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CONSERVATORY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRIOULTURE. 


RHPORT 


OF THE 


COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE 


Lae YEAR 1870. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1871. 


FORTY-FIRST CONGRESS, THIRD SESSION. 


OFFICE OF THE TIOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, 
March 3, 1871. 


The following resolution, originating in the House on the 28th ultimo, amended in 
the Senate on the 2d instant, was this day concurred in by the House: 

Resolved by the House of Representatives, (the Senate concurring,) That there be printed, 
of the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1870, two hundred and 
twenty-five thousand extra copies, one hundred and fifty thousand of which shall be 
for the use of the House, fifty thousand for the use of the Senate, and twenty-five thou- 
sand for distribution by the Commissioner of Agriculture. 


Attest: 
EDW. McPHERSON, Clerk. 


CONTENTS. 


Report of the Commissioner, Horace Capron ...-....-------. Rod Wat Laer He ace 
Report of the Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds, Willi: 1m Saunders - : 16 
Menortut the Statistician, J. R. Dodgé... 22. 2.420. 22-8. boos code ce ebce ene 24 
Report of the Entomologist and Curator of the Museum, Nowrnend Gtabée Boats 65 
imeporuet une Chemist, Thomas Anbisell, - 2-0 << sess Seciene) oqenc cones cones occu 93 
ene Gue).bo0banish, C. C. Party: tec ac-cesestesas +~she, coc cone! 3 int oe lee 108 
Report on Agricultural Meteorology, by André Poéy --.--.--........ eu. cere 113 
Report on the History and Progress of the American P: pmological Society, by 
1s PEAT ST SP TLLCT RAS SUT FY SRT SS SS RS I er ieee 28 eae 149 
PMG RMA HOIGE, J. es DOU RE 5 25 5 Osb:< wwe ee ae ee Sn Cie Dedede we whew 153 
Including papers, as follows: 
Rests of Department seeds..-... 2. --2--5266 2-21-28 oe te ee 155 
Minor vegetable products and their sources...---. .----.--..-----2-22.---- 170 
Pe pERN PUPPY =o 15 ees av eae ie ane eevee obi eualee dees dnanek qebuud 206 
The beet-sugar industry ......-....- Baas a waign Bann soe ele mek cide aba sbectens 210 
Grasses of the Plains gnd eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains...-........ 217 
POMER MONE LE aetaieat eet tomate Nala cia ee eae Jo mata lots Seba eee amare a eae aes Soe a 996 
IEE Sa Saer eons Bilas w eae eden dei. omees hse sede haumsbaace-k 235 
The market systems of the country .their usages and abuses....-......--.. 241 
amano New Bngland:. 5. 2.502 os 22.-cene tae s ip RM LA by he Seabee 955 
Piatae of Virginia Agrieulitire it 1870 5.222. 25 n-- secees reese nce ens ccosed 267 
Seraos-cons 40nGer 10F TNCh COWS 25.520-. 205 US. J eee ello 291 
ne poEOrAl HURIS HE AMMOTIUA. 0.02 soe. FocSes Coo. elke 2 Sees aden tdee. 301 
RIMINA era a ater Sg SOON Foch anal Sop meinen sim an abgsigawedueeeae we ¢ 310 
Management and profit of fowls.....-.-...--- Be See csie oti sh ea eased 329 
Pere PemAS Capple-Wate. 45.5 2.42cs 2s sdeas > 254450 cece si eess cube ee cccw BE 346 
URRRIRIR REE eee ibs 9 8 mac nets 2d qcalesoa en sans ha ee one Ree 352 
Structure and diseases of the horse’s foot ....-. --.. ---- --2 2 ecenns cone nneee 357 
Pernt settes OL ALAR D oo cian n wes stewed snimcie SaWSCR Mawes > pokadewas 753 
Agricultural implements and machines, ancient and modern........-...--- 392 
Food products of the North American Indians................-.---.---.-.- 404 
The present theory and practice of mineral manures. ........-.----...----- 428 
Darema LM BOTICUIPELG Wo. «22 .sAie'dis 355s belie. Pada cowdancd bse iden 438 
DAS CS Wh 1 i a i eh eee SR Oe 452 
SEtOerens Gr MNGUseTIAl EMUCALION. 2. oo. 8 Le wk nee scone denne ukdens came se 467 
Pena MRE Oe SLICUNOULG yoo. 253 Ssh tao. eel cee Snel ap 2d ee eRe one's 487 
Current publications in rural art.............--+-s0<0 Bdlteis Sout Seek 517 
Agricultural and horticultural periodicals ........-...-....-----.--------- 544 
meniculoural resources of WyOming..._-. ..-..----- --emce-aeses 25-05 Hye 4% 548 
Rumen Salb.take BAB s . ics diodes. Slide see se casa ce apitsneos veee 559 
Colonization ..-...... eeeRine 2 2ae = vom See aaa ae acbenie a dae e aly moore aaerae Aeeees 569 
ees dtd SP LIGUIUOT Ose oo sions 2k oie Be bn 52 Rea ee ale to hase 572 
Piice ane TERUG Of irPigatiOn: = <./2,2 =~. - 256 == <'00 sone aond oneghnes-se-s2- >) O16 
PBI AUGCE ON UNGCLOPAINING 15555 < - a2. ness uan see gennek msinnecewes nas 584 
Reclamation of marsh lands........---- .--s0+-+---- Geeta ai, 1 eee he eae 600 
SERMMENCE I MNEEHC TOUGH 340 2. 2 en» Jala wccews -so ep whe stains oes oown ay ORL 
et pally Oe) RSs eS Re Se eee Gee ane eae 621 
MANES TRAST Tn Sere ie hah SNe Se ee are saw eae lagi oye oreo 67 
IEE ess es a) Bane y aeitww weicicad wncajspansuscce onke 675 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 
1. Conservatory of the Department of Agriculture..........-...-..-,-.Frontispiece. 
2. Plan of the Department grounds..--...----..------------+---- SP A RE 16 
3. Oil-plants—Fig. 1, olive; Fig. 2, rape; Fig. 3, peanut; Fig. 4, castor-oil. .... 176 
4. Gum-plants—Fig. 1, gamboge; Fig. 2, benzoin; Fig. 3, caoutchouc; Fig. 4, 
PUbbAa-PerChs o< << 6 - po mw jee nan we wow oe one eae = ow 8 mains ween Soe ee 182 
5. Beverage-plants—Tig. 1, coffee; Fig. 2, tea; Fig. 3, chocolate; Fig. 4,maté. 192 
6. Spice-plants—Fig. 1, ginger; Fig. 2, nutmeg; Fig.3, caper; Fig. 4.cinnamon 200 
7. Prize design for butier and cheese factory .-------. ------ .----- s----0--ccee 326 
SM eAN eApLIG Pe er = ees Se oe sos nen cis woe ieee Sawer 347 
9. Fig. 1, view of digits present in the feet of different animals; Fig. 2, plan of 
construction of horse’s foot; Fig. 3, bone of fore leg, front view ..---.--.- 358 
10. Fig. 4, bones of fore leg, side view ; Fig. 5, hind leg, front view; Fig. 6, hind 
SONI WIOW Co oo Sion n van ny V bac selesincer ap eemqern. oases > pee ieee 359 
11. Fig. 7, splint-bones; Fig. 8, pastern-bone; Fig. 9, lower pastern or coronet 
bone; Fig. 10, coffin-bone; Fig. 11, side view of anearly perfect hoof; Fig. 
12, vertical section of the hoof, interior view, showing the horny lamine. 360 
12. Fig. 13, ground surface of hoof; Fig. 14, vertical section of horse’s foot ; Fig. 
15, dissection of horse’s foot; Fig. 16, posterior view *of the cofiin-bone ; 
Fig. 17, section of the coffin-bone- .-.--. --~. ------) <4 --2 emwe-scews eoeene 362 
13. Fig. 18, cannon-bone with splint; Fig. 19, pastern and coronet, showing ring- 
bone; Fig. 20, pastern-bone, showing the commencement of the formation 
OLrmr-pone; ios. 21, 22, and 23, SPaVIl...--- --- =< nee voce nn eoene = 366 
14. Fig. 24, spavin; the lower tarsal-bones cemented by bony deposit; Fig. 25, 
navicular disease, ulceration of the bone; Fig. 26, coftin-bone, side view, 
showing ossification of the lateral cartilages..-....-----..--------.------ 368 
15. Fig. 1, Jethro Wood’s plow; Fig. 2, plow-attachment; Fig. 3, root-cutter and 
“IR veliliieig - AS Le RES A EAS BES ope SSE Ba Se Aas = 5 395 
16. Fig. 1, John B. Smith’s cultivator, patented April, 1839; Fig. 2, a recent cul- 
HIRD Sogn ene oe seer Upae career ye peeeaee eae See a Re ea 553. - 399 
EME CU IMGNE: SI Steatl-P OW. -- = =< 4-2 mers = ancien = enim a alee eee aaa ee 403 
TeoragunAMOLe Ss Steall-plOW-— —-- 2 s-soccee once secnee See cue eae eee ais eee 404 
19. Fig. 1, kamass-root, (Camassia esculenta ;) Figs.2 and 3, kouse-root, ( Peucedanum 
ambiguum ;) Fig. 4, prairie potato or bread-root, ( Psoralea esculenta ;) Fig. 
5, wild sago, (Calochorius luteus) .--<-- ~-20 02-26 2-26) nena nos nee wares ene 406 
20 eNabivematato, (Solum Jendlert)=2 -~< = ames sioner n eee eee 409 
21, Mesguite,(Algarota glandulosa) ---..0--= -se-0s wacwee tone = = ooo mee an een i a G1) 
22. Screw-bean, (Sirombocarpa pwhescens) ..---- --coce ----20 eo neas on ne ona ens meee 412 
23. Fig. 1, crab-apple, (Pyrus coronaria ;) Fig. 2, gooseberry, (Ribes hirtellum)... 414 
24. Fig. 1; giant cactus, (Cereus giganteus ;) Fig. 2, Echinocactus wislizeni; Fig. 3, 
prickly-pear. -- -- Bee ee Shine on Selec ane a et ee Re oe aoe eee ae ee 416 
25. Figs. 1 and 2, Spanish bayonet, (Yucca baccata;) Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, dwarf 
GHEEEV A ( LAUUIS DUNG) cine o Saccocree asin ee non oo eee eee eee 418 
Ro MmLNGIaT-COLH, (AEM MAYS)! acn22-.scb- «22 ses co seems os eee: ake eee 420 
OV ICE, AMINE (UJULUICD) << oo om coin oan eee Cain a eee eee A422 
28. Tuckahoe, or Indian-head, (Lycoperdon solidum) ...--..----------- ---------- 423 
29. Ashland, homestead of Henry Clay, now the residence of J. B. Bowman, regent 
Ob Wembley UDIVErsiby...-—- 2 -\- J cf aeiccle sce -eeee eee eee eee 474 
30. Mechanical department of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ken- 
PUCSVMUUVOISIUY).< 22. pom ig -a\ne 2 clge los ceca Joe eee ae ee ee 475 
31. Woodlands, horticultural department of Kentucky University ..-------.----- 476 
7 rae MID PICIOGNLA 5 = as oot oo a. 5 neces eee eee eee = eee 589 
33. Methods of filling ditches .-...--..-...-- cides gel SOT SRRa ce eee? eee 596 


REPORT 


or 


THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 
Washington, D. C., December 1, 1870. 

Sie: In submitting the ninth report of the Commissioner of Agricul- 
ture, I have the gratification of representing the foundation interest of 
the country as prosperous and productive in a high degree—an interest 
which is the source of supply of the physical wants of all classes, and 
the nursery of energy and virtue for the equally essential recuperation, 
from waste and enervation, of the less healthful pursuits of life. 

The season has been one calculated to test severely the capabilities of 
our soils. On the eastern slopes of the Alleghanian system, excessive 
rains at a critical period were followed by a lengthened drought; and 
throughout a large area of other sections of the country, unusual eleva- 
tion of temperature has been combined with a diminished precipitation 
of rain, seriously affecting the vitality of plants weakened by starvation, 
shallow culture, overgrowing weeds or grasses, or imperfect drainage. 
Local decrease of small grains has resulted from these causes, counter- 
balanced in part by local compensations from climatic or other influences; 
yet the effect of high temperature has been so conducive to the growth 
of maize, the most valuable crop in our arable culture, the predominant 
element not only of the breadstuffs but of the meat production of the 
country, that the material for food supplies of the year is greater than 
usual. . 

The fact of increased production in a season remarkable for excessive 
heat, in a country assumed to be liable to injurious extremes of temper- 
ature and seasons of continued aridity, affords strong evidence of the 
available depth and fertility of our arable lands. The local diminution 
of yield enforces many a lesson of needed improvement in the drainage, 
comminution, and amelioration of imperfect soils. 

An examination in detail of the facts of this year’s Shaul aa in the 
light of enlarged agrier ultural experience and of science applied to 
husbandry, would furnish hints to improvement and aids to progress, 
which, if adopted generally, would increase the value of farm produc- 
tion to the extent of five hundred millions of dollars. It would do 
more—it would. tend to the increase of the fertility of the soil, which 
now, in nine farms out of ten, is annually decreasing, anal it would pro- 
 portionably advance its intrinsic as well as market value. 


6 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 


It is gratifying to Believe, from indubitable evidence, that the examples 
of rational and recuperative culture are relatively increasing, however 
slowly, and gradually making inroads upon the destructive, irrational 
modes so generally prevalent. These examples are most numerous in 
the Middle States, are seen with comparative frequency in the older see- 
tions of the West, are found occasionally in New England, and are begin- 
ning to be noted in the Southern States; but there is no State in which 
exhaustive and irrational culture is not predominant. While the cost 
of good land is less than the interest on its intrinsic value, and its yearly 
income may be enhanced at the expense of the permanent investment, 
there is little hope that present necessity or short-sighted greed will fail 


' to work its impoverishment; but with high prices, both of land and 


labor, it is more than folly to expect remunerative profits from unsys- 
tematic and unscientific culture. 

The grower of tobacco, turning out his old fields to sedge and “pov- 
erty grass,” with the full conviction that his crop is inevitably destrue- 
tive to fertility, has now an occasional opportunity to learn that heavy 
yields are not inconsistent with annual improvement. 

The wheat-grower of Genesee, despondent over the waning produc- 
tions of his fair fields, can turn to the example of a progressive neigh- 
bor and witness the old munificence returning through the avenue of 


_ systematic rotation. 


In Ulinois, the specialist in wheat, taught wisdom by many lessons of 
experience and observation, is rapidly learning that prairie soils may be 
enriched by alternations of grass and roots with corn and wheat, all 
except the wheat being converted into meat, milk, butter, cheese, &c., 
upon the farm. 

And cotton-growers are leariing that, with a monopoly of their staple, 
a climate unsurpassed for perfecting it, and some of the richest lands of 
the world for its cultivation, their section has grown poorer with its 
continued culture, and can nowhere show a valley so replete with all the 
elements of wealth as that of the Mohawk, so long carpeted with grass 
and flecked with cattle. Profitable as cotton may be, and rich as the 
best southern soils surely are, its culture, as a special crop, apart from 
suitable alternating growths, will ultimately result in poverty and bar- 
renuess. 

The enlightened ‘agricultural economist, in deprecating exclusive spe- 
cial culture, whether of cotton, wheat, or other crops, objects to the 
irrational mode of cultivation, and not to the amount of production— 
inveighs not against a surplus, foe opposes a practiée reprehensible and 
ruinous, which tends directly and speedily to defeat the object of cul- 
ture and to belittle the rewards of labor. 


INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 


The organize ition of industrial colleges, under the land grant of Con- 
gress of 1862, chronicled in recent annual reports of this Department, 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 4 


has progressed during the past year. The Ohio College has been located 
in the vicinity of Columbus, with a fund of nearly half a million of dol- 
lars from proceeds of lands and a donation of $500,000 from Franklin 
County. The Missouri Institution has also been organized, in Boone 
County, with local donations exceeding two hundred thousand dollars, and 
330,000 acres of land located under the congressional grant. Colleges 
had previously been organized, or departments of agriculture added to 
existing institutions, in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu- 
setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Towa, Kansas, and California. Nebraska is now perfecting an organ- 
ization, and other’States may have taken steps in that direction, of which 
no official or other information has been received. 


The land scrip has been issued to most of the Southern States, and a 
portion of it has been sold, but I have heard of no action toward organ- 
ization of colleges, and fear that the scrip has, in some instances, been 
frittered away by sales at nominal prices, as has been the case in many 
of the Northern and Eastern States. It is to be regretted that restric- 
tions against sales at lower than Government rates had not been im- 
posed upon the trustees of these institutions. Perhaps it would have 
been better still to have required the actual location of these lands, 
which would inevitably have resulted, under judicious management, in 
an ultimately larger income from rentals or subsequent sales, The more 
western States all pursued this course, with a fair prospect of realizing 
five dollars per acre instead of fifty to seventy-five cents. 


I am confident that these institutions are destined to become a vital 
power in the land, and to wield an influence which colleges weighted 
with a “curriculum” of studies of classical ages can never exert; but it 
will be many years before their best fruits will begin to appear, and 
many mistakes will be made, (some of them, possibly, almost fatal in 
their character,) misconceptions of the sphere of their highest utility 
will occur, and inefficiency will undoubtedly mar the beauty of their 
practical results ; but ultimately, when the grand idea of practical edu- 
cation in America shall be fully crystallized, and their faculties shall be 
composed of young and vigorous men developed within these institu- 
tions and under the influence of higher progression in physical and prac- 
tical science, their true utility and beneficent influences will begin to 
appear. 

I would respectfully suggest the importance of an authorization, by 
Congress, of a commission, under the direction of this Department, to 
examine minutely the plan of organization, the construction of build- 
ings, management of grounds, aud general workings of the industrial 
colleges organized under the congressional land grant, with instruc- 
tions to report to the next Congress, for the information of the country 
and the benefit of institutions of similar character yet to be organized. 


8 REPORT OF THRE COMMISSIONER. 
STEAM-PLOWING. 


The inventive mind of the country is strongly stimulated with the 
hope of educing a distinctively American machine, better adapted to 
the peculiar necessities of our agriculture than the most successful for- 
eign apparatus. The Report for 1869 contains descriptions and illustra- 
tions of several patents of that year, and the volume for 1870 will show 
that these efforts have been continued during the present year. It isto 
' be regretted that so many still adhere to the impracticable idea of loco- 
motive traction. The reports of the actual work of the five steam-plews 
now in operation in this country are extremely favorable to the idea of 
ultimate success in the solution of the problem of steam-plowing as an 
adjunct of our agriculture. 


SILK CULTURE. 


Silk culture in California has been attended with great success up to 
the present time, producers claiming that the climate of that State is 
peculiarly adapted to the rearing of silk-worms, on account of the dry- 
ness and equality of the temperature, and the rare occurrence of severe 
thunder storms. In Utah experiments have been made, with success, in 
feeding the worms upon the leaves of the Osage orange instead of the mul- 
berry. The Japanese silk-worm, Samea cynthia, on the ailanthus, is now 
perfectly acclimated, and breeds in the open air in Brooklyn, Philadel- 
phia, and other places, but as yet I have heard nothing of the use of its . 
cocoons in manufacture. Two other silk-producing worms, Aitacus yama 
mai and pernyi, have been bred this season in Brooklyn, but are yet too 
scarce for a proper test of their value. 


GOVERNMENT PLANTATIONS OF CINCHONA TREES. 


Among the trees which may be introduced and acclimatized in our 
territory, there is none deserving more consideration than the Peruvian- 
bark tree. Both England and France have deemed it necessary, in view 
of the increasing scarcity of quinine, to establish ih their colonies planta- 
tions of the Cinchona tree. Its essential product is furnished to the 
world from a narrow belt on the slope of the Andes in Peru and Bolivia. 
The supply is limited and precarious, with no means of extension by 
propagation or cultivation in these Soutk American nations. The tree 
is of rapid growth in favorable localitiés, and after six years may be- 
come an article of commerce. The commencement of cultivation ought 
not to be left to private enterprise, bu¢ should be initiated and supported 
in its early infancy by the establishment of one or more national planta- 
tions at points selected on accountof their favorable climatic influences. 
The time is now opportune for commencing such a work, since a supply 
of young trees is easily obtainable from a source whence no real diffi- 
culty arising from transport and transplantation would oceur. 

The propagation of the Cinchena has been commenced in the experi- 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 9 


mental! division of this Department, with highly successful results ; and 
several hundred specimens now on hand wiil be increased to thousands 
whenever facilities are afforded for testing the feasibility of successful 
growth in the open air. 

I earnestly hope that an appropriation will be evanted by Congress 
for this purpose. 


DEPARTMENT OPERATIONS. 


The field of labor is so broad, the objects of attainment so manifold, 
in aid of progressive agriculture and enhancement of its productive re- 
sources, that the limited means at the disposal of the Department ap- 
pear inadequate to the great work in hand. Yet a fair exhibit of its: 
operations, it is confidently believed, will attest the wisdom of its origi- 
nation and the profit of its labors. 

Its work demands a higher order of talent than the routine service of 
most public business; it requires a knowledge of national economy, 
social science, natural history, applied chemistry, animal and vegetable 
physiology, and practical agriculture; and presents so broad a range of 
facts in each field of investigation as to demand the most active effort 
and the most persistent industry. For such labor the most meager 
compensation only is offered, and it is found difficult to obtain an 
inerease of suitable service, and impossible to remunerate properly that 
already employed which is found to be most efficient and reliable, while 
that which is practically useless for the purpose is offered in unlimited 
measure. -A just and wise revision of clerical salaries would greatly 
inerease the efficiency of the Department. 

The work of the past year includes the collection of the facts of 
production and experiment throughout the world, the publication of 
general and special reports, investigations in natural science in its rela- 
tions to rural efforts, the introduction and propagation of many new 
and promising plants, and the increase and improvement of farm pro- 
duets by the dissemination of seeds and plants. Results of the most 
successiul character in'these directions will’ be shown in subsequent 
paragraphs, and in the accompanying reports of operations. 


THE STATISTICAL DIVISION. 


This division is the office of publication of the Department, and has 
issued during the past year the monthly reports and the annual for 1869, 
prepared for publication the cattle-diseases reports, furnished statisti- 
cal statements for congressional uses, and similar responses to inquiries 
of commercial and industrial boards or societies, and of individuals. 
The facilities employed in these investigations include not only trained 
and experienced correspondents representing about 1,300 counties, but 
the officers of an equal number of industrial societies of all grades, 
special correspondence with practical scientists and experts, and ex- 
changes with governments and socicties abroad. Foreignand domestic 


10 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER 


serial literature, industrial and commercial, is also explored for the ex- 
tension, comparison, and verification of results. Difficult and arduous 
as are the labors required, and small as are the pecuniary means appro- 
priated to the purposes of this division, abundant testimony is received 
of its comparitive efficiency and practical value. 


CATTLE DISEASES. 


I have heretofore called attention to the imperative necessity for es- 
tablishing a division of veterinary surgery in this Department. The 
value of stock lost annually from disease is enormous, and threatens not 
only to decimate our animals, but to expose the human family to disease 
‘from the consumption of unwholesome meats. Neglect of animals, and 
their overcrowding in transportation, are prolific sources of disease, and 
its spread is permitted by the ignorance of a majority of the present 
class of veterinarians. Another class of disease arises from causes but 
obscurely known, if known at all, and these fatal maladies are as yet 
without any indicated effort of cure, rendering necessary the barbarous 
plan of stamping out, recommended and adopted in other countries as 
well as our own, as the only means of saving the agriculturist or stock- 
raiser from total ruin. 

A quarto edition of the reports arising from the cattle-diseases inves- 
tigation, conducted under the auspices of this Department, some of 
them never before published, is in course of publication. The volame 
will include reports as follows: A prefatory report to Congress by the 
Commissioner of Agriculture ; one upon pleuropneumonia; on the effects 
oi smut and other fungous growths upon corn and forage ; the periodic 
or splenic fever of cattle, (the Texas cattle disease;) the pathological 
anatemy and histology of the respiratory organs; microscopic examina- 
tions of cryptogamic growths in fluids of diseased animals; and the 
statistical history of the Texas cattle disease. These reports will be 
illustrated by numerous chromo-lithographs, micro-photographs, copper- 
plate and wood engravings, the work of the best artists, from originals 
prepared in the office of the Surgeon General of the United States. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


The correspondence of the entomological division has largely increased - 
during the year, inquiries in regard to noxious insects having been re- 
ceived from ail parts of the country. 

The cotton army-worm appears to have been less destructive than ~ 
usual, and few complaints of loss from other cotton insects have been 
made, while insects injurious to fruits and vegetables have been unu- 
sually numerous and destructive. 

It is in contemplation to publish, whenever suitable authority is given 
for the printing and illustration, a work on entomology, prepared by the 
entomologist of the Department, in which known American insects of 
each order will be accurately figured upon copper-plate, and which has 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 11 


been declared, by those competent to judge, the most complete and ex- 
haustive effort ever made in this direction. It will be a valuable aid to 
practical entomology, and a desideratum for State entomologists and 
the naturalists of agricultural colleges, upon whose investigations and 
suggestions depends the possibility of reducing in some degree the 
losses from insect ravages, which are annually computed by tens and 
even hundreds of millions. 

An appropriation having been made at the last session of Congress 
for the purpose of obtaining models of the fruits best adapted to certain 
localities, the work has been commenced with a large collection of apples 
particularly adapted to the Southern and Middle States, and will be 
continued with new varieties from other sections of the country. 


THE AGRICULTURAL MUSEUM. 


During the year many valuable additions have been made to the 
museum, under the charge of the entomologist, by voluntary contri- 
butions or exchange, without the aid of any appropriation whatever for 
the purchase of new or rare specimens. The collection of ‘fibers from 
abroad has been increased by a series of articles of lace-work and 
embroidery equaling in beauty the finest point-lace, manufactured by the 
peasant women of Fayal, Azores, from the bitter aloe. From Basle, 
Switzerland, a fine collection of articles of silk manufacture has been 
received, together with samples of the aniline dyes used in coloring 
them. Samples of manufactured California silk have also been received. 
A series of cotton samples from countries other than the United States, 
in use in England during the late war, illustrates the effort then made 
for a supply during the cotton famine. Among other contributions may 
be mentioned samples of fruits, grains, and other farm products from 
agricultural fairs in the West and South, and from individuals in 
various parts of the country, birds, insects, and other specimens of 
natural history. 


BOTANICAL COLLECTIONS. 


The Departinent herbarium continues to receive large accessions to 
its material for systematic study and illustration of the vegetable king- 
dom. The additions for the present year already exceed four thousand 
species; these include a nearly complete set of Cuban plants procured 
from Mr. Charles Wright, an excellent botanical collector. Large and 
valuable collections have been received through the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution from several of the learned societies ef Europe, which give ex- 
pression to an earnest desire to procure American plants and seeds in 
return. The various Government explorations now in progress, and 
local collections from Army officers stationed at different frontier mili- 
tary posts, are constantly affording a large amount of material for the 
purpose of exchange and distribution. Dr. E. Palmer, who has been 
making special collections for this Department in the Western Terri- 


12 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 


tories, has forwarded from time to time living and dried plants and seeds. 
This collection is now in process of elaboration by the distinguished 
American botanists, Drs. Gray, Torrey, and Engelmann, and includes a 
considerable number of plants new to science, which will be greatly 
prized by scientific botanists, and eagerly sought by botanical insti- 
tutions at home and abroad. 

The design of establishing at the seat of Government a collection of 
plants worthy the name of a national herbarium is thus in process of 
rapid accomplishment, at comparatively small cost; and it is confidently 
expected that this collection, now probably the third in point of size, 
will eventually exceed all others in the amount and value of its material 
for illustrating North American botany. 

With a view to acquiring more direct information of the manner of 
arranging and displaying the usual botanical collections accumulated in 
the Old World, the botanist of the Department received leave of absence 
the past summer for a visit to Europe, which was made without expense 
to the Department. Every facility was freely enjoyed of inspecting the 
immense collections at Kew, and in the British Museum, and of learning 
the most approved methods of preparing and arranging plants for study 
and reference. Profiting by these results of large experience, we may 
hope eventually to rival the results obtained by these world-renowned 


institutions. 
THE LIBRARY. 


The library has been increased during the year by the collection of 
eight hundred and fourteen volumes, obtained through exchanges and 
by purchase, many of which are rare and valuable; and one hundred 
volumes of periodicals, now ready for binding, with further additions 
yet to be made, will swell its total increase for the year to about one 
thousand volumes. Scientific and practical botany, hitherto inade- 
quately represented in the library, is a prominent element in the acces- 
sions of the year. The operation of the system of foreign exchanges, 
so hopefully inaugurated, promising to furnish at a nominal cost the 
choicest productions of the foreign scientific and industrial press, espe- 
cially that of Germany and France, has for several months been sus- 
pended in those nationalities by the existing war, while exchanges with 
other countries are increasing in number and importance. 


THE DEPARTMENT GROUNDS. 


The improvement of the grounds of the Department is steadily ad- 
vancing toward completion in accordance with the original plan. A 
wall, appropriate in design and of sufficient strength, has been erected 
as a suitable and necessary support to the terrace walk in front of the 
building. This feature adds much to the appearance of that portion of 
the grounds, and when finished, with balustrades and other append- 
ages, will form a proper finish and coincide with the style of architec- 
ture in the building. 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 13 


The walks and roads are being completed and extended; all those of 
the western division of the front grounds are in course of construction. 
The covering of tar and asphalt concrete proves very suitable, when 
properly prepared and laid, for light roads and walks. Its marked 
cleanliness and freedom from vegetable growths are strong points in its 
favor, which command an increasing appreciation. 

The planting of the arboretum of hardy trees and shrubs has been 
prosecuted as rapidly as the materials could be collected. Most of the 
plants yet to be procured are rare, and must be selected and imported 
from distant countries, a circumstance which necessarily retards the 
completion of the collection. When completed, this will prove a valua- 
ble addition to the working efficiency of the Department, and is already, 
even in its present state, attracting the attention and gaining the appre- 
ciation of scientific men. 


THE NEW CONSERVATORY. . 


Under a system of rigid economy, the objects for which appropriations 
were made at the last session of Congress, viz, the erection of glass 
structures to be used in the propagation of economic plants, the improve- 
ment of the Department grounds, and the extension of the arboretum, 
have been attained; and the conservatory building, for which an appro- 
priation of $25,000 was made, includes a grapery, not contemplated in 
the original plan; and the entire structure is perhaps unsurpassed in 
this country for utility and ornamental effect, and only excelled in 
Europe in one or two instances. The building was commenced about 
the 1st of August, and is now nearly finished, a large portion being | 
already occupied. The main building is 320 feet in length, with an 
average width of 28 feet. The center compartment (60 by 30 feet) will 
be finished for the accommodation of the tall-growing tropical fruits, 
nuts, and palm trees. The two end buildings, 30 feet square, will be 
mainly devoted to the orange family and similar fruits, that require 
slight protection during the winter. The connecting wings will be used 
for the general collection of specialties. The grapery, directly in the 
center, and in the rear of the main building, a structure 150 feet in 
length and 26 feet in width, has been erected for cultivating and testing 
the best and most select varieties of foreign grapes. The adaptability 
of the climate and soil of the Pacific coast to this fruit is now fairly 
established, and the best varieties are objects of special inquiry. 

The important object for which this is designed should not be over- 
looked or misunderstood. It is not intended for the cultivation of 
merely ornamental plants, though some attention will be given to them, 
so far as may be necessary to keep up a practical acquaintance with the 
improved flora of other countries, but will be occupied mainly for the 
propagation and experimental culture of all plants that may be utilized 
in the arts, in medicine, or in food supply, and which promise success 
in their introduction among the paying crops of the country. 

There are few plants desirable for their economic value which may 


14 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 


not be produced in some sections of our continental domain; and the 
extent and cosmopolitan character of our immigration suggest, if not 
require, the greatest variety in production consistent with economy of 
labor and other peculiar circumstances of our condition. The progress 
of events shows that farmers and planters are alive to the necessity of 
such diversity; and this idea should be fostered and encouraged, as it 
is one of the most reliable indices of progressive civilization. 

Among other species of valuable plants already in the collection may 
be mentioned the Ipomea purga, producing the jalap; Hura. erepitans, 
the sand box-tree; Jatropha curcas,.a medicinal plant; Biva Orellana, 
the arnotto plant; Manihot utillissima, the cassava; Theobroma cacao, 
the chocolate tree; Andropogon Schenanthus, or lemon grass; Elletaria 
Cardamomum, the cardamom plant; Amomum Jlelegueta, «1 carminative; 
Tamarindus Indica, the tamarind tree; Asclepias Curassavica, a medici- 
nal plant; Cinchona, of various preferred species, the Peruvian barks; 
Sesamum Indicum, famed for its oil products; Abrus precatorius, the Ja- 
maica licorice; Laurus Camphora, the campher plant; Cinnamomum 
verum, the cinnamon tree; Acacia catechu; Mesua ferrea, a medicinal 
plant; Guilandina Bonduc, an oil-bearing plant; Piper Leiel, the betel 
plant; Clusia flava, the balsam tree; Piper cubeba; Dorstenia Brasiliensis ; 
Hematoxylon Campechianum, Dracaena Draco, and ,Pterocarpus Marsu- 
pium, famed dye plants; Croton Tiglium and Hlaeis Guineensis, valuable 
oil-producing trees, with other medicinal species. 

Of fruits, the various Musas, especially the MU. Cavendishii, or dwarf 
banana; Psidiums or Guavas, so famed as a condiment; the Mangosteen, 
Garcinia Mangostana; the mamee apple, Mamea Americana; Achras 
Sapota ; Limonia Americana; Mangefera Indica, the mango tree; Ohry- 
sophyllum Cainito, the West Indian star apple; Papaya vulgaris, the 
melon apple; Monstera deliciosa ; Nephelium Longanum; Anona Cheri-. 
molia, the cherimoyer; Anacardium occidentale, cashew nut; Phenix 
dactylifera, the date palm; Bertholletia excelsa, the Brazil nut, and the 
monkey eup nut, Lecythis ; Illictum floridanum, the aniseed plant, and 
others of the pome and nut families. 

The plants that furnish the various gums, dies, resins, oils, and fibers 
of commerce, are very numerous, and many species have not yet been 
introduced. Of the fibrous plants in the collection of the Department 
may be mentioned the Musa textilis, the Manilla hemp plant; various 
species of Hibiscus and Ascepias, Bromelia, and Urtica. The Pederia 
fetida, a new fiber plant recently brought into notice, has also been 
secured for trial. Those producing material for the manufacture of 
paper are specially worthy of trial and experiment. Conspicuous among 
utilizable plants is the extensive family of palms, so rich and varied in 
their products of food, medicine, and clothing. Of this extensive series 
but few have yet been added to the collection. 

The distribution of seeds and plants of the China grass, Behmeria 
nivea, has afforded the opportunity to ascertain its proper culture and to 
become familiar with its growth, resulting in the conclusion that its cal- 


REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER. 15 


ture can be successfully prosecuted whenever the perfection of machin- 
ery for its preparation may demand it. The jute plant, Corchorus capsu- 
laris, is also giving entire satisfaction as to growth and production. 

It is believed that the profitable extension of preduction, by the con- 
templated introduction of new plants, and the enlarged culture of crops 
now yielding only partial supply of the home demand, such as sugar 
cane, rice, grapes, and semi-tropical fruits, and possibly tea to the ex- 
tent of family supply in suitable latitudes, may increase the annual 
value of rural production to the extent of two hundred millions of dol- 
lars, thus accomplishing a revenue reform which, would save to the 
country that magnificent sum in addition to the amount of import duties 
which would be collected upon such an importation. 

Though such success should not be attained, there can be no doubt 
whatever that many new plants may be successfully acclimated, any one 
of which may exceed in value the total amount of all appropriations 
hitherto made to this Department. ‘ 

DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS. 

The number of packages issued during eleven months of the year 
number 358,391, of which 133,043 were sent to menrbers of Congress, 
71,865 to agricaltural societies, 71,400 to the corps of statistical corre- 
spondents, 7,960 to meteorological observers. The distribution includes 
seeds of cereals, grasses, hemp, jute, ramie, opium-poppy, sugar-beet, 
tobacco, sorghum, forest and shade trees, and many of the rarer 
species of plants oleaginous, edible, medicinal, and fibrous. The most 
abundant and convincing evidence of the great economic value of this 
distribution can be obtained from tke archives of the Department, or 
gained from the sub-reports in recent annual volumes. 

' FINANCIAL. 


The total amount expended by this Department since N ovember 30, 
1869, the date of my last report, is $169,175 24, under the following 
appropriations, to wit: 


Compensation of Commissioner, clerks, and employés ....-..--..--.------ $68, 712 03 
Collecting statistics and material for annual and monthly reports ...-..--.. 14, 206 51 
Purchase and distribution of new and valuable seeds ...--...---.--.----- 20,739 31 
Experimental garden, for labor, repairs, purchase of plants, &c..-------.- * 10,195 58 
Contingencies—Stationery, freight, fuel, lights, for laboratory, museum, 
library, herbarium, keep of horses, &0.----------..-+--.---202 200 ene 15, 108 26 
Improvement of grounds, (reservation No. 2)..---..--.-------------- +++ 16,017 7 
Erection of glass structures for the cultivation of medicinal, textile, and 
Sesto EM ANGS S255 f.. Fay tebe foe bonus watches CEE Leta dents accume 22, 468 37 
ET IS AE ee 2 bas See Gees = ees ed ee de 1,727 39 
Lk by Reaches ee ae Oe eee ee aes Be 169, 175 24 


Leaving a total balance unexpended of the appropriation for the current 
fiscal year of $107,370. . 


* 


HORACE CAPRON, 
Commissioner of Agriculture. 
His Excellency U.S. GRANT, President. 


16 REPORT OF SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 


REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS 
AND GROUNDS. 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the progress 
of operations in the gardens and grounds of the Department : 

The planting of the arboretum has been prosecuted so far as the ap- 
propriations for the purpose would admit, in view of the difficulties 
attendant upon making so thorough and complete a collection as con- 
templated in the plan. The work of procuring plants for the special 
collections proposed for the green-houses has necessarily occupied much 
time and attention, and the comparatively slow progress of making these 
selections is readily accounted for, inasmuch as but few of the required 
plants are to be found in commerce, and have to be procured from their 
native habitats, or by exchange from collections attached to scientific 
institutions and botanic gardens in foreign countries. Valuable addi- 
tions are constantly being received, and the collection is already of great 
variety and interest. 

The accompanying plan of the grounds represents the position of the 
various genera of plants, and other details, which are indicated by figures 
and letters corresponding with the following 


REFERENCES TO PLAN. 


Betulacee.—1, Betula; 2, Alnus. 

Salicacee.—3, Populus; 4, Salix. 

Platanacee.—5, Platanus. 

Juglandacee.—6, Juglans; 7, Carya; 8, Pterocarya. 

Eleagnacee.—9, Eleagnus, Shepherdia, Hippophaé. 

Cupilifere-—10, Quercus; 11, Castanea; 12, Fagus; 13, Carpinus; 14, 
Corylus; 15, Ostrya. 

Tiliacee.—16, Tilia. 

Magnoliacee.—i7, Magnolia, Liriodendroh, Kadsura, Schizandra. 

Hypericacew.—18, Hypericum, Androsemum. 

Saxifragacee.—19, Philadelphus ; 26, Deutzia; 27, Hydrangea, Decu- 
maria; 28, Ribes, Itea. . 

Celastracee.—20, Kuonymus, Celastrus. 

Rosacew.—21, Rubus; 22, Spirea; 23, Kerria; 24, Schizonotus; 25, 
Potentilla; 49, Cydonia; 50, Cotoneaster, Amelanchier; 56, Pyrus; 87, 
Crategus; 88, Prunus; 89, Amygdalus, Amygdalopis. 

Iythracee.—29, Punica, Lagerstroemia. 

_ Menispermacee.—30, Cocculus, Menispermum, Calycocarpum. 

Lardizabalacee.—31, Akebia, Stauntonia. 

Hamamelacew.—32, Hamamelis, Fothergilla, Liquidambar. 

Anonacew.—33, Asimena. 

Styracacew.—34, Styrax, Halesia, Symplocos. 

Bricacee.—35, Gaylussacia, Vaccinium, Chicgenes, Arctostaphylos, 
Epigea, Arbutus, Leucothoé, Cassandra, Cassiope, Andromeda, Oxyden- 
dron, Clethra, Phyllodoce, Pernettya, Kalmia, Daboecia, Menziesia, 
Azalea, Rhododendron, Rhodora, Ledum,,Loiseleuria, Leiophyllum. 

Berberidacee.—36, Mahonia; 37, Berberis. 

Caprifoliacee.—38, Diervilla; 39, Symphoricarpus; 40, Lonicera; 41, 
Leycesteria; 42, Viburnum; 43, Sambucus. 

Rubiacee.—44, Cephalanthus, Gelsemium. 

Calycanthacee.—45, Calycanthus, Chimonanthus. 


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PLAN OF THE DEPARTMENT GRocNDS 


REPORT OF SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 17 
? 

Tamariscinew.—46, Tamarix. 

Cornacece.—47, Cornus, Benthamia, Nyssa, Garrya. 

Araliacew.—48, Aralia, Hedera. 

Malvacee.—51, Hibiscus. 

Jasminacee.—52, Jasminun. . 

Oleacew.—53, Ligustrum, Olea, Chionanthus; 54, Syringa, Fontane- 
sia, Forsythia; 55, Fraxinus, Ornus, Forestiera. 

Sapindacee.—56, Aisculus, Staphylea, Keelreuteria; 57, Acer, Ne- 
-gundo. 

_ Urticacer.—d8, Uimus; 59, Morus, Maclura, Broussonetia, Ficus ; 60, 
Celtis; 61, Planera. 

Rhamnacee.—62, Rhamunus, Frangula, Sageretia, Berchemia, Zizy- 
phus, Ceanothus, Paliurus. 

Composite.—63, Baccharis, Iva, Artemisia. 

Verbenacece.—64, Callicarpa, Vitex. 

Aselepiadacee.—64, Periploca. 

Leguminose.—s5, Cytisus ; 66, Laburnum; 67, Gleditschia; 68, Gym- 
nocladus; 69, Cercis; 70, Robinia; 71, Genista, Sarothamnus, Ulex, 
Spartinm, Ononis; 72, Cladrastis; 73, Albizzia; 74, Caragana; 75, 
Amorpha; 76, Wistaria; 77, Sophora, Coiutea. 

Anacardiacee.—78, Rhus, Pistacia. 

Coriariee.—79, Coriaria. 

Camelliacee.—i9, Stuartia, Gordonia. 

Simarubacee —80, Ailanthus. 

Ebenacee.—8v, Diospyras. 

Meéliaceew.—81, Melia. 

Sterculiacece.—81, Sterculia. 

Rutacee.—s82, Zanthoxylum, Ptelea. 

Bignoniacee.—83,. Bignonia, Tecoma, Catalpa. 

Scrophulariacee.—s83, Paulownia, Buddlea. 

Lauracee.—84, Laurus, Persea, Sassafras, Lindera, Tetranthera. 

Aquifliacee.—85, lex, Myginda, Nemopanthes. 

Myricacee.—90, Myrica, Comptonia. 

Thymeleacee.—91, Dirca, Daphne. 

Coniferw.—9z, Pinus, (Ternate;) 93, Pinus, (Quine;) 94, Pinus, (Bine;) 
95, Larix, Pseudolarix; 96, Picea Bracteata; 97, Picea Brevebracteata ; 
98, Cedrus; 99, Sequoia, Sciadopitys, Canninghamia; 100, Cryptomeria, 
Taxodiam, Glyptostrobus; 101, Buxus; 102, Retinospora; 103, Biota, 
Thujopsis; 104, Cupressus; 105, Thuja, Libocedrus; 106, Abies, (Verie;) 
107, Tsuga; 108, Pinus, (Dube;) 109, Taxus; 110, Torreya, Cephalo- 
taxus; 111, Salisburia; 112, Juniperus, (Oxycedrus;) 113, Saxe-Gothea, 
Nageia, Araucaria; 114, Juniperus, (Sabinw;) 115, Juniperus, (Cupres- 
soides. ) 

A, Department building; B, Stabling and yard; C, Tropical fruit 
house; D, D, Houses for orange, lemon, and other semi-tropical fruits; 
H, E, Houses for miscellaneous collections of utilizable plants; I, House 
for collection of foreign grapes; G, Gate-house; H, Experimental 
orchards; K, Experimental grounds. 

Some additions have been made to the plants in the arboretum, and 
the formation of roads and walks is steadily progressing as far as means 
will allow. 

The glass structures were commenced toward the end of summer, and 
were so far completed by November as to admit the plants. The heat- 
ing of the entire building could not be consummated, however; a por- 
tion only was made available for winter occupation. The structure is 
320 —o in length on the east and west line, with a wing extending back 

2 A 


18 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
— 

from the center of the main building 150 feet to the south. The front 
consists of a center pavilion, 60 feet long, 32 feet wide, and 30 feet in 
extreme height; two end pavilions, each 30 feet square and 26 feet in 
height, connected by wings, each 100 feet in length, 25 feet in width, 
and 17 feet extreme height. Ventilation is provided by hinged sashes 
on the upright portion of the lantern which surmounts the roof. These 
are arranged so as to admit air and exclude rain, a very desirable pro- 
vision in the management of all kinds of plant structures. The center 
apartment is designed for the reception of palms and other large-grow- . 
ing tropical plants that may be necessary in the collection, which is con- 
templated to be strictly economic and utilizable. The two end pavilions 
will be occupied by the orange family and other semi-tropical fruits, and 
plants of tall growth. The connecting wings are arranged for the mis- 
cellaneous collections of plants now being secured, 

The grapery has been planted with an assortment of foreign grapes. 
The borders for their growth are prepared solely on the outside of the 
walls, and the stems of the plants introduced through openings made in 
the brick-work. The border was prepared by running a drain 15 feet 
from the house and parailel with it. From this main, cross-drains were 
dug 10 feet apart, thus insuring perfect drainage. The soil was then 
deeply spaded, covering in and mixing with it a good dressing of rotted 
manure. The object being to produce a healthy and properly matured 
growth, an excessively rich border was avoided to begin with; when it 
is found necessary, the soil can be enriched by surface-manuring. The 
vines are planted three feet apart, being fifty on a side, altogether com- 
prising one hundred varieties, the dark and rose-colored kinds being on 
one side, and the light-colored on the other. 

The heating is effected by hot water circulating in iron pipes, About 
5,000 feet of four-inch piping wiil be required for the entire structure. 
Two boilers have been set in place for heating the water. Stop-valves 
are introduced, so that the boilers may work independently of each 
other, or in combination, as may be desired. Hach apartment tan also 
be heated independently of the others, thus affording every facility for 
the practical application of heat to suit the habits of the plants. 

The external appearance of these houses is nuch admired. They are 
well proportioned, and present a pleasing architectural effect, which is 
not produced at the expense of their adaptability to the healthy growth 
of plants. They are also substantially built, the foundation walls being 
of red sandstone, with base and caps of rubbed bluestone, forming a 
good contrast. The windows and doors of the pavilions are finished, 
with ornamental Moresque arches, springing from the caps of the light 
intermediate pilasters. ‘These arches are parted from each other by 
molded brackets supporting the main cornice, behind which the glazed 
cupola roof rises. The lanterns above the curved roof are arranged with 
movable sashes for ventilation. The main entrance projects boldly from 
the mass of the building, with three arched openings, which are sur- 
mounted by a graceful pediment. 

The frame of the structure is painted in different shades of buff, with 
the sash-bars laid in pearl color. The ornamental ridge imparts a light 
appearance to the monotonous roof line, and the characteristic feature 
ot the decorations consists in their judicious application to the constit- 
tent elements of the construction, instead of constructing superilueus 
work for the purpose of mere decoration. 

These houses are covered on what is now known as the fixed-roof 
mode. The sash bars are set for 12-inch glass, which is carefully bedded 
in putty, and firmly secured in place by brad-nails; no putty is used ° 


REPORT OF SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 19 


externally. A month or so after glazing, when the putty has had 
time to dry and shrink, the wood-work is painted, and all the openings 
from shrinkage carefully fled with paint; only in this way can per- 
fectly water-tight glazed roofs be secured. The roof is covered with 
the best quality of double-thick American glass, which was manufac- 
tured and curved expressly for the purpose. 


GRASSES. 


In the Report for 1869 a record was given of the growth and charac- 
teristics of certain named grasses. The growth of the past season fur- 
nishes additional information regarding their permanency, especially as 
regards resistance to droughts, and their endurance when subjected to 
scorching sun and parched soil. The following list embraces those spe- 
cies that have proved best in this respect, viz: Aira flexuosa, Agrostis 
stolonifera, Agrostis alba, Bromus pratensis, Cynosurus cristatus, Festuca 
pratensis, Festuca ovina, Festuca duriuscula, Festuea rubra, Festuca tenui- 
folia, Hordewn bulbosum, Lolium Italicum, Pow pratensis, and Poa aqua- 
tica. While all of these appear to stand equally well during summer, 
the Agrostis, Aira, and Cynosurus become somewhat browued after frost 
in early winter. The Festucas are conspicuously green and verdant- 
looking all the year round; the Poas also maintain a good color. The 
last two named genera are possessed of very fine leaves, and naturally 
of a thick, spreading habit of growth, which, together with their other 
qualifications, render them particularly adapted to the formation of 
lawns, and perhaps no grasses at present known can supersede them for 
that purpose. If confined to either one, the Poa species should, for 
various reasons, receive the preference. 

The excellent qualities of Lolium Italicum, the Italian rye-grass, and 
its rapid growth, especially in irrigated meadows, have been the means 
of directing attention to its-merits as a forage plant ia localities where 
extreme droughts and heat prevent the proper maturation of tardy 
growing species. In the Southern States, where it is found difficult to 
secure a hay-crop from timothy, (which is considered the best grass for 
this purpose,) it has been suggested that by sowing Italian rye-grass in 
the fall, after the dry season has passed, a crop might be secured the 
next year beforé the severe hot and dry weather should prevail. To 
test this matter of growth during winter, sowings of the common per- 
ennial rye-grass and the Italian rye-grass were made about the middle 
of October. The weather proving dry for several weeks afterward, 
the young plants made slow progress. The winter was rather severe, 
but, notwithstanding that no covering or protection was given, the 
Italian measured 18 inches in average length on the 28th of April; the 
perennial measured 10 inches average length. 


THA. (Thea viridis.) 


The demand for tea-plants having increased very considerably of 
late, special attention has been given to their propagation. In the 
absence of seeds, which are not always readily procured from Japan or 

from China in condition for germination, the stock of young plants has 
been derived from cuttings of the partially matured growths, taken off 
early in autumn. These form roots in the course of six weeks or two 
months, when planted in sand and kept in a warm greenhouse, withous 
any further appliance of heat. Plants have also been secured from 
cuttings of the tender growths taken in May, but to be successful with 
these it is necessary to place them in a hot-bed, and guard them against 
evaporation. About ten years ago @ small plaht was transferred to 2 


20 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


border in the scialloas where it has remained and made a healthy yearly 
growth without the slightest protection either in summer or winter. 
During severe winters the points of the shoots become browned, but 
they speedily recover when spring growth commences. From this plant 
many thousands of young ones have been produced and distributed, 
principally in the Southern and Southwestern States. It blooms quite 
profusely in the fall months, but too late to mature seeds. The flowers 
are fragrant, and as a greenhouse plant it is quite as meritorious as 
many of those usually found in these structures. 

The want of fresh seeds is no longer felt, as many of the plants first 
sent out produce them in abundance in South Carolina and other States, 
and can be supplied in quantities sufficient to meet all reasonable de- 
mands for plants required solely for purposes of experiment. 

Botanists recognize only one species of Thea, the T. Bohea being re- 
garded simply as a variety ; and it is well known that the commercial 
brands of tea refer either to the place of growth, or modes of manufac- 
ture and preparation for market. There is high probability, however, 
that this plant, so long in cultivation and under conditions of soil and’ 
climate so varied, may have run into many varieties of more or less 
constaney, but there is nothing authentic on the subject. The recent 
importations, by the Department, of tea-seeds from various parts of 
China, Japan, and Assam, may develop facts bearing on these points. 


NEW ZEALAND FLAX. 


An invoice of seeds of the Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, has 
recently been received, and they are apparently in geod condition. On 
several previous occasions seeds of this plant have been placed in my 
hands, but either from being imperfectly ripened when gathered, or 
from loss of vitality during their transmission to this country, they 
failed to germinate. Those lately received appear to be in better con- 
dition than any heretofore imported, and hopes are entertained that 
they will germinate, and assist in the increase of the present limited 
stock of this promising and useful plant. 

It has long been kuown that this plant possesses a very strong fiber. 
It is mentioned in the narratives of the earlier nav iga :ters to New Zea- 
land that they found the fiber in common use among the natives, from 
which they made various articles of clothing, ropes, nets, &c., even 
Strips of the green leaves, without preparation of any kind, being used 
as cords and strings for domestic purposes. The strength and tenacity 
of the fiber are such as to render it worthy of notice, being suppesed to 
compare favorably with the best vegetable productions of like character. 
Experiments made by De Candolle to test its strength as contrasted 
with silk, and with some other well-known vegetable fibers, resulted 
as follows: Silk supported a weight of 34; New Zealand flax, 234; coin- 
mon hemp, 16}; common flax, 113; pita fiber, 7 i. 

While it is well known that the leaves of this plant contain a valuable 
fiber, it has not hitherto been prvtitably prepared for the manufacturer. 
As is the case in regard to the China grass plant, there appears to be 
considerable difficulty in divesting it of extraneous substances. In this 
plant the fiber is incorporated with a quantity of gummy matter, which 
presents a practical difiiculty in its preparation for the spinner. and 
paper manufacturer. That excellent cordage .can be made from it, as 
also very fine paper, has been frequently shown, and it is probable that 
if the attention of practical investigating chemists ¢ould be directed to 
the importance and value of researches on the leaves of this plant, modes 
of preparation would be discovered that would obviate all objeetions, 


REPORT OF SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. pl 


and enable paper-makers and others to avail themselves of this valuable 
fiber. 

As bearing upon the practicability of its cultivation in this country, 
it may be stated that in New Zealand it is found in greatest abundance 
in alluvial bottom-lands, near the sea-coast and the margins of rivers; 
and it has been growing for many years in the open air, both in France 
and Great Britain, and is rarely injured, even slightly, by the severest 
frosts of those climates. 

CHINA GRASS. 


Some confusion appears to exist concerning the species cf Behmeria 
now in cultivation in some of the Southern States, and as it was deemed 
a matter of considerable moment to planters about to engage in its cul- 
ture, that some definite conclusions should be established in regard to 
it, the Department made efforts to procure seeds and plants from various 
sources. Seeds were procured from France, under the names of B. nivea 
and B. candicans, and from Japan by direct importation; also a package 
from a private source, said to have been procured in China, and labeled 
China grass. All these produced plants exactly alike, and are referred 
to B. nivea, var. candicans. Plants received from Japan, as also all the 
plants heretofore cultivated in Washington, prove to be the same as 
those named above. Plants received from a cultivator in Mississippi 
prove to be the true B. nivea. 


Description. 


Behmeria nivea.—Stems downy, with pubescent hair; leaves cordate 
truncate, oval, tapering into a scythe-shaped point, broadly crenate, 
toothed, pubescent both sides; nerves prominent, reticulated feather- 
veined ; green, between nerves underneath ; height about two feet. 

Behmeria nivea, var. candicans.—Stems closely covered with pubescent 
hair; leaves cordate truncate, broadly ovate, broadly crenate, toothed, 
tapering to a straight point, greenish above, densely white, woolly under 
the whole leaf; nerves prominent, intersected with mostly parallel nerves; 
height about three feet. 

The variety appears to be the strenger-growing plant; and from its 
frequent occurrence, both in imported seeds and China grass plants, it 
would seem to be the kiud most generally recognized as furnishing this 
fiber. So far as regards the quality of fiber, there is probably not a 
shade of difference, and as to quantity, the more robust plant will evi- 
dently take precedence. 

A plant received from Missouri, under the name of northern ramie, 
proved to be Urtica chamedryoides, a native species growing trom 3 to 
4 teet in height. A plant received from Texas, said to be superior to 
ramie, proved to be aspecies of Malachra,a Malvaceous plant, possessing 
a strong fiber. 


EsParto GrRAss.—Stipa tenacissima, L.; Macrochloa tenacissima, Kth. 


After many abortive attempts to secure either plants or seeds of the 
so-called Esparto grass, the Department ultimately succeeded in secur- 
ing from France a small quantity of the seeds. ‘These came to hand 
about the middie of summer, and it not being deemed advisable to sow 
them in the open ground at that season, a portion was planted in boxes, 
Which were placed in a shaded green-house, where the atmospheric 
moisture could be properly regulated. Under these conditions about 10 
per cent. of the seeds germinated. About the ist of October a further 
sowing was made ina large glass-covered frame. A few plants made 
their appearance, which were covered slightly with leaves during winter, 


22 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


to guard them against injury from the freezing and thawing of the soil, 
which act so injuriously upon young aud feeble-rooted plants. 

The remainder of the seeds were sown in the experimental] grounds in 
March, and in due time vegetated in about the same proportions as the 
first sowing. During summer the ground was mulched between the 
plants; they progressed favorably, and stood the winter uninjured. 

The plant seems to be of rather slow growth, and, although it is 
described as inhabiting poor, arid soils, that cannot support any other 
vegetation, it appears from the growth here that a damp soil gives a 
much stronger and healthier plant. 


EUCALYPTUS. 


The rapidity of growth of the Hucalyptus, of New South Wales, and 
its supposed adaptability to flourish in very dry and austere climates, 
has led to frequent inquiries by those Who are interested in the lauda- 
ble purpose of raising forests on the treeless plains of the West. 

That most of the species of Hucalyptus, as well as many of the genus 
Acacia, grow with great rapidity, is a well-known fact; but neither of 
them will stand 10° of frost during winter. And as to their growing 
fast in a dry climate, it should be remembered that the season of active 
growth in their native country is characterized by heavy eoutinued 
rains, and a cousequent moist atmosphere. The period of extreme dry- 
ness to which they are subjected is their period of rest, corresponding 
to our winter. On the Pacific coast these trees have been cultivated 
for many years, and are now largely used as shade-trees in cities. 

A species of Eucalyptus, 2. globulus, the bine guin-tree, bas lately at- 
tracted some attention for its supposed medica] value, and statements 
have been made to the effect that it contains properties similar to 
those of the ciuchona. For the purpose of furthering the prosecution of 
experiments, if it is deemed desirable, a number of plants have been 
propagated for dissemination. 

In connection with the subject of selecting trees for their rapidity ot 
growth and suitableness for dry and exposed localities, it may be stated 
that there is no scarcity of plants that are known to possess all these 
requisites. For rapidity of growth the native poplars are not surpassed 
by any species of trees indigenous to temperate climates. The ailan- 
thus has been proved to succeed well ov dry aud comparatively barren 
soils, and the wood has a reputation for great permanence for fenece- 
posts and for similar domestic purposes. It may be hinted that the 
supposed difficulty of clothing the western plains with trees has been 
very much overstated ; when the same care is taken to produce a crop 
of trees as is taken to produce a crop of corn, it is attended with sue- 
cess, as has been abundantly proved by experiment in these outlying 
lands. . 

The feasibility of producing a growth.of timber on the most exposed 
and bleak situations, as well as in localities where a dearth of moisture 
prevents the cultivation of grain crops, has been repeatedly confirmed. 
Let the natural vegetation be of the most humble character, even if 
only the smallest herb or shrub can find a foothold, then a nucleus is 
already established for larger growths. ‘The first requirements are shel- 
ter, protection, and amelioration of climate; therefore the quality and 
value of timber are but secoudary; where foliage of any kind can be 
secured, the climatic surroundings are improved and fitted for the growth 
of valuable timber-trees, which, in turn, afford the necessary protection 
for fruit-trees and vines, as well as all other cultivated crops suited to 
the zone of growth. 


REPORT OF SUPERINTENDENT OF GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 23 


RASPBERRIES. 


Many of the apparent discrepancies in the results ef raspberry cul- 
ture, and the conflicting opinions upon the merits of varieties, arises 
from a want of a thorough discrimination of the species from which they 
have been obtained, anil the special treatment that they respectively 
require. 

Taking the Philadelphia as a type of our native species, we have a 
plant that has proved healthy and productive, almost without excep- 
tion, wherever it has been planted, and therefore it has become some- 
what popular, although, when compared with varieties of the foreign 
species, the fruit is inferior in size, quality, and appearance, affording 
another instance where vigor of growth and productiveness give a su- 
perlative value, even when the quality of fruit is decidedly inferior, as 
exemplified by the Albany Seedling among strawberries and the Con- 
cord among native grapes. 

Taking the Red Antwerp as an example of the foreign varieties of the 
“raspberry, we find a vast difference in the opinions of cultivators with 
regard to its success. In some localities it is highly extolled, while in 
many others it is as decided)y condemned. That there are good rea- 
sons for these opposite opinions there can be no doubt, and observa- 
tions prove that failures are caused by the great heat and dryness of 
our climate during summer, which arrests the growth of the plants and 
prevents their proper maturity. : 

The measure of success attending the culture of the foreign varieties 
of the raspberry depending so much upon a proper degree of moisture, 
it is evident that in light sandy and gravelly soils failures will be the 
rule; when planted in more retentive and clayey soils, growth will be 
more continuous and a heaithier vegetation be secured. 

Keeping these facts in view, thé special treatment required to meet 
the various influences of particular soils and localities will readily be 
suggested. 

With regard to localities, it would appear that in the Southern States, 
where the weather ts dry and warm during the latter portion of sum- 
mer, these varieties will be wnfitted to the climate, and only productive 
uuder the constant attention to such culture as tends to modify these 
antagonistic conditions to success; and experience fully bears out. this 
conclusion. Again, in regard to soils, where it is unavoidable to plant 
on dry soils, the whole of the surface surrounding the plants should 
receive a heavy mulching during summer. Where this is persistently 
practiced, remunerative crops may be produced even in southern local- 
ities. 

On clay soils, provided they are properly drained, surface-stirring, so 
as to keep a loose, comminuted surface; mulching may be dispensed 
with, but even on these soils it may prove of great advantage in the 
dryest seasons to spread a thin coating of leaves or strawy manure over 
the roots of the plants. The special object to keep in view is that of 
constantly maintaining the soil in a condition that will encourage growth 
during summer, and secure the unchecked maturity of the canes for 
fruiting the following year. Covering the canes during winter, although 
a wise precaution, and profitable always, will not in itself secure a crop 
of fruit from unripened weod; hence those who depend altogether upon 
the covering process, are frequently subjected to disappointments. 

; WILLIAM SAUNDERS, 
Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds. 
Hon. HoRACE CAPRON, 
Commissioner. 


24 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN 


Srr: I have the honor to present my sixth annual report as Statis- 
tician of the Department of Agriculture. The estimates of crops of 
1870 are based upon the census returns of the previous year, as far as 
they have been available; but the tabulation of a considerable portion 
of those returns not being yet complete, the comparison of 1870 has 
been completed with our own estimates of 1869. This unchanged basis 
is used for most of the Southern States, and for a few of the Western, 
As the census schedules provide only for enumeration of domestic 
animals on farms, an estimate of farm animals in cities and stock-yards 
has also been included, as well as large numbers pastured on public 
lands, especially in the Pacific States and in the Territories. Less than 
half the cattle and sheep of the Territories are returned by marshals 
under the present census lav. 


CROPS OF 1870. 


Corn.—Au increased breadth of corn was planted in some of the 
Southern States, and in nearly all of the Western. The conditions for 
germination and early growth were generally favorable, and the pros- 
_ pect for a harvest in June and July was reported good in New England 
and in the Middle States, while in the Western States the indications of 
a large crop were general. Wet weather in the Carolinas obstructed 
cultivation and delayed the destruction of a rank growth of weeds, 
detracting somewhat from the promise made by a strong growth and 
good color; and in parts of the Gulf region the crop, though vigorous, 
was not weil advanced at this date, having been delayed by late plant: 
ing or replanting of wet lands. 

In September it was officially stated that corn had been injured in 
localities by drought, by wet weather, by worms, and by early frosts, 
but not sufficiently to threaten a material reduction of the expected 
aggregate. Almost every State made returns of high condition. In 
October it was evident that the corn crop would prove a full one, prob- 
ably the best in ten years, and much larger than those of the two years 
preceding. The States reporting less than the average were New Hamp- 
shire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland, Kansas, Ne- 
braska, California, and Oregon, the other States ranging trom 2 per cent. 
to 22 above an average. The crop ripened unusually early, without 
injury from frosts, and is remarkably sound, with exceptions of injury 
from drought, as in Eastern Massachusetts, where some fields were cut 
up for fodder; in Virginia, where the product of valleys, overwhelmed 
by floods, was rendered enfit for use by man or beast; and in small see- 
tions of the South, and of the Missouri Valley, where the quality was 
injured by excessive rains. 

Winter grains—The opening of spring preseated the winter wheat 
and rye in a weak and unthrifty condition, in comparison with the lux- 
uriance of the previous spring, which foretold the great crop of 1869. 
Exposure to ice and freezing winds had reduced vitality in spots and 
patches liable to the injury of winter-killing, while well drained areas 
presented plants which were small, but vigorous, of geod color, and 
ready to start into healthful growth under the influence of a genial 
spring. With exceptional cases of severe freezing, the actual destruac- 
tion of the plant was by no means sweeping. The backwardness of 

rowth was mainly caused by late planting, followed by an early winter, 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 25 


which allowed of little more than germination before cold weather set 
in. Mild weather and light snows, accompanied with few sudden 
changes, prevailed in early winter, while the colder and rougher weather 
of later winter was attended with heavier snows, which furnished val- 
uable protection and relieved the severity of the winter-killing. The 
amelioration produced by the favorable weather of May was general, 
and in places quite marked, brightening the promise of a moderately 
abundant harvest. In June the principal wheat-growing States made 
returns of condition of winter wheat varying from 6 to 24 per cent. 
below an average. The Southern States presented a more favorable 
showing than usual. The condition of spring wheat was also under an 
average. The superiority of the early-sown winter wheat, manifested 
so prominently in spring, was maintained as the season advanced ; in 
deep and meliow soils, even with a high temperature and drought, it 
presented a vigorous appearance and weli filled heads, though the straw 
might be somewhat shortened. The drill-seeded fields invariably made 
a finer show than those sown broadcast. Among the casualties reported 
were rust, which had a limited range; hail-storms, especially prevalent 
in the Ohio Vailey; driving rains, in Virginia and North Carolina; 
grasshoppers, in Utah; and squirrels, in Contra Costa County, Califor- 
nia, where their destruction of wheat, “‘by the acre daily,” called forth 
public assemblies to repel the invaders, the losses being estimated at 
$100,000. 

In July the estimated reduction in acreage, as compared with the 
crop, was 6 per cent., and in condition 13 per cent. The final returns 
in October indicated the yield which appears in our tables, the compari- 
son being made with the census returns of the crop of 1869. Every 
prominent wheat-producing State exhibited a reduction ranging from 2 
to 18 per cent. 

The Tappahannock appeared to be most prominent among varieties 
succeeding well, particularly in the South and West and Utah Terri- 
tory. 

Hay.—The season was favorable for this crop in the State of New 
York, on the western slope of the Alleghanies, and on the Paeific coast, 
and the product was large in those sections. In New England, New 
York, and in the Ohio Valley, and west of the Mississippi, a material 
reduction in the yield appears. The quality, as a whole, was above 
medium. . 

Potatoes.—The yield of this important esculent was under an average 
in all the Atlantic States southward to Virginia, and in ail the Western 
States north of the Ohio River, the depreciation ranging from 15 to 44 
per cent. An average crop was obtained in Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- 
nesseé, and Arkansas. A slight reduction was experienced on the Pa- 
cific coast. The potato beetle, Doryphora decemlineata, extended its 
theater of operations to the Ohio line, and committed great devasta- 
tions on his eastward march, not forgetting to leave detachments to 
occupy in future the country already conquered. Drought caused much 
loss, both east and west. 

Cotton.—The spring and early summer were more favorable than in 
1869, theugh there was complaint of “bad stands” in South Carolina, 
of drought for five weeks in Georgia, of a less extended season of dry 
weather in Alabama, and of a late and unpropitious start in Texas; yet 
it was a general fact that vigor aud thrifty growth were offset by as few 
local drawbacks as could be expected, even in the average of good sea- 
sous. An increase of acreage was exhibited in the July returns, estima- 
ted at 12 per cent. above that of the previous year, assumed to repre- 


26 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


sent about 1,000,000 acres. The condition of the plant in July was high 
in Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas; barely medium in the 
Caroiinas, Florida, Mississippi, Texas, and Tennessee. There had been 
too much rain in the Carolinas, heavy rains in Georgia had done some 
damage, and sterms in several counties in Mississippi had retarded 
growth; yet the plant was almost everywhere thrifty, a rapid growth 
set in, and it soon became evident that, with an auspicious’ autumn, a 
large crop would be produced, and the possibility of a product of 
4,000,000 bales was foreshadowed. In September the prospect was 
equally favorable, notwithstanding some accounts of rust, worms, &c., 
from which no season is entirely exempt. Upon receipt of returns to 
November 1, the usual date for the reeurrence of killing frost, an esti- 
mate of 3,800,000 bales was calculated; but the continued high tem- 
perature, growth, and matrration of bolls, and unexampled weather for 
picking, by which the work was successfally extended into January. 
added a full half million bales to the expected crop. The result proved 
the estimate to be a very reasonable one. Had the cotton season been 
oue of medium length, an estiurate of 4,009,000 bales would have proved 
quite too high. Unlike corn and other farm crops, cotton, being a 
pereunial, continues to produce new flowers and fruit in undiminished 
measure, wutil the plant is killed by frost. 


Table showing the product of each principal crop of the several States named, the yield per 
acre, the total acreage, the average price in each State, and the value of the crop, for 1870. 


R | ons 2 rs 
TN ie 5S oe 
Oh ae bP . a =) pad 
65 i: S¢ 22 | otal val 
Product. Pe oc =e ae ic a 
Be te ae E's tion. 
6° as ‘ae wien 
EI > ee sé 
<4 < A b>? - 
MAINE. | 
TC ee ee bushels. -} 1, 198, 000 33 36, 303 $1 14 $1, 365, 720 
BAL OHA] Be See Oo eee eae a@o.~.| 264, 000 14.8 17, 837 | 1 469. 
it eee --3 E do | 32, 000 17.6 1, 818 1 44, 160 
ete iba ea ae do....| 2, 163, 000 27.4 78,941 | 65 1, 405. 950 
Peet tense rsa sn -Snar acess do....] 586, 000 19.5 30, 051 | 99 520, 140 
Bere tevar a2 Te ns se dont 443, 000 24 18, 458 75 332, 250 
Porstoes -o. 52... 25 oo ee ee dds. =’. 6, 527, 0U0 125 52, 216 | 66 4, 307, 820 
Papin dae nie tastes bee ene POVNGS =A pee te | ore eine en oe wpa eee |oase> seer] aaa 
BEI, pe Oe eA ere cle tons. | 821, 000 . 80 1, 026, 250 | 29 69 16, 165, 490 
MEALS ts koeed, ete See 3 A SE FTES? 1, 261, 974 | io te 24, 671, 450 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. Pe , 4 is | 
bushels. . 1, 213, 000 36.5 33, 232 | 1 09 1, 322, 170 
do.... 174. 000 14.8 11, 756 } 1 59 276, 
a 3,000} 16 2, 687 1 24 # 53,320 
: 1, 0f6, 000 29. 7 35, 892 66 703, 560 
J 96, 000 21.5 4, 465 1 07 102, 720 
: 87, 009 15 5, 800 72. 210 
=380./55-| 2, 980, 000 33, 863 79 2, 354, 200 
pounds. . 150. 060 | 1,000 150 22 33, 000 
JEL eS? ee es tons... 520, 0.0 | . 96 } 541, 666 19. 85 10, 322, 000 
Tyas See eye 8 kN eer eat ennrie ce + A ego | ry eee “15, 239, 840 
VERMONT 
Tidianwcorne. esa ses. - 2222, bushels.-| 1,920,000} 39.6 48, 484 1 10 2, 112, 000 
Wiiaiitie « matted -cbedods\- sacs s- ° Bee 409), 000 16.8 24, 34 1 63 666, 670 
LAT An gh Oe Te 5 eee do.. 67, 000 15.8 iP I 77, 050 
Orb So ee ee ee ae do. .- 3, 170, 000 33.7 94, 085 59 1, 870, 300 
Parle, te. 5 ie ter eae ots of do. . 107, 800 23.3 1 OL 108, 070 
Buckwheat... ics.ccacwonnc ss =- Ae 22 336. 000 17.5 19, 200 75 252, 000 
Pitatoan. i. ik. 143. Use. Oe os 4, 899, 000 140 34, 992 Se 2, 498, 490 
Dobacs. 2... 220 -ck ann Se pounds 70,000 | 105 15, 400° 
Wet we as does oe Meet Kate eco tons 979, 000 96 1, 019, 791 14 50 14, 195, Su0 
POUL. Sea neind tretede estes nce ae Pon baeas cae ate oS epee Eee 1 DA9. 0S | cleo eee 21, 795, 480 


sd SSS Eee eS eee 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 27 


_ Lable showing the product of cach principal crop, g:¢.—Coutinued. 


ae i ce 
a. Be 35 2s 
wo 2 ee 2 
Product. £5 teh os 8 eo is a Total valua- 
Aw one 23 aie tion. 
ee ae Be 25 
E et 238 
<4 < a ey 
a ee eee ne 2 
MASSACHUSETTS. | BY a 
TeMRVOOET -- = 6 55-5... as bushels. . 1, 327, 000 33 40, 212 $0 98 $1, 300, 460 
Vn, 3 a dos: 35, 000 17.6 1, 988 5 Bayi 61. 250 
oe. oc) eS dans.~ 232, 000 15. 4 15, 064 1 10 255, 200 
Of oie ie do.... 733, 000 26. 4 27, 765 73 535, 090 
o> do¥..3 126, 000 20.7 | 6, 086 1 68 136, 080 
(dt eee dose 328, 000 14 5 2,714 1 02 38, 760 
Do 715 01 8 SS a arias do. . 2, 208, 000 88 25, 090 96 2, 119, 680 
Loo ee pounds. . 6, 289,000 | 1350 4, 658 24 1, 509, 360 
10) 2 See tous. . 507, 000 1.07 473, 831 26 14 13, 252, 930 
ji 1 2 aS ae eo eee Sy a eee eee 5975408) [Oo ee 19, 208, 860 
RHODE ISLAND ‘ | 
Ose ie bushels. . 280, 000 26 10, 769 1 06 296, 800 
jo te Se do 700 17.6 39 1 75 1, 225 
: 2,600 ;* 18 1, 144 TROT 26, 162 
152, 060 32, 7 4, 648 61 92, 720 
30, 000 24 1, 250 96 28, 800 
1, 400 14 100 1 02 1, 428 
488, 000 79 6, 177 98 418, 240 
ie ee 89,000; 09| 8i,es1 | 2400 | 2 136,000 
ee) eee. CNS SG BORE EL oP eae 105A ZIMA ee 3, 061, 375 
OS nen a nes, Done ren ae eee) er ee ern aren a] | a a ert rae] 
1, 413. 000 26. 4 53, 522 114 1, 610, 820 
38. 000 1 ene) 2, 134 1 52 57, 760 
289, 000 14.4 20, 069 1 16 335, 240 
913. 000 32.4 28, 179 69 629. 970 
00) (eos ea done. 24. 060 26.5 905 1 02 24, 4x0 
. Sees SS ee dosas! 96. 000 14 6. 857 1 05 100, 200 
0 St 2 a eee ons: 1, 72, U0 73 23, (iK4 99 1, 711, 710 
labia 2 a pounds.. 7, 495. 000 | 1, 250 5. 996 22.6 1, 693, 870 
Hay 0 enn ee ee tons... 433, 000 1. 30 333, O76 25 60 11, 024, 800 
ite eee ids dwolcocsccnccceace|ecert ace -- GTA ADO Se ee ce os 17, 249, 450 
NEW YORK 
MOUE Sie) 9 8 ee bushels..| 19, 426, 000 34 571, 352 87 16, 900, 620 
TE ee Gee, do... 9, 133. 000 13.8 661, &11 1 41 12, 877, 530 
Os ee he eee Ee ene doves: 2, 230, 000 13 171, 538 97 2, 163, 100 
oe Ree 5 ee ae ee ee ages. 29, 646, 000 32. 4 915, 000 58 17, 194, 680 
Recta RE Se ee d0”.:.; 6, 616, 000 21.2 312. 075 85 5, 623, 600 
GES Sp ee ee doen. 3, 435, 000 17.9 191, 399 81 2, 782, 350 
SS ee eee ee a do ...| 25, 121 000 98 256, 336 65 16, 328, 650 
rn se pone a pounds... 2, 5x4, 000 | 1, 100 2, 349 20 516, 200 
eee are tons.. 4, 491, 000 1225 3, 651, 219 17 21 77, 290, 110 
OCs Beek CR |) 6, 733, 679 |....:..-.- 151, 677, 449 
a | a ae rrr fen ry 
NEW JERSEY 
MMEMMICOPTs =~... .-:2--.-.--- bushels... 10, 057, 000 |. 33 304, 757 81 & 146, 170 
i ee q0soue 1, 630, 000 12.8 131, 250 1 43 2, 402, 400 
9 A dose 470, 000 13. 4 35, 074 | 97 455, 900 
oo: LL ee do.... 4, 049, 000 31 130, 612 | 54 2, 186, 460 
a Lo ae dol 7, 000 28 250 1 10 7, 700 
tL eo i douse: 311, 660 24,3 12, 798 1 00 311, 000 
oa A) ene do.... 3, 658, ON0 75 51, 440 94 4 3, 626, 520 
Tobaces ..... eee 2 pounds... 40, 000 | 1, 150 34 23 9, 200 
tO ES Se) See tons.. 553, 000 1. 40 395,000 | 19 44 10, 750, 320 
ES, CARN Oe, PO Se 2 it ea oe ne 27, 895, 670 
a ore ee —— 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Table showing the product of each principal crop, J:c.—Continued. 


= i} 2 ae 
Bie: rs ee a 
SE 5 ios 28 | Total valua- 
Product. = a g8 & 3 ea tiga, 
ES go aes Oo = 
4 om = sa 
A p Bd ag 
< 4 A- b 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
Mmidign COMM. <te-eieee asses ae bushels.-| 38, 866, 600 35. 8 1, 085, 642 $0 75 $29, 149, 500 
Siete: eu. .te se eae ewe. do.2.-) 17, 115,080 12 1, 426, 250 1 27 21, 736, 050 
IRVOni hs cccceiecehecesee scmecer eee aoe 3, 148, 000 12 262, 333 89 2, 801, 720 
Oats cts spots ee nc ee ceeeeeet ao... 34, 289, 600 32.6 1, 051, 809 48 16, 458, 720 
IBATIGY 25 cectee aeieecoesa~nbecees = do..- 497, 000 23.9 20, 794 91 52, 270 
nck wheat eee fol eee do... 2, 278, 000 18 126, 555 85 1, 936, 300 
Potatoes eee ieee A. RUE aes do....{ 11, 084, 000 87 127, 402 78 8, 645, 520 
PROHACCOES oer cece een ae bate hoe pounds 3, 294, 000 | 1, 200 2, 745 21 691, 740 
Wiepeameiete oacceccastees eceee « tons 2, 734, 000 1.30 2, 103, 076 13 05 35, 678, 700 
connie! jo 2. ule yh ical Ia eee Riana | 6,206, 606 |........-. | 117, 550, 520 
DELAWARE. | 
ENGIN COMM es semciceek acca e ese bushels. - 3, 311, 000 25 132, 440 65 2, 152, 150 
WAI DSb ys cee enti eens eee ann Se ecis dole 626, 000 19 62, 600 1 25 782, 500 
LER S  O E  AEa See do... 10, 000 11.2 92 83 8, 300 
URS Ean aes eee eee dose. 498, 000 2 24, 900 50 249, 000 
ANE Ver ne sewer. ee see aeet ts dg-2: 1, 700 20 85 2 1, 564 
MOK WHOA <5 = ccaccms Venton cs > doses 1, 300 20 65 1 00 1, 300 
OUMOES ost Goesenescetnes cee tae eos 217, 000 75 2, 893 100 | 217, 000 
PROUNCCOS =o) p ache cancene ee sek Pounds...) =e se ein lene te cone emme meee ae noe |e ee re 
JSUT SSH SE geb ES Sago sae eeeee tons. 37, 000 1 37, 000 20 00 740, 000 
Dingess SE ey RR gl (Nf 960875 |2. soaeeee | 4, 151, 814 
MARYLAND. | 
NMGIAN COLD chin ccacece ese - bushels. . 11, 818, 600 22,5 525, 244 071 8, 390, 780 
eat do. 4) 792, 000 9.7 494, 020 128 | 6,123, 760 
Lay AE eee A ~ 264, 000 10.5 | 25, 142 78 | 205, 920 
Oats .-..-. TU} 3,286,000] 24 136, 916 47 | 14544, 420 
Barley vee 10, 700 22 486 90 9, 630 
PBNIGE WEA b .5sccc 5c hccce shee ce do... 67, 000 13.5, 4, 962 ay bs 74, 376 
ED URTORS ee eae ann he cess ones cee do: = 897, 000 67 13, 388 90 807, 300 
PROUACCO Mean” Saab ce ccaeacces pounds 14, 522, 000 637 22,797 08. 6 1, 248, 892 
LEI OW SG Aga Gon ot aera ieee tons 232, 000 1.22 190, 163 16 33 | 3, 788, 560 
TE ir bbe es at cee ee te Mee oS i 1, 413116 || ee 22, 203, 632 
| 
Indian corn bushels. . 19, 360, 000 20 968, 000 65 | 12, 584, 000 
Wheat do. =.) 6, 705, 000 9.6 698, 437 1 24 | 8, 314, 200 
LRG Oe ae Be dows 519, 000 9.6 54, 062 73 | 378, 870 
COT aia ee eS eee ee do. . 7, 175, 000 19.5 367, 928 42 3, 013, 500 
LSA aaa eee eee, oe do. . 7. 000 20 359 80 | 5, 600 
Laecel haya ive0) Gece eerie ere do 44, 000 16 2, 750 70 |} 30, 800 
PONDER sate as isenectiensetee ocak cae GO. =. 1, 236, 000 55 22, 472 Cf ae 877, 560 
MIOUACOO | oo oats case ae (20 encase = pounds 43, 761, 000 739 59, 216 07.3 3, 194, 553 
Meets aacchoaciecaesteesaen c= = tons 216, 000 1, 38 156, 521 14 72 3, 179, 520 
yo Re ie ae | | jo ® 320) 756 |) Seapeeeee 31, 578, 603 
— ——— | ——— = ere) 
NORTH CAROLINA. | 
ARCOM eb rien! seme) bushels..j 22, 500, 000 14.6 1, 541, 095 73 17, 540, 000 
WINGER De eae menos esac oie ck d0:222 4, 218, 000 8.6 490, 465 1 Q1 5, 103, 780 
NNO emis vem eke cicis Sis ciaeiecisia's « dotee. 400, 000 8.3 48, 192 97 382, 000 
(OLY IS hes Bate) (Shae aa ae ee a Opec 2, 750, 000 16. 2 169, 753 57 1, 567, 300 
ADV eee emer eh kamera = do.. 2,0 0 22 90 GL 1, 220 
Ipnckw heats eakere ssc stc acne ci. do... 17, 800 21.4 831 58 10, 324 
SIOLALORS Ine oe ere tle ec co wiakiisiees Goye: 742, 000 81 9, 160 70 519, 400 
WIGUACCD Men eee teeta see oo pounds... 30, C60, 000 586 51, 194 14.1 4, 230, 000 
BUY Eto chee joe sineepie siarims pecs tons... 169, 000 1. 40 120, 714 11 47 1, 938, 430 
PROLA e cise ence Sees ewe eos ohne S| oo ca chee ers cc | eee 2, 431, 494 | 31, 308, 654 


REPCRT OF THE STATI 


STICIAN. 


29 


Table showing the product of each principal crop, §e-—Continued. 


S 3 Es Ee 
S "Eas 2c: aq 
Ss 5 ie 23 | Total val 
: S 3) ox HE otal valua- 
Product. ae foe 8 2 ra a tion. 
4 4 A S= 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
MPICECONE!. 5 onus ones. --- bushels. 12, 000, 000 8.9 1, 348, 314 $1 06 $12, 720, 000 
UR he A do... 1, 012, 000 7 144, S71 1 89 y 912) 680 
Lo 0.) Aho do. - 60, 000 5.8 10, 344 1 70 102, 000 
Sa do... 926, 000 ARE 95, 463 84 777, 840 
Lely do... 7, 000 15 466 95 6, 650 
Lu ee Cts ed SER creer io) Hee mone ee SAR Sr en be See eee EEE mas Sine n 
oooiosi: . 055A 5e do 113, 000 48 2, 394 115 129, 950 
BIHAN ee a= i -2--- 2 = toe pounds - Seer Sa soc es Peer eeeerere baaneeaeee bacceemsccucc A 
>. Sanne tons 74, 000 | | 74,000 | 21 66 1, 602, 840 
t- a 
INNES. 5 9h Me Uredcbet Ssulsucevos%a<4 re: BASH y: 1 Gis; 512: |e ee 17, 251, 960 
GEORGIA 

pee GOIN! .2.---------.2:-- bushels 31, 000, 000 13.5 296, 296 90 27, 909, 000 
S04 bo 5 do: =. 2) 387, 000 8 298, 375 1 47 3, 508, 890 
00) so 86-45 255585550 Sees ececeeee dows= 100, 000 8.1 12, 345 1 49 149, 000 
hie do... 1, 260, 000 14.6 86, 301 83 1, 045, 200 
JOG, oc (Agree Ep eee do. . 12, 000 15 800 97 11, 640 
MO MWNGAL. <2. d-o 205-52. Ce ace One hee ial borne Bac ee ae lee ne eae ieaerete ate eras 
PEO PMMIES ee cldaccaceew cee as-= =e dors.. 350, 000 78 4, 487 1 34 * "469, 000 
LGU vt Sa, See EE ee DOUNASS.|pucas ce sseetel tence -m- | Roees he aes weal soa e ee eee sen ee ee 
LE Seno Si tons... 55, 000 1. 34 41, 044 23 33 1, 283, 150 
Total a tO) O49" | ea etee ester 34, 367, 480 


208, 055 


3. 033, 450 


8 GT ceo Steps CeCe Beee nc eae 
MOMESMEND acitad sss scse essa ce sae 
DA ct edn ee Ree 
LOL yy 6: | 6A SOS pease eee 
Buck wheat 
OCT Co AEE i 
LEO) Soe a re 
Linsy 2 re 
-Total 
Indian corn bushels..| 35, 334, 000 17.5 
Wheat Gh eee 1, 041, 000 8.4 "123, 928 1 28 1, 332, 480 
ne ARBRE SS See ean Cae do... 60, 000 9.7, 6, 185 } 1 06 63, 600 
oo ee ee eee do... 700, 000 15. 6 44, 871 79 553, 000 
Barley ee ae oe oo eRe ae win aoa a 2 eae ES SS ane fe bee eee ere 
OE WHEAG .-. 0 2=.----05 --255-- 117 LS Na | a eRe oe eee mea nereyy I SSS 51 ce 
ETON, <5 = © <t2- 5's -0 2a neniseechs do... 450, 000 70 6, 428 1 37 616, 500 
ou) Se ee 2 Baguageces4... JA Ghee... 3s... | Sve eB oe ON eoseeiuseserice 
Pee Sie leew aun tons... 62, 000 1.33 46,616 | 20 00 | 1, 240, 600 
2 See eee | ee a7 119) es Ae. | 36, 666, 200 
MISSISSIPPI 
Ciplen| 7a ise ayes 30, 300, 000 16.5 1, 836, 363 98 29, 694, 000 
Oph oe do... 221, 000 9.7 22, 183 12 335, 920 
2 i A 2 Ee ee dose: 21, 000 10 2, 100 1 & 34, 020 
2 gE ee do... 300, 000 14,5 20, 689 90 270, 000 
ao a ee d0:. 2}, eases jc col ERE peo ee ee as AS 1 ee a eer ile aS 5 
Lo LING a DOs so hc Sa Rte dato ese eee a AOE 32: : 2 nao 3 baeee a emeieees 
2 a a don 392, 000 73 5, 369 116 454, 720 
PROBED a2. 3 Stolen bo ko 5s ouNdss.|- 22542 een 28 8 Tee eS NY oe eee ees 
J Ve ce leo eee a tons 39, 000 1.37 | 28,467 | 21 25 828, 750 
Re een esis. 4.|.....s cade sc -0 ees.) 1, 915, TA |...--- 202. | 31, 617, 410 
——ee——— oo —aaS— = 


30 * AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Table showing the product of each principal crop, §-c.—Continued. 


= 2 Z 2. 
3? oo ae Ga 
se | ef) | sé | 22 
Product. 22 os Aes && | Total valua- 
= eb # s3 I tion. 
a | Maer” | ee 
4 4 a s+ 
LOUISIANA. 
AAT CON o ool ose ewe been bushels. - 18, 000, 000 pois) 800, 000 $19, 800, 000 
WiGiPabites oo eens. hee baees vee eee nes 41, 000 9.7 4, 226 62, 320 
i a ea ee oss. 21, 000 10 2, 100 34, 020 
CREB tebe > seo ae epee ance t ek ae ee 87, 000 20 3, 460 65, 250 
BRGY ioe dwn be woe sans cdewebeOO. s--]. 0c cece ne ce ss5|sntblien n--[o---85ho4--=a-lp ese scene ene 
DS piGh eee ae one Se ee oe ie ee, ne PMP ae oe Se 
be beiee sepa oe eRe 297, 000 105 2, 344, 520 
DARD See 2. Loeb ee oe. ee ee POUNGS. . |... dein. se Het) codon cone eens Gobn scl op aes wee er 
HBY..-------------eee eee eee tons. - 35, 800 1. 50 23, 866 1, 020, 300 
Bete LRA aint eel epee neice eben d| nt oneal 836,500 2-22 soee 21, 326, 410 
TEXAS. 
LENE Vi wl eS bushels. . 23, 690. 000 26.5 893, 962 1 06 25, 111, 400 
Ul he) 1S ee eee De 1, 225, 000 11.7 104, 700 die 2, 119, 250 
LO a ee eee do... 95, 000 19. 1 4, 973 1 105, 450 
US iy 9 eS? Croce dos - 1, 500), 000 21.6 69, 444 1 00 1, 500, 600 
RNIN Sis, vdeters cee + cewenies dos: - 54, 000 30 1, 300 1 33 71, 820 
EBVO eon deo elodaweteusticr = (OSs Pees Oe Aan Pret ene Peer duane 
IPINPROER Gece vance ch cece seeocses G0re.+ ? _ 3,125 532, 000 
Tobacco. . ‘ 
aay peek seer eebee nce t= seller tons 
Total 
Tce On eee ae ee bushels.-} 25, 000, 000 31.8 786, 163 80 20, 000, 600 
Wheat ......-.- Beet oa bbe do....| 1,251, 000 10.8 115, 833 1 30 1, 626, 300 
LoD Sa Soo ee Oe ere do.ss- 41, 600 18, 2 2, 285 1 00 41, 600 
Brit, SS Ee oeeree do.... 671, 0U0 23. 6 28, 432 62 416, 020 
DESC GSS es Se Se eee eee ag Ferra: tooeren 1 (asc Sasa Reo Sao: aewee cucu el -ae een ay 
ERM UO Loe ine cis ono oss tite: 1 a ee! ea ee eee oe 
Tea tos) Se Se ae a Go...’ 450, 000 109 4, 128 107 481, 500 
PRO ARED So ia.in va wale claiwe'nwakis pounds.. 2, 225, 000 666 3, 340 dae 34), 425 
eee Ces 2 eee tons. - 10, 200 1.50 6,800} 15 00 153,000 
C1) ES URS OU MOOR ee are ee Sea RIE 27S 946,981 |. 2.20 | 23, 058, 845 
—————— SS. ———eeESESSSSS ESS SSS eens 
TENNESSEE. 
TAUANUCOIMN: stuns ners e es eee bushels..| 51, 000, 000 25.8 1, 976, 744 47 23, 970, 000 
RMMMOBTELSS. » ~cc- 220s s-s- crete dots. 7, 357, 000 8.8 836, 022 97 7, 136, 290 
RM itas. £0 oor nw coe oe on sakbee do..... 252, 000 1L.3 20, 530 81 187, 920 
(Es 2 WES SSSR, 2 See do... 3, 920. 000 19.3 203, 108 46 1, 803, 200 
Te 7 SR pe eee dox--2 30, 200 22.5 1, 368 75 23, 100 
IBMEIWUORD sos ame coc sve awse esses dose 9, 500 20 475 v6) 7, 125 
Tet yi: | a ee eee aon. se 1, 220, 000 88 13, 863 52 634, 400 
NR ce nie cin ns IA <b ab ac'a sie pounds..| 35, 000, 000 845 41, 420 08. 3 2, 905, 000 
PEE ap ee See eee aak mele w.aelen's eee tons... 155, (00 1. 43 108, 391 16 64 2, 579, 200 
——— se | ——$———_ 
ii) 8 et Se vp i es eee ou 3.201, 931 |b. eee | 39, 246, 285 
WEST VIRGINIA. 
TGR eNUCOUT ede skiers mcs eas & bushels. - 9, 837, 000 30. 4 323, 585 64 6, 295, 680 
WWihttater eee orkp cub ~ -220 sb eee SS MO.) 2, 533, 000 11.4 222, 105 12 3, 090, 260 
SUG pave EO an dae ole = sown See'= a a6. 32" 280, 000 14.1 10, 258 8&3 232, 400 
OegS teu oeecebot se oust does: 2, 655, 000 27.2 97, 610 | 40 1, 062, 000 
Lig Gig: See See ae eee mera MOS: 56, 000 20 2, 200 | 85 47, 600 
il eae 2s Ca aes 77, 000 19.9 3,89 20 61, 600 
POOR os oa tere ket eats seloe8 do.... 1, 021, 000 85 12,011 | 58 592, 180 
TUGUACEO = eo oe. Sele ese ee a ola pounds. - 2, 292. 000 760 3,015 11.3 258, 996 
Hay Pes es oo eames teess tons.. 242, 000 1:2 192, 063 10 00 | 2, 420, 000 


Aviad) : 2, aca ae ene ee kN. Jee a on 876,916 | 22. 2c | 14,060, 716 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 


Table showing the product of each principal crop, §'¢.— 


ol 


Continued. 


e = | fen | Sea: | 
: “Ss 2 8 26 Bntals vai 
or 3) S a e otal valua- 
ee 4 oe a MON de, tion. 
ee ee BoA) pose 
| > HEH: a9 
4 <q A Sco 
KENTUCKY. 
63, 345, 000 32.1 1,973,364 | $0 48 £30, 405, 600 
5, 610, 000 10 561,000} 1 00 5, 610, Uu0 
790, 000 12.1 65, 239 71 560, 900 
6, 148, 000 23.2 265, 000 40 &, 459, 200 
304, 000 19 16.000 | 195 319, 200 
18, 000 16.7 1,077 j 75 13, 500 
1, 380, 000 73 23, 076 63 1, 134, 000 
Coc, pounds..}; 45, 000, 000 86 64, 655 08. 2 3, 690, 000 
Res ioc keno cc ateeien tons 160, 600 1.36 117, 647 | 13 25 2, 120, 000 
0H a ant SSSR ae eee a aS RS ihe ShOST 108|2- ety, 46, 312, 400 
94, 959, 000 31.4 3, 025, 159 44 41, 795, 600 
6, 750, 000 13 519, 230 91 6, 142, 500 
299, 060 15. 6 19, 166 68 203, 320 
5, 525, 000 25 221, 000 37 2, 044, 250 
285, 000 26.4 10, 795 84 239, 400 
84, 000 23.6 3, 559 67 56, 280 
otatoes ..... Wy eas econ 2,20',000 | 103 21, 359 56 1, 232, 000 
oT ee ee ee pounds. 19, 610, 000 750 26. 146 09.3 1, 823, 730 
Te 525 Se tons 532, 000 1,29 412,403 | 12 82 6, 820, 240 
chi.) Sa AoA ES ROR Shick PTE E, O5Bs SI [pees ee ~ 60, 357, 320 
[pa eer ese ——— | —— | eee 
ILLINOIS. 
NGAI COMM s+. 22 2s---2-<>55-. busheis..| 201,378, 000 35.2 5, 720, 965 35 70, 482, 300 
Ties fe ae ee ee aE do....| 27, 115, 000 12 2, 259, 583 94 25, 488, 100 
Mey ets oS eos cian es do... 2, 235, 000 16. 4 136, 220 60 1, 341, 000 
On Gee do....| 38,502, 000 26 1, 480, 846 32 12, 320, 640 
Lali 290 aes ae eee a do... 2, 232, 000 2 111, 600 62 1, 383. 840 
Pnet wheat 2 ee eee ese do... 206, 000 18.8 10. 957 68 140, 020 
een ee a do... 8, 427, 000 81 104, 037 64 5, 393, 280 
Sonird) eae pounds 5,564,000 | 840 6, 623 12.8 712, 192 
Tig 48 eee tons 1, 895, 000 1.18 1,605,932 | 10 74 20, 352, 300 
DUDE PARIS: Ae eR CMEC Geen enna et Cian 11. 4560003) {no ee 137, 613, 732 
a ene Sr areas Sa ee —_—_——————— | 
INDIANA 
ibvdian) COTM :.+-=<.<s02-<0ees- bushels..} 113, 150, 000 39.5 2, S64, 556 38 42, 997, 000 
FE RG ES TE do....| 20, 200, 000 11 1, 836,363 | 1 CO a 200, 000 
: 517, 000 eT 37, 73% 70 361, 900 
11, 668, (00 23.1 £15, 231 35 4, 083, 800 
800, 009 24.1 33, 195 $3 664, 600 
309, 000 19.2 16, 093 "1 219. 390 
2, 565, 000 45 57, 000 83 2, 128, 950 
6,930,000 | 850 8, 152 05.3 367, 290 
972. 000 1.27 765, 354 | 11 46 11, 139, 120 
“co BBE TR SEES Ae er aaa Ovo | 6, 033, 681 ee al €2, 161, 450 
87, 751, 009 39 2, 250, 025 43 | 42, 120, 480 
19, 150, 000 13.8 1,387,681 | 109 20, 873, 500 
450,000 |, 13.8 32, 608 76 | 342, 000 
24, 500, 000 3L.1 787, 731 33S! 9, 310, 000 
1, 578, 000 23.5 67, 148 86 | 1, 357, 080 
270, 0U0 16.3 16, 564 85 229, 500 
8, 282, 000 2 115, 027 21 6, 703, 420 
21 100.000 | 916 23, 034 12.3 2) 505, 300 
1, 923, U0 1.31 1, 467, 988 | 11 02 21, 191, 480 
i 
Jae Soo i I ok ni Va) ADs 6, 147 806 |..........| 104, 727, 740 


32 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Table showing the product of each principal crop, §e.—Continned. 


a 1, 360, sted 


Ey | 3. er 
8 £3 S 5 aa 
se o: a8 23 ue 
Product. 20 28 Poe 5 & | Total 'valua- 
Aa, co,, oo ae | tion. 
= ao 2a ° 
o'- 3 ahs 2a 
z E Ea = 
< < A S | 
= sonsens, 
MICHIGAN. | 
Enditan (corn .--- -eci-522ee eee bushels 19, 035, 060 37 514, 459 #055 | $10, 469,250 
AVATCE SD Seater sea e aaa eae Usa 15, 288, 000 14 1, 092, 000 1 08 16, 511, 040 
HRV Pese tee rcese hes pee oes gos—- 604, 000 18.2 33, L86 75 453, 000 
Oats Peo cceaetease acc coed 2 tae, do. - 9, 831, 909 35. 3 278, 498 39 3, 834, 090 
IBANIOY ene ieee oe erst eee e ease 530, 000 25 25, 200 80 504, 000 
Buckwheat $01, 000 17.3 52, 080 62 558, 620 
Potatoes 7, 000, 000 95 73, 684 58 4, 060, 000 
Tobacco. -- 3, 509, 000 $50 3, 684 20 200, 009 
oe ee ereh bee kee 1, 472, 000 1.36 1,082,352] 1117 16, 442, 240 
pO RE SS On Teeny ee acs ener, eee ee: ea ee 8) 155,1143 | eee 53, 532, 240 
Indian corn 19, $95, 000 38 526, 184 52 10, 397, 4°0 
Wheat 20, 485, 000 13. 4 1, 528, 73) $0 18, 436, 500 
LEG) sane SSSR Sesossnoe ae 1, 219, 009° 13. 6 89, 632 62 755, 780 
(O73). 5 SSeS geo ae 14, 327, 000 27.9 513, 512 39 5, 587, 530 
Barley 1, 431, 000 26.5 54, 000 67 958, 770 
Buckwheat 498, 000 20.1 24, 776 54 268, 92C 
LETUCIM SR Sooo sb a See CaS Heenes adores 4, 585, 600 57 £0, 438 74 3, 392, 900 
SUBDACCO -2-5- sone 5=-+----% 2: pounds... 1, 037, 000 $00 1, 152 18 186, 66 , 
13 Deeg od ao EEO eee Bed tons... 1, 223, 000 1. 34 912, 686 10 43 12, 755, 890 
Bata eee ae sec tes Cee eee |. Ae Bete A ee 3,731. 1117] See 52, 740, 350 
MINNESOTA 
AarrAUCOIM .2)52.226c6-~-. 22. bushels... 5, 823, 000 33 176, 454 51 2, $69, 730 
VEG SS oe See eres do... 16, 022, 000 Tay 1, 054, 078 83 13, 298, 260 
UI, asec cae pSStesseeeeeee soe: do... 74, 000 17.7 4, 120 56 41, 440 
Geis 55 ee a eee me do... 8, 959, 000 32. 9 272, 310 34 3, 046, 060 
RANI GY ce me arcsec tecssciceceee ss do... 980, 000 24.5 40, 000 54 529, 200 
BUCK WHOAD Coco. tes sccsce ces do... 53 4.00 18.6 2, 249 60 31, 809 
LET VTE ee We ae th do... 1, 274, 000 53 24, 037 95 1, 210, 309 
TS OND DOT oh GR eee eae Stes monmnds=3|5 20 '- Jo. 25-8 e| cee eee -ctegesese sci,|sscce-sosee| ae 
1? eS SoS ee BUCS EB EOS tons 724, 000 1. 47 492, 517 6 77 4, 901, 480 
ER GtAl tome meee iain a te pac i ML aka oe 2, 066, 425 |.......-2- 26, 028, 210 
[| | == - 
IOWA 
MNGtaNICOlN 2-2 <2 eee e ste bushels 93, 415, 000 32 2,919, 218 34 "31, 761, 160 
T/L page ee do.. 20, 445, 000 12.5 1, 635, 600 78 15, 947, 100 
LES, Sop socs Soa See cite Ses anes donc: 518, 000 17.6 29, 431 58 300, 440 
OES 5 ea a 2 Oe ee oe do....| 16,340, 000 29.7 550, 168 30 4, £02, 000 
Barley eees. )- sete ees. sate ae do... 1, 227, 000 26 47, 192 63 773, 010 
Backwheat-.te.-.2-2ssccaseones do... 2:0, 000 21.6 9, 259 69 138, 000 
Aue Oocees 4, 680, 000 95 49, 263 52 2, 433, 600 
pounds:..|o-<- Soe co =. 2s] cee ese =| ese = cose ee e| oo eee eee errr 
REP EM ALS 9 PDE i Goth de aes tons 1, 600, 000 1.34 1, 194, 029 770 12, 320, 000 
A SR RN NESE” SEAR FETE 6, 434, 160 |.....-.-..| 68, 575, 250 
KANSAS : . 
IPI MeN T (is 2 a eR bushels 16, 685, 000 28 595, 892 58 9, 677, 300 
MWVNGeb ee tee Neen wo ceceee MO): 2) 343, 000 15 156, 200 86 2, 014, 980 
TG a sees $5q555955 56s see seers 5 i 3 725 | 69 53, 475 
Ontsi cs els ele. See 117; 079 40 1, 475, 200 
Barley 3, B54 | 75 69, 375 
Buckwheat 1, 504 i7 23, 870 
Potatoes 29, 613 56 1, 757, 840 
EGDACEOs = ose. see eee es POUNOS. -f) 20 2a ey. cee ee ernie ele oc | och ee ae 
Le OE ne Ree OE 9 oe eee ae 452, 135 718 3, 798, 220 


18, 870, 260 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 


a) 
is) 


Table showing the product of each principal crop, g:c.—Continued. 


| gy ro mn = 
sd S 3 | EPS | ss | 
° “= 26 nA 
BS ats a5 | 38 
Product. 22 oe a A | Total valua- 
= pe ED py oe as tion. 
ro So 2s Oo ~ 
9 oe Fels BA 
EI Ss | BA as 
"| 4 ruc 0 ae A > 
NEBRASKA. 
Fndian corn. ....0...4.......- bushels..} 5, 163, 000 29.9 12,675 | $0 36 $1, 858, 680 
“had fe aR ae a ee do..--| © 1,848, 000 14.4 128, 333 64 1, 182, 720 
Rye. .--------------------------- do. --. 12, 900 23.7 544 54 6, 966 
(Se do....| 1,226, 000 38.7 36, 379 30 367, 800 
7G 12" if eo Bee ae Albee 233, 700 29 8, 058 65 151, 905 
ucrewucay-=--(---------------- do..-.. 2, 800 26. 2 106 1 26 3, 528 
TPTIPLUOGE Oe cooe eee te aa doz: 769, 000 94 8, 130 56 430, 649 
OG ee THOR IR eet lela eek Bb a OL eR ie Se Soe bor Boe Bere mee ies” 
ood NE an ae tons. 145, 000 1.40 103, 571 5 60 812, 000 
BRM isis caer nina ip dapeipaiies sm aleie | eine aaciniac ale Siafls scigisjocc:eidie PO etet (tal BeRIECee Spe 4, 814, 239 
CALIFORNIA 
Indian corn...-.-..---------+ bushels. . 1, 059, 000 35. 6 30, 870 1 20 1, 318, 800 
Tanith. ode re do.-..| 14,175, 000 19 746, 052 1 10 15, 592, 590 
Rye.-------------------------+- do. -=- 24, 900 38 655 119 29, 631 
CHG conch cee eaE eee eee do....| 1,581, 000 35.5 44,535 59 932, 790 
lolly Dene ee ae do....| 7,378,000 26.9 274, 275 98 7, 230, 440 
PAO RNPHOAD fons anna (= --=--<-— dos 3- 22, 500 32.5 692 1 07 24, O75 
LEdipniucsi! ae os Se eee See doz... 1, 823, 000 148 12, 317 1 35 2, 461, 050 
Tobacco... Sac Bee Be eee BU TOS Se ere cnet ssia ected seis ainaree sala mraic sere oercerae tad op a) stall bste a mre latest cate 
OL) ced DYE Se eeeeroceee tons. . 617, 000 1. 48 416, 891 16 70 10, 303, 990 
TE ig SERRE GR ce Eee ee ee GRIN Cee t eee meee 37, 893, 186 
\ Indian corn 88, 000 29.7 2, 962 1 00 88, 000 
Wheat 2, 270, 000 19.5 116, 410 95 2, 156, 500 
Tang) ae Seco ee eee 3, 800 25 152 87 3, 306 
51) hee coc: BSD OBS See Bee eee 1, 867, 000 36 51, 861 46 858, 820 
Barle 202, 000 32. 3 6, 253 68 137, 360 
Buckwheat 1, 400 30.7 45 1 41 1, 974 
Potatoes = 414, 000 87 4,758 77 318, 7380 
oT P01 OE eee [ISG Ce PoE Rete Bodo. CHOMPREESE Prercotre Seee occas ced) sccure cre tary 
Ral eta tahtela a cma 5 25 <ialais o12 02 <0 tons. - 86, 000 1. 45 59, 310 12 05 1, 036, 300 
Loa tse Oa la ad Rae: mena 241, 751 | Cae | 4, 601, 040 


11, 000 35 314 1 25 13, 750 
251, 000 23. 5 10, 680 1 50 376, 500 
300 24 2 1 25 375 
59, 000 32.5 1, 815 83 48, 970 
RRMA a =e 5 'e <i niale stem Aenea Ghieaen 324, 000 Pa 11, 781 HA 362, 880 
Meewhoat 2 5:.-latsssteuseds fae do... 900 Q2h5 32 110 996 
BGIMIOES ---- =~ --n=-- 2 =e sen aa~ do... 155, 000 87 1, 781 1 84 285, 200 
SRE oe aaa an s0'= = 2 a amen pateGh oh ee eee CO Seana al | 3 | Eee Bema lone Pee cre ne 
oes in ons oa tee tons. 40, 000 1.35 29, 629 22 50 900, 000 
EIRENE re eS ee 56, 044 yy ea 1, 988, 665 
mtn fe es = Lat 
THE TERRITORIES 

(Ge) bushels. . 1, 230, 000 35.9 34, 261 | 99 1, 217, 700 
BEE eS. -c'-.----5- do..-. 1, 675, 000 25.7 65, 175 Wes 2, 026, 750 
“Ja oo ee AS eee do..- 13, 000 z 565 1 24 16, 120 
i> oe Abed Bn cone: ae Peeeaoee do. .-- 1, 031, 000 33 31, 242 78 804, 180 
Wav ba: SA SS ee do.... 328, 000 30.2 10, 860 98 323, 440 
Teil et a ce dows. . 1, 900 28.5 66 1 00 1, 900 
eS 2 (3c. fot tansainca sul << doa 973, 000 145 6, 710 99 963, 270 
Ue 5 a DOuTGss. |. 2: seteppeees | UN TU kes ace e| es alo tec 
D5 5 OES REE ees tons.. 128, 000 1.55 82, 580 15 96 | 2, 042, 880 

oe SED Es ee | ee ae | pai ae a Oe Oe | 1, 394, 2 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


B4 


G09 ‘sto ‘SE | LET ‘ozT‘T | 009 ‘seb "st | Sho ‘cos ‘chs | TES ‘ees ‘BT | oo2 ‘FEB ‘ses | COCO ‘ssa ‘TOD | LL6 ‘oFO'sE | 000 ‘GG ‘BOO ‘T| ~~ i" tener ens roy, 


OGT ‘OT gos 000 ‘et 082 '960'S SLI ‘co 000 ‘S49 "T O0L 'L18 'T 198 ‘pS C0 Bee eRe ns eee ORT, 
cue or 008 006 ‘9Le 089 ‘OF 600 'TSé OSL ‘ET bis 000 ‘TE anes ere ie eS aes Go OU 
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T£9 ‘68 seo 006 ‘Fe 00S ‘66S 'SE | eco ‘NbL COO 'SLI ‘PT | OOR ‘ste 'E O18 ‘08 CoO ee0 TI be see ce ke 
996 ‘9 BES 006 ‘EL OGL ‘ZBL 'E £€6'86T —) 000 ‘Rb 'T 029 ‘g68 'T SLO'BLT O'R a | Se eee eee Se eee 
Sub ‘ee | ct ' 00S ‘LL ORG ‘PIO 008 ‘9ST 000 ‘She '% 008 ‘219 '6 668 ‘CEG C00 'SR0"0R- eS Ss Spore ae rs ws, SRD, 
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OBE ‘£08 99T ‘GE 000 ‘66% 0S '&hT '9 O66 ‘619 000 ‘use ‘9 009 ‘G62 ‘Th | GST 'Sz0's | 000 ‘066 Lee ee ee ee ence 
006 ‘09s 686 ‘co 000 ‘064 000 ‘919 's 000 ‘19S 000 ‘019 's 009 ‘cob ‘06 =| BOE ‘EL6'T | 000 ‘sre gies AME eee “==> KyouqUEyy 
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086 ‘LET OFS ‘0% 000 'e6s 066 ‘ORT 2 BO ‘988 000 ‘266 1h OGOOLE 6S PPL OLE TOO OUOIS fe i eee, 
009 "Tr C83 'G 009 ‘IP 008 ‘989 ‘T £8 ‘SIT 000 ‘163 ‘L 000 ‘00003 | £91 ‘984 QOD GCONSG! © (Fras saae Se eg ee ee ee 
OSh SOL £16 > 000 ‘c6 086 ‘GILG 00L 'bOT 000 ‘Se 'F OOb TET ‘SG | 296 ‘E68 OGONOGD 6G: — Psat Tete ne ea oe eee ae 
080 ‘PE OO 000 ‘1% 0&6 ‘eo 968 'b 000 "1% 000 ‘008 ‘6 | 000 ‘008 000 ‘0008 |" “rear hs BUBTSO'T 
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000 ‘6FL che GT 000 ‘00T 068 'R0¢ ‘s GLE ‘863 000 ‘Lag '% OOONOUS Le DGS 96S: 6 | OCD OOD Lem ee.) 
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OFS ‘ces 690 '08 ONL ‘LS bSL'G 000 ‘8S 068 ‘019 'L BES "es 000 ‘6th 'T 
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OG0 ‘22 OFG 'P OL9 ‘999 GbE ‘bs 000 ‘60% 000 II 'S b8b ‘8h OT Lambe bei ilelntabsie > > escent phipintsiprteine EN TI 
OE ‘ec 189 ‘3 099 ‘922 96e ‘IT 000 ‘FLT OLT '@6e ‘T BEG ‘ES OPO Si Tc [sressenn nen apes can nc rns 2 a2 hs> eae ee 
O9T ‘PHS 818 'E 066 ‘6969 LES "LE 000 "698 OGL ‘SETS | COE ‘9E CC Sl i i ea a Sets EECA GI 
‘do. ‘dor 
jo a A ‘SOV ‘epoysug jdozoyoonye,a| ‘so10y ‘spysng jo Ore ‘pOL0V ‘sTomsug 


‘SMLVILS 


"TAL ‘NYOO NVICGNT 


‘OLET of dour youo fo onjna ys pun ‘souon fo wogiunn oy Gorpoud ayz Burnoys opig yoo of Runmungy 


STATISTICIAN. 


REPORT OF THE 


PFO ‘COL ‘2 


006 ‘T 
066 
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82g ‘S 
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jo ony, solv spoysug 
“LVIBMIIAE 


Sao 
"PouuT}IOH—OLET of ao.o yova fo enjua ayy pun ‘sasov fo saqunu aua 


ERG ‘PES GS 


PSG ‘BOT ‘'T 


00% ‘S68 ‘9 


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+* WOS0Ig 
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Sen ea SRIQUKT 


ene het ee Nat hrhbo addin didi “*"* SBSUB IT 
TST panini. 7." .8 5 p 


**> -BOSOTUIPL 
“UISUODST AL. 


POEM OES SSERR RAR SP er Oreo Rwas es ann ncn n\n nnn es ena mpi 


STqOTAL 


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ec STOUTTT 
mass cee > TIMOSSIPT 
SaaS Agony woyy 


oP SORA PESSOS PF OSESEE SRR SENSSE PANS S 5.5 oS Oe 


TSITA ISOA\ 
pensar eanacseanansnesenereers snes: << GQRQTUOT. 


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ee wet neteenaesncesseessese=: SUXOT, 
RASS SS 8 SSNS TS Sm EIR OT. 
TAd WSISSTPAL 
eee ae vuNgely 
Sag po era eee areremmaaie | 1G 8 

tonnes BTSUOes) 

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meses cine SSE ASNES PET Oar ea IO NT 

ooreres  OUNUB ITA, 
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CO RARE RARE ARE RI RReinn RN income mm ns SA om Sirry ROE PRGA 
MEE eae oe agama. (325, 6 USP 


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menienenemncem nnn ean ar nn 9050 6% —°.5%.9\.595° 5050 SSI GReED) 

Rnpineernemrnnarinam anne = =0ndo.0nnsn ein n.=cin cine aA! 
OUTYSdaBTY ALO AT 
teen recent eeawenaceneenens aeveee ences ce nene ees = = OUIRTT 


‘SHLIVIS 


“sr upowd aur Buamoys ‘oyogg youo of Rmuung 


ae -4. 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


36 


ogo ‘696 ‘see | - 08 ‘T98 ‘GT | 000 ‘ces ‘b3 
088 ‘'GbO ‘G 086 ‘%8 000 ‘Sar 
000 ‘006 669 ‘6% 000 ‘OF 
08 ‘980 ‘T 01g ‘6S 000 ‘98 
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000 ‘0GF ‘& £90 ‘G6 000 ‘@he 
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Scr ‘LEL ‘9% | 899 ‘Ose 


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OF ‘828 ‘T 


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p89 '¢ 
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000 ‘280 ‘r 
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G68 BFE T | LOL eS 000 Ges FT 

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048 "869 'T | 9660 000'S6h"L 

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Ob9 ‘Osh 081 ‘8 
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009 ‘keh GB |: £98 ‘6F 
006 ‘018 *T LEO ‘VG 
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0zg ‘99 ‘e OFF ‘TS 


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000 ‘00% 
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000 ‘98% ‘T 
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no naiadior~ Sa 


0G9 ‘828 ‘Or | -98E ‘9% 000 ‘IEE ‘ce 
OTL TILT 129 ‘6% 000 ‘66h 'T 
OFG ‘RLF LLT'9 000 ‘88F | 
089 ‘GIT % 060 ‘Sa 000 ‘20e 
OGP ‘R6h B66 PE 000 ‘668 ‘b 
008 ‘PSE % £98 ‘Ee 000 ‘086 '% 
068 ‘LOE FS | OIG '@G 000 ‘Les “9 
zt Cin a) JO ON[VA "SOLO “SpoOqsnel 
‘SHOLVLOL 


—— 


Beicigrimasin ssc sch wenn “hn = - Sono eae nmeemmerig lh 
pnene>banmeiemnhan= -cini-o* amr <n o ie SOTO MO MOnTT 
ics 7 SPRoNn 


ee ew eee ee tee 


"757" UOSeIO 

mamma 14.000. 11 70) 

BLASS AEN Se |GET ee eee 
eae ar 2 * SBSUV YT 
eee eee ewe ee ae oe ee 


*> BJOSOUUTPT 
* > WISUOOSTAL 
Apemigace Ss: 352 “7 WRSTQONT 
Lee eee EORLO 
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REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. a 


A general summary showing the estimated quantities, number of acres, and aggregate value of 
the principal crops of the farm in 1870. 


| Number of Number of 


Products. Goshelt iran Value. 

Rr Setters PP ve 1, 094, 255,000 | 38, 646, 977 601, 839, 030 
me SG es 235, 884,700 | 18, 992/591 245, 865, 045 
age... 1S AS RS RI PATS 15, 473,600 | 1,176, 137 12) G42, 605 
REL TR AS aE Oe Pe | 947977400 | $792, 395 107, 136, 710 
eta ee 26,295,400 | 1, 108 924 22) 244) 5e4 
oe VV 10 ae Set er ae ee ER RR 9, 841, 500 536, 992 7, 725, 044 
rere ah is ees 114, 775,000 | 1, 325, 119 82, 668) 590 

RRs foo ld 3 ee 1, 743, 802,600 | 70,579,135 | 1, 080, 091, 608 
ee ee pounds..| 250, 628, 000 330, 668 26, 747, 158 
eee ce a ae tons... 24° 525,000 | 19, 861, £05 338, 969, 630 
BEER oe ee oan avindataa aaa bales. - 4, 400, 00.0 8, 680, 000 286, 000, 000 

EES SIR So am peas ae Aree 0 Ee 99,451,608 | 1, 731, 808, 446 


Table showing the average yield and cash value, end price per bushel, ton, or pound, of farm 
products for the year 1870. 


Se clk ree) Sg an |aeeed | a 
Products. Soa] off | og g Products. O35 & O23 em) og & 
bess PaaS SEE Boao | Sa Se has 
eda an are? Ain agree Eda 
Indian corn .-bushels.-} 28.3-+ |$0 54.9+ | $15 57 || Buckwheat.-bushels..| 18.3 -+'80 78. 4+ | $14 38 
(Wich ae do..| 12.44 | 1 04.24 12 94 || Potatoes........ do..-..| 86.6 + 72 4+ 62 38 
Lon) do..| 13. 1+ 81.5+ | 10 72 || Tobaeco ..--. pounds..|757 +) 48.6+ 80 88 
Sei do..| 28.1-+4 ASS -Ea| LNB) || Hag 2 428-43... tons..| 1.234-/13 82 + 17 06 
Dnt dons) 23:.1-}- — 32 94 


Table showing the average yield of farm products per acre for the year 1870. 


States. Corn. | Wheat.| Rye. | Oats. | Barley. Late Potatoes.| Tobacco. | Hay. 
Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. | Bush. Bush. | Pounds. Tons. 
PU he iscsi 33.0| 148| 176] 27.4] 19.5] 240 | 125.4 ee .80 
New Hampshire. -.--.-.. 36.5 14.8 16.0 29.7 21.5 15.0 88 1, 000 . 96 
ReMmnont :25=j055-4.--. 39.6 16.8 15. 8 23.7 23.3 Des 140 1, 050 . 96 
“Massachusetts......--. 33.0 17.6 15.4 26. 4 20.7 14.0 88 1, 350 1.07 
Rhode Island ........-. 26.0 17.6 18.0 32.7 24.0 14.0 19) aes 1.09 
Connecticut ........-.- 26.4 17.8 14.4 32.4 26.5 14.9 “5 1, 250 1.30 
NO a 34.0 13.8 13.0 32.4 PA 7.9 7 98 1, 100 1. 23 
New Jersey ........-- 33.0 12.8 13.4 31.0 28.0 24.3 ih 1, 150 1. 40 
Pennsylvania 35.8 12.0 12.0 32. 6 23.9 18.0 87 1, 200 1.30 
ByswanGs s see cas.) 25:0 10.0 11.2 20.0 20.0 20.6 Ug ae ae ee 1.00 
Maryland ...--.......- 22.5 9.7 10.5 24.0 22.0 13.5! 67 637 1, 22 
ETE Ce aS ea 20.0 9.6 9.6 19.5 20. 0 16.0 55 739 1.38 
North Carolina ......-. 14.6 &.6 8.3 16. 2 2.0 21.4 81 586 1. 40 
South Carolina ......-. 8.9 7.0 5.8 9.7 Thy Oy eee pO ace eee 1.00 
(CG Coe eee A 13.5 8.0 a1 14.6 Ts ON aks woee RE ls ete es 1.34 
orida......---. REE raes.|. >) eiae 7.5 |. Sao 15 ig ae ae 
Alabama 17.5 8.4 Ou LS: 6. Sasdeeenlecsasees 70) | eoese eee 1.33 
Mississippi 16.5 9.7 10.0 4, 5, (2 2s SOO ee 75; a vaaes Boe 1.37 
nisiana 92) 5 9.7 10.0 25; 0) |. syn ere ens LOS) | REESE 1.50 
“EES ee ee 26.5 a i) 19.1 21.6 Bt) | ee 196) | >is § 1. 60 
PEATISRG! =... --------- 31.8 10.8 18.2 93.6) | 2 Ee Ye 109 666 1.50 
MENTIeSSEO. /.......---- 25.8 8.8 ge: 19.3 22.5 20.0 a8 845 1. 43 
West Virginia ...-..-- 30. 4 11.4 14,1 27.2 20.0 19.9 85 760 1. 26 
ion 32.1 10.0 12.1 23. 2 19.0 16.7 78 696 1.36 
win 31.4 13.0 15.6 25.0 26. 4 23.6 103 750 1.29 
UG 35. 2 12.0 16.4 26. 0 20. 0 18.8 81 840 1.18 
JarG hy) 39.5 11.0 1335 28.1 24.1 19,2 45 850 1.27 
Lit ee 39.0 13.8 13.8 31.1 93.5 16.3 72 916 1.31 
Juin) 37.0 14.0 18.2 35.3 25.0 17.3 95 950 1, 36 
Ghent rn 38. 0 13. 4 13.6 27.9 26.5 20.1 57 900 1. 34 
MINHESObA.- 252522. 33.0 15. 2 TR 32.9 24.5 18.6 BS | sass soe 1.47 
rl ee oe 32.0 12,5 17.6 29.7 26.0 21.6 95), [535 1,34 
io oe ee 22.0 15.0 20.8 sha 24.0) 20.6 106° |). 222-4 i517 
PROUCASKS 25.5.0 2.5225 29.9 14.4 ps ie Er! 29. 0 26.2 94.125 25 1. 40 
Calitprnig, - . 4. . 254.25: 35.6 19.0 38.0 35.5 26.9 32.5 (4 |e 1. 48 
WIGPO os 28. 5. Sos aeees 29. 7 19.5 25.0 36.0 32.3 30.7 B87 Wie jasecaae 1.45 
V0 Ee eee 35. 0 23.5 24.0 32.5 27.5 27.5 87; eee 1.35 
The Territories ....... 35.9 25.7 23.0 33.0 30. 2 23.5 1451 Foe ee 155 


-_————— Eee ———————eeTSTSTSNSNTSNSNSNSSSS.-.EO>OO}®M DD 


38 ' AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Zable showing the average cash value of farm products per acre for the year 1870. 


BSSSSAars 


eo f ¢ 
States. < o - 3 S 
le a roa] é a = a / eS & e 
s Py = a = 6 S 
| o) E Pa i) ia) en H i 
LOH a Soe | $37 62 | $26 34 | $24 28 | $17 81 | $19 30 | $18 CO $82 50 |. -- epee $15 75 
New Hampshire.......] 39 7 23 53 | 19 84 19 60 23 00 12 45 69 52 $220 00 19 05 
Vermont 43 56 7 38 418 19,1639. 88 4 69358") Ase 71 40 231 00 13 92 
Massachusetts ....---. 32 34] 3080; 1694] 1927] 2235] 14 28 84 48 324 00 27 96 
Rhode Island... ...-.- 27 56 | 3080) 22 26 19 94] 23 04 14 28 77 42 |. SSseepeee 26 16 
Connecticut .....-....- 30 09 27 05 16 79 2 35 27 03 147 72 27 282 50 33 28 
New Work. of... jus ve 29 58 19 45 12 61 18 79 18 02 14 49 63 7 * 220 00 21 16 
iNew Jersey 2. -- 2.5... 26 73 18 30 12 99 16 74 30 80 24 30 70 50 264 5 oy gt 
Pennsylvania --.-...-. 26 85 15 24 10 68 15 64 21 74 15 30 67 86 252 00 16 96 
Delavrare? 22.252 ae 16 25 12 50 9 29 | «10 00 18 40 20 00 fide 1 eet sie 20 CO 
Morylaude 22. 25. sabe 15 97 12 41 8 19 11 28 19 &0 14 98 60 30 54 78 19 92 
APU Bier Sete eee eee | 13 00 11°99'; ° 7 00 8 19 16 00 1t 23 39 05 53 94 20 31 
Yorth Carolina........ 11 338 10 40 8 05 9 23 13 42 12 41 56 70 &2 62 16 05 
South Carolina ........ 943] 1323). 9 86 BA | 48 2b ile ee ces: 5D 20.4. ose eee 21 66 
REY et ere ie a ee 12 15 11 76 12 06 12 is i Bis! ep 104 92). =-ceeeeae 31 26 
IBVOMiae ec ee cice Uh OS Fee acne ae AZ OO ete cseeslecee cae 86 25 102 60 1b Sees 
PU ee edd 16 27 10 75 10 28 1 las ee Sere | eae ea 95°90) eee 26 
Mississippi.--.-....--. 16 17 14 74 16 20 GPA fh Sk | es = 64 68 |..2 -S22eee 29 
Lovisiana --........-.. 24 75 14 74 16 20 G6. 9o te 0 ease cee 5 121 80'|.-2322eeee 42 
aT 4 aes Se eee 28109.) 2024 21 207) OEGp | 89 SO sen 2S. 170 24°): eee 24 
WET RAMGAS 5-0 secu se | 25 44 14 04 18 20 BGS |b Wf. ee ee ee 116 63° 101 89 22 
Tennessee. .......----. 12 12 8 53 9 15 8 87 16 87 | 15 00 45 76 70 13 23 
West Virginia. ........ 19 45 13 90 11 70 10 88 17 00 15 92 49 30 85 88 12 
Kentucky ....-.....--- 15 40 19 60 8 59 9 28 19.95 12 52 49 14 57 07 18 
MIND OUTA foe oo ks oars = ae 13 81 11 83 10 60 9 25 22 17 15 81 57 68 69 735 16 
Cote a 12 32 11 28 9 84 8 32 12 40 12 78 | 51 84 107 52 12 67 


CANS ee Sa ee 15 61} 11 00 9 59 983] 2000) 13 63 37 35 45 05 14 55 
(i) 54380 ee 18 72} 1504] 1048] 11 81) 2021) 13 8 58 32 112 66 14 43 
MORCHICAM 22 deca ae 20 35] 1512) 1365) 13 76) 2000] 10 72 55 10 190 00 15 19 
Wisconsin -)).-.....--.-. 19 76 | 12 06 843] 1088} 17 75} 10 & 42 18 162 00 13 97 
Minnesota ........:--- 16 83} 12 61 991 | 11.18) 13 23) 11 16 00 30!) =-oseeree 9 95 
IOWA) seb see ove ee = 5 10 88 975 | 10 20 891] 1638} 14 90 49 AQ :5\ Sateen = 10 31 
SRARMIRAS Ses nea 22 16 24; 1290] 1435] 1260] 1800) 15 8&6 2936 ||" 2 osereee 8 40 
Nebraska 10 76 921} 1279] 1011] 1885] 33 01 5264 || 2 sees ome 7 84 
California 42 72} 2090) 4522) 2094] 2636) 34 77 299 80 |. ceeeeee 24 71 

egon ..- 2970} 1852] 2175) 1656) 2296) 43 28 66.99 |. 2.55 oe’ SES eee, 

evada 4375 | 3525] 3000) 2697) 3080) 30 2 16008 |. 25.2288 3) 37 
The Territories 35 54] 3109) 2852) 25 74] 2959] 28 50 143 55 ||... Sapo 24 73 


Total average cash value per acre of the above crops for the year 1870. 


; E g 
So ‘ag 
re as 
States. 8 States. §3 
25 oe 
aay 2 
4 4 
REE eee seek ghee ee ESL ool Sapo || LORASeeis: k sesee a. Jee oe ‘J $18 12 
MIG ELIMIODAMICG «one nen eee ebieeae eee Pains) || Araneae. 02000): 2 cco ee 24 34 
TCE EIN UES eee 4 SB See eae Wieas || Pengessee:.. -< i.) 3... ee eee « 42 29 
(MERSACHUSOUS -2 5s ociene ae. chen ee onc +- 32 15 || West Virginia 16 03 
Dot Rien ea: on a ga098 || Kentuely..25-25- Jeecsce 15 00 
ASOUMGCIPUT =. oo -icece--- <-> s2-25--- aaee Soieo)|| Missguri:. 2003. s.9. 000 he ene ee eee 14 17 
ISTE S009 222 eo ae ee Oe ae. \| TAOS 232i. Ses. ac axice oe eee eee 12 03 
TET PUR GRAB See CO See 255) || Indiana.o2-.... +.ceaJ. lee eee eee eee 13 61 
TREE ONG [770 ot 45088))| OWIO 7. |. 2-222. 2-2). copies eae ane 17 03 
BOBO =. = So cepee = ce Soe ate ee a «2 = apngay|| NMichican’......... 22 seeeeeeeas seems 16 $6 
LUO) |, - 2 Us ys Se a domes) Wisconsin :\.< ...5 seeeereeeees neers 14 13 
DAT ERer Sc bte ccs pandas. -= Loieou| Miuxpiesota..._...- dteeeeeee ne ee renee 12 59 
IEE Th oe Re 8 he 12 87 OW Be oS cn cus ho RO SO Se 10 65 
EOC Oe a i WOMBT| Baneas . 3. .002- se eemeeee soe @= sepa eee 13 87 
ECDC EI. (Sha) Lp eS ee 12 ao), Nebraska: .. 4... geese es - cece ce tne 10 51 
Ploridgeeee meee hs Seek 14\Gen| Californigs,....i- deemed. bees ee 24 82 
Alabama. .... 16\Gap Oregon ! oo. si Se a Fama | 3b oe eee 19 03 
Mississippi 16 50 || Nevada .....-. poneepped skeen -croseaeian 35 48 
PiGUNSIANID |S 7 5o ot eee ee eee aoe ee = aie 25 49 || The Territoric 31 94 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 839 


NUMBER AND CONDITION OF FARM STOCK. 


The experience of the winter of 1870-’71 proves that a little foresight, 
directing the way to judicious management, will often remedy the defi- 
ciencies of production. Thus, the comparatively short crop of hay (which 
was seriously light in the East and in portions of the West) led to the 
husbanding of immense quantities of corn-fodder and to the utilizing of 
masses of straw for feeding purposes; to the gathering of larger quanti- 
ties of the wild hay on the borders of the numerous lakelets of the North- 
west, and the cutting of larger areas of prairie grass, so that the ani- 
mals of the farm, consigned by the timid and the croaking to semi-star- 
vation or the knife, went through winter-quarters in higher flesh and 
better health than for several years past. It is true that, in sections in 
which scarcity was most apparent, beeves were sent to the shambles in 
larger numbers and lighter condition than usual; but the relief came 
inainly from care in feeding, avoidance of waste, and the use of coarse 
feed, so abundant at all times, and generally so little utilized. Some 
credit should be given, however, to providential mildness of the weather, 
which reduced the consumption of fodder, and in some northern latitudes 
permitted an unaccustomed bite of grass. The past season has furnished 
new evidences of the capacity of this country as a meat producer, and 
the extent of its feeding resources ordinarily wasted; especially has it 
illustrated the surpassing value of our corn crop. 

The’county returns showing the condition of domestic animals dur- 
ing the year have borne a remarkable uniformity in their exemption 
from croaking and depressing views; and while they exhibit great 
variety in description of the status of domestic animals, nine-tenths of 
them have indicated a state of health and vigor varying from medium 
to highest. 

It has been necessary, on each recurring annual investigation relative 
_to farm stock, to chronicle an amount of anial suffering, disease, and 
death, disagreeable in the recital, burdensome as a tax upon industry, 
and much of it unnecessary as it is expensive. Neglect and exposure, 
habitual and almost universal in the barnless sections of the country, 
and too common in the more recent settlements of the colder Northwest, 
have cost the farmers of the country millionsannually. The past season 
has been favorable, and more humane and economic views are begin- 
ning to obtain; a large preponderance of the returns concur in this 
view, and many of them bring cheering evidence of more rational praec- 
. tices in the treatment of domestic animals. Even where hay was searce, 

as in Grand Isle County, Vermont, ‘extra care and attention more than 
offset the reduced quantity of fodder.” It is gratifying lo notice as one 
of the reasons for less mortality in the Northwest “the more general 
- erection of warm shelters,” as in Fillmore County, Minnesota. While 
cattle ‘do well,” as is trequently reported, without any shelter prepared 
by the hand of man, even in the Rocky Mountain valieys, there is no 
certainty of such exemption from suffering and death either in the Ter- 
ritories, in Texas, or in Louisiana. In the latter, an almost tropical 
region, the return for Washington Parish says: “The severity of the 
Winter caused considerable disease in stock, and the survivors, depend- 
ing on the woods, barely lived, as a general thing.” 
Losses of the year—The actual mortality from exposure and disease 
was probably not half as great in 1870 a3 in 1869. A majority of the 
counties return a very favorable comparison with the report of last 
spring ; some estimate one-half as much loss, others one-fourth, and 
many correspondents assert that they have heard of no losses what- 


40 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ever. This is the case in no less than eight counties in Indiana. In 
Hillsborough, New Hampshire, there has been “less than for five 
years.” The correspondent in Franklin, Pennsylvania, says he “never 
heard of so little.” 

A few counties report an increase of mortality; among them McDuffie, 
in Georgia; Fayette, (50 per cent. greater from cold rains and scanty 
pasturage,) Bell, (less in sheep, more in cattle,) Milam, (50 per cent. 
loss from destruction of grass and drowning,) Galveston, and Leon, in 
Texas; Benton, Arkansas; Upshur, West Virginia; Marshall, (25 per 
cent. greater than last year,) Illinois; Barry, (owing to smutty corn,) 
Michigan ; Meeker, Minnesota; Lake, Catifornia, (three times as great) 
Alameda, (scarcity of food,) Stanislaus, (severity of the winter,) Tuo- 
Jumne, San Joaquin, in the same State. 


DISEASES OF CATTLE. 


Splenic fever.—The “ Texas cattle disease” has had few opportunities 
to display its malignity since the isolation and winter pasturage 
of droves in Western Kansas. It has been found unprofitable and 
impracticable to introduce them by boats via New Orleans and 
the Mississippi River, and the trade has quietly accommodated itself 
to what was a necessity, and at the same time a convenience and 
economy. 

A few facts illustrate the capabilities for mischief of the splenic infec- 
tion, and show how easily havoc might be spread again among the 
herds of the West. The following statement is from— 

Lincoln County, Kentucky.—There was a car-load of cattle brought here from Memphis, 
Tennessee, about the-1st of July, and after being here a few days seven of them died. 
The cattle in the pasture were taken out, and nothing more was heard of the disease 
until the middle of October, when it again broke out among the native cattle that had 
been pastured on the same grass, and some sixteen others died, and it again entirely 
ceased about Christmas. It was supposed that the cattle were partly Texas cattle, 
and that the disease was Texas fever. 

The report from Madison County, Ilinois, asserts that a drove of 
Texas cattle lost about ten head by what was supposed to be Spanish 
fever. The disease extended to native cattle and to hogs, which are 
supposed to have eaten of the carcasses of the Texan beeves. This 
statement is at variance with common experience as to the effects of 
the diseased meat upon swine. The correspondent in Floyd County, 
Indiana, says: ‘‘No Spanish fever has prevailed. Notwithstanding 
all that has been said on the subject, our people believe that the disease 
was brought here by Texas cattle, for it prevailed terribly year before 
last, when hundreds of southern cattle grazed in the county. ‘This 
year we have not had a case.” In Uvalde County, Texas, a loss of 12 
per cent. from Spanish fever is returned. It is stated that cattle 
became much diseased in 1868, and “observation proved the disease to 
be contagious,” and that change of range tends to restoration to health. 
In Clark County, Arkansas, several cattle were lost by being pastured 
in a field where a drove of Texas cattle had been. No disease was 
noticed in the drove. The report from. Independence County, while 
showing exemption from splenic fever during the past year, refers to 
the fearful ravages in 1868, by which the native cattle were nearly 
exterminated. Laws prohibiting the passage of Texas cattle have since 
kept the disease from the county. A few cases occurred in Butler, 
Crawford, Montgomery, and Neosho, in Kansas, and a larger number in 
Johnson. In Linn, Missouri, ninety-five died from feeding on the track 
of a drove of Texas cattle. In St. Louis a few cases occurred where 
Texas cattle had been pastured. A drover in Cole County, who supplied 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. Al 


the State penitentiary with beef, drove some Texas cattle from the 
railroad depot to his pastures, a few miles from town. On the way 
some of the town cattle became mixed with the drove and were driven 
rapidly to the pasture, where they were separated and set free from the 
Texas herd. A few days after this occurrence those town cows com- 
menced showing symptoms of Texas fever, and twelve head of them 
died. The disease was not communicated from these natives to others 
grazing with them. The drover in question promptly paid the losses 
without litigation. Another case occurred among the herd of Dr. 
MeWorkman. It was introduced on his place by some Texas steers, 
bought by him for fattening, and caused severe loss. Fifty cases, all 
fatal, originated from Texas cattle herded and pastured in Pettis 
County, last August. Our correspondent in Vernon County makes the 
following statement : 

Two droves inoculated the native cattle. They came into the county in June. One 
was owned by a citizen, and remained about five weeks; the other was driven through 
by strangers. Both claimed that their cattle were wintered in the State, but did not 
show proof of the fact. The drove first mentioned were herded near Nevada, the 
county seat. As soon as the fever broke out among the native cattle they were shipped, 
yet the fever continued to spread, through the neighborhood in which they were 
herded, until frost, killing two hundred and twenty-five head, valued at $9,000, being 
at or about 80 per cent. of those exposed. The second drove, in attempting to pass 
through, were stopped near Montevallo, a town eighteen miles east of Nevada, for a 
day and part of anight. In about four weeks the fever appeared. The loss here was 
two hundred and sixty head, mostly oxen and milch cows, valued at $11,700. Ninety- 
two per cent. of the cattle exposed died. The excessive drought made the fever more 
fatal than usual, few or none recovering. The following facts in relation to this fever 
are well known here; we have been familiar with the fever for seventeen years: 

First symptom, several days before any other appearance of sickness, is a dry cough, 
particularly when not feeding. Second. More flies collect on them; at this time the 
breath will have lost its sweetness. Third. Ears slightly droop; eyes look dull. Fourth. 
Nose dry; appetite poor; languor; cough ceases. Fifth. Fever commences; ears 
hang; appetite gone; reel in walking in hind parts; do not follow the herd. Sixth. 
Eyes sink; a feverish, slaughter-honuse smell; generally on feet, but seldom move. 
Seventh. Hair appears dead, as on dry hide; death with few struggles. Some pass 
bloody water; feces of brown color, but plentiful. In others no change from health 
ean be discovered, excepting the brown color of the feces; while others are costive. 
Tn these the feces are very dark, small, and dry. 


In Putnam, Illinois, eighteen steers (three years old) died within 
three days in a pasture which had been occupied by Texas cattle the 
previous winter. In Bureau County, into which a considerable number 
of Texas cattle were driven last summer, one hundred and twenty-five 
to one hundred and fifty fatal cases are reported. Our correspondent 
for Jasper County, Iowa, reports a loss of 3 per cent. of their cattle 
from Spanish fever. In the stock-yards of Lake County, Ohio, into 
which southern and western cattle are brought, deaths have occurred, 
but it is not certain that they were caused by splenic fever. In Fau- 
quier, Virginia, the disease followed the introduction of Texas cattle, 
and large numbers of native cattle died. The same result followed a 
like course in Knox County, Tennessee; and the fever is reported also 
ie Surry and Burke, North Carolina, and in a few counties in Northern 

eorgia. 

Foot and mouth disease.—Epizovtic aphthe, for the first time in the 
history of cattle diseases of this country, has prevailed to a limited 
extent in parts of New York, and in several localities in New England. 
The losses resulting have been a deterioration in condition and decrease 
of milk production, rather than actual mortality. The subject is treated 
at length in another portion of this volume. 

Disease from smut in corn.—A considerable loss has been attributed 
to smut in corn in several of the Western States. In some instances the 


42 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


exciting cause is assumed to be eating of large quantities of corn-stalks 
without a sufficient supply of water. A herd of one hundred and two 
steers, all in apparent health, were taken from a poor pasture and put 
in a fresh stallk-field in Marshall County, Illinois, and fourteen were found 
dead the next morning, and five more on the following morning. . In 
. Dane County, Wisconsin, a number of deaths occurred after the cattle 
were turned into the stalk-fields. In Kansas losses were heavy from 
this cause; two hundred died in Coffey County, and some in Shawnee 
and Osage. The report from Jackson, Iowa, attributes losses to the 
corn-stalks, “causing engorgement of the paunch, and laceration, in- 
flammation, and death;” and similar loss appears in Black Hawk, 
Bremer, Harrison, Lee, Chickasaw, and Delaware; in the latter, “post 
moriem examination discloses in the folds of the stomach a dark sub- 
Stance, similar to smut, which it is believed to be.” In Hillsdale and 
Barry, Michigan, in Holt, Missouri, and in Houston, Minnesota, similar 
effects of eating stalks are reported. In Roanoke, Virginia, one-eighth of 
ane catile have died, ‘‘supposed to be caused by grazing in wheat- 
elds. 

Pleuro-pneumonia, for several years so fatal in the vicinity of Baltimore 
and the District of Columbia, and to some extent in the neighborhood 
of Philadelphia, has been less prevalent during the past season. 

Black leg.—This disease occasions the death of many young cattle each 
spring, in every section of the country, generally attacking those in good 
condition, and ending in death. It is not reported in New England; in 
New York a few cases are mentioned in Ontario and Chautauqua; in 
Albermarle and Highland, Virginia; in Harrison, West Virginia; in 
Mercer, Ohio, twenty fatal cases; a few deaths in Noble, Ohio; several 
fatal cases in Winona and McLeod, Minnesota; in Iowa, losses. in 
Chickasaw, Plymouth, and Jackson; considerable loss among youn 
cattle in Nemaha, Pawnee, and Washington, Nebraska; and many fa 
cases in Coffey, Howard, Riley, and Shawnee, Kansas. 

Charbon.—This virulent disease has nearly disappeared from the 
South. The report from St. Mary’s Parish, Louisiana, says: ‘ Malig- 
nant pustule, or charbon, carried off twelve mules on one plantation.” 

Murrain.—tit is to be regretted that a more accurate knowledge of cat- 
tle*diseases does not exist among the farmers of the country. The use 
of the words “murrain,” “dry murrain,” “bloody murrain,” and “ dis- 
temper,” is common in the reports, and other meaningless terms are ap- 
plied to diseases having a great diversity of symptoms. 

Among all the diseases named, perhaps starvation, with its various 
aliases, as “‘general debility,” “hollow-horn,” “horn-ail,” or “ hollow- 
belly,” is productive of greater loss than any other. Neglect, exposure, 
insufficient or irregular feeding, and no feeding whatever, are prolific 
causes of weakness, disease, prostration, and death. 


DISEASES OF HORSES. 


Diseases among horses have not been unusually prevalent or fatal. 
Comparatively few cases are reported from northern latitudes. The 
most frequent mention is made of * blind staggers,” which has prevailed 
in Berks County, Pennsylvania, Calvert and Queen Anne’s, in Mary- 
land; Sampson, Tyrrell, Duplin, Hertford, and Orange, North Carolina; 
Bartow, Richmond, and Walker, Georgia; Calhoun and Etowah, Ala- 
bama; Uvalde, Rusk, and Red River, Texas; Benton, Arkansas; Sevier, 
Meigs, Coffee, Monroe, Jefferson, Robertson, and Knox, Tennessee; 
Butler, Cedar, Newton, and Taney, Missouri. Lung fever is noticed in 
Indiana County, Pennsylvania, iu the lumbering region, and in Beaver 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 43 


and Montgomery; in Gloucester, New Jersey, with more than usual 
fatality ; in Kent, Maryland, of a mild type; in Princess Anne, Virgi- 
nia; Vass, Missouri, a few cases; Geauga and Medina, Ohio; Cass and 
Tuscola, Michigan; and Stearns, Minnesota. In Fulton County, New 
York, a catarrhal affection, accompanied by croup, resulted in death in 
a few cases. Glanders is less known than formerly; a few cases are 
reported in Nelson, Montgomery, Patrick, and Fauquier, Virginia; in. 
Meriwether, Georgia; in Hardin, Texas, it has been worse than ever 
before ; and in Noble, Ohio, a few cases are returned. In several coun- 
ties in Texas something like scours, in an epidemic form, has been fatal. 
It is stated that opium and camphor, administered early, is a very efi- 
cient remedy. ‘Three per cent. of the horses in Prairie County, Arkan- 
sas, have yielded to the insect pest—the buffalo gnat. In Pike County, 
Iilinois, an unknown disease, which has been fatal in some cases, has 
for its symptoms stiffness of limbs, sore mouth, and swollen tongue. 
Many horses in Williamson County, illinois, are afflicted with blindness. 
“ Distemper” is reported in many p!aces, and isolated cases of tetanus 
or lock-jaw, yellow water, colic, and other forms of disease are reported. 
The following extracts further illustrate this subject: 


Hampden, Mass.—A number of horses have died in one stable in Chicopee. Symp- 
toms: first, loss of appetite, which returns in a few days; bunches as large as walnuts 
come out on different parts of the body, and break and discharge putrid matter; legs 
swell; in three or four days there is a discharge at the nose similar to that from the 
sores. Fatal in five to seven days. Nocasesof recovery. The disease was introduced 
by a horse from Canada. 

Washington, Penn.—Distemper exists to some extent; also a malady ealled the “ throat 
disease,” or the “‘ head disease ;” six deaths occurred from it. Horses when attacked 
refuse food or drink until half starved; when the throat was much swollen, eyes dull 
and heavy, head drooping; if forced to move, holding it in one position with nose up 
and forward, as if it pained them to move the head; they would then eat nothing but 
choice feod, swallowing with difficulty. Various horse liniments were used; many 
cures were effected. 

Doddridge, West Va.—Some unknown disease. Symptoms: swelling of the jaws and 
head, which terminates in running sores; the animal refuses to eat, loses flesh rapidly, 
and soon dies; no known remedy. ; . 

Wilkinson, Miss.—A disease called “distemper,” very contagious, malignant, and 
fatal, has prevailed for three months in a part of this and Amite County, and adja- 
cent parts of Louisiana. A difficulty in drinking, swelling over the nasal canal, and 
discharges from the nostrils are among its symptoms. A remedy is found in bathing 
the tumors with kerosene till they open, with good care and feed. 

Bee, Teras—A kind of farcy has proved quite fatal. It commences under the jaw 
and spreads over the entire body, accompanied with slow fever. The loin distemper 
is quite prevalent among horses on the prairies. It is contagious between the sexes. 

Victoria, Teras.—Several cases of a disease which commenced with a swelling of 
the head, particularly about the lips; considerable secretion"of water from the eyes ; 
wasting of the flesh ; no eruptions of the skin. Of six cases, three proved fatal, after 
lingering six to eight months, losing the hair from their manes and tails several months 
before death. 

Williamson, Tecas.—For the past three or four years, in this and adjoining counties, 
at least one-half of the colts have died before two years old. I know of no name or 
remedy for the disease. It runs through the young stock in the fall, and what it 
does not then kill generally die in the winter. They become stiff in the legs, and 
walk with difficulty. Many of them swell about the head and breast, until the swell- 
ing breaks and discharges bloody water. At such times flies are apt to blow the sores, 
and if not attended to in season the serew-worm will kill the animal. Calomel is the 
best remedy I have used to destroy these worms ; one or two applications to the wound 
will generally suffice. Horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, and, in fact, all animals, are liable 
to be destroyed by this pest in the fall season. When wounded, from any cause, the 
flies soon find the fresh blood, and deposit germs of myriads of worms, which, in a 
few days, are full grown and about half an inch long. This is a critical time with the 
stock-raiser, for if not attended to early the evil is much more difficult tocure. 

Dunn, Wis.—Last fall the influenza took off a great many colts in some localities. 
In one neighborhood about thirty died. They were pastured on the common, where 
_ there is plenty of unimproved land, and it was supposed by some that the disease 

originated from the drinking of stagnant water in a lake in the vicinity. 


44 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Waushara, Wis.—There bas been a disease among horses, from which quite a number 
have died. "The horse’s throat seems to swell and close up the passage. It is a new 
thing for this county, and no one knows how to treat it successfully. 

Napa, Cal—Dr. Lockwood reports a disease as follows: “A disease, familiarly 
called the ‘crazy disorder, has prevailed to some extent among common stock horses, 
coming from the southern counties of this State, where it has existed for some years. 
It is characterized by a low state of the system, induced by poor feed. Head symptoms 
are predominant; animals attacked often die, and probably none ever recover their nor- 
mal condition. One so diseased is worthless; will not repay further care. Mr. N. 
Coombs has lost fifty head this winter, exclusively among ‘his inferior stock.” The 
horses referred to are what we here call Spanish horses, and are usually leftin large 
bands, without special feed or care, like the wild horse of Mexico. 


DISEASES OF SHEEP. 


Diseases of sheep are less general than for two or three years past, 
mortality and the slaughtering-house im former years) having reduced 
the numbers of the weak and diseased victims of neglect. Foot-rot is 
still the most prolific source of loss, most abundant in Ohio, severe in 
portions of Michigan, and found to some extent in other Western and 
in the Middle States, with very few cases in New England and the 
South, and none in the Territories and Pacific States. Scab is most 
general in Texas, is reported in several counties in Missouri, and is 
oceasionally found in all sections east of the Mississippi, though few 
cases are reported in the Atlantic States east and south of New York. 
Rot has occasioned some loss in Alabama and Mississippi. ‘‘ Grub 
in the head” has been reported in very few counties. A Georgia cor- 
respondent (Dooley County) reports 5 per cent. loss from “‘a new disease, 
the sore nose.” It is a frequent report that there is no disease among 
sheep that are well fed and properly treated. Cruel neglect and reck- 
less disregard of the comfort and health of flocks account for nearly all 
the losses reported. In Montgomery County, Maryland, native sheep 
have been healthy; of 1,200 Merinos brought from Ohio here fully three- 
fourths have died. In Marion, South Carolina, lambs dropped last 
spring became unhealthy, and one-third have died. In Caldwell, North 
Carolina, when kept in pasture of small area several successive years, 
they become affected with rot in many cases. In Washington, Pennsy]- 
vania, three-fifths of the sheep have foot-rot. The ravages of dogs are 
perhaps more injurious tosheep husbandry than any disease named above. 
The returns are full of evidence on this point. The counties in North Caro- 
lina that report the dog disease equal in number those which name ail- 
mentsof sheep. In Virginia ‘dogs are more destructive than all diseases.” 
in Marshall County, Alabama, the loss is 30 per cent. from “starved dogs.” 
In Georgia itis statetl that “the dog is the worst disease afflicting flocks,” 
and that “few farmers raise sheep on account of dogs.” 


DISEASES OF SWINE. 


