death  of 329 

on  their  way  to  the  Weser.. .  330 

overland  journey  with 390 

propagation,  &c,  of 323,  335 

spawn  taken  in  1874 328 

transporting  iu  sea- water  ...  363 

young,  need  feeding 367 

Shapaulle 379 

Sharps,  boats  for  oyster-business.. .  306 

Sheldon,  Mr.  Oscar  F 533 

Shipments  of  Penobscot  salmon 488 


INDEX. 


775 


Pago. 

Shoals  or  schools  of  salmon 533 

Shrimps,  catching 175 

Siebold,  Prof.  C.  Th.  E.  von .. .561,  603, 738, 

739, 740, 742, 
746, 750 
on  reproduction  of  the  eel. .       728 
SigDS  for  the  success  of  herring-fish- 
eries         110 

SMesia,  fish-breeding  companies  in. 588, 596 

Silnrus  glanis 61,613 

Silver!  home,  Dr 462,  466 

SiphonesB 711 

Skidmore,  Mr.  J.  H 356 

Skins,  preparing  and  cutting 57 

Slack,  Pr.  J.  II 327,  328,  431 

Small-herring    fisheries,   time    and 

place 152, 154 

herring,  price  of 153 

perch,  (viviparous) 380 

Srnarda,  Mr 674 

•  Smidth,  Mr.  J.  K 3 

Smith  and  Hargers,  Messrs 687 

Smith,  Mr.  C.  C    348,563 

Smith,  Mr.  Lauritz 235 

Smith,  Professor  Sidney  1 227,  267 

Smithsouiau  Institution 373,  405, 688 

collections 
sent  to.. 424,  474 

Snails  for  bait 176 

Snake  mate  with  muraenas 12 

Suekkersteen  and  Sketterup  in  Den- 
mark          173 

Sokologorski,  surgeon 87 

Solaster  endeca 689 

Solieria 698 

South   Hadley  Falls,   Conn.,  shad- 
hatching  operations  in  1875  ..  ..348,349 
Spallanzaui,  on  reproduction  of  the 

eel 727 

Spawn  in  the  stomach 755 

of  cod,  floating 214 

lobsters  is  impregnated  be- 
fore leaving  the  female.       264 
shad  taken  on  the  Dela- 
ware River,  1874 323 

Spawning  of  codfish 213 

Spawning  the  salmon 410 

season  of  salmon . .  743,  749 

clams 314 

the   fish   in  the 

Caspian  Sea 61 

time  of  herring 185 

Specific  weight  of  the  egg  of  the 
cod-fish 215 


Page. 

Sperm  or  milt 721 

Spermatic  organs  of  the  eel 732 

Sphacelaria 709 

Sphacelarieae 709 

Sphaarococcoideae 695 

Sphserozyga 715 

Spider-crab,  arctic 689 

Spinning  lines I 79 

Spiochaetopterus  typicus 688 

Spirulina 715 

Sponge  for  lobster  transportation  . .       259 
instead  of  moss  for  packing-       377 

Spougiocarpeae 693 

SporocknesB 703 

Spring-herring 128, 198 

nets  for  herring 156 

Spyridia 702 

Spyridese 702 

Squalins  cephalus 737 

Squamariese 696 

Stag-horn,  artificial 717 

State  laws  concerning  oyster- planta- 
tions   ■ 299,300,301 

Stationary  nets  for  herring 156 

Statistics",  fishery 21, 22,  31,  601 

relating  to  oysters 311,  312 

Steamboats,  effeGt  on  salmon  fishery      535 

Steenstrup,  Prof.  Japetns 227 

Steno^ramina 693 

Sterlet,  the 617 

Stewart,  Mr 356 

St.  George,  Prof,  de  la  Valette 753 

Stillfried,  Baron  de 596 

Stilophora 703 

Stimpspn,  Dr 687 

Stomach  of  salmon,  no  food  in 744, 747 

Stone,  Mr.  Livingston ....  259,  332, 377,  403, 

435, 437, 461, 481 
Stone  jars,  glazed,  better  than  tin  for 

keeping  shad 372 

Stony-Point  seine,  description  of. .  357,  361 

Stormontfield,  establishment  at 607 

Straalsild 209 

Striae  adiposae 726 

Striaria 708 

Strom,  Mr 228 

Stromming,  the 183 

Structures  for  the  preservation  of 

round  clams 318 

Striivy,  Mr.  R 552 

Sturgeon  family 616 

Suckers 379 

Sudden  changes  of  temperature  very 

injurious 392 


i  i  o 


INDEX. 