The diseases among swine, however various, are popularly referred to 
‘‘hog cholera,” as a rule. Whenever symptoms are detailed in the 
returns, they are given as aids in determining the character of the mal- 
ady. The losses reported are less this spring than usual, indicating far 
greater soundness of health than in some former years. There is still 
more of disease and death among swine than in Any other class of farm 
animals, and probably less is accurately known of the character of the 
maladies afflicting the species. Having superior care.and better feed in 
the Middle aud Hastern States, there is comparatively little loss reported 
in those sections. In York County, Maine, some cases of disease have 
been reported among improved breeds. The preventive practice of feeding 
a tablespoonful of spirits of turpentine in milk to a hog over six months 
obtains in Chautauqua, New York. Some less is mentioned in Columbia 


; 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 45 


County. Stock hogs from Indiana have sickened in York, Pennsyl. 
vania, and 30 per cent. of that class have died. Abortion has prevailed 
in Dauphin, attributed to over feeding with unground corn. Two 
hundred and fifty pigs under six months old have died in Washington, 
the remedies applied being salt and alkaline substances; and some 
fatality is reported in Cumberland, Perry, Indiana, Beaver, Union, 
Fulton, and Berks. In Montgomery, Maryland, one-half to three-fourths 
of the hogs in certain neighborhoods have died. The loss in Howard 
is estimated at three thousand, and slight losses have occurred in 
Baltimore and Kent. In portions of Gloucester, Virginia, disease 
has nearly swept away the race of swine; in a portion of Clark 70 to 80 
per cent. have died ; loss 25 per cent. in Fairfax ; some unknown disease 
has carried off numbers in Princess Anne, and losses have occurred in 
Albemarle, Roanoke, Pulaski, Northampton, Cumberland, Nelson, Lee, 
Prince William, Highland, Lancaster, Surry, Smyth, and Patrick. A 
considerable amount of mortality is reported from North Carolina; a 
loss of 50 per cent. is declared in Wautauga County; from 50 to 75 per 
cent. in certain stocks in Currituck; 40 per cent. in portions of 
Chowan; large numbers from a new disease, ‘of a lung-fever type,” in 
Gaston; 20 per cent. of the fattening swine in Haywood ; 33 per cent. 
in Rowan; 25 per cent. in Davie ; 20 per cent.in Lincoln; 50 per cent. in 
Greene; nine out of every ten attacked in Yadkin ; 20 per cent., mostly 
near fruit distilleries, in Stanley ; 33 per cent. in Alexandria; and smaller 
losses in Sampson, Union, Surry, Tyrrell, Duplin, Rockingham, Jackson, 
Macon, Caldwell, Rutherford, Wiikes, Hertford, Burke, and Orange. 
Great fatality, involving three-fourths of the entire stock of Newberry, 
South Carolina, is reported, and small losses are mentioned in Spartan- 
burgh and Lexington, in the same State. Georgiahas suffered little loss ; 
50 per cent. is reported in Clinch, 30 in Morgan, and small losses in Bartow, 
McDuffie, Lumpkin, Jackson, Harris, Catoosa, Floyd, Butts, Forsyth, 
Towns, Pike, Walker, Clay, Milton, Clayton, Putnam, Newton, Pulaski, 
White, I’ranklin, and Heard. Our correspondent in Dallas, Alabama, 
lost forty-four out of fifty-six old hogs; pigs were not so generally at- 
tacked. In Lawrence a loss of 25 per cent. is returned, but the mor- 
tality was reported slight in Tallapoosa, Marshall, DeKalb, Calhoun, 
Clarke, Jefferson, and Etowah. Very little disease among swine is 
reported in Mississippi; afew cases have occurred in the following 
counties: Attala, Kemper, Neshoba, Pike, Amite, Tippah, Yalabusha, 
Yazoo, La Fayette, Winston, and Carroll. In Gonzales, Texas, a 
disease, assumed to be “an affection of the lungs,” carried off most 
of the pigs and a few hogs. The fattest were first to fall; of a 
litter of pigs, fat and apparently healthy at night, half would sometimes 
be found dead in the morning. In Upshur, a loss of one-tenth of the 
pigs is attributed to carelessness in permitting them to eat ad libitum 
freshly-ground cotton-seed. A few losses appear in Austin, Collins, 
Harris, and De Witt. There is scarcely a live pig in Benton County, 
Arkansas, the result of a cough and wasting away. A loss of 20 per 
cent. is returned from Newton County. Large lossesoccurred in Clarke, 
attributed.to “too much cotton, and want of corn.” One-third of the 
stock in Jackson County died, generally in full flesh. Losses are also 
reported in Johnson, Montgomery, Pulaski, Sebastian, and Washington. 
Less mortality than usual has occurred in Tennessee, very few counties 
reporting heavy losses, among which are Humphreys, 60 per cent.; Smith, 
50 per cent. of all hogs since November; and Greene, 40 per cent. ; 
smaller losses appear in Sumner, Sevier, Meigs, Williams, Giles, Weak- 
ley, Campbell, Coffee, Sullivan, Montgomery, Monroe, Henry, Jet- 


* 40 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ferson, Johnson, Robertson, Hardiman, and Hickman. In Morgan, 
West Virginia, half of the pigs and “one-fifth of the fattening hogs 
died last fall, and the disease is commencing its ravages this spring. 
Losses are also reported in Berkeley, Brooke, Cabell, Fayette, Jef- 
ferson, Tyler and Wayne. In Anderson, Kentucky, the loss is 
estimated at five hundred head; in Hardin, 33 per cent., and the 
disease still spreading; in Bourbon, $5,000; in Whitely, 50 per cent.; 
very heavy in Clarke; while in Christian the loss is placed at 25 per 
cent., 20 per cent. in Kenton and Laurel, about the same in Graves, and 
less in Shelby, Hopkins, Scott, and Warren. In Clarke, Missouri, the 
loss is estimated at 50 per cent., “‘ confined principally to pigs up to six 
months old;” “many deaths from insufficient shelter, but all attributed 
to cholera,” is written from Bates; loss one thousand head in Holt, 
three hundred and seventy-five in Bates, two hundred in Pettis, and 
small percentages of loss in Benton, Cass, Dent, Butler, De Kalb, Mont- 
gomery, Marion, Mercer, and Vernon. ‘Thirty-six counties in Illinois 
report losses from diseases of swine, though the damage is compara- 
tively slight, with few exceptions. In Washington disease has more 
generally prevailed, and has been attended with greater loss than for 
many years; losses have been quite heavy in portions of Sangamon; 
are estimated at three thousand in Cass; four hundred and fifty head 
in Clinton; 25 per cent. in Scott; 20 per cent. in White and MceDo- 
nough; 15 per cent. in Menard; 10 per cent. in Edwards, “ prevailing 
almost exclusively in rolling districts;” and is also reported in Adams, 
Crawford, Champaign, De Kalb, Franklin, Fulton, Grundy, Hancock, 
Henderson, Jersey, Knox, Lawrence, Logan, Mercer, Marion, Madison 

Morgan, Pope, Pike, Stephenson, Stark, Piatt, Pulaski, White, and 
Warren. The loss from hog cholera or other maladies in indiana is 
less than usual. in Union County “disease has entirely disappeared ” 
within the last twelve months; it has almost disappeared in Rush; is 
found “ only in the vicinity of flouring mills and distilleries” in Swit- 
zerland; ‘‘loss small compared with other years” in Harrison; Vanden- 
burgh ‘has not been so free for twelve years;” has not been so destrue- 
tive as formerly in Marion, “though one-fifth of all the young die;” since 
July there has been less complaint in Barthclomew than for several 
years; loss in Cass has been two hundred head; it amounts to one-third 
of the young in Posey; and losses have occurred in Floyd, Wabash, 
Howard, Jetierson, Martin, Newton, Pike, Washington, Carroll, Ripley, 
Delaware, Clintan, Greene, Parker, Miami, Scott, Spencer, Vermillion, 
Sullivan, Gibson, and Ohio. Ohio appears to have been nearly exempt 
from hog cholera; at a distillery in Lucas from three hundred to four 
hundred head died; about one-fifth of the swine brought into Greene 
from Indiana tor fattening have been attacked, aud a few cases are 
reported in Jefferson, Holmes, Warren, Fairfield and Franklin. The 
swine of Michigan are reported healthy, only one county, Cass, return- 
ing losses, which have amounted to one or two hundred in a locality. 
A disease of the throat is reported in Green County, Wisconsin, where 
it has prevailed to a limited extent. Of twenty, counties reporting in 
Minnesota, Meeker only presents evidences of disease, in which forty 
pigs were lost, ‘caused by filth and improper food, and not from any 
cause beyond the pen in which they were confined.” Small loss is 
reported in Iowa; in Louisa County, 25 per cent.; one hundred and 
fitty head in Lucas; one hundred head in Clarke; and in Black Hawk, 
Lee, Wayne, Frémont, Dallas, Jasper, Tatha, Appanoose, Madison, and 
Bremer, a few cases are mentioned. Only Nemaha and Cass, in Ne- 
braska, report losses, and Leavenworth, in Kansas. 


AT 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 


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48 


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000 ‘066 * 08 F 000 ‘008 008 ‘96T. 81 & 000 ‘06 008 ‘S1% BO 000 ‘06 Se snl ee ese ck nen solange scale Te OT 
000 ‘ob ‘¢ OF & 000 ‘0S8 000 ‘00F 00 & 000 ‘V0% 088 ‘I19 ‘F PE GB 000 ‘28 Se a Ebi H(i rerr ayn 
000 ‘018 '€ 08 FP 000 ‘006 PSE ‘PSE wae 006 ‘008 OOF ‘1b8 ‘F 0S PB 006 ‘2LE Saar ssee ape et a >" BULEQELy 
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‘ponuTquU0j—'o.f ‘yoo}s aan fo pury youa fo anya 20}07 PUD Loquune 70}0) paywrunysa a47 Buinoys e7qnz 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 49 


LIVE-STOCK MARKETS. 
NEW YORK. 


The live-stock trade of New York has grown into mammoth propor- 
tions, having much more than doubled within the last ten years. The 
sources ‘of supply have also greatly changed. Ten years ago the mar- 
ket was chiefly supplied by New York and neighboring States; now, as 
far as cattle are concerned, New York ranks fifth in point of production. 
The West furnishes the great bulk of all descriptions of live stock. 

In 1860 there were received in this market, 226,933 cattle; 5,749 cows; 
32,368 calves; 512,366 sheep; 559,421 hogs—total, 1,386,837. In 1868, 
293,101 cattle; 5,382 cows; 82,935 calves; 1,400,623 sheep; 976,511 
hogs—total, 2,753,552. In 1869, 325,761 cattle; 4,836 cows; 93,984 
calves ; 1,479,563 sheep ; 901,308 hogs—total, 2,805,452. 

The receipts during the year 1870 were as follows: 


CBRN ope, aeto's aoe teria abide sors 356, 026: | Sheape-sesseesssee sess ese 1, 463, 878 
DUS ee Ao 6 a Dy OO) | OS Sete aa cat. ack cca eee 889, 625 
USES Le Ul 116, 457 —<—<__ 

Oba rs 5) phos afae eraas states 2, 831, 036 


Weekly average: Cattle, 6,847; cows, 97; calves, 2,240; sheep, 28,151; 
hogs, 17,108; all kinds, 54,443. The sources of cattle supply were as 
follows: 


MIs on ee hoe wc on as BUS, rod |) WIPEINIDCeliss <mr'a' cad demsaire tes 2, 758 
oc 2 on OOmy NON Ais ania = ate pie yu! at chr Noa he Says L735 
eee ee Oo-'1S0 | New JOnsey <c 2. lala wmba Rose ee 691 
Cnt 2 ae 24, 888)) Pennsylvania... -..3425< esecee 591 
Jal 2, 1 OS Ae ala a le nS 1G) S25) |. Wansae oo 2 42.2 oo eles semen 586 
Liter fe] Se ee 125307; | Connecticutt-.o5- 74s esee eee oe ee 255 
Wma ate; oo 2s oe le ices 13.268:)| Webraska: 20-9 he 5 ay see 129 
56. 1 eee 4,960 | Massachusetts ......--..... «ieee 67 
ere 4, 929 , 


Western cattle, except Texas, bought in the Chicago market are cred- 
ited to [ilinois, and include large numbers raised in Iowa, Indiana, and 
Wisconsin. 

The falling off in the number of hogs is attributed to the increased 
number of dressed hogs shipped in the winter from the West. 

The following is a statement of prices at the end of the first market 
week in each month: 


= s 
BEEVES. 
Month. Sheep. Hogs. 
Good to prime. | Common to fair. | Average. 
JAMMED eseass ss sn... $0 16 to $0 18 $0 10 to $0 14 $015 ; $05 to $08 ($010 to $0 104 
HERIEALY ce nae s---- 15 to 164 10 to 134 14t 5 to-. 1h 7d 9, to 10 
March Aone ae 154 to 164 12 to 144 14} 5+ to 8 9 to 9 
Se ae ae 1G. to. Ad 13 to 154 154 G$to 9 94 to 93 
a i gi Se ee 163 to 174 3 to 154 16 64 to ve 94 to 10 
SMB Rises es fan oer oer 22 163 to 18 13 to 16 164 4 to 7 94 to 9% 
Bil ip 2 or erie 154 to 17 igs 13 154 4 to 64 9 to 9% 
LNG 15 to 164 8to 13 14i 44 to 64 9t to 9} 
September. ....- 2.2. 15 to ° 164 eto © 13 i4 4 to 64 9+ to 10 
Octovert.s-=-.45.-.. 82: 45 ~ to 163 7to 424 13} 44 to 6 8% to 94 
Nevemben 2.4.56 14 to 16 7 to 12 13 4 to 64 it to ves 
Decembersans-. ..s5 14: to 16 9to 134 13 32 to «6 7 to 7% 
4A 


50 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The receipts of beef and hog products for 1870, as compared with 
1869, were: 


1870. 1869. 
Beef, packages ...-..- --- 22+ 0-2-2 - een n ce cece ee come we conn owen ences 127,298 ~ 82,191 
UH, MATTOIA. «oa nos - ona ae seek hue aep ee pOen aR eee eee sems ae = me 123,296 94,552 
Cut meats, packages ...-.. .-- 226 --- 202 oon ne cece es connec nee eee n ee 93,262 83,971 
Toa, PAOK Ar eR 2 2 ou ss eke ueN e's ae'soe caches Pp aetna mame > Susue an ah 93,523 75,527 
Lard, kegs..-....----- Cob ee bce N de eeuete s6ob es ameneehar abe sess 24,989 =: 15,98: 
BALTIMORE. : 


The receipts of cattle in the Baltimore market for 1870 reach 89,021 
head, against 91,000 in 1869; 75,891 in 1868, and 55,713 in 1867. Less 
than one-half were taken for local consumption, the larger portion hav- 
ing been purchased for shipment to other points. The receipts of live 
hogs for the year are estimated at 300,000. _The number taken by 
packers and butchers has not been ascertained, 

The prices of cattle on the 1st of each mouth, in 1870, were as follows : 


. Aver- 
Month. Common. Good. age. 
MIEN bea Orcas scene aon a2 oes ty Pesto ~ foe a scones dst eperesze~s~sore 4 to 5 | 1 to8 6 
February .-.-.--------2------- een ee ene ne nee ene eee tere cere eeneene 3} to 43 63 to 8 6 
ES SSE OU 2 eee ea Ser Se eae See ee 44 to 5 7% to 8% 6s 
Lo hh oe Se eee ee Oren 4 tod 7% to 94 6% 
May. ...:.- MeecweB ace pPs¥ Ek do -<cne nt mrescthpecassmnr nop sthtaoersoensBen 5 to 6 8 to 3 65 
BM iene BOA ce Sa bas de ven cae. dicanutececb scsodse ces sc~Qiceetmsckece> ocd 5 to 5d | 8 to 9 ii 
Seale a8. tebe ceeds? Bic hiss. 5 cas se dd bss db 08 dhs ces nenbed heaessae 43 to 6 7 to 8 7 
“Epa, 5 Se ee aan aa eee ace 4} to 6 7 to8 a 
ERIEY Meee none none oa se en aw en csen tr p= -sunccpmewenesedqnmes-e== 43 to 64 7 to 1% 
Ren ta eae ee eo ae he ten ainin eden cores cc ensakes sienna. 34 to 4G} to 7% 6 
OIE o> os cece cals es cote eee cama witless mena wan Sc hmemse~ canna aan asiece 34 to 5 52 to 7 6 
DEMAND Sis sa.vieart Booot Sect hs oct sc oce Seok isssu as ease heeene cscs cece 34 to 4} 34 to 7 a 


The following were the prices of live hogs on the 15th of each month 
during the same period : 


PMORBEY crews esses seeses occ PO} 66.104 | Dilye. 2 -eeet =: eceee eee 121 to 13 
PObruary ss sc0s- segs: 222-525 1B toe |) A SIbL eee ene 13 to 134 
Marche ee ek 119 to 128 | September 2 ---. ee eee 122 to 134 
JUNE See See 123 to 14) || October? o--. ose. eee eee 113 to 12 
WAAg gs0b 5-6 5 oe bs sees,a05-5- 124 to 13} | November........-... 2-2 e225 94 to 10 
OUAG- onset ce ieee mendes ncense 12} to 13} | December..s.....------04 2s0- 9 to 


SOUTHWESTERN VIRGINIA CATTLE TRADE, 
The following facts relative to the cattle trade of Southwestern Vir- 


ginia, of which Lynchburg is one of the principal points for reshipment 
to the North, especially to Baltimore, are derived from the News of the 
former place. The total value of the trade of 1869 was $1,028,000. In 
1870 the shipments from Lynchburg, via the Orange, Alexandria and 
Manassas road, were—car loads of beefcatthe, 485; stock cattle, 492; 
sheep, 91; hogs, 21. Total number of beef cattle, 9,700; stock cattle, 
12,300, and sheep, 8,190. Vaiue of beef cattle, $945,750; stock cattle, 
$498,150; sheep, $24,570; hogs, $26,460; total value, $1,494,950. Add 
to this about $250,000 worth of cattle driven to the Lynchburg market. 
The following sumimary is given: 


Shipped by Oriinge fond... .- <2... 2.6 see -0 setene os tba cOeBAE N= 0200 sc neee $1, 494, 930 
PATIVARMIITOCHIPOURAEGOD oc uses... cee covedele lode eee eee. bane aree 250; 000 
Gold te Lynclilitirg batehers..-......825. 22526 ab aeqes se ee us -baccaeee 60, 000 
Shipped by South Side road.... 2.22 ...22--26 202s panbiciet 26+ cod s2oteEee 150, 000 

OUAl VAIES 24uce. cose dd. .s 24 se ecns 32 a eRe saan eas Cee 1, 984, 930 


Increase over 1869, $926,930, 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 51 


SAINT LOUIS. 


The increase in the cattle trade of St. Louis over former years is very 
marlfed. It is claimed that when the railroads pointing toward the 
great cattle-producing regions of Texas, New Mexico, Arkansas, and the 
Indian reserves, are completed, they will make SaintLouis pre-eminent 
as a Cattle-receiving point. With present transportation facilities the 
trade has almost doubled since 1869, the receipts in that year having 
been 134,576, against 240,864 in 1870... The following is a comparison of 
the receipts and exports of 1869 and 1870: 


Year. Cattle. Hogs. Sheep. 
1869. oS 
Ms 05 5 A235 505 vil seba wk va sedds «2 Piao soe Aen aze 134,576 | 342, 854 10, 849 
NCS vies 62. <2 de0u2 kd doo los 222 222 caw sew sveawadenze 50, 487 30, 828 12; 416 
1870. 
RG OSS OSS SRR EEE ee ee Pe eee 240,864 | 228, 920 94, 477 


NRE icc... sawidas Sheba osecccdtacscs séaee.c2.a2se2262d3bds 129, 322 16, 476 96, 629 


The falling off in the receipts of hogs, in 1870, was principally due to 
the fact that the packing season opened thirty days later than usual. 

The following is the range of prices for convenience, those of the first 
week in each month being given: 


Month. Cattle, per pound. | Sheep, per head. | Hogs, per pound, 
ThHNALY.25.2--2.2262085 Bass oses5¥5.t Foseyt.t $0 023 to $0 06% $1 25 to $3 373 | $0 08 to $0 092 
RUMEN S fo a2 dea ceck do s2= su sketsstssxs seca 03i to 064 225to 43 03 to 069 
Se ian oe sae Bas Seed F2 de ces es|asocsseetsssccstesae| dele ae ccesicnvedanma 08 to 09% 
NI Ee eo Sedo ew cos son reled anna sa nliesaanans-|sacnnqcpne -acemean peanenaesaemeoaeee 
Lid 7 OSE HEEB SAAS 25a SSS en eee 04? to 07 3-5 5 00to 8 00 06 to 094 
(ene bee ae AREAS SC: CASE BPC SOR e mE ence 033 to 038 5 00 to 8 00 063 to og: 
To SRS RE MS ee Re een eee £ 02 to 074 3 35 to 4 75 O6Z to 09 
PEI sis hs. 535555 FobS a Ssde asian esau dives 023 to 07s 3 87to 5 00 074 to 094 
Séptember 024 to O74 3 00 to’ 3 65 0b} to =. 104 
17 gee 013 to =©06 275 to 3 350 073 to 
November 023 to 064 1 50to 4 50 06 to OT 
December 02 to 064 2 40 475 05% to 08; 


The following is a comparison of the prices of hog products at the 
periods named, as prepared by the Saint Louis Journal of Commerce: 


Dried salt shoul- 


Date. Hogs, (gross.) } Mess pork. Clear sides. | Lard in tierces. 


ders. 

1868. Cts. per Wb. Dolls. per bbl. Cts. per Wb. Cts. per lb. Cts. per 1b. 
December 1...-....- 7 to T° 22 to) 3B 94 to 9% 134 to 13} 34 to 14 
animes Bosses 74 to 93 28 to — 11 to 11} 14% to 15 16 to 17 
December 1.....--- 9% to 10} 30 "to — 12} to 123 16} to 163 17 to 174 
December 31..-..--- $3 to 8 28% to 29 114 to 414 15 to 154 17 to 174 

1370. 

December 1.......- 53 to 64 19 to 19} ' Reto — 11 to— 12 to 12} 
December 31...-..-- 6 to 64 19 to 194 6} to — 102 68 =... .---- os senaes 
CHICAGO. 


The largest proportion of cattle for this market was contributed by 
Texas. A large number also were sent forward from Kansas, Nebraska, 
Colorado, and Wyoming. Many of the latter, however, were of the 
Texas breed, fattened upon the plains of Kansas and the Territories, 


52 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The receipts of hogs were mainly from [linois, Missouri, Wisconsin, 
and Iowa, the latter State furnishing the largest number. The total 
receipts of all descriptions of live stock were largely in excess of those 
of 1869. The increase is thus stated: Cattle, 129,862; hogs, 31,282; 
sheep, 9,783; horses, 2,013. 

The following is a comparison of the receipts and exports of 1870 
compared with ‘those of 1869: 


Yoar. Cattle. Hogs. Sheep. 
1869. 
FRECE MNES oe ea ee een Beene het ao oops cuee eee seceenes 403,102 | 1, 661, 869 340, 072 
Tog abe #3] soe oy oS ico Ge Oe ee ee ees Se 294,717 | 1, 086, 305 108, 690 
1870 ‘ 
LOCOIERE PARRA Sato Sakae Los hy we oa wedea sae webue rece 532, 964 | 1, 693, 158 349, 855 
Sse aN ete at eae eee altel oir mew Sia civ alsin alee oaein = oenle 391, 709 924, 453 116, 711 


Average monthly prices per 100 pounds for the year 1870. 


Months. Cattle. Hogs. Sheep 
(0P fa Sui) - s25 he SAde Soo See eS S cet apeaSe se Seas Seae $374 to$7 673) $8 50 to$9 93 | $3 00 to 5 50 
ony) ESSER S 52 eS eat eee See eeeee : 7 814] 852 to 9 40] 300 to 525 
20 Ut sec GSeSN O95 65556550555 Sas OO Beep Soros 768| 821 to 896] 450 to 7 27% 
April. ... Es 8 52] 8 42 to 922] 328 to 7 45 
May..- 8 75 8 42 to 9 12 425 to 7 60 
June. 9 03 8 22 to 8 89 270 to 5 40 
July... = 55 907] 8 60 to 9 28] 225 to 4 00 
22\ (03059) 308 Gn SQRO Gedo DEES eae e Seep eeRe ar Bee ser cre 881] 9 218to 992] 2 40 to 4 25 
September 765 | 845 to 906} 250 to 4 00 
MND PNEl ere cove cece ccibwemecic sSeccincsseec-ccmek oched 7 343) 747 to 8 U8} 235 fo 405 
November 7 374, 615 to 724] 270 to 400 
December 730{| 5 &8 to 6 28| 2% to 4 27% 


1 


The average cea per 100 pounds for the year 1869 were: Cattle, 
$3 79 to 87 72 hogs, $8 931 to $10 254; sheep $2 581 to $5 40}. 
The value of the live stock received during the year 1870 is estimated 
at $67,000,000. 

Since the opening of the Union Stock Yards, December, 1865, the 
receipts and exports have been as follows: 


Receipts. | Exports. 


CORP AG) 56 sate OSE EEO 0 COCA ECE SOB EES: Daao (ONE R pb @.2- ee CBee eer ae aense 1, 983, 398 1, 297, 686 


Rete ae Seem Sonie |. Re Lh. So emmenee | coon seman 7, 738,057 | 3, 592, 751 
sitGh) Dis <A pepe oe 2 EAs tt ce SGA SEA: oA nears 962 ooh ASRS See Se 1, 351, 110 432, 757 


Showing an excess of receipts of 685,715 cattle, 4,145,306 hogs, and 
918,353 sheep. : 


WOOL PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. 


The aggregate importation of woolens in each of the past five decades, 
ending in the years named, is as follows: 


1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 
Aggregate .....--- 886, 182, 110 $129, 336, 258 $109, 023, 552 $282, 682, 830 $320, 340, 346 
Annual average... 8,618,211 12,933,625 10,902,355 28,268,283 32, 034, 034 


The following statement gives in detail the quantity and value of 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 53 


wools and woolens imported in the past ten years, as well as the quan- 
tity and value of shoddy: 


Wool. | Shoddy. 
Years. Woolens. | ‘ 5 ; 

Pounds. Value. eae Pounds. Value. “pout. 
Sete. $28, 261,039 | 36,000, 000 | $4, 961, 396 HO 120s I Ease ore 

ae. 14, 884,394} 43571, 026 16,994, 606 16 6,291, 077 | $442, 376 7 
(ge 90, 411,625 | 73, 897, 807 | 12, 553, 931 16.9| 7867601] 581,934 1.3 
ca 32) 139, 336 | 90, 396) 104 ie 923) 991 17.6 | 8,133,301 | 621,514 7.6 
ieiies...-.-. 20, 347, 503 | 43, 858, 154 | 7, 728, 383 | 17.6 | 4.863.064 | 410,395 8.4 
i) 57,115,901 | 67,917,031 | 9/381, 083 13.3 | 7114748 | 589, 490 8.2 
oe 45, 813,212 | 36,318,299 | 5,915,178 16 5,220,296 | 518, 479 9.9 
a 32, 371,329 | 24, 124, 803} 3, 792, 659 15.7 556, 414 49) 649 8.9 
7S ne 34,560,324 | 39,275,926 | 5,600,958 14.2 832, 283 68, 103 8.1 
16M tn)... 34, 435, 623 | 49, 230, 199 | 6, 743, 350 13.6 512, 792 55, 009 10.7 
Total. ...... 320, 340,346 | 504,589, 349 | 79,595, 465 |........... 41, 424, 026 | 3,336,249 |..........- 

Averago....| 32,034,034 | 50, 458,934 | 7, 959, 546 15.7 | 4,142,402 | 333, 624 8 


The following is a statement of the importaiions of the fiscal year 
ending June 30, 1871: 


Quantity. Value. 
1871. | 1870. 7) Oe 
nit ae 68, 058,028 | 49,230,199 | $9, 780, 443 $6, 743, 350 
LTO A 1, 277, 495 012; 792 87, 667 55, 609 
Dern ORC ASSIMETES sents. tne 28 ates east cke se feeb aae| Ae seeeeeoe wee] | 10'902) 768 7, 671, 013 


Shawls 2, 160, 037 1, 867, 874 
Blankets 28, 050 21, 952 
Roane I Te a 4,775, 105 3, 729, 904 4, 691, 260 3, 940, 707 
fina tk ia Micke Sea ge ee a aa ieee 72, 361,713 | 61,362,034} 18,586,874 15, 447, 960 
IMP MUMELEULS, ANG OPANVELIS ©. 2082 nee cccems|secnecsesacadc|s-ccccccetccee 538, 770 441, 598 
iret. eile Grice. Sly eel. OA a alo ee | Bei 6, 844, 420 5, 043, 955 

Total value ...... Sénebee Bee a oe atm at soos nonoketiea a A a gee 53, 620, 282 41, 234, 018 
MEMEO MATIC. NAONU yo 22(. te santa io aratae'= ws |= oloars ogee Paces ae SRS Sek 9, 868, 110 6, 798, 959 

VAT UT@ GLU EUS RC at i See a ee 2] ee ees er, Sane ee ee 43, 752, 172 34, 435, 059 


An increase both in quantity and valuethus appears—18,827,829 pounds, 
and $3,037,093. The average price is advanced from 18.6 cents to 14.3 
cents (gold) per pound. There i ie also an increase in the value of wool- 
ens imported of $9,317, 113, or 27 per cent. The principal portion of 
this increase has been in cloths oan carpets. It will be seen that the 
importation of wools equals that of 1865~66, and is not exceeded by 
that of any year since 1863~64. 


PRODUCTION OF OTHER COUNTRIGS. 


The European production of wool, according to accepted estimates, is 
about equal to that of the other divisions of the globe. German esti- 
mates, quoted in the report on wools of the Paris Exposition Commis- 
sion, make the production in Europe 827,000,000, of which Great Britain 
ylelds 260,000,000, Germany 200,000, 000, France 123,000,000, European 
Russia 125, 000, 000, and Spain, Italy, and Portug: ul together 119, 000,000 5 
in Asia 470, 000, 000; in the entire world, 1,610,000,000. Since that date 
the production ‘in Australia has increased. Great Britain presents the 
largest market for wool, and the increase in the supply is indicated by 
the increase in importation. In 1820 Great Britain imported less than 
10,000,000 pounds; in ten years more her importation was 32,000,000 ; in 
184 it had increased to 49, 000,000; to 74,000,000 in 1850; to 133,000, 000 
‘in 1859; and to 255,000, vU0 in 1869, ‘Thus the increase of imported 
wools has been 122,000,000 in ten years in Great Britain, a quantity 
nearly equal to the present clip of the United States. Australia in 1840 
contributed less than 10,000,000, but sent 39,000,000 in 1850, 53,000,000 


54 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
in 1859, and 158,000,000 in 1869, an advance in ten years of 105,000,000, 
about 200 per cent. The receipts from South Africa, which were 14,000,000 
in 1859, had become 34,000,000 in 1869. The receipts from Australia were 
175,081,427 pounds in 1870, and the total importation for the saine year 
was 259,361,963 pounds. 

The following statement shows the sources of this supply and the 
quantity obtained from each country in the past three years: 


1868. | 1869. 1870. 
| Pounds. | Pounds. 3. 
Mites Marois ee ee OF De a. 5.5 sce ancien dee | 22,267,697 | 25, 199, 401 | 23, 686, 090 
Meet hil AMM ee. Ie 35,993,572 | 34,307,882 | 32, 785, 271 
From India. . Sp Ristee eee eelphoelnee sale no er “in =e a at S22 25-25 17, 602, 442 18, 796,578 | 11, 143, 148 
Meet ee a a 155, 745, 199 | 158, 477, 960 | 175,081, 427 
Phakic Spas SDR a lO Oe Se ee a a ci Ale 19, 320,004 | 18,379,522 | 16, 666,078 
8 Ss Se a ae 250, 928, 854 255, 161, 343 | 259, 361, 963 


The number of sheep in the British Colonial Possessions in 1868, as 
officially reported, was 57,734,589, distribated as follows: New South 
Wales, 13,909,574; Victoria, 9,532,511; South Australia, 4,477,445; 
West Australia, 599,756; Queensland, 8,921,784; Tasmania, 1,742,914; 
New Zealand, 8,409,919; Mauritius, 18,057; Natal, 286,264; Cape of 

Good Hope, 9,836,065. 


COTTON CONSUMPTION. 


The manufacture of cotton in this country is slowly increasing, In 
October, 1870, according to the estimate of the National Association of 
Cotton Manufacturers, which was based upon actual returns from a 
large proportion of the mills, there were in operation $47 mills, running 
7,114,000 spindles and consuming 881,564 bales of cotton of 466 pounds 
each, in the year closing at that date—an increase of 3 mills, 350,443 
spindles, and 7,310 bales. Of these mills 738 were in the North, with 
6,851,7 79 spindles, consuming 748,153 bales, and in the South 109 mills, 
running 262,221 spindles, and using 69,067 bales, the remainder being 
used in woolen mills for upholstering, &c. Thus 28 per cent. of the crop 
of 1869 was consumed in this country. In 1860 the consumption of the 
United States was about one-fifth ef the crop. 

In 1820 the proportion of cotton imports of Great Britain furnished 
by the United States was fifty-two per cent.; in 1830, seventy-two; in 
1840; seventy-seven; in 1850, sixty-seven; in 1860, eighty; and in 1870, 
after reduction to a trifling percentage during the late war, it has reached 
fifty-four per cent., with a certainty that the importation of 1871, 
from the great crop of 1870, will nearly restore the old proportion. 

A parliamentary report makes the following statement of the number 
of spindles in the United Kingdom in September, 1870, in comparison 
with the numbers reported at former dates: 


1856. 1861. 1870. 
Engiand and Wales ....-...----.--.--.---- 25, 819, 000 28, 352, 000 36, 023, 120 
CAA ete sec este hehe ase e se ceeube 2, 041, C00 1, 915, 000 1, 210, 847 
es hel 227 es ee ae er 151, 000 120, 000 125, 326 
Total in United Kingdom.-............ 28,011,000 30,387,000 37,359,293 


At 35 pounds of cotton to the spindle, the amount annually consumed 
cannot, for several years, exceed 1,300,000,000 pounds, or less than three 
millions of American bales, and has actually been much less than that, 
With the present supply of India and other foreign cotton, the United » 
States cannot expect to furnish much more than two millions of bales to 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 59 


Great Britain for several years to come, and not more than three millions 
to all foreign countries together, so that a crop like that of 1870, with the 
supplies irom other countries, will give a surplus of half a miilion bales 
until the spindles of the world shall have been materially increased. 

The following statement:shows the status of British importations for 
the years named: 


1350. | 1860. | 1370. 

7 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 
MBEREDS 4.8 520.203. 2.28..5042.32h.008 ae Ss ee 493, 153,112 | 1, 115, 890, 608 716, 245, 040 
Re er nos es sad ace ous ca aplee 30, 299, 982 17, 286, 364 @3, 691, 680 
EISEN ON - O0 is ons aoe nines Derg eens 13, 931, 414 44,036, 6.8 153, 228, 320 
British East Indies...........-..- = ee 118, 372, 742 204, 141, 163 341, 599, 776 
MIRREN RSE TONGS = 3)... «225 08aseu-stececeveeese ne 228, 13 1.050: 784) |). Suen eee 

GS a MNS SY ae Seas 5 eee ee mn 2, 090, 698 8, 532, 720 61, 606, 832 

eT NS eS SES Bee NG Ph Rane RUE! 663, 576,861 | 1,390,938, 752 | 1, 336, 371, 648 


_ The increase of ten years, through earnest and persistent efforts of 
European cotton supply association, in India, Egypt, aud Brazil, has 
been less than that made in the United States in the single year of 1879 
over the previous crop. It is evident that no stimulation of produc- 
tion elsewhere will destroy our foreign market for cottou, aud manifest, 
to the most superticial observer, that as the manufacture increases in 
this country, aud the proportion for export diminishes, the more indis- 
peusable to foreign manufacturers will be that surplus. The quality of 
our cotton, its indubitable superiority to that of India, will make it a 
necessity to Kurcpeans, who would compete with the manufactures of 
the United States in the markets of the world. It is evidently the des- 
tiny of this country to take a large share in the business of supplying 
the world with manufactured cotton, a result to which the quality of 
the staple and the inventive genius and skill of Americans will largely 
contribute. The quantity of cotton exported from this country in the last 
eleven years, (fiscal years ending June 30,) both upland and sea island, 
With the value of the same, is presented in the following statement: 


UPLAND. a SEA ISLAND. 

Quantity. Value. | Quantity. 

Pounds. ‘s.| Pounds. 
Ee Ie este Seas a aiciainicicicis mix'a asp aca pcint == 301, 345,778 | $34, 051, 483* f GTO Se is ee dade sy - 
Reet a as eg aden duis's o's > 5 ein eu'ewe~ ee 4, 998, 121 1, 180, 113*| 23.8 | OB ee eka a» 
ERE Ce ee ne, ee aia alnc aa nw acun'a 10, 857, 239 6, 652, 405* 2 | Hf i: VG EER ok Se 
PT a oe Ye ee es 11, 860, 380 9, 768, 071 132, 521 $127, 783 
MIN OP Le Se A SRR PFS tn pe, ale 6, 276, 582 5, 424, 370 a 330, 584 296. 179 
EM cha dis le Ula wes AMIE es 9 eS alae © 643, 288, 356 274,960, 453 2. 7, 284, 473 | 6, 424. 770 
MME eres ice Se pe 654, 731, 274 197, 115, 582 5 6, 742, 314 | 4, 354. 842 
ol ER es eae eo) 779, 765, 318 149, 797, 399 E 4, 998, 315 | 3, 023, 334 
Ll 2 OSS a a ee ee. a See 641, 542, 677 160, 258, 160 , 2, 785, 244 | 2, 374, B92 
CTL ON ae! Oe As eee 954, 148, 843 224, 121, 191 i 6, 309, 720 | 2, 906, 433 
| eee a eee 1, 459, 715, 036 | 216, 889, 570 7 3, 212, 988.| 1, 437, 539 

* Including sea island. . 


The largest returns for a single year’s exportation ever made were 
those for the year ending June 30), 1866, a portion of the cotton having 
been produced in 1865, and the remainder brought forth from the hidden 
stores of previous years, all realizing an average of 42.5 cents per pound. 
The export of 1870, mainly the crop of 1869, yielded $224,131,191, at 
23.4 cents per pound. 7 

The export of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1871, amounted to 
1,459,715,036 pounds, and realized $216,889,570. Thus the export of 
3,132,650 bales fof 466 pounds) which furnished a surplus above the 
requirements of consumption, brought $7,231,621 less than 2,047,527 
bales which were needed for current use by the mills of Europe. 


56 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


MARKET PRICES OF FARM 


Prices of certain products of 1870 in some of the principal cities. The 


Products. January. February. March. April. May. 


NEW YORK. 


Flour, superfine, State. .../$4 87 to $500 |$470 to $485 [$475 to $490 |$450 to $460 [$460 to $495 
western.| 475 to 500|460 to 485 |475 to 48 | 450 to 455 |480 to 490 
extra, western ....}520 to 540/505 to 530/495 to 520/460 to 480;500 to 525 

Wheat, spring ........... 122 to 1243118 to 123|103 to 122]103 to 112]/115 to 123 

winter, red and , 
amber,western .|133 to 1354) 128 to 131 |130 to 132 |123 to 127/128 to 130 

Corn, western, mixed ....} 114.......... 88 to 91 92 to 96/103 to 106)105 to 112 

= yellow’... Sen ieee. 101 to 102 OF Fe eae 1022. eee 105 to, 1/08)|:;-.-.%2 amen 

Oats, western. ...:...2...- 62 to 63 Ook 2 Fpen. ee 55 to 564, S5ito 572) 62$to 63% 

Ohio and State ..... 65 to 66 58 to 60 62 to 633] 61 to 62 67 to 69 
Hay, shipping qualities ../1700..-....... 1700 to 1800 |19 00 to 2000 |i800 to 19 00 |1800........-. 
PURI eect epee cee 2000 to 2300 |19 00 to 23.00 }2200 to 2300 |21 00 to 2400 2009 to 25 00 
Pork anesse os. oon 65s 2-5 2900 to 2950 |2650 to 2700 |2562 to 2600 |2600 to 26 75 |2850 to 2900 
prime mess ........ 2600 to 2800 [2400 to 2600 |2350 to 2400 |2200 to 2225 2550.......... 
Beef, plain mess..-.--..-. 50) to 1300 1000 to 1500 |1000 to 1500 {1000 to 1500 |1200 to 1500 
@xtra/mess ...-.:-.. 1100 to 1900 |14 00 to 1700 |1400 to 1700 |1350 to 170) {1600 to 1800 

Lard, prime, tierce ....... 16 to 183} 153 to 18 14 to 16 14 to 153} 16 to 1a} 

Butter, western ........-. 18 to 33 14 to 31 4 to 26 14 to 26 14 to 
State, dairy ...-.- 30 to 44 36 to 46 28 to 46 25 to 43) 20 to 25 

Cheese, dairy --..-- ------ AG io}, Sag, 16: tou) .272)) 26 toy o172) 9 13 toy 414 15 to 16 
FACLOTV fe ooo ae e- Posto. 18 iif ton 1B It tO" abs 14 to 153 16 to WW 

Cotton, low middling... -. 242 to 258) 248 to 254) QWbto L279) 2Fto 2s) BW to 22s 
middling to good 

middling. .....- QWIto Wil Wito 27] Wto 253] QW_to 4] BWARto 254 

Tobacco, sound lugs.....- 83 to 93 8 to 93 8 to gt 7 to ge 73 to 84 

common, leaf. ... 94 to 11 93 to 103 94 to 103 8&3 to 10 8+ to 9 
medium, leaf....| 10} to 112) 10$to 113) 104to 114; 10 to i 9$¢to 10, 
Wog@combme feecel.. 5: ao-22 5 a. Sec loss nee st. Licentiate eis 60). .e222- os) oe- See eee 
extra pulled .....-. 42 to 48 41 to 46 40 to 42 44 to 47 40 to 43 
Texas common, un- 
DASH scr see eo aReie- Wee e stent Ole fee SF ee APs as rs = is 283 to 30 
CHICAGO. 
| 
Flour, white winter extra 
Choice Se eee2s MBO Mtoe 1004) 600-20 ac. sen 6i35. 4 eee 6 \Saease2 ace 6, 5025556 See 
PAM RCnter espns OO sho GOD Wesco ea <0 ec cet |jomcie's om wee ccm rE) OES Sera a 
spring extra, good 
to choice. ....-- 425 to 550/365 to 475|3 70 to 475 |3 50 to 475 | 4 374to 5 00 
superfine ..-.--.. Silo, to .3:50))' 3.40 to 3.50) |/os00 to! 3 Geko cles see eee 3 1025. aaeeeee 

Wheat, No. 1 spring ..... SO Mee: eae oe Secs oo 85$to 86 3] rere 95 to 99 
No. 2 spring ..... T6zto 774|  794to 80 783 to 7 Hzto 8 87} to 89 
No.3 spring .-.... 6G8ito 69 7tto 74 1S to. | 22 7ito 723%! Sisto 82 

Coma ANOre eee ty kt 69 to 72 20° to.) e%2 693to 70 76 to 774) 86 to” 87 

Boyt setae hs Ses BES See see (USE em fees Eee Rallecctrac aes2o2~ 824to 83 

Oats ANON) 2-2 scence a cee 40 to 434} 38 to 383} 374 to 374 38ito 42 45}to 47} 

rejected! soo.5 52.65 33hto 34 Sia} pa is aan D2. tOWy Sod. ocee ss ose= cee | (45°. eee 

THay,timothy, pressed, (on 

PLAC IEE teres se oe ke 12 00 to 13 00 |11 00 to 12 00 |11 00 to 12.00 |12 00 to 13 00 |13 00 to 14 00 
prairie, pressed, (on 
DTG Et Series Sia ee ay 9 00 to10 00! 8 00 to 9 00!] 8 00 to 9 00 | 9 50 toll 00 {10 50 to 11 50 

Pork Mess. 32. oc Se. ei, 27 50 to 27 75 |26 00 to 26 75 125 25 to 26 00 [25 75 to 26 50 27 75 to 28 50 

ere oe heen eee a 6 to 163] 143to 153} 14 to -142) 144to 143/ 16}..2.2-000 

Batther, choice. ..--.--..- Bit hay WSR: 28 to 30 ents» 130) 31 to 34 25 to “2% 
PUTA RHEE. esi eee chance ceie'e 22 to 25 D2 to" 425 25 to's 28 22 tomy ee 

Wool, unwashed, fine....| 24 to 26 26 Sto 24 26 to 28 28: to way 28 to 30 

unwashed, coarse. 26 to 28 28) to (2941) 28) to -- 30 30 to 32 30 to 32 
isi) iy SS eee 45 to 53 45 to 50 7 to 53 47 tu 53 47 to 55 
CINCINNATI. 

Mlour familys ete c 525 to 5751525 to 5751500.to 550|510 to 550|500 te 575 | 
(551 RE aS Ae eee 485 to- 5001485 to 500/450 to 475/475 to 500|475 to 490 | 
supertine 25 450 | 48 425 | 4 5 40 to 450 

Wheat, No. 1 white 4 
Wo. 2 white 
NOndiredel ost. 2 
No. 2 red 

Corn, No. 1 

No.2... 

Oats, No. 1 53 
O.2 es eee Eee » 53 

Hay, common...... Fesse |10 00 to 1200 11200 to 14.00 /1200 to 1300 |1300 to 1400 |1200 to 1300 

loose pressed..-...- 1700 to 2300 |1700 to 2390 |1600 to 2200 |1900 to 20 00 /1700 to 2200 

Pork, Messe ice saseeeeee Bio wesc. 6 2525 to 2650 2600 to 2700 [2650 to 2700 }2850 to 2925 

Dard 2 si see. cpt ee 153 to 19 15. to 19 14 to 174 144 to “18 16} to 194 


Butter, choice Ohio...... SLOELO) Gekos 28) "to: -730 30° to - 32 34) to 35 27 to 30 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 


PRODUCTS FOR 1870. 


quotations are given, as nearly as practicable, at the first of each mouth. 


57 


June. July. August. September. October. November. | December. 
| 

$475 to $485 $510 to $530 $530 to $595 ($510 to$345 1$485 to$500 |$5 30 to$550 ($5 00 to$5 20 
475 to 485/510 to 530/530 to 595/510 to 540] 485 to 500 | 530 to 550 | 500 to 520 
500 to 515/540 to 570] 615 to 625/545 to 565 | 520 to 585/575 to 630 | 575 to 630 
Ti8 to 128)106 to 130;105 to 124;111 to 125 | 105 to 130] 114 to 1324) 118 to 1374 

130 to 134/)143 to 145|]152 to 155 |138 to 144 | 127 to 132] 134 to 135 | 143 to 14 

105 to 1094] 97 to 105 95 to 100 84 to 853; 8&5 to 87 80 to 82 76 to 8 
108 to 111;100 to 105/108 to 109 SIDE osties loan Oe eee S Shee A salt h cc ee eee 
60 to 61 60 to 63 5a to 56 50 to 52 ol to 63 53 to 54 62 to 63 
66 to 68 674 to 69 64 to 66 a eis ee ene Reon 539 to 59 63 to 64 
UU) eee PROO Sn Sesame « 1700 to 1800 |1700 to1800 A aac 2 crete epoteta ate eae oes LOO) 2 ee-eee 
aera 22°00 }18'00 to 23°00. |.-.-2. 02.2.2... 18500! To25 00) |e soe e ee cn 2400 to2900 |2310 to26 00 
29 62 to 29 87 |2900 to 29 25 |3025 to 3050 2787 to2825 [24 62 to2475 |2400 to2550 |2200 to2300 
2600 to 2650 |2575 to 2600 |.-.....-.. 3100 38000 to3100 /21 50 t023 50 |21 00 to2250 |220 to2300 
1100 to 1500 |11 00 to 1500 1200 to 1600 (1200 to1600 |1200 to1550 |1000 to1560 |1000 to1500 
1600 to 1800 |1600 to 1850 1600 to 1900 1600 to1900 {1600 to1850 |1500 to1800 |1500 to1800 
143 to 163} 144 to 163; 16 to 173, 16 to 173| 144to 163} 14 to. 163) 13 to 13% 
10 to 2% 16 to 28 20 to 28 20 to 28 20 to 3 20 to 32 14 to 30 
20 to. 30 24 to 32 24 to 33 24 to 38 24 to 42 24 to 45 20 to 47 
8 to 154 8 to 14 8 to 14 5. to 13 oto 13 % to 14 7 to 14 
10 to 154 10 to 144; 10 to 144 5 to 14 5 to 15 10 to 15%) 13 to: 164 
212 to S| 19% to) (7204) 419 to, §194) 1s%to 198) 162..-2.-2. 16Zto 173) 154to 16} 
224 to 24%) 203 to 232; 20 to 203| "19s to” 208) 6s. .I2258 16%to 18 15Zto 173 
8% to 94 7 to 10 9 to 10 8 to 83 73 to 8 7 to 83 7 to 8: 
Sto 91] Sito 10% 10ito 103) 9 to 93 Sito 9 Tito 93| TWto 9 
9} to 104 Ato 113) 11 to 11%) 10 to 103| 94to 93) 8%to 103 2to 10% 
See <li - be 59 Feo e eee eee 55 to 60 55 to 60 DO) CO! GOP) os = ke eae ae ite eters et ere 
HRA, Se Sees aes = 3¢ to 42 37 to 42 37 to 42 41 to 42% 40 to 43 
Weto 2 26 to 30 18 to 21 23 to 26 23 to 26 22 to 252) 27 to 34 
773 |5 75 to 759 | 700 to 8 25 | 650 to 825 | 525 to 750 | 700 to 750 | 575 to 725 
Spiabnaipiciain' ss 0 = 5 50 to 6 50/600 to 6 75 | 600 to 675 | 475 to 550 | 475 to 600 '---........-.. 
5 00 to 5 50 | 4 87}to 6 25/6 00 to 6 50 | 550 to 625 | 500 to 550] 500 to 550 | 525 to 550 
375 to 38 |475 to 600/475 to 500 | 425 to 450 | 325 to 375] 400 to 450] 400 to 425 
PEG OS | Peldee.:.. 2. 130 to 132] 110 to 1104] 105 to 1053| 100 to 1073! 102sto 1034 
97 to 99 | 1 04kto 1 093) 1 23 to 1 30 99¢to 1092) 104 to 1053) 97 to 1053] 101 to 102% 
85 to 86 95 to 96 | 110 to 1 124} 90 to 103 82 to 96 91 to 101 91 to 9% 
81} to 84 79 to 84 835i to 854), 643to 66 63 to 634] 52 to 56 53 to G61$ 
74 to 76 724 to 73 764 to 78 62 to 623! S9tto 604) 48 to 53 AVN. 
47k to 481 43 to 24 43 to 45 I sito 38 36} to 37 354 to 35%! 38 to 38% 
394 to 404 43 to 44 39 to 40 344to 354/ 34 to 35 34 to 343] 34h. 2.2.28. 
12 00 to13 00 |13 50 t015 00 |14 00 t0 15 50 |15 00 to016 00 |15 00 to16 00 |16 00 to17 00 |15 00 to16 00 
9 00 to10 00 /10 00 to 11 00 |11 00 to14 00 |/{000 to13 00 {1050 to11 50 {1100 to1200 |1050 to11 00 
28 00 to 29 50 (28 00 to 29 50 |25 00 to 26 00 \2300 to025 00 |25 00......... 2200 to24 50 |1850 told 25 
15} to 15% 153 to 15} 144 to 162; 14$to 16 14 to 15 IAB sti 2 1l3to 12 
21 to 23 22 to 24 23 to 25 24 to 26 24 to 26 28 to 30 27 to 30 
18 to 20 18 to 20 18 to 20 18 to 20 16 to 18 20 to 25 21 to 24 
25 to 27 24 to 26 24 to = 24 to 28 24 to 28 25 to 26 25 to 26 
26 to 28 20° to, 27 27 to 30 27 to 30 29 to 30 26 to 27 28 to 30 
44 to 55 45 to 53 45 to 50 45 to 50 45 to 50 4 to 438 45 to 50 
525 to 550/550 to 575/660 to 700|550 to 575/575 to 600 | 575 to 600! 550 to 575 
490 to 510|525 to 540| 635 to 660/525 to 550] 550 to 575 | 540 to 560] 525 to 550 
460 to 470} 475 to 500/575 to 600/450 to 475 | 475 to 500] 475 to 500] 425 to 450 
et SER Ae EVA SE DAD a5. -5-'. |) 2 50), ton L) 55) | P2508 eI SOR oa) 115) tol LOS Meontio (Nas 
Bee See eae Waals cnn e| 2 40) ton t 45 || 020). toy, PA eee eS ee eeoe a Se eu Sane 
ANIANs $2208 11S to) 116 | 133. to’ 135) 215, to: 116) VIB Ls... o. |S PP eee 117 to 119 
KC) SZ eto. 13) | 128° to 1.30) P12n ee ee PLO 35. fODIG Rooke 
90 to 91 83 to 85 90). aaaaeets te tOle BUR eat eens 3909 Rs SCE 50 to 52 
ee See ee |... 2 2k oc leds oe CGE TOMMGT |) 608s 2205-9, 
o7 to 58 CSO ee 50:.t0, Sos | 3.925. So aaee 43 to 45 39 to 40) #42 to 44 

__ 54 to 55 55 to 56 4Oa 5 otas 0 ted leet dete a alee 40 to 43 37 to 39 37 to 39 
1200 to 13.00 |1200 to 1300 |1400 to 1500 |1200 to1400 /1200 to1400 |1200 to1400 |1200 to1400 
16 00 to 22.00 [16 00 to 2000 |1900 to 2400 1700 to21 00 /20 00 to21 00 |1700 to2200 2000 to2400 
2900 to 2975 '2975 to 3000 (3000 to 3050 [2750 to2800 12450 to2475 (2450 to2500 |19 00 to19 25 
15¢to 193) 15%to 1931 16 to 203) 15 to 194] 14sto 183] 154to 183] 12 to 16% 
20 to 22 20 to 22 25 to 27 28 to 30 31 to 33 33 to 35 28 to 30 


58 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
MARKET PRICES OF FARM 


Prices of certain products of 1870 in some of the principal cities. The 


| 
Products. | January. February. | March. | April. 2 May. 
CrxcriynaTi—Cont'd. 
Butter, fair. to good...... $028 to $0 30 ($025 to $0 27 |$025 to $027 |§027 to $930 $020 to 202 
Cheese, choice factory..-| 18 to 18} 18 to 183} 17 to 18] i6}to 17| litte 16 
western reserve..| 17 & 173) 163to 174 16 to 163) 15 to 153) 14 fo 6 
Cotton, low middling..... eae ese) | 38 to || 2SRe QE ae ee OD Sea 08 -oeroseae 
Bm middling spree BM to 244 Mito 244] 22....-.2... 2 ee ee A Sit oe. 
fobacco, coinmon lugs, : 
’ “W. Virginia.| 10 to 12 10 to 12] 10 to 11 44to Gh 44ta GF 
fillers, Oi <2 10 to 14 10 to 14 10 to 14 45 to 5 42 to 5 
common lugs, 
Kentneky...| 11 to 123) 11}to 193 isto 113] *6to 7] Tt 9 
Wool, get wentiel 5: +--+ 45 to SO; 45 to 50; SO to 52 fo 52) 50 to 
fleece. washed,man- 
A ufacturing Pe 40 to 43 42 to 43 45 to 48 45 to 48 43 to 48 
eece-washed, 
combin cites aie 45 to 50 45 to 50 45 to 50 45 to 50 45 to 60 
unwashed, mann- 
facturing .*...--- 28 to 31 28 to 30 31 tag -s2]| 31 ta 82 3i to 22 
unwashed,combing} 35 to 40 |....,.......--- og eat a ewe nbc a -}o Gane = akin agen |p er 
ST. LOUIS 
leur, spring .....--.---- 400 to 425/375 to 425/410 to 420/340 te 370/350 to 3 
MHNGCD soece. cana 400 to 430/415 to 490) 415 to 475|390 to 4591400 to 4 
PAY teense 675 to 530/700 to 750 70) to 775 | 700 to 775 | 750 to 8 
Wheat, choice red ......- 125 to 135) 115 to 130/116 to 127 | 117 ta £25 | 125 fee 
choice white..... 125 to 145/|120 to 140] i118 to 127); 120 to 145 | 130 to i 
spring, No. 1... 9% to 98) 90 to 98] & to 93] 8 to 90| 90 ta I 
Gate, mized, in sacks pies, a . a j # to 54 49 to 2 2 to 8 ‘ Fa ie : 
orn, white, in sacks..... a) Di 2 to 7 77 to 3) to 
Wouow, 10 BaCks.-—-|...5.-......... | % to 77 76 to 78 & to 84/)100 to 1 
mixed, in sacks....| 75 to 983] 74 to 77| 6 to 7 & to 83|100 to i 
Se 0 ee ee ee as es UO co neces Ely ihe eS ae - 18 30 2557 ee 18 50 oc. eee 
Ebr fl sae So aa pa r 1600 to 1650 1500 to 1700 {1600 to i700 |1600 to 175) }17530..-....... 
Cotton, middling......--. OF fare S24] UP cworrcares|) Dl tO” isi eel ieee 
Wool, tub-washed.....-.. 40 to 50| 40 to 50 50 to 53 48 to 51 
pects) G2 2) ee 2 ee 2 es eo 
unwashed .......-- to 0 is) x ce) 
Pati SNCEB a. cea caer es - 223 ee 2700 £0’ 27/30 127 00). 22. enn e a 27 00 to 2725 
ON an aa bisa ea esos 1G to . 17 36. fay. B38 - Se ee ee 
Tobacco, factory Ings, av- 
erage per month..-..) 5 65-..-....-.. ho ee ly fp ae e, 5 BO. onseg eee avezeeees! 
common leaf, av- 
erage per month..-.| 800....,--...) 7 75......---- BPD Jongy-e2~- 810 = a5e6-e- 
medium leaf, av- 
stage per month. --. 9 ORE... -.tee! GG): .< 3e-a2 > B00 Aeon s 940 .. 2220-6) Bi 
SP FPSB! | ae eg Seer ee eee Coe B ann Sogo aes | tae cog es 
cr oP ae es aes eee See Jonna ee en nnn n noe] meen nn nee sane] reee nn ee ene 
Chinese) taatery ou cc-52-=.|---55-.5-255-55 ee pe SSS ey Pree cass: 2. 
NEW ORLEANS. 
lito 2 QWito 224) 1%to W 17ito 183 
242 to oat! 244 to 243 22ito 228] 21}to 22 Owes | 
---¢---- (2950 to 3000 2900 to 2925 28 25 to 23850 
530:to 550157 to. 5%3 |) €25 --<.-.-.. 4 12s to 4 20 
575 to 850/605 to 850 | 500 to 850 | 4 65 to 82 
SE A 1200). 2cees) ee tol Rp) | lis u.ceoae 
ee ae POE 2s eee ie 2 eecees-| 2 eee 
to 107}|..... Se Ti) SS Rares 140 pase 
to 72| 73 to 7| 68 to 70| 61 to 62 
to 3400 2800 to 3500 |2800 to 3700 2600 to 2800 
to 35 00 apes to 36 0U 2900 to 3800 |2700 to 2960 
ue ; 164to 18% 16 to 163) 14 to 16 15: fa. a7 
ard, keg, (extremes for 
mnt) S.. 6-4 os lito 20 18 to 183] 17 to 183) 182to 193 
Butter, western, (range $ A 
for month) .--.| 17 to 22 15 to 2 15 to 28 15 to 28 
ga eel 16 to 34| 15 to 32] 30 to 41| 30 to 43 
Cheese, (range formonth).| 17sto 23) litto 22] 15 to 21] 15 to 
Tobacco, common to good 
Gist DRE SO Ee oer ee Bee eens erlapernceee nae 7 to i] 
medium leaf....|....- ss AS eo Salo ds axe ceeeh ne ooo ee dees 9¢ to 


REPORT OF THE 


PRODUCTS FOR 1870. 


STATISTICIAN. 


quotations are given, as nearly as practicable, at ihe first of each month. 


June. 


July. | August. 


$015. to $018 [$015 to $016 |8020 to $022 


iS ae 13ito 14 
2te 13 CUES IRR ETE aR ey 
Se ME) aa 17k to 173 
Oi fa Sit] =19}..::..2.. | igtte 18% 
44 to 64} 43 to 6}, 4}to 6 
5k to 6 6 to "| 5b to 6} 
Tito 831 to “9 8 to 9 
40 to 42) 40 to 42| 43 to 47 
35 to 86| 35 to 36] 39 to 42 
40 to 45! 40 to 43) 42 to 45 
|e Se eb 7 ee OT te | 31 
3 to 35) 31 to  33| 32 t 34 
am to 415/425 to 480/425 to 500 
2 450/425 to 490| 460 to 535 
775 to 850/750 to 850)750 to 825 
1% to 45 | 130 to 150/130 to 140 
130 to 150 1 20 to 160/140 to 155 
ete) PIB eld leone eatin we ses « 
56 to 57| 52 to 54] 40 to 42 
103 to 110{ & to 97; 90 to 94 
894 to 98; 73 to 8] 8 to & 
i) fo.\..97.| % ita .. 83! 72 to, 0 
1700 to 1750 |1650 to 1700 /1800.......... 
1450 to 1650 |1350 to 1550 /1600 to17 00 
19 to 20| 18 to 19] 18 to 19 
SS te 46} 35 to 46] 35 to 45 
a3 fo 42) 38 to 42] 33 to 40 
OH ta. #@)] 2 to 32) 2 to ‘33 
3000..........13000 to 3025 |8100.......... 
16 to 173) 16 to 173] i6$to 18 
ee 3222) % IDEs. oss. fC” eee Eee 
0 RS Ap 2 4 20s 
ap eS IOP DD oo eon 5 
- 25 RR ee Seen a 2 to 29 
SEY Se eee 22 to 25 
23 | ead Ae eet 14 to 15 
17 to 183) 14$to 153] 114to 12 
Pista!’ | 2] 1G kes 17} to 173 
UE ae 31 50 to 3200 |3200 to 3250 
550 to 5624] 4874 to 500] 540 to 550 
575 to 850/500 to 850/600 to 775 
100 to 110/120 to 125] 95 to 100 
We else 10 2 DOM TS. 
Ress eerste 15 3.45 es 80 to 8 
68 to 70| 68 to 723! 68 to 70 
2250 to 2500 2200 to 2500 (2350 to 2600 
2400 to 2700 [2300 to 2600 /2500 to 2300 
154to 173} 153t0 174 I%to 18 
18$to 191) 184to 191) 48htc 19 
2 to 38) 2 to 2] 24.to 36 
30 to 37] 30 to 36] 39 to 3 
10 to 2| 10 to 16 9 to 16 
mien seoan eat, or. ie 91; 73 to 93 
Seeeeeiteensss-1) Seto 4a |) 40 to’ =“ 


September. 


October. 


November. | December. 


i3sto 14] 13 to 15 143to 153] 15 to 15% 

10 to 123] 11 to 13} 13sto 141 14 to 144 

Vizto 18 |) 144..-.... | 15 to 153] 143........ 

193#9°° 10. | 4582.,.2:.. Whtto 158) | 464.2)... 

4tto 63 4ito 6} 44to 61, 43to 63 

Shto Gi} Shto 64 Sito al 6 to 

Tito 9} ito OF Tto O8f Tto 98 

44 to 47| 45 to 48| 45 to 48| 45 to 48 

40 10 43| 40 to 43, 40 to 43} 40to 43 

2to 45| 42to 45| 42 to 45} 42 to 45 

20 to 31| 30 to 31] 30 to 31| 30 to 31 

32 to 35| 32 to 35] 32to 35] 31 to 32 
400 to 500| 360 to 425| 400 to 425| 425 to 475 
425 to 515|390 to 465 400 to 470/400 to 460 
775 to 875 | 700 to 800 650 to 850/650 to 850 
125 to 137 | 130 to 140, 130 to 140] 135 to 145 
135 to i50 1 49 to 150 | 140 to 169 155 fo 160 
Shae 02 to 107} 100 to 110 110 

38 to 4i1| 42 to 43| 41 to 43| 43 to 434 

72 Lt Toki 64 to 69! 7 to 71 55 to al 

eee tats GH) gt cee to. 

BRL 1 LCNe ese 760 | exces ae 52 ta 54 
1750 (01850 1750 toi8@0 1900 to 2000 12050 to2100 
1600 {01700 [1550 toiG00 1750 to1800 |1750 to1300 

lijto 13] 15 to iG | Ito 15] 13 to 14 

36 to 46| 40 to 47| 40 to 43| 40 to 48 

ee Pa fae 

IG'to., ae 2 to 3 2 ‘ 31 
2800 to2350 (2150 t02500 2550 to2600 1900 to1950 

16 to 1%| 15 to 17% 16 to 173} 18 to 143 
57a. sah Los #90) Pwd, $3: 
800.......-. Ve: a: A eS Me ke 
BIGGS ae. 5s eae Oe BOSC. was 9.40: aged. 

25 to 28} 29 to 31 83 to 3 a to os 

te) "S04 -teetam. oS eee 0 25 
Bese peti dh a ita 16| 15$to 164] 15 to 16% 

Ath to at] 11 ta HE #2 ie a8 125 to 134 

sg ep 5 153] 15$to 15%] 15 to 
3000 ........ e575 2600 2675 to27 i 2275 to24 bot 
525 to 535 | 425 ........ 500 to 512} 430 to 500 
585 to 875/440 to 800| 570 to 825 | 535 to 825 

fe aap Tae te a Aad ote. 70 to 75 

DORE LEC ie AR CB P Yat aad ap ait 873: 

BO oe cea ce a Ae LAR 8 PE ee ae 

48 to 54| 50 to 52] 50 ta 53] 52 to 54 
2800 .....-.- 2500 to2550 2700 to2800 \2800 ........ 
Sy aa 2450 £02550 2900 ......-. TTT eM 

1t%ito 183/ 16tto 163} 17 to 174] I3fte 14 

19 to 20{ 19 to 20] 17 to 19H 14..... Uf 

i 

25 to 32] 30 to 35 | 30 to 35| 30 to 33 

9 to 43| 49 to 45] 40 to 45] 40 45 

13:to 17| 15 to 153! 15 to 16] 144to 16% 

isto §3] Gito 8} Gito $8] Stto 8 

10 to 103} 9 to 104 8 to 103) to 10 


60 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


IMMIGRATION. 


The immigration for the year 1870, as appears by the ofiicial record, 
amounted to 356,303, the aggregate of the foreign passenger list being 
378,796, of whom 22,493 did not intend to remain in this country. The 
largest number of passengers from any one country was 91,779 from 
Germany. Ireland sent 75,544, England 59,488, Canada 51,278, Norway 
12,356, Sweden 12,009, China 11,943, Scotland 11,820. The number from 
China is 3,797 less than in 1869. Japan sent 48 in 1869 and 74 in 1870. 

The occupations of more than half of these immigrants is not stated ; 
1,854 males and 278 females are credited with professional callings, 180 
males and 20 females are artists, and 31,372 males and 592 females skilled 
artisans; the “ miscellaneous occupations” number 136,058 males and 9,724 
females; 16,529 have no occupations; and from those whose occupation 
is not stated, 128,254 are women, leaving but 62,342 males unclassified. 

A statement of the total immigration, from the earliest records of 
our national history, as prepared by the Bureau of Statistics of the 
Treasury Department, makes the grand aggregate 7,803,365. The 
decade ending in 1860 had the largest immigration, that ending in 1870 
an influx almost equally large, and the entire immigration prior to 1830 
was only a little larger than of either of the two subsequent decades. 
Great Britain sent her largest contributions in the decennial period 
ending in 1860, and nearly as many in the decade ending in 1850 as in 
that just closed. Among the countries increasing their offerings are 
British America, from which immigration has advanced from 59,309 to 
167,349; Denmark, from 3,749 to 17,885 ; Belgium, 4,738 to 7,416; Italy, 
7,012 to 12,796; China, from 41,397 to 68,059. It will be seen that 
nearly all our immigration is from Northern Europe, very little coming 
from Asia, and a scarcely appreciable amount coming from Africa or 
South America. The influx during the past two years has not been 
equal in volume, the “ net emigration” of the first two years failing to 
reach ninety thousand per year, nearly doubling that figure in 1863, 
still increasing from that date to 1866, when it was 314,840, then falling 
the next year to 293,601, and in 1868 to 289,145, rising again in 1869 to 
385,287, (the highest figure reached,) and in 1870 standing at 356,303. 

The census of 1870 returns 5,566,546 persons foreign-born in a total 
population of 38,555,983; and 9,734,845 persons having both father and 
mother foreign, and 10,892,015 having a foreign father. Thus nearly 
15 per cent. of our present population are actual immigrants, and 25 per 
cent. are of unmixed foreign parentage. These persons are mainly workers, 
increasing production and wealth very rapidly, developing resources 
that must long remain hidden without their aid, and especially service- 
able in the primitive and ruder forms of labor by which railroads are 
built, factories manned, mines worked, and farm products grown. 

The States increasing in wealth most rapidly are those which have 
secured the largest aid from this souree. A day may come when increase 
of population may cease to add to the wealth of a State; but that time 
is far distant to any one of the United States. In New York more than 
one-third are foreign-born, more than half of foreign parentage; in Mas- 
sachusetts, one-fourth are of foreign birth, and nearly one-half of foreign 
parentage; in [llinois and Iowa one-fifth were born in foreign lands; 
in Wisconsin and Minnesota more than one-third are foreign-born, and 
two-thirds of foreign parentage; and in Iowa and Kansas one-eighth 
are of foreign birth. All of the growing States, in which production 
and improvement are peculiarly noticeable, owe much of their growth 
and prosperity to the setélement and labor of immigrants. The pro- 


REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. 61 


gressive people of the South see the advantage of this stream of immi- 
gration and are devising means to divert a portion of it to their section. 
Hitherto it has been benefited by it only in a slight degree. The eleven 
States south and west of the Potomac, or the cotton States, have only 
210,684 persons of foreign birth in a population of 9,487,386, or 23 per 
cent; excluding Louisiana and Texas , but one per cent. 

A statement, by occupations, of the number of passengers arrived in the United States for the 

Jifiy-one years ended December 31, 13870 


Occupation. P 1800 “0 | 182039. | 1831-40. | 1841-'50. | 1851~"60. 51-00. | 1861-"70. tore. | A Aggro: 
iirc: poe amare 10, 280 53, 169 281,229 | 527, 639 526,199 | 1,398, ae 
DOD. Skee Se er 15, 005 88, 240 256, 880 404, 712 211, 7142 976, 5 
Mechanics, not specified...|......-.- 6, 805 56, 582 164, 411 179, 726 163. 994 571, ae 
Loe a aes 19, 434 41, 881 46, 388 124, 149 94, 200 326, 052 
Soy Ue a | = aims Stent 1, 327 2, 571 24, 538 2 058 91, 204 140, 698 
i 8 oa eee rer 341 368 1, 735 37, 523 52) 214 92) 181 
ERIOE HG Sees 2% Soo Sonne ccf acaues suse 4, 995 8, 004 6 398 10, 087 18, 788 45, 272 
Lol a Ae eee tite 8, 882 1, 143 1, 065 792 16, 123 20, 010 
Weavers and spinners...--|.-..-----. 2, 937 6, 600 1, 303 WT 3, 233 14, 790 
LDC En Soe eee 805 1, 959 2, 116 2, 229 3, aoe 10, 393 
Seamstresses, dress- 

makers, and milliners. |--.-.-..-.. 413 1, 672 2, 096 1, 065 3, 405 8, 651 
OU) Da Oe ee 415 932 1, 559 1, 420 3, 117 7, 443 
I ee ea ie wis a ewido <2|crennnie asin = 583 569 23 92 6, 766 8, 038 
oS ee eee 139 513 1, 223 615 3, 669 6, 159 
“0 fGnE) 5. Ee re 329 432 76 108 5, 651 6, 556 
0 i hs A Oe 983 2, 252 65 334 4, 786 8, 420 
Shoemakers ....-...-..--. {a2 SR ee 1, 109 1, 196 63 336 4, 563 8, 037 
MEATRHAGGOICLS . 2 .55--.-|5--+-2---- 1,175 107 1, 833 1, 005 1, 400 4, 520 
Lawyers 244 + 461 831 1, 440 1, 545 4, 221 
IA aes tos 2 RE 793 1, 435 24 4, 682 6, 992 
Engineers -.---.--..--.--. 226 3iL 654 825 1, 738 3, 754 
Teachers | 275 267 | 832 154 2, LO9 a 637 
Mer Ss 255024... | 199 189 33 210 64 1,279 
Painters......... 232 369 8 38 1, 484 2,131 
PNIMOU ss Je 2 os. . de: 179 472 14 40 512 1,217 
LOT OEM DES: Sa i 140 165 236 188 612 1, 341 
J SG eA Cae eS 183 87 233 85 268 856 
Wi ee ee 2 ae ee 137 114 1 4 102 358 
Other occupations -.-..-..|.-.------. 5, 466 4, 004 2, 892 18, 844 7, 972 34, 178 
ges: tious not stated, 

without occupation. | *250,060 | 101,442} 363, 252 969, 411 | 1,544,494 | 1,572,938 | 4, 801, 537 
Gro i i eee 250, 000 76,473 | 640,086 | 1, 768,175 | 2, 874,687 | 2, 808,913 | 8, 518, 334 
Deduct citizens of the 
iPaiied States: ...-../3).)-...4.55 24, 640 40, 961 54, 924 276, 473 317, 462 714, 469 
Jha Se eee ae 250,000 | 151,824 | 599, 125 | 1, 713, 251 | 2,598, 214 | 2, 491, 451 | 7, 803, 865 
* Estimated. 


A statement, by countries, of the number of alien passengers arrived in the United States from 
foreign countries, from the commencement of the Government to December 31, 1870. 


Prior to} 1820 to | 1831 to | 1841 to 1851 to 1861 to Aggre- 


Countries. 1920. | 1830. | 1840. | 1950. 1360, 1870. gate. 

Sacer ee 15, 837 7, 611 32, 092 247, 125 213, 527 516, 192 

ws 's\aaia abate 57, 278 | 198, 233 733, 434 936, 665 774, 883 | 2, 700, 493 

sea ceeue 3, 180 2, 667 3, 712 38, 331 36, 733 84, 623 

Pr. 170 185 1, 261 6, 319 4, 500 12, 435 

Great Britain, not specified...|......... 5, 362 | 74, 495 277, 264 109, 653 77, 333 544, 107 
Total from British Isles...|........ 81, 827 | 283,191 | 1, 047, 763 | 1,338, 093 | 1, 106,976 | 3, 857, 850 
Germany toes. Ae ee 7, 583 | 14%, 204 422,477 907, 780 781, 456 | 2, 267, 500 
REG aes eee ah ee 146 4, 250 12, 149 43, 887 40, 551 100, 983 
JOR CUE eR SOS” A ne ae ae eee) Sook tT ee eee 9, 398 9, 392 
Sweden and Norway...-...-.|......... 94 1, 201 13, 903 20, 931 117, 799 153, 928 
Los PoE. ee ee 189 1, 063 539 3, 749 17, 885 23, 425 
Tlie eae oe oe a 1,127| 1,412 8,251 10, 739 9, 539 31. 118 
SO Re ee | 8,868 | 45,575 77, 262 76, 358 37,749 | 245, 812 
Switzerland -.-..-............ 3, 257 4, 821 4, 644 25, 011 23, 839 61, 572 
Ppl eiain 3 2: 2522. 28 22 5, 074 4, 738 7, 416 17, 278 
Soaps: 02 ph 3 ws 2,616} 2,125 2, 209 9, 298 6, 966 23, 214 


“2 See ce Veoh acs i 180 829 530 1, 055 2, 081 4, 695 


62 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


A statement, by countries, of the nwnber of alien passengers, §¢.—Contiuued. 


: Prior to} 1820 to | 1831 to | 1841 to 1851 to 1861 to |. Aggre- 
Countries. 1820. | 1830. | 1840. | 1850. | 1360. 1870. gate. 
(SRS a ter Mere ae 389 2, 211 1, 590 7,012 12, 796 23, 998 
dh. .3s.6 cease assuage si]s Jcess ze. 32 7 201 1, 790 3 2; 103 
oad aun One aan eee a 17 35 79 429 115 675 
Linas ein SEE ae * 2: 1 35 73 5 8 127 
RES SURE Fe ae 20 49 16 31 | 82 198 
PE TS eee ee ae 89 277 551 457| 2, 671 4,045 
van nee cecewe tances ene c|annnncene 21 | 369 105 i, 164 2, 379 4, 038 
Be een es Ace) A Jet Soe Ea ee RO Pl ib hs sh 5) ae ae aaa se 488 4 
Ase Sota ae eo ae 21 vy 59 & 137 307 
bes anoh erat ans mos 3 8 35| 41,397] 68,059 | 109, 502 
Setstiees Middle wenesonchiudere dks Ltdaerthis Sa lGathsee aes SeIEA ae dia. ane 259 259 
Sovcwvlenaqenncedasuneces|snswaecn > 9 39 36 43 81 208 
See CURES ea sama unsleaccusoustussateans|scdesden.|acees aerate stacaeee 34 34 
eee a NSS win eae | Sale vw otal Ss & ©0:2/e aie, a hie neeeeieg 4 4 
Jseh Sh-4 12 SB Sse 14) Bae 3) es EP Se one 7 eee ee 7 14 
Asia; not Specified. ....<.2-25:|----::5-: 3 1 4 15 4 21 
Cape of Good Hope......:.--.|--------- Po Ps. 5. SAE b See aage| coe ede came 86 8B 
PWNIBMIS = Saeed mses oe s= dees ts |ondte5 oe 1 8 5 19 31 64 
Mee br op ssp -5-unsecase-|--3-462-- [owas eee rh Seen ae 5 11 20 
Co Sa Se ee Se Beeee a PO eeme es Beene ner) Emme ee 5 5 
Africa, not specified -.,......|---.-.--- 10 36 47 186 191 470 
Pritish AMercs...-5.-.2.----|--s-26-; 2,426 | 13, 624 41, 723 59, 309 167, 349 284, 491 
PRESTR Mi S208 tacos oo ot bee a a | 3 = oo Sar 4, 818 6, 599 3, 271 3, 078 2; 386 20, 152 
Central America ...........--|--------- 107 44 368 449 96 1,064 
ie Le ED AS eae SP BEE aes | Ree) Seer os Seer 5S 53 
ho nb eo SR POR Ey Be. ee eee oe Rees | eee See | DI | 47 47 
Porn ... 41 41 
ROMA weedcesk F 30 30 
Buenos Ayres : af 10 10 
0S A ESA eee peter 3 3 3 
New Granada 10 10 
pei ES SBE SBS S5 5h” FSS BRS Ae Ses | Bae oer) Saaeeooec Sees 54 54 
Paraguay ..-:-------.-- : 1 1 
South America, not specified |..-...--. 542 856 3, 579 1, 224 1, 192 1,398 
CG ad coe SSS Ee) ee eee ec Re ceee | Seeman Yee ous 4, 240 4, 240 
os ARS Se a SER RS a Ra RRL [Se pees PPRE ECD 5! 100 100 
Ty eet Soe Sey ee eee Smee Merny fe is tos DRIES Ses ola |. cab oeeagee | 98 98 
lune Die i eee RS eS Bee ees. eee Vee BE oe) obs soe to ee 57 57 
West Indies, not specified. ...|.----.--- 3,998 | 12,301 13,528 10, 660 5, 205 45, 692 
DoS) Dro) Goo eee aes See Bee sess 2 =) eee ee 104 138 247 
Sandwich Elands.....:+.....|----:<--. 1 6 28 44 76 155 
man kuitia islands...-2-.2-22).-<-2.=-- {2 Ae (nes O33 SE | Pe eee ok 21 100 
MGMonlAnt 5.22) camee 2o6|.2 csaee A.W. eos - be bel eee we sean 4 15 19 
SoU isp En Lp 8 ee Oe ee SS een eo eseaee Meme eee 1 G jsscadsecsae 7 
Habe Of Paono ToL spoutnGns| 2 202. 22_ 2-2 S28] sas... sees ete 2 2ke| sues aces 3 5 
OTR SII TM ; 13 29 327 2, 873 3, 643 6, 885 
Perwidas . 22. .252.2..253 Sas SLE od Sel eioet..ndepseeena. = San wae mn cewals 63 63 
Cape de Verdes 4 15 3 7 43 2 
Minas Sse 22e.. 2b oa525i|.eo5ddes. 7 52 3 189 9 323 
St Hel@naic:scecssece ssevewes|sssecsesc}eoes2¢522 1 3 13 16 33 
Oithity Wslatids: soc... 20 Ae)2... 52.2 271 6 1 8 4 290 
MMR AUGION -comdetpucwie Sectscloewescathpou sic aas|setesqeds|eccade tame renetuess a2 4 
TEOUESIE Mote Ses sak ah Aa Oe A Se RS | tet ess Cee ee 10 1 11 
- Countries not specified. ...... 250,000 | 32,894] 69, 801 52, 777 25, 911 57,260 | 488, 643 
COP ORETIODD Ba 955 bo tS SR an LS Pe 2 5 Ith pase SS aees ar be 3 
PAP BArV ESTOS 20 2 vert vege c|-ose nso 4 | 1 5 I eee fers fa): 11 
Aggregate ....... -22----- 250, 000 | 151, 824 | 599, 125 | 1, 713, 251 2, 593, 214 | 2, 491, 451 | 7, 803; 865 


* The uatives of Ireland are partly estimated on the basis of data obtained by the commissioners of 
emigration of New York. ‘The total from the British Isles, given above; is from offieial returns to the 
Burean of Statistics. 


AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS. 


Statement of the exports of agricultural products of the United States, with their immediate 
manufactures, for the year ended June 30, 1871, furnished by Edward Young, Chief of 
Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. 


Articles. Value. 
Animals, living: : : 
06:2. Bae oon See MESE SS cece o8ds te... vsedhades -bupttetecue number.. $61, 390 
SAGrned Gehwe - 4s eee ss 2. sds aoe ek. see edeese nk eeee eee Ss number 403, 491 
PIOTSOG 5582 So) occas see oo PSR Be os Sa eews SERS eae pumber.. 173, 273 
Minles's iss. 22 .-22 hele. rt: Pre ae engeer. eee 3): puwber-. 265, 827 
HCO * dbs Foe ee setae nk Sa 52. a deals oeoeaseee tees ae nuzber.. i 8 
All otherantid fo wikeect..<2-s4#0e---.. 22 0a seated boost ote number..|...-..-.- vevyae 23, 735 


POUR cls ate me wim ele ite nde cpa Ae BRE ee Eis sss S25 ESS er oe 1, 019, 604 


' REPORT OF THE STATISTICIAN. . 63 


Statement of agricultural products exported from the United States, &c.—Continued. 


d Articles. Quantity. | Value. 
Animal matter: | 
rane cerenminer thin fies 2... seth $700, 604 
MSE h SUen REM ee om oo ork nist ded nan oie an ae cnadeesed suinwssaa pounds..| 39, 250, 750 4, 302, 320 
haem BRIE) NER ress Se aaa aS wok oo inion aw eeee apna atnia's pounds..! 71, 446, 854 8, 126, 683 
LE OE RE Oe See eee Lia sew sesenennne pounds... | 80, 037, 207 10, 563. 020 
SEI tee Rt a ae A See wn cana no ea cmns con ensyauenecipare= gallons. .| 147, 802 | * 153, 850 
Bret Rison andiovuer animal ous... 2.2.0 005. ston eteecoes ee. gallons. -} £0 137 
ooo 2 (23052 PARR Reeser nee. eee pounds..} 43, 880, 217 3, 825, 666 
ee ERE oie armel Saw aN Raid h win noes ee peated Sue shires San ass SEA e rate 208, 362 
Hair coc. Roeser ere 6 ae eee beret cee rereper cris pounds..| 33, 859, 317 3, 025, 035 
Hair, FEA REREREA SCT TMT carne a tela et deo, n' al ap a mo oe eee itn ape etal fe lela se ee cla 301, 095 
PPM MEREAMTLAOUNE OU -— — fa'e 5 ta wie 5 6m oct nein pene parr priinepel os anisn | ss Soc eee 31, 679 
Butter eRe TRB eeOs oaks Wee Son) J near e4 teeea ee peeks pounds... 3, 965, 043 853, 096 
sp SEER a nmin = ho wy SERS as ome nlan nen heen Aopen sae pounds.-) 63, 698, 847 8, 752, 990 
ee EM oa alc oidiniw an ah wa ces apeneansaiek cope =- ose yaae dozen. - 5, 017 1, 428 
fanidlles, MANDAL ORROD - (57040) 5aseepeete aries 2432creare pounds..| 2, 321, 959 348, 368 
0 Uan n  S a a irs ge a ae SR ae ae ae {eae testes aot 16, 954 
PROM sak ae on a5 = 5 «ue y Sah otw anes eu espeeceeasaee eke pounds.., 7, 786, 276 576, 026 
EE ee eceeene ames teres pemeeee ada rae stderr earns pounds. . 81, 110 12, 316 
I 2 nb 8 200s 5 Sa SoHE Awe ene So Soa Nees ca ciale pounds. . 365, 195 113, 070 
Leather of all kinds not specified .............---------.---.- pounds. . 1, 900, 644 480, 543 
ORGS MHC MODHON (1G) cnt bomcp since csiopspececeerc np saps edn eyanal=suuens ceL aoe 18, 690 
DOMAIN BDIGE cp 1c 2 BARHED bs oo a5 5 osece. senr lee sscnnecees pairs. -| 301, 216 445, 466 
BAUME AMUALIOSS: verso kWmes = 202 ot es en vsacvdcs cee ceases Lecco teeeeeey sa Sete 792, 183 
See Matininetnres 0b SpeCiiedsas..-..--.. 0.20 ccevsoseen ce. 2neulebes i iebaee ae 154, 514 
PNP en, 1S type 184d 5 aio sawn wonmaa dann dearsdande pounds. .| 25, 195 8, 762 
Sanjle mall iuAcbures of, bb GpeviHed -:. 2. o--- 55. .cevec crs seccsecec se s|sodetecvosnene 237, 710 
MARR MRAUB hota. 2 2 8'cS E08 oma svi am arvecc cen orhees chase sic\"seus ae eta aoe 1, 590, 193 
mes and bone dust..........-.. Peidentan pas Sane oh Ape ees cewt.. 35, 572 55, 629 
ene-black, RUBPE-DIAGE NGO daesce as oscan nae anlsdeiankceh dane pounds... 586, 236 25, 980 
BET SORA ne a csc asc de fu tonescs seen vbsussclineeuad bd Sekiba staat 45, 728, 368 
i <a | Sa Se 
Breadstufis: * 
Bann COLO. = 32 55-s~5 Subaicpeceecce Sina aplbin els sti sepuieeetea <iaapn a bushels... 9, 826, 369 $7, 458, 997 
udian-corn meal.....:-.... Ce SRE Aa eee eas See barrels... 212, 641 951, 830 
Eas AcE a nia Bo ana ow ona m vlan waeio onesie 2 --bushels..| 34, 304, $06 45, 143, 424 
RCs Se er ee ee) Sena barrels.. 3, 653, 841 24, 093, 184 
SNES tate dee nel Boin'nsinini win vimin'e sano Ondne Gow seman sauce bushels i 49, 674 44, 678 
0 Bae SSS CAB OCHRE EE Coe Bee See ae ee barrels...) 6, 250 34, 135 
EY Me a a ae no ote oo oo a Bae win Sammon cone scanvacmants <2 bushels... 340, 093 200, 625 
Other small-grain and pulse ..........22-..2020-00022---00--- bushels: 3)so5-2 ssc aeeee 357, 893 
CLO ie Sse CU ee ee ee 0 eee) eee een pounds. . 445, 842 22; 502 
MOURNE DNAOUNE Stas ae ols ac accsaaocas ss = aoe sascheeee pounds..} 13, 801, 624 760, 637 
Macaroni, vermicelli, and all other preparations from breadstutis..:::.!........-.---. | 252, 704 
ES eae ere PE PEE CE CELE ET CPE, adcezsceses cis secsec|s ced. see 79, 320, 609 
—— —— 
Cotton : 
Mamanniactured, Sea-Teland ........-- 00. cccccescceenennncee pounds .. 3, 212, 988 $1, 437, 539 
MiiiAiutactured, other ...-...2.266525ésscscsescasssetcsess: pounds -./1, 459, 715, 036 216, 889, 570 
AIL RGR COLOTEML «ok oa sate ow cwencesnccue tenes stone ss - yards .. 5, 083, 923 724, 841 
RAMU TINO, WNCULITOOs. 22 c2-2edecceas ceceeccnececstsccs—s- yards ..|. 14, 83z, 931 1, 776, 694 
Manufactures, all other...-...-... bsnl BO er CEO OE Cnn O-Er On ie ae oe Seeder 1, 056, 601 
Total. cscees.cnssncc6 RRR Sa oiiee Bosak chee tok sos scasina saatdae : fay code 221, 885, 245 
——=>S= preeres S 
Wood and mantfactures of wood: 
IAT OS: CLAP NOSPUR, (GsO- oot 2s go 0 sees ss seas ese chaste M. feet -. 154, 630 $2; 764, 329 
datlis, palings, pidkets, 6082-2. 222 522555 :2222.c525c% s5502522-522-- NY 2. 326 , 896 
Rineleb.:. ascetics danse sesbe asd obogss2esstochessssts.523s8eh pe M.: 23, 254 99, 28 
fee GUONKS. |. Uicnsas eset teases edese 5 ode ae Sus see ae bobs aed due sean n/a ele ade Aer ae 138, 813 
Othiet: ahooks, staves, and healings... ::-...:-...220:-.-..c5205522 2-222 |sdeees2--:.05 4, 822, 705 
Hogsheads and barrels, OMPEY. Sssstasccisecs. 5 sit: ssea-taze nuinber - . 152, 230 292, 561 
POL HULU! oaaae ant RS eee coe cao cleo odes osama Oe oP EEA Ont ee eee eee 242, 474 
URRMROMEN << = «sv vin «2G Souda eos aoe cab ocacelens -te sn cords .. 8, 090 19, 892 
a erp ang Ofer POlOGs ase pe ese - neces 5k - eg eee Ste kneel a alee nos 731, 239 
Logs, masts. spars, and other whole TINTDOL 4 <3 5.4 1a eens col ea nea see 244, 682 
Timle rrereny AU DOWD: -<-.2n cde sade soc aeccc onc ecsaey cubic feet .. 7, 115, 007 1, 309, 094 
PRIMOUUEE ULUGL 22-2 0c neane bee eebae d aos snoop oc Sick 2 ee abe yee hs Oe 136, 403 
SERUBGIOLD, (UNTLCTIY'O . . <'- 2'n oo sete wanin a= we rians onbe «ne bape ee eee eee eel = een seen oe eee 1, 110, 091 
SIP OPUOP NANIMACLUTOD Of. .. .--2 sete ae as ccennscnvnceas Shp steGauretn sess acc aed sc 781, 187 
EMM RINGER a a5 a0 annie win ote ida Ss a oa ln se prey Ma ea tore 96, 195 
SU TE agp scscceveoude Penta sawed setae ene peat cena lid can’ ae svc es 12, 795, 829 
Ashes, pot and pearl ..-.. Bes On wos ons 5 ate same aee de> a eaemee ee 1, 474, 954 $103, 249 
Rosin and turpentine , 511, 959 1, 640, 551 
2 Gg OBER oe: 3. Sas eye 1 20 Be a 32, 584 93, 884 
REET ET CED, Ol OIG sae oe sono ccc oo oon a van ado oslciouige oa bushels -. 134, 993 136, 693 
Rene SUMO E See eae pounds --| 1, 150, 122 79, 025 
EE CTE SII OR ETO eos hee soa woo v's aD eae oc tras ateietic on aw astute Sao e eee | 138, 305 


64 AGRICULTURAL REPORT 


Statement of agricultural products exported from the United States, §:c.—Continued. 


Articles. Quantity. Value. 
IPeLatees >. .---.<-: BUS e olen oa te eet viet tain wis Sales eee bushels .. 553, 070 $432, 915 
SURIONN EE: coe 2-5 en ~let has & am ernleeeee een nite lo ae So eee ee bushels -. 56, 953 79,114 
Bice) Sa nd GAGs - ten oe a2 te eeepc saws ccs ena es a fodeetee ee ee tee e| A seLe ote eae 15, 857 
Mecepibles, prepared. or preserved -ae-s~: << ..26 0252-2 5d. 52sec eee ey ele eee eke 22,015 
Meearabies not specified. Se-ee seer ee Boe ce onass- cece ceee es ae eee eee eee ae 102, 747 
SIDMEIEROGD 22 2b soe eee RE Or aoe e nace eae ee bushels .- 321, 192 2,191, 662 
cP Uc IRE Sea en Ee ee er nee bushels .. 282 1 
MPEaN Sa lh ie at ed ato erie a ih tal gallons .. 37, 841 35, 962 
MSR Olitaie or Eppa be nen Peal esas Dae e ccc ccclu reese ses Bae gallons -. 700 1, 254 
AD SCE Woy SOE Sk Se Se OS ee ae errr os to gallons .|/-5-. 022 poe ee 119, 311 
CHicaite -pne. pa eeae ian a eee elo teias Sows stains soe pounds ..| 203, 587, 040 4, 160, 021 
Hani onmanntacinieles. -e.pecte on. ct an ct coeds eaebaceccteeee cwt .-. 573 5, Tt 
Hemp, manufactured, cables and cordage .......-------22eyse-ceseecnenee 10, 207 190, 946 
Hemp rmanotactured yall other esas. asc a- nie done se's oe Fos ose ee eee (eens atte Wire 85, 066 
JNINS <2 dc nascdoc 2 SUS SSS ge gba. oe eee nee ree pounds .. 3, 273, 653 316, 288 
UU) k85 eilG oo 3 AES SSR ee ee ee ee tons ..| 4, 581 104, 261 
CE. Vib Saou gL Sh. See NS ee ee eae eee pounds .. 114, 221 119, 385 
ROR ne Pe on SOE Ae on bushels --! 120, 156 47, 115 
Beer,-ale, porter, and cider, in bottles. -..--...--...-.-2..2--.-2: bottles -.! 1, 570 4,077 
Beer ale, porter, and cider, in casks. ---..-.--2--.22.2.220<-s0022 gallons -. 105, 213 34, 301 
SMe MONNPTAIN: 2-505 Soo econ clone awe oe we ton kscclews gallons. . 47, 660 68, 601 
SPIE Intiled from MOASSESi5.-.- lene doce cece cm newandocted gallons. .| 726, 975 376, 957 
Spirits distilled from other materials. -...-.........----+--------- gallons. | 5, 518 6, 988 
REMSIOMMUILUDEN UNG f= saints eter eee cic clots .et er ee odie ber sccts gallons... 2, 453, 554 1, 009, 508 
(Da oto aol eae GAS Ses SRS ARE oe ae eee eee eS gallons... 19, 217 26, 444 
i OT Son a Ee eee ae Se eee --gallons.. 2, 794, 829 693, 806 
Non OR eS ee ee. ee aera gallons. - 35, 244 9, 095 
SNE IDLO Wil: ose Hee oo om on ae eke eececin oes -pounds.. 43, 300 2, 453 
PRET OHUGCU Aoecstopt te - cress sos Se -pounds. “| 3, 797, 278 500, 986 
RMT On CONLOCHONOLT mac csiscmsisiie sae vestauce cs ouascebed/ ss ase nes eacl ee eee epee ee 20, 969 
Crease ieee sean. ness te eeiitee 1, 433 53, 043 
SANG Ae 18, 724 11, 683 
Tobacco, manufactured . .....---2.:.--.--. eecee icp et snpe coubs eet Reet ke sence eee 2, 022, 434 
MEpACeD leat, TaMANnIAChITEG 222 S226 2226 -15.-0 3c sees eso oacuro sacs pounds..| 215, 667, 604 19, 908, 797 
SUG SULS ree Une area ioe SII Ie a nine ~ non terme wc welcioi ae ocioet On een aa 34, 952, 204 
RECAPITULATION. 

AMEE: Tar 

OMIT EDT OUNCIID I amma coo win tiass ae ot eigea ne sin aid p ee -w ena tee Renee (ea ee $46, 747, 972 
Lote SD. | SS SS a eee 8 ee EE ET Pee ek 79, 320, 609 
CONS ye Dana ii 2 a a cone. eee ree eee e Se 221, 885, 245 
VES) SG TACIT Nie fs eS he eres cee eae A ee ees 12, 795, 829 
TS Viera) Giver {i112} SSN 2 a en fe oe ee ee 34, 932, 204 
BPD ni ene mR ep alee piae ni o Sains = wean =o nx ap seaset eae ee aane| See eee | 395, 681, 859 


In the report of the editor, in another portion of this annual, may be 
found the results of other investigations of the Statistical Division. A 
large amount of statistical material has been prepared for other branches 
of the Government and for industrial organizations ; and investigations 
are in progress, the results of which, it is believed, will serve to enlarge 
the usefulness of this branch of the Department, and aid in the great 
work of subduing the millions of yet unbroken but fertile acres soon to 
be brought into cultivation. 

J. R. DODGE, 


Statistician. 
Hon. HoRACE CAPRON, 
Commissioner, 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 65 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST AND CURATOR 
OF THE MUSEUM. 


Siz: During the past year an unusually large number of letters has 
been received from persons in all parts of the United States, desiring 
information on the natural history and habits of certain insects which 
have lately been found to injure various crops; desiring at the same 
time to know what remedies have been recommended to effect their 
destruction, or at least to diminish the losses caused by their ravages. 
Many new tacts have been discovered within the last twelve months, by 
State and private entomologists, concerning the food and habits of cer- 
tain insects which have hitherto been unknown. Many have been found 
to injure cultivated plants and trees, which formerly were thought to 
confine themselves merely to wild vegetation and weeds. 

To give publicity to these facts it will be necessary to quote extensively 
from Mr. Riley, of the American Entomologist and Botanist, (a valuable 
journal, which, unfortunately, has been suspended for one year,) Dr. Fitch, 
Dr. Walsh, and other standard practical entomologists, whose works the 
greater number of our readers may never chance to see. I shall also 
give extracts from correspondence of the Department, from my own pri- 
vate note-book, and the results of experiments made in the Department. 

To give some idea of the ravages committed by insects, Hon. Horace 
Greeley recently stated that if he were to estimate the average loss per 
annum of the farmers of the country from insects at $100,000,000, he 
would doubtless be far below the mark. 

I will first take up the order of Coleoptera or beetles. 

Tetracha, (Megacephala,) Virginica, (Hope,) a large tiger-beetle, is men- 
tioned here, as it is said to destroy the Fic. 1. 
larva of the Colorado potato-bug, Dory- ¥ 
phora 10-lineata. The larva of the tiger- 
beetle is predaceous, and feeds upon in- _=% 
sects, worms, &c. The specimen figured 7” 
excavated in the earth a round hole, about “ 
the diameter of a common lead-pencil, JA 
from three to five inches in depth. This 77” 
almost perpendicular retreat was dug in 
the month of June, the larva changing 
into the pupa and perfect insect in the + 
course of a few weeks. Great numbers c 
of larve were taken by the common method of inserting a stalk of 
grass into the hole, leaving the top sticking out. The underground 
larva, endeavoring to eject the intruding stalk, seizes it with its 
powerful jaws, and, pushing it upward, causes the top of the grass to 
shake. When this takes place, if the stalk is immediately jerked out, 
the larva will be brought with it, still holding on to the stem with its 
jaws. <A larva that was kept alive to observe -its habits, was 
placed in a common flower-pot partially filled with earth, moderately 
consolidated by pressure; a hole was then made in it with a lead-pen- 
cil, and the larva placed tail first in the hole, when it immediately worked 
itself down out of sight. The next day it fed voraciously on earth-worms 
and insects, as if nothing had happened. A curious babit was observed, 
that when the earth in which the larva was kept was watered, it invaria- 
bly brought large pellets of mud in its jaws to the top of its burrow, and, 
eommencing to build at the sides, in a very short time effectually closed 
the opening with a somewhat arched roof, so that its retreat could not 

DA 


66 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


be inundated. In a short time, ifno more water was poured on, and 
the flower-pot was placed in the sunshine, the pellets were removed one 
by oneand the hole reopened. Thislarva wasextremely voracious, devour- 
ing every insect which passed over its hole, not even sparing larvee of its 
own species that were dropped intentionally within its reach. The pupa 
was formed at the bottom of the burrow. The perfect insect is said to 
be crepuscular, and devours other insects. It should therefore be pre- 
served, together with the other species of tiger-beetles, as they live en- 
tirely upon animal food, and do not touch vegetable diet at all. 

The rove-beetles, or Staph ylinide, are long, narrow, and depressed in 
form, having the abdomen much longer than the wing-covers, which are 
very ’short. These insects are very voracious, and feed on various ani- 
mal and vegetable substances. The young larva of a small dark-colored 
beetle, belonging to this family, Aleochara anthomyia, was discovered 
by Mr. Philip S. Sprague, of Boston, Massachusetts, to be parasitic on 
the larva of Antkomyia brassice, or cabbage-fy. Mr. Sprague states 
that a number of cases of the Anthomyia were examined with a micro- 
scope, which were found to contain this parasite, but he could discover 

- Fig.2, no break or orifice through which the rove-beetles could have 
entered, thus proving, as faras he could judge, that the cabbage- 
fly larva was entered by the parasite before its skin had hard- 

[ ened into the pupa case, by gnawing a hole through the side 
near the extremity. This insect is therefore beneficial, and 
should be protected as far as possible in cabbage gardens or 
fields. 

The larva of Trogosita dubia (Mels.) has been found injuring maize, and 

Fig. 3. in beech nuts. Its near relative, Trogosita mauritanica, 
(Oliv.,) is extremely injurious to stored grain. In France 

> gael it is termed the *‘Cadelle.”. When very numerous this 
if B insect can be destroyed only by kiln-drying, which will 
} not injure the grain materially for domestic purposes, 
although the process will certainly prevent germination. 

The larva of a very small brown beetle, Syl- pio 4 
vanus surinamensis, (Steph.,) has been found NS 
feeding in the grains of wheat, oats, maize, and 
rye, and it likewise injures the seeds of apples 
which have been preserved for planting. It 
was also taken in considerable numbers from 
holes catenin samples of dried leaf tobacco. 
Several samples of tobacco were almost entirely destroyed by 
another brownish insect, Sitodrepa panicea, (Thoms,) (Agri- 
cultural Report, 1854, plate 5,) which is almost omnivorous, feeding on 
maize, &e., ginger, thubarb, and even on red or cayenne pepper, and 
the Spanish ties, or cantharides of the druggists’ shops. The fact otf 
these insects eating tobacco is merely mentioned, as it is generally 
believed that no insect will touch tobacco when tried. Alum has been 
recommended to destroy this insect, but the only remedy we have found 
successful is to bake the infested tobacco in an oven heated very hot by 
Steam, 

A small, blackish-brown beetle, Platycerus quercus, (Sch.,) commonly 
know nasthe oak horn-bug, and found in the larval and imago states 
in rotten wood of oak, is said by the American Entomologist to 
destroy buds of the pear in spring. This fact has hitherto been 
nunoticed by entomologists. The perfect insect hybernates. 
The males have large, horny jaws, somewhat similar to but 
smaller than the stag-beetles, 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 67 


Chrysobothris calcarata, (Mels.,) (femorata, Lap.,) (Agricultural Report, 
1868, p. 92, fig. 97,) the flat-headed apple-borer, or thick-legged Buprestis, 
which is said to injure apple, peach, and oak, deposits its eggs on the 
bark, and the larva is generally found on the south or southwest side of 
the tree, preferring trees that have been “sun-scalded.” It bores into 
the solid wood under the bark, and is stated by Mr. Packard to remain 
as larva one year. Dr. Fitch, in his fifth report, 1858, states that 
before apple trees were introduced the larva probably fed on oak. The 
perfect insect appears from May to July, and may generally be found 
sunning itself on the trunks of the trees. To protect maple and other 
trees from the attacks of the Chrysobothris, applications of soap on the 
trunk and larger branches in May and during the summer are said to be 
an effectual remedy. 4 

The larva of another very similar insect belonging to the same family, 
Deerea, divaricata, (Lec.,) mines in the sap-wood and under Fig. 6. 
the bark of apple, beech, cherry, peach, and plum trees. The 
insect itself can be found from June to August on the trunks 
of these trees. In order to preserve the trees from these 
insects, it has been recommended to wash the trunks with 
some alkaline solution —hard or soft soap, thinned to a proper 
consistence with, salt brine, to which tobacco stems are 
addei—from June to August, repeating the wash after 
heavy rains or dews. 

Some raspberry canes, sent by Mr. Charles Catpenter, of Kelley’s 
Island, Obio, which had been injured by some unknown Fig. 7. 
insect, were received in January. At first it was sur- U4 
mised to be the work of Oberea tripunctata, or raspberry- 
borer, an insect which is known to injure raspberry- 
plants by burrowing in the pith, but after the larva had 
changed to the perfect insect, it was found to be Agrilus 
ruficollis, (Say,) a small wedge-shaped beetle, with a ruby- 
red thorax and blackish wing-covers. The injured canes 
presented the appearance of a swelling in the stem, form- 
ing several ridges. Mr. Saunders, in describing an in- 47 
jury done to raspberry canes in Canada, and ascribing it fi} 
to Oberea tripunctata, states that “the new cane is first 
girdled near the tip in two places, one ring very nearly 
av inch below the other.” All the specimens sent by 
Mr. Carpenter certainly presented that appearance of 
girdling when the outer bark was scraped off with a knife. The perfect 
insects caine out very early in the spring, owing to their having been 
kept in a very warm room. Raspberry or blackberry canes presenting 
swollen stems and a diseased appearance should be cut off in winter and 
immediately burned. 

-An insect of the same family, Agrilus egenus, (Poey,) (Agricultural 
Report, 18638, p. 92, Fig. 103,) of a greenish, metallic color, and wanting 
the ruby-red thorax, was found in Virginia a few years ago in great 
numbers, feeding on the leaves of the locust tree, Robinia pseudacacia, 
the foliage of which was completely riddled with small holes, which had 
been eaten by this insect. 

The so-called wire-worms are the larve of different species of chick- 
beetles, or snapping-bugs, as they are vulgarly called. In the Fig. 8 
larval state they feed upon roots of grass, maize, potatoes, &e., iia 
and are especially troublesome in land that bas been recently 4°¥ 
plowed up from the sod. Agriotes manchus (Lec.) is a very common t 
species, and is said by Harris to resemble the wire-worm of Europe. 


68 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Sowing salt, at the rate of six bushels to the acre, is said by Alderman 
Mechi (a good English authority) to destroy them; but several farmers 
in this country who have tried it state that the remedy i is of very little 
avail, for if sufficient salt is sown to destroy the wire-worms, vegetation 
is also injured. 

A large black cantharis or blister-fly, Hpicauta corvina, (Lec.,) is men- 

Fie. 9. tioned as injuring the potato plants between two and 

Ag Pa three hundred miles west of Kansas City. Specimens 

an pain Were sent by Rev. Cyrus Thomas from Colorado. 

A small brown beetle, Scolytus carye, (Riley,) or 
hickory bark-borer, was discovered by Mr. Riley in- 
juring hickory by boring holes in the bark. The holes 

made by the female for. her eggs slant upward, while 
“ those made by the larvee run straight to the sap-wood, 
and are as large as if made by No. "8 shot. No remedy 
is given. 

A black cureulio, with curiously sculptured thorax, 
Sphenophorus caryosus, (Oliv.,) was sent from New 
Jersey, where it is said to be very destructive to young plants of maize 

Fig. 10. in the field. It destroys them by piercing the stems, in which 
the larva lives and feeds. Dr, Walsh also speaks of a Spheno- 
phorus zee, which pierces corn in numerous places, each blade 
having six or eight holes of the size of a pin, or larger, and 
. When very numerous every stalk is killed. Another Spheno- 

phorus was sent several years ago from South Carolina under 
the local name of “ Bill-bug.” It had been very destructive to 
growing maize in the low lands of the Pedee. The plants attacked 
by this insect turn yellow, and many of them die. It therefore behooves 
our farmers to examine all unhealthy stalks of maize, and when insects 
are found to destroy them, to prevent their spreading. 

The larve of a small blackish curculio (allied to Phytobius) were found, 

Fig. U1. in June and July, in Maryland, occupying large 
brown blister-like spots on the leaves of the tulip 
fy tree. The parenchyma of the leaf being entirely 
-) eaten out, the outer cuticle containing the larvee 
wih = turns brown, and several stringy- like filaments, 
(with $9 apparently of “frass,” are scattered through the 
uy cavity. The pupeze are tormed in little balls or 
cocoons of this thread-like substance, and the per- 
y ak fect beetle appears in eight to ten days after the 
; pupa is formed. Six to ten of these insects were 
taken in each infested leaf, but whether the larve eat the parenchyma, 
or are parasitic on some other insect, has not yet been discovered. It 
is mentioned as rather singular that the larva of a cureulio should be 
found in such a situation. 

The plum-weevil, (Conotrachelus nenuphar,) (Agric. Rep. 1854, pia, 
commoniy known as the “ curculio,” was said by Dr. Walsh to be double- 
brooded, ke stating that the first brood at Rock Island, Illinois, appears 
from July 19 to August 4, and the second brood from August 23 to Sep- 
tember 28; but Mr. Riley states distinetly that it is single-brooded, and 
that it hybernates in the perfect or weevil state, and not in the larval 
or pupal, as was formerly imagined. The beetle also is more nocturnal 
than diurval in habit, and is very active at night; but during the 
daytime, especially in bright sunny weather, rests among the leaves and 
branches, or under some shelter, It was formerly stated that the female 
first bored a crescent-shaped. cut or incision with her beak, and then 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 69 


deposited an egg in the cut; but Dr. F. C. Hill, of Ohio, states that the 
female first bores a round hole with her snout, not straight in, but slant- 
ing backward, so that the cavity is just below the skin ; she deposits 
her egg in the hole, and then cuts the usual crescent-shaped slit in front 
of it so as to undermine the egg, and leave it in a kind of flap formed 
by the little piece of flesh of the fruit which she has undermined, in 
order to meet the piece around the eg Be; aud prevent the growing fruit 
from crushing it. The insect in the perfect state is said by Dr. Riley to 
gouge holes in peaches and apples, and also to feed on bark, and tender 
twigs, and to gnaw holes in the leaves. In regard to the new remedy 
proposed this season by Mr. Ransom, of St. Joseph, Michigan, in the 
Prairie Farmer and elsewhere, | quote from Mr. Ransom himself: Some 
experiments were made by laying pieces of bark, &c., on the ground 
under the trees, as a shelter under which the cureulio could hide. The 
first night, about sunset, he prepared 250 trees, and in the morning 
went around, and in about three hours caught six hundred and forty- 
seven curculios; the next day, having finished the orchard of 400 trees, 
he killed four thousand one hundred and seventy-one curculios. The 
total number of curculios killed by him in one season was seventeen 
thousand nine hundred and forty-five. Now, the question arises, were 
these insects true plum-weevils? and might it not be that some other 
somewhat similar insects were counted in by mistake? The Michigan 
Farmer, iu commenting upon this article, says that the State entomo- 
logist of Illinois, and the horticultural editor of the Prairie Parmer, hav- 
ing been at St. Joseph, examining into the workings of the method pro- 
posed by Dr. Ransom to destroy the plum curculio, ‘stated that the traps 
were pieces of bark three or four inches long, and about half as wide. 
Before putting them down, the ground was smoothed and the earth 
pressed close to the trunks, so as to leave no hiding-place for the ecur- 
culio to enter. The pieces of bark were then laid close around the 
trunks of the trees, three or four pieces to a tree, and pressed down in 
contact with the earth, so that only very small openings should be left 
under them. The pieces laid close to the ground, with one edge touch- 
ing the tree, were generally selected by the insects, whose object was to 
shelter themselves, while at rest, from observation and possibly from 
the cold. On further inquiry, this method appears to have been only 
partially effective, and the fruit-growers near St. Joseph found that, 
though they destroyed many insects by this trappiug method, more 
were destroyed by jarring the trees. When the weather became warm, 
the curculios were taken under the trees in diminished numbers, while 
in fact their numbers were rapidly augmented in the trees. The con- 
elusions arrived at are briefly as follows: The trapping system will help 
to thin ont the curculio before the season for stinging the fruit com- 
mences; that it will not do to dispense with jarring the trees; and, fur- 
thermore, that pieces of bark for a short time, early in the season, when 
the days are sometimes warm and the nights cold, and betore the peach 
blossoms have withered away, are useful for capturing curculios, but 
that after the fruit is as large as a hazel-nut this remedy is not success- 
ful. It is elsewhere recommended to place the traps of bark under the 
trees as soon as the frost is fairly out of the ground. Mr. Riley states 
that this remedy was discovered several years 280, | and described by 
Mrs. H. Weir, of Johnsville, New York, in the Rural New Yorker, Janu- 
ary 28, 1865, ‘when 161 curculios were caught under some lumber be- 
fore the plum-trees were in flower.” I have devoted more space to this 
subject than was at first intended, as it has created some sensation 
among fruit-growers; and it might be well for our pomologists to ex- 


# 


Toe | AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


periment with it another season, and report their success im the agri- 
‘cultural journals. The old remedy of keeping hogs in a plum, peach, 
or apple orchard, to eat the infested fruit as soon as it falls to the 
ground, appears from our correspondence to be very successful when 
practiced tor two or three years, and where there are no other orchards 
in the vicinity. . 
A small, dark-colored, rather broad curculio, Coliodes 
incequalis, (Say,) deposits an egg in or on the fruit of the 
_grape in June or July. The larva burrows into the berry, 
X. and usually gnaws away a part of one of the seeds. The 
infested berry does not rot or decay, and the first sign of 
the fruit being stung is a dark circular dot in the midst 
of a colored spot, as if ared-hot needle or pin had been thrust into the 
berry. When the larva has attained its growth, it drops out of the 
fruit, and buries itself a short distance in the earth. The pupa is 
formed in a small cell a little below the surface of the ground. The in- 
sect appears in September, and the females probably hybernate in shel- 
tered places. To destroy this beetle all infested berries should be sought 
out, and either burned or erushed under foot as soon as observed, and 
before the larva has made its escape. 
Chestnuts, hazel, and other nuts are frequently found to contain a 
Fig. 13. White, fleshy, tootless grub. These are the larve of long- 
snouted, brownish-gray beetles, Balaninus nasieus, B. ree- 
tus, &e. The egg is deposited by the female in a hole 
*\ drilled in the nut or acorn by the long beak of the inseet, 
4 when the fruit is young and tender. The larva feeds 
inside upon the substance, and, when fully grown, leaves 
the nut and burrows in the earth, where the pupa is 
formed. There are said to be two broods, the last one 
probably hybernating in the earth. Mr. Akhurst, of 
Brooklyn, New York, who has made some experiments im 
2 breeding these insects from acorns, states that they some- 
times remain in the larva state over one season, and last autump he 
exhibited larvee which had been bred from acorns the previous season, 
Fig. 14. The perfect insect of another small curculio, Anthonomus ~ 
~, quadrigibbus, (Say,) is accused of eating round holes in 
aN apples, plums, &e., both for food and as a place in whieh 
f HEN to deposit her eggs. In the American Eutomologist, how- 
rr ever, it is stated that it never attacks stone fruit, and 
never goes into the ground to change into the pupa state, but 
transforms in the fruit itself. Another of this genus, Anthonomus 
suturalis, (Lec.,) described by Mr. W.C. Fish, in a report to the Cape 
Cod Cranberry Grower’s Association, is called the cranberry weevil. 
The female deposits its eggs, about. the middle of May, in the bads of 
the cranberry. Selecting a bud not quite ready to open, and clinging 
to it, she works her snout deep into its center; an egg is then deposited 
in the hole thus made; the beetle climbs the stem, and cuts it off near 
where it joins the bud, and the shoot drops to the ground. The larva 
feeds inside the bud and the weevil, when mature, eats its way out. 
The pertect insect is also said to eat into the fruit. The only remedy 
that could be suggested, should the inseet become troublesome, is to 
flood the cranberry pateh, if possible, for a short time, provided it does 
not occur at aperiod when the future crop might be injured by being 
under water. 
The perfeet beetle of the plum-gouger, Anthonomus (prunicida, Walsh,) 
seutellaris, (Lec.,) bores a round hole, resembling the puncture of a pin, 


REPORT ‘OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 71 


(not crescent-shaped like that of the common plum curculio,) 
wherein to deposit her eggs, five or six holes being found in 
one plum, from which the gum exudes copiously. The larva, 
instead of living permanently in the flesh of, the fruit, bores 
its way to the stone, and then feeds upon the kernel exclusively. 
The insect itself is said to feed upon the flesh of the plum, and 
takes wing readily. There is probably only one brood in the 
season. Destroying all fallen fruit, as in the case of the true 
plum eurculio, would probably lessen the number of these pests, should 
they increase so as to become troublesome. 

Horticulturists, growing evergreens for their beauty or effect in land- 
seape, are frequently annoyed by finding the leading shoots of pine, hem- 
lock, Norway spruce, &c., dying out, thus destroying the symmetry of 
the tree. The injury is frequently caused by the attacks of the yy, 16, 
white pine weevil, Pissodes strobi, (Pech.,) which deposits an egg — ~ 
in the terminal or leading shoot, and the larva, hatching, destroys 
the shoot by boring into it. The pupa is formed just under the 
bark, and the insect, which is of a grayish brown color, appears 
in April and May, after hybernating in the crevices of the bark. 
Some of these insects are said to come out in autumn, although they 
appear in much larger numbers early ir the season. All shoots thus 
infected should be cut out and burned, and in case the larva cannot be 
extracted without essentially injuring the branch, one of the leading 
side-shoots can be selected and bound in an upright position, so as to 
take the place of the terminal shoot which bas been cut off. 

Lixus concavus, (Say,) another curcalio of a lengthened — Fig. 17, 
form, dark-colored, and sometimes covered with a yellowish 
bloom, was found on the rhubarb, or pie-plant, in Washing- 
ton, in the act of boring into the stalk of the leaves and 
depositing its egg in the hole thus made. On examining 
the plant many of the leaves were found to be yellow and 
faded. These injured leaves mostly contained eggs, aud 
although no larve were found at the time, it is highly proba- 
ble that the larva of this insect causes considerable injary 

‘to the plants thus perforated, as an allied Huropean insect, 
Lixus paraplecticus, is stated to reside in the stems of Sium or water 
parsnip. 

The perfect insect of Epicerus vadosus, (Say,) or an allied pi, ig. 
species, was found in Maryland to be very destructive to cab- —° 
bages, clover, &c.. by eating holes in the leaves. Hpicwrus 
tmbricatus, (Say,) a very siniilar insect, was complaiued of as 
being injurious to the foliage of the apple and cherry trees. 

The larva of Caryborus arthriticus (Fab,) was found in palmetto 
seed brought by Mrs. Berrian, of Washington, from Pilatka, 
Florida. This larva lives in the seed, eating its interior in 
the same manner as the Bruchus pisi, or pea-weevil. The 
seed was entirely destroyed by this insect, one only of which 

Fig. 20. appeared to inhabit each seed or berry, The per- 

fect beetles came out in May or June. 

Horticulturists are well aware of the damage done by the 
© 61 common pea-weevil, Bruchus pisi, but it appears that a spe- 

\. cies hitherto unknown here has been lately introduced from 
Europe, which threatens, if not checked, to help its relative, 
., 6. pisi, in the work of destroying peas, &c.. iu this country. 
This insect, Bruchus granarius, is said to have been introduced 
into New York in some seed brought by a gentleman trom Switzerlaud 


T2 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and presented to the Farmers’ Club. In Europe it is said to be abund- 
ant as early as February, on flowers, and is a most destructive insect, 
the larvee feeding in seeds of peas and beans, frequently destroying 
more than half “the crop. The natural history of our pea-weevil, 
3. pisi, much resembling that of the imported B. granarius, is as fol: 
lows: The egg is deposited by the female in a puncture made on the 
outside of the young pod exactly opposite a seed. This is done chiefly 
during the night or in cloudy weather. The larve, when hatched, 
penetrate through the pod immediately into the pea beneath, and feed 
upon its interior. In the meantime the puncture made by 
the young larva, being so very minute, heals up, leaving 
scarcely a vestige of a scar. The pupa is formed in the 
autumn in the cavity of the pea, made by the larva having 
eaten out part of the interior, and when it arrives at maturity 
it makes its escape by gnawing a small bole through the rind 
of the seed, the larva having previously eaten its way to the 
.. inner surface, leaving only a thin pellicle. The Bruchus gra- 
narius in England is very destructive to the pea, and in gen- 
eral remains in the larva state until the following spring; 
but if the weather is very warm the perfect insect appears 
the preceding autumn. The larva has the curious instinct to leave the 
most vital parts of the seed to the last. The usual remedy is to steep 
the seed before planting, in very hot water, so as to kill the inclosed 
insect, taking care, however, not to injure the peas themselves. A cor- 
respondent in the American Entomologist recommends that the peas be 
put in bags and preserved until the second year, when ali the insects 
will have perished. Other insects belonging to the same family, B. 
varicornis, sinuatus, and obsoletus, are very “destructive to the field bean 
in this country, sometimes five to ten insects being found in one bean. 
Fig. 22. The rocts of the grape vine are frequently 
y much injured by two very large yellowish-white 
grubs, which Mr. Riley states are the larve of the 
large, long-horned, brownish beetles, Prionus 
imbricornis, (Linn.,) or the tile-horned prionus, 
and P. brevicornis, (Fab.,) P. laticollis, (Drury.) 
These larve cut for themselves cylindrical holes 
through the heart of the root, frequently leaving 
j only a thin shell of bark, and probably live in 
the larva state three years. They transform into 
pup in smooth oval chambers in the earth when 
in confinement, and in a state of nature probably 
change in the roots about the end of June. The 
pertect insect appears about three weeks after 
i the pupa is formed. P. imbricornis is said to 
feed on roots of Osage orange, corn-stalks, and decaying oak wood, as well 
as on grape vine; and Ve laticollis on decaying wood of apple, poplar, oak, 
roots of grape vine, pear, and Osage orange. No remedy has yet been 
proposed for their destruction, except to kill the perfect beetles wherever 
found. There is another insect which injures the roots of the grape 
vine, Aigeria polistiformis (Har.,) which somewhat resembles the last 
named insect in the larval state. (Agricultural Report, 1854, pl.6.) The 
larva of the Prionus, however, isa very large, yellow, footless grub, with 
a brownish head, while the Agerians can be readily recognized by their 
rounder form, smaller size, and the rudimentary legs on the under side 
of the seventh to the tenth segments of the body, taking the head as 
one segment. 


Vig. 21. 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 73 


To destroy the well-known locust-borer, Clytus (Arhopalus) pictus, or 
flexuosus, a beautiful variegated black and yellow Fig. 23. 
beetle, it has been recommended to apply soft \ 
soap to the trunks of very young trees every sum- 
mer, about the first of August, or earlier, in the 
Southern States. Another insect of the same fam- 
Fig.24. ily, Clytus saggtitatus, Germ., (pubes- 
7 Gens, Hald.) was reared during the 
~~ last season from dry pine wood. The 
colors are brown with yellowish-white 
markings. 
The perfect beetle of Heliomanes 
bimaculatus, Say, just emerged from the pupa case, Was found 
in a hole in the wood of a walnut branch, where it Fig. 25. 
had evidently been bred. This insect, therefore, ae 


may be classed as injuring the walnut. It resembles very 
strongly in appearance and habits the Tessaropa tenwipes of 


Fig. 26. Haldeman, which also feedsin the larval state 

Bash | upon the wood of hickory and walnut. This 
3 ~~ insect is figured here, as it is said to bea very 

rare insect in collections, and not heretofore 

figured. Another small, long-horned beetle, 


Leiopus wanthoxyli, was found by Dr. Shimer to undermine the bark of the 
prickly-ash when the wood had recently died. None of the last three 
mentioned insects can do much damage, and are merely mentioned and 
figured as feeding on substances not hitherto known. 

As the elm-tree beetle, Galeruca ealmariensis, Fab., has pig, 97. 
been exceedingly injurious to the elm trees during the past 7. 
season, although the natural history and remedies were de-¢ 
scribed and the insect figured in the Agricultural Report for FOR 
1867, it will not, perhaps, be out of place to give it another — 
short notice, as apparently no steps have been taken to arrest its pro 
gress. The eggs of this beetle are deposited in clusters on the under 
side of the leaf in May and June. These eggs are oval and are ar- 
rapged in two or three rows together along the ribs of the leaf, and are 
fixed by one end to the surface. The larve, when hatched out, eat the 
soft inner. substance of the foliage, leaving the net-work of veins and 
ribs, causing the leaf to assume a scorched and brown appearance. 
When fully grown, the larve, as they spin no silken web to let_them- 
selves down by, descend to the ground by the limb, if undisturbed. The 
pupa is formed immediately in the neighborhood of the trunk, on the 
surface of the ground, or under loose stones near the tree, and resembles 
in size and color grains of whitish wheat. They remain in this helpless 
and almost motionless state a few days, when they may be destroyed 
readily with hot water, or by crushing under foot. The perfect beetles 
appear in a few days, and immediately fly up into the tree to lay eggs for 
a second generation, which frequently destroys every leaf on the tree. 
This inséct, imported from Europe as early as the summer of 1837, de- 
stroyed the foliage of the elms in Sevres, France, and in Germany, in 1839, 
trees were very much injured. I have observed that the American elm is 
not so much injured by these insects in Washington as the HKuropean 
species. Syringing the trees with strong tobacco-water has been tried 
with some good effect, but the larvae not touched by the fluid are merely 
knocked down by the concussion, and, if nearly ready to change into pupe, 
effect their transformation where they fall. It has been recommended 
to place around each tree small, tight, square boxes or frames, a foot or 


74 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


eighteen inches in height, sunk into the earth, the ground within the in- 
closure to be covered with cement, and the top-edge of each frame to be 
covered with broad, projecting pieces of tin, like the eaves of a house, 
or the letter T; or painted with some adhesive or repellent substance, 
as tar, &c. The larve, descending the tree, being unable to climb over 
the inclosure, would change into helpless pup within the box, where 
they could daily be destroyed by thousands. Those hiding within the 
crevices of the bark of the trunk could easily be syringed from their 
hiding places. 
The striped cucumber-beetle, Diabrotica vittata, (Fab.,) during the past 
Fig.9g, Season has been very destructive to young cucumber, melon, and 
squash vines, and even to the blossoms of the pear, cherry, and 
Aik: apple trees. The larve of this beetle in May and June eat the 
bark of cucumber and other plants, and frequently perforate and 
hollow out the lower part of the stem which is beneath the surface of 
the ground, and the upper part of the root. Occasionally when the 
supply below fails, they are found in the vine just above the ground. 
The larva arrives at maturity in about a month or more after the egg is 
laid, and is found boring into the squash and cucumber vines as late as 
October. The pupa is formed in a smooth earthen cavity in the ground. 
There are two or three generations each year, according to latitude and 
length of winter. Dr. Shimer states that it hybernates as a pupa in the 
ground; but Mr. Riley differs with him, and states that it hybernates as 
@ perfect insect. The perfect insect does great dainage by eating holes 
in the seed, leaves, and young foliage. In the American Entomologist 
it is mentioned that wide-moutbhed bottles filled with sugar-water hung 
in the trees, and fires built at night, might materiaily reduce their num- 
bers, and these remedies should be tried next season. In Mr. Riley’s 
report he recommends inclosing the young vines in boxes open at the 
top and covered with millinet, or sprinkling the vines in the morning 
with Paris green—one part to four or five of flour—or with hellebore. 
Paris green is a deadly poison, however, and should be used with care. 
In connection with these boxes it may be well to mention a plan prae- 
ticed in Florida to strike cuttings in well-drained lands, and to preserve 
young seedlings from insects. ‘A square hole is dug in the earth from 
three to five inches in depth, with alinost perpendicular sides, the ground 
at the bottom well stirred up, or the bottom earth taken out and good 
earth put in. The cuttings or seeds are then planted, the hole is cov ered 
With asingle piece of vlass, and loose earth is seraped around the edges 
of the vlass to render it insect-proof. It then forms a miniature hot: 
bed and sbelter, until the young plants are old enough to resist the 
attacks of insect enemies, when the glass can be removed and the earth 
drawn around the roots. In wet, cold situations, the holes could be 
made on the summit of little mounds. 
Fig. 29. The foliage of the grape is very much injured by a small purple 
» oF steel- biue b: setle, Graptodera chalybea, ({ltig,) or the grape-vine 
Ayr flea beetle. These insects appear in May, and destroy the leaves 
and bads by eating holes through thein, a second brood appearing 
in July. The pertect insect Lybernates under stones, bark, or in the 
earth, near the plant. It feeds also on the foliage of elim, plum, black 
alder, &. To guard against its ravages, it is said by the American En- 
tomologist that “clean culture and general cleauliness in a vineyard 
will to a great extent prevent the insect’s increase,” and that the larvee 
can be destroyed by an application of dry lime used with a common 
sand-blower or bellows. This has been found more effectual than either 
lve or soap-suds, and is the safest, as lye, if used too strong, will kill 
the leaves. 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 15 


The Colorade or western potato-bug, Doryphora 10-lineata, (Agri- 
cultural Report, 1867, page 63,) is still traveling rapidly eastward. The 
first notice of this insect was in the Prairie Farmer, August 29, 1861, 
and it is said to have made its appearance in the far West, and to have 
traveled east about three hundred and sixty miles in six years, or sixty 
miles a year. It feeds on the potato, tomato, egg-plant, horse-nettle, 
Datura Wrightii, Jamestown weed, ground cherry, &c. According to 
Professor Verrill’s excellent description of the habits, &c., of this insect, 
the eggs, to the number of 1,000 to 1,200, or even more, are deposited 
by the female on the young leaves of the potato; these eggs are attached 
by one end to the under node of the leaves, usually in clusters of one to 
two dozen. The larve hatch in a few days; there are several broods 
annually, and the last brood passes the winter as pup under the earth. 
The pupe are formed under ground, and remain, during the summer, as 
pupe from ten to twelve days. The insects, after laying their eggs, do 
not die, as most insects do, but appear to live a long time, Professor 
Daniels, of the Wisconsin University, having kept a female alive six 
weeks after she had laid 1,200 eggs. Professor Verrill recommends Paris 
green, mixed with eight to twelve parts of wheat-flour or with eight 
parts of wood-ashes, dusted over the insects when the plants are wet 
with dew. He, however, very prudently adds: “It may be questioned 
whether it is safe or advisable to mix dangerous mineral poisons with 
the soil, for the arsenic and copper will remain in the earth, and may be 
absorbed by growing vegetables, or cause mischief in other ways.” It 
is also stated in the American Entomologist that Paris green (arsenite 
of copper) is a slow but dangerous poison, and when dusting plants with 
it the greatest care should be taken that the wind may not earry it 
toward the person of the operator. It may even injure the soil if used 
repeatedly. Small doses of arsenie have rather promoted the growth of 
rye, but arsenite of copper is much more virulent in its effects, and other 


_ crops may be essentially injured by it. A very thin dusting with Paris 


green, mixed with flour to reduce its strength, will kill the insects, but 
if used too freely it becomes injurious to vegetation. Professor A. J. 
Cook, of the Michigan Agricultural College, says: “Some of our potato 
vines and ege-plants have been totally ruined by a too free use of this 
poison ;” and adds, ‘We use one part of mineral to five parts of flour.” 

To ascertain whether the plants would readily take up the arsenic suffi- 
ciently to become hurtful, an experiment was made in the Department by 
planting some healthy peas in two flower-pots, one containing merely com- 
mon earth, and the otber earth mixed with a quantity of Paris green. The 
peas in the first flower-pot germinated and grew finely, while those iu 
the Paris green did not even sprout, but rotted in the ground. A few 
well-sprouted peas were then taken from the healthy pot, and placed in 
the fower-pot containing the arsenite of copper. Tbe next morning all 
the peas were found dead, proving that if Paris green be used too freely 
the soi] is thereby injured and reudered unfit for culture. This dan- 
gerous remedy has been used already to such an extent that it is stated 
12,000 pounds were sold in one season at La Crosse, Wisconsin, for the 
destruction of these insects. 

The Colorado potato-bug is now reported in Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
Michigan, Indiana, aud Ohio. On the northern side it is said to have 
reached Canada. It is held that these insects possess poisouous quali- 
ties when handled, and many instances are reported of injuries produced 
by gathering or crushing them in the naked hand. 

There is another beetie which very much resembles the true Colo- 
rado potato-beetle, the Doryphora juncta, (Germar.) It has been 


16 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


found in Alabama feeding on egg-plants and potatoes,-.and also on the 

Fig. 30. Solanum Carolinense. In Alabama it was said to be espe- 
cially destructive to the foliage of the egg-plant. The gene- 
ral appearance of these two insects, in size, color, and mark- 
ings, is so much the same that it is difficult for a person 
not an entomologist to distinguish them at first sight. 

The real potato bug, however, has ten stripes on the wing- 
cases, while the false one has only eight, or, in Mr. Walsh’s own words, 
‘the difference between D. 10-lineata and juncta is as follows: In D. 
juncta the second and third stripes are always united behind, and some- 
times before, and the edges of all the stripes have a single groove and a 
single row of punctures, while the legs are rufous, with a black spot in 
the middle of the front of all the thighs.” 

The Rocky Mountain grasshopper, Caloptenus spretus, (Uhler,) has been 
very destructive in the far West, and we have received numerous letters 
from Utah and elsewhere describing their ravages. This insect resem- 
bles our commonest species in the Eastern States, the red-legged grass- 
hopper, Caloptenus femur-rubrum, (Degeer,) in size, shape, color, and 
ornamentation, but it has much longer wing-covers and wings in propor- 
tion to its size. Rev. Cyrus Thomas, who has made this order his espe- 
cial study, and who has observed these insects in their native wilds, 
states that it is quite a distinct species from the femur-rubrum, and that 
Fig. 31. when the Rocky Mountain species makes its 
migrations to the low lands it frequently 
alights amid the common eastern species, 
— <5) ae also living there, but never mixes with them 
c Mal RA. in the least, and when the migratory species 
\ leaves the place they fly away in masses 

“+ without taking any of the common species 
with them. These insects fly in nambers so immense and to such dis- 
tances, and breed in such out-of-the-way and sterile places—generally 
coarse-gravelly table lands where vegetation is very scant—that, as yet, 
no remedy has been discovered, at least when the insects are in the 
perfect state and furnished with powerful wings. A correspondent in 
Utah states that fire and water have been tried with but little effect, and 
that he despairs of ever getting entirely rid of them. When in the 
larva state and incapable of flight, they may be destroyed in limited 
numbers by rolling the land with heavy rollers, or setting fire to the 
grass in circles in the spring; but this would be impracticable on a large 
scale, as the first legions that produce the second brood, doing the great- 
est damage, are mostly bred in waste places where only Indians and 
wild animals roam. <A planter in Texas writes in a Louisiana paper: 
“As soon as the grasshopper has laid its eggs let the planters plow - 
their fields and turn the soil over and the eggs under a deep layer of 
soil. This layer of soil will crush the eggs, and thus destroy the spring 
crop of grasshoppers. This experiment has been made on small spots 
of ground where myriads of eggs were deposited, and not a grasshopper 
came from under those layers of earth that covered the eggs.” This no 
doubt would be very good to protect certain fields or gardens from the 
injuries inflicted by this insect when in the 
larva and pupa state, but it would be no 
protection whatever from the winged hordes 
that migrate later in the season. ‘The com- 
mon red-legged locust or grasshopper, C. 
Jemurrubrum, was very destructive last 
year to fruit trees, grass, &c. In parts of 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 77 


Maryland and Pennsylvania these insects also migrate from field to 
field, when in great numbers and short of food, but never take the long 
flights their western relative accomplishes with its larger and more pow- 
erful wings. Turkeys, domestic fowls, and birds serve to keep their 
numbers down in the Hastern States; they can also be readily caught 
in drag-nets made of cotton cloth or canvas swept over the grass early 
in the morning when they are somewhat benumbed and inactive. 

For destroying cockroaches it has been recommended to strew pul- 
verized borax freely in and about their haunts. This, however, has 
been tried and found useless, at least as far as the so-called croton bug, 
Ectobia germanica is concerned, which feeds freely on red wafers, vermil- 
lion, &c. In a library they were killed by a mixture of Paris green, 
starch, and glycerine; before dying, however, they stained the books 
and papers so much that the remedy was found to be as bad as the dis- 
ease, and it was therefore discontinued. It would be dangerous to use 
this remedy about the kitchen or pantry on account of the Paris green. 

The imported currant-worm or saw-fly, Nematus ventricosus, (Kug.,) was 
very destructive last season. The insect is stated to Fig. 33. 
have been imported first in the neighborhood of 
‘Rochester, and to have traveled about tweuty-five 
niles a year. The perfect fly comes out of the 
ground about April or May, and lays her eggs along 
the principal veins on the under siderof the leaves. 
The larve have twenty legs, black heads, and are 
of a greenish color, spotted with black, but after 
the last molt they become entirely of a green color, 
with large, dark, eye-like spots on each side of the 
head. When fully grown the larve are abcut three- 
fourths of an inch in length. They then burrow : 
into the earth, or hide under dead leaves, and spin a thin oval cocoon 
of brown silk, in which the pupa is formed. The perfect insect appears 
about June or July, and the second brood does not come out until the 
following spring. The native currant-worm, Pristophora grossularia, 
(Waish,) is said not to be as injurious as its foreign relative, and differs 
from it by being, in the larval state, always of a uniform green color, 
without the black dottings always found on the imported species, except 
after the last molt. The cocoon is also spun among the twigs and 
leaves of the bushes on which it feeds, and it does not go under ground 
to form its cocoon. The insects are only about three-fourths the size of 
the imported pest, and the sexes are alike in coloration, while the female 
of the imported species has the body mostly of a bright honey-yellow, 
the male being principally black; the venation of the wings also varies. 
The larve of both feed upon the currant and gooseberry, and some were 
brought to this Department which were said to have been found feed- 
ing on the leaves of the strawberry, planted around the currant bushes. 
The best remedy is dusting the bushes with pulverized white hellebore— 
the root of the Veratrum album of Europe—which may be found at any 
druggist’s. The success of our native species, Veratrum viride of Gray, 
the American white hellebore or Indian poke, has not yet been reported 
on, but should be tried. Syringing the plants with a strong decoction 
of hellebore is said to kill the insect also, and although it is poisonous 
in large quantities, the American Entomologist states that in minute 
doses there is no reason to be afraid of it. Dr. Fitch states, as a proof 
of its innocuous properties, that it has long been in use as the basis of 
certain snuffs. It would be well, however, to wash the fruit betore 
using it. 


78 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The pear slug, Selandria cerasi, a brownish-green, slimy slug, feeding 

Fig. 34. upon the leaves of the pear tree, deposits its eggs singly 
in June, in incisions made by the piercer of the female 
under the skin of the leaf. The larvae, batching, eat the 
substance of the ieaf, leaving the veins and under skin 
untouched. The pupa is formed in oblong oval cavities 
under ground. The insect appears in about fifteen days 
after the slug has gone into the ground, in June and 
August, and lays its eggs for the second crop, which go 
into the ground in September and October, and remain 
until the following spring, when the perfect fies come out to lay their 
eges on the foliage Mr. Saunders, of Canada, states that this insect is 
readily destroyed by dusting the tree with air-slacked lime. Coal-oil 
will injure the trees, and road dust is of little value when dusted over the 
trees. For another insect of the same genus, Harris recommends syring- 
ing with strong soap-suds. The rose slug and other injurious slug 
worms can be destroyed by dusting the plants with the powdered 
hellebore, or syringing with a strong decoction of the same root. 

The perfect insect of the potter wasp, Lumenes fraterna, is beneficial, 
Fig. 35. as it stores its singularly formed mud-nest with liy- 


ing but apparently paralyzed caterpillars as food for 
its larve. A single nest taken this season was found 
to contain sixteen to eighteen caterpillars, and all 
of them a species feeding on the willow. In Massa- 
chusetts it is said to stere its nest with caterpillars of 
the canker worm. The larve of the wasp itself is 
subject to parasites, a8 a species of two-winged fly 
(Toxophora?) was raised from the vase-like clay nest of - 
a potter wasp found in Maryland. 

A bnttertly has lately made its appearance in the 
neighborhood of New York and Long Island which is 
new to the gardens there, the caterpillar of which has 
already done very great damage. This insect is the 
common cabbage-butterfly of KEurope, Pieris rapa, (Linn.,) called by 
the Canadians vér & ceur, or heart-worm, from the habit it has of not 
only eating the outside leaves, but of destroying the heart of the eab- 
bage. It was probably introduced into Quebec in 1856 or 1857 from 
Europe, in the ege state, on the under side of cabbage leaves thrown out 
from some vessel, and in 1864 it had not extended more than forty miles 
from Quebee as a center, but in. 1866 it bad found its way into New 
Hampshire and Vermont, and in 1869 was said to have been found in 
Hudson Oity and Hoboken, and no doubt the coming year it will spread 

into Pennsylvania. The females de- 

Big. 36. posit their eggs on the cabbage. 

The caterpillars are of a green color 
with black dots, having a yellowish 
stripe down the back and a row of 
z= yellow spots on each side, and feed 
$ upon the leaves and bore holes in 
the solid head of the cabbage, ren- 
dering it filthy and unfit for use. 
The pup are suspended by a web 
of silk at the end of the body, into 
which the hooks of the tail are 
twisted, and by a thread of silk 
around the back, which is fastened 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 79 


to the board, fence, or stone under which they transform. When about 
to change, the skin of the back of the chrysalis splits open, and the 
perfect butterfly comes out, at first with wings small and flaccid, but in 
a very short time they begin to expand, until finally they bave attained 
their regular size and the butterfly is able to use them in flight. It 
then mates, and deposits its eggs on plants of the cabbage family. The 
first butterflies appear in Massachusettsin April, and during the summer, 
The change from caterpillar to perfect insect occupies only about eight 
days, but the pup or chrysalides of the late broods remain all winter, 
and are only hatched out the following spring. These caterpillars feed 
not only on cabbage but also on cauliflower, mustard, turnip, mignonette, 
nasturtium, and are even said by Curtis to be found on willow in 
England. The male butterfly is yellowish-white with black tips and 
one round black spot only on each upper wing, while the female has twe 
and sometimes three. The American Entomologist states that as a 
remedy salt has been found more effectual than either tobacco, cresylic 
acid, soap, or guano, and that by laying pieces of board between the 
rows of cabbages, supporting them about two inches above the surtace 
of the ground, the worms will rescrt to them to undergo their trans- 
formations, and can then be easily destroyed. The saponaceous com- 
pounds of cresylic acid are also recommended; but Mr. P. T. Quinn, of 
New Jersey, gives the following as his experience in combating this 
insect. On his return from California last summer he found his cabbages 
infested with worms which threatened total destruction. After trying 
' various remedies, he found this recipe to be the best: Twenty parts of 
superphosphate made with slush acid, one part of carbolic powder, and 
three parts of air-slacked lime, mixed well together, and thoroughly 
dusted into each head four times at in- 
tervals of four days. The result was ; 
the saving of seventy-five thousand cab- Fe 
bages and a loss of only five per cent. 

It would be well for cabbage growers 
also to offer a small reward to children “=~ 


destroyed early in spring among the 
cabbages, as it is these comparatively 
rare butterflies that originate the im- 
mense number of caterpillars which, 
later in the fall, destroy the whole crop. 

We have two other white buttertlies =— 
in the United States which injure cabbages, but not to such a degree 
as the P. rape, as they confine themselves principally to the leaves, and 
do not burrow into the heart of the 
plant. In the Northern and Eastern 
States the pot-herb Poytia of Uarris 
(Pieris oleracea, Bdv.) is most abund- 
aut. It differs from rape by being 
wholly white, without any black spots 
or markings. The southern cabbage 
butterfly (Pieris protodice. Boisd.) is 
found all along the southeastern At- 
lantic coast from Connecticut to Tex- 
as. It is exceedingly common in 
Maryland and Virginia, but does not 
appear to do much damage in gene- 
ral tu cabbages in this neighborhood, 


Z me 8 
wt, eral 


80 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


where it has been frequently found feeding on the leaves of turnip. The 
wings are white, with much larger, longer, and more irregularly-shaped 
black markings than rape, and these round black spots are never so 
distinctly marked. Their transformations are effected very much in the 
same manner as rape, and the same remedies may be used. 

Sensational reports have appeared from time to time during the past 
year in various local papers, stating that individuals have died, from be- 
ing poisoned or stung by the caudal horn or tail of the common green 
tomato or potato worm, Macrosila (celeus G. and BR.) quinquemacuiata, 
Steph., and many persons have been so much alarmed by these reports 
as to abstain entirely from gathering their tomatoes. This is simply 
ridiculous, as the caterpillar has no power of charging tail foremost; 
and even if it had, there 
is no pSison whatever 
in either the tail or head. 
lt is true, if erushed, 
the larva will eject from 
its mouth a greenish 
semi-fluid substance, 
which is merely the un- 

—=—<—<———— a digested and recently- 
swallowed food. Had there been a poison about these much-abused - 
caterpillars, there would have been dreadful mortality among the turkeys 
in Maryland for many years past, as these birds are used to extirpate 
the tobacco worms, a closely allied species, feeding upon them vora- 
ciously, even fattening on them, and without any symptoms of poison. 

It may be interesting to entomologists to know that last year the cat- 

Fig. 40. erpillar of Spina eremitis, 
a. Walk., (sordida of Har.,) 


BSTC US Be was taken feeding on 
SRA Pe eho afi +\ the mountain mintin the 
Lp eek} autumn. Thislarva was 
i eons — =. described by Mr. Litner 


——$——————:”~—‘i.~C«CE Albany, N. Y., 8 ped 
ing on spearmint or wild bergamot. An outline of the caterpillar is 
given, as it is rare and little known. 

The larve of a very common and beautiful moth, well known to entomo- 
logists, Utetheisa (Deieopea) bella, (Drury,) were discovered late in July and 
Fie. 41. ' August to be abundant in the seed- 

V\LIZAIY? cere ah re. To! 2 pods of the rattle-box, ( Crotalaria.) 
SWisisstree (i an phe Eee The caterpillar, having first eaten 
dg PBS < a large round hole in the outer en- 
~---velope or shell, enters the pod, 
where it hides itself, and, undis- 
turbed by outside influences, de- 
vours the ‘seeds. This habit of 
concealing itself in the pod renders 
finding it very difficult, even when 
the beating-net is used to sweep 
themeadows. Dr. Harris formerly 
suggested that as the larva of a 
European species is said to feed 
on the mouse-ear, our native species might do the same; but, although 
diligently searched for, it has not yet been taken here on that plant. 
The moth, which is partly diurnal in habits, is of a yellow color, beau- 
tifully and irregularly marked with white, in which are several distinct 


» 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 81 


round black spots. The under wings are rose-colored or light crimson, 
with black edging. The larva is also yellow, with black and white 
rings, and the chrysalis is black and yellow, and remains a chrysalis, or 
pupa, in the summer a week or ten days. The larva is also said to feed 
on lupine. 

. The larvaof Acoloithus falsarius, Clem., has been found on both the 
grape vine and the Virginia creeper, (Ampelopsis quinque- Fic. 42. 
folia.) These caterpillars were found in July in Mary- F 
land, either solitary or two or three together, eating € 
small holes in the leaves. When kept in confinement 
they spun small parchment-like cocoons among the dead 
foliage and rubbish in the bottom of the box in which 
they were confined, and the perfect insect appeared in 
ten tofourteen days after the cocoon was spun. The in- 
sects, in the perfect state, resemble very much the Amer- 
ican forester of Fitch, Acoloithus (Procris) Americana, 
Bdv., (Agricultural Report, 1854, pl. 6,) but are only 
half the size, and do not have the anal tufts; the 
collar is of a paler orange, divided on the top by a 
black point, and the rest of the insect is of a somewhat bluish-black 
color. If they are found to increase so as to become injurious they may 
be destroyed by syringing the vines with whale-oil soap-suds, or a wash 
of hellebore and water. . 

The Samia (Atiacus) cynthia, or ailanthus silk-worm, introduced for 
its silk-producing qualities in 1860 and 1861, has become acclimated in 
several of our northern cities on the Atlantic coast, but has not yet 
been utilized, as far as we can learn, in this country. Mr. Andrews, of 
New York, states, however, that he is of the opinion that S. cynthia ‘is 
the moth best adapted to our northern climate as a silk-producer, and 
has received a specimen of sewing silk made from its cocoon, which has 
strengthened his previous favorable opinion.” Although this insect has 
increased to*such a degree in some places as to become almost a nui- 
Sance, an attempt was made during the past year to induce the Govern- 
ment to re-introduce the insect, which is already naturalized and abund- 
ant. Mr. Riley, in the American Entomologist, speaking on this subject, 
says: ‘The insect has become wild, and is increasing around Baltimore, 
Philadelphia, Chicago, and Brooklyn, and a certain individual, totally 
ignorant of what has been done in past years, is soliciting Government 
aid in the introduction of this worm.” Mr. Riley, five years ago, made 
extensive experiments, and in the Prairie Farmer of April 18, 1866, 
stated that its cocoon was of no more value than some of our native 
silk-worms. 

Attacus perny?, another silk-producing insect from Manchouria, and 
feeding on oak, has been successfully raised to the perfect er moth state, 
by Mr. John Akburst, of Brooklyn, New York, but not in sufficient 
numbers to warrant any report upon its silk-producing qualities in this 
climate. A third so-called foreign silk-worm, Antherea yama-mai, or 
Japanese silk-worm, feeding on the oak and appie in the open air, has 
also been experimented on by Mr. Andrews and Mr. Akhurst. The 
great trouble with the insect at present appears to be that the eggs 
hatch out before there is sufficient oak foliage for the young caterpillars 
to feed upon. Mr. Riley states that his experience with the Japanese 
silk-worm the past summer was very unsatisfactory, and that in 1869 
the experimenters in England also met with poor success; but notwith- 
standing these unfavorable reports, it would be well to try it another 

6A 


82 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


year before making any decision as to its adaptability to this climate 
and its silk-growing qualities. 

During the last year an experiment was made on a rather extended 
scale as to the feasibility of feeding the common Chinese mulberry silk- 
worm (Bombyx mori) on the leaves of the Osage orange, (JMaclura 
aurantiaca,) 2 plant now plentiful in the Western States, where it is 
used for hedges, and is found growing wild in the Southwest, where it 
is known as Bois @arc. Mr. Samuel Cornaby, of Spanish Fork City, 
Utah Territory, writes the following letter: 

Having been engaged in silk enlture for three years past, T take the liberty of sub- - 
mitting to you a report of what i have done. In 1867 Mr. Albert K. Thurber, of 
this place, on his return from a visit to London, England, presented me with a few silk- 
worm eggs of the old French variety. They made sixteen cocoons, producing three 
female moths. The following year I raise’ five hundred worms, but not having suf- 
ficient mulberry leaves to feed them I fed pact of them ov Osage orange. They ate it 
with avidity ; ‘all did well, and made cocovuns of good size aud color. Last season 
(1869) I fed five thousand worms o Osage crange and they made five thousand eo- 
coous. This season I am feeding ten thousand worms on Osage orange and they are 
doing well. I would here remark that 1 have never found a diseased worm since I 
commenced raising silk. 

I have fed a portion of my worms each season on mulberry and a portion on Osage 
orange, and those fed on the latter have thrived and done as well as those fed on the 
former. I do not snppose Osage orange is preferable to mulberry to feed silk-worms, 
but it may be of importance to some to know that they will do well upon it. I have 
fed worms on the two kinds of feed in close proximity, and have known them to leave 
the mulberry and go to the Osage orange. The dryness of our climate and the absence 
of thuuder-storms during the feeding season, render Utab particularly adapted to the 
raising of silk, and perhaps it may be more favorable for feeding Osage orange than a 
moist climate. : ; ; . 

Not having sufficient knowledge of the quality of silk to test it, I sent some cocoons 
to Mr. Muller, of Nevada City, California, to be reeled and tested, and he reports that 
the silk is, to all appearances, strong and of excellent quality. I intend to make a 
business of silk culture as fast as circumstances will permit. 


These facts having been doubted by some who had been unsuccessful 
in raising the si!k-worm on Osage orange, a letter was addressed to Mr. 
Cornaby, requesting further particulars of bis experiment, and in his 
answer he reiterates his former statement and adds: 


If any additional testimony is necessary to confirm my statement, I can give the 
names of as miany responsible persons, under seal, as may be required, as the facts are 
quite familiar to all the inhabitants of this town, and the greater part of the connty. 

This season I have fed upward of ten thonsand worms on Osage orange, and they 
have all spun—ithe box of cocoons I sent you being an average sample of the crop. 
This is the third season I have fed and propagated the same wornis entirely on Osage 
orange, and they sliow no signs of deterioration ; on the contrary, it was remarked by 
many this season, who bad seen them during the past three years, that they looked 
larger and better than they had ever seen them before. That portion of my crop fed 
ov mulberry the past four years shows no perceptible difference, hatching out and spin- 
ning about the same time as those fed on Osage orange. 

I would like to have the relative qualities of the silk thus differently fed thoroughly 
tested, and wonld be pleased to forward specimens of each to any one who could do so. 

My worms hatched out this season on the 8th of May, and spun on the 19th of June, 
feediug forty-two days, this being seven days longer than previous seasons, owing to a 
cold storm that occurred in May, lasting about one week, rendering them almost inac- 
tive during that time; and I have used no artificial heat either at hatching or during 
the feeding time. 

I have paid particular attention to cleanliness and ventilation in my cocoonery, keep- 
ing the doors and windows almost constantly open, even during the night when the 
weather was favorable. I attribute my success mainly to our fine dry climate. We 
have no dews, and rain and thunder-storms are of rare occurrence during feeding season. 


A large blaek caterpillar with vellow longitudinal stripes, and having 
two black projecting processes or horns on the second segment of the body, 
and black prickles on all the other segments, Axnisota senatoria, (S. & A.,) 
is sometimes extremely abundant in Maryland, doing considerable injury 
to theoak. The eggs are deposited in clusters under leaves at the end of 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 83 


the branch. The larvx are social in habits, and feed together in com- 
panies, attaining their full size in Aug- Fig. 43. 

ust and September when they bury 
themselves six or eight inches in the 
earth, to change to pups, and the fol- 
lowing summer make their appearance 
in the perfect or moth state. The fe- 
males are of a yellow-ochre color, = 
crossed with a dark band, and have a white spot 
upper wing. The males are much smaller, and have somewhat trans- 
parent wings of a reddish brown, having a white spot on the upper wing 
also. 

A similarly formed caterpillar, but of a green color, with black horns, 

shorter prickles, and a yellowish lateral line, shaded near the end with 
rose color, (Anisota (Dryocampa) rubicunda, Fig. 44. 
Fab.,) does considerable injury to the silver ; 
maples in Washington, where there are 
two broods anuually. The mothis a most £73 
beautiful insect, the upper wings being of 4%, 
a delicate yellow and rose, or pink color. 
As both these insects in the larval state are Ha oc A 
more or less gregarious and keep together, they can readily be seen and 
destroyed when feeding on the foliage. 

The tent caterpillar, Clisiocampa Americana, Har., which forms the 
large cobweb-like nests in orchards, in June and July, was very destruc- 
tive in some localities last year. The eggs are Fig: 45. 
laid on the twigs in bunches numbering from oe 
two hundred and fifty to four hundred, placed 
side by side in perfect rows around the twig, 
and are covered with a gummy matter. They 
may be readily seen in winter, when the foliage 
has fallen, and the twigs are bare. The pupaw 
are formed in slight cocoons in crevices of bark, under boards, &c., and 
the insect comes to maturity in twelve to eighteen days. It is of a 
brownish-yellow color, with two oblique rust-brown, and nearly parallel 
lines runuing across the wings. The best method of destroying them is 
to tear down the nests when and wherever found. This can be done 
readily with a long mullen-stalk or a brush of twigs affixed to a long 
pole, antl when the caterpillars are beaten to the gronnd they can be 
crushed, or, as they collect togethe: on the trunks during their last 
molting period, they can be slaughtered in masses. The best remedy 
is to search for and destroy the egg-clusters.in the orchard when the 
trees are leafless. 

Bhe grass or army worm, Leucania wnipuncta, Haw., though it made 
its appearance in some places, was not 
especially troublesome during the last 
season. The eggs are probably deposited 
at the base of perennial grass-stalks, and 
the larve at times appear in immense ¢3%e 
multitudes in the Northern, Middle, and “2% 
Western States, where they destroy grass, ~ 
grain, and other, crops. Leaving one 
field, after having eaten it out, they 
march or crawl to those in the neighbor- 
hood in search of food; hence the vulgar name of army worm. The 
pup are formed in a rude earthen cocoon, and remain as pupe two to 


84 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


three weeks. The insect by day hides in tufts of grass. When the 
larve are migratory, or on the march for food, their march is stated to 
be at the rate of two to six rods per hour. These pests are said to 
multiply much faster in dry seasons when the swamps are dry, and 
when they are thus multiplied a wet season and overflowing swamps 
drive the insects from their lurking places in flocks, and they alight 
here and there over the country. There is generally but one brood in 
the more northern States in one season, but in the Sonth there are 
probably two, the last of which hybernates as pup. Several remedies 
have been proposed for their prevention and destruction, among which’ 
may be mentioned burning over the meadows in winter or very early 
in spring, or plowing late in the fall or early in spring, which will prob- 
ably destroy all theireggs. Judicious ditching will prevent their migra- 
tion from infested fields to those as yet uninjured, and these ditches 
should be dug, if possible, with almost perpendicular sides, or sloping 
inward from the top on the side to be protected, so that the caterpillars 
cannot readily crawl out. When the ditches are filled with the strug- 
gling caterpillars, if dry straw is scattered over them and fire applied 
it will kill them and clear the ditch for another lot. . 

The corn-worm of Maryland, or boll-worm of the South, Heliothis 
armigera, Hiib., (Agricultural Report, 1854,) has been found to be very 
injurious, not only to cotton and maize, but also to green peas, pump- 
kins, and, last year especially, to both the ripe and unripe fruit of the 
‘tomato, into which the caterpillar bores, rendering it totally unfit for 
use. A single caterpillar will sometimes entirely ruin a number of the 
fruit on one plant alone. Plates or wide-mouthed bottles of sirup or 
sweetened vinegar placed near the vines will attract the moths in the 
evening twilight, and in the morning many dead millers will be found 
stuck fast in the viscid substance. 

The larva of Phakellura nitidalis, Cramer, or cucumber moth, was 
taken several years ago in Florida boring holes in 
the fruit of the squash and feeding on the flesh in- 
side. Last year the larva of this insect was re- 
ported as very injurious to melons and cucumbers 
in Missouri, by eating holes in the fruit, from July 
=x to the end of Séptember, as many as four being 
ASS =sometimes found in one cucumber. The pupe are 
LAE formed in slight cocoons of white silk on leaves 
) un x near the ground, and the perfect moth appears in 

‘hemes . eight to ten days and probably hybernates as a 

perfect insect. This larva is said also by Guené 
to feed on potatces. To destroy this pest it has been recommended to 
examine the cucumbers and melons early in the season, and to destroy 
the first worms that appear and also all infested fruit. The upper 
wings of the moth are of a yellowish-brown color, with a semi-transpa- 
rent, irregular, yellow spot, while the hind wings are of the same semi- 
transparent yellow color, with a broad dark border. 

The clover-worm, or gold-fringe moth, Asopia costalis, Led., was found 

Fig. 48. so plentiful in a stack of clover ae hay, ip i 
ona: _ land, that the place literally swarmed with them, anc 

Peas PP the hay apneaeell to be totally ruined. The larva 
attacks and spoils clover for feeding purposes, both- 
\. in the stack and by interweaving and covering it 
INA with silken webs and black excrement that much 

~ resembles gunpowder. It has been stated that they 
feed on dried clover alone, but some experimented with fed sparingly 


— 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 85 


on the fresh flowers, rejecting both leaves and stalks. The pupa is 
formed in a slight cocoon, and the moths fly late in June and July. 
The colors of the perfect insect are reddish-brown with yellow mark- 
ings, and broad, goldeii-like fringes to the wings. 

The canker-worm of the Northeastern States, Anisopteryx vernata, 
(Peck,) is said to have made its appearance in 
Michigan in apple orchards, and, if true, may be 
expected to spread rapidly if not checked in 
time. The eggs are deposited to the number of 
sixty to one hundred, in rows, glued to the sur- 
face of the bark, and the larvae, as soon as 
hatched, destroy the foliage. The pupe are 
formed two to six inches under ground, in rude 
earthen eocoons, beneath the trees, and the 
perfect female, late in the autumn or early in 
the spring, crawls up the trunk of the tree (as PEW) 
she is wingless) to deposit her eggs, which hatch fu SAS 
out in the spring into small looping caterpillars, or so-called measuring- 
worms, and in a short. time destroy all the foliage. The remedy to be 
sought, therefore, is something that will prevent the wingless female 
from ascending the tree to lay her eggs. Leaden oil-troughs have been 
used with some success, but if they are used around the trunk itself, 
the oil running over is apt to injure the tree, and it might be safer to 
form a tight inclosure of boards, or a box a foot or more in height, the 
same as that recommended for the elm-tree beetles; only in this instance 
the tin projection, coated with some viscid substance, should be on the 
outer sides of the box, or the oil-troughs themselves could be placed 
around the box on the outside, at some distance from the tin projection. 
This would save any risk of injury to the trunk by leakage or spilling 
of the oil. The tin would also protect the oil from being washed out 
by heavy rains, and at the same time be a second almost impassable 
barrier to the progress of such insects as might be enabled accidentally 
to cross the trough of oil. Muriate of lime is said to be useless in 
destroying these insects. Late fall plowing and the use of hogs are 
highly recommended. A good jarring when the worms are on the tree 
will shake most of them from the branches to the ground. Some, how- 
ever, will remain suspended in the air by a silken thread, which can be 
easily severed by swinging a stick. When all the worms are on the 
ground they may be destroyed by scattering straw over them and set- 
ting fire to it, taking care not to injure the tree itself. 

The cranberry crops in various parts of New Jersey and the New 
England States have been very much injured by the attacks of the lar- 
ve of a small Tortriz or moth, Anchylopera vaccineana, (Packard’s 
Guide,) commonly called the cranberry or fire-worm. The eggs of this 
insect remain all’ winter on the plants, hatching from the 20th of May to 
the Ist of June. The caterpillars feed on the tender- Fig. 50. 
‘growing shoots, drawing the leaves together with their = _ 
webs for shelter, and, concealing themselves within, Ko ; 
they feed upon the foliage. They reach their full size as I 
in about two weeks, when they spin upinalight cocoon = “<Z45)s 
among the leaves or rubbish on the ground. The pupa 
state lasts ten to twelve days, and the moths are nu- 
merous (1n Massachusetts) from June 10 to July 1. A second crop ot 
eggs is laid in August and September, which remain on the plant all 
winter. 


G 


fy 


Oy TINS 3 


Zi 


oat ® 


86 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Another caterpillar appears about August 1, (in Massachusetts,) and 
Fig.51. injures the fruit, the berries that are attacked turning pre- 
/ maturely red, which is the first indication of their presence. 
Wy) Most of the larve reach their full size before Septem- 
f ber, and, when fully grown, enter the ground, spinning their 
cocoons within a few inches of the surface, These eocoons 
are covered with sand, and are hardly distinguishable from 
small lumps ot earth. Several caterpillars sent from New 
Jersey, as injuring t&e fruit of the cranberry, resembled 
in habits the above insect, excepting the coccons were ’ 
formed on the surface of the earth, but unfortunately I 
was not able to raise one perfect moth. The only remedy 
recommended is to flood the infested patches, when practi- 
cable, until the worms are destroyed. 
A small caterpillar, the grape-berry moth, Lobesiabotana, (Zeller,) (Pen- 
thina vitivorand of Riley,) was found in large numbers during the last 
Fig. 52. season intesting the grape in Maryland. The larve of 
oy ~<9@3 the first brood are stated by some entomologists to feed 
</ upon the leaves, which they roll up, but this is denied by 
others. At least when the grapes are formed the larva 
bores into them and feeds upon the pulp. When it 
reaches the seeds it eats out the interior, and if one 
B=) grape is not sufficient, it fastens the already ruined grape 
“et 3/ to an adjoining one by means of silken threads, and bur- 
_—c<a) rows into it likewise. Mr. Riley states that the cocoons 


eS 


leaving it hinged on one side, rolling it over, and fastening it to the 
leaf ; but those found in Maryland spun loose cocoons amidst the grapes 
and leaves, or on the surface of theground. There are probably two or 
three broods in one season, and the last brood passes the winter within 
the cocoon either as larve or pupx. A little attention given to the 
grape-vines early in the season, by pulling off all infested grapes and 
destroying them, will be of great utility, as it was observed, in the ex- 
periments made, that, after the first crop of larve had been carefully 
taken off the vines to study their habits, later in the season, scarcely a 
single spotted or infested grape could be found on the same vine, with 
which to continue the experiments. 

The well-known apple codling-moth, Carpocapsa pomonella, (Linn.) has 
been extremely destructive to the apple crop in general by burrowing out 
and destroying the fruit. Many truit-growers have come to the conclu- 

sion that keeping hogs in the orchards to devour 
_ the fallen fruit is the best and surest remedy for 
=< this insect as well as the plum ecureulio. Hay 
, bands or ropes around the trunk and prineipal 
f limbs of the trees have been recommended, as 
they furnish a shelter under which the caterpillars 
will seek refuge when about to ferm their cocoons. 
‘1 Here they can easily be found, and destroyed by 
rubbing the band briskly up and down every tour or five days, so as to 
crush the insects harboring under it. Other orchardists, however 
recommend rags and softer substanees, to be placed in the crotches of 
the branches or around the trunks, &c., as they can be taken off and 
more readily examined for insects than the hay ropes. 

The apple-root plant-louse, Hriosoma (Pemphigus) pyri, (Fitch,) forming 
wart-like excrescences upon the roots of the apple trees, which contain 
in their crevices the insects which suck their juices, is said to be de- 


¢ 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 87 


stroyed by an application of boiling-hot water. The editor of the Ameri- 
ean Entomologist remarks, however, that 
in transplanting young trees from the nurs-— : 
eries, it is not necessary to have the water #2 & pecjn ~ 
too near the boiling point, and that a heat i a 
of 120° to 150° will suttice. The borticul- 
tural editor of the Prairie Farmer doubting —— 
the hot-water remedy, Mr. Riley states that 
this doubt will hold good in referenee to 
large, deep-rooted trees, but that he knows from experience that hot water 
can be used against these root-lice in the nursery, where the greater dam- 
age is done. Hot water has also been recommended to be placed around 
the trunks of such peach trees in the winter as are infested by the peach- 
borer, (Aigeria exitiosa, Say.) 

To destroy common plaut-lice (Aphides) and other insects in the green- 
house and garden, the following remedy has been recommended by M. 
Cloetz, of the Jardim des Plantes, in Paris: Three and one-half ounces 
quassia chips, five drams of stavesacre seeds,* powdered and placed in 
seven pints of water, and boiled until reduced to five pints. 

Dr. Hull recommends dusting slacked lime on the trees or bushes 
when the foliage is wet; syringing with soap-suds or tobacco water, 
or a strong decoction of quassia with soap-suds; also, a weak solution 
of chloride of lime is said by Mr. Andrews to preserve plants from 
insects if sprinkled over them. The following recipe is also highly rec- 
ommended in an English horticultural journal as being almost infallible 
“for mildew, scale, mealy bug, red spider, and thrips:” Two ounces 
flour of sulphur worked into a paste with water, two ounces washing 
soda, one-half ounce common shag tobacco, and a piece of quicklime 
about the size of a duck’s egg. Pour them all into a saucepan with.one 
gallon of water, boil aud stir for a quarter of an hour, and let the whole 
settle until it becomes cold and clear. It should then be poured off, 
leaving the sediment. In using it, add water according to the strength 
cs ere of the foliage. It will keep good for a long time if kept 
closed. 

A question of considerable interest has arisen during the past year 
among the vine-growers of Franee as to whether the disease known by 
the name of pourridie, or rotting, which is in the form of little cankerous 
spots, cutting off the supply of nourishment, and causing the roots of 
the vine to rot, produced by aspecies of rcot-louse belonging to the coccus 
family, and named by Plancheron Phylloxera vastatriz, is not a different 
form of another insect which produces the bag-like galls on some of 
our native North American grape-vine leaves, namely, the Pemphigus 
(Dactylosphera, Shimer) vitifolie of Fitch. This insect appears early 
in June in New York, and forms smal] globular galls the size of a pea, 
which grow on the under-side of the leaves, having a somewhat uneven 
and woolly surface, with a eavity inside. Mr. Riley, of the American 
Agriculturist, however, who has made a specialty of this subject, states 
that in Missouri this insect has proved very injurious to the Clinton 
grape-vine for several years past, at least as tar back as 1864, and gives 
a graphic description of its natural history and habits, as follows: 

A few females, in the spring, station themselves upon the upper sides of the leaf, and 
by constant suction and irritation cause the leaf to swell irregularly on the under side, 


while the upper part of the leaf gradually becomes fuzzy and closes, so that the louse 
at last sinks from view in the cavity of the so-called gall, in the interior cf which she 


* A plant of the genus Delphinium or larkspur, D. staphisagria, the seeds of which 
are narcotic and stimulating, and are used for destroying vermin. 


88 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


deposits from fifty to four hundred or five hundred small yellow eggs. When hatched 
the insects escape from the gall through an orifice in the weper side of the leaf, 
which was never entirely closed, and, taking up their abode on the young and tender 
leaves, in their turn form new galls. Sometimes one to four mother lice are found in 
asingle gall. The galls generally appear about May or June, and are commonly found 
most abundant on the Clinton and Taylor varieties of the frost grape, ( Vilis cordifolia,) 
and not on the Catawba, Isabella, and Concord, which are derived from our wild Vitis 
labrusca. When the mother louse has deposited all her eggs in the so-called gall, she 
dies, and the excrescence dries up. This goes on all the season until antunin, and the 

Fig. 55. vine having finished its growth, the young lice, finding no more 
succulent leaves, begin to wander and to seek the roots, so that by 
the end of September the galls are deserted, and the lice, attaching 
themselves to the roots, either singly or in little groups, cause by 
their punctures little swellings and knots, which eventually become 
rotten. The lice, also, change their appearance under ground, shed- 
ding their skins, and, instead of presenting a smooth appearance, 
becomes tubercled, and the insect passes the winter in the tubercled 
state; but whether in the spring these tubercled individuals produce 
winged males and females which rise in the air, pair, and, by de- 
positing eggs, give birth to apterous females which form the gall- 
producing colonies, or whether they lay eggs on the roots, the young 
' from which crawl up to the leaves to found gall-producing colonies, 
is not positively known. 


Dr. Shimer, however, states that he has seen four-winged insects in the 
autumn in galls destroyed by parasites. Mr. Riley, in proof of the the- 
ory that Phylloxera vastatrix, (Planch.) and Pemphigus vitifolie, of Fitch, 
are one and the same insect, in different forms, having different habits, 
states that he has proved by transferring to roots the young grape-lice 
hatched trom galls, and by successfully feeding them on those roots, 
that one smooth gall-inhabiting type gives birth to the tubercled root- 
inhabiting type: and, also, that our gall insects (Pemphigus vitifolie, Fiteh,) | 
take the root in the fall, on which they cause the same cankerous spots and 

Fig. 56. swellings as does the P. vastatrix of Hurope, and 
on which they evidently hybernate, just as P. 
’\/\. vastatrix is known to do. Several years ago I 
4 peo \ found the gall-inhabiting insect in lowa on a 
AA/-7,\ wild grape, and since then, in Maryland, on 
cultivated species. Last year several specimens 
of the gall-intested leaves were sent to the De- 
partment from a Clinton vine, and, although the 
roots were examined some time afterward, no 
trace of any of the root-inhabiting species could 
be discovered. The remedies proposed for the 
root-louse are carbolic acid, sulphuret of lime 
dissolved in water, and an oil known among 
veterinary Surgeons as “oil of cade,” dissolved in water. These were 
found the best specifics, but none of them have been tried on an extensive 
scale. Perhaps an application of hot water, as recommended for the 
apple root-louse might answer, if the ground were cleared away in 
winter from the roots, and the water not too hot to injure the plants. 
As tor the gall insects, great care should be taken to gather all the gall- 
infested leaves when they make their first appearance, aud to burn them 
immediately, so that none escape to found the root-injuring colonies in 
the fall and winter. 

The apple or oyster-shell bark-louse, Aspidiotus conchiformis, (Gmelin,) 

Fig. 57, having oblong, flattish, brown scales, with white 
eggs, and the native apple bark-louse, Aspidiotus 
Harrisii, (Walsh,) of which the scale is oval, almost 
my flat, and of a pure white color, with red eggs, may 
be destroyed when the young are hatching out of 


REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 89 


the eggs in May and June, by washing the trunks and branches of 
infested trees with two parts of soft soap to eight parts 
of water, adding lime enough to give it the consist- 
ence of whitewash; or thoroughly syringing with 
strong tobacco-water and soap-suds. 

The eggs of the chinch-bug, Rhyparochromus (Mi- 
eropus) leucopterus, (Say,) an insect which has done 
great damage to grain in certain localities, are de- 
posited in the ground to the number of about five hundred by one 
female. The young larve are hatched under the earth, having been 
found in great numbers at a depth of an inch or more, Fig. 59. 
and are at first wingless, and of a bright red color. .\~ 4 
They puncture, and apparently poison, in both larva VEY 
and pupa as well as perfect states, the terminal shoots, /= 
buds, and the most succulent parts of growing plants 
of grain, grass, maize, potatoes, and other vegetables, 
but do not attack woody plants. There are two broods 
aunuually and perhaps three in the south, the last brood IR 
hybernating in the perfect state under leaves, or sheltered under stones, 
earth, &c. The insects are most destructive in hot, dry summers, and 
heavy rains are said to destroy them. Early grain is most likely to es- 
cape their ravages. The remedies recommended are rolling the ground 
where the young insects are, if practicable; burning up all the dead 
vegetation and dry rubbish along fences will materially lessen their 
numbers the next season; when congregated on certain spots, dry straw, 
spread over the place and burned, will destroy numbers; gas lime sown 
broadcast over intested fields, at the rate of six or seven bushels to the 
acre, is also recommended; or dropping a handful of gas lime on each 
hill of corn, when infested. According to Dr. Shimer, coal-tar is of no 
use as aremedy. Quails are said to feed greedily upon the insects, and 
should therefore be protected. 

The common squash bug, Coreus (Gonocerus) tristis, (Degeer,) has been 
extremely injurious to«the squash family in many 
parts of the Middle States, injuring the plants in 
larva, pupa, and perfect states, by congregating 
in great numbers around the stem near the 
ground, or on the leaves, and sucking out the 
sap by means of their strong béaks. The eggs 
of this insect are deposited in little patches fast- 
ened to the under-side of the leaves in June and 
July. It is stated, however, that all the eggs 
are not deposited at the same time. The young 
insects live in families, puncturing the leaves and stem, and draining 
the sap trom the plant. The perfect insects hybernate in crevices of 
walls and fences, and have been found in Maryland in midwinter under 
the bark of rotting trees, from whence they come out in summer to de- 
posit their eggs for the first generation. One of the remedies recom- 
mended is to remove all the earth from the roots as far as they will bear, 
and fill up with a mixture of dry ashes and salt, which will prevent the 
insects from burrowing near the root. Another remedy is to trim off 
the under leaves early in the season, laying them in the evening under 
and close to the plant; the insects hiding under them can be found and 
destroyed in the morning. It has been suggested to lay pieces of boards 
along the rows, a little raised from the ground by small stones. During 
the night the insects will congregate under the trap; the boards and 
leaves, however, should be examined very early in the morning, 


Fig. 60. 


90 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


for as soon as warmed by the sun the insects will disperse over the 
vines. . 

The harlequin cabbage-bug, Strachia histrionycha, (Hahn.,) mentioned 
three years ago, (Agricultural Report, 1867, page 71,) has been much 
complained of during the past year as doing great damage to the cab- 
bage in North Carolina and elsewhere. The perfect insect hybernates 
in sheltered places, and the female deposits her eggs in March and April, 
in two rows, cemented together, mostly on the ander-side of the leaf, 
and generally ten to twelve in number. In about six days the first 
broods make their appearance, the young larve resembling the perfect 
insect, with the exception of being wiigless. About sixteen to eighteen 
days elapse from the deposition of the eggs to the development of the 
perfect insect. A second brood appears in July, which probably hyber- 
nates (in North Caroliua) in sheltered places. It is said that fowls and 
birds wil] not eat them, and the only remedy recommended is handpick- 
ing, and, as stated in my report for 1867, ‘as they hyberuate in the per- 
fect state beneath bark, under brush heaps or stones, like the cot- 
ton red-bug, it would be well in winter to search. for them in such 
situations, and in spring to destroy them on their first appearance 
upon the plants, before they have had time to deposit their eggs;” or 
if little heaps of rotting vegetables were left as places of shelter, here 
and there during the winter, so that they might be induced to hyber- 
nate under them, they might readily be destroyed in spring by burning 
straw over the heaps. 

In conclusion, the utility of enacting laws in the different States and 
counties for the preservation of the various inseetivorous birds cannet 
be too highly recommended, as birds are no doubt one of the great agents 
specially desigued by Providence to keep in check the myriads of 
insects which would, if left undisturbed, increase so rapidly as to 
totally destroy certain kinds of vegetation. The English house spar- 
rows, recently introduced into some of our seaboard cities, have become 
entirely acclimated, and have increased rapidly, and it is universally 
acknowledged that where they exist in any numbers the caterpillars, 
which were formerly such an annoyance to pedestrians, have almost 
entirely disappeared. There is little doubt that sparrows will also eat 
certain grains and small fruits whenever they can find them readily; - 
but, as these birds reside in the cities mostly, this is not of much con- 
sequence, especially as, should they increase too rapidly and migrate 
into the wheat fields so as to become a nuisance, a few birds may much 
more readily be destroyed by shot or traps than the myriads of insects, 
which would lie safely hidden amidst the dense foliage of the shade 
trees, or in the crevices of the bark, where the hands of man cannot 
reach without much labor and trouble. An English paper states that 
out of one hundred and eighteen sparrows killed for the sake of testing 
the amount of benefit or injury done by them, only three were found to 
have been living the preceding twenty-four hours on grain; beetles, 
grubs, and larve having been their diet. Out of seventy-five sparrows 
of all ages, there were hardly any without insect remains in them, 
It is somewhat singular that among the multitudes of sparrows and 
other birds imported, we have heard of only one or two instances where 
the robin-redbreast of Europe has been introduced into the public 
parks. This bird is not only insectivorous, but is also everywhere noted 
for its familiar habits and the sweetness of itssong. Toads in gardens 
are great insect destroyers, and are ever busy at dusk or early in the 
morning searching for insect prey. Instances have this past year been 
chronivled of their eating even the acrid potato cantharis (Lytta 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 91 


vittata, &c.) and the nauseovs-smelling squash-bug, In short, it may 
be plainly stated that without the coéperation of certain birds, anima!s, 
&c., this country would be overrun with insect pests; and it has been 
found that in most cases wherever certain birds have been destroyed 
as injurious to some of the crops, the farmers have been overrun with 
grub-worms, wire-worms, &c., for years afterward, and have only been 
too glad to import again the very same species of birds for which they 
once paid so much per head to have destroyed. 
TOWNEND GLOVER, 
Fintomologist and Curator of the Museum. 
Hon. HoRAcE CAPRON, 
Commissioner. 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 


Str: The work cf the laboratory during the year 186970 has been 
mainly of the same nature as during the preceding year. Theefforts to 
lessen the number of analyses of an unimportant nature in their bear- 
ing upon agricultural science, have been so far successful that the 
number accepted and performed has, for the first time, been within 
the means of the laboratory to complete; and the new year opened with 
no work remaining on hand exeept the general investigations which 
will extend at least over the ensuing year. This fact affords ground for 
the hope that the time is not far distant when all the efforts of the labo- 
ratory may be directed toward questions of vital and general importance. 

The analyses performed inelude a large number of mineral determina- 
tions, undertaken at the instance both of scientific men and explorers; 
assays of ores of the precious and other metals; analyses of soils, among 
which will be mentioned the alkaline soils from Nevada; maris, guano, 
marsh mud, peat, saline matters from the plains, artificial and natural 
fertilizers, not included in the above; wines, grapes; investigations 
made at the request of different States; proximate analyses of plants; 
cases of suspected poisoning, both of human beings and animals; Indian 
food materials; meat extracts; mineral waters; residues from the same; 
refuse from several manufactures ; and lastly the answering of a large 
number of letters of inquiry from farmers, brewers, and other sources 
upon questions touching the industrial arts and manufactures connecte 
with agriculture. This correspondence involves great labor, and the 
expenditure of much time. Itrequires a certain and extended acquaint- 
ance with the status of these arts at the present day, for which acquaint- 
ance much time is expended which would otherwise be bestowed on 
matters strictly connected with the laboratory. This function of the 
chemical division, although a severe tax upon it, is both beneficial to 
the farmer, and may be considered as but the discharge of a just debt 
incurred by the Department in obtaining, as it does, through its statis- 
tical division, invaluable information from the people. 

Besides the work already enumerated, the important investigation of 
the cereal crops which has been alluded to in the report for 1863, has 
been commenced. There have already been collected from various 
parts of the United States above seven hundred and fifty specimens, de- 
rived from over two hundred localities, of corn, wheat, rye, and oats, 
representing average crops in the several States and Territories, and 
raised under conditions so vastly different as regards climate, elevation, 


92 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and soil, that the results of their examination may naturally be expected 
to lead to some insight into the effect of such conditions upon vegetable 
growth and nutritive value. 

For the careful and uninterrupted conduct of these inquiries it was 
found necessary during the year to fit up a small laboratory to be spe- 
cially devoted to this object, and which has been made as complete as 
the limited appropriation would‘ allow. The services of an additional 
assistant have been secured to commence the work, who has been occupied 
since September last with the necessary preparations for so large an 
undertaking. Those who are engaged in the examination of vegetable 
substances by proximate analysis know how unsatisfactory and con- 
flicting even the best systems adopted by the most eminent chemists 
are, and how imperfectly the present knowledge and chemical literature 
afford guides for the rapid and accurate performance of this, probably 
the most extensive work of the kind ever attempted. Even the most 
accurate researches made upon plants in German schools, and to be 
found only in certain European journals, show us the incomplete and 
unsatisfactory condition in which proximate analysis stands at this time. 
The most recent examinations made upon cereals, either in this country 
or abroad, leave very much to be desired both as regardsexactness and 
comprehensiveness. As an illustration, the methods for the determina- 
tion of starch, gum, cellulose, &c., are exceedingly unsatisfactory and 
inexact, partly owing to the adoption of imperfect processes, and partly 
to the assuming of the proportions of some “by difference,” results from 
which modes disfigure even the most recent investigations. 

A portion of the time of the assistant detailed for this work has been 
expended in the experimental comparison of various processes used in 
some of these determinations, with the view of arriving at results from 
which a general scheme of work may be deduced. 

Among the analytical work done in the laboratory, somé few instances 
are found possessing a generalinterest. I therefore select them for such 
remark as seems indicated, leaving the mass of our work in this diree- 
tion without further detailing it. 


ARACHIS HYPOGHA—GROUND NUT—PEANUT. 


Mr. Thomas S. Pleasants, of Petersburg, Virginia, in a paper on the 
diversity of vegetable productions—reference being chiefly made to 
their suitability tor that State—published in the Annual Report of this 
Department for 1867, has called attention to the value of this plant as 
an article of food suitable for cultivation in the southern counties of 
Virginia, and states (p. 252) that under careful and judicious manage- 
ment it will yield fifty or sixty, or from that to eighty bushels, per acre, 
worth from $1 50 to $2 50 per bushel. The market price at this time 
is $2 25. As there are many portions of other States equally favorably 
situated for the growth of this plant, and as many applications have 
been made to the Department to ascertain what mineral elements were 
necessary for its successful growth, an analysis of the husk and nut was 
made, with the following result: 

1. Husk and nut in 100 parts— 


Winters eee = en cco ose te rh oks cece ee ole eee eee 2. 60 
Albuminous and fibrous matters and. starch.......--e cs eeee ee~- -s- ++ oe oe eee 79, 26 
OE Pe ne eee can bokcee cece sl eee SS eee 16. 00 
Ash. 655 ee ces oo Lethe 5. oc ee eee 2. 00 
GBS 5 ee ee isc Sct nc dais ck eee ae ee ee eee 0.14 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 93 


2. Husk and seed separately: , 


Seed Husk 

RUMEIIET EE 2S Stes SERS Een Asm cabo atin de cicma alma a ctaica aeieierae 2, 51 2. 61 
PRMMEMNOUS Tavbels. ANC. TAliNd..<...cssedcecascouseeseaveeesas cs “edie trace. 
PESO! pe Ot See eee elk. SP seo deeee a ee ay eee 85. 438 
PPR PERN ey oh. cs co etd cttele eee 4 wid sem elajete ae Leif 11. 90 
IPERS Rint 2128 2 Ls  otoce va asbale paouledue seed TBPOOTN Ol oo 
100. 00 100. 00 


The weight of the husk is to that of the seed as 1:16. The ash of the 
seed consists of salts wholly soluble in water, they being phosphates or 
the alkalies, with traces of alkaline chlorides and sulphates. The phos- 
phoric acid is chiefly united with potassa. ‘The ash of the husk differs 
in containing chiefly common salt, and phosphates of lime and magne- 
sia. The amount of oil which the nut contains is very large; it varies 
according to latitude and other favorable conditions; and in the south 
of France and other countries of Mediterranean Europe the seeds are 
pressed to obtain the oil, which is applied to table use. The mare, or 
pressed cake, is used both as food for cattle—in which it resembles lin- 
seed cake—and also is exported to Great Britain for use as a manure. 
If any surplus remains after sending the nut to market, it might be 
used as winter food for cattle. As the whole of the oil and albumen lie 
in the nut and not in the husk, there is little nutritive material in the 
latter. ‘The most of the French cake is derived from seed grown in Al- 
giers, where the plants flourish vigorously, and afford much more oil 
than those grown in this country. It is pessible that the farther south 
the nut is grown the more oil will be developed in the seed. The Al- 
gerian growth furnishes 25 to 27 per oent., and the ash of the cake as 
analyzed by Dr. Anderson, of Edinburgh, amounted to 1.25 per cent; the 
nitrogen of the cake amounted to 5.39 per cent. As the quantity of oil 
in the Virginia growth is less than in that cf Algiers, the percentage of 
albuminous material is higher, and probably amounts to a little over one- 
third of the whole product, which would bring the nitrogen element up 
to 6 per cent. ’ 

The result of an analysis of the cake, or marc, of the Arachis hypogea 
is given in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society 
of Scotland, vol. 6, p. 556. (Edinburgh, 1855.) The sample was for- 
warded from Bordeaux to Edinburgh, and the analysis made by Dr. 
Anderson ; a second sample imported into Leith was also examined. 
The composition of both is given here: 


Bordeaux. Leith. 
PL nS SERS St 50,5 8 De ene ee re 11.56 10. 01 
0 AE RSS eee Sears BS n/aim c=) bo aie ee ee ee ee 12.75 6.78 
PRBETOMS, COMPORMUS nee tera Sas 20s cn 2s con. e se eee 26.71 33. 8d 
(oo non OEE AAR se 5 ee eres eee 3. 29 3.78 
LORD ooo (OCR ERE EEEEP OG. COD Cgc Eee eee eee oe tee 45. 00 45. 5 
SS ><) eee pee Se eee 100. 00 100. 00 
SepemnetR wee S55 Paws = 2 os Se get wo dis + - pope ob ie! A, 27 5. 39 
PS LE NOSPHALES: - 2.0.4 5)20 Sasid 59 50)s = a ae ge ite 7 1.14 
eas ; Praephoric acid 2.2422) ose sacs aan eps at aie 0. 08 0. 52 


' As the ash consists almost wholly of soluble phosphates, (phosphates 
of soda and of ammonia.) with a small amount of common salt, the most 
useful artificial manure which can be used for it is one which contains 
the materials of a superphosphate, or one already made—boues in pow- 


94 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
der, fermented with wood ashes, (unleached,) or the prepared superphos- 
phates made in the market, or by the farmer himself. 

SUGAR-HOUSE REFUSE. 


A sample of this material, sent by Dr. William S. Robinson, of Hat- 
- borough, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, contained, by analysis: 


WALED. ...-.- asses ecw es nacens e-em ae ee ee cee eee pew e en cee wne ce cene can sncnns 8.03 
BOM ANIG MALL - aise ee teeta nian ee eo ones sesepe Vnaweretee a5 =<6 <> ene 
Phisphate of litle -.SeAgisseissas-+ 2... be seeens ae bawe sheees Js <3 San See 5. 09 
Solphate of Tips op oete see hs ane bn nace inns teehes odd baaenss aw ses seen ees 
SWIC, (INSOMNDIO) eee eee re ao EE pews esos ce scape wk oes seco eek 5. 09 
Alumina, oxide of iron, and small amounts of alkaline salts ....-.........-... 3. 00 
’ 
100. 00 
= 


The mass consists of the waste of sugar while being filtered, and 
besitles the uncrystallizable debris it contains some of the materials of 
the filters and the clarifiers. It isa material much used as a manure by 
the farmers of the vicinity of Philadelphia. From six to seven tons 
are applied to the acre, and good crops of grain or grass result. The 
mineral ingredients are useful, though in smail amount, and the organic 
matter is largely of a soluble nature, yielding also a smail amount of 
nitrogen. Being of a gummy and saccharine nature it is much less val- 
uable as manure than a similar amount of fibrous vegetable matter. 
Bat as its cost is very low, (less than $2 per ton,) it is a valuable ingre- 
dient for a compost, to be made within a small distance from the supply. 

Sugar-house waste is generally stated to be the waste bone-black ot 
the sugar-refining process, accoinpanied by the impurities and scum of 
the sugar while in the fluid condition. Whatever materials may have 
been used in the process of refining will, of course, be found in waste, 
such as blood, gine, size, plaster, or powdered quick-lime. It is stated 
that it often contains from one-fifth to one-fourth of its weight of blood, 
and is therefore considered from four to six times more powerful than 
animal charcoal alone. Where these matters are abundant the propor- 
tion of carbonized bone-ash must be correspondingly deficient, and 
hence it is that the material may have very different compositions and 
values. In Browne’s Field Book of Manures, New York, 1856, two 
analyses of the refuse are given, and are here appended: 


/ No.1, NGi2: 

CRN oer ee chek yo ae sass ee SEE ee Sort a2 ay Soe 3 12 
Phosphates, and carbonates of lime and magnesia......-. ------.--------- 62.25 65 
Sugar, and organic coloring matter, with isinglass....-..--.-....-..----- 235 10 
PME es SORE Sa cathe 6a ~ das awatoe tm dealweeteEees wed wiceda dacs ae 1.40 13 
100.00 100 


=— 


In these the bone-black is the most abundant ingredient, and the value 
of the article depends on the phosphate of lime it contains; but in the 
samples from the refinery, at Philadelphia, the bone-earth is the least 
ingredient, and the phosphate of line is small in amount. The blood 
element also is small, as is shown by the small percentage of nitrogen 
which it affords. It is chiefly composed of unburned bone, charcoal, 
with a large amount of waste organic matter, and uncrystallizable sugar, 
and it cannot make a valuable material fer composting with other sub- 
stances, either animal or vegetable, to form a valuable and expensive 
inanure. 


* Containing nitrogen 1.355 per cent, = L63 per cent. of ammonia. 


* 
REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 95 


RESIDUE FROM ALUM SPRINGS. 


A sample of residue from the boiling down of the water of a minéral 
ring in the neighborhood of Abingdon, Virginia, forwarded by Mr. 
* cob Rodefer, yielded, on examination: 


Sulphate of oh RU se inc CEOS a i 22. 61 
PEIN OR SOUR is .5 kw hd aes Sins dak see ec bd le debos SUSU suse eases tenes ee 6, 89 
Snlphate of alumina ! 29. 11 
PRREEGORACOU Go 6) fn) g , FeRAM ks ae ie ak 

BAO Oh TNAQNES1.. . ce en cees sueueeuiwsRrusebUeeewt sojoes ess sacuee sana oue 6.91 
es is aS tikad saa sse agusd dae daeeeastccds os cet sess 554% IEC Peek: 6. 78 
BIRECHIGOS 22a iiss is dalee aed ude 4s ¥EAe SS SSE Seas oo 58.52 stoke econ s cae een 0, 94 
CEEMIALDOD <5 ane secset Cudse®eubaun tastes valecs otocs fbb oles veseecesewne ‘traces. 
EEE nee COMIDITION WiitOl ccc suie socce scene cece te see aes o one mesicceaeecae 33. 76 


Water of this and other springs of the vicinity is much in demand, 
and the mass obtained by drying down the water in kettles is called 
“alum mass.” It isa dry powder, neither efflorescent nor deliquescent, 
and of a strong and unpleasant styptic taste. It is sold by the ounce 
to those at a distance from the springs. The sources of these waters 
evidently have a close connection with the beds of gypsum and rock-salt 
about eighteen miles distant from the court-house. 


COAL. 
* 


Sample from Palafox Grant, on the Rio Grande, thirty miles above 
Lorado, Webb County, Texas; approximate analysis: 


Specific gravity, 1.333 


MRE M MEAL Oy) foe al oto) So slaicls osjsa's elas sass tessce Jd eciciast Saveles ae eets eee 2.53 
Volatile combined matter, driven off in a closed vessel at a red heat ...-..-.-- 38. 81 
EREMEC ENOL ©). 0 sa taeeh ald. ets tad, be clades Ud wtidecled case se ces see 45. 10 
ee ret te ain acts ad 6 wieisiais.c/sonicac)aaan tue sales «aim Aan aa = ae 13, 56 

100. 00 
cad oa ae bo Sb EAs ws at os daca, Spe and be slo cs abu nes aude abelaseg 58. 66 


Ash, white, slightly acid; coke, friable. 


This coal has no caking preperty, and is distinctly lamellar. In chemi- 
cal constitution it is analogous to the Virginian free-burning coal de- 
scribed by Professor W. Johnson in his report on coal, (made to Con- 
gress, 1844.) it is brittle, laminated, and has an imperfect conchoidal 

acture. 


GYPSUM. 


A sample of gypsum rock from Smythe County, Virginia, forwarded 
by Hon. John W. Johnston, yielded, in 100 parts: 


Mtemsaure, (hygroscopic)t.s- se 042) oe ssi. ae an d's deh alga cide’ wioowe West seed 6.63 
Organic matter and water of combination ...... 0.226. ss ees cose cecsee sees ees 13. 50 
IC FING 36 «2-5 eee Ras ss <.0d same vase ce eiecan aeueiawalieeek dep se» 62. 417 
EMEEMENE (EUINION. > sa Vat iate in bp ann c Gein = os tamoeenb ame atte © Mees l'see 1. 363 
ERO 0s cabs, Doe bob cal dss sdew dented Pee detebees send cease acs. trace. 
Alumina, oxide of iron, and traces of alkaline chlorides......-..........-.-4-- 11. 02 
eA was oGnlaa des os coan sadeuniagan saps we sedi ewe nN SbNeceidb= dace ewes os | OOF 
100. 000 


‘It is a semi-erystalline rock, banded like gneiss, with layers of pure 
acicular prisms of sulphate of lime, from one-third to one-half inch thick, 
which are separated by bands of gray amorphous, aluminous rock. This 
gypsum burps very white, and appears to be well adapted for all the 


96 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


purposes to which it is generally applied. The above constitution shows 
it to contain 75 per cent. of pure crystalline gypsum, 6 per cent. of inter- 
stitial water, and 18 per cent. of impurities. 

Dr. Edward Palmer brought to the laboratory from Western Kansas 
prairies a sample of what is called “alkali” of the western plains. It 
was in the form of a dry, milk-white powder, mixed with bleached 
leaves and coarse grass. It did not effervesce with acids, nor did it 
exhibit an acid reaction to test-paper. It contained: 


VA! . scp aes ee Reese Ree < wnt = bacce co ccs wee pee meeinbe es sc ses pee 3.6 
qnsoluble Clay ieee per eeec sc occs sou sas ae mone «seer ae ee eee 15 
Cliloride OfqseatiI 92. toca Sa seo acs coe esa tee cin b et eae Cee es ae ee eee traces. 
0) PHO UO NE PGE ee memes ale 6 ac = San) fas Sa a od eee ee ee eee 94.6 

99.7 


It is consequently a native sulphate of soda, which, from the small 
amount of water present, may be classed as anhydrous. There is no 
evidence to show that it is a product of volcanic action. It differs from 
the varieties of mirabilite of Dana in the small amount of water, which 
we may conjecture has been lost during the prolonged heat of summer. 
It may owe its origin to the decomposition of sulphate of lime, which 
is so largely present in the soils at the foot of the Rocky Mountains and 
Sierra Nevada series, by means of carbonate of soda occurring as 
efflorescences on soil. The usual origin of sulphate of soda is either 
directly from volcanic sources, or by the delivery of springs containing 
the salt derived from preéxisting sedimentary beds. In a few cases it 
is derived from the oxidation of sulphur in bituminous strata, or in 
pyritiferous beds, which, reacting on common salt, produces thenardite 
or other forms of sodic sulphate. 


MARLS—THEIR USE AND INFLUENCE. 


There is no class of substances which is more frequently examined 
in this laboratory than the marls found in the several States. Hundreds 
of them are constantly being forwarded. It would be unnecessary to 
swell the report with returns of their composition, although to the 
different States there could be no contribution of greater value to their 
agriculture than a thorough examination and report upon the extended 
marl] beds, mineral deposits, and sources of lime for agriculture. Science 
now no longer looks on marls and similar deposits as merely such a 
weight of earthy materials, composed of a certain number of hundred- 
weight of sand, or so many pounds of lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron, 
added to the soil to directly increase the amounts of these substances ; 
but also as composed of substances possessing physical properties and 
chemical affinities whereby they react upon the farm-yard and other 
manures, when brought into contact with them, and become detainers 
for a more or jess lengthened period of some of the richer portions of 
the compost heap, and prevent their removal from or loss, to the soil by 
the washing influence of rains. If this did not occur we should never 
find ready formed ammonia and nitric acid in all fertile soils, and 
soluble chlorides and sulphates which are afterward found in the ashes 
of plants. The experiments of Professor Way are well known, in which 
he proved the power of soils to absorb and retain mineral matters in 
solution, and to deprive a solution of a certain percentage of its saline 
matters. In passing a solution of ammonia through several soils, he 
found that all soils had the power of retaining a portion of that body, 
some more and someless. He also observed that lime, magnesia, potash, 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 97 


and phosphoric acid were absorbed by all soils to a considerable extent. 
Way also showed that cultivated soils not only absorb free alkalies and 
acids, but have likewise the power of separating ammonia, potash, and 
other bases from preéxisting combinations. He operated on single 
solutions, and it might be objected that no inference could be safely 
drawn as to-what an actual soil might do if the conditions were varied, 
so that, instead of one solution, several, or a mixture of several salts 
dissolved, were to be presented to that soil; and as this is what actually 
occurs, it became unecessary to interrogate nature by experiment on this 
point. Voelcker’s experiments on the action of soils on liquid manure, 
and on sewage percolated through them, showed how very inferior sandy 
soils were to calcareous clay soils in their power of retaining ammonia 
and potash. If the manure added contained any lime, much more of it 
was removed by the sandy soil than by,the clay; and as regards com- 
mon salt, there seemed no special attraction exerted by any soil, how- 
soever different might be its composition, the chloride of sodium 
diffusing itself out from every soil in the rainfall. From these and 
similar experiments, it is rendered evident that there is an inherent 
power in soils which results in storing up mineral food, and that this 
power is not contined to one particular kind of fertilizing matter, but 
applies to them all, and is exhibited in a manner modified by the special 
constitution of the soil. Another very important fact deducible from 
Voelcker’s experiment is, that this absorbing and detaining power of 
soils is not exerted on very weak solutions. Neither the ammonia, 
potash, phosphoric acid, nor other fertilizing matter contained in a 
solution, were ever completely absorbed by any soil, however weak or 
concentrated the solutions were which were filtered through the soil. 
“Indeed,” says Voelcker, “ if the solution of saline matter brought into 
contact with the soil be very dilute, scarcely any absorption of ammonia, 
potash, or phosphoric acid takes place.” This latter statement is very 
important, as it shows that sewage of towns is of no value when very 
dilute, (and it is almost always too dilute,) since the soil, though possess- 
ing highly absorbent powers, has not the power of overcoming the 
affinity of the water of the solution, and hence it withdraws none of 
the fertilizing matter of the sewage. Cne of the uses of calcareors 
marls, therefore, upon sandy or pure clay soils, is to increase the power 
‘of such a soil to absorb ammonia and potash. Carbonate of lime 
absorbs six times as much ammoniacal salt as stiff clay. If it were not 
for this retentive power, carbonate of ammonia, when present in the soil 
aud carried down by the moisture in the wet season, would, wheu the 
season is dry and the solar heat strong, be carried to the surface of the 
soil and evaporated at once. It is in this way that gypsum (sulphate of 
lime) acts, hindering by its presence the dispersion of the greater part 
of the ammonia. These soluble substances are constantly rising and 
falling in the soil, according as it is wet or dry, cold or heated. These 
matters descend during rain or in winter, and rise during the warmth 
of summer, when the evaporation is greatest.and when the plants need 
more moisture and food. The ascension of these matters varies thus 
every month, and thus the analysis of a soil at one period of the year 
does not exactly represent its composition at another; it is variable at 
different times, and, therefore, no exact idea of the chemical or physical 
properties of a soil can be obtained by a single analysis, no matter how 
accurately conducted. 
ye 


98 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Marl and muck from Jacksonville, Florida. 


Marl. Muck. 
Wrattenic, 2 020k aa. 2 a SGA 2eesk doped bee eee ibe sw Lire 41,80 
Organic matter. 2--- spa ne Be aye Sm am Piya og ieee (gi | NOT ans Ce a cee 2, 40 27,10 
Garhonate of, Lime): 22 epee ee ees oe ce coe aces Sol eee ee ote 87. 39 
Ahimina and” Gideon Onsen ce cede c cece coe cle ee eee 8. 00 - 
Phosphoric acid. steoeaec us sees s ss she Sse a See eel ~| Traces. Ash, 31.10 
Belphiwici acid cso seen too eee eake sels see on oere rece ev. 0.50 


99, 56 100, 00 


These are worthy of notice gn account of their essential dissimilarity. 
The marl is derived from the great source of the limes of the State, the 
underlying coral beds, and contains but little vegetable matter, while 
what is termed muck is almost equally composed of earthy and vegeta- 
ble matter. The mixture of the marl and muck together would improve 
both. * 

Marl, marsh mud, Ge. 


| Marsh mud. 


Marl. |-—=— 
No. 1, | No. 2. | Wands 

DV OH IED EEE Se Sr i a ee Ly Sh a 1.04 St 1.25 2.04 
OWL AR NE TG 2 aS USUI SeBSenIne aS a=a arene aee 1.90 | 10.46 D.te 14, 02 
Sifica and insola ble eliGates 4-0... +2sse. eee els | 38.21 72.08) TBt30 /eseeee 
UAL FOO Tn Remain ser eee iavscln alba waiae oon Sain ale tt enn = denee | Se a aeeee | aera 67, 80 
Alumina And OXIME Of MON). 23 -/s-. sep ssa s- Saeeissen 1.35 | 138,36] 10.43 6. 21 
Ue ce eee ee) tesa ie Salen ten ca cmichmes <ainn 29. 80 1.30 2.71 | osaennee 
MO MUG ADD ich ana hcies gaccke we eaper-ve capes IBoas eves fs ease 3.93 
AND ORM RACICUtes Me ames ohn tie case acine secon oa 22.35 | ‘Frace. O95 seen eee 
PR UMMUEIO OIG = ess ae ee UES io Das abe oateke 1.93 | Trace. 0.98 Isecmesys 
PROsPHORIC ACIOy joce es Sei ee ee Sa aSai= -- ewaeinysne=|, (0103 | race: | iraoees See ; 
Chloride of sodium. .---.-.----- Potente Bees eee PAO 0. 89 1.63 4, 48 
Chloride or POUABSINUN +. .= ome so .\s- Sansone - See eee Rrace. \s.ce he Trace. 1.52 

100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 


The marl and Nos. 1 and 2 of the mud were from Savannah, Georgia. 
The last (No. 3) from “ Burnside’s Island.” Nos. 1 and 2 show the influ- 
ence of brackish water in the unusual quantity of alkaline ebloride 
present. No.3 shows the influence of sea-water in the unusual amount 
of these chlorides, especially the sodic chloride, and its abundance 
implies that there is no outlet or drain in that marsh. 


BEET SUGAR. 


It is remarkable that as yet the returns of the growth of sugar beet 
in this country have not shown an approach to that amount of sugar 
which is yielded by the growth of France and Northern Germany. The 
Department has received several letters from various beet cultivators, 
reciting the results of their efforts in growing seed of the varieties ob- 
tained trom Vilmorin & Company, cf Paris. In the cultivation of a plant 
whose juice contains not merely sugar, but many other substances, which 
undergo decomposition or suffer change of constitution as the plant ma- 
tures, it is difficult to determine at what period the proportion of sugar 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 99 


is in greatest amount relatively to the other organic matters, which latter 
may so interfere with the separation aud crystallizing of the sugar as to 
render a juice which is rich in sugar not so manageable as poorer juices. 
Aceording to Michaelis, who has devoted considerable time to the exam- 
ination of the juice of the sugar beet, (Zeitschrift fiir Riibenzucker-In- 
dustrie, Band v, p. 261,) the following substances are present: 


1. Sugar. 11. Acid peculiar to beet. 
2. Black oxidizable matter. 12. Chlorine. 

3. Fecten. - 13. Potassa. 

4. Fat. 14, Soda. 

5. Gum. 15. Silica. 

6. Legumin. 16. fron. 

7. Albumen. » 17. Manganese. 

8. Phosphoric acid. 18. Magnesia. 

9. Oxalic acid. 19, Lime. 

10. Citric acid. . 


To these have since been added sulphuric acid, asparagin, and some 
matters derived from humin and ulmin. -The vegetable acids present 
in variable proportions are likely to interfere at times with the stability 
and capability of separation of the sugar by impeding its crystallization. 

Mr. E. C. Erfling, of Council Bluffs, fowa, informs the Department 
December, 1870) of the result of his growth of white Silesian, as pro- 

ucing a fair aud good-sized beet, the juice of which, on the ist of Sep- 
tember, yielded 6 per cent. of sugar. The crop was dug on the 15th of 
October, and a space equal to ten feet square (planted one foot apart 
each way) yielded 216 pounds of root. This was an average of the whole. 
He also cultivated other varieties. By selecting roots of 3 pounds weight 
and examining the juice for sugar, he obtained, from the white Silesian, 
12 per cent.; Vilmorin, 11 per cent.; Knamer’s electoral, 104 per cent. 
Beets of this last variety, weighing 12 to 16 pounds, yielded an average 
equal to the last-mentioned figure. No sugar was manufactured at the 
farm during the year, the object being to ascertain the possibility of 
growing beet in that locality. . 

In a communication from Chatsworth, Livingston County, Dlinois, 
dated December 21, 1870, the Department is infermed as follows: 

Of tho seeds sent me for experiment during 1870, I have the honor to report, first, 
the varieties of sugar beet, viz: No. 1, white Silesian green top; No. 2, Vilmorin’s im- 
proved; No. 3, Knamer’s improved imperial; No. 4, Knamer’s improved electoral; No. 
0, white Silesian red-top; No. 6, Knamer’s electoral. They were sown in drills 18 inches 
apart on the 23d of April, and cultivated exclusively by hand, kept entirely free of 
weeds, but not earthed up, as is usual in the cultivation of beets for sugar. This was 
done for the purpose of determining the relative growth of cach variety above ground. 
No. 1 grew above ground 4} inches; No. 2 grew above ground 3 inches; No, 3 grew 
above ground 3 inches; No. 4 grew above ground 4 inches; No.5 grew above ground 
34 inches; and No.6 grew above ground 6 inches. Nos. 2,3, 4, and 5 gave at the rate 
of 8.75 tous per acre; No. 1 gave 10.25 tons per acre; No. 6 gave 12.50 tons per acre. 
Topped at the ¢ntersection of the crown with the body of the beet. By polarization, 
they gave, the weight of juice being taken by Brix’s saccharometer, as follows: 


Ne . Sugar of 

Numbers. Brix. polarization. Not sugar. 
EE De Gnis .- oso cae yu cuids wo sone esuuce 12, 25 10. 24 2. 111 
SEER Cte iids 5225320205 sev seddece de naae 12. 25 9, 31 2.94 
a SS ence ry aan © epee 13. 00 9. 97 3.03 
BES EGE Rese erepiwase ns -- cess pus weapecedibens 13. 26. 10. 51 2.74 
ae Sane ties 22m con Co anwinnnn eaten 14.00 | 11, 24 2.70 
LEE 3 a a 13. 25 10, 35 2.90 
EE Ae ne 13. 25 10. 29 2. 96 
REE eieeh beater ee eaes Sse ent aewacd Fabs 14. 00 10, 87 3. 63 


100 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


No. 7 was imperial beet, of our own importation, and No. 8 was electoral beet, seed 
raised by ourselves. It will be seen from the above that the best results were obtained 
in every case from the electoral seed, but it must also be acknowledged that the seed 
of the other kinds was, much of it, impure, or mixed. The polarization was made No- 
vember 24, after they had made their full growth, and were sufficiently touched by frost 
to develop their full amount of saccharine matter. 


WESTERN, OR “ ALKALY” SOILS. 


C. P. Huntington, Vice-President of the Union Pacific Railroad Com- 
pany, forwarded to the Department three samples of soil, marked Nos. 1, 
2, and 3, from the neighborhood of the Truckee River,in Western Nevada. 
Although presenting some difference in physical texture, they are soils 
of the same character, and derived from the same mineral source. They 
arrived in two barrels and ove box, and were selected from different 
though not distant lecations, near White Plains Station, on the Union 
Pacific Railroad, in 118° 48/ west, and latitude 39° 54’ north. Klevation 
of the White Plains Station, 3,291 feet above sea level. The station lies 
north of the Mirage Lake, a body of water a little over one mile long, and 
of square figure, occupying a portion of the level p!ain called alkali fats, 
along which the wagon-road and railroad run their course. The soils 
of the locality present some features which are interesting, because 
they are soils which may be considered primitive and not yet brought 
into cultivation. They are also in a locality where the annual fall of 
rain is small and the evaporation so much greater, that not only is the 
superficial soil deprived of its water, but also the overflow of basins 
of water situated on a higher level, on the base of the Sierra Nevada, 
is unable to run any continuous course without drying up completely, 
as do the rivers and streams farther south, in the Mohave and Gila 
Basins, and along the Mexican border. 

The examination of these soils has been conducted in three directions: 
1. As regards their physical properties. 2. As regards their chemical 
constitution. 3. As regards their capability of sustaining vegetable 
growth. 

Ist. Physical properties.—The three soils are all of a greenish color. vary 
ing to light yellow or darker brown, in proportion as the amount of clay 
of a fine yellow texture, or reddish sand-rock, or greenish amphibole pre- 
vails. No. 1] is the darkest, then No. 2, and No. 3 is of the lightest tint. 

Taking ordinary water at 60° I. as the standard, a given volume of the 
three soils weighed as follows. The method adopted was to pulverize 
the soil very finely, and to fill a beaker to a given line with the powder, 
‘ not shaking down auduly in any of the samples. The weight thus ob- 
tained was contrasted with the weight of the same bulk of water. 


VW SEs soe SoS So dees seSee5 Bad soe Sb 9 Sons ae eso Soc 83.500 grams. 
ING ale bet stealer Cielo 2 aierapee ee cici2n!b Naeem ete pieem ete stele = wnat a ete 106. 370 grams. 
WO), (Ul chSts SERS LS BRAS SSSA ba seb oseoocboadoe sacs tagued gomaaercacs 2 °93. 850 grams. 
INGHome seme roel see amicis's o sin.s c's = olla cee See eels. aclciee hee aaa 89.701 grams. 


This, while it does not give the relative weight exactly, shows still the 
light character of the pulverized soil. 

Soil taken from barrel No. 1 is the least clayey of the whole, falling to 
powder very readily when dry; the color is a dark gray and yellow green. 
When the finer clay has been washed away by elutriation from the heavier 
particles, there remains, 1. Angular quartz grains, hornblendic grains. 
2. Reddish sand-rock, scales of mica. 3. Shields of eypris, comminuted 
shells of testacea. . 

The soil from barre] No. 2 is lighter in color, does not fal! into fine 
powder so readily, and the soil in drying aggregates into nodules capa- 
ble of passing through a mesh of 1Jinch. The plan of elutriation yielded: 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 101 


1. Cypris shields, fragmentary shelly particles. 2. Quartzose, horn- 
blende, porons calcareous rock, particles of quartz, scales of mica, round 
elay casts. 

Soil No. 3, (from the box,) lighter-colored than No. 2, less absorbent 
and adhesive, otherwise in texture closely reseinbling No. 2. Hlutria- 
tion disclosed, 1. Dark green amphibole grains, feldspar fragments, red 
sand-rock, mica scales. 2. Cypris shields, flattened, discoid, helical 
shell, (planorbis ?) 

There are few masses in these soils larger than coarse sand, so that 
they are good examples of material deposited in tolerably deep and still 
waters, the material derived chiefly from bhornbiendic and feldspathic 
clay rocks. There does not appear to have been any trausport of lime- 
bearing rocks, the lime found by analysis being that of the testaceous 
fresh-water coverings alluded to. 


Chemical constitution. 


In 1,000 parts. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
IT Pole neces Sees Oks Se Oe oes apes Boca ces ie lige 25. 00 40. 27 
Saline matters soluble in water .......--..-----+----«- 45. 90 70, 3 87.50 
Earthy matters insoluble in water ...-..........-.---- 936.93 904.64 872. 23 


1,000.00 1,000.00 1, 000. 00 


Along with the moisture are reckoned very slight amounts of vegetable 
matter which were in the soil, not, however, sufiivient to tinge the solu- 
tion of soda carbonate acting upon the soil for ove hour at a boiling 
temperature. There was here and there a slight bunch of fibrous roots 
as of grass. 


Saline matters soluble in water, solutions slightly alkaline. 


No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
Chloride of sodium and potassium ............-..---- : 4. 07 5. 760 @AL 
PRMMMP UR OCASSA) Von on Lode se lieeeoeoes Jo ecialeowes- 0. 11 0. 306 0, 38 
MPUICCH RENO 2) 222 Soe ss oeees ot odc sdedee weed cade 0. 41 0. 97 1.26 
Salphate of RISC Sas Samet sh atic hs Ss slic coe oce mis cists faintitrace: | trices, assess 
Tron aoe A Ones LASS See eee ae Sa ee eS ele PS La fRmicas - «ses vee 
|) EO a a ped) eae ae trace. trave. trace. 


4,59 7.03 3.75 


No. 1. No. 2 No. 3. 
OE ks Se ne ec ecigtde 70. x0 68. 98 72. 05 
PRAM RY LICS 05 een ee ee 4.05 1.05 0. 81 
PeEeIeOL ronvand! aluminaesees ls). o occ) Jee oue 8. 59 9. 34 14, 94 
EMCO L [116.50 SSeS. | |. oc cow cet cae 18. 10 18. 34 9, 26 
0 EE See Hee eee ee ee. oe ee ee traces. 0.53 0. 46 
BeMOSDUOTIC AVIC..5.-....-ce ssa 2 eee eee Bee? | traces. 0. 60 0. 43 
PeUevate SOU... 2. 52. eee c etka. eee 0. 34 0. 42 0.3 
OU a i ri 3 a ane mi ie (Sy 1. 12 0. 12 1. 26 


100, 00 99. 38 9Y, 52 


It is evident on inspection of the analyses that these soils are not infer- 
tile. They are not wanting in any of the elements of soil which the 
Majority of plants require, and the inspection of the coarser parts of 
the clay shows that the mineral matter of which it is made up is of 
that character to supply by its degradation a reasonable amount tor 


102 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


future demands. There are silicates of lime and of iron, of alumina, 
and of potash in abundance, and the caleareous matter is in ample pro- 
portion, not requiring addition even during fall-cropping over many 
years. It is remarkable that the lime carbonate seems to be wholly due 
to the presence of the shields or shells of the fresh-water ostracoid 
cypris, which exist in considerable numbers in the clay, and which may 
be readily exposed by elutriation. The existence of this recent Ento- 
mostracan points to the existence of large beds of fresh water at no 
distant period, covering up this district, and as all the samples of clay 
abound in this shell, the probability is that the inland sea extended to 
the very lower slopes of the Sierra Nevada, of which sea the present 
lakes scattered along the base of the Sierra are representatives. A1- 
though the presence of carbonate of lime is not indicated in any min- 
eral form, but apparently only existing in the shell of the cypris, yet it 
is obvious that this animal secreted it from out of some salt of lime in 
Solution in the waters of that time. The perfect condition of the shell 
indicates that it had its origin in its present habitat, and the conclusion 
is, therefore, that at some not far distant period the surface of this 
region was covered by an extensive inland lake. One of the facts ex- 
hibited by the analysis is the unusual amount of matters soluble in 
water which exist in these soils, being: No. 1, 4.59 per cent.; No. 2, 
7.03 per cent.; No. 3, 8.75 per cent. These proportions of soluble saline 
matters are so much in excess of what is found in ordinary soils that 
they demand investigation into the cause. In fertile soils, in well- 
watered districts, and where there is an abundant fall of rain, the 
soluble saline matter rarely amounts to one-half of one per cent., (0.5,) 
and more commonly ranges around one-quarter of one per cent., 
(0.20-0.33.) Professor Anderson, in his Elements of Agricultural Chem- 
istry, gives a few examples of the proportion of soluble salts in rich 
Scottish and other soils, viz: 


Soluble matter in surface soit. 


LUE i iGo: 4. So ar ai aM RRSP rs GMCS hE Ml fe 0. 2319 
BBE DMGHING wees cee cee ean baie oe oak chee he wee ee ee eee oo Bn a ae ene 0.1191 
USP PAT DEA sae. cae ctu... ecole eee Co oe ee eee 0. 3700 

> SS 


In the many analyses of soils made in this laboratory, the soluble 
Saline matter has never reached one-half of one per cent. It is to be 
regretted that a uniform method of analysis has not been adopted by : 
chemists for the analysis of soils, one of the features of which should 
show the per centage of soluble salts. The experiments with lysime- 
ters do not supply this needed information. It would not be hazarding 
a misstatement to declare that the poorest of these soils in soluble mat- 
ters contains eight times as much as fertile soils need, and No. 3 con- 
tains fifteen times as much. ' 

Another point of peculiarity in these soils is the amount of sodinm 
chloride (common salt) present, it being from three-fourths to four-fifths 
of the whole soluble matter. ‘his is far in excess of any usual propor- 
tion, and of what is needed. In the Antigua soil, already mentioned, 
the chloride of sodium did not exceed 0.09 in 100 parts. In many of 
Sprengel’s analyses, as quoted by F. W. Johnston in bis Agricultural 
Chemistry, the proportion lies between 0.06 and 0.009. In no.case has 
it appeared to reach one-tenth of one per cent. In limited sections of a 
country where tidal or salt-marsh water has opportunity to settle and 
develop vegetation having a necessity for salt, the amount of that min- 
eral in specimens of the, soils may have a much larger amount. Thus, 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 103 


in the soil in the neighborhood of the Zuyder Zee, in Holland, the 
amount of common salt in the soil down to various depths is as follows: 
At surface, 2.010 per cent.; at 15 inches, 2.113 per cent.; at 30 inches, 
2.504 per cent. These are very unusual quantities of this mineral, and it 
most likely would in dry climates diminish very materially the fertility 
of ‘the soil. But in a moist climate the effect of the rains is to lessen 
the amount of sodium chloride by washing it out, and this Holland soil 
shows the influence of the rain-fall in decreasing the*amount of salt in 
the upper layers of soil, eyen though at the same time there is a process 
of capillarity going on in warm sunshine, by which the upper layers of 
soil are made richer in soluble mineral matter than the subsoil. All 
soluble saline matters, however useful or necessary they may be, impede 
the rapid growth of plants if they are presented too abundantly or in 
too concentrated a solution to the roots of plants. “One of the fune- 
tions of the soil,” says Voelcker, ‘appears to be to transform such 
readily soluble compounds into combinations so little soluble in water 
that they pass in common life as insoluble, but which are still sufficiently 
soluble to supply the growing plant with the necessary amount of min- 
eral food in a state of solution.” Taking this as a correct statement, 
there is no doubt that one of the causes of infertility in these soils, and 
in the districts from whence they are supplied, lies in their excessive 
amount of common salt in the upper layers of soil. They are not, 
strictly speaking, ‘“‘ alkaline” soils; they are rather saline soils. Their 
alkaline reaction is feeble, and does not appear to be due to. carbonates 
of soda or potassa. 

How is this excessive amount of common salt in the soil to be dealt 
with? 1. Canit beeliminated? 2. Is the extent of territory over which 
it is spread such as to prevent any physical or textural amendments by 
mixing with other soils? 3. Do the same natural means exist in Ne- 
vada asin Holland for its decrease? Is there sufficient rain-fali? I 
fear that an affirmative reply cannot be given to any one of these ques- 
tions. The only methods of improvement are by admixture or by per- 
colation. The method of admixture has been tried by experiments con- 
ducted in this Department, in which plants were attempted to be grown 
in these soils both in their natural state and when admixed with varia- 
ble proportions of fine white sand. The experiments were conducted as 
follows: Anumber of pots filled with the soils Nos. 1, 2, and 3, were sown 
with seeds of corn, (maize,) asparagus, brassica, rape, and beet, (Vilmo- 
rin’s imperial.) These were placed in the green-house, with a constant 
heat above 70° Fahrenheit, and well watered. The seeds sown did not 
vegetate, except the corn, of which a small portion germinated, and 
when the cotyledon appeared above the soil it dried off into a saline 
external crust, and the interior became soft and black from rot. The 
experiment was unsuccessful. Another set of pots were filled with 
samples of these soils, mixed with sand in variable propgrtions, and sim- 
ilarly disposed in the green-house. Great care was taken in these latter 
experiments to prevent any loss of common salt from the earth by the 
daily watering, the drainage of the earths into dishes below being ¢on- 
stantly returned. The results obtained from this second set of experi- 
ments were more encouraging. ‘Three forms of admixture, marked 
respectively Nos. 1, 2, and 3, were experimented upon as follows: 


Me Pee UR S22 a AL £0) ee eR hte oe Clay 600; sand 600, 
eee 28). So 2a Pee SUL. ack Sek dee ee | aa) ae Clay 300; sand 600. 
bee a MN te | yet a eee ret ho Sica aa Clay 200; sand 600. 


The clay used in these experiments was that described as No. 1 ix this 
report, so that the percentage of common salt in the three series of ex- 


104 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


periments in each of the pots was, in No. 1, 2 per cent.; in No. 2, 1.33 
per cent.; in No 3, 0.81 per cent. 

Results of experiments No. 1.—The Vilmorin beet grew to one inch high, 
and then died. The whole of the plants were stunted and dwarfed. 
The corn germinated and attained a height of five inches, developed two 
leaves around the stalk, and then died; the plants also dwarfed. > 

Experiment No. 2.—Vilmorin beets grew favorably after germination 
for two weeks, whén they also died; the plants were dwarfed, but green 
and otherwise apparently healthy; a large number of the seeds planted 
germinated. Of the corn about half the number of seeds planted germ- 
inated, the stems growing to seven or eight inches high, but thin, feeble, 
and not well developed in color. <Aiter three weeks’ growth they did not 
appear to further mature, but preserved the green color of the leaf as 
long as watered. After three months they were removed from the 
green-house. 

Experiment No. 3.—The seeds cf the Vilmorin beet germinated more 
abundantly than in the previous trials. They did not appear to grow 
any larger, individually, than those of No. 2, merely in greater numbers. 
A much greater proportion of kernels of maize germinated in this soil, 
and the plants were much more healthy, two of them tillering with stems 
ten inches high and larger leaf twelve cr fourteen inches long. This 
specimen of corn would have continued to grow had the season or tem- 
perature been sufficiently warm, but as autumn was aimost over, the corn 
made no progress after three weeks from planting. The cotyledons of 
some of the seeds in this pot rotted in the way described in the record 
of the first experiments. 

These experiments clearly indicate the reason of the failure of growth. 
There was abundance of water supplied in all of them. The failure 
was not due to want of water. But even in experiment No. 3, where 
the proportion of common salt was reduced to .81 per cent., the kernels 
of corn rotted after germination, and the beets died after growing two 
inches high. The diminished amount of salt present allowed a larger 
number of seeds to start; but = entrauce of the salt too abundantly 
in the growing plant at an early period of life choked out the other 
mnineral supply, and the plants ceased to grow. 

This experimeut showed a limited success arrived at by admixture of 
the soil, but not to that extent to justify any recommendation being 
made to improve these soils on a large scale, by hauling soil from 
other localities, or by deep plowing to turn up the subsoil aud mix it in. 
it is not likely-that, at the usual depth to which plows reach, any lesser 
amount of salt would be found in the soil, but the reverse. 

The only mode of treating these soils, then, is by the percolating influ- 
ence of water, which, flowing through the surface soil, and draining off 
into lower channels and river-beds, carries off from the soil a certain 
and considerable amount of the salt. This is naturally accomplished 
by the rain-fall; for the annual amount of which within this district we 
have no exact data on which to depend. But judging trom similar posi- 
tions on our continent, it must be slight, perhaps under seven inches, 
which amount dves not fall wholly in the growing season, in which case 
the rain fall cannot be depended upon for the needed supply of water, 
and hence the ouly alternative is that of irrigation from distant water- 
courses, the supply trom which must be abundant to be of value during 
the first few years. After the growth of salt-loving plants for a couple 
of seasons, and the washing off of some of the salt by the flooding of the 
fields, then the soil may be deprived of sufficient excess of the saline 
matter to alluw of roots, such as potatoes, turnips, &c., being raised. 


REPORT OF THE CUEMIST. 105 


When the soil is well irrigated by field flooding, then almost any crops 
may be raised, but the beet appears to be that which should be first 
cultivated. Potatoes will not thrive exeept where the soil is well 
washed. 

Inasmuch, then, as from the physical and chemical examination of 
these soils it-is evident that they contain no poisonous ingrediexrt, that 
they contain all the elements of fertility, and that the only reason why 
vegetation does not readily grow on them is because they possess too 
much soluble saline matter consequent on the too dry climate and want 
of sufficient river waters, there is abundant reason to hope that, although 
the district itself may not be able to supply water of irrigation in suffi- 
cient quantity, that engineering skill may be brought into play to derive 
it from those sources where it is abundant and coustant. 


MEAT EXTRACT. 


Having received samples from the office of the Quartermaster Gen- 
eral of the United States Army, an opportunity was afforded of making 
an examination of the “ Extractum carnis Liebig,” manufactured by the 
San Antonio Meat Extract Company, Texas. 

The extract was of a flesh-brown tint, of agreeable meaty odor and 
flavor, and of that consistency to adhere to the fingers when handled, 
though showing no disposition to settle down rapidly or to flow, as 
semi-liquids do. It preserves its odor for a considerable time when ex- 
posed to an- open-air temperature, (70° F.,) while at the same time it 
undergoes an appreciable loss of weight by drying. By the exposure 
of its solution for several days it undergoes a slow fermentation without 
the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. <A faint odor of carbon disul- 
phide is mixed with the sweetish-sour fermenting oder. By two experi- 
ments it yielded in 100 parts— 


Tr 2. 
PEC re tees Aes eee) Oe oe ead ee OT we Roe 17. 684 17, 422 
EMM EPAMGW cc 2k roe sous eee eh ks, Gee Olt 4 WANS... 61, G16 60. 728 
aetna gta DL OO eae ee ee te ee ee ee Pe me Ve 20. 700 21. 850 


160. 009 100, 000 


. 


The extract is readily soluble in water, especially when the water is 
warm, in which case it wholly dissoives, It has a marked acid reaction 
Digested with ether, no matter soluble in that fluid was withdrawn. 
The absence of fatty matter was thus proved. Treated with alcohol, it 
partly dissolved, so that the materials soluble in the two soivents (alco- 
hol and water) may be set down as follows: 


Soluble in alcohol, creatinine in crystals, phosphates, and chlorides of potassium, 


POLO ariinal Mister’ eee... es. 5 ae eae ee ne ee 5. 60 

Soluble in water, creatine, inosate of potassium, sarcine, akyumen, gelatine, lac- 
RRS ik in «aire At ee os were «oi = «ni AI oo 48, 01 
61. 61 


_ By ultimate analysis the extract yielded cn two experimeuts the follow- 
ing percentage of nitrogen: 


SIE PORTICO ak wee Se et TL eS 9. 38 
emmrrre? Couper MONG Ie sf alg oes wok cece need os 2 BE 9, 55 


Average ..... Bema eens 5.0! <u: ohio ale ee RE Ee ro ould 0 oo cla! oe) eons 9, 47 


/ 


106 a, AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Of protein derivatives, the following: 


mepuiien |. 22S: Joie sss ASS Ae Fe ae ee ee tt. 2 eee 2.6 
GreBtbINIP.. boise wth. Sake een Sa ee eee $35 See. SRS hci caw Jl eee 2 
MPU bene aos w ine a Sadie peo eels Ce ae: SEE ee ase sin w on 2 10.3 


The ash consisted of alkaline and earthy phosphates and sulphates, 

(chiefly potassium salts,) and alkaline chlorides and carbonates, the 
latter derived from combustion of organic acids. If the nitrogen be 
divided up between the protein derivatives, albumen and gelatine, and 
the creatine derivations, it would be thus: 
Nitrogen in albumen and gelatine... ...-- <2. --s-ntane-tne-o---shos Oeeee eee 1.48 
Nitrogen in eranmine colada? 1.0.) 0... .-u.s-nces Gan none nlnn ns t= ome nae 7.99 
which would allow the presence of nitrogenous nutritive elements of 
the latter class equal to 23.97 per cent., and the total percentage of 
nutritive nitrogenous compounds would be 34.27 per cent. If fresh 
beef be taken as unity, after the fat and bone are removed, the extract 
may be compared with it in nutritive value thus: 


Te TaDBENCS OL WaALeY IGN AN. 2 coi apesec rae besewroces scone cee> Stee 4 tol 
Farade amount Ol aan it 18 ase kode. Le ese ei sce see ee 13 tol 
In the amount of nitrogenous principles it is as.......-...--.------------- 375 to 1 
TRS ainoun Oh NiiOPEN ats AAs 224 a) 2bee. nd ese daee se ols ead aeons 3 tol 


It may be remarked that as this extract leaves mach muscular flesh 
and nutritive matter out of its composition, it cannot properly be com- 
pared with the fresh flesh of animals; and it should only be looked 
upon as an addition to or supplement of the healthy ration, and not as 
a substitute therefor. 

There is a likelihood. that considerable error exists in the minds of 
many with regard to the nutritive value of the several beef extracts 
made after the method described by Liebig; and although there may 
be some difference between the extractum carnis prepared by the San 
Antonio Meat Extract Company and that which professes to have the 
stamped name of Pettenkofer on the package, yet the value of any 
extract so prepared is overrated if looked upon as a protein—yielding 
aliment in any degree equivalent to fresh meat. These extracts are 
generally prepared upon the following considerations: lean fresh meat 
contains about 25 per cent. of solid matters, of which from seven to ten 
parts are soluble in cold water. More than half of this soluble part is 
composed of albumen and miochrome, (coloring matter,) which are 
coagulated by heat. Should the solution be boiled these matters are 
thrown down, and there remain only the other soluble constituents, 
which do not exceed from 3 to 4 per cent. of the meat. This is the 
extract of meat of Liebig, when it is evaporated to dryness. It is im- 
possible to recognize in such an extract any great nutritive power, for 
it is made up mostly of two acids—lactic and inosic—with the organic 
bodies known as inosite, or ee sugar, creatine, and creatinine, along 
with an organic colloidal ma er of brown color’and sirupy consistence; 
the soluble salts of the lass chlorides of sodium and potassium, and’ 
phosphate of potash are also present. Now, since to obtain one pound 
of this extract it is necessary to make use of 30 to 34 pounds of lean 
meat, or trom 45 to 48 pounds of butcher’s meat, a belief has arisen 
that all the nutritive matter of this large amount ‘of muscle is concen 
trated in the one pound of extract. But Liebig never claimed this for 1, 
but only called it bouillon, or a concentrated beef tea deprived of its 
albumen, and to which it is necessary to add peas or beans, or some 
substances rich in albuminous matters. It is impossible that nutrition 
can be carried on by extracts such as these, unless albumen, or some sub- 


REPORT OF THE CHEMIST. 107 
stance capable of representing it, be added; and the pleasant flavor of 
the extract will render even an unsavory substitute palatable. 

It must be remembered that bulk, as well. as quality, is a necessary 
element in our daily meals, and that not merely to support the wear and 
tear of life, but also to supply material for active exercise of body and 
mind, there are required 3 ounces of protein matter as dried meat, or 15 
ounces of fresh, and 23 ounces of carbohydrates, or of starchy, gummy, 
and saccharine matters. This is the daily allowance to farm laborers 
in England, and is somewhat less than is given to field hands in either 
Scotland or Ifeland. This is much below the soldier’s ration in any 
country while he is on active service, and very much below what has 
been allowed in our own army during the rebellion. 

The meat extract of Liebig does not contain within itself all the ele- 
ments of nutrition, being destitute of fatty and albuminous matter, 
without which health and muscular power could not be continued. It 
is an agreeable soup, giving flavor to other articles of nutrition, both 
nitrogenous and amylaceous, and with this understanding it should 
occupy a deservedly high position in the list of commissary stores of 
an army, and ought to be in constant employment in hospitals and sim- 
ilar institutions, where it is desirable to present an ordinary or nutritious 
_ diet in the most palatable form. There appears to be considerable dif- 
ference in the composition of meat extracts prepared by different manu- 
facturers, which is to be regretted, as, since they are sold under a similar 
name, the public are led to believe them equal in value as articles of diet. 


INDIAN FOODS. 


Several kinds of natural products, used by certain tribes of Indians 
as food, have been presented to the laboratory for examination by Dr. 
Edward Palmer, who collected them in person. As a paper upon 
them is prepared by Dr. P. for this volume, I shall only insert the com- 
position of the two varieties the analyses of which are completed at this 
time, viz: the “soap berry,” (Sapindus marginatus,) and the “ juniper 
berry,” (Juniperus communis.) 
Soap berry. Juniper berry. 


Wemeeners Id vacuolat M0 Oj) eilteeeet Le obo. 22328. 18. 16 14.34 
Protein compounds, albumen, gluten, &c...-...-.---. --.-+----- 14, 44 5. 69 
a 50 gal san oa Ne ca tie suds aaa au 0 tua oa 12. 10 17. 87 
Bi ooodes et ea a eee rene ae 14,71 10. 66 
Gunn acumen ee 36. 98 47.58 
Oe ye epee, eee eee eee 3. 61 3. 86 
100. 00 100. 00 

Containing nitrogen........ Ree ts 2s 22S ee eee ee 2.31 0. 94 


As articles of food or breadstuffs these differ from cereals in the 
diminished amounts of starchy and fatty matters. In the proportion of 
nitrogenous compounds there is considerable variation in these two, that 
of the soap berry being nearly three times as abundant as that of the 
juniper; as far, therefore, as muscle-forming elements are concerned, 
the juniper as a nutritive food is very inferior. On account of the want 
of due relation between the amylaceous and the albuminous compounds 
in both, ihe breads made of these berries are imperfect substitutes for 
the cereal plants. 

THOMAS ANTISELL, 
Chemist. 
.Hon. Horace OCAPRon, 
Commissioner. 


s 


108 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 


Sir: I have the honor to present the following report of botanical 
transactions of the past year, and of the present condition of the herba- 
rium under my charge. 

The additions to the herbarium, comprising upward of four thousand 
species of plants, have been derived from the following sources: From 
the Smithsonian Institution, through the admirable system of scien- 
tific exchanges so extensively carried out under its supervision, a large 
and valuable collection of dried plants, mainly Russian, sent by the Im- 
perial Academy of St. Petersburg. This collection, authentically labeled, 
comprises one thousand three hundred and forty-eight species, and is of 
special interest as representing a flora in many points analogous to our 
central and western districts. Also, from the same source, a set of Ger- 
man plants, including about four hundred species, seut by Professor 
Paul Reintz, who, in his accompanying letter, requests in exchange sets 
of American plants. 

Besides these large packages, numerous smaller miscellaneous collec: 
tions have been received, from time to time, through tbe Smithsonian 
Institution, both from this country and from abroad, | including a variety 
of fruits, woods, fibers, and other vegetable products. 

Protessor Wm. Boeck, of Christiana, Norway, on his recent visit to 
this couhtry, presented to the Department a choice. set of plants col- 
lected by him, during the previous season, in the high mountain districts 
of Norway. 

On the joint recommendation of Professors Torrey and Gray, a very 
fall collection of Cuban plants, containing one thousand seven bun- 
dred and fifty species, was procured from the enterprising botanical 
collector, Mr. Charles Wright. A large number of these are recent 
discoveries, now in process of publication in the Revisio Flora Cubana, 
and the entire set serves to represent the main features of the West 
India flora. 

Of North American plants, contributions have been received from a 
great variety of sources, of which the following may be enumerated as 
the most important, viz: A very choice collection from Southern Ari- 
zona, collected by Dr. Charles Smart, while stationed as army surgeon 
in that district, in 1867. The set presented to the Department, embrac- 
ing vearly three hundred specimens, includes many very rare plants, 
and probably several undescribed species. 

From Dr. C. H. Alden, United States Army, has been received a col- 
lection of one hundred and seventy-five species, made during the pre- 
vious season in Wyoming Territory. 

A numbered set of Rocky Mountain plants was sent to the Depart- 
ment by Dr. J. T. Scovell, of Central City, Colorado, with the request 
to return the names of the plants so numbered. 

From Mr. J. E. Johnson, of St. George, Utah, have been received, from 
time to time, interesting speciméns of live plants, aud secds of such as 
are peculiar ‘to that remote district. 

The explorations of Dr. Edward Palmer, continued during the past 
season in Southeast Utah, Western Arizona, and Southwestern Cali- 
fornia, have made large additions to the botanical material tor elucidating 
the peculiar flora of those districts. Quite a number of new species 
are contained in the collections heretofore received, which are now being 
studied and collated, with a view to their early publication. The numer- 


REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. 109 


ous duplicates are eagerly sought by prominent botanists in this country 
aud Europe, and will furnish the means for profitable exchanges. 

Mr. E. Hall, of Menard County, Illinois, has continued to forward par- 
cels of western grasses, in illustration of several papers published by 
him on this special subject. From the same source has also been received 
a small set of Illinois mosses. 

Dr. L. D. Gale, of Washington, D. C., has also donated to the De- 
partment a collection of piants from this vicinity, including a set made 
thirty years before, together with a collection of the oaks found in this 
District. 

A short excursion made by the writer, in June last, to the mountains 
of East Tennessee, has supplied some desiderata in the general collection, 
including some of the rarer plants of the Southern Alleghanies. It is 
in contemplation to make a more extended examination of this region 
during the present season, (1871,) including collections of living plants 
and seeds of such as are desirable for garden cultivation, together with 
detailed observations and collections illustrating the forest growth of 
this timbered district. 

The active codperation of the working botanists of this country has 
been freely sought, and the results of their joint labors will appear in 
due time, with suitable acknowledgments of the sources whence their 
material has been derived. In view of the great amount of interest- 
ing material thus accumulated, it is very desirable that some suitable 
means for extended publication should be inaugurated. The greater 
portion of the official time of the botanist has been necessarily taken 
up in the mechanical work of arranging and assorting specimens, with a 
view to convenient reference and future study. This necessary prepar- 
atory work, which might profitably employ several hands, has allowed 
too little time for preparing results for publication. It is hoped that 
arrangements may soon be made for commencing this more important 
work by a series of illustrated papers on botanical subjects connected 
with the Department collections. Among the subjects requiring earliest 
attention is that of American forest trees, in regard to which much useful 
material has been accumulated sinee the latest publications on this sub- 
ject. 

During the past season the writer availed himself of a three months’ 
leave of absence to visit England, with the special object of acquiring | 
information in reference to matters of botanical interest directly con- 
nected with his official: duties. The following sketch of an extended 
visit to the Royal Gardens in Kew, London, is presented as a partial 
result of these observations: 


SKETCH OF THE ROYAL GARDENS AT KEW. 


As a public institution, available for purposes of scientific instruction 
and popular recreation, the Royal Gardens at Kew, in England, do not 
date farther back than the year 1840. At this time they were officially 
transferred from the exclusive hands of royalty to be devoted to public 
uses, being then placed under the efficient directorship of Sir William 
J. Hooker. Much of the present world-wide celebrity of this establish- 
ment can be directly traced to the persevering, judicious, and enlight- 
ened policy of this official head. A most happy combination of rare 
personal attractions, together with a high order of executive ability, 
joined to untiring industry, enabled Sir William J. Hooker, during his 
directorship, commenced after the fiftieth year of bis age, to carry out 
a scheme of improvements which will forever associate his name with 
all that is worthy of admiration in this model horticultural and svientific 


110 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


establishment. Equally fortunate is it that the plans and policy of the 
honored father have descended to a not less worthy son, the present 
director and distinguished botanical explorer, Dr. J. D. Hooker. 

To us, as Americans, the main interest in an examination of-suech an * 
Old World establishment is in the advantage it offers of profiting by 
wise experience in direeting similar institutions adapted ‘to our own im- 
mediate soil and climate. Hence the accompanying brief sketch is 
offered under the following heads, viz: The gardens and grounds, the 
green-houses, the herbarium, and the botanic museum. 

The gardens and grounds.—The grounds, located about ten miles from 
the central business portion of London, and accessible by several lines 
of railway three or four times every hour in the day, comprise in their 
whole extent 345 acres. The general surface, in part fronting the river 
Thames, is agreeably diversified by elevations and depressions. The rise 
of the tide here, varying nearly 20 feet, affords ready means of supply- 
ing artificial lakes, thus giving the additional charm of water scenery 
to the varied landscape. <A large portion of the grounds is occupied by 
a heavy growth of native, forest trees, composed mostly of beech and 
oak, while shaded paths in imitation of na tural rural scenery are-bor- 
dered by irregular clumps of rhododendron and holly. In the more 
strictly scientific portion of the grounds, plants, trees, and shrubbery 
are arranged according to the natural orders, either in detached beds, 
groups, or avenues, as best suits the requirements of soil and exposure. 
The plan is to be carried out, as far as practicable, of bringing side by 
side the analogous forms of different countries, and presenting at a 
glance their -peculiar character and special adaptation for local culti- 
vation. Thus an avenue of pines will be set out with European repre- 
sentatives on one side and American on the other. Groups of maples, 
oaks, &c., will be set out on the same general plan, each species being 
plainly marked with name and native locality. In reference to smailer 
shrubbery and herbaceous plants, distinct beds will be assigned to each, 
bringing allied families, as far as practicable, into close proximity. In 
order to carry out these views in detail, much time and labor will be. 
required, but, even in its present imperfect cendition, much useful 
information is embodied, showing clearly the utility of the general plan; 
and in earrying on the necessary experiments useful experience will 
constantly be gained in reference to the peculiar habits and special 
adaptation of particular plants. In passing over the grounds where 
cultivation has been of longest continuance, the eye will be frequently 
attracted by unexpected forms, often in strange combinations. Thus, 
we meet with magnificent specimens of the cedar cf Lebanon, the 
oriental plane tree, and the wide-branching Turkey oak, associated 
with the stiff forms of the Chilian Araucaria, the Japan Sophora, and 
American Magnolia. The Himalayan Deodara cedar stands side by 
side with thrifty grewths of the American giant Sequoia. Douglass 
spruces and California pines vie in luxuriance with native species, 
while here and there stunted forms show plainly the effect of adverse 
conditions on species which we might theoretically expect to flourish 
in such locations. 

To one accustomed to the exuberance of our native forests in Eastern 
North America, in thus seeing how much can be accomplished in less 
favorable localities in muitiplying the forms of cultivated tree growth, 
it is difficuit to resist the conclusion that a more extended experience 
on our own soil will result in far richer and more varied arborescent 
productions. Hence, there is special value to be attached to experi- 


REPORT OF THE BOTANIST. ~) ay 


ments, however limited, in testing the capacity of particular districts 
for forest cultivation of both native and exotic trees. 

The green-houses and plant-stoves—The green-houses, including nine 
different structures, are scattered over the grounds either singly or in 
groups, each being specially adapted in the degrees of temperature and 
moisture to a particular class of plants. Thus, every grade of vegetation 
is represented, from that of the tropics to that of the warm temperate zone. 
Most noticeable of these is the magnificent palm house, constructed en- 
tirely of iron and glass, the latter presenting a surface exposure of 
about 4,500 square feet. The glass used in this, as well as in the more 
recently built houses, is shghtly tinged with green by the addition of 
oxide of copper, thus obviating to a considerable extent the scorching 
effect of direct sunlight. This would bea matter of still greater impor- 
tance in this country, where the solar heat is much more intense during 
our clearer summer months. In this immense structure, the central 
portion of which has a clear height of 66 feet from the ground, palms 
flourish in tropical luxuriance, perfecting both flower and fruit, and 
rearing their feathered crowns to the'extreme height of the building. 
In other small houses tropical aquatic plants are cultivated in tepid 
tanks, including the noted Victoria regia, with leaves often six feet in 
diameter, and a succession of showy fiowers which open and fade away, 
and then sink below the surface to perfect their fruit. The necessary 
conditions of temperature and moisture being here reduced to the sim- 
plest character and easily regulated, this class of ornamental plants 
offer their peculiar attractions at the least expense of care and labor 
after the first cost of the suitable water apparatus. Other houses, again, 
are devoted to plants from dry and arid regions, including Cactuses, 
Aloes, Yuccas, Euphorbias, &¢., which are thus necessarily grouped to- 
gether, though representing very widely separated geographical dis- 
tricts. Besides these, fern-houses, both temperate and tropical, separate 
apartments for orchids, for cape heaths, and cther peculiar classes of 
plants, are specially provided, together with an extensive structure, as 
yet only partly completed, intended for what is termed a winter garden 
or temperate house, thus carrying out the design of accommodating the 
largest possible variety of vegetable productions. A distinct arrange- 
ment of economical and medicinal piants is also provided for, to present 
at one view some of the principal useful plants in the vegetable king- 
dom. Ample provision is made in all cases for the accommodation of 
visitors, by free open passage-ways, with plain printed directions for 
entrance and exit. 

Another useful provision is made for protecting tender plants from 
injury by sudden draughts of cool air, by connecting the outside with 
glazed porches, and dividing the inside apartments by frequent parti- 
tions connected by closed doors. It is only necessary to see such an 
establishment in successful operation, and oceupied by orderly, attentive 
Visitors, to show how much in the way of instruction and amusement 
mmay be profitably connected with objects of scientific interest. It is 
almost unnecessary to add that what has been accomplished under less 
favorable conditions of external climate, can be necessarily much im- 
proved upon in our own country, where a clearer atmosphere affords the 
only condition necessary to successful growth that cannot as well be sup- 
plied by artificial means. 

Lhe herbarium.—The herbarium at Kew, the largest single collection 
of dried plants now in existence, occupies a separate building, formerly 
the palace of the King of Hanover. All the apartments of this spacious 
mansion, including halis and passage-ways, are crowded with cases con- 


112 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


taining these vast botanical treasures, gathered from every portion of 
the globe. A necessary accompaniment to these is the botanical library, 
containing a very complete assortment of systematic works, together 
with numerous illustrated volumes, both ancient and modern, relating 
to the science of botany. It is from this rich collection that Sir William 
J. Hooker derived the material for his numerous serial illustrated pub- 
lications which, during the active period of his useful life, continued to 
give light and attraction to botanical pursuits, and aided so materially 
in stimulating botanical research in distant portions of the globe. Here 
was also originated that valuable series of descriptive works on colonial 
botany, still in progress under the experienced pens of George Bentham, 
Dr. Hooker, and others. The value of this collection especially consists 
in the fact that it contains the type specimens from which the first de- 
scriptions were made, including agreat number of North American plants. 
Hence it will continue to be resorted to by botanists engaged in working 
up special fa’: ilies of plants, orclearing up doubtfulsynonyms. The direct 
use of this collection in the determination of the garden specimens culti- 
vated in the ad‘oining grounds, a8 well as the accurate naining of foreign 
collections constantly sent there for that purpose, is so evident that the 
importance of a similar establishment in this country, having particular 
reference to North American botany, is at once apparent. 

The museums of economic botany.—The museums of economical botany, 
origmated by the late director, Sir William J. Hooker, form one of the 
chief attractionsof thisestablishment. They include, in systematicorder, 
according to the usual arrangement of the different families of plants, 
such objects as cannot be exhibited in the herbarium proper or in the 
gardens. The object, succinctly stated as follows in the official guide, 
is to show some of the practical applications of botanical science: 

They teach us to appreciate the general relations of the vegetable world to man. 
We Jearn trom them the seurces of the innumerable products furnished by the vegetable 
kingdom for our use and convenience, whether as articles of food, of construction and 
application in the arts, cf medicine, or of curiosity. They suggest new channels for 
our industry; they show us the variety in form and structure presented by plants, and 
are the meaus of dirett instruction in most important branches of useful knowledge. 
We see from them the particular points upon which further information is needed, 
especially as to the origin of some valuable timbers, fibers, and drugs, in order to per- 
fect our knowledge of economic botany. In brief, the museums show us how little as 
well as how much we know of the extent to which herbs, shrubs, and trees contribute 
to our necessities, comforts, and numberless requirements. 

The great success which attended the first experiment soon necessitated 
the construction of additional accommodations to display the accumu- 
lated objects that were brought in from every quarter. Three entire 
buildings are now devoted ‘to this special object. ; 

Aside from the general plan as above stated, a very interesting per- 
sonal addition is made by authentic portraits of distinguished botanists 
and travelers, oceupying blank spaces on the adjoining walls and passage- 
ways. These are arranged, as tar as practicable, in connection with the 
special department of botany in which each was most noted, or in asso- 
ciation with the peculiar vegetable products of regions which they may 
have explored. 

The series, as at present exhibited, comprises two hundred and five 
full upright cases, besides numerous bulky objects not requiring case- 
room, and the entire series of wood sections, which occupy a whole 
separate building. 

The great interest which attaches to such an exhibition of vegetable 
substances, entering so largely into the different departments of human 
industry, or directly adapted to the supply of every-day wants, is @vi- 
denced by the constant crowds of attentive visitors, few of whom are 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 28S 


content with a single inspection. Such a museum, once fairly inaugu- 
rated, never lacks for valuable and constantly increasing additions, and, 
in this respect, the museum of the Agricultural Department, conducted 
con a somewhat similar plan, is liable to the same experience as the 
Economical Museum at Kew, viz: want of case-room, the demand for 
which constantly exceeds the ability to display properly the articies that 
are continually accumulating. 

In conclusion, I must express my grateful acknowledgment to Dr. J. 
D. Hooker for obliging attention and unrestrained facilities for inspecting 
the establishment over which he so ably presides. 

C. C. PARRY, Botanist. 

Hon. HORACE CAPRON, 

Commissioner. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 


Sre: I present a continuation of my investigations concerning the 
influence of climatic agents, atmospheric and terrestrial, upon agriculture. 

Space will not permit a review of the multitude of questions embraced 
in the subject of the influence of the climate upgp agriculture, and this 
report, therefore, will be limited chiefly to. fhe development of the prac- 
tical side of this great science, without negiecting the known principles, 
which, in the absence of laws, regulate the mutual influence preéxist- 
ing between organic and inorganic creation. I have shown the neces- 
sity for agricultural reform, and the course to be followed, according to 
the six propositions enunciated, in order to form good farmers by early 
education. The instructions on the study of periodical phenomena com- 
plete the connection between physical agents and vegetable life. The 
almost mysterious action of frosts upon plants being little known, I will 
have to treat as much on the theory as on the practical means of protec- 
tion. When we consider the enormous annual losses which are occa- 
sioned to agriculture by this influence, we appreciate the necessity of 
studying the subject thoroughly. The study of the physical conditions 
of different cultivable soils is also a subject worthy the attention of farm- 
ers, especially since chemical analysis has taken rank in agriculture. 

The world daily discourses about the influence of climate on plants 
and man, but very little comes from such discussion. Agriculturists 
also neglect their experience, and fall into that fatal routine which con- 
tinues from generation to generation. The reason lies simply in the 
want of a scientific base and a true method of investigation. At other 
times it depends upon the richness of virgin soils, which demand 
very littie attention; nature does its own work. But when the soii 
begins to be exhausted, where the climate is unfavorable, and where 
physical and vital perturbations are felt, the cultivator discovers the 
necessity of returning to science; even when the conditions of fertility 
are found, we are not sure that in following this or that method we ob- 
tain the maximum of crop which tillage can offer. Every day we per- 
ceive our error and introduce new methods. But how? Mostly with- 
out fixed principles and after purely casual practice, and, therefore, the 
results obtained are not satisfactory. Farmers, again, are unable to ex- 
plain why this or that tillage gives such marvelous production on a soil 
conclusively reduced, while near to it no human power can obtain the 
Same results; such as the culture of the sugar-cane and tobacco in Cuba, 


8A 


114 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


cotton in the United States, vines in I'rance and Spain, &c. These are 
facts which highly educated agriculturists know, which the common 
class of farmers learn, and yet which all seem to forget. It is thus 
that, in all these questions, we strike the fatal slowness which appears 
to preside over the law of human progress. How much time and oppo- 
sition are necessary to attain the discovery of a simple truth! And how 
much more are necessary to have it accepted and put into practice! To 
the natural law of intellectual progress, which impels us against our 
will, we appear to oppose a pernicious routine, which would be pro- 
longed indefinitely if science did not enlighten our pathway. Will agri- 
culturists succumb under the weight of this routine? No! for a pro- 
gressive nation, like ours, cannot rest stationary in the midst of the 
advance which proudly places it at the head of modern civilization in 
other branches of human knowledge. A free and intelligent press will 
carry throughout this great republic instruction and science, and at last 
enlighten our agriculturists. 

In reading my first report.some farmers may have objected that it 
was more scientific than practical. I must say that the practical aim, 
whenever possible, will be found pervading the essay with the subject 
offered. But, where the practical side is wanting, or is not well defined 
it is for a forcible reason which often appears; it is because the special 
branch of science is yet in its infancy, and its practice is not at all de- 
termined. In all hum&n knowledge we have first to ascertain the prin- 
ciple or theory by which w@can account for any phenomendn, and then 
to determine the law which regulates it, before we can make any appli- 
cation. If I have not succeeded to my complete satisfaction in the two 
reports, the failure is mainly due to the insufficiency of science; and this 
will again show the great necessity for uniting otr efforts to reach that 
practical state so much needed in agriculture. 


NECESSITY FOR AGRICULTURAL REFORM AND MODE OF PROCEDURE. 


1. In order to discuss all the atmospheric observations and periodical 
phenomena of plants, made by observers and farmers, a division of 
meteorology should be established in the Department of Agriculture. 
The investigations of Buys-Ballot, Francis Galton, and Alex. Buchan, 
have proved a close connection between the barometric pressure, tem- 
perature, and moisture in the prevailing winds and storms, as follows: 
that where the pressure is the highest, the temperature of the air is the 
lowest, and vice versa; that the wind flows out in all directions from the 
regions of higher pressure to those of lower pressure; and that the 
moisture follows the track of the highest temperature. Now, the whole 
system of wind blowsin a vortex upon the spaces of lower pressure, and 
this is the path pursued by the center of cyclonic storms and hurricanes. 
We see immediately the important application of this fact to agriculture. 
Suppose we knew the lines of equal mean monthly barometric pressure, 
temperature, moisture, and direction of the wind over the whole country, 
then, by tracing on the map all the stations where the lowest pressure 
prevails, we should ascertain the exact track which the storm had to 
follow, as the wind flows from the surrounding stations of the higher to 
those of lower pressure. Now, weather previsions, as applied to agri- 
culture and navigation, rest entirely upon this rule. But before reach- 
ing this point we must work up these mdnthly charts of the normal 
state of the atmosphere, in order to know and trace the abnormal state, 
just as in the human body we must know its healthy condition te cure 
its diseases. 

Another consideration which the meteorological division should take 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. — 115 


into consideration, and which shows again what an important bearing 
temperature has upon agriculture, is the following: In England, farm- 
ers believe that if the night temperature falls to 40° ¥., there is no 
growth for twenty-four hours, and that the mean temperature of the 
succeeding day may be expected to be about 46°. In this country a 
similar law must prevail, probably with different degrees of heat. Then, 
by observing the monthly charts, and taking note of those localities 
where temperatures are less than 40°, one would ascertain the places 
where, during certain.months, there is little growth—a very important 
question in discussing the crops of the United States. 

’ The most useful temperature in agriculture is that required to ripen 
cereals. It has been proved by observations made by persons compet- 
ing for prizes offered by the Marquis of Tweeddale, president of the 
Scottish Meteorological Society, that the ordinary range of temperature 
in Scotland, necessary to ripen cereals, must average 56° F. If it fell 
below that, there was a deficiency in the crop; if it rose above it, the 
crop was so much the better, provided there were rain and other neces- 
sary conditions. After ascertaining in the United States the most favor- 
able degree of temperature to ripen cereals, with the monthly charts 
one could point to those locations where there is some hazard in raising 
these crops—the places, namely, where the necessary temperature is 
scarcely to be expected, or where it occurs so seldom that the risk is too 
great. It is generally admitted that the temperature falls one degree for 
every 300 feet of elevation, so that, supposing at thesealevel there is a tem- 
perature of 589°, at an elevation of 600 feet the temperature would be 
56°, or a temperature sufficient to ripen cereals. In the same manner a 
thousand agricultural problems should be submitted to-strict scientific 
and practical tests as to the influence of climate on our American crops. 

_The meteorological division should have charge of the discussion of 
all the observations and periodical phenomena sent to the Department 
by observers and farmers, in order to publish and distribute the follow- 
ing indications: 

a. Precise instructions upon the manner of observing their instrn- 
ments, and the number and nature of meteorological influences whieh 
exert any action upon vegetation. ; 

b. Charts furnishing by curves the progress of the principal crops, 
connected, with the lines of equal temperature, moisture, rains, frosts, 
and other pernicious or favorable influences. 

e. Annual charts, and for the largest possible number of past years, 
giving the geographical distribution of these same crops compared with 
the same meteorological influences. 

d. Instructions and catalogues of the names of trees and plants for 
the determination of the epochs of foliation, flowering, fructitication, 
and defoliation. 

e. Charts giving the monthly geographical distribution of equal lines 
of foliation, flowering, fructification, and defoliation. 

Jj. The conclusions arising from the discussion of all these observa- 
tions, with their application to agriculture, furnishing in final result the 
knowledge of the exact degrees of heat, moisture, &c., that each physi- 
ological tunction of the different plants requires for vegetating normally, 
and for the greatest production. 

g. The primitive catalogue of Quetelet, for the observation of the. 
periodical phenomena of flowering, comprises two hundred and eighty- 
eight different plants, which were reduced by Fritsch to one hundred 
and eighteen species, the most ordinary of which are found in’ alinost 
all gardens. When the Department of Agriculture determines to pur- 


116 f AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


sue these researches, it should distribute among its correspondents an 
analogous catalogue, comprising as far as possible the same American 
species, or thése which approach nearest to European species, in order 
to preserve a uniformity of method and study upon the two continents. 
There should be on the same page blank columns, with the indications 
of the periods of foliation, flowering, fructification, and defoliation, where 
the date of their appearance may be marked. Another column should 
be provided for the various remarks which may be made. These pages, 
once filled, should be returned to the Department of Agriculture, to be 
discussed by the division of meteorology, and then the conclusions and 
charts here specified should be sent to correspondents and farmers for ~ 
their proper instruction, and for applicatioy to agriculture. 

2. The creation of a network of meteoro-telegraphic observations, es- 
pecially applied to cultivation, under the direction .of the Department 
of Agriculture. 

The Government has just established a chain of stations, under 
the direction of the War Department, for the purpose of predicting 
- to mariners, by the aid of the telegraph, the arrival of tempests on 
the coasts and lakes. In 1849 the Smithsonian Institution, under the 
charge of the secretary, Professor Joseph Henry, established a network 
of observations for the study of the climate of the United States. These 
two series of observations have not had, and cannot have to-day, more 
than a partial and indirect application to agriculture. Thé reason is 
very simple. It is because, as shown in my first report, the observa- 
tions and the meteorological tables must be made and discussed in a 
manner very different when it is necessary to apply them to agriculture. 
The question is, to determine exactly the swm of heat, moisture, light, 
electricity, &c., that each species of plant requires for germination, folia- 
tion, flowering, fructification, &c.; in a word, for living in the best 
hygienic condition, and producing the greatest possible yield. The pro- 
cess to be pursued is as follows: We note the day and hour at which 
we sow the grain, concurrently with the reigning temperature; this we 
continue to note until we perceive the first symptoms of vegetable life, 
as soon as the radicules appear and the p!umulesrise. Then, by adding 
all the degrees of temperature observed in the first period, and by 
elevating this amount to the square, we obtain as exactly as possible, 
according to the number and exactitude of the observations, the accurate 
degree of temperature that each grain requires for germination. We 
proceed in the same manner in the interval between germination and 
foliation, from that to flowering, afterward to fructification, and finally 
to the leaf-fall, or the invernal sleep of the plant. 

If we repeat the same observations in regard to dampness, light, and 
other atmospheric agents which powerfully affect vegetable organiza- 
tion, we shall obtain all the conditions necessary to scientific cultivation 
and the greatest production. Why? Because when some function of 
the plant becomes paralyzed by the failure of something of which we are 
now ignorant, we shall know that it requires greater or less degrees of 
heat, moisture, &c. Instead of proceeding blindfold, as heretofore, 
instead of throwing away time and money in disappointing trials, we 
shall advance, guided by the light of science, and, so to speak, almost 
mathematically. This is the difference between cultivation according 
to routine and according to science. 

It will be only after this preliminary study that the network of the 
Smithsonian Institution, which gives the climatic conditions of different 
localities, will be very useful to agriculturists when they wish te establish 
or transport their productions. Having already acquired a knowledge 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 117 


ef the degrees of moisture, heat, &c., which different cultivated pro- 
ductions require under different climates, they will have no difficulty in 
judging of the conditions of new climates. It is thus, also, that the 
network of the War Department will be doubly useful in protecting 
their harvests from atmospheric disturbances, when the normal state of 
the latter shall be known. They will learn exactly the degree of re- 
sistance which they must oppose to these disturbances. By-and-by, 
when the vital perturbations shall be better ascertained, we shall be 
able to predict atmospheric disturbances, and vice versa. By the delay 
or advance of different physiological functions of the plant—for example, 
of the leafing, or spring-flowering, or, further, of the leaf-fall in antumn— 
it will be easy to predict whether winters will be vigorous or mild. 
Already, in Europe, when the dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum) expands 
its golden flowers, we are sure that the cold will return no more. So it 
is that in the vital, and even in the moral state, everything being in- 
timately connected, the sciences aid each other mutually. We conceive 
now why the meteorological observations for any application to agricul- 
ture can be made only by agriculturists, or by observers especially in 
charge of this study. I therefore appeal to farmers to take these facts 
into immediate consideration, for it is already time to begin, and, as 
one man, undertake the task in the interest, particular and general, of 
agricultural science. | 

We conceive now how, by a judicious combination of the indications 
that are furnished by the meteoro-telegraphic observations, combined 
with the knowledge of atmospheric influences on plants, which follow 
from the first two propositions, the farmers will obtain an almost in- 
credible degree of certitude in all their agricultural operations. 

3. An experimental field should be established in the Department of 
Agriculture, where all the physical and chemical agents of the soil and 
atmosphere, which exert any influence on vegetation, could be submitted 
to profound study and repeated experiments, with the view of discover- 
ing the laws regulating vegetable organization. 

There still remain a considerable number of questions to resolve and 
verify concerning the action of different physical agents on a plant; or, 
more properly speaking, concerning the intimate relation which exists 
between its physical functions and its agricultural productions. If we 
consider, for example, the temperature, we are ignorant whether the 
progress of vegetation isin relation to the simple arithmetical sum of the 
thermometrical degrees, as Reaumur and others think; or, as Quetelet 
proposes, to the square of the degrees; or, again, as Babinet supposes, 
to the square root. If we examine light, the question is not yet settled 
_ as to the different actions which the luminous, calorific, and chemical 
rays exercise upon germination, upon the decomposition of carbonic 
acid from the leaves, the fixation of carbon, the formation of chlorophyl, 
&e. In electricity we are still more ignorant as to its pernicious or 
favorable influence on plants, whether static or dynamic. All these 
undetermined questions, and many others, were pointed out in my first 
report, and the same ignorance exists as to the cause and action of 
frost. No wonder that the distinguished horticulturist, Professor Lind- 
ley, should conclude, after forty years of experience, “that the fatal 
effect of frost upon plants is a more complicated action than has been 
supposed;” and,the only conclusion he’ has arrived at is, ‘that the 
power of plants to resist frost is the consequence of specific vitality,” of 
which he knows nothing more. Now, all these important questions, 
and many cthers which spring up daily in the course ot investigation, 
should be submitted to a new test in the proposed experimental field, 


* 


118 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. canto. 


in order to ascertain the laws which regulate these phenomena. All the 
diseases of plants known under the generic name of fungi, which occasion 
to agriculture an annual loss of millions of dollars, could also be sub- 
mitted to experimental researches to discover the origin of these patho- 
logical affections, and the means of destroying them and preventing 
their return. This capital question in agriculture sufiices in itself to 
show the immense utility of such an experimental field, the cost of 
which would be doubly returned in increased production. 

in this way the United States could enter, on a grand scale, upon the 
path inaugurated in 1822 by the celebrated Horticultural Society of 
Chiswick, in England. Notwithstanding that its researches were lim- 
ited to the application of meteorological observations to agriculture, 
aud at a time when this science was making its first appearance, many 
advantages have been drawn from its conclusions. Again, some years 
ago, Napoleon IIl, in the interest of agriculture, established, under the 
direction of George Ville, a field for chemical experiments applied to 
agriculture, with a chair of the same in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. 

4, lt is the duty of the Government to perfect agriculture by all pos- 
sible means, and, first of all, by creating a body of State meteorologists. 
We have at present State geologists, whose studies are of great import- 
ance in public works outside of science. We have, also, State entomol- 
ogists, whose studies upon insects which injure agriculture embrace 
only their determimination and habits; beyond this knowledge the ento- 
mologist does net advance in regard to the cause of the evil, nor can he 
.furnish to the agriculturist the meansof remedying it. Why? Because 
the attack of the injurious insects upon agricultural productions is 
caused by some atmospheric or terrestrial perturbation which produces 
the disease of the plant. The fungoid growth, for example, is the result 
only of diseased plants, and not the primary cause of their ill-health, 
which lies entireiy in the atmosphere or in the earth. Itis the same 
with animals and men, where, except in the case of fracture, all diseases 
originate in a want of physical or moral harmony between the organ- 
ism and the surrounding medium. For that reason the State meteor- 
ologist, who discovers the real cause of the disease, or the diagnosis, ~ 
should precede the State entomologist, who furnishes only the classifica- 
tion and habits of insects, in order to be extinguished by some physical 
or chemical process. 

The duty of the State meteorologist would be to collect and control 
all the observations appertaining to his own State in the following man- 
ner: To form catalogues of storms, fioods, droughts, frosts, and - 
earthquakes, from the first settlement of the State until the present 
time, in order to determine. the recurrences, and to prevent possible 
injury to crops; to proceed in the same manner with the extreme 
annotations of barometric pressure, force and direction of the wind, 
temperature, moisture, great falls of rain and snow, and in a general 
way all the natural phenomena; to establish the special laws regulating 
the climatic conditions of each State, so as to be able to determine the 
general law of the whole climate of the United States; and, after a 
careful discussion of these observations, to apply them to vegetable 
growth, and to furnish to farmers only such results as would be useful 
to them. An annual report should be published for the benefit of agri- 
culturists and scientists. All these labors of State meteorologists would 
have not only a wide application to agriculture, but, in addition, would 
serve the Government under diverse circumstances, and in the various 
enterprises of public works in which an exact knowledge of climate is 
of the highest importance. | 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. A} 9 


5. For forming a class of farmers from youth, it would be necessary 
to establish in the college of agriculture in each State, a course of 
physics and of meteorology applied especially to agriculture. These 
courses should embrace two parts—the one theoretical, the other practi- 
eal. The starting-point of the first is celestial and terrestrial physics, 
upon which repose almost entirely the laws which preside over the vari- 
ations of terrestrial and atmospheric phenomena, and which form the 
science of meteorology; afterwards comes the study of the phenomena 
of vegetable life, comprised in the anatomy and physiology of plants; 
next the mineralogical constitution of the soil and the geographical 
distribution of the vegetable kingdom will complete this first part, 
purely theoretical. It is, of course, understood that only such deduc- 
tions of these sciences are used as are indispensable to the study of agri- 
culture. Agricultural chemistry is a superior branch, which will fellow 
agricultural physics, and the influence of which on the vegetable organi- 
zation is much more limited and less direct. In the second part, entirely 
practical, we should apply each theoretical acquisition of knowledge to 
the conservation, growth, and reproduction of the plant, taking care to 
establish the action and reaction which always exist between vegetable 
lite, the atmosphere, and the soil. This payt would be completed by an 
experimental (iemonstration of the physical functions of the plant, and 
by a new series of experiments for the purpose of perfecting agriculture. 

Another means, more economical at first, for diffusing this knowledge, 
would be the association of all the colleges of agriculture in the United 
States, for the purpose of contributing a series of annual lectures, 
which should be delivered by the same professor, for uniformity in theo- 
retical doctrine and especially in experimental methods. These lectures 
should be perfected each year by the announcement of new discoveries 
in this branch. ; 

6. Finally, we have long possessed numerous treatises on agricuitural 
chemistry, but unfortunately we have only one treatise on agricultural 
meteorology, that by the Count de Gasparin, dated 1844, the indications 
of which are far below modern science. Why this chasm in a branch 
which constitutes the basis of agriculture? It is because the meteoro- 
logical phenomena are much more complicated than the chemical phe- 
nomena, that chemistry could constitute itself into an experimental 
Science, while meteorology remains in its infancy. 

Meteorology, well comprehended, which embraces the great science 
of the reciprocal infiuence of atmospheric and terrestrial media upon 
animal and vegetable organization, could not be constituted before the 
two bases, physical and chemical, were established. It was necessary 
first to know the medium and the living being before we could establish 
the reciprocity of action and reaction between them. On the other hand, 
physics being the basis of chemistry, it follows that agricultural meteor- 
ology is likewise the basis of agricultural. chemistry. It is therefore 
perfectly natural to proceed from physical and chemical phenomena, 
less complicated, to meteorological phenomena, more complicated. 
Meteorology possesses already an abundance of facts and accumulated 
experiments, which only await the moment of their application and the 
deduction of their reciprocal laws. It is, therefore, time to bring before 
. the public, for the instruction of farmers, a treatise on meteorological 
agriculture, theoretical and practical. 

I have no doubt that, at an early day, the Government will take pride 
in establishing an experimental field and a division of meteorology in 
the Department of Agriculture, which, by uniting precision with utility, 
will make agriculture a practical science, and secure each year the rich- 


120 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


est harvests. The Government cannot better convert the funds of the 
nation to the increase of its agricultural products—the primary sources 
of national wealth. This fact was clearly understood by President 
Grant, when, in his last message, he said: 


The subjects of education and agriculture are of great interest to the success of our 
republican institutions, and our happiness and grandeur as anation. In the interest 
of one a burean has been established in the Interior Department—the Bureau of Edu- 
cation; and in the interest of the other a separate department—that of Agriculture. I 
believe great general good is to flow from the operations of both of these bureaus, if 
properly fostered. I cannot commend to your careful consideration too highly the 
reports of the Commissioners of Education and of Agriculture, nor urge too strongly 
such liberal legislation as to secure their efficiency. 


The following paragraph, which appeared in the “Albany Cultivator 
and Country Gentleman” for December 1, 1870, p. 756, shows that the 
importance of carrying out the project above stated is already felt: 


The praise of the weather is on all tongues. And justly, for nothing could be more 
conducive to health or better for business. * * * And here let me call the atten- 
tion of Mr, Commissioner Capron to how much could be done in the interest of agrieul- 
ture, if the weather reports, now gathered by the Government at the principal lake 
and sea-coast cities, were enlarged so as to embrace reports also from the capital of 
each interior State. As published now, these reports are useful only to the maritime 
classes; but were they increased, as here suggested, they might be collated and formu- 
lated so as to give a juster idea of the condition and yield of crops than could be ob- 
tained in any other manner. ‘The time is at hand when the scientific corps at agricul- 
tural colleges, noting carefully the phenomena of the weather, will be able to publish 
weekly or monthly, as the case may be, accurate estimates of harvested and incoming 
crops. Then would it not be a feather in the cap of the Department of Agriculture if 
in this business it took the initiative ? 

An exposition of this plan having been read before the Farmers’ Club 
of the American Institute on the 27th of December, 1870, the discussion 
following brought out this illustrative statement of facts from Mr. F. D. 
Curtis: , 

I wish to reduce the ideas in the paper of Professor Poéy to my own practical notion 
of things. I have a field, sloping to the north, which, a few years ago, I observed, was 
covered with moss growing underneath the clover. Older farmers than I said the un- 
usual circumstance was caused by the dampness underneath the clover; others gave it 
as their opinion that the land was sour. None of them were right. I have reseeded 
the lot with timothy and orchard grass, which does away with the cloyer theory. A 
hundred dollars’ worth of fresh lime has been spread over the surface of the field to 
warm and sweeten the soil, and last summer was an exceedingly dry one, but still the 
moss exists; therefore it must be the result cf climatic or atmospheric laws which no 
farmer understands, and they would like to have some one somewhere to study out 
these mysteries and teach them the laws of their growth and prevention. 


A committee, consisting of Messrs. Lyman, Whitney, Bragdon, Cur- 
tis, and Reade, appointed to consider this subject, reported at the ses- 
sion of the 17th of January, 1871, as follows: 


Your committee consider that the aboye suggestions of Professor Poéy are entitled 
to careful consideration by the farmers of this country, and especially those who are 
shaping the policy and establishing the grades of our agricultural schools. All con- 
sider the subject of sufficient importance to recommend that General Capron commu- 
nicate the plaus of Professor Poéy to the presidents of these colleges, and urge them to 
provide for the careful study and accurate noting of meteorological facts in every part 
of the republic. 


At the session of the 21st of March, the following letter from the 
Hon. Horace Capron, Commissioner of Agriculture, to the secretary of 
the Farmers’ Club, was read: 


*_ I beg leave to acknowledge the receipt of a report of a committee of the American 
Institute Farmers’ Club on a communication from Professor André Poéy on the subject 
of meteorology, in which this Department is recommended to communicate the plans 
of Professor Poéy to the presidents of agricultural colleges, and urge the adoption of 
some'such plan of observation as is therein recommended. I have always looked upon 
the relations of meteorology and practical agriculture as necessarily very close, and 
that by just so much as our knowledge of that science is increased shall we be likely 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 121 


to have more certain and abundant harvests, and I therefore think a more extended 
network of observation in the several States than that carried out by the Secretary of 
War for the benefit of commerce is desirable for agriculture, and that these should be 
subordinated to a central office or bureau, in order to make them uniform and utiliza- 
ble. I have only partially succeeded in impressing this view upon Congress. I have 
no contrel over the various colleges alluded to, and the adoption of this plan would 
involve some additional expense in each institution, and, therefore, I am unwilling to 
assume the position of adviser, although I am of the decided opinion that the pursuit 
.of such inquiries is a part of the plan of improvement in agriculture which it was con- 
templated these institutions might effect. 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE OBSERVATION OF PERIODICAL PHENOMENA. 


The name of pericdical phenomena has been applied, by Quetelet, to 
a diversity of physiological functions or habits of plants, animals, and 
man. While the earth performs its daily and annual revolutions, a 
series of phenomena are unfolded upon its surface which the periodical 
return of the days and seasons brings regularly back in the same order. 
The phases of the existence of the minutest plant-louse are intimately 
bound up with the phases of the existence of the plant that nourishes 
it; and this plant itself, in its gradual development, is the product of 
all the anterior modifications of the soil and atmosphere. 

The study of these periodical phenomena, of the highest importance 
in agriculture, has engaged the attention of observers in all times, from 
the Greek philosopher, Theophrastus,* down to the great naturalist, 
Linneus,t who, more than a century ago, first attempted a series of ob- 
servations on the flowering period of different species of plants. These 
observations, addressed to husbandmen, were published during the 
years 1750-1-2, under the title of “‘ Calendar of Flora.” 

But this important study was almost abandoned for want of aregular 
system of investigation, until 1839, when Quetelet began, at the garden 
of the observatory of Brussels, the first regular series of observations 
on the period of flowering.t In 1841 these observations were carried 
on in several parts of Belgium. In 1842~’43 they were improved and 
extended to other nations. In 1842 Quetelet published his “ Instruc- 
tions§ for the Study of Periodical Phenomena,” both in plants and ani- 
mals; while Schwann|| added his own “ Instructions Applied to Man.” 
Quetelei’s “ Instructions” were translated into English in 1845, and re- 
vised and enlarged by a committee appointed by the British Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science ; 4] they were also translated into 
German by Ch. Ritter and Mchlmann, and recommended to observers 
in Germany. 

Finally, in the International Congress of Statistics, held at Vienna, in 
1857, it was resolved to form a general outline for the observation of 
periodical phenomena at large, and submit it to the next Congress at 
London. Quetelet, director of the observatory at Brussels, and Karl 
Fritsch, assistant at the observatory of Vienna, were instructed to draw 
up the outline. The “Instructions,” written and published in 1859, by 
Fritsch,** were submitted to the Congress held at London from the 16th 
to the 21st of July, 1860. ; 


* Libros VI, de causis plantarum, conjuncta opera D. H. F. Linkii, excerpta solus ex- 
plicare conatus est J. C. Schneider, Lipsiz, 1818, 5 vol., 8vo. 

t Ameenitates Academic, seu dissertationes varie physicm, medice, botanic, Ludg. 
Batav. 1749~69. 10 vol. 8vo, Td. Erlang, 1785~90. 

¢ Memoires de Académie des Sciences de Bruxelles, 1841, vol. xiv, pp. 3-5, 19-28. 

§ Bulletin de l’Académie des Sciences de Bruxelles, 1842, vol. ix. pp. 65-95. 

| Bulletin de ’Académie des Sciences de Bruxelles, 1842 vol. ix. 2d part, p. 120. 

{i Report of the British Association, 1845, pp. 321-336. 
eee eesbenichte der Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1859, vol. xxxvii, pp 


‘ 
+ AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The first regular series of these observations made in this country 
were prepared by T. Romeyn Beck and Professor Joseph Henry, and 
published at the early date of 1826.* It is to be regretted that, in the 
“Results of the Meteorological Observations made from 1826 to 1850,” 
and published by the University of New York, under the care of Frank- 
lin B. Hough, all that valuable information upon periodical phenomena 
should have been omitted entirely. 

In 1862 Professor Joseph Henryt issued, through the Smithsonian’ 
Institution, a circular addressed to observers, for the purpose of obtain- 
ing all possible information upon these phenomena, both in plants and 
animals. Unfortunately, the great importance of this study was not ' 
comprehended, and the design of Professor Henry failed for want of as- 
sistance. ; 

To ascertain the laws of dependence and relation which exist between 
these periodical phenomena, in connection with the state of the atmo- 
sphere and conditions of the soil, it is first necessary to study them si- 
multaneously, by the aid of observations made at a great number of sta- 
tions. A single plant, carefully watched, is capable of yielding inform- 
ation of the greatest interest. Synchronic lines, or lines of equal phe- 
nomena, might be traced on the surface of the United States, to indi- 
cate the foliation, the flowerizg, and the ripening of the fruit of the 
principal plants. <A line might be conceived on this surface upon which 
the flowering of our principal productions takes place at the same date; 
and also lines on which the flowering is earlier, or later, by ten, twenty, 
or thirty days. Will these lines, then, be equi-distant? Will they bear 
analogies to the isothermal lines, or lines of equal heat? What depend- 
ence wil] exist between them? How will it be with the isanthesic lines, 

lines of simultaneous flowering? Will the latter be parailel to those 
relating to foliation, or to other clearly marked phases in the develop- 
ment of the individual? We may presume, for example, that, while a 
plant is beginning to bloom in a peculiar locality, and ata certain date, 
there aiso exist other places, to the northward, where the same species: 
is just putting forth the leaves. Has the line, then, which passes through 
these places, any relation to the lines of simultaneous flowering which 
answer to the same date? It may also be asked whether the places 
which have the foliation on the same day will likewise have the same 
date of flowering and fructification. Thus we may see how, by confin- 
ing our observations even to the simplest data, many important dedue- 
tions might be drawn from a system of simultaneous observations con- 
ducted on an extended scale. 

The periodical phenomena are divided into three great classes, the 
first two comprehending plants and animals, and the other concerning 
man living in a social state; for society itself, with all its tendencies to 
withdraw from natural laws, has not been able to escape from this 
periodicity of the reappearance, more or less regular, ef the same phe- 
nomena. 

We shail here take into consideration only these periodical phe- 
nomena appertaining to plants, which are as follows: 1st, the foliation, 
or first appearance of the leaves; 2d, the flowering, or first appearance 
of the flowers ; 3d, the fructification or ripening of the fruit; and, 4th, 
the defoliation, or fall of the leaves. These refer.only to the annuat 
revolution of the earth; but for the diurnal revolution, the hour and 


Pee Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, Albany, 
we LJ 
t Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Washington, 1862, vol. i, pp. 63-70. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 123 


day when the flower opens and closes should be marked, at the spring 
and autumn equinoxes, and the summer solstice. 

Observations relative to the vegetable kingdom may be taken from 

two aspects, the diurnal and the annual periods. The first is the return 
of the hour at which certain flowers open, atid these hours are fixed, 
being always similar in like species; the second, or annual period, is 
that which is comprised between the two successive returns of the 
leaves, flowers, and fruits. The application which may be derived from 
acquaintance with thése phenomena is of the highest importance, not 
only in agriculture, but also in meteorology and botanical geography. 
__ In pursuing the observations, the principal object should be to make 
them comparable, so that those of one’country may be contrasted with 
those of another. The chief point consists, then, in the choice of spe- 
cies and the,identity of comparative coudition, and not in the number 
subjected to examination. For attaining this object the following in- 
structions have been drawn up by Quetelet: 

1. Observations jor the annual period.—tn these investigations annual 
plants must be discarded, for they often come up at various periods, 
according to the time when they were sown; therefore the®indications 
furnished by them would not be comparable.* The same advice would 
also apply to biennials, because they come up slowly and at different 
times in autumn or spring. The only exceptions admitted are, of the 
autumn cerealia, rye, wheat, and winter barley, which are sown about 
the same time, and the phenomena of whese vegetation and flowering 
form a very important part in annual observations, because they relate 
to plants so extensively cultivated. The period of their being sown and 
that of the appearance of the ear should be noted. 

Plants for examination should be woody, or perennial ; the first are 
especially important, because taney are more subjected to the double 
combination of atmosplericaud terrestrial modifications; and also because 
they are better adapted than perennials for observations on foliation. 

It is important that plants for daily observation should have been 
planted at least a year; for vegetables transplanted in spring present 
too much uncertainty in their periods of foliation and flowering, these 
periods being subordinate to the formation of the roots. In selecting 
plants, those which flower through the entite year should be avoided, 
because they have no determined periods, such as the dandelion, chick- 
weed, and common groundsel. All those plants which yield varieties 
by cultivation should be avoided, as the rose and Tulipa Gesneriana, 
and the pear, cherry, and large-leaved lime-trees. Experience shows 
that among varieties produced trom seed-beds, Some flower fifteen days 
before others. To arrive at the comparative value of the flowering of 
these plants, it would be necessary to observe everywhere the same 
variety, and this is often impossible. Such plants as are of nearly 
allied species and difficult to distinguish should also be avoided. With- 
out attention to this, observers might be employing different species, 
which would destroy the comparative value of their operations. Finally, 
all flowers should be discarded whose estivation does not permit an 
accurate noting of the exact moment of expansion; such are the Caly- 
canthus, Illecebrum, Aquilegia, &e. 

. The periods at which rye, barley, and winter whéat come into ear 
should be carefully noted, this point being of great importance in agri- 
culture. In the district of Tourney, a farmer’s axiom is that “April is 


*M. Bergsma, president of the Horticultural Society of Utrecht, has, however, truly 
remarked that annuals might be usefully employed, provided precautions be taken to 
Use in every case the same seeds, and to sow them on the same days. , 


124 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


never seen to go without corn in the ear.” It is curious. to determine 
at what period these cerealia put forth the ear in the various parts of 
the United States, compared with Belgium and other parts of Europe. 

Two methods of observation may be employed, namely, with plants 
wild or cultivated : the former is uncertain, and presents scant facilities, 
as the observer would have to traverse large tracts and different regions, 
and never be sure of observing the same plant the second time. It is 
‘ essential that the daily observations of plants fixed upon for comparison 
should be made on individuals planted in an airy garden; they should 
neither be sheitered nor exposed to a south wall. ‘Frees should be 
selected in open fields, because woods always afford unequal shelter. 

Indications of periods for foliation should be made when the leaf-buds 
first burst; and, for flowering, when the anthers are visible; the same 
will apply to the Composite. The foliation period presents. difficulties,, 
especially in spring, and therefore I propose to select that moment 
when, in advance of vernation, the upper face of the outer leaves be- 
comes exposed to the action of the atmosphere and commences its vital 
functions. [ructification should be noted at the time of the dehiscence 
of the periMirp in dehiscent fruits, which form the largest number; in 
the indehiscent fruits it should be noted when they have arrived at 
maturity. Lastly, the defoliation should be noted when the most of 
the leaves have fallen, it being fully understood that what relates to 
leaves can only apply to woody plants, excluding the overgreens, whose 
defoliation is successive. s . 

To the above observations should be added the modifications which 
occur in odors, and colors of flowers, leaves, &c.; also the daily indica- 
tions of mean temperatures, or, still better, the maximum and minimum. 

_ 2. Observations for the diurnal pericd.—Independently of the annota- 
tions of each day, which form the calendar of Flora, there should be regis- 
tered in each locality the hour at which certain plants expand and close, 
when they perform these functions at a determinate time. The daily 
registration of these results being too tedious, it is proposed to limit 
them to the eguinoxes and summer solstice.* 

Quetelet, endeavoring to apply the calculation of probability to peri- 
odical phenomena, makes the following remarks: Natural sciences have 
been until the present time less amenable to mathematical theories than 
physical sciences, notwithstanding they offer many favorable openings 
for calculable combinations, and especially the calculations of proba- 
. bility. A striking example exists in relation to periodical phenomena, 
which may be expressed largely by dates, and translated into numbers. 

The causes which it is essential to comprehend are those having an 
influence upon the progressive development of plants. We may here 
limit our consideration to the predominant causes, as they occur in 
physical phenomena, and return subsequently to secondary causes. I 
shall arrange in four principal classes those causes which may influence 
the flowering of a plant. 1st. The geographical causes; such as lati- 
tude, longitude, and altitude. 2d. The local causes; such as the nature 
of the soil, the exposure, and the quantity of light. 3d. The individual 
causes; such as the age and vigor of the plant. 4th. The meteorologi- 
cal causes ; such as the temperature, the nature of the winds, the damp- 
ness of the air, the quantity of rain, the state of the sky, &c. 

It would be very difficult to study all these causes simultaneously, 
and to comprehend the influence appertaining to each; the surest means 
would be to proceed from the simple to the composite. To eliminate the 


-* Bulletin de l’Académie des Sciences de Bruxelles, 1842. Vol. ix. pp. 65-95. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 135 


causes which belong to the first three categories, we should always ob- 
serve identical plants, in the same localities, and with similar soil, age, 
&ec.; the differences existing in the periods of flowering, when we have 
exhausted all other equal circumstances, may be attributed to meteoro- 
logical causes. Supposing that it is the same observer who follows the 
development of the plants, and takes care to register their natural 
epochs, numerous observers would see without doubt in different ways, 
one having a propensity to mark the epoch of flowering more slowly 
than another. This difference, which may be named “the personal equa- 
tion of the observer,” will be a new cause of error, of which it is neces- 

sary to take account. 

I assume, therefore, that all the precautions have been taken to render 
as equal as possible all the causes in general, other than meteorological, 
which may make a difference in the phenomena of vegetation. ‘These 

*conditions are not very difficult to fulfill if we observe the same plants, 
in identical exposures and localities, during many consecutive years, in 
order to eliminate by repeated observations the results of casual causes; 
we should also take care to register the meteorological state of the air, 
which action is to be determined. 

Supposing that we have registered carefully each year the flowering 
periods of common and unmistakable plants, such as the lilac, (Syringa 
vulgaris,) after a series of years we may take the average of the dates 
we have preserved, and this average will give the flowering epoch of 
the plant. This epoch is not, however, so well fixed that it may not be 
affected by ulterior observations, and we may, therefore, for the present 
assign a probable error. Wemay also determine the probable digression 
of an ulterior observation of the date, for example, at which the lilac 
will flower in the following year... 

The table which Quetelet gives* throws more light on the subject. 
We find there the dates at which have blossomed for fifteen years the 
most common of plants, viz: the lilac, the syringa, and the faux ébénier, 
and also the average dates of the digressions observed each year. 

The celebrated botanist, Martius, remarks that the movements of the 
sap, studied by the aid of periodical phenomena, and placed in connec. 
tion with the meteorolegical derangements, throw a new light upon the 
history of ceils and vessels; the chemical signification of the external 
development we find more clear; the history of vegetable chemistry 
consolidates the principles of agronomy. » 

The average date of flowering may be fixed at the 1st of May for the 
lilac, the 25th of the same month for the syringa, and the 2d of June 
for the faux ébénier. We see further that the probable error of these 
dates is nearly the same, and does not extend beyond a day and a half. 
The probable error is naturally greater for an isolated observation ; it is 
of five or six days; that is to say, that, for the faux ébénier, for example, 
it is an equal chance that the flowering will take place the 2d of June, 
and that the delay or advance will not exceed five or six days. Although 
the three plants indicated bloom at different epochs, we see consequently 
that they have nearly the same delay and the same advance for each 
year, 

ACTION OF FROST UPON PLANTS. 


Theory of frost.—From a series of experiments on the “Heat of An- 
imals and Vegetables,” made in 1766, John Hunter drew the following 
conclusions: “That plants, when in a state of actual vegetation, or even 
in such astate as to be capable of vegetating under certain circumstances, 


* Theorie des Probabilities. Bruxelles, 1853, pp. 68-70. 


126 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


must be deprived of their principle of vegetation before they can be 
frozen.” Again he says: “ But the question is this: Is every tree dead 
that is frozen? I can only say, that in all the experiments I ever made 
upon trees and shrubs, whether in the growing or active state, or in the 
passive, that whole or part which was frozen was dead when thawed.” * 

_ Notwithstanding that great authority, it is well. known to practical 
horticulturists that the pernicious consequences of severe cold on grow- 
ing plants may to some extent be obviated by careful and gradual thaw- 
ing; in such cases the freezing is incomplete, and does not involve all 
of the structures of the plant. 

Haiiyt thought at first that frost acts mechanically upon the tissues 
of plants, by expanding the fluids they contain, and thus bursting the 
celis or vessels in which they are inclosed. References might be multi- 
plied to show how universal this opinion has been, and still is, among, 
some of the best physiologists. Although most of them reject the idea 
of Hunter, they appear to be of the opinion that after complete conge- 
lation the plant necessarily dies. 

H. R. Geepperti was the first to prove, in 1829, that the changes which 
plants undergo, when they are killed by cold, do not consist of the burst- 
ing of their cells or vessels, but solely of an extinction of their vitality, 
which is followed by alterations in the chemical composition of their 
. juices. In the winter of the same year Charles Morren made some ex- 
periments on the action of cold and frost upon plants, and arrived at the 
same conclusions deduced by Geppert, although his theory differs in 
some respects from that of the latter author. The following are his 
deductions, from a more recent publication :§ 

1. That no organ whateveréis torn by the action of frost, except in 
very rare cases, when the vesicles of cellular tissue give way to the ae- 
tion caused by the expansion of the liquid. 

2. That the organs contained in the cellules, or the vesicles, undergo 
no alteration, unless perhaps in the case of the femla, which in some 
circumstances is converted into sugar, no doubt in consequence of the 
action of some acid formed by the decomposition of the organic parts. 

3. That the biforines do not cease the ejaculation of their raphides 
after freezing, and therefore it is probable that this movement is not due 
to a vital contractibility. 

4, That the,action of frost operates separately upon each individual 
elementary organ, so that a frozen plant contains as many icicles as there 
are cavities containing fluid, the dilatation thus produced not being suf- 
ficient to burst the sides of the cavities. 

5. That such dilatation is principally owing to the separation of the 
air contained in the water. 

6. That it is to be supposed that since the sap, the latex, the liquid of 
the cells, and all the fluids which are found in plants are not composed 
of pure water, vegetation by this condition resists freezing, within cer- 
tain limits; as the experiments of Blagden have praven, the matters 
which taint the purity of the water allow the liquid to attain a degree 
of cold, while in their absence it would be frozen. 

7. That the disengagement of air from water, during the act of con- 


* Philosophical Transactions, 1775, vol. Ixv, pp. 446-458, 1778; vol. lxvili, pp. 7-49. 

tTraité elémentaire de Physique. Paris, 1806, vol. i, p. 209. 

tOkens Iris, Breslau, 1830, p. 497, briefly abstracted; trans. in Edinburgh Jour- 
nal of Natural and Geological Science, 183i, p. 180. Ueber Wirmemtwickelung in 
der lebenden Pflanzen. Breslau, 1830. Wien, 1832. 

§ Bijdragen tot de natuurkundige Wetenschappen, 1830, vol. v, pp. 55-77; Bulletin 
de Académie des Science de Bruxelles, 1238, vol. v, pp. 93-111. 


’ AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 127 
gelation, is the most injurious of all the phenomena attendant upon 
freezing, introducing gaseous matter into organs not intended to elabo- 
rate it, and bringing about the first stages of decomposition in the sap 
and its precipitates, so that with a thaw commences a new chemical 
action destructive to vegetable life. 

8. That the expansion of the cells and aquiferous organs drives a great 
quantity of water into the air cells and air vessels, so that the apparatus 
intended to convey liquid only contains Water and air, while that 
which is naturally’a vehicle for air conveys water. Such an inversion 
of the functions must necessarily be destructive to vegetable life, even 
if death were not produced in frozen plants by the decomposition of their 
juices, the loss of their excitability, and the chemical disturbance of all 
their contents. 

. After some experiments made during the winter of 1550~51, Professor 
John Le Conte reached the conclusion that the sap of trees and shrubs 
which are uninjured by extreme cold does become frozen without the 
slightest damage to them; the reverse opinion being generally prevalent 
among the most eminent physiologists. Subjoined are his conclusions: 

1. That the sap of certain plants can be readily frozen by the appli- 
cation of a comparatively moderate degree of cold. 

- 2. That the congelation of the juices of vegetables does not, as many 
physiologists imagine, necessarily and inevitably result in the death of 
the whole plant, or of the part in which it takes place; but that, on the 
contrary, frequently no injurious consequences follow. 

Professor Le Conte also thinks that “the hypothesis of the laceration 
of the vegetable tissues is totally untenable, for it seldom, if ever, takes 
place, even when the most succulent plants are frozen and killed by cold. 
During the process of congelation each cell of the tissue becomes indi- 
vidually larger by the increase of volume which attends the solidifica- 
tion of the contained fluid; but there is no bursting, because the mem- 
brane is extensible, and when thawed it recovers its first state by its 
elasticity. Although in some instances Professor John Lindley has 
foundsthe tissue of the succulent parts of plants lacerated, as if by the 
dilatation of the fluid they had contained, yet this result was by no 
means an invariable concomitant of freezing, and it is not essentially 
connected with the destruction of vegetable life.”* 

Aug. Pyr De Candolle explains how plants endure the .action of ex- 
cessive cold, by the following facts, which may prevent their juices from 
freezing: 1. A certain amount of proper heat, generated by physiologi- 
cal actions. 2. The viscosity of the juices lowering the freezing point. 
3. The distribution of the sap through minute vesicles and capillary 
vessels depressing the point of congeiation still further. 4. Theavarmth 
of the ground from which the sap is pumped up. 5. The low conduct- 
ing power of consecutive layers of bark, with entangled air included in 
their meshes, and of the wood itself, where the power is less transversely 
than longitudinally. t 

Professor Lindley concludes that the fatal effect of frost upon plants 
is a more complicated action than has been supposed, of which the fol- 
lowing are the more important phenomena: 1. A distention of the cel- 
lular succulent parts, often attended by laceration, and always by a 
destruction of their excitability. 2. An expulsion of air from the erifer- 
ous passages and cells. 3. An introduction of air, either expelled from 
the air passages or discharged from the water during the act of freezing, 
into parts intended exclusively to contain fluid. 4. A chemical decom- 


*American Journal of Science, 1852, vol. xiii, p. 204. 
t Physiologie Végétale. Paris, 1832, vol. iii, p. 1101. 


128 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


position of the tissue and its contents, especially the chlorophyl. 5. A 
destruction of the vitality of the latex, and a stoppage of the action of 
‘its vessels. 6. An obstruction of the interior of the tubes of paren- 
chyma, or woody fiber, by the distention of their sides. In another 
place Professor Lindley says: 

It has been suggested that the fluids contained in different species of plants 
may themselves act differently in the presence of cold, just as the oil of turpentine 
requires a temperature of 14° to freeze, while oil of bergamot freezes at 23° and olive 
oil at 36°. This may be trne toa limited extent, but it does not explain the phenomena. 
The plant x perishes from frost, for instance, while another, identical with it in nature, 
lives with impunity within two yards of it, both having been exposed to the same 
temperature. The finids of the two will be chemically the same, and yet the results 
are opposite; except it would be in proportion to the quantity of water they contain, 
but not as to the quality of their fluids, that they have the power of resisting cold. 
Some plants are also killed by cold although their cells are perfectly empty, in whieh 
case we need not say that the expansive force of frozen fluid could have nothing to 
operate upon. All the experience that forty years’ acquaintance with such phenomena 
has given us leads to one, and only one, conclusion, which is, that the power of resist- 
ing ae is the consequence of specific vitality, and of nothing else. It may be asked, 
what is this specific vitality? ‘To that we have no reply to give, except that we do 
not know.* 

As stated heretofore, Geeppert had already advanced the idea of the 
extinction of vitality in plants, followed by some chemical decomposi- 
tion of their juices, by the action of frost upon them. At the same 
time Morren had shown the pernicious influence of air in the cells of 
their tissues as being the probable cause of that decomposition. Based 
upon these two conclusions, and on his own experiments, Hoffman has 
given the most satisfactory explanation concerning the action of frost 
upon plants, as shown in the following investigations of that conscien-_ 
tious observer : . 

During the winter of 1855, when the thermometer descended as low 
as 279.7 C., Herman Hoffmann made numerous observations upon the 
influence of frost on vegetation. The most frequent frost did not nota- 
bly change the aspect of the plants which it reached; they grew stiff- 
ened, often almost brittle; frequently they contracted some little, but 
their color sustained no important alteration. It made little difference 
with the tenderer plants whether the frost was 12° or 24° below zero 
for half an hour, or for twenty-four hours or more, providing it was not 
interrupted an instant by an elevation above zero, and that it pene- 
trated into all their organic substances. In other rare cases the frost 
considerably changed the aspect of the plants, which result we may not 
foresee by the consistence of their leaves, their native country, their 
age, &c. The epidermis was detached in plates from the green paren- 
chyma of the leaves without tearing, and presented the appearance of 
blisters raised on the skin by a burn, appearing to be filled only with 
air. The action of frost often changes the normal position of the organs. 
Hoffman saw the scented tulip bent and straightened more than ten 
consecutive times, according as the temperature feli below or rose above 
zero. 

All plants do not support the alternations of freezing and thawing; 
@ very great number are killed by the thaw, and not, as ordinarily 
thought by the frost; such are the tropical plants. The delicacy of a 
plant, and the quantity of juices which it contains do not furnish any 
sure indication of its sensibility to the frost. The delicate crocus, for 


*Transactions of the Horticultural Society, London, new series, vol. p. 308, ab- 
stracted by Professor A. Gray in the American Journal of Sciences, 1840, vol. xxxix, 
pp. 18-28. The Theory of Horticulture, New York, 1859, p. 85. The Magazine of 
Horticulture, 1855, vol. xxi, pp. 391-394. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 129 


example, perhaps freezes to the point of being filled with orystals of 
ice entirely without injury. The reverse is observed with some plants 
apparently very strong, like the acacias of New Holland, which are 
very susceptible to the frost. In the other plants the quantity of water 
contained in their cells may serve as an indication. The wood of the 
sane species of tree admits also of different conditions in spring, ac- 
cording to the state of the juices which it contains. The almond tree, 
situated in a sheitered position, and exposed to the sun, frequently per- 
ishes, while that planted upon the slope of a hill escapes from the frost. 
Sheltered positions, which are in sammer and autumn favorable to the 
development of fruit, are disadvantageous in spring, on account of the 
acceleration which they often impose upon vegetation. At the close of 
the winter of 185455, thousands of almond aud peach trees perished 
by the frost in the neighborhood of Frankfort, and those in the enclos- 
ures sheltered from the north, and uncovered toward the south, suf- 
fered the most. The same fact was observed at Giessen. 

Hoffmann says there does not exist any general rule by which to fix . 
in advance the point to which a plant, or an organ, will resist the frest. 
We have for guidance in this regard only isolated observations.. We 
cannot explain why plants, or parts of plants, sometimes delicate, and 
sometimes solid, do not suffer from the frost. But Hoffmann believes 
that he has proved why certain plants do suffer. i give his theory. 

If we expose the leaves of rosemary, camellia, &c., to a cold of fron 
10° to 20° ©. below zero, we do not remark any alteration at the end of 
several days; but if the sun touches the leaves in such a manner that 
their temperature is elevated for one moment above zero, so as to cause 
thawing, they undergo the most considerable alterations; the plants 
fade with all the symptons of being entirely withered, and the leaves 
appear dry in a temperature of 50° to 68° C. above zero. The same 
phenomenon is produced when we place the frosted leaves in an enclos- 
ure without the sun, and where the temperature is only six-tenths of a 
degree above zero; thus the rapid increase of temperature is not the 
sole cause of these alterations. We may save parts of plants which are 
frozen by the sprinkling of cold water; it has been believed that this 
effect is due to the slowness of the thaw thus produced, but this 
opinion is erroneous, for the water renders the same service when it is 
warm. Hofitmann has several times observed that the leaves of Cam- 
phora, Aucuba, Viburnum tinus, camellia and rosemary, when carried 
after their freezing into a temperature of + 12°, were immediately dis- 
colored; but, having first been submitted to a cold of 18° to 28° C. 
below zero, and then entirely plunged in water of 12° above, they were 
preserved perfectly green for twenty-four hours; if, however, any part 
of these leaves emerged from the water, they turned completely black. 
This remarkable action of the water, independent of its temperature, 
obliges us to seek another explanation of the cause of this phenomenon. 
Here is Hoffmann’s theory : 

The freezing disengaging the air dissolved in the water, a given vol- 
ume of the liquid containing air in dissolution will occupy less space 
when this gas has escaped; moreover, the water, dilated by freezing, 
having ten volumes of liquid, will give eleven volumes of ice.* For 


*Galileo had concluded that the ice which floats upon the water had become dilated 
by freezing. The Florentine Academicians were willing to verify this assertion by 
varied and conclusive experiments ; they certified that the volumes of liquid and solid 
water were to each other as 8 to 9, a relation but little different trom that of +9, which 
pn age. bean found to exist.—Comptes Rendus de Académie de Paris. 1870, vol. 

x, Dp. : 


9A 


130 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


these two reasons, when the fluid which fills a cell congeals, the cell is 
found distended beyond measure, without, however, bursting in the gen- 
erality of cases. The elastic membrane of vegetable tissue thus dis- 
tended loses its elasticity to such a degree that many days of repose are 
afterward necessary for it to regain its original dimensions after the 
melting of the ice. Now, when we carry frosted plants into a warm 
place, the ice which the cells contain being melted, the water will return 
to its primitive volume smaller than that of the ice; but the air which 
the freezing has disengaged will prevent the cellular membrane from 
returning to its first condition. We find, therefore, in the cells of plants 
which have been thawed the water and the air remaining separately, 
the one next to the other. This air is not long in producing an injurious 
influence on the chlorophyl, or green, of the leaves, and killing that 
part. Hoffmann compared the action of this gas in the ceils of the 
leaves to the rapid mortal effect of the presence of bubbles of air in the 
blood of animals. .The method of preserving the chlorophyl and the 
_ organic matters from the injurious influence of the air consists of allow- 
ing the penetration of cold or warm water into the cells at the same 
moment when the vesicles of gas, which are retained between the needles 
of ice, become free by the fusion of the water, and commence to unite; 
then, as long as this air does not form a stratum, lodged between the 
water and the walls of the cell, it cannot cause the decomposition of the 
chlorophyl. Being free it dissolves little by little in the liquid, or 
escapes gradually to the exterior by the vessels of the plant. 

When, rarely enough, frozen plants which are thawing very slowly to 
a temperature near that of melting ice escape death, it is because the 
disengagement of the air from the ice takes place very slowly and in 
such a manner that the vegetable membrane has time gradually to 
regain its original volume by its elasticity. 

To sustain this opinion on the cause of the death of plants by frost, 
Hoffmann reports a number of observations, from which it results that 
the leaves always diminish in volume when they freeze; in the jonquil, 
for instance, the leaves diminished in freezing 21 parts to 100, or nearly 
one-fourth. This diminution of volume is always recognizable at first 
sight, and is produced with such rapidity that it is the same after ten 
minutes of freezing as after ten to thirty hours. Hoffmann believes 
that it is due in part tothe fact that the air becomes free by the freezing 
of the cellular juices, and escapes from the leaves. 

But how can we reconcile this remarkable diminution of the frozen 
leaves with the fact that the cells increase in volume by the freezing of 
the water, and by the disengagement of the air contained in it? Hoff- 
mann believes that this increase is more than counterbalanced by the 
_ contraction of the epidermis, experienced through the entire leaf, (which 
thus becomes very tough and consistent,) and the presence of the air 
existing in the vessels and the intercellular spaces. The enlargement 
of the ceils operates interiorly altogether, and at the expense of the 
vessels and spaces which oppose less resistance than the enveloping 
epidermis. 

If, says Hoffmann, this explanation of the process which causes the 
death of frozen plants is really the true one, we may probably deduce 
from it the aptitude of certain plants for resisting the frosts. They 
appear to owe this property to the membrane of their cells, which pos- 
sesses an elasticity sufliciently energetic to enable them to resist the 
distension produced by the action of the frosts, and to recover their 
original dimensions as the ice again becomes water, in such a way that 
the disengaged air is forced to dissolve rapidly under the pressure exer- 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 181 


cised upon it. This author cites, for example, the lilac, because its 
elasticity is very remarkable. 

When plants die only after having endured the action of cold during 
several days, their destruction is not owing to congelation, but more to 
the arrest of nutrition and transpiration. Finally, Hoffmann remarks 
that in the observations on the degree of cold to whieh plants may be 
submitted, it is necessary to beware of concluding from the temperature 
indicated by the thermometer that which the plants can support, 
because their exposition and their radiation may considerably modify 
their thermal condition. After his observations on the barley, the flax, 
and the water-cress, it resulted that the same plants may be affected in 
different manners, relative to the frosts, at different moments of their 
existence. He specifies, as a fact worthy of remark, that constantly 
all or nearly all the stalks, proceeding from one seed-plot, are affeeted 
in the same manner by the frosts, while they support its influence in 
different ways when they proceed from different seed-plots of the same 
species. Sometimes the young stalks are most sensitive to the action 
of the cold; sometimes, on the contrary, the oldest suffer most; and 
then, again, the tallest are affected most readily.* 


DIFFERENT METHODS FOR PROTECTING PLANTS FROM FROST, 


For protecting the plants of warm countries from frost, Thouin has 
employed several methods with success. The first consisted of placing 
these plants in inclesures and shelters from strong light, the day 
of the frost, and some moments before the appearance of the sun. 
Plants which had passed a very cold night in the open air, and whose 
leaves, covered with white frost, had become stiff and brittle, thawed 
very slowly, and did not experience the accidents which occurred to the 
same species of plants not placed within these shelters. 

The second method consisted of showering the frozen plants, using a 
watering-pot for the small ones, a skimmer-syringe for shrubs, and a 
hand-pump for large trees in boxes, the elevation exceeding fourteen 
feet. We sprinkled only at the instant when the first rays of the sun, 
which were very brilliant the first two days of the frost, began to fall 
upon them. The water, less cold than the air, in melting the frost 
which covered the leaves, prevented the injurious effects of the rays 
of the sun; but if the plants were sprinkled before the rising of the 
sun, the water congealed on them and increased the intensity of the 
cold. The leaves of some trees with large tops, which were in the shade 
at the instant of the sprinkling of the water, were covered with a slight 
layer of ice, which thawed only after some hours. All these leaves and 
branches grew yellow or blackish at the end of some days, and after- 
ward fell off entirely. 

The third method consisted of interposing between the plants touched 
by the frost and the rays of the sun a thick cloud of smoke. At various 
distances in the vicinity of the plants, and above the reach of the wind, 
were established piles of half-dry grass, damp leaves, or partly ground 
manure, which were fired as the sun was about to appear, and sustained 
until the frost melted and the water which was produced fell at 
the foot of the trees. The effect of this mode of thawing will be more 
prompt and sure if the smoke is carried by the wind directly uvon the 
trees, which result is desirable, but not indispensable; for it suffices if 
the rays of the sun are broken, or obscured, so that they do not act upon 


ns und Wachsthum, oder Grundziige der Pflanzenklimatologie, Leipzig, 
, 8vo. 


132 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the brilliant facets of the ice-crystals which cover the plants. For the 
preservation of wall-trees, orchards, trellis-plants and vines, nets, can- 
vas, straw-matting, and dry leaves may be employed with success. For 
the purpose of arresting the progress of the injury received by frozen 
plants, it is necessary to remove the leaves, and cut off, even to the 
quick, all the shoots and branches which bave been affected. This 
operation should be performed with a very sharp instrument close to 
where the bud springs, and a little above, in order that the shoots, pro- 
ducing the eyes which attract the sap from its legitimate course, being 
promptly cicatrized, there is no wound occasioned by the suppression 
of the frozen branches. * 

An able gardener, Mr. Charles Harrison, has given the following 
method of watering peach and nectarine trees to preserve them from the 
effects of frost: Before the sun is up, after a frosty night, if he finds that 
there is any appearance of frost in the bloom or young fruit, he waters 
them thoroughly with cold water from a garden engine; and, even if they 
are discolored, this operation recovers them; provided it be done before 
the sun fails upon them. He has sometimes watered particular parts ot 
the trees more than once in the same morning before he could get entirely 
rid of the effects of the frost. The fact that the operation of watering, 
in counteracting the frost, produces this effect only if it be done before 
the sun comes upon the blossoms or young fruits, seems to be analogous 
to the condition of a frost-bitten joint or limb, which is recovered by the 
application of cold water, but injured, and sometimes destroyed, by 
being brought near the fire, or within the infiuente of sudden warmth. 
Harrison first discovered this method by the following accident: In 
planting some cabbage among some rows of kidney-beans, very early on 
the morning after a frosty night in spring, and before the sun was high 
enough to turn upen the frosted beans, he spilled upon them some of 
the water which he had used in his planting, and, to his surprise, he 
found that the beans immediately began to recover. This method was 
adopted by Thouin in 1806, and has been followed by many other her- 
ticulturists up to the present day. 

Harrison protects his trees from the frost in the month of January by 
branches of broom. These are previously steeped in soap-suds, mixed 
with one-third of urine, for forty-eight hours, to clear them from insects, 
and then they are disposed thinly over the whole tree, and allowed to 
remain only until the tree begins to break into leaf. Nevertheless, his 
success did not depend entirely upon his watering, but a great deal upon 
his pruning and dressing in the following manner: The peach and nec- 
tarine trees are pruned and nailed in December and January, when he 
always takes two-thirds of the young shoots away. In two hand-dress- 
ings, in May and July, he leaves the lowest and weakest shoots for a 
succession in the year following, pinching off the leading and other 
shoots. t 

Mr. James Mean has adopted the following method for preserving fig- 
trees in winter: In autumn, as soon as the leaves are off, the branches are 
unnailed and brought down to the ground, which is opened to the depth 
of nine or ten inches close to the wall. In the trench thus made the 
branches are laid, and covered with a light red sand to the thickness of 
two feet, which is sufficient to exclude all frost. About the middle of 
April the sand is removed; the branches, being then well washed, are 
again nailed to the wail, and never fail to produce a crop. He always 


* Annales de Agriculture Francaise, 1806, vol. xxv, pp. 315-319. 
t Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, 1818, vol, ii, pp. 13-18. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. aa 


propagates a proportion of young wood every year, and does not suffer 
any to remain on the trees older than six or seven years.* 

In 1820 the sudden change from a temperature of 12° above zero to 
one of 14° below, destroyed, in January, the greater part of the olive trees 
in Provence, France. Mr. Joseph Jean, proprietor of an olive-orchard 
of one hundred trees, by a process which he invented, saved seventy- 
six of the oldest. In the month of April he cut all the branches within 
some distance of the top of the trunk; he smoked the trees in the ordi- 
nary manner, and buried fresh herbage at their feet ; he then cut off all 
the sprouts which were manifested at the ends of the remaining 
branches. The new sprouts of the first year grew to one meter, or about 
three feet, and redoubled their growth in the second season. In the 
third year he had already regained a quarter of his accustomed har- 
vest. Raibaud-Lauge has given the following explanation: The sap of 
the partly-frozen trees, maintained abundant by the dampness of the 
herbage and the suppressing of the sprouts springing from near the 
roots, is forced to flow upward into the trunk, and the tree is thus saved 
from the injurious effects of the frost. t 

The distinguished horticulturist, Mr. Thomas Andrew Knight, says: 


Among the various methods of protecting the blossoms of wall-trees from frost, 
which are adopted by: gardeners, it must be admitted that the most efficient are those 
by which the trees are thickly covered during the night, and fully exposed during the 
day ; andif this kind of protection be given to peach and nectarine trees very early in 
the spring, it not only preserves the blossoms, but it also prevents the appearance of 
blistered leaves, which are generally abundant in cold and unfavorable seasons. 
Woolen nets, or a patent imitation of netting, constitute the best material for wall-tree 
covering ; but the meshes should be sufficiently wide to permit the ingress of bees, for 
the pistils of the blossoms of almost all fruit trees are not in the best state to receive 
. the pollen till the anthers of these blossoms have been expanded, and the number ef 
blossoms which are rendered productive of fruit by their own proper pollen is not, I 
have reason to believe, very great. The exclusion of honey-gathering insects is conse- 
quently in most cases very injurious. 