Page. 
.Summaries  in  reference  to  Penob- 
scot salmon 493 

Summer-herring 129 

Sundevall,  Mr.  C.  J 135, 145 

and  Loven,  Professors..  99, 109 

Snnfish 351 

Swartz,  Mr.  William  H 327 

Sweden,  fishery-statistics  from 21,  31 

herring-fisheries 123 

Sweep-seine  fishing 384 

Switzerland,  fishery-laws  in 633 

Sword-fish,  the 13 

Syrski,  Dr 719 

Szomolauy,  establishment  at 597 

Table  of  results  of  experiments  with 

ombryo-shad : 369 

Tables  giviug  data  as  to  Penobscot 

salmou -breeding 498-505 

Tagged  salmon  returned 490, 491 

Tan  gen  and  Moses,  Messrs 248 

Taonia 705 

Tape-worms  in  trutta  salar 743 

Teiste,  Governor 239 

Temperature  during   the  season   of 

herring-fishing 99, 103 

experiments      with 

shad 36S,392 

observations  at  Bucks- 
port 506,530 

record    of,    (McCloud 

Eiver) 471 

of  the  Sacramento 474 

for  transportation . .  .388, 392 

Terrapin-turtle 281 

Thalassiophyllum 708 

Thanks  to  the  representatives  of  the 

German  Lloyd 333 

Thermometer  157°  in  the  sand 465 

Thomas,  Mr.  H.  H 450,  456 

Thompson,  Mr.  James  B 448,  450 

Thomson,  Mr.  Wy ville 690 

Throckmorton,  Mr.  S.  R 377, 390,  399 

Thuret,  Mr 691 

Thymailus 594,606,612 

Tiefenthaler,  Mr 594 

Tinea  vulgaris 615 

Tongs  for  catching  lobsters 228 

oysters 292 

Torpedo 721 

Tracy,  Mr 452,454 

Trangrums  Act 136, 144 

Trans-Caucasian  fisheries 65 

statistics 66 

Transylvania's  fish-culture 597 


Page. 

Trap  for  catching  snails 170 

lobsters 228 

Triana  trip,  report  of 351 

Trichecus  rosmarus 52 

Trip  to  Germany 339 

Troschcl,  Professor 737, 738, 757 

Trout  in  Australia 584 

raising 610 

sea,  lake,  brook,  &c 609 

Trutta 606,609 

fario 737,741 

fario,  food  of 75:5 

ealar 741,745,748 

trutta 741,745 

Tucker  and  Hall,  Messrs 356 

Tulare  Lake,  undescribed  fishes  in.       480 

Tunny,  the 15 

Tnrbinaria 706 

Turner,  Mr.  William  M 46G 

Udotea 711 

Uggla,  Baron 160,163 

Ulken,for  catching  shrimps 175 

Ulva 712 

latissima 716 

United  States,  fishery-laws  proposed      637 

halibut-fishery 169 

oyster-industries 271 

Utah,  fish-culture  in 434,  435 

Vacek,  Mr 596 

Valenciennes,  Professor.. 281, 738, 739, 740, 

748 
Vallisneri,  on   reproduction   of  the 

eel 726 

Valoniea? 712 

Value  of  the  products  of  the  fish- 
eries   593,602 

Van  der  Hoeven,  Mr 98 

Vataga,  importance  of  a 80 

Vaucheria 712 

Venus  mercenaria 272, 279,  316 

Verrill,  Professor 687 

Ve'ziga,  manufacture  of 87 

Vidoen,  Mr.  Jacob  Olseu 236 

Vienna,  fish  in  the  markets  of 599 

price  of  fish 599 

Virginia's  laws  on  oyster-fishing..  .  296 
Viviparous  species,  fecundation  of..  724 
Vlasow,    Smolino,   and    Orekkow, 

Messrs 96 

Vogt,  Mr.  Carl 580, 603, 606 

Voyage  to  Germany  with  shad 328 

Vraa,  Mr.  David  Halvoeseu 236 

Wages  of  fishermen 91 

Wallace.Mr 240 


INDEX. 


777 


Pago. 

Waller  and  Montacure,  Messrs 356 

Waller  Lake,  breeding-apparatus  in      590 

Walkendorph,  Cristopher 117 

Walrus  and  polar-bear  hunting 56 

Walworth.Mr  ._ 537 

Wandering  herring 128, 132 

Wartmann,  Mr 741 

Washington,  Baron  de 593,  618 

Market,  fish  ins  pected.     357 
Water,   to     keep    its    temperature 

warm  enough 398 

unwholesome,  to  be  avoided      394 

Watson,  Hon.  Thomas  B 535 

Watson,Mr.W.  C 531 

Webber,  Mr.  F.  W 421,434 

Weber,Mr 237 

Wehlburg,  Mr.  V 34 

Wells,  Fargo  &  Co.'s  Express 450 

Welsher,  Mr.  H.  W 336,  338,  340, 344, 

390, 396 

Werndl.Mr 593 

Weser-Zeitung 330 

West  Island,  Va.,  shad-hatehing  op- 
erations in  1875 342 

Whale-catching 13 

following  the  herring Ill 

Wheatland,  Mr 687 

Wheel-pump,  the 412 

Whitebait 125 


Page. 
White-fish    eggs    from    the    Great 

Lakes 377 

fish  in  Tulare  Lake 480 

Sea-fishes,  list  of 36 

Widegren,  Mr.  Hjalmar  . .  .31,  34, 116, 145, 

183, 750 
Wiegmann,  Archive  from  Naturge- 

schicbte 727 

Wieneke,  Mr.  August 552 

Wilmot,  Mr.  Samuel 450,  456. 

Winter-ponds  for  carps 551 

Wintersalme 744 

Woodbury,  Mr.  John  G..377,  378, 399, 403, 

408, 419, 437 
Wooden  trays  for  packing  salmou- 

eggs 486 

Works  on  pisciculture 603 

Wounds  found  in  winter-salmon.. .       752 

Wrangelia 699 

Wrangelie® 699 

Wright,  Mr.  W.  von 142, 153 

Wurdemannia 697 

Wurtemberg,  fishing-laws  in 631 

Yarrell,  Mr 98,126,148 

Yhlen,  Mr.  G.  von  ...  .34, 127, 132, 143, 153 

Zealand,  the  Danish  island 173 

Zoarces  viviparus 729 

Zonaria 705 

Zoospore® 712 


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