The material which I employ consists of small branches of the birch-tree, about two 
feet in length, collected as soon as the leaves have become full grown, at the end of 
June; these are preserved under cover till the following spring, when they have be- 
come perfectly dry, which is a very important circumstance. They are then secured to 
the walls by a few nails and shreds, with their points hanging perpendicularly down- 
ward, their upper and thick ends being in contact with the wall, and the opposite 
slender extremities projecting eight or ten inches from it. This position of the cover- 
ing material appears to me to be an extremely advantageous one, and I have constantly 
employed it in this manner more than ten years. Every year a very large portion of 
my blossoms has escaped injury under its protection. As to the quantity to be used, 
with advantage, it is left to the discretion of the gardener. If the situation of his 
garden be low, he may cover his trees more closely than if it be high; but the covering 
should never be so thick or close as to prevent a large portion of the blossoms being 
visible to a person passing within a few feet of the wall; under such circumstances 
almost every blossom will in some part of the day receive a portion of the solar rays. 
As the danger to be apprehended from frost diminishes, and the quantity of young 
shoots and foliage increases, the covering material should be taken away at successive 
periods and in small quantities. My experience has been confined to the use of the 
slender branches of the birch-tree, but bunches of other trees with small leaves, such 
as the hawthorn or hornbeam, might, I believe, be employed with success, though I 
give decided preference to those of the birch. t 

Jeger has obtained the greatest success by the use of well-water for _ 
sprinkling frozen plants, but it is necessary to apply it when the ther- 
mometer stands about 1° below zero,§ because if we sprinkle the plants 


*Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, 1818, vol. ii, p. 228. 

t Mem. d’Agriculture, Paris, 1823, pp. 407-36; Annales de l’Agriculture Frangaise, 
Paris, 1823, vol. xxii, p. 355-83; Remarks of H. Laure, in Bulletin de la Société 
@ Agriculture du Département du Var. Draguignan, 1824, No. xv; Report of Boscip, 
in Annales de l’Agriculture Fran¢gaise. Paris, 1823, vol. xxii, pp. 383-86. 

t Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London, 1824, vol. 5, pp. 505-8. 

§ Centigrade, equivalent to 32° Fahrenheit, or freezing point. 


— 


134 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. y 


below this temperature, the water produces an opposite effect, increas- 
ing the degree of cold; and if above, the water will not have any effect, 
for the clevated temperature will already have exercised its baleful in- 
fluence. Jeger believes this method applicable on a large scale to the 
vine-growing countries. where the spring frosts are calamitous; simple 
hand-engines, placed at various distances in the plantation, will afford 
the surest guarantee against this scourge.* 

A horticulturist made cuts in the bark of a young nut-tree injured by 
the frost. The bark thus treated assumed a darker tint, and a thick 
liquid, resembling the juice of boiled fruit, exuded from the trunk. He 
removed the bark, and even entirely stripped some trees from near the 
root up to the healthy branches, and then rubbed the trunks with liqui- 
fied clay. This operation arrested the escape of the thick liquid, the 
bark quickly reformed, acquired in a short time the thickness of a line, 
and the tree in the same year put forth strong branches. Those trees 
which had not received the same treatment died. f 

It is asserted that, if a fruit tree be enveloped with straw or hempen 
ropes, and the lower end of the rope be put into a tub of water, the 
tree will not be injured by the frost. ¢ 

Another horticulturist has for three years made use of a net-work 
prepared from the filaments of Spanish broom, (Spartium junceum,) for 
sheltering ‘espaliers from the frost: The nets were placed obliquely 
against poles, of the height of the walls, and at a distance of about 
three feet from the espalier. They served to break the force of the cold . 
’ winds and the beating rains, and to neutralize the effects of the frost. 
The morning after a frost these nets, viewed horizontally, showed each _ 
mesh armed. with needles of ice, which melted in the first rays of the ~ 
sun. Trees protected in this way did not suffer from those first frosts 
which are so pernicious to vegetation. This shelter unites all the bene- 
fits of air and warmth, and the fruits produced under it are excellent 
and of remarkable size. § 

Chateauvieux does not advise the immediate cutting down of branches 
which the frost has affected, and which are supposed to be dead. De- 
seending below the parts completely destroyed by the frost, as far as 
those cells which have not been injured, the disorganization gradually 
diminishes. The power of vegetation may, for this reason, be reéstab- 
lished to a degree more or less elevated, according as circumstances 
are more or less favorable. This author has seen, in the middle of the 
summer, the branches of a fig tree apparently injured beyond any hope 
of vegetation, but which, through neglect, had not been cut off, putting 
forth in a surprising manner. The plum trees of Portugal, the Cotgnas- 
siers of Japan, the laurel, &c., have given, some time after freezing, in- 
dications of vegetation in their higher branches. The above precau- 
tion favors the recovery of certain trees which sprout again on the old 
wood with difficulty, and also diminishes the evil that heavy rains occa- 
sion to the trees. It is not necessary to cut down to the quick in these 
cases; a little wood should be left above it to prevent the air from com- 
ing in contact with those parts from which we may expect new shoots, 
and which at first are in danger of becoming dry on account of their 
diminished force of vegetation. In two cases only will this precaution 
prove injurious; first, “where the frozen parts contain foul juices which 
are likely to attack the healthy portions; in this case it will be neces- 


* Witrtemb. Correspond. des Landwirths. Vereins. September, 1825, vel. viii, p. 139. 
+t Ann. Pomolog. d’Altenbourg, 1826, vol. 1, p. 232. 

Journal of the Franklin Institute, 1826, vol. 1, p. 173. 

§ Annales de la Société Linnéenne. Paris, 1827, p. 145. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 135 


sary to hasten the cutting away of the damaged branches; and, second, 
if the disorganization has attacked the large brauches and the trunk, 
the latter must be cut below the level of the soil; the earth which 
covers the spot, sheltering it from the contact of the air, will preserve 
by its dampness the suppleness of the woody fibers, and protect the 
young shoots as they spring from the rays of the sun, which might 
destroy them in a short time.* 

Kottwitz proposes to turn the stocks of vines gently toward the 
ground, and to cover them with leaves as dry as possible. ‘To prevent 
the wind from carrying away these leaves, they should be overlaid with 
the refuse vine cuttings, bean-stalks, and ends of boards, and sur- 
rounded with small pickets. Vine stocks thus covered are entirely 
sheltered from the frosts of winter; and, as the air penetrates in spite 
of the leaves, the development of the sap is prevented, and takes place 
only when the stock is straightened and pruned. By following this 
method all loss of sap is guarded against, and the vine entirely escapes 
the pernicious influences of the frost and the hoar-frost. Combining 
with this process the pruning in autumn, which is preferable to that of 
spring, we attain marked advantages.t 

A horticulturist established trellises six inches from an espalier wall, 
and eight inches from each other, and attached the trees to them in the 
beginning of April; the trees thus removed from the wall suffered less 
from the frost than when at the distanee of two inches only, and they 
also received more nourishment in summer. This measure is espe- 
cially serviceable for apricots. In those countries where wood is scarce, 
the trellises may be made of iron wire.{ 

Margat affirms that we may transport fruit trees with bare roots, and 
without packing, during the most intense frost, provided they have been 
taken up twelve or fifteen days before the frost and exposed to the air, 
with their roots on the ground during all this time. But the roots of 
trees exposed to the frost immediately after being dug out of the ground 
always perish. Trees thus recently taken up, although well packed, are 
liable to have their roots frozen upon arriving at their destination, if a 
frost occurs upon the way, while those whose roots have been previously 
exposed to the air for twelve or fifteen days always arrive in a good con- 
dition, even without packing. The experiments of Margat are confirmed 
by those of the same nature made at Nenilly by Jacques. § 

Louesse suggests, as the best means for sheltering espaliers from the 
later frosts, a loose frame covered with oil-cloth prepared with a thick 
layer of linseed oil on each side, and even on the wood. When, in the 
first fortnight of February, the flower-buds of apricot trees begin to 
enlarge, this frame should be placed as close as possible to the trees, 
and perpendicularly to the wall, taking the precaution that it does not 
touch the branches; it should be maintained in place by wooden sup- 
ports fixed in the wall, and the sides guarded by moss, horse-litter, or 
any other substance capable of intercepting the exterior air. 

Flowering takes place under the shelters with greater rapidity and 
facility, because the action of the solar rays is strengthened and the 
warmth preserved for a long time. In this sort of hot-house, we see 
almost the entire quantity of fruits mature perfectly, and the effect of the 


x bs nea la classe d’Agriculture de la Société des Arts de Géntve. 1829, 3™° année, 
0. p. 185. 
+ Verhandlun gen des Vereims zur Beférderung des Gartenbaues in den Preussischen 
Staaten, vol. 5, p. 83. 

t The above, vol. iv, p. 300. 

§ Annales de la Société d’ Horticulture. Paris, 1830, p. 41. 


136 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


dampness, the frost, and scorching by the sun are no longer to be feared, 
as in the case of those trees in the open air. When the warmth inereases 
as the season advances, it becomes necessary to give more air to the 
trees by raising the trap-net at the bottom, or removing the straw which 
protects the sides. The whole may be entirely dispensed with only when 
the temperature causes no more fear. It will be found expedient to 
leave the frames as long as possible, because they greatly advance the 
growth of the fruit. * 

Pépin has succeeded, by the suppression of leaves before their natu- 
ral fall, in saving the delicate slips from the efiect of the frost. Thouin 
has obtained the same results by the suppression of the fruits of the 
second season on fig trees. According to Bonafons, the first practice is 
habitually applied in Sweden to most of the woody plants, and also in 
Piedmont to the mulberry tree. According to Puvis, those trees which 
are not stripped by the worms, and whose harvesting is consequently 
more normal, are better defended than those whose summer stripping 
forces a second sprouting in the same season. According to Saubiae, 
in Ariege, France, the best preventive of the injury by the later frosts 
upon the vine is a late pruning, which arrests the development of new 
buds. t 

Another horticulturist proposes the following method for protecting 
shrubs and young trees from the frosts: Two half cylinders are formed 
of wood, as if to be covered with wicker-work, but, instead of being 
thus completed, they are plaited or woven over with the material of 
which bee-hives are composed. These half-cylinders have strong legs 
attached, which are thrust into the ground, and wheré the design is 
merely to shelter the plant from the east or northeast wind, only one is 
placed on the side to be protected ; but where the shrub is tender and 
requires more complete shelter, two are placed together and fastened to 
each other with hooks; over them is placed a cover, aud thus is formed * 
& protection more complete than any formed of other materials, and 
more efficacious against the frost. These cylinders are comparatively 
light, easily applied or removed, and exceedingly warm, for scarcely any 
frost will penetrate them, so completely do they prevent the escape ot 
the heat which arises from the native warmth of the earth. If the 
ground be hard, holes may be made for the supports with a crow-bar or 
the point of a pick, but in most cases a pointed stake of any sort may 
be used; and when the covering is properly placed, so as to be close to 
the ground, some loose earth may be put around the bottom to prevent 
any air from getting under it. The earth should also be closed around 
the legs by ramming, in order to fasten them down.i 

An experimenter says that in protecting pits and frames, the covering, 
if placed on the glass, absorbs the heat; but if located at-a short dis- 
tance above the glass, it radiates the heat, and keeps the external air 
from acting on the frame at all. Now, nothing can be more obvious 
than the following conclusions: If the radiation of heat from cloth, 
which touches nothing, will keep the external air from acting on the 
frames at all, it will prevent the externa! air from acting upon anything 
else; and this is sufficient to satisfy us that cloth prepared with trans- 
parent varnishes, and used instead of glass, must be efficient as a means 
of protection; and I am even inclined to believe that its advocates are 
right in saying that it is more effective than glass. In regard to the 
‘question of light, as we are always shading in bright weather, so for 


s 
> 


* Annales de la Société @’ Horticulture. Paris, 1843, vol. xxxvi, pp. 247-250. 
t Annales de la Société @ Horticulture. Paris, 1840, vol. xxvi, pp. 8, 9. 
} The Gardener and Practical Florist. London, 1843, vol. i, pp. 285, 286. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. Lay 


many purposes the cloth must be better than glass, because it requires 
no additional shading. This covering confines the heat, and prevents 
the operation of the external air, so that if the frames are closed when 
there is no frost, it likewise prevents the escape of the heat, and keeps 
the covered subjects at the same temperature which prevailed when the 
frames were closed.* 

Mr. R. Thompson, of England, describes the following method of pro- 
tecting espaliers in unusually severe weather, peaches and nectarines be- 
ingin bloom atthetime. Attheend of March coping-boards were placed 
along the walls, and a network stretched over half of it, while straw 
sereens protected the other half at night; in severe nights the nets were 
the best protection. The screens consisted of one length of straw fixed 
on twine, and stretched between training rods one inch square and 
six feet long; they were kept in place by fixing the tops of the rods 
against nails in the wall, the lower-pointed ends being inserted in the 
ground. By day the screens were rolled and laid at the bottom of the 
wall. The blossoms under these were protected, but those on the front 
of shoots above them were destroyed. Some of the latter, which were 
on the side of the shoots close to the wall, derived from it sufficient 
heat to keep them alive. On the whole a fair crop was saved. On pear 
walls the blossoms were abundant and mostly expanded. Coping-boards 
were used, in addition to nets, for walls with an eastern aspect. Elsewhere 
straw screens were projected from the tops of the walls. Under these 
the fruit on the upper branches, near the straw, was saved, but. that 
toward the bottoms of some trees was much injured. The crops averaged 
fair. A glazed peach frame was covered with mats, but still the blos- 
soms were mostly destroyed. 

The preceding observations show that straw screens will protect peach 
trees in blossom from the effects of 12° of frost; coping-boards will suf- 

Wfice for about 4°; common nets, aided by coping-boards, were not so 
efficient as scraw screens. Sashes placed nearly horizontal, covered with 
mats, with a three-inch opening at the bottom of the frame, and per- 
forated zinc-plates in front, were insufficient, the fruit under them sufier- 
ing as much as that on an open wall with coping-boards only. Straw 
being a very efficient material, probably from its hollow nature, and the 
quantity of air it contains, and also being a slow conductor of heat, 
should be manufactured in neat screens, so as to preserve its tubular 
form. t 

The following is Mr. John Harrison’s method for protecting wall fruit: 
A rod is placed horizontally under the coping of the wall; another is fixed 
on posts three feet from the bottom of the wall, and eighteen inches 
from the ground, and the two are connected by braces. A covering is 
prepared by sewing woolen netting on its upper and lower edges to 
coarse calico, and this is attached to the rods by tapes. The cost of the 
net is 1s. 8d. per yard; of the calico, 2d. or 24d. per yard, and each yard, 
slit down the middle and sewed to the netting, makes the covering three 
yards wide; the tape and poles are a small item, aud the entire cost in 
England, including making, is under 2s. per yard. 

Harrison’s walls are brick, eleven feet high, with a stone coping of 
two inches projecting on each side. His trees are unnailed before win- 
ter, and fastened loosely to the wall to prevent their being broken by 
the wind. They are kept thus until ready to burst into flower, the ob- 
ject being to retard vegetation as much as possible. They are dressed 
with the following composition: equal parts of sulphur vivam, Scotch 

*The Gardener and Practical Florist. London, 1844, vol. iii, pp. 378, 379. 
t Journal of the Horticultural Society. London, 1852, pp. 207, 208. 


138 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


snuff, and unslaked lime, the whole sifted fine; adding a half quantity 
of lampblack, and mixing with urine and soapsuds to the consistency 
of thick paint. Old and young wood are dressed with this compound, 
with a painter’s brush, after the trees are pruned, avd they are then 
nailed, all from the upper side of the leading branches. 

Harrison’s walls are fued, but fire is used only to ripen the fruit in 
succession if required, and, in a very wet season, to ripen the wood after 
the fruit has been gathered, but never in spring. 

The advantages of this netting are very great. Harrison’s walls con- 
tain eight peach and eight nectarine trees. The netting is fixed and 
removed in two or three hours; it is put up when the blossoms can no 
longer be retarded, and remains until the end of May, when all danger 
from frostis over. The gardener can readily work under it. There are 
no blistered leaves, and the first shoots always ripen their wood, insar- 
ing fruit for the tollowing year. In 1854 these trees ripened over one 
thousand dozens of fruit, and the yield has never been less since netting 
has been used. The fruit was thinned early in June, when three hundred 
dozens nectarines and fifty-four dozens peaches were removed—young 
fruit, of full size—and further thinning was requisite after stoning.* 

Ktienne Pro suggests the following process for sheltering vines in 
espalier, and even in vineyards, from spring frosts: Take about ten 
bushels of wood ashes, or others, to forty acres of vineland; let them 
be well dried and sifted, and, on the evening before a frost is expected, 
strew lightly over the vines and the ground. The ashes thus sprinkled 
on the earth absorb the dampness, and also cover the new sprouts and pro- 
tect them from the action of the sun. This action has upon the young 
shoots already struck by the frost the same effect as fire upon members 
frozen by the cold. The vine-bad, or the young sprout, covered with” 
ashes, is not injured by the frost, or burned by the sun which strikes ite 
afterward, and it returns without suffering to its primitive state. The 

yoperation of sprinkling the ashes could be repeated early in the morn- 

ing, if the frost were persistent; and if the ashes should be washed 
away by the rain they should be renewed. During three years Pro 
employed this process to cover eighteen hundred meters of vines in the 
midst of the fields; they met with no damage, while, under the same 
circumstances, those of his neighbors were completely frozen.t+ 

The great object, says “B. M.,” in the recovery of plants from the 
effects of the frost, is to remove the frozen condition as gradually as 
possible, and to guard them against sudden exposure to heat, and from 
the direct influence of the sun. In plant-houses this can be effected by 
shading the roof, and by syringing the plant with very cold water, 
taking care, at the same time, that no more fire-heat is present than is 
sufficient to raise the temperature of the house a very few degrees above 
the freezing point. This last observation is very important. For out- 
door trees and plants, when frozen, shading is perhaps the best method 
within our power to adopt, at the same time causing the thaw to take 
place as gradually as possible. When they are covered with snow their 
condition is most favorable; but with tender plants it would be well to 
cover the snow upon them with straw, or mats, so that the sun may not 
act directly upon it, and the thawing process may be thereby rendered 
more gradual. 

Much diversity of opinion exists among practical men as to the 
advantage of protecting, by straw or other covering, tender trees and 


* Journal of the Horticultural Society, 1855, pp. 205-207. 
+ Journal de la Société d’ Horticulture de Paris, 1860, vol. vi, pp. 265-266. 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 139 


shrubs in open grounds. Where the risk is slight it is preferable to 
ineur it rather than to use covering; but where the plant is unquestion- 
ably tender there is no alternative. For deciduous plants, straw bound 
neatly around them is as good and as unobjectionable as any method. For 
evergreens an old barrel or wooden structure is best. 

When out-door coverings are used they shouid not be removed too 
early in the spring, becanse the plant will be more susceptible to changes 
of temperature than if it had been wholly exposed to the action of the 
weather.* 

The editor of the Horticulturist says: “We indorse emphatically 
B. M.’s treatment, because we have tried it many times with entire suc- 
cess.” In regard to out-door plants, more injury is sustained from too 
much covering than from severe weather, and often plants are covered 
which do not require protection.” 

Mr. E. Alesworth, of Peterboro, New: York, was in the habit of using 
boxes, casks, pails, pans, and cloths to protect plants in frosty nights. 
One very cold night be covered one plant with a basket; in the morning 
nearly every other plant was killed. It is well ‘known that if, on the 
approach of a frosty night, the wind still continues to blow, there is not 
frost enough to do much injury; but if the wind goes down with the 
sun, and is succeeded by a calm, the consequences are very severe to 
young flowers and garden plants. Any covering only upon the sides 
or ends will create a draught in the stillest night; and this was the case 
with the basket. Alesworth has ever since placed boxes, &c., at inter- 
vals, and laid boards on the top of them, leaving both sides wide open, 
and he never loses a plant. t 

Mr. J. Griffith states that the action of frost in lifting fence-posts from 
- «the ground may be prevented by casing the lower ends of the posts 
with boards, or, far better, with tile of the right size. This casing will 
be affected by repeated freezing and thawing, but the posts will remain 
unmoved. t 


INFLUENCE OF THE COLOR OF WALLS UPON ESPALIERS. 


¥ 
4 


The cultivators of trees believe that the coloring of walls increases 
the heat received by espaliers, or wall-trees. A black wall gathers more 
heat, by the absorption of solar rays, than one painted white, which 
reflects these rays; a black wall would therefore be preferable for vines 
and trees bearing fruits with stones, which require a tolerably strong 
heat; whereas, a white wall would be most suitable for the trees which 
bear fruits with seeds. 

The principle is correct, but the conclusion is erroneous, for the real 
action of the coloring of walls upon espaliers is not yet well known. If 
the hand be placed against the wail, the contact differs from that which 
the tree sustains in a similar position, because between the latter there 
is always an interval of some centimeters through which the air cireu- 
lates freely. A white wall warms less than a black one, because it 
reflects readily the caloric which the latter absorbs. Also, the stratum 
of air lying nearest a white wall, receiving the same quantity of direct 
rays, in addition to the reflected ones, is found to be warmer than if the 
wall were black. It is precisely in this stratum of air lying nearest 
the wall that an espalier grows. Accordingly, the white color of a wall 
should increase the warmth which is received. by espaliers, while a black 
hue would tend to diminish it. 

*The Horticulturist. New York, 1860, vol. v, p. 134. 


tTransactions of the American Institute for 1864~65, p. 100. 
t The Prairie Farmer, Chicago, 1866, vol. xviii, p. 365. 


140 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


During the night the influence of the coloring of walls differs from 
that exerted during the day; then, especially after midnight, an equal 
temperature prevails before walls of opposite colors, and also in the 
stratum of air which circulates upon their surfaces. 

In sixty-one observations made ketween 9 a. m. and 3 p. m., Vintry * 
found the thermometer higher before a white than before a black sereen. 
The more brilliant the sun the greater was this difference. The range 
was from 2° to 3°, and reached even as high as 5° Cent. He made use of 
bitumened paper, one washed over with lime and the other with gas tar. 

An exception to this rule is found when a cold wind paralyzes the ae- 
tion of the reflected rays and causes an accidental coolness; in this case 
the excess of caloric accumulated in a black wall might exercise some 
effect upon the air near its surface. Following this hypothesis, it would 
seem desirable to color and even to blacken walls for trees bearing 
seeded fruits, which shun a temperature too elevated. 

If the facts here presented are correct, it is possible that there still 
exists a mass of circumstances which should be taken into consideration. 
Heat and light do nct produce the same effect. In cloudy weather a 
black wall may heat a great deal; is it the same with a white one? 
What action attends a current produced along garden walls struck by 
the sun, which arises only from air traversing the surface of the ground ? 
The nature of this surface, the special plants which cover it, and its 
dampness or dryness, may also exert some influence. The black wall 
being warmer at sunset than the white, communicates during a part of 
the night more heat to plants trained against it. It retards, perhaps, 
the moment when those plants become colder than the air, and when 
the deposit of dew affects the surface of the leaves. Is this result fay- 
orable or unfavorable? Is it of the same nature during spring, sum- + 
mer, and autumn, and equally favorable in every season ? 

Able horticulturists assert that terrace walls which closely press the 
ground on one side, are less favorable support for espatiers than those 
which are exposed to the air on both sides. A French writer thinks that, 
if this be true, it would be consistent that a terrace wall presents 
one surface of only 10° or 12° below zero, and that in the other, receiving 
the solar rays, the heat which they tend to produce is constantly de- 
stroyed, or at least greatly diminished by the relative cold of the first- 
named surface. We may not compare the effect of a good wall, permeated 
on the one side with warmth from the sun’s rays, and on the other by 
an air with a temperature of 25° or 30°, and which yields this heat but 
slowly during the night, to a sheet of pasteboard, as Vintry has done in 
his observations, for the latter, as soon as the sun clouds or sets, continues 
to receive the temperature of the surrounding air. 

By covering the ground with charcoal-dust, dark-colored straw, the 
remains of heath or faded leaves, the maturity of certain plants is 
accelerated fifteen or twenty days, a result which is surprising. We 
observe an analogous fact when we place on the snow two pieces of 
cloth, one white and the other black; the former does not produce, 
properly speaking, any effect on the suow, even in a fine sunlight, while 
the latter quickly occasions melting, and sinks rapidly below the surface. 
is not this effect somewhat similar to the opposite action of black and 
white walls?+ 

Wells} made experiments sufficiently decisive in this regard. During 

* Journal de la Société d’Horticuiture, Paris, 1857, vol. iii, pp. 480-483. - 

t Journal de la Société d’ Horticulture. Paris, 1857, vol. ili, pp. 600-608. | 

tAn Essay on Dew. London, 1818 and 1821; new edition, with annotations by L. P, 
Casella, and an appendix by R. Strachan, London, 1866, Sve. 


om 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 14) 


a serene night he stretched a handkerchief vertically over a meadow, 
by means of two sticks, and observed that a thermometer placed beneath 
it on the grass, and exposed to the wind, marked from 3° to 5° Cent. 
more than a thermometer placed near by but unprotected by the hand- 
kerehief. This experiment, says Arago,* shows that the walls of espaliers 
afford to the plants, and distribute to them at night, a little more heat 
than they have absorbed during the day, and also mechanically arrest 
the cold winds, acting like screens, and diminishing the great loss of 
caloric which the plants would have experienced by their radiation, if 
a great part of the sky had not been hidden from them by the walls. 

We must ascertain by practical experiment what shape and composi- 
tion of screens are most suitable for protecting wall trees and other 
vegetation from frost. Mr. R. Thompson has shown that different kinds 
of screens will protect, to a certain range of temperature only, some 
species of trees, but not others. For example, straw sereens will protect 
peach trees in blossom from the effects of 12° of frost, while coping- 
boards will be sufficient for about 4°. We must, therefore, combine the 
circulation of air and the conductibility and radiation of heat with the 
form and quality of different screens. 


PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT ARABLE SOILS. 


The knowledge of the physical properties of soils is of the highest im- 
portance in agronomy and agriculture. It precedes the study of chemi- 
cal properties, which are secondary and much more complicated. They 
are the only ones that the first agricultural authors have given as 
characteristic signs of the qualities of soil. Virgil, Varro, Columella, 


_and other philosophers of antiquity mention them. The science being 


then in its infancy, these first essays had no appl. ‘ation to agriculture. 
And still, at the present time, agriculturists judge in vain of the quali- 
ties of earths by their color, their relative moisture, their consistence, 
the appearance of their vegetation, &c. These indications, more or less 
vague, not reposing on any scientific basis, have, consequently, very 
little practical value. 

The study of the physical properties of soils did not command the 
attention of savants until 1757, when they commenced the chemical 
analysis of soil. The first experiments were made by a Bernois savant, 
who limited his examinations to the weight of earth, and its facility for 
absorbing water. The celebrated German agriculturist, Thaér, paid 
great attention to the physical properties in his “* Analyses of Earths ;” 
but he did not submit them to a series of comparative experiments. 

Christian L. Schiibler, appointed in 1816 professor of physics and 
chemistry, applied to agriculture, at Hoffwyl, asked himself where was 
the science he was about to teach, and perceived that it did not exist. It 
was then that he studied for the first time agriculture as a physicist, 
and sought for the best means for determining and comparing the 
diverse physical properties of soils.t He discovered that the spe- 
cific weight of earth was always in relation to its facility for retaining 
heat, and of drying promptly; that the facility for retaining water em- 


* Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, Paris, 1828. Annales de Agriculture Frangaise, 
Paris, 1827, vol. xi, p. 197. 

+ His researches appeared first in the newspapers of Hoffwyl; by abstract in the 
Bibliotheque Britannique. It forms the second section ef agronomy in a German work en- 
titled “ Principles of Agricultural Chemistry, in more direct reference to the Economy of 
Agriculture and Forestry.” Second edition, revised and improved by Professor Krutzsch. 
‘Tharaud, in Saxony, 1838, and in his German translation of Chaptal’s Agricultural 
Chemistry. 


142 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


braces that of absorbing the moisture and the oxygen of the air with 
rapidity, &c. 

We have already stated that the physical properties of arable soils, 
and the physical influences of the atmosphere, have a greater direct 
action upon vegetation than those properties and influences purely 
chemical, because the first are anterior to and serve as a basis for the 
last. We proceed to corroborate this announcement by the learned 
opinion of the celebrated chemist and agriculturist, Boussingault, which 
‘proves how far this question is still in its infancy. He says: 


At an epoch which is not yet very distant, it was believed that a close connection 
existed between the composition and the quality of arable soil. Numerous analyses 
soon modified this opinion by demonstrating that the mineral elements have not 
always the importance which is attributed to them. Schiibler tried even to prove 
that the fertility of a soil depends a great deal more upon its physical properties, its 
aggregate condition, its aptitude for imbibition, &c., than on its chemical constitution. 
That which characterizes cultivable soil, whose base consists of disaggregated mineral 
substances, is the presence of organic remains more or less modified, such as humus and 
compost. Vegetable earth, properly called, results from this association. In regard to 
its intimate nature, we fear not to affirm that, in spite of its apparent simplicity, we 
have still a very imperfect knowledge of it. This absorbing faculty, as mysterious aq 
unexpected, which the soil exercises on ammonia, lime, potash, and the salts of different 
bases, discovered by Thompson and Way, is a palpable proof of it. The chemical 
composition and the physical properties do not admit of pronouncing upon the degree 
of fertility of earth. Direct observation is necessary. It is imperative to cultivate a 
plant in the soil, and ascertain its vigor and development. The analysis will be useful 
in determining the quantity and quality of assimilating elements.* 


The memoir of Schiibler comprises one hundred pages. I have made 


an abstract of the principal parts which may interest farmers, excluding 
all the tables of the physical properties of different soils. I may add 


that the experiments of Schiibler are unique up to the present time, and. 


still preserve their scientific value on that account. 

Weight of the soil_—In determining this, a particular distinction is to 
_ be made between the peculiar specific gravity of the several portions 
of earth, and the absolute weight of a determinate volume, as of a cubie 
inch or foot of the several soils. 

1. Sand, either in its wet or dry state, is the heaviest part of arable 
soil, certain fine slaty marls approaching the nearest to sand in this re- 
spect. 

2. Oalcareous and siliceous sands differ but little in this point, calea- 
reous sand being, however, the heaviest of the common constituents of 
arable soil. 

3. The clays are lighter the more clay and the less sand they contain. 

4, Lime exhibits great difference in weight, according to its fineness 
and mode of preparation. In slaked lime the weight is remarkably less, 
even after it has been resaturated with carbonicacid. The explanation 
of this seems to be the great expansion of quicklime on its combination 
with water. Dolomite sand, or a combination of lime and carbonate 
of magnesia, is much heavier than either of its component parts in a 
separate state. Its specific gravity rises to 2.82 and 2.83, and even mag- 
nesian stony marls often possess this greater weight. 

5. The carbonates of magnesia, obtained by precipitation from solu- 
tions, are the least weighty of the usual ingredients of soil. In arable 
soils magnesia 1s usually found in combination with lime or silica, where 
its form is coarser, and its physical properties resemble more closely 
those of sand. 

6. Humus has the least spesific gravity, and, excepting pure artificial 
magnesia, the least absolute weight. 


* Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1859, vol. xii, p. 354. 


* 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 143 


7. Compound arable soils are generally lighter as they are propor- 
tionally richer in humus. This fact alone does not positively indicate 
the fertility of asoil, since the humus itself differs in weight, and the 
other pure earths exhibit diversity of weight according to their ‘fineness ; 
consequently, mixed earths may acquire very different average weights. 
On this point specific gravity furnishes more certain evidence than abso 
lute weight. 

8. The designations of light and heavy soils, as usually employed, 


‘refer to the different consistence of the earths, and not to their specific 


gravity or absolute weight; clay soils, wet and dry, are heavier than 
sandy soils. 
Weight of artificial mixtures of earths.»When different earths are ar- 


tificially combined, a cubic inch of the compound gives a greater weight 


than the common average of the component earths, whether mixed in 
equal portions, according to weight and volume, or in other quantities. 

Power of soil to contain water .—By this term we understand the prop- 
erty of earths to receive and retain water within their interstices, 
without allowing any to escape. Itis of the greatest importance to 
vegetation, for on it depends the quantity of aqueous nourishment the 
soil can receive and supply to the roots of plants—an essential source 
of vegetable nutriment. 

1, The sands are most deficient in this power; its degree varies, ac- 
cording to fineness in the grain, from 20 to 40 per cent.; siliceous sand 
has the least power of all. 

2. Gypsum powder approaches the sands in this respect, and has even 
less power of containing water than calcareous sand. 

3. Slaty marl, despite its proportion of clay, exhibits very little of 
this power, and renders soil both warm and dry. This marl is fre- 
quently applied to the improvement of vineyards in Germany. 

4, In carbonate of lime this water-holding power varies according to 
fineness of the particles; a distinction is important, therefore, between 
the fine lime separated by decantation and the earthy lime as found in 
the form of sand in arable lands. 

5. Carbonate of magnesia exists in a coarse-grained state, combined 
with lime or siliceous earth, in arable soils, and retains water only in a 
slight degree, 

6. Humus, with its large natural proportion of half-decomposed or- 
ganic remains, as wood, leaves, roots, &c., has the greatest degree of 
this power. One hundred parts of the fine earth formed by decaying 
wood in old trees are capable of absorbing nearly two hundred parts of 
water; and some light turfearths can contain from three hundred to 
three hundred and sixty parts, even when dried artificially. Where we 
meet with the power of retaining more than ninety parts of water, we 
may depend upon an abundant commixture of organic matter. 

Firmness and consistency of soil—These two qualities are of agreat im- 
portance in regard to the fertility and the manipulation of land; the 
terms, universal in husbandry, of light and heavy soil, rest mainly on 
these properties, and they therefore deserve investigation in regard to 
both dry and moist conditions of the earth. 

1. If we compare the consistency of earths with their weight, we shall 
see that the customary terms of heavy and light soil are founded upon 
the cohesion of soil within itself and its adhesion to agricultural imple- 
ments, and they therefore indicate its working properties rather than 
its weight. The comparative ease with which roots penetrate the soil 
will probably accord with these conditions. 

2. The consistency and firmness of soils in the dry and wet state in- 


144 _ AGRICULTURAL REDON. 


crease in the same ratio. Clay lands, either wet or dry, are the most 
difficult to work; sandy soils, and those containing much humus, are 
the most easy. . 

3. The firmness and consistency of a soil are not in the direct degree 
of its power of containing water; thus, fine lime and magnesia and 
humus possess but little consistency, although they can contain much 
water.’ We cannot, therefore, infer the existence of the one property 
from that of the other. 

4, Consistency generally exceeds in clayey soils, but not invariably. 
Fine, slaty marl, notwithstanding its great proportion of clay, has but 
slight consistence. The finest kind of pipe-clay in its dry state is only 
forty-two, and therefore less by half than that of the heavy, gray clay of 
arable soils. 

5. Light, sandy soils gain cohesive power by moisture; therefore, a 
damp climate, with a large average quantity of rain, will be found most 
advantageous to sandy districts. Even the purest sand, which in its 
dry state loses all its consistence and falls into a shapeless powder, re- 
gains a certain degree of cohesiveness on again being wetted. 

6. With all the earths, adhesion to wood exceeds that to iron; and the 
apparent contradiction of the fact that, in wet weather land is more 
easily worked with wooden than with iron implements, is explained not 
by the less degree of adhesion to wood, but by the weight of the iron 
implements causing them to sink deeper into the soil. 

Diminution of the consistency of soil by the penetration of frost.—After 
the thorough freezing of soil in a wet state, its degree of consistence is 
greatly decreased. This is especially the case with clays and soils of 
great firmness, where the diminution amounts to nearly one-half; with 
loamy clay the reduction reaches from sixty-nine to forty-five, and with 
ordinary arable soil from thirty-three to twenty. Completely dry earths 
suffer no change from the action of frost. This is because -the crystalli- 
zation of the waiter in the interstices of the soil by freezing forces the 
several particles of earth from their position, and thus renders the 
points of contact fewer. The beneficial influence of breaking up the 
soil before winter sets in, to allow the frost to penetrate more readily, 
depends upop this diminution of consistency. Lf the soil is worked in 
too wet a state in early spring the beneficial results are lost by again 
bringing the earthy particles into close contact. The throwing out of 
plants in changeable winters is caused by the alternate freezing and 
thawing of the ground, and the accompanying displacement of earthy 
particles forcing the roots of smaller plants out of the earth, but not 
displacing the larger ones. 

Capability of soils to become speedily dry.—It is a question of consider- 
able importance in vegetation whether a soil gives up its acquired 
moisture again to the air quickly, or retains possession of it for a long 
time in its force. 

1. The terms of a hot or cold, a dry or wet, soil rest chiefly on this 
capacity. Sand, gypsum, and slaty marl dry most quickly, and are 
consequently called hot soils. 

2. Carbonate of lime varies in this respect according to the different 
forms in which it occurs. Calcareous sand dries quickly, and fine car- 
bonate of lime slowly. The latter has, besides its chemical action on 
hamus, the advantage of loosening the soil after it is dried. 

3. This property of the earths, to require a longer or shorter time to 
become dry, might seem to stand in the same relation as their power of 
containing water, and, with thin layers, this is nearly always the case; 
but with layers some inches in depth the proportion deviates consider- 


- 
AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. 145 


ably; the deeper layers, in this case, drying more slowly, according to 
their degree of consistency, and to their greater or less contraction on 
drying. Dry soils, with a large proportion of clay, exhibit this variation 
in an especially striking manner. ; 

Diminution of bulk on drying.—Most ‘soils contract on drying, ard 
cracks and fissures ensue, which have an injurious effect on vegetation, 
as the finer roots, which frequently supply the bulk of nourishment, are 
either bared or torn asunder. 

1, Gypsum diminishes its volume in an inconsiderable degree. 

2, Fine carbonate of lime loses but little bulk, while clay exceeds it, 
and humus exhibits a remarkable degree of contraction. 

3. The addition of sand, or carbonate of lime to clay, diminishes this 
- property of contraction. 

4, Many kinds of mar! fall into small pieces on drying, because of the 
great difference which clay and lime, the elements of marl, experience 
in their diminution of bulk on drying, after having been moistened, 
these individual parts changing their volume in different degrees, and 
thus causing a more easy disintegration. 

5. Humus experiences, on drying, the greatest diminution of bulk, 
contracting at least one-fifth, and expanding again under the action of 
moisture. This is why the upper surface of the earth, in damp, turf 
bottoms, containing much humus, frequently rises or sinks several inches, 
according as the soil is penetrated with more or less water. The eleva- 
tion of these soils is more remarkable during a sharp frost, after wet 
weather, the freezing, by its expansion, still further increasing the vol- 
wine of the particles of water within the turf. Hence, too, the reason 
why these turf bottoms have, in their wet state, a remarkable elasticity 
if heavily trodden upon. 

Property of the earths to absorb moisture from the atmosphere.—Most of 
the earths which are commonly found in soils have the property, in their 
dry state, of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere, and this influ- 
ences, considerably, their different degrees of fertility. 

1. All soils, excepting siliceous sand, thus absorb moisture. Slaty 
mnarl, similar to the sands in some conditions, surpasses them in this 
respect; clay soils, especially those containing humus, absorb most 
freely. 

2. Humus, although possessing the greatest power of absorption, ex- 
hibits degrees of difference according to its kinds; purely vegetable 
humic acid absorbs moisture more freely than that obtained from animal 
manure. i 

3. The degree of absorption lessens as soils become saturated with 
moisture, which generally occurs in a few days. A portion of the ab- 
sorbed moisture becomes vaporized by the action of sunlight, and thus 
is performed a natural operation which exerts a very beneficial effect 
upon vegetation. The earths absorb, at night, moisture which they par- 
tially give off during the day. ‘ 

4, While fertile arable soils absorb moisture freely, this is not an in- 
fallible test of their properties, and the test requires much modification 
in its application. 

Property of carths to absorb oxygen gas from the atmosphcere.—Alexander 
Vou Humboldt, many years ago, pointed out this property of the earths, 
and experiment contirms it, always providing that the earths are in a 
moist condition. 

1. All the earths lose this property upon drying, and regain it as soon 
as they are moistened. 

2. aS exhibits it in the greatest degree ; the clays approach near- 

A 


146 - AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


est to it, and the sands absorb least. Fertile earths absorb more than 
those poorer in humus and clay. The included air, standing over them, 
at last becomes so void of oxygen, that lights are extinguished, and ani- 
mals die in it. 

3. The methods of absorption differ; humus combines partly with the 
oxygen, chemically; the inorganic earths absorb the gas without inti- 
mate combination. 

4, When earths are frozen or covered with an icy surface, absorption 
of oxygen ceases; and the action increases with the warmth of temper- 
ature, varying from 59° to 653° F. Many phenomena prove that oxygen 
is an important agent in vegetable as well as in animal economy. It is 
particularly necessary to the germination of seeds and the growth of 
plants. By turning up the soil in any manner fresh layers are brought 
into contact with and fertilized by the oxygen, and as a moist condition 
of soil favors this absorption, it should be preserved. 

Power of the earths to vetain heat.—The earths have the power of re- 
taining the warmth which they accuinulate from the atmosphere and the 
heat of the sun, and of giving it out to surrounding bodies. Itis different 
from specific heat, and its degree depends upon the capacity of the body 
for conducting heat. 

1. The sands possess this power to the greatest extent; hence the 
heat and dryness of sandy districts in summer. Their slight water- 
coutaining power, in consequence of which little warmth is lost by evap- 
oration, increases this condition. 

2. Slaty marl stands next to sand in this capacity; and this, joined to 
its greater power of retaining water, contributes largely to its fertility. 

3. Humus has the least power of retaining beat, and turf soils abound- 
ing in humas warm but slowly, because they contain water, only a small 
portion of which they lose rapidly by evaporation. 

4, Magnesia, combined with sands and slaty marls, largely possesses 
this heat-retaining power. 

5. The greator the mass of an earth the more extensive will be its 
power of retaining heat. We may, therefore, from the absolute weight 
of an earth conclude tolerably well in regard to the extent of its power. 

Warming of soils by the sun.—The various earths acquire heat from the 
sun in different proportions, and this property may exert a sensible 
influence on vegetation. -Land eonsisting of light-colored clay warms 
less quickly and powerfully in the sunlight than a dark, dry Soil; black 
garden-mold, rich in humus, becomes much warmer than meager lime- 
stone or clay soils. Very different external circumstances may affect 
the warming of the soils, and may be classed as follows: 1st, the different 
colors of the surface earths; 2d, the different degrees of dampness present 
- during the exposure of the earths to the sun’s influence; 3d, the compo- 
nent materials of the earths; 4th, the different angles at which the sun’s 
rays fall upon the soil. ; 

1. The’intluence of the eolor of soils on the quantity of heat received 
by them may be tested as follows: Place thermometers in the several 
soils, covering their bulbs an eighth of an inch high with earth; sprinkle 
the surfaces, by means of a fine-lawn sieve, with lampblack for a black 
color, and magnesia for a white, leaving one soil of.its natural color. 
In August, with a temperature in the shade of 77° F., the increase with 
the black color was found by Professor Schiibler, of the University of 
Tiibingen, to be from 77° to 1234° F.; the white from 77° to 110° F.; 
and the natural color from 77° to 112459 F. Thus, the increase of tem- 
perature with the black-colored earth was 464°; with the white, 33°; 
and with the natural, 354°. Other colored earths exhibit corresponding 


AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY. — 147 


differences of degree in temperature. When exposed for hours to the 
sun they never attain the same degree of heat—the black earths acquir- 
ing the greatest heat aud the lighter ones remaining cooler. 

2. If we expose earths of the same kind in a dry and a wet state to 
the sun, the wet earth never attains an equal degree of heat with the 
dry. The depression of temperature arising from evaporation amounts 
to 114° to 1359 F. As long as the earths remain saturated with water 
they show little difference in their heat-acquiring powers, as they give 
off to the air, in this condition, nearly equal quantities of vapor in the 
same length of time; as they gradually dry, the difference in temperature 
increases. Light-colored earths, with great water-containing powers, 
acquire heat slowly, while dark-colored sand and slates, containing less 
moisture, become heated more quickly and powerfully. 

3. The different ingredients which enter into the composition of soils 
have, in themselves, far less influence on the capacity of soils to become 
warmed by the sun than their color and dryness. If we impart, artifi- 
cially, to earths the same color and expose them in a similarly dry con- 
dition to the sun, the differences in temperature will be inconsiderable; 
so that the various capacities of earths, in their natural state, for re- 
ceiving heat from the sun, depend particularly upon their color and dry- 
ness. 

4, The inclination of the ground toward the sun has a very consider- 
able influence on the degree of heat which the soil receives from its 
tays, and the greater warmth is produced as the incidence of the ray 
approaches more nearly to aright angle, or 90°, with the surface. If 
the actual increase of the temperature in the sun over that in the shade 
be between 45° and 65°, as is often the case on clear summer days, this 
increase would: be only half as great if the same light spread itself, in a 
more slanting direction, over a surface twice as extended. This is the 
reason why beat so frequently increases on the slopes of mountains and 
rocks which have an inclination toward the south. When the sun is at 
an elevation of 60° above the horizon, as is more or less the case toward 
noon in the middle of summer, the sun’s rays fall on the slopes of 
mountains which are raised to an inclination of 30° to the horizon, at a 
right angle; but even in the later months of summer the sun’s rays 
frequently fallon them under aright angle in cases where the slopes 
are yet steeper. Such declivities, particularly in the geographical lati- 
tude of Germany, are therefore peculiarly suited to the cultivation of 
plants which require a high temperature, such as the vine. By an 
accurate comparison of the power of the sun’s rays to warm the soil, 
with reference to the different seasons, we shall perceive more distinctly 
the influence of the different inclinations of the ground toward the sun. 

Capacity of soils to develop heat within themselves on being moistened.— 
Powdery substances in general, and consequently the earths, possess the 
property of developing warmth when moistened while in a dry state; 
but in nature they are scarcely ever found in this perfectly dry condi- 
tion. The rain falling in warm seasons is many degrees colder than the 
lower stratum of the atmosphere and the upper surface of the earth, 
which it immediately moistens; so that the earth in hot weather becomes 
rather cooler than otherwise by the rain. When the earth has previously 
been very dry, the cooling of it by the rain ean only be reduced about 
one degree of Fahrenheit, and this would have little effect on vegetation, 
and in the colder seasons, when the earth is already damp, so slight a 
development must be inappreciable. } 

Galvanic and electrical relations of the earths —The pure earths, as 
sand, lime, magnesia, and gypsum, in their dry state, are non-conductors; 


148 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the clays are imperfect conductors; and the clayey earths are weak, im- 
perfect conductors. The presence of the moisture and of oxide of iron, 
found in all the clays, appears to be the base of this phenomenon. 

Influence of the simple earths on the germination of seeds—The devel- 
opment of the germ depends upon the looseness, moisture, and tempera- 
ture of the soil, as well as upon its warmth and consistence. 

1. In moist siliceous and calcareous sand the grains germinate in sum- 
mer in afew days, and develop well, but suffer as hot weather approaches. 

2. In gypsum powder they develop indifferently. 

5. In sandy clay no proper development takes place. 

4, This is also the case in loamy and stiff clay. 

5. In pure clay no change whatever occurs, but the grains develop 
well when transferred to proper soil. 

6. In pure carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and slaty marl, as 
well asin pure humus, garden-mold, and arable soil, the seed germinate 
well—the young plants in warm weather developing themselves most 
beautifully in the humus, and in the carbonate of magnesia, in conse- 
quence, probably, of the greater power of containing water which these 
earths possess. 

Soil as adapted to climate—In such warm countries as have also a 
small mean quantity of rain, those kinds of soil which have a great 
power of containing water will, if other circumstances are the same, be 
the best; while those soils which have, on the contrary, a small power 
of containing water will be found better suited for countries with a 
greater amount of rain. Those very soils, therefore, may be fertile for 
one country which become no longer so fer another, under a change of 
external circumstances; the usual alternation of dry and wet years 
being on the same principle, more favorable to the one or to the other 
country, according as their predominating soils respectively possess a 
greater or less degree of this power of containing water. 

General remarks on the foregoing.—In the examination of soils, the 
determination of their power of containing water, and of their weight, 
consistency, and color, in connection with their chemical analysis, will, 
in the majority of cases, be sufficient to enable us to conclude, with great 
probability, as to their remaining physical properties. The more an 
earth weighs, the greater also in general is its power of retaining heat; 
the darker its colon and at the same time the smaller its power of re- 
taining water, the mere quickly and strongly wili it be heated by the 
sun’s rays; the greater its power of containing water, the more has it 
in general the power also of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere 
when it is in a dry state, and oxygen when it is in a @amp state, and the 
slower it usually is to become dry, especially when it is endued at the 
same time with a high degree of consistency. Lastly, the greater the 
power of containing water, and at the same time, the consistency of a 
soil, the colder and wetter of course that soil will be, as well as the stiffer 
to work, either in a wet or dry state, and the more judicious therefore 
will it be to break it up before the setting in of the frost, in order that 
its consistency may be improved by the due penetration of the frost 
during the winter; and for the cultivation of many plants, the more 
requisite will it be found for the permanent improvement of such a soil, 
te counteract its too great consistency and power of containing water 
by mixing it with. looser earths, as lime, marl, and sand. 

In this and the preceding report, the French thermometrical centigrade 
scale has been used frequently. To convert this into the Fahrenheit 
scale, we must remember that 5 centigrade degrees are equal to 9° 
Fahrenheit; so each centigrade degree amounts to 1.8° of I‘ahrenheit, 


AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 149 


It must be remembered also that the zero or freezing point of the cen- 
tigrade corresponds to 32° Fahrenheit. \ n 
ANDRE POEY 


Hon. HORACE CAPRON, 
Commissioner. 


THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
A REPORT OF ITS HISTORY AND PROGRESS. 


Sire: In conformity with your request, I submit a brief sketch of the 
American Pomological Society, its history, its progress, and its work. 
The convention which laid the foundation of this society first. assembled 
in the city of New York, pursuant to a call signed in behalf of the horti- 
cultural societies of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New 
Haven, and the American Institute, on the 10th of October, 1848. The 
objects of this convention were stated in the cirewlar by which it was 
called, as follows: 

To compare fruits from various sources and localities with a view of arriving at 
correct conclusions as to their merits, and to settle doubtful points respecting them; 
to assist in determining the synonyms by which the same fruit is known in different 
parts of the country; to compare opinions respecting the value of the numerous vari- 
eties already in cultivation, and to endeavor to abridge, by general consent, the long 
catalogue of indifferent or worthless sorts at the present time propagated by nursery- 
men and fruit-growers; toelicit and disseminate pomological information, and to main- 
tain a cordial spirit of intercourse among horticulturists. 

Nearly all the leading fruit-growers and pomologists of the country 
were present, among whom may be named the late A. J. Downing, Wi- 
liam R. Prince, William Reid, and Dr. R. T. Underhill, of New York; 
Dr. W. D. Brincklé, of Pennsylvania; Samuel Walker, B. V. French, 
and H. H. Crapo, of Massachusetts; Dr. A. S. Munson, of Connecticut ; 
A. H. Ernst, of Chio; Thomas Hancock, of New Jersey; L. C. Haton, 
of Rhode Island; Joshua Pierce, of Washington, D. C.; and Dr. J. W. 
Thompson, of Delaware; and of those who still live, John J. Thomas, 
P. Barry, Charles Downing, S. B. Parsons, and George Ellwanger, of 
New York; Lawrence Young, of Kentucky; Charles M. Hovey and 
Robert Manning, of Massachusetts; Edward 'atnail, of Delaware ; 
Robert Buist and Thomas P. James, of Pennsylvania; and Ff’, R. Elliott, 
of Ohio. 

The convention was called to order by General Tallmadge, president 
of the American Institute, and its presiding officer was the present in- 
cumbent of the chair, with a vice-president from every State represented. 
The secretaries were S. B. Parsons, of New York; George Deacon, of 
New Jersey; and P. Barry, of New York. 

This convention adopted the title of “The American Congress of 
Fruit-Growers.” Its first work was the appointment of a special fruit 
committee, of which the late A. J. Downing was chairman, to report a 
list of fruits worthy of general cultivation. After a session of three 
days spent in the discussion of this list—which resulted in its adoption, 
with very few changes—and in interesting discussions of other varieties, 
the congress adjourned to meet in the city of New York, on the first 
Tuesday of October, 1849. 

A similar meeting was held about the same time at Buffalo, New York, 
under the auspices of the New York State Agricultural Society, which 


150 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


took the title of the North American Pomological Convention, and 
which, at the meeting in New York, October, 1849, was united with the 
American Congress of I'ruit-Growers, under the name of the American 
Pomological Congress. 

The next meeting of the congress was at Cincinnati, in 1850. The 
president, however, owing to a death in his family, was unable to be 
present, and Dr. W. D. Brincklé was chosen president. Since this meet- 
ing the sessions have been held biennially, the next being at Philadei- 
phia, in 1852, when, Dr. Brincklé having declined a re-election, the former 
presiding officer was again called to the chair, which he has occupied 
ever since. At this session the death of Mr. Downing, which occurred 
a short time,previously, was announced in a eulogy delivered by the 
president, at the invitation of the horticultural societies of Pennsylvania 
and Massachusetts. A constitution and by-laws were also adopted, and 
the name was changed to the “American Pomological Society.” The 
session of 1854 was at Boston; 1856 at Rochester; 1858 at New York, 
when a large number cf varieties of fruits was added to the rejected 
list, making, with seventy-two pears discarded in 1854, and a few at 
other sessions, six hundred and twenty-five varieties of fruits rejected. 
The session of 1860 was at Philadelphia; 1862 at Boston, when the 
present plan of the society’s catalogue was adopted, and 1864 at Roch- 
ester. The session of 1867 was held at St. Louis, being the first meeting 
west of the Mississippi River; that of 1869 at Philadelphia, when for 
the first time specimens of fruit from California were shown, as well as 
fine exhibitions from Kansas and other new States, and that for 1871 is 
appointed at Richmond, Virginia, on the 6th, 7th, and 8th of September, 
when, it is anticipated, the whole country, South and North, will be more 
fwly represented, both by men and fruits, than ever before. 

The progress made by this society is forcibly shown by the fact that, 
while our select list of twelve pears in 1848 had, only eight years later, 
increased to ninety-four, the standard of excellence has not been lowered, 
but raised. Twenty-five years ago, every new fruit of good quality was 
at once recommended for more or less extensive cultivation. If a good 
bearer, it was so much the better; if a hardy and vigorous tree, better 
still; but quality was all that was deemed indispensable; while to-day 
a fruit must combine, in a good degree, all these and many other points, 
or it will not stand the test of this society; and even some of those 
then thought most desirable are now on the rejected list. We hear no 
more of varieties which, though not of sufficient excellence for extensive 
cultivation, are yet so good that a single tree should be in every large 
collection ; a sort worthy of no more extensive cultivation is now 
deemed not worth growing at.all. 

The American Pomological Society has brought together, from more 
than thirty States and provinces, the most intelligent, experienced, sa- 
gacious, and skillful cultivators, who have taught each other and made 
the knowledge of one the property of all. Its example has led to the 
formation of similar associations in England, France, and Belgium, and 
of local associations in our own country. 

its published proceedings, embracing reports of discussions, reports of 
committees, catalogues, and papers on various pomological subjects, em- 
body, in a condensed form, a mass of information on this science—the 
best thoughts of the best cultivators throughout our land—possessed by 
no other nation on earth. Instead of the fifty-four varieties recom- 
mended in 1848, its catalogue now contains the names of five hundred 
and eighty fruits, viz: one hundred and seventy-six applies, one hundred 
and seventeen pears, thirty-nine cherries, filty-one peaches, six nec- 


AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 151 


tarines, twelve apricots, thirty-six plums, four quinces, thirty-seven 
native grapes, twenty-two foreign grapes, twenty currants, thirteen 
gooseberries, eighteen raspberries, four blackberries, and twenty-five 
strawberries. The list of one hundred and twenty-six varieties rejected 
in 1849 has grown to six hundred and twenty-five, viz: one hundred 
and twenty-six apples, three hundred and fifty-one pears, five apricots, 
thirty-two cherries, two grapes, thirty-one plums, three raspberries, and 
seventy-five strawberries; making a total of one thousand two hundred 
and five varieties of fruit on which the society has set the stamp of its 
approval or rejection. 

While the results achieved by other societies are of undoubted local 
value, the work of this national society is a common possession to every 
inhabitant of our wide land. Perhaps the most important and valuable 
work it has accomplished, is its catalogue of fruits adapted to the various 
sections of our country. Into this is condensed the substance of all its 
proceedings and the various State reports. This list is in a progressive 
state, and with every revision it may be expected to approximate more 
nearly to perfection. 

The number of delegates attending the first meetings at New York 
was 107, while our present list of members counts 311, from almost every 
State and Territory. The cultivation of fruits has so greatly increased 
since the formation of this society that it is difficult to convey any idea 
‘ of its expansion to those who have not watched it from the beginning. 
At that time the work of testing the best varieties of the pear had not 
generally commenced, and the few pear orchards planted were on a very 
limited scale, while now we have orchards of tens of thousands of trees, 
and single varieties planted by the five thousand. The native grape, 
as to its improvement, and consequently its cultivation on an-extensive 
_ seale, may almost be said to have been created since the origin of this 
society. Among these new varieties are those so well adapted to every 
part of the country, that we, find vineyards covering in the aggregate 
thousands of acres, where formerly not one was to be seen. The plant- 
ing of grapes for wine was then hardly thought of, and California, where 
nearly four million gallons of wine were made in 1870, was then practi- 
cally an unknown land. Indeed, in the whole history of horticulture 
nothing has ever been witnessed like its progress on our western coast. 
In regard to the grape, who can doubt that California, with its high 
temperature and dry atmosphere, fully equal to the most favored por- 
tions of Europe, with suitable lands of almost boundless extent, where 
grapes are produced at as littie cost as anywhere on the globe, and 
where in some sections of the State wine can be stored in open sheds in- 
stead of costly cellars, without injury, is destined to become one of the 
greatest grape-growing and wine-producing countries of the earth? Al- 
ready some of their wines, made from foreign grapes, compare so favora- 
bly with the sherries and Burgundies of Europe as to leave no doubt of 
their being legitimately classed with these, and with which, considering 
their age, they do not suffer by comparison. The fig grows almost spon- 
taneously, and bears abundantly ; avd as soon as the process of drying 
is understood, it will become one of the most important products of the 
soil. The culture of the almond and olive, as well as of silk, gives prom- 
ise of profitable results. 

In regard to progress in the cultivation of small fruits we select the 
strawberry as the most important. In the first select list of this society 
only three sorts were mentioned, while the present list contains twenty- 
five kinds approved for cultivation in some part of the country, not to 
meution the hundreds of others possessing more or less merit which 


152 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


have been introduced, and the. many now under examination by the 
society. The extent of plantations of this fruit has increased in a cor- 
responding ratio. From Norfolk, Virginia, where twenty years ago its 
cultivation had not commenced, two millions of quarts have been sent 
to the market in one season; apd from a single railroad station in Mli- 
nois, a thousand bushels have been sent daily to market. . I might 
speak in a Similar strain of the other small fruits, which in many fami- 
lies form almost the total diet in the summer season. As to the apple 
and peach, their cultivation has so increased as to be hardly stated on 
paper. Then, the interest, discussions, and correspondence in regard to 
fruits were confined to narrow limits; now, through the members and 
the publications of this society, it has spread all over the country. 
Then, the principles and practice of fruit culture were unsettled and un- 
systematized; now, by the united experience of the oldest and best eul- 
tivators in the land, many of these have been well determined, thus 
furnishing the most reliable information. Then, very few experiments 
had been made in artificial hybridization or cross-fertilization for 
the production of new varieties of fruit; now, enterprising cultivators 
all over the country are using those processes of scientific manipulation 
to originate improved varieties. ‘These experiments have thus far been 
made chiefly with the grape and strawberry, but they will doubtless soon 
be applied to other fruits; so that the production of new varieties, 
suited to every locality in the country, is but a question of time. Then, . 
the nomenclature of our fruits was in a chaotic state; now, this confusion 
has been so far cleared up and systematized that one of the most strik- 
ing points in regard to the collections of fruits exhibited from Kansas 
and other new States is the correctness and uniformity of their nomen- 
clature, and the same observation may be made in regard to the varie- 
ties cultivated in California, as we have witnessed the past season, 

No better illustration could be given of the value of the work of this © 
society, than the fact that, whether on the Atlantic or Pacific coast, or 
in the central valleys, its publications are eagerly sought after as author- 
ity, thus giving a standard of pomology to every section of our country. 
By reference to its catalogue the cultivator in any State, and in some 
instances any section of a State, can ascertain at a glance what varie- 
ties of fruit have been proved by experience to be best adapted to his 
locality. By constant revision, and the addition of new fruits as fast as 
tested, and proved to be of value for general cultivation, these lists will 
become yearly more full and complete. Nor have the labors of the 
society been confined to designating the fruits most desirable for plant- 
ing; the rejected lists making known those which should not be 
planted, are at least of equal value. The researches of the society have 
not been confined to our own native fruits, but no sooner is a new 
foreign variety made known than it is transferred to our collection for 
trial, in the hope that it may be adapted to some section of our wide- 
spread country. Nor are these enterprises limited to this society; other 
associations, stimulated by our exertions, are recognizing the importance 
of fruit culture as one of the most pleasant and profitable departments 
of industry. Our labors have received the sanction of the Government, 
inasmuch as the Department of Agriculture has for many years directed 
its attention to this branch of its work. The collection of native grapes 
gathered under the direction of Mr. Saunders, the superintendent of 
the experimental garden of the Department, will be of the highest value 
to the grape-growers throughout the country, by testing the differ- 
ent varieties, and establishing a correct nomenclature of American 
grapes; while the collection ef Russian apples, lately procured by the 


REPORT OF THE EDITOR. RS 


Department, if it results in introducing a single variety, adapted like 
the Red Astrachan to every part of the country, or a variety which will 
endure the cold cf the Nerthwest, where the ordinary kinds fail from 
the severity of the winters, will be worth many times its cest to the 
country. : 

Among other objects specified in the circular by which the first meet 
ing of the Congress of Fruit-Growers was called together, is this: ‘To 
maintain a cordial spirit of intercourse among horticulturists;” and, 
although last mentioned, and to be effected rather by incidental and in- 
direct than by direct means, it has not been forgotten, as the joyous 
greetings and kindly partings, the generous hospitalities given and re- 
ceived at its meetings, bear witness. Nor has the influence of these 
amenities ceased with the close of our sessions, but remained with us, 
in pleasant anticipations of the time when we should again come 
together in mutual congratulations, as we hope and trust ever to do. 

MARSHALL P. WILDER. 

Hon. Horace CAPRON, 

Commissioner. 


REPORT OF THE EDITOR. 


Sm: The investigations and other labors of the Department, not 
reported either in the regular or special reports of the preceding pages, 
have been more numerous and more extended than in former years. 

Activity, approaching restlessness, is the predominent characteristic 
of agricultural thought in this country at the present time. The ambi- 
tious young farmer, with little capital in money and much in muscle, is 
seeking cheap land and promising branches of culture, while the culti- 
vator of advancing years and suecessful experience is turning from 
mere speculation in land to rational processes of scientific agriculture ; 
and this Department is daily called upon to lead the way in the solution 
of ‘knotty questions presented by workers in a broad field, laboring in 
every branch of rural avocation, trained to every degree of varied 
efficiency, and imbued with the teaching of every practical school of 
husbandry of the civilized world. It is made the province of the 
Department, by the organic act which instituted it, to aid in resolving 
these difficulties, and harmonizing the contrarieties in practice resulting 
from diverse education, occupation, climate, and other circumstances, 
by investigations, researches, and collocations of illustrative facts, more 
extended and persistent than individuals in these superficial times can 
afford to undertake. 

Necessarily this research is largely statistical, and the summary of its 
results must embrace material brought to light through its agency, as 
well as that communicated officially by coéperating societies, and to 
some extent the corroborative and allied facts presented in current pub- 
lications. In this view, the collection of ‘“ Current Facts in Agricul- 
ture,” and “Recent Farm Experiments,” made with regard to their 
intrinsic value for completeness and utility as a record for future refer- 
ence, is deemed a work of much importance, even though an occasional 
experimenter may have communicated the results of his labors to the 
public through some other channels. An eminent professor of practi- 
cal agriculture, in communicating his appreciation of this feature, 


154 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. : 
affirms that no one realizes fally the value and “‘comfort of having an 
assemblage of such facts, scattered through innumerable reports and 
papers, brought together into one focus year after year, so that the experi- 
menter and theorizer may have a large number of ascertained facts 
with which to compare his own experiments and his own theories.” 

The special investigations of the past year, many of which are not 
yet complete, include an examination into the industrial condition and 
progress of settlement and improvement of our immense Rocky Moun- 
tain area; the evidences of industrial diversification, and the adoption 
of advanced agricultural practice in the Southern States; the possibili- 
ties of great natural advantage in the introduction of plants manifestly 
suited to some section or climate of the country; the diseases and mor- 
tality of farm animals; the question of transportation of farm products, 
its cost and its abuses; the development of the industrial college enter- 
prise; the progress of beet-sugar making, forest culture, silk production, 
and other enterprises by which the varied tastes and capacities of our 
population, native and immigrant, may be utilized, the major industries 
of agriculture relieved from injurious competition in production, and 
the minor products required by the increasing wants of our civilization 
may be obtained from our own soils by our own labor. 

Much labor has been expended in the collection of facts illustrating 
the resources and settlement of Western America, the great region west 
of the valley of the Missouri, and fragments of this information may be 
found in the present report; but the theme is so large, the territory 
which it covers being continental in extent, and so isolated as to render 
its thorough canvass a difficult enterprise, that new and more extended 
researches will be undertaken, with the hope of presenting the freshest 
and most complete and condensed view of the capabilities and agri- 
cultural condition of this new territory ever yet offered to the public. A 
great obstacle to full success in this undertaking has been the extremely 
limited appropriations available for such work. 

Another important investigation, which is not yet complete, has rela- 
tion to the changes in the agriculture of the South, its products, pro- 
cesses, and labor. A section only of this material has been embodied in 
the present volume. Much valuable information has been obtained 
relative to the truck-farming and fruit-growing of this region, partly 
for local supply but mainly for northern markets; and the subject will 
be more fully examined for presentation in the next report. The rapid 
development of new enterprises in the production of subtropical fruits 
in Florida will greatly enhance the interest and value of a report thus 
necessarily deferred to include the operations of 1871. 

While this work has been continued by the Department, mainly by its 
reguiar working force and through its peculiar machinery and channels 
of communication, the arrangement of its collected material has been 
in some cases confided to experts employed temporarily for the purpose. 
Of. the matter which follows in the present volume, that relative to 
Epizootit apiha, the foot and mouth disease of cattle, which caused se 
much alarm in New York and New England, is given under the author- 
ity of Professor James Law, of Cornell University; the examination 
into the anatomy and diseases of the horse’s foot was made by Professor 
ZT. RK. Crosby, of the New Hampshire Agricultural College; the pecu- 
liarities of the agricultural patents of the year have been considered by 
Dr. J. Brainard, agricultural examiner in the Patent Office; the article 
on the food fishes of Alaska is supplementary to a former report upon 
the resources of that Territory, by Mr. Wm. H. Dall; in the arrangement 
of the abundant material descriptive of the character and abuses of the 


4 TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 155 
market systems of our large cities, the assistance of Mr. Joseph B. Lyman, 
agricultural editor of the New York Tribune, has been enjoyed; returns 
concerning the present status of Virginia agriculture were embodied 
by Mr. Thomas 8. Pleasants, of Petersburg, Virginia; the description of 
the agricultural capacity of Wyoming and a portion of Utah is a report 
by Rev. Cyrus Thomas, of an exploration made in 1870; Mr. N. C. Meeker 
reports the progress of colonization and the results of irrigation in the 
Territories; Dr. H. Latham, of Laramie City, Wyoming, communicates 
the statement concerning the pastoral capabilities of that region; Mr. 
Elihu Hall, of Athens, illinois, gives results of experiments with the 
grasses of the prairies and northern plains; and Dr. Edward Pal- 
mer presents the results of personal observations concerning food pro- 
ducts of the North American Indians. 

In the present volume are found continuations of the history of the 
organization and development in the work of industrial education, the 
annual digest of the State reports, the spirit of receut issues of agricul- 
tural literature, and other annual indices of rural activity and progress. 

J. KR. DODGE, 
’ Editor of Reports. 

Hon. HORACE CAPRON, 

Commvrissioner. 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 


The importance of careful experiment and detailed report by those to 
whom is intrusted the test of seeds distributed by this Department, 
has been repeatedly urged. The thoughtlessness or the greed which 
would cause the consumpticn or waste of new and approved grains or 
seeds, is guarded against by the exercise of care in the selection of the 
proper persons to make these tests; yet the Commissioner cannot be 
held responsible for that portion of the distribution made by members 
of Congress. ‘While returns detailing the experience of experimenters 
are yet too often neglected, there has been a vast improvement in the 
past year, which has secured more valuable reports in larger numbers. 
The benefits of the distribution as shown by these partial indices out- 
weigh its expense in a manifold degree, and show how, in the economy 
of nature, large production comes from smallest germs. While the cost 
of seed distribution in 1869 was but half a dollar for each thousand of 
the people, there is reliable evidence that a single specimen of grain 
distributed in one of the thirty-seven States has realized in enhanced 
production ten times the amount expended for all seeds sent to all the 
States in that year. 

The Department has distributed during the year ending December 
31, 1870, 358,391 packages of seeds, including the varieties mentioned 
in the accompanying tabular statement. Of these packages 4,624 
included under the head of miscellaneous were distributed to represent- 
atives of this Government abroad, and in exchange with foreign socie- 
ties and associations. The distribution during the year, as in the pre- 
ceding one, has been chietly made through members of Congress, statis- 
tical correspondents, meteorological observers, and State and county 
agricultural aud horticultural societies and farmers’ clubs, reporting 
regularly to the Department, 


156 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. é 


Tabular statement showing the quantity and kinds of seeds issued froin the seed division of the 
Department of Agriculture during the year ending December 31, 1870. 


| 
To whom sent. 
A hr 
| o S | =i ee Zz 
Seeds | a coe ge ree nd BOR) 
| ga | #2 eee ee 
(ope | eee ve | co 1 Se 
| a% | 86 Sole SS vee 5 
| s Ae debi) 9 ch Game 5 
A <4 Leoe | 4 | A < 
Vegetables, 149 varieties ...........--- packages. . 63, 047 | 57,973 | 61, 483 | 7,960 | 43,114 233, 577 
Flowers, 53 varietics ...-.....--.....2--.- dost. 22, 410 Cit) Bare EF Peer 19, 255 41,7 
Field cereals : | 
Winter wheat, 5 varieties .............. dozt=. | 13,069 | 2, 804 LMS A>. 2, 210 18, 104 
Winteriye, Uvanlety.-+------22---..<-- 0.22 2-5 ea | G10 Dee ee ee 231 3, 088 
Oats, 4 varieties . - | 2, 888 | 40 | 1, G77 10, 561 
Barley, 3 varieties. | 49 | 634 6, 632 
Worm Ml VATICLICS ac aeeccs-22-cc-+cnee ee do 316 316 
Textiles : 
Hemp, 3 varieties } 131 187 
Oh RS ee ee eee lo j 110 116 
Telit cg eee eS a do | 391 441 
Other seeds for field culture: 
Mmurmips, Jivarieties =... 62555522 --5206<< GOsasee- 4°325'| 20405)" ASOR0NIRe oo 363 7, 808 
MOVACTO. T VATICIMCS,.<- 52 -«nesas--50s Clesaee= Q1, 213 250. OTS | Case eae 1, 520 30, 258 
porghnm, 4*varieties 2). 22-2. 0c2-cs25e dors 2e Aa eoseeee LO eee 276 340 
Clover, EAT OLLOG ae oe aa ees gos--=22 95 4 a eee = 621 725 
SOROS NOTANU Be: ener Uae see eae eee cas 3 dose 2A [oS ete ee ee eee Ss 46 4R 
CITES 9 Cp CL ee AA ae TI ee ee ae 192 192 
RIGO FS WITIOUOS. 452: aioe ns wits eee FS Saal Bare eael eee ees aes clad lomoren oe 12 12 
Sugar beets, BD VATICLICS se-aco len eceeces ote 42 63 2 Se ee 203 320 
J ute, 2 2 varieties Se a a ee a ee Ss GO PAA Pesaran loas.te oe alooes seetlleeeeeee 453 453 
Rye erass, 2 varieties -....s02.2.s-ccce do: 512 130 BS | Reeae 203 1, 378 
Tree seeds, 95 WALIGUICN oe eed tes oee lle 5 Fees ab StI As le RR re WE os 2 2,110 2,110 
ROL Ale. See eee Ma Tea ra gM hes 133, 043 | 71,865 | 71,400 | 7,960 | 74,123 | 258, 391 


TAPPAHANNOCK WHEAT. 


The Tappahannock wheat, a winter variety, originating in Virginia, 
and first distributed and brought into general cultivation by this De- 
partment, is still a very general favorite. It is remarkable for product- 
iveness, early maturity, and consequent exemption from many of the 
evils attending wheat culture, and for the excellent quality of its flour, 
and is suited to a wide extent of country. Mr. Elisha O. Angell, of Man- 
ton, Providence County, Rhode Island, writes to the Commissioner that 
he has for two years sown the Tappahannock wheat, received from the 
Department through the Rhode Island Agricultural Society, and finds it 
an excellent grain, well adapted to the Northern States, hardy and free 
from blast or rust. He exhibited some of it at the N ew England and 
New Hampshire fair in September last, and received the first premium. 
He remarks that wheat which can be erown in Rhode Island near the 
sea-Shore with success, can be grown in almost any part of the country. 

In Onondaga County, New York, this wheat is fifteen days earlier 
than any other variety. A farmer in Cayuga County reports that on 
common soil, without extra manure or cultivation, it grew well, endured 
the winter well, the heads were large, and the kernel was plump, and 
from its earliness escaped both rust and weevil; while the Soules wheai, 
under like conditions of culture, was ten days later, and rusted badly, 
A correspondent in Madison County writes that he received from the 
Department, four years since, a few bags of Tappahannock wheat, and 
from that seed the variety is now extensively grown, and has proved a 
valuable acquisition in his section. In Ontario County it is reported to 
be a valuable variety, being nearly two weeks earlier than other wheat, 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 157 


thus escaping the midge and weevil, and it withstands the winter well. 
In Wayne County, last year, it produced twenty-eight bushels to one 
sown, and is considered a success. From Genesee County a farmer 
writes that he kad three acres of Tappahannock wheat on Tonawanda 
flats, (bottom land,) which yielded twenty-six bushels to the acre. It 
was earlier and produced better than any other variety in the neigh- 
borhood, doing best in rich, strong land. i 

In Salem County, New Jersey, the Tappahannock has been cultivated 
. with profit since 1866. -A correspondent reports that it ripens ten days 
‘earlier than the Amber or Blue Stem, and last fall weighed sixty-two 
pounds per bushel, while the Amber weighed fifty-six pounds. The 
yield compared with the Amber was as 3 to 2. He now has fifteen 
acres of the Tappahannock sown on four varieties of soil. 

In Tioga County, Pennsylvania, this wheat is ten days earlier than 
any other, the kernel plump, and the yield good. Itis also successful 
in Greene County. In Washington County the yield is thirty-fold, and 
in Lancaster County it produces twenty to twenty-two bushels per acre, 
while the Mediterranean yields only eight to ten. . From Chester County 
it is reported the most valuable of forty kinds grown there this year, on 
account of its early maturity. 

In Maryland the Tappahanneck thrives well, and by some is consid- 
ered the best winter wheat raised in the State, especially on account of 
the quality of its flour. In Baltimore County the ‘fappakannock is con- 
sidered a very valuable variety, and a correspondent thinks it would do 
still better, especially as to quality, if less seed per acre were used. In 
Montgomery County the yield is not very large, but the quality is excel- 
lent, and the grain matures early, and escapes weevil and smut. 

From ten counties in Virginia reports have been received upon the 
value of this wheat, all kighly favorable, except from Princess Anne, 
where the want of success is attributed to cold weather in June, pro- 
ducing rust. In Montgomery County the yield is reported large, and 
the grain perfect, exceeding in quality the seed sown. In Nelson County © 
thirty-four bushels sown broadcast on twenty-eight acres of fallow land, 
without fertilizers, yielded six hundred and eighty bushels—over twenty- 
four bushels per acre, aud twenty for each bushel of seed. Irom this 
county it is reported that want of success with the Tappahannock wheat 
is due to overseeding. Another correspondent says that the Tappa- 
hannock seems well adapted to the climate, and gives generai satisfac- 
tion, and, he adds, “ should it continue to maintain its present standard, 
this article alone will be worth more to our country than the cost of the 
Agricultural Department.” 

In Henry County the yield the first year from the seed furnished 
weighed seventy-one pounds per measured bushel. In Madison County 
the Tappahannock and Poland wheat are the best varieties. Twenty- 
three acres seeded with twenty-seven bushels of the former, in 1869, 
without fertilizers, yielded fifteen bushels, per acre. In Rockingham 
County, says a correspondent, the Tappahannock has well nigh sup- 
planted all other kinds of wheat. In Northumberland County, which is 
not a wheat-growing county, the yield without fertilizers is about ten- 
fold, and quality execllent. In Smyth County it has proved a valuable 
wheat. In Tazewell, its yield, early ripening, and quality are reported 
to be all that can be desired. In almost every report of experiments 
with this variety in Virginia it is highly commended. 

In Brooks, Braxton, and Jefferson Counties, West Virginia, the Tap- 
pahannock produces well, and maintains its good quality. It is reported 
that in some portions of the State it freezes out; probably in the more 


158 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


exposed situations, or on wet soil, as the climate is not too severe for it 
under ordinary circumstances. In some localities it is pronounced the 
best wheat known. 

A correspondent in Highland County, Ohio, states that one farmer 
has five acres sown to Tappabannock wheat this fall, the seed being the 
product of a package sent him two yearsago. In Ashland County it 
is hardy, stands up remarkably well, the grain is superior, and weighs, 
when very clean, sixty-five pounds per bushel. In Erie it ripens early, 
does not lodge, and is believed to be “ just the thing” for that sgetion. In 
Butler County a yield of sixty-six-fold and of superior quality is reported, 
and entire satisfaction is expressed. In Perry, as reported by the 
secretary of the agricultural society, it makes a greater yield of flour, 
and of better quality, than any wheat ever grown in the county. In 
Auglaize it is stated to be the finest and earliest variety known there, 
and sold, in the autumn of 1868, for’ $4 per bushel for seed. In Meigs 
and Logan Counties it is equally a favorite. A farmer in Union County 
states that he received from the Department, in 1868, one pound of the 
Tappahannock wheat, which he sowed in drills on limestone-gravel land, 
clover sod. It did well, and the next season he sowed the product with 
field-drill on the same kind of land, harvesting about eight bushels. 
The next season he sowed with field-drill one and one-half bushel to 
the acre, on very strong limestone-gravel land, clover sod, well manured 
with barnyard manure, and obtained thirty-six bushels of beautiful, 
plump, white wheat to the acre. He reports the Tappahannock about 
ten days earlier than any other variety in that section. . 

In Kentucky this variety has proved valuable. In Harrison County 
the quality is reported excellent, and the yield bas been as high as sixty- 
seven-fold on well-prepared ground. In Russell it ripens earlier and 
produces better grain than any other variety raised in the county. In 
Lebanon, Marion County, in 1869, where the seed was drilled in on well- 
prepared ground, the yield was seventy-two-fold of clean wheat, while 


other wheat on adjoining land, similarly treated, returned only eighteen- 


fold. The Tappahannock was also the earliest variety to mature. In 
Garrard County the yield in 1869 is reported, in one instance, at a little 
more than sixteen bushels per acre, of excellent quality. In Edmonson 
the yield was twenty-one bushels to one of seed, on old ground, which 
was considered an extraordinary yield. In Scott County the yield was 
thirty-fold, and the ripeniug ten days earlier than other varieties. In 
Bourbon it succeeds admirably, and ripens earlier than other wheat. 
Similar reports come from Clinton, Owsley, Scott, Hopkins, Boone, and 
Livingston Counties. 

The Tappahannock has proved a profitable contribution to agriculture 
in Tennessee. A Coffee County correspondent thinks it superior to all 
other varieties in the State; its vigorous growth, hardiness, early ma- 


turity, freedom from smut and rust, and superior quality and yield of: 


flour, all commending it as the most desirable. In Perry County, where 
this wheat was drilled in at the rate of one peck per acre, on rich and 
well-drained clay soil, the yield was at the rate of fifty-two bushels 
per acre, weighing sixty-four pounds pe¢r bushel. Sown broadcast, one 
bushel per acre, and lightly plowed in, the yield was thirty-eight bushels 
per acre, and weight sixty and one-half pounds per bushel. On similar 
soil, with like cultivation, but with two bushels of seed per acre, the 
yield was only fifteen bushels per acre, and weight fifty-eight and one- 
fourth pounds per bushel. These experiments were made upon one 
farm. The advantage of light seeding, with this wheat, is obvious, 
and is supported by the opinions of cultivators in Maryland and other 


Se 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 159 


States. In Hawkins County the yield was ninety-fold, and, from the 
peck of seed sent by the Department in 1866, crops of two to ten acres, 
on eight or-ten farms, have been raised the present year. in Greene 
County this wheat was the principal variety raised in 1869.. Complaint 
is made of its liability to smut in that section, and a successful pre- 
ventive is reported to be a solution of bluestone used upon the seed. 
In Sullivan it excels all other varieties, and in Giles County it is reported 
to be “a decided favorite.” 

From North and South Carolina a smaller number of reports of ex- 

‘periments has been received than from some of the Southern States, but 

these are in most cases highly commendatory of the Tappahannock 
‘wheat. In Franklin County, North Carolina, ‘the yield is thirty-fold, 
and in Surry, on upland clay, abou‘ twenty-five-fold. In Bertie County, 
without extra care in preparing the ground, it yielded, in 1869, forty-one 
bushels for one of seed, and in Harnett thirty-two. In Rowa r the yield 
was thirty-one, and in Montgomery thirty-two-fold. In Lenoir, Stokes, 
Tredell, Chowan, and Columbus, it proved early and yielded better than 
the common kinds. In each of these counties it is commended as a 
valuable acquisition, the grain being excellent in quality, and snited to 
the soil and climate. In Craven County the yield was greater than that 
of wheat usually sown, and the quality fine. One correspondent notes 
the growth of forty stems, with good heads, from one kernel, the wheat 
spreading more than any before seen by him. In Orange County the 
yield was twenty-fold the’ present year on tobacco land, fifteen days 
earlier than other varieties, and the grain excellent. Hon. Join Pool, 
writing from Pasquotank County, concerning his crop of the present 
year, states that ke sowed six bushels on land that would produce 
twenty-five bushels of corn to the acre. The product was seventy-five 
bushels; weight, fifty-nine and oue- half pounds to the bushel. This he 
Says is greater than that of any other wheat iu his section, and greatly 
superior in quality. He pronounces the Tappahannock the best wheat 
for his region that he has ever seen. In Randolph County the yield is 
not stated to be greatly superior in ‘quantity to other varieties, but the 
weight, in some instances, is sixty-seven pounds per bushel. 

The reports from South Carolina are similar to those from North Caro- 
lina concerning the value of this wheat, confirming the favorable re- 
ports made last year. Correspondents in Newberry and Union Counties 
express decided preference for the Tappahannock over other varieties. 

In Carroll County, Georgia, the yield of Tappahannock wheat, in one 
instance, was one hundred- fold, but this is, of course, exceptional. In 
Dawson County, cultivated as wheat ordinarily is, the yield was thirty- 
five-fold. In Warren its yield was 50. per cent. more than that of other 
kinds, and better in quality. It is pronounced the best wheat in that 
section of country. In Johnson County, sowed in drills and manured 
with superphosphate of lime, it rusted badly, and was no earlier than 
some other varieties. In Clayton, Crawford, and Butts Counties, there 
is complaint of a little rust, but the yield and quality are generally 
stated to be excellent. In Clayton, with extra tillage, the yield was 
sixty-fold, and in. Butts thirty bushels per acre. In Polk, Gordon, and 
Hall Counties the yield and quality are better than with the common 
varieties; and a Carroll County correspondent thinks it the best wheat 

*-ever introduced into the county, his crop weighing sixty-five pounds to 
the bushel, and making fifty-four pounds of flour, the best he ever used. 
In Gilmer "County the yield is reported one- third more than that of the 
common kinds on the same land. 

Returns from Clay County, Alabama, confirm the faverablé reports 


160 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


made on the Tappahannock wheat last year, published in the Annual 
Report. In Hale County this wheat rusted, and in Coosa it did not do 
well. In De Kalb it produced a good crop, which brought 75 cents per 
bushel more than other wheat, for seeding. In Elmore County it is 
ciaimed to be the best raised. 

In Leake and Winston Counties, Mississippi, this wheat did well in 
1868, and in Jackson County, in 1869, it produced twenty-two bushels 
where other kinds returned only eight bushels per acre, and the grain 
was the best ever grown there. 

In Williamson, Grayson, Dallas, and Ellis Counties, Texas, it produces 
moderately well; but in Kendall, Lampasas, and Fannin Counties it 
has been affected by rust the present year. As the farmers of that 
State are anxious for some better variety of wheat than any they now 
cultivate, the resolution to test further the Tappahannock is expressed. 

In Bedford County, Florida, the yield of this wheat is stated to be 
forty-fold, and equal in quality to the seed furnished. Its introduction 
there has created much interest among farmers, and has led to a great 
demand for the wheat for seed. 

In Missouri this wheat appears to do better than in either of the Car- 
olinas or Alabama. Howard, Phelps, and Stoddard Counties were 
noticed as favorable locations for its growth in the Report of last year. 
To these may be added Butler, Cedar, Hickory, Marion, Miller, Scott, 
St. Louis, and Washington, from which reports have also been received. 
In Butler the yield, from seed sown broadcast, was over twenty-four- 
fold, and the grain ripened ten days earlier than other wheat. In Cedar 
it thrives exceedingly well; in Hickory, from which the largest number 
of reports is received, it is preferred to any other for quality and early 
maturity ; and in Marion it gives an average yield of thirty-five bushels 
per acre, and ripens with the Early May wheat, to which it is superior. 
In Miller and Scott Counties the yield is thirty bushels per aere, of the 
best quality. In St. Louis County it is called the best Variety ever in- 
troduced into the State. In Washington it is said to be “admirably 
adapted to the soil and climate of Southeast Missouri.” In Stoddard 
it is reported to yield thirty-five bushels per acre from less than a bushel 
(usually about three pecks) of seed to the acre. 

In Western Arkansas this wheat yields, with good cultivation, twenty- 
five to thirty-five-fold, of excellent quality. In Yell County, sown 
beside a native variety and treated similarly, it returned twenty fold, 
superior grain, while the other gave but sixteen. Crawford County 
reports the yield and quality superior to those of the common kinds; 
but in Montgomery it is later than the Early May, and affected with 
rast. In Southern Arkansas it succeeds well, and is earlier than most 
kinds sown there. The yield is not so great as reported in Missouri, 
but the quality of the grain is stated to be uniformly superior to all 
other varieties grown. 

Reports of the successful trials of this wheat in five counties in Indi- 
ana were published in the Annual Report of this Department for 1869. 
In those it was stated to be ‘so early as to escape rust, except in Wash- 
ington County, in the southern part of the State. Six ether counties, 
mostly in or near the western border of the State, have reported. 
The average yield is over twenty-five-fold and the quality almost uni- 
formly excellent. In Harrison County the millers are reported as offer- 
ing 30 cents per bushel more for it than for other wheat, on account of 
its greater yield of flour and its quality; and in Vigo County it took 
the premium at the fair, a fact reported more frequently of this than of 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 161 


any other variety. In St. Joseph County, at the extreme northern end 
of the State, it is ten days earlier than other varieties. 

There are few favorable reports of experiments with this wheat in 
Iilinois. In Fulton County several experimenters report the quality fine 
and the quantity satisfactory ; and in a few other localities it does well. 
Some report a fair yield of flour, but of inferior quality. In all other 
States in which this wheat thrives ordinarily well the quality of its 
flour is classed as superior. 

In Lapeer County, Michigan, the yield of this wheat is reported at 
twenty-four busheis per acre, weighing sixty-five pounds per bushel. 
In Schoolcraft the yield, in 1868, was thirty-two bushels per acre, while 
other varieties did not exceed twenty-five on like soil. In Ingham 
County it succeeded very well in 1868, and has not since been reported. 
In Bay County it is said torust. In Oakland its yield last year was 
large, and quality excellent. In Hillsdale County, where it has been 
tested four years, it is claimed to be 100 per cent. better than the Tread- 
well wheat, considering the seed required, and yield per acre, and that 
itis not troubled by the wheat fly. It has proved valuable also in 
Marshall County. 

Few reports have come from Kansas concerning the Tappahannock 
wheat. It is claimed to be the best grown in Cherokee County, and a 
report of its cultivation this year in Pottawatomie County states the 
yield to be forty-two bushels per acre, and weight sixty-five pounds. 
The reports are few, also, from other Western and Southern States. 

In several counties in Iowa this wheat has failed on account of the 
severity of the winters, and sometimes from too late sowing. In Jack- 
son County several farmers report successful culture, and express the 
opinion that under favorable circumstances it will prove there a very 
profitable winter wheat. ; 

In Butte County, California, the Tappahannock continues to do well; 
and a similar report comes from Lassen County. 

In Kane County, Utah, the Tappahannock does well, even without 
irrigation, which is seldom the case in that region. It is two weeks 
earlier than the ordinary kinds, and is in great demand for seed. From 
San Pete and other localities the reports are similar. It is liable to 
smut in Box Elder County, a drawback which is obviated by thorough 
wet-liming and immediate drying, about one month before sowing. In 
Lane County twenty-seven pounds of seed on half an acre of stiff clay 
land, without manure, produced, in 1869, twenty-four bushels of good, 
merchantable wheat. 

In Weld County, Colorado, the Tappahannock, sown in February, 
yielded about thirty-five-fold. The Denver News recently reported the 
yield of four bushels sown upon four acres, irrigated twice, at one hun- 
dred and fifty bushels—thirty-seven and one-half bushels per acres. From 
the reports received it does not appear to yield more than some other 
varieties grown in the Territory. 


MEDITERRANEAN WHEAT. 


The Mediterranean wheat (both red and white) has been imported in 
small quantities several times, and distributed, since 1863. The impor- 
tations were from Marseilles, France, but the grain was grown on islands 
in the Mediterranean Sea. It has flourished remarkably in many sec- 
tions of this country, though not so widely as the Tappahannock. in 
some portions of Virginia it has done better than other varieties; as 
also in New York, West Virginia, Missouri, Mississippi, Maryland, 
Ohio, and California, proving most profitable in the last three named. 

11 A 


162 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 

There is some complaint of the deterioration of seed from old varieties, 
and there are calls for fresh importations and for new varieties. A Lo- 
gan County, Ohio, correspondent writes to the Department that the seed 
of this variety is failing, the yield rapidly decreasing, and that the famous 
Mediterranean wheat, which has been worth millions of dollars to the 
farmers of Ohio, is fast running ont. 

There is no complaint of deterioration in California, in some parts of 
which State this wheat is considered very valuable. From Stanislaus 
County a farmer writes that the wheat received from this Department 
in 1865 increases in favor wherever planted. The yield of 1868 was an 
average of thirty-seven and one-half bushels per acre, and would have 
exceeded that had not some ofthe seed been destroyed by excessively wet 
weather. He considers the variety a great acquisition. From San 
Joaquin County a yield of four hundred and twenty-eight bushels upon 
eight acres in 1863 is reported, nearly fifty-four bushels per acre. In 
1869 fhe yield was not so large, but ten bushels per acre greater than 
that of other varieties under similar circumstances. : 

In Owsley County, Kentucky, where but little has been sown up to 
the present time, it is reported to yield forty bushels peracre. In Shelby 
County, Alabama, a correspondent states, it is decidedly the best variety, 
and preferable for the middle portion of that State. In the region of 
Harrison County, Indiana, it is the principal variety raised, but is later 
than the Tappahannock. : 

In Maryland it is “the champion wheat.” It is stated that too thick . 
seeding ‘and want of care in the selection of seed have resulted in dete- 
rioration. 

In Chautauqua County, New York, this wheat has had a fair trial by 
numerous farmers, and has proved the best variety for that section. In 
1869 a great quantity of it was reported sown and thriving, but no 
reports have since been made concerning it. The same may be said of 
Suffolk County. . ati 


TALAVERA, POLISH, TOUZELLE, AND ROUGH-CHAFF VARIETIES 


have proved valuable accessions in some localities, but comparatively 
few reports concerning them have yet been made. The Touzelle was 
imported and distributed in 1869, the others in 1868, They are still on 
trial only, but sufficient information has come to the Department to 
indicate that the Touzellie, at least, will prove valuable over a wide 
region of country, and the others, like the Mediterranean, in perhaps 
more limited regions. 
ARNAUTKA WHEAT. 


Of the varieties of spring wheat distributed by the Department, the 
Arnautka, imported from Russia in 1866, has proved most successful, 
and is found to be as valuable an addition to the spring as the Tappa- 
hannock is to the winter varieties. It is early, hardy, and prolific, and 
yields a good quality and large quantity of flour, and for these reasons 
is peculiarly acceptable in the colder latitudes. In some regions the 
product has greatly improved in the size of the kernel upon the seed 
furnished, as in New Mexico and Nebraska; while in others, where it 
proves thrifty, it has nearly or quite maintained the quality of the 
original. 

A farmer in Hancock County, Maine, writing to the Department, 
states that the Arnautka is peculiarly adapted to the soil and climate 
of that State, and that the quality of the wheat is remarkably good. 
The yield was at the rate of sixteen bushels per acre. In Piscataquis 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 163 


County it did not do very well the first year of its trial. on account of 
wet weather, but faith in its ultimate success created a demand for the 
product saved, for seed. In Alexander, Washington County, both 
yield and quality are reported good. In Aroostook County it matured 
a week earlier than other spring wheat, yielded one-third more under 
the same conditions of culture, and was free from the weevil. In York 
County it yielded eighteen bushels per acre, four bushels more than 
other wheat. In Sagadahoc, also, it is a week earlier and yields twenty 
bushels per acre. In Penobscot the yield this year was twenty-two 
bushels per acre, and the variety is commended as very early and the 
best wheat ever seen there. ' 

In Carroll County, New Hampshire, it-yields on ordinary land, with 
the usual cultivation, about sixteen bushels per acre, and is “not trou- 
bled with mildew, blight, or weevil.” In Sullivan County, also, it does . 
very well. 

In Addison County, Vermont, it yields well and escapes the midge. . 
A correspondent states that if it continues to do as well as now, it will 
be as valuable to that section as was the Black Sea wheat. In Orleans 
County, on the Canadian line, it has proved early, hardy, and free from 
disease, and is commended as the best spring variety. 

In Hampden County, Massachusetts, the Arnautka is very thrifty. 
A farmer writes that he esteems it the best suited to that climate of any 
spring wheat in use, and thinks it may ultimately rank with the first 
class of winter wheats. In Middlesex County it is finer and larger than 
other varieties. 

No favorable reports are received from the other Eastern States, and 
from only Jefferson County in New York, where it is considered a val- 
uable acquisition. ‘ 

In Illinois, Wisconsin, Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa, the reports, 
though not numerous, indicate that the Arnautka is productive and 
valuable. In Nevada, Minnesota, and portions of Iowa, it is excep- 
tionally so, the yield, in some instances, being as high as sixty-fold. 

‘A Wabashaw (Minnesota) correspondent reports that thorough tests 
during four years prove it to be superior to any other spring wheat in 
the West, millers declaring its flour to be worth 25 per cent. more than 
that of the varieties in general cultivation. From Brown County it is 
reported the present year that the Arnautka has been grown by many 
farmers, and in every instance has yielded a heavy crop, averaging a 
bushel of wheat toa pound of seed. In Faribault County it has “proved 
a great yielder, and makes a large quantity of flour.” 

In Greene County, Wisconsin, the yield was double the quantity of 
the winter wheat and of good quality. 

Recent reports of cultivation of the Arnautka in 1868 and 1869, in 
Kossuth County, Iowa, state that, though both seasons were unfavora- 
ble for wheat, the yield was large and the grain superior. 

In Peoria County, Llinois, it is reported to make more and better 
flour than any other wheat. 

In Sedgwick County, Kansas, the yield has been at the rate of fifty 
bushels per acre the present year. Its introduction into Nebraska has 
been attended with profitable results. 


OATS. 


Hight varieties of oats new te this country have been introduced and 
distributed by the Department during the last five years, viz: Potato 
and New Brunswick oats, from Scotland, and White and Biack Swedish, 
from Denmark, in 1865; Excelsior and Somerset, from England, and 


164 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


White Schénen from Germany, in 1868 ; and Scotch Dun oats, from Scot- 
land, in 1870. The latter are a winter variety, and of course have not 
yet been reported upon. All the other varieties named have proved 
valuable, the Excelsior and White Schénen remarkably so. The Excel- 
sior have been found suited to a wider region and greater diversity of soil 
and climate than any other imported variety, are the earliest, and have 
proved most popular and remunerative. They originated from the Som- 
erset stock, and may be classed as an identical variety; but they have 
been so improved by careful special culture as to be worthy the distine- 
tion of their separate name. 

As with the trials of other seeds some reports upon these several 
varieties of oats have been highly favorable, while others record 
partial or total failures, due, in many instances, to unfavorable seasons, 
to faulty culture, &c., and in others to the want of adaptation of the 
grain to the region. 

POTATO OATS. 


The Potato oats, after four years’ trial in Marshall County, Michigan, 
are reported to be a decided improvement over the common varieties, 
and, in 1869, weighed forty-five pounds per bushel, common oats weigh- 
ing twenty-eight to thirty-two pounds. In La Crosse County, Wiscon- 
sin, a correspondent reports that the present year these oats produced 
at the rate of seventy-two bushels from one bushel of seed, sown by 
drill. In Ashtabula County, Ohio, sown in drills eight inches apart upon 
turf, the yield was one hundred and fourteen-fold, and in quality far 
superior to any oats ever grown in that vicinity. . 


NEW BRUNSWICK OATS. 


A report from Washington County, Pennsylvania, states the result 
of three experiments with the New Brunswick oats, commencing with 
one pint of seed from the Department, to be, the third year, three hun- 
dred bushels of excellent oats, weighing forty-five pounds per measured 
bushel, upon Six acres of land, broken and planted with corn the pre- 
vious year. About fifty bushels were lost by the ravages of grasshoppers 
before harvest. This is over fifty-eight bushels per acre of very heavy 
oats. From Ottawa County, Michigan, the yield is reported to be fifty to 
sixty bushels per acre, and the weight forty-two pounds per bushel. 
The secretary of the Sibley County, Minnesota, Agricultural Society 
reported, in 1869, a yield of forty-five bushels per acre, and forty-seven 
pounds to the measured bushel. 


SWEDISH OATS. 


The White Swedish and Black Swedish oats, the former procured in 
Hamburg; Germany, and the latter in Copenhagen, Denmark, have in 
very many cases been reported upon without any distinct designation 
of their kind, being classed merely as “ Swedish,” although they are 
distinct varieties. Such reports are not available in this article. Both 
varieties have proved profitable additions to our cereals in many locali- 
ties, while in others they have failed to be more remunerative than other 
oats. The Black Swedish are reported to be subject to rust in some 
localities in Connecticut and Wisconsin. In Dauphin County, Penn- 
sylvania, they are stated to be superior to other varieties. In Denver, 
Colorado, two bushels, drilled upon two acres and irrigated twice, yielded 
one hundred and sixty-six bushels. They are hardier, and withstand 
spring frosts better than common oats in that section. In San Pete 
County, Utah, the yield has been at the rate of eighty bushels per acre 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 165 


the present year. In McLeod County, Minnesota, they have done well, 
yielding more per acre than other oats, by measure, and being five to 
twelve pounds heavier per bushel. In some portions of Kansas they 
are said to yield remarkably well, and in Paoli, Orange County, Indiana, 
the excessive yield of one hundred and twenty-four bushels per acre is 
reported. 

The White Swedish, in York County, Maine, after four years’ trial, 
yield thirty-five bushels, of thirty-eight pounds, per acre—better yield and 
weight than of other varieties there. They were reported in 1868 and 
1869 by various farmers in Broome County, New York, as superior. In 
1868, although a dry season, the yield was good, and weight thirty-nine 
pounds. In 1869, after three years’ trial, they are found to suit that 
locality well, and weigh forty pounds per bushel, growing beside other 
oats which weigh only thirty pounds. The secretary of the Broome 
County Agricultural Society reports that “they grow well, do not dete- 
riorate in the least, and though many members have them, they can 
searcely supply the demand for seed.” In Dauphin County, Pennsyl- 
vania, it is stated “no better variety could be wished for, as they are 
remarkably fine, yielding largely, and weighing nearly forty pounds to 
the bushel.” In Lawrence County the yield was fifty-six-fold in meas- 
ure and weight. In Mercer County, Ohio, they are reported “a great 
success, ripening earlier, producing more bushels, and weighing one- 
third more than common varieties.” A Brown County correspondent 
writes that a pound of White Swedish oats, received from the Depart- 
ment, produced seven bushels, weighing forty-five pounds per bushel. 
After two years of cultivation, he found the quality equal to the original, 
weighing forty-five pounds, and yielding largely to the acre. The straw 
is very strong, standing up well against storms and wet, and be thinks 
the variety admirably adapted to that climate. 


WHITE SCHONEN OATS. 


These oats Lave proved productive and profitable over a wide region, 
and the favorable reports noted last year are fully confirmed by later 
returns from the localities then reporting. In Onondaga County, New 
York, the present year, the yield is eighty-five bushels per acre; in 
Sussex County, New Jersey, fitty to sixty bushels, weighing forty pounds 
per bushel. The secretary of the county agricultural society, who makes 
the report, says: ‘We hope to have enough seed to supply Sussex 
County, as these Schénen oats appear destined to supersede ail others.” 
Jn Washington County, Pennsylvania, the yield this year is reported to 
be sixty-four bushels per acre. In Dauphin County they are stated to 
be remarkably fine, to yield largely, and weigh neariy forty pounds per 
bushel. A Mercer County correspondent states that their quality is 
very superior, that they seem peculiarly adapted to Northern Pennsyl- 
vania, and that “in an ordinary season, with good farming, they will 
easily produce seventy-five to one hundred bushels per acre.” 

In Baltimore County, Maryland, the second sowing from a quart of 
seed furnished by the Department produced forty bushels the present 
year. The reporter says: “This variety is superior to our common oats, 
having stiffer straw and larger head, and yielding more bushels to the 
acre and of better quality.” In Princess Anne County, Virginia, they 
are stated by one farmer to be superior to any others raised in the 
county, and by another the yield is reported to be twenty-five-fold, as 
good as the seed sown.: The secretary of the farmers’ club in Lee 
County, West Virginia, reports a yield of about thirty-fold. In Fond 
da Lac County, Wisconsin, they are prized on account of their stiff 


166. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


straw and good yield; and in Rock County, where the Black Swedish 
were ruined by rust, the Schénen were not affected. Alsoin Bay County, 
Michigan, where the former did not succeed, the latter did remarkably 
well, the straw being very stiff, the heads large, and the oats weighing 
forty-six pounds to the bushel. ; 

In Crawford County, Mlinois, the Schénen oats rusted on account of 
lateness, a fact sometimes mentioned in other reports. In Whitesides 
County their quality, in 1869, was excellent, and they yielded at the rate 
of seventy-five bushels per acre; in Macoupin, seventy bushels. In 
Miami County, Kansas, sown broadcast, the yield was sixty-fold, but 
the weight not much greater than that of common oats. In Nemaha 
County the yield was sixty-four-fold and the grain excellent. In Riley 
County, also, the yield was large. In Stone County, Missouri, it was 
forty-fold, rather better than the Black Swedish. In Brown County, 
Minnesota, they are reported a valuable acquisition, well adapted to the 
soil and climate, and much superior to the oats usually raised there, 
being heavy and yielding abundantly. 

In Clayton County, Iowa, the yield of common oats was ten-fold, as 
reported by one farmer, while the yield of this variety, similarly treated, 
was thirty-two-fold, quality good, and kernels large. In Whatcom 
County, Washington Territory, from seed drilled in, the yield in 1869 
was sixty-four-fold and weight thirty-six pounds per bushel, as reported 
by the secretary of the agricultural society. ; 

The Somerset oats in Orleans County, Vermont, ripened ten days 
earlier than other kinds the present year, and were very heavy. In 
Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania, the yield on a creek flat was eighty- 
fold, and weight forty pounds per bushel. In the District of Columbia 
the yield was forty-four-fold and weight thirty-eight pounds per bushel, 
other oats weighing twenty-six pounds. In Huntingdon County, Indi- 
ana, the yield is reported at eighty bushels per acre, and weight forty- 
five pounds. These were the premium oats at the annual fair in this 
county in 1869. In Clarke County the yield and weight of grain are 
reported to be heavy, and the straw tall. 


EXCELSIOR OATS. 


No other variety of oats introduced into the country has proved equal 
to the Excelsior in weight, yield of grain, and adaptability to a great 
diversity of soil and climate. The yield of straw is also heavy, and 
when not too thickly seeded, and grown upon soil not too rich, they 
stand up well. The reports of experiments show that the thinnest seed- 
ing has produced the greatest yield and heaviest grain. ‘Their tillering 

-is remarkable, as many as twenty stalks having originated from one 
seed. The reports upon the Excelsior oats given in this article, as in 
the case of other grain noted in the Annual Report of 1869, are additional 
to the reports published in that volume. 

In Penobscot County, Maine, the Excelsior were ten days earlier than 
other varieties, the yield about forty-fold, and the grain weighed forty- 
four pounds per bushel ; they did not rust. In Kennebec County the 
yield was.forty-fold. Our correspondent says they grew six feet high, 
the yield was about four times that of the common varieties, and he. 
considers them superior to any other variety he has raised. In Cumber- 
land County the yield was twenty-four-fold, and the oats matured two 
weeks earlier than other oats, from Canada, grown beside them, and 
were much heavier. At Brunswick, in the sdme county, the yield was 
thirty-three-fold, grain full and plump as barley, and tit to cut five days 
earlier than other oats. At Richmond Corner, Sagadahoc County, the 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. HGF 


yield was forty-fold of grain much heavier than the common oats, and 
also five days earlier. In Bowdoinham, in the same county, they stood 
five feet high, and are pronounced “ the best oats ever seen in the town.” 

In Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, the yield was over forty-five- 
fold, and the grain superior. In Carroll County the yield this year was 
good, and the weight forty pounds per bushel. In Merrimack County 
the yield was twenty-eight-fold, and the grain, thoroughly cleaned, 
weighed forty-six pounds per bushel. They took the diploma at the 
New Hampshire State Fair in 1870. 

In Windham County, Vermont, these oats were experimented with by 
many persons, and in every case the yield was good, and the grain large 
and heavy. Some of the heads were twenty inches long, and the straw 
was of excellent quality. In Randolph, Orange County, one farmer re- 
ports the yield about forty-fold, and the weight of grain forty-one pounds — 
per bushel; in another instance, the weight of the grain was forty-three 
pounds. 

In Queens County, New York, the Excelsior matured eight days 
earlier than other oats, and yielded forty-three bushels per acre, the seed 
Grilled in. In Winchester County the yield was thirty-five bushels per 
acre, thirty-five pourids per bushel, and the straw was strong, high, and 
double that of other oats in quantity. The oats were also two weeks 
earlier than other kinds. In Jefferson County the yield, reported by 
the secretary of the county agricultural society, was forty-three-fold, 
and quality superior. In Oneida County, upon land not the best for 
grain, the weight of the oats grown was forty pounds per bushel, the 
average weight of common oats grown there being less than thirty-two 
pounds. In Cortland County the yield this year was at the rate of thirty 
bushels per acre, and weight over thirty-five pounds. In Washington 
County they are reported to be “the best, brightest, heaviest, and have 
the evenest kernel of any oats ever introduced” into that section of 
the country; yield, sixty-five bushels per acre. 

Several experiments were reported in 1869 from Dauphin County, 
Pennsylvania, by Hot. R. J. Haldeman, of an increase of nearly two 
hundred-fold. This yield is the largest yet reported, and remarkable 
even in limited experiments under the most favorable circumstances. 
The yield in Tioga County is reported at ninety-fold, the grain weighing 
forty and one-half pounds per bushel; in Cumberland County one hun- 
dred and thirty-six-fold, weight forty-five pounds per bushel. In Ches- 
ter County, it is stated, they are “early, handsome, and heavy.” 

In Talbot County, Maryland, sown broadcast on rich land, without 
manure, the yield was twenty-four-fold, and weight forty-five pounds 
per bushel. In Kent County, upon land thinly seeded, the yield was 
seventy-five-fold, weight forty-five pounds, 

In Erie County, Ohio, from seed drilled in, the yield was over fifty- 
seven-fold. In Cuyahoga about twenty-fold, and weight forty-two 
pounds. In Trumbull County the yield was sixteen-fold, weight forty- 
two pounds. The results of four experiments in Hamilton County are 
reported by Mr. J. S. Sheppard, and are respectively thirty-eight, forty- 
two, thirty-six and forty-four-fold. The secretary of the Stark County 
Agricultural Society reports the yield seventy-fold, and the quality as 
good as that of the seed sown. i 

Hon. John Pool, of North Carolina, in a letter of August 10, 1870, 
says that the product of four quarts of Excelsior oats was seven and one- 
half bushels, weighing thirty-seven pounds to the bushel, and that the 
oats have attracted a great deal of attention in the neighborhood, being 
the finest ever seen there. 


168 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


In Keweenaw County, Michigan, these oats are pluinp and heavy, and 
mature much earlier than common oats, the correspondent adding that 
they promise great improvement, in early maturity, quality, and quantity ‘ 
over anything raised there. In Jackson County the yield was fifty-nine 
bushels per acre, and the crop matured early. John F. Van de Vante, 
of Sturgis, St. Joseph County, reported on the 1st of October, 1870, 
that from a package of Excelsior oats, received from this Department 
the preceding year, he raised two bushels, which this year produced one 
hundred and twenty-five bushels, weighing forty-four pounds to the 
bushel. He thinks this variety better adapted to that climate than any 
he has seen. 

In Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin, the Excelsior oats yielded over 
fifty-eight bushels per acre, by measure, weighing forty-nine and one-half 
pounds per bushel. In Adams County, drilled in, on sandy loam, the 
yield in one instance was one hundred and forty-two-fold, and the weight 
forty-two pounds per bushel. In Oconto County the yield was sixty 
bushels per acre, and weight forty-four pounds. In Waupacca County 
the yield was large, and weight, in 1869, forty-six pounds, and in 1870 
forty-seven pounds per bushel. 

In Hamilton County, Ilinois, they weigh forty-ore pounds per bushel. 
In Champaign County the yield was about twenty-seven-fold in 1869, 
and the grain heavy. 

From Terre Haute County, Indiana, the secretary of the Henry Creek 
Agricultural Society writes that the Excelsior oats raised from the seed 
received from the Department took the premium at the county fair, and 
that the grain was fully equal to the original seed. 

In Cole County, Missouri, the Excelsior oats are pronounced much 
superior in grain and length and strength of straw to other varieties 
cultivated beside them. They were the premium oats at the county fair 
in 1869. In Phelps County the yield was thirty-two-fold; weight, forty- 
six pounds. 

In Cherokee County, Kansas, though affected in some localities with 
’ rust, they yielded better than the common varieties. 

In Sibley County, Minnesota, these oats are about eight days earlier 
than other varieties, and are reported to yield eighty bushels per acre. 

In Wayne County, Iowa, they are classed as superior; in Dallas 
County the yield is large, and the weight of grain forty-five pounds per 
bushel; and in Humboldt the yield is stated to be eighty-fold. 

In San Pete County, Utah, they are considered “a great acquisition, 
and weigh eight to ten pounds heavier than other oats.” 

The secretary of the Oregon State Agricultural Society reports that 
of the various grains tested on his own farm, the Excelsior oats proved 
superior, and seem well adapted to that State. 


VEGETABLES, PLANTS, ETC. 


A larger proportion of the reports of experiments with field and gar- 
den vegetables, plants, and grasses has been received from Southern 
and Western States; but of all reports made, few are here used or can 
be made available, as few furnish statements which permit a comparison 
of their value with varieties already in general cultivation. In many 
localities, however, the seeds distributed have proved of especial value, 
introducing new plants into suitable localities untried before, or supe- 
rior varieties of kinds already cultivated; and frequently, as was ex- 
Dee the mere change of seed has resulted in increased production. 

n some portions of “Texas the Russian turnip has proved a valuable 
acquisition, surpassing all others in flavor. The Orange Globe mangel- 


TESTS OF DEPARTMENT SEEDS. 169 


wurzel has taken rank as the earliest beet in Ellis County, and Cook’s 
Favorite as the best tomato. In Austin County Cartet’s Early peas, 
planted the 9th of March, matured sufliciently for table use the 28th of 
April. The White Japan muskmelon is reported the best ever raised 
in Anderson County; and in Austin the Sprouting Dwarf Ulm cabbage 
gave two crops, the first heads having been cut off, and heads seven 
inches in diameter maturing from new sprouts. 

The Pine-apple beet is reported by a market gardener in Lewisburg, 
Ohio, to be the most satisfactory of any raised by him, being as early 
as the Bassano, hardy, of the finest flavor, and an excellent keeper. 

In Dresden, Tennessee, the American Drumhead cabbage has sur- 
passed other kinds, and the Salmon radish, in Marion, Alabama. 

In Drew County, Arkansas, the White Japan muskmelon is reported 
to be the sweetest and best-flavored variety known there. 

In Delaware County, Iowa, the Scarlet White-tipped radish, Early 
Nocera onion, Mountain Sprout watermelon, and Vilmorin’s improved 
sugar-beet, proved the best of their respective varieties; and in Rock 
Island, Illinois, as reported by the gardener of the arsenal, the Student 
parsnip, said to have originated there, the Early Nocera onion, and Til- 
den tomato, are superior varieties. The onions were fully ripe four 
months after seed-sowing. 

The Scarlet radish was fit for the table in Jefierson County, West 
Virginia, thirty-seven days after sowing. 

In Grant County, Kentucky, Rock County and other portions of Wis- 
consin, and Humboldt County, Iowa, the Schweinfurt Quintal cabbage 
grew very large, crisp, and tender. In the latter county the average 
weight is stated to be twenty pounds each. In Glencoe, Minnesota, 
they grew nearly to the size of a bushel basket; and in Milford, New 
Hampshire, they weighed ‘twelve to twenty pounds. In Lewis County, 
New York, the greatest size is reported, the average weight being about 
twenty pounds, and one, exhibited at the county fair in 1869, weighed 
forty pounds. 

In St. Louis, Missouri, the Leviathan White celery is reported crisp 
and tender, and some of the stalks grew six feet long. 

The New Jersey Hybrid cucumber proves very prolific in Liberty 
County, Georgia, excellent in flavor, and measures 13 to 15 inches in 
length. In Hampton, Virginia, this variety does equally well. 

In Merrick, Nebraska, the Achapesnorricher melon proves very deli- 
cious, equal, at least, to the Cassaba melon; and in Chico, California, 
its flesh is solid, thick, and very fine in quality; small melons weighed 
sixteen pounds; seed cavity small. 

In Stoughton, Wisconsin, a change of seed of the Connecticut seed- 
leaf tobacco, the fresh seed grown in alternate rows with the same va- 
riety grown there for some years, produced a larger crop and of better 
quality. The difference in favor of the new seed was perceptible all 
through the season. 

The jute plant is now being cultivated at St. Augustine, Florida, from 
seed furnished by the Department, and also in other localities along the 
Gulf. Egyptian cotton-seed in Florida, Texas, and Mississippi, has done 
well in the cases which have been reported. An old planter in Warren 
County, Mississippi, thinks it would make 1,200 to 1,500 pounds per 
acre, under favorable circumstances, and says it has the finest lint and 
best staple he ever saw. 

The ramie plant (Behmeria nivea) or the China grass of commerce, 
cultivated in many parts of the South, from seed furnished originally 
through this Department, is found well adapted to that portion of the 


170 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


country, and when it can be utilized cheaply it may become a staple 
crop. ‘It multiplies very rapidly from root-planting, one hundred roots 
having in one year produced plants enough for over one hundred and 
fifty acres, as reported from Louisiana. In Fayette County, Tennessee, 
it grows very thriftily, and produces a beautiful, glossy fiber. In Goliad, 
Texas, it grows well both from seeds and roots; and in Austin the staple 
is reported long, fiber excellent, white, and silky. 

From Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and Bel Air, Georgia, reports concern: 
ing the successful growth of the Tea plant have been received, and ocea- 
sional calls upon the Department for seed show an interest in efforts for 
native tea production. In the localities named it is said that the plants. 
grow finely, and the flavor of the tea produced is equal to that of the 
tea of China. A correspondent in Louisiana says that the tea plant 
(Thea viridis) grows well in that State, and that one of the members of 
his agricultural association has between three hundred and four hundred 
fine shrubs four and one-half to six feet high. 

The introduction of several varieties of clover has been attended with 
satisfactory results in various localities. This is especially true of the 
Alsike clover, reports upon which have been noted from time to time in 
the monthly and annual reports of the Department. Lucern (Medicago 
sativa) grown near Columbia, South Carolina, from seed furnished by 
the Department, is reported as growing finely, and “one of the very 
few grasses that will grow” there. W.S. Monteith, of Columbia, says: 
_“TIn all the upper counties of this State it would be of very great value, 
if largely planted to take the place of clover.” - 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND ‘THEIR 
SOURCES. 


The introduction of new industries is, at all times and in all countries, 
a matter of special interest of a two-fold character—the direct addition 
to the industrial and wealth-producing resources of a nation, and the 
indirect value that is certain to follow a system of rotative cropping and 
diversity of culture,.in maintaining the fertility and economical manage- 
ment of the soil. The inducements for further efforts in this direction, 
and the stimulus to new trials, become clearly apparent when we reflect 
upon the fact that, with the exception of tobacco and Indian corn, all 
of our cultivated field crops and most of our esteemed esculent vegeta- 
bles are of foreign origin. 

This Department has actively stimulated experiments and tests of new 
plants, and responded to repeated inquiries in this direction. Fruits, 
fibers, gums, dyes, and medicinal products, which have not been thus 
far the object of productive industry in this country, can be profitably 
introduced, as many have been, through the agency of this branch of 
the Government. It is not maintained that all the plants named in 
this article can find in this country the conditions most favorable to 
their growth or to their profitable production if easily grown. 

__ The theory of acclimatization of plants, although a subject frequently 
alluded to, has no tangible support or foundation on facts. A species 
is either fitted or unfitted, either hardy or tender, in any given climate 
or locality. It is a question to be decided by experiment. The most 
popular system of so-called acclimatizing is by sowing seeds of successive 
generations, with a view of rendering the offspring better suited to the 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR souRCcES. 171 


altered conditions, but experience seems to prove that no permanently 
useful result has been obtained by this course. Individual plants may 
be influenced, to a certain extent, by local causes of soil and climate; 
but the capacity of a species to resist heat or cold, aridity or moisture, 
remains unaltered. This is well exemplified in the case of the tomato, 
which, although it has been cultivated for one hundred years, and 
generation after generation has been raised from its seeds, is still as 
easily affected by cold as it was when first introduced into cultivation. 

The external appearance of a plant affords but. little assistance in 
determining its climatic nature. There are, however, certain observable 
features that may be noticed. Plants having an abundance of expansive 
foliage, as some palms, musas, &c., are natives of a humid atmosphere. 
Asiatic plants have been noted for their beauty; African, for their 
fleshy and succulent leaves, as the aloes and mesembryanthemums; 
American, for the smoothness and length of their foliage, and for the 
singularity of shape of their flowers and fruit. Plants indigenous 
to polar and mountainous regions are generally low, with small and 
compressed leaves, but with flowers large in proportion. Austzalian 
plants are distinguishable for small, dry, and shriveled leaves. In. . 
Arabia they are low and dwarfish ; in the Indian Archipelago generally 
shrubby and furnished with prickles; while in the Canary Islands 
many, which in other countries are merely herbs, assume the appear- 
ance of shrubs and trees. The shrubby plants of the Cape of Good 
Hope and Australia exhibit a striking similarity, as do also the shrubs 
and trees of the northern parts of Asia and America, which may be 
exemplified in the Platanus orientalis of the former, and in the Platanus 
occidentalis of the latter, as well as in the Fagus sylvatica and Fagus 
ferruginea, or Acer Cappadocium and Acer saccharinwm, and yet the herbs 
and undergrowth of the two countries are very dissimilar. 

A knowledge of the native country of a plant is not always sufficient 
information regarding its powers of endurance. The mere fact that a 
plant is a native of China, or that it comes from South America, will 
not in itself enable us to assign a limit to its climatic range; as we 
have plants from both these countries which are capable of resisting a 
zero cold, while we have others from the same places which would be 
killed if subjected to a temperature of 32°. Temperature is the grand 
regulating condition, and as this is affected by elevation as well as by 
increase of latitude, we find the mountain ranges near the equator pre- 
senting all the features of a tropical, a temperate, and even an arctic 
vegetation. Thus palms and plantains luxuriate at the bases of these 
tropical mountains. Above these appear oranges and limes; then 
sneceed corn and wheat; and still higher commences the series of 
plants peculiar to temperate regions. Similar phenomena present them- 
selves in temperate latitudes. ‘‘ We may begin the ascent of the Alps, 
for instance, in the midst of warm vineyards, and pass through a suc- 
cession of oaks, sweet chestnuts, and beeches, till we gain the elevation 
of the more hardy pines and stunted birches, and tread on pastures 
fringed by borders of perpetual snow. At the elevation of 1,950 feet 
the vine disappears; and at 1,000 feet higher the sweet chestnut ceases 
‘to thrive; 1,000 feet farther up, and the oak is unable to maintain itself; 
at an eluvution of 4,680 feet.the birch ceases to grow; and the spruce 
fir at the height of 5,900 feet, beyond which no tree appears. The 
Rhododendron ferrugineum then covers immense tracts to the height of 
7,800 feet, and the herbaceous willow creeps 200 to 300 feet higher, 
accompanied by a few saxifrages, gentians, and grasses, while lichens 
and mosses struggle up to the imperishable barrier of eternal snow.” 


172 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Humboldt has given a sketch of the vegetation of the Andes, com- 
mencing at the level of the ocean and extending to the highest summits. 
A condensed view of this sketch may serve as a general illustratéon of 
the distribution of plants as influenced by climate, arising from altitude 
above the sea level. 

1. Tropical zone, or region of palms.—This region stretches from the 
level of the ocean to the height of 3,000 feet. Here flourish the mag- 
nificent family of palms, odoriferous and balsamic plants, the family of 
Scitaminec, laurels, mimosas, the sugar-cane, coffee-plant, and indigo. 

2. Temperate zone.—Above the region of palms is that of the tree 
ferns and cinchonas, the caoutchouc tree, camphor shrubs, passion 
flower, and a variety of useful and beautiful plants. At 8,000 feet is 
the region of oaks. Here also grow wheat, barley, oats, and the fruit 
trees of Europe. 

3. Alpine zone.—From 6,000 to 12,000 feet extends the region of Alpine 
plants. Here flourish the ranunculuses, gentians, and a variety of 
hardy plants. 

4, Arctic zone.—At the height of 15,000 feet all fiowering plants dis- 
appear, and lichens alone clothe the rocks and ground. Some of these 
appear to vegetate under the snow, for, at 16,800 feet, near the summit 
of Chimborazo, the Umbilicaria pustulata and Verrucaria geographica are 
seen growing on a shelf of rock; and these were the last organized 
substances adhering to the soil at so great a height which Humboldt 
and his companions were able to discover. 

5. Snowy region—The last region is that within the line of perpetual 
congelation, where eternal ice and snow hold their dominion. 

De Candolle calculated that in France every 540 feet of vertical eleva- 
tion are equivalent to a receding of one degree from the equator, while 
Humboldt estimated that in tropical countries every rise of 396 feet is 
equal to one degree of latitude north. Meyen, in his division of the 
horizontal range of vegetation into zones, extends : 

1. The equatorial zone to 15° on both sides of the equator. In this 
division we find the Cape Verde Islands, Sierra Leone, Ascension, and St. 
Helena, the republic of Liberia, the settlements in the Gulf of Guinea; 
and, on the western coast of Africa, Abyssinia, Zanzibar on the east 
coast, Mccha and Aden in the Red Sea, the northern portion of Mada- 
gascar, the Seychelles, Northern India, Ceylon, and the Nicobar 
Islands, Sumatra, Siam, Malacca, Singapore, Cochin China, the Philip- 
pine Islands, Borneo, Celebes and Moluccas, Java and Madura, Banca, 
the Johore Archipelago, Timor, and the eastern group of islands, with 
New Guinea, a large portion of Northern Australia, the Marquesas, 
Society and other oceanic islands. In South America we find Peru, 
Bolivia, Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela, Guiana, and a large 
portion of Brazil, Trinidad, Barbadoes, and mosi of the islands in the 
Caribbean Sea. This zone has a mean temperature of 784° to 824°. 

2. The tropical zone reaches from the 15th degtee on each side of the 
equator to the tropics, in 23° latitude. The mean temperatureis 734° to 
824°; summer temperature 80° to 86°; winter temperature in the east- 
ern coast districts, 59°. In this region we find the following countries : 
The Sandwich Islands, Canton in the province of China, Burmah, Cal- 
cutta, Bengal, Bombay, Madagascar, and Mauritius; the southern por- 
tion of Brazil, Cuba, San Domingo, Mexico, and Central America. 

The sub-tropical zone extends from 23° to 34° of latitude. A num- 
ber of tropical fruits may be found in this region. The winters are 
mild, and vegetation is green throughout the year. In the northern 
division of the zone palms and bananas grow on the plains. In this 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR sources. 173 


region are comprised all the extreme northern portions of Africa bor- 
dering upon the Mediterranean, and comprising Algiers and the Bar- 
bary States, Egypt, part of Persia, Cabool, and the Punjab; the greater 
portion of China, Lower California, Texas, the Southern States of North 
America, the Bermudas, the Cape Colony and Natal, New South Wales, 
Southern and Western Australia, Northern New Zealand, the larger 
portion of Chili, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic, the 
provinces of Brazil from St. Paul to Rio Grande, Madeira, and Canary 
Islands. Thus it appears that, in regard to the geographical distribu- 
tion of plants, altitude and latitude are synonymous terms within speci- 
fied zones; and that next in importance to the introduction of a new 
plant is a knowledge of its habitat; the altitude, exposure, and phys- 
ical surroundings of its original home; and that botanical collectors 
should be strongly impressed with the value and necessity of minute 
details in these particulars. 

For some time past the correspondence of this Department has indi- 
cated that a brief notice of the sources of commercial vegetable pro- 
ducts would be desirable. In accordance with this intimation, the fol- 
lowing notes have been prepared on oils, gums and resins, tea and other 
products from which beverages are made, spices and condiments, and 
vegetable waxes; to be followed in future Reports with similar notes on 
fibers, dyes, medical extracis, fruits, &c., if found desirable. 


OILS. 


Gingelly oil, Sesame oil, Teel oil.—This oil is expressed from the seeds 
of Sesamum Indicum, (Pedaliacece,) a free-growing annual plant, indige- 
nous to the East Indies, but extensively cultivated in Japan and other 
sub-tropical countries. A large commercial business is carried on in the 
growth, manufacture, and trade in this oil, which is as-clear and sweet 
as that from almonds, and as tasteless as that of the olive. It is often 
used to adulterate the former, and when carefully expressed is employed 
as a substitute for the latter. In Japan it is used in cooking fish, and 
the Egyptian ladies consider it of value for the toilet, to give a bloom 
and luster to the skin, and to preserve the beauty of the hair. It is suffi- 
ciently pure to admit of being made the medium of extracting perfumes. 
Much difference of color is observed in imported samples, which is 
entirely due to the preparation. When the seeds are thrown into the 
mill without first undergoing any cleansing process, the expressed oil 
becomes mixed with a portion of the coloring matter of the epidermis 
of the seed, and is much inferior to that obtained by repeatedly wash- 
ing the seeds in cold water, or by boiling them for a short time until 
the whole of the reddish-brown coloring matter is removed, and they 
become.white. They are then dried in the sun, and the oil obtained 
is of a very pale straw color, of agreeable odor, and but little infe- 
rior to olive oil. The Sesamum is frequently cultivated here for its 
leaves, under the name of the bene plant. Theleaves are mucilaginous 
in water, and are used to alleviate summer complaints in children. This 
ylant ripens its seeds in most of the Middle States, and in all the South- 
ern, and is certainly worthy of attention as an article of produce. The 
seeds contain 45 per cent. of oil. 

Croton oil is extracted from the seeds of Croton tiglium (EHuphorbiacee,) 
an evergreen tree, growing 15 to 20 feet in height, a native of the Hast 
Indies. It is prepared by reducing the seeds to a powder, which is 
placed in bags, and pressed between iron plates. The oil is allowed to 
stand fifteen days, and is then filtered. Theresiduum is saturated with 


174 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


twice its weight of alcohol, heated to 140°, and the mixture pressed again. 
The alcohol is afterward removed by distillation. The oil is a very 
active purgative, very acrid, and dangerous, unless carefully adminis- 
tered. Even those employed i in preparing and pressing the seeds are 
affected with irritation of the eyes, and violent purging. 

Oil of Thyme, or Origanum.—The wild marjoram, Origanum vulgare, 
(Labiate,) a low-growing herb, originally from the Mediterranean, but 
introduced and occasionally found wild, yields an acrid stimulant oil, 
known as oil of thyme. It is used as a caustic. The native horsemint, 
Monarda punctata, yields an aromatic oil, which is also known as origa- 
num. It is used successfully as a counter-irritant in cases of deafness. 

Citronella oil is obtained from the lemon grass, Andropogon schenan- 
thus, (Andropogonee,) a native of Malabar, much cultivated in the Hast 
and West Indies and in parts of Seuth America, both for the refresh- 
ing fragrance of its leaves and the essential oil which they contain. 
This oil is largely exported from Ceylon, and is used in medicine and 
perfumery. 

Cajeput oil.—This volatile oil is obtained = om Melaleuca minor, (Myr- 
tacee,) an evergreen shrub, native of the Moluccas and other Indian 
islands. The oil is extracted by distillation of the leaves after fermenta- 
tion. It is of a greenish color, and has a powerful aromatic odor, and 
at one time was thought to be of special value in cases of cholera. It 
is an antispasmodic and stimulant. The leaves are used in China as a 
tonic in the form of decoction. 

Carap or Crab oil.—This is produced from the seeds of Carapa Guian- 
ensis, (Meliacee,) a tree growing 60 to 80 feet in height, native of the 
West Indies and Guiana. The fruit is large and contains numerous 
oily seeds. The oil is extracted by pressure, and is used for burning in 
lamps. It is also much esteemed in Demerara and Trinidad as an un- 
guent for the hair; also for applying to the wounds of animals, and for 
destroying ticks and other insects which infest cattle. In cool, temper- 
ate climates it hardens into a solid fat. 

Hundoo or Tallicoonah oil is obtained from Carapa Guineensis, a tree 
very similar to the last, a native of Senegal. This oil is also used for 
burning, and is held in high estimation as an anthelmintic. It is en- 
tirely soluble in ether, and alcohol separates it into two parts, a concrete 
substance and an oil fluid. The former contains the bitter principle 
and the nauseous odor of the oil. Its bitterness is traced to an alkaloid 

principle which has also been found in the bark. 

Poonga oil is expressed from the seeds of the Pongamia glabra, (Legu- 
minose,) a tree widely distributed throughout the East Indies, Southern 
China, and North Australia, and which “might be grown in the South- 
ern States as a shade tree. The oil is used for burning, is of a pale 
brownish color, and is fluid at a temperature above 55°. It is used as 
an external application in cutaneous diseases, especially in veterinary 
practice. 

Kohombe oil.—This is yielded by the seeds of Melia azedarach, (Meli- 
acee,) a tree well known in the Southern States as the Pride of India, 
or China tree. It is a native of the East Indies, but has been carried 
to different regions of the globe. The Arabic name, azedarach, implies 
a poisonous plant. ‘The oil obtained is semi-fluid and of a pale yellow 
color, and has been supposed to be useful in cases of consumption. The 
root is bitter, and is a well known anthelmintic. 

Taipoo oil is obtained from the fruit of Melia azadirachta, closely allied 
to the preceding. It is much used by native Indian practitioners of 
medicine, and under the name of bitter oil is sold for burning. 


had 
MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. Li 


Madia sativa, (Composite Helianthee,) an annual plant from Chili, 
where it has long been cultivated for the oil obtained from the ripened 
seeds, which is used instead of olive oil. It has been introduced and 
cultivated both in France and Germany, and has attracted much notice 
on account of the great percentage of oil contained in the seeds, being 
fully equal to that of therape seed. It does not readily congeal, which 
makes it valuable for lubricating machinery. It is easily cultivated, 
requiring management similar to seed clover, but, owing to the glutin- 
ous nature of the stems and stalks, the seeds require to be thrashed out 
soon after the crop is cut, otherwise fermentation would injure them. 

Tamanu oil.—This is yielded by the seeds of Calopyhllum inophyllun, 
(Clusiacee,) an East Indian tree, growing to a height of 80 to 100 feet. 
This oil is thick, of a dark green color, and strongly scented. Itis used 
for burning, and has great reputation as a liniment for paing of the 
joints and bruises. Tamanu resin is obtained from crevices in the bark 
of this tree. It is a green heavy resin, which subsequently becomes 
dry, brittle, and aromatic. 

Ben ov is procured from the seeds of Moringa pterygosperma, (Morin- 
gacee,) a small tree, seldom reaching over 20 feet in height, a native 
of Northern Africa. The oil is remarkably clear and limpid, has no 
perceptible smell, and is highly valued by watch-makers, who consider 
it one of the very best oils for delicate machinery. It is also sought 
after by perfumers, but is seldom found in commerce. The tree grows 
in Jamaica. The roots are pungent, resembling horse-radish in taste ; 
hence its local name of horse-radish tree. 

Yamadou oil is obtained from the seeds of Virola sebifera, (Myristica- 
cee,) a tree growing 50 to 60 feet high in Guiana, North: Brazil, and as 
far north as Panama, where it is called Malaqueto de montana. The 
seeds are macerated in hot water, and a heavy fatty oil is yielded, which 
is used for candles. An acrid-red juice exudes from wounds in the 
bark, which is used medicinally. ) 

Ram-til oil.—This is expressed from the seeds of Guizotia oleifera, 
(Composite,) an annual plant, native of Abyssinia, but cultivated in the 
East Indies for its oil. It is grown like a wheat crop. The oil is bland 
and sweet, and often used as a condiment, although its principal value 
lies in its adaptability as good lamp-oil. Seeds yield about 34 per cent. 
of oil. 

Patchouli, Pogostemon patchouli, (Labiate,) is a small, shrubby herb, a 
native of Penang and Malacca. ‘The leaves and young tops yield a vol- 
atile oil by distillation, which affords the patchouli, a peculiar perfume, * 
highly prized by some people, while to others the odor is very disagree- 
able. Ill effects, such as nervous attacks and loss of appetite, have 
been ascribed to the constant and excessive use of this perfume. 

Serpolet.—This is a species of camphor oil, distilled from the leaves 
and shoots of the wild thyme, Thymus serpyllum, (Labiate.) It is used 
in perfumery, and in Spain as an aromatic ingredient in olive pickles. 

African palm oil.—Elais Guineensis, the celebrated African oil palm, 
is a native of Western Africa, where it reaches to a height of 25 to 35 
feet. The fruit is borne in dense heads, measuring 18 inches to 2 feet 
in length, and 2 to 3 feet in circumference. The fruit is about 14 inches 
long and 1 inch in diameter. ‘The part yielding the oil is the outer 
fleshy coating of the fruit, but the seed, which is inclosed in a hard 
shell, also affords a fine oil. The common oil is of a buttery consistence 
of an orange-yellow color, and has a very strong penetrating smell. 
That from the kernels has a pleasant odor, when fresh. . The oil is ob- 
tained by boiling the fleshy pericarp of the seeds, and skimming off the 


176 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


oil as it comes to the surface. It is used by the natives as a butter, but 
its greatest use is in the manufacture of candles and soap. 

Camphor oil is furnished by Dryobalanops Camphora, (Dipteracece,) a 
lofty-growing tree of the island of Sumatra. The wood is tough and 
durable, and is used for ship-building, its strong oil-scent saving it from 
the attacks of ship-worms. The oil is obtained by incision, and flows 
as a pale yellow liquid, called the liquid camphor of Borneo and Suma- 
tra. It consists of resin and a volatile oil, having a camphorated oder, 
and has been used in scenting soap and other perfumes. Solid camphor 
is also found in the wood, especially in old trees. It differs from ordi- 
nary camphor by its greater hardness and brittleness. It is much 
prized by the Chinese, who ascribe many virtues to it. 

Almond oil is yielded by the seeds of Amygdalus communis, (Rosacece,) 
a low-growing tree, native of Barbary and Morocco, but now distributed 
over almost all temperate regions, and growing spontaneously in many ~ 
countries. ‘This tree was cultivated in Palestine during the earliest 
historical ages. The oil is extracted by pressure of the fruit, previously 
pounded into a paste. Itis more fluid than olive oil, of a clear trans- 
parent color, sweet to the taste, and has an agreeable smell. It is em- 
ployed in soap-making, and is much used as a flavoring ingredient in 
cookery. It contains prussic acid, and requires to be used with caution, 
and in a diluted state. What is known as the essence of almonds is 
this oil in a diluted form. 

Cashew-nut oil_—The cashew-nuts are produced by the Anacardiwm 
occidentale, (Anacardiacee,) a large tree growing both in the East and 
West Indies. The fruit in its natural state is very acrid and caustic, 
but when roasted affords an agreeable and wholesome article of food. 
The process of roasting requires care, the acridity of the fumes produc- 
ing inflammation in the face when one approaches too near. ‘The oil 
from the kernels is light yellow in color, of sweet taste, and'7s con- 
sidered by many to be fully equal to the olive or almond as an € swe oil. 
Sometimes these seeds are erroneously called cassia seeds. The stem 
of the tree furnishes a milky juice, which when dry becomes hard and 
black, and is used as a varnish. A gum is also found secreted by this 
plant, and is similar to gum arabic. 

Ground- nut oil—The earth-nut, more familiarly pea-nut, Arachis hy- 
pogeea, (Leguminose,) is well known, and extensively cu iltivated Tused 
in this country. The plant is a native of Africa, but is now ‘nd in 
warm climates everywhere. Owing to the peculiarity of this nt to 
thrust its fruit into the soil to effect maturation, a sandy or \ loose 
loamy soi] is necessary for its culture. The nuts are valuable as an 
article of food, and are much used in various tropical countries; but 
the greatest value of this fruit is in the oil which it contains. This is 
good for every purpose for which olive or almond oil is used, and is very 
frequently substituted for the former, and very largely used in its stead. 
In many parts of India it is sold for pure olive oil, and for all alimentary 
purposes it is quite as good. Asan illuminator it gives a superior light, 
and is of greater durability tham that of the olive; but its light is feeble 
compared with that of the best burning oils. It i is said to ‘keep a long 
time without becoming rancid. Under favorable circumstances of ripen- 
ing, the nuts will produce a large proportion of oil under ordinary ex- 
traction, but if heated before pressure, the quantity will be increased, 
but of an inferior quality. In its more northern range it yields less 
oil. The trade both in the nuts and in the oil is very large, and is 
extensively distributed over the globe. In South Carolina the nuts, 


| 
a 


Fig. 1. Ouve. 


OIL PLANTS, 


Fig. 2. Rape. 


Fig. 3. Peanut. 


Fig. 4. Castor Oil. 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 177 


being roasted and ground, are used as chocolate, and are said to make 
‘an excellent substitute for that beverage. 

Clove oil, or oil of cloves, is obtained from the flower-buds of Curyo- 
phyllus aromaticus, (Myrtacee.) It is associated with resinous, gummy, — 
and astringent matter. The buds yield 17 to 22 per cent. of oil, which 
is aromatic and acrid, and has been used as a condiment and stimulant 
carminative. It is also employed by distillers and manufacturers of 
soap. An oil called clove oil is distilled from the leaves of the cinnamon, 
which is said to be equal in aromatic pungency to that made from the 
clove. 

Cassia oilis obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum cassia, (Lawracee,) 
a tree of medium size cultivated in China, where the best oil is pre- 
pared. It isa yellow volatile oil, having much of the same properties 
as cinnamon, for which it is often substituted. 

Cinnamon oil is obtained from the bark of the cinnamon tree, Cinna- 
momum Zeylanicum, much cultivated in Ceylon, Cochin China, and 
other places in the Hast and the West Indies. The fragments which 
remain after peeling, sorting, and packing the marketable bark,.are 
roughly powdered and macerated in salt water for several days, and 
then distilled. The oil is at first of a yellow color, but soon assumes a 
reddish-brown hue. It has an odor intermediate between that of cinna- 
mon and vanilla, but possesses in a high degree both the sweet, burning ~ 
taste, and the agreeable aromatic smell of cinnamon. Highty pounds of 
fresh, newly prepared bark yield about 24 ounces of oil, which ficats 
upon the water, and 54 ounces of heavy oil, whichis precipitated to the 
bottom of the receiver. . 

Galem oil, or shea butter, of Africa, is produced from the seeds of 
Bassia Parkii, (Sapotacee,) a medium-sized tree growing abundantly on 
the banks of the river Niger. The fruit when ripe is as large as the egg 
of the guinea hen, of oval shape, and covered with a pale green pellicle, 
beneath which is a farinaceous pulp of an agreeable flavor. The fruit, 
after having been dried in the sun, is-pounded in a mortar until reduced 
to flour. It is then mixed with water, and boiled slowly for a short 
time, when the greasy particles become detached and are collected on 
the surface. When cold it thickens to the consistency of butter, and 
will keep fresh for two years. It is used for food; also for anointing 
sores and relieving pains, and for burning in lamps. It is an article of 
considerable trade with the natives of Western Africa. 

Epie, or Mowha oil, is expressed from the seeds of Bassia latifolia, or 
Mahwah tree of Bengal. It is of a greenish-white color, and of the 
consistency of butter in a temperature below 70°, andis used for illumin- 
ation, the manufacture of soap, and for various culinary purposes. A 
spirit, resembling whisky is distilled from the flowers, and cousumed 
in great quantities by the natives. — 

Phulwara, or Phoolwa oil, is produced from the seed-kernels of Bassia 
butyracea, or butter tree of Nepaul. The kernels are placed in a bag 
and pressed. The oil or fat, which is of a white color, immediately 
hardens. It is used as a soap and for burning in lamps; is soluble in 
warm alcohol, and is completely melted at a temperature of 120°. 

Illepe oil is a product of Bassia longifolia, and is used by the inhabit-. 
ants of Ceylon for burning and for cooking. Itis also much used for 
anointing the skin, and is admirably adapted to removing the unctuos- 
ities caused by excessive jferspiration, and for keeping the skin soft, 
pliable, and glossy, which is so conducive to health in tropical climates. 
The oil is white, and fuses at 80°. 

pote oil is obtained from the nut of Attalea Cohune, (Palmacee,) a 

‘ A ‘8 


' 


178 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Honduras palm. The nuts are about the size of the egg of the common 
hen, and grow in bunches containing six hundred to eight hundred 
seeds. The kernel tastes somewhat similar to the cocoa-nut, but is far 
more oleaginous, and the oil extracted from itis superior. It congeals 
at a temperature of 72°. It has been used for making composition 
candles, and is highly esteemed for that and other purposes. 

Nahor oil is obtained from the seeds of Mesua ferrea, (Guttifere,) the 
iron-wood of tropical Asia. The oil is used as a lamp oil, and as a heal- 
ing application to sores. The flowers of this plant are highly fragrant, 
and form an article of trade in East India bazars. 

Hekune oil is pressed from the seed-kernels of Aleuwrites triloba, 
(Euphorbiacee,) the candle-nut tree of the Polynesian Islands. The 
kernels, when dried and stuck on a rod, are used by the inhabitants as 
a substitute for candles. They are also used as an article of food, 
and resemble walnuts in taste. When pressed, they yield a large pro- - 
portion of pure, palatable oil, which is uséd as a drying oil for paints, 
and is known as country walnut oil. It is also used in the Sandwich 
Islands as a mordant for their vegetable dyes. The root of the tree 
affords a brown dye. 

Castor oil.—This ‘vell-known oil is expressed from the seeds of the 
Ricinus communis, (Huphorbiacee,) a native of India, but now widely 
distributed and cultivated in various parts of the world, but nowhere 
more successfully than in this country. There are many varieties in 
cultivation, chiefly as ornamental plants, on account of the size and 
beauty of their foliage. Many of these have also very large seeds, but 
for medicinal purposes the small seeds of the species and of some dwarf 
varieties are considered to yield the best oil, although for coarse oils for 
burning, for lubricating machinery, and for use in veterinary practice, the 
larger seeds are more profitable. The uses to which this oil is applied 
are constantly increasing, and its consumption is very great. In trop- 
ical countries the Ricinus grows to a tree-like size, while in temperate 
climates it is an annual. 

Bay or laurel oil.—The classical plant, the bay, the branches of whieh 
formed the crowns placed upon the heads of ancient heroes, is the Laurus 
nobilis, (Lauracew,) an evergreen tree, native of the south of Europe. 
The leaves have an agreeable aromatic fragrance, and are used by cooks 
and confectioners. Imported figs are usually packed with the leaves. 
From the fruit a butter-like substance is expressed, known in commerce 
as oil of bays, which has been used as an external stimulant, and in veter- 
inary medicine. ; 

Olive oil_—_The olive tree, Olea Huropea, (Olcacec,) is among the oldest 
of cultivated plants, so old that its native country is not definitely known, 
the prevailing opinion being that it is indigenous to both Asia and Eu- 
rope. The olive tree seldom exceeds 20 feet in height, is of a spreading 
habit, and very long lived. There are several well-marked varieties, each 
having its individual peculiarities similar to the differences of varieties 
to be found in apple and pear orchards. -Olive oil is obtained by pressing 
the fruit, for which purpose it is passed through a mill with crushing- 
stoves, arranged so as to bruise the flesh without breaking the kernel. 
The pulp is placed in bags made of rushes, and by means of a gentle 
pressure the best or virgin oilis obtained. Thisis frequently still further 
purified by being filtered through cotton., A second and afterward a 
third quality are run off, the first by moistening the residuum with boiling 
water, and then erushing the stones, boiling the mass, and pressing it 
gain. When the fruit is not sufficiently ripe, the fresh oil has a bitterish 
taste, and when too ripe it is fatty. 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 179 


‘The most valued olive oil is that known as Provence oil. This is vir- 
gin oil, expressed with great care from ripe fruit immediately after being 
gathered, and before the slightest fermentation has taken place. It is 
usually exported in bottles surrounded by a species of rush net-work, 
and is used as salad oil. Gallipoli oil is produced most largely, and is 
sent ont in casks, while the kind known as Lucca oil is put up in jars 
holding nineteen gallons each. The manufacture of olive oi! is a very 
old practice, but it has undergone. very considerable improvement of 
late years. By the introduction of hydraulic presses,,the expressing of 
the oil is now much more rapid and effectual, and the injurious conse 
quences of incipient fermentation, or those attending the heating of the 
pulp, are thus avoided. 

Olives intended for preservation are gathered before they are ripe, and 
deprived of some of their bitterness by soaking for eight or ten hours in 
a lye composed of one part of quick-lime to six parts of wood-ashes, in 
water. They are tuen bottled in a brine of common salt and water, 
to which is usuaily added some aromatic flavor. The olive has been 
frequently introduced into the Southern States. The tree lives and 
grows healthily in South Carolina, and its culture might be prosecuted 
with advantage in many portions of the country. It has long been 


grown in California and Mexico. 


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Dill oil.—This is yielded by Anethum graveolens, ( Umbellifere,) anative 
of the south of Europe and Egypt. Itis cultivated in herb gardens for 
its fruit, which, when distilled with water, furnishes an oil that contains 
the principle upon which the carminative effects of the plant depend. 
It is generally used as dill water, to relieve flatulence and prevent the 
griping properties of some purgative medicines. The plant and the fruit 
are used as condiments by eastern nations. It is supposed to be the 
plant which is cailed anise in the New Testament. 

Alispice oil.—This aromatic oil is distilled from the berries of Eugenia 
pimenta, (Myrtacew,) a medium-sized tree cultivated in the West Lnudies, 

Anise oil is distilled from the fruit of the Pimpinella anisum, ( Tmbel- 
hifere,) but the true anise-seed oi] is seldom found pure, being substi- 
tuted by the oil from the fruit of Illicum anisatum, ( Magnoliacee,) a laree- 
growing shrub found in China, the fruit of which forms a considerable 
article of commerce among Asiatic nations. * 

Bacaba oil is obtained from Gnocarpus Bacaba, (Palmacee,) an Amazo- 
nian plant of lofty stature. It. yields a colorless, sweet-tasted oi! used 
in adulterating olive oil, and is excellent either for culinary or burning 
purposes. 

Peppermint oilis distilled from the leaves of Mentha piperita, (Labiate,) 
a common cultivated hardy herbaceous plant. The oil and preparations 
made trom it are largely used as aromatics, carminatives, and stimulants; 
and are especially useful in the alleviation of nausea, griping pains, and 
flatulence. Owing to its powerful taste, it is frequently used to conceal 
the taste of nauseous medicines. 

Cardamon oil.—A volatile aromatic oil, distilled from the seeds of 
Elettaria cardamomum, (Zingiberacee.) 1t has been used in medicine. 

Brazil nut or Castanha oil, is a bland oil, obtained by pressure from the 
seeds of Bertholletia excelsa, ( Lecythidacew,) and used by watchmakers and 
arti$ts. These nuts are sold in the shops as cream-nuts. 

_ Cheroonjee oil is expressed from the seeds of Buchanania latifolia, (Ana- 
rdiacece,)an Indian tree. The seedsare eaten as almonds, and the fruits 
iy a black varnish. 

ennel oil isfurnished by Feniculum vulgare, (UOmbellifere,) thecommon 


‘ 


t 


a 


180 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


fennel, a native of Europe, where it is grown for its fruit, from which 
is produced an aromatic oil, which also has carminative properties. 

Jatropha oil is obtained from the seeds of Curcas purgans (Luphorbi- 
acee,) or physie nut, a tropical tree found on the Philippine Islands, 
where the seeds are collected for the purpose of expressing the oil which 
they contain. The oil is said to be sometimes boiled with oxide of iron 
and used by the Chinese as a varnish. It is of a light color, and has 
been used as a substitute for linseed oil, as well as for burning in lamps, 
and for other purposes. Its qualities differ but little from those of cas- 
tor oil, according to medical authorities, and twelve to fifteen drops are 
equal to an ounce of castor oil. 

Lavender oil is produced by Lavendula vera, (Labiaic,) a small shrub 
from the south of Hurope, which is cultivated for the sake of its agreeable 
perfume. The essential oil is procured by distillation from the flowers. 
When dissolved in spirits of wine, and mixed with other perfumes, it 
forms lavender water. The red lavender drops of druggists consist ot 
a spiritous solution of the oils of lavender and rosemary, mixed with 
certain aromatic and coloring materials. They are frequently used as a 
stimulant and cordial in cases of hysteria or faintness. Another species, 
L. spica, yields oil of spike, which is of a darker color and of a less 
agreeable perfume than the true oil of lavender. The oil procured from 
this plant is used by painters on porcelain, and by artists in the - 
preparation of varnishes. 

Simbolee oil is extracted from the seeds of Bergera Konigi, (Aurantia- 
cece,) a small tree known in India as the curry-leaf tree, being used by 
the natives to flavor their curries with its aromatic fragrantleaves. The 
oil is used medicinally. : 

Linseed oil.—This well known oil is pressed from the seeds of Linum 
usitatissimum, (Linaceew,) the valuable flax plant that has been cultivated 
from time immemorial. The first quality of oil is produced by simple 
pressure of the seeds, and is termed cold drawn; but the ordinary oil is 
obtained by breaking up, beating, and repressing the cake left after the 
first process. It is a non-drying oil, but by boiling with sugar of 
lead, red lead, or white vitriol, it is converted into a drying oil fit for 
the use of painters, who use it in large quantities. The seeds contain a 
mucilage which, dissolved in water, is demulcent and emollient. 

Marking oil.—This is obtained from the pericarps or shell of the fruit 
of Semicarpus anacardium, (Anacardiace,) an Indian tree termed the 
marking-nut tree. The hard shell of the fruit yields an oly juice, which, 
when mixed with lime, leaves an indelible mark on cloth. The seeds 
are used as an article of food, and are known as Malacca beans. From 
the seeds an oil is expressed which is used by printers, and when dry 
forms a black varnish used in the arts. 

Sunflower otl, Helianthus annuus, (Composiic.)—This well-known flow- 
ering plant is in some places very extensively cultivated for the oil con- 
tained in its seeds. The oil is palatable, clear, and flavorless; and when 
properly purified is used for the purpose of salad oil, or its adulteration. 
In Tartary the larger seeds are boiled and eaten, and in many districts 
they are used for fattening poultry, a purpose to which they are well 
adapted. es? 

Poppy-seed oil.—The opium poppy, Papaver somniferun, (Papaveracec,) 
is an annual plant originally from the Levant, but now cultivated in 
different portions of the globe. The ripe seeds yield by expression over 
50 per cent. of oil, which is bland and said to be used in adulterating 
olive oil. It is used by painters, and dries readily. It is much used in 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR sourcES. 181 


opium-producing regions, both as an article of diet and for illuminating 
purposes. The oil is destitute of narcotic properties. 

Thistle-seed oil.—This is a common name to an oil expressed from the 
seeds of Argemone Mexicana, (Papaveracee,) a native of Mexico, but now 
widely distributed over the globe. This oil is of a pale yellow color, 
clear, and mild. In South America it is much used by painters, and is 
said to givea fine shining appearance to painted wood. It isused medicin- 
ally as a substitute for castor oil, and the yellow juice of the stem is 
recommended in ophthalmia. 

Oil of rhodium.—This strong-scented oil is obtained from the stems of 
Rhodorrhiza scoparia, (Convolwulacec,) a native of the Canary Islands. It 
is used to adulterate ottar of roses; also medicinally as an ointment. 

Mace oil is obtained by pressure from the aril of the nutmeg, Myristica 
moschata, also a volatile oil by distillation of the fruit. The former is 
Sometimes known as butter mace. 

Oil of cubebs.—This medicinal oil is obtained from the fruit of Oubeba 
officinalis, (Piperacee,) a tropical plant having a shrubby, climbing habit 
of growth. The fruit has a general resemblance to black pepper, and 


' when fresh contains about 10 per cent. of essential oil. 


Mustard oil.—This is obtained from various species of Sinapis, and is 
pressed from the residuum consequent upon the preparation of powdered. 
mustard. The siftings are mixed with water, which combines with 
other ingredients in the seeds, and a volatile oil is obtained. A fixed 
oil is obtained from the simple pressure of the residuum, which has no 
acridity, and has been used as a purgative and vermifuge. The volatile 
oil is very acrid, and has been employed as a rubefacient. 

Rapeseed oil, Colza oil.—This is expressed from the seeds of Brassica 
napus, (Crucifere) and other species of Brassica, natives of Europe, where 
they are extensively cultivated for their oil products. The plants are 
cultivated in the manner usually adopted in the production of turnips 
or cabbages. The seeds are perfected the second year of growth. 
The oil is extensively used for machinery and for burning in light-house 
lamps. The refuse cake is a well known cattle food. 

Gold of Pleasure oil.—This oil is obtained from the Camelina sativa, 
(Orucifere,) an annual, native of Europe, and cultivated to some extent 
for the clear yellow-colored oil obtained from its seeds. It much resem- 
bles linseed oil. The stems of the plant contain a considerable propor- 
tion of fiber, which is sometimes used in the manufacture of brooms. 

Bergamot oil.—This volatile oil is obtained from the fruit of Citrus 
bergamia, (Aurantiacee.) Citron oil is also a product of this family, being 
an essential oil obtained from the Citrus medica, employed in perfumery 
and. confectionery. 
; GUMS AND RESINS. 


Benzoin or Gum Benjamin.—This is collected from the stem of Siyrax 
benzoin (Styracacece), a native of Borneo and other Indian islands. In- 
cisions are made in the bark, from which the juice exudes. When dried 
it is removed by a chisel or blunt knife. The gum which exudes from 
the natural fissures is considered the most valuable, having a stronger 
perfume than that produced from wounds in the tree. It is used medi- 
cinally by perfume manufacturers, and as a compound in the mixtures 
used as incense. . 

Storax is obtained from Styrax officinale, a native of the Levant. This 
balsamic resinous substance is obtained by pressure from strips of green 


bark. The result is liquid storax. Solid storax is supposed to be the 


182 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. ; 


liquid mixed with fine saw-dust, and dried. It is used in perfumery, 
and medicinally as a stimulating expectorant. 

Gamboge.—This gum resin is yielded by several plants. That known 
as Ceylon gamboge is obtained from Garcinia morella, ( Clusiacee,) a fine 
tree with glossy foliage, somewhat like that of the evergreen magnolia. 
This plant is supposed to be a native of Siam, The guin is obtained by 
making incisions in the bark, or by breaking the branches, and collect- 
ing the juice as it drops. Gamboge is known in commerce in three dis- 
tiuct forms; in rolls or solid cylinders, in pipes or hollow eylinders, and 
in cakes. The former two are collected in the same manner, the juice 
when in a liquid state being run into hollow bamboos, and allowed to 
harden. In this form it is known as pipe gamboge. The cake or lump 
' gainboge occurs in round or square lumps or masses several pounds in 
weight. It is used as a pigment in the arts, and medicinally as a pur- 
gative. Garcinia pictoria of Mysore yields a gum having the color and 
properties of gamboge. American gamboge is obtained from Vismia 
Guianensis, (Hypericacee,) a shrubby plant found in Surinam and Mexico, 
which abounds in a yellow resinous juice resembling, in its appearance 
as well as in its purgative and other properties, the gamboge of Ceylon. 
Other species found in Brazil and Guiana produce similar resins. 

Tacamahaca resin is obtained from the stem of the cedar wood of Gui- 
ana, Icica altissima, (Amyridacece,) a very tall tree, yielding a durable 
fragrant timber, which is used*for inside fittings of houses, especially 
book cases, the odor of the wood preventing injury from insects, The 
balsam or resin is used as a perfume. It remains in a semi-fluid state for 
some time, but ultimately becomes hard, and is used for burning ag 
incense in churches, The branches of Icica heptaphylla are used as 
torches under the name of incense wood. Balsam of Acouchi, yielded 
by I. heterophylla, is used in medicine. 

Tragacanth.—This gum-like substance is produced by Astragalus gum- 
mifera, (Leguminose,) a native of Persia and Asia Minor. The gum 
exudes naturally from the bark in the same way that gum exudes from 
the bark of plum or cherry trees. The hygrometric properties of the 
bark being very great, considerable moisture is absorbed by it during 
the night, which causes it to swell and crack, and from the openings 
thus formed the gum exudes. Astragulus beticus is cultivated in some 
Dare of Germany for the seeds, which are used as a substitute for 
coffee, . 

Kauri resin is a product of Dammara Australis, (Coniferw,) a New 
Zealaud tree reaching 150 to 200 feet in height. The resin is hard and 
brittle, like copal. It exudes chiefly from the lower portions of the trunk, 
either from natural fissures or wounds purposely made with an ax. It 
is at first about the color and consistency of cream, highly glutinous, 
and flavored like turpentine, but gradually hardens by exposure to the 
air, and changes to a dark color. The best resin is found by digging in 
the ground where old forests have been destroyed, and it is found from 
a few inches to as many feet in depth, and in localities now entirely 
cenuded of trees, It is also found in the soil at the base of living trees. 
It is insoluble in water, and ornaments are carved out of the lighter 
amber-colored lumps. It becomes plastic at a heat of 180°, and cam be 
molded into any form. ‘ 

Dammar resin is the produce of Dammara orientalis, the Amboyna 
' pine, a native of the Moluccas. - 

Grass gunt or Acaroid resin.—This substance is produced by several 
species or Xanthorrhaa, ( Liliacee, ) natives of Australia, where they form. 
characteristic features of vegetation. They form thick trunks like palms, 


PLATE IV. 


GUM PLANTS, 
Fig.1. Gamboge. Fig.2. Benzoin. Fig.3. Caoutchouc., Fig. 4. Gutta Percha, 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 183 


The leaves are long, wiry, and grass-like, and, are borne in a dense tuft 
at the top of the stem, and hang down gracefully all around. The long 
flower stalks rise out of the center sometimes as high as 20 feet, bear- 
ing at the top a dense cylindrical flower spike. The resinous product 
has long been known among druggists as gum acroides, and is used 
by the natives as a medicine in cases of diarrhea. As seen in com- 
merce it is very brittle, usually in small pieces, and in a state of coarse 
powder. Its color is deep yellow, considerably resembling gamboge, but 
darker; the powder is greenish yellow. The plant is composed of a core 
of hard fibrous pith about half of its whole diameter, around which 
there is a layer of resin varying from half an inch to one inch or more 
in thickness, which forms the connection between the leaves and the 
core. Between these leaves, and also adhering to and covering them, 
is a quantity of resin which exudes in large lumps from the sides 
of the plant. An average-sized plant will produce forty pounds. 

Asafetida.—This resinous gum is procured from the juice of the Nar- 
thex asafetida, (Umbellifere,) a tall-growing perennial, native of Persia. 
The roots grow to a large size, and are allowed four to six years’ growth 
before they are considered in the best condition for yielding the drug. 
When ready for use the stem is severed close to the surtace of the 
ground, and incisions are made on the top of the stump from which the 
juice exudes and hardens by exposure, and is collected in its conérete 
state. In medicine it is used as a stimulant in hysteria and for other 
purposes. 

India copal, piney varnish, white dammar, or gumanine, a useful 
gum resin known in different localities by the preceding names, is pro- 
cured from Vateria Indica, ( Dipterocarpacea, ) a native tree of the Mala- 
bar coast. The resin is procured by cutting a notch in the trunk of the 
tree, from which the juice exudes and hardens by exposure to the air. 
It is largely used as a varnish for carriages, pictures, &e. It is also 
used by the Portuguese as an incense, and ornaments are fashioned 
from it under the name of amber. A vegetable butter is obtained from 
this fruit, which is of solid consistence, beautifully white, and requires 
a higher temperature to melt it than animal tallow. Candles manutac- 
tured from it burn with a clear light, and produce an agreeable fra- 
grance. It is prepared by cleaning the seeds, and then roasting and 
grinding them into amass. Water is added and the whole is boiled 
until the fatty matter rises to the surface, when it is removed. 

Jalap is furnished by the tubers of Lxogonium purga, ( Convolvulacee, ) 
a climbing plant, native of Mexico. The tubers are roundish, of various 
sizes, and dark-colored. They owe their purgative properties to their 
resinous ingredients, and worm-eaten tubers are more valuable than 
those that are sound, as the insects eat the farinaceous and woody por- 
tions of the tuber, and leave the resin. Indian jalap is obtained from 
the roots of Ipomea turpethum. The resin is more diluted than in the 
true jalap, and is destitute of any nauseous taste or smell. 

Wild jalap.—A resinous extract from the roots of Podophyllum pelia- 
tum, (Ranunculacece,) a native plant of active medicinal properties. 

Scammony.—The roots of Convoivulus scammonia when cut exude a 


' gummy resin or milky juice, which soon coneretes, and is known as 


scammony. The plant grows: abundantly in Greece, but the gum is 
Seldom to be found pure, being frequently mixed with chalk. Itis gener- 
ally imported from Aleppo. 

Ammoniacum is obtained from Dorema ammoniacum, (Umbellifere.) 


This plant is a native of Persia, and abounds in a milky juice, which 


exudes upon the slightest puncture being made, and dries upon the stem 


184 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


in small rounded lumps or tears. It is used as a stimulant expectorant. 
The ammoniacum of the ancients—a gum resin, like asafcetida—is sup- 
posed to be yielded by Ferula tingitana; and sagapenum, a similar drug, 
is supposed likewise to be the product of this genus. 

Gambier, or Terra Japonica, is obtained from Nauclea gambier, (Cinchon- 
acee,) a shrubby, climbing, Asiatic plant. Gambier is prepared by boiling 
the leaves and young shoots of the plant in water until the decoction 
thickens to the consistency of molasses. It is then run into narrow, 
oblong molds, where it remains to thicken; after which it is cut into 
small cubes or slices, and these are thoroughly hardened and dried in 
the san. It is used by the Malays for mixing with the preparation of 
areca-nut and betel-leaf, which they are in the habit of chewing; and 
it is also used for tanning leather, and by dyers and curriers. There are 
several qualities of the gambier extract; the best is white, brittle, and 
has an earthy appearance when rubbed between the fingers. This 
earthy appearance gave it the name of terra japonica, which was then 

upposed to come from Japan. Gambier is one of the most powerful of 
the pure astringents. 

Manna is a concrete saccharine substance, procured from Ornus Huro- 
pea and Ornus rotundifolia, (Fraxinece,) natives of the south of Europe. 
They form trees about 20 feet in height, and are cultivated in planta- 
tions in Sicily for the manna they produce. The manna is obtained by 
making incisions in the stem and branches. The best article is collected 
from the young branches or upper part of the stem; it hardens on the 
stem, but is further dried after removal from the tree. Manna is used 
in medicine as a gentle tonic. It is white, inodorous, erystallizable in 
semi-transparent needles, and of a sweetish taste. Manna sugar, or 
mannite, differs from other sugars in not being fermentescible. In 
Styria the larch (Larix Europea) exudes from its leaves and branches 
a honeyed juice, which, on becoming hard, is called manna or briancon. 
The cedar of Lebanon, Abies cedrus, (Conifere,) produces small quanti- 
ties of transparent resinous drops, called manna by the monks, who 
collect it and prepare from it various ointments, which have consider- 
abie reputation in Syria as a remedy for phthisis. , 

The manna by which the Israelites were miracuously fed is supposed 
to be identical with an exudation found on the stems of Alhagi mauro- 
rum, (Leguminose,) a shrubby plant which covers immense plains in 
Arabia and Palestine. The juice hardens on the branches, and is most 
abundant during hot weather, and is collected by the Arabs who cross 
the deserts, they using it as nutriment for themselves and camels, the 
latter being very partial to it. 

Tamarisk manna, or manna of Mount Sinai, is produced through the 
puncture of Coccus manniparus, an insect inhabiting the tamarisk trees, 
which grow abundantly in that vicinity. This saccharine secretion 
exudes as a thick, transparent sirup, and drops from the branches upon 
the ground, and, being collected and cleaned, is eaten with bread, and 
is considered a delicacy; it is also reputed as efficacious in diseases of 
the chest. Australian mannais produced by the Lucalyptus mannifera, 
(iyrtacee.) This manna contains a saccharine matter different from 
mannite, and nearly similar to glucose. It is much used as a pleasant 
purgative. 

Red gun.—This is yielded by the Lucalyptus rostrata, a common tree 
in many parts of Australia. The gum exudes in a fluid state from the 
bark, and, by evaporation of the water by which it is held in soiution, 
concretes into a beautiful ruby-colored gum. As a medicine it is a pow- 


& 
MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 18). 


erful astringent, and is sometimes employed with great success in dis- 
orders in which astringents are indicated. 

Aloes.—This bitter drug is the dried resinous juice derived from the 
leaves of several species of aloe, a genus of liliaceous plants, natives 
of temperate and sub-tropical climates. The best kind of aloes is the 
socotrine, the product of Aloe Socotrina, a native of the island of 
Socotra, in the Indian Ocean. Hepatic aloes, socalled from their liver- 
like color, are produced by A. Arabica. Barbadoes aloes are produced 
from A. vulgaris, a native of Cape Colony. It is more dusky in hue 
than the East Indian species, and more nauseous and bitter. Caballine 
or horse-aloes are the refuse of the Barbadoes, and from their rank, 
fetid smell, are useful only for veterinary medicine. Cape aloes are 
produced by A. spicata and A. commelini; are lighter in color than the 
other species, but possessed of a strong, disagreeable odor; the color is 
more like gamboge. The yellowish juice is stored up in greenish vessels 
lying beneath the skin of the leaf, and when the leaves are cut the juice 
exudes, and is gradually evaporated to a firm consistence. An inferior 
product is obtained by pressing the leaves, or by cutting them in pieces, 
boiling them, and evaporating the decoction to a proper solidity. The 
drug is used as a purgative, and in small doses as a tonic. 

Balsam of Peru.—This drug is obtained from Myrospermum Peruiferum, 
(Leguminose,) a native of Peru and other parts of South America. The 
mode of procuring the balsam is by making incisions in the tree from 
which it gradually exudes, and is absorbed by pieces of cotton rags which 
are inserted for the purpose. During rainy seasons the supply is much 
lower, and the expedient of lighting a fire is resorted to, which causes 
the gum to exude more freely, but is followed by the destruction of the 
tree. When the rags are saturated they are thrown into boiling water, 
which separates the balsam. It is then collected and placed in suitable 
vessels for sale. It is a thickish liquid, with a fragrant aromatic smell 
and taste. 

Balsam of Tolu.—This is yielded by Myrospermum toluiferum, and is 
a product of similar character to the preceding. It is at first soft, but 
becomes hard and brittle by exposure. It is used in chronic coughs, and 
for other medicinal purposes. 

Gum butea.—This is the hardened juice of Butea frondosa, ( Fabacee, ) 
a tree that attains a medium height, and is very common in Bengal, and 
there known as the dak or tisso. From natural fissures, or wounds 
in the bark, there exudes, during the hot season, a beautiful red juice, 
which concretes into aruby colored, brittle, astringent gum, analogous 
to gum kino, for which it has been employed under the name of dak 
gum. It soon loses its beautiful color upon exposure to the air, when 
it becomes darker colored than the ordinary kino of commerce. This 
gum, when held in the flame of a candle, swells and burns away slowly, 
without smell or flame. If placed in the mouth it soon dissolves, its 
taste being strongly astringent. It is used for tanning leather. A 
coarse fibrous material obtained from the bark is used as a substitute 
for oakum for calking seams of boats. The lac insect punctures the 
young twigs, and causes the formation of the substance known as stick 
lac, used in the manufacture of sealing wax, and alsoasadye. The 
seeds yield a thick dark-colored oil called moodooga, which the native 
doctors consider to possess anthelmintic properties. 

Mastic is obtained from Pistacia lentiscus, (Anacardiacee,) a small 
evergreen tree, native of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, and West- . 
ern Asia. The resin is gathered from wounds made in the bark, from 
which it exudes in drops, and hardens into a semi-transparent gum. It 


186 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


is principally produced in Asiatic Turkey, dia is consumed in large 
quantities by the Turks for chewing, to sweeten the breath and 
strengthen the gums, Iti is also employed for varnishing, and occasion- 
ally in dentistry. 

Cape mastic.—The resin bush of the Cape of-Good Hope, Bur; Yyops 
miultifidus,.( Composite, ) affords a gum from its stem and branches, of a 
yellowish, semi-transparent appearance, which is gathered and used by 
the natives, but is sparingly introduced in commerce. 

Labdanum.—This gum exudes from the leaves and branches of Cistus 
Creticus, ( Cistacee,) a low-growing shrub, native of Crete. The gum 
emits a pleasant balsamic odor, and bas been used as an expectorant. 

Galbanum.—This balsamic gum resin is obtained from Bubon galba- 
num, (Umbelliferw,) a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The name is 
also applied to the resin of Opoidia galbanifera, a Persian umbelliferous 
plant. The resin possesses similar properties, but inferior, to those of 
asafetida. Galbanwm officinale, of the same family, has been so named 
from a supposition of its yielding a resin or gum of this kind. 

Sagapenum gum is produced by Ferula Persica, ( Umbelliferw,) a native 
of Persia, and at one time supposed to be the source of asafeetida. This 
is somewhat similar, but less powerful. 

Hlemi.—This resin is obtained fronr one or more species of Amyris, 
(Amyridacee,) a genus of Indian trees remarkable for their resinous 
products. Indian bdellium, or false myrrh, is obtained from <A. com- 
miphore. This is a gum resin, with properties similar to the myrrh, but 
not so valuable. 

Anime.—The West India locust tree, Zymenea Courbaril, ( Cesalpinie, ) 
known in Panama as algarroba, is a tree of the largest size. The resin 
exudes from the trunk, and large lumps of it are found about the roots 
of old trees. It is so named from its resemblance to the valuable anime 
resin of Africa. 

Gum Arabic is furnished by various species of Acacia, ( Mimosee,) such 
as Acacia verek, A. Arabica, A. vera, A. Adansonii, and others, natives 
of Arabia, Barbary, and the East Indies. It is collected as it exudes 
from the plants in a liquid state. A short exposure to the sun, heat, 
and air, hardens it into a solid mass. It is used as food, in medicine, 
and largely in-the arts and manufactures. 

Gum kino is obtained from Pterocarpus marsupium of India, and P. 
erinaceus of Africa, a genus of Leguminose. These trees are of large 
size, and the gum is obtained by making incisions in the bark, from 
which the juice exudes, and hardens into a brittle mass, easily broken 
into little angular shining fragments of a brightruby color. Itis highly 
astringent, and is used medicinally in diarrhoea. 

Gum guaiacum is obtained from Guatacum officinale, (Zygophyllacee, ) a 
West India tree that furnishes the heavy wood called lignum-vite. The 
resin exudes from the stem, and bardens on the bark; or holes are bored 
in logs of the wood which are placed on a fire, so that when the resin is 
melted it runs through the hole into vessels placed to receive it. Guai 
eum is greenish- brown, with a balsamic fragrance, and is remarkable 
for the changes of color which it undergoes when brought into contact 
with various substances. Gluten gives “it a brown tint; nitric acid and 
chlorine change it successively to green, blue, and brown. The resin, 
as well as the bark and wood, is used medicinally as a stimulant in 
chronic rheumatism and other complaints. 

Clusia is a genus of Clusiacece or Guttifere, chiefly climbing plants 
and shrubs, a few attaining the size of trees, natives of tropical America. 
C. insignis, a Brazilian plant, exudes a considerable quantity of resin 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR souRcES. 187 


from the disk and stamens of the flowers, which is used in medicine. 0. 
alba, C.rosea,and OC. flava,in the West Indies, yield an abundant tenacious 
resin from their stems, which is used for the same purposes as pitch. it 
is first of a green color, but when exposed to the air turns to a brown 
or reddish tint. C. duca yields a resin known in Columbia by the name 
of duca, which is burned for the sake of its pleasant odor. : 

Hog gum.—The hog-gum tree is Moronobea coccinea, ( Clusiacec, ) a lofty 
growing plant, reaching to 90 or 100 feet in height, a native of the 
West Indies and South America. A pellucid juice exudes from incisions 
in the bark, and after a brief exposure hardens into a yellow resin, re- 
sembling Burgundy pitch in appearance. In Jamaica, hogs when 
wounded rub the injured part against the tree, so as to smear them- 
selves with the resin, which possesses vulnerary properties, and hence 
its commen name. ‘The resin has been employed medicinally as a sub- 
stitute for balsam of copaiva, and pitch plasters have been made of it. 
In Guiana and Brazil, where it is termed mani, or oanahi, the natives 
make Jorches with it, and use it to pitch boats. 

Gum sandarac.—This resin is produced by Callitris quadrivalis, (Coni- 
fere,) a medium-sized evergreen tree, native of Barbary. It is used in 
varnishing, and when powdered finely and sifted, and mixed with the 
finely powdered calcareous bone of the cuttle-fish, forms the article of 
' resinous powder known as pounce. The timber of this tree is very 
hard, fragrant, and durable. 

Kuteera gum is obtained from the stem of Cochlospermum gossypium, a 
shrub or small tree found in the Indian peninsula. This gum is often 
used asa substitute for gum tragacanth. The seeds of the plant are 
covered with a cottony down, which is used for stuffing pillows and 
cushions. The gum of Sterculia urens (Sterculiacee) is also known as 
kuteera. Thistree is a native of India; the gum resembles tragacanth 
both in external appearance and in its property of not dissolving in cold 
water, but merely swelling and becoming jelly-like, owing to the pres 
ence of bassorine. 

Succory gum is obtained from Chendrilla juncea, a plant belonging to 
the lettuce family. It is a native of the south of Europe, and furnishes 
@ narcotic gum in limited quantities. 

Carana resin is produced by Bursera acuminata, (Amyridacee,) a 
shrubby West India plant. The juice, which exudes from the bark 
when the tree is wounded, contains a kind of turpentine oil, which rap- 
idly congeals on exposure. Bursera gummifera grows to a tree of large 
size on the island of San Domingo. A whitish, resinous matter flows 
copiously when the bark is pierced, which is much used in making flam- 
beaus,.and is also burned as incense in churches. The wood is used in 
making canoes. 

Churras.—This resin is produced by the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa, 
but onlyin very hot, dry climates. It is gathered by men clad inleathern 
dresses, running through the hemp-fields, and brushing through the 
plants rapidly. The resin adheres to the leather, and is subsequently 
scraped off and kneaded into balls. When used in small quantities it 
produces pleasant excitement, which passes into delirium and catalepsy 
if the quantity is increased ; if still further continued, a peculiar form 
of insanity is produced. Many of the Asiatics are passionately addicted 
to this kind of intoxication. 

Gum olibanum is obtained from Boswellia serrata, (Amyridacee,) a tree 
about 40 feetin height, a native of India. The resin is used asa pitch, but 
being hard and brittle, it is boiled with some low-priced oil to render it 


(188 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


workable. By some it has been supposed that this was the frankincense 
of the ancients. . 

African bdelliwm is a gum resin furnished by a small composite plant, 
Ceradia furcata, a native of the southwest coast of Africa. The gum 
exudes in small, pellucid tears of a pale yellow color, and somewhat hard 
and brittle. It has a slightly bitter and fragant resinous taste, pos- 
sesses a very fine aromatic smell, and throws out a refreshing and 
agreeable perfume when burning. Lately it has been surmised that this 
plant was the true source of frankincense. 

Myrrh.—This resinous perfume is produced by Balsamodendron myrrha, 
(Amyridacee,) a large-growing shrub, native of Arabia Felix. The 
milky juice of the tree is made to exude by wounding the bark, and it 
rapidly concretes into brittle, yellowish-red, semi-transparent tears, hav- 
ing a bitter, disagreeable, and acrid taste, with a strong and not partic- 
ularly pleasant fragrance. It was formerly much valued for its property 
of resisting putrefaction, and at an early date formed one of the ingre- 
dients for embalming the dead. The ancients considered it a universal 
medicine. It is known as balm of Gilead, balm of Mecca, and opo- 
balsamum. 

Googul and mukul are names given in Scinde and Persia to a resin 
yielded by Balsamodendron mukul. This is considered identical with the 
bdellium of Dioscorides and the Scriptures. The tree is a native of 
Scinde, and the resin is cellected by making incisions in the bark and 
permitting the gum to fall to the ground; hence it is full of impurities. 
ft is used as a medicine in veterinary practice, and burned as an 
incense. 

Bayee balsam is a product of Balsamodendron pubescens. This is brittle, 
tasteless, and inodorous, and it is presumed that it is frequently employed 
to mix with the more valuable products of this genus of gum-producing 
plants. 

Wallaba gum is obtained from Hperua falcata, (Leguminose,) a large 
tree, abundant in the forests of Guiana. The gum of this tree is used 
as an application to wounds. The bark is bitter, and the natives use it 
in a decoction as an emetic. The wood of the tree is strongly impreg- 
nated with a resinous oil which renders it very durable when used for 
domestic purposes, such as for shingles, house-framing, &e. 

Balsam of Maria is produced by a Peruvian tree named Verticillaria, 
a genus of Clusiacew. The tree yields an abundant supply of a balsamic 
resin, but its properties are not known to botanists. 

Balsam of wmire is furnished by Humirium floribundum, (Humiriacee,) 
a small Brazilian tree, which yields, from wounds in the bark, a yellow- 
colored fragrant balsam. The bark is highly esteemed as a perfume by 
the Brazilians. Humirium balsamiferum, the houmiri tree of French 
Guiana, yields a reddish balsamic juice, possessing an odor similar to 
that of storax, and which after a time becomes brittle and hard, in 
which state it is burned as an incense or perfume. Medicinally it is 
used as an anthelmintic, and an ointment preparation is employed for 
pains in the joints. 

Melanorrhea usiiatissina, (Anacardiacew,) an East Indian tree which 
yields a highly useful and extensively employed varnish, obtained 
by a process of tapping or boring shallow holes in the trunk of the 
tree, in which are inserted hollow bamboo canes. After remaining one 
or two days these canes become filled with a whitish-colored thick 
juice, which turns black when exposed to the air, and can be preserved 
only byimmersion in water. Allkinds of domestic furniture and utensils 
are lacquered with this juice, which is laid on thinly and dried slowly, 


~ 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 189 


when it turns to a beautiful dark color. Like other varnishes derived 
from the same natural order, it is very caustic and apt to cause erysipe- 
latous swellings, if applied to the skin. The wood of this tree is excess- 
ively hard and heavy, and is called the lignum-vite of Pegu. Anchors 
for boats are made of it, and it is employed for all purposes where great 
strength and durability are required. 

Dipterocarpus trinervis and D. levis (Dipterocarpee) are Hast Indian 
trees that furnish thin liquid balsams used medicinally, for burning in 
torches, and for painting vessels of various kinds. The resinous fluid is 
collected by cutting a deep notch in the trunk of the tree near the 
ground, where a fire is kept until the wood is charred, when the liquid 
begins to ooze out. Itis much used as a varnish for window-frames, 
doors, &c., and has been found a good substitute for balsam of copaiba, 
which it greatly resembles. By the application of heat it becomes con- 
centrated aud semi-solid. Mixed with dammar resin it has been found 
valuable in preserving timber from the attacks of insects and worms. 

Shorea robusta, (Dipteracece,) a fine timber tree of the Himalaya mount- 
ains, furnishes a resin which is known as a variety of dammar, and is 
adapted to the same uses. An oil is likewise obtained from its seeds. 
The wood of this tree, as also that of 9. selanica, is known as Saul- 
wood, which is close-grained, strong, and durable, and is employed for 
ship-building and engineering purposes, where great strength and 
toughness are requisite. It is considered stronger, as it is heavier, than 
the famous teak wood of India. 

Opopanax gunis the milky juice of Opopanax Chironium, ( Umbellifere,) 
a plant closely resembling the parsnip, native of the south of Europe. 
The milky juice dries into a gum resin, having properties very similar to 
those possessed by ammoniacum, 

Mesquite gum.—This is yielded by Prosopis glandulosa, (Mimosece, Leg- 
uminose,) the mesquite tree of Texas. This gum closely resembles gum 
arabic, and, as the tree is allied to the true gum-producing family, it 
may be found worthy of attention for its gum. 

ign aloes.—The tree called calambac by the ancients, and which fur- 
nished the aloes alluded to in the Bible, where it is said “All thy garments 
smell of myrrh, aloes, and cassia,” is supposed by some to have been 
the eaglewood, Aloexylon Agallochum, (Leqguminose,) a lofty, upright-grow- 
ing tree, native of the mountains of Cochin China and the Moluceas. It 
yields a perfume which is the most esteemed by Oriental nations. The 
oleaginous particles stagnate and concrete into resin in the inner part of 
the trunk and branches, by which the natural appearance of the wood 
is altered, becoming of a dark color, and acquiring a fragrant smell. At 
length the tree dies, and when split open the resinous part is removed. 
it contains little else than the camphoraceous matter, and receives the 
name of aloes from its bitter taste. The wood of this tree is very valua- 
ble. Some of the most precious jewels of East India manufacture are set 
in it, and it sells at the rate of $3,000 per ton. This tree is supposed to 
be the plant alluded to in theScriptures, Numbers xxiv, 6: “As the val- 
leys are they spread forth, as gardens by the rivers’ side, as the trees of 
lign-aloes which the Lord hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the 
waters.” Owing to the imperfect knowledge of botany possessed by the 
ancients, and the meager descriptions they have left, there has been a 
difficulty in accurately defining the tree which produces this fragrant 
substance; hence the aloe wood of India has also been mentioued as 
the source of this resinous perfume. This is the Aquilavria Agallocha, 
(Aquilariacee,) a broad-spreading tree, containing a highly odoriferous ' 
resin, and an essential oil which is also held in great esteem. The 


190 : AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Orientals burn it in their temples for its fragrance, and it has also been 
used in medicine. 

Balsam of copaiba.—This drug is produced by Copaifera officinalis, 
(Leguminose,) a lofty tree, nativeof South America, The resinous juice is 
obtained by boring holes near the base of the tree, reaching into the pith 
or center of the stem, from which it flows copiously. ‘The older trees 
afford the best quality of balsam, and yield it several times during the 
year. That taken from young trees is crude and watery, and of less 
value. At first the juice is fidid and without color, but soon acquires 
a consistency equal to that of thick oil, and changes to a yellowish color. 
An inferidr article is obtained by decoction from the bark and branches, 
which is destitute of the qualities of the true balsam, and is thin and 
liquid. The pure balsam has rather an agreeable smell, and a bitter, 
biting taste of considerable duration in the mouth. Ié dissolves entirely 
in rectified spirit, especially with the addition of a little alkali, the solu- 
tion having a very fragrant smell. Distilled with water it yields nearly 
half its weight of a limpid essential oil, and in strong heat, without addi- 
tion, a blue oil. . 

Mezican elemi is a greenish resin furnished by Llaphriwn elemiferum, 
(Amyridacee.) 

Eastern elemi is furnished by Canarium commune, (Amyridacee,) a plant 
cultivated in the Moluccas for its fruit. A gum exudes from its bark, 
which is said to resemble in its properties the balsam of copaiba. 
Another species, C. strictum, is known in Malabar as the black dammar 
resin tree, in contradistinction to the white dammar, Vateria Indica. 

Jarilla balsam is yielded by Adesmia balsamifera, (Leguminose,) a 
Chilian plant of great beauty when in blossom. This balsam has a 
pleasant odor, perceptible at a great distance, and is said to be of much 
value in healing wounds. ° ’ 

Putty root.—The plant bearing this name is Aplectrum hyemale, (Orchid- 
acece,) a terrestrial orchid, a-native of our woods, which forms small 
tubers containing a quantity of adhesive mucilage, which has been used 
in mending broken porcelain; hence its local name. 

Caoutchouc, or India-rubber.—One of the plants that furnish this sub- 
stance is Siphonia Brasiliensis, (Euphorbiacee,) a common tree in the 
forests of Para. This gum exists in the tree in the form of a thin, white 
milk, and is obtained by making incisions in the trunk, from which it 
exudes, and is collected in vessels, and afterward converted into the 
black, homogeneous, elastic mass, familiar to us as india-rubber, by 
pouring the milk upon molds, and immediately holding them over a 
dense smoke. As it solidifies another coating is poured over it, and the 
process is repeated until the required thickness is secured. ‘ 

Siphonia eiastica, 8. lutea, and 8. brevifolia also furnish India-rabber 
of goodquality. Others of this genus yield an inferior, brittle gum. 

Guita percha.—This is the inspissated juice of Isonandra gutta, (Sapo- 
tacee,) a large forest tree, reaching a height of 60 to 70 feet, with a 
trunk 2 to 3 feet in diameter. It is a native of the islands of Southern 
India, especially Borneo and Sumatra. The raw gutta-percha is exported 
in lumps weighing five to six pounds. It is prepared for use by cutting 
it up in slices, which are softened by being immersed in hot water; they 
are then torn into fine shreds, by rapidly revolving cylinders set with 
sharp teeth, and thrown into cold water, when the impurities sink, and 
the gutta-percha floats on the surface; the shreds are then transferred 
to hot water, and are made into solid masses, which are afterward 
kneaded by machinery, in order to expel the extraneous moisture. 

Balata gum.—tThis .elastic gum is obtained from Mimusops balata, 


. 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 191 


Sapotacee,) a native of British Guinea, where it forms a tree of large 
con. The milky juice is procured by incision of the trunk. It 
dries very quickly on exposure to the air, if the atmosphere is dry, and 
it can be molded into shapo by first being softened in water. This gum 
appears to be of acharacter intermediate between India-rubber and gutta- 
percha, possessing the elasticity of the one and the ductility of the other, 
without the intractability of India-rubber or the brittleness of gutta- 
percha. it has been successfully employed as an insulating medium for 
telegraphic purposes. 

Ureeola elastica, { Apocynacece.)—A large climbing shrub of the,islands 
of Sumatra and Borneo, yielding a milky juice which forms”a caout- 
ehoue called juitawan, but owing to the want of proper care in its prep- 
aration, it is inferior in quality to that from South America, the milky 
juice being simply coagulated by mixing with salt water instead of be- 
ing gradually inspissated in layers on a mold. It produces fruit about 
the size of an orange, containing numerous seeds surrounded by an eat- 
able pulp, which is highly prized by the inhabitants. 

Castilloa elastica, (Atrocarpacew.)—A Mexican tree that contains a 
milky juice which, under proper preparation, becomes solidified into 
caoutchouc. 

Alstonia scholaris, (Apocynacee,) called pallmara or devil tree about- 
Bombay, is a tree of large dimensions, with a furrowed, rough bark which 
is intensely bitter, and is used medicinally. .It has been stated recently 
that the juice of this tree possesses the same properties and is as readily 
manufactured as gutta-percha. It softens quickly when plunged into 


' boiling water, is soluble in chloroform and turpentine, and receives and 


retains even delicate impressions. 

Mudar gum.—tThe mudar tree of Africa, Caloptrohis gigantea, (Ascle- 
piadacee,) abounds in a milky juiee which hardens into a substance closely 
resembling gutta-percha, and the root yields a substance named mudarine, 
which possesses the property of gelatinizing when heated, and returning 
to a fluid state when cool. These products are used medicinally. 

Buphorbia cattimandoo, (Euphorbiacee.\—This East Lidia plant affords 
& juice which furnishes caoutchouc of a good quality, and is used for a 
variety of purposes. The milk is obtained by simply cutting the branches, 
when it flows freely. It is collected and boiled at once, and is then very 
elastic, but soon becomes resinous or brittle, in which state it formsa good 
cement by heating. This gum can be- molded to any shape when first 
boiled, and after becoming hard it can be made soft and pliable by heat- 
ing or soaking in warm water, and in that state will take any desired 
form. The guin resin known as euphorbium is a product of several 
Species of euphorvia, from Africa, the miiky juice being collected in 
leather bags. It is extremely acrid, and is used in external applications. 
Some authorities regard it as a poison. 

Lhe India-rubber of the East is. yielded by various species of Ficus, 
particularly Ficus elastica, (Moracew,) which attains to a large size, and 
sends down roots similar to the famous banyan tree. The juice is col- 
lected and spread over molds in thin layers, and dried either by fire-heat 
or by the sun, 

Vahea gummifera, (Apocynacen.)—A milky juice, obtained from this 
plant in Madagascar forms a superior article of caoutchoue. 

Hanecornia speciosa, ( Apocynacen.)—This is a Brazilian fruit tree, 
called mangaba. It abounds ina viscid milky juice which, when col- 
lected and exposed to the air, hardens into a caoutchouc, and is one of 


the sources of that gum. 


192 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
TEA, COFFEE, ETC. 


The spreading, glossy, green-leaved, evergreen shrub, Thea viridis, 
( Camelliacee,) furnishes material for an immense traffic throughout the 
world. The native country of the tea plant is uncertain. Hitherto the 
only country in which it has been found in a really wild state is Upper 
Assam; but China, where the plant has been cultivated for many cen- 
turies, has not yet received so thorough an exploration by botanical 
travelers as to warrant the assertion that it is not indigenous to every 
section of that vast country. A Japanese tradition ascribes its intro- 
duction #into China to an Indian Buddhist priest who visited that 
country in the sixth century, which would seem to favor the supposition 
of its being of Indian origin. 

Although it has been introduced into many parts of the globe, it 
has been cultivated more extensively and for a ionger period in China 
than in any other region. It is there successfully grown between the 
twenty-seventh and thirty-second degrees of north latitude, and in 
Japan as far north as the forty-second degree. It is also cultivated in 
the island of Bourbon, at St. Helena, and on a large scale in the island 
of Madeira, at an elevation of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. It 
_is successfully produced in Java, and flourishes on the Himalaya mount- 
ains. It has withstood the cool summers and winters of the climate of 
Britain, and endures the climate of this country as far north as the 
District of Columbia, where it has been growing for the past ten years, 
and can be grown over a vast extent of the United States, so far as 
climate is concerned; and as regards soil, it is well known that it will 
grow anywhere and on any soil that is capable of supporting currant or 
_ blackberry bushes. 

The black and green teas of commerce are produced from this plant. 
The opinion was at one time quite prevalent that there existed several 
species of Thea, but it is now known that the different sorts in market 

re indebted to artificial manipulations for much of their apparent 
variety and distinctive qualities. Many of the names attached to teas 
are merely descriptive of the locality or country where they are pro- 
duced, the condition of the leaves when gathered, and the mode of pre- 
paring them for market. Thus there is Java tea, Japan tea, and Assam 
tea; bohea tea, from coarse leaves; gunpowder tea, made from the small, 
close-curled young leaves; and green tea, colored to suit its name. In 
the preparation of black tea, the freshly gathered leaves, being partially 
dried by brief exposure in the open air, are thrown into round, flat iron 
pans, and exposed to a gentle fire heat for five minutes, which renders 
them soft and pliant, and causes them to give oif a large quantity of 
moisture. They are then emptied into sieves, and while hot they are 
repeatedly squeezed and rolled in the hands to give them their twist or 
curl. They are next placed in the open air, in the shade, for a few days, 
and finally they are completely dried in iron pans over a slow fire. 
Green tea, when genuine, is prepared in a similar manner, except that 
it is dried with more care, and by a slower process, but the greater part 
of the green tea consumed in Europe and America is colored by the Chi- 
nese to suit the demands of foreign trade. 

There are about a dozen varieties of tea in commerce, but, besides 
the preceding distinction of color, they consist merely of different sizes 
obtained by sifting. The active principles in tea are theine and 4 vola- 
tile oil, to the latter of which its flavor and odor are due, and which 
possesses narcotic and intoxicating properties. it also contains 15 per 
cent. of gluten or nutritious matter, and more than 25 per cent. of tan- 


PLATE Y. 


BEVERAGE PLANTS. 
Fig.1. Coffee. Fig.2. Tea. Fig. 3. Chocolate. Fig. 4. Maté. 


et 
am ti ba vr ea 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 193 


nin. Physiologists are not thoroughly agreed as to the effects of tea 
upon the human system. <A recent medical opinion maintains that the 
use of tea increases the assimilation of food, both of the flesh-forming 
and heat-forming kinds, and that with abundance of food it must pro- 
mote nutrition, while in the absence of sufficient food it increases the 
waste of the body. 

Paraguay tea, or Yerba de mate, Ilex Paraguayensis, (Aquifoliacec.)— 
The leaves of this South American tree are used in furnishing the 
beverage, yerbamate. They yield the same active bitter principle called 
theine which is found in the leaf of the Chinese tea plant, afd form a 
commercial product that occupies the same important position in the 
domestic economy of South America as the famed China plant does 
in this country, and is consumed to the extent of several thousand tons 
annually. The leaves are prepared by drying and roasting, not in the 
fashion of making Chinese teas, but by cutting large branches from the 
trees, which are placed on hurdles over wood fires, and kept there until 
the leaves are sufficiently roasted, when they are removed and placed 
on a hard floor, and the dried leaves knocked off by beating the branches 
with sticks. The leaves are then gathered up, reduced to powder in 
wooden mills, and packed formarket. This tea is often packed in sacks 
made of raw hides, which are sewed together in a square form. The 
powdered leaves are pressed into the sacks with great force, and when 
fall they are sewed up and exposed to the sun, where the hide dries and 
tightens over the contents, forming a package nearly as hard and heavy 
as stone. 

There are several grades or sorts of mate tea in the South American 
markets, valued according to the age of the leaf.and the modes of pre- 
paration. It is prepared for use by placing a small quantity of the 
powder in a cup, and pouring boiling water over it; the decoction is 
quaifed or sucked through a bombilla, or tube having a bulb perforated 
with minute holes. It has an agreeable, slightly aromatic odor, rather 
bitter to the taste, but very refreshing and restorative to the body after 
undergoing great fatigue. It is highly relished by travelers, and it is 
almost impossible for those who become accustomed to its use to discon- 
tinue it. It acts in some degree as an aperient and diuretic, and, if 
taken in over-doses, it occasions diseases similar to those produced by 
strong liquors. 

It is supposed that there are several species of Dex, the leaves of 
which are gathered for tea. IJlex theezans, Ilex gongonha, and Ilex amara 
are known to be used in Brazil and other places. The Yerba, produced 
by, and known to, the Brazilians as Herva de Palmeira, is specially re- 
nowned for its excellent qualities. 

Faham or orchid tea.—The plant yielding this tea is Angraecum fra- 
grans, an epiphytal orchid of the Island of Bourbon, where it is used 
under the name of Faham. It has been introduced and used as a bev- 
erage in France and other European countries. In taste it differs 
greatly from that of the Chinese tea, having an aroma of great delicacy, 
and producing an agreeable perfumery similar to that of the tonquin 
bean. It has tonic and digestive qualities; and it is recorded that in 
the aromatic principle of the plant there is a diffusible stimulant capa- 
ble of deadening nervous sensibility; in the bitter principle an excel- 
lent stimulant to revive the strength of the nutritive organs; and in 
the mucilage a demulcent to relax the tissues. 

Jesuits’ tea.—This is the leaf of Psoralea glandulosa, (Leguminose,) 
a native of Chili—a small shrubby plant. The infusion of the 
leaves is slightly aromatic, and is valued_more for its medicinal qual- 

13 A 


194 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ities than for its agreeable flavor. It is used as a vermifuge, and is pro- 
nounced to be a good remedy for asthma. The leaves are used in Chili 
for making poultices for wounds, and an infusion of the roots is emetic 
and purgative. The leaves are also dried and smoked like tobaceo. 

Arabian tea.—This is prepared from the leaves of Catha edulis, (Celas- 
tracee,) a small tree or shrub, seldom growing over 8 feet in height, na- 
tive of Arabia. Under the name of cafta, small branches of this plant, 
with the leaves still attached, form a considerable article of commerce 
among the Arabs, who cultivate the plant to a great extent in the inte- 
rior of the country. A decoction of the leaves produces effects similar 
to those following the use of strong green Chinese tea, only that they 
are more pleasant and agreeable. The leaves are also chewed when in 
the green state, and are said to have a tendency to produce great hilar- 
ity of spirits, and also to act strongly as a preventive of sleep. The 
use of cafta in Arabia is supposed to be of great antiquity, and to have 
preceded the use of coffee. 

Bencoolen tea.—A beverage prepared from the leaves of Glaphyria 
nitida, (Myrtacec,) a native “of the Malayan Islands, where it inhabits 
great elevations and attains a great age. The leaves are eagerly sought 
for use in the preparation of a kind of tea. 

Brazilian tea is prepared from the leaves of Stachytarpha Jamaicensis, 
(Verbenacee.) It is not known that any peculiarly tavorable result 
attaches to the use of this as a tea, but it is known that Chinese tea 
is frequently adulterated by mixing with the leaves of this vervain. 
The green leaves are used as an application to ulcers. 

Bush tea.—This is an infusion of the leaves of Cyclopia genittedtes, 
(Leguminose,) a small ‘bush, native of South Africa. Its use seems to 
partake of a medicinal character, and is recommended in cases of con- 
‘sumption and chronic catarrh; it has an agreeable tea-like smell, with 
a@ sweet astringent taste. 

Theezan tea is prepared from the leaves of Sageretia theezans, (Rham- 
macece,) a Chinese plant of shrubby growth, having smooth shining- 
green leaves, somewhat resembling those of the true tea, and is employed 
as a substitute for it by the poorer classes in Southern China. 

Labrador tea.—A preparation of the leaves of Ledum palustre, (Hrica- 
cee,) a small-spreading shrub, native of Labrador. 

Mexican tea.—A name applied to an infusion of the young shoots and 
leaves’of Ambrina ambrosioides, (Chenopodiacee.) It is entirely medi- 
cinal, having antispasmodic, vermifuge, and carminative properties. A. 
Anthelmintica is much used as a vermifuge. 

Mountain tea is the leaf of Gaultheria procumbens, (Ericacec,) a small 
creeping plant familiarly known as winter-green in the United States 
and Canada. All parts of the plant possess a pleasant peculiar aro- 
matic odor and flavor, due to a volatile oil, which, when separated by 
distillation, is known as winter-green oil. The leaves are used either as 
a flavor to genuine tea, or in infusion alone, which partakes of an astrin- 
gent character, and is useful medicinally. 

Cacao.—This important article of food is produced by Theobroma ca- 
cao, (Byttneriacer, ) a plant extensively cultivated in the West Indies 
and tropical America, particularly in Trinidad and Grenada. It forms 

a smal] tree, seldom reaching over twenty feet in height, with large, 
oplone: and pointed leaves, and clusters of flowers, with a rose-colored 
calyx and yellowish petals. The fruit varies from six to ten inches in 
length, and three to five inches in breadth, and is oblong, blunt, and 
marked with ten elevated ribs running lengthwise. Bach fruit contains 
fifty to one hundred seeds, and it is from these that the cacao or choe- 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 195 


olate is prepared, The fruit when ripening changes from a green tou a 
deep yellow color; when ripe,itis gathered by hand, split open, and 
the seeds removed. The latter are then cleaned of the pulpy matter 
surrounding them, and subjected to a process of fermentation, for the 
purpose of developing their color, and when this process is completed 
they are dried in the sun and packed for transportation. 

The seeds are prepared for use by roasting in revolving metal cylin- 
ders and then bruising them to loosen their skins, which are removed 
by fanning. The cotyledons, commonly called cacao-nibs, are separated 
in the same manner. The cleaned seeds are then crushed and ground 
between heated rollers, which softens the oily matter and reduces them 
to a uniform, pasty mass; this is then mixed with variable quantities of 
sugar and starch, to form the different kinds of cacao, or sweetened and 
flavored with vanilla or other substances for the formation of chocolate. 

The value of cacao as an article of food is very considerable, from the 
large quantity of nutritive matter it contains. In one hundred parts of 
cacao there are fifty-one of fat or butter, twenty-two of starch and gum, 
twenty of gluten, and two of the peculiar principle theobromine, which 
contains more nitrogen than the active principle of either tea or coffee. 
As a refreshing beverage, it is much inferior to either of ‘these well- 
known articles, which are used as an infusion only; but as cacao is 
taken into the stomach as a substance, it 1s an important article of 
nutrition. ; 

Coffee.—This well-known article is the berry of Coffea Arabica, (Ru- 
biacew,) a native of. the extreme southwest point of Abyssinia, from 
which it was introduced into Arabia, which country for two centuries 
supplied the world with all the coffee used. Toward the end of the 
seventeenth ceutury a coffee plant was received at the botanic garden 
of Amsterdam. About the beginning of the eighteenth century a plant 
was introduced into the western hemisphere, either by the French at 
Martinique, or by the Dutch at Surinam, which plant was the parent of 
all the coffee now exported from the West Indies and South America. 

The coffee tree occasionally reaches to a height of twenty feet, with 
a stem three or four inches in thickness, but in cultivation it is kept 
dwarf to facilitate the gathering of the berries, The flowers are pro- 
duced in dense clusters at the bases of the leaves; they are snowy 
white in color, and are succeeded by numerous red, fleshy berries, each 
of which contains two of the seeds known as the coffee-berry. The 
berries are gathered when ripe, and the soft outer pulp is removed by 
a machine called the pulper, after which they are steeped in water to 
remove all mucilaginous matter; they are then carefully dried, and the 
parchment-like covering of the seeds removed by means of a mill, which 
crushes the shells, and allows the separation of the seeds, which are 
then ready for market. 

The roasting of the berry increases its bulk and diminishes its 
_ Weight; its essential qualities are also greatly changed, the heat caus- 
ing the development of the volatile oil and peculiar acid to which the 
aroma and flavor are due. 

Medicinally coffee acts upon the brain as a stimulant, inciting it to 
inereased activity and producing sleeplessness; hence, it is of great value — 
as an antidote to narcotic poisons. It is also supposed to prevent too 
rapid waste in the tissues of the body, and in that way enables it to sup- 
port life upon less food. Thes¢ effects are due to the volatile oil and 
also to the presence of a peculiar erystallizable nitrogenous principle 
termed caffeine. ‘The leaves of the plant likewise contain the same 


196 : AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


principle, and the inhabitants of the island of Sumatra prefer an infusion 
of the leaves to that of the berries. 

Coca.—The leaves of Hrythroxylon cocaare largely used as masticatory 
and sometimes as an infusion by the natives of South America. The 
plant forms a shrub six to eight feet high, somewhat resembling the 
hawthorn. The leaves are of thin texture, but opaque, oval, and strongly 
marked with veins, of which two, in addition to the mid-rib, run parallel 
to the margin. 

The use of coca in Peru is a custom of great antiquity, and is sup- 
posed to have originated with the Incas. It forms an article of com- 
merce among the Indians, and when on a journey they carry with them 
a sinall bag of the dried leaves foruse. The leaves, chewed in moderate 
doses of four to six grains, excite the nervous system, and enable those 
who use them to make great muscular exertion, and to resist the effects 
of an unhealthy climate. In larger doses it occasions fever, hallucina- 
tions, and delirium, but when used with discretion the Indians travel 
for seyeral days with no other food or sustenance than that derived from 
the constant chewing of coca leaves, and it is largely used by the workers 
in silver mines. Aithough the remarkable effects of coca have been long 
known, no chemical analysis of the leaves has been made until quite 
recently. Dr.-Niemann has shown that an organic base exists in them, 
analogous to caffeine in coffee and theine in tea, to which has been given 
the name of cocaine. 

Guarana.—Thisremarkable product is prepared from the fruit of Paulli- 
nia sorbilis, (Sapindacee,) a plant found in the valley of the Amazon. The 
fruit is gathered when ripe, and the seeds are either roasted or thoroughly 
dried in the sun, and reduced to a fine powder by pounding them with 
stones or wooden mallets. The powder is then mixed with water to 
form a paste, which is molded into flat bricks or cakes, or formed into 
cylindrical rolls six or eight inches in length, which, when dried, become 
exceedingly hard and solid. In this form it can be preserved for a long 
time, and is known as guarana. Itis prepared for use by grating or 
scraping a small portion into powder and mixing it with water. A table- 
spoonful of the powder, mixed with a pint of water, forms a refreshing 
beverage. Almostevery traveler supplies himself with astock of guarana, 
and also with a rasp for grating it, usually the palate bone of a large 
fish, which has a rough surface, and upon which the guarana is reduced. 
lt has. properties, when taken internally, analogous to tea and coffee, 
producing a stimulating effect. Itis highly tonic and febrifuge, and is 
esteemed by many to have properties equal to quinine. It is largely 
used by the Brazilian miners, and they consider it a preventive of ail 
manner of diseases, and it has been successfully employed by French 
physicians in cases of headache. 

The presence of an alkaloid, which he termed guaranine, was discovered 
some years ago by Dr. Martius, of Erlangen, but its identity with theine, 
from analysis of Dr. Stenhouse and others, was soon established. It is 
at present the richest known source of theine, and adds another to the 
incidents, so puzzling in human history, of the discovery of this quality 
in plants least likely to be suspected, such as the leaves of tea, coca, and 
coffee, the seeds of cola and coffee, the leaves and twigs of the various 
' South American ilexes, and other plants that have so wonderful a 
restorative effect on the nervous system; and this is not a mere vague 
notion, such as is the case with many other plant virtues, but depends 
upon the presence of a chemical principle, the operation of which can be 
safisfactorily explained. 

Guarana contains 5.07 per cent. of theine; good black tea, 2.13; va- 


a 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 197 


rious samples of coffee beans, 0.8 to 1; dried coffee leaves, from Suma- 
tra, 1.26; Paraguay tea, 1.25. In addition to theine, guarana contains 
a coloring matter, apparently analogous to the tannin in cinchona bark, 
and also a fatty matter, which, like the fat of chocolate, does not readily 
become rancid. 

Another species of this genus, Pauilinia cupana, also enters into the 
composition of a favorite national diet drink. Its seeds are mingled 
with cassava and water, and allowed to pass into a state of fermenta- 
tion bordering on the putrefactive, in which state it is the favorite 
drink of the Orinoco Indians. 

Kola nut.—A comparatively new source of theine kas lately been dis- 
covered in the kolanut. Thisis the seed of Cola acuminata, (Sterculiacec,) 
a tree attaining a height of 40 feet, a native of western tropical Africa, 
where it grows mostly in the vicinity of the coast. Under the name of 
kola or cola, or goora nuts, the seeds of this tree have been used for 
centuries as a kind of condiment by the natives of Southern Africa, and 
no product of that country occupies so exalted a position in the social or 
dietetic economy of native tribes, or constitutes so important an article 
of traffic as these seeds. ; 

From the fact that the use of the kola nut tends to sleeplessness, it 
-was conjectured that it might contain a principle similar to that which 
exists in tea and coffee, and a chemical analysis of the dried seeds shows 
that they contain about 2.13 per cent. of theine—about equal to the 
quantity found in good black tea. This, however, is not deemed a true 
test of the value of these nuts, as it is in the fresh state that they are 
generally used by the natives, and when dried they are considered to 
have depreciated in value, and are used by the poorer or lower classes. 

New Jersey tea.— Under this name the leaves of Ceanothus Americanus 
(Rhamnacee) have been used in infusion, particularly during the war of 
Independence. Although it has none of the peculiar properties of Chi- 
nese tea, it produces a pleasant aromatic beverage. It has some medi- 
cinal qualities, and has been used as a dye for wool, producing a nan- 
keen or cinnamon color. 

Swedish coffee—The seeds of Astragulus Beticus (Leguminosae) are used 
in place of, and more frequently with, the coffee bean, and the plant is 
cultivated in some parts of Europe for this purpose, the seeds being 
known as Swedish coffee. 

Yaupon tea.—This is prepared from the leaves of Ilex cassine, (Aquifo- 
liacew,) a native of the Southern States. It was formerly much used by 
the Indians; an infusion from the leaves, probably mixed with leaves 
from other species of the same genus, formed their black drink, which 
was said to act upon them like opium. It is still used as a tea occa- 
sionally, and medicinally as an aperient and diuretic. 

Betel nut.—This famous masticatory is the fruit of Aveca catechu, 
(Palmacee,) a handsome palm cultivated in many tropical climates, both 
east and west. The fruit is about the size of a hen’s egg, of a reddish 
yellow color, and with a thick fibrous rind inclosing the seed. The lat- 
ter is known under various names, such as pinang, betel nut, bonga, 
areca nut, &c., and is about the size of a nutmeg—conical, flattened at 
the base, brownish externally, and internally mottled like a nutmeg. 
The nuts vary somewhat in size, but their value depends upon their ap- 
pearance when cut open. When the white or medullary portion which 
intersects the red or astringent part is small, and has assumed a bluish 
tinge, and the astringent part itself is of good red color, the nut is con- 
sidered of the best quality; but when the medullary portion is in larger 
quantity, the nut is more mature, lacks astringeney, and is not so much 


198 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


esteemed. When prepared for use, the nuts are cut into narrow pieces, 
and wrapped up with a small quantity of lime in the leaves of the betel 
pepper, (Chavica betel,) and chewed. The mastication of the betel is 
considered wholesome by those using it, stimulating the nervous system 
like tea, coffee, and tobacco. It stains the teeth and lips blaek, 
and produces a kind of intoxication when too freely indulged in, 
It is calculated that one hundred millions of people use this nut. It 
contains a large quantity of tannin, and is used for dyeing cotton and 
making ink, and a species of catechu, by boiling the nuts in water when 
the fruit is tender; the water becomes red, thick, and starch-like, and 
is afterward evaporated to a proper consistency. 

Cow tree.—This name is applied to Brosimum galactodendron, (Arcto- 
carpacee,) a tree attaining a height of 100 feet in the forests of Vene- 
zuela. Its milk, which is obtained by making incisions in the trunk, so 
closely resembles the milk of the cow, both in appearance and quality, 
that it is commonly used as an article of food by the inhabitants of the 
places where the tree is abundant. Unlike many other vegetable milky 
juices, it is perfectly wholesome and very nourishing, possessing an 
agreeable taste like that of sweet cream, and a pleasant balsamic odor, 
its only unpleasant quality being a slight degree of stickiness. The 
chemical analysis of this milk has shown it to possess a composition- 
closely resembling some animal substances; and, like animal milk, it 
quickly forms a yellow cheesy scum upon its surface, and after a few 
days of exposure to the atmosphere turns sour and putrefies. It con- 
tains upward of 30 per cent. of a resinous substance cailed galaectine. 

Clusia galactodendron, (Clusiacec.)—A native tree of Venezuela, which, 
according to M. Desvaux, is oue of the Palo de Vica or cow-trees of 
South America. It has a thick bark, covered with rough tubereules, and 
its internal tissue becomes red when exposed to the air. In extracting 
the milk from this tree the inhabitants make incisions through the bark 
till the wood is reached. These cuts are said to be made only before 
full moon, it being imagined that the milk flows more freely then than 
at any other time. One tree will yield a quart in an hour. The milk is 
freely used by all, especially by children, but it has an astringent taste, 
which is characteristic of all such vegetable milks. 

Cow tree of Guiana.—This is the Tabernemontana utilis, (Apocynacee,) 
which, when tapped, yields a copious supply of thick sweet milk, resem- 
bling that of the cow in appearance, and perfectly bland and wholesome, 
but rather sticky, from the presence of caoutchoue. 

Chicory or succory, Vichorium intybus, (Composite.)—A perennial plant, 
native of Europe, but naturalized here, and now a common plant, not to 
Say a troublesome weed, over a large portion of this country. Its long 
tap-root is used to mix with coffee. It is roasted. and ground to a coarse 
powder, and many persons prefer the mixture to the pure coffee bean. 
It is entirely destitute of those properties which render coffee an agree- 
able and nutritive beverage, while it possesses medicinal properties 
closely resembling those of the dandelion, which would render it unfitted 
for constant use in its pure condition. It is said that much of the pre- 
pared chicory is mixed with carrot, turnip, oak-bark tan, mahogany 
sawdust, &c. The leaves when blanched in winter are used as a salad, 
and are much esteemed for this purpose. In France it is known as 
Barbe du Capucin. 

Symplocos Alstonia, (Styracacee,) is a branching shrub, growing 8 or 10 
feet high, with shining evergreen foliage. Itis a native of New Grenada, 
where the leaves are scorched, similar to the mode of preparing mate, 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 199 


and used in the same manner. It is quite astringent, and possesses 
valuable medicinal qualities. : 

Capitao do matto, of Brazil, is an infusion of the leaves of Lantana 
pseudo-thea, (Verbenacee.) This infusion is highly esteemed in Brazil as 
a substitute for tea. It is aromatic and agreeable. 

Tea of Heaven.—This name is applied by the Japanese to the dried 
leaves of Hydrangea Thunbergii and Platycrater arguta, of the family of 
Hydrengeacee. The leaves are used as tea. 


SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 


Cinnamon.—The true cinnamon is obtained from Cinnanomum Zeylani- 
cum, (Lauracee,) a tropical tree reaching a height of 30 feet, and culti- 
vated in many countries. Ceylon has long been noted for the excellence 
of its cinnamon, but commerce is largely supplied from the West Indies 
and South America, and there is much inferior bark sold as the genuine 
article. It is prepared by stripping the bark from the branches, when 
it naturally rolls up into quills, the smaller of which are introduced into + 
the larger, and then dried in the sun. Good cinnamon is known by the 
thinness of the bark; asa rule, the thinner and more pliabie the finer the 
quality. When itis broken the fracture is splintery. It is largely used 
as a condiment for its pleasant flavor, and its astringent and cordial 
properties give it a value as a medicine. From the root an excellent 
camphor is extracted, and the flowers are used as a spice. 

Cassia is furnished by Cinnamomum cassia, a tree growing 40 to 50 
feet in height, cultivated to a considerable extent in China, the Philip- 
pine Islands, the western coast of Africa, and in Brazil. The China 
cassia is considered superior in perfume and flavor to any spice of its 
class. This bark resembles the true cinnamon, but is thicker, coarser, 
and not so delicate in flavor, but being cheaper is frequently used to 
adulterate the true article. For confectionery purposes this affords a 
stronger flavor than cinnamon, and is therefore preferred. The bark is 
collected and prepared as for cinnamon. Cassia bark is distinguished 
from cinnamon by being more brittle, and of less fibrous texture; it is 
net so pungent, and has more of a mucilaginous or gelatinous quality. 

Cassia buds are the dried flower-buds of the cassia tree. The best 
come from China, and are round, bearing some resemblance to a clove, 
but smaller, and have a rich cinnamon flavor. i 

Cloves.—The cloves of commerce are the unexpanded flower-buds of 
Caryophyllus aromaticus, (Myriacee,) a sinall evergreen tree, native of 
the Moluccas, but cultivated in several parts of the East and West 
Indies. The flowers are produced in branched panicles at the extremity 
of the branches, and are of a delicate peach color. Before expansion 
tae buds are collected by hand, or sheets and mats are spread under the 
tree, and the buds are brought down by beating it with sticks. They 
are cleaned and dried in the sun;.a uniform brown color is imparted by 
Shightly smoking them over a wood fire. All parts of the plant are 
aromatic, but. especially the flower buds; hence their use for culinary 
purposes. 

_ _ Star anise, Illicium anisatum, (Magnoliacew.)—The fruit of this Chinese 

shrub forms an article of commerce, and is used as a condimeaft in the 
preparation of food. In China and Japan it is chewed in small quanti- 
ties after meals, both for the purpose of sweetening the breath and to pro- 
mote digestion, while the native physicians prescribe it as a stomachic 
and carmiuative. Its pungent aromatic odor and tlavor bear a strong 
resemblance to those of Common anise. 

Fenugreek, Trigonella fenum-Greeum, (Leguminose,) is a small annual 


200 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 

plant, native of the south of France. The seeds of this plant were held 
in high repute among the ancient: Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans for 
medicinal, flavoring, and culinary purposes. At present they are not 
much used, and mostly in veterinary practice. They have a strong odor 
of coumarine—the fragrance of the tonquin bean—and consequently are 
used for cattle food, and flavoring damaged hay. 

Melilotus ceeruleus, (Leguminose.)—The flowers of this plant contain a 
volatile odor or principle which gives the peculiar flavor and fragrance 
to the celebrated Champziger or Schabzieger cheese of Switzerland. 
The dried flowers are reduced to powder, and worked up into a paste 
with the curd. 

Cardamoms.—These are the seeds of various species of Amomum and 
Hlettaria, of the family Zingiberacew. The cardamoms of commerce are 
oval triangular capsules, containing bright yellow seeds, which are used 
for flavoring dishes, such as soups, curries, catsup, &e. The plants are 
ik lo g, with creeping roots, natives of India and the Indian Archi- 
pelago. 

Amomum melegueita furnishes Malaguetta pepper, or Grains of Para- 
dise. This plant is a native of Guinea and the western part of Africa. 
The seeds are very hot and peppery, and have a slightly camphor-like 
taste. They are mostly used in liquor adulterations, giving a fictitious 
strength to spirits and beer, and cannot be considered particularly inju- 
rious, compared with some adulterations. In many parts of India and 
Africa they are considered the most wholesome of spices. Llettaria 
cardamomum furnishes the small or Malabar cardamons. ‘These, as 
imported, consist of fruit with ovate, oblong, obtusely-triangular cap- 
sules, of a grayish or brownish-yellow color, containing many angular, 
blackish, rngose seeds, which are white internally, have a pleasant aro- 
matic odor and an agreeable taste, much valued as a condiment. They 
are also often used medicinally in conjunction with other drugs. 

Guinea pepper.—This is obtained from the fruit of Habzelia Athiopica, 
(Anonacee,) a tall-growing shrub of Western Africa. The fruit consists 
of a number of smooth pod-like carpels about the thickness of a quill 
and two inches in length, and when dried and reduced to powder is the 
Ethiopian pepper of the Old World. It is highly aromatic and pungent. 

Pimento, allspice, or Jamaica pepper, is furnished by Lugenia pimenta, 
(Myrtacee,) a native of the West Indies. It forms a high, beautiful tree, 
and is extensively cultivated in Jamaica, where the trees are planted 
in orchard-like rows, which are called pimento walks. The fruit has an 
aromatic odor, and in taste resembles a combination of the flavors of 
cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. The berries are about the size of a 
small pea, of a dark color, and, as seen in commerce, are surmounted 
by the remains of the calyx. They are prepared by being gathered be- 
fore they are fully ripe, and then dried in the sun, when they acquire 
that reddish-brown tint which makes them marketable. Pimento is 
used as a spice in cookery, and as a carminative in medicine. 

Nuimeg—The nutmeg tree, Myristica moschata, (Myristicacee,) is ex- 
tensively cultivated in tropical regions for its valued products. It is 
comparatively a small tree, seldom reaching a height of more than 30 
feet. The leaves are aromatic, and the fruit is very much like a peach, 
having a longitudinal groove on one side, and bursting into two pieces, 
when the inclosed seed, covered by a false aril which constitutes the 
substance known as the mace, is expesed. The seed itself has a thick 
outer shell which may be removed when dry, and which incloses the 
nucleus of the seed, the nutmeg of commerce. The fruit is gathered at 
various seasons as it attains maturity. The mace, or covering, which is 


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SPICE PLANTS. ; 
Fig. 1. Ginger. Fig.2. Nutmeg. Fig.3. Caper. Fig. 4. Cinnamon. 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.AND THEIR SOURCES. 201 


of a fine red or crimson color when fresh, becomes a golden yellow when 
dry, and artificial heat is sometimes applied to produce this purely fan- 
ciful cojor, as it adds no intrinsic value to the article. The nuts are 
liable ti Je injured by insects; to guard against which they are washed 
over with lime, or steeped in lime and water for several weeks after 
gathering. Occasionally they are exported in the shell to prevent de- 
struction by insects. The most esteemed are those of Penang, which 
are about an inch in length, shaped like a damson plum, pale-brown in 
color, and furrowed on the exterior, and gray inside, with veins of red. 
running through them. Penang mace is also valued above that from 
other localities; itis usually of a pale cinnamon color when dry. Inferior 
nutmegs are those sent into market after the oil has been distilled 
from them, when they are comparatively valueless. Various ingenious 
methods of dressing up inferior nutmegs have been.resorted to, for the 
purpose of increasing their value, and even a kind of artificial article 
has been fabricated by admixture of bran, clay, and powdered nutmeg, 
pressed into shape in molds, and colored wooden nutmegs have had a 
reputation. 

Black pepper,—This condiment has been in use from the earliest his- 
toric times, and is frequently mentioned by early Roman writers. The 
pepper-plant, Piper nigrum, (Piperacece,) is a shrubby, climbing vine 
which attains a height of 15 to 20 feet. It is a tropical plant cultivated 
in the East and West Indies and South America. The plants are placed 
at the base of trees that have rough or prickly bark, or trained on stakes. 
The fruit when ripe is of a red color, but for commerce it is gathered 
before it is fully ripe, and laid in the sun to dry, when it becomes black 
and shriveled. White pepper is the same fruit allowed to remain on 
the vine until more fully matured, and the skin removed by maceration 
in water and subsequent friction; the pale color is sometimes increased 
by submitting the fruit to the action of chlorine. Like many other 
articles of daily use, ground pepper is frequently adulterated with mus- 
tard, ground rice, wheat, &c., and artificial pepper-corns have been man- 
ufactured with oil-cake, clay, and a little cayenne. Pepper-dust, the 
refuse and sweepings of warerooms, is used to mix with the ground 
article. According to chemical analysis, pepper contains a hot, acrid 
resin and a volatile oil, as well as a tasteless crystalline substance called 
piperine, which has been recommended as a substitute for quinine. Its 
use in cases of ague, to ward off the paroxysm, was practiced by the 
ancients. 

Cayenne pepper.—This is produced chiefly from the fruit-pods of Capsi- 
- cwn frutescens, (Solanacee,) although other species and varieties are 
used for the same purpose. These are natives of South America and 
the East and West Indies, but are largely cultivated everywhere in 
warm regions, their pungent fruits being used in immense quantities in 
tropical countries. In Guiana the inhabitants eat them in such abun- 
dance as to astonish travelers. Their consumption in India is also 
very great; ground into paste between two stones, with a small quan- 
tity of oil, ginger, and salt, they form the only seasoning which thou- 
sands of people can obtain to flavor their insipid rice. To form Cayenne 
pepper, the ripe fruits are dried in an oven, or on a hot plate, and then 
reduced to powder in a mortar, or passed through a mill. It is then 
sifted through a thin muslin sieve, and preserved in closely stopped 
bottles. An inferior article is prepared by mixing the coarsely ground 
powder with wheat flour, which is mixed with water and made into 
cakes that are baked hard, then ground fine, and sifted. More danger- 
ous adulterations are made by adding red lead and other substances. 


202 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The hot taste seems to be due to a peculiar acrid fluid called capsicine, 
which is so pungent that half a grain of it, volatilized in a large room, 
causes all who respire the contained air to cough and sneeze. Chili 
vinegar is prepared by simply placing a handful of pods in a pint of 
good vinegar, aad allowing the mixture to stand for two or three weeks. 
It has been observed that generous culture increases the size of the 
fruit, but impairs its pyngency and acridity. Pepper-pot, or man dram, 
is an appetizing preparation of the West Indies, in which capsicum is 
one of the chief ingredients. 

Japan or Chinese pepper consists of the fruit of Xanthoxylon piperitum, 
(Xanthorylacec,) which has an aromatic, pungent, peppery taste. 

New Holland pepper is the fruit of Tasmania aromatica, (Magnoliacew,) 
a native of Van Dieman’s Land, where it forms a dwarf spreading tree. 
The fruit is black, very like true pepper, possessing a great degree of 
Similar aromatic pungency, and is used as a substitute for that condi- 
ment. 

Long pepper and Betel pepper are furnished by Chavica Roxburghit and 
C. betel, (Piperacee,) respectively. They are strictly tropical plants. 
Long pepper is furnished by thé immature spikes of flewers which are 
gathered and dried in the sun. In chemical composition and qualities 
it resembles ordinary black pepper, and contains piperine. The leaf of 
the betel pepper is used for chewing with the betel-nut, Areca catechu. 

Capers.—Capparis spinosa (Capparidacee) is a creeping plant, a native 
of the south of Europe. The fower-buds, and in some parts of Italy 
the unripe fruit, are pickled in vinegar,and form what is known as 
capers. An African species, C. Sodada, furnishes berries with a pepper- 
like, pungent taste, and when dried are used as food. The flower-buds 
of Zygophyllum fabago, (Zygophyllacee,) a native of the Cape of Good 
Hope, are used instead of capers, or substituted for that condiment. 
Z. coccineum has aromatic seeds, which are used by the natives in place 
of pepper. These and several other species are possessed of vermifuge 
properties. The leaves of Z. simplex are used for diseases of the eye. 
eat smell of this plant is so detestable that no animal will eat the 
oliage. 

Coriander seed—The fruit of Coriandrum sativum (Umbellifere) is 
commercially, but erroneousiy, known as coriander seeds. The plant 
is a low-growing annual, native of the south of Europe. It is of the 
easiest culture; the seeds sown in spring produce plants which ripen 
their fruit in the fall; a sandy soil is preferable. They are aromatic 
and carminative, and are used for flavoring curries and tor other culinary 
purposes; also by distillers, druggists, and confectioners. 

Caraway seeds are the fruits of Carum carui, (Umbellifere,) a small 
biennial plant, cultivated for its fruit in various parts of Iurope, chiefly 
in Germany and Britain. The seed is sown as soon as it ripens, in the 
latter part of summer, and when the plants are sufficiently advanced 
they are thinned so as to allow one to each square toot of surface. The 
fruit ripens during the following summer. The seeds are used for 
flavoring purposes in cookery and confectionery, being highly aromatie. 

Ginger.—This well-known spice is furnished by the rhizomes of Zingi- 
ber officinale, (Zingiberacee,) a plant much cultivated both in the Hast 
and West Indies, as well as in South America, Africa, and China. The 
rhizome, or woody root-stock, which forms the ginger, is dug up when 
of sufficient size, cleaned, scraped, and dried, and in this state is called 
uncoated ginger; but when the outer skin is not removed from the rvot- 
Stocks it is called coated, and presents a-dirty-brown appearance. Inde- 
pendent of this difference in color, which is in the mode of preparation, 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR souRcES. 203 


it is supposed that there are two varieties of the species, one producing 
white, and the other darker-colored ginger. The darker kinds are 
sometimes bleached by exposure to the fumes of chloride of lime, or 
burning sulphur. Ginger when broken across skows a number of small 
fibers imbedded in floury tissue. Its well-known hot, pungent taste is 
due to the presence of a volatile oil; it also contains a large quantity 
of starch and yellow coloring matter, inclosed in large cells. Ground 
ginger is largely adulterated with starch, wheat flour, ground rice, 
mustard, husks, &c., in various proportions. In a young state the rhi- 
zomes are tender, fleshy, and mildly aromatic. In this state they are 
preserved in sirup, and form the delicious conserve known as preserved 
ginger. West India gingers are preferred to those from the Hast Indies. 
Ginger is an aromatic stimulant, principally used as a condiment, and 
much employed in the manufacture of various liquors, cordials, and 
beers. An infusion, under the name of ginger-tea, is much used in In- 
dia. Amada ginger is furnished by the rcot-stocks of Cureuma amada, 
(Zingiberacece.) C.aromatica and C. zedoaria furnish zedoary tubers which 
are used as ginger, and as aromatic tonics by the natives of India. 

Turmeric.—This mild aromatic is furnished by the root-tubers of Cur- 
cuma longa, which is extensively cultivated in China. The older tubers 
are reduced to powder, which enters into the composition of curry-pow- 
der, and is used in sauces. It is also used for medicinal purposes, and 
as a chemical test for the presence of alkalies, which change its yellow 
color to a reddish-brown. In China it is used as a yellow dye, and the 
young tubers furnish a kind of arrowroot. Many others of this species 
furnish starchy products, and tonic stimulants. 

Liquorice.—The plant which yields the liquorice-root and paste of com- 
merce is Glycyrrhiza glabra, (Leguminose,) a native of the south of 
Europe. Itis a herbaceous perennial, and is cultivated to considerable 
extent in Spain and Italy. It is readily propagated from root-slips, and 
succeeds wellin deep, light, loamy soil. The roots require a growth of 
two to three years to be fit for use. Spanish liquorice is an extract made 
by slicing the root and boiling it in water; the liquor is afterward strained 
and allowed to evaporate to a proper consistency. It is further retined 
by redissolving, purifying, and again evaporating, and is then formed 
into quill-like rolls, and known as refined liquorice. It is used in con- 
fectiouery, in breweries, and also in medicine. G. echinata, and probably 
other species, furnishes the same principle of sweetness, which is called 
glycerine. 

Wild liquorice.—This name is applied to Abrus precatorius, (Legumi- 
nose,) a tropical twining plant. The roots furnish liquorice in the same 
manner as the roots of the true liquorice-plant. This plant is remarka- 
ble for its small, egg-shaped seeds or beans, which are of a brilliant 
scarlet color, with a black scar indicating the place where they were 
attached to the pods. These seeds are much used as beads for necklaces 
and other ornamental purposes. They are so uniform-in size and weight 
as to be used as a standard for weighing precious stones. 

Tamarinds are the truit-pods of Tamarindus Indica (Leguminosa,) a 
beautiful pinnated-foliaged tree, of the tropics. There are varieties of 
this tree, distinguishable chiefly by the size of the pods. The pods 
vary in length from 3 to 6 inches, aud are slightly curved. They consist 
of a brittle shell, inclosiug a soft, acid, brown pulp, traversed by strong 
woody fibers; the seeds are again immediately invested bya thin mem- 
branous covering. They owe their grateful acidity to the presence of 
citric, tartaric and other vegetable acids. Tamarinds form an import- 
ant ingredient-in the cookery of Eastern nations,as in the curries of 


- 204 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


India. They are also used for preserving fish, which, under the name 
of tamarind-fish, are considered a delicacy. 

Vanilla.—The vanilla of commerce is the seed-pod of Vanilla aro- 
matica and V. planifolia, climbing orchids of South America. The best 
is said to be produced from V. planifolia, a Mexican species. When the 
vanilla pods are gathered, they are immersed for an instant in boiling 
water to blanch them; they are then dried and lightly smeared with oil 
to prevent evaporation. The dried pods, like the berries of pepper, 
change color while drying, grow brown, wrinkled, and soft, and shrink 
to one-fourth their original size. This aromatic is much used by con- 
fectioners, also by perfumers, distillers, &e. ; 

Mustard.—This condiment is prepared from the seeds of Sinapis nigra 
and S. alba, (Crucifere,) natives of Europe, but introduced and grow- 
ing wild in many places here. The seeds are crushed between rollers, 
pounded, and sifted frequently, to produce powdered mustard. The 
black, and the white are generally mixed, and the powder is frequently 
mixed with wheat flour and turmeric powder. The seeds contain but 
little, if any, starchy matter. Chemically, they contain a peculiar acid 
called myronie acid, which contains a portion of sulphur. 


VEGETABLE WAXES. 


Carnauba wax is produced by the wax palm of Brazil, Copernicia ceri- 
fera, which attains a height of 30 to 40 feet, and with a trunk only 6 to 
10 inches thick, composed of very hard wood, used for building purposes 
and ornamental veneering. The foliage, especially the young leaves, 
is coated with wax, which is obtained by first detaching the leaves from 
the plant, and shaking them so as to loosen the wax, each leaf furnish- 
ing about fifty grains of whitish, scaly powder, which is melted in pots 
and run into cakes. It is sometimes used to adulterate bees-wax, and 
has been tried for purposes of candle-making, but the lemon-colored tint 
of the raw wax has hitherto baffled all attempts at bleaching. ° 

Humbold’s palm wax.—The wax palm of New Grenada, Ceroxylon An- 
dicola, is found growing in great abundance in very elevated regions on 
the chain of mountains separating the courses of the rivers Magdalena 
and Cauca, in New Grenada, extending almost as high as the lower limit 
of perpetual snow, which is unusual in this tribe of plants, as the palms 
generally favor tropical climates. The trunk of this palm is of great 
height, starting from the ground with a diameter of about 10 to 12 inch- 
es, which thickness is maintained for the first halfof its height; it then 
swells out and again becomes contracted to its original dimensions as it 
reaches the top. These lofty trunks are covered with a coating of resin- 
like wax, which gives them a whitish, marble appearance. The wax is 
gathered by cutting down the plant and scraping the trunk with a blunt 
instrument, the average yield being twenty-five pounds to a tree. Itis 
then melted and run into calabashes, in which state it forms an article 
of commerce among the inhabitants. It is mixed with tallow and made 
into candles, as it burns too rapidly when used alone. 

Candleberry or myrtle wax.—This product is yielded by the genus My. 
ica, Which is widely scattered over the temperate regions of both hem- 
ispheres; in North and South America, Europe, Cape of Good Hope, 
Northern India, China, and Japan. The plants are mostly shrubs, 
with fragrant foliage. The fruits are nuts or drupes, covered with 
a coating of a waxy, resinous secretion, which is separated from the ber- 
ries by boiling them in water, stirring them during the ebuilition to facil- 
itate the separation of the wax, which appears on the surface, and is 


MINOR VEGETABLE PRODUCTS AND THEIR SOURCES. 205 


skimmed, and afterward strained through a coarse cloth to free it from 
impurities. 

Myrica cerifera and If. Carolinensis are North American species; the 
latter is said to be the most valuable, giving wax of a greenish yellow 
color, of a finer consistence than the bees-wax, and yielding at the rate 
of one pound of wax to four pounds of berries. Candles manufactured 
from it diffuse a delightful odor when burning, and even for. some time 
after extinction. . There are several species of Myrica indigenous to 
Southern Africa, the wax from which is an article of commerce. Myrica 
Jaga is a native of the Azores, and furnishes wax which is frequently 
utilized in candle-making. 

Japan wax.—This hard, white wax, now a considerable article of ex- 

port from Japan, is yielded by the fruit of Rhus succedanea, (Anacardi- 
acec,) a small tree much cultivated in Japan for this product. It is softer 
and more fatty than bees-wax, and is easily kneaded; its fusing point 
is from 125° to 136°. Candles are commonly made from it by the Jap- 
anese. It is exported in square blocks averaging 150 pounds each. 
Rhus vernicifera, also indigenous in Japan, yields the famous lacquer so 
extensively used by the people of that country for lacquering various 
articles of furniture and other wares. This substance exudesfrom wounds 
made in the tree, and is at first milky white, but gradually becomes 
darker and ultimately black on being exposed to the air. Nothing cer- 
tain has been made known regarding the mode of preparing it for use, 
and it is remarked that the lacquer ware now manufactured is greatly 
inferior to the ancient samples of this kind of ornamental work. 

Peetha wax.—tThe fruit of the white gourd of India, Benincasa cerifera 
(Cucurbitacew,) secretes upon its surface a waxy substance which resem- 
bles the bloom found on plums and some other fruits; but in this fruit 
it is produced in sufficient quaatities to be collected ‘and made into 
candles. 

Birch wax.—tit is stated that the dwarf birch, Betula nana, yields a 
wax similar to that afforded by the Myrica, and it is used for similar 
purposes. 

Fig wax.—aA species of fig, Ficus cerifera (Moracee,) found in the 
island of Sumatra, yields a kind of waxy secretion which is known under 
the name of getah lahoe, and is used for making candles. 

Was tree of the Cordilleras.—This is the Elwagia utilis, (Cinchonacee,) 
a lofty-growing tree, remarkable for the quantity of green resinous or 
waxy matter which is secreted by the stipules which invest the unex- 
panded buds. The wax is collected by the Indians and used by them 
to varnish useful and ornamental objects. It is first purified by immer- 
sion in hot water, and then worked until it becomes ductile. It is nat- 
urally of a yellow color, but various colors may be imparted by adding 
them to it when melted. The resin or wax when thus prepared is laid 
on in thin layers by the aid of heat and pressure, and by means of dif- 
ferent-colored layers, placed one upon another, and cut into various 
shapes, a kind of. design is produced. By first coating the object with 
a layer of silver foil a fine metallic luster is developed. 

The following table shows the value of the articles named respect- 
ively, imported and entering into consumption in this country during 
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1869: 


RTE OU wis am oa apse = - $5, 618 00" Almeortdconeeee sata os < west $7,260.00 . 
Onieanunmt . 525. 422552803 5- 13, 696 OO) Cassia ovate. SS. 17, 318 00 
Uxtronella ..--..-.2..25..3 ’ 22,564 00 | Cinnamon oil...-.........- .583 00 
PANO DUb sss 45 dactee ae 3454 1,207, 00) * Castox oli fe 2223. 6) 28 21, 891. 26 


Palm and cocoa oik.....--. 


ww 


2) 04s OO Th OMVGrOi ee 25. stew eden 2 521, 117.50 


‘ 


206 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Ammmoroll 15525 742 ee sect 19; 920100" | @atleer sayey. oo. ~~ 2558: $22,779,574 46 
NOIIBP EO (OU o o5 lew cine ism 2 70 10938100 I MeMCCONVER@ ees owes cwccce 126,794 31 
Bergamot oil ..-.-..---..- 130,386 00 | Cinnamon............-.- 1,821 40 
Ga DORE. tonsa so aos 9, 367 00 | Cassia and cassia buds - -- 178, 822 00 
INGA UIC RD ce via aoe, oe fone 521500) Clovestecceemeces coos eect 42,093 10 
PRIME” (elgg = Gite buide wale ee 6.5 8,939 00 | Fenugreek seeds.....-.... 3, 089 00 
Mann oy wants acicias selected. 4,115 00 | Cardamom seeds......-.. 23, 998 00 
AlOGR. Ek Seana e ee weeeee cee £626.00) | imentors amas ccc. -.-- 54, 527 25 
Toluybalsam te 20 Sse eeu 3,445 00°] Nutmegs 25. 0%. 2-2: 2 - 205,128 85 
Mastie sc 8.. .2 sen anos B, 615,00 } Repper. seer. sees. e base's 299,813 16 
Balsam copaiba-.......-.- 27,892 00 | Cayenne pepper -.....-... 7,518 83 
India-rabber: ..< 2. ce cieice-¢ 2, 672,569 00 | Coriander seed....-.-..-. 3,768 00 
Gutta-percha .--.-...--..- 15,587 00 | Caraway seads,....----.- 24, 839 00: 
Dea kaos ec tee ee 12,889,383 30 | Ginger... 220.2... <s-455 7) ) LOOMIAtmnO 
Chocolate see eet los. 4,550 00 | Vanilla beans........---. 42,505 00 
Catone: sige Beer ys ee 219) 9380 'Sb il) Maastardl, Susbe ois see ee 63,731 25 


TEE OPTUM POPPY. 


From experiments which have been made in the cultivation of the 
poppy in several of the States, it is evident that opium of good quality 
can be produced in thiscountry. Good Turkey opium is worth at whole- 
sale $10 50 to $11 per pound, and $20 to $22 at retail. The importa- 
tions into the United States during the year ending June 30, 1870, 
amounted to 254,609 pounds, valued at $1,776,908. There has been a 
gradual increase in the importation from year to year, corresponding 
to the increase of population. If a portion of the opium employed by 
the medical profession could be produced in our own country it would 
afford a pleasant and, doubtless, protitable employment to persons of 
small mewhs, as no capital is required in outlay for machinery in the ordi- 
nary mode of collecting it. The aim should be to produce a prime 
unadulterated article by scarification, and in this way to establish a 
reputation for the production of opium of the best quality. Reckoning 
thirty pounds to an acre, at $8 a pound, the income would be $240, a 
sum which is far above the value of most cultivated crops. 

! 
SPECIES AND CULTURE. 


All species of the poppy yield opium, but not in equal quantity, nor 
of the same quality. The common garden poppy (Papaver somniferum) 
is the species cultivated in Turkey, India, and in this country for me- 
dicinal purposes. There are two principal varieties of this species, one 
with white seeds and usually with white flowers, and the other with 
black seeds and violet or red flowers. The former is generally eulti- 
vated for opium, and the latter for oil, although both products may be 
obtained trom each variety. The poppy thrives best on a light sandy 
loam, and is not an exhausting crop. In the commencement the ground 
should be prepared as for garden culture, and enriched with a liberal 
Supply of nitrogenous manures. When the plant has arrived at fall 
maturity at the end of the season it decomposes very quickly; and, if 
plowed under, is said to furnish, after the first year, a very large pro- 
portion of the manure necessary to keep the ground in good condition. 

The mode of culture usually adopted in this country differs in some 
particulars from that pursued in Turkey and India, where the seeds are 
sown broadcast, and thinned out to such distances as best suit the con- 
venience or the taste of the cultivator. It has been found with us most 
convenient to sow.the seeds in drills about eighteen inches apart, and 


THE OPIUM POPPY. 207 


to thin out to six or eight inches between the plants. In order to get 
as many plants as possible on a given area, some prefer to make the 
first two rows a foot apart, and then to leave a space of eighteen inches, 
thus alternating throughout the field. Three or four ounces of seed are 
said to be sufficient to sow an acre, but in order to insure a “ good 
stand” a much larger quantity is generally used. The covering should 
be very slight, not exceeding one-fourth of an inch. The time for sow- 
ing should be such that the plant may mature its blossoms and the 
opium be gathered in the dry season of the year; for, if the soil is wet 
at the time of blossoming, opium will not be formed in large quan- 
tity, nor will it be of good quality. The plant matures sufliciently for 
gathering its opium in ninety to one hundred days. In Jefferson County, 
New York, the time of sowing is from the 5th to the 20th of May; at 
Benares, in Hindostan, in November. In the former place the flowers 
mature in July; in the latter in February, before the rainy season 
commences; therefore a.favorable season is secured for maturing and 
gathering the opium. 
COLLECTING THE OPIUM. 


No other process yet devised for collecting opium has proved equal to 
that of scarifying the capsules. A knife has been invented which is 
said to be well adapted to this purpose. It has four lancet-points fixed 
in the end of a wooden handle, the end being curved in such a manner 
as to conform to the spherical shape of the capsule, and the blades of 
such length as to penetrate only through the epidermis, or outer skin. 
A deeper incision would be injurious. The capsule is held in the left 
hand, and the knife applied at the bottom and drawn upward, making 
four incisions at once. Some make three incisions and others one, hori- 
zontally around the capsule, and think more opium can be obtained in 
this way than by making them ina vertical direction. Some practical 
culturists say that the most favorable results can be obtained by mak- 
ing one spiral incision around the capsule, from the top to the bot- 
tom. When the incisions are made vertically the operation may be 
performed from two to six times during the season on each capsule, 
according to its size and yield; but, when they are made horizontally 
or spirally, one operation on each capsule is usualiy found sufficient to 
extract all the opium; and it is asserted that the experience of Euro- 
pean culturists has proved that one incision is as effectual as three or 
four. The process of scaritying the capsules must commence in a few 
days after the petals of the flowers have fallen. The first part or mid- 
dle of the afternoon is usually selected for scarifying, on the supposi- 
tion that the dampness of the night is more favorable to the exudation 
of the opium than the dry atmosphere of the day. The opium exudes 
in the form of white tears, and hardens into a brown substance around 
the incisions. It is scraped off the next morning as soon as the dew is 
off, with the crooked blade of a small knife, and placed in a vessel pre- 
pared to receive it. This is the best quality of opium, When it has 
hardened to a convenient consistency it is wérked into balls, and may 
be ready for market in forty-eight hours after being collected. 

Another mode of extracting the opium is by grinding or pounding the 
capsules, a little water being added, and then expressing and straining 
the juice, and evaporating it by a gentle heat. The watery portion will 
pass off, and the inspissated opium will be left in the vessel. A more 
pepiee account of this process is taken from the Scientific Press, as 

ollows : 


In collecting opium by expression the gapsules are cut from the stems and ground or 
mashed to a pomace. The vat for holding it should be lined with tin @r brass. Before 


208 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


putting the pomace into the press, half a pint of alcohol is added to every forty or fifty 
pounds of pomace, the whole being well stirred together and allowed to stand for 
about an hour. The mass is then ready for the press. The alcohol used unites with 
the juice and renders it limpid and more easy to be taken away from the pomace by 
the action of the press. The liquid, as it comes from the pomace, is received into a 
“settler,” in which it should be allowed to stand about one hour; during which time 
the green matter of the plant will settle to the bottom, so that the opium liquid may 
be drawn off from the surface by faucets properly arranged for the purpose. This 
should be immediately placed in shallow tin pans, so as tostand about half an inch 
deep, and the pans arranged on suitable racks in a drying or evaporating room. This 
room should be tight, and so arranged that the heat and moisture may escape from a 
single opening ator near the top. The temperature should never be allowed to fall 
below 130° F., nor to exceed 160°. If the heat gets too low the juice will become sour 
and spoiled; if teo high it will scald. The evaporating process must be carefully 
watched day and night until completed, and it should be continued until the opium is 
dry enough to be scraped from the plates, care being taken not to allow it to get teo 
dry for that operation. When taken from the pans it should be molded into balls of 
about one pound weight, when it is ready for market. In cutting the capsules for 
grinding, care should be taken that they be as ripe as is required for collecting opium 
by scarification. ' 

‘Sometimes, when the scarifying process has been continued till the 
juice ceases to exude, the capsules are then cut from their stems and the 
remaining opium extracted by the foregoing process, but the product is 
inferior, and is often used for the extraction of morphia, or sometimes 
fraudulently for adulterating opium of good quality. Although a larger 
quantity of opium can be obtained by the evaporating process than b-y 
scariiicaticn, in all cases the quality is inferior and the seeds are lost, 
which are worth about one-third as much for oil as the opium ob- 
tained. ; 


QUALITY AND CLIMATE. 


The quality of opium is generally estimated by the quantity of mor- 
phia which it contains. A certain amount of heat is necessary in the 
cultivation of the poppy in order to produce opium of the best quality 
and in the largest quantity. Tlris requisite is commonly supposed to be 
found only in what may be called warm climates. ‘The poppy is exten- 
sively cultivated for opium in Asiatic Turkey, India, Egypt, and France. 
Turkey opium, most of which is obtained from Smyrna, has the highest 
reputation for medicinal purposes, and is that which is principally used 
by physicians in this country. It is declared, however, on the best au- 
thority, that opium is produced in France fully equal to the best quality 
from Smyrna, and is less frequently adulterated than that obtained from 

¢ the latter place. ‘The mean annual temperature of the opium districts of 
the foregoing countries, named in their order, is respectively 65°, 80°, 
75°, and 50°. There are doubtless other conditions besides temperature 
which are essential to the production of opium of the first quality, as 
soil, equability of climate, and a proper proportion of wet and dry 
weather—things which can be accurately determined only by actual 
trial in the different localities in which it is proposed to cultivate it. 
We give the results of analyses of dried specimens of opium from the 
countries named, recently made by M. Guibourt, in which he gives the 
percentage of morphia found in each, as follows: Turkey opium, from 
Smyrna, highest percentage, 21.46; lowest, 11.70; mean, 14.78. India, 
from Patna, highest, 7.72; lowest, 5.27; mean, 6.45. Egypt, from Alex- 
andria, highest, 12.21; lowest, 5.81; mean, 9.01. France, from Amiens, 
highest, 22.28; lowest, 14.83; mean, 17.69. The mean percentage here 
given of each kind of opium is the mean of all the specimens analyzed, 
and therefore does not in every case correspond with the mean of the 
highest and lowest. From an examination of the mean temperature of 
the climates of the countries named, it will be seen that the opium of 


THE OPIUM POPPY. 209 


India and Africa, which have the hottest climates, is of the poorest 
quality; while that of Turkey and France, which have the coldest, is 
the best. In India the average yield of opium per acre is said, by 
good authority, to be from twenty-five to forty pounds avoirdupois. 
In the department of Somme, in France, 40,000 acres are cultivated 
annually with the poppy, and the good opium sells at wholesale for 
$8 to $10 per pound, according to the quality. At a standard of 10 
per cent. of morphia it will sell for $7 to $7 50 per pound. Besides 
the opium extracted from the capsules of the plants cultivated on this 
large area of land, the seeds have some years been sold for about 
$896,000 for the oil which they contained. The average yield of cil 
from the seeds of capsules which have not been scarified is 25 to 27 per 
cent., and it is considered better for salad oil than most olive oils sold 
in the market. Seeds from scarified capsules should not be used for 
planting, as their vitality has been much weakened by this process, and 
the plants which they produce are correspondingly feeble. They yield 
only about two-thirds as much oil as other seeds. The poppy is also 
cultivated in Germany on a large scale, both for opium and for oil. Its 
culture commenced only a few years ago, but so great has been its suc- 
cess that the opium produced there has nearly supplanted the use of 
the foreign article. From Germany it passed over to France, and there 
are now 60,000 to 70,000 acres under profitable cultivation in the latter 
country. 
EXPERIMENTS. 


In Jefferson County, New York, one-fourth of an acre, planted with 
the poppy, produced twenty-seven pounds of opium in four years, 
equal to one crop of twenty-seven pounds per acre, which, at $10 per 
pound, would amount to $270, as the income of one acre of land for one 
year. Specimens were sent to New York for analysis, and the percent- 
age of morphia was found to be equal to the average of the best im- 
ported. The grower thinks it will pay to cultivate the poppy in this 
country, if the work is conducted with proper skill; and that he can get 
more money from one acre of land planted with poppy than from three 
acres with any other crop which he has ever seen. A man of small 
means, who will cultivate it with skill and perseverance, can make it 
profitable. A capable boy can cultivate a quarter of an acre easily. 
It requires no more weeding and hoeing than any garden crop. Good, 
rich land is required, which should be pulverized and leveled as for 
onions. Hesows in drills as given in our second method, and thins out 
to six inches. between the plants. The young plants which are thinned 
out make excellent greens, fully equal to the beet or the spinach. 

Dr. E. Lewis, of Topeka, Kansas, cultivated the poppy in York Coun- 
ty, Pennsylvania, and gives it as his opinion that opium can be profita- 
bly produced in the latter State. He makes one incision horizontally 
around the capsules soon after the petals of the flowers have fallen, and 
usually performs the operation only once upon the same capsule; but 
if it is large he would perform it twice at different times. 

Mr. W. H.* White, of South Windsor, Connecticut, has cultivated the 
poppy, on a small scale, in the garden. After the petals have fallen he 
makes five, six, or more slight cuts in the capsules from top to bottom, 
a little before noon. A few hours after the incisions have been made 
the opium is scraped off and allowed to stand for a short time, when it 
is worked into balls. Families in that State sometims collect it in this 
way for their own use asa medicine for their children, and find that 
it answers all the purposes of the opium of the shops. A ball ag 


144 


210 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


large as a small peais frequently obtained from the heads of a single 
lant. 

i The cultivation of the poppy is becoming an important industry in 
Vermont, especially in Addison County, on Lake Champlain. Mr. Rob- 
bins, of Hancock, has cultivated it for some years, and specimens of 
his opium have yielded 15.75 per cent. of morphia. Two years ago Mr. 
Monkton, who resides near the village of Middlebury, raised $3,000 
worth of opium. Mr. W. C. Wilson, of Monkton Ridge, has been culti- 
vating it for five years, and has derived a handsome profit froth the sales. 
On one farm in East Middlebury there are several acres under cultiva- 
tion, and the business is gradually extending throughout that part of 
the State. 

Mr. Banudrye, of Nevato, Marin County, California, has just com- 
menced the culture of the poppy in that town. Specimens of opium 
analyzed yielded 5.75 per cent. of morphia, which, though small, is 
nearly equal to the average of opium from India. Mr. Baudrye sold 
his opium in California for $7 per pound. Mr. Guillardon, of Lower 
Lake, Lake County, has thirteen acres planted with the poppy, which 
he is cultivating both for opium and oil. A gentleman who is familiar 
with opium culture in India and Germany thinks the middle and 
southern portions of California are unsurpassed in soil and climate by 
any country for the production of opium, and that with a little irriga- 
tion two crops might be raised yearly. . 


THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY, 


After a series of preliminary disappointments and failures, such as 
embarrass almost every improvement, the economic difficulties of the 
beet-sugar industy seem to have been measurably overcome. Much 
still remains to be done, but from the results already attained capital 
finds fair inducements for more extended investment, both in the cul- 
ture and the manufacture. Three establishments—oue at Chatsworth, 
Tllinois, one at Alvarado, California, and the third in Sauk County, 
Wisconsin—are manufacturing a good quality of sugar with sufficient 
suecess to render future efforts promising. Other manufacturing en- 
terprises have been projected, while in many places the experimental 
culture of the beet has been inaugurated with a view to manufacture. 
At Chatsworth, Llinois, in 1864, Messrs. Gennert purchased two thon- 
sand acres of land and erected a manufactory. They subsequently 
sold out to an association called “The Germania Sugar-Beet Company.” 
This establishment has motive power and machinery sufficient to work 
up fifty tons of beets per day. In 1866 they raised four thousand tons 
of sugar-beets on four hundred acres, at an estimated cost of $4 per 
. ton. Since that time, however, the cost of production is said to have 
been reduced to $2 70 per ton, through the introduction of machinery. 
The crop of 1870 covered only three hundred and thirty adres, of which 
one hundred and thirty proved an entire failure through the drought, 
leaving but two hundred productive acres. The seed used is known 
as the “ White Imperial,” and was imported specially for this enter- 
prise. In order {0 decrease the size of the beets, and thus obtain a 
larger percentage of sugar, the seed is sown quite thickly, and the 
roots in ordinary seasons do not exceed one and a half or two pounds 
each. By allowing the beets to grow large the crops may be raised to 


BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY. 211 


an average of twenty-five tons per acre, but the decline of saccharine 
properties counterbalances the increase in quantity. 'The average crop 
of the two hundred productive acres in 1870 was about nine tons, but 
the beets were much richer in sugar than in wet seasons. Much labor 
is saved in harvesting the beets, by a simple contrivance admitting the 
application of horse-power. The roots are preserved in pits, and pro- 
tected from the frost until the manufacturing season approaches. 
Hand labor in cultivation is almost entirely confined to thinning out the 
beets. The full success of the enterprise, however, can be secured only 
by the extension of sugar-beet culture among the farmers, to whom it 
recommends itself by several economic advantages. Its beneficial in- 
fluence upon the soil, and the cheap stock-feed which it furnishes, will 
doubtless attract the attention of the meat producers of Llinois. 

The sugar already produced at Chatsworth is highly recommended. 
The first yield was placed in the Chicago market without brand, and 
was pronounced by experts to be equal to A 1 New York sugar, readily 
bringing the price of that article. From the beginning, a fair article of 
sugar was made by this establishment, but in the earlier efforts the 
expense of the process overbalanced the market value of the product. 
This has been attributed to injudicious management of the enterprise in 
its earlier stages, and to a too rigid adherence to the ideas and formule 
of European industry. The present superintendent, Mr. Jonathan Per- 
riam, is a native American and a Western farmer. He seems to have 
overcome, to a great extent, the practical obstacles in the way of the 
economic success of the enterprise. In a letter to this Department, 
dated January 2, 1871, he states: ‘“‘ The continued lack of water puts us 
to the most serious disadvantages in the manufacture.” He further com- 
plains of the necessity of depending “upon foreign laborers who do not 
understand our language, nor appreciate the necessity of economizing.” 
He hopes by the extension of machinery to overcome this latter diffi- 
culty, and expresses his decided opinion that “ beet-sugar, upon favor- 
able soils, with plenty of good water for manufacturing, will be a success, 
in a business point of view, if economically managed.” It is proposed 
to remove this establishment to a location having a soil better adapted 
5H the growth of the sugar-beet, and one with a more abundant supply 
of water. 

Great confidence is felt upon the Pacific coast in the final success of 
the beet-sugar industry in that region. Ten years ago Mr. George 
Gordon, since deceased, exhibited at the fair of the Mechanics’ Institute, 
in San Francisco, a superior article of beet-sugar. Still later, Mr. Claus 
Sprechman, of the California sugar refinery, imported beet seeds from 
Germany and France, and made a liberal distribution of them among 
the farmers of California, stipulating for a specific quantity of beets in 
return, with information as to locality, modes of culture, &c. With these 
beets critical and scientific experiments were made by machinery. It 
was found that alkaline elements in the soil deteriorated the practical 
value of the roots. This result so discouraged Mr. Sprechman that he: 
abandoned the enterprise. Mr. Gordon proposed to resuscitate it, but 
prior to commencing operations he associated with him Mr. Sprechman 
and a Mr. Wentworth, with whom he visited Europe to observe the beet 
culture and sugar manufacture on that continent. They never renewed 
their efforts in this country. 

In the spring of 1870 Messrs. Bonesteel, Otto & Co., who had been 
engaged in the beet-sugar enterprise at Fond du.Lac, Wisconsin, were 
induced to remove to California, where they organized the Alvarado 
Beet-Sugar Manufactory, at Alvarado, in Alameda County, under the 


212 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


auspices of a company of capitalists, who had invested $250,000 in the 
enterprise. The initial results of this movement were so flattering as 
to give rise to some extravagant anticipations. One enthusiastic jour- 
nalist predicted that in five years California would be a sugar-exporting 
State. The Alvarado company now occupy a three-story building, 150 
feet long by 50 feet wide, with a boiler-house 59 feet by 50, and a bone- 
coal house 75 feet by 40. The machinery is sufficient to work up fifty 
tons of beets per day. The motive power is furnished by four tubular 
steam-boilers, each 16 feet long and 54 inches in diameter. These drive 
the three steam-engines, of which two are 14 by 30, (first-class finish,) 
and one 16 by 12. The apparatus embraces vacuum pans, saturation 
pans, air-pumps, filters, filter-pumps, beet-prater, beet-washing machine, 
beet-breaking machine, tanks for elevating sirup and sugar from one 
floor to another, and a number of sheet-iron tanks for various purposes. 
An abundant supply of shafting, pulleys, pipes, pumps, and other 
fittings incidental to a complete sugar manufactory and refinery have 
been provided, enabling the company to transform the beets into fine 
granulated sugar within twenty-four hours after their reception. 

Through delay in receiving that portion of the machinery which had 
been ordered from Germany, the manufactory did not commence opera- 
tions until Tuesday, November 15,1870. On the following Thursday 
many friends of the enterprise assembled to witness the first turn-oeut 
of sugar. Anxiety and unbelief were the prevailing expression, both 
of voice and of countenance, as, at 10 o’clock a. m., the contents of one 
of the large pans were emptied into one of the sugar centrifugals and 
set in revolution. In less than three minutes the white sugar began to 
erystallize, doubt gave way to enthusiasm, and all present pronounced 
the sugar superior to cane sugar. Some allowance, however, must be 
made for the excitement of the occasion. 

In this establishment the beets are first thoroughly washed in a eyl- 
inder composed of slats, one end of which is depressed in a tank of 
water. By revolution upon its axis, the beets, rubbing constantly upon 
each other in the water, are thoroughly cleansed by the time they reach 
the lower end. They are then elevated to the grater, a formidable piece 
of machinery upon the third floor, furnished with arasp which revolves 
1,500 times per minute. Against this rasp the bright, clean roots are 
pressed, and in a very short time are reduced to a fine watery pulp, 
which is then drawn off into the centrifugals below. Of these there are 
ten, each revolving 1,200 times per minute, and thoroughly separating, 
by their rapid movement, the juice from the pulp. The former passes 
through large troughs into defecating pans; the latter is removed through 
a spout into the dried-pulp room below. In the defecating pans the 
impurities of the juice are absorbed by a preparation of lime; thence it 
runs into two close upright boilers, called by the French montejus. These 
are located on the lower floor, and by steam pressure elevate the juice 
to large filter-presses in the second story. It then passes into the satu- 
rating pans, where the lime, previously absorbed in the clarifying pro- 
cess, is eliminated by an infusion of carbonic acid gas. It is then 
filtered through animal charcoal, whence it passes into two evaporating 
pans, and is subjected to a boiling heat till it reaches the proper con- 
sistency. It is then drawn off into iron tanks to cool and crystallize ; 
after which it is placed in an open upright cylinder, in which an iron 
axle with projecting arms slowly revolves, mingling the entire mass 
into a sort of heavy molasses. The sirup is then expelled by a rapid 
revolution in four sugar centrifugals, the residuum being “ first-class” 
sugar, ready for market. The ejected sirup is again placed in the cen- 


BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY. 213 


trifugal and “second-class” sugar is produced. The process is repeated 
for the third and sometimes for the fourth time. 

The heavy-lifting operations of this establishment are all done by 
steam raised from the screenings of the Monte Diable coal mines, about 
nine tons of which are consumed daily. The working force embraces 
about thirty white men, and as many Chinese. The greatest economy 
of material is strictly observed in all parts of the process. The scum 
of the defecating pans is removed, and subjected to a separate filtering 
process, when its residuum is allowed tp mingle with the defecated 
juice. The machinery, so far, has worked remarkably well. 

The success of this enterprise being greatly dependent upon an abun- 
dant supply of raw material, the company have engaged extensively in 
the culture of the beet. About eight hundred acres of their land will be 
planted in beets during the season of 1871, for which a full supply of 
seed has been imported from Germany. This arrangement is pro- 
visional, and will be superseded when a sufficient number of farmers 
can be found competent and willing to engage in the culture. Allow- 
ing an av erage | of twenty tons of beets per acre, aud an average Mae 
of 8 per cent. of sugar, the company will have a sufficient supply of ra 
material to enable them to operate at least three hundred days in the 
ad and nearly two and a half millions of pounds of sugar to pro- 

uce. 

This union of diverse processes of production, embracing both raw 
material and finished product, is not in accordance with that principle 
of division of labor which has enabled modern industry to achieve its 
splendid results. It is to be hoped that the agricultural part of the - 
enterprise will soon be assumed by agricultural men. The Mitchell 
nursery, near San José, has produced fifty tons of good beets per acre. 
The present price of roots at the Alvarado factory is $3 50 per ton. A 
product of twenty tons will realize $70 per acre. 

The Alvarado Company has hitherto confined its attention exclusively 
to the German beet. Experiments will be made with other seeds to dis- 
cover the variety best adapted to the soil. 

An establishment has been in operation at Sacramento, and during 

the past year a considerable quantity of sugar has been produced, bus 
expenses have not been realized, and an assessment of $2 per share has 
been made upon the stockholders. This company has been paying 85 
per ton for beets; $1 50 more than was paid by the Alvarado Company. 
The difficulties that embarrass the enterprise seem to be in the beet eul- 
tuxe of the neighborhood, and in the low percentage of sugar secured. 
The experience of the proprietors leads them to conclusions very different 
from those of European beet-growers. The latter obtain the maximum 
of saccharine matter in the lat éest growth prior to autumnal frosts. The 
beets grown here lost half their sugar during the last six weeks of their 
growth. Perhaps in the adjustment of this difficulty the beet culture 
here may find its final opening to success. 
__ Under date of December 29, 1870, Tyler Beach, secretary of the Santa 
Clara Valley Agricultural Society, informs this Department that, under 
the auspices of that society, a beet-sugar company has been formed, 
with a capital of $200,600 for the manufacture of beet sugar at San J osé, 
California. He solicits from this Department a variety of beet seeds, in 
order to test by actual experiment the adaptability of each to the soil 
. and climate of that locality. In answer to this request four varieties of 
seeds were sent. This enterprise is prosecuted by intelligent and care- 
ful business men, who, with the experience of the Alvarado Company 
before them, entertain strong hopes of success. 


214 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Sugar-beet culture has been commenced in Colorado with very prom- 
ising initial results, Reports of enormous yields are received, two 
cultivators having secured over seventy tons per acre. JF'armers were 
sanguine as to their ability to raise an ‘average of fifty tons. Their 
quality is now being tested at Chatsworth, Illinois. Efforts are being 
made to establish a manufactory in Colorado. 

The value of success in industry may be partly estimated from our enor- 
mous importation of foreign sugar. During the fiscaJ year ending June 
30, 1870, we imported 1,160,460,114 pounds of brown sugar, 151,520 
pounds of refined sugar, 36,161,935 pounds of melado and sirup of sugar- 
cane, 55,820 pounds of candy and confectionery, and 56,373,537 gallons of 
molasses. The total declared value of these imports was $69,827,884. 
Our domestic sugar-cane, beet, maple, and sorghum did not amount to 
one-eighth of this aggregate. Europe, from the expansion of her beet- 
sugar production, now supplies one-half of her home demand, and the 
industry is extending into England upon a scale which promises to 
rival that of the continent. We see no reason to doubt that we, with 
our abundant natural resources, may be able to do fully as well as 
Europe. Estimates by French statisticians prior to the insurrection in 
Cuba place the world’s aggregate sugar production at .2,300,000 tons, 
one-third of the whole amount being assigned to Cuba. The industry 
of the cane-producing countries of the world, from which the great 
mass of our import is derived, is mostly in a rudimentary or in a 
disorganized condition. Slave labor still existsin Brazil and the Spanish 
West Indies, while the emancipated labor of other regions as yet works 
at a disadvantage, not having been systematized or adapted to the con- 
ditions of a progressive civilization. The reorganization of this free 
labor has been in progress for many years, yet it is not so far advanced 
as in our Southern States after an interval of only five years of peace; 
nor does it present any prospect of a more rapid reconstruction in the 
future. Hence, though enjoying the exuberant natural resources of a 
tropical soil and climate, these foreign sugar industries will work at an 
essential disadvantage with our own. The insurrection in Cuba has 
desolated the finest portions of the island, and the financial condition of 
the sugar interests is critical. Of 1,800 plantations it is reported that 
scarcely 1 per cent. is free from mortgages, and that operations are pros- 
ecuted at such a disadvantage as to return not over 4 per cent. on the 
capital, while money loans cost 9 per cent. Into this breach, then, the 
beet-sugar industry of the United States should at once be thrown, and 
the best use be made of its excellent opportunity. 

The value of the beet-sugar manufacture, as an aid to stock fattening 
and to intensive culture, has frequently been mentioned. Both leaves 
and pulp furnish valuable food for stock. Dr. Voelcker, in the Journal 
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, gives the following 
analysis of beet-root pulp, from Mr. Duncan’s experimental crops at 
Lavenham: 


WE ee ae, Meee tert 70.11 
Flesh-forming substances, (containing nitrogen). -.....-..---..-----+---------- 2.25 
Sr ERODE Eee wine oss oan week a cee case ect aics ss aeee Eels anon aie 3.39 
MiGCU Gr pee Bee ae ei. oo ee sees de eA oes eewoeue 1.93 
Digestiblewemermule MUer 2... 2.5 -- 06. aces beds snc at gee ene = Oo ajene See 15.13 
WiGOG HB pre een eee as nies nce. cock wodel - dees ma See ee eeReee oe «bt l= seer 5.32 - 
BE Pan Ree CEMIB ain = oon ns ead sa ndac oat on Enee we oe aeeeeee 1.87 
100.00 


The best root contains 154 per cent. of solid matter, while, from the 


BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY. 215 


above analysis, it appears that the pulp yields nearly 50 per cent. This 
is accounted for by the fact that in the process of manufacture the resid- 
uary product has lost a large proportion of its water. The pulp obtained 
from 20 tons of beets would amount to about 72 ewt. yielding about 
21.6 ewt. of solid matter. According to the same authority mangel-wurzel- 
contains but 11 per cent. of solid matter, and a crop of 20 tons would 
yield but 44 ewt. Hence the pulp alone of an acre of sugar beets would 
be nearly equivalent in solid material to a half crop or 10 tons of man- 
gel-wurzel. Dr. Voelcker estimates that in availibility for stock feeding 
a ton of pulp equals 14 tons of sugar beets, or 2 tons of common beets. 
Another English agricultural writer estimates the value of 20 tons of 
sugar beet, as stock feed, as equal to that of 30 tons of mangolds. The 
agricultural branch of the sugar industry has many elements of pros- 
pective profit. The: skill of our manufacturers will keep pace with our 
agricultural production in simplifying, cheapening, and extending the 
processes of extraction. From all present indications no reason appears 
why our beet-sugar production should not at least equal that of Europe, 
if not greatly surpass it. 


THE BEET-SUGAR PROGRESS IN EUROPE. 


Professor Church, of the Royal Agricultural College of England, at a 
late session of the Cirencester Chamber of Agriculture, presented some 
statistics of the beet-sugar interest in Europe. The entire yield of the 
- continent in 1869 was over 611,000 tons from 1,800 sugar manufactories. 
The sugar beet is cultivated from the Atlantic to the Caspian, and 
nearly as far north as the Arctic Circle. One variety sprouts at 44° F., 
and will bear, without injury, a brief exposure to the temperature of 32°. 
The average yield per acre varies in different countries. In Austria it is 
ten tons; in France, twelve; and in Prussia, fourteen. In some Depart- 
ments of France, however, the average is very much greater. An 
agriculturist in the Department of the Seine reports an average of thirty- 
eight tons on his own farm and upon several neighboring farms, A 
German agriculturist, under an improved mode oi culture, claims an 
equalaverage. Experiments in Ireland indicate average crops of sixteen 
to forty tons per acre, with a percentage of saccharine matter as high 
as sixteen. It is probable that England and Ireland are capable of 
growing large crops of the sugar beet with a high percentage of saccha- 
rine matter. In France, during 1869, the entire product of beet-sugar 
manufacture was about 300,000 tons, which, at $125 per ton, or 64 cents 
per pound, amounted to $37,500,000. To this add about $2,500,000 for 
molasses or rough treacle, available for spirit distillation, and the 
saccharine product of the country amounts to $40,000,000 per annum. 
The number of manufactories had increased from twenty-nine in 1827 
to three hundred and thirty-six in 1860, and to six hundred in 1869, 
besides five hundred spirit distilleries. 

Another gentleman stated that in the neighborhood of Douay, a great 
sugar market of France, a ton of beets would yield twenty gallons of 
spirit, and the pulp would pay for the manufacture and the interest on 
the capital. Some land yielded thirty tons per acre, and the beet had 
been grown for fifteen years in succession. The Silesian white beet was 
preferred to the red beet, yielding a greater percentage of sugar. A 
sugar manufactory and distillery, worth about £20,000, would work up 
10,000 tons of beets perannum. Under one system, however, a distillery 
might be erected at a cost not exceeding £1,600. In England this 
_ industry produces twenty tons of beets per acre, and four hundred gal- 

lons of spirits, which at 10s. per gallon would secure a revenue of £200, 


216 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


or $1,000, per acre to the government. . The presence of a sugar Imanu- 
factory or distillery always made money: plenty in the neighborhood, 
though the French agriculturists are generally a poor class. . 

In regard to the development of this industry in England, Professor 
Church states his belief that all former failures in raising the beet were 
the result of mistakes in the process of culture, and were in nowise due 
to any lack of adaptation either of climate or soil. The culture will 
ultimately be as successful as on the continent. English farmers will 
yet grow from twenty to thirty tons per acre, getting 16s. per ton, and 
receiving back pulp for stock-feeding at 13s. per ton. The crude liquor, 
embracing four-fifths of the potash abstracted from the soil, will prob- 
ably be given to the farmer for a fertilizer, on condition of merely carting 
it away. 

The Professor contends that thorough culture is essential to success. 
Jt would be necessary to experiment fully and accurately to determine 
which variety of the beet is best suited to the soil and climate. The 
soil must be finely pulverized and free from stones. The tendency to 
too great a production of leaf should be restrained, as this diminishes 
the percentage of sugar. <A good root will sink in water. The grow- 
ing roots should be so earthed up that their color will not be distin- 
guishable, for the reason that when raised aboye the soil there is great 
resistance to the formation of the tap root; the plant will not develop 
itself regularly, and the result is a root forked and contracted and poor 
in sugar. The top layer of an exposed root will yield only 5 per cent. 
of sugar, the next layer 64, and so on to 16 or 18 per cent. in a beet yield- 
ing but 10 per cent. 

He holds that a mixed soil, not too easily dried, is best for the beet. 
The alkaline matter should not be in large proportion for sugar, but for 
Spirit manufacture this circumstance is not so important. Deep plow- 
ing is a requisite to success, and even double plowing is desirable. 
Seed should be sown by the middle of April. A fair average yield 
would be twenty tons of beets and fifteen tons of leaves. He stated that 
these twenty tons of beets would remove from an acre of land one hun- 
dred and eighty pounds of potash, fifty pounds of phosphoric acid, 
thirty-two pounds of magnesia, eighteen pounds of sulphuric acid, and 
Sixty-seven pounds of nitrogen. Thirty-five bushels of wheat, weighing 
Sixty-two pounds each, would take from an acre of land only twelve 
pounds of potash and eighteen pounds of phosphoric acid, or but thirty 
pounds of solid earthy matter; and that, while twenty tons of beets take 
away three hundred and forty-seven pounds of solid matter and nitro- 
gen, their leaves extract nearly five hundred pounds more. Of these, 
potash and phosphoric acid are the most valuable ingredients of the soil, 
and their waste should be supplied by manuring with the refuse matter 
of the sugar manufacture. The waste liquor of distillation alone con- 
tains three-fourths of the abstracted potash. The manure of animals 
fed upon the pulp and the leaves would nearly embody the remaining 
fourth. 

‘Of beets sown on the grounds of the agricultural college, the manure 
having been applied for four years, the following percentages of sugar 
were found in harvestings at different periods, viz: August 10, 8.70 per 
cent.; August 24, 9.20; September 7, 9.77; September 21, 10.48; Octo- 
ber 5,12. It was said that another fortnight’s growth would have raised 
the percentage to 13 or 14. The formation of sugar may be tested by 
the growth of the leaves, undue vigor in the latter meaning loss in the 
former. An easy test is to take up a few roots and rasp them with a 
bread grater, and find the specific gravity of the juice. I£ the bulb 


GRASSES. DF 


marked 7 floats in it, itis good; if not, itis poor. A good root gener- 
ally turns to a pink color when cut with a knife and exposed to the 
air; a poor root blackens. The pulp is an excellent fodder for dairy 
cows, if mixed with other food. A ton of pulp is equal to one and a half 
tons of beets. It isimportant to the success of the culture that the chemi- 
cai constituents drawn from the soil be returned in the form of manure. 

Mr. Caird, in the London Times, gives an account of the successful 
experiment in beet sugar manutacture by Mr. Duncan, at Lavenham. 
The year 1870 was the third year of the Lavenham factory and of the 
successful growth of the sugar-beet in- England on any considerable 
seale. It is now converting four hundred tons of roots per week into 
crystallized sugar. The chemical analyses of the roots in the previous 
years were satisfactory, but the chemical and mechanical processes for 
extracting the sugar were defective. Perseverance and intelligence 
have finally triumphed over difficulties, and the sugar industry is now 
successfully inaugurated in England. Mr. Duncan is satisfied that Sut- 
folk County is as well adapted to the beet culture as Northern France. 
The total value’ of the sirup produced in 1869 was £960. Expendi- 
‘tures of all kinds, including excise duties, amounted to £660, leaving a 
profit of £300, besides the pulp and the refuse products of manufacture. 
In 1870 the roots improved in their percentage of sugar; but, on the 
other hand, sugar is very cheap. The return of the pulp and refuse 
products to the soil prevents its impoverishment. The establishment 
gives employment to the entire surplus labor of the parish, at good 
wages, during the slack season. Capital is profitably employed, trade 
is stimulated, and the supply of sugar augmented. 

Mr. Campbell, of Buscot Park, Berkshire, is conducting a similar ex- 
perimental beet culture, to be devoted to the manufacture of sugar, or 
to the distillation of spirit, as may be most profitable. His crop has 
realized all his expectations, showing that Berkshire, as well as Suffolk 
County, is well adapted to the beet culture. The sugar-beet, even used 
solely as stock feed, is superior to the mangold, a ton of the former . 
being equal to a ton and a half of the latter, according to Dr. Voelcker’s 
analysis. 

Independent, then, of the sugar and spirit manufacture, the sugar-’ 
beet promises an extensive introduction into English agriculture. There 
are now about 200,600 acres of mangolds grown in the counties between 
the Marsh and the English Channel. One-fourth of this area devoted 
to sugar-beet will secure 60,000 tons of sugar per annum, about one- 
tenth of the present sugar consumption of the United Kingdom. 


GRASSES OF THE PLAINS AND EASTERN SLOPE 
OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 


*The region of country lying west of the Missouri River, between the 
parallels of 35° and 45° north latitude, and known as the high plain re- 
gion of the United States, extends to and embraces the eastern water 
shed of the Rocky Mountains between those parallels, including the 
States and Territories of Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and 
the Indian Territory. in consequence of the rapid settlement of this 
extensive tract, occasioned by the facilities which the several new rail- 
road lines afford the emigrant for reaching this heretofore almost inac- 
cessible domain with supplies and implements of husbandry, it has be- 


218 ; AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


come important to the settler that a scientific account of that portion 
of the indigenous flora of the region which is to furnish the food for his 
domestic animals, for a few years at least, should be given. It is pro- 
posed to exhibit the general character of its gramineous flora as now ex- 
isting, and to suggest varieties most likely to prove profitable in. culti- 
vation. 

The following is a catalogue of the species embraced in the territory 
under consideration, with the range to the eastward of those which ex- 
tend across the Missouri River: 


Leersia Virginica, Willd. Not a prairio species. East to the Atlantic. 

Leersia oryzoides, Swartz. A wet ground or bog plant; worthless. East to the At- 
lantic. 

Leersia lenticularis, Michx. Low rich soils; worthless, Southeastward to Virginia. 

Zizania aquatica, Lin. The wild rice of the northwest. Northeastward. 

Alopecurus pratensis, Lin. Variety from Europe. In pastures eastward. 

Alopecurus geniculatus, Michx. Ponds—wet and dry places. Eastward. 

Phleum Alpinum, Lin. Mountain stations. High mountains in New England 

Vilfa aspera, Beauy. Arid soils. Southeastward. 

Vilfa vaginejlora, Torr. Various localities; worthless. Southeastward. 

Vilfa tricholepis, Torr. Mountains. 

Vilfa depauperata, Torr. Plains. 

Vilfa cuspidata, Torr. Plains. 

Sporobolus asperifolius, Nees. Mountain valleys. 

Sporobolus ramulosus, H. B. K. Mountain valleys. 

Sporobolus aroides, Torr. Mountain valleys. 

Sporobolus cryptandrus, Gray. Plains. East to Atlantic. 

Sporobolus heterolepis, Gray. Plains. East to Connecticut. 

Agrostis varians, Trin. High mountains. 

Agrostis rupesiris, AN. High mountains. 

Agrostis scabra, Willd. Mountains and plains. East to Atlantic. 

Vaseya comata, Thurb. Mountains. 

Cinna arundinacea; L. East to New England. 

Muhlenbergia pungens, Thurb. Plains. 

Muhlenbergia gracillima, Torr. Plains. : 

Muhlenbergia gracilis, Trin. Plains. 
Fa aid a Mexicana, Trin. Mountains and streams; on the plains. East to the 

tlantic. 

Muhlenbergia sylvatica, Torr, & Gray. Mountains and streams to the plains. East to 
the Atlantic. 

Lriocoma cuspidata, Natt. Sandy plains. 

Calamagrostis Canadensis, Beauv. Swamps and wet lands. Northeastward. 

Calamagrostis sylvatica, D. C. Mountains. 

‘Calamagrostis stricta, Trin. Mountains, 

Calamagrostis gigantea, Nutt. Plains. 

Calamagrostis longifolia, Hook. Plains. Northeast to Michigan, 

Oryzopsis micrantha, Thurb. Mountains. 

Oryzopsis Canadensis, Torr. Mountains. Northeast to New England, 

Oryzopsis igh dee Michx. Mountains. Northeast to New England. 

Stipa viridula, Trin. Mountains and plains. 

Stipa spartea, Trin. Plains. East to Illinois and Michigan. 

Stipa capillata, Lin. 

Aristida purpurea, Nutt. Mountains and plains. 

Aristida dichotoma, Michx. Plains. East to the Atlantic, 

Aristida gracilis, Ell. Plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Aristida oligantha, Michx. Plains. Southeastward. 

Aristida purpurascens, Poir. Plains and mountains. Eastward to the Atlantic. * 

Spartina cynosuroides, Willd. Plains—wet lands. East to the Atlantic. 

Spartina gracilis, Trin. Plains. 

Bouteloua oligostachya, Torr. Mountains and plains. Most valuable of the “ grama 
grasses. 

Bouteloua curtipendula, Gray. Mountains and plains. East to New York. 

Bouteloua hirsuta, Lagasca. Plains. East to Illinois. — 

Bouteloua eriopoda, Torr. Mountains, &c., of New Mexico. The small “grama grass.” 

Gymnopogon racemosas, Beauv. Indian Territory. Southeastward to the Atlantic. 

Pappophorum boreale, Ledeb. Plains. New Mexico. F 

Leptochloa fascicularis, Gray. Plains. East to Illinois. On the Atlantic. 


Leptochioa mucronata, Kunth. Plains. Indian Territory. East to Illinois and Vir- 
ginia. . 


’ GRASSES. 219 


Tricuspis mutica, Torr. New Mexico. 
* Tricuspis pulchella, Torr. Mountains. 

Tricuspis purpurea, Gray. Plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Graphephorum flexuosum, Thurb. Plains. 

Diarrhena Americana, Beauv. Timber belts—plains. East to Ohio. 
Keleria cristata, Pers. Mountains and plains. Hast to the Atlantic. 
Eatonia Pennsylvanica, Gray. Mountains. East to the Atlantic. 

Eatonia obtusata, Gray. Mountains. Hast to Pennsylvania. 

Glyceria aquatica, Smith. Mountains. Northeastward. 

Glyceria pauciflora, Torr. High mountains. 

Glyceria airoides, Thurb. Mountain valleys. 

Glyceria nervata, Trin. Wet soils and swamps. East to the Atlantic. 
Brizopyrum spicatum, Beauv. Plains. East tathe Atlantic. 

Poa annua, Lin. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 

Poa Alpina, Lin. High mountains. Northeastward to the Atlantic. 
Poa memoratis, Lin. Mountains. 

Poa Andina, Nutt. Mountains. 

Poa arctica, R. Br. Mountains. 

Poa serotina, Ehbrh. Mountains. Northeastward. 

Poa crecata, Michx. Mountains. : 

Poa pratensis, Lin. Mountains. The European variety. Eastward to the Atlantic. 
Eragrostis Purshii, Schrad. Plains. Southeast to Virginia. 

Hragrostis tenuis, Gray. Plains. East to Illinois. 

Lragrostis oxylepis, Torr. Plains. 

Eragrostis reptans, Nees. Wet places. East to the Atlantic. 

Eragrostis megastachya, Link. Plains, &c. East to the Atlantic. 
Eragrostis pectinacea, Gray. Plains, &c. East to Massachusetts. 
Eragrostis capillaris, Nees. Plains. Southeastward. 

Festuca ovina, Lin. Mountains and plains. Northeastward to New England. 
Festuca pauciflora, Thurb. Mountains. 

Festuca rubra, Lin. Mountains and plains. 

Festuca scabrella, Torr. Mountains. 

Festuca tenella, Willd. Mountains and plains. Eastward to the Atlantic. 
Festuca macrostachya, Torr. Mountains, &c. New Mexico. 

Festuca nutans, Willd. Timber belts. Eastward to the Atlantic. 
Bromus Kalmii, Gray. Mountains and plains. Northeastward. 

Bromus ciliatus, Liu. Mountains and plains, Eastward to the Atlantic. 
Ceratochloa grandiflora, Hook. Mountains. 

Sesleria dactyloides, Nutt. 

Uniola stricta, Torr. 

Uniola latifolia, Michx. Timber belts. East to Pennsylvania. 
Phragmites communis, Trin. Ponds, &c. East to the Atlantic. 

Lepturus paniculatus, Nutt. Plains. East to Ilinois. 

Buchloe dactyloides, Engelm. Plains. The buffalo grass of the region. 
Monroa squarrosa, Torr. Plains. 

Triticum repens, Lin. Plains and mountains. Naturalized eastward. 
Triticum caninum, Lin. Plains and mountains. Naturalized eastward. 
Triticum egilopoides, Turez. Mountains and plains. 

Hordeum jubatum, Ait. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 
Hordeum pusillum, Nutt. Plains. East to Ohio. . 
Elymus Canadensis, Lin. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 
Elymus Virginicus, Lin. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 
Elymus Sibiricus, Lin, Mountains and plains. Northeast to Minnesota. 
Elymus striaius, Wilid. Timber belts. Hast to the Atlantic. 

Elymus condensatus, Presl. Mountains. 

Elymus triticoides, Nutt. Mountains. 

Sitanion elymoides, Raf. Mountains. 

Gymnostichum hystrix, Schreb. Timber belts. East to the Atlantie, 
Danthonia sericea, Nutt. Mountains. East to Massachusetts, 

Danthonia spicata, Beauv. ‘Timber belts. East to the Atlantic. 

Avena striata, Michx. Mountains. East to New England. 

Aira cespitosa, Lin. Mountains. Northeastward. 

Hierochloa borealis, Roem. & Schult. Mountains. Northeast to the Atlantic. 
Phalaris arundinacea, Lin. Wet localities. Northeastward. 

Paspalum setaceum, Michx. Plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Beckmannia erucaformis, Host. Mountain ponds, 

Chloris verticillata, Nutt. Plains south. 

Chloris alba, Presl. Plains. 

Panicum clandestinum, Lin. Timber belts. Kast to the Atlantic. ‘ 

Panicum capillare, Lin. Various localities. The whole country. 


220 * AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Panicum crus-galli, Lin. Various localities. The whole country. 

Panicum depauperatum, Muhl. Plains. East to the Atlantic. ‘ 
Panicum dichotomum, Lin. Mountains and plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Panicum jiliforme, Lin. Plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Panicum latifoliun, Lin. Timber belts and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 
Panicum obtusum, Hi. B. I. Plains. 

Panicum pauciflorum, EL. Mountains and plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Panicum sanguinale, Lin. Naturalized. Whole country. 

Panicum virgatum, Lin. Plains and mountains. East.to the Atlantic. 

Panicum xanthophysum, Lin. Plains northward. Northeastward. 

Setaria glauca, Beauy. Introduced. Widely spread in the Eastern States ; introduced. 
Setaria viridis, Beauv. Introduced. East to the Atlantic; introduced. 

Cenchrus tribuloides, Lin. Sandy plains. East to the Atlantic. 

Tripsacum dactyloides, Lin. Plains, moist situations. Southeastward to the Atlantic. 
Andropogon furcatus, Muhl. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 
Andropogon scoparius, Michx. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 
Andropogon argenteus, Ell. Plains. Type on the Atlantic southeastward. 
Andropogon glaucus, Torr. Plains. 

Sorghum nutans, Gray. Plains and mountains. East to the Atlantic. 


Of the fifty-seven genera and one hundred and forty-three species in 
the foregoing catalogue, ninety-one extend across the Missouri River, 
leaving fifty-two species belonging to the plain and mountain region 
proper. A few strictly plains grasses cross the Missouri River, as Lep- 
turus paniculatus, Hlymus Sibiricus, Calamagrostis longifolia, Stipa spartea, 
Boutelowa hirsuta, Triticum caninum, and Triticum repens. The remain- 
ing eighty-four species could not be considered as belonging more to 
this region than to the States east. The relative value of these various 
Species as forage grasses differs very widely, a few of them being en- 
tirely worthless, and many of them almost valueless as compared with 
others. The largest number of the species could be dispensed with 
without manifest disadvantage to the grazing interests of the country. 
The relative value of the twelve most important species is exhibited in 
the following table of per centum estimates, one hundred representing 
the aggregate value of the twelve: 


Missouri River 
region 

Rocky Mountain 
region 


Species. 

; Per cent, |Per cent. 
imnetas ermON wees IGT: 155 8 HEAPS ee os tea. a Beep cme oe o-Ps 40 16 
REO poron meamnminne sy fn f docket! Lies ede cou ane eon cc\nee 20 10 
ait) AWE ee oe bolt Pot ceipheobise’ notes -+-0d--cenae 20 12 
DRIES NETBPOIE DIS <2 holt 2 cfd et ee be week eek nec ndt eo seeeee 12 1 
EnetinoGaAchylOIdeS 2... .-2 222 Jaccs eb oteekeesns esote. - eee 5 5 
one EVO) i ee 1" 0 10 
BpPAtt SEC VNOSUTOMIES 62 252.0 ose eo cook USS. ict ee Sees ee 2 2 
LGHEUD Ob GS ae ee i 3 gee ee eS LL 0 20 
IHCSHICAMMOCTOSLACH YS 25%. 0225s A ow SANG ee 0 5 
IBrOTmnS MCU beeen ee A ee 2 0 8 
POHIS OEM EE EE Ee fica ns sm alebic Lm cick ew pl tieice = «okie eee 0 8 
Simpy aie tilei by ss ne eee corer meme TT. ae 0 5 


These estimates can only be approximate, of course, but they are 
believed to be so nearly correct that, as a comparative exhibit of the 
relative value of the species now comprising the great forage resources 
of .the country, their importance will not be overlooked. The fiesh and 
fat producing qualities of these several species have not yet been suf- 


GRASSES. ' | ID% 


ficiently tested to warrant comparative estimates of their relative values 
in this respect. 

Andropogon furcatus, Andropogon scoparius, and Sorghum nutans, by 
their abundance in all the eastern portions of the district, are the lead- 
ing species, and at present comprise at least three-fourths of the grazing 
resources of that portion of the country. Next in importance follows 
Sporobolus heterolepis. This species is peculiarly palatable to cattle, and 
they are seen roving over rich pasture of other species’ in search of it. 
This is also said to be the winter forage species of Kansas, where it 
abounds, affording the rich winter pasturage of the farmers and herders 
of that State. It flourishes chiefly on the moister portions of the plains, 
and many local areas are almost exclusively occupied by it. 

In the following description of species, descriptive terms only that 
may be readily understood by all will be used, and from which it is be- 
lieved the identification will not be difficult to those who do not under- 
stand botanical terms: : 

.Andropogon furcatus, Muhl.—This species, the most abundant over 
large areas, is distinguished®only by its spikes of flowers and fruit from 
its near relatives, Andropogon scoparius and Sorghum nutans, with which 
it often grows It grows nearly twice as tall as A. scoparius, with spikes 
of flowers longer, and rigid, and two to five together, terminal, and on 
short branches from the axils of the upper leaves. The spikes are purplish 
generally, but often entirely destitute of color. It does not fruit every 
year nor in all situations. A very favorable season of moisture is re- 
quired to cause it to fruit abundantly. Itis one of the principal hay 
grasses of the country, and is abundantly cut and cured for winter use. 

Andropogon scoparius, Michx.—A much smaller plant than the fore- 
going, and much less abundant, yet apparently quite as valuable as feed 
for stock. Ii is known by its numerous slender branches from the axils 
of all its upper leaves, having its spikes of flowers single and scattered 
along the branches, very slender and thinly silky, hairy, and often pur- 
plish as the preceding species, and frequently growing with it, and: diffi- 
cult to distinguish from it when not in fruit. This is also one of the hay 
grasses, and is esteemed of equal value with the foregoing for winter 
feed. It is singular that these two most valuable western grasses should 
have been considered “remarkably worthless grasses” by the learned 
Dr. Darlington, less than twenty years ago. 

Sorghum nutans, Gray.—This noble prairie grass is at once known when 
in flower by its single terminal panicle of sorghum-like spikelets, droop- 
ing in mature fruit, shining, with brownish or russet hairs. This plant 
has often a peculiar glaucous hue, forming a striking contrast when 
growing with the form destitute of the glaucous bloom. In many lo- 
calities it is scarcely less abundant than Andropogon furcatus, and con- 
stitutes a large portion of the prairie hay. Like the two previously: 
described, it fruits only in favorable seasons, and the growth of foliage 
is also much diminished by dry summers. The hay from these three 
species is considered best when cut just before killing frosts, in early 
autumn. 

Sporobolus heterolepis, Gray.—This species may be identified from its 
long, slender leaves, growing abundantly from the base of the plant, 
gracefully curling, and frequently resting their tips on the ground ; from 
its tendency to grow branches or stools, and, when in fruit, from its small 
panicle of sharp-pointed spikelets and its round seeds. ‘These, whén 
bruised, emit a strong, heavy odor, which has been compared to that of 
Hragrostis megastackya when crushed in the hands; but to most olfacto- 
ries it is much less offensive, and to some not at all disagreeable. It 


222 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


attains to the average height of about two and one-half feet in fruit, but 
in dry seasons large tracts almost exclusively composed of this species 
are without a single fruiting plant. It is sometimes cut for hay, in the 
absence of the more productive species, and makes an article of first 
uality. 

: Buchloe dactyloides, Engelmann.—This is the noted buffalo grass of the 
region, and may be recognized at once, and be distinguished from all 
other species, by its low, dense, tufted growth ; also by. its stolons, from 
which it spreads rapidly. It never attains to the height of ‘over two or 
three inches, except with its male flower stalks, which sometimes reach 
two or three inches above the leaf growth. These have at their summit 
a few flat spikes of male flowers only. The female flowers are clustered 
down close to the earth, and nearly covered with the tufted leaves. Male 
and female flowers are borne by the same plants, not by different plants, 
as was at one time believed. It grows most abundantly in the central 
region of the plains, and affords nutritious but rather scanty grazing 
for domestic animals; yet its value as a winter forage plant 1s not to be 
overlooked, as its stolons remain green duréng the winter months, and, 
combined with the dead leaves, afford to closely- -orazing animals @ rea 
sonably good living. In Southern Kansas the plant reaches its eastern 
limits, about one hundred miles west of Fort Scott. There it first ap- 
pears in small distinctly outlined patches a few feet in diameter, and in 
narrow strips or lines at the base of low elevations on the large prairies. 
We were puzzled to understand how this humble grass was holding its 
place here in the midst of strong, tall, growing competitors, Andropogon 
and Sorghum surrounding it closely, but not venturing on an inch of its 
territory; but we soon succeeded in discovering that the phenomenon 
resulted from local soil conditions. At the depth of half an inch below 
the surface of these areas, the soil, for an inch or more downward, is 
closely compacted and hardened, so as to prevent the roots of plants 
from penetrating through it. These areas, being thus unfitted for the 
growth of deep-rooting plants, had become open for settlement by this 
humble species, which requires only a shallow soil to sustain it. This 
hardened condition of soil at the base of these low elevations is evi- 
dently from the agency of alkali, or some related mineral substance fil- 
tering through the soil and cropping out at these places. Not having 
tested the conditions under which the plant exists in the heart of the 
plains, the center of its home, we are unable to say whether similar 
phenomena attend it there; but that an alkaline saturated or tinetured 
soil is essential to its growth has been disproved by the cultivation of 
the plant east of the Mississippi, where it flourishes ‘finely, but is unable 
to compete with its intruding neighbors, and is soon overrun and de- 
stroyed. As an instance showing its tenacity of life, we record’ the fact 
of its having withstood the treading of the animais in a farmer’s feed-lot 
where every other green thing had been destroyed. Whether it can be 
turned to any profitable account in the agriculture of the country re- 
mains for future experiment to determine. 

Monroa squarrosa, Torr.—This comparatively worthless species some- 
what resembles the buffalo grass in habit and mode of growth, and 
might be taken for it by those unacquainted with the latter species, the 
fascicled and tufted leaves of its prostrate branches resembling the 
stolons of Buchloe. The plant is an annual, with rigid and rather ‘large 
foliage, and bears its fruit almost entirely ‘concealed in the sheaths of 
its numerous leaves. It is rather common in the mountain district and 
on the Upper Missouri, but does not abound on the richer soils east- 
ward, -/\" 


GRASSES. / 223 


Boutelowa oligostachya, Torr.—This is one of the ‘principal “ grama 
grasses” of the plains and mountains, but this common name by no 
means applies to this species or to the several species of the genus 
exclusively, but is given by the mountain men to several other species 
of different genera. It is a most valuable species for grazing purposes, 
but grows too thinly and too short to be cut for hay. It abounds chiefly 
in the mountain regions and the adjacent plain dis stricts, and may be 
readily distinguished from species of other genera by its peculiar spike- 
lets of flowers all arranged on one side of the rachis, and pointing in 
one direction. It supports ontits stalks from one to three. or four and 
sometimes five of these spikes, which are purplish or of an indigo-blue 


tinge. Its general height is about twelve inches, but in sterile locations 


much less. The leaves and stems are smooth, having no hairs. It is 
perennial. Much of the beef of the Southwest is claimed to be the 
product of this grass. 

Bouteloua hirsuta, Lagasca.—This much less valuable species so much 
resembles the foregoing that some care and close observation are neces- 
sary to discriminate between them. The spikes of flowers are shorter 
and more curved when mature, and present a bristly appearance from 
the numerous rigid hairs that grow from the conspicuous dark glands of 
the glumes. The leaves and stalks are also hairy. It generally grows 


‘shorter, and prefers more sterile situations, where sand and gravel 


abound. It is not a perfect perennial, but appears to be a biennial or 
something like a winter annual. It is not esteemed as a forage plant. 
Bouteloua curtipendula, Gray.—This beautiful species is at once dis- 
tinguished from the others by its long, slender raceme of numerous 
(twenty to fifty, or more) spikes. These are small, horizontally bent or 


. reflexed, and sometimes, but not always, purplish. It grows two to three 


feet high, is perennial, but the foliage is scanty, and as a forage plant it 
is not highly valued. It abounds in many localities on the plains and 
mountains. 

Spartina cynosuroides, Willd.—The fresh-water cord-grass of the whole 
country abounds also in suitable situations there, and, as in the States 
east of the Missouri, is frequently cut for hay, but it makes only a mis- 
erable substitute for that article. No animal will eat it until driven by 
a degree of hunger approaching starvation. It is to be regretted that 
this abominable fare is still provided for the faithful beasts that con- 
tribute so much to the wealth and happiness of man. The western 
cities and towns coutinue to store it largely for feed for horses, simply 
for the reason that it may be easily obtained, or is cheap, to the exclu- 
sion of the nutritious and savory Andropogon, Sorghum, and Sporo- 
bolus, which merciless, mercenary practice cannot be teo strongly con- 
demned. 

Festuca ovina, Lin.—In the mountain regions and adjacent plains this 
species is plentiful, and contributes largely to the general forage crop 
of the country. It is esteemed a nutritious grass, notwithstanding 
the hard, wire-like appearance of its leaves and culms. The species is 
variable, and includes very different forms, arising in part from the con- 
ditions of locations. It attaius to the height of about two feet at favor- 
able stations, and grows chiefly in bunches or stools, with erect, 
straight, stiff culms, Tong, narrow leaves of pale-green cojor, and has 
numerous flat spikes of flowers in a small panicle, ‘often purplish. The 
several varieties or forms of this ‘ sheep’s fescue” grass possess very 
different constitutional qualities as to naturalization tendencies, some 
forms being so sensitive to changed conditions that they cannot be 
made to survive artificial treatment, 


224 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. - 


Festuca macrostachya, Nutt.—A valuable annual species in the moun- 
tains of New Mexico, of very variable forms. It is one of the “ grama 
grasses” of that region, from six to eightgen inches high, with a loose, 
lax panicle of small spikelets, bristle-pointed. 

Bromus Kalmii, Gray.—Chiefly in the mountain districts. A slender, 
tall-growing grass, with a graceful panicle of drooping or nodding spikes 
of flowers. ‘These are long and roundish, or flat when mature. Where 
plentiful it affords excellent pasturage. 

Stipa viridula, Trin.—From four to six feet high in favorable situa- _ 
tions, with a plentiful supply of large flat leaves. A considerable 
amount of the mountain grazing comes from this species. 

Poa serotina, Khrh., and the other species enumerated in the cata- 
logue, abound plentifully in the higher as well as in the low mountain 
districts, and are all rich, nutritious grasses, and, where abundant, afford 
valuable food for ail kinds of stock. 

Triticum caninum, repens, and egilepoides contribute largely to the 
pasturage of some districts, and are not deemed so vaiueless as in the 
Hast, and, with a few other species in particular localities, are the chief 
reliance for grazing animals in these neighborhoods. 

The Oyperace are largely consumed by stock, and are even made into 
hay where abundant. ‘The large family of Carex afford the best species. 
Though less nutritious and palatable than most of the true gramina- 
ceous plants, they are liighly valued and largely used in some mountain 
districts. Carex Gayana, Desf., in’the mountain valleys of Colorado 
Territory, affords the principal hay of the country, but many other spe- 
cies are used for both hay and pasturage. The relative value of the 
several species depends more on quantity than quality, excluding a few 
of the coarse aquatic kinds that are quite worthless. 

The comparatively few species above described embrace the chief 
erazing resources of the region under consideration, and these resources 
are conceded by every one to be the principal source of the wealth of 
the country. The early pioneer, however, has already learned how soon 
the native grasses are destroyed by the clipping and treading of domes- 
tic animals, and he sees with regret their places immediately occupied 
by Erigeron Canadense, Lin.; Ambrosia psilostachya, D. C.; Ambrosia 
artemisiafolia, Lin.; Iva ciliata, Willd.; Iva axanthiifolia, Nutt.; Mono- 
lepis Nuttalliana, Moq.; Amaranthus blitum, Lin.; Polygonum aviculare, 
Lin.; Solanum rostratum, Dun.; Helianthus lenticularis, Nutt.; H. rigi- 
dus, Desf.; H. mollis, Lam.; Dysodia chrysanthemoides, Lagasca; Abuti- 
lon avicenne, Gertn.; Datura stramonium, Lin.; Hrigeron divaricatum, 
Michx.; Panicum capillare, Lin.; Panicum sanguinale, Lin.; Panicum 
filiforme, Lin.; Eragrostis megastachya, Link.; Vilfa vagineflora, Torr. ; 
and Aristida dichotoma, Michx.; worthless weeds and grasses, that occupy 
the soil to the exclusion of every profitable production. He sees that, 
as settlement progresses and domestic animals increase, the natural 
pastures diminish, and he recognizes the inevitable destiny of the grass 
product, which is the principal résource of his country, unless it can be 
supplied by cultivated species, and he naturally turns his attention and 
directs his labors to this task. The test of experiment alone is to 
demonstrate the practicability of his work. ‘The settler finds the ¢l- 
mate peculiar and extreme; not uniform in its several seasons, yet pos- 
sessing extreme general characteristics, to which he must conform his 
operations to be successful. Knowing that the greatest wealth of a 
nation springs indirectly from its agriculture, and that the latter is com- 
pletely successful onky when it adapts itself to.existing conditions ; that 
no conquest over nature pays the cost of the warfare with its spoils, 


- 


GRASSES. | 225° 
and that a persistent antagonism is not profitable to any people; and 
being without a successful precedent under similar climatic and soil con- 
ditions in this country, original experiments must form the basis of 
operations. The test of species by sowing their seeds in plowed land, 
and leaving them without further assistance to establish and defend 
themselves against the encroachments of native and naturalized foreign 
worthless weeds and grasses, should be the plan of experiment; for, 
however well a species might succeed with careful cultivation, unless it 
is capacitated to maintain its existence in a strong contest with com- 
petitors, it cannct be profitable as a cultivated grass. From the pecu- 
liar character of American climate and soil, or the very unequal powers 
of our grasses for territorial conquest, we expect to find but one, or at 
most but few species adapted to any locality or situation. We are told 
that twenty-two species have been counted on a square foot in a rich 
old pasture in England. Such a result in this country is utterly im- 
possible. Monopoly is the law of our species, and only local conditions 
arrest the domination of the strong. It is natural that we should expect 
to find in some native species of the plains or mountains the successful 
piant or plants already adapted to the peculiar climatic conditions of 
the country; but we must remember that soil conditions have also very 
much to do with the growth of plants, and that settlement and cultiva- 
tion greatly change the conditions of the soils of any country. With 
these facts before us, our experimental operations may be more intelli- 
gently pursued. The plant required is one that will do for the coarse, 
open, and airy soil of the plains, which is often dry for a long time, 
what Poa pratensis, Lin., has done and is doing for the States east of the 
Missouri River within the same parallels; one that will not only main- 
tain its footing, but will extend its area, and overcome competitors, as 
Poa pratensis has done in several of the States east, and which now 
forms the best pasture lands in the Union, monopolizing the entire soil 
product on thousands of acres. This species, however, being adapted 
only to finely comminuted soils, moist during the period of its growth, 
does not succeed satisfactorily, though in some localities on the eastern 
confines of the district it maintains a feeble existence. A strong-grow- 
ing, coarse perennial, with rhizomas, or underground root-stalks, would 
suggest itself as a suitable species for trial; or a perennial producing 
an abundance of radical leaves, and of early growth, that would cover 
the soil and prevent the growth of annuals, Of this class we suggest 
the following for experiment: 

Elymus Canadensis, Lin.—A native over a large area of North America; 
has been cultivated in Europe, but was soon discarded on account of 
its coarse character as compared with the pasture and hay grasses of 
that country. 

Elymus Virginicus, Lin.—A hardy species of early growth, producing 
an abundance of large, succulent leaves when young; a widely distrib- 
uted speciesin America. Cultivation greatly accelerates its growth. It 
is a promising species. 

Llymus Sibiricus, Lin.—Native of Europe and America in the colder 
latitudes; would probably succeed well in the northern districts, where 
it is native. 

Elymus moilis, Trin.—Grows early and spreads rapidly by its running 
root-stalks; foliage, when young, tender and juicy. It thrives well in 
situations very different from its habitats, (sandy shores;) probably 
not adapted to a dry soil, but well worthy of trial; leaves broad, rather 
short, with a beautiful glaucous hue and strong Triticum flavor. 

Sporobolus heterolepis, Gray.—A most valuable native species; should 

15 A 


226 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
° 

be tried in cultivation for hay, but for pastures would doubtless soon be 
trod out by animals. Fields of this species, Andropogon furcatus, An- 
dropogon scoparius, and Sorghum nutans, inclosed from stock and mowed 
only after full maturity in autumn, would long remain ‘good natural 
meadows; and this plan will probably be adopted until the lands ad- 
vance so much in value that the hay product alone will cease to be a 
paying crop. 

Ceratochloa grandiflora, Hook.—This species inhabits the mountam 
districts and has a wide range, reaching the Pacific in some of its forms. 
It is a large species, growing three feet high, often more in good soils; 
not a coarse species for its size. Generically, this species is nearly re- 
lated to Bromus, and much resembles Bromus Kalmii, but "has much 
larger and broader spikes, not drooping as in that species. From its 
habit of growing a mass of radical leaves early in its season, preventing 
the growth of intruding annuals, it maintains its place in localities 
where there is strong native competition, and even extends its areas by 
means of its seeds. It is inclined to fall in storms in rich soil when in 
fruit. It should probably be cut for hay before the seed matures, unless 
the practice should be found to injure the vitality of the root. This 
species merits thorough trial in all localities. 

In the mountain districts Poa nemoralis and Poa serotina may prove 
profitable pasture grasses; both are natives of the region, and worthy 
of trial in cultivation. Agrostis vulgaris, With., is a hardy species, 
tenacious of life, native of Europe and America; found in wet lands, but 
will thrive in dry, close soils. It may prove profitable in some localities 
for pasturage. 

Of foreign species, perhaps the most promistng is Festuca pratensis, 
Huds., similar to Ceratochloa grandiflora. This species grows an abun- 
dance of radical leaves, which retain their vitality through the autumn 
and into the early winter, and in the southern districts would probably 
remain green through the year. Thisisalarge, tall-growing species, and 
not a very coarse grass. It is a native of Europe, and is there esteemed 
as a valuable hay and pasture grass. It has been introduced into this 
country, and cultivated in some localities. ; 

Lolium perenne, Lin.—An Asiatic and European species, esteemed as 
a pasture grass in some parts of the country, and merits trial. Phleum 
pratense, Lin., will of course be tested thoroughly, but it is believed to 
succeed very indifferently throughout the whole extent of this region, 
on account of the open, light, porous soil not affording its roots the pro- 
tection necessary to keep the plant from perishing during the summer 
droughts. 


FOREST CULTURE. 


Huropean countries felt the necessity of forest planting many years 
age, and England and Scotland can boast their thousands of acres of 
majestic pines, larches, and oaks at home, and their extensive groves of 
mahogany and other precious woods abroad. Germany has imported 
thousands of dollars’ worth of seeds of the valuable redwood (Sequoia 
sempervirens) from California, and the young forests growing from them 
are the pride of that nation. It has also established special departments 
for forest culture, with the schools necessary to educate the officers in 
their duties in cultivating and protecting trees. France, Austria, and 
Russia adopted at an early day the same system for promoting forest cul- 


FOREST CULTURE. 227 
ture, and the artificial forests of those countries rank among the most val- 
uable government property. In this country the tendency toward for- 
est planting is of slow development. The planting of protecting screens 
and borders-has become more general on prairie farms, and State aid in 

‘the form of premiums has given some encouragement to forestry. The 
plains beyond the Missouri are now a promising theater of experiment. 
In many parts of the country forest planting, in the opinion of many 
observers, is changing the climate and capabilities of this region. 
Twenty years ago, before any considerable settlements were made, the 
plains were nearly destitute of trees, and vegetation was parched and 
scanty; but it is now claimed that in some localities where farms have 
been taken up, villages built, and trees planted, they are clothed with 
verdure, and river beds, which were then dry, are now covered with 
constantly running water. A part of the city of Denver was built on 
one of these ancient river beds, where it was supposed that water would 
never flow again, but there is now a constantly running stream, so large 
that it has been found necessary to bridge it. Great Salt Lake is said 
to be seven feet higher than it was ten years ago, and is constantly 
rising. 

Bienes and Germany it has been estimated that at least one-fifth 
of the land should be planted with forest trees in order to maintain the 
proper hygrometric and electric equilibrium for successfw) farming. In 
some sections of New York, where the forest trees have been cut away, 
wheat now often fails, from winter-killing, although the soil is not ex- 
hausted, and is abundantly fertilized by the most approved manures. 
If such is the value of trees, the subject of forest planting demands the 

immediate attention of every cultivator of the soil, and should stimu- 
late him to do ali he can to advance this important national industry. 

Mr. George Pinney, writing from Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, says that 
there are 10,000,000 acres of land in Wisconsin and the upper penin- 
sula of Michigan, north of the forty-fourth degree of north latitnde, 
which, previous to the settlerhents in that part of those States, were 
covered with forest growth valuable for timber, lumber, and fuel. Since 
that time at least one-half of this growth has been cut off, and the 
timber brought into market and sold; and 1,000,000 acres of the hard- 
wood timber have been felled and burned upon the ground by the farm- 
ers while clearing up their farms. About 4,000,000 acres remain undis- 
turbed. Along the rivers, most of which empty into Winnebago Lake, 
Green Bay, and Lake Michigan, lumber mills have been erected at Ber- 
lin, Omro, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Menaska, Appleton, De Pere, Green 
Bay, Kewaunee, Sturgeon Bay, Fish Creek, Duck Creek, Saumico, 
Oconto, Pensaukee, Peshtigo, Marinette, Menomonee, Cedar River, Ford 
River, Esconawba, Sturgeon River, Big Bay des Noquets, Upper Man- 
istee, and several others near Mackinaw, making more than twenty-five 
shipping points, from some of which 100,000,000 feet of lumber are 
shipped annually, and from none less than 10,000,000, aggregating at 
least 700,000,000 feet, besides many small mills scattered through the 
country which ship annually 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 feet each, which 
might be safely estimated at 50,000,000 more, making an aggregate of 
759,000,000 feet shipped annually from the lumber. mills of this section 
of country. That this estimate is not too great is evident from the fact 
that 1,250,000,000 feet have been received during the past year at the 
various ports on Lake Michigan, nearly one-half of which has been 
brought from this region, and also that most of the products of the 
milis on Wolf River, which are supplied with lumber from the same 
place, are consumed on the spot or are shipped by railroad to the con- 


228 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


sumers without reaching the lake ports, besides considerable quantities 
which are transported east through the Straits of Mackinaw. The 
quantity shipped down the various tributaries of the Mississippi, taken 
from this tract, is always greater than that by the lakes. Supposing it 
to be one-third greater, there would be 1,000,000,000 feet shipped from 
these tributaries, making a grand total of 1,750,000,000 feet of lumber 
taken annually from Wisconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan. 

The average yield of pine timber in this region is usually estimated, 
by practical lumbermen, at 300,000 feet per 40 acres. Some place it 
higher. Reckoning 333,000 feet, it would require a little more than 
200,000 acres for the annual timber supply. If we add to this sum 
100,000 acres for railroad ties, telegraph posts, hewn timber, shingles, 
and fire-wood, determined by actual amount received in Chicago market, 
and 30,000 acres for the amount cut and burned on the ground in clear- 
ing the land, we have 330,000 acres denuded annually. At this 
rate of consumption, all the valuable timber now remaining on this 
extensive tract will be consumed in the short space of twelve years, 
and the probability is that the portion lying east of Fox River and 
Green Bay will be gone in half that time. The hard-wood timber, prin- 
cipally cut for fire-wood, will doubtless continue longer, perhaps ten or 
twelve years. Itis true, the lumbermen do not remove all the growth 
in cutting off the timber, but fires generally follow in their track, and 
consume what remains. 

It is gratifying to note that the Northwest, where so rapid denudation 
is going on, is also foremost in remedial experiment. In Iowa, Illinois, 
and Missouri, timber is principally grown from the seeds of trees found 
in the native forests, and it is supposed that about 100,000,000 of such 
trees are planted annually in the prairie States. The frm of Pinney & 
Lawrence, of Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, sent to the prairie States 
9,000,000 of treesin 1869~70, and their shipments during thespring of 1871 
will be 10,000,006 to 15,000,000. Robert Dougiass, of Waukegan, Hlinois, 
will ship asmany more, and several other nurserymen will send out 100,000 
to 1,000,000 each. Reckoning the number of trees shipped by the nur- 
serymen at 50,000,000, the planting in the prairie States will amount to 
about 150,000,000 trees. The average number of trees required for an 
acre, as usually planted, is about 1,000. At this rate 150,000,000 trees 
would plant only 150,000 acres annually throughout all the West, which 
would not compensate for half the denudation in the district east of the 
Mississippi River, and to the north and west of Lake Michigan, as may 
be seen by the foregoing figures. 


MODES OF PLANTING. 


The elm and a few other species of trees ripen their seeds early in the 
season; the swamp maple (Acer rubrum,) and also the silver, about the 
1st of June. The seeds of all these must be planted immediately after 
they are ripe, as they cannot often be kept through the winter. If 
planted carefully, and well rolled, they will germinate readily. The 
maple, the chestnut, oak, hickory, beech, black walnut, butternut, We., 
which do not mature their seeds till autumn, should be planted soon 
after ripening, unless the climate is such as to cause frequent freezing 
and thawing of the ground. In this case it would be much safer to 
plant them early in the spring. They may be preserved throughout the 
winter in a tight box, (in alternate layers of sand and seed,) buried a foot 
deep in a dry and sandy knoll. The seeds will usually keep sound, and 
look nearly as fresh as when gathered from the tree. Black walnuts 
are gathered in the fall, and .some cover them with leaves and a hitle 


ROREST -CULTURE. 229 


earth as soon as gathered, to keep them moist and well frozen during 
the winter, and plant them in the spring. The ground should be rolled 
as in the case of the maple. 

A writer in the Iowa Homestead advises to plant the seeds of forest 
trees as early in spring as the ground will permit, at a distance of four 
or five feet between the rows,:as convenience may suggest; and after- 
ward at the proper season to plant potatoes, corn, or beans between the 
rows for two or three years, till the trees get started. In this way the 
trees can be kept clear of weeds, and a valuable farm crop raised. Care 
should be taken in cultivating the crop between the rows not to disturb 
the trees. He planted eight quarts of the seeds of the soft maple in 
this way on new land broken up in June, 1868, and in August of 1870 
there were 2,500 trees two to three feet in height. 

In. planting nut-bearing forest trees for timber or fuel, the principle is 
pretty well settled that the seeds should be planted where the trees are 
intended to remain. The black and the white waluut, however, may be 
transplanted without very serious injury, but still they receive a shock 
which retards their growth for a considerable time. The chestnut, when 
transplanted, survives in some soils; in othersit dies. “The hickory and 
pecan are scarcely successful when transplanted. . 

A gentleman of Carroll County, Missouri, who has had large experi- 
ence in planting chestnuts, states that he covers the nuts with leaves or 
stable straw two or three inches thick, when he plants them in the fall, 
and puts on no dirt. If he plants in spring, he soaks them in warm 
water for ten days, changing the water every day. He afterward 
sprouts them in sand till the tap-root makes its appearance, and then 
plants them in rows at desirable distances, and covers them with earth. 
The drying of the nuts in winter, he says, will not prevent them from 
growing in the spring, when treated as directed above. 

Mr. 8. M. Rothamer, of lowa, a professional hortieulturist and florist, 
Says that the most successful way to raise a forest of conifers, or ever- 
green trees, which always need to be shaded for the first few years of 
their growth, is to plant deciduous trees first, and, two or three years 
after, a row of conifers between them. After the conifers have become 
large enough not to need shading, the deciduous trees may be cut out 
and used for fuel or other purposes. He advises that the seeds of coni- 
fers and nut-bearing trees be planted in shallow drilis in October, 
and covered about an inch anda half deep. If it is impracticable to 
plant them in the fall, they should be exposed in shallow boxes to the 
winter frosts, having been previously mixed with clean sand, and then 
planted the next spring as soon as the ground is dry enough to be prop- 
erly worked. Seeds planted in the fall usually produce plants two to 
six inches high before those of spring planting begin to germinate. 

Mr. D. W. Adams, of Waukon, Allamakee County, lowa, gives the fol- 
lowing rules for planting forest trees: 

1. Prepare the ground as for corn, and plant the seeds fresh from the tree. 
_ 2. Cover shallowly, and cultivate the trees in the-~same manner as corn, for three 
years, after which they will take care of themselves. Cotton-woods and willows are 
most easily grown from cuttings. 

3. Plant the seeds and cuttings of deciduous trees where they are to remain, thus 
saving one year’s growth and the labor of transplanting. 


4. Never attempt to plant a grove with large’trees taken from the woods, or in any 
ease without good cultivation. 


5. If evergreens are to be planted, it will usually be found cheapest to,buy them ot 
nurserymen, as more skill and patience are required to grow them than farmers usu- 
ally possess. 

_ Hon. Horace Greeley suggests that farmers in the Eastern States fence 
in a portion of their waste lands, such as rocky, craggy, naked hill-sides 


230 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and eminenees, which have run out by pasturing, scratch over the ground 
with a plow where practicable, and pick over the remainder, and plant 
thickly with the seeds of valuable timber trees, as white oak, hickory, 
locust, or other desirable species which are adapted to the climate, and 
will grow in such places; and keep down the weeds for a year or two 
till the young trees get a start. In five years the small oaks and hicko- 
ries may be cut out for hoop poles, and the more promising be allowed to 
grow. In two years after, another crop of poles may be removed. In 
this way the forest, after the first four years, may become a source of 
annual profit. The shade and leaves of the trees will destroy all the 
grass and weeds, induce moisture, and in twenty years the land will be 
covered with valuable timber. No better investment can be made, in 
his opinion, than working up these unsightly and barren lands into tim- 
ber forests. 

Mr, A. Tracy, of Spillville, Winnesheik County, Iowa, says that the cost 
of planting a grove of forest trees on prairie land is trifling. The first 
crop of wheat will pay for breaking the land, and then, after one deep 
plowing the next year, the ground is in a good condition for planting 
trees. The quickest and cheapest way to geta groveis from cuttings of 
the cotton-wood, Lombardy poplar, Balm of Gilead, (Populus candicans,) 
and the white willow. He makes rows four feet apart each way, plants 
the cuttings in the angles, and cultivates them at least two years. He 
plants acorns, chestnuts, black walnuts, butternuts, &c., in the same 
way, but cultivates them two or three years longer, as the trees from 
these nuts do not grow so fast as those trom cuttings of the cotton- 
wood and other trees named. An acre planted in this way, with proper 
allowance for margins, contains 2,722 trees, and ten acres, 27,220. ‘The ° 
trees from cuttings would grow about an inch in diameter yearly. 
Aside from the profit, Mr. Tracey thinks the increased value of the farm, 
the beauty and cheerfulness which the trees would impart, and the 
ameliorating climatic influences which they would produce, would 
doubly compensate for the expense of planting. é 

Mr. C. K. Whiting, of West Fork, Manona County, Iowa, has planted 
the cotton-wood and soft white maple (Acer dasycarpum) largely and sue- 
cessfully. He plants the seeds on cultivated ground, in rows four and 
one-half feet apart, and twenty-six inches in the rows, making about 4,350 
trees to an acre. The first year they grow one to three feet, the second, 
four to eight, and at the end of the third their height is usually eigh- 
teen feet. They are cultivated for the first two years only, and when 
large enough for rails are thinned out to a proper distance. Cotton- 
wood will make four rails in seven to ten years, and maple the same 
number in eight to ten. Sugar may be made from the soft maple here 
referred to in eight years from pianting. Some own planted forests, 
from which they make three to four hundred pounds of sugar in a season. 

Mr. Whiting has also cultivated the black walnut largely, having 
planted sixty-five bushels of nuts in a single season. They are planted 
_in rows five feet apart and two and a half in the rows. The young trees 
grow rapidly, making five to six feet the second year and five to seven 
the third. After the third year they grow nearly as fast as the maples, 
but cannot be so safely transplanted. The trees were planted upen the 
Missouri bottom, the soil of Which is exceedingly rich and of great 
depth. The greatest difficulty which he has found is, to grow them 
Slowly enough to avoid injury from winter frosts. He regards cotton- 
wood, soft maple, and black walnut as the most desirable trees for forest 
planting. 

Mr. N.S. Ames, of Humboldt County, Iowa, estimates that six acres of 


FOREST CULTURE. 231 


quick-growing trees, planted in rows four feet apart and one foot in the 
rows, will, in eight years from setting, furnish fuel for one stove con- 
tinually, by thinning out as the trees increase in size, and the grove will 
be growing better from year to year. He favors planting groves closely. 
The trees quickly shade the ground and prevent the growth of weeds. 
In their stretch upward for light and heat, they send up straight, clean 
stems, requiring no labor with the pruning knife and little care from 
the husbandman until they are six years old, when one-half will need to 
be cut out. n 

Mr. Ames has @ grove of white willow, (Salix alba,) planted five years 
ago, which will now average twenty to twenty-five feet in height; and 
two cotton-wood trees, (Populus monilifera,) which grew up spontane- 
ously seven years ago, now thirty feet high and measuring, respectively, 
thirty-eight and thirty-nine inches in circumference; also a row of Lom- 
bardy poplars, (Populus dilatata,) three years from the cuttings, which 
average twelve feet in height. 

When a quick-growing grove is desired for immediate returns or for 
Shelter-belts around houses, barns, stock-yards, orchards, and gardens, 
he recommends to plant cuttings of the white willow and cotton-wood. 
Cuttings ten inches long and of the preceding year’s growth should be 
set in rows, as given above, the ends being left one foot above the 
ground, and the earth pressed firmly around them. Sixteen rows will 
make a good wind-break. For general cultivation he recommends soft 
and maple, (Acer rubrum,) white ash, bass-wood, (Tilia Americana,) and 

uropean larch, (Larix Huropewa.) The young maples planted in June 
appear above the ground in about ten days. He has a grove of soft 
‘maples planted six years ago. Many of them‘are twenty feet high 
and ten inches in circumference. White ashes planted seven years ago 
are fifteen feet high and eight inches in cireumference. The seeds ripen 
in the fall, and should be gathered after the first hard frost and planted 
immediately. It is estimated that 15,000,000 trees have been planted in 
Iowa in 1870, and that the average for several years past is about 
5,000,000. Two farmers of a town in this State have planted 25,000 
forest trees this year. 

The Farmers’ institute of the Kansas Agricultural College, at Man- 
hattan, recommends the following species of trees as most suitable for 
cultivation in Kansas; the ailanthus, ash, box-elder, catalpa, cedar, 
chestnut, coffee-bean, willow, cotton-wood, elm, hackberry, hickory, 
larch, linden, locust, maple, cak, Osage orange, pine, poplar, tulip tree, 
and walnut. More than half of these trees are native in that State. 

Two gentlemen near Omaha, Douglas County, Nebraska, have about 
one hundred acres planted with black walnut, and the same number with 
cotton-wood and the soft and the ash-leafed maple, (Negundo aceroides.) 
This fall (1870) they intend to add seventy-five acres to the walnut 
plantation, and next spring two hundred more, principally black walnut, 
but some cotton-wood and maple. 

_ In the counties of Nemaha and Richardson, Nebraska, at least a million 
sprouts of the cotton-wood have been pulled up from the bottom lands 
and islands of the Missouri River, and carried back, in some instances 
one hundred miles, and set out for timber lots. One individual took 
30,000 in one week to Pawnee County for this purpose. Each farmer 
sets a forest in that part of his farm which is most convenient, and best 
adapted to its growth. 

Mr. F. F. Aiken, of Sacramento County, California, has planted this 
year 5,000 Lombardy poplar and Balm of Gilead trees; 10,000 Cali- 
fornia black walnut; 4,000 American white maple; 5,000 American 


232 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


white elm; 2,600 English elm; 400 Spanish chestnut, and 500 American 
chestnut. The last five kinds were brought from the Atlantic States. 
They have succeeded so well that he has ordered several thousand, 
which he will plant the coming season. The elms and maples have 
grown four to seven feet this year. Mr. Thomas Edwards, of the same 
county, has set 7,000 locust trees, one-half of which have been set in 
forest form one year, and the other half two years. When planted they 
were two years old from the seeds, and were set in alternate rows eight 
and ten feet apart, respectively. He estimates the probable expense of 
care and cultivation at about $10 per year, and remarks that he expects to 
have, in ten years, fence posts enough from them to fence all his own land, 
and some to sell to his neighbors. Mr. James T. Stratton, of Alameda 
County, has planted fifty-three and one-half acres with 30,000 blue-gum 
trees, (Hucalyptus globulus,) and 13,000 red-gum, (Hucalyptus resinifera.) 
They were grown from seeds gathered in December, 1868, from trees 
only seven years old; and in August of this year were, on an average, 
four and one-half feet high. They were planted eight feet apart each 
way. Mr. Stratton thinks that in seven years they will be large enough 
to afford some income. These trees are natives of Australia, and are of 
rapid growth. The red-gum sometimes grows to the height of one hun- 
dred and fifty to two hundred feet, and yields a valuable resin. A plank 
of the Hucalyptus was exhibited at the great exhibition in 1857, which had 
a length of one hundred and forty-eight feet. The wood, when green, is 
soft and’ easily split, but when dry is very hard. The trees are used 
extensively for piles, flooring, ship-building, and other mechanical 
purposes. 

PROFITS OF CULTURE. . 


Of the profits of culture in this country, estimates can only be given 
at the present early stage of tree-planting.: Sufficient data concerning 
the rate of growth and numbers likely to thrive upon a given area are 
available for a calculation of profits based on present prices. It may be 
proper to give the estimate of a few practical men, from the facts noted 
in their experience and observation. Mr. Joseph L. Budd, of Shellsburg, 
Lowa, says that a grove of ten acres of white ash, (Hraxinus Americana,) 
thinned to six feet apart each way, containing about twelve thousand 
trees, will average at twelve years of age, on good prairie soil, about 
eight inches in diameter. The previous thinnings will pay for cultivat- 
ing to this time. Ten feet of the butt of each tree will be worth for 
mechanical purposes 40 cents, and the remaining tops 10 cents each, mak- 
ing for the twelve thousand butts, $4,800; and ‘for the tops of the same 
$1,200, total $6,000 for the profit of ten acres in twelve years. By cutting 
the stumps close to the ground, and covering them with alight furrow on 
each side, sprouts will spring up which, by } proper pruning, will produce 
in eight years a crop as valuable as the first. He alsoassumes that ten 
acres of the black ash, (raxinus sambucifolia,) planted for hoop poles, in 
rows four feet apart, and one foot in the rows, will yield at the first 
thinning of half the ‘trees at the end of five years, at 3 cents per pole, 
$1,620, which-will pay all the expense of cultivation, and interest on the 
land. The whole remaining crop of 54,000 poles, if cut two years later, 
at 6 cents each, the price of heavy poles, will amount to $3,240. These 
calculations are made from actual experiments, andat a low estimate of 
the value of the crop. Ifthe poles are cut in the winter or early spring, 
the sprouts which grow up, if properly thinned out, will produce a crop 
of light poles at the end of three years, and of heavy ones at the end of 
five years. It will be seen from these estimates that the profit from 


FOREST CULTURE. Zao 


forest culture is much greater than from wheat, corn, or other farm 
crops. 

The chestnut is of rapid growth, and will thrive on almost any soil. 
Tt will mature a crop of nuts in eight or ten years from planting, and is 
especially valuable for timber. The demand for the nuts in the market 
is almost always greater than thesupply. Those of the American chest- 
- nut are much superior in quality to the Spanish, the French, or the 

Italian variety. Groves of this tree can be planted with profit in a suit- 
able climate where scrub-land is abundant and timber scarce. 

A gentleman of Panora, Guthrie County, Iowa, states that fifteen 
cotton-woods were planted about fifteen years ago. In twelve years he 
eut down eleven of them, from which he obtained five cords of wood. 
Three years after he cut the remaining four, which made two cords of 
wood and seven hundred feet of lumber. The lumber, at 25 cents per 
foot, was worth $17 50. The wood from the fifteen trees, at $4 per cord, 
was worth $28, making a total value of $45 50 for the fifteen trees. 
They covered about one-sixteenth of an acre. At this rate, one acre 
would be worth $728 in about fifteen years. More than two-thirds might 
be cut off at the end of twelve years. 

Mr. H. C. Raymond, of Pottawatomie County, lowa, says that thirty 
cotton-wood trees were planted twelve years ago, being two feet high 
when planted. They will now make over one-third of a cord each. De- 
ducting forty-four trees for vacancies occasioned by dying out, an acre 
will contain about five hundred trees, if planted in rows ten feet apart and 
eight feet in therow. Dry cotton-wood is now worth, in Council Binfis, 
$9 percord. The cost of planting, cultivating, and the interest on one 
acre of land for twelve years will not exceed $100. He estimates that 
at the énd of twelve years the trees will make 167 cords, worth $1,503. 
Deducting $501 for chopping and hauling, at $1 and $2 per cord, respect- 
ively, and $100 for cultivating, we have $902 for the value of the wood 
at the end of twelve years, making a net profit of about $75 for each 
year. 

A maple grove near St. Johnsbury, Vermont, occupies the site of a 
corn fieid of sixty-four years ago. It is a natural growth, has twice 
produced a quantity of valuable wood in thinning, has been used as 
a sugar orchard for six to eight years, and is deemed worth $200 per 

- aere. 

Dr. John A. Warder, of Cincinnati, recently measured a number of 
trees planted twenty years ago in Springfield, Ohio, with the following 
result, the measurement being taken one foot above the ground: Hu- 
ropean larch, 104 inches; paper birch, 104; red cedar, 94; white elm, 
144; white pine, 144; Norway spruce, 14; Austrian pine, 15; ailanthus, 
15; burr cak, 15; silver poplar, 174inches. The following were on culti- 
vated ground: White or paper birch, 14 inches; silver pine, 144; Euro- 
pean larch, 15; deciduous cypress, 20 inches. 

Dr. Warder recommends that the farmers of Ghio plant one-fourth of 
their farms with timber forests. He thinks that the increased product 
of the remainder would fully make up for the loss of the one-fourth, in 
consequence of the benefits of the shelter alone, besides the timber and 
wood produced. He would plant the trees four to six feet apart, that they 
may grow tall, and not need to be trimmed. He thinks that the black lo- 
cust (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a very valuable species for cultivation, on 
account of its rapid growth, firmness, and great durability. He recently 
sold one acre of forest trees of this species, scarcely a tree of which was 
over fifteen years old, for $1,000. The timber was used for paving the 
streets in Cincinnati; and, from experiments which have been made, it 


234 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


is found to be a very valuable article for this purpose. Colonel Rich- 
mond, of Sandusky, about eighteen years ago planted a piece of burnt 
Jand with these trees, after having cultivated it a few years with other 
crops, and now they are about forty feet high, and young trees are com- 
ing up from their seeds all through the forest. The borer has not 
troubled the trees much in this section of the country when they have 
been planted in large groves or masses. 5 A 
Mr. D. ©. Scofield, of Elgin, Dlinois, says that pine and larch, as demon- 
strated in his own grounds, attain the height of thirty to thirty-five 
feet, with a diameter of eight to twelve inches at the collar, in twelve 
years. He would plant three feet apart, every fourth tree each way a 
pine, the remainder larches, a proportion of one to sixteen, giving the 
pines twelve feet each way. One square yard to each would edmit of 
4,840 trees on one acre; but Mr. S. abates a few for possible losses, and 
supposes 4,800 trees, of which 300 are pines, and proposes to cut out 
2,400 larches at the end of seven years; 1,200 more at the end of fourteen 
years; 600 at the end of twenty-one years, and the remaining 300. 
larches at the end of thirty years, leaving three hundred pines twelve 
feet apart each way. He figures the yield as follows: 


ae) teed. aa erape stakes, 31.5 cents. .<....-s0-s..-es- nanan -- a. == Sane $120 

fan irees 38 tence posts, (4,000, at 25 cents).--..- -.-2-.....-.---- eon eee - 1,000 
SAIULGEBEN, MuttmOee fe os 2 = toca. 55 took det sie leh a eee ec Oe : 
MO MXDERy Giles SOO C02 Foe eee ee Ueno oe be wen ele 1545 6 

4,500 trees, aggregating in thirty years ........ Seats en enita 2205 qa ks teen 8, 9290 


He values the remaining pines at $6,000, to be worth $9,000 in ten 
years mure, and $15,000 in twenty years, making in all, at the end of 
fifty years, $23,920. This is of course hypothesis, and perhaps extrava- 
gance, which the reader may abate in accordance with his own judgment. 

While the public mind should be guarded against extravagant esti- 
mates, in which the proceeds of a large area are based upon the growth 
and yield of a few trees, it is proper to note the results of judgment in 
selecting, system and care in planting, skill in cutting and marketing, 
which in foreign countries have transmuted rose-colored theories into 
golden reality in actual practice. Making due and heavy allowance for 
the estimates of individuals presented in these pages, for drawbacks - 
‘which are sure to meet the tree-planter at every turn, there is still 
abundant margin for profit‘and inducement for effort, which should lead ~ 
to the extension of forest culture till the West shall have a larger area 
in timber than when the era of settlement commenced. 


LAWS FOR ENCOURAGING FOREST CULTURE. 


The legislature of ‘Missouri passed a law the present year for the en- 
couragement of forest culture, by which any person who will plant an 
acre or more of forest trees, or a row one-fourth of a mile long, with 
the trees a rod apart, on his own land, shall receive, after cultivating 
them three years, a bounty of $2 yearly for fifteen years, provided the 
trees in the mean time shall be kept alive and in a growing condition. 
The Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture offered, in 1888, . 
a premium of $1,000 for the best plantation of forest trees growing in 
1870, and planted in 1860. That premium has been awarded to Major 
Ben. Perley Poore. The California State Board of Agriculture offered, 
last spring, $50 for the largest quantity of useful forest trees planted 
during the year. The Board of Directors of the State Agricultural So- 


SILK CULTURE. 235 


ciety of Illinois offered a premium of $1,060, payable in 1881, for the 
best ten acres of artificial timber forest. In 1865 Nebraska enacted a 
law for encouraging forest culture. The State of New York is paying 
bounties for the same purpose, through her agricultural societies. In 
Europe the governments foster this industry by various and effective 
means, and are making it a specialty of national interest. 


SILK CULTURE. 


+ 

Some progress in silk culture has recently been made in California, 
The disease prevailing among silk-worms in the south of Kurope has, for 
several years, created a large demand for silk-worm eggs, and a luera- 
tive trade with France, Italy, and China has been carried on. At the 
present time, however, as a consequence of the war between France and 
Germany, this industry has suffered an unexpected check, as orders 
received from Paris last spring for large quantities of eggs were 
countermanded after the commencement of the war, which has ren- 
dered the product of the year almost an entire loss. This contin- 
gency, whieh is only temporary, will not be likely to happen again very 
soon, and such is the encouragement for the production of eggs and co- 
coons in future, that mere mulberry trees have been planted in the State 
this season than in any former year. Sericulturists are sanguine that 
the business will soon be much better than ever before. 

In 1868° an act was passed by the legislature of California for the 
encouragement of silk culture, and bounties have since been paid to the 
following persons in the counties named: To H.G. Ballou, of Yolo, $300 
for 100,000 cocoons; to Mrs. E. M. Weston, of Sacramento, $1,875 for 
625,000 cocoons; to 8. J. Scuffregan and Leon Gambert, of Santa Clara, 
$250 each; to A. Packard, of Santa Barbara, $450 for 150,000 cocoons ; 
to A. Isoard and A. Miller, of Nevada, $250 aach. 

Silk-worms were first hatched in California in 1860, and numbered - 
about 500; in 1866, the number was estimated at 300,000; in 1867, 
500,000 ; in 1868, 2,700,000; in 1869, 5,500,000. . In June last the Scientific 
Press expressed the opinion that there would be 25,000,000 in 1870. 
Mr. William Agnes, an experienced silk manufacturer, considers the raw 
silk produced there equal to the-best India or Japan. Mr. Ryle, of Pater- 
son, New Jersey, expresses the same opinion. The fiber is very strong, 
fine, free from all impurities, and remarkably smooth and glossy. 

Mr. Leon Gambert, of East San José, who has been breeding silk- - 
worms for the past two years, and received this year a premium of $250 for 
silk culture, has 5,000 mulberry trees of the Moretti ov Ltalian variety, be- 
sides 10,000 of the same kind in a nursery, some of which are two and 
others three years old, valued, respectively, at $10 and $15 per hundred. 
He considers the Moretti variety the best for silk-worms. Last year he 
raised seventy ounces of eggs, worth $8 per ounce. All thé work of 
feeding and tending was done by one lady. This year he is hatching 
three and one-half ounces of eggs, from which he expects to get about 
140,000 siik-werms. , These worms will produce moths enough to lay 460 
ounces of eggs, worth $3,680. One hundred and fifty female moths will 
lay an ounce of eggs. But, as about one-half the number of the moths 
from the cocoons are males, 300 cocoons are usually considered necessary 
to produce moths enough to yield one ounce of eggs. His silk-worms 


236 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


are of the French variety, which he says will produce the strongest and 
best silk. The Japanese silk-worms do not succeed well, and are not 
worth so much by one-third as the French. He sells his cocoons in 
European markets, to which they may be transported with perfect 
safety. 

The worms when first hatched are fed upon the tenderest leaves, the 
tip ends of the growing side-shoots being used for this purpose. When 
the worms become older and stronger, larger leaves are used, and so on 
tili they are full-grown, when they require the strongest food. They 
are fed upon shelves, on which the leaves are strewn in the form of a ring 
or wreath about a footin diameter. This method is found to be the most 
favorable for ventilation and cleanliness. 

Mr. Jesse Williams, whose farm is seven miles from Watsonville, in 
Santa Cruz County, which joins Santa Clara County, has three acres of 
land planted with imulber ry trees of the multicaulis variety, which he re- 
gards as the best for feeding silk-worms when the production of eggs is 
more of an object than thatof silk. His trees are three years old, and he 
prunes them back, so as to give them a bushy form, with numerous small 
shoots and limbs. He says that he can get more leaves and of better 
quality by this method of training. He is hatching this season 160,000 
worms from four ounces of eggs. The trees on the three acres will atford 
an ample supply for feeding them. He has a separate building for a 
breeding-room, to which plenty of air can be admitted, although a strong 
draught is not allowed to blow upon the worms. He expects to pro- 
duce 500 ounces of eggs this year, which will be sufficient te hatch 
20,000,000 of worms. It is his intention also to plant this year 5,000 
more trees, and to build a cocoonery which will be of sufficient size to 
accommodate 2,000,000 worms. 

The reports of the surveyor general of California exhibit a production 
of 8,200 pounds of cocoons in 1868, against 3,043 pounds in 1867. The 
number of mulberry trees reported in 1868 was 374,125, against 356,053 
in 1867. 

Mr. J. N. Hoag, of Yolo, in the season of 1869, from fifty to sixty acres 
of land, containing 300,000 trees, fed 1,500,000 Worms. 

Mr. H. Muller, of Nevada County, from 105,000 trees fed 50,000 worms. 
He states that his best eggs are those exposed all winter on his trees, at 
an elevation of 1,800 feet above the level of the sea. 

Mr. Albert Brewster, a sericulturist of Los Angeles, is feeding his 
worms with branches this year, thus saving the labor of pulling the leaves. 
He says this season has been more favorable than the last. The worms 
have been longer in maturing than if the weather had been warmer, but 
they could not be more healthy. About 60,000 of his worms had com- 
menced to spin their cocoons; the remainder, about 200,000, were yet 
small, being more recently hatched. The winter which followed the 
prosperous silk season of 1868, in California, was open and pleasant; 
but the following spring was late, cold, and unfavorable to a healthy 
growth of the mulberry leaf. The electric condition of the atmosphere 

was unusually disturbed; and, until late in June, showers were almost 
uniformly followed by cold and disagreeable weather. 

‘The effects of an exceptional season were plainly visible in the foliage 
of the peach, and the irregular growth and deficient flavor of its fruit, 
and in an unevenness of erowth in the hop fields, such as had never be. 
fore been observed in the State. Apiarists experienced an unaccus- 
tomed loss of bees, and a deficiency in proportional product and in the 
quality of honey; and a significant fact to naturalists was the scarcity 
of buttertlies, usually so abundant at certain seasons. These peculiari- 


SILK CULTURE. pis 


ties of the spring of 1869 caused the loss of a large portion of the first 
feeding in that year, and threw a temporary discouragement over the 
minds of beginners in silk culture, who had induiged sanguine expecta- 
tions from the prosperity of that industry in former years. 

Mr. J. N. Hoag, of Yolo, a prominent silk culturist, incited by the deep 
interest felt in the subject, published a resumé of his experience, during 
the season of 1869, in the Transactions of the State Agricultural Society, 
in which, alluding to the facts already stated, he showed that the mis- 
fortunes of the season were no just grounds for discouragement as to the 
future; that they would in fact become rather a benefit than otherwise, 
by creating, at this early stage of a vast prospective business, a better 
understanding of the modes of culture best adapted to California regions; 
and that a large proportion of the losses of the season was owing to 
needless and injurious precautionary measures, founded on the practice 
of European countries, where, by reason of less favorable climates, the 
artificial processes are resorted to. 

The errors committed by himself and other silk culturisis consisted 
in the excessive and ill-timed use of refrigerator boxes, and other means 
of retarding hatching till a late and more favorable period of the season. 
Too great use also was made of artificial heat at the period of hatching, 
in an unwise anxiety for exact regularity of temperature. Another cause 
of mischief was the excessive cutting back of mulberry trees, to supply 
demands for cuttings, resulting, through the aid of untavorable meteoro- 
logical conditions, in so large an absorption of water by the leaves as to 
render them unhealthy food for silk-worms. 

As an example of the special profits derivable from growing silk-worm 
eggs, he states that, in 1868, he fed the leaves from three and one-half 
acres covered with two-year-old Morus multicaulis trees, grown from cut- 
tings without transplanting, and cut back in the spring or winter close to 
the ground, the tops being used for cuttings, so that they furnished but 
little more than half the early foliage which they would have aftorded 
if they had been pruned only with a view to feeding purposes. The 
feeding was commenced June 1, and completed July 25. The following 
is a statement of receipts, expenses, and resulting profits: 


4867; ounces eggs, sold to H. and B., at $4 per ounce ...--.---------- vee eee $1,946 70 
Value of eggs sold to other parties, and eggs retained.....-...-----.------ 1,897 50 
tite ee MEMOCDONAUNOLO =o 5% <a cd ata seca carck o «ce Saki eas Apaeeanee scene 75 30 
PCM IPMBUD COURS eee e ener oss o-ba/s visiocia warns. dsisd od oma qrbad ade pee eee 3,919 50 
PREIRE SY EIDE CO oo on ge eid ms acies ave casino bacn eacmua deeds 472 00 
TOM we ites aes Ue = Ceca 2 idol e's wel ewes late ee 3, 447 50 


This result shows an average net profit per acre of $985, obtained on 
fifty-five days’ feeding. 

Mr. H. G. Ballou, of Yolo County, states that from one-tenth of an acre 
of two-year-old trees which were suffering greatly from neglect, and were 
very uneven in growth, he obtained 600 pounds of leaves, being at the 
rate of 6,000 pounds of leaves per acre. Procuring an additional supply 

. from another source, he used 1,500 pounds of leaves, equivalent to the 
foliage of one-quarter of an acre, with which he matured the worms from 
one ounce of eggs of the French variety, this crop of worms producing 
Sixty ounces of eggs, worth $240, and twelve pounds of perforated 
cocoons, worth $9, making a total of $249 as the gross product of one- 
quarter of an acre, or $996 per acre. . 

The profit on eggs and cocoons made by Mr. T. B. Flint, of Sacra- 


7 


238 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


mento, from the feeding of one acre, is estimated at $1,261, after deduct- 
ing $175 for expense of feeding. 

Mr. Hoag asserts that by cultivating the trees as dwarfs, planted near 
together, twice as much foliage per acre can be grown at each crop as 
can be obtained by the orchard system of large trees, which is necessary 
in the more moist climates of Southern Europe; and, as in California 
two crops of leaves can be gathered yearly without injury to the trees, 
the yield of leaves there would be to that of Europe as four to one, 
amounting to about 64,000 pounds per acre yearly, sufficient for the 
production of 640 pounds of reeled silk, at the usual rate of one pound 
of reeled silk from 100 pounds of leaves. Reeled silk, even of poor qual- 
ity, is worth $7 per pound throughout the world, while exhibits of the 
San Francisco market in 1869 show prices of California reeled silk from 
trivoltine Japanese worms reaching $9 per pound, and from the annual 
varieties, $12 to $15 per pound. Taking $7 per pound as the average 
value, the annual product of reeled silk from one acre of leafage would 
be $4,480. The expense account is stated as follows: Rent of land and 
cocoonery, $50; cost of cultivation of land, and feeding worms, $800; 
hire of Chinese or of white girls or boys, in reeling silk, 1.280 days’ work, 
putting the price of a day’s work at $1 for one-half pound of reeled silk, 
$1,280; total expense, $2,130; leaving a net profit of $2,350. 

Mr. Hoag advises farmers in California to prosecute silk culture in 
conjunction with the usual branches of agriculture, except in the coast 
counties, where the climate in summer and autumn is damp and foggy, 
and asserts that mulberry trees are more readily and cheaply grown 
than fruit trees, and that any person can in an hour’s time be taught in 
the cocoonery how to manage and feed the worms, and save and cure 
the cocoons for market; and that, with four days of instruction and three 
weeks of practice, 2 woman or girl can become expert in the art of reel- | 
ing silk. 

The foreign silk-worm which feeds upon the ailanthus, introduced into 
the United States years ago, is found in abundance in different parts 
of the country, yet little has been accomplished in utilizing its cocoons. 
A more particular statement of its distribution and comparative value, 
and of the introduction of the oak-feeding worm, may be found in the 
report of the Entomologist in this volume. 


SILK MANUFACTURE. 


In the Northern States silk is manufactured into dress goods, ribbons, 
velvets, and trimmings, the amount, according to statements in com- 
mercial papers, being variously estimated at $10,000,000 to $20,000,000 
worth annually. We have found it difficult to obtain reliable informa- 
tion, and cannot vouch for the absolute correctness of the following 
affirmations and figures, but present for what they are worth statements 
apparently reliable. Boston reports fifty silk factories, mainly engaged 
in the manufacture of velvets; New York City, fifty; and the business 
is carried on extensively in Schenectady, Troy, Yonkers, and at Oneida, 
by the Oneida Community, who commenced late in 1866, manufacturing 
nearly $25,000 worth in 1867, and now employ 130 female operatives in 
their silk factories. A considerable business is done at Mansfield, Hat- - 
field, and Manchester, in Connecticut. A company in Manchester is 
said to fabricate yearly 60,000 pounds of ‘thrown silk,” 60,000 pounds 
of “patent spun,” 100,000 pieces of belt ribbon, and 600,000 yards of 
wide goods, consisting of dress silks, gros grains, poplins, foulards, and 
pongees, and employs 1,000 operatives. The capital invested in Massa- 
chusetts, New York, and Connecticut, is $5,000,000. Philadelphia has 


SILK CULTURE. 239 


_ thirty factories, with a capital of $1,500,000. Paterson, New Jersey, 
has fifteen factories. One corporation manufactures every month 3,000 
pounds of silk thread, 1,000 gross of silk braids, 600 gross of hat bands, 
350 yards of serge, and employs 300 operatives, mostly children. An- 
other makes 70,000 yards of dress trimmings monthly. The aggregate 
number of persons employed in the factories at Paterson is 3,500, and 
there are 70,000 spindles. The raw silk used by these companies issim- 
ported from China and Japan free of duty, but first passes through the 
English market, where the prices are fixed. 

Mr. E. V. De Boissiere, a wealthy French gentleman, has engaged in 
silk culture and manufacture near Williamsburg, Franklin County, Kan- 
sas, upon an estate of 3,200 acres. He has already planted over half a 
miilion of young mulberry and ailanthus trees, raised from seed imported 
from France, China, and California, and is every year enlarging the area 
of his groves.. He proposes to raise his own stock of raw material, which 
he thinks will be easily accomplished when his trees have fully matured. 
Until these become available for feeding, he will import from China, 
France, and other foreign countries, a supply of material for his manu- 
facturing enterprise. The cotton fiber used in some of his fabrics he is 
compelled to procure in Manchester, England, none of sufficient fineness 
being yet produced in this country. 

The erection of buildings designed to accommodate both the looms 
and the weavers, with their families, has already been commenced. One 
large frame building is occupied by two families, with looms for weav- 
ing dress silks. Another still larger building has been erected for the 
accommodation of a number of families and for a velvet-ribbon loom. 
A large stone factory has just been completed, in which will be placed 
three velvet-ribbon looms, with machinery for making silk thread, twist, 
&c. All of this machinery has arrived in this country, and will be imme- 
diately set in operation. The velvet-ribbon loom new in operation pro- 
duces 250 to 300 yards of ribbon per day, or 28 double pieces, woven back 
to back, with a nap or plush connecting them, which is cut by a knife 
vibrating with the movement of the loom. In some of the lower-priced 
fabrics the warp is wholly or partly cotton. 

Mr. De Boissiere exhibited at the late Ottawa County fair several 
specimens of silk velvet ribbon, which, in fineness of texture, compact- 
ness of fabrication, and brilliancy of color, will compare favorably, it 
is claimed, with the most elaborate products of the Old World. This 
branch of silk manufacture has hitherto been confined mostly to a few 
localities in France. 

Some of the features of codperative associations have been adopted 
in this enterprise. Mr. De Boissiere proposes to erect a building 300 
feet long by 150 wide, three stories high, with an open court 200 feet by 
100, for the accommodation of female specialties. A common refectory 
will be provided, and subsistence offered at the low prices attainable by 
this method. He is now importing from France fresh supplies of skilled 
labor and machinery. 

The California Silk Manufacturing Company, which was organized 
March 4, 1870, with a capital of $50,000, has engaged an experienced 
' silk manufacturer, and proposes to erect immediately a factory building 

125 feet long, 50 wide, and two stories high. The culture and manufac- 
ture of silk bid fair to become one of the most important interests in 
‘the State. 
DISEASES OF THE SILK-WORM. 


A writer in the North China Daily News, of June 30, 1870, says that 


240 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the silk-worm disease, the pébrine, has recently been discovered in the 
eggs of the silk-worms of Japan, notwithstanding the distinct declara- 
tion of the Italian commission to the contrary. It first exhibits itself in 
the form of a corpuscle in the egg, and is said to be contagious and or- 
ganic, and capable of transmission by propagation. An examination 
of fifty cards being made by Lewis Crivelli, only six were found to be 
sound. The Italian congress called to investigate the subject came to 
the conclusion that the disease has its origin in this corpusele. The 
Japanese, therefore, have now to contend with this disease, and also with 
another, called the wi, besides an enfeebled state of the silk-worm, 
caused probably by the enormous demands for the eggs during a few 
years past. These difficulties are very formidable, and will require the 
most energetic efforts on the part of the silk-growers and the Japanese 
government to counteract them. The government has already distrib- 
uted throughout the silk districts Mr. Adams’s report on the wi, in which 
he deseribes how it fastens itself on the young worms, and deposits its 
eggs within their skins. He shows the necessity of destroying the wz 
at onee, instead of throwing it away as if a dead insect, when in reality 
it is a living one in the grub state. He recommends further that when 
silk-worms are about to spin their cocoons, the peasants should sepa- 
rate all those worms which, from the black mark on them, are known 
to contain wi,and suffocate all the cocoons which they produce, thus 
destroying the wi at the same time. ‘These cocoons would, of course, be 
used for silk. The home department of Japan has cailed the careful 
attention of the silk-producers to the various diseases to which the silk- 
worm is liable, and has demanded that they should search out the causes 
which produce them, instead of referring them to a supernatural power 
over which man has no control. It has also offered honorable mention 
and liberal rewards to those who will discover the best methods of eradi- 
cating the disease, or of improving the breed or the system of rearing 
the worms. It is cénfidently expected that these efforts of the govern- 
ment will result favorably in putting an end to these diseases, and 
bringing the silk production up to its original standard. 

It is supposed by some that the disease is caused by a small fiy which 
deposits its eggs on the silk-worm just before the latter enters the cocoon. 
These eggs, adhering to the worm, are carried into the cocoon, where they 
hatch about the time the cocoon is finished, producing very small mag- 
gots, which prey upon and destroy the chrysalis. | 

Dr. Tryski, the Austrian commissioner to Japan, visiting California 
on his way home, informed Mr. Hoag that the losses of cocoons set aside 
for eggs in Japan, in 1869, ranged from 30 to 75 per cent., the usual sup- 
ply of eggs being diminished in corresponding proportion. As a conse- 
quence, eggs commanded $4 50 to $5 per ounce; but notwithstanding 
this high price, there had been shipped to Europe, up to the time of nis 
leaving Japan, 1,300,000 ounces, at a cost in Japan of about $5,850,000, 
the shipment being stillin progress, and estimated to reach for the year 
2,000,000 ounces, at a cost of $9,000,000. He also stated that California 
had the power to secure this trade, for the reason that the disease men- 
tioned is extending its ravages in Japan, causing serious diminution in 
the supply of eggs and a corresponding increase in price. 

Professor Tyndall, in an address recently delivered in Liverpool be- 
fore the British Association, estimates that France has sustained a loss 
of $242,000,000 within the last seventeen years, caused by the pébrine, 
or silk-worm disease. 

M. Sintrae, of France, has made a series of experiments, which he has 
communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Paris, to ascertain the. 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OP THE COUNTRY. 241 


cause of the silk-worm disease now so prevalent in that country and 
other parts of Europe and Asia. From his experiments he concludes, 
that the worms succeed much better when raised in the open air than 
when kept in close rooms at high temperatures, as is usuvaily the case; 
that they bear very well a temperature as low as 47° and as high as 
1049; and that they are not injured by the direct rays of the sun nor by 
sudden changes of temperature. He attributes the disease to confine- 
ment in too close rooms, and recommends that they be kept in open sheds, 
with roots sufficient to keep off the rain. Worms kept in this way yield 
very satisfactorily, 58 ounces of eggs furnishing sufficient silk-worms to 
produce 372 pounds of cocoons, besides a large number of eggs from 
which to rear a new stock. 


SILK SUPPLY. 


In consequence of the diseases of the silk-worm, the imports of raw silk 
into Great Britain have fallen off 40 per cent., and prices have risen 100 
per cent. Many silk manufacturers have abandoned their business and 
sought other employment. Imports of silk from China into Great 
Britain, between the years 1857 and 1864, fell from 9,000,000 pounds 
per annum to 3,000,000 pounds; and in one year, 1864, they fell from 
7,800,000 to 3,000,000 pounds. To remedy this evil, the silk manufac- 
turers of England have formed a company, called the “Silk Supply 
Association,” the object of which is to stimulate silk production by cot- 
tage culture, and in every other practicable way, in all countries where 
the silk-worm can be raised; to encourage the introduction and ex- 
change of eggs of the best kinds of silk-worms; to impart practical 
suggestions to silk-producers for improving the quality of their silk and 
the manner of reeling it; to promote importations of cocoons from coun- 
tries which have not facilities for reeling them; and to confer with all 
consular agents in foreign countries to secure their codperation in pro- 
moting and extending the culture of ‘silk in all places where they can 
exert an influence. The association has already published a “ Guide to 
Sericulture,” and intends soon to issue a monthly journal, called the 
Journal of the Silk Supply Association, for the purpose of more effect- 
ually carrying out its objects. An attempt to cultivate the Bombyx mori, 
or true silk-worm, in Engiand, is proposed to be immediately undertaken, 
and a speedy revival of silk culture is confidently anticipated. 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OF THE COUNTRY, THEIR 
USAGES AND ABUSES. 


The wide margin between the home prices of fruits and vegetables, 
the grains and meats of the farm, and the rates at which they are sold 
to city consumers, is often suggestive of extortionate combinations and 
oppressive regulations and usages, by which greed obtains a large portion 
of the reward of labor. While the laborer who carries the produce of the 
farm to the city larder is as worthy of his hire as the husbandman him- 
self, theré is opportunity for oppression in the fact that the market men 
and hucksters of the city are voters of the municipality, and the selfish- 
ness of human nature in such a contingency usually involves municipal 
reguationsin some degree unjust and burdensome to the original producer. 
Where farmers are permitted equal opportunity with hucksters to sell 
in ieee, marke, there can be no ground for censure of city dealers. 

164A 


242 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The usages and regulations of different markets are so diverse that it 
has been deemed a matter of much importance to examine in detail the 
peculiarities of the systems in vogue in the principal cities in the coun- 
try, with the hope and expectation that the better features of the best- 
regulated markets may ultimately secure general adoption. It was 
believed that a general reform in our market system is required, and 
that by taking wise and proper steps such reform could be inaugurated 
and carried to gratifying resnits. The first step was to arrive at a com- 
plete statement of these objectionable usages or customs in the food 
market; and with that view a circular was seut from this Department 
to a number of persons who, from their official or editorial position, were 
likely to be possessed of the information sought, asking information 
upon the following points: 

1. Number of days in the week and hours of the day in which farmers 
are permitted to sell from their wagons. ‘ 

2. Amount of space at the market-houses and on the streets which 
they are allowed to oecupy. 

3. Prices obtained by middlemen or hucksters, compared with the rates 
allowed by them to producers. 

4. The bearing of prevalent usages of commission-men upon the 
interests of producers. 

5. Amount of license (if any) required of farmers, and other munici- 
pal restrictions or requirements in regard to their sales. 

The result of this request has been the appearance of articles in the 
leading journals of our cities reciting the various abuses to which heuse- 
keepers are subjected in purchasing provisions. 

The Department is also in receipt of long and in many cases carefully 
prepared reports of the market systems of our cities, and of publie doe- 
uments, as charters and market ordinances, and in some eases extended 
historical statements of the gradaal development of systems to corre- 
spond with the growth of cities. This mass of material has caused some 
embarrassment from its bulk and from the diffieulty of establishing any 
system of presentation that would avoid a wearisome repetition. 


MARKETING IN CITIES OF LESS THAN 100,000 POPULATION, 


The difficulties of supplying the smaller cities with various articles of 
food are uot serious. From some, Albany and Norfolk, for instance, no 
complaints have been forwarded. In Albany the farmers drive into 
town in their farm wagons, arid the only city usage that affects them is 
one that requires the broad and beautiful street where they stand to be 
cleared by 11 o’clock. The sales are made direct by the tarmer to the 
families or. storekeepers, generally through the agency of runners, who 
earn a small commission where produce is sold’ in quantity. 

The plan.and geographical position of towns have much to do with mar- 
ket usages. Albany has the least cause for complaint of any city which 
has answered this circular. It is sarrounded by a fine farming coun- 
try, the estates extending to within a mile in some directions of the street 
where the principal sales are made. That street is so broad and the 
grade is so steep that making a market of the center of it does not lower 
its tone or detract from its healthfulness as a place for residences of the 
first class. On the other hand, cities like Newark, New York, and San 
Francisco, that are separated from farming communities by arms of 
the sea or by marshes and rivers, report the most objectionable usages. 
Mobile also, built-on a peninsula between a river and an arm of the sea, 
with a wide interval of marsh and barrens separating it from productive 
lands, complains of the unrighteous profits exacted of the consumer by 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OF THE COUNTRY. 243 


middlemen and hucksters. In Mobile and Charleston these hucksters 
charge from 100 to 200 per cent. advance. In Norfolk the advance is 
quite reasonable, being ou an average not over 20 per cent. beyond the 
sum paid the prodacer. 

In most cases i¢ has not been found practicable to regulate the rela- 
tions between the farmer and the city consumers by ordinance. 
Rules have been made in some instances probibiting the sale to huck 
sters, but they are either avoided by a subterfuge or have become dead 
letters on the statute-book. The rapid growth of our cities, especially 
of the manufacturing cities, where a majority of the operatives are of 
foreign birth, will of itself account for many of the abuses complained 
of. Suppose, for instance, that Albany, which bas as good market usages 
as any town of its population in the country, should grow to be a city of 
150,000 or 200,000, and that a majority of the accession were from the 
hard-working class, natives and foreigners. The street where now nine- 
tenths of the food of the towns-people are bought directly from the farm- 
ers would be found remote from the new and densely settled parts of the 
city. To supply them, the potatoes, cabbage, carrots, veal, eggs, and 
milk could not be raised within easy driving distance. The railroads 
would be extensively used. The farmer would not find it practicable to 
eome with his produce; the middleman would become a necessity, and 
it would be for his interest to drive the producer away from the city, 
which could be done by some ordinance made in the hucksters’ interest. 
Of the farmers who have for years been standing on Capito! Hill, some 
would prefer the quiet of their farms, and sell their market-wagous; some 
would prefer the bustie and possible gains of the city, and become huck- 
sters. This issubstantially the history of market usages in our towns, 
when they reach and pass a population of 100,000. In all towns of less 
size, however, a study of the market practices has convinced us that 
there is no difficulty in securing direct trade between the farmer and 
the consumer. The very hands that dropped and dug the potatoes may 
measure them out by the bushel or the barrel at the dvor of the merchant, 
the lawyer, and the capitalist. Al) that is required to secure this end is 
combination and codperation on the part of the farmers, followed by city 
ordinances, so framed as to promote this direct trafiicyather than to dis- 
courage farmers and throw the food supplies into the hands of middle- 
men and hucksters. 


MARKET SYSTEMS OF LARGE CITIES. 


As above indicated, when a place returns a population of about 
100,000, from the nature of things, the length of streets, the enhanced 
value of lands near the city, the influx of crowds indifferent to the quality 
of their food or ignorant of the characteristics of sound meats and fresh — 
vegetables, the market usages undergo a change, and the problem of 
furnishing great metropolitan centers with food in abundance, en mode- 
rate terms, becomes one of the first practical impertance. A market-house 
and .a market system that were exactly adjusted to the wants of a city 
of 60,000 or 70,000, grow yearly more inadequate as the population 
swells to 130,000, 150,000, and to higher figures. Boston furuishes a 
notable instance. In 1825, when the corner-stone of Faneuil Hall Market 
was laid, the population of Boston was somewhat less than 60,000, 
wainly included within a circuit of amile. Thesurrounding country was 
thinly populated, and was devoted chiefly to agriculture. Fruits aud 
vegetables were raised in abundance within an hour’s ride of the 
market by wagon. Vermontand New York furnished ali the roasts and 
steaks the Boston tables required. Now the territory that was occupied 


244 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


by 60,000 persons shelters over 200,000, and the population of the 
city and of the towns that are practically suburbs and inhabited mainly 
by merchants and artisans is about 650,000. The business at Fanepil 
Hall Market, at first retail, is now chiefly wholesale and jobbing. It is 
the great provision exchange for New England. Not over 2,000 ont of 
50,000 families go there tg market. They buy at second-hand of corner 
grocers. There are 739 such shops now, and there were but 330 in 1851, 
showing that the corner-grocery system is increasing faster than is ne- 
cessary to keep pace with the population. The prices at these shops are 
higher than at Faneuil Hall, but the difference is not excessive, and can 
be kept moderate if the citizens will but inform themselves of Faneuil 
Hall prices, and show a determination to go there rather than to pay 
more than an equivalent for the loss of time in going to a more distant 
market. 

The market system of New York closely resembles that of Boston: 
Of public markets there are fourteen, of which the principal are Wash- 
ington, West Washington, Fulton, Center, and Tompkins. 

Designed originally as a series of stalls and stands, where the mer- 
chant or other citizen, with basket on arm, could meet the farmer face 
to face, the business has expanded so enormously that the good-will of 
some of these stands is worth from $10,000 to $50,000, and there are 
many which cannot be purchased at all. Men who have built up a busi- 
ness and prospered by it do not care to remove and thereby enable the 
market officials to dispose of the stand for a large sum of money. There 
are marketmen who hire stalls and do not occupy them, preferring to 
do business outside, but to retain possession of their stands, thus pre- 
venting other persons from getting them. 

The practice with farmers is to gather around the market with their 
wagons. as early as 9 o’clock in the evening of the day preceding that on 
which they expect to sell their produce. They must take their position 
in regular order and pay their fees, when they remain unmolested. 
When the market opens in the morning, the producers may deal directly 
with hucksters if they wish, or they may, if they do not care to wait, 
put their goods in the hands of middlemen, who, for a commission of 10 
per cent. for perishable articles, of 25 cents per barrel for potatoes or 
apples, will sell tMis produce for them and make returns. Sometimes it~ 
is advantageous for the producer to dispose of his articles through the 
commission merchant, especially when the market is glutted, or when 
he may be unable to be present in person. The producers and huck- 
sters can remain in and around the market as long as they please, the 
oid rule requiring them to leave at 12 o’clock noon being now obsolete. 
Producers van, if they desire, sell to any other person than a huckster 
or commission merchant outside the market, and can deliver goods to 
hotels or private houses if they wish. ! 

As buyers of food, the population of New York can be divided into 
three classes. There are the upper 20,000, who live in five-story brown- 
stones, and spend from $5 to $10 daily in the purchase of perishable food 
and asmuch more tor pantry articles. Forsuch, nearness toa market-house 
is a prime necessity ; hence the steady increase in the number and neat- 
ness of outfit of grocers’ and butchers’ establishments on or near fash- 
ionable streets. The proprietors of these go to Washington, West Wash- 
ington, and Fulton, as wholesale houses, and take the cream of all that 
comes, the tenderloins, the fat chops, the finest chickens, the fattest tur- 
keys, paying well and expecting their customers to pay better. In New 
York and Brooklyn there are 100,000 families that buy liberally and in- 
tend to have good food, but always with more or less regard to economy 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OF THE COUNTRY. 245 


and thrift. For such, the market accommodations of these great cities 
are wholly inadequate. Half an hour is consumed in going and another 
half hour in returning from the markets where good articles can be had 
at moderate prices. The alternative is to pay a dollar beyond the proper 
value of a marketing at a fashionable stall where meats are good, or to 
buy ata third-rate stand, where the million go, where the vegetables are 
wilted, the chickens are blue, and the beef Texan. 

Philadelphia has for generations been noted for the excellence of its 
market system. There is a law in force providing that vegetables, pro- 
visions, or fruits, exposed for sale shall not have been previously pur- 
chased within the limits of the city. When the city erects a market- 
house, one-half of the building remains free for the use of the country- 
people attending the market; and no fees, tolls, or perquisites are to be 
exacted from them for the use thereof. Persons who send or carry the ~ 
produce of their farms to market may sell beef, mutton, “c., slaughtered - 
on their farms; and persons so selling such meats, &c., are not liable 
to any fine for selling in less quantities than one quarter; provided that 
farmers using the stalls in the market-houses for such purposes shall pay - 
a rent or compensation for each stall not exceeding $20 per annum. 
The select and common counci! annually elect a ‘commissioner of mar- 
ket-houses.” No person is allowed to sell or expose for sale elsewhere 
within the market limits than in the stands specially provided therefor 
any fruits, vegetables, or other provisions (except fresh fish, meal, or flour) 
which have been: before purchased within the city of Philadelphia. No 
person exercising the trade of a butcher is permitted to occupy a stand 
or statiow without the market-houses free of rent; and no person is 
allowed to offer for sale any veal, beef, lamb, &c., unless the same is the 
produce of his or her own farm, upon any of the streets authorized 
for the stands for market-wagons, under a penalty of $20. The stalls 
and stands within the public market-houses, and places for the use of 
which rent may be lawfully charged, are let annually. No person is 
allowed to use steelyards or spring-balances within the market-houses. 
No person, except farmers bringing the produce of their farms to mar- 
ket, is allowed to sell or expose for sale any butcher’s meat in any 
streets or other highways of the city south of Lehigh Avenue, east of 
the river Schuylkill, or north of Morris street, in any cart, wagon, &c., 
nor carry about the same for sale. 

In consequence of the execution of these regulations, the second city 
of the Union has better marketing than some towns of one-fifth her 
population. On Wednesdays and Saturdays, in the afternoon, thou- 
sands of pounds of butter, poultry, meat, and sausages are sold to con- 
sumers by farmers from Delaware, Chester, and all the counties within 
thirty miles of the city. Their butter-tubs are larger and handsomer, 
the balls are fairer and more golden, than are to be seen in any other city. 
The market-houses of New York are musty old rookeries, and those of 
Baltimore are sheds, compared with the elegant, cleanly, sweet-smelling, 
though expensive, buildings in which the Pennsylvania farmer meets the 
consumer face to face. 

The cities which grow most rapidly are found to adopt or to allow 
usages which will, no doubt, be corrected as business crystallizes into 
permanent forms. Thus, Chicago gives the common council the right 
to license private meat and fish shops. The result is, that marketing 
stalls are scattered promiscuously over that most vigorous and thrifty 
metropolis. Next to a great hardware-house you buy a roast, and the 
latest novel is side by side with white fish caught in Lake Superior. 

The mischiefs of a bad market system are aptly illustrated by the re-. 


246 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


port we have received from San Francisco, a city on a peninsula, and built 
with great rapidity, and without a knowledge of the probable magni- 
tude it might reach, Our correspondent’s letter is given at length, as 
much because it Ulustrates the evils that exist in a form less aggravated 
in other cities, as because of the clearness of his statement : 


San Francisco is situated on the end of a, peninsula, mnch of which, especially that 
part near the city, is unfit for cultivation. The fertile plain of Alameda ts only five 
niles distant, on the eastern side of the bay, but the farmers seldom take their wagons 
across in the ferry-boats, and the consumers get nearly all their figiit, and a large part 
of their vegetables, from middle men, 

Living in San Francisco iy dear, and all the commissions and profits are high. The 
conuuission merchants who receive butter, cheese, egys, fruits, and vegetables from the 
cy 9a ip considerable quantities, aud sell again in large quantities, with very little 

andling, charge tive to eight per cent. There are jobbers who purchase such articles 
‘in balk from the producer, and make ten to twenty per cent. profit. They must 
have pay for the risks they ineur, the capital they invest, the time they spend in exam- 
ining the merchandise, aud the labor they devote to assorting and taking care of it. 
The producers who send their produce te commission merchants get more on the aver- 
age by ten to fifteen per cent. than those who. sell to wholesale dealers, but they also 
dneur risks, for the commission merchant will not incar much troable to prevent per- 
ishable articles from spoiling, and will pot spend anything in forcing them on the 
Market, Fruit, after re-assorting and repacking, can often be sold fer twice as much as 
it could be without; but the commission merchant will not do. the work, because bis 
principal would object to the expense. Ln the packing of all kinds of fresh fruit there 
is need of improvement. The grapes from certain vineyards, pears and apples from 
certain orchards, simply because of better selection and packing, bring 25 to 50 per 
Cent., aud in some cases 100 per cent., more than others that were equally good when 
ou the trees or vines. 

The retailers of fruit, fe peg cary butter, cheese, and eggs generally purchase of com- 
Mission merchants, and sell at 25 to 100 per cent. advance. The more perishable the 
article, the higher the profit on good lots, to compensate for losses on bad lots. On 
kitchen vegetables, sold in small lots, grapes, berries, and very soft kinds of fruits, the 
profit is 100 per cent. On fresh butter the retailers generally make 10 cents per pound. 

Most of the gardeners near San Francisco are Italians, who bring in their vegetables 
every night in two-horse spring-wagons, with loads piled up four to six feet abeve the 
top of the wagon-bed, and kept in place by ropes or canvas. The sales commence 
about tiveo’clock, and at eight the wagons have disappeared, and the street is closed 
up. The stewards of hotels and large boarding-houses, the retail-market men, and 
many of the poorer class of housekeepers, purchase at these wagons, where they get 
their vegetables cheaper than in the market-bouses. Those gardeners who are not 
Italians usually send their produce to commission men, who charge 8 per cent, com- 
Mission. 

Beef and mutton are farnished to the San Francisco market. chiefly by a fow butch- 
ers, who own considerable areas of pasture land near the city, and buy up great num- 
bers of cattle. They agree on the prices to be charged for beef, and before the com- 

letion of the Pacific Railroad small dealers accepted their prices, but the markets 

ave been affected by the receipts of beef slaughtered in Wyoming Territory and 
shipped in a frozen eoudition in refrigerator cars to San Francisco, where it is sold at 
8 to LU cents per pound, when the California beef would otherwise sell for 12 er 15 
cents. The Wyoming beef is tender and jnicy, but does not keeplong. The game and 
poultry are sent to agents, who charge 5 to. 8 per cent. commission, and sell without 
delay to the retailer, seldom moving the articles from the wharf where they are landed 
previous to.sale. The retailers usually make 25 to 50 percent. profit. 

There is no fixed rule for the protits of retailers of fresh provisions ; they depend on 
thé conditions of the merchandise, the amount of the stock, and the urgency of the ° 
demand. A hot day, which hastens fermentation or putrefaction, a heavy rain, which 
ee honsekéepers from going out, an unexpected arrival of a large lot of fruit or 

eef, the detention of a train or steamer with an expected supply, may cause a rise or 
fall of 20 to 40 per cent. in prices. The general rates of profits of middle-men in Sau 
Fraucisco may be summarily stated thus: Nearly all the fruit, dairy produce, game, 
py. and a considerable part of the vegetables sold in the city pass through the 
auds of commission merchants, who charge 5 to 8 per cent. commission. phi 
Some of these articles are bought from producers by jobbers, who make 10 to 20 per 
cent. profit. The retailers buy their fruit and dairy produce of commission merchants 
or jobbers, and charge 20 to 30 per cent. profit on butter, cheese, and eggs ; 25 to 40 on 
apples and bard pears, and 40 to L00 on peaches, soft pears, apricots, grapes, berries, doc. 
The green vegetables they buy generally of the producers, and sell at an advance of 
100 per cent, ; ; 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OF THE COUNTRY. QAG 


Of one dollar paid by the consumer, the producer generally gets 70 cents on butter, 
cheese and eggs, 65 cents on apples and hard pears, 35 to 45 cents on soft fruit and 
berries, and on green vegetables 50 cents. Out of this he must pay the freight to the 
place where the fruit sale is made in the city, provide the packages, pay return freight 
on them, incur all the expenses of picking and packing, and all the risks of loss pre- 
vious to the first sale. 

The retailer who has a stall 20 feet square in the market, ora shop 20 by 60 feet, 
sells all the produce of two dozen orchards and gardens, covering an area of several 
hundred acres, and receives as much for the labor of himself, one clerk, perhaps, and 
a teamster, who delivers his merchandise to the consumers at their houses, as the two 
dozen orehardists and gardeners. The retailers do not get rich, but they live with 
more ease and in a more expensive manner than the farmers who have done the chief 
work, furnished most of the capital, and incurred all the risks. The producers get 
little, the consumers pay much; the middlemen take the bulk of the profit. No 
orchardist. or gardener has his own retail establishment in the city, nor is there any 
cobperative association of any class of agriculturists to sell their produce, except in 
the wine business, and that partakes of the nature of a manufacture. ; 

Middlemen are and always will be indispensable, and they must be paid. The far- 
mer may carry his produce to the bouse of the consumer, but then he becomes a mid- 
dleman for the time; the consumer may go to the garden to make his purchases, but 
he, too, becomes a middleman. Producers and cousumers generally cannot meet, and 
the transactions between them must go through the hands of others. But the number 
and the profits of middlemen are disproportionately large, and as they contribute 
nothing to production, and are burdens on the producing classes, it seems to be the 
interest of the general public that they should be reduced as much as practicable. 

It sees impossible, however, to make any reductions without departing from princi- 
ples of business sanctioned by custom and long experience. We have in San Fran- 
cisco five large uarket-honses, each of which has tive to ten small stalls where vegeta- 
bles and fruits are sold. One large stall could do all the business at less expense; but 
if the proprietor of this large stal] could drive out all the little ones, instead of making 
fruit cheaper for the consumer he would probably charge them the same price, and put 
the profit in his pocket. Even if he should prowise to reduce the price to the con- 
sumer and inerease it to the producer, we would fear to give him the monopoly of the 
privilege of selling fruits and vegetables in that. market and in its vicinity. It is evi- 
dent, however, that the only improvement must come from a reduction in the number 
of middlemen, systematizing their business, and holding them to account. 

Our laws permit, and public opinion encourages, cobperative movements; but in frit 
and veyetables, which differ greatly in value when first fit for market and are seri- 
ously injured by delay and carelessness in seuding to market, codperation % beset by 
serions obstacles, yet it might no doubt be managed with success, and it seems to be 
our chief hope for a decrease of the evils which accompany the present method of 
placing farm produce within convenient reach of the consuniers. 

Many frauds are committed by the agents who receive provisions for the San Fran- 
ciscu market on commission, in misrepresenting the prices and reporting stocks as 
spoiled and ansold, when, in reality, they have been sold in good condition ; but these 
frauds seem to be beyond reach, as a class, as long as the present system is maintained 
aud men are dishonest. 

The only municipal regulations of San Francisco affecting marketmen are those fix- 
ing the licenses which they must pay. Peddlers of provisions selling from wagons pay 
$20 per quarter for each vehicle used; venders in market-houses pay $4 per stall per 
quarter. The city has no market-bouse or market-square, and, although large quanti- 
ties of vegetables are sold from wagons which occupy stands in the street, uo ordi- 
nance authorizes them to occupy any street or fixes the times at which they may sell 
or at which they must move. Sansome street, near Washington, is crowded every 
morning, from five to eight o’clock, with wagons laden with kitchen vegetables, and 
with the purchasers, but the marketmen get permission to occupy their stands, not 
from the city authorities, but from the owners of the lots fronting on the street. San- 
some is a narrow street and has no advantage for the marketmen, except that the 
business is established there. 


The mischiefs of a false system of distribution are admirably illustrat- 
ed in this elear recital of our correspondent on the Pacifie slope. The 
practical result is that 10,0¢0 bushels of pears fell to the earth and 
rotted in the orchards of Santa Ciara, or were thrown by the bushel to 
the pigs, while the price of a pear on a street-stand in San Francisco, 
50 miles distant, was five cents. The small farmer on the plainsof Ala- 
meda is discouraged because he can get nothing for what he raises, and 
the small shopkeeper in the city across the bay is discouraged because 
his gains are frittered away in unjust profits at the market-lhouse. 


248 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


These evils do not appear to be so serious in any other seaboard city 
of the East as at Newark. This place has a population of 110,000, 
the majority of whom are artisans and laborers, who earn about four 
dollars a day. The great metropolis, ten miles away, draws everything, 
and gives its citizens the first cuts of beeves, the fattest of the chops, 
and the largest peaches. The farms on one side of Newark may be able 
to supply the cabbages and beets, the lettuce and tomatoes required, 
but in the weightier items of family expense, as bread and flesh, our 
cOPeR HONEA who gives a chapter of Newark grievances, enlarges as 

ollows: 


A hundred-weight of the best flour ever baked costs, at the mills along the Central 
Railroad of New Jersey, $3 50. This is the retail price, either by the hundred-weight 
or by a 25-pound bag. The average freight from any wheat-producing district in the 
State, including cartage from the depot, does not exceed 20 cents per hundred. Com- 
mission men say they receive about 5 per cent., and sell to storekeepers for $4. But 
what becomes of the miller’s deduction for wholesale rates? The storekeeper sells 
nine-tenths of his flour in small bags, weighing 25 pounds each, at the rate of 5 to 6 
cents per pound. Thus the difference in the price of flour in Newark and places 25 
miles distant is $1 50 to $2 50 per hundred-weight; that is, from $3 to $5 by the bar- 
rel. But very excellent flour can be bonght of some dealers for $8 per barrel, while an 
inferior quality sells for $6 50. Unfortunately, mechanics and laborers do not always 
have the money to pay for a whole barrel of flour, and mist divide their week’s wages 
among the different articles needed. A class of dealers buy flour by the barrel, and 
put it up in paper bags, on which is printed “ Best Family Flour.” The unsuspecting 
housekeeper purchases this. Sometimes the commonest sort of low-priced stuff has 
been palmed upon her. This abuse has grown so common, that purchasing one of 
these bags is like buying a “pig in a poke.” A flour dealer in Elizabeth, a village of 
10,000 people, says that, when he wasin the grocery business in Newark,de bagged 
$3 50 flour and sold it for $5, but in his present locality and business he dare not do it. 
A man who had lived in Warren County stepped into a Newark grocery store to buy 
some buckwheat. The price was $4; at the next store, it was $5; at the next, $6. 

Dairymen receive four cents per quart for milk shipped per rail to Newark. It is re- 
tailed for ten cents per quart; freight, one ccat per quart. 

Farmers sell potatoes by the bushel or by the quantity at $1 per bushel, while gro- 
cers sell them at $1 40. Last spring, while they were carted around the streets of 
Rahway, njne miles distant, for 45 cents, we paid at stores $1, and often got the mean- 
est kind at that. Tomatoes, sold by farmers for 50 and 75 cents per basket, cost con- 
sumers, at some stores, $1 to $1 20. Peaches are sold by middlemen at whatever they 
will bring, large quantities being retailed at the rate of $3 per basket, for which the 
farmer received about $1 25. Of butter there is no general complaint, the price being 
reasonable and the quality good, yet at country stores within an hour's ride of New- 
ark it has been ten cents per pound lower than here, and of superior quality. Eggs 
bring from 5 to 10 cents more per dozen than in the surrounding villages; but, on the 
principle that old wine is better than new, they are worth more, especially with an 
occasional spring-chicken in the shells. 

Our meat trouble commenced with .the war. The supply comes chiefly from the 
Communipaw cattle-yards, the whole number of cattle and sheep fitted for market in 
New Jersey in a year not being sufficient to supply the city of Newark for a month. 
During the war some operators bought up all the cattle they could lay their hands on, 
shipped them to Albany, and dribbled them out at their own prices. Afterward they 
were taken to New York and sold at auction to jobbers, who sold them to slaughterers, 
who sold them to middlemen, who sold them to consumers at a precious price. 

_ This illustrates the way in which beef has reached consumers in our market ever 
since, though of late the increasing supply of cattle has a tendency to break up this 
business. The difference in price between beef and mutton has narrowed down to a 
nominal sum, beef having slightly declined and mutton reached unwarrantable fig- 
ures; while, no matter what the charges at the drove-yards, there is little or no varia- 
tion in the price charged customers. Butchers, who are believed to sell the best beef, 
Say they buy no low-priced stock; that they pay from 13 to 16 cents per pound net 
weight for cattle ou the hoof, kill and sell the carcass to middlemen for the same, or 
less, per pound than they give, taking the hide and tallow as profit. Beeves aro 
scaled at from 50 to 57 pounds per hundred-weight; that is, for every 100 pounds live 
weight, 50 or 57 pounds of meat are counted. They say that of a carcass not more than 
30 pounds per hundred-weight can be sold at an advance. Yet there is no part sold, 
except a very small portion of the neck and shins, for less than 15 cents per pound, and 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OF THE COUNTRY. 249 


the price paid by middle-men during the past summer has seldom been more than 14 cents. 
Purchasers know that they cannot buy a roast or fry for less than 25 cents, and often it 
is 28 to 35, while the poor cuts are sold for 15 to 22. While our respectable butchers will 
sell nothing but good meat, others are constantly on the look-out for low-priced cattle, 
poor, miserable, lean, stringy, diseased, over-driven beasts, whose quarters are cut up 
in the cheap meat shops, the best roasts and steaks selected out for low-priced eating 
houses, and the remainder sold, at whatever price can be had, to that class of people 
who inhabit the dirtiest portions of the city. These slaughterers also buy up all of the 
bob calves and sickly sheep within their reach. 

Farmers who have slaughtered sheep say that such as bring the highest prices will 
dress 60 pounds per hundred-weight. Some time since 10,000 sheep sold at Communipaw 
at an average of $4each. One pelt is as good as another, and the price fixed was 80 cents 
each, bringing eacli sheep down to $3 20. Suppose each dressed 50 pounds per hundred- 
weight, and was sold to the middlemen for 12 cents, then there would be nearly $3 
per head or 100 per cent. profit to the butcher. Put the price at 10 cents, and we 
have 50 pounds for $5, or $1.80 advance for the butcher. In vain may it be said that 
thin sheep will not bring these prices; the thin sheep only cost 4 cents per pound, and 
when nicely dressed with inside adipose from fat sheep delicately twined around their 
clean legs, why, then, a leg of mutton is a leg of mutton and sells for 25 cents per 
pound. A mutton has two legs which will weigh, say, 5 pounds each; amount $2 50; 
sell 12 pounds of chops for 20 cents, $2 40, and the remaining 28 pounds at 12 vents, 
$3 36, and your sheep amounts to $8 26. Cut and carve as we will, meat costs money. 

Take it the other way. The Newark retail-market quotations fix mutton at 14 and 
18, or 16 cents average. If the middleman paid 10 cents, he made $6 on 100 pounds, or 
60 per cent.- If be paid 12 cents he made 33% per cent. 

There may be a slight variation from these figures, prime sheep selling at 6}, but 
they dress over 60 pounds per hundred-weight, and more than make up the difference. 

Grass calves sell at 4 and 6cents. These will yield at least 60 pounds of meat per 
hundred-weight. Allowing the butcher the skin for the trouble of taking it off, the car- 
cass costs him $5. Sold at 15 cents per pound, it brings $9, or 89 percent. above cost. If 
it cost more than grass calves, let the difference go against the poor little things bought © 
up by thousands from milkmen at $1 perhead. On calves for which butchers now pay an 
average price of 10 cents per pound, and which are sold for 18 by the carcass, the profit is 
not so heavy, but the few that cost 10 cents are mixed with inferior ones, which reduces 
the average; besides, calves bought at the highest price will dress heavier than poor 
ones. Calves carried along distance in the hot sun, with their legs tied together, 
become fevered and make unwholesome meat. We have seen them tossed into a cart, 
hauled five miles, and thrown on a station-platform to lie seven hours, with their legs 
doubled, the cords cutting to the bone. 

It is due to the butchers of our city to state that among them are to be found many 
honorable, fair-dealing men, who, though they follow the fashions and fix great prices, 
give us some of the most juicy, tender, and excellent beef and mutton to be found in 

-any market. They have their backsets and lose heavily by those who buy on credit. 
Newark is deficient in market accommodations. The rapid extension of the city seems 
to demand some change, as two-thirds of the population are now compelled to travel 
one to two miles, or depend upon exorbitant shopkeepers for their supplies. 


While the reports from San Francisco and Newark indicate abuses 
which are sufficient to arrest general attention, some cities, more con- 
veniently situated as centers of great producing districts, make little or 
no complaint. Cincinnati, for example, gives the following brief sum- 
mary, aud the accounts from St. Louis aré similar : 


Cincinnati markets are open each week-day from dawn till 10 in the morning in 
summer, and from 6 to1lin winter. Certain convenient stands the farmers are allowed 
to oceupy with their wagons, and expose what they have for sale. Hucksters are each 
required to pay to the city a license of twenty dollars a year. Farmers pay no license, 
and are subjected to no special restrictions, our usages encouraging the largest freedom 
of direct traflic with the producer. The markets are under the supervision of market- 
masters appointed by the city. There have been periodical complaints of the combina- 
tions of hucksters and middle-men by which prices were exacted from the consumer 
out of all due proportion to those received by the producer. We bear little of this 
matter of late, and such investigation as we have instituted has as yet failed to disclose 
any glaring discrepancy between prices in the city and in the country. Our market 
system appears to be working smoothly, and, for aught thatnow appears, it gives general 
satisfaction. 


In Buffalo, hucksters make about 25 per cent. profit on produce bought 
from farmers, and the correspondent thinks the middlemen a useful class, 


Pet age they enable the farmer to sell out early and get back to his farm 
work. 


250 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. — 


In Louisville, corn, hay, oats, and potatoés are sold by farmers direetly 
to consumers; fruits and vegetables are sold to numerous hucksters, 
whose profits range from 25 to 50 per eent. Their ageucy is counted an 
advantage also, as the farmer can sell owt quickly and save much time. 


THE MEAT SUPPLIES OF GREAT CITIES. 


Counting the cities and villages near New York as parts of the 
great metropolitan center, the problem daily presented to the railroad 
men, the drovers, and butchers is, how are two millions of persons to ob- 
tain their supplies of good, wholesome flesh, when the center of the flesh- 
producing region is 1,000 miles distant and steadily reeeding westward? 
Nor is the victualing of New York alone the extent of the task. Within 
twenty miles of Boston there are 650,000 persons that must depend 
mainly for fesh upon grass and corn farms west of the mountains. 

The people of Philadelphia are fed to a great extent in the same way, 
but the fine farming region north and west of that city dees a great 
deal toward her meat supply. Baltimore and Washington receive their 
beeves from West Virginia, from the Piedmont counties of VirginiA, 
from the northern part of Maryland, and from Ohio, by way of the Bal- 
timore and Ohio Railroad. A careful estimate of the population of the 
eastern cities shows that about four millions of people must receive their 
meat by car transportation, and that three-fourths of such meat mast be 
carried a thousand to twelve hundred miles. 

What is the present method? The Union stock-yards of Chicago are 
an immense gathering ground of animals from [llinois, lowa, Missouri, 
Kansas, and Kentucky. They are owned by a joint-stock company, 
With a capital stock of $1,000,000, the most of which is held by nine of 
the leading railroads that concentrate in that city. 

The premises of the company comprise 345 acres, 120 of which are 
covered by 5U0 pens, ranging from 25 by 35 feet to 85 by 112 feet. 
Fifty additional acres are devoted to hotel and other buildings, leaving 
175 acres tor future use. The pens will easily contain at a time 25,000 
head of cattle, 100,000 hogs, 50,000 sheep, and 350 horses in stalls. 

The whole yard is underlaid with drains that discharge into a 
sewer. Hach of the 500 pens is floored with 3-inch planks, laid a short 
distance apart, on sills raised from the surface of the ground; the yards 
are thereby kept dry. Unlike the plan at Communipaw, of placing 
the hogs and sheep under a single roof, there are 2U acres covered by 
one-story pens for sheep and hogs. ‘These are open a foot or more from 
the roof, and are separated from tbe outside world by a board fence, 
which does not furnish the best protection from storm or cold. 

The yard is divided into four parts by two streets crossing at right 
angles, and these parts are so subdivided that each drove can be sepa- 
rated into companies of fifty by driving the animals a few rods. Hach 
of the principal railroads has 1,000 feet of platform with chutes leading 
into little yards that will hold a car-load, and these again empty into 
other aud larger ones to suit the convenience of the drover. There are 
six barns on the ground, each of which will hold 500 tons of pressed 
hay, and six corn-cribs, each of which is ample fer 6,000 bushels of 
corn on the ear. The yards are supplied with water by an artesian 
well, 1,190 feet deep, and the water is carried from the surface of the 
ground into five immense tanks, set 25 feet above the ground, and then 
is distributed where it is needed. A hotel and bank are on the 
premises. Comparatively few cattle are slaughtered here. Most of 
them are brought in by droves and put into the hands of a, broker who 
Sells them to eastern and southern buyers, always by weight, for which 


} 


THE MARKET SYSTEMS OF THE COUNTRY. 251 


service the drover pays 50 cents for each bullock sold and perhaps one- 

uth of that sum for each hog or sheep, and 25 cents each as stock- 
yard fees on cattle, and 8 cents on hogs and sheep. The buyer pays 
for the cattle before they leave the yard. They are then driven through 
the chutes into the cars for transportation to their destination. 

In 1870 the total number of each class received was: Cattle, 532,964 ; 
hogs, 1,693,158; sheep, 349,855; horses, 3,537, a large proportion of 
which remained but two or three days before reshipment. Only a part 
of these animals, especially the beeves, are fit for the butcher when they 
leave Chicago. Many are taken to the great corn-growing regions of 
Iiinois and Indiana, and fed for several months. Ohio fattens a large 
number. Many of these animals come back to Chicago when they are 
in conidition, and are taken to the eastern consumers by cattle trains. 
The abuses on these eattle trains have arrested the attention of public- 
spirited men and humanitarians, and much has been urged in journals 
and before the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, but with 

little effect that meat in the markets of the great eastern cities has not 

aterially improved either in quality, wholesomeness, or cheapness. 
Whenua beef is driven up a chute and forced into a cattle car, Lis worry 
begins. He is jammed against other beeves, he is alarmed and irritated, 
Sometimes his temper is soured, and he begins to gore right and left in the 
hope of fighting bis way to freedom. Then begins the strange alarming 
motion of the car, the jostle and the roar. From protracted fear and 
apprehension, the condition of the heart changes; the system becomes 
feverish ; he loses appetite; and sometimes, though consumed with thirst, 
he is too much alarmed to drink. The result is, that a thousand miles’ 
ride takes 100 to 500 pounds of flesh from an animal ; and he is in a jaded, 
sore, aud feverish state when the butcher’s mallet puts an end to his long 
misery. 

A law has been proposed requiring the cattle trains to stop and let the 
animals have rest and pasturage two or three times on their way from 
Chicago to the sea-board cities. This would not amend the mischief. 
_ When an animal bas suffered from this fright and fever of rail car tran- 

Sit, a rest of 24 hours does him little or no good. He is dull and lump- 
ish for a week. He is turned into a strange pasture where he meets 
new grasses, and at first he does not relish them so well as the prairie 
growth. It will be three weeks or a month before he begins to gain in 
flesh, and then he fattens very slowly. In addition to the loss by ema 
ciation, a third, and often a half, of the cattle that reach New York, 
especially those coming by the Erie railroad, are badly bruised. When a 
car is uarrow, and some care is taken, the animals pack with greater 
comfort to themselves than in a wider inclosure. Erie is broad-gauge, 
and the animals, taken at furious speed down heavy grades and around 
sharp turns, are jammed against each other, and those on the 
outside are dashed against the sides of the car with such force that a 
large bruise will be found to extend quite through the flesh between 
the ribs, and the meat looks yellow and livid, and is quite unfit for food ; 
yet bruised quarters are sold every day by the hundred in Washington 
market. It retails at two or three cents below the price of sound meat, 
. aud the loss from this source falls mainly on the wholesale butcher, 
because no examination of the bullock will disclose the condition of the 
flesh beneath the skin. In the summerof 1870 these and similar abuses 
in New York stock-yards were the subject of investigation by a ¢com- 
mittee of the Farmers’ Club of New York, and their report thus recites 
a series of neglects and brutalities: 

‘There is great indifference on the part of drovers and proprietors of the yards to the 


252 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


health and comfort of the animals under their charge. Generally, no covered sheds are 
provided for horned cattle, and the yards contain no adequate convenience for the 
accommodation of cattle unloaded from trains in a fatigued condition after long travel. 

In hot weather the supply of water is insufficient, the troughs are foul, and the 
water muddy; in severe winter weather the troughs are frozen over, and the cattle 
are forced to lick the ice or to eat the frozen snow to partially satisfy their thirst. Dry 
hay is the food furnished in all seasons. The cattle-pens are filthy and unwholesome. 
Fat cattle are exposed to extreme suffering in hot weather, and fat bullocks have been 
seen lying at full length on the floor with their tongues lolling ont of their mouths, no 
water being given to them nor any thrown on their heads. 

In extreme winter weather, light steers, coming from the cars bruised and crippled, 
and unfit to withstand the cold, are exposed to great suffering ; their tails become frozen 
for several inches, and icicles depend from their flanks, ears, and beards. In wet weather 
the pens are filled with filthy slush, emitting foul and deleterious vapor, and steers 
have been dragged out from this slush and their throats cut to prevent death by snf- 
focation. Thesé facts indicate that the cattle slanghtered for the consumption of the 


city are, toa very great extent, in a feverish condition, and conseqvently nnfit for | 


human fogd. The sheep-houses are protected from the weather; but the sheep and 
lambs confined in them are always overcrowded, and when changed are badly 
treated and over-driven, and when put on the scales are packed so closely as to b 
unable to stand. Hogs receive the grossest treatment, and their pens are very filthy, 

Mr. Bergh, in his report for 1869 on cruelties to animals, st4tes that i8 
has been his practice to visit the great cattle depots of the city during 
the winter, choosing the most inclement days for his visits. In one 
yard, situated in an elevated part of the suburbs, wholly exposed to 
north and west winds, and totally unprovided with shelter, were hun- 
dreds of animals, some of them coated with ice, the result of a snow- 
fall which had partially melted and had again become frozen. Mr. 
Bergh urges the passage of a law restraining these crbelties, with pro- 
vision for an inspector of cattle-yards, with necessary assistants, and 
with authority to arrest any butcher slaughtering crippled or exhausted 
animals. 

A visit to the abattoirs, and conversations with the large butchers of 
Washington market, some of whom handle a thousand quarters in a 
day, have convinced us that the abuses above described and the slaugh- 
tering of sick and battered bullocks are on the increase. One dealer 
says that he buys lots that come on the Erie railroad in which one- 
third of the bullocks have great livid and yellow places on their loins 
and ribs. He has customers with whom the reduction of one or two 
cents per pound will always secure the sale of this anwholesome meat. 

It is doubtful whether any legislation on the transit of live-stock will 
cure the mischief. The difficulty is, to a great extent, in the nature 
of things, in the configuration of the continent, in the fixed laws of cli- 
mate. The region where the fattening grains can be grown in great 
quantities and with profit begins at a line drawn south from Cleveland 
and extends to the middle of Kansas and Nebraska. Illinois, the great 
corn State, is in the middle of this magnificent belt. The boundary 
between the corn lands and the grass lands is not sharply defined, but 
none of the pioneer settlers. think corn can be raised in quantity and 
with profit west of the mouth of the North Platte. But the immense 
region west of this produces an abundance of hardy, nutritious grass, 
on which animals can live and grow, and often become quite fat. The 
natural course of pastoral agriculture in such a country is, that the grass, 
belt should produce the cattle, and the corn belt should finish them and 


fit them for the knife. This is now, to a great extent, the course of - 


business. Those who have brought grass-fed beeves from the great 
plains directly to the eastern cities have seldom made anything in such 


+ 


- 


THE MARKET seniiade OF THE COUNTRY. 253 


the Illinois, and the Wabash to tide-water cities. An attentive consid- 
eration of the subject, and conversation with the beef merchants, have 
convinced us that the true line of improvement lies in the direction of 
a well-regulated beef express from Chicago and St. Louis to New York, 
Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. There are two ways in which 
such express can work with profit. By the use of padded cars, made 
expressly for the purpose, with movable partitions, each animal can 
stand in one place without being jostled, horned, or kicked by his fel- 
Jow prisoners. If, in addition to such improvement, the cars ean be 
rolied at a rapid and uniform rate, say at an average of 15 miles an 
hour, fat and gentle beeves can be taken from regions where corn is 40 
cents a bushel + to cities where steaks are 50 cents a pound, aud in this 
industry there is much profit for the drover and little suffering or loss 
of weight for the animal. 

By inventions and improvements, in which each year sees important 
advances, dressed meat can be taken from the Mississippi to the great 
cities with very slight decline in quality. The inventors in this line are 
required not merely to produce a chamber of low temperature, but a dry 
atmosphere. It is found that meat in an atmosphere of 60° to 70° that 
is dry retains its flavor and sweetness much longer than if held at 35° 
or 40° and then exposed freely to the water-laden air of tide-water 
towns. To secure an abundance of wholesome and cheap meats to all 
the inhabitants of the Atlantic slope, a system, something as described 
in outline below, is demanded. The animals should be collected, as re- 
quired in eastern markets, in or near three or four western cities; 
Chicago, St. Louis, Springfield, and Burlington, are suggested as suited 
to the present demand, but Kansas City, Omaha, and Abilene would 
soon be added. Inthese towns let large slaughter-houses be erected 
with ail the refinements and improvements known to science. For in- 
stance, the use of dry loam and of carbolic acid will so effectually 
absorb and utilize all the filth of slaughter-pens and slaughter-houses 
that such buildings need not pollute the waters of rivers and harbors 
in the least. As a part of such establishment, a large cooling-chamber 
is required, where as many as two thousand quarters could hang at a 
time. By absorbent surfaces or substances, these chambers should be 
kept dry as well as cool, and the animal heat as drawnshould be driven 
off and fresh air supplied. From this cooling-room the meat should be 
loaded into refrigerator cars, and enough should be taken from one 
abattoir to make up a meat express train, which should move at 20 
miles an hour, and make not more than three or four stoppages between 
the great rivers of the West and the eastern cities. In this way, within 
forty to fifty hours from the time a beef is killed, his quarters, in per- 
ect condition, could be hanging in an eastern market-house. The 
many incidental advantages of such ai improved system of raeat sup- 
ply need not be fully described here; the blood and offal would be re- 
tained and applied to corn and erain lands, for which they are the best 
fertilizers. The industries that are connected with a proper utilizing of 
the hides, hair, horns, bones, and gelatine, would enlarge manufacturing 
enterprise in those sections where production is out of proportion to local 
consumption. However important thése advantages, they are trifling 
as compared with the relief of animal suffering, for which, as the busi- 
ness is now conducted, we have no arithmetic subtle enough and large 
enough. Medical men cannot tell us just what maladies are bred by 
the use of feverish and livid meats, or by the introduction into the system 
of tue saltpeter that is largely used to make bruised meats less offen- 
sive to the eye; but no physician will say that the flesh of a feverish, 


254 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


dall, and bruised animal, worried by long travel, and sore in every 
quarter from kicks and pounding, is wholesome food. 

The whole subject of the meat supplies of this continent, the grazing 
interest, the drovers’ trade, its relations to railroads, and the butchering 
and sale of meats have received very little of the attention of law-makers 
or of organizing talent in any ferm. In some respects these things can be 
left to the working of the great laws of traffic, bit traffic is guided 
solely by immediate self interest; it is incapable of far-sighted wis- 
dom; it is blind to the essential and permanent good of the greatest 
nuinber. There are two steps which the Government can take without 

_the least impropriety, and which, in concluding tiris paper, we venture to_ 
urge upon the attention of Congress. 

1, The appointment of a commission to examime into the subject of the 
transportation of live animals, to ferret out its abuses, and suggest 
modes by which those abuses and the mischief they create may be mit- 
igated or wholly removed. 

2. The offering of a special prize of honor te the inventor who will 
perfect and carry into practice the best method for the transportation 
of dressed meats over long distances,and at all seasons. } 

Every branch of this general subject—that of feeding one section of 
the country from the surplus of another section—gathers importance with 
the lapse of every year and the building of every new east-and-west 
road. A few years ago the eggs of New York City were laid in the 
barus of New. Jersey and Peunsylvania; to-day, Ohio is doing more than 
any other State to meet that demand, and eggs are forwarded by the barrel 
from Kentucky, Tennessee, and {ndiana. The tubs of batterin Fulton 
or Market-street market may be made from the grasses of Orange, - 
Herkimer, or Delaware County, but quite probably they came from 
Wisconsin or Kansas. The increase of railroads, the addition of through 
lines, and the increasing speed of all thé trains, are year by year working 
important changes in market systems. The farmer was once but a day’s 
drive by horse from the city where his surplus was consumed; now he 
is five hundred miles away; in another decade he will be a thousand 
miles away; yet in some respects he is nearer than he was when the 
spires of his market-town could be seen from the hill back of his house. 
Marketing thus grows into a special trade, requiring special confidences 
with railroad men aud a knewledge of cities that the werking farmer 
has neither the time nor the tact to acquire. On the other hand, the 
crowds in great towus who must buy at the nearest store, and must buy 
a cheap article no matter how it looks or smells, will constantly 
increase; this increase is inseparable from a high and many-sided civiliza- 
tion such as ours.. From this situation the perpetual and growing demand 
is that the preducer be, in every sense, brought nearer the consumer, 
and the consumer be brought into cleser and more natural relations with 
the producer. A wise and. sagacious government will give its closest 
attention to the solution of this problem. . 

The efforts of this Department, through which the attention of the 
Government was first called to the dangers of the splenic fever derived 
from southern cattle, and to the spread of the pleuro-pneumonia, as well 
as to the losses incurred by neglect and inhumane exposure of farm 
stock, will still be directed to the improvement of cattle transportation 
and the abundant supply of healthful meats at fair prices to the dwellers 
in American cities. It is a sabject of national importance, and one de- 
manding deliberate investigation, and such general legislation as may 
be required to give efficiency to practical reforms in cattle transporta- 
tion and meat supply. 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. . 255 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. 


Does farming pay in New England? This vexed gestion bas pro- . 
voked much discussion of late in the literature and social life of the 
country districts of the East. It is stated, on one side, that the farming 
population has decreased ; bill farms have been given over to pasturage 
or natural forestry ; hired labor is not generally found remunerative ; 
the boys are leaving the farms, avd the girls are following the boys to 
the West, to the commercial cities, and to the manufacturing centers. 
On the other hand, it is asserted that high prices are obtained for farm 
products; the soil ylelds more per acre than the general average of the, 
country ; some branches of production have actually shown an advance 
during the last decade; and even that the concentration of available 
labor on the more easily worked soils, with the abandonment of rough 
and rocky lands to forest growths, constitutes a policy sound and sensi- 
ble, promotive of production directly, and of indirect advantage by its 
tendency to the modification of climate. These assertions, on beth sides, 
- are all either positively true, or else partially and from a certain stand- 
pdint correct. Labor upon ill-comlitioned soil, on unsuitable crops, or 
with mismanagement, may net prove remunerative, while that directed 
in right channels, upen a soil having the elements of fertility in soluble 
and otherwise available condition, may yield a hundred-fold in profit. 

It is true that agriculture and kindred arts do not occupy the highest 
’ place in the industry of New England, or secure the largest profits of 
labor in that region. An advanced position has long since been taken 
in manufactures, and a large portion of the local labor, skill, and busi- 
ness tact has been:employed in the mechanic arts. Commerce is a 
prominent and profitable resource of the large cities; and the fisheries 
employ the labor and capital of a portion of the coast population. The 
comparatively small class employed in rural pursuits, depleted by emi- 
gration induced by ‘the fertility and cheapness of Western lands, has 
been drained of its youth, skill, and enterprise to a degree seriously: 
interfering with spirited and aggressive effort. Many a farm of ample 
acreage is left to the rheumatic labor of advancing decrepitude, in seed- 
time and in harvest, in the care of stock, marketing of products, and 
purchase of supplies. There is no strength for repairs, no ambition for 
improvement, and no expectation of more than a bare subsistence. Is 
it strange that discouragement should be felt and expressed in such a 
case? This discouragement is thus rather accidental than necessary. 
That there does not exist real cause for gloomy forebodings is due to 
the influence of other industries in creating markets and advancing 
prices of farm products. : 


EXAMPLES OF PROFITABLE FARMING. 


This topic has been suggested by communications from farmers of 
New Engiand, and by discussions at conventions and in the newspapers. 
We have made no geueral investigation into the status of New England 
farming, and shall not present here its salient points in detail, but will 
give a few of the communications received which present evidence of 
profitable farming, and suggest a possibility for the many which has 
already been achieved by a few. The first statement is from a well- 
known agriculturist in Connecticut, Mr. T. 8. Gold, of Cornwall: 


The following reports of successful farming in Connecticut are selected from differ- 
ent sections of the State, with the design of showing that skillful, intelligent culture 
pays a good return on the investment. I have avoided those cases where men have 
applied large means obtained either by inheritance or from other pursuits to the im- 


256 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


provement of their farms. The price of land in Westport and Greenwich is affected by 
proximity to New York, and its value for residences and country places is often more 
than for strictly aggicultural uses. An extract from the concluding part of the report 
of the Connecticut State Agricultural Society shows somewhat the relative rank of our 
farmers, especially in stock raising: 

“A word in behalf of Connecticut agriculture. Is it worthy of State patronage? 
Can we do anything at farming in Connecticut? At the New England fair held last 
September, at Manchester, New Hampshire, Connecticut received the sweepstakes 
and herd premiums in the four leading breeds, Devons, Short-horns, Ayrshires, and Jer- 
seys, with a large share of the first premiums in each of these classes. The competi- 
tion was close, for there never was gathered a better show of cattle in New England. 
This is the rank we hold with our cattle. From the report of the Fairfield County 
Agricultural Society I find that Mr. T. B. Wakeman, of Westport, received a net profit 
of $2,500 from three acres of grapes. Colonel Thomas A. Mead, of Greenwich, had 824 
bushels of shelled corn per acre, on a field of ten acres, one single acre yielding 106 
bushelsof shelled corn. Mr. Arthur Sherwood, of Westport, raised 300 bushels of potatoes 
en one acre, and Mr. Elisha Gray, of Westport, had on one acre 800 bushels of onions. ~ 
This for a dryseason. Last year Messrs. 8. M.and D. Wells, of Wethersfield, raised 1,000 
bushels of onions per acre, which sold on the field for $1 25 per bushel. Why need 
we be ashamed of Connecticut agriculture, when we have such examples for our en- 
couragement?” i br 

Westport is situated on the Sound, about 40 miles from New York, with which it has 
direct communication both by water and railroad. High culture with, high manuripg 
has resulted in vastly increased productivenéss. Onions, potatoés, hay, and frnit form 
the principal articles of sale from the farms. About sixteen years since the farmers 
here began the application of leached ashes, which practice has so increased that now, 
in an area of six miles square, 70,000 bushels of ashes are annually used. These are 
bronght in canal boats from Canada, and cost twenty cents per bushel. In addition 
to this the same territory uses about 80 tons of bone-dust and twenty tons of super- 
phosphate. Many single acres are shown from which the gross product, either in 
onions or fruit, has exceeded $1,000 per acre, while the general product of farm crops of 
all kinds is very large. As examples I give the product of three farms. That of Mr. 
F. D. Wakeman, Westport, containing 60 acres, valued at $24,000, is devoted mostly to 
fruit. The products sold in 1870 were: , 


Grapes, 3 acres, (mostly Concords and Hartford Prolifics,) 30,000 Ibs-.-..---.-. $2, 500 
4} acres potatoes, sold 400 bushels. .............----------- ---- 20 ---+------- 500 
Strawberries, raised in part between the grape vines, 2,500 quarts--.----------. 500 
Carranis and Gurranh bushes: .—- -.- <-. --o<2 cece ee=-s----= gece ce res oneness 500 
Apples, pears, and other fruits, wine and cider, and grain.......--.~.-.------- 2, 100 
ay) TONE, Bb POU... 2-6 ak owes Sone pee woes chee Seween sene=s oooh SaeeeEe 600 
tle s wee cae ncn a a ise wate ne ncn e a sects ssew ences eeeasesona\--= ses =U 800 

7,500 


Mr. Wakeman keeps fifteen or more breeding sows, selling the pigs. The grain 
needed for them, besides the refuse of the farm, is mostly raised. This year he had five 
acres of wheat, yielding 30 bushels per acre; a part sold for seed at $2 25 per bushel. 
No account is taken of what is consumed in the family or used for necessary teams, 
and by the cows furnishing milk and butter. 


There was an outlay of $100 for fruit-boxes, and $1,600 for labor..-..-.-.--.-. $1, 700 
AONE LOUO DUShelsashes Per Year---- .--2-. -2- ccs aoe wc- wee cr eee a === =e eee 200 
Inperesp on farm and tools, at six per cont...---.... .... <0. 22.22 ee =e 1,500 
HeEen HO OiOlNOXPONSOS: 2-2 socal seb eeee corn cacc's cae doce een eee 600 

4, 000 


Deducting this from the gross sales, we have $3,500 remaining. The value of the 
proprietor’s owa labor and supervision must be deducted from this, except so far as it 
is met by his own support and that of his family, mostly derived from the farm. 

Mr. H. B. Wakeman, of Westport, gives “a fair estimate of income and expenses for 
the past year” of his farm of 60 acres, valued at $24,000. He received for strawberries 
52,500; raspberries, $200; currants, $900; grapes, mostly Concord, $1,200; pears, $150; 
quinces, $100; early rose potatoes, $500; onions, $500; strawberry plants, $150; cur- 
rant bushes and cuttings, $600; hay, $150; pigs, $50; total, $7,000. In addition to 
this he made 750 gallons of wine, 225 bushels of corn, 70 bushels wheat, 20 bushels rye. 
ats corn, wheat, aud rye are consumed. Quite a sum is realized from butter and eggs 
sold. 

The expenses for help were $1,700, (mostly German and Swede, which is about one- 
third cheaper than Irish;) one ton superphosphate, $60; one ton bone-dust, $35; 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. 257 


average about 1,000 bushels ashes per year, at 20 cents per bushel, $200; interest and 
taxes, $2,000; total, $3,995. This leaves a profit of $3,005, without considering the 
products not estimated. The Messrs. Wakeman are brothers. Another brother con- 
ducts an adjoining farm with like energy and success. The old farm upon which they 
were raised, and which then yielded but scanty returns for rude culture, now pays well 
by its abundant crops for the plentiful and intelligent labor bestowed upon it. 

Mr. FrankJin Sherwood, and his son, Arthur Sherwood, of Westport, have a farm of 50 
acres, worth $400 to $600 per acre for farming purposes. They obtained this year, on 
oue acre and 34 rods 400 bushels of early rose potatoes, worth $1 25 per bushel; 90 
barrels of white globe onions on 4} acres, at $7 per barrel, and 600 barrels of red globe, 
at $5 per barrel, worth, together, $3,630. On the onion land 25 loads of barn-yard 
manure per acre were applied, and one ton per acre of bone-dust on 24 acres. The total 
expenses for labor and manure did not exceed $630, leaving $3,000 for interest, super- 
vision, and profit. 

These were the two principal crops sold, but Mr. Sherwood had a fine crop of Surprise 
seed oats, potatoes of several varieties, fruit and cider, yielding enough to pay the 
hired labor, which cost about $1,000. 

Captain Sherwood till within a few years followed the sea. His success as a farmer 
illustrates the benetit of thorough business habits upon the farm. 

Mr. Nathan Hart, of West Cornwall, in the northwestern part of the State, makes 
the following statement : 

“My farm consists of 130 acres, 30 acres being in wood and unimproved swamp land. 
The swamp land up to this time has been valuable only as a deposit of rich muck for 
mixing with more concentrated manure and as an absorbent in manure cellars. The 
farm crowns a hill, running east, south, and west to the valley, giving it a warm 
exposure. I came into possession of the place in the spring of 1848, when the buildings 
were out of repair; the surface of the meadow and arable land was thickly covered with 
rocks, from half a ton to eight or ten tons in weight, so that there was not an gcre that 
could be mowed conveniently with a machine. The first year the farm carried 13 cows, 
a yoke of oxen, and one horse, with a purchase of a little extra feed for winter use. 

“With a farm in this condition, bought, with the stock and implements, mostly on 
credit, how to pay for it, and at the same time improve it, was the problem to be solved. 
To show that it has been done to some extent, I will state that in the years 1869~70, with 
$35 paid for pasturage, the farm carried 23 cows, one pair of oxen, and two horses, and 
$50 worth of hay and straw was sold. Forty acres have been cleared of rocks, laid in 
substantial walls, so that machinery is now used with facility, and the whole is in a 
good state of cultivation. The house has been repaired at an expense of $2,000, new 
barns have been built with manure cellars under the stabling, and a working capital 
concentrated many fold greater than existed at the beginning. Money loaned has 
been lost, which if safely invested wouid now have amounted fo more than half the 
present capital. The pasturage has been increased by cutting off the wood and clear- 
ing land well adapted to grazing. The wocd brought about $2,000 gross. Fields have 
been cleared of all the rocks not too large to blast or move without blasting and piled 
up in substantial walls, and the land has been thoroughly manured and planted with 
corn, followed by oats or wheat and seeded with clover and timothy. In this way forty 
acres have been fitted for the plow or mower, and the raising of any crop adapted to this 
climate. For example, a two-acre field, cleared as stated, was manured with 21 cart- 
loads of barn-cellar manure per acre and planted with corn, and gave a yield of 75 
bushels per acre. 

“The tollowing year the field was manured as before and planted with tobacco, with 
the exception of one-half acre unmanured and planted with potatoes. Tho tobacco 
yielded 3,333 pounds, and sold for $691. In the fall, after the crops were removed, the 
field was sown with wheat and seeded with clover and timothy. ‘The yield was 36 
bushels of handsome white wheat per acre. The following years it was mowed twice, 
yielding a very large crop. With top-dressing once in three years it has continued this 
yield to the last year, when the second crop failed from the drought. 

_“ Another field of seven acres was taken up in the same way, one half at atime. The 
yield of corn was 75 bushels per acre, and of oats 72 bushels. Another acre in the same 
field. at one time gave 102 bushels of shelled corn, and the subsequent grass crops were 
in proportion. These crops were not guessed at, but theland was measured with chain 
and compass, and the grain accurately measured, and a premium obtained from the 
county and State agricultural societies. 

“This success is mainly duc to a thorough system of clearing the land and manuring, 
doing well what is done, and making it pay as the work goes along. Let no man sup- 
pose, however, that he can take a farm in all its native roughness and sterility, and 
with little capital but his bare hands, and arrive at desirable results, while eating the 
wread of idleness, allowing his manure heaps to be drenched with rains, and going on 
from year to year without any definite plan of operations.” 

Mr. Hart’s farm is situated away from any village or very favorable market. He 
keeps a dairy, and until the last two years mado butter and cheese. Since then he has 


17 A 


258 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


sept milk to New York. His sales have been mostly dairy products, and fruit, and an 
oceasiona! crop of tobacco. 

Farming in Middlefield.—Middiefield is situated near the central part of the State, and 
is well located for farming. Mr. P.M. Angur sends the following statement relative to fair 
representative farms, and adds: “I believe that in Middlefield there is not one farm 
that with fair management, after allowing full charge for labor and fertilizers, will not 
pay a fair percentage on the investment. There are probably few places where ma- 
chinery, out doors and in, has been more generally introduced or with better results 
A better class of stock is kept than formerly, and more attention is paid to making 
permanent improvements. Concerning agriculture in Middlefield the future looks 
hopeful. 

Ko. 1.—Valne of farm, $6,000; implements, $500; stock, $1,000; total, $7,500. Pro- 
duce’ sold: Wool, $25; garden vegetables, $40; poultry produce, $100; potatoes and 
turnips, $200; butter, $150; forest products, $150; orchard, $120; slaughtered ani- 
Pa $150; growth and sale of animals, $300; total, $1,285. Labor, $450. Net returns, 

785. 

No. 2—Value of farm, $12,000; implements, $500; live stock, $2,300; total, $14,800. 
Produce sold: Tobacco, $1,200; wool, $24; potatoes, $75; orchard, $105; pg pro- 
ducts, $252; butter, $300; forest products, $75; slaughtered animals, $700; sale and 
growth of animals, $400; total, $3,131. Labor, $1,500; fertilizers bought, $300; total 
expenses, $1,300. Net returns, $1,331. 

No. 3.—Valne of farm,-$10,000; implements, $300; stock, $2,200; total, $12,500. 
Products sold: Tobacco, $300; potatoes, $38; orchard, $60; butter, $375; cheese, $24; 
forest products, $180; slaughtered animals, $735; sale and hase of animals, $375 ; 
total receipts, $2,587. Labor, $1,200 ; fertilizers bought, $150; total expenses, $1,350. 
Net returns, $1,237. 

No. 4.—Valne of farm, $7,000; implements, $300; live stock, $1,095; total, $8,395. 
Produce sold: Potatoes, $200; wool, $45; orchard products, $100; butter, $200; forest 
products, $185; slaughtered animals, $634; sale and growth of anivials, $300 ; total 
receipts, $1,664. Labor, $550; fertilizers, $50; total expenditures, $600. Net returns, 

1 ; 

Colonel! Thomas A. Wood, of Greenwich, a successful farmer of more than three- 
score and ten years, writes me of his farming experience, and especially of bis success 
with plaster, by the moderate application of which the product of the pastures made 
a three-fold increase: “ My farm of 260 acres is assessed at $32,000; buildings, $4,000 ; 
farming implements, $950. Wheat before the aphis appeared averaged 25 bushels per 
acre ; corn averages 75 bushels per acre; potatoes, 175 bushels; oats, a little over 50 
bushels ; hay, 2} tons per acre. Sales consist of fat cattle, lambs, pork, hay, apples, 
corn, and a little wheat and oats and a few potatoes. The average yearly aggregate 
of sales from 1860 to 1870 has been $6,700. No account is taken of what is used in the 
family. Milk, butter, and other small sales meet the grocer’s bills. The expenditures 
for cattle and labor smoutit to $3,100; mechanics’ bills, $433; taxes, $927—making a 
total of $4,460, and showing a balance of $2,240. 

“My rotation is corn, oats, wheat, and then grass eight years. I have about 45 grown 
cattle and horses in the stables. Every morning the droppings are removed and piled 
up or drawn to the field designed for corn. The litter, when saturated with urine, is 
replaced with fresh straw, and is as good for manure as the solid droppings. For the 
corn crop I apply about 25 loads of manure, of 30 bushels each, per acre. ‘This is 
spread as soon as the frost is out of the ground, usually from the 20th of March to the 
1st of April, so that the rains shall wash the soluble parts into the soil and canse the 
grass to grow. By the early part of May, when I begin to plow, the grass is four to 
six inches in height. Grass, and the young roots of grass, feed the worms until the 
corn gets beyond their reach; and the sod rots quickly, and forces the corn 
forward rapidly. This was the eulture the past season: I plowed with furrow 10 
inches wide and 5 deep; harrowed three times with an iron-toothed harrow, and 
use marker of my own construction 3 feet 7 inches each way, placing the corn on the 
surface, 3 grains in a bili; ploughed four times, hoeing 3} days on each acre; put but little 
dirt tothe corn. Planted the 12th and 13th of May, and cut up the last week in 
September. ; 

“In plowing the corn I only plow deep enough to cut up the grass and weeds, say two 
inches, twice from and twice toward the corn. I use two horses, one horse taking the 
farrow, making a steady and fast team—not more than half the labor for the plowman, 
and doing one-third more work in a day, and worth nearly two plowings with one 
horse. Irom the commencement of plowing to finishing cutting the stalks, it takes 15 
to 2) days’ work to the acre, at $1 25 per day, say $22, or including team $30 per acre. 

“Tf we add to this the labor of applying the maunre at $10 per acre, and interest on 
the land st $250 per acre. $15 more, we have $55 as the total cost per acre. Counting 
the corn at $1 per bushel, this leaves $27 50 net profit per acre, or $318 on the whole 
ficld. The stalks pay for the husking, and the produce fed on the farm supplies manure 
ior another crop, — ; : 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. 259 


“Five years ago I planted two parts Sciota and one part a small dwarf corn that had 

* been on the farm from my earliest recollection. ‘There were 11 acres in the field, one- 
half very dry and porous, the remainder a little moist. Five acres of the latter yielded 
over 100 bushels per acre as estimated by good judges. In a wet season the other part 
of the field would have been the best. Thirty hills were put into a stack, and seven 
contiguous stacks selected as an average, and husked by themselves, weighed in the ear 
429 pounds, shelled corn 371 pounds, cobs 58 pounds. This was the pure Sciota. Of 
the mixed Sciota, two stacks in the ear yielded 152 pounds, cobs 18 pounds, shelled corn 
134 pounds, or 23 bushels. These two stacks were a fair average of the two acres, 
making 106 bushels per acre. Four acres were planted with the common eight-rowed 
white and yellow corn, which yielded about 70 bushels to the acre.” 


Mr. George . Waring writes of a farm in his neighborhood, in the 
vicinity of Newport, Rhode Island, of 26 acres, upon which 25 cows 
have been kept. The pasture contains twelve acres, and twenty cows 
are kept upon it during the summer. The feed purchased is only equiv- 
alent to the keeping of his teams. The butter, milk, cream, and calves 
sold in 1870 brought $1,862 15, nearly $75 for each cow, besides the 
skim-milk that wasturnedintopork. The sales of 1870 were as follows : 


0 OS Se eer 0144; 90 |). Purnips.- sy. seoe cae pase eer an $100 00 
= UTE TAD eee 96 00 || Round turnips. ........--....-. 43 00 
EE ae 66 25 ! Calvea(ie.sitcsas Ssegeeasisarcee 665 00 
eee 20 e166 00) |) Rorkess2 ae 22-3 <-02 sate natete eee TOO 
aS 935.90 || Lambe ./se.0 20405 taped ee 144 00 
ES G05) '95,|| Wool: £2.42, 20 tee6 aa ae eee OO 
ERIS aoe = aso 2 2 ==> = 2's G87) 251 |SQUasHON).\-2 eee a amente eater ate i2 00 
POOR 2 — swine 2 oem eee 50 00 —_——- 
on SS a 78 00 Petal, 3 SSs5 aay wag aeesen te 3,738 45 
loti gle a ee 43 00 ———— 
Beets, (mangold)........-...... 150 00 | 


This farm is worked at a profit, but the significant fact concerning it 
is unat the average value of product per acre was $144 55. A farm of 
200 acres, producing at this rate, would yield a gross income of $28,910. 
Mr. Waring says that these results are not due to what are known as 
“modern improvements ;” that “there is nothing done here that is not 
done on any good farm in New England; but everything is done with a 
will; and industry, perseverance, and thoroughness characterize every 
part of the work. The cultivation is thorough and cleanly; the use of 
manure excessive; the feeding high; the marketing skillful; and the 
economy in every department complete.” 

A few examples of profitable farming in Vermont are at hand, by no 
means the most striking, but such as can be obtained from any neigh- 
borhood, however isolated or small. Mr. Charles A. Sylvester, of Bar- 
net, bought a farm for $4,000, having a capital of only $3,000. It was 
in a low state of cultivation, and had no buildings or fences of material 
value. He kept sheep and horses, and nearly doubled the yield of wool 
of the former, and improved by selection the value of the latter. In 
sixteen years he trebled the production of the farm, erected substan- 
tial buildings, and then sold the farm for $11,000, and had left nearly as 
much produce and other personal property on it as it cost in the be- 
ginning. ' 

Mr John Quinlan, of Charlotte, now owns one thousand acres of 
Champlain Valley soil, as the result of energy and industry upon the 
farm, although he commenced life as an agricultural laborer, has met 
with losses and discouragements, and has raised and educated a large 
family. 

A farm was purchased in Albany by Frank Vance, for $800, which 
was sold fourteen years afterward for $8,000. Mr, James Vance has 
‘200 acres that cost, nineteen years ago, $1 to $2 per acre, now worth 
$8,000, though it is three miles away from a village. Horses and sheep 
have proved profitable upon this farm. An income of eight dollars per 


260 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


annum for each of the breeding ewes is regularly obtained, the lambs 
bringing from’$4 to $5 each before the fourth of July. : 

In Williamstown, in the White River Valley, Mr. Edson Martin has a 
farm of 120 acres, upon which he cuts about 100 tons of good hay an- 
nually, at the rate of two to three tons per acre, and finds profit in ag- 
riculture, as do all others who manage prudently to increase fertility 
and production. ‘ 

Mr. G. B. Brewster, of rasburg, bought a farm of 220 acres, nineteen 
years ago, costing $3,500. It was in poor condition; corn was a failure 
upon it; grass was light, and wheat would not grow. By successive 
manuring and good cultivation fertility increased, 25 bushels per acre of 
wheat were obtained, 70 of oats, 300 of potatoes, 70 of corn, and 900 of 
turnips. By legitimate farming a property of $15,000 was thus ob- 
tained from a beginning of a few hundred dollars, upon an intractable 
and unpromising soil. 

Mr. J. W. Pettee, of Salisbury, finds no difficulty in obtaining 80 to 
90 bushels of ears of corn per acre, on land which formerly yielded 
three-fourths of a ton of hay mixed with daisy and johns-wort. A 
moderate quantity of manure, combined with first-class culture, pro- 
duced this change. 

Mr. Levi Bartlett, of Warner, New Hampshire, a veteran observer of 
general agriculture, and a practical and successful farmer, in a region 
of not more than average fertility, (or sterility, asthereader may prefer,) 
communicates to the Department the following statement: 


A large majority of farmers here succeed in their business so far as to obtain a 
good living and pecuniary independence, and some accumulate very respectable fortunes. 
These facts are demonstrated by the numerous well finished and furnished houses, 
barns, and out-buildings for storing grain, carriages, farming implements, &e., to be 
seen in almost every town; and these facts bespeak a thrift and enterprise not even 
dreamed of by the most sanguine half a century ago. : 

On the other hand, in many of the long-settled towns in the hilly, rocky por- 
tions of the State, the population has gradually decreased during the past twenty 
years, as the late census returns plainly show; and in most of these towns there are 
numbers of once good farms that have been abandoned, the buildings have heen 
removed, and the once productive fields turned out to pasturage, and will ultimately 
be covered with a forest growth, the seedlings ef which spring up in these worn-out 
soiis; still, there are in ail these towns good farms, and farmers who annually find 
“there is money in their business,” even in the business of legitimate farming alone. 

The spirit of emigration is an inherent principle in the “genus homo ;” discontent 
among the farmers of the fertile soils of Illinois is as prevalent as it is among the same 
class residing on the granite hills of New Hampshire. To report fully ‘examples of 
profitable farming in New England” wouid require volumes; but for the information 
of the cultivators of the soil in different sections of our widely extended country, I 
will give a few “ illustrative examples” in this section of New England. 

During the past few weeks I have made excursions in several counties of this State, 
and noted down some facts connected with the farm practices in different sections, 
and on individual farms. We have no great staple crop like the wheat and corn of 
the West, or the cotton, segar, and rice of the South. 

Our soil, climate, and social condition compel us to pursue a mixed husbandry, to 
grow a variety of farm products, and these are varied according to the locality in 
which the farmer resides, and the requirements of the markets, and whether these are 
near or distant from his farm. ' 

Some weeks since I made a visij to the town of Littleton, 112 miles north of Concord, 
N. H., well up in the White Mountain region. While there I spent two days in four 
of those “northern towns,” and visited a large number of farmers, and found them in 
the ocenpaney of good farms, farm buildings, and everything betokening thrift and 
enterprise. I think the drought was not so severe there the past season as in the more 
southern portions of the State, as the crops generally were good; corn,on many of the 
farms, yielding 50 to 60 bushels, shelled, per acre. The hay and grain crops were in 
similar proportions. This section of the State is noted for its large yields of potatoes. 
Innmense quantities are annually worked up for the starch they contain. On one farm 
visited, there were over five hundred bushels grown on two acres. These, at the starch- 
mills, command thirty-five cents per bushel, thus giving a return of $175 for the pro- 
duct of the two acres. -I was told that much larger yields were haryested on some 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. 261 


farms. The variety generally grown for starch is known as tbe “ California potato.” 
It is not a good table-potato, but is preferred by the starch manufacturers. This is a 
good hay and grass-producing section, and large quantities of timothy-grass seed are 
raised, and the high price at which it has been sold for the past few years makes it a 
profitable farm product. Much more might be said of the prosperous condition of that 
section of our State; of its fine horses, herds, and flocks; of its railroad facilities for 
transporting to market its wood, lumber, bark, charcoal, and numerous other products, 
all of which largely contribute to the increasing wealth of that part of the “Old 
Granite State.” 

More recently I visited Hanover, the town in which the New Hampshire Agricultural 
College is located, and spent a day in driving around among the farmers of that ancient 
town, the settlement of which commenced over one hundred years ago. There are 
large numbers of fine and productive farms. Much of the land consists of a finely 
comminuted and somewhat clayey soil, free from rocks, and easily cultivated. All of 
the farm crops cultivated in that section make good returns, especially wheat, both 
spring and autumn sown. From five or six of these farmers I obtained statements of 
the average yield per acre for a series of years. There were better crops in some sea- 
sons than in others. The lowest yield in any one season was twenty bushels. The 
largest, ninety-eight and one-half bushels on two acres of land. This was in 1860, a 
favorable season or the wheat crop in this section. Some of the records are of the 
crops for eleven years in succession on the samv farms. 

Mr. C. C. Foster the past season raised twenty-five bushels of winter wheat on one 
acre. Theseed was obtained from the Department of Agriculture. Mr. F. has forgotten 
thename. It very closely resembles the “ White Touzelle winter wheat,” imported from 
Marseilles, France; by the Department. The land planted with corn is heavily manured 
and followed by wheat and grass-seeds: As far as I can learn, there are but few, if 
any, sections of the country where larger average yields of wheat are grown than in 
the town of Hanover. A portion of the farmers in the town of Fairmount, Onondaga 
- County, New York, obtain about the same average. 

I will now give the farm practices of three of the prominent farmers of Merrimack 
County, who have made farming profitable, but who differ somewhat in their practice 
and in the disposal of their products. 

In 1856 Colonel David M. Clough, of Canterbury, purchased the farm he now occu- 
pies for the sum of $4,400. It contained about four hundred acres, two hundred of 
which were interval, lying on the eastern bank of the Merrimack River, opposite the 
village of Boscawen Plain. The remainder was pasture ana woodland. <A few years 
previous to his purchase most of the wood and timber had been removed. For more 
than thirty years a widow had held a life-estate in the farm, and during this 
period it had been rented and largely cropped with corn and oats, which, with a por- 
tion of the hay, were annually sold, and no manure purchased. By this skinning pro- 
cess the farm had become badly worn; the buildings and fences were in a most dilapi- 
dated condition, and a large portion of this once fertile interval had been turned out as 
pasture. To renovate the tillable fields, large quantities of muck and. lime were com- 
posted. Muck and a clay marl, of which there are inexhaustible quantities on the 
farm, were used in the barn-yards, cattle and sheep hovels, and hog-yards. Fences 
were rebuilt with good boards and chestnut posts. The large, old farm-house was com- 
pletely remodeled and renovated, both inside and outside, and additions made to it, and 
old barns were removed and splendid new ones erected. 

When Colonel C. came into possession of the farm there were about twelve tons of 
English and about the same quantity of natural or low-ground hay cut upon the farm, 
suflicient, with some grain feed, to winter twelve head of cattle, thirty sheep, and two 
horses. He now winters upon an average ninety head of cattle, six’ horses, old and 
young, and one hundred and fifty sheep. He had at the time I was there sixteen hogs, 
about eighteen montlis old, and a large number of last spring’s shoats, The old hog 
will average not far from four hundred pounds each. For several years past the average 
sales have been about $1,500 for beef cattle ; $500 for pork ; sheep, lambs, and wool, $4U0. 
$1400 years since he sold for slaughter 200 sheep at seven dollars a head, aggregating 

The proceeds of the farm this year are’150 tons of hay, 800 bushels of corn, 800 
bushels of oats, and 50 bushels of wheat. The whole of the hay, most of the corn, and 
a large portion of the oats are fed to his farm stock and to horses from the cities to be 
wintered. Having lost several acres of his interval land by the washing away of the 
soil, which is twenty feet deep at that place, he has, by the expenditure of over six 
hundred dollars, prevented future inroads by sloping the banks aud cobbling them with 
stone, drawn two miles. He has, during the fourteen years of his occupancy of the 
farm, expeuded over four thousand dollars in repairing the eld and erecting new farm 
buildings. The results of his farming, in a pecuniary point of view, are satisfactory, 
he having now a larger surplus of cash on hand than the farm originally cost him. 
Colonel Clough plows his land deep, manures high, and cultivates thoroughly, sows 
liberally of grass seeds, and harvests corresponding crops. 


262 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. > 


About thirty years ago Mr. W. H. Gage purchased the Colonel Chandler farm, situated 
in the southern part of Boscawen. The farm contained about 400 acres, 100 acres of 
which were tillable interval, and about 40 of low interval, which yielded fair crops of 
hay of various qualities, from good to very poor. The remainder of the land was forest 
and pasture. He gave $6,000 for the farm, one-third cash, about all the available funds 
he possessed. The farm had been rented for a number of years, and was badly ran 
down. The course of farming he has pursued for a number of years has been to feed 
the Lay and grain raised upon the farm to his cattle, sheep, and swine. ‘The rearing of 
fine stock has been a specialty with him, especially oxen. For the past twenty-five 
years he has received more prewiums for oxen, at our State and connty fairs, than any 
other farmer in the county. In March, 1869, he sold two yoke of oxen for $300. In 
March, 1870, two yoke for $750. It has been a maxim with him to increase the fertility 
of his farm, and consequently his crops. This he has accomplished by selling most 
of the products of his farmin the form of beef, pork, mutton and wool, butter and 
cheese. 

For many years past he has kept 4 to6 hogs. When 18 to 20 months old they have 
averaged, when dressed for market, about 500 pounds each. The clear pork is salted 
and sold during the succeeding summer at the large manufacturing village of Fishers- 
ville, at an average of 22cents per pound. Lard and hams from 20 to 22 cents. ‘There are 
kept about 30 head of cattle, 75 to 100 sheep, and 2 horses.. Corn annually grown from 
6 to 8 acres; yield per acre 55 bushels. Oats follow the corn; yield 60 bushels per 
acre, about one-half of which are sold at an average of 70 cents per bushel. 

The farm is now vained at $40,000, and other assets would bring his property well 
up to $50,000—the accumulations of a little over thirty years, 

The third and last farm I shall refer to is that now owned by Joseph B. Walker, 
Concord. This farm has been under cultivation about one hundred and forty years. 
Its original owner was the late Rev. Timothy Walker, the first settler and only min- 
ister of that town for fifty-two years. The farm came into the possession of his son, 
the late Judge Timothy Walker. Upon his death it became the property of his son, 
the late Captain Joseph Walker, whose son, Joseph B. Walker, the present owner of 
the farm, inherited it when only ten years eld, he being the only surviving member of 
the family. His guardian rented out the farm, which was thus managed for twenty 
years. In the mean time Joseph b. graduated at Yale College, studied law, and opened 
an oftice in Concord. Fle undertook to carry on the farm and his law business at the 
saine time. After two years’ trial of farming aud law, he found ono or the other must 
be given up. He had the good sense to quit law and become a farmer. 

During the twenty years the farm had been leased, the buildings and fences were 
sadly out of repair, larze portions of the fields were overrun with bushes, and there 
was a large decrease of hay and other crops during the period. 

The farm consisted of about 350 acres, 100 of which were Merrimack River interval, a 
large portion ef which could be plowed, and with manuring would yield fair crops of 
corn and grain. About 30 acres were either covered by the waters of Horseshee Pond, or 
were too wet for the production of hay. To drain the poud as far as practicable, he, four- 
teen years age, cut a large and deep ditch from the east end of the pond across the 
interval, nearly half a mile, tothe river. The interval is bounded on the north by the 
Merrimack River. The surface of the land on the river bank is about 14 feet above 
the usual summer low-water mark. From the river the land gradually slopes south- 
ward to Horseshoe Pond. Forty-five rods south of the river Mr. Walker commenced 
excavating the soil, for the purpose of putting in a plank drain from that point to the 
river. The south end of the ditch was 8 feet deep, but, as the ground rose gradually, 
before the bank of the Merrimack was reached it was 14 feet deep. Sound white-pine 
plank were used for making a box or pipe—inside 8 by 12 inches, 96 square inches— 
for the passage of the water from the open ditch to theriver. This box drain has done 
so well during the fourteen years it has been in operation that 45 rods more of similar 
drain have been put down during the past autuin, permitting the filling up of that 
length of open drain. From the covered drain to the pond the bottom of the open 
drain is boarded, the ditch being about 3 feet wide at the bottom. Before the floor 
was put in, rushes and aquatic grasses obstructed the flow of water, aud were gradu- 
ally filling the ditch. 

YT have thought it might be of practical wse to be thus particular in describing Mr. 
Walker's process of lowering the water of Horseshoe Pond several feet, thereby 
reclaiming about thirty acres of once almost worthless land, and: bringing it up to an 
average value of $100 per acre. This desirable object has been effected at an expense 
of about $800. During the eighteen years he has carried on the farm, the crops of hay 
and grain have been more than doubled. 

His annual clip of hay is about 120 tons, of which 70 to 80 tons ave sold, varying 
in price, in different years, from $18 to $30 per ton. 

As hay is his leading crop, grass immediately follows corn, without an intervening 
grain crop. Every autumn he plows about twelve acres of grass land, six acres of 
which are heavily manured and planted with corn; the following spring the other six 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. 263 


aeres are sown with oats. Average yield of each, fifty to sixty bushels; afterthe corn 
is harvested the land is plowed and sown with grass-seeds. The oat-ground isaanured, 
plowed and sown with grass-seeds. Several acres are also planted with potatoes, 
beans, root crops, &c. 

There are kept upon the farm four large oxen, six cows, two horses, and twenty or 
more cattle of various ages; most of the corn and oats are fed to the farm stock. 
Materials are carted into the barn-yard and cellars for composting with green manure. 
Mr. Walker also uses the hair, lime, fleshings, &c., from a large tannery near his fare. 
These materials are composted with large quantities of mnek, and make valuable 
mauure for his corn crops. He also purchases $200 worth of stable and some commer- 
cial manures. By these means, he is annually increasing the fertility of his lands, 
notwithstanding the large quantities of bay sold. . 

He keeps six cows, the milk-of which is sold at the house, put up in cans, The ave- 
rage sales of milk amount to $75 per month. The twelve acres of land seeded down 
in the fall yield a fair crop in August, similar in quality to second-crop bay. ‘This is 
found to be a prime feed for the cows during the winter, producing a large Gow of milk, 

Mr. Walker keeps an exact account of the expenses of the farm and of its income, 
whieh at the end of every mouth is carried from the day-book to the ledger, and in 
this way he is able, at the close of each year, to ascertain the profit and toss of bis 
farming operations. The profits over the entire cost of carrying on the farm are quite 
satisfactory. 

It may be said that the farms I have described are made up of the alluvial soils 
bordering the Merrimack River, free from rocks, and easily worked, when contrasted 
with the soils of the hill-farms; but thousands upon thousands of the farmers upon 
our hill-farms anuually find there is “money in their business.” 

Had a judicious course of cultivation been pursued on a large portion of the now 
abandoned farm, they would have been to-day paying investments. 

The selling of hay and grain from the farms, close feeding of the mowing fields every 
autumn, and reckless waste of the manurial resources of the farms, together with the 
‘natural restlessuess and love of change that seem to belong especially to Americans, 
are, I believe, the principal canses of the decrease in the rural population in so many 
of the farming districts of New England. 

Mr. S. Kilbreth, of Manchester, Maine, who was awarded the first 
premium for wheat by the Kennebee Agricultural Society, makes the 
following statement concerning it, which shows that wheat can be pro- 
duced at a profit under good culture: o 

The land on which my wheat grew was a deep, gravelly loam, planted the previous 
year, part to corn and part to potatoes. Upon the part planted to potatoes, after har- 
vesting, I spread six cart-loads of barn manure. Upon the part planted to corn, I pat 
one shovelfal of compost manure in each hill of corn; plowed and pulverized the ground 
in the fall; plowed again in the spring, and harrowed before sowing. Sowed the 5th of 
May two bushels of Java wheat, harrowed once, and spread upon the piece one hundred 
bushels of leached ashes; then harrowed again and rolled it. Harvested about the 
10th of August; threshed the first week in September 224 bushels of wheat. 


Dr. ; 

SCO OG WIRNUEO ods es acer Jacece cles etka lee Bete ies a iiasha eae Riese ay $12 00 
Wor bunimGr cached agiteer 020 kes eon eed blo dee eee ace i5 00 
Plowing. land 52. 223 25 2.. Deo ais den 2 waa dlelns Ae de pesos Ce een 4 00 
TEE VNC emer e an Ae a Ne oy caret, See SOP ee Sg. 4 00 
SE ee See iy Me 8 Sane St Pe Pete ce bet eer ce tiicor 2 00 
Biaeverting ......--:-..... a7 oe Sa UL lein.c c= 2 aes aoe ghee Saeed 3 4 00 
NITE 2) 5 Oe eae os x va nln ce wap n.g os os cena as eee 4 00 
Applying ashes, &c...........-.-- BONG 5 8 1 glo. oh si SS ean he nae 5 00 
es ke ee a Be Ne se OP ae 

Cr. 
224 bushels wheat, at $2 50 per bushel......-. a a TS oS Ie pies $56 25 
Ti toniot straw -2..-.2...--- Lt eee Ze | a ee YS ar 8 00 
Dianure and debies left.on hand _... .60..0 seve nasa sdngyneaee sense = ati gabe 10 60 
\ AROS S-)r ae cb dad Biden ns dav bl Mo pee eee Weis ania wee Nueieeene 
é h! fm me 
CH alia Se ee « ib alate eee Te eo ke i 
LS Oe 7) ER, EC CLIN 0: eM RR AB 
Pre Goo eee cea cal wo aR RRO od Se IRs 2 wi bi ttle gle 


264 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. 


The statistics of agricultural production in New England, for the last 
three decades, illustrate the changes wrought by the causes enumerated 
above, showing decrease at one point and increase at another, and in 
the total an absolute depreciation, which is perhaps not quite equal to 
the loss of agricultural population, the use of labor-saving machinery 
more than compensating for decrease of fertility upon the neglected 
farms of the interior. The following table includes the aggregates of 
the census returns of live stock and principal farm products for the six 
New England States: 


1850. 1860. 1870. 
ELOTHES Pepe Re Pee er Eee hSacnco ato seet~ceet- detnet -senee number. . 212, 274 258, 992 259, 358 
AW ARLE) satCl SISOS. Sa a COneae 376 357 961 
OXGHAMCOUMEM CATO Res. ce cote cee locd scene Sensis Le ccen doesn. 860, 809 892, 846 715, 544 
MINN Gicany sere eee nee te ne ok occa cet ec acm cetcd oboe sou dole 608, 219 679, 930 642, 593 
STN aay setts Osa ge pk i do 2,257,583 | 1,779,767 | 1, 449, 695 
JSUT GE SS al 2 BAR eo el fn Soe eae ee eee: ite 361, 481 326, 176 241, 000 
Cerro meee meee E CU Jak MeN LS oa ela bushels..| 10,175,856 | 9,164,505 | 7, 347, 666 
AUIS pel A A a IRN a a do....| 1,090,894} 1,083,193 | 1, 000, 693 
Rye... ..-.| 1,570,589 | 1, 425, 851 703, 379 
Oats .. ..--| 8,101,268 | 10,895,185 | 9, 169, 504 
Barley .... 3 414,496 | 1,199,119 |. 1,075, 059 
Buckwheat Loe 716, 044 990, 812 1, 189, 413 
Potatoes .. SEE hee icio Stree atch no eeiicis ete Sue do....| 19, 618,111 | 21, 343, 616 23, 928, 604 
Tobacco... aS: 1, 405,920 | 9,266,445 | 15, 870, 484 
PETE; mene EN SMH BME ES Se tons..| 3,463,652 | 3,869,200] 3, 936, 560 


It thus appears that milch cows have decreased 5 per cent. in ten 
years, other cattle 20 per cent., sheep 18, and swine 26, and that horses 
and mules have slightly increased. Corn shows a reduction of 19 per 
cent., wheat nearly 8, rye 50, oats 16, barley 10; while buckwheat is 
increased 20 per cent., potatoes 12, hay nearly 2, and tobacco 70. That 
hay should not fall off with the cattle may be partially accounted for by 
the increase of horses, which is probably much greater than is shown 
by the above figures, which only give the horses of the farm, while those 
ot the cities, numbers of still larger magnitude in some of the States, 
are not enumerated. 

In orchard and garden products the increase has been very large, 
being from $2,703,032 in 1850, and $4,959,455 in 1860, to $7,143,907 
in 1870. Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont have greatly enlarged 
the productions of orchards, and Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and 
Connecticut, that of gardens. The following table will show the rate 
of increase in the several States: 


1850, 1860. -° 1870. 


States. . : 

Orchard Produce- Orchard Produce Orchard Pr oduce 

roducts market roducts make eee roducts. | ™market 

P '| gardens. Pp S- | gardens. | P "| gardens. 

| 

IMGIIIO (Se be te rasins £6 aim aic'si<'> $342, 865 $122, 387 $501, 767 $194, 006 $874, 569 $266, 397 
New Hampshire ..-......... 248, 563 56, 810 557, 934 78, 256 743, 552 119, 997 
Mernionseee ree ee cise cae. 315, 255 18, 853 211, 693 24, 802 G82, 241 42, 225 
Massachusets.----.-.--..-.. 463, 995 600, 020 925, 519 1, 397, 623 939, 854 1, 980, 231 
HOUS MISland seeeme eee. 2 63, 994 98, 298 83, 691 140, 291 43, 036 316, 133 
Connectiquiw oes eesee cn. = 175, 118 196, 874 508, 848 337, 025 535, 954 599, 718 
otal (sate Mae! - 1, 609, 790 | 1, 093, 242 | 2, 789, 452 | 2, 170, 003 | 3,819,206 | 3, 324, 701 


That the reader may examine in detail the changes in the several 
States, exhibited by the census of 1870, in comparison with that of 1860 
and 1850, the following table is presented: 


Ye) 
ite) 
GN 


FARMING IN NEW ENGLAND. 


————_$ — 


. 


PCE ‘89S GGh-Z9C TET ‘91S CFO ‘68 ZL ‘GB STB ‘FL Gop ‘16g TEE ‘CSO 208 ‘T¢9 Sg ieee eae OO aco yay 
862 ‘See, ‘8 EEL ‘000 ‘9 £89 ‘96 ‘T 96L COL ae ae COON CT OE: BGT ‘Eee ‘E OFS ‘SET = SPpUnOd 9s Se ssn oe ee On yen any 
F568 ‘681 SFT ‘C68 ‘T GEL ‘689 806 ‘699 606 ‘FS 620 ‘19 OFF ‘C60 ‘E 106 ‘TO ‘s VES COC Saas ODS” "sen ae ee Sa 
CGT ‘SFL LOT ‘608 LOS ‘6EB PEP TT £LG '€ GB ‘1 GO ‘8S G0G ‘E8T $68 ‘COT OD ee 7t27 58" apoqayoug: 
BSF ‘9G £18 ‘06 660 ‘6T 6c¢ ‘EE * | €66 ‘OF GL8 ‘BT ILO ‘8 T68 ‘FST CRE “BIT ie Oe fk ee ee ee ae 
G6G ‘FIL ‘T. R1G ‘GES ‘T BEL ‘B66 ‘T O10 ‘2ST ECP ‘FPS GES ‘STG $99 “L6L GLO ‘O8T ‘T OFT ‘COLT SL ie tire se Cea ati 470 
LEO ‘686 OL ‘819 £63 ‘009 P16 06 656 ‘BG GOP ‘96 LEB “GES £20 ‘88 120 ‘Tar Oba SS a ee ae eT 
PPL SE 10b eS GOL ‘Th PBL Tet 'T 6F 859 ‘FE €8L ‘6TL 116 ‘Te pbs. i airless Salata abe 21 
HOE ‘OLS F EB ‘600 % FO ‘S86 ‘T LOG ‘TIE L6b ‘TSF 106 ‘689 103 ‘26 ‘T £90 ‘LS OG ‘GREG! | .speysnq! = -==-----s--" ee ae 
£86 ‘TS OST ‘CL GLP OL 109 ‘FL BLP LT. 60S ‘61 SLT ‘GF SFG ‘EL GIT ‘18 ga dO Peeper as 2 ==" g30q7 
EGP ‘€8 LOL ‘LIT TST ‘FLT BEE “3 FEO ‘BE 966 ‘FF 098 ‘aL 668 FTE T¢9 ‘88 Pa Drama se rae ee eee a ene 
683 ‘86 LLB 86 19? ‘Ga 903 ‘81 001 ‘6T 869 ‘BT TLL ‘FIL GOP FFL 660 ‘OST POD ee tee cee en SOO TOIL 
FEL ‘OIL 00 ‘EFT P16 LEL 69¢ ‘CT COP ‘6T 599 ‘LT 183 ‘FOL GBP ‘CET 68 ‘GOT “TT Op soso -"" ===" GI9IUD IOTIO PUT 19XO 
OST | fess GF th Or I €0T 80T ve OD ee ee the en a ee SOLING 
CEG ‘FE 916 ‘CE 618 ‘96 OLL ‘L TOE ‘L g9T ‘9 6&0 ‘Tr 93h ‘Lb 916 ‘tr “SAO QUE SSeS ee SURO LTE 
“OLS ‘09ST “OS8T. “OLSE “098T ‘OSB “OLET “0981 ‘OG8T 
“‘qnorqoouNOg ‘PURIST Oponry "S}JOSUTPOVSSEPL 
699 ‘020 ‘T SLI ‘OF6 CST ‘998 869 ‘B19 Tr ‘G9 F28 ‘869 CTP ‘£90 ‘T £08 ‘cL6 688 ‘coe 2 S00} 5. cup cksa Seu hs 
TL9 ‘SL iG Clie S| oe mee ce | T8¢ ‘BL 0s or ee Si asl PERS Tea eae ae ees eB DUNO oe ee “Se Seana, ec CODMN ONS 
BGP ‘LST ‘S 86F ‘8B °G P10 'T26 *F GU ‘STS 'F ers 'LEL F 616 ‘108 F 600 ‘TLL ‘L LI9 'F2€ ‘9 OF 98% 6 | Ope es cane ee ee ee 
960 ‘ctr GLP ‘cee 618 ‘60% FE0 ‘O0T 966 ‘68 G97 ‘G9 G9 ‘99% GIS 683 £8S ‘FOL EERE Sie aia gait wweteeeess vot yong: 
CEE ‘LIT 116 ‘6h OST Gr G68 ‘COT | £0L ‘TET 99% ‘OL 918 ‘8c9 ROT ‘08 TEL ‘TST Ba: piece eter ee 
O&h 09 '& 196 (089 '€ FEL LOE TSh ‘OFT T £66 ‘66E ‘T. T8E ‘S16 SE TCE 686 ‘886 ‘3 LEO TST 18 Se Oe eas cea an cad 4 aoa etme a 
OFE (EL TLG ‘681 £66 ‘9LT OGF ‘LP LYG ‘BET LIT ‘eat SIT + LRG ESL 916 ‘GOT Sosa eae eee Fee | 
GOL FH LEO LEP CCG ‘CRS 129 ‘861 £96 ‘REG 89 ‘CBT GGL ‘BLS OLB ‘E83 696 ‘96% Reg eee ee a ce SO 
683 669 T 11h ‘Seg T 96E ‘GEOG BOL “LLG ‘T 829 ‘PIF T 019 ‘E29 T 888 ‘680 ‘T TLO ‘OFS ‘T GED OGL ie me ees OUN BU ce a pe 
CHE ‘OF 966 '99 LOI ‘es 86 ‘TS LEP ‘£9 09 ‘SF EBL ‘bs 86S ‘FG 5 ARAL a rsa ii eee: | 
LPE 08S GET ‘FTO 'T O9L “REG FES ‘OTS 9CL ‘P8E 999 ‘FEF OLE ‘CC LLG ‘IGF PAGEL) Sie aig aieeeaeapeicinnise LU 
$86 OST 881 ‘OFT 685 ‘06. 088 ‘F6 LLG ‘FG 626 ‘68 PIE ‘LOT 98S ‘EEL See OD ie as ae pec 
O84 ‘OPT OGL ‘GO 816 ‘GET 189 ‘GOT €£9 “ELT G08 ‘£03 619 ‘6t EBL ‘606 : ats ~ 019789 10q30 puv WOXO 
OGG | B16. Le. or 61 986 FOL cg yh OPS ie ene LE 
S10 °¢9 120 19 S60 68 10 ‘Th £86 ‘FE 0S ‘TL L€9 ‘09 ToL ‘Th i elaine mercial esc sees (32) o 
‘OL8T. “OS ‘OL8T 098T. ‘0S8T. ‘OL8T ‘098T 0S31 
"PLOMELO A ‘orrysdureyy Ake \y “OUIVTL 
a ee eT OS I ee ae ee ee, Oe ee 


“OSBT DUP OORT YIM wosumduoo w OLET fo snsua oy) fq payrqryxa sajy)g pv.10008 ay) Ur saBuDyD 


266 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


These tables exhibit the prevailing characteristics and tendencies of 
rural husbandry in this section, and show that the stock interest is de- 
clining, that breadstuffs command quite as little attention as heretofore, 
and that fruit-growing and market-gardening are rapidly i increasing. It 
is not probable that the census returns include all the advance in these 
industries. It must be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to obtain 
avery near approach to completeness in returns of products grown 
everywhere, in town and country, in isolated patches; and the aggregate 
would be greatly enlarged if the immense quantities of wild berries 
could be included. 

The decrease of milch cows has been 43 per cent. in Rhode Island, 43 
in Netw Hampshire, 54 in Maine, and 20 in Massachusetts; but Connee- 
ticut has made a slight advance, and Vermont an increase ‘of 3 per cent. 
In all the States the number of * oxen and other cattle” has decreased. 
The dectine in the numbers of sheep and swine.has been heavy, yet in 
1867 the number of sheep was undoubtedly greater than in 1860. The 
number of farm horses has increased in Maine, Rhode Island, and Con-- 
necticut, -and decreased in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachu- 
setts. If an enumeration of horses in the cities could be made, a differ- 
ent result might be attained in the latter States. 


PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 


While the facts here presented are fragmentary, and the investigation 
incomplete, enough is learned to prove that rural pursuits are profitable 
in the hands of enterprising men, and to show that many farms are 
managed in an unprogressive manner and with unremunerative results. 
Gardening and fruit-growing, when followed with skill and method, 
yield handsome returns; aud yet the demand, especially for early fruits 
and vegetables, is scantily supplied, and prices ave high. The prices of 
small fruits are far higher in Boston and Lowell, and the quantity con- 
sumed much less in proportion to population, than in Baltimore and 
Washington. Norfolk sends immense quantities of early strawberries 
to those « cities, but we never hear that New Hampshire or Maine sends 
late supplies after the local crop is gone. To be sure, there is greater 
eagerness for the first pennies, yet the latest command high prices and 
meet a ready sale, and there is no surfeit of raspberries, blueberries, or 
blackberries to destroy the demand. ‘There is a marked deficiency in 
production of the finer vegetables, as asparagus, spinach, cauliflower, 
&ec., in interior towns, and tomatoes and other vegetables might be 
brought into market earlier by the -ingenions and inexpensive forcing 

-processes known to skilled mar Pa gE wdeners, in profit: able competition 

with the wilted, sometimes decaying and unwholesome vegetables 
brought from a arent distance. It is astonishin 2 that the farmers and 
mechanics of interior towns do not cultivate strawberries and other 
small fruits in their gardens to an extent fourfold greater than they 
already do. While there are fruit-growers and market-gardeners about 
Boston who are excelled in skill by none in the country, there are mul- 
titudes of interior towns which can neither boast advanced practices in 
horticulture nor early and abundant supplies from local sources. 

Considerable advances have been made in the use of agricultural 
machinery; mowers are used on ten farms for every one cutting grass 
by horse-power ten years ago; but there are many farms smooth 
enough for the mower which still employ only the traditional scythe. 
Much of the labor of hand-hoeing, now exceedingly expensive, might 
be done with the horse-boe; where rocks or other obstructions inter- 
fere, a small expenditure would fit the surface for machine cultivation. 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 267 


The economy of farm machinery is illustrated by the reports of the use 
of the horse-planter and horse-hoe in Northfield, Massachusetts. Mr. J. 
Lyman claims to have planted (in nineteen hours) and hoed (in eighty- 
one hours) fifteen acres of corn, worth $1,014, at the cost of $33, or 
little more than 3 per cent. of the value of thecrop. Mr. James Merriman 
planted and hoed six acres, worth $528, at an expense of $17 55; and 
Mr. George I’. Moody planted and cultivated two acres, worth $142, at a 
cost of $3 75. The planting and hoeing, with man and horse, was in 
each case at the rate of 30 cents per hour. In the case of two farms in 
Virginia of equal fertility, one worked by a man and two boys with 
improved machinery, the other by seven nen without labor-saving ma- 
chinery, the former made larger gross returns than the latter. ° 

While stock-growing may be less profitable than in the West, there 
are numerous examples of profitable dairying, the raising of butchers’ 
lambs, and other specialties of stock-farming, to show that there is no 
necessity for the decay of the hill-farms, the transformation of pas- 
tures to ferneries, and the decline of production. The English system 
of husbandry, modified judiciously by local circumstances, has_in- 
creased fertility, production, and profit, wherever introduced into New 
England. it is a fatal error to permit a retrograde; if high farming 
will not pay there, no farming will pay ; if fertility cannot be advanced, 
the capital necessary for improvements employed, the use of labor-saving 
implements increased, it would be better to quit farming entirely and 
grow forests for the use of future manufacturers of wooden-ware. But 
there has been progress in many directions, and may be, we believe will 
be, generally, in the future. It only requires courage, a cold shoulder 
to croakers, energy, skill and application; and when the best lands ot 
the distant West are taken up, as they soon will be, and prices there 
advance, young men of New England may be content to stay at home 
and. enjoy the advantages of markets which fully counterbalance the 
fertility of western lands a thousand miles away from the mouths to be 
fed by their products. : 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 


It is believed that no State of the American Union enjoys greater 
natural advantages for the production of a great variety of the fruits 
of the earth than Virginia. Situated in the most favored parallels of 
the temperate zone, with a wide diversity of soils, and blessed with a 
climate for the most part eminently salubrious, it is capable of meeting 
the requirements of every variety of rural taste, and of sustaining a 
dense population. If farmers, in the history of the past, did not 
accumulate large fortunes, they avere, as a rule, in easy and independent 
circumstances; and though the soil might not in many cases have been 
brought up to the highest state of productiveness by a course of sys- 
tematic tillage, it never failed to respond generously to kind treatment, 
In some sections of the State, where the planting interests predominated, 
the culture was often carried to an oppressive extent, and exhaustion, 
more or less, was the consequence. But good lands were abundant and 
cheap; and, while fresh inroads might have been too often made on the 
primeval forests, the rejected fields, where the soil had not been carried 
oft by washing, immediately sent forth a second growth, under which, in 
the course of one or two generations, they nearly regained their original 


268 . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


fertility. When, however, we consider the length of time the older 
parts of the State have been under cultivation, and the large proportion 
of good arable land still remaining, even under the system of annual 
cropping for more than a hundred years, we have convincing evidence 
of their extraordinary agricultural value. + 

The agriculture of Virginia was conducted in strict accordance with 
the traditions of the fathers until a period within the memory of many 
now living. The old methods, transmitted from sire to son almost since 
the first settlement of the colony, underwent scarcely any change. In 
fact, the proprietors of large estates felt but little incentive to improve- 
ment as long as recourse could be had to the virgin soils, which admitted 
of beitig brought into cultivation at less expense than the old could be 
restored, or even kept up to a productive standard. It was not until 
the first Virginia agricultural society was formed, about the year 1822 
or 1823, and such men arose as Colonel John. Taylor, of Caroline; 
Wilson Cary Nicholas, of Albemarle; and Richard Sampson, of Gooch- 
land, with a few other eminent farmers in other parts of the State, that 
any general impetus was given to improvement. By their writings, and 
not less by their example, public attention was aroused to the necessity 
of achange. Colonel Taylor’s “ARATOR” was perhaps the most popu- 
lar work of the kind ever published in the South. It originally appeared 
in short papers in the Richmond Enquirer. These were subsequently 
collected into a small volume, which ran through many editions, and 
was read by ail classes. If it misled some of its readers, as it un- 
doubtedly did, it excited a spirit of inquiry, which led to valuable results 
in the end. If we were called on to designate the fathers of modern 
Virginia agriculture, we should have no hesitation in fixing on these three 
illustrious individuals—Colonel Taylor, as a writer; Mr. Sampson, as 
the most successful practical farmer the State has ever produced; and 
Governor Nicholas, in the double capacity of writer and practical 
farmer, who infused enthusiasm into the bosoms of all with whom a 
long public life brought him into personal association. Mr. Sampson, 
living near 2 great public thoroughfare, attracted visitors from all parts 
of the State, who went to see the wonderft! improvement he had effected. 

The spirit of improvement thus excited went on, gradually expand- 
ing and gathering strength, until the great political convulsion which 
culminated in the disruption of the labor system of the State, causing 
a shock to its material prosperity from which it will necessarily take 
long years of struggling to recover. <A revolution so sudden and so 
overwhelming could have no other effect than to paralyze for the time 
every industry in those districts where the former labor system prevailed 
to a large extent, and to derange it in some degree everywhere. The 
State was thus thrown back in her industrial career, but it is gratify- 
ing to notice that the people have met the crisis with admirable fortitude; 
and there is the best reason for believing that a change—the beginning 
of which is already perceptible—will -ultimately be wrought in the 
habits of the white race, the possessors of the soil, and prove eminently 
Salutary and beneticial. Another effect will be the disintegration of the 
overgrown and unwieldy plantations, and their subdivision into small 
farms. A hundred years are but a small period in the life of a nation, 
and though the present race of farmers may not witness the change, the 
second or third generation will live to see this grand old State dotted 
over with thousands of happy abodes, and her fair surface literaily 
transtormed into a garden. Such is the picture that will assuredly be 
presented when the great natural advantages of the country are de- 
veloped to their full extent. 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 269 


Before proceeding to describe the present condition of the agriculture 
of the State, it is proper and necessary that some reference should be 
made to its physical geography. In a general, and in some sort a 
political sense, two great divisions east of the mountains, and embrac- 
ing diverse interests, are popularly recognized, called respectively the 
NORTHSIDE and SOUTHSIDE, the separating line being the James River. 
In the northern division, with the exception of a few counties bordering 
on the James, it is a farming country; in the southern division, a plant- 
ing country. Each of these sections admits of two subdivisions, pos- 
sessing very distinctive features: The tide-water region, lying between 
the head of tide and the ocean; and the Piedmont region, embraced 
between the head of tide and the Blue Ridge. Furthermore, between 
the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies, a fine district of country, known as 
THE VALLEY, is situated, mostly on the north side of the James, but 
still extending some distance south of it. And lastly, there is the 
transmontane or SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA, exhibiting marked character- 
isties of its own. Each of these divisions is distinguished by its peculiar 
system of agriculture, having some things in common indeed, but each 
differing from the others in its leading industries. For the sake of 
perspicuity we shall consider them separately, accompanying them, re- 
spectively, with brief descriptions of their geographical features and 
the productions more particularly adapted to their soils. 

In but few sections of the State has agriculture made any progress 
within the last ten years; almost everywhere, in fact, it has actually 
retrograded. The conditions on which agricultural prosperity rests 
have been so unsettled by intervening events, and the tenure of lands 
to a great extent rendered so uncertain, that few farmers have been 
influenced by a spirit of improvement. The great object has been to 
make a livelihood. To do this the lands have been taxed to their utmost 
capacity. Fertilizers have indeed been used freely, but rather with a 
view to speedy returns than ultimate improvement. No systematic 
rotation has been practiced ; no course of amelioration steadily pursued. 
The efforts both of farmers and planters have been vigorous indeed, 
more so perhaps than at any former time, but spasmodic, looking to the 
present more than to the future. Considering the altered circumstances 
of the people, the productions of the soil in everything but wheat have 
borne favorable comparison with those of former years; in quantity, 
however, more than in quality. Of tobacco, for instance, the crop of 
1870 was one of the largest ever grown in the State, but in its prepara- 
tion for market it has been worse handled than any for many years. 
All but the old experienced planters appear to have lost their skill, and 
the crops of the latter formed but a small proportion of the whole. 
Throughout the tobacco region the crop is cultivated on nearly every 
farm, to a large extent by freedmen on rented land oronshares. It has 
thus fallen into many hands instead of being chiefly limited to the large 
plantations as formerly. In this way Virginia tobacco is fast losing its 
prestige, and the western tobacco is suppla.@ing it in the markets of the 
world. In regard to cotton, also, the production has much increased, 
the last crop, like that of tobacco, being the largest, perhaps, ever grown 
in the State, but it has been produced very much to the neglect of the 
grain crops. 

In the cotton and tobacco districts, though the planters have shown 
commendable industry, have been frugal in their personal expenses, and 
have worked with their own hands, it cannot be said they have pros- 
pered. They are still wedded to old habits, from which no change of 
circumstances has sufficed to divorce them. The painful experience of 


270 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


1870—abundant crops and unremunerative prices—will not have been 
dearly purchased if it should only teach them to practice a more diversi- 
fied system of husbandry. 

In attempting, therefore, to sketch the state of agriculture in Virginia 
for the year 1870, we do it rather for the purpose of establishing a land- 

mark from which future progress may be measured, than with a view of 
claiming that any progress has been made since the “change in the social 
relations of the people. We are happy to believe, however, that there 
are indications of the dawn of a better period. We perceive it in the 
numerons agricultural societies which have been reorganized; in the 
large attendance at ail the agricultural exhibitions; and in the inereas- 
ing demand for agricultural literature. 

Before entering on particular details, it will render the treatment of 
our subject more intelligible and systematic by prefacing it with brief 
descriptions of the several geographical divisions of the State. 


I. NORTHSIDE VIRGINIA. 


1. Tide-water district—Well adapted to the production of the grains 
and grasses; a farming in contradistinection to a planting country. It 
embraces a large proportion of fertile lands, and in several localities 
shell-mar! is found abundantly, which is readily accessible. It is inter- 
sected by several large, navigable streams, by means of which all the 
leading markets of the North are brought to the doors of the people. 
Its situation is within the limits of James River on the south, Chesa- 
peake Bay and the Potomac on’ the east and northeast, and the Rich- 
mond and Washington Railroad on the west. It includes the counties 
of Henrico,.(in part,) Hanover, (in part,) King William, Charles City, 
New Kent, James City, York, Warwick, Elizabeth City, (the four last 
named forming the tongue of land called the Peninsula ;) Caroline, (in 

part,) Essex, King and Queen, Middlesex, Gloucester, and Matthews, 
fine between the York and Rappahannock;) and King George, West- 
moreland, Northumberland, Lan caster, and Richmond, composing what 
is termed the Northern Neck, and lying between the Rappahannock 
and Potomac Rivers. Portions of Prince William, Stafford, and’ Fair- 
fax also belong to this district; and Accomac and Northampton, on the 
Hastern Shore, are to be included in it for all practical purposes. During 
the last years of the war great numbers of negroes were settled in the 
Peninsula, which has continued to be occupied by them, : in chief part, 
down to the present time. 

2. Piedmont district—EHminently a grain and grass-growing region, 
extending from James River to the Potomac, and from the Blue Ridge 
to the western limits of the tide-water district. It embraces a great 
varicty of soils, the northern tier of counties lying along the foot of the 
Bine Kidge being g§ peculiarly adapted to grazing, and the more southern 
and eastern to grain and tobacco. The counties belonging to this divi- 
sion are parts “of Henrico, Caroline, Hanover, and Stafford; Gooch- 
land, Fluvanna, Neilson, Amherst, and Albemarle, (in which five coun- 
ties tobacco enters to considerable extent into the system of culture;) 
Madison, Orange, Spottsylvania, Culpeper, Rappahannock, Tauquier, 
Londonn, and parts of Prince William and Fairfax. 

Il. SOUTHSIDE VIRGINIA. 

1. Tide-waiter district—Lying between James liver and North Caro- 

lina on the north and south, the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and the 


Petersburg and Weldon Railroad on the west. The leading crops are 
cotton, peanuts, and corn. The sweet potato is also cultivated exten- 


“STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 27% 


sively, particularly in localities having convenient transportation to the 
northern markets. Great numbers of hogs were formerly raised in the 
counties adjacent to the Dismal Swamp, from which was made the finest 
quality of Virginia bacon. The business is still pursued to some ex- 
tent. In the neighborhood of Norfolk are the largest vegetable and 
fruit gardens in the South, which for the last thirty or thirty-five years— 
perhaps longer—have been supplying the northern markets with early 
fruits and vegetables, until now the trade has acquired extraordinary 
proportions, and is still growing from year to year. The soils of this 
part of the State are, as a rule, light and easily worked; very fertile 
along the margins of the streams, and readily susceptible of improve- 
ment generally, from the inexhaustible beds of shell-marl lying within 
its limits, and but a few feet below the surface. It embraces the coun- 
ties of Prince George, Surry, Sussex, Southampton, Isle of Wight, 
Nansemond, Noriolk, and Princess Anne. 

2. Piedmont district.—This is, by excellence, the tobacco-growing re- 
gion of Virginia. Leaf of fine quality for both manufacturing and 
shipping purposes is grown in several counties north of James River, 
and in one or two at the southern extremity of the valley ; but the best 
descriptions, and always commanding the highest prices, are produced 
in this district, and more particularly in the counties bordering on and 
adjacent to the Blue Ridge. The general surface of the country is quite 
undulating, in many places hilly, with a soil for the most part naturally 
fertile, and resting on a strong red clay—in some places yellow. It 
abounds in springs and streams of the purest water. The soil is also 
well adapted to corn, wheat, and clover. The counties constituting this 
division are Dinwiddie, Chesterfield, Powhatan, Amelia, Nottoway, 
Lunenburg, Greenville, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Halifax, Charlotte, 
Prince Edward, Cumberland, Appomattox, Campbell, Bedford, Pittsyl- 
vania, Franklin, Henry, and Patrick, a very large and important sec- 
tion of the State, extending from James River on the north to the Caro- 
lina line on the south, and from the Petersburg and Weldon road on 
the east to the Blue Ridge on the west. This is the only large division in 
the State in which the slaves formerly outnumbered the whites. There 
is still much disparity between the races in several of the counties; but 
owing to the gradual influx of settlers from the North, and the tendency 
of the blacks to move farther south, the numbers are becoming every 
year more nearly equalized. ; 


i. THY VALLEY. 


Naturally this is the most fertile region of the State, and, as it was 
only partially subjected to the blighting infinences of slavery, it has 
ever been the most prosperous. Ii is the division in which the system 
of mixed husbandry has been most fully carried out. It is a superior 
grain and grass country, yielding bountifully of wheat and corn, and 
‘stocked with fine animals. Great numbers of cattle are fattened for 
the northern markets. The horses are generally of the heavy draught 
breed, attaining large size like the western animals. Sheep and swine 
thrive. Dairies abound in every part of the valley, and fine butter 
is the source of considerable income. Apple orchards are numerous. 
For the most part it is divided into farms of small size. The soils are 
to considerable extent calcareous, resting on a limestone formation. 
We see in the population only a small infusion of the old Virginia 
element, being composed chiefly of Germans and Scotch-Irish. Before 
the war more evidences of prosperity were exhibited here than in any 
other division of the State east of the Alleghany Mountains; and 


272 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


though it suffered greatly during the struggle—the northern portion 
being almost desolated—it has shown a recuperative energy worthy to 
be imitated by the farmers of other sections. 

The Valley lies between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Mountains, 
and extends from the Potomac River on the north to New River on 
the south or southwest, stretching over nearly three degrees of latitude, 
and exhibiting much diversity both of soil and climate. The counties 
embraced within its limits are Frederick, Clarke, Shenandoah, Rocking- 
ham, Augusta, Highland, Bath, Alleghany, Rockbridge, Botetourt, Roa- 
noke, Craig, and parts of Giles and Montgomery. 


IV. SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA. |. 


According to the political nomenclature of former times, this division 
of the State was generally called “ Little Tennessee,” but latterly it has 
been distinguished by the caption we have given. It is a mountainous 
region, abounding in fertile valleys, and preéminently adapted to stock 
and grazing purposes. The finest prize cattle exhibited at the eastern 
fairs—mostly Short-horns—are brought from this section; also the fattest 
beeves. Except in two or three counties, or portions of counties, the 
farmers are nearly all engaged in rearing stock. Hogs are raised in 
large numbers; and sheep, mostly of the improved long-wool breeds, 
are receiving much attention. It is destined to be, if not already, one 
of the finest stock regions in the United States. Plaster of the finest 
quality abounds in Washington County, and is extensively used. The 
Kentucky blue-grass is a natural growth, and all the cultivated grasses 
succeed to perfection. Southwest Virginia may be defined as extending 
from New River to the Kentucky and Tennessee lines, and embracing 
the counties of Montgomery and Giles, (in part,) Pulaski, Bland, Wythe, 
Tazewell, Smythe, Washington, Russell, Scott, Lee, Wise, Buchanan, 
Grayson, Carroll, and Floyd. 

The agricultural resources of Virginia have always been great, and 
her rich and varied productions have constituted an important element 
of the national wealth since the foundation of the Government. After 
the sudden shock to her labor system, at the close of the late war, it 
was thought desirable to ascertain the present condition of her agricul- 
ture; what modifications it had undergone since that event; and what 
were the prospects of renewed and increasing prosperity. With this view 
the Department prepared a circular in the fall of 1870, and forwarded 
copies to its regular correspondents in the State, and also to other gen- 
tlemen, two or three in each county, so far as it was practicable at the 
time to obtain the names of trustworthy and intelligent farmers. The 
result has been the accumulation of a mass of interesting materials suf- 
ficient to give a very fair exhibit of the object sought. The points on 
which information was solicited are embraced in the following inquiries : 

1. Is increased attention given to a judicious alternation of crops, 
with the intervention of green crops? A clear statement of the course 
of rotation, in a representative example, with results obtained, will be 
desirable in illustration. 

2. To what extent have labor-saving implements been made a substi- 
tute for manuallabor? Give facts showing the profitof such substitution. 

5. To what extent are fertilizers applied? What proportion of tilled 
acreage is fertilized? What rate of application per acre? What the 
relative proportions of commercial and home-made fertilizers, and com- 
parative results of each? What kinds are found most economical, and 
ed much is production increased by the application? Give illustrative 

acts. 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 273 


4, Are farm anifnals increasing; and if so, what species, and what 
breeds? Is improvement of farm stock engaging attention, and to what 
extent ? 

Following the geographical distinctions as already sketched, we pro- 
ceed to give the substance of the answers to our inquiries ‘according to 
the order in which they were propounded. 


ROTATION OF CROPS. 


Tide-water district, (Northside.)—In the counties near Kichmond some 
attention is being paid to this subject, but not so much as before the 
war. The usual system of rotation in Henrico, as far as any prevails, 
embraces five shifts—corn, oats, wheat, clover, wheat; or corn, wheat, 
clover, wheat, pasture. Timothy is gaining ground, and when hay is 
the object the farm is divided into eight fields, each field yielding three 
crops of hay during the course. This is considered the most profitable 
system of farming. In New Kent clover is generally used as a green 
crop, allowed to stand one year, and then followed by corn. In Charles 
City the subject receives no attention, the farmers having many of their 
former slaves living on their lands and cultivating on shares, which pre- . 
vents due regard to impfovement. In King William the five-field sys- 
tem is preferred, both for profit and improvement, the course being 
wheat, clover, pasture, corn, oats. Pea fallow is a favorite preparation 
for wheat by some farmers. In York no attention is paid to the subject, 
and this remark applies to the other counties forming the Penin- 
sula. No progress of any kind is made, but the movement is backward. 
The negroes constitute four-fifths of the population, who cultivate a large 
portion of the land, either on shares, or for a money rent. They raise 
no crop but,corn, the average yield of which is about six bushels to the 
acre. 

Crossing York River, and its tributary, the Mattapony, we first enter 
King and Queen, where an excellent system of husbandry was formerly 
practiced. The farmers are returning to it as fast as they are able. The 
field-pea is mostly used as a green crop for wheat, and invariably with 
success. The rotation preferred is corn, manured with home-made manure 
on one-half of the field, and on the other peas are sown at the rate of 
one bushel to the acre in May or early in June. In September or Octo- 
ber the entire field is seeded to wheat, and the pea fallow is always the 
best. In three years the same field comes into cultivation again, when 
the treatment is reversed. This is regarded as a fine rotation, and the 
land improves rapidly under it. In some parts of the county the Mag- 
gothy Bay bean (Cassia chamecrista) grows spontaneously, and makes 
a rich return to the land in a green crop. Lands improve under it even 
when cultivated in corm and oats in alternate years. In Essex no 
inereased attention is given to a judicious alternation of creps. Very 
few farmers practice any regular course. 

Leaving this range of counties and crossing the Rappakannock, we 
come into the Northern Neck, one of the classic localities of the State, 
rendered memorable as being the birthplace of Washington and other 
illustrious Virginians. Its agricultural capabilities are very great, but 
in common with other portions of the State it received a severe shock 
to its prosperity. King George: No increased attention is given to 
alternation of crops, green crops being the exception, and seen on only 
a few of the best plantations. The four-field system was the one 
formerly in general use, wheat being seeded on a clover fallow, followed 
by corn, and then wheat or oats. With the use of clover and gypsum 
the productiveness of large fields was raised to fifteen and twenty 

18 A 


274 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


bushels of wheat to the acre, and fields of smaller size to thirty and 
forty bushels, farmers are endeavoring to return to this system, but 
the progress is slow. From Richmond we have reports of increasing 
attention. The five-field system is practiced, sowing wheat on clover 
fallow, following with corn, then oats and clover, cutting the clover 
two years for hay. Northumberland: A few farmers have adopted the 
three-field system with excellent results. First year, wheat with one 
hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds of guano and seeded to clover in 
the spring; second year, clover partially grazed and limed or marled; 
third year, corn. Very good crops of wheat are grown on a clover lay 
without guano. Lancaster: Increased attention is given to alternation 
of crops. Many large farms that were formerly cultivated on the two 
and three-field system are now subdivided into five or six fields, with a 
rotation of grass crops, by which a large farm may be cultivated with 
half the manual labor formerly employed, when grain crops were exclu- 
sively raised. 

Piedmont districi, (Northside.)—Gradually emerging from the tide-water 
counties proper, we come first to Stafford, in which we learn the follow- 
ing rotation is practiced by many farmers: Corn, wheat, and clover in 
succession, the last plowed in after the third crop, and then wheat and 
clover again. In Prince William but little attention is given to alterna- 
tion, owing to the impoverished condition of the farmers. Alexandria: 
Farmers are using green crops; course of rotation, corn, wheat, rye or 
oats, and grass (clover or timothy) with very satisfactory results. Fair- 
fax: Theattention given toalternation of crops is probably not increasing, 
the rotation before and since 1860 being usually corn, oats, and wheat; 
then clover and timothy for two or three years, and in particular cases 
five or six years. Under this system, with the judicious application of 
fertilizers and farm-yard manures, lands in the western part of the 
county have risen in value from $20 to $40 per acre, and their produc- 
tive capacity increased from fifteen or twenty bushels to forty bushels 
of corn per acre ; oats from ten bushels to twenty-five or thirty bushels; 
hay, three-fold. Wheat has been an uncertain crop for several years. 
Caroline: To a limited extent increased attention is given to alternation 
of crops; as, first a crop of corn or tobacco, then wheat or oats, then 
clover, with rest for a year. The yield of the succeeding’ crops is 
increased at least 10 per cent. Louisa: Less and less attention during 
the past five years has been given to green crops. As far as any system 
of alternation is practiced, it is corn, wheat, and clover, the clover fal- 
lowed the following year for tobacco, then wheat, clover, and corn. Lots 
treated in this way, with alternate use of one hundred and fifty pounds 
of guano per acre and coarse stable manure, are very productive. 

We now enter the tier of counties lying alorfg or near the base of the 
Blue Ridge. Loudoun: Considerable attention is paid to rotation, 
which is usually to turn down a sod for corn, the yield (taking the 
county over) being about thirty bushels to the acre; wheat after corn, 
with a return of about eight bushels per acre; then wheat again, with 

clover the following year, to stand two or three years, and mowed of 
pastured at pleasure. A clover fallow will produce about sixteen bush- 
els of wheat per acre. In the southern part of the county grazing is 
the principal industry, which is pursued in much the same manner as 
we proceed to describe in the adjoining county of Fauquier: This is 
preéminently a grazing county, particularly the upper or northern part, 
and therefore admitting of an- endless variety of rotation, with the inter- 
vention of green crops, all subsidiary to the main pursuit. The land, 
when left uncultivated, clothes itself readily (without seed) in blue- 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 275 


grass, which forms a sod that improves each year, so that when thirty 
years old the pastures will turn off beef better fattened than when 
younger. Many farmers devote a large portion of their estates to per- 
petual sod,.dividing the remaining portion into six, seven, or eight 
fields, with alternations of clover andtimothy. Others take a field after 
- it has been in sod six or more years, and has become so enriched as to 
bear a succession of crops for as many more years. The general result 
is, thatin few parts of the State have the lands been so much improved, 
or more numerous instances of well-paid agriculture been presented. 
Madison: A rotation of crops has prevailed for many years, though not 
always, or generally, with the intervention of green crops. The plan 
preferred is the six-field system; corn, fallowed with oats, then wheat, 
with clover and timothy the ensuing three years. Greene: No general 
attention is paid to a judicious alternation of crops, but the seeding of 
clover and timothy is on the increase. The most approved course is 
corn, then wheat or oats with grass-seeds; the second crop of grass to 
be fallowed and seeded to wheat, and afterward to remain two years in 
grass. Under this system fields which some years ago would not yield 
more ‘than ten bushels of corn to the acre now produce thirty to fifty 
bushels. Oulpeper: Partly a grazing and partly a grain county. The 
rotation followed by the best farmers is corn, wheat, and clover, (or 
clover and timothy mixed,) if grazing more than improvement of the 
land is the object. As a general thing, however, but little attention is 
paid to a regular alternation of crops. Albemarle: The rotation usu- 
ally practiced is to fallow a green crop, and seed the land to wheat 
which, without fertilizer, yields from fifteen to twenty bushels per acre; 
after wheat, corh, making twenty-five to thirty bushels per acre, and 
then wheat or oats. If wheat, an application of one hundred and fifty 
to two hundred pounds of fertilizer is given, and the yield is fifteen to 
twenty bushels per acre; if oats, no fertilizer is applied, and the yield 
is twenty to twenty-five bushels per acre. Then fallow with grass for 
two or three years. Upon the whole, however, this great central county 
of the State is making but slow progress in improvement. Nelson: 
Increased attention is given to alternation of crops. The course usually 
adopted is to cultivate first with corn, then oats, then wheat, and to 
fallow with two years in clover, requiring five years to complete the 
rotation. 
Tide-water district, (Southside.)\—This is the smallest geographical di- 
vision of the State, embracing only six or seven counties, the produc- 
tions of which, as well as the neglect of ail scientific methods of culture, 
are peculiar to itself. The staple crops are cotton, peanuts, corn, oats, 
sweet potatoes, and cornfield peas. In one or two counties very exten- 
sive apple and peach orchards are planted, and the “brandy crop” is 
spoken of as familiarly as any other crop. In Norfolk, and one or two 
other counties convenient to water transportation, trucking and the 
raising of fruits for the northern markets are largely followed. We 
have reports from five or six counties, and the subject of rotation and 
alternation may be dispatched with brief notice. Surry: No increased 
attention, and scarcely any at all is given to rotation. The method of 
cropping is about as follows: First year, corn, with cornfield peas sown 
broadcast or planted in hills between the corn rows at last plowing; 
second year, the land lies fallow, unless planted in peanuts (now gene- 
rally the case) or sown with oats. The truck patches are generally on 
land planted with corn the preceding year; third year with corn again, 
and so on. Southampton: No system of alternation pursued. The 
attention of farmers is directed to the production of cotton, which is 


276 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


planted on the same land annually and indefinitely. Isle of Wight: 
No attention to any judicious alternation of crops, the object of farmers 
being to cultivate that crop which will bring in most money, without 
regard to improvement. No attention is given to green crops. The 
usual course is the three-field system—corn, oats, and peanuts—which is 
regarded as ruinous. Princess Anne: Corn and oats are the principal 
crops. These alternate, except when the land is permitted to rest, that 
is, to grow up in weeds and natural grass, which are turned under in 
the winter for corn again. No green crops. Norfolk: This being a hor- 
ticultural rather than an agricultural county, we give some statistics of 
its production and trade: Number of acres cultivated in fruit, about 
4,000; in trucking, about 20,000. Shipments of fruit and truck, in 1870, 
averaged at least 10,000 packages daily, and for one hundred days 
amounted to about 1,000,000 packages, the estimated value of which 
was fully $1,500,000. Freights realized by the carrying trade, $350,000. 
The grape business is yet in its infancy, only about one hundred and 
twenty acres being in cultivation; but experience bids fair for the most 
flattering results, especially in wine-making. 

Piedmont district, (Southside.)—According to the divisions we have 
adopted, this is the largest in the State. Chesterfield: The plan adopted 
and generally coming into use for rotation is, first, corn, then wheat or 
oats, followed by clover or peas, the latter preferred on light soils; clover 
on stiff soils. In every instance, when properly cultivated, marked im- 
provement in the land is observable, the increase of production being five 
to fifteen bushels of wheat per acre. Powhatan: Increased attention paid 
to the alternation of crops. Clover is the only green crop raised to any 
extent. It is generally followed by wheat; sometimes*ou a small seale 
by tobacco. The people are slowly rallying from their depression, and 
adopting the policy of working less land and making it rich. Cumber- 
land: Farmers gradually, though slowly, improvjng their system of 
culture, and a judicious rotation is being generally introduced. The 
summer crops of corn and tobacco are followed by wheat; the wheat by 
clover for ene or two years. Properly carried out, a rapid improvement 
of the soil is visible. Amelia: The report is substantially the same as 
from Cumberland. Lunenburg:-Agriculture is at a low ebb in this 
county. Little or no attention is paid to a judicious alternation of crops, 
on account of the straitened circumstances of the people. Nottoway: 
This was formerly a highly cultivated county, and the farmers in pros- 
perous circumstances. As a general rule, but little attention has been 
given latterly to a rotation of crops, but in some instances farmers are 
dividing their lands into three, four, or five fields, cultivating them in 
turn, and alternating with clover and the grasses. Appomattox: No 
attention to rotation of crops. Buckingham: Slightly increased atten- 
tion is paid to alternation of crops, and farmers are beginning to return 
slowly to their former methods. <A large crop of wheat was seeded in 
the fall of 1870, followed by a general inquiry for grass-seeds. Camp- 
bell: Nothing being done toward an improved system of culture. On 
ithe contrary, the best lands are severely cropped to meet the immediate 
wants of their owners. Charlotte: Not much attention paid of late years 
to alternation, with the intervention of green crops. Prince Edward: 
Farmers are adopting the four-shift system; first, tobacco or corn, fol- 
lowed by wheat; wheat, by clover and timothy, and one year in pasturage. 
Under this system the lands are kept up to their original fertility. 
Tobacco the leading staple; average yield per acre, one thousand 
pounds; corn, thirty bushels; wheat, fifteen bushels; oats, twenty- 
five bushels, Pittsylvania: Very little increased attention to a judicious 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 277 


rotation, or to the intervention of green crops. This is one of the lead- 
ing tobacco counties, and the system of cultivation pursued ends in 
total or partial exhaustion in five or six years. On almost every farm 
there is a large extent of uncultivated land. Franklin: This is another 
great tobacco county, and wherever this staple is largely cultivated 
it is accompanied by few evidences of improvement; but a consider- 
able portion of the county is adapted to grain and grass, and there 
incréased attention is paid to a judicious rotation. The green crops 
consist of clover and orchard-grass mixed, and are generally allowed to 
stand for three years. The best lands are mowed annually for hay, 
which is of excellent quality. At the end of the third year the land is 
deeply failowed, and either seeded in wheat or rye or planted with corn 
or tobacco. Large quantities of Smythe County plaster are used. 
Patrick: This is another tobacco county, situated in a remote and retired 
region, with no market facilities. The system of farming is rude and 
primitive; hence no attention is given to alternation of crops; the term 
is hardly appreciated. Notwithstanding these features, the value per 
acre of farm products will compare favorably with that of any other 
section of the State. : 

The Valley.—Clarke: No increased attention paid to alternation, with 
or without intervening green crops, but rather a falling off. Farming 
is mostly carried on by tenants, under no particular system of rotation, 
and no calculation of results. Augusta: One report states that some 
increased attention, and another that but very little, is paid to the use 
of green crops for the improvement of lands. The usual rotation is 
corn, oats, wheat, and then grass. Rockbridge: The farmers seem 
alive to the importance and desirability of a judicious alternation of 
crops, and especially of the utilization of clover with a view to improve- 
ment; but owing to their depressed condition they are making but little 
progress. Highland: This is a mountainous region, and better adapted 
to grazing than grain crops; hence the chief occupation is to fatten 
cattle for the northern markets. The same remarks will apply substan- 
tially to Pendleton and Bath. Botetourt: Farmers are just beginning 
to improve their lands by a regular intervention of green crops. They 
find it pays better since the decline in breadstuffs and advance in labor. 
Roanoke: The alternation of crops, with the intervention of green crops, 
has been practiced for many years, though much interrupted by the 
war. Red clover is the green crop mostly relied on as an improver. 
The four or five field shifts are the usual rotation, which is so well un- 
derstood by farmers as to need no illustration. Tobacco for shipping 
purposes is generally raised on manured lots or rich bottom lands. 

Southwest Virginia.—Montgomery: Increased attention is given to ro- 
tation. A favorite course is to fallow an old clover sod for wheat, follow 
with corn, then oats, with clover and the grasses again—to remain four 
or five years in grass, in which the land will yield as great, or perhaps 
a greater, net income, by means of stock-grazing, as during the 
years of cultivation. The county offers a wide range of choice for 
agricultural productions. The valleys between the spurs of the Alle- 
ghanies produce the finest quality of manufacturing tobacco. Pulaski: 
No attention given to rotation of crops. A grass county, owned in 
large part by wealthy men, and devoted to stock-raising. Wythe: 
Another grass county, and, the grazing of stock being the principal 
business, the course of rotation is adapted to the production of the 
greatest amount of grass. Bland: Increased attention paid to rotation. 
The course is generally corn, (on sod,) wheat, and oats, which bring 
the land in good condition for grass. Carroll: Farmers are beginning 


278 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


to pay more attention to rotation of crops, with the intervention of green 
_ crops; but as the county is better adapted to grazing than to grain cul- 
ture, the people only aim to produce grain sufficient for home consump- 

tion. Grayson: Decidedly more attention given to a judicious alterna- 
tion, with the intervention of green crops. The rotation is as follows: 
A sod is broken up and planted in corn; the next spring seeded in 
oats, and in the fall in wheat; the spring following, in clover and grass, 

which is generally mowed the first year for seed, "and then allowéd to 
remain in sod three to five years. The main business is stock- 
raising, horses and cattle being preferred. Cattle, both in number and 
quality, are far in excess of what they were five years ago. Washington: 
Increased attention given to rotation, with green crops. This is both 
a@ grazing and a grain county. The soil is very productive, yielding 
with an annualdressing of plaster and ashes (half bushel of each to 
the acre) three tons of hay per acre each year while it remains in grass, 
which is usually for three years. Wheat (drilled) on a clover sod pro- 
duces twenty bushels per acre ; corn, (which succeeds wheat,) fifty bush- 
els; and oats, (coming after,) Afty to seventy-five bushels. Scott : This 
being also a grazing county, the statements given above are in the main 
applicable to its condition. 


LABOR-SAVING IMPLEMENTS. 


Tide-water district, (Northside.)—Henrico: Every farmer able to do so 
is using implements as a substitute for manual labor, as the substitute 
is found to be profitable. The chief bar to a more general use is the 
want of intelligence among the laborers. Wherever grass is grown for 
hay, the mower, horse- rake, and hay-fork are brought into requisition, 
at a great saving of both labor and expense. Charles City and York: 
Little or no use made of improved implements. New Kent: There are 
anumber of northern settlers in this county, who have introduced Potts’s 
Separator, McCormick’s reaper, Buckeye dropper, and some other ma- 
chines. A marked improvement is observable in the county since their 
introduction. King William: Labor-saving machines have been eagerly 
sought after, and tested by many farmers. Thrashers, with separating 
attachments, reapers, corn-planters, and cultivators, are extensively 
used. The separator is considered a great saving of labor; a good 
reaper does the work of eight men with cradles ; a corn- planter saves 
the work of eight hands; the sulky-plow succeeds well where the land 
’ isin good condition. Essex, and King and Queen: The condition of the 
people is so impoverished that they have not been able to avail them- 
selves of improved machinery. The only implement which has been 
tried is the buggy-plow, and it proved a failure. King George: On some 
of the large plantations, wheat-drills and reapers are used, and in all 
cases with. advantage; also, mowers and horse-rakes. Richmond : 
“Reapers, mowers, drills, gleaners, and stump-pullers are in use. A | 
reaper will do the ‘work of three to five men; a2 mower, of six to eight 
men; a drill, of five one-horse plows; a gleaner, or steel-tooth rake, of 
twenty men, "and i in a better manner. Two men, with a stump-puller, 
will do the work of ten men with grubbing hoes. In cost of labor, ma- 
chines save 75 per cent.” Lancaster: Sulky plows and cultivators have 
been introduced with marked advantage. A number of wheat-reapers 
and mowers are now used, which reduce harvest expenses one-third. 

Piedmont, (Northside. )—Statfor d: Reapers, mowers, and horse-rakes 
are used extensively, and with considerable saving of money and labor. 
Prince William: Reapers and mowers, with other implements of less 
note, are being gradually introduced. Alexandria: Improved machinery 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 27 9 


used to a very great extent. It is seen in the wheat, rye, and oat fields 
of every fasmer, in the seeding, thrashing, and cleaning of small grain 
and the cultivation of crops. Fairfax: Surface of the country well 
adapted to labor-saving implements, and they are generally m use for 
cutting grain and grass. Caroline: Want of means, and want of conti- 
dence in their durability, have prevented farmers from using improved 
implements, except in a very limited way. Louisa: No experiments 
have been made to test the merits of new machinery. Labor is so 
cheap that farmers have felt no inducement to try new methods. Lou- 
doun: The reaper, mower, drill, and rake are in general use, the mower | 
cutting eight to ten acres per day, and the rake, with a brisk horse, 
going over twenty acres. Eauquier: Nearly every kind of labor-saving 
implement has been tried, and all with decided profit, except reapers, 
much the larger portion of the county being too hilly for their use. The 
mower (McCormick’s preferred) is used on all the meadows. Madi- 
son: Wheat-drills, reapers, mowers, and thrashing-machines are exten- 
sively used, and have become indispensable on large farms. Greene: 
The mower used to some extent, but, not being a wheat-growing section, 
the drill and reaper have not been introdaced. Culpeper: To a largely 
increasing extent, labor-saving machinery has taken the place of man- 
ual labor, and the substitution has been found profitable. Its general 
use has only been prevented by the poverty of the people. Albemarle: 
Labor-saving machines not much used, for the reason that the prices are 
beyond the means of most farmers. Nelson: Improved implements used 
to a very limited extent. Where the surface of the land is adapted to 
them, corn-planters, buggy-plows, reapers, mowers, and gleaners have 
been tried to advantage, and save 30 to 60 per cent. of manual labor. 
Tide-water, (Southside.)—Cotton and peanuts being the principal mar- 
ket crops, with corn, the only implements in use are such as are speci- 
ally adapted to their culture. So far as relates to what is generally 
understood by the term “improved implements,” the answers from Surry, 
Southampton, and Isle of Wight agree in saying, “‘ None worth mention- 
ing.” In Princess Anne, the corn-weeder or cotton-plow, for cleaning 
young corn, is in general use, doing the work of three hands with hoes, 
and nearly as well. In Norfolk various implements are used, adapted 
to horticultural purposes. tl 
Piedmont district, (Southside.)—A large and very important division of 
the State, but, except in one or two counties, no enterprise has been 
manifested in the introduction of improved implements. In Chester- 
field, the want of capital has prevented their more extended use. The 
small number that have been tried have given satisfaction. In Pow- 
hatan, the drill, reaper, and mower are in use on the large James River 
farms. As a general thing, labor is cheap and abundant, such as it is. 
In Cumberland and Lunenburg, farmers still follow the old modes of 
-culture. In Amelia, corn-planters and drills are used to some extent, 
- but this county is rousing up from its lethargy, and a working agricul- 
tural society, of more than a hundred farmers, has been organized during 
the year, from whose labors we may expeet useful results. In Nottoway, 
where a number of northern men have bought farms, drills, mowers, 
reapers, and thrashing-machines have been successfully introduced by 
them. In- Appomattox, the land is thought to be too rolling to admit 
of their profitable use. In Buckingham, not a single improved imple- 
ment has been introduced, with the exception of one reaper, which was 
put in operation last harvest and gave satisfaction to those who wit- 
nessed its performance; but, as a large crop of wheat is reported to 
have been seeded in the county in the fall of 1870, the use of reapers 


280 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


will probably be extended. In Campbell, a few instances of the intro- 
duction of labor-saving machines are reported, but generally attended 
with disappointment. In Charlotte, none in use; and in Pittsylvania, ~ 
to a very limited extent. From Prince Edward, where the farmers have 

been long noted for their enterprise, we learn that several reapers were 

introduced during the year, and as the surface of the country is highly 

favorable to their use, it is believed the number will be increased from 

year to year. Improved plows are taking the place of hand-hoes on 

almost every farm. In Franklin, improved implements are being used 

to a limited extent, and would be largely if the lands were not too rough 

to justify their adoption. In Patrick, ‘‘labor-saving machines are looked 

upon with suspicion and distrust” by the rural population of this secluded 

county. 

The Valley.—tIn this fertile and highly cultivated district, labor- 
saving implements are coming into very general use. The only excep- 
tion reported is in Clarke, where they have been introduced to only a 
limited extent; but farming in this county is carried on mostly by ten- 
ants. Augusta: A very considerable increase since the war, and as 
much as 25 per cent. within the past year over the preceding year, but 
no test, by way of comparison, seems to have been made to show the 
advantages resulting from their use. Rockbridge: Manual labor has 
been supplanted, to a large extent, by the drill, reaper, mower, corn- 
planter, sulky-rake, and other improved implements, which have been 
introduced all over the county in increasing numbers every year. It is 
claimed by some farmers that the labor of eight men is saved every day 
that a mower or sulky-rake is worked to its full capacity. “A recent 
discussion .on this subject, held by the N. R. Club of Rockbridge, 
resulted in the conclusion” that “the time to ignore the use of such 
contrivances has long since passed.” Highland is well supplied with 
mowers, and to some extent with buggy-rakes and thrashing-machines. 
Improved household machinery is also coming into use. Botetourt: 
Labor-saving implements are extensively used, and with the most satis- 
factory results. As an illustration, “Mr. G., with two boys, puts up 
more hay than Mr. R., with seven hands; and grows more corn, wheat, and 
tobacco, and sells considerably more. The only difference is that G. 
uses improved implements and R. manual labor.” Roanoke: Reapers, 
mowers, drills, horse-rakes, corn-shellers, cutting-boxes, and in fact 
nearly every kind of improved implement, have been introduced 
throughout the county, and with marked benefit. “With the mower, 
one hand with two horses will do as much in one day as eight or ten 
ordinary hands, and the hay-rake, with one horse, as much in propor- 
tion. The reaper, with one hand and two horses, will cut as much in a 
day, in heavy grain, as four men with scythes. The wheat-drill not only 
saves labor in seeding, but leaves the land in better condition for the 
crop. The buggy-plow, with one hand and two. horses, does nearly as. 
much in a day as four men and four horses in the former way of plow- | 
ing, and so with ali other machinery now used on the farm.” The only 
complaint is that the improved machinery costs too much. 

Southwest. Virginia.—Montgomery: ‘Since the change in the labor 
system of the county, the demand for labor-saving machinery of all 
kinds has increased. Mowers of different patents have been introduced 
with great success. Accompanied by the horse-rake, they are now 
regarded in the light of an agricultural necessity. Reapers are used, 
but they are not so well suited to the rough and uneven surface of the 
country. For this reason, and on account of their cost and liability to 
injury in unskilled hands, they will not soon take the place of the cradle. 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 281 


Separators of the latest style have been freely introduced, and are super- 
seding the old thrashing-machines to a great extent. Corn-planters and 
wheat-drills are also used with very satisfactory results.” ‘‘ Perhaps 
half the hay made in the county is cut with mowers. In some cases, 
_ parties make it a business to go from farm to farm and cut on shares.” 
Pulaski: Owing to the want of means, and other causes, labor-saying 
implements are used to only a limited extent. Wythe: Reapers and 
mowers have been introduced, but not many other improved imple- 
ments. Bland: Manual labor is being largely displaced by improved 
implements, which are rapidly growing in favor, as they perform the 
work of many men in a day, besides doing it in the proper season. 
Carroll: The surface of the country is too rough and broken to justify 
the adoption of reapers and mowers, but thrashing-machines are used 
exclusively for cleaning grain. Grayson: Most of the farmers have 
availed themselves of the use of mowing-machines and hay-rakes, with- 
out which it would be impossible to save the hay crop of the county. 
Fully one-half the expense of securing the crop is saved, as compared 
with the old method. Washington: ‘ Within the last three or four 
years, labor-saving implements have been rapidly on the increase, both 
as to quantity and quality. Their advantage over labor by hand is won- 
derful. One man, with the improved plow, wheat and corn drill, a buggy- 
cultivator, mower, reaper, and horse-rake, will, in one summer, perform 
the labor of at least six good hands. In addition to these, other imple- 
ments, of minor importance, are taking the place of hand labor to a great 
extent.” Scott: With the exception of mowers and reapers, only a few 
labor-saving implements have been introduced. 


USE OF FERTILIZERS. 


Tide-water district, (Northside.\—Henrico: “ Commercial fertilizers 
are now used only to a limited extent, the quantity purchased decreasing 
every year; but more attention is being paid to home-made manures. 
The use of pure bone-dust is increasing. About one-third of the land 
tilled is fertilized in some way; if with bone-dust or guano, about two 
hundred pounds to the acre; if with home-made manure, about four 
hundred to five hundred bushels to the acre. The home-made manure 
is much more valuable than guano, and quicker, though not so lasting, 
perhaps, as bone-dust; the effect of the one being immediate, the 
other not acting fully till the second or third year; product about 
doubled by the application of five hundred bushels of home-made 
manure or six bushels of bone-dust.” Charles City: ‘Fertilizers are 
much used, and greatly on the increase; at least one-third of the 
tilled acreage has fertilizers of some kind applied to it.” Several 
experiments go to show that with Whann’s superphosphate, one 
hundred pounds to the acre, or fifty pounds with an equal weight 
of leached ashes, both applied to the hill, the yield: of corn is 
increased from five to fifteen bushels per acre, the former being the 
product where none was applied. A shovelful of home-made manure 
produces about the same effect. New Kent: Guano is the principal 
fertilizer for wheat; ashes, plaster, and barn-yard manure, (with marl 
containing some greensand,) for corn. No attention paid to getting 
statistical results, though the improvement is marked in the action of 
guano on wheat and clover. Relative proportions of manufactured and 
home-made manures about equal. York and the Peninsula generally : 
“Fertilizers applied to an extent so small as not to admit of a definite 
reply.” King William: “‘ Manipulated manures are less extensively 
used than they were two years ago; the majority of them are regarded 


282 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


by farmers as unmitigated hambugs. Peruvian guano is the best, and 
the kind generally used on wheat. Pea or clover fallow, on marled or 
limed land, yields a heavier crop than any commercial manure, besides 
leaving the land in better condition. Plaster is a favorite application on 
green crops. Farmers are turning their. attention much more than for- 
merly to making manure in the farm-yard. Good stable-manure will 
double the yield of ordinary land” Essex: Commercial manures fallen 
almost into disuse. Home-made, including lime from oyster-shells and 
ashes from the fire-places, are regarded as far preferable, being more last- 
ing, economical, and profitable. The use of lime and manure insures a 
rapid improvement of the soil, producing a luxuriant crop of clover and 
the grasses. King and Queen: Commercial fertilizers but little used, 
farmers having lost confidence in them. Increased attention paid to mak- 
ing and applying domestic manures. King George: “ Fertilizers have 
been found of so little benefit that their useis yearly diminishing. Guano 
formerly produced astonishing effects, but not now. The manures of- 
the farm-pen and stables are, more regarded.” Richmond: Manures 
are applied to crops of all kinds, but not one-tenth of the tilled acreage 
is manured? From one hundred to three hundred pounds of super- 
' phosphate applied to the acre, and twenty-five one-horse loads of home- 
made manure. The home-made always pays; commercial rarely. Lime 
and home-made manure are the most economical, and the production is 
doubled by the application. On limed lands the crops are inereased 
100 per cent. after three years. Northumberland: Not more than three 
acres in one hundred are fertilized with commercial manures, and the 
benefit is exhausted in one or two years. Latterly fish-guano has been 
introduced, which is manufactured in the county, and sold at $20 per 
ton. An application of three hundred to five hundred pounds per acre 
has produced fifteen bushels of wheat on land which would not have 
produced four bushels without it, and it promotes a vigorous growth of 
clover. Its effects are far more permanent than those of Peruvian 
guano. Clover and lime will make the poorest lands of the county as 
productive as may be desired. Lancaster: Commercial manures have 
been used on wheat and corn atthe rate of two hundred pounds to 
the acre. Owing to the dry seasons for the last two years, the imme- 
diate effect was not appreciable, but the benefit to the young clove? and 
grasses was marked. Home-made manures are more economical, and 
the county has vast resources for their production, in marl and oyster- 
shells, sea-ores, fresh and salt peat, woods’ mold, &e. A single appli- 
cation of sea-ores has been known to increase the erop of corn fifteen 
bushels to the acre. . 

Piedmont district, (Northside.)—Stafford: Manufaetured fertilizers 
have proved so uncertain that they were little used the past season. 
Home-made manures were more relied on. Prince William: Fertilizers 
are used on only a small portion of thetilled land, perhaps, one-fifth ; half 
‘commercial, half home-made. Of the former, from two hundred to three 
hundred pounds per acre are applied. The home-made is far better in 
its effects, lasting several years, the commercial only benefiting the first 
and second crops. Alexandria: Fertilizers are applied to a very great 
extent, at least one-half of the tilled acreage being improved. Com- 
mercial and home-made in about equal proportions, the former at the 
rate of two hundred to four hundred pounds per acre. The increase of 
products is considerably in favor of home-made manure, and land is 
always left in better condition. Fairfax: Probably two-thirds of the land 
seeded to wheat and one-fourth of the corn have commercial fertilizers 
applied to them, at an average rate of one hundred and fifty pounds to 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 283 


the acre. Barn-yard manure is husbanded with somecare. It is deemed 
most economical to apply this to the fields nearest to the barn, and com- 
mercial fertilizers to thase most remete. When the hauling does not 
add too much to the expense, barn-yard manure is the best for all crops, 
‘except wheat.- Gas-lime is largely used in the portions of the county 
nearest to Washington and Alexandria, and is thought to be quicker in 
its effects than stone-lime or oyster-shells. Plaster is not sown exten- 
Sively. Caroline: Fertilizers are applied to perhaps one in every five 
acres; commercial to a greater extent than home-made, but the latter 
are always the best, and in the end cheaper. Lands, however fertile 
naturally, will increase in product almost double by a liberal applica- 
tion of manures. Louisa: The reports from this county are somewhat 
diverse. One correspondent states that “ within his observation bought 
fertilizers are less and less used.” Another says that they are much 
employed, and that their use is limited only by the want of means to 
purchase. When such means exist, they are applied to three-fourths of 
the cultivated land. Peruvian guano is preferred, or those superphos- 
phates of which it forms one of the component parts; or guano and 
bone-flour, in the proportion of two to one, at the rate of two hundred 
and fifty pounds per acre for wheat. Home-made manures are pre- 
ferred, as far as available. Loudoun: Commercial fertilizers are almost 
exclusively applied to the wheat crop, embracing about one-third of the 
aereage, at the rate of one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and 
fifty pounds per acre. This about doubles the product. Not more than 
one-fourth of the whole manure used is home-made. Fauquier: “ Our 
grazing system supersedes the use of fertilizers, except plaster.’ Tur- 
nei’s Excelsior has retained the good opinion of farmers longer than 
any other fertilizer, being valuable for insuring a good stand of tim- 
othy. Plaster is universally used on grass, with good results. Tur- 
ner’s Excelsior, made in Baltimore, is used to a greater extent than all 
other fertilizers combined. Attherate of one hundred and fifty pounds 
per acre, it hastens the ripening of wheat about five days, and benefits 
the succeeding crop of clover 30 per cent.” Madison: About one-twen- 
tieth of the tilled acreage is fertilized. Commercial manures are used 
largely in excess of home-made, and are thought by many to be the 
most'economical. A mixture of equal parts of Peruvian guano and 
raw bone-dust, three hundred pounds to the acre, acts very finely on the 
cereals and grasses. Greene: The use of fertilizers is quite limited ; 
home-made in mach larger proportion than commercial, the former being 
regarded as most economical and profitable. Tobacco planters, of 
whom there are a few, hold on to the commercial manures. Plaster is 
used to a limited extent on nearly all crops. The soil is very susceptible 
of improvement, and a light application of manure produces an inerease 
of about ten bushels of corn or other grain to the acre. Culpeper: 
Fertilizers are used to a limited extent on wheat. About one-tenth of 
the acreage is improved, half with home-made manures, and half with 
commercial, with similar results. Since the disappearance of the joit- 
worm, the production is inereased eight to ten bushels to the aere by 
’. the application, making the average yield nearly twenty bushels, from 
one hundred. and fifty to two hundred pounds of phosphate. Some far- 
mers manufacture their own fertilizers, by using bone-flour, two tons; 
leached ashes, one ton; plaster, one-half ton; hen-house scrapings, one-half 
ton, with a few bushels of salt. An application of two hundred pounds 
is good for twenty busheis of wheat, and the same quantity of bought 
manures, at nearly double the cost, will do no better. Albemarle: About 
one-fifth of the cultivated surface is improved. For wheat one hundred 


¥ 


284 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and fifty to two hundred pounds of commercial manure are applied to 
the acre; for oats, fifty to one hundred pounds; for corn, one hundred 
to one hundred and fifty pounds, and for tobacco, two hundred to four 
hundred pounds. The increased production about pays the expense, 
the chief advantage being in securing a good stand of clover or grass. ' 
Farm-pen and stable manures do not receive merited attention. Nelson: 
Great complaint is made of the adulteration and worthlessness of bought 
manures, rendering it neither safe nor profitable to purchase any except 
plaster, ground bones, and some of the tobacco fertilizers prepared at 
Richmond. Farmers rely mostly on clover, plaster, and stable and barn- 
yard manures for the improvement of their lands. 

Tide-water district, (Southside. —Surry : Commercial manures are used 
very extensively, and with good results. From one-third to one-half the 
cultivated area is fertilized, the usual application being one hundred 
pounds of guano or phosphate, with fifty bushels of lime or one hun- 
dred and fifty bushels of marl to the acre. Commercial fertilizers are 
used to a greater extent than home-made, but the latter produce the 
best effect in dry seasons like the last two, and the use of them is on the 
increase. Southampton: Fertilizers are applied to a very limited ex- 
tent; home-made and commercial about half and half, and the results 
are similar, increasing the product fully 25 per cent. Isle of Wight: 
Fertilizers are used to a large extent on peanuts and potatoes, but, as a 
general rule, on no other crops. Probably one-fourth of the tilled 
lands is annually fertilized by an application of one hundred and fifty 
to two hundred pounds of Peruvian guano, and a larger quantity when 
other concentrated manures are used. Farmers are making a good deal 
of farm-yard manure from their stock, but the greatest results are be- 
lieved to be from the commercial fertilizers, particularly from guano 
combined with plaster. Princess Anne: No artificial fertilizers are 
used except in the cultivation of Irish potatoes. Barn-yard manure is 
relied on for corn. No other manure can be found to supply its place, 
and much attention is being paid to its production. Norfolk: The re- 
ports are occupied with details of the truck business, for the prosecution 
of which it is well known that a vast amount of fertilizing material is 
necessary. Commercial manures are extensively used, and large quan- 
tities of putrescent manures are annually obtained from all the neigh- 
boring cities in convenient reach by water. 

Piedmont district, (Southside.)—Chesterfield: At least one-half of the 
lands have been fertilized, until it is now almost impossible to raise 
wheat without guano or some other bought manure. Even then it 
takes two hundred pounds to the acre to realize as much as ten or twelve 
bushels. Farmers are generally coming to the conclusion that lime upon 
clover or pea-fallow is the surest way of improving their poor lands. 
Home-made manure is preferred for permanent results. Powhatan: 
Concentrated manures are used to a much less extent than formerly. 
They are not thought to pay except on the tobacco crop. Not more 
than one-fourth of the tilled acreage is manured. Home-made manures 
are used only on tobacco. Cumberland: Fertilizers are applied to con- 
siderable extent, about one-fourth of the cultivated land being thus 
treated: for tobacco, four hundred pounds per acre; for wheat, two 
hundred pounds. Nearly all of the home-made manure is given to the 
tobacco crop. On the poorer lands, about half the usual quantity of 
fertilizers is combined with it. Amelia: Fertilizers are used to a large 
extent, being applied to about two-fifths of the tilled acreage. Rate of 
application, about two hundred pounds Peruyian guano, or three jun- 
dred pounds manipulated, and eight to ten wagon-loads of farm, pen, or 


: 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 285 


stable manure. Relative proportions of home-made and commercial about 
one to ten. Results of the crops about equal, but the land on which the 
home-made manure is used is more permanently benefited. Lunen- 
. burg: Fertilizers are applied to a very limited extent. Not more than 
one-hundredth of the cultivated land is improved at all, and that im- 
provement is effected both by home-made and commercial manures— 
800 bushels per acre of the former, or 300 pounds of the latter, by which 
production is doubled. Distance from transportation prevents the 
use of lime and other cheap manures. Nottoway: Fertilizers are 
used to a limited extent, being confined chiefly to tobacco lots, which 
constitute but a small portion of the tilled surface. Rate of applica- 
tion, two bundred and fifty to four hundred pounds per acre. Not 
much attention is paid to domestic manures. When applied to the 
same crop, a liberal coating of domestic manure is equal to about three 
hundred and fifty pounds of fertilizer in first production, but the 
former has the advantage in permanence. Appomattox: There are 
more home-made manures than fertilizers used. They are regarded 
as more economical, and are attended with better results. Com- 
mercial manures are not profitable unless when applied to tobacco, 
to be followed by wheat. Buckingham: Fertilizers are extensively 
used on the tobacco crop, but sparingly on other crops. About one- 
tenth of the tilled acreage is devoted to tobacco. The superphosphates 
have mostly taken the place of guano. Rate of application, about 
four hundred pounds to the acre. There is but a small number of 
‘stock in the county, and but little farm-yard manure is made; butso 
far as it goes, the tobacco grown with it is heavier and of richer body. 
Campbell: Very little commercial manure purchased by farmers; and 
what little manure of any kind there is used is derived from the stables, 
cow-pens, and ash-banks. Charlotte: Formerly commercial manures were 
very largely used, but latterly the results have not been satisfactory. 
Especially has this been the case with the wheat crop, so that in refer- 
ence to that they have been almost abandoned. They are still freely 
applied to tobacco, at the rate of two hundred to five hundred pounds 
per acre, and as this is universally followed by wheat, the success 
attending it is better. Home-made and commercial manures are some- 
times combined, and this is considered by many farmers the most econ- 
omical use that can be made of both. Prince Edward: The extent to 
which fertilizers are applied is limited only by the means of the farmer. 
About six per cent. of the land in cultivation is usually planted with 
tobacco, which is all fertilized. The rate of application is about one 
hundred and fifty pounds per acre, and the product is increased one 
hundred per cent. Farm-yard manures are looked after only in the 
old fashion. Pittsylvania: Commercial fertilizers are generally applied 
to the tobacco crop. Peruvian guano is the most popular, though sev- 
eral superphosphates are being introduced, and applied at the rate of 
one hundred to two hundred pounds per acre. Franklin: Almost all 
the lands cultivated with tobacco are fertilized in the same way, and in 
some instances portions of the corn and wheat crops. Nearly one-half of 
. the cultivated land is fertilized. The increased production cannot be 
accurately stated, but it is believed to be five-fold in some instances, 
and sometimes more. Some of the manipulated fertilizers for tobacco 
are the most profitable. Patrick: Very little use is made of fertilizers. 
The distance from railroad communication and from market, with the 
lack of improved implements, renders their use impracticable. 

The Valley—Clarke: Only a small proportion of fertilizers used, and 
farmers are not at all satisfied with the results. If they are beneficial 


286 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


at all, it is in giving an early start tothe corn. Animal manure from the 
stables and farm-pens shows improvement for years, and a good degree 
of care is taken in saving it. Augusta: Few fertilizers are used except 
barn-yard manure and plaster. The latter, mixed with ashes in the 
proportion of one-third to two-thirds, and applied in the hill, is very bene- 
ficial to corn, and is sown with fine effect on the new crop of clover, in 
March or April, at the rate of two busheis of plaster per acre. Home- 
made manures are used in much larger proportion than commercial, 
and, except in comparison with plaster, with better results. The latter 
increases the production of corn and clover 25 per cent. over bought 
manures, and in an equal if not greater ratio over barn-yard manure. 
The soil is mostly limestone. Rockbridge: Commercial manures are 
used to a very limited extent, not affording opportunity of stating satis- 
factory results. The main reliance is on lime, plaster, and clover, with 
stable and barn-yard manure when at command. Highland: No com- 
mercial fertilizers used; nothing but stable manure. Hay is generally . 
stacked and fed on the meadows. Irom five to twenty loads of manure 
are as much as is generally made on a farm, and this is mostly applied 
to garden paiches. If any is left over, it goes to the corn-field. Bote- 
tourt: The best farmers have almost abandoned the use of bought fer- 
tilizers, and are turning more attention to home-made manures, with 
lime, clover, and plaster, from which the results are more satisfactory. 
Roanoke: Only a small quantity of commercial fertilizers used. The 
chief value they promise is in securing a stand of grass; but this is 
attained as well by the use of plaster, which farmers sow every year on all 
their grass lands, at the rate of sixty to one hundred pounds per acre. 
The lands are very easily improved by grass and plaster. 

Southwest Virginia.—Montgomery: Bought manures are used to a 
very limited extent, with the exception of plaster, which is applied 
quite freely. Not more than one-tenth of the tilled acreage is fertilized 
in any other mode than by plaster and the culture of clover. Home- 
made manure is not carefully saved, and is poor in quality, from the 
absence of comfortable shelter for stock, and the scarcity of labor; but 
no land responds more freely to its application, and the productive 
power of the soil is: capable of being almost indefinitely increased by 
judicious manuring. Pulaski: The use of all kinds of fertilizers is very 
limited. Wythe: Fertilizers used to a moderate extent; guano more | 
than any other kind, for the purpose of getting the land set in grass. 
Farmers depend on grazing and feeding their stock to keep up the fer- 
tility of their lands. Bland: Stable manure and plaster are the only 
fertilizers in use, the results depending on the quantity applied. Plas- 
ter is found most economical, and affords an increased production of 
one-half the entire yield per acre. Carroll: Fertilizers are not exten- 
sively used, grass crops being mostly relied on for improvement. Not 
more than one-tenth of the tilled acreage is improved in any other man- 
ner, and not more than one-twentieth of the fertilizers used is-com- 
mercial. A few farmers have used plaster and lime on their wheat and 
grass crops with beneficial results. Little or no guano has ever been 
used in the county. Grayson: The use of fertilizers is largely on the ° 
increase, chiefly home-made, with plaster from the adjoining county of 
Smythe. Plaster. is regarded as the cheapest of all fertilizers. Itis 
applied at the rate of one bushel to the acre, with ten to twenty loads 
of barn-yard manure, either for corn or wheat—mostly tlre latter. Plas- | 
ter alone will increase the product of grass three to four fold. Neither 
guano nor superphosphates have been used in quantity worthy of men- 
tion. Washington: Fertilizers of some description, either from the 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 287 


stable, the barn-yard, the lime-kiln, or plaster banks, are used by all 
good farmers. Plaster is the one thing most needed, and with the least 
expense produces the heaviest crop of grass, and the most abundant 
_crops of corn and other grain. An experience of forty years shows that 
an application of one bushel to the acre will increase the product of 
grass four-fold. At Saltville two varieties of fertilizers are manufac- 
tured, in one of which plaster, salt, and ashes, in equal proportion, form 
the component parts; in the other, plaster and ashes in equal parts. 
They are both highly approved by the farmers who have tried them. 
Seott: The use of fertilizers is quite limited. About one-fourth of the 
cultivated surface is manured. . 


FARM ANIMALS AND IMPROVEMENT OF FARM STOCK. 


Tide-water district, (Northside.)\—Henrico: Farm animals have largely 

increased since the war, but the number was very much diminished, and 
has not yet been brought up to the standard of 1860: Some attention 
is paid to the improvement of cattle, the Ayrshire and Alderney being 
the favorites. Much more than ordinary attention is being paid to hogs, 
the white Chester haying the preference. New Kent: A visible increase 
of farm stock of ail kinds. Someimproved horses have been introduced, 
such as the Morgan, Revenue, and Red Eye, with a few fine specimens 
of Planet. Short-horn, Ayrshire, and Alderney cattle have been intro- 
duced, and are making some headway. Chester and Irish Grazier breeds 
of hogs are preferred, and much attention is paid to the improved 
breeds of poultry. The farmers are ambitious, and doing all they can 
to make progress. York and the Peninsula: The response comes, 
“very slowly.” King William: Efforts are being made to improve the 
stock of all descriptions. Working animals are increasing, though still 
not so numerous as they were ten years ago. Cattle as usual, though 
some improved stock has been imported. The stock of hogs is being 
improved by crosses with the Chester and Berkshire. Essex: Farm 
animals are not increasing in numbers. <A few farmers are struggling 
to keep up the stock of improved breeds they had before the war, and 
now and then one is endeavoring to raise a fine horse. The breeds of 
cattle preferred are the Devon and Ayrshire; of hogs, the Chester and 
Berkshire; and of sheep, the Southdown. King and Queen: Farm 
animals increasing, but no particular care or thought is given to im- 
proved breeds. Many of the mares are the broken-down animals left 
by the war, and are utterly worthless except to breed mules, King 
George: Farm animals are not increasing, except such as are used in 
' cultivation. The destruction by dogs prevents the increase of sheep, 
and has prevented some farmers from raising them. The Cotswold is 
regarded with most favor, the Merino with the least. There are 
some good cattle; the Devons are thought to be best suited to the 
climate; and there are some good crosses cf Devons and Short-horns. 
The county is well suited to the raising of good stock, and sheep 
would do well if the dogs were out of the way. Richmond: The im- 
provement of farm stock is engaging greatly increased attention. The 
breeds preferred are Cotswold sheep, Jersey and Alderney cattle, and 
Chester hogs. Northumberland: Stock of animals generally quite 
smal}. <A few of the Devon cattle, Cotswold sheep, and Chester and 
Cheshire hogs have been introduced, and promise well. Lancaster: 
_The best breeds of horses and Spanish jacks have been introduced; 
also Chester, Jersey Red, and Essex hogs. Cattle are improving, and 
the increased sales show the profit of hay and pasturage afforded by 
the system of rotation. 


288 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Piedmont district, (Northside.)—Stafford: There is improvement in 
farm animals, to a small extent in horses and hogs. Prince William: 
Stock slowly increasing, though but little attention is given to improve- 
ment of breeds, except in a few instances. The climate is well adapted 
to stock-growing, and northern men are disposed to engage in it. There 
is only one large stock-grower in the county; he sold $14,006 worth of 
neat cattle last year. Alexandria: Not being a stock-raising region, the 
increase of farm animals is limited, confined chiefly to milch kine and 
swine, with poultry. Of cattle, the partiality is for the Alderney and 
Devon; of swine, the Chester; and of poultry, Brahma. Fairfax: Cat- 
tle and horses are improving, but not much attention is paid to breeds. 
Caroline: Farm animals areincreasing. Short-horn cattle are preferred. 
Chester hogs are rapidly increasing, and promise the most remu- 
nerative results. Cotswold sheep are held in most esteem. Horses and 
mules are in about equal number; the latter are regarded as best for 
farm work. Louisa: Formerly much attention was paid to stock, and 
improved breeds were introduced to considerable extent. Short-horns 
and Devons were looked on as the best strains for cattle, and Cotswolds 
for sheep. Traces of these yet remain; but, on the whole, farm stock 
has decreased. Loudoun: Farm animals are greatly on the increase, 
mostly horses and cattle; of the former, the heavy draught, (much used 
in the country ;) of the latter, the Short-horn. Less attention is given 
to hogs and sheep. Fauquier: This county being peculiarly adapted to 
grass, stock is usually kept in large numbers, say from 35,000 to 40,000 
head of cattle, and untold numbers of sheep and hogs. The hogs follow 
the cattle in winter when feeding on corn, the most of which, except 
breeders and pigs, are sold off in spring, when the cattle are put on 
grass. The Chester and Essex are the favorite breeds of hogs; the 
Southdown and Cotswold of sheep; and the Short-horn for cattle, partieu- 
larly the red Short-horn, of Alexander’s Kentucky breed. Farmers are 
turning their attention particularly to raising their own cattle, and in 
fact all stock. Of the 40,000 head of cattle in the county, about two- 
fifths are home-raised, and about three-fifths imported from Southwest 
Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina, and West Virginia. Madison: 
The farm animals were largely destroyed by the war, and, owing to the 
impoverished condition of the farmers, efforts to replace their exhausted 
stock have thus far been crippled. Attention to the improvement of 
breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, is confined to a very few men 
of means. Greene: The number of farm animals is not more than one- 
half as large as before the war; but for the last three or four years there 
has been an increase in cattle. Very few sheep. Stock of no particular 
breeds; all of the ordinary native kinds. Culpeper: Farm animals are 
generally on the increase. Considerable attention is given to farm stock 
as a more reliable source of profit than wheat. A few improved Short- 
horn and Devon cattle are being brought into the county. As the lands 
are well adapted to the grasses, stock-raising receives more attention. 
Albemarle: Horses of different breeds, both blooded and draught, are 
increasing; also cattle, principally Short-horn, with some few Devons. 
The Chester, Surry, Berkshire, and Woburn breeds of hogs have been 
introduced. Nelson: A decided interest is manifested in the improve- 
ment of cattle by the introduction of the Devon and Short-horn stock. 
There is some increase in hogs, but little or none in horses. The Chester 
and Berkshire hogs and their cross are engaging the attention of farmers 
to a limited extent. 

The Valley.—Clarke: Farm animals of all kinds are increasing, but it 
is only their natural increase. None of the improyed breeds haye been 


STATUS OF VIRGINIA AGRICULTURE IN 1870. 289 


brought into the county, with the exception of a few Chester hogs, and 
one or two Short-horn bulls. Augusta: In one portion of the county 
farm animals are increasing considerably, and stock of ail kinds— 
thorough-bred horses, Short-horn cattle, and Chester hogs—is receiv- 
ing more attention. In other portions the improvement is less percep- 
tible. Rockbridge: A very marked improvement is manifest in farm 
animals—horses, cattle, and hogs. In these particulars, perhaps, no 
county in the State has made so great an advance in the last five years. 
The improvement in horses has had reference to general utility, the ob- 
ject being to secure such as are suitable for heavy draught, light draught, 
and the saddle. Short-horn and Devon eattle are preferred, and Ches- 
ter and Hssex hogs. Highland: Domestic stock can hardly be said to 
beinereasing or diminishing, the object being to keep only asufficient num- 
ber for use, and to sell off all surplus. During the past year about 3,000 
fat cattle, 120 horses, and 2,000 sheep were driven from the county. 
Considerable attention is given to the improvement of every kind of 
stock. These remarks will apply in substance to Bath and Alleghany, 
the three counties being situated between Rich Mountain and the Alle- 
ghanies, and forming rather a subdivision of the valley than a part of 
the valley proper. Botetourt: Farm animals are rapidly increasing, 
with great improvement in cattle. All farmers find if te their interest 
to get off their scrub cattle, and replace them with Short-horns, particu- 
larly since the decline in produce and advanee in beef. Roanoke: The 
increase of farm animals is very great, with the exception of hogs. 
There is an increasing desire for improved stock, particularly cattle 
and horses, the Short-horn being the favorite breed of the former. Sheep 
have been neglected, but are now receiving more attention. 

Southwest Virginia Montgomery : Stock has been steadily increasing 
since the close of the war. The most particular attention has been 
directed to cattle, and of all the breeds the Short-horn and higher grades 
of the same are in most favor. But little attention is paid to sheep 
husbandry, though much of the rich mountain land is admirably adapted 
to it. Chester hogs have been introduced to some extent, but the hog 
stock of the county consists principally of the native breed, based orig- 
inally on the Berkshire and Irish Grazier. Quite an activity in rais- 
ing horses prevails, which are, with few exceptions, inferior stock. 
Pulaski: Horses, cattle, and hogs are gradually increasing from the 
stock on hand previous to the war. None of the improved breeds have 
been introduced. Wythe: Farm-animals are increasing to a moderate 
extent. More attention is paid to cattle than any other kind ; the Short- 
horns preferred. Cotswold sheep and Berkshire hogs are the favorites 
in their line, and much attention is paid to theirimprovement. Bland: 
Farm animals are on the inerease. Cattle engage much attention, and 
the herds are composed of numerous varieties. Carroll: This béing a 
grazing county, particular attention is paid to the improvement of cat- 
tle, experience demonstrating the advantages of improved stock. Much 
attention is paid to raising mules and horses, which is becoming a very 
common and profitable occupation. Hogs are also raised to considera- 
ble extent. Grayson: The raising of stock constitutes the main busi- 
ness of farming in this county, horses and cattle receiving most atten- 
tion. The horses are of a hardy, serviceable stock, of which the farmers 
have always been rather proud. Cattle, both in number and quality, 
(having been improved by the Short-horn,) are far in excess of what 
they were five years ago, and from their profits the business of the 
county is carried on. Washington: Cattle are on the increase, particu- 
larly of improved stock, of which the Short-horns are preferred. Hogs 


19 A 


- 


290 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


not so numerous as they were ten years ago, which is attributable to the 
cholera. ‘The Chester is the favorite. Horses and mules have neither 
increased in numbers nor improved in quality. Sheep not extensively 
raised, owing to the partiality people have for dogs. Scott: Improvement 
of farm stock is engaging attention, but only to a limited extent, 


CONCLUDING REMARKS. 


With all the industry we have used, there remains a number of import- 
ant counties in the State—several in each geographical division—from 
which we have failed to get returns. On the north side of James River 
the tide-water and Piedmont districts are very fairly represented by 
the counties enumerated. It would be gratifying, however, to have 
had reports from Goochland, Fluvatina, and Amherst, on the Upper 
James, in which the system of farming was formerly as perfect as in 
any part of the State, and also from Hanover, Spottsylvania, and 
Rappahannock. Hanover, however, in respect to the lower portion, 
may be classified at the present time with the best counties on tide- 
water; Rappahannock with the neighboring counties of Fauquier and 
Culpeper; and Amherst with Nelson. On the Seuthside the omissions 
are not less to be regretted. Greenville, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, and 
Halifax were formerly distinguished for their productiveness, chiefly in 
the article of tobacco, and largely, also, in wheat. Halifax was the 
largest tobacco-producing county in the State. Bedford, while long 
famed for both tobacco and wheat, is a fine grass country, where grazing 
is, or was, profitably followed. With the exception of the small county 
of Clarke, we miss altogether the lower half of the Valley, embracing 
Frederick, Shenandoah, Warren, Page, and Rockingham. These con- 
stitute a very important part of the State; but as the farmers have 
always been noted for their industry and thrift, and as it is divided, to 
a large extent, into farms of moderate size, we may conclude that it is 
recovering its prosperity in at least an equal ratio with Augusta, Rock- 
ingham, and Botetourt. in Southwest Virginia there is no important 
omission, with the exception of Smythe. It is in this county that the 
celebrated plaster beds are found, which furnish an abundant sapply of 
this mineral to all the adjacent country, as far as it will bear transport- 
ation. Its use, as the reader has been informed, produces wonderful 
results. The condition of agricuiture in this county is very much the 
same as in Washington and Wythe. In Russell the same features pre- 
vail, but in Buchanan and Wise, at the base of the Cumberland Mount- 
ains, they are very distinct. They are outside the grass region, and 
agriculture is at a very low ebb. 

From the Eastern Shore, composed of the counties of Accomac and 
Northampton, no returns have been received. It may be remarked, 
however, that the farm crops consist almost entirely of corn and oats, ~ 
under a three-years’ course. The third year the land puts up the Ma- 
gothy Bay bean, (Cassia chamecrista,) which, though indigenous to 
other parts of the State, grows most luxuriantly in a saline atmosphere. 
It furnishes an abundant crop of green manure, by means of which the 
fertility of the land is indefinitely maintained. The principal market 
crop is oats, which is extensively used in the interior of the State for 
seed and other purposes. Much attention has been paid, of late years, 
to trucking. Sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, cabbages, and fruits are 
raised in large quautities. F 

Taken as a whole, the picture presented, though not so flattering as 
could be wished, offers many attractive features. We have taken a 
very close view of the inner life of these old Virginia farmers, and 


GREEN CORN-FODDER FOR MILCH COWS. 291 


find much to approve. It should be borne in mind that only five years 
have elapsed since the agriculture of the State was utterly prostrated. 
The people waked up as out of a dream, to see their labor system over- 
thrown, and their lands lying idle. Nearly all kinds of farm stock had 
been swept off by the hurricane which passed over the country, and but 
few agricultural implements remained. It was not to be supposed that 
the former servants, suddenly enfranchised after two hundred years of 
bondage, would be otherwise than unsettled by the change; but large 
numbers gradually returned to steady habits, quite as steady, perhaps, 
as could have been anticipated by the most hopeful. They still consti- 
tute the great bulk of the labor of the State; and valuable labor it 
is, in spite of many irregularities. The Virginia farmer, at least in East- 
ern Virginia, could not get along without it. With kind treatment and 
payment according to contract, the negro is as tractable as ever; and 
in time the interests of the two races, instead of appearing diverse, will be- 
come one. 

A striking mark of progress is the change in the policy of the planters 
toward the outside world. Formerly they were indisposed to encourage 
immigration from other States. There was, therefore, no accession to 
the population of the rural districts from abroad. The same traditions 
and habits descended from father to son through successive generations. 
Now all this is altered. Strangers from every State and every country 
are cordially welcomed whenever they show any disposition to become 
permanent settlers and industrious citizens. The consequence is, that 
in many counties a strong tide of immigration is setting in, bearing with 
it improved stock and better implements, which cannot fail to impart 
a healthy impulse to improvement. 

Upon the whole, we regard the signs of the times as evidently auspi- 
cious of future progress. From astate of desolation and almost despair, in 
1865, the agricultural productions of the State have steadily increased 
in amount and value until, in 1870, we find the tobacco crep one of the 
largest grown in the State for many years; that of cotton greatly in- 
creased; the Richmond mills supplied to their full capacity with wheat ; 
and the crop of corn plentiful in proportion. Improved methods of 
farming are being gradually adopted; more attention is,paid to the 
accumulation of manures; the area of cultivation is being reduced; and 
high culture is taking the place of the old. This is the direction to 
which agriculture is tending in many parts of the State; by degrees we 
may expect it to extend over the whole; and it may be confidently pre- 
dicted that the man: who survives to see the Virginia of fifty years 
hence will not be able to recognize in its features the Virginia of 1870. 


GREEN CORN-FODDER FOR MILCH COWS. 


The practice of sowing corn broadcast, or planting it in drills, to be 
cut daily and fed in a green or slightly dried state to milch cows, in 
August or later months, mainly to supplement the supply of grass in 
the driest portion of the season and equalize the consumption of milk, 
making material, is almost universal among enterprising aud intelligent 
dairymen. In supplies for-farm animals, our abundance, which actually 
runs to waste, is not distributed through the year; the prodigality of 
the flush spring-time, the season of rain and verdure and succulence, is 
followed, in midsummer, by drought and a stinted measure of tough, 


292 . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


harsh stems of dried grasses. Unless the early growth is left half depas- 
tured, the-feed of August will be inconveniently short; and should it 
be thus left, its quality will deteriorate, and the future pasturage be 
less valuable; thus extra feeding, in the later months of summer, is 
found to be a necessity that no dairyman can ignore with immunity to 
pail or purse. ; 

Then what shall be fed? That which yields most milk and flesh at 
lowest cost. Unfortunately, discriminating and decisive experiments 
have not been made by which the matter may be set permanently at 
rest. Were the most careful experiments made in different climates 
and circumstances, upon different soils, and in several seasons, the 
result would still show the greatest diversity of opinion. A plant that 
grows well upon one soil may fail upon another that is unsuited to it, 
even under the same culture. But we find, as an existing fact, that the 
leaves and tender stalks of Indian corn, (Zea mais,) cut in different 
stages of its growth, are the almost mniversal resource of Gairymen in 
all parts of the country for tiding over the season of drought and 
searcity. : 

If the average practical sense of the masses claims the paternity of a 
practice which becomes almost universal, the value of green corn-fodder 
can only be disproved by positive testimony. The fact that maize is an 
indigenous product, peculiarly suited to our climate, thriving in every 
portion of our country, except in Alaska and on the mountain tops, and 
the most valuable tilled crop that has ever been grown on the continent, 
is strong presumptive proof that its fodder, if worth anything for soil- 
ing, may exceed in value, in view of the certainty of its grewth and 
quantity of its production, that of some if not all other fodder plants. 
Strong as is this presumptive claim, the superiority of corn-fodder can- 
not be thus assumed. If experiment, full and varied, shail establish 
the superior excellence of some exotic or native piant, iet the practice 
of our farmers be reformed, and a better material for soiling milch cows 
be employed. 

There has been considerable discussion of late at farmers’ clubs, in 
the fields, and at firesides, concerning the value of this fodder. More 
than this: it has been denounced as worthless, as costing more than its 
real value, or as the poorest feeding material in use. The charge that 
it is worthless is untenable and reckless, and cannot be considered. 
The question of its comparative value is one that should be examined 
carefully, and, if possible, settled. . 

We have sought from practical agriculturists and working dairymen 
in different parts of the country views based upon their own experience, 
and supported by facts and experiment. The communications received 
have been interesting, though desultory in statement, and many of them 
inconclusive in results; yet they all agree that there is value in this 
material, and a large majority accord to it a high estimate, very few of 
whom venture to name a substitute of equal merit. 

Mr. Sanford Howard, secretary of the Michigan State Board of Agricul- 
ture, (since deceased,) wrote to the Commissioner of Agriculture upon 
the question, in December last, as follows: 

The controversy to which you allude seems to have taken its rise from a public state- 
ment of Dr. George B. Loring, of Salem, Massachusetts, to the effect that green corn- 
fodder was the poorest food for milch cows that heever used. The expression was un- 
mercifully pounced on by correspondents of various agricultural papers. Butit seemed 
to me that the dispute was not unlike that we read of in regard to the red and white 
shield ; that both parties might to some extent be right and to some extent wrong. 

While I lived with my father, and for some years subsequently, I fed considerable 
corn-fodder to milch cows. I noticed that when it was grown very thickly on the ground, 


GREEN CORN-FODDER FOR MILCH COWS. 293 


and especially when it was cut in an immature state—before it blossomed—the stock 
did not like it so well, and it did not seem to do them as much good as when it had 
more space during its growth, and was allewed to stand till the ears commenced 
forming. 

I think Dr. Loring did not state how his corn-fodder was grown; but recollecting 
that I had seen it growing on his farm in very close hills, I wrote an article designed 
to show that the nutriment contained in this fodder depended much as to whether it 
was, while growing, so much exposed to the light and air that tho juices of the plant 
would be properly elaborated. Since that I have heard from other persons who have 
had more or less experience with “ fodder-corn.” 

Mr. Gibson, the superintendeng of the farm of Messrs. Walcott and Campbell, New 
York Mills, New York, stated to me, while on a visit to the farm a short time ago, that 
he tried various things as green food for the stock keptin the stables and yards, giv- 
ing the preference to lucern. He made an assertion in regard to corn-fodder similar to 
that attributed to Dr. Lorine. 

I will mention one fact, which of course you will take for whatever you think it 
worth, in regard jo sweet corn-fodder as compared with the fodder of other varieties 
of corn. I have known several instances where cattle, having been kept on the fodder 
of sweet corn until the crop was all eaten, refused for some time to eat the fodder of 
dent corn in the same stage of growth, and grown in the same way. They would eat 
the fodder of flint corn better than they would that of the dent, but did not like either 
as well as they did sweet corn. ; 

Fodder-corn has been grown and used to some extent on our college farm, but no 
attempt has been made to experiment with it. 


Of those whose opinions adverse to the use of green corn have been 
quoted, Dr. Nichois, of the Boston Journal of Chemistry, considers 
green corn-fodder a “kind of food for animals not profitable to raise ;” 
and makes the following statement of his reasons for the opinion: 


It is not so because the maize plant is not rich and succulent, but because the con- 
ditions under which it is grown are unfavorable to its perfect and healthy develop- 
ment. Thenatural juices of the plant are richly saccharine at maturity, when grown 
in hills in open space, with plenty of air and light; but grown in mass, in close con- 
tiguity, this principle is almost wholly wanting. To test its comparative value with 
the green stalks taken from the corn-field, I fed to my herd of cows in August a 
weighed quantity of the corn-fodder, so called, night and morning, for one week ; 
they were then changed to the field corn-stalks, and the gain in the milk product at the 
end of the week was a little moré than 8 per cent., and there was also a manifest im- 
provement in quality. As a rule, all vegetable productions grown under conditions 
where the chlorophyl, the green coloring principle of plants, cannot be produced in ail 
its richness of tint, are abnormal, immature, werthless. The absence of this principle 
in the whole of the lower portion of the corn-plant grown in drills, or frem broadeast 


sowing, indicates its watery, half-developed character. 


While entertaining a very poor opinion of the immature and eolor- 
less corn, the editor of the Journal of Chemistry apparently yields to 
none in his estimate of the value of mature and dry corn-fodder, includ- 
ing both the blades and butts, as appears from the following: J 


The fodder is a very important item connected with corn-raising. We always re- 
move the top stalksin a green state and allow the corn to ripen in the open field. The 
“butts” or lower stalks after husking ave taken good care of, as we depend largely 
upon them to keep up the flow of milk in our herd of cows during the winter. They 
are pitched over, a moderate quantity of salt is diffused through them, and then they 
are mowed with alternating layers of wheat straw. Their value, when carefully 
preserved is but little less than that of good upland hay, estimating ton for ton. 
There is much saccharine and nitrogenous material in the “ butts,” and animals 
will eat them if they are kept sweet and clean and properly fed. Out of four tons 
fed to one herd the past winter, not five hundsed pounds have been rejected, and we 
have neither chopped nor steamed the fodder. To raise corn, we must plow in the 
autumn, and spread on the manure green {from the cellar in the sprivg. We must 
harrow 36 in well, and have the soil well pulverized. In the hills, place a handful of 
the mixture of bone and ashes so often alluded to; this mixture must not be thrown 
in all in a mass, and the seed dropped directly upon it; let it be thrown around the 
hill and a little soil scattered over it, and npon this place the seed. Select a field 
which is neither very wet nor dry, and with this treatment every farmer can raise corn 
profitably. 

OPINIONS OF LEADING FARMERS. 


Hon. Horatio Seymour, of Utica, New York, president of the Ameri- 


294 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


can Dairymen’s Association, communicates the unequivocal indorse- 
ment by that body of the value of greeh corn-fodder as a supplementary 
food for milch cows, after a full discussion at the annual convention at 
Utica, in January, 1871, and presents in detail his own views, which are 
in harmony with the decision of the meeting : 


The farmers of Central New York are almost exclusively engaged in making butter or 
cheese. This is carried on with so mach skill that most of the odh made here is sent 
to England, and this article of food has become one of the leading agricultural exports 
from this country. A convention is held in this city in the month of January of each 
year, which is made up of delegates from most of th® Northern States, and some from 
the Southern States and from Canada. It meets to discuss questions relating to the 
interests of dairymen, in all their aspeets. The proper treatment and the best food for 
cows are prominent topics. As this body of six or seven hundred practical, skillful, 
and leading farmers represents the judgment of those engaged in dairying in a great 
section of our Union, I deemed it my duty to lay your letter before it. After a full dis- 
cussion, it was declared by a formal resolution “ that green fodder is a valuable crop, 
and that its use asa summer feed for cows is recommended to the farmers of our 
country.” I look upon this judgment of the American Dairymen’s Association as 
conclusive upon this question. It gives the sum and result of the'largest, longest, and 
most varied experience. It is the result of the greatest number of practical trials by 
practical men, who are not trying to prove theories, but who are striving to support 
themselves and their families by making their tirms profitable. There was a difference 
of opinion as to the best ways of sowing and gathering, and also with regard to the 
kinds of corn which should be used. li is a proof of the value of the crop that it is 
found to be useful whatever pian is followed in raising it. In this section of New York 
I think the farmers usually sow the large western corn. ‘The seed is kept for the pur- 
pose at our seed-stores, and carve is taken to get that which is in good condition. The 
seller usually gives proof of this by putting a given number of kernels in a pot of garth, 
and the buyer can see what proportion has sprouted. Some sow broadcast, while others 
plant in drills. On my farm itis put in breadcast, on well-prepared ground, Three 
bushels of seed are used on an acre. The same ground is used for a series of years. This 
is done because it is thought it takes less manure to keep up the needed bcs: than 
it does to prepare new greund. It also enables one to put the crop on land which is 
conveniently situated. The dense growth of the corn keeps it clear from weeds, and 
leaves the ground reaidly for a new crop. I think when the seed is sown broadcast the 
stalks stand closer and grow more slender than they do when the corn is drilled in. 
It gains in nutritive qualities until] autumn. To save it from early frosts it is some- 
times cnt down with «seythe or a corn-cutter, and suffered to lie upon the ground until 
it isused up. It is not injured by rains or the sun, where it is not exposed more than 
2 week or ten days. In some instances it has been kept in the fields, put up in small 
stacks, until the winter months, but it is difficult to cure it except in small quantities 
when it can be thrown upon hay-mows, in the barn. With us it is most useful when fe 
to cows in August and September, as at that time our pastures are usually short. If 
cows are then put into a convenient field and fed with corn-fodder, there are many ad- 
vantages gained. A change of food after the heat and exhaustion of summer is grate- 
ful to them. It gives new vigor. In the mean time the pastures are usually renewed 
by cooler nights and more moisture, and if they are allowed to gain a flush of feed when 
the cattle are turned back upon them, they have another and healthful change of food. 
By this system the hurtful practice of pasturing meadows in the autumn is avoided. 

The question naturally comes up, why there is a difference of opinion about the value 
of this crop. I think it is owing to the fact that with some it is not the best crop they 
can raise as they are situated, and therefore they condemn it. The question is not if 
it is the best crop for summer feed at all places and under all cireumstances, but is it 
avaluablecrop? Like all ether things, it must be used under favorable circumstances. 
In one place it may be the most profitable and in others the least profitable forage for 
cattle. The same thing is true of root crops, of lucern, of clover, &c.; climate, soil, 
and price of labor must always be taken into account. In the dairy region, where cows 
are milked in summer and autumn, sowed corn can be used at the time when fodder 
is most wanted; that is, when pastures are usually dry. It does not call for extra farm 
labor to plant or to gather. 


Mr. Joseph Harris, of the “Agriculturist” paper and “ Moreton Farm,” 
Rochester, New York, im an address before the American Dairymen’s 
Association, at Utica, in January, 1871, held that it makes compara- 
tively little difference what food is used, provided it is easily digestible 
and contains the requisite amount of nutriment in the desired bulk, and 
thinks the difference of opinion in regard to the value of corn-fodder 


. 


GREEN CORN-FODDER FOR MILCH COWS. 295 


will turn upon this point. He said further: ‘ Corn-fodder is succulent, 
easily digested, sweet, and nutritious; but, at least before it has com- 
menced to ear, its nutriment is not sufficiently concentrated. If we 
could take away one-third of the water and one-third of the indigestible 
woody fiber, the part that remained would be of much greater value. 
than the whole. The water we can easily get rid of, and if we cannot 
get rid of the excessive. bulk, we can feed out sufficient corn-meal with 
the fodder to bring it up to the desired standard.” 

Mr. &. W. Stewart, of New York, deems the profitable use of green . 
corn as a summer food for milch cows a settled fact, ifany questions in 
practical agrictlture can be considered settled, He states that hundreds 
of instances may be cited where green corn has produced the highest 
yield of butter. ; 

Mr. Frank D: Curtis, of Charlton, Saratoga County, New York, re- 
gards green corn-fodder excellent material for soiling, and for use in 
autumn in a partially dried state, when it is “ very nutritious and almost 
invaluable” for young animals of the farm. He recommends planting 
in drills in cultivating. 

Mr. W. L. Locke, jr., of Irasburg, Vermont, last August fed corn-fodder 
to his cows, and increased thereby the daily quantity of milk from forty- ’ 
five to fifty-one pans, or 13 per cent., and the cream had a better color. 

The editor of the Maine Farmer reports a case in which the pasture 
was dry and short, and corn-fodder fed almost exclusively. The flow of 
milk.was increased at once, and made a fair average for the season, not- 
Withstanding the unusual proportion of fodder given, while neighbors’ 
cows not thus fed-shrunk one-half in quantity during the dry season. 

Mr. Robert Gibson, farm manager of Wolcott & Campbell, of New York 
Mills, Oneida County, New York, in a letter to Mr. Sanford Howard, 
expresses a preference for lucern over corn-fodder, as follows: 

Although I agree with you in regard to corn-fodder, I go a little farther, and say 
that when it is grown very thick and fed early—that is, before it is in full tassel—it is 
the poorest green feed I ever used. In its very best stage it is not so good as lncern ; 
that has been my experience. I have no object in speaking so highly of lucern except 
that of inducing persons who wish to soil stock to give it a trial. It can be cut four 
or five times a year. This season I cut it five times. By giving a coat of manure in 
the fall, it will keep in the ground four or five years, consequently saving the expense 
of plowing, seeding, &c., every year. 

The editor of Hearth and Home has found that drill-sown or broad- 
east corn is uniformly eaten with avidity, and that it as uniformly in- 
sures a large and full flow of milk. 

Mr. William Ramsdell, of Milford, New Hampshire, attests the preva- 
lent practice among dairymen in his vicinity of feeding green corn-fodder 
during August and September, in the fuil belief that it inereases the 
flow of milk and improves the condition of the animals. He makes 
the following statement of the result of an expertment with millet: 

Some two years ago Dr. Loring assured us in his public address that corn-fodder was of 
novalue in producing milk, and advised the raising of milletasa substitute, which would 
not only increase the flow of milk, but could be raised at much less expense. In ac- 
cordance with this suggestion I, with some of my neighbors, last year and this have 
tested the experiment to our satisfaction, and shall return to the raising of fodder- 
corn. But I would say that much of the value of fodder-corn depends upon the time 
at which it is cut. My experience has led me to raise fodder-corri as follows: I sow in 
drills (in preference to broadcast) early in the month of May for my first cutting, drop- 
ping the seed from three to four inches apart, and commence cutting in August, or 
when the corn begins to tassel. If cut before this stage it has much less nutriment. 
I disapprove of the practice of topping when half grown, with the expectation of a 
second crop. I sow at intervals of two weeks, to the month of July, and hoe until the 
corn completely shades the ground; and if I have a surplus I cut and dry it before the 
season of frost. I approve of cutting the day before consigning it to the barn, in order 


296 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


to have it wilt.~ I cut close to the ground, and my cattle leave no orts. In this way I 
am enabled to retain my usual quantéty of milk, and, I think, improve the condition of 
my herd, when my feed in the pasture is rapidly decreasing, and I know of no other 
way in which the same results can be obtained at the same cost. 

Mr. Levi Bartlett, of Warner, New Hampshire, thinks there is small 
nutritive value in very late, thickly planted, and therefore colorless and 
immature corn-fodder. He recommends sweet corn for soiling purposes, 
fed when the ears are fairly formed. 

Mr. Nathaniel Dwight, of Belchertown, Massachusetts, says the prac- 
tice of feeding green corn is deemed remunerative in his seetion. It is 
sown broadcast. : 

Mr. ©. H. Wolford, of Corry, Pennsylvania, thinks green corn fed to 
milch cows will pay only in places where grass is liable to dry up, when 
the green fodder will prove a good substitute. He thinks that when corn’ 
is fed to cows it injures the quality of the milk; and says they will not 
keep up the flow of milk after the corn is fed out, and they will not 
gather the grass they would if they had not had the fodder.* 

Mr. John Satterthwait, of Bordentown, New Jersey, has a dairy of 
twenty-four cows, and sells his milk. He sows corn in drills two and one- 
half feet apart, eight to twelve stalks to the foot, about the middle of May, 
‘and evéry two weeks thereafter, as long as there remains a probability 
of its coming te maturity; feeds it “when in the milk state.” He states, 
as his experience last year, that he began to feed it July 15, when it was 
about four feet high, and when the cowshad begun to shrink six to ten 
quarts per day. As soon as he began to feed the green corn they gained 
twenty quarts per day, and continued the same flow of milk all summer. 
They were fed through the summer twice a day, night and morning, 
after milking, and always fresh cut. They did not eat wilted fodder so 
eagerly. Three acres of green corn were fed out before the last of Sep- 
tember, when they fell from one hundred and twenty quarts per day to 
eighty quarts. Some of the cows were fresh and others nearly dry. He 
considered the three acres of corn equivalent to twelve acres of good 
clover pasture. There was no perceptible gain in flesh until the corn 
began to ear, when the increase was very noticeable. The cows contin- 
ued in fine order all summer, notwithstanding the dry weather and. 
scareity of succulent pasture. 

Mr. Anson Bartlett, of North Madison, Ohio, a dairyman of long expe- 
rience, and a cheese manufacturer well known throughout the country, 
shows how he obtained $50 for an acre of corn-fodder, in inereased 
quantities of butter and cheese, when the former was worth but 124 
cents and the latter 54 cents per pound: . 

In the summer of 1852 I tried my first experiment with green corn-fodder for mileh 
cows. I putin just an acre; marked off the rows two feet apart, and planted the 
corn in hills ten inches apart In the rows, putting from ten to fifteen kernels in a hill. 
It was cultivated by running a common shovel-plow once between the rows; it made 
a heavy growth, (being on strong, rich land,) so heavy, indeed, that much of it fell 
down before it was cut. 

At that time I was milking thirty-three cows; a neighbor, whose farm was adjoin- 
ing, (the two being very much alike in all respects,) also had thirty-three, and up to 
the Ist of August the product of the two dairies bad been very nearly equal; in fact, 
his was a trifle ahead, but at that time feed in the pastures began to fail, and the cows, 
of course, gave a diminished quantity of milk. I then commenced cutting and feed- 
ing my corn-fodder, what few small ears there were on it being just full in the milk. 


My neighbor before mentioned had no corn-fodder to cut, and, of course, his cows. 
had no feed except what they obtained in their ordinary pasture range. I used my 


* Tf cows fail to gather grass as well, it isan indication that they prefer corn-fodder : 
iBo i they give less milk, it attests the milk-producing capability of corn-fodder.— 
iD. REP. ] ; 


GREEN CORN-FODDER FOR MILCH COWS. 297 


corn-fodder so as to last jest one month, at the end of which time we compared 
accounts of butter and cheese produced, and the product of my dairy during that 
month exceeded his during the same time to the value of $50, with cheese at 54 cents 
per pound and butier at 123. My cows were in better flesh than his and continued to 
give an increased amount of milk some days after the corn-fodder was gone. The 
experiment, crude as it was, of course satisfied me that green corn-fodder paid well to 
feed to milch cows, and I rarely failed after that, so long as I managed a dairy, to have 
two to four acres of corn-fodder. 

I tried various methods of growing, as sowing broadcast, three bushels to the acre, 
and finally decided that two bushels per acre, sown in drills twenty inches to two feet 
apart, and cultivated by running a shovel-plow through between the rows when the 
corn was about six inches high, and again when it was from eighteen inches to two 
feet high, produced more and better fodder than any other method of cultivation tried 
by me; and this method, with me, always produced about double the fodder to the 
acre that broadcast sowing would do. Theageat which it was cut was not considered 
very material; we generally began to feed as soon as the corn was full-grown, some- 
times before, and continued to feed until frost. Of one thing I became convinced from 
repeated experiments, which was, that the best way to feed, unless a full feed is given, 
that is, all the cows can or will eat, is to feed at night, and I finally adopted this 
method. I had my corn-fodder cut and Joaded on a wagon, before the cows were 
stabled, for the night’s milking; then, while they were being milked, the fodder was 
scattered in the pasture, and as soon as the night’s milking was done the cows were 
allowed to go and eat their fodder, after which they would lie down and ruminate until 
morning. After the morning’s milking, not being accustomed to receive any fodder, 
they would range the pastures as usual. By a division of the same amount of 
fodder, giving one-half at night and the other in the morning, the cows would be 
discontented, seeking mischief during the night, and during the day would be 
waiting and watching for more, and would not range the pasture as usual for 
what they might find there; so that while one full feed a day was a decided 
advantage,two half-feeds were of no benefit, but rather a detriment. When feed in 
the pasture is very short, by reason of a drought, two full feeds are necessary, but when 
itis only intended to piece out the pasture, one full feed a day, given after the night’s 
milking, is the proper method. 

Mr. Joseph Pelton, of Lansing, Michigan, who has had forty years’ expe- 
rience in feeding corn, deems its value highest for feeding between tas- 
seling and earing, and refers to the marked difference in its juice at 
different stages of its growth, it having a sourish, bitter taste before 
tasseling, aud a very sweet and pleasant flavor after that period. He 
claims to have grown, in 1859, near Nashville, Tennessee, upon a single 
acre, $4,000 pounds of green corn, which made seven tons of cured 
fodder, by planting two kernels ina place twelve inches apart each way. 
1t was cut when the ears were set and the kernels forming. He consid- 
ers oats, fed as the head appears, the best soiling material with which 
he has experimented. 

Mr. J. M. Case, of Cold Spring, Wisconsin, thinks evergreen corn, 
planted in drills, “Sone of the best crops for soiling.” . 

Mr. C. W. Wilder, of Evansville, Wisconsin, says that fifty farmers con- 
tribute milk to his factory, that most of them feed green corn, and those 
who do feed it bring more milk than those who donot. Evergreen sweet 
corn, planted three feet apart each way, with five to seven stalks to the 
hill, is preferred. : 

Mr. B. A. Griffin, of Dubuque, Iowa, deems green corn-fodder the cheap- 
est and best material for cattle food, after the 25th of June. He also 
regards it as the best fodder for winter use, cut before frost and put up in 
small stacks in the field. 

Mr. William Richards, ef Momence, Ilinois, who milks about one hun- 
dred cows, drills about twenty-five acres of corn for soiling, feeding green 
28 much of it as the character of the season may render necessary. He 
finds that it inereases the flow of milk about one-tenth. He feeds by 
Scattering on the grass in pasture, net commencing before the tasseling 
of the corn, and sometimes not till autumn. In 1870 he found it desira- 
ble to feed earlier. He prefers to sow in drills, a practice which saves 


3 


298 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


- two-thirds of the seed and admits of cultivation. In this way, he believes 
he obtains more nutriment from each acre than in any two acres of his 
best timothy. ; 


ACTION OF THE AMERICAN DAIRYMEN’S ASSOCIATION. 


Mr. Harris Lewis, of Herkimer, New York, in an address before the last 
meeting of the American Dairymen’s Association, opposed the practice 
of feeding corn-fodder, preferring for soiling, first, lucern, if a piece ot 
Jand suitable to its growth can be obtained; second, orchard grass; and 
third, common meadow grass. He expressed an opinion that corn costs 
more, in most cases, than its actual value. 

Dr. Wright, of Oneida, said his experience had been just the reverse 
of Mr. Lewis’s. With the ground well prepared and the corn properly 
sown—broadcast or in drills—and cut when succulent, he had found 
that all the cattle would relish it, and that it will keep them up to their 
full flow of milk. He had found small clover good for soiling, in con- 
nection with pasturage. The only objection that he found to corn was 
that its use imparted an undesirable flavor to the milk. 

The President, Hon. Horatio Seymour, continued the discussion, 
favoring the use of corn-fodder, and presenting views similar to those 
in his communication to this Department. 

Mr. Harrington, of Canada, and Mr. Nicholas, of New Jersey, spoke 
in favor of the economy and profit of feeding sowed corn to dairy cows. 

Mr. L. Schermerhorn, of Oneida, had found soiling with corn profit- 
able. He had fed the corn to the cows in a small lot, and this so enriched 
the soil of that lot that he plowed it and sowed it to corn the next year 
without more manure, and raised a large crop. He knew of nothing 
with which we could succeed better than with sowed corn. 

Mr. Chapman, of Madison, said that thirty years ago he sowed his 
first crop of corn for soiling. He was much pleased with it, and had 
continued its cultivation until the present time. He had raised four or 
five consecutive crops on the same piece of ground without manuring. 
If it is not allowed to ear, it does not exhaust the soil much, and corn 
sowed for soiling should never be allowed to ear. He had made practi- 
cal and definite experiments in feeding this crop, and had found ‘that 
when he quit feeding it his cows not only shrunk in their mess, but 
that a given quantity of the milk made less cheese. 

Mr. Dick, of Erie, had found that he could produce more milk from’ 
his cows from sowed oats than from corn; but the milk produced by 
feeding corn was richer, and yielded more cheese, than a like quantity 
of milk produced by feeding oats or clover. 

Mr. Pratt, of Clinton, had practiced sowing corn for soiling, and was 
Satisfied it was profitable. He had never sowed his corn on the same 
ground two years in succession. He manured the ground specially for 
the crop. When it was taken off, it left the ground clear of weeds, and 
he was in the habit of sowing on it the next year wheat or barley, and 
Seeding it down. He knewof two dairymen in his vicinity, having the 
same uumber of cows, whose bills of delivery on August 1, showed a 
difference of 3,500 pounds. One of them fed his cows -on sowed corn 
after that period, and the other did not. The former, whose bill was the 
smaller, on August 1, gained the 3,500 pounds, and 500 more before Sep- 
tember 19. He considers the experiment a practical and definite one. 

On motion of Mr. L. B. Arnold, of Tompkins, the following resolution 
was adopted almost unanimously : 


Resolved, That this convention is of the opinion that corn is a valuable product for 
the dairy farm, and that we commend it as a forage crop. mae : 


1 


GREEN CORN-FODDER FOR MILCH COWS. 299 


On motion of Hon. George Geddes, of Onondaga, a cominittee was 
appointed, consisting of Messrs. L. B. Arnold, of Tompkins; Harvis 
Lewis, of Herkimer; T. D. Curtis, of Oneida; L. L. Wight, of Oneida ; 
and X. A. Willard, of Herkimer, to consider the following propositions : 


PFirst.—The advisability of cultivating corn as a soiling crop. 
Second.—The best manner of cultivation. 
Third.—At what time in its growth it should be fed. 


RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 


If the analyses of chemists, in the form in which they are reported, 
are’ of any utility in determining the feeding value of plants used as 
forage, the following, taken from tabular statements collected by Emil 
Wolff, dogtor of analytical and agricultural chemistry at the agricultural 
academy of Hohenheim, may be of use in a comparison of corn with 
other soiling plants: 


Percentage oi— 


os. 
q | 28 4 rg 
sg gS 18e & g 
S oP | Re] & 3 © 
A BB }ae|] 2] 8 5 
° Dj | Ot 5 ney 
5 rs nD | ft} iS a=] & A [= 
£ 3s oS 2 r= 2 = } a 4 2 
co a) 4 =f = _ 5 + we) [o>] g 
Fl/é/418 /2"°/Flafelalssa 
KINDS OF GREEN FODDER. 
Grass, before blooming-.........-...--.-- 75.0 | 22.9} 219 3.0)12.9] 7.0] 15.970.8 | 0.18 | 0.30 
Grass, end of blooming........-..--...-.. 69.0 | 29.0;};208 25) 15.0) 17.5] 1759 0.7 | 0.15 |} 0.30 
Red clover, before blooming.......------- 83.0/15.5| 1.54 3.3| 77] 4511004071 0.11] 0.44 
Red clover, ful) blooming ..........-..--- 78.0} 203/179 3.7] 8&6] 80) 12390.8/ 0.11 | 0.53 
White clover, full blooming .....-..-...-. 80.5)17.5)};208 45] 7.8} 5.04123480.6] 0.15 | 0.52 
Swedish clover, beginning of blooming 85.0] 13.5]1.57 33] 57] 45] 9.070.6) 0.10} 0.40 
Swedish clover, full blooming ........--.- 82.0] 16.2}; L8]-33)] 63) 66] 9.6470.6] 0.13 | 0.48 
Upc (Hic GSE te Ie 81.0)17.3) 1.79) 45] 78] 50] 123 ¢0.6 | 0.14} 0.49 
MIMETITPHOWEL 2 x¢ =.) --o-necnedecnnnmy 74.0} 240/208 4.5] 7.0] 125] 11.590.7 | 0.15 | 0.70 
Honeysuckle, in flower............--.---. 80.0/185]L54¢ 32) 8&8] 65| 12.090.6 | 0.14] 0.45 
Clover, incarnate, in flower ........--.--- 81.5)16.9) 16) 27) 67] 75] 9.490.6 | 0.12 | 0.56 
Clover, hops, in flower ...........-..----- 80.0} 18.5/1.59 3.5] 9.0] 60] 12.5970.8 |] 0.12 | 0.45 
Baracoa in fOwers.......-.---.-------- 80.0] 187)1.3% 3.6] 7.0) 8&1] 10.67 0.4} 0.11 | 0.40 
BG I 81.5 117.0) 1.57 3.2) 82] 5.6] 11.430.6) 0.11 | 045 
ee TS 82.0} 16.2) 1.88 31 6) 5) | 10.7 806 10,12) ] 0 on 
CE La 11 ee 81.0]17.6)1497 23] 8&8] 65] 11.190.5) 0.11 | 0.12 
TOC AY NGS ge a 72.9 | 25.5 1,62 3.3.) 14.9 | 13) 18.2 80.9)) 0.13: 1/0510 
Migiee, Carly Citt U5 ok sioks eins ak sock ae 82.2]/16.7/ 119 211/109] 47] 12090.5 | 0.038 | 0.07 
Ti LANE TSP eR ay ee ne ae 74.0 | 25.1)0.9) 25)153) 7.3) 17.59 1.4 | 0.08! 0.07 
MVC CANOAGHEL. ace tee es 2S ae 80; 98,12 1.5| 63] 20] 7.8490.4) 0.12 | 0.24 
SanUBQe MOMS) sos. ss ke o: 82.0 | 16.1 );1.9§ 1.1] 12.2] 2.8) 13.3 90.3 ) 0.12 | 0.30 
PREUGIBAUCE 55-21. 40<-5520'0- Be MRT ee 90.5) 67/189 1.9] 46] 2.3] 6590.5 | 0.09 | 0.20 
MEPNOUIOAVES Pou. .2ctdo.55 20s es sasd act 82.2)}14.2/3.6)7 3.2) 80] 3.0 | 11.29 1.0] 0.19 | 0.32 
Elm and poplar leaves. ..-.-.........----: 70.0} 28.0) 2.07 6.0) 15.5] 6.5 | 21,59 1.5 | 0.16 | 0.45 
PERMIOEUICO REGIS -. 7... cece cnn neensn-n' 80.0; 17.312.7§ 3.3]10.6] 3.4 | 13.990.8} 0.14 | 0.45 
ROOTS, ETC. | 
0 ss a ae ee or ne 75.0) #4.1/,0.97 20/210) 1.1) 22.0 50.3 | 0.15) 0.08 
So UEC a) rs sae 80.0) 189]1.19 2.0) 15.6] 13 | 17.69 0.5 | 0.14 | 0.04 
SE dn dk we swe mn 88.0) 11.1)/0.99 1.12] 91) 0.9 | 10.290.1) 0.09 | 0.03 
OS ES eer Ce eee 81.5 |17.7)0.87 1.0] 15.4) 1.3; 16.49 0.1 | 0.08 | 0.03 
MITE 2,-1.3. -.----<-420- 87.0| 120/104 16} 93] 1.1] 102401 | 009 | 007 
RMI Sao aisle sosteesesabses 85.0 14.0) 1.07 1.5]10.8] 1.7] 1234 0.2 | 0.03 | 0.08 
Late (stubble) turnips ......... 9.51 77/084 08] 59) 10] 6.70.1 | 0.03 | 0.06 
2, cls: LS Re ee ee 92.0) 72) 0.8 pn! 3.1 1.0 6.29 0.1 | 0.08 | 0.06 
ENON S00) 15. Jibs da 2-22. -0-2 208 88.3) 11.0/07) 16] 84] 1.01! 10.04 0.2 | 0.07 | 0.06 
4 1. ea rae ‘DYER 9 45 4.51.04 1.3| 28] 10! 410.1 |v 08 | 0.08 
: ne 1 


“The total amount of nutrition” of “carly cut” corn is thus made to 


exceed that in Swedish clover, saradella, peas, vetches, and oats and 
—Iucern iv flower, and leaves of the cabbage, beet, and carrot. “The 


amount of nutriment containing nitrogen” is less than that in the other 


¢ 


300 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


plants named in the list, while the fat-forming nutriment in green corn- 
fodder is greater than that in clover, lucern, saradella, peas, oats, vetches, 
cabbage, beet, or carrot, and is exceeded only by the best grasses, rye, 
millet, cabbage stems, and elm and poplar leaves. ; 

It would seem, too, that in comparison with the English turnip, a root 
regarded as the sheet-anchor of British husbandry, the percentage of 
flesh-forming nutriment is the same, and of fat-forming material nearly 
double, in the maize, while the amount of water is less than half as much. 
The reader can pursue the comparison with other plants or roots named, 
making his own deductions, remembering that flesh cannot be placed 
upon animals at will, in exact proportion to weight of nutriment fed, as 
determined by chemical analysis, but that a thousand circumstances in 
the condition of the material fed, the manner of feeding, and the vital 
forces of the animals themselves, must modify, in some degree, every 
experiment made. 

Mr. J. H. Salisbury, of New York, who has made analyses of maize in 
every stage of its growth, gives the following as his average of analyses 
made just before the formation of the ear, (calculated without water): 


en a a a oe a meee 35, 00 
Matter obtained from fiber by a weak solution of potash ......-..----.---.--- 12. 00 
IDSs habagn er rite) JSS ee ee a a a nme 6. 04 
AN oy cra) Sia Hake LCRA EES Se see ee a Jétece satel eee 7. 96 
\WWorenby 32.408. 558 Se eee ee ee ee ree. 39. 00 

EFI ES. gaia PLAS Ik Beatie orce onin Poe Cee 3 eee 100. 00 


Mr. Salisbury arrives at the following conclusion as to the feeding 
value of this fodder: “The plant, during the tasseling, owing to the 
very large percentage of sugar and extract, with the respectable quan- 
tity of albuminous matter and dextrine which the stalk, leaves, and 
sheaths contain, must afford a very palatable as well as nutritious fodder.” 


CONCLUSIONS. 


The following conclusions may be derived from the facts presented : 

1. Green corn-fodder is neither worthless nor the poorest of all soiling 
material. 

2. It is best when planted in drills or hills, not so thickly as to prevent 
normal growth and development, cultivated to destroy weeds and grasses, 
and cut between tasseling and earing, when the elements elaborated for 
production of the ear are stored in readiness for immediate use. 

3. It is probable, both from the rationale of the case and from facts 
presented above, that in the more northern latitudes a mistake has often 
been made in sowing thickly southern corn which cannot mature, the 
fodder from which fed in August must be very nearly worthless. On 
the contrary, the fodder from northern corn, especially sweet corn, 
drilled widely and cultivated, and fed just before earing, is found to be 
very valuable. 

4, Its value, compared with lucern, millet, the best grasses, and other 
plants containing a larger percentage of nutriment, taking into consid- 
eration the quantity produced and the cost of its production, has not | 
been determined fully, and should be decided by a series of thorough 
and exhaustive experiments. : 

It is evident, from all that is conflicting in the opinion of different 
feeders, that the differences are mainly due to the degree of maturity or 
soundness of the corn. That from thick sowing, immature, colorless, 
and watery, is unfit to place before the cows of any well-regulated 
dairy. it is probable that half thatis fed is either improperly cultivated 


THE PASTORAL LANDS OF AMERICA. 301 
or in a stage of growth not productive of the highest results. If this 
should be the case, how stupid to condemn the maize for the ignorance 
of the cultivator. If it is found to contain too little nutriment for its 
bulk, cr too small amount of the flesh-forming element, the suggestion 
found in the practice of some, of giving a small amount of more highly ~ 
concentrated nuiriment in connection with corn-fodder, is eminently 
wise. This is a deficiency easily remedied. While corn is our national 
crop, less fastidious in the cireumstances of its growth than almost any 
other, and capable of yielding so largely under the proverbial neglect 
which characterizes our culture, let not this fodder be discarded until 
something of greater practical value is found, the superiority of which 
has been actually demonstrated under local circumstances of soil, climate, - 
and eultivation. 


THE PASTORAL LANDS OF AMERICA. . 


The interior of every continent comprises vast areas of dry and com- 
paratively arid regions, where the rain- and snow fall is very small, and, 
as a consequence, where flocks and herds can graze both summer and 
winter. The great steppes of Asia furnish us the most notable instance 
of this kind, Since the times when “Abel was a keeper of sheep,” and 
Abraham, Lot, and Laban had flocks and herds, the great elevated 
table-lands and plateaus of Asia have furnished pasturage for countless 
numbers of cattle and sheep. The Report of the Paris Exposition of 
1866 estimates the production of wool in Asia at 470,000,000 pounds 
annually, which is produced exclusively by winter grazing, and without 
the stimulus of civilization, which its manufacturing and consumption 
demand. The grazing regions of Australia, South Africa, and South 
America have developed a wool production of astonishing magnitude 
within the past twenty years. In North America the region answering 
to the several countries named is that vast interior comprising both 
Slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and embracing more than one-half of 
the total area of the United States. This immense pasture land extends 
from the Mexican boundary on the south to the British Possessions on 
the north, and from the twenty-first parallel of latitude west from Wash- 
ington to the Pacific Ocean, and embraces an area of 1,000,000,000 
acres. This country was the favorite herding ground of the buffalo in 
the pre-historic ages. Their bones lie bleaching in all directions, and 
their paths, deeply worn, cover the whole plains like a net-work, while 
their ‘ wallows,” deep pits in the ground, are still to be seen. Ik, ante- 
lope, and deer still feed here, and the mountain sheep are yet to be seen 
on the mountain sides and in the more secluded valleys of the Sierra 
Madre range—proving conclusively that this region has afforded winter 

pasturage from time immemorial. 

This country is bisected into nearly equal portions by the lofty and 
snowy range of the Sierra Madre, or Mother Mountains, of the old 
Spanish explorers. This mountain range, in its windings, measures 
fully fifteen hundred miles in length, and from its snow-covered tops a 
thousand streams take their rise and plentifully water its mountain 
slopes. It is here that the Rio Grande, the Red, the Arkansas, the 
Plattes, the Yellowstone, and the Missouri on the east, and the Colum- 
bia, the Sacramento, the Humboldt, the Green, and the Colorado on the 
west, with their many tributaries, take their sources in the everlasting 
snows. 


302 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 

The soil of the country is produced by the disintegration of the lime 
stone, sandstone, and granite ridges of this mountain range, and it is, 
therefore, dry, gravelly, and porous, except on the borders of the 
streams. Along the streams the soil is a dark mold, formed from the 
decomposition of the vegetation growing on the mountains. The grasses 
ot the wide plains and valleys and the lower mountain sides are the 
bunch, buffalo, grama, mesquite, and in some valleys the blue-joint, red- 
top, and wild rye-grass. The grasses grow and flourish up to the tim- 
ber and snow line—to an altitude of 10,000 feet. In addition to the 
grasses, there is a great variety of sweet, tender, and aromatic herbage, 
upon which sheep and goats delight to browse. Of the artemesia there 
are twelve to fifteen varieties, of which the wild sage furnishes five or 
six. There are four or five varieties ef the sheep-sorrel; and of the wild 
pea-vine there is an extensive family. There are also many kinds of the 
wild dock and the balm. 

The climate of this region is much like that of Asia. The rain-fall is 
light, being about eight inches annually in the country west of the Mis- 
souri River and east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains; while the snow 
fall, at the altitude of 7,500 feet, is only two feet. The fall of snow at 
any one time is small, and never lies on the ground to afford sleighing 
or to cover the grasses. The rainy season is in May and June, and 
after these months the only rain that falls is from electrical showers. 
While the rain is falling in May and June, vegetation grows luxuriantly; 
but, when the rains cease, the grasses graduaily dry on. the ground, so 
that by the time the frosts come, in September, they have become per- 
fectly cured uncut hay. 

The post surgeon at Fort Kearney, in response to circular No. 4of the 
surgeon general’s office, Nebraska, says or the country surrounding that 
post: “The average temperature for the year 18638 was 52° F. Snow 
dees not remain any length of time.” The report from North Platte 
station, Union Pacific Railroad, states that “the climate is healthful, 
and the extremes of temperature, on account of the dry and rarefied 
atmosphere, are well borne. The rain and saow fall are small.” From 
Fort Sedgwick, Dr. Monroe, United States Army, reports: “'The mean 
temperature for 1869 was 50° F’., rain-fall 8.9 inches, snow-fali 10.82 inches. 
The atmosphere is usually dry. The prevailing winds are from the 
west.” From Fort D. A. Russell, near Cheyenne, at the base of the 
Rocky Mountains, at an altitude of 6,100 feet, Dr. C. H. Alden, United 
States Army, reports: “The mean temperature ior the past two years, 
1868 and 1869, has been 46,539 F’.; average annual rain-fall for the past two 
years, 6.25 inches.” From Fort Laramie, Wyoming Territory, Dr. Schell, 
United States Army, writes: ‘The mean annual temperature is 50.6°. 
The climate is healthy, autumn and winter mild, summer dry and sultry, 
spring usually rainy.” Dr. W. E. Waters reports from Fort Bridger, 
in the extreme western portion of Wyoming: ‘Theclimate is temperate 
and salubrious the greater part of the year; the weather during the 
fall months is mild and delightful, excepting a few storms of short dura- 
tion. During the months of May and June there is a greater rain-fall 
than in all the other months. The rain-fall for the last year amounted 
to 7.97 inches.” Dr. F. L. Town, of Fort Shaw, Montana Territory, in 
latitude 47° 30’ north, writes: ‘The climate of the Territory is exceed- 
ingly dry allthe yearround. Theaggregate fall of rain and snow (melted) 
for the year 1868 was 10.14 inches, Snowrarely lies on the ground long 
after a storm. The mean temperature for i869 was 47.359 F.” Without 
multiplying testimony, the foregoing scientific authorities from the Army 
will prove conclusively that the climate is uniformly dry, that the rain 


THE PASTORAL LANDS OF AMERICA. 303 


and snow fall are small, as in the interior of the other continents where 
there has been winter grazing through the whole historic period. 


WISTORY OF GRAZING ON THE PLAINS. 


From 1833~54, when the first military posts were established west of the 
Missouri River, to the present time, thirty-six years, the animals used in 
freighting supplies.to these posts have been wintered on these great 
plains and in the mountain valleys, with no food but the cured and un- 
cut grasses, and no shelter but that afforded by the bluffs and hill-sides. 
In 1849 the great California emigration commenced, and continued for 
years. Thousands of oxen, horses, and mules, used in this emigration, 
were wintered in the valleys of the Rocky Mountain regions without 
hay or grain. The Mormons had previously moved to Utah in large 
numbers, and had wintered their stock through several seasons on the 
cured uncut grass alone, and with no artificial shelter. In 1857 
General Jobnston moved an army of several thousand men, with the 
usual number of citizen employés and followers, to Utah, and all the 
animals used in carrying supplies for this army were wintered in the val- 
leys by grazing alone. 

In 1859 the Pike’s Peak emigration took place, and here also was 
winter grazing put to the test, and found successful. From that time 
until the building of the Union Pacific Railroad, the freighting to New 
Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Montana, and Idaho employed thousands 
of animals, which were wintered upon the uncut grasses. That winter 
grazing is certain, safe, and profitable, in all this vast Rocky Mountain 
region; that here are perennial pastures, ‘‘ boundless, endless, gateless,” 
where cheap beef and mutton may beraised to feed the millions of labor- 
ers who are to develop the wealth of this continent, and where all grades 
of wool may be produced to supply the great manufacturing industries of 
the nation, is proved by the experience of freighters, stock-men, and 
flock-masters, who have had an experience of a quarter of a century in 
that country. Mr. J. W. iff, of Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory, one of 
the most extensive stock-men of the plains, who is wintering 8,000 head 
of cattle without hay or shelter the present season, writes: 

Ihave been engaged in the stock business in Colorado and Wyoming for the past 
pe years, and consider the summer-cured grasses superior tohay. My catile have not 
only kept in good order on this grass through all the eight winters, but many of them, 
thin in the fall, have become fine beef by spring. During this time, I have owned 
20,000 head of cattle. The percentage of loss is much less than in the States, where 
cattle are stabled and fed on corn and hay. My experience in sheep has not been so 
extensive as in cattle. I think, however, that the short sweet grass and dry climate 
here are especially adapted to sheep-raising. I am confident, from experience, that 


this trans-Missouri country can defy ajl competition in the production of wool, mutton, 
beef, and horses. +i: AWN 


Mr. Alexander Majors, of the freighting firm of Russell, Majors & 
Waddell, writes : 


I have been grazing cattle on the plains and in the valleys and mountains for twenty 
years, and during tliat time have never had less than 500 head of werk cattle, and for 
two winters, those of 1857 and 1858, I wintered 15,000 head of heavy work-oxen on the 
plains each winter. My experience extends from El Paso, on the Rio Grande, to one 
hundred miles north of Fort Benton, in Montana. Our stock is worked during the 
summér, and comes to the winter herding-ground thin. There it grazes without shel- 
ter, hay and grain being unknown. By spring the cattle are in good working order, 
and many of them fat enough for beef. During these twenty years the firm with which 
Ihave been connected has wintered many cattle on hay and corn in Missouri and 
Arkansas, and Iam sure the percentage of loss ef those wintered in this country is 
less than it was in those States with food and shelter. The country west of the Mis- 
souri River is one vast pasture, affording unequaled summer and winter grazing, where 
sheep, horses, and.cattle can be raised with only the cost of herding. 


304 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Mr. Edward Creighton, of Omaha, Nebraska, writes: 


For eleven winters I have grazed more or less stock, including horses, eattle, and 
sheep, in Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Montana. Large work-cattle winter in the 
valleys and on the plains exceedingly well. We have no shelter but the bluffs and 
hills, and no feed but the wild grasses of the country. The last four winters I have 
been raising stock, and have wintered about 8,000 head. They have done remarkably 
well. We have had 3,000 sheep the past winter, and they are in the best order. I 
have been interested in stock-raising in the States for a number of years, where we 
had tame grass hay and fenced fields, and good shelter for the stock, and good Ameri- 
can and blooded cattle, and an experienced stock-raiser to attend them, and after a fall 
trial I have found that, with the disadvantage of the vastly inferior Texas cattle, and 
no hay, no grain, no shelter, nothing but the wild grass, there is three times the profit 
in grazing on the plains. 


Mr. J. A. Moore, of Cheyenne, formerly a sheep-raiser in Ohio, writes: 


I have been familiar with grazing on the plains for eleven years; have had experience 
with horses, cattle, and sheep, and have found no difficulty in wintering stock without - 
shelter, except what is afforded by the cafions and the blufis. My loss in winter has 
been less than during my experience in stock-raising in Ohio. I have now 8,000 sheep 
which have wintered well on the native grasses. Since bringing them to this cool and 
elevated country, they have increased in the quantity as well as in the quality of 
wool. I know of no disease which prevails among sheep in this country. Out of these 
8,000 sheep I have lost enly two by wolves. This region is peculiarly the home of 
the sheep. I can raise wool here for less than one-half its cost in Ohio or other East- 
ern States. 


General L. P. Bradley, United States Army, who has been on duty at 
various posts in that country, says: ° 

The value of this country for grazing may be estimated from the fact that good, fine 
grasses grow evenly all over the country ; that the air is so fine that the grasses cure 
on the ground without losing any of their nutriment; and that the climate is so mild 
and genial that stock can range and feed all the winter, and keep in excellent condi- 
tion without artificial shelter or fodder. The fact of grasses curing on the ground is a 
well-known peculiarity of all the high country on the eastern slope of the mountains, 
and in this consists the great value of this immense range for grazing purposes. I be- 
lieve that all the flocks and herds in the world could find ample pasturage on these 
unoccupied plains and the mountain slopes beyond; and the time is not far distant 
when the largest fiocks and herds in the world will be found here, where the grass 
grows and ripens untouched from year to year. 

The following is from the message of Governor Campbell, of Wy- 
oming: 

In the chosen home of the buffalo and other graminivorous animals which have for 
unnumbered years roamed over our plains, and subsisted on the succulent and nutri- 
tious grasses, if would seem superfiuous to say anything in relation to our advantages 
as a stock-growing country. In a climate so mild that horses, cattle, sheep, and goats 
can live in the open air through all the winter months, and fatten on the dry and ap- 
parently withered grasses of the soil, there would appear to be scarcely a limit to the 
number that could be raised. ' 


This testimony is conclusive upon the point of the practicability and 
reliability of the winter grazing of a country greater-in extent than all 
the States east of the Mississippi River. l 

The year 1870 is the first in which the people of this region have 
been able to ship beef cattle to eastern markets. The Union Pa- 
cific Rawroad the past season has been shipping cattle from the Rocky 
Mountains to the Chicago market, a distance of over a thousand miles, 
for $6 to$8 per head. i*rom carefully prepared estimates, the following 
numbers of cattle have been taken into the Territories the past season: 
To Colorado, 36,000; to Montana, 20,000; to Idaho, 9,000; to Nevada, 
12,000 ; to Utah, 10,000; to Wyoming, 11,006. These cattle are mostly 
trom Northwestern Texas, and are stock cattle to be used in breeding by 
crossing with Shert-horn and Devon stock. Grass-fed beef raised here, 
and very fat, is sold for $3 per hundred, live weight, and such rates are 
proving to be very profitable to the raiser. 


THE PASTORAL LANDS OF AMERICA. 305 


To show how cattle are managed, one or two cattle and sheep ranches 
and ranges may be described. The herds of Messrs. Edward Creighton, 
Charles Hutton, and Thomas Alsop are grazed on Big Laramie, a tribu- 
tary of the North Platte. The Laramie Valley lies between the Black 
Hills and the Medicine Bow range, and is about one hundred miles long 
by thirty miles wide. About midway in this valley and six miles from 
the railroad station at Laramie, these gentlemen have located their stock 
ranches, where they have extensive houses, stables, and corrals. Leav- 
ing the station, we follow up the windings of the Laramie on a smooth 
road, which is like rolling the wheels over a floor. The stream is clear 
as crystal, and pure as the snows from whichits waters come. We first 
meet a herd of 4,000 half and three-quarters bioods, that is, none more 
than half Texan and many only a quarter, known among cattle-dealers 
as Short-horn Texas cattle. There are 1,000 calves in this herd that are 
one-half to six-eighths Short-horn. The cattle have been on the plains one 
winter and two summers. All the dry cows are exceedingly fat, and 
many of those with calves at their sides would make good beef, whilemany 
of the two-year-olds and yearlings are fit for the butcher, so far as condi- 
tion is concerned. The herd contains 4,000 cows, 3, 600 beeves, 1,000 
two-year-olds, and 500 yearlings. The cattle range over a country fif- 
teen by twenty miles in extent. The cows and calves run together the 
year round. In fact they are never separated, but run in tamilies of 
four generally—cow, calf, yearling, and two-year-old. ‘These cattle are 
to be found on river bottoms in the middle of the day, where they come 
about 11 o’clock for water. They return about 4 o’clock in the after- 
noon to the high grounds where the rich bunch and grama grasses are 
abundant, and feed till night, when they lie down on the warm sandy 
soil till the next morning, and then feed again till the heat of the day. © 
The habits of these cattle when unrestrained by herders is interesting. 
They travel back and forth to the water and grazing ground in families 
und little herds, in single file, like their predecessors on the soil, the 
buffaloes, and like them forming deep paths or trails. 

Passing over the river from this herd, we cometo the beef herd, which 
consists of 3,500 Texas cattle, in the best condition to which grass-fed 
cattle can be brought. These cattle have been here one or two seasons, 
and will weigh, on an average, 1,300 pounds live weight. Still higher 
up the stream, and nearer the mountains, there is a stock herd of year- 
lings and two-year-olds. Crossing to the Sand Creek, a smal! branch 
of the Laramie, we find a herd of American cattle which, including Hut- 
ton’s and Alsop’s, numbers 400, mostly cows, and as fine stock as can 
be found anywhere. In this herd are several fine graded Short-horn bulls 
and two thorough-breds that were bought in Ohio at high prices. The 
parties named are owners of 300 blooded bulls, from which the finest 

calves are being raised by the cross between them and the graded Texas 

ows. These calves show the Short-horn clearly in every instance, giving 
another proof of the general law that the stronger and better blooded 
ot two races will give form and impress to the progeny. This fact 
is strongly illustrated in these herds, the second and third crosses hav- 
ing no traces of the Texan blood. On this ranch are 300 brood mares 
and some young stock, yearlings and two-year-old colts, w hich have 
been raised here, and have never been fed or sheltered. These colts 
are as large and fine as any raised elsewhere. The brood mares and 
colts are herded, but are neither stabled nor fed in winter. The flock 
of sheep numbers more than 13,000 head, including 3,000 lambs. A 
portion ef this flock is from New Mexico, but the great majority is 
irom lowa, and consists of fine Merino sheep, averaging five pounds ot 

20 A 


306 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


wool per head. Ample shelter has been provided in case of storms. 
These flocks consist chiefly of ewes. The owners expect to raise 
6,000 lambs and to shear 65,000 pounds of wool next year. These 
parties have about fifteen miles of fence, inclosing hay grounds, pastures 
for raising stock, and for other purposes. They have more than $300,000 
invested. Behind Sheep Mountain and directly under the white top of 
Mount Dodge, at the head of the Little Laramie, is a valley twenty miles 
long and ten miles broad, divided about equally by the north, middle, 
and south forks of that stream. These are rapid-running streams, that 
never freeze in winter. They have groves of timber on their banks and 
bottom lands, furnishing shade in summer and shelter in winter. This 
valley is a pocket in the mountains, having only a narrow point of in- 
gress and egress. Here are 2,900 head of cattle owned by Messrs. Lam- 
bard, Gray, Coates, and Latham. Three men are able to herd them, 
from the nature of the valley, and it is certainly a cattle paradise. Of 
this herd, there are 1,200 cows, 700 two-year-olds, 300 yearlings, and 700 
calves. This herd is Short-horn Texan, and is a good lot of stock cattle. 
Near Cheyenne, Wyoming, Mr. J. W. Hlitf has large herds. - His ¢at- 
tle range down Crow Creek to the Platte, a distance of twenty to thirty 
tiles. On this grazing ground he has 8,700 head of cattle, classed as 
follows: Three thousand five hundred beeves, 2,000 cows, 2,000 two- 
year-olds and yearlings, and 1,200 calves. The stock cattle are half- 
breeds, except the yearlings and calves which he has raised, and which 
show the Short-horn cross. The beeves are heavy fat cattle, averaging in 
live weight 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. The whole range down Crow Creek, 
from Cheyenne to the Platte, affords the best grasses, and the Creek 
‘bluffs shelter the stock completely from storms. Mr. lliff has been the 
owner of great herds of cattle in the last twelve years, and is firm in 
the faith that this is the place to raise beef for the eastern markets. 
His cattle have been sold in the Chicago market at 5 to 6 cents per. 
pound, live weight, this season. The whole 3,500 head of beeves will 
be shipped east this fall. In such acountry of boundless pastures, where 
the only cost of raising beef is that of herding the cattle, and where the 
facilities are so great for reaching markets by railroads, there is no rea- 
son why in the next ten years this region should not furnish beef and 
mutton at one-half the present market prices. What isnow most needed 
is a refrigerator in which slaughtered beef can be carried from the Rocky 
Mountains to the Atlantic coast, and be delivered as fresh as when it 
is started. When this can be done, the supply of good beef and mutton 
will be limited only by the demand. With the present stock limitetl as 
eompared with the great herds that are destined to graze on the great 
plains and in the thousand valleys of the great mountain ranges, there 
are beef cattle enough now west of the Missouri to materially lower the 
market prices in eastern cities, if beef could be transported at low 
rates and on time contracts. At several pointson the line of the Union® 
and Kansas Pacific Railroads there are parties who would contract to 
place on the cars the very fattest of beef at $6 to $7 per hundred pounds 
in the quarters, “all round.” This beef could be delivered in the Bos- 
ton, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington markets at $7 50 to 
$8 50 per hundred pounds, and be retailed to all classes at 12 to 15 cents 
per pound, 
WOOL-GROWING. 


This section is also adapted to the growth of all kinds of wool. We 
are importing large quantities of wool and woolens; and while our popu- 
Jation is increasing, the number of sheep in the United States has of late 


THE PASTORAL LANDS OF AMERICA. 307 


been decreasing. Inthe State of Ohio, in the two years from 1867 to 1869, 
the number of sheep decreased 2,570,600. In all the States where sheep 
were kept only for wool-growing the decrease has been quite as rapid. 
The causes are, the high price of land, the great cost of raising hay and 
grain, and the length of time during which sheep require feeding 
through the winter. Wool costs so much when grown under such 
circumstances that there is no profit in raising it at ordinary market 
rates. The wool-growers of Australia, South Africa, and South America 
ean grow wool and transport it thousands of miles, pay a high duty, and 
then undersell our wool-growers in market. They have no high-priced 
land to pay interest upon, and no high-priced hay or grain to feed through 
long winters, as they graze in all seasons. We must of necessity, there- 
fore, if we grow wool at all, develop the resources of this great interior 
pasture land. In this regiou wool can be grown as cheaply as it can be 
produced in Australia and South America. The climate is dry, with an 
entire absence of long, cold rain-storms, from which sheep suffer so 
much. The atmosphere is cool and bracing, and the soil is dry, gravelly, 
and porous, with an abundance of short, sweet grasses and tender herb 
age throughout the year. Professor Daniel C. Naton, of Yale College, 
states that the flora is identical with that ef Angora and Cashmere which 
alone has produced the dazzling whiteness of the fleece of the Asiatic 
goat. The climate, soil, and vegetation of Australia are like thése 
mountain regions, except that the climate of the latter is cooler, with 
less rain. 

There seems to be no reason why not only the common clothing-wools, 
but also the long Merino combing-wools of Australia and the delaine 
wools of New Zealand should not be grown ia the pastoral regions under 
consideration. Hon. J. B. Chaffee, of Colorado, writes: 


I regret that I am not sufliciently posted in regard to the sheep-growing husbandry 
of Colorado to enable me to give yon facts and figures more definitely. The number 
of persons engaged in stock-raising is increasing so rapidly that the fact of its being a 
very remunerative business would seem to require no other demonstration. In one 
county (Conejos) out of the twenty-one counties of Colorado, over 300,000 sheep were 
grazing at one time last summer, and I do not think. 1,500,000 would be an everesti- 
mate forthe whole Territory. The climate and soil being dry, and the latter also 

ravelly and porous, and the grasses being very nutritious, with a great variety of 
food in the various aromatic plants of the country, sheep are scarcely liable to dis- 
ease. If is undoubtedly one of the most natural and best adapted sheep-growing 
countries in the world, and I think this is the universal testimony of those best 
acquainted with stock-raising who have visited Colorado in the last few years, In 
the southern portion of Colorado tho only expense is herding, the sheep subsisting 
upon the natural grasses of the country in the winter as well as in the summer, no 
preparation of hay or food being necessary. The net. profit is reckoned, after deducting 
every expense, at not less than 40, and by some at 75 per cent. per annum upon the 
investment, taking the price of wool as at present rated—about 12 cents per pound. 
Woolen manufactories are springing up, which will increase the price of wool by cre- 
ating a better market; and at no distant day this region may become one of the most 
‘extensive woolen manufacturing countries on the continent. The eastern slope of the 

tocky Mountains, including Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, is doubtless the 
best sheep-growing country on this continent, and probably in the whole world, and 
is capable of grazing more sheep, and at less cost, than al] the rest of the United States, 
At present the hostile Indians are the only drawback, and it is hoped that the railroad 
system now so rapidly being developed, with the careful and judicious managemout of 
Indian affairs by the present administration, will render the business comparatively, 
if not perfectly, safe in all this vast country within a short space of time. 


Hon. John M. Thayer, of Nebraska, writes: 


T am sure that wool can be grown on the Rocky Mountain slopes equal in fiber to the 
best wools of Australia, Saxony, Silesia, or Moravia, and at as low cost as any wool 
can be grown in the cheapest pastures of the world, and still leave a wide margin for 
profit. We ought to grow wool there not only for our own use, but for the use of 
the world. When we grow the necessary fibers of wool, I have no doubt that we shall 


308 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


theu be able to produce cheap and fine woolen fabrics at prices that will enable us to 
compete with those of any other country. 


Of the wool-growing of Utah, Hon. W. H. Hooper writes : 


The climate, grasses, and topography of Utah render it one of the best sheep-pro- 
ducing localities in the whole range of the States and Territories; and in this respect 
what I say for Utah will almost equally apply to the entire Rocky Mountain country. 
Sheep when well wintered and cared for prove to be healthy and prolific, afferding the 
finest mutton I have ever eaten, and their fleeces are superior in quantity and quality. 
The people of our Territory have from necessity given to the subject of sheep hus- 
bandry a fwil and careful test. Their destitute condition on arriving at Salt Lake 
compelled them to give early and thorough attention to home productions, as their 
fine flocks of sheep and their numerous woolen and cotton factories, which followed 
the settlement of that region, will attest. I think there are now running five woolen 
factories which are far behind in working up the wool product. Other factories are 
now being built. One of them, designed to run 3,000 spindles, is intended for the manu- 
facture of a finer class of gcods than any yet produced in the Territory. Iam satisfied 
that we shall soon be able not only to elothe our present population with these home 
products, making the investments at the same time self-sustaining and profitable, but 
be able to provide for the large influx that is yearly adding to our numbers. We are 
pleased to know that with these additions are many skilled workmen in woolens, as 
well as in other branches of mechanism. One very advantageous feature of the Rocky 
Mountain range in sheep-growing is the adaptability of our many valleys to the rais- 
ing of roots, which afford good food and enable sheep-owners in the higher and more 
northern portions to feed well, and thus render more certain a large number of lambs 
and also large fleeces. 


‘Hon. Roscoe Conkling, of New York, writes: 


On all occasions of traversing the plains—and I have crossed them several times— 
my attention has been attracted to the adaptation of the country to flocks. Indeed, 
the most broken, abrupt, and waste places seemed to me available for sheep-grazing. 

Hon. William Lawrence, of Ohio, says: ‘ 

I have been and am yet somewhat interested in raising sheep and producing wool in 
Ohio, and have given some attention to the subject. On the eighth cf April last I 
expressed my opinion of the future of sheep husbandry in this country, in a speech 
made in Congress, and which opinion I yet believe to be correct. I then predicted 
that the interior of this continent would, in a few years, produce nearly all the wool 
that would be required in the United States for our home supply; and, in faet, I do 
not entertain any doubt that in twenty years enough wool can be raised to supply not 
only the home demand, but enough for all the export trade that this country can 
command. In August, 1868, I passed over the railroad from Omaha to San Francisco. 
I stopped at Laramie, in Wyoming Territory. ‘There I saw a herd of 4,000 cattle and 
some 3,000 sheep, grazing in Laramie Valley, in healthy condition and good order. 
The Laramie Valley is about one hundred miles long and thirty wide, as I there learned, 
covered mainly with short but very nutritious grasses, well adapted to raising cattle 
and sheep. The climate, asI learned, was generally cool, with a healthy, bracing atmo- 
sphere, with nothing to produce disease either in men or in stock. I mention this 
valley because J examined it more carefully than any other; but from what I saw 
and learned, I am satisfied that a large part of the great central interior of this con- 
tinent is of the same description of land. I cannot doubt that this is in a few years 
to become the principal sheep-producing region of this country. Sheep can be raised 
without expense, save for herding, and in some places the cost of cutting enough grass 
along the streams for hay to teed a short time in winter; while in much of this vast 
region, as I learn, sheep can be kept the year round in good order without hay or 
erain, simply by grazing. I cannot doubt’ that in a few years wool will be produced 
so cheaply and in such quantities that it will not be imported from abroad. 

When onr honie supply of wool shall be thus increased and rendered as cheap as wool 
can be imported, or cheaper, I cannot see why this may not become the greatest man- 
ufacturing country in the world. With the cheapest wool in the world, and a vast 
supply of agricultural products, woolen manufactures must spring up in great abund- 
ance, and the United States will become exporters, instead of importers, of woolen 
goods. 

Hon. J. Francis Chaves, of New Mexico, writes: 

Without having the data before me, and judging only from what I know of the Ter- 
ritory of New Mexico and the large sheep-owners in it, I am safisfied that I do not 
overestimate the numbers in stating them at 1,500,000 head of ewes. The climate is 
temperate and salubrious, no disease being known. Sheep are herded and grazed 
from one portion of the Territory to another during the same year, thus adopting 


THE PASTORAL LANDS OF AMERICA. 309 


what may be termed the migratory plan. The climate is dry and the soil is gravelly; 
producing the most nutritious grasses and shrubs: of tke former the grama and 
the bunch grass, of which there are two er three varieties; and of the latter, the 
various kinds of sage, which make the best and most nutritious browsing; besides a 
large amount of underbrush and reed grass in the mountains. Were it not for the inse- 
curity of life and property, caused by the wild marauding bands of Indians, especially 
the Navajoes, but a few years would elapse before the hills and plains of New Mexico 
would be literally covered with fleecy flocks. It is but afew years back, and within 
my own recollection, when nearly 1,000,000 sheep were annually driven to market 
in Southern Mexico from our Territory. Atthat time sheep were worth but 25 cents a 
head, and all those engaged in the business made money. That prosperity in the history 
of New Mexico was superinduced by twelve years of uninterrupted peace with the 
Navajoes. A sheep-raiser in New Mexico can safely calculate on an annual increase 
of 80 per centum, and, notwithstanding the coarse quality of the wool of the present 
stock, can herd his sheep and make a profit from the product of his wool and have all 
the increase of his stock in addition to this. I have no hesitation in saying that if 
peaceful relations are established with the Indian tribes, New Mexico can fairly com- 
pete with Australia, South Africa, and South America in the production of cheap wools. 
This statement may appear to you somewhat exaggerated, but I assure you that it is 
within reasonable bounds. I was born and reared in New Mexico. My friends and 
relatives have always owned sheep, and I myself have been an owner of this kind of 
property, and therefore, to a great extent, speak from personal experience. 

This mass of testimony ought to be conclusive and satisfactory as to 
winter grazing and the great future of the Rocky Mountain region as a 
grazing country. The great valley of the North Platte is worthy of 
particular description. The distance from the mouth of the North 
Platte, where it joins the South Platte on the Union Pacific Railroad, 
to its source in the great Sierra Madre which, with its lofty sides, forms 
the North Park in which this stream takes its rise, is more than eight 
hundred miles. Its extreme southern tributaries head in the gorges of 
the mountains ene hundred miles south of the railroad, and receive their 
waters from the melting snows of these snow-capped ranges. Its ex- 
treme western tributaries rise in the Wind River range, sharing the 
erystal snow-waters from the continental divide with the Columbia and 
Colorado of the Pacific. Its northern tributaries start oceanward from 
the Big Horn Mountains, three hundred miles north of the starting 
pomt of its southern sources. It drains a country larger than New 
England and New York together. The main valley of the North Platte, 
two hundred miles from its mouth, to the point where it debouches 
through the Biack Hills into the great plains, is, on an average, ten 
miles wide. Nearly all this area, two thousand square miles, is covered 
with a dense growth of grass, yielding thousands of tons of hay. The 

lufis bordering these intervals are rounded and grass-grown, gradually 
smoothing out into great grassy plains, extending north and south as 
far as the eye can see. The tributaries on the north side of the Platte 
are the Blue Water, Cold Water, Hill Creek, Raw Hide, Muddy, Wil- 
low, Shawnee, Slate, and Sweet Water. On the south, they are the 
Ash, Pumpkin, Larran’s, Dry, Horse, Cherry, Chugwater, Sybelle, Big 
Laramie, Carter, Cottonwood, Horséshoe, Elk Horn, La Prele, Boisée, 
- Deer Creek, Medicine Bow, Rock Creek, Douglass, North, South, and 
Middle Forks of the main Platte. These streams, with their smaller 
feeders, intersect in all directions a great pastoral land, interspersing 
it with rich fertile valleys, draining at least 40,000,060 acres, and at- 
fording water for countless herds. Most of the banks of these streams 
are bordered with timber. Cattle have been wintered on these streams 
north ef Cheyenne, along the base of the Black Hills and around Fort 
Laramie, for twenty years. | 

Of this country Mr, Alexander Majors, in a recent letter, says: 

The favorite wintering ground of my herds for the past twenty years has been from 


the Cache a la Poudre on the south, to Fort Fetterman on the north, embracing all the 
country along the eastern base of the Black Hills, ak 


- 


310 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


It is to this country that Mr. Seth E. Ward refers, when he says: 


Tam satisfied that no country in the same latitude, or even far south of it, is com- 
arable to it as a grazing and stock-raising region. Cattle and stock generally are 


4 


sealthy and require no feeding the year round, the rich bunch and grama grasses of 
the plains and mountains keeping them, ordinarily, fat enough for beef during the 
entire winter. | 
All this region east of the Black Hills is at an elevation of less than 
5,000 feet. The mean temperature, as recorded at Fort Laramie for a 
period of twenty years, is 50° F. Colonel C. H. Alden, post surgeon at 
Fort D. A. Russell, speaking of this region, says: 
_The largest snow-fall, so-far, in one month, has been 2.097 inches. The snow in this 
vicinity, rapidly disappears after falling, and there is rarely a sufficient quantity to 


o 


afford sleighing. 

All this country of the North Platte, east of the Black Hills, is within 
a short distance of the railroad at Cheyenne, Pine Bluffs, or Sidney, An 
abundance of timber can be had in the Black Hills for fencing and 
building purposes for all ranch and stock men in any of those valleys. 

There is in the North Platte Basin, east of the Black Hills, an 
area of at least 8,000,600 acres of pasturage, with the finest living 
streams, and good shelter in the bluffs and cafions. These 8,000,000 
acres of pasture would feed at least 8,000,000 sheep, yielding 30,000,000 
pounds of woo!, worth $7,500,000. Now that amount of money, instead 
of going to build up ranches, stock-farms, storehouses, woolen-mills, and 
all the components of great and thrifty settlements, is sent by our wool- 
dealers to South America, South Africa, and to Australia to enrich 
other people, while our wool-growing resources remain undeveloped. 
With any number of these immense valleys contiguous to railroads, 
timber, and coal, open to settlement, and with a demand for all the beef, 
mutton, and wool that can be.produced, it is impossible to foresee the 
grazing wealth that is to be develeped in the Rocky Mountain country 
Within the next ten years. 


THE DAIRY. 
PROGRESS OF CHEESE MANUFACTURE. 


During the year 1870 a large addition has been made to the number 
of cheese factories in the United States. In New York alone there are 
reported to be two hundred more factories than in 1869, and the increase 
in the West has been remarkable. The tendency, however, being toward 
smaller factories and the carrying of milk shorter distances than in past 
years, a large proportion of the establishments recently erected in the ~ 
older dairy districts, especially in New York, have withdrawn territory 
from other factories, while still another portion have absorbed private 

‘dairies. In addition to these influences, which modified the busi- 
ness of the season, protracted drought lowered the average produc- 
tion of individual factories. Notwithstanding these cirumstances, the . 
cheese product of the United States for 1870 is decidedly larger than 
that of 1869, some authorities estimating the excess as high as 17 per 
cent. This increased production, combined with unwise management 
by producers in pushing forward large quantities of cheese during the 
warm weather, thus overstocking the market at the most unfavorable 
Season, caused a marked decline from the prices of 1869. The depressing - 
effect of cverstocking the market was aggravated by the inferior keep- 
ing qualities of the cheese made during the extreme heat of July and 


THE DAIRY. 311 


August; and the losses experienced on the product of this trying term 
caused experts to renew more emphaticaliy the deciaration that a proper 
curing on the sheif is the great desideratum of American cheese manu- 
facture at the present time. . 

A point worthy of notice, in reviewing the dairy business of 1870, is 
the diversion which has been made in some sections of the country from 
butter to cheese manuiacture—a result due mainly to the rapidly increas- 
ing prosperity of the latter interest. It is probable that if the tempo- 
rary depression which visited the cheese interest in 1870 had been fore- 
seen, the diversion would not have oceurred. The unfavorable results 
of this diversion enforce a fresh warning against sudden changes from 
one branch of dairy manufacture to another. Butter factories- which 
possess fair market facilities, and have made satisfactory progress in 
. establishing a good reputation for their butter, should not be changed 
to cheese factories without careful consideration, at a time when the 
prices of cheese are presumptively as high as they will go, and when so 
many new sources of cheese production are being developed. 


CREAMERIES—BUTTER AND CHEESE FROM THE SAME MILK. 


Mr. L. B. Arnold gives the following description of the working of 
“ creameries,” or factories which make butter and cheese from the same 
milk—a branch of dairying industry which was entirely unknown in 
this country a few years ago: 


There are different modes of managing milk in creameries. In some the milk is set 
in the cheese vats at night, and stirred and cooled as if the whole contents of the vais 
were to be made into cheese in the usual way. It is then left standing, at 60°, as near 
as may be, through the night for the cream to rise. In the morning the cream is taken 
off and made into butter, and the skim-milk is mixed with new milk that is brought 
to the factory in the morning, and made into cheese. In this class of creameries there 
are two modes of working the cream into butter. One is to churn the cream as secon as 
it is taken from the vats, while it is sweet, and then put the buttermilk back into the 
vats with the milk, and work it into the cheese. In this way the valmable properties of 
the milk are worked up very closely, leaving nothing but avery poor whey. The other 
mode is to set the cream aside till it becomes sour, before churning. In this case the 
buttermilk cannot be worked into the cheese, and of course is cast out with the whey. 
‘In the former case the cheese always receives a peculiar flavor from the buttermilk, 
which some people fancy, but which most people dislike, and hence it does not find 
favor in the genera] market. In the latter case, if the curd is cured rapidly and with- 
out any cessation in the curing process, by exposing it to a temperature too low, the 
cheese can scarcely be distinguished from whole-milk cheese; and where unprejudiced 
selections are made, it is often preferred for its better keeping qualities and the purity 
of its flavor. 

The butter in the two cases differs as much as the cheese. When milk is set for the 
cream to rise, the odor peculiar to new milk escapes slowly, and as the cream soon 
coats over the surface of the milk, the odor, in attempting to rise, becomes entangled 
in the cream, and is hence carried with it into the churn. In the process of churning 
much of the so-called animal odor escapes, but enough is always left in to modify the 
fine flavor of the butter, and to serve as a ferment to work its early destruction. 

In the other case, where the cream is kept till it is sour, the acidity developed 
neutralizes the objectionable odor and destroys it, and leaves the butter with a better 
flavor and in a better condition for long keeping. As the best of the cream rises first, 
the butter made from this partial skimming is of the finest quality, and usually sells 
at an advance above dairy butter, when equal skill is used in its production. 

The amount of butter taken from milk in this way is, perhaps, abont one pound from 
100 pounds of milk, in the middle of the season, increasing toa larger percentage as the 
milk grows richer in the fall. By this practice, the pounds of butter and cheese counted 
together generally exceed the number of pounds of oheese that could be made from an 
equal quantity of unskimmed milk. This difference may be accounted for from the 
waste that always occurs in making whole milk cheese, by particles of cream escaping 
with the whey, and from the fact that more water is retained in a curd from skim-mil 
than in a curd from whole milk, when all other circumstances are the same. 

The purpose in this class of creameries is to make only so much butter as will allow 
of making a fine quality of cheese. In another class of creameries the purpose is quite 
different. It is to make all or nearly all the butter that can be made from the milk, 


312 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and then to make a profit by converting the skim-milk into cheese instead of feeding it 
toswine. To accomplish this it is necessary to keep the milk sweet while it is stand- 
ing for the cream to rise. Cold water is the agent employed. At a temperature of 
about 60° the lactic ferment hardly makes any perceptible advancement. Hence, if 
milk is kept at 60° or a little below, the cream rises readily and the milk is preserved 
for along time in a good condition for cheese-making. To effect this a reservoir is made 
in the creamery with mason work laid up with water-lime or cement, and kept constantly 
fall and of even temperature by a steady stream of water from acoolspring. The milk, 
as it comes to the creamery, is strained into a small vat and thence drawn into tin pails, 18 
or 20 inches deep and eight inches in diameter, and the pails then set into the reservoir, 
which is just deep enough for the water to sise around the pails as high or a little higher 
than the surface of the milk. This is found to bea better way of keeping milk than to 
spread it out in shallow vessels. The cream rises as quick, and some contend quicker, in 
the deep as in the shallow dishes, and much less surface is exposed to be injured by 
drying. The exposure isso little that the cream always remains soft and thin, requiring 
to be dipped off instead of skimmed. The time of letting it stand in these pails varies 
in different creameries. In some the milk of one day is made into cheese the next, thus 
allowing the morning’s milk to stand twenty-four hours and the evening’s milk twelve ~ 
hours. In others it stands forty-cight and thirty-six hours. When the cream is taken 
off it is set away to sour, and at the proper time is churned by an application of steam, 
horse, or water power. It is a singular fact that after all the trials made with the 
great variety of churns that are being continually introduced, the creameries and the 
Dest butter-makers all fall back upon the old dash-churn as the best, both for quality 
of product and convenience. Patent churns are in bad repute with the creameries. 
When the butter is taken from the churns it is thoroughly washed in coo] water before 
salting. However much washing butter may be condemned by others, the practice 
works well in the creameries. The idea that water washes out the fine aroma of the 
butter seems to be more fanciful than real, and certainly much less injury. is done to 
the texture by washing out the buttermilk than by working it out. 

The working is usually done on an inclined slab, with a lever rounded on one side 
and held in its place by a universal joint at the lower end of the slab. The salting is 
generally lighter than in farm dairies, being usually only one pound of salt for 20 
pounds of butter, and the inclined slab is used in working it in. The butter made at 
the creameries is generally of superior quality, and commands a high price, and is be- 
ginning to exert a controlling influence in the market. Creameries are educating the 
public taste to a higher standard. 

Though much may be said of the excellence of creamery butter, little can be said 
of the excellence of cheese made in this class of factories. Though rich in valuable 
nutriment—that might under more faverable circumstances be at least palatable food 
—the shape in which it now usually goes to market rates it very properly with the 
poorest class of human food. It is so dry, and hard, and insipid, and indigestible as 
hardly to be reckoned as a wholesome means of sustaining life. It is little else than 
dried curd. It cures so slowly and dries out so quickly that the cheesing process is 
arrested before it is hardly begun. There is a wide field open for improvement in the 
manufacture of skim-milk cheese. The valuable flesh-forming material with which it 
abounds ought to be and will ere long be presented in more attractive forms. Ihave 
no expectation that a fancy article will be made from thoroughly skimmed milk, but 
am confident that a cheese much more palatable and wholesome than those now made 
in creameries can be made from milk in the condition in which it is there manufactured. 
The most that is needed is to make the cheesing process as complete as in curing other 
cheese. When dairymen shall have become familiar with the fact that the cheesing 
process is but the result of the continued action of the rennet upon the coagulum it 
has formed from the milk, they will find some efficient way of keeping up that action, 
however much it may be retarded by depriving the curd of the stimulating influence 
afforded by the fatty mattez in the milk. When the manufacture and curing of skim- 
milk cheese shall be adapted to the altered condition of the milk, its value will be 
greatly enhanced. But even now the dried curd, if I may so call it, makes a better 
return than can be made by feeding the milk to pigs or calves. It requires just about 
four times as much milk to make a pound of pork or veal as it does to make a pourd 
of skim cheese, while there is but little difference in their market value. The quality 
of milk varies so much that no precise results can be stated when it is worked up in the 
different ways of manufacturing it, but they will not vary much from the following: 
Ten thousand pounds of milk, of average quality, will make 1,025 pounds whole-millk 
cheese. The same quantity, if partially skimmed, will make 100 pounds butter and 
975 pounds cheese that will scarcely differ from whole-milk cheese. If deeper skimmed, 
it will make 250 to 300 pounds butter and 700 to 775 pounds skim cheese; or, if thor- 
oughly skimmed, it would make 350 to 370 pounds butter and 600 to 660 pounds skim 
cheese. The cheese will vary considerably with the varying amount of milk taken off 
with the cream. If the whole-milk cheese be reckoned at 15 cents per pound, the 
partially skimmed will be worth 14 to 14} cents, the deeper skimming about 9 cents, 


THE DAIRY. ole 


and the full skimming 7 cents per pound. The butter in each case will keep with the 
top of the markez as it fluctuates. The cost of making the cheese and getting it ready 
for market is 2 cents per pound, and the butter 5 cents. From the foregoing facts, the 
reader may gather at least a general idea of the modus operandi in creameries, and of 
the results produced. They give a little greater return than making cheese only 
from the milk, but, considering the greater outlay in building and apparatus, the 
results financially do not differ very widely. Their general effect upon the markets is 
to raise the standard quality for butter and to lower the standard of American cheese. 


The Franklin Creamery, one of the largest butter and cheese factories 
in the State of New York, is situated jn Franklin, Delaware County, 
four miles from the line of the Albany and Susquehanna Railread. It 
commenced manufacturing in the spring of 1867. The property has 
cost between $8,000 and $9,000, and is owned and operated by a joint- 
stock company, the stock being chiefly held by the patrons. The 
ground dimensions of the main building are 60 by 38 feet, and of the 
wing, 44 by 28 feet. The building is partly three stories and 
partly two stories high, and includes dwelling-rooms. The water vat in 
which milk is set for cream measures 38 by 24 feet. There are four 600- 
gallon cheese vats, thirty presses, and sixteen churns, worked by a six 
horse-power portable engine. Butter is manufactured at 3 cents per 
pound, and cheese at 2 cents, patrons paying the expense of package, 
salt, &c., for butter, and of boxes, bandages, annatto, &c., for cheese. 
A report of the business of the factory tor the season of 1869, com- 
mencing May 17 and ending October 17, a period of five months, is as 
follows: Quantity of milk received, 1,287,032 pounds; butter manufac- 
tured, 41,255 pounds; skimmed cheese manufactured, 80,217 pounds; 
quantity of milk to each pound of butter, 31.2 pounds; average price of 
butter delivered at railroad, 45.92 cents; average price of cheese deliv- 
ered at railroad, 9.5 cents. After taking nearly all the cream for butter, 
the skimmed milk yielded nearly two pounds of cheese for each pound 
of butter. An analysis of receints and expenditures for the season 
shows a net return of over 34 cents for each quart of milk converted. 

During the season of 1870, the average number of cows supplying the 
factory was 880; quantity of milk received, 2,310,569 pounds; butter 
made, 78,459 pounds; estimated quantity of cheese made, 138,000 
pounds. Mr. Munson, the superintendent of the factory, informs us 
that the average price of their cheese in 1870 is much less than in 1869, 
owing to the overstocking of the market with skimmed cheese. The 
butter manufactured is mostly packed in Orange County pails, and 
though sold as creamery butter, is always classed with Orange County 
pail butter, bringing the same price, and averaging 5 to 10 cents per 
pound advance upon the price obtained for prime farm-dairy butter. 
During the season of 1870, it has brought an average of about 40 cents 
per pound, after deducting freight and commission in New York. Gen- 
erally, the butter is sold as fast as it is manufactured. 

The Elgin Butter Factory, Elgin, Dlinois, established for the manu- 
facture of butter and cheese from the same milk, went into operation 
July 11,1870. The factory-building is 70 feet long by 52 feet wide, and 
is two stories high, with a basement of stone. Both stories are used 
chiefly for storing cheese. The basement is divided into three compart- 
ments. The first is devoted to the manufacture of cheese and the 
churning of cream for butter. For the latter purpose barrel churns are 
employed, the dashers being driven by steam power. The second com- 
partment is used for working the butter, and as a room for setting the 
milk for cream. The third compartment is used for storing butter. It 
is provided with ice receptacles and has a stream of spring-water flow- 
ing through it, which keeps the air pure and cool. For setting and 


314 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


cooling the milk there are in the milk-room two vats, each 16 feet long, 
8 feet wide, and 23 inches deep. The water flows into these vats from 
two living springs and escapes from the top through underground drains. 
It has a uniform temperature of 53°. The milk is set in tin vessels two 
feet high and holding four gallons. These vessels are covered with 
screens of thin muslin. At the end of twenty-four hours the cream is 
dipped into similar vessels, where it remains the same length of time, 
during which it becomes slightly acid, when it is churned. The win- 
dows of the milk-room are darkened by curtains, and not a fly is allowed 
to enter. After the butter is churned it is cooled with ice. The work- 
. Ing is done with wooden paddles, or with a bar working on a frame. In 
the intervals between churning and working and working and packing, 
the butter is placed in wooden trays, covered with muslin, and floated 
in one of the vats. The milk which is manufactured into cheese is 
allowed to retain a small proportion of cream. The cheese is manufac- 
tured chiefly for the New Orleans market. The price charged for mak- 
ing butter and cheese is 3 cents per pound. ° 

During the month of November, 1570, the factory received 14,080 gal- 
lons of milk, and manufactured 4,666 pounds of butter and 9,540 pounds 
of cheese. The butter sold readily at wholesale for 40 cents a pound, 
with an increasing demand, while the best farm-dairy butter sold at 25 
to 30 cents a pound. A statement of totals for the month is as follows: 


4,666 pounds of butter, at 40 cents per pound,........--.-..--. Ate accsacs Shoe 40 
9,340 pounds of cheese, at 10 cents per pound,......--.,..---..-------<- .-- ° 934 00 
Tattlavalae Oropuiier/ and ChECSO sarc. cee se aw dalnd mencie Deis se acmeces 2,800 40 
RON EEA CHICO i an cia pte kc nine Siwimalp SU Anima oq’ Hem one aS omadis eee 420 18 
MCKMEMEUAG) nau estta tc aon Abe oon seco hans RB Sleek apy oat Pte eee = 2, 330 22 


This exhibit shows a net return to patrons of nearly 4} cents per quart 
of milk furnished during the month. An average of one pound of but- 
ter and two pounds of skimmed cheese was produced from 12 quarts of 
milk. 

An illustrative example of remunerative management of dairy pro- 
ducts is found in the experience of the Orange County (New York) milk 
farmers, who, a few years ago, finding themselves at a disadvantage in 
the hands of middle-men, formed an association and established “ cream- 
eries” convenient to railroad depots. After selling such mill and cream 
as could be disposed of at high prices, they converted the remainder 
into butter and “skimmed” cheese, each producer obtaining his propor- 
tion of the net profits arising from sales. 


CONDENSED MILK. 


The manufacture of condensed milk, now conducted to a limited ex- 
tent, is stated to be very remunerative, and several prominent dairy- 
men have indicated this specialty as offering a promising field for asso- 
ciated dairy enterprise. ‘The article has already attained some commer- 
cial consequence, the export during the year ending June 30, 1870, 
amounting in value to $140,099. The following is a brief sketch of the 
process of manufacture, under the Gail Borden patent, employed in the 
Ulinois condensing factory at Elgin: 

Hach consignment of milk, after passing examination, is strained and 
emptied into the receiving vat, whence it is conducted through another 
Strainer into the heating cans, each of which holds about twenty gallons. 
These cans are placed in hot water until the milk reaches a temperature 
of 90°, when it is again strained and drawn into a large wooden vat, where 


Se 


Le SS ee ee 


THE DAIRY. 315 


if is heated nearly to the boiling point by means of steam passed through 
a coil of copper pipe at the bottom of the vat. The milk then receives 
an addition of one and one- quarter pound of the best white granulatec 
sugar to each gallon, after which it is drawn into a vacuum pan of 3,600 
quarts’ capacity, where it is again heated by steam for about three hours, 
losing 75 pér cent. of its bulk. Itis then drawn off into cans holding 
forty quarts each. These cans are set in a large vat containing water 
kept at a temperature equal to that of the milk they contain, and, when 
the temperature of the milk is reduced below 709, it is emptied into large 
cans, and thence drawn into small cans holding one pound, which are 
immediately sealed to exclude air, and made ready for market. ‘The 
wholesale price at the factory, in the latter part of the year 1869, was 
$3 59 per dozen cans, or a trifle over 29 cents per pound. Condensed 
milk is also prepared without sugar. 


MISMANAGEMENT IN BUTTER-MAKING. 


The exigencies of trade, especially of foreign demand, have wrought a 
very marked improvement in the quality of American cheese; but the 
butter of this country, notwithstanding the influence of emulation gene- 
rated by association and the successful example of superior butter- 
makers, presents a low average of excellence. 

Mr. F.D. Curtis, of Saratoga County, New York, in charge of the exhi- 
bition of dairy products at the New York State Fair in 1869, administered 
some severe reproofs to the butter-makers of the-State as they were rep- 
resented by exhibitors at the fair, and mentioned the following defects: 
Mixture of sour milk with the cream, causing rancidity in the butter; 
carelessness in putting down the several layers of the firkin or tub; neg- 
lect of proper precautions against injury from changes of temperature 
in transportation. Two-thirds of the butter marketed is damaged by 
such mismanagement, and depreciated in price. When exposed to sale, 
it is generally found that the lower portion of the contents of a tub is 
the poorest, and the discovery of this fact causes not only a diminution 
of price on the whole package, but also suspicion of intended deception. 
Yet no deception has been intended. The difference in quality has arisen 
from i improper ss raga Sraenen of the lower layers, the upper layer having 
been kept in good condition by carefully covering it with salt when 
placed in the tub. When forwarded to market in warm weather, this 
imperfectly packed butter is placed in the low temperature of an ice-car, 
and on its arrival at the city depot it is often unloaded and carted un- 
der a broiling sun. The method of packing the best Philadelphia butter, 
which is put up in nicely stamped rolls, placed in tin pails with ice-res- 
ervoirs at top and bottom, and then packed in wooden tubs with closely 
fitting covers, nets the producer 40 to 50 per cent. more than is received 
for large and imperfectly marketed packages. 

Behind all such errors of manufacture and’ handling of the product, 
lies the primary evil of mismanagement of the animal, the living machine 
of production. Neglect to provide shelter from burning suns; stinting 
of nutritious food in winter, after milking hard through the summer 
months ; the use of close, ill-ventilated stables and scantily littered stalls, 
and. carelessness in eliminating noxious weeds from pastures, lead to 
the most serious evils, abortion included, and are yet frequent among 
farmers who cannot justly plead want of information as their excuse. 
At no other period, perhaps, is want of care so injurious as at the time 
of “coming in.” Mr. Harris Lewis, of Herkimer County, New York, re- 
marks that, from the time cows commence coming in to the time of 
greatest yield of milk, (a period which may be assumed at three months’ 


316 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


duration,) there are more losses from accident, sickness, aud death than 
during the other nine months of the year; and a large percentage of 
these losses is from want of care, want of proper food, and neglect of a 
judicious system of feeding. Such a system includes a liberal prevision 
of the best grasses, if possible, and, when these are not attainable, such 
grass as may be had, with grain and other nutritious substances added. 
Meadow grasses, and red and white clover, cut in blossom and weil 
cured, supplemented by roots, make excellent food. After coming in, 
cows should have not only good food, but also careful superintendence. 
They should be separated from those coming in, if it can be done with- 
out materially aitering the temperature of the stable. They should be 
fed, watered, and milked regularly, by the same milkers, when practi- 
cable, and be carded daily when kept up. 


DIFFERENCE IN YIELD OF COWS. 


Mr. Lewis states that he has made many experiments on his own 
farm to test the value of the milk of cows at different ages for the 
‘manufacture of butter and cheese. He finds that the milk of cows 
from six to ten years old will produce 40 to 60 per cent. more cream 
than the milk of their offspring two years old, and that the specific 
gravity of the milk of old cows is 8 to 10 per cent. less than that of 
the milk of two-year-old heifers, the animals being fed and treated 
alike. 

A writer in one of the western agricultural journals says that, on 
emigrating to this country from the Ayrshire region, he was aston- 
ished at the great inequality of yield among American cows, a single 
cow, perhaps, giving twenty-five quarts of milk daily, and six others of 
the same herd not more than ten or twelve quarts each, while Ayrshire 
cows in their native country will average twenty to twenty-five quarts 
daily for the first.-three months after coming in. 


MILK SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 


The milk supply of our cities and towns involves sanitary and eco- 
nomical considerations of the highest importance. The accompanying 
abstracts of reperts of milk inspectors, and of others conversant with 
the milk business in various sections of the country, illustrate the mag- 
nitude of the interests involved in this branch of dairy farming, the 
abuses connected with it, and the methods used to counteract these 
abuses, the frequent disproportion between prices at first hands and 
the cost to city or town consumers, and the comparative profits to pro- 
ducers of marketed milk and miJk manufactured into butter or cheese. 

Inspection of mitk in Boston.—The first act to punish fraud in the sale 
of adulterated milk in Massachusetts was passed by the legislature of 
that State during the winter of 1856. This act authorized any person 
to make complaint and to prosecute for violations of its provisions; but, 
as far as is known, no complaints were made. The law accomplished 
nothing. In the winter of 1859 a new law was enacted, which provided 
for the appointment in towns and cities of inspectors of milk, whose 
duty it should be to detect adulterations of milk and secure the convic- 
tion and punishment of offenders. Boston was the first municipality 
in the State to appoint an inspector whose time should be exclusively 
devoted to the performance of this duty, and it is believed that it was 
the first city on the continent to make the effort to secure a supply of 
pure milk for its citizens by arresting and punishing the venders of an 
impure article. The office of the Boston inspector was established 
August 10, 1859. 


THE DAIRY. S17 


In March, 1864, the law was again revised. The new act forbade, 
under stated penalties, sales of milk produced from cows fed upon the 
refuse of distilleries, or any substance deleterious to the quality of the 
milk; it also forbade the sale of milk produced from sick or diseased 
cows; aiso the sale of milk adulterated with water or any foreign sub- 
stauce. City governments were required, and the authorities of towns 
were permitted, to appoint one or more inspectors of milk. Venders of 
milk were required to register with the inspectors their names and places 
of business. In 1868 the law of 1864 was so modified as to limit the 
imposition of penalties to persons selling milk known by them to be 
adulterated. it was soon found that this qualification opened the way 
to constant evasion, and rendered the law to a large extent ineftective. 
In addition to the immunity afforded to willful ignorance, was the diffi- 
culty of proving criminal knowledge. The public very naturally held 
that the crime of ignorance was not less culpable than the guilty knowl- 
edge, and that dealers should be held as responsible for one as for the 
‘other. In the following year, therefore, the distinction was annulled. 
By an act approved April 10, 1869, the sale, or possession with intent to 
sell, of adulterated milk was forbidden, under a penalty of a fine of not 
less than $20 nor more than $100. A similar penalty was imposed upon 
the sale of adulterated milk for manufacture into butter or cheese. 

The following particulars are derived from the reports of Mr. Henry 
Faxon, inspector of milk for the city of Boston, for the period extending 
from March 31, 1869, to March 31, 1871. 

Very few Boston milkmen produce on their own farms the milk which 
they sell. Two sources of supply are relied upon. Many are supplied 
from the stations at the termini of those railroads which bring milk from 
the country. Others live afew miles from the city, and at night go 
through their respective neighborheods and collect a few cans each from 
small farmers. A few milkmen are supplied by largedairies. The quality 
of the milk collected near the city does not differ materially from that 
supplied by the railroads. Both kinds are regarded as good, fresh, 
family milk. Most ef the milk used in Boston, however, is obtained 
through the railroads. The general plan of conducting the milk busi- 
ness on these roads is thus described: 

Milk agents contract twice a year with the farmers for their milk, 
October 1 and April 1, and agree to pay monthly. Miik collectors are 
employed by the ageuts to collect the milk from the farmers’ doors, and 
to deliver it at the door of the milk-car to the agent, who remains on the 
train. Vrom the milk account of his collectors, and the dairy marks on 
the cans, he knows from whom each can of milk came. The milkmen 
receive their supply from the agent upon the arrival of the train at 
the city, paying him once a month. Some of this milk is distributed 
to consumers immediately; the remainder is conveyed direct to the 
stables of the milkmen and is packed in ice until its delivery at an 
early hour in the morning. 

The supply is always equal to the demand, except during portions of 
July, August, and September, when it sometimes fails in part, owing to 
warm weather. 

The milk-cans used for the conveyance and sale of milk by the dealers 
are of two classes, known as large and small cans. The large cans, 
which hold nine quarts and a pint, are in general use by the milk trade 
of Worcester County, and by many of those who collect their milk in 
the towns in the vicinity of Boston. ‘The smail cans, which hold eight 
quarts and one-half pint, are mostly in use on the Fitchburg, Lowell, and 
Eastern railroads. Many of the milkmen engaged in the family trade 


31s AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


have small cans, holding from a pint to four and six quarts respectively, 
which they fill from the larger cans to ‘suit customers. 

The prices of milk for 1868, 1869, and 1870 have been as follows: 
Summer rates, at the farmer’s door, 4 to 4$ cents a quart; at depots in 
or near the city, 5 to 54 cents a quart; delivered in cans at stores and 
shops, about 64 cents a quart; retailed to families, 8 cents a quart. 
Winter rates,-at the farmer’s door, about 5 cents; retailed to families, 
9 cents. 

Adulterations of milk have been traced to all classes of dealers, except 
the railroad agents: to wholesale dealers, who distribute to families, 
stores, ete., from wagons; to retail dealers, who sell in small quantities 
from market places, stores, shops, and cellars ; and to the milk producers. 
The foreign material of the adulterated milk is almost always water only. 
Salt is sometimes added to make up the loss in specifie gravity, burnt 
sugar to alter the blue tinge of the watered milk, and carbonate of soda 
to prevent souring. During the winter few complaints cf adulteration 
are made, but many that the milk is old, or that it has been skimmed. | 
Poor families, for obvious reasons, are much oftener served with adult- 
erated or inferior milk than the prosperous classes. 

During the year ending March 31, 1870, 1,680 samples of milk were 
inspected, of which 520 were found ‘to be more or less adulterated. 
Nineteen samples, subjected to chemical analysis, averaged 28.83 per 
cent. of adulteration, the largest percentage being 41.17. The supply of 
milk to the city during the year amounted to 7,646,020 gallons, at a cost 
to the consumers of $2,599,646 80. 

During the year ending March 31, 1871, 1,700 samples of milk were 
inspected, of which 610 were found to be adulterated. Twenty samples 
analyzed by the chemist showed an average adulteration of 52.40 per 
cent., the largest percentage being 50.34, and the smallest 21.03. The 
number of gallons supplied to the city during the year was 8,510,340; 
daily supply, 23,316 gallons. The cost to consumers for the year was 
$2,893,515 60; daily cost, $7,927 44. The whole number of complaints 
in court from the enactment of the law to March 31, 1871, was 206; num- 
ber of convictions, 135; failures to convict, 69; cases yet pending, 2. 

The 1,700 samples of milk inspected during the past year, and the 
610 samples that were found to be more or less adulterated, do not give 
the actual extent of adulteration throughout the city. The milk exam- 
ined was supposed to be adulterated, or the inspector would not have 
been-requested to test it. The quantity of milk adulterated and sold 
without exciting complaint can only be conjectured. It is a significant 
fact which the inspector states, that “in all the complaints carried before 
the courts during the past year for violations of the milk law, the parties 
pleaded guilty, paid their fine and costs, and were advertised, as required 
by the statute.” 

The price of milk at the farmer’s docr during 1870 averaged 44 cents 
a quart; the price paid by consumers averaged 84 cents per quart, or 
exactly 80 per cent. more than the farmer received. At the price ob-- 
tained for their milk, farmers complain that they are not suificiently 
compensated for their labor and capital invested. If they could receive 
some portion of the profits which the middle-men exact, they would have 
less cause for complaint, and consumers would not be so liable as they 
now are to an increase in price. Much attention is being given to 
various schemes for dispensing with the services of one or two classes of 
middle-men. : 

Inspection of milk in New York and Brooklyn—Mr. C. F. Chandler, 
chemist to the metropolitan board of health, which has sanitary superin- 


THE DATRY.- | eS) 


tendence of the district comprising New York, Brooklyn, and certain 
neighboring towns, has presented to the board a report concerning the 
results of investigations made by him in 1869 into the character of the 
milk supplied to consumers in that district, from which we glean the fol- 
lowing facts: 2 

During the year 293 specimens of milk were chemically examined. 
Forty-one of these were taken in the latter part of February from cans 
in the hands of miikmen arrested in the act of diluting milk. Four 
samples contained proportions of pure milk ranging from 37 to 60 per 
cent.; nineteen contained 80 to 97 per cent. of pure milk ; the remaining 
eighteen were entirely pure, probably for the reason that the work of 
dilution had been interrupted. In addition to these forty-one cans, four 
cans filled with water were found in the hands of milkmen. 

In April, seven samples of milk were collected at one of the crowded 
cow Stables in Brooklyn. These samples were specially deficient in butter 
gl8bules, and were in every respect inferior to the milk of healthy cows. 
No other indieation of disease could be detected in the milk. The blood 
of the confined cows was found to be strikingly deficient in red cor- 
puscules, containing from 2 to 6 per cent. more water than is present in 
healthy blood. Notwithstanding the fair appearance of these cows, 
they were not in a sound, healthy condition, and though analysis might 
fail to detect any specific poison in their milk, it could not be considered 
healthy food. Other large cow stables, to which the attention of the 
board had been called, were found to be overcrowded, dark, damp, and 
deficient in ventilation, but the animals kept in them generally presented 
a fair appearance. ~ . 

In June and July, two hundred and ten samples purchased from retail 
dealers in various parts of the district were analyzed. In these the per- 
centage of pure milk, as shown by the lactometer, varied from 37-per 
cent. to above the standard, averaging 724 per cent. 

During the last four months of 1869, thirty-five samples were exam- 
ined, in which the percentage of pure milk ranged from 50 per cent. to 
above the standard, averaging 82.44 per cent. In these samples, as in 
all others analyzed during the year, water was the only adulterating 
substance discovered. 

Mr. Chandler states that the average quality of the milk supply of the 
cities of New York and Brooklyn is represented by the addition of one 
quart of water to every three quarts of pure milk. 

Milk production near New York.—In Essex .and Union Counties, New 
Jersey, lying a short distance from the city of New York, and including 
within their bounds a large eity and town population, the production 
of milk has become the leading agricuitural interest. 

Although the soil of these counties—a clayey loam, well watered by 
springs and streams—is admirably adapted to grazing, the high price 
of land, averaging about $300 per acre, necessitates a special system of 
feeding. The larger number of those engaged in milk production own 
only a few acres each, on which are kept from six to ten cows. A few 
herds number from twenty-five to thirty head, but a herd numbering 
fifty cows or more is rarely seen. From early in May to the middle of 
July, pasturage is largely supplemented by stable feeds of green rye, 
meal, bran, and brewers’ grains. During the subsequent three months, 
corn-fodder is the main food, eked out with brewers’ grains, ete. Rowen 
pasture is obtained in October. From November to the last of April, 
hay, turnips, grains, meal, and bran are,fed, with the addition of corn- 
stalks during a considerable part of the time. Turnips are raised 
largely for food, chiefly the white or “cowhorn” variety, and are highly 


320 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


valued as an auxiliary during winter, giving the cows a good appetite, 
and thus aiding to keep them in good condition. They are especially 
nutritious when fed with meal or other ground food. One hundred 
bushels of turnips are considered a full supply for one animal during 
the winter. In the same season the quantity of brewers’ grains fed to 
each cow in milk-amounts to about six bushels. 

The majority of those who stock heavily with cows purchase city ma- 
nure in addition to that made on the farm. Under a prevailing system 
of liberal dairy management, the land is annually increasing in value, 
and it is estimated that the crop production is now double the yield of 
the same land twenty-five years ago. There are between 3,000 and 4,000 
cows in the two counties, costing, when purchased, from $75 to $100 
each. An estimaie for the entire season puts the average yield per cow 
at eight quarts daily. The average price obtained for the milk at the 
farmer’s door is 54 cents a quart. The gross income from milk ranges 
from $125 to $200 per cow per annum. i 

Supply of milk by railroad.—The following informatien is furnished to 
the Department by Mr. R. Rockwell, of Colebreok, Connecticut: During 
the month of January, 1870, 1,400 quarts of milk per day were sent from 
Colebrook to the city of New York. The farmers received 6 cents per 
quart, delivered at the Winsted depot, distant one hundred and twenty- 
one miles from New York by rail. The freight from Winsted to New 
York was 14 cents per quart, and the commission paid in New York was 
one-half cent per quart. The milk was sold to dealers in that city at 
8 cents per quart. The quantity sent in the early part of June was about 
1,000 quarts per day, delivered at the Winsted depot at 2% cents per 
quart. The average price at that point, for the year ending April 1, | 
1870, was 44 cents per quart. Jor the same period the average receipts 
for the product of each cow of different dairies ranged from $60 to $120. 
Mr. Rockwell’s dairy of 12 cows averaged $116 81 per cow. A cheese 
factory has just been completed at Colebrook, with facilities for manu- 
facturing the milk of about 500 cows. This enterprise will probably 
lessen the quantity of milk sent to New York from Colebrook. 

Ina letter to the Department, dated July 26, 1870, Mr. E.S. Woodford, 
of West Winsted, states that at that depot farmers were then receiving 
34 cents a quart for milk, 

A correspondent of the Department in Berkshire County, Massachu- 
setts, writes that the number of cows in that county has increased, and 
that the sending of milk te market is a profitable business, much more so 
than its manufacture into butter and cheese. Mr. J. Z. Goodrich, of Stock- 
bridge, in the same county, in a letter addressed to the farmers of his 
section, states that during the season of 1869, and even during the sum- 
mer months, milk was carried every day on the Housatonic Railroad 
from Dalton and Pittsfield to New York City, a distance of about one 
hundred and seventy miles. It was brought to the station in the after- 
noon, and delivered in New York the next morning, in good condition, 
and in time to be served to customers before breakiast. The milk train of 
the Housatonic Railroad commenced running October 1, 1567, carrying 
44 cans of 40 quartseach. The number increased to about 230 cans per 
day in 1868, and to 390 in 1869. Mr. Goodrich adds that the demand is 
yearly increasing. {n his opinion the business will improve the farming 
lands of that section more than any other agricultural specialty; and he 
thinks the county ought to raise its milk production to 40,000 quarts 
daily within three years. As an illustration of the tendency of this 
business to enhance the value of land, one farmer on the Housatonic 
Railroad acknowledges that it has already added $3,000 to thé value of 


THE DAIRY. a2 


his farm. Mz. Goodrich estimates that it has added $20,000,000 to the 
value of farms on the Harlem Railroad. 

Mr. Eli Smith, of Sheffield, Massachusetts, informs us that, next to West 
Cornwall, Connecticut, Sheffield is the most importan{; milk station in 
the Housatonic Valley. When the milk train commenced running on 
the Housatonic Railroad, in October, 1867, this station sent only four 
cans per day. During the year ending November 30, 1870, it forwarded 
to New York 25,177 cans, of 40 quarts each, amounting to 251,770 gal- 
lons. The month of largest shipment was May, during which 28,730 
gallons were forwarded; the quantity declining in November to 17,260 
gallons. The business, which is gradually increasing, returns to pro- 
ducers from 5 to 44 cents per quart in summer, and from 5 to 6 cents in 
winter. Sheffield is one hundred and thirty-six miles distant from New 
York by rail. The station of West Cornwall, Connecticut, one hundred 
and eighteen miles from New York, during the year ending November 
30, 1870, sent to market 265,450 gallons of milk. 

Milk supply of St. Louis —It might be supposed that the market 
afforded for the sale of milk by the wants of a large city, or even a 
flourishing town, would soon produce in the surrounding country a cor- 
responding competition for its supply, especially where the conditions 
of farming are well adapted to milk production. This, however, is not 
always so, even in localities of superior agricultural development, as is 
shown in the difficulty experienced by the citizens of St. Louis in ob- 
taining a sufficient supply of milk. In January, 1870, Mr. C. W. Murtfeldt, 
secretary of the Missouri State Board of Agriculture, stated that, at 
that time, the city received no supply of milk by railroad, while at his 
residence at Kirkwood, fourteen miles from St. Louis, on the Pacific 
Railroad, “not a quart of milk is furnished for less than 10 cents, and 
even at that price people do not expect to get it pure. The night’s milk 
is skimmed and mixed with the morning’s milking, which is probably 
the nearest to pure milk which any of them get.” In a letter to the 
Department, dated September 24, 1870, Mr. Murtfeldt states that two 
associations have been formed for the purpose of sending milk to St. 
Louis—one in St. Charles and Warren Counties, and the other in St. 
Louis and Franklin Counties. He adds that the retail price of milk in 
St. Louis in summer and winter is 10 cents a quart. 

In St. Louis and its immediate vicinity there are, in round numbers, 
150 milk dairies, 50 per cent. of these being within the city limits, and 
the remainder being situated from one to two miles beyond its bound- 
aries. The smallest of these dairies keep not more than five cows each. 
The largest is that of Leser & Co., embracing 640 to 840 cows, according 
to the season of the year. he animals of this dairy are well fed, sup- 
plied with good water, and suitably lodged. In many of the small 
dairies the cows are crowded into dilapidated and filthy sheds. In all 
the dairies the stock is native and of inferior quality, values ranging 
from $25 to $80 per head—few animals bringing the latter price. Ina 
large portion of the dairies, distillers’ slops, at 10 cents a barrel, and 
malt, at 6 cents a bushel, are almost exclusively fed, a little hay being 
occasionally given. A gentleman of prominence in the dairy business 
states that in the St. Louis dairies the mortality ameng cows frequently 
amounts to 12 per cent. of the whole number annually, mainly resulting 
from close confinement, imperfect and filthy shelter, impure water, and 
inferior food. The milk sold is generally free from adulteration, using 
the term in its common acceptation, 

21 A 


aan AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


BUTTER-MAKING WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. . 


In the early part of the year 1870, at a meeting of the St. Louis 
Farmers’ Club, Mr. Murtfeldt stated that, while the grocery stores of the 
vicinity were placarded with advertisements of Ohio, New York, and 
sometimes Rock River butter, no mention was made of Missouri butter. 
Yet excellent butter is made by individuals in Eastern Missouri. In 
St. Louis, with hay at $20 per ton, and bran and meal at average prices, 
the keeping of a cow amounts to $90 a year, while on a farm with good 
pasture it would probably not amount to one-half that sum. 

Mr. Hedges stated before the same club that the wife of one of its 
members makes butter that would sellin the St. Louis market for Goshen 
butter; yet, said he, “farmers here are killing their calves, and selling 
their hay, and it is a losing business. Yet this section presents exeel- 
lent facilities for raising good dairy stock, as well as beef cattle.” 

Mr. A. M. Swan, of Oregon, Holt County, Missouri, in a pamphlet de- 
scribing the resources of that county, says: “At this writing, poor coun- 
try made butter, some of it half lard, is selling at 40 cents per pound, and 
is difficult te obtain even at that exorbitant rate.” He remarks that 
dairy farming would be very profitable there, but that little land has 
yet been brought into tame pasture. Holt County has the Missouri 
_ River for its western boundary, and is traversed by the Council Bluffs 
and St. Joseph Railroad. The thriving city of St. Joseph, distant about 
forty miles by rail from the center of the county, afiords an excellent 
market for ail kinds of agricultural products. 

Mr. T. T. Turner, a breeder of dairy stock near St. Louis, writing to the 
Department in September, 1870, states that he knows of no organized 
butter dairy within St. Louis County, the only home supply coming from 
farmers who manufacture in small quantities for individual customers. 
The market supply is chiefly derived from Ohio and New York. Through- 
out the year the price of good fresh butter averages 40 cents a pound, 
extra qualities bringing more. The Missouri cheese market is supplied 
from the products of Eastern States. Undoubtedly cheese and butter 
manufacture in Missouri, if conducted on a large scale and sustained by 
capital, experience, and skill, would prove very remunerative. 

Mr. Turner writes that the introduction of improved dairy stock into 
Missouri is of comparatively recent date. Prior to 1865, a few Jerseys, 
and perhaps a few Ayrshires, were owned and bred by small farmers in 
the vicinity of St. Louis, but as late as the close of the war the general 
sentiment among Missouri farmers was adverse to the purchase of im- 
proved stock for dairy purposes. In St. Louis County, since that period, 
the demand for Jerseys has materially increased, although in the State 
at large it is doubtful whether remunerative sales of this stock could be 
made to any extent. The demand for such stock is chiefly from gentle- 
men of means residing near the city who desire superior cows, and are 
willing to pay good prices to obtain them. While purchasers of this 
elass have readily paid for grade Jerseys at auction sales prices ranging 
from $100 to $200 each, according to the grades, farmers, on the con- 
trary, have been disposed to sneer at such “fancy cattle.” As far as 
Mr. Turner’s experience goes, the demand for Ayrshires at fair prices is 
very small. 

In an address before the Ohio Dairymen’s Association, at Wellington, 
Ohio, in January, 1870, Mr. George Williams, of Oneida County, New 
York, stated that one of the most successful dairymen of Herkimer County, 
who bred stock to supply the waste of his herd, has found that not more 
than two in five of his calves prove sufficiently valuable for the dairy to 


THE DAIRY. ae g20 


warrant their retention. Mr. Williams’s own experience in raising 
Short-horn grades—a favorite stock with New York dairymen—has been 
scarcely more favorable, and has involved much loss. This want of 
success he attributes to the tendency of the Short-horn to beef. Not- 
withstanding the preference given by many to animals of this stock on 
account of the ease with which they are fattened when declining in 
milk, he is of the opinion that this advantage is more than counter- 
balanced by inferiority in yield during their milking period, when com- 
pared with Ayrshires, of which latter it is said that four in five of their 
heifers will prove profitable milkers. 


CHEESE MANUFACTURE IN THE SOUTH. 


In the report for 1869, page 356, some new facts were presented rela- 
tive to cheese manufacture ihn the mountainous sections of North Caro- 
lina. Atthe State Fair, held at Raleigh, North Carolina, in October, 
1870, Mr. William 8S. Cornell, of the Elk Mountain Factory, in calling 
attention to the great inducements which these sections offer to dairy 
enterprise, stated that they produce all the valuable grasses in luxuriant 
growth, are favored with an abundance of cool water, and, at elevations 
of 3,000 feet or more, possess a climate unsurpassed on the continent. 
At these altitudes, cows are not tormented in the warm season by flies; 
the night air is so cool and the water of so good quality that no ice ° 
is required to keep the evening’s milk until morning; and the tempera- 
ture of the day is sufficientiy low to enable the manufacturer to work 
his cheese as slowly as he desires. Mr. Cornell states that while blue- 
grass and white clover make good milk, he has found, by experiment, 
that orchard grass will produce much more cheese than any other vari- 
ety with which he is acquainted, and he therefore strongly recommends 
seeding pastures with this grass. 

The following is the method of manufacturing cheese at the Elk 
Mountain Factory: When the milk is received at night it is placed in 
the vat, the agitator is put in motion, and water sufliciently cool to 
bring the milk to a temperature of 62°, or less, is kept running about it 
all night. When the milk of the following morning is added, the whole 
ig again agitated a short time, to dissipate the animal odor; it then re- 
ceives a supply of coloring matter, is heated to 82°, and is treated with 
rennet in sufficient quantity to induce signs of coagulation in fifteen 
minutes, the surface being kept slightly agitated until about the time 
of thickening. As soon as any whey makes its appearance around the 
edge of the vat, the curd is cut with great care to avoid’ bruising, and 
after it has settled sufficiently for the whey to cover it, it is heated 
slowly to a temperature of 83° or 90°. It is then cut again very fine, 
and heated to a temperature of 98° or 100°, at which it is kept until 
sufficiently cooked. This may be determined by tightly pressing a 
handful of the curd and suddenly opening the hand, when, if thoroughly 
cooked, it falls apart. The curd is then gradually cooled, until it be- 
comes sufficiently acid, when it receives one pound of salt to every forty 
pounds of curd; is put in hoops and pressed for several hours; then 
bandaged and again pressed for several hours. The cheese is then ear- - 
ried to the dry-house, where it is immediately oiled with whey butter, 
and left to ripen. 

In a statement of later date, Mr. Cornell says that the factories of 
his neighborhood make a cheese of different quality from the New York 
manufacture, which is too mild for the Carolina trade. bringing 5 cents 
less per pound than the product of the home factories. The latter have 
been laboring under the disadvantage of a poor milking stock, and to 


324 ; AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


remedy this the Elk Mountain Factory proposes to procure a lot of 


Ch 


cows from the North. ; 
DAIRYING IN OHIO. 


At the Ohio agricultural convention in January, 1870, Mr. C. W. Horr, 
of Wellington, a cheese manufacturer, stated that, during the past four 
years, cows supplying milk to butter and cheese factories in that section 
had averaged to their owners an annual return of $50 per cow, the 
average of some of the best dairies being quite $60 per cow. Mr. W. W. 
Wells, of Huntington, who keeps thirty-three cows on a farm of 200 
acres, received in 1868, as the proceeds of his butter, after deducting 
charges for making and boxing, $2,100; and in 1869, a little over $2,300. 
He has expended $200 yearly for labor, and $109 in keeping his stock. 
This would make the average net proceeds of his herd $1,900 a year, or 
$57 58 for each cow. No allowance is made in this estimate for assist- 
ance in milking given by his wife and one boy. Mr. Horr stated that 
the assistant assessor cf his district had informed him that nine-tenths 
of the income tax coliected from farmers in the district were paid by 
dairymen, although they do not cccupy one-half of the land. 


DAIRYING IN THE NORTHWEST. 
The dairy business in the States of Mlinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, 


and Minnesota is steadily increasing. No more favorable field is open 
to the enterprising dairyman. Partial statistics for these States for 
1869 and 1870 present the following favorable results: 

Illinois.—Elgin, in Kane County, is the center of one of the leading 
dairy districts of this State. It is estimated that there are 9,000 cows 
within a radius of ten miles from the city. During 1870 there were 
produced in this district and marketed, or made into butter and cheese, 
as far as returns have been received, a grand total of 3,462,715 gallons 
of milk. There were manufactured 1,697,705 pounds of factory cheese. 
At the Elgin condensing factory, 576,106 gallons of milk were condensed 
and shipped to New York. At the Elgin butter factory, 19,560 pounds 
of butter were manufactured, besides over 50,060 pounds of cream and 
skim cheese. Exclusive of the butter made at this factory, 330,000 
pounds of butter passed through the hands of Elgin merchants. The 
total increase in the milk, butter, and cheese production of the district 
over that of any former year was 25 per cent. Elgin shipped to Chi- 
cago 480,000 gallons of milk; Algonquin, 236,000 gallons; and Dundee, 
684,152 gallons. Dundee also shipped 42,980 pounds of cheese. Clin- 
tonville shipped 6,515 gallons of milk and 600,790 pounds of cheese. 

The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railway carried to Chicago, 
during 1870, from ten stations, 683,680 gallons of milk. 

The manufacture of cheese by the factory system is a far more promi- 
nent branch of the dairy business of Illinois than the manufacture of 
butter or the saie cf milk. The following additional statistics of this 
branch, for 1569 and 1870, will make apparent the magnitude of this 
interest in a State that has until recently given but little attention to 
dairying: 

Kane County: the total quantity of cheese made in 1869 was 3,920,750 
pounds, which seid for $548,005; in 1870 there were a number of new 
factories started. McHenry County: the total quantity cf cheese made 
in 1869 was 3,475,000 pounds, which sold for $486,500; many new fac- 
tories were started in 1870, and the old factories increased the number 
of their cows. De Kalb County has increased the number of cows and 
cheese factcries during 1870; in 1869, 2,113,800 pounds of cheese were 


THE DAIRY. 325 


made, and $223,500 were realized. In Cook County, in 1869, there were 
1,710,000 pounds of cheese made, which sold for $180,000; this county 
has fifteen factories, and 3,600 cows supply them with milk. Du Page 
County has seven factories, which made 1,092,500 pounds in 1869, selling 
for $115,000. Boone County: product of 1869, 807,500 pounds, which 
sold for $85,000; in 1870 there was a large increase of dairy products; 
there are seven factories, supplied by 2,200 cows. Winnebago County: 
product of 1869, 439,275 pounds, which sold for $16,250; in 1870 the 
factories were doubled and the number of cows greatly increased. Kan- 
kakee County, in 1869, had ten factories, and made 878,750 pounds, which 
sold for $92,500; in 1870 the number of factories was increased to six- 
teen. Lake County had seventeen factories in 1869, and made 1,562,125 
pounds, which sold for $177,750; number of cows, 3,255; in 1870 the 
number of factories was increased to twenty. In Will County there 
were ten factories in 1869; number of cows, 2,500; product, 1,187,510 
pounds; net receipts, $166,251 40; since 1869 farmers in this county 
have engaged more largely in dairying. The total number of cows in 
the dairy section of Illinois, in 1869, attached to cheese factories, was 
56,180; capital invested in cows, $1,680,250; pounds of cheese made, 
17,280,500, which, at an average of 14 cents per pound, sold for $2,419,279. 
The cheese product of 1870 does not much exceed that of 1869, owing 
to the drought in the early part of the former year. ‘Che average quan- 
tity of cheese made by each cow in 1869 was 475 pounds; average in 
1870, about 425 pounds. ‘ati 

Wisconsin.—The manufacture of cheese is increasing in this State with 
great rapidity. In i869 there were seventy-nine factories in operation ; 
in 1870 this number was increased to one hundred and twenty-nine, and 
many cows were added. In 1869 the milk of 13,200 cows was used; 
value of cows, at $45 each, $594,000; quantity of cheese made, 6,270,000 
pounds; net receipts, $877,800. 

Michigan.—The manufacture of cheese is increasing in this State; also 
the manufacture of butter by the factory system. Statistics are want- 
ing, but substantial progress was undoubtedly made in 1869 and 1870. 

Lowa.—Mr. N. Eldred, of Iowa Fails, reports as follows: ‘Iowa pro- 
duces very little cheese, probably not more than one-tenth the quantity 
consumed in the State. Interest in the business of dairying is being 
awakened, and I think it safe to predict that double the quantity ot 
cheese now produced will be made two years hence. The cheese is made 
in the northern halfof the State. There was a factory started in Wright 
County last season, one in Humboldt, two or three in Cerro Gordo, one 
in Jones, and my own in Hardin County; all onasmall seale. My fac- 
tory is perhaps a fair sample: whole number of cows, 100; ran four 
months; whole number of pounds of cheese, 21,000; sold at home at 
15 cents per pound.” 

Minnesota. —This State has now a large number of factories. Bowen 
Brothers have one at Randolph, Dakota County, that uses the milk of 
500 cows. In 1870 there were about twenty-five factories in operation. 

The number and product of cheese factories in Indiana were increased 
in 1870 sufficient to supply the home consumption of the State. 

Mr. I. H. Wanzer, of Elgin, Illinois, has established a cheese factory 
at Cameron, Missouri, with fair prospects of success. 

Prize design for a butier and cheese factory —The Northwestern Dairy- 
men’s Association has awarded a prize to Mr. M. H. Thompson, of Hlgin, 
Iilinois, for a design of a butter and cheese factory. The plan, a draw- 
ing of which is presented herewith, makes the measurement of the main 
building 30 by 60 feet; wing, or manufacturing room, 28 by 28 feet, one 


— 7 


326 ; AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


story high ; ice-house, 12 by 16 feet, with butter cellar underneath ; en- 
gine-room, 12 by 16 feet. The cheese-room (wing) is built 3 feet below 


OO0000 A000 
PRESSES 


DRIVE WAY 


| (NW PLATFORM 


the level of the main building, that the milk may be conducted instead of 
carried. If intended for winter use, the first story must be of stone, 
with walis 18 inches thick. The partitions should be of brick. The 
cost is estimated, upon the basis of freight and material in Fox River 
Valley, as follows: masonry, $500; superstructure, $2,200; equipment, 
$1,800; total, $4,500. The points of excellence claimed are compact- 
ness, capacity in proportion to cost, adaptability to any site, change of 
size without change of plan, and adaptation to either winter or summer 
Work. 
DAIRYING IN CALIFORNIA. 


Favored by an equable climate, the dairy interest is rising to a prom- 
inent position in California, and promises to add largely to the wealth 
of the State at no distant day, both in meeting the demand for home 
consumption and in the increase of exports. The counties of Lake, 
Sonoma, Marin,. San Mateo, Santa Cruz, Santa Clara, Monterey, and 
San Luis Obispo, forming the central-coast section of California, con- 
stitute the chief dairy section of the State. The more northern counties 
of Mendocino and Humboldt, though perhaps equally well adapted to 
the dairy by soil and climate, are as yet scantily settled and poorly pro- 


TAT 


PLATE VIL 


aS 
| ee av { 


= = j Zig 


i} : | 
AAA 


PRIZE DESIGN FOR BUTTER AND OHEESE FACTORY. 


+ THE DAIRY. 327 


vided with market facilities. The eight counties above mentioned are 
reported to contain about 25,000 milch cows, distributed among dairy 
estates of widely varying magnitude. The largest dairy, that of Howard 
& Shafter, in Marin County, numbers between 3,000 and 4,000 cows. 
Steele Brothers, cheese manufacturers, own two herds of 700 cows each, 
one in San Mateo County,.and the other in San Luis Obispo County. 
In Monterey County, Mr. S.C. Abbott owns 1,000 cows, a herd of excellent 
butter-making stock, chiefly of Devon, Short-horn, and Alderney blood, 
besides a large number of steers and young cattle. Other dairies num- 
ber respectively 300, 400, and 600 cows. ‘There are many important 
dairies in the interior, but, as a rule, that portion of the State suffers 
the disadvantages of greater summer heats and inferior pasturage. We 
give below some interesting facts in regard to the present condition 
of the dairy interest in California, derived from the statements of Mr. X. 
A. Willard, of New York, who visited that State during the summer ot 
1870, in company with other distinguished agriculturists from the East. 

The dairy sections of the coast country possess a low, even tempera: 
ture, with winters so mild that cattle need but little shelter, and are 
often wintered without other food than what they obtain from the fields. 
Even in these favored localities, however, the practice of good managers 
is to give a daily allowance of fodder in November and December, dur- 
ing the early part of the rainy season, at which time the old grass is 
injured by the washing of copious rains and the new growth is yet 
immature. After the close of December, green pasturage, embracing 
wild oats, the nutritious bunch grass, and other native grasses, is found 
in abundance until June or the beginning of July, when the dry season 
commences, which lasts until the latter part of October, and sometimes 
until December. During this dry season, the bunch grass and other 
wild herbage, though browned and crisped by the sun, afford a grate- 
ful nourishment to the stock, keeping it in high condition. The period 
from the beginning of January to June, in California dairy locatities, 
corresponds to the best grazing season of the Atlantic slope. 

On the 1st of August Mr. Willard visited the Howard and Shafter 
ranch, situated at Point Reyes, Marin County, near San Francisco, and 
claimed to be the largest butter dairy estate in the world. It has a coast 
range of fifty miles, and contains 75,000 acres, the surface of which is 
diversified by a succession of hills and valleys, varied occasionally by 
large level tracts. As an instance of the expenditures which have been 
made on the property, it is stated that, at the time of this visit, one 
hundred miles of fencing had been constructed, at a cost of $400 per 
mile, amounting to $40,000 for fences alone. The climate is cool, the 
temperature sejdom rising above 65°, or sinking below 50°, the average 
for the year being about 60°. Stated in round numbers, there are 3,000 
cows in milk on the estate, divided into twenty-one dairies. Improve- 
ment of milk stock was commenced in 1858 by crossing common eastern 
cows with two thorough-bred Short-horn bulls of a good milking family, 
brought from Vermont at a cost of $10,000. A year or two afterward, 
twenty-two head of Devon cattle were introduced, but did not prove 
satisfactory for dairy purposes, and were subsequently discarded. 
Since 1865 Short-horns have been the favorite stock, and the practice 
has been to raise annually one-fifth of the calves from the best cows, 
resulting in a good average product of milk at the present time. The 
animals are quite small, compared with the general standard of Short- 
horns, and are more active than usual for that breed, but were healthy 
and in excellent condition when seen. It is Mr. Wiliard’s opinion that 
Ayrshires are better adapted to the locality. 


328 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


With the exception of the “ Home Ranche,” the various divisions of 
the estate, with the cows and the necessary buildings, are let to tenants, 
generally at arent rate of $30 per cow, tenants being required to raise 
one-fifth of the calves and to build or keep in repair certain fences, the 
owners providing the materials. Farm implements and dairy utensils 
are furnished by the tenants. The dairies average, for the season, a 
vield of about 180 pounds of butter per cow. Mr. Willard thus deseribes 
ihe butter-worker used by these dairies : 

Ik consists of a heavy oak slab, of circular form, set at an inclination, so as to allow 
the buttermilk to pass off, and revolves on rollers arranged in a standard which sup- 
ports it in the center. At the lower end of the machine, and just beyond the cireular 
slab, there is an upright, at the top of which is fastened a metal socket for the recep- 
tion of the lever used in working the butter. This socket works on a universal joint, 
so as to permit of its being moved in any direction. A plank, with grooves near the 
outer edges, is arranged below the circular slab, to catch the buttermilk and moisture 
flowing trom the butter during the process of working, and is also slightly inclined, 
so that all slops pass off along the grooves and are deposited in a tub. By this 
iurangement ihe circular slab or bed of the butter-worker can be moved backward or 
forward on the plane of its circle, while the universal joint, to which the le®er is 
attached, allows the lever to be handled in any direction. These butter-workers are 
the most convenient we have seen. 

The butter is sent to San Francisco, and has a high reputation in 
that market, bringing, in rolls, 53 to 35 cents per pound, and in easks | 
30 and 33 cents, at wholesale. It is firm and waxy in texture, and the 
best specimens are of excellent quality, showing that, with the skillful 
management exhibited in the butter factories of Orange County, New 
York, the very finest product could be obtained. The low, even tem- 
perature, the softness and purity of the water, and the sweet and health- 
ful food contribute to such a result in favoring the best condition of 
milk. 

At the Muddy Hollow Dairy there were 166 cows in milk. The man- 
ager stated that, in flush of food, when cows were at their best, the 
average daily product of butter was one and one-fourth pound per cow. 
The texture was solid and waxy, the flavor fair, but wanting in the pecu- 
liar aroma of the finest grades of New York butter. The churning is 
done by horse-power. 

The “Home Ranch” contains 3,000 acres, and on the farm, or 
connected with it, were 413 cows, 400 heifers—which were being 
raised for milk—158 horses, and about 2,000 beef-cattle. The beef- 
cattle are sent to market at the age of three years or more, and 
bring from $40 to $60 per head. Cows come in from December to 
March, in which iatter month it is desired that they all be in milk. 
Here, as on the other farms, tlie bunch-grass, or grama, is depended 
upon for pasture, the hay consisting, as it does generally throughout 
the State, of oats, cut while the straw is green. About one hundred 
tons of this hay were harvested during the season, grown. on fifty 
acres. Beets are raised in considerable quantities for cattle food, roots 
and tops being cut up together, and fed to cows in milk at the rate of a 
pailfal each per day. On this ranch the cows receive occasional sup- 
plies of food as early as the month of August, according to the state of 
the weather, it being the intention to restrain the cows from ranging 
over the hills during the prevalence of chilling winds. Other dairies 
which were visited showed a product of butter averaging one-half 
pound daily per cow, the average in the flush of the season reaching 
one and one-quarter pound per cow. In summing up his observations, 
Mr. Willard points out the advantages which would result from division 
into smaller tenant farms, each supporting seventy or eighty cows, and 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 329 


from the establishment of cheese and butter factories at convenient 
points. 

Taking the presented data as the basis of an estimate, it would appear 
that the total butter product of the year at the Point Reyes estate 
reaches about 540,000 pounds, bearing a pecuniary value of $175,000. 

A letter dated November 16, 1870, received by the Department from 
Mr. Shafter, one of the proprietors of the Point Reyes estate, states 
that this great dairy enterprise was commenced with a stock of Texas 
cattle, a large variety of grades being afterward purchased, and im- 
provement persistently carried on by crosses with bulls of approved 
breeds. The stock of cows at the present time is estimated to be worth 
$45 per cow, average valuation. The estate comprises twenty-three 
organized dairies, and the intention is to increase this number, in 1871, 
to thirty dairies, with an aggregate of 4,500 cows. The butter is churned 
in box churns, measuring about 54 by 20 inches, and revolving forty-five 
times per minute on their longest diameter. The hands are not per- 
mitted to come in contact with the butter during any of the processes 
of manufacture and packing. 

A correspondent of the Department in El Dorado County writes that, 
during the active season of 1870, 4,000 cows were employed in the 
dairy business in that county, and that the business is rapidly increas- 
ing. The mountain valleys afford green grass during the summer 
months, when the river valleys are dry. — 

In the San Francisco market, during the years 1867—68~69, wholesale 
rates of the best grades of State butter ranged from 70 cents in Novem- 
ber and December to 35 cents at the close of May, when prices were 
at their minimum. Hastern butter is sold during the same period at 
much lower rates. During 1870 prices have been reduced by unusually 
iarge importations from the east, consequent upon the increased facili- 
ties of transportation afforded by the Pacifie Railroad. 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 


Except among professional poultry-breeders, and amateurs who can 
afford to gratify their fancy without regard to pecuniary remuneration, 
poultry has usually been left to care for itself to a great extent. The 
real profit of pouliry-keeping is becoming better understood, however, 
and the care of fowls, in regard to both food and shelter, is increasing. 

In the milder seasons of the year, domestic fowls, left to their own 
free ways, are almost invariably healthy. They secure exercise, pure 
air, pure water, variety of foed, and access to fine dry soil in which to 
bathe. As health is the first condition of success in poultry-keeping, 
this fact presents the key to the whole matter, of profitable manage- 
ment of poultry on farms and in large numbers as a specialty. If 
fifty hens, kept in health, can be made to produce a clear annual profit 
of $50, a thousand in like condition may be made to yield a propor- 
tionate profit. The chief difficulty experienced is that of keeping large 
numbers in good condition, and this difficulty arises from failure to ob- 
serve to the extent required the conditions which promote success with 
a few fowls. The proportion of range necessary, of sheltered space, of 
food, water, care, &c., must be extended mathematically in proportion 
to the number of fowls kept; and then, other things being equal, the 
profit is as certain with many hens as with a few. 


330 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Upon the farm, where a few fowls are kept for the benefit of the 
family, and have during much of the year free range, most of the con- 
ditions of moderate success are attained. With a little care and ex- 
pense, however, absolutely necessary at some seasons of the year, better 
results may always be secured; and regular care is necessary from 
those who in cities or villages engage in poultry-keeping for pleasure 
or profit, hoping for success. : 

It is obvious that poultry must have room for exercise, and a place for 
rest, laying, and brooding, and such places should be fruitful, convenient, 
and healthfully located. The best soil upon which to keep poultry is a 
sandy one, resting upon gravel, as it retains the least moisture; stag- 
nant moisture being a fruitful source of disease. Any soil upon which 
an. inclosure for fowls is erected should be well drained. The place 
should have a southern or southeastern slope, preferably the former, and 
be sheltered from the north and east, thus securing warmth of the sun 
and of location, and security from cold winds. The hen-house should 
afford proper shelter and warmth; perches and nests should be kept 
clean and the air pure, without permitting any perceptible draught. 
The floor should be hard and perfectly dry, concrete or solidly packed 
earth being the best material. Whether composed of stone, brick, or 
wood, the house must be suited to the nature of its occupants. Suecess 
wil) be diminished in proportion to the neglect of any of these condi- 
tions. ' 

A room eight to ten feet square is large enough for a roosting and lay- 
ing house for twenty-five hens. If the walls are plastered, the protection 
against vermin and cold will be greater than when otherwise. The sunny 
side, except of the nest-room, should be composed of glass commenc- 
ing one toot above the ground or floor, and if the glass is small there 
will be less liability of breakage by the fowls. The perches should be 
low, especially tor the heavier breeds, unless there is convenient access 
to them by means of steps, so that the fowls may not injure themselves 
in jumping to the floor. A good arrangement is one in which one perch 
is elevated above the other and behind it, the perches being about two 
feet apart and the lower one two feet from the floor. Some prefer, how- 
ever, not to furnish perches for Cochius and Brahmas, but to litter the 
floor with straw each night for them to rest upen. Perches for heavy 
fowls should be broad enough to give good support to the breast, or 
deformity of the breast-bone will ensue. The ground beneath should 
in all cases be strewed with sand or ashes, and removed often enough 
to prevent taint. Boxes for nests for sitting should be movable, for 
convenience of cleansing, secluded, and placed low. Many place the 
nests upon the ground. Chopped straw is a good material with which 
to fill nest-boxes, and should be elean. Where the fowls cannot haye 
perfect freedom, it is necessary for their health that an inclosed yard 
should join the hen-house, to which they may have access, An eighth 
of an acre in grass is the proper proportion of land for twenty-five 
hens, but a smaller yard will answer if kept perfectly clean, and if a 
sufficient amount of vegetable food is supplied. Feed and water troughs 
or boxes of sufficient capacity should be provided, and so arranged for 
cleanliness and economy as to prevent the fowls from having access to 
them in any unnecessary way. If more than one breed of fowls are to 
be kept, the arrangements for their accommodation, above suggested, 
Should be duplicated. If a smaller number, the proportions of house 
and yard may be diminished. These arrangements are such as are 
Suggested and approved by the most experienced keepers, both in 
England and America. 


: MANAGEMENT AND’ PROFIT OF FOWLS. 331 


Large numbers of fowis may be profitably kept by observing in due 
proportion the conditions of success with a few. They may be kept in 
large flocks, with extended conveniences, or divided into small flocks of 
fifty orless. It is reasonable to suppose that want of suecess with large 
numbers of birds is most frequently caused by neglect in the matter of 
cleanliness and food, causing disease, or low condition, destructive of 
profit, since it has been demonstrated by years of experience that thou- 
sands of fowls may be kept together with large and certain remunera- 
tion. The editor of the Massachusetts Ploughman, August 27, 1870, re- 
marks that he has “frequently expressed the conviction that with proper | 
management a large number of fowls will prove proportionately as profit- 
able as asmall number,” and recommends in substance as follows: That 
an acre of land, at least, should be given to every two hundred fowls; 
wild, rocky land covered with bushes being as good as any; and that a 
flock of a thousand should have six acres. It should be fenced with 
boards or pickets, and houses should be erected, according to plans 
approved for smaller numbers, large enough to accommodate a hundred 
fowls with shelter, roosts, and nests. They should face the south, and 
the fronts should be partially or entirely glazed, the sashes opening on 
hinges at the top, so as to be opened in summer for free circulation of air. 
There should also be provided a number of low sheds about the grounds, 
beneath which the fowls may take shelter from the sun and storms. 
There should be abundance of pure water, easily accessible. Fowls 
selected for breeding should be kept separate from the others, in flocks 
of twenty, with the proper complement of male birds. This writer 
further says: ; 

With a large flock properly kept on such a tract as we have described, there is no 
question as to its profits. The poulterer embarking in an enterprise of this kind should 
keep in view: , 

’ 1. That the cheapest and most accessible land is the most desirable, always provided ~ 
that a near and sure market is at command. 

2. That the utmost economy consistent with the safety, comfort, and health of the 
poultry should be exercised in the erection of the buildings and fences. 

3. That an abundance of pure water is accessible or attainable. 

4. That fowls over three years old are not profitable, and a stock should be thoroughly 
renewed every two years. 

5. That only the largest, hardiest, and best fowls should be used as breeders. 

6. That a careful supervision of the flock is necessary, and that it enjoy the most 
perfect health and greatest comfort in summer and winter. 

These suggestions accord with the conditions under which Mr. War- 
ren Leland, ef New York, has successfully raised, for many years, large 
numbers of fowls, securing abundance of eggs and poultry, principally 
for use in the Metropolitan Hotel in the city ef New York. Mr. Leland’s 
method with fowls is reported in the Transactions of the American In- 
stitute for 186869; and from that work, and his letters to the Farmers’ 
Club of that Institute and to this Department, we condense the following 
statement: 

He devotes eighteen acres in one yard of bis “Highland Farm,” at 
Rye, New York, to his poultry, consisting of hens, ducks, turkeys, and 
geese. The broods have another large lot, and the turkeys have a half- 
mile range. The eighteen-acre lot‘is rough land, unsuited for tillage, 
having in it rocks, bushes, grass, weeds, and sandy places, and also a 
pond. It is supplied with heaps of ashes, bones, lime, and a portion is 
occasionally plowed to furnish worms. The fowls have woods and 
bushes to range in, the turkeys trees to roost in, and the ducks and 
geese enjoy the privileges of the pond. There are natural and artificial 
shelters for all, consisting of sheds, hillsides, bushes, nooks, and hiding 
places of all sorts for hens with broods, and trees are cut and bent 


/ 


332 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


down into the grounds for shelter and roosts. The wings of none are 
clipped, and the hens may scratch and turkeys fly at pleasure within the 
limits of the grounds. After a ttial of some years, Mr. Leland has dis- 
earded coops, finding that the greater freedom he allows the more 
healthful and profitable are his fowls. The principal features of his 
system are freedom, cleanliness, proper and sufficient food during the 
year, and change of cocks every spring. In summer, with the range 
they have, his fowls secure a good supply of animal food from the fields, 
in worms, grubs, bugs, grasshoppers, &c. They are also supplied at all 
seasons with the refuse scraps from the Metropolitan Hotel. Mr. Leland 
says: ‘‘Hee-making is no easy work, and hens will not do much of it 
without high feed. They need just what a man who works requires— 
wheat bread and meat.” He feeds wheat, even when it costs $2 per 
bushel. No old nests are allowed. After each brood is hatched the 
boxes are taken out and whitewashed inside and ont, and after lying in 
the sun and rain a few days they are half filled with clean straw and 
returned for use. The old straw is burned. Each of the 250 to 300 
hens on hand in the spring is permitted to have one brood during the 
year. Four or five will have broods the same day, and to the hen which 
appears to be the best mother ail the chicks are given. The others are 
given a cold bath and placed in confinement a few days, after which 
they return to the flock and their nests. Mr. Leland produces a great 
many eggs, which pay for food and attendance, and makes sales of 
poultry, amounting to several thousand dollars annually. If a hen 
comes off about the Ist of April with ten chickens, by the middle of 
June they will weigh twenty pounds and be worth $5. Mr. L. asserts 
that he can produce a thousand pounds of poultry cheaper than he ean 
produce the same weight of mutton, beef, or pork. He finds as great 
_ profit from turkeys as from hens, and greater with more attention. 
One-year-old turkeys are found to be the best mothers, and gobblers of 
that age are also preferred. Three hatchings are put with one turkey 
in a large coop, half hidden in tall grass, as bare ground is fatal to the 
young. The chicks do not require food until the third day, when 
cracked wheat is given them. They require great care during the first 
two weeks, and must not be left out in the rain or wet, but after that 
age they grow without much care. After the season of grasshoppers 
they are fed on corn, and late in September they are ready for market. 
In the fall of 1868 Mr. Leland sold 450 turkeys, grown that year, for 
$1,752—nearly $4 each. He also sold 320 ducks for $352, and over 80 
geese at $1 80 each.’ No food is given the geese after they have feath- 
ered; yet Mr. L. says other poultry is better and more profitable. He 
holds ducks—a cross between pure-bred Muscovy and English, which 
are hardy, finest for meat and best for eggs—in high esteem. The latter 
are fed on corn. His young chickens in 1868 numbered about 3,000, 
and his stock of all kinds of poultry about 4,000. It was estimated to 
be worth $4,000 in November of that year, when poultry was higher 
than it has since been. Mr. Leland prefers the large bronze turkeys, 
Poland geese, which lay earliest, and light Brahma hers. His cocks 
are of all kinds, as he finds excellent results from the crosses secured, 
and no old coeks are allowed on the piace. When nine months old his 
early spring pullets begin to lay, and he gets 200 to 256 eggs daily 
during the cold season. He prefers the Brahmas because they mature 
early for spring chickens, are handsome, hardy, good layers, look well 
when dressed, and are of large size. No other hens are kept. The 
Black Spanish and White Leghorn have been found better for eggs, but 
they are undesirable for the table. He feeds corn, wheat, chopped 


MANAGEMENT AND’ PROFIT OF FOWLS. aa 


turnips, refuse cabbage, and the waste bread and meat scraps from his 
hotel, and sour milk from his farm; also burnt bones, lime, &c., for 
shell-making. During the past ten years Mr. L. has annually raised 
‘ about 3,000 chickens, 450 turkeys, and 500 ducks and geese, and he 
thinks that the business might be made generally profitable, especially 
in rocky neighborhoods, and on a scale more extensive than his own. 
He says: 

The great secret of my success is in keeping near the conditions of nature. At the 
outset I became convinced that, above all things, fowls must have space and cleanli- 
ness; that they cannot be expected to do well if confined in cramped and oftensive 
quarters. With space and cleanliness, I cannot understand why the number need be 
limited. 

He has never kept an account of his poultry business, being satisfied 
with its continuous success. He pays $250 per year and board to one 
man to attend his fowls, and buys about 200 bushels of grain each 
year, which, with the vegetables and refuse from his hotel, interest on 
land, and cost of buildings, make up the regular expenses. 

The committee of the American Institute Farmers’ Club, appointed 
to visit poultry yards and ascertain the best mode of wintering poultry, 
reported through its chairman, Mr. J. B. Lyman, that Mr. Leland had 
the best winter quarters for his hens, ducks, and geese, they had ever 
seen. The following description of his winter management of poultry 
is taken partly from the report of the committee, and in part from 
statements given by Mr. Leland. For the winter quarters of his flock— 
which at that season is reduced to 300 early spring pullets, 30 cocks, 
30 turkeys, (sometimes many more,) and a few geese and ducks—he has 
a stone building 75 feet long and 25 feet wide, which faces the south. 
The openings on the north side are small and filed with window-glass, 
and in some cases with double sashes. Those on the south are much 
larger, consisting of double doors, which are opened on sunny days. In 
the middle of the north side is a wide old-fashioned fire-place. Nearly 
every day in winter a fire is kept up with chunks, knots, and logs that 
would otherwise be useless. The walls being of stone and the floor of 
earth or rock, the fire can be left without danger. The chimney can 
easily be closed, or the logs rolled out into the middle of the building, 
and feathers or sulphyr be used for fumigation, which is done whenever 
hen-lice appear. Smoke is found to be better than carbolic acid, or ker- 
osene, or whitewash, to drive away vermin. On cold and wet days the 
fowls gather before the fire, warm themselves and trim their feathers; 
and when the fire dies out they wallow in the warm ashes. Lime and 
plaster are freely used in the building to absorb odors and compost 
droppings. MRoosts are made of oak slats aninch thick and two and one 
half inches wide, fastened to the rafters near the ridge. About two 
feet below the perches is a scaffold of boards that fit closely. This is 
covered with pilaster and ashes from time to time, which, with the accu- 
mulated droppings of the hens, are frequently swept off, put into barrels 
with all refuse filth, and used upon corn land. The manure is valued 
at $1 per year from each hen, as the same amount of fertilizing salts in 
bone-dust which would cost $50 is annually saved from fifty hens. 
The wide perches used enable the hens to cover their feet entirely with 
their warm feathers, and prevent freezing in the coldest nights. The 
oifal of the farm and refuse from the kitchen are thrown into this hen- 
house to be picked over; and besides this the poultry is fed about a 
bushel of corn per day in winter, and half a bushel in summer. Mr. 
Leland raises excellent crops of corn, having the best manure, and he 
teeds the product of four acres in keeping and fattening his poultry... 


“~ 


334 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The use of fumigation for driving away vermin may be successful in 
a building such as we have described, but cannot be relied on as the 
best means under all circumstances. Whitewash for walls, perches, 
nests, &c., will always be found useful; and probably the best for pro- 
tection against insects is that in which an ounce of earbolic acid is used 
with each four quarts of lime-water. This recipe, it is claimed, is cer- 
tain death to parasites. A solution of one part of acid to sixty parts of 
warm water may be used then thoroughly wet with it on all parts of the 
body, and afterward as a wash for fowls, the mixture being cooled before 
use, and the fowls placed on dry, clean straw and dried in the sun. A 
soap for washing fowls, also, may be made by dissolving four pounds of 
eommon bar-soap in hot water, and adding one to two ounces of carbolie 
acid, according to the desired strength, and then letting it cool and 
become hard again. 


COST AND PROFIT OF POULTRY-KEEPING. 


The cost and profit of poultry-keeping on alarge scale can only be 
approximately estimated from the preceding example, except as com- 
puted proportionately from more limited ventures. Small flocks, receiv- 
ing special care more easily and punctually bestowed, are almost always 
found profitable, especially on farms and where little room ean be de- 
voted to their keeping in villages. The cost and profits vary, of course, 
with the conditions, such as the breed of poultry kept, care bestowed, 
suitability of quarters, and excellence and location of markets; so that 
reliably reported examples from various sources and localities will best 
demonstrate the utility of poultry-keeping. 

Mr. Nelson Ritter, of Syracuse, New York, in the first three months 
of 1869 received eggs from fifty-six hens as follows: In January, 868; 
February, 891; March, 984; with fourteen of the hens sitting from about 
the middle of the month. The eggs were sold for $66 98; the expense 
of keeping was $26 13; the profit on eggs for the three months was 
$40 85. The hens were across of Brahmas with several other breeds. 

A gentleman of Waverley, New Jersey, reports the account kept with 
twelve common yellow hens and one cock during January and February, 
1870: Expenses, except for care, $3 25; receipts, 472 eggs, which sold 
for $15 02; profit, $11 17. His hens had a clea®, warm house, with 
plenty of out-door range, and were well supplied with food, pounded 
oyster-shells, ashes, &c. | 

Mrs. BE. A. Lawrence, of Brooklyn, New York, makes a statement 
of her account with ninety hens and eleven cocks: for the year ending 
March 4, 1870.. She sold and used 115 fowls, of the increase, and had 
127 hens and 23 young chickens at the close of the year, and the 
eggs produced numbered 8,001. The total credit was $390 70; 
expenses, $152 21; leaving a profit of $208 49. The fowls were 
Brahma, White Leghorn, Bolton Gray, and some unnamed varie- 
ties, and they were allowed to mingle freely. The flock was well fed 
with wheat screenings, oats, buckwheat, rye, pork scraps, and potatoes 
boiled and mashed in bran, and in cold weather chopped cabbage was 
given. Mrs. L. derived most profit from eggs, which sold for prices 
averaging nearly 23 cents each, while the average price received for 
fowls was 79 cents. . 

Dr. I. P. Trimble, of Newark, New Jersey, kept for six fnonths, end- 
ing July 1, 1870, an average of eighteen hens and two cocks. The 
fowls were kept in an inclosure 20 by 20 feet, were fed on corn, scraps 
from the house, and, for green food, clippings from the lawn and salad, 
which they relished very much. In the winter and spring they also had 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 335 


the range of the garden. They produced in January 92 eggs; in Feb- 
ruary, 214; March, 251; April, 280; May, 216; June, 237; total, 1,290; 
which at market prices were worth $40 49. There were also thirty-two 
March chickens, worth, July 1, $8; making the value of the product 
$48 49. .The cost of feed was $19 45, of which nearly $10 were for 
corn. Net profit for six months, $29 04, or $1 45 per fowl. It will be 
noted, however, that this account is for the best portion of the year. 

G. T. S. reports to Hearth and Home the account of six months, com- 
mencing with January, 1870, with twenty-two hens and three cocks of 
the common sort. The number of eggs produced was 1,711, of which 
48 were used for sitting, leaving 1,663, which at market prices were 
worth $41 57; the twenty-one chickens hatched were worth $10 50; 
making a total value of $52 07. Deducting $12 71, the cost of feed, 
the net profit is $39 36—over $1 57 for each fowl; or, as the report 
states, a net profit of $39 36 on a capital of $25 for six months. This 
statement, also, covers the best portion of the year ior eggs. 

Mr. Benjamin W. Palmer, of New London, Connecticut, who has made 
a business of poultry-keeping for many years, commenced and closed the 
year with one hundred and twenty fowls, and produced eggs which 
were sold each week as follows: In January, 408; February, 888; 
March, 1,428; April, 2,112 ; May, 2,172; June, 1,722; July, 1,770; August, 
1,824; September,.1,044 ; October, 744; November, 252; December, 120; 
total, with 630 used in his family, 15,114—$361 80. The cost of feed, 
consisting of corn, rye, oats, buckwheat, meat, bones, &c., was $200, 
leaving a clear profit of $161 80—nearly $1 35 trom each fowl—the ma- 
nure, about fifty bushels, more than paying for marketing, care, and in- 
terest on investment. Mr. Palmer’s stock consisted of the Brahma, 
White and Gray Leghorn, Black Spanish, and crossbreeds. Hefeedslib- . 
erally, keeps clean quarters, and gives his hens their liberty, at least dur- 
ing afternoons in the summer, and for an hour or more at noon in winter. 

Mr. A. F. Hitchcock, of Willink, New York, kept, in 1868, eight, and 
half of the time nine, hens and one cock, which produced 1,277 eggs, for 
which he received $26 81. The cost of food was $10 93, which leaves 
$15 88 profit: He fed coarse meal, dry in cold weather and wet with 
milk in summer; boiled potatoes, and occasionally meat in winter. 
Wood ashes and pounded bones were also given. The fowls were a 
mixed breed, Brahma blood predominating. 

X. Y. Z., of Rochester, New York, states, in the Rural New Yorker, 
that he keeps an average of sixty-five fowls to supply his family with 
eggs and poultry; that in February, 1864, he commenced to keep an 
account of the number of eggs produced and fowls consumed and sold, 
and that in five years he gathered 34,859 eggs, nearly 7,000 annually, 
and 107 per annum for each fowl. He computes the food furnished as 
equal to one bushel of corn per fowl each year. If, however, the fowls 
used or solid, and the manure, whicli he utilized in his garden, paid for 
the keeping and other expenses—a reasonable supposition—the eggs 
were clear profit; and, at 30 cents per dozen, the product during the five 
_ years was $871 47, or $174 29 per annum, or $2 68 per year for each 
fowl. The varieties kept until 1867 were the Black Spanish, White 
Leghorn, and common mixed breeds, and after that time principally the 
light Brahma. 

Another correspondent says that in December, January, and Febru- 
ary, of 1866~67, from twenty-two light Brahma pullets he got an average 
of sixteen eggs per day, and the net profit for the three months was $32. 

Mr. Jonas Sawyer, of Berlin, Massachusetts, reported to the Farmers 
Club of that town his suecess with thirty-three fowls during the year 


336 ‘AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ending January 1, 1870. The total debit was $79 44, and the credits, 
for eggs, poultry sold and eaten, and increase of fowls, amount to 
$257 86; leaving a net gain of $178 42—about $5 40 for each fowl. The 
breeds were Brahma and Chittagong. They were allowed their liberty 
during the year, were well fed with corn and waste from the kitchen, 
and had broken bones, oyster shells, &c. Mr. Sawyer says: “ There is 
more in the attention than the breed, although the latter is important. 
Kindness, gentleness, and familiarity will repay when bestowed on ani- 
mals, and it is especially true when shown to fowls.” 

A gentleman, of Concord, Massachusetts, reports the profits on his 
hens from October 1, 1868, to October 1, 1569. He has fifty-four hens 
and three cocks; the cost of keeping was $148 64, and the income from 
eggs, hens and chickens sold, and increase of stock at the end of the 
year, was $240 77; leaving a balance of $92 13, or about $1 70 per hen. 
These fowls, mostly Brahma, were confined ail the time in a close yard, 
but were well supplied with a variety of food. 

T. G. L., of Taunton, Massachusetts, publishes an itemized account of 
his poultry for 1869. His stock consisted of 56 hens, 4 cocks, 10 hen- 
turkeys and 1 cock, 15 geese, and 25 pigeons, at the beginning of the 
year worth $132 75. At the end the increased value of the stock on 
hand was $20 75. The cost of feed and of 17 hens, 2 cocks, 24 chickens, 
10 turkeys, and some eggs bought, amounted to $467 75. He sold 2,641 
pounds of poultry, 115 pounds of feathers, 364$ dozens of eggs, 10 
Brahmas and 11 Bantams raised for fancy poultrymen, and received 
$58 50 from the county for damage to his poultry by dogs; the total 
receipts, with the increased value of stock on hand at the end of the 
year, being $1,146 07. Thirty dozens of eggs used in the house and fifty 
bushels of manure do not enter into the credit side of the account, nor 
half the sour milk from one cow and fifteen bushels of small potatoes 
‘into the debit side. The fowls were of Asiatic breeds, the turkeys 
bronze, and the geese Bremen. 

Mr. F. W. Babcock, during 1869, kept twenty hens of Brahma, Black 
Spanish, and common breeds. They produced 1,751 eggs, as follows: 
In January, 75; February, 155; March, 210; April, 252; May, 159; 
June, 218; July, 95; August, 265; September, 188; October, 91; Novem- 
ber, 43; December, none. The eggs, at 25 cents per dozen, were worth 
$36 50. Forty pullets were also raised, the value of which is not stated. 

The income from the hens of C. M., of Jefferson County, New York, 
is stated substantially as follows in the Rural New Yorker: In 1867 he 
kept twelve hens, and from January to October their products amounted 
to $50 48. Irom November, 1867, to November, 1868, eleven hens were 
kept, except in the last two months, during which there were’ only 
nine, and the income from sales was $38 34. No account is given of 
eggs or poultry used in the family, nor of cost of feed, &c. The house 
in which these hens were kept was 7 by 8 feet, having a yard 10 by 12. 
Free range was given also after 4 o’clock each afternoon during most 
of the summer. Mr. M. states that a hen will eat 90 pounds of grain 
and 5 pounds of meat, with worms, grass, milk, water, &c. at pleasure, 
during the year; and he seems to be fully convinced of the profitable- 
ness of poultry-keeping. His hens were cross breeds from various kinds, 
and his sales were made in Watertown, New York. It will be seen that 
his proceeds were large; in the first year over $4 per hen, and in the 
last, $3 83 each. 

Mr. J. H. Severson, of Knowersville, New York, has kept fifteen to sev- 
enteen hens, of common breeds, during seven years, and gives the account 
of 1869 as an example of the whole time. His fowls have free range, 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 337 


are fed twice a day, and have meat once a week in winter. In the year 
named he kept fifteen hens and one cock; sold 125 dozens eggs for 
$38 75, used 28 dozens, worth $7, and raised 28 chickens, worth $7 80; 
total, $53 55. They cost him, during the time, $18 25, leaving a clear 
profit of $35 30, or about $2 20 each. : 

Mrs. Delia Devinny, of Denver, Colorado, kept an account with 140 
hens and 14 cocks, from September 1, 1868, to September 1, 1869, and, 
including in her account the value of stock on hand at the commence- 
ment of each year, it foots up thus: Debtor, $357 03; creditor, $686 92; 
profit, $329 89. She lost 500 early chickens by cold, damp weather; 
and, as she set many hens, she sold only 9,444 eggs. The profit in this 
case, notwithstanding the large loss of chickens, is $2 14 for each of the 
154 fowls. In 1868, when more attention was paid to producing eges 
than raising chickens, these hens produced 132 eggs each.’ The stock 
was a mixture of various breeds. 

A gentleman, of Fredonia, New York, kept an average of twenty-six 
fowls during 1869, at a clear profit of $46 68, about $1 80 each. His 
stock was mixed Dorking and Brahma, and had the run of a small barn 
and one-eighth of an acre of ground. They were fed wheat, wheat 
screenings, and corn-meal, with meal pudding once a week, and had 
plenty of water. 

The San Francisco Scientific Press, of December. 24, 1870, states that 
an industrious laborer took up some Government land near Marysville, 
California, built a cabin, and purchased chickens and turkeys of the 
value of $100 for a stock to start with. His fowls nearly picked up 
their living, and at the end of eighteen months (covering the second 
spring and summer of his occupation) he had sold poultry and eges to 
the amount of $1,500 above the small cost of keeping, and had on hand 
stock five times the value and amount of the original. 

Mr. Edwin Jones, of Otsego county, New York, published in the Rural 
New Yorker his account with poultry for the year 1869. His fowls were 
a mixed breed of Brahma, Hamburg, Seabright, and native. He fed 
oats, buckwheat, and wheat screenings. His account is presented in 
the following table, which furnishes a simple form that may be service- 
able to others: 


Se Sas Hy D3 ee 3 

Rig Ho Zo as a] cs 

Month. el ae en oe of as? 

g [>] q en 5) co eo co ee] ne 

Bd Ho 2 &9 & go Ba 2 

4 4 Ba et Say ea tee ae ci gh 
SPADE YN toca) boss 4 4 <'sssees/ seen leten 23 VA5 i $SV 21s" GOp 27) pe eee lig ‘3 10 
EMA) cs) 22s, soe Seslenemso snails 23 362 5 62 128) 253s 2 80 
TURHEP Sse a oni aio stac ast Jdateidate fade 23 342 5 94 Wy SOF HE Se cesiiss 3 10 
TE a on ase wa nde aenkwe'su es 23 421 5 67 Ih 38h is hee 3 00 
DE VISE oreo owe atin’ nt wine Hee 22 380 4 49 1738 | $610] 287 
SRE eee yao odin cose adele cemtase 15 207 2 53 WR en, || eaves 2 00 
SRE teats 2 ois las = - ar ow.se canons 14 179 2 56 4G E20) |e ae 
RINE Des aire ss es ciae oahiwat 13 196 273 50 09h Vaeiae 
Ce ot Oe a eee 13 153 2 06 69 PSO coe 
DIRS 2) 8. so sow ees 13 90 1 20 67 DOO) (hae ee 
“epee er GS a 13 4S 1 05 20 100] 2 00 
MRE EANIGI Sele 5 ol sas aisinieic 5 a'-'s es need 23 124 2 83 43 70 | 300 
PASI & aie sate tats Udita os o's a8 Av’g18 | 2,644 | 3989] 1020] 12 25 | 21 87 
PETE ST EY RD Sean na ey ape e ae Bier a! #62 34 
I EERE adi einuatalo aeis ons 65s bdo ymate case oe doe Odie nt «nh esnips e ade 21 87 
BRN cae Seu h sees Ss WSS d/oRG clans oA Eo awaken ewan tap AE ide dul we uaeis TaN ALMA 


22 A === 


338 . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The eggs were sold at an average price of 223 cents per dozen, and 
the profit from’each fowl was about $2 24. Mr. Jones estimates that 
the benefit conferred by his hens in eating foul seeds, weeds, &e., with 
the value of their manure, moré than equalled the cost of keeping, _ 
"+ Mr. Joseph Getchell, of Wells, Maine, kept twenty-two young hens and 
one cock of the Black Spanish breed, and two hen-turkeys, during the 
year 1868, and his receipts and expenses were as iollows: 2983 dozens 
eggs, Which brought $30 60, and twenty-six young turkeys, which sold 
for $55; total receipts, $135 60. Cost of feed, $35 60; leaving a profit 
of $100. ‘Lhe expenses are not so given as to determine the proportion 
incurred by the hens; but supposing it to have been $1 each, making 
$23, the profit from their eggs would be $57 60, or $2 50 each. The 
hens were ied with corn, buckwheat, barley, and oats, three times 
each day, and allowed to go atlarge, In cold weather they had warm 
water, which is deemed important by Mr. Getchell. The turkeys, when 
the young were a few weeks old, were allowed to obtain their own food 
in the fields, until fattening time, when they were fed at a cost of $6, 
which amount is included in the foregoing statement. 

The account of a lad in Yonkers, New York, extending from May, 
1869, to. May, 1870, shows his success with seven hens and one cock. 
He raised thirteen chickens, worth $10; secured 667 eggs, besides those 
set, worth $22—making $32. Thecost of keeping was $15; leaving $17 
profit, or $2 12 each. 

The account current of Mr, John Bufiington, of Salem, Massachusetts, 
with poultry during the year ending January 1, 1870, is as follows: 


Stock, January 1, 1869, cost of food, gc. 


38 fowls, al 75 cents, $28 50; 13 ducks, at 75 cente, $9 75.-.-....---- $38 25 
4 guinea fowls, $2; 20 chickens, $6 --.--. -----+---+ --20 e+ 2-+ +2 8 00 

$46 25 
42 bushels of corn, $46 60; 29 bushels of oats, $24 25--...----..----- - 70 85 
24 bushels of meal, $25 95; 24 bushels of corn, $25 95-...----------- 51 90 
36 bushels of shorts, ‘)ii 45; 2 bushels of barley, $3.---------------- 17 45 
921 pounds of scrap, 3 66; squashes, $2 50..--.------ Weg sel ame 6 16 
Cayenne pepper, 50 cents ; sulphur, 74 cents; rat exterminator, 25 cents 1 49 
343 dozens hens’ eggs set, at 39 cents per dozen.....-------+--+------ 13°52 
183 dozens ducks’ eggs set, at 49 cents per dozen.-.--..---- edso ig 9 15 
Other expenses, including labor on coop, dressing poultry, (Gcecace sees 23 bf 

194 09 

OORT). isan Bikes ie Sein on ly sino gem eeigtin inl is 3!5 oon i8 oss eree ce mnce 240 34 

Stock, January 1, 1870, sales, ge. 

32 hens, at 75 cents, $24; 12 ducks, 75 cents, $9-----.------------- $33 00 
118 chicks sold, $71 24; 144 ducks, $96 43----.-..--- Le Pheu 167 67 
171; dozen hens’ eggs, $67 45; 157% dozen ducks’ eggs, 37 40--------- 74 90 
28 barrels of manure, $29 75; feathers, $1 ----.------------------- 30 75 
62-2; dozens hens’ eggs used in family, 89 cents-.---.--------- esac 24 28 
Sys dozens ducks’ eggs used in family, 49 cents...--.--------------- 2 73 

. 00 33 

2 NSP NG PME mH I Ny 


Mr. S. Malter, of Batavia, New York, reports that he kept sixteen hens 
and one cock from April, 1869, to January, 1870, from which he real- 
ized a profit of $30 52, or $1 80 each. The Rural New Yorker gives 
the poultry account of a correspondent for the year 1869, as follows: — 


0; 
'To 55 hens and 11 cocks, at 50. cents. .... --.-.--0-1 2-222 ----- eee $33 00 
To 2eocks bought, at $1...--- eee cence e ene e cone eens cee nee rene eens 2 00 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 339 


To 5 hssiee bought, at 75 cents.........- gees a Meee. ike te al seeeeae $3 75 


RMR Rita Wore, esc cada net da davecd sire doaden aeee! | OUD 
To 22 chickens hou og AIR RS ENCE MOREA: Sa 4 ees 2 Ea 5 00 
To 1 dozen Brahma BeOS (GRURS) a acnat nang aoela ge aia ae eens 5 00 
GPE I, oS o's chad gan saree Sasa ucanss naecenaedaes 117 50 . 
— $171 25 
Cr. 
By »Sodevens ergs sold, at 40 conte... 222.2652 ise ones cnn wees $34 40 
" By 50 dozens eggs sold, at 36 cents.--.-...---.-.-- +--+ s-0------ --- 18 00 
By 229 dozens eres sold, at 30 cents....-.---.... .-2.-----22----- ---- 68 70 
By 97 dozens eggs sold and USGd Wat CaN CRBS se tece cc oes Cc.as nie voce 24 25 
By 8 cocks sold, WHEL Syisch TOQUE Se Cee tescussececcaeacs cues 8 00 
Memes Hore Gold at; 75, COULS. <4 2 dos y ess cag Wdeasds sau deer becssean 9 00 
By 80 hens and pullets SOLA, Age COM. as 5 esas cue cnandd~ sear eons 60 00 
SRO EIE? TOW IS SOIC once cca cenwoiecen cuss e-cu wcee cate uceemmeneeecl, 1d. 00 
EMI IAIUES 20008 0 dein ek oe an ta os leh cee a4 dese catnnn neem sites 40 00 
275 85 
PEER Re a ahi Fee Nonsense OS Acs 2 ais) nok. miniteioe. selec ements 104 60 


The fowls in this case were mostly Brahmas, a few being crosses of 
that breed and Black Spanish. 

Mr. 8. S. Cook, of Franklin, Massachusetts, presents in the New Eng- 
Pat Farmer his account with twenty-five hens kept during 1869, as 
ollows: 


Dr. 
‘January 1, 1869.—To value of 25 hens. ..-..-.--.--0e- Bees BAS e's Aee $25 00 
= ~ to food for hens and chickens. ..........--.: s--=- - 80 90 
$105 90 
Cr. 
December 26, 1869.— By: 25 large hens... . 2. 2.0. nee en pone cece eee $25 00 
By 15 small, hens, or pullets:_2. 22.2.2. .,.. <6 15 00 
By 155 dozens eggs, at 35 cents....-.-..-.-----.- 54 25 
By dressed poultry soldie. 2.229.272 eos ase 11i 50 
205 7a 
eget. ec 5ab cedend syat ed ee 99°85 


The profit from each fowl was $3 992. Brahmas and Leghoras were 
kept. No account is made in these repor ts of the care of fowls on the 
debit side, nor of the value of manure or feathers on the credit side. 

In Filint’s “Agriculture of Massachusetts” for, 1869 several accounts 
with. poultry are given by citizens of that State, which are briefly as 
follows: George W. Chadwick kept eight Brahma and Hamburg hens 
and one cock one year. They vies in eggs and’ chickens the value 
of $42 90, and their feed cost $24; leaving a profit of $18 99, or $2 10 
each. The profit on fourteen hens and cocks, a cross of White Leghorn 
and eye breeds, kept by 8. B. Bird from March 20 to September 20, 
was $62 he profit on twenty-four hens, mostly White Leghorns, 
kept by Toate Jones from January 1 to September 1, 1868, was $88 92, 
or $3 70 each. 

The Mirror and Farmer records that fourteen Red Leghorn hens kept 
by Mr. Eben Fellows, of Franklin, New Hampshire, laid 2,311 eggs from 
March 23, 1869, to March 23, 1870, which sold for $53 92. Six broods 
of chickens raised in the year paid the cost of keeping the poultry. 

Mr. Benjamin V. Brown, of Concord, Massachusetts, sends to the De- 
_ partment his account with poultry duri ing 1869. His hens were a cross 
between the Brahma and White Dorking. Nothing js charged for care, 


. 


340 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


as, he says, “the manure, and eggs used by the family, would a great 
deal more than pay for the care.” The account is as follows: 


Dr. 
No 4b-towlssabiw oiCentsresesdes cee accpccsny eo ccue cee eeeeees |. sacete $33 75 
LO> I UNEGy eee ccc cee eae et een iap eae ee eet ce oe ee 1 25 
'PO GOT, MAUS OCC Le ont. be acme a pea cuets Habe ane a ts DEERE EERE S cecincey 62 00 
TO MEAG "ACLAPS ss aos ose Mees oclee Ces ocala: Be ee 11 95 
To potaiped andumesis cos so ics cc. seco cL et cape ee ns hae 4 BOTs 
$113 45 
Cr. 
BY NOU WOM eK os lame thee cne cow ewe pee sce ako weeawe doe cl emeee $111 27 
SS UCI: 30 (45S SSS oo.08 Gas SCOrrIee Say eeeAr sy Speen ee ee 3 aes Bese 64 56 
By 0 fomisvon ands ab. 75 Cents co) sen= <n o)ectie Ueeeck eee ec ees 30 00 
ye 24nckers oN Wan, Bb Hl 20 tcc ec cem sec ce cen wen sade capes 2 50 
208 33 
(ERO yoicioo. Sogo DOU ESA I SOG GE JOD COS MOOT ESGoM St Gees IOA a sacoacee so 94 88 


The profit of turkey-keeping, in the vicinity or within easy access of 
good markets, is frequently greater than that with chickens, but fewer 
examples bave been published. Mr. W. A. Browning, of Connevticut, 
gives to Hearth and Home his account with eight hen-turkeys and one 
cock-turkey during 1869. He raised 112 young turkeys, which were dis- 

posed of as follows: 


Sold at Thanksgiving 29, weight 3482 pounds, at 27 cents....-.----- $94 16 
Sold at Christmas 71, weight 1,072 pounds, at 25 cents-.---.-.------. 268 00 
On hand January 1, 1870, 12, worth $2 each:----.----. ee ee cee 24 00 
—4+—— $386 16 
Up to June 1, fed 8 bushels cern, worth $1 20.........--.-.--.------ $9 60 
Op to July 1, fed 4 bushels corn, worth $1 20.......--. -.-----.sen0- 4 80 
Up to August 1, fed 6 bushels corn, worth $1 20......-...---.------- 7 2 
Up to September 1, fed 10 bushels corn, worth $1 20....--.--- rains oh oe 12 09 
Up to October 1, fed 20 bushels corn, worth $1 20......---.---.----. 24 00 
Up to November 1, fed 35 bushels corn, worth $1 20........---..---- 42 00 
Up to December 1, fed 35 bushels corn, worth $1 20..-:-..--.-.----- 42 00 
141 60 
JAIRO en sles Sess Go gue > SS ne Or SBE LOG IOP ncecS a SBeecee coo goesecs ies... 244 56 


The Country Gentleman publishes an account of the treatment of and 
profit from sixty-five hens and five cocks kept by a gentleman in Boston, 
New York, most of the fowls being Brown Leghorns. They were fed 
twice a day—in the morning, in winter, with beef scraps and meal, mixed 
with boiling water and allowed to cool, and in the afternoon with whole 
corn. Their feed was always of the best quality, and ground oyster 
shells were always ‘before them. From January 1, 1869, to January 1, 
1870, there was expended for feed for the seventy fowls, $157 44, and 
received for eggs and fowls sold and used $360 57, leaving a profit of 
$203 13; or $2 90 for each fowl. In January, 1870, the sixty-five hens 
produced 950 eggs, and in February 1,099, ang the cost for feed during 
the time was little more than $13, or about 8 cents per dozen of eggs. 

Mr. J. W. Todd, of Vermillion, Ohio, reported to the Farmers’ Clab of 
the American Institute the result of his experience during 1868 with 
fifty-six hens and four cocks, consisting of White Leghorn and Brahma. 
His statement is as follows: 615 dozens eggs, at 29 cents per dozen, 
8178 35; cost of feed, $30; profit on eggs, $148 35. From the same hens 
he also raised 198 chickens, which sold for $180 95; expenses, $30; profit 
on chickens, $100 95. Total net profits, $249 30. This is a profit of 
$4154 on each fowl. The same flock produced from January 1 to April 


. 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. $41 


20, 1869, (110 days,) 480 dozens eggs, which at 25 cents per dozen 
amounted to $120. The cost of feed during the time was $20, leaving 
a profit of $100, The fowls were well fed with a variety of food, and 
had the best of care. In summer they ranged freely, and in winter they 
were divided into two or three lots and kept warm in a roomy building. 
Mr. Todd remarks that “‘ there is much in feed as well as breed,” a tru- 
ism which is applicable to all farm-stock. 

The profits of poultry-keeping, as shown in the preceding examples, 
are very great, and will appear surprising to those who have given no 
thought or attention to the business. Hens have been kept so long 
upon most farms as a matter of course and their products appropriated so 
generally without credit, that their real value under careful aud intelli- 
gent treatment is seldom duly considered. Objection may be made that 
no account is taken of the refuse of the kitchen and gleanings of the 
farm. It is true that these sources of food supply are valuable, and it 
is equally certain that they would otherwise be wasted in a large 
measure. 

As an item of property, poultry has escaped attention in national and 
State enumerations, except in the census of the State of New York for 
1865, in which the value of live poultry on hand at the date of taking 
that census, and the value of eggs and poultry sold in 1864, are given 
Separately. The value of the poultry owned was $1,858,797 97. The 
value of poultry sold was $1,228,043 96, most of which, undoubtedly, 
was for market fowls. The value of eggs sold was $1,303,010 07; 
making the value of eggs and poultry sold, $2,531,054 03. 

The cases reported above may be those of exceptional success. They 
certainly present the profit of poultry in a favorable light. Nineteen 
examples, in which the record includes a full year, each representing 
from 8 to 154 fowls, together aggregating 720, present a gross return of 

2,013 59, or $2 80 for each fowl, of which a good proportion is profit, 
though the facts are not in every case s0 fully stated as to admit of an 
exact calculation of net profit. 


THE MOST POPULAR BREEDS. 


The profits of poultry-keeping being derived principally from two 
sources—the sale of eggs and of poultry, mostly chickens, in market, 
the question of breed is an important one. For eggs, it would seem 
that, with proper attention and care, the non-sitters are preferable; but 
some of the varieties of non-sitters are not hardy, and the extra atten- 
tion such fowls require may be greater in cost than the enhanced value 
of their production. Fowls have been classified, not only in respect to 
their qualities of flesh and as layers, but also with a view to other char- 
acteristics. The following classification, based on the statement of an 
experienced poultry firm in New York, is approved by Tegetmeier : 

1, HarDiInEss.—Hardy: Brahmas, Houdans, Hamburgs, Créve- 
ceurs, Spanish, and Leghorns. Delicate: La Fléche, Polands, and Ban- 
tams. 

2, QUIETUDE.—Domesitie and quiet: Brahmas and Cochins. More 
vivacious : Spanish, Leghorns, and Dorkings. Active: Hamburgs and 
Games. 

3. Sizk OF BiRDS.—Large: Brahmas, Cochins, La Fléche, Houdans, 
Créveceurs, and Dorkings. Medium: Polands, Spanish, Leghorns, 
and Games. Small: Hamburgs and Sultans. Diminutive: Bantams. 
and Siilsies. 


342 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


4, Size oF EGGS.—Layers of large eggs, averaging about7 toa pound: 
La Fléche, Houdans, Créveceeurs, and Black Spanish. Layers of medium 
eggs, averaging 8 to 9 to a pound: Leghorns, Cochins, Brahmas, Po- 
~ Jands, Dor kings, Games, and Sultans. Layers of small eggs, averaging 
9 . 10 to a pound: Hamburgs. 

. NUMBER OF EGGS.—Great layers ; Hamburgs, Spanish, Leghorns, 
ee Polands. ' 

6. INCUBATION.—Good sitters: Cochins, Brahmas, Dorkings, and 
Games. Non-sitters : Houdans, Crévecceurs, La Fiéche, Spanish, Po- 
lands, Hamburgs, and Leghorns. 

7. VALUABLE FOR FLESH.—True table-birds : La Fléche, Houdans, 
Créveceurs, and Dorkings. Flesh less juicy: Cochins and Brahmas. 

in confirmation of the opinion expressed above, concerning the supe- 
rior fecundity of the breeds named, the opinions of poultry breeders in 
various parts of the country, as recently expressed in communications 
to this Department, are annexed: 

Mr. Samuel J. Parker, of Westchester, Pennsylvania, says: “Leghorn, 
co epee aud Hambur ¢ fowls will lay" more eggs in a year than the 
larger and more hardy ‘varieties, they being non-sitters.” 

Mr, O. B. Hadwin, of Worcester, Massachusetts, says: Hamburgs 
Games, Leghorns, Spanish, Dominique, Bantams, or medium-sized fow 
are the most prolific in eggs.” 

Mr. William M. Leonard, of Beimont, New Hampshire, vice-president 
of the Merrimack Valley Poultry Association, says: “I find the White 
Legborus will lay more eggs in a year than any other breed of fowls.” 
| Mr. J. 8. Gould, of Ithaca, New York, expresses the opinion that the 
Leghorns are the best layers. 

Mr. W. Kodman, of West Farms, New York, says: “There is little 
doubt that the Hambur gs, Silver-spangled ‘and. Black, are our best lay- 
ers, they being most hardy.” 

Mr. Thomas. Gould, of Aurora, New York, says: “I find none so good 
as the Hamburgs.” 

Mr. A. W. Sawyer, of Sycamore, Llinois, says: “I consider the White 
Leghorns the best summer layers, and the Light Brahmas the best win- 
ter layers.” 

Some, however, prefer the Brahmas to any other breed for eggs, and 
this preference is ‘expressed, generally, in the examples of cost and profit 
of poultry-keeping in the preceding pages. 

«Mr, H. Bishop, ‘of Springfield, Ohio, says: ‘I find full-blooded Light 
Brabmas the best for the production of eggs.” 

Mr. Benjamin V. Brown, of Concord, Massachusetts, says: “ I am con- 
vinced, and it is the prevailing opinion in this vicinity, that Brahma- 
pootras are best for the production of eggs.” 

Mr. L. A. Spalding, of Lockport, New York, says: “As egg-producers, 
the Brahmas are in the front rank, and commence to lay at six to seven 
months’ old; and my first lot of sixteen laid in one year an average of 
140 eges each.” Mr. Spalding remarks that he finds no difficulty in 
breaking these fowls of the desire to sit. 

Mr. Leavitt, of New York, prefers the Brahmas, both for eggs and 
flesh, as they are hardy and cost less to keep than the best so-called 
ege-producing breeds. 

For market fowls the following is the testimony of the gentlemen just 
quoted : 

Mr. Brown says: “It isan established fact that the Brahmas are the ~ 
Loe for market, on account of their size and fine arbenaea when 

essed.’ 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 343 


Mr. Leonard: “I find the Brahmas the best fowls to raise for market.” 

Mr. J. 8. Gould: “Fer market fewls the Brahmas or the Houdans are 
best; I am not quite sure which.” 

Mr. Rodman prefers Dorkings and their crosses for the table. 

Mr. Thomas Gould: “ For a table or market fowl I think the siiver- 
gray Dorkings superior to any other breed.” 

Mr. Bishop, who raises chickens for market, says: ‘‘T find fall-blooded 
Light Brahmas the best for market fowls.” 

Mr. Spalding: “ For the table the Brahma has uo superior.” 

Mr. Hadwin: “Brahmas, Dorkings, Javas, Cochins, with the larger 
native breeds and crosses, are the best flesh-producing fowls.” 

Mr. Sawyer writes: 

Ithink the Light Brahmas the best for market, for they aro large fowls, are fine 
large chicks at four to six months old, are easily reared, and are very hardy, | think 
the most so of any variety I have ever raised. All things considered, the Light (pea- 
combed) Brahmas are the best fowls for the farmer to raise. They bear confinement 
well, and are raised with the least care of any breed I know. The Dorking fowls are 
considered in England the best table-fow!, but in this climate they have proved quite 
tender and difficult to raise, requiring a great deal of care. 

For eggs and chickens, which are generally equaliy desired from 
fowls as usuaily kept upon farms, the testimony preponderates greatly 
in favor of the Brahmas; for, in addition to being good flesh fowls, both 
as to weight and quality, they are good winter, and may be considered 
at least fair suminer, layers; they are quict, hardy, and come early to 
mInaturity. Other breeds, considered superior in quality of flesh, or as 
egg-producers, may be found more desirable, being raised with equal 
success in many localities. Generally, however, the Brahma is con-- 
sidered the most profitabie fowl for the farmer. 


CAPONIZING. 2 


Caponizing has been practiced but little in this country, the practice 
being now confined mostly to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Mr. G. H. 
Leavitt, an experienced poultry-breeder of New York, says that 95 per 
cent. of the capons raised are raised in Pennsylvania, and that the same 
proportion of experiments is successful. In most parts of this country 
the practice is unknown, even among those who breed fowls for market. 
Both cockerels and puliets may be caponized, the latter being called in 
France poulardes. The effect of depriving them of reproductive powers 
is to cause them to fatten more easily, with less food; it increases their 
size beyond what would otherwise be attained, and makes them mor¢ 
tender and more desirable for the table. So much superior are capons 
esteemed to be, that it is singular the practice is so limited.. Mr. Bishop, 
of Springfield, Ohio, before quoted, says of capons: “'The weight is 
increased one-third, and the meat is much finer.” Mr. Parker, of West 
Chester, Pennsylvania, says they command one-third more price than 
other market fowls. Mr. Robert B. Engle, of Masonville, New Jersey, 
who is qualified to speak from experience, says; ‘ The operation is sim- 
ple and easily performed. An expert in the business can castrate two 
hundred in a day, for which we pay four cents each. The eapons fatten 
more readily than cocks, attain greater weight, and their flesh is much 
more tender and juicy, and is better flavored, and consequently com- 
mands a higher price, which in Philadelphia and New York, as com- 
pared with other prime chickens, is as 35 cents per pound are to 25 cents, 
which prices I received yesterday (February 5, 1871) in the Philadelphia 
market. The difference in price ranges from six to ten cents per pound, 


as to quality. * * TI believe that if all roosters that are to be kept 


until full grown for market «were properly castrated jit would enhance 


544 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


their value from 30 to 40 per cent.” Mr. Engle gives the following 
memoranda of his sales in illustration of the superior market value of 
caponized fowls: ‘Seventy-one pairs of capons sold in February and 
March, 1870, the crop of the previous summer, weighed 1,313 pounds. 
Amount received, $463 89. Average weight per pair, 184 pounds. 
Average price per pair, $6 53.” Mr. Leavitt, of New York, also speaks 
highly of the increased value of capons over cockerels. 
instrunents for making capons may be purchased for $5 per set, and 
consist of a spring, with which the incision, made by a sharp knife, is 
kept open during the operation; nippers and hook, with which to remove 
the covering of the testicles; a tube containing a silk-worm gut, with 
which the connection of the testicle with the bird is severed, and a spoon 
for removing the severed parts. The operation may be performed with 
more simple implements, however; as a sharp pocket-knife, a pair of 
forceps, a sharp-pointed hook, a horse-hair, and a teaspoon. The opera- 
tion is performed in the following manner, as described by those 
familiar with it: Confine the fowl to a table or board, left side down- 
' ward, by weights, or by straps which will securely fasten the legs and 
wings, the latter being drawn well over the back, and the legs extended 
backward, the upper one drawn farthest out. The head and neck 
should be left free. The position of the confined fowl is denoted in the 
accompanying cut. Pluck the 
feathers from a spot an inch 
and a half in diameter, near 
the hip joint, and on a line 
from the hip to the shoulder 
joint. Draw the skin back, so 
that when left to itself again it 
will cover the wound in the flesh 
and make an incision between 
the last two ribs, commencing 
an inch from the back-bone 
and extending obliquely down- 
ward. The incision should 
be about an inch long, and 
_ only deep enough to separate the ribs, not wounding the intestines. 
The proper location for the incision is indicated by the line through the 
circle in the cut. The wound is kept open by a spring or otherwise for 
f£onvenience of subsequent operations. Cut open the membrane covering 
the intestines, with care, pushing them with the spoon forward toward 
the breast-bone first, if they are not sufiiciently. drawn up. ‘The testicles 
will then be exposed to view. They are connected with the back and sides 
by cords and covered with a thin membrane. The membrane must be 
seized with the forceps or nippers and torn open with the hook, com- 
mencing with the lower or left testicle, which is generally nearer the 
rump than the right one. Then introduce the tube containing the silk- 
worm gut, or the horse-hair, with which to sever the connection of the 
testicle, using the bowl of the spoon when horse-hair is employed to 
iacilitate the operation, and with a sawing motion sever the chords; A 
Similar process is repeated with the right testicle, and then both, with 
the blood around the wounds, are to be removed with the bowl of the 
spoon. The left testicle should first be removed to prevent the blood 
Which may issue from it from covering the right one and rendering 
the operation more difficult. After the operation the skin must be drawn 
over the wound and a few stitches taken in it with fine linen thread, 
after which the fowl may be released. 


MANAGEMENT AND PROFIT OF FOWLS. 345 


Caponizing should be performed during a warm spell and as soon as 
the sex of the fowls can be discerned, and should be preceded by fasting 
them twenty-four hours and followed by feeding immediately after the 
operation, and during twenty-four hours, at least, on soft food. The 
caponized fowls will eagerly partake of food, and will be restored to 
health in a few days if the operation has been carefully performed. In 
making poulardes, it is sufficient merely to cut across the egg-tube with 
& sharp knife. 

STATISTICS OF POULTRY-KEEPING. 

The profit of poultry-keeping is shown, in the preceding pages, in 
the figures from the New York census, and in the individual examples 
cited, to be great. Some of the gentlemen who have furnished informa- 
tion for the present article assert that no other branch of rural husbandry 
is so profitable, considering the value of investments and the care be- 
stowed. The demand for poultry and eggs, for food, is always good, 
both at home and abroad. As yet but little in this line has been fur- 

ished by this country for-exportation, the shipments in 1868 amounting 
to only 19,604 dozens eggs, valued at $5,865, and poultry, valued at 
$1,484, or $7,349 in all. 

In the Transactions of the California State Agricultural Society for 
186869, Dr. Holden states that New York City uses over four million 
dollars’ worth of eggs each year. In nine months of the year 1869, 
however, the receipt of eggs in that city averaged about 1,000 barrels ° 
per day, a barrel containing 80 dozens, which, at 30 cents per dozen, 
amounts to $24,000 per day, or $8,760,000 per annum. It is probable 
that this supply was mostly used in the city. Boston uses half as many 
as New York; and Dr. Holden states also that Cincinnati annually 
exports twenty-five millions of eggs, and Stockton, California, about 
$300,000 worth of eggs and poultry. As very slight record of the 
poultry products of this country has been made, the statistics are 
meager. From October 14, 1869, to May 6, 1870, two buyers shipped 
to New York City, from the station at Masonville, Burlington County, 
New Jersey, 393,700 pounds, or nearly 197 tons of poultry, for which 
they paid the farmers of that vicinity not less than $95,000. Every 
country town easily accessible from our large cities is visited each year 
at the proper season by poultry buyers, who transmit to the city markets 
an immense aggregate amount of the surplus products of poultry-yards. 

England is said to have a constant investment in poultry of over fifty 
millions of dollars, and she is the largest importer of eggs and poultry. 
The number of eggs yearly sent from Ireland, through Dublin, to Eng- 
land, is stated to be over seventy millions; almost equal to the average an- 
nual importation of eggs from all parts, from 1842 to 1847. During the 
succeeding five years the average annual importation was 103,000,000, 
being, in 1851, 115,526,236; and the London board of trade state the 
importations from France and Belgium, during the five years ending 
with 1857, to average 147,342,219. Thenumbers in the succeeding years, 
ending with 1861, averaged 163,581,140, the number in the last year 
being 203,315,310. The wholesale market price was eight cents per 
dozen, making the value of eggs imported that year $1,555,422. The 
quantity imported had increased in 1869 to 442,172,640, valued at 
$5,634,265, or 152 cents per dozen, and in 1870 to 430,542,240, valued at 
$5,510,400, or 154 cents per dozen. 

M. de Lavergue, a high agricultural authority in France, as quoted 
in the Transactions of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, esti- 
mated the value of eggs produced in France, in 1865, at $24,200,000, 


346 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the exportations amounting to twenty-five million francs, or $4,650,000. 
The same gentleman estimated the. value of the poultry consumed to 
be the same as the value of eggs produced, making an aggregate of 
eggs and poultry produced of $48,400,000. The investment in poultry 
in France is said to be over $75,000,000, or fifty per cent. greater than 
in England. 

It is apparent that great profit is to be ‘derived from poultry keeping 
at small ontlay of means. There is always’a fair demand in our pe 
cities and towns, at least, for considerable supplies of the products o 
the poultry-yard, and there is no danger of an over-supply which will 
reduce the business to the point of unprofitableness. The fact that 
fat chickens may be produced as cheaply for the table as any other meat, 
is worthy of consideration, in connection with their desirability as excel- 
lent food. The prices of prime poultry are almost always in advance 
of those of the best flesh of cattle, hogs and sheep, and it would be 
more frequently preferred by persons of small means in our cities if it 
could be procured at an equal price. It is indeed probable that home 
markets, with remunerative prices, may always be had, as they eertainly 
may uow be, by all American farmers, and especially by those convenient 
to the larger towns, who may choose to give a fair outlay of money, 
time, and intelligence to poultry-keeping. ¢ 


THE TEXAS CATTLE TRADE. 


Among the important developments of our domestic commerce, fol- 
lowing closely upon the construction of the Pacifie Railroads, is the Texas 
cattle trade, which has attained gigantic proportions, within the past 
three years. Previously, with greater obstructions to travel and longer 
distances to market, it had a slow growth. In all the more densely pop- 
ulated communities of the civilized world, the question of the continued 
supply of animal food long since assumed an important phase. Hven 
on our own new continent, especially in the older settled portions on 
the A tlantic slope, the upward tendency of the meat market has long been 
remarked. If prices should continue to increase, as in the past few years, 
it requires no prophetic gift to foretell the transfer of animal food from 
the list of necessaries to that of the luxuries of life, attainable only by the 
middle or wealthier classes of society. The movements of population, the 
conditions of agriculture, and the developments of mechanical industry | 
have been unfavorable to cheap meat production in the older States. In 
the Southern States population has tended hitherto to settle in the river 
bottoms, leaving immense plateau and mountain regions available to 
cattle-raising, but the system of agriculture prevalent in that section 
previous to the war was not favorable to this branch of industry. Its 
capacities in this direction have not yet been developed, and conse- 
‘ quently no relief from the pressure can be expected from that quarter. 
The irruption of cheap beef from the Southwest is, therefore, very timely 
\and acceptable. : : 

Texas has been aptly designated the great ecattie-hive of North 
America. More than half a century ago, under inducements offered 

by the Spanish colonial authorities in Mexico, the coast region from 
the Sabine to the Rio Grande, a level and tertile belt from thirty to 
sixty miles broad, was settled by Spanish and American emigrants, who 


¥ ’ Ba 5 


ir 
al iy Dnt 4 
Cashew 


A 
> 
ica 


PLAT 


THE TEXAS OATTLE TRADE. 347 


brought with them their native breeds of cattle, which, under remarkably 

favorablis circumstances of climate and pasturage, amalgamated into a 
common stock, combining in a larger degree the better points of the 
constituent breeds. Up to the struggle for Texas independence the in- 
crease of these herds was remarkably rapid. In the disturbances and 
social dislocations which then ensued, the western portion of this cattle © 
region became almost depopulated, and the cattle, for lack of owners, 
relapsed into a state of wildness. Social order was not finally reéstab- 
lished till after the annexation of Texas to the United States, and the 
treaty of peace with Mexico, in 1848. The cattle-raising industry then 
revived. #Zbe wild herds were either reclaimed by their former owners 
or appropriated by others. Large numbers were driven to eastern 
markets, but enough remained to stock immense ranches, on which a 
class of men of enterprise and resolute character have since organized 
a very thrifty pastoral industry. During the late rebellion the Texas 
cattle regions were but very slightly devastated by the ravages of war, 
which, on the contrary, greatly enhanced their prosperity by increasing 
the price of Texas beet. Its very large production has of late been 


. rendered available tothe public interest through the various lines of the 


Pacifie Railroad system. 

in the coast regions of Texas are found cattle lords whose animated 
treasures surpass, in number and value, even the flocks and herds of 
the great man of Uz. The Santa Cabrutas ranch, on the Santa Ca- 
brutas River, owned by Colonel Richard King, embraces 84,152 acres 
of land, stocked with 65,000 cattle, 10,000 horses, 7,000 sheep, and 
8,000 goats. For the management of these immense herds, 500 Mexican 
herdsinen and 1,000 saddle-horses are held in constant requisition. 
Colonel Kifg each year brands 12,000 calves, and sells 10,000 fat cattle, 
constantiy investing the surplus proceeds in stock cattle. O’Conner’s 
ranch, twenty miles below Goliad, on the San Antonio River, in 1862 


contained over 40,000 cattle; during that year on this estate 12,000 


calves were branded, and $80,000 realized by the sal® of cattle. This 
enterprise was inaugurated ten years previously, with 1,500 cattle. The 
Rolideaux ranch, between the Nueces and Rio,Grande Rivers, owned 
by Mr. Kennedy, is a fertile peninsula of 142,840 acres, jutting 
out into the Gulf of Mexico, the isthmus being secured by thirty miles of 
plank fence, guarded, at intervals of three miles by herdsmen’s ranches, ° 
lt already contains 30,000 beef cattle, besides large numbers of other 
stock. Other magnificent cattle-herds might be enumerated. ~ 

The net increase of cattle in this region has been estimated as high 
as 25 per cent. per annum prior to the opening of the Texas cattle trade. 
Turning his animals loose to graze at will over a range of country often 
fifty miles square, covered with nutritious grasses, in a genial climate, 
in which sheiter is unnecessary, the Texas stock-raiser confines his care 
to the identification and marketing of his animals. YF or the former pur- 
pose the stockmen of the neighboring ranches assemble semi-annually 
in considerable force, to scour the country for the purpose of branding 
the calves} the ownership of which is determined by the brand borne 
by the cows they follow or suck. ai 

This stock business, which has thus grown up from small beginnings, 
now amounts to a magnificent industry, the product of which reaches 
our most distant markets. Its conditions, both economical and produc- 
tive, have been graduaily changing with the growth of our resources, 
For several years after the annexation of Texas to the United States, 
the domestic market ruled very low. Stock cattle brought not over $4 
or $5 per head, while beeves fattened for market did not command 


348 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


more than double these prices. These rates, however, were abundantly 
remunerative under the conditions of cheap production then subsisting. 
When steamers began to touch at different points on the coast, and to 
ship beeves on the hoof to New Orleans and to other eastern and northern. 
markets, the stock-raisers near the seaboard were soon able to realize 
double the rates above named. During the later years of the rebel- 
lion, the blockade of the coast and of the Mississippi River, by the 
Union forces, cut off nearly all access to markets; but since the return 
of peace, and especially since the opening of the so-called Texas cattle- 
trade, prices have been constantly advancing. At a convention of 
Texas cattle-raisers, held in Live Oak County during the lasijautumn, 
the following tariff of prices was fixed, viz: For first-class animals, $15 
per head ; second class, $15; third class, $11. 

The extension of crop-raising agricultural settlements in the coast 
regions seriously deranged the conditions of cheap production of cattle, 
by raising the value of land and by restricting the range of free pasture. 
The stock business was then extended northward to the central region of 
high roiling prairies and even to the plateaus of Northern Texas, locali- 
ties scarcely less congenial to this attractive industry than even therich , 
plains of the coast They present large areas tolerably well watered, 
and sufficiently well timbered for the wants of the stock-raiser. The 
climate is mild and salubrious. The soil is a rich black mold, yielding, 
to a very imperfect culture, large crops of cerea!s and fruits. In their 
wild state the prairies are covered with excellent grasses, and already 
feed large herds of cattle, bearing the brands of different owners. 
Immense quantities of beef are annually lost, like the waste wood of 
the forest, for lack of means of preserving it. Hides rot on the ground 
for lack of tanneries, and because of the great cost of transportation 
to market, while imported leather is scarce and dear. Industry and trade 
are still in a very rudimentary condition, society being yet in a forma- 
tive state. 

Stock-raisers ave found in this region with herds rivaling those of the 
coast. Eighteen years ago Mr. John Hitson was toiling amid the timber of 
Rhea County, Tennessee, to clear a little land for corn and wheat. Dis- 
gusted at the prospect*of spending a lifetime in merely winning a foot- 
hold for future labor, he sold his land, and with 60 cows and 9 brood 
mares emigrated to what is now Palo Pinto County, on the Brogus: 
River. He now owns 50,000 acres of land and as many cattle. Mr. John 
Chisholm owns 30,000 head, Mr. G. W. Slaughter 20,000, Coggins & Parks 
20,000, Lacy & Coleman 12,000, Mr. Martin Childers 10,000. A large num- 
ber of smaller but still very considerable herds, the product of a few 
years of intelligent enterprise, are reported in these regions, showing a 
rapid growth in the cattle industry, and a capacity for still greater 
expansion. 

The number of cattle in Texas in 1870 is estimated at about 4 to 1 of 
the population; whereas, in the three great States of Ohio, Pennsyl- 
vania, and New York, the proportion is reversed. Texas is supposed 
to contain at least 3,000,000 beef cattle, besides 600,060 cows. There 
are annually raised and branded about 750,009 calves. From this 
basis of production, it is a question how long the demands of the present 
cattle-market canbe met. Theimpression is beginning to prevail that the 
enormous exportation both of stock cattle and of fat beeves has meas- 
urably curtailed production. To such an extent has this movement 
increased, that even yearlings are now driven to the pastures of Colorado 
and Kansas to fatten for eastern markets. The great demand for stock 
has also induced the occupancy of ill-watered districts, resulting in a 


THE TEXAS CATTLE TRADE. 349 


large loss of animals by thirst. It seems probable that the capacities of 
the system hitherto pursued are about exhausted, and that more careful 
and economical methods and more scientific principles must be intro- 
duced into the business to enable it to meet the growing demand upon 
it. The ideas of the present race of stock-raisers, it is charged, are 
ultra-conservative and hostile to the introduction of improvements; 
but the rapid extension of railroad facilities into Texas will enforee 
an entire reorganization of this industry. The great primary depot 
of the Texas cattle trade is now at the Abilene Station, on the Kan- 
sas River, one hundred and sixty miles west of the Missouri River, 
four huridred and forty from St. Louis, and six hundred and seventy 
from Chicago. The special advantages of this locality were found in its 
admirable tacilities for pasturing large herds of cattle beyond the set- 
tled portion of Kansas, upon a leading railroad route. The herds from 
Vexas, however carefully driven, must necessarily arrive, after a march 
of seven hundred miles, in a very impoverished condition, while very 
many herds are driven without intelligent regard to the condition of 
the animals. From six to nine months’ feeding in the genial climate, 
and abundant, well-watered pastures of this locality, where the plague 
of insects is unknown, is required $0 fit the stock for market. The ship- 
ments of cattle on the Kansas Pacific Railroad for the four years past 
are stated by Mr. A. Anderson, the general superintendent, in a letter 
to this Department dated December 17, 1870, as follows: In 1867, 
30,000 head ; 1868, 57,000; 1869, 47,000; 1870, 125,000. Of these aggre- 


gates he estimates that 97 to 98 per cent. were Texas cattle. The decline . 


of shipments in 1869, as compared with 1868, was due to the statute of 
Mlinois prohibiting the introduction of Texas cattle into that State 
during certain seasons of the year. The arrivals of cattle of all grades 
at the various stock-yards along the line of this road, during 1870, prob- 
ably amounted to about 150,000. 

The Union Pacific Railroad has made strong efforts to attract a por- 
tion of this trade by establishing at Schuyler, twenty-five miles west of 
Omaha, special facilities for the shipment of cattle, and by lowering the 
tariff of transportation charges. Notwithstanding the two hundred miles 
additional drive, as compared with Abilene, the business at this point has 
attained unexpected dimensions. Under date of December 16, 1870, Mr. 
T. E. Sickels, general superintendent Union Pacific Railroad, reports 
to this Department the shipment of 10,234 Texas cattle in 1870, besides 
9,110 western cattle. The total shipment of any previous year was less 
than 500. It is thought that the local demands of Nebraska, -lowa, 
Minnesota, and Dakota will greatly enlarge this trade. 

Baxter Springs, in Southeastern Kansas, on the Missouri River, Fort 
Seott and Gulf Railroad, promises to become a formidable rival to Abi- 
lene iu this Texas cattle trade. Mr. B.S. Henning, superintendent, under 
date of December 15, 1870, reports to this Department the shipment 
of 35,000 head subsequent to June 1, 1870, the date at which the read 
was opened to Baxter Springs. This point is located one hundred and 
fifty-nine miles from Kansas City, and four hundred and forty-one from 
St. Louis, by the Missouri Pacific Railroad. The extension of the At- 
lantic and Pacific Railroad, now completed to Pierce City, two hundred 
and ninety-one miles from St. Louis, and at no great distance from 
Baxter Springs, will soon open a much shorter route to this trafic. In 
fact, this latter route, according to the statement to this Department ot 
Mr. W. H. Paniarche, superintendent, dated December 16, 1870, gave 
transportation to 7,520 head of cattle in 1869, and to 40,960 head in 

1870, of which latter aggregate 20,000 were known as Texas and Indian 


350 AGRICULTURAL REPORT.. 


cattle. Mr. W. H. Downes, general superintendent of the central branch 
Union Pacific Railroad, reports the shipments of cattle over that line, 
in 1870, at 112 car-loads, or, at an’ average of 20 head per car-load, 2,240 
head. This road is completed from Atchison to Waterville, Kansas, one 
hundred miles. 

The general northward movement of Texas cattle during 1870 is va- 
riously estimated between 100,000 and 200,000 head. The aggregate 
shipments of the five railroad lines above mentioned were 252,000. How 
large a portion of these cattle were from the Indian Territory there is 
no means of determining, inasmuch as these are consolidated with the 
Texas cattle in all the reports. The estimates quoted do not appear to 
be extravagant. The cattle brought to market by these lines of trans- 
portation are from Northern or Central Texas, those of the coast regions 
finding a more eligible market by sea. They were bought by the herd 
in Texas during 1870 at.about the following prices, viz: Beef cattle, $11 
per head; milch cows, $6; three-year olds, $7; two-year olds, $4; 
yearlings, $2.50. When only beef cattle were bought, the prices ranged 
higher, averaging from $12 to $14 per head. The average drive to 
Abilene, seven hundred miles, occupies about two months, and costs 
about $2 per head, besides a margin of 20 percent. for stampeding, 
stealing, &c. Arriving at Abilene in tolerable order, a mixed drove 
will command about the following prices, viz: Beef cattle, $20 per head; 
milch cows, $12; three-year olds, $10; two-year olds, $8; yearlings, 
$5. After grazing through the summer, their market value is advanced 
20 to 25 per cent. Beef cattle, well matured for market, readily com- 
mand $25 per head. 

Chicago has largely controlled the Texas cattle trade since its inaugu- 
ration, but St. Louis is organizing a formidable competition, with the 
advantage of shorter lines of communication with the cattle regions. It 
is evident that the present arrangements of the traffic are mostly pro- 
visional and temporary. ‘This great mass of production cannot remain 
dependent upon the present imperfect outlets to market. The monop- 
oly of transportation, now enjoyed by the. Kansas Pacific Railroad and 
its connections, will be broken up when the southwestern lines, new in 
progress, shall have been completed. Cattle shipments to eastern mar- 
kets, over these shorter lines, will be preferable to those over the long 
elbow-routes through Chicago and St. Louis. 

The prices of beef on the hoof in the New York market during the 
first ten months of 1870 averaged about 8 cents per pound, or about 
double the rates ruling in Chicago and St. Louis. The animals average 
about 900 -pounds, representing a valuation of $72, and costing the im- 
porter about $55 per head—a. profit of about 30 per cent., counting all 
incidental and unavoidable risks. In the St. Louis and Chicage markets 
the Texas steer represents a value of about $31 50 per head, at 34 per 
pound. The expense of bringing him to the abattoir of those cities is 
about $23, leaving a profit of $8 50, or nearly 40 per cent. Chicago live- 
stock reports mention the fact that Texas cattle lose less weight in dress- 
ing than Illinois cattle, and can, therefore, be sold at finer margins to 
carcass-butchers. Beef-packers assert their superiority for packing to 
the rough, coarse stock previously imported from west of the Missouri 
River, being finer-grained, richer, and more tender. Their hides are 
also worth from 15 to 20 per cent. more, and their yield of tallow is 
larger. 
The Chicago live-stock reports, during the latter half of 1870, repre- 
sent a continued and increasing pressure of Texas cattle upon the mar- 
ket. The extreme range of prices has been between $2 and 37 per hun- 


‘ THE TEXAS CATTLE TRADE. | 351 


dred pounds, for thin stock cattle and for well-matured fat beeves, re- 
spectively. In the lower grades Texas cattle have mainly monopo- 
lized the market. The low prices caused by this abundant supply 
have influenced all the markets in the country. In the opinion of intel- 
ligent cattle dealers in Chicago, the immense cattle irruption from the 
Southwest has alone prevented the average price of beef, live weight, - 
from ruling as high as 12 cents per pound in the eastern*markets. Com- 
plaints have been heard from even New England farmers of their being 
compelled to accept lower prices than had been anticipated. There is 
scarcely room to doubt that the Texas cattle trade has been overdone, 
and that the late abundant supply has been secured at the cost of a 
erippled production in the future. 

The influence of the Texas cattle trade has hitherto operated as a dis- 
turbing force, deranging, to some extent, old arrangements of supply 
and demand in the markets generally. Some of its results upon the 
meat production and supply of the country are already foreshadowed. 
The States north of the Ohio have hitherto furnished the main supply 
of animal food to the eastern markets. If the present conditions of 
cheap beef production in Texas should be perpetuated, or if the grazing 
capacities of our great central mountain region should be speedily de- 
veloped, of which there is now ample promise, those States will be com- 
pelled to yield entirely the production of lower grades*ot beef. The 
extension of railroad facilities is constantly enlarging the area of pas- 
turage immediately available for cheap beef production. In the case 
of Texas cattle, many drawbacks to the trade will be removed. The 
long drive of seven hundred miles will be abandoned. Farmers, upon 
land costing from $20 to $200 per acre, in climates requiring four or five 
months’ winter feeding, cannot compete with stock-misers operating un- 
der a sky that demands no shelter, and upon a soil yielding perennial 
supplies of green food where land is now so cheap that a single stock- 
farm includes a whole county. 

The farmers of the Northwest must seeure more valuable breeds of 
stock. They must select animals which, with the same acreage of sum- 
mer pasture and the same amount of winter feeding, will yield beef in 
greater quantity, of finer quality, and of higher market value. 

The more intelligent cattle-raisers in the older States have already 
anticipated this necessity by supplanting their common stocks with im- 
preyed breeds of cattle. The pressure of circumstances will drive the 
farming interest generaily in the wake of these pioneers, and a speedy 
demand for superior animals may be expected. In the next ten years 
we may anticipate an immense improvement in the stocks of the North- 
west. For such there is no danger of a failing market. While wealth, 
under our free civilization, is accumulating and diffusing itself through 
more numerous classes of society, the demand for better food will keep 
pace with any improvement in production that may be made. In this 
branch of the business, Texas cattle-raisers, under their present condi- 
tions of production, can offer but slight competition. To raise the finer 
breeds of cattle will involve a revolution in their whole system. It is 
one thing te send out, from time to time, gangs of Mexican vaqueros to 
lasso and drive in the spontaneous products of wide, unoccupied wastes 
of rich pasture, but entirely another thing to operate within narrower 
limits, and to develop the latent resources of nature by a scientific ap- 
plication of her higher laws. It is unreasonable to expect a sudden 
change in the loose methods of production now employed in the South- 
west; but the time is coming when such a change will be a necessity. 

The pressure of population and the rise in the value of land will soon 


352 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


demand greater economy of resources. Wide-spread pastures will be 
restricted by farmipg inclosures, and the ability to produce coarse beef 
at low prices, without any of the expenses of the Northern and Western 
stock-grower, and with less scientific intelligence, will no longer exist. 

The Texas cattle trade has its evils, which should be ameliorated. 
The transportation of cattle for great distances by rail involves many 
abuses. Healthy animals suddenly removed from the free range of pas- 
ture and crowded into cattle-cars, kept standing for days and nights in 
an uncomfortable posture, deprived of food and rest, worried and con- 
fused by the constant roar of machinery, cannot long preserve their 
healthful condition. In the hot summer months, bodily exhalations 
create an intensely mephitic atmosphere; the jarring, unequal move- 
ments of the cars jostle the animals against each other, injuring their 
limbs, abrading their flesh, and adding cutaneous and muscular intlam- 
mations to the other evils of this “‘ middle passage.” 

Different State legislatures have attempted to relieve these difficulties 
by special enactments. New York forbids the confinement of live-stock 
for longer consecutive periods than twenty-eight hours, without intervals 
of ten hours for rest. Inventive genius is also devising more comforta- 
ble cattle-cars. It can render the most effective service in the per- 
fection of refrigerator cars, whereby the animal may be slaughtered 
on his native soil, and the meat sent to distant markets, preserved 
by artificial refrigeration perfectly fresh and untainted. This method 
has already been successfully inaugurated in some portions of the 
country, and there is but little doubt of its general introduction when 
the requisite machinery shall have been devised and constructed. 

This improvement is now urged by that noble institution, the ““Ameri- 
can Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.” This body de- 
serves the gratitude of the public for its fearless and disinterested 
exposure of the abominations of the New York abattoirs, ventilating not 
only the cruelty to animals, but also the frauds perpetrated upon the 
public. Evils of this character, however, intrenched as they are in the 
inveterate selfishness of interested classes, can be alleviated only to a 
slight extent by moral or even legal suasion. A change in the method | 
of marketing beef will remove the abuses complained of by removing 
the opportunity for their perpetration. The public will hail with geuu- 
ine satisfaction that revolution in the beef trade which secures the 
slaughter of the animal in his native pasture, and the transportation of 
healthy beef in refrigerator cars. 


EPIZOOTIC APHTHZ:. 


NATURE OF THE LISEASE. 


This contagious malady of stock belongs to the class of zymotie 
diseases, or, in other words, it is caused, like specific fevers generally, by 
the introduction into the system of a poison germ, which propagates 
itself, and increases in the blood and tissues in a manner allied to the 
erowth of a ferment in.a saccharine solution. During this reproduction 
of the virus in such fevers, the system passes throvgh a series of suc- 
cessive stages of disease, the nature and duratiop of which are deter- 
mined by the character of the particular poison taken in, and during 
which the poison germs (contagious principles) are given off abundantly 


EPIZOOTIC APHTHA. 353 


by one or other or all of the sccreting surfaces. Hence, like other 
zymotic diseases, this is altogether specific in its cause, its nature, and 
its mode of propagation. As known in Western Europe and America, 
this disease is invariably due to a virus or contagion thrown off by some 
animal suffering from the disease; itis always manifested by a slight 
preliminary fever, and a period of eruption and decline, and these are 
respectively of constant and well-defined duration. These different 
periods of the disease are characterized by varied manifestations. The 
first period is that of incubation, during which the poison germs are in 
the body of the animal, and propagating themselves there, but have 
not yet affected the constitution so as to impair the functions, or give 
rise to the more manifest symptoms of illness. Toward the end of this 
period, however, the thermometer shows an increase of temperature, in 
the interior of the body, of about two degrees beyond the natural 
standard. ‘This period lasts twenty-four to forty-eight hours, though in 
rare cases it may apparently extend to a week. 

itis followed by the period of eruption, which is first manifested by the 
redness, heat, and tenderness of the udder and teats, of the space 
between the hoofs, and of the membrane of the mouth. In the course 
of one day more, these parts are found to be the seat of numerous hem- 
ispherical elevations or blisters, caused by the effusion of a clear yel- 
lowish fluid from the blood-vessels beneath the cuticle or scarfskin. 
These increase in size for the next two or three days, burst, and dry up. 

The period of decline is marked by the drying and scabbing over of 
the sores caused by the rupture of the blisters, and by the reproduction 
of the lost cuticular covering or scarfskin. The elevated temperature, 
which had declined somewhat on the appearance of the blisters, now 
entirely subsides, unless maintained by exposure, or the irritation of 
the sores by dirt or other bodies. This period has passed and the 
disease is at an end by the fifteenth day, in favorable cases. 


CAUSES. 


The only known cause of itself capable of inducing the disease is 
contagion, or contact of a sound animal with the virus discharged from 
the sores of an aphthous patient. Many accessory causes may be named, 
such as a wet; muddy season, which insures the contact of the virus 
deposited on the soil with the skin about the top of the hoofs; the accu- 
mulation of cattle in large fairs or markets; the aggregation of large 
numbers of live stock for the supply of armies in the field; travel of 
stock by rail or road, and the lfke. Yet these are but means of the 
diffusion of the poison, while no one of them, nor all taken together, 
can call the disease into existence where the poison is not-already 
present. Though prevalent extensively in Europe during or after almost 
every great war since 1695, it did not reach Great Britain till 1839, when 
it was brought by some Dutch cattle imported into London. In the same 
year it was brought by Dutch cattle to Cork, Ireland; and, as free trade 
in continental cattie was established four years after, it has been since 
steadily maintained by the constant importations. In 1841 it is first 
reported in Denmark, a country which breeds its own stock, and rarely 
imports any. Last year appears to have been the first time it appeared 
on American soil, and it has not yet reached the great stock ranges of 
Australia. In Great Britain it spreads widely every year, after the 
great autumn markets, in which home and foreign store cattle mix freely, 
and yet there are in that country many breeding districts into which 
Strange stock are never taken, and where the disease has not yet pen- 
23 A 


354 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


etrated. It prevails very frequently on cattle dealers’ farms in the same 
country. 

aach comprehensive facts as these narrow the list of real causes down 
to the simple contact of the virus with a healthy animal. This virus, how- 
ever, is perhaps the most contagious known. It is often carried on the 
clothes, boots, and hands of men; on the fibers of hay or straw; pre- 
served on the walls, floors, mangers, and other fittings of buildings; on 
stable utensils ; in yards, parks, roads, and railroad cars; on drinking 
troughs ; or it may be carried on the legs or bodies of dogs, chickens, 
rats, and other animals which themselves escape the infliction. In short, 
any solid body may retain, and be a bearer of, this contagion. Fortu- 
nately, it does not spread to any extent in the atmosphere. Nothing is 
more common than to find a herd on one side of a road struek down 
by the disease, while another in a field on the opposite side of the road 
remains perfectly healthy. It may be carried by a strong wind in the 
form of the virulent saliva, or the virus may dry up on light bodies, 
such as paper, hay, &c., which are afterward borne off by the wind. It 
may be carried by men or animals, or by water running from the diseased 
to the healthy lot; but, in the absence of such agencies, the breadth 
of a common road is amply sufficient to circumscribe the disease. 


RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 


Cioven-footed animals appear to be the natural victims of this disease, 
and all species are about equally obnoxious to its attacks ; but it may be 
communicated to many if not all other warm-blooded animals by inocula- 
tion or by contact of the virnlent discharges with their mucous mem- 
branes. 

Its transmission to man has been noticed during almost every great 
outbreak since that of 1695. It has been reported, among others, by 
Valentine, Nadberny, Levitzky, Kolb, Hertwig, Rayer, Bosquet, Londe, 
Levigny, Dundussy, Hiibner, Holmes, Balfour, Karkeek, and Watson. 
Cases of the disease in man have been seen in Albany and at South Do- 
ver, Dutchess County, New York, during the present outbreak. It shows 
itself in man by slight feverishness, and the formation on the tongue 
and inside the lips and cheeks, and sometimes on the hands, of small 
blisters, rarely amounting to the bulkof alentil. In children and young 
animals, feeding exclusively on milk, diarrhea and fatal inflammation of 
the stomach and bowels occasionally supervene. It is further to be 
dreaded that the malady, gaining a lasting hold on the dairies of our 
large cities, may swell the lists of mortality of the infant population by 
inducing those fatal diarrhcwas and enteritis reported by Hiibner, Bal- 
four, and Watson. . f 

Its existence in horses is reported by Sagar, Cleaver, and Laubender, 
but the susceptibility of the soliped is very slight, and he can prebably 
be affected only by inoculation. 

In chickens it has been frequently noticed—among others, by Hennicke, 
Sagar, Lamberlicchi, Dickens, and Youatt. Chickens were attacked in 
December, 1870, on the farm of Mr. Highmie, La Grange, Dutchess 
County, New York. Drinking the castaway milk is probably the com- 
mon cause. Dogs and cats have been noticed by Lagar, Younghusband, 
and others, to suffer from drinking the milk. A shepherd’s dog at Mr. 
Eighmie’s suffered from the disease, and another, Mr. Preston’s, South 

Jover, New York, had only partially recovered when seen by the writer. 


SYMPTOMS. 
The victims may usually be picked out from a herd, twelve to twenty- 


EPIZOOTIC APHTHA. 355 


four hours before they show distinct signs of the disease, by the increase 
_ of temperature indicated by a clinical thermometer introduced into the 
rectum and retained there for three minutes. 

In cattle the eruption may be concentrated on the mouth, (including 
the muzzle and nostrils,) on the udder and teats, or on the space between 
the hoofs, though it usually attacks all of these parts simultaneously, 
and in rare cases even extends to the general integument or to the mu- 
cous membrane of the throat, stomach, and bowels, or other internal 
organs. The symptoms are slight shivering or roughness of the coat, 
neglect of feeding and rumination, redness, heat, swelling and tender- 
ness of the pasterns, teats, and mouth, arching of the back, and a 
crouching, hesitating gait, accumulation of a white froth around the 
margin of the lips, and a loud smacking noise made by the tongue and 
lips. On the second or third day the blisters may be seen on the gums, . 
on the dental pad behind the upper lip, on the tongue, on the teats, and 
around the upper borders of the hoofs and between them. In twenty- 
four to thirty-six hours more (sometimes at once) these burst, the cuti- 
cle is detached, and raw pink sores are left, most noticeable on the 
mouth and teats. With care the process of healing goes on rapidly, and 
is completed about the fifteenth day. Complications are rare, unless as 
the result of neglect, and consist in inflammation and loss of the udder ; 
extensive formation of matter beneath the hoofs, causing them to be 
shed.; extension of disease to the sinews, bones, and joints of the 
foot, with wide-spread destruction of parts; eruption on the stomach or 
bowels, with dangerous or fatal inflammation; or implication cf the 
womb with abortion or long-continued weakening discharges. 

In sheep the feet are mainly affected, and the malady bears a strong 
resemblance to foot-rot, and, under negiect, may merge into this. 

Swine also suffer severely in the feet, and, as they are too commonly 
neglected and left on mud and filth, shedding of the hocfs is frequent. 
When the mouth suffers they champ the jaws, and frothy saliva collects 
around the lips. 


LOSSES OCCASIONED BY THE DISEASE. 


These can only be estimated by considering that every ruminating 
animal and hog exposed to the poison will almost invariably contract the 
disease; also, that the poison may be dried up in barns and elsewhere 
without losing its vitality or virulence, and thus be preserved for months 

‘and years. The depreciation of ordinary store and feeding stock, which 
have passed through the affection, may be approximately stated at $5 
to $10 per head—sheep and swine at relatively smaller amounts; but 
for dairy stock no such low estimates can be accepted. There is first 
the loss of the milk for thirty days, $25 to $30 per head. Several 
Dutchess County farmers were losing at the rate of $20 per day, or 
$600 per month, from this cause alone, at the time of. our visit. Then 
there are the frequent consequences of loss of the bag, or of the hoofs, abor- 
tions, and chronic discharges from the womb, which unfit the subjects 
for dairy purposes ; and, lastly, internal complications and fatal results. 
Such results imply serious losses for individuals, counties, or States; but 
the great danger lies in the possible migration of the disease out west, 
and its final diffusion throughout the States. This is much less 
unlikely than was its importation from Europe nine months ago. 
We had then the safeguard of a restriction on direct importation; but 
now let a valuable Short-horn be sent from Massachusetts, or New York, 
to Minnesota, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, or Texas; let him contract the 
cisease on the roads or railroad-cars, and convey it to the stock among 


356 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


which he is sent, and the chances are that all the more eastern States 
will suffer in turn. The aggregate loss in such a case would be virtu- 
ally incalculable, and if the disease gained a permanent footing among 
us it would be liable to recur more or less widely at intervals of a few 
years. 

ORIGIN OF THE PRESENT OUTBREAK IN AMERICA, 

Though no unbroken chain of evidence concerning the source of the 
present outbreak is forthcoming, no one acquainted with the nature of 
the disease can for a moment doubt that it was imported from Europe. 
Though certainly prevailing in Central Europe for nearly two centuries, 
it reached Great Britain only in 1839, Denmark in 1841, and America 
in 1870. No atmospheric or climatic changes would account for such. 
results. Diseases like influenza, which appear to be due to such vi- 
‘ cissitudes, sweep over simultaneously, or nearly so, our continents and 
islands, and even ships in mid-ocean, whereas this is cireumseribed for 
centuries by a narrow sea, or well-guarded neck of land, and crosses 
only when the victims are allowed to pass. Moreover, in each of these 
cases a definite importation can be traced. Confining our remarks to 
the case of America, we have before us all the facts of our importation 
of the disease from England, in 1870. Not being at liberty to mention 
names, which would serve no good purpose, we can merely state that 
cattle shipped from an English port,in August, showed signs of the 
disease when two days at sea, passed through it on the ocean, and 
landed apparently well, but conveyed it to the stock among which they 
were placed on their arrival in Canada. Whether it spread from this 
point, or whether there was another importation, there is no evidence to 
show. Its existence at Oriskany, Oneida County, New York, was re- 
ported in September about the time of the State agricultural show at 
Utica, supposed to have been brought by Canadian cattle, but subse- 
quent inquiry has failed to afford anything more than report for this 
alleged origin. Atdifferent times from the 15th of November to the 7th 
of December it was brought into Dutchess County, New York, by five 
separate droves from Albany, which had been carried last on the 
New York Central Railroad. It prevailed extensively, and caused great 
losses at Amenia, Pawling, South Dover, Dover Plains, and La Grange. 
From Dutchess County it was conveyed into Connecticut, and spread 
widely in New Milford, Sherman, and Kent. From Albany it was con- 
veyed in a drove to the valley of the Connecticut River, and spread in 
the towns of Hadley, Hatfield, Northampton, and East Hampton. Cat- 
tle from Albany also conveyed the disease to Brighton, Massachusetts, 
and spread it extensively around Boston, at Concord, Ipswich, Newbury- 
port, Acton, Sudbury, &c., reaching at-some points into New Hamp- 
shire. It has more recently gained a footing in Rensselaer County, 
New York. 

TREATMENT. 


Unéer this head little need be said. Keeping the bowels open by 
soft diet, or, if necessary, mild laxatives, administering nourishing 
gruels if the animal threatens to sink, and keeping the seat of eruption 
serupuiously clean, will usually suffice. No vaunted preparations for 
the cure of the disease will really cut it short, as it passes through its 
successive stages, and terminates in recovery in ten to fifteen days, the 
time at which the venders of specifics claim that a cure can be effected. 
A dry floor must be secured, with perfect cleanliness, and the sores may 
be washed daily with a preparation of one part of carbolie acid dis- 
solved in fifty or a hundred parts of water. For the teats, glycerine 


STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 357 


may advantageously replace the water. The milk must be fully with- 
drawn, using a silver milking-tube if the teats are sore and the cow 
restive. 

PREVENTION. 


Importation of ruminants and swine from all countries where it exists 
should be allowed only under the restrictions of a week’s quarantine, 
examination by a competent veterinary surgeon, and sponging of the 
skin with a solution of carbolic acid. 

Diseased stock should be carefully secluded, together with infected 
barns, yards, fields, fodder, rugs, buckets, and other utensils. One 
person should be appointed to attend to them, and forbidden to go 
near other stock, and even to cross a road or other place frequented by 
stock, until he has washed his boots with the carbolic-acid solution. 
All other persons and animals should be excluded. Inspectors should 
wash and disinfect on leaving. ; 

Infected roads should be closed for a month at least. In imfected 
countries or districts, all movement of live stock (cattle, sheep, and 
swine) should be prohibited except under a written permit from the 
local authority, who shoujd assure himself of their soundness before 
granting it. 

Railroad-cars, yards, and loading-banks on which diseased stock have 
been should be well washed or scraped, and then thickly sprinkled with 
carbolic acid. 

A similar thorough disinfection of infected buildings, yards, utensils, 
rugs, &c., is equally essential. Manure should be removed, and plowed 
under by horses. 

No new stock should be brought on the same premises until after 
thorough disinfection, nor upon infected fields until one or more months 
after the last sick animal has left. 

While the disease prevails in the same State, or in an adjacent one, 
newly purchased stock should be placed on quarantine, in a separate 
ee or park, with separate attendants, for a fortnight after pur- 
chase. 

.During the prevalence of the disease the milk cannot be safely used, 
Ln young animals it may be given with impunity if it has first been 
oiled. 


STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE'S FOOT. 


Probably more than $500,000,000 are invested in the horse stock of 
the United States. This value is exceeded only by that of cattle by a 
smail percentage. The average value per animal is not far from $75. 
This low value results, in part, from including in the calculation animals 
of all ages, and all degrees of health and soundness. Without doubt 
oné great cause of this low average value is the wide-spread careless- 
néss that obtains among farmers in regard to breeding. The idea that 
“a, colt is a colt,” leads to entire indifference to the source from which 
it is obtained. Consequently our pastures, highways, and markets ex- 
hibit a large proportion of inferior animals that hardly pay. for the 
raising. Buta very general and powerful influence in the depreciation 
of horse values is found in constitutional and local defects and disabili- 
ties, which are probably exhibited in some form of lameness in eight or 
nine in every ten cases. 

Consideration of the structure of the foot of the horse, of the manner 


358 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


in which it is shod, of the roads on which it is used or abused, and the 
general lack of care in its management, lead us to wonder, not that 
lameness is so frequently met with, but rather that it is not more fre- 
quent—that any horse escapes it. 

Lameness may exist in any part of either extremity, from the shoulder 
or hip to the foot. But, practically, its frequency increases as you go 
from the body toward the feet. For one case of shoulder lameness, ex- 
cept as the result of direct violence, you will see many of the foot. In 
nine cases in ten the seat of the lameness will be found within the ter- 
minal twelve inches of the limb, and within this limit the parts that 
most frequently suffer are those inclosed by the hoof. <A brief glance at 
the anatomy of the foot will show the probability of this statement. 

The horse stands and goes upon the end of one finger in each limb, 
and bears his entire weight on four such finger-ends. These ends are 
covered or surrounded by hard, horny cases, the hoofs. The hoof being 
nearly unyielding in the artificial condition of those animals that are 
kept shod with iron shoes and stabled upon hard and dry floors, even 
the most moderate degree of inflammation of the soft parts inclosed 
must be productive of great pain. Every one who has suffered from a 
felon knows the agony it causes; but the fefon is only an inflammation, 
with suppuration, under a tissue less dense, less unyielding, than the 
hoof of the horse. In addition to this, the inflamed tissue, at every step, 
is compressed between the bone, the actual point of support, and the 
investing hoof, by a portion of the weight of the body. 


ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. 


The foot of the horse is made up of a variety of tissues. Commenc- 
ing at the outside, we find a dense horny envelope, the hoof, and within 
this, fascia, cartilage, cellular and fibro-cellular tissue, vessels, and nerves, 
and still within these a center of bone. The bones of the foot are por- 
tions of the general frame-work or skeleton, and correspond in their 
general plan of siructure with the terminal bones of the fingers in man. 
Before proceeding to a description of these, we will give a moment’s 
attention to the comparative anatomy of the part. 

The bones, muscles, blood-vessels, nerves, and other tissues of the 
fore legs of the quadrupeds of the mammalia are constructed upon the 
same plan as the arm of man, having essentially the same parts, and 
these with the same mutual relations. Whatever difference appears may 
be traced directly to that economy in nature which adapts the simplicity or 
complexity of structure to the extent, variety, and degree of use. So the 
greater simplicity of structure observed in the fore leg of the horse, 
compared with that of the arm of man, is due to the fact that its use is 
limited to the support of the body and its progression. By reference to 
Figs. 1* and 2}, the various bones of the legs may be compared to cor- 
responding portions of the human body. By reference to Fig. 1, the 
plan on which the simplification of the bony tissue of the animal foot, 
as compared with the hand and foot of man, is accomplished, may be seen. 
As will be noticed, the relations between the parts of a foot are con- 


*Fic. 1.—View of the digits present in the feet of different animals, from the ele- 
phant, having an equal number with man, to the horse, having but one; showing also 
the order in which they are dropped: I, iirst digit, corresponding to the great toe of 
man; II, second digit; III, third digit; IV, fourth digit; V, fifth digit. 

t Pic. 2.—Plan of construction of horse’s foot from Allen: I, II, in each figure represent 
corresponding portions of the foot in the human and horse’s foot; a, cl, s, cb, en’, on’, 
cn’, bones of the tarsus; m', m2, m3, m*, m5, metacarpal bones; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, digits; 
P',p’, p’, phalanges; x - - - - , indicating an axis of bones constantly present 
in the foot of every mammal. 


PLATE IX. 


Fig. 1. View of the digits present in the feet of different animals. 
Fig. 2. Plan of construction of horse’s foot. 
Fig. 3. Bone of fore leg, front view. 


PLATE X 


Fig. 4. Bones of fore leg, side view. 
Fig. 5. Hind leg, front view. 
Fig. 6. Hind leg, side view. 


STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 359 


stant. Whatever parts are dropped are from the sides, with correspond- 
ing modifications of the carpal and tarsal elements. This dropping of 
digital elements to contribute to greater simplicity of structure is not 
confined to the foot of the horse; indeed, it has its most complete mani- 
festation short of obliteration in this animal, but is seen to a less extent 
in other animals. Taking five toes as the highest number present in 
any land mammal, we have a reduction to four in the hippopotamus, to 
three in the rhinoceros, and two in the ox. The elements not used are 
frequently present in rudimentary form, as seen in the splint-bones of 
the horse and the two small toes in the ox and hog. Fossil skeletons 
of horses-show that in previous geological eras horses have lived having, 
in addition to the fully developed single digit, two others, perfect as to 
form, but smaller in size. 

The anatomical foot of quadrupeds consists of all the parts beyond the 
radius, or radius and ulna, of the anterior extremities, and the tibia, or 
tibia and fibula, of the posterior. This would include the carpal bones, 
(the knee,) and the bones below, of the anterior, and the tarsal bones, 
(the hock,) and bones below, of the posterior extremities. In point of 
iact, however, uses considered, the foot of the horse is much more limited 
in its extent, including only the terminal phalanx—Fig. 2, “p. 3,” a 
portion of the middle phalanx *‘p.2” and a sesamoid bone, the navicular, 
at the posterior aspect of the joint between the two. (Fig. 14,* “2,” 
3,” “4.”) Below the carpus (igs. 3+ and 4f, ‘“a”) of the anterior, the 
tarsus (Figs. 5§ and 6||) of the posterior extremities, the bones of the. 
leg have similar common names, and are essentially alike in correspond- 
ing regions. Immediately below the carpus and tarsus is a single large 
metacarpal or metatarsal bone, called the cannon-bone, (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.) 
Upon either side of this is a rudimentary bone, the splint-bone, (see 
Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7.) These two splint bones, expanded at their 
upper extremities, where they enter into the formation of the knee 
and hock joints, grow gradually smaller as they pass down by the side, 
and rather to the rear of the main bone, and terminate before reaching 
the fetlock joint. Below the cannon-bone, taking an oblique direc- 
tion anteriorly from it, is the pastern-bone, (igs. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8,) 
(long pastern, os suffraginis.) In length it is from one-third to one- 
half that of the cannon-bone. Below this is the coronet-bone, (Figs. 
3, 4, 5, 6, 9,) (short pastern,. lower pastern, os corone,) which is nearly 
square in form; its transverse diameter being, however, greater than 
its vertical. The last bone terminating the extremity is the cofin-bone, 
(Figs. 5, 4, 5, 6, and 10,) (os pedis.) This bone is deseribed as having a 
body and wings. Its general outline is semilunar anteriorly, superiorly 
it is convex, and posteriorly and inferiorly it is concave. In texture 
it is light and spongy, perforated throughout by canals, (Figs. 16] and 


*¥ig. 14.—Vertical section of the foot of the horse, copied from Owen: J; pastern- 
bone; 2, coronet-bone; 3, navicular bone; 4, coflin-bone; 5, extensor tendon ; 6, part 
of common flexor tendon; 7, deep flexor tendon; 8, posterior expansion of great 
cartilage; 9, soft cushion of the heel; 10, section of horny hoof; 11, sensitive hoof; 
12, anterior section of the cartilage spreading over the coffin-bone, ; 

t Fic. 3.—Bone of fore leg, front view: a, bones of carpus; b, cannon-bone ; ¢, pastern- 
bone; d, coronet-bone; e, coffin-bone. ° 

-{Fia. 4.—Bones of fore leg, side view: a, bones of carpus; b, splint-bone ; c, cannon- 
bone; d, sesamoid bone; e, pastern-bone; 7, coronet-bone; g, coffin-bone. 

§ Fic. 5.—Hind leg, front view: a, b,c, d, e, bones of the tarsus; f, cannon-bone; 
g, pastern-bone ; h, coronet; 2, coffin-bone. 

|| Fra. 6—Hind leg, side view: a, bones of the tarsus; b, splint-bone ; ¢c, cannon-bone; 
d, sesamoid bone; e, pastern-bone ; f, coronet-bone; g, coffin-bone. 

{i F1c. 16.—Posterior view of the coffin-bone, showing the openings into the interior 
canals, through which branches of the plantar arteries and veins enter: 4, a, a, a, en- 
trance to canals. 


‘ 


360 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


17,*) through which blood-vessels and nerves are abundantly distributed 
to ‘the soft and sensitive tissues that cover it. The wings extend directly 
backward from the body, and support the lateral cartilages. Upon its 
superior aspect is a smooth and concave surface, placed obliquely to the 
body of the bone for articulation with the middle phalanx or coronet- 
bone. Applied to the joint between the coronet and coffin bones, pos- 
teriorly, and lying in the concavity of the coffin-bone, is a small bone of 
peculiar shape—the navicular, (Fig. 14, “3.”) This is a sesamoid bone, 
being contained in, or attached to, the jeodea of the deep flexor. It is 
from two to two and one-half inches long, three-fourths of an inch in 
width at its widest part, and half an inch in thickness. Two surfaces 
of this bone, meeting in front at an acute angle, are covered with earti- 
lage and synovial membrane. The posterior surface is rough for the 
attachment of the tendon of the deep flexor. 

Attached to the upper edge of the wings of the coffin-bone are the 
two lateral cartilages. They are irregular in form, elastic, and ex- 
tend backward, giving form, substance, and elasticity to the heel upward 
as high as the pastern joint, and forward, so that only the width of the 
great extensor tendon of the foot separates them. In fact, the fibrous 
investment of the tendon is attached to these cartilages. 

This widely distributed cartilage may be observed passing d@ownward and surround- 
ing on every side the rough and knotty extremities of the heels of the coffin-bone, 
entering and filling up its si inuosities and taking strong attachment to these processes. 
It then extends horizontally inward, passing over the horny sole and bars, and, meet- 
ing the sides of the sensitive frog, intimately unites with ‘it, forming one inseparable 
mass and filling together the whole interior area described by the sides of the coffin- 
bone. The upright. or lateral portion of the cartilage forms with the horizontal por- 
tion passing inward a right angle, thus making together a hollow space or recepta- 
cle at the back of the coffin-bone that contains the spongy, elastic stuffing of the 
heels, together with the tendons, vessels, and nerves passing through the s sole of the 
foot. The upper surface of the horizontal process of cartilage is full of scabrous ele- 
vations and depressions that defy dissection, among which is found a quantity of gel- 
atino-ligamentous tissue. Beneath, or to the under surface of this horizontal layer, 
the sensitive sole and bar are adherent. As it approache s the frog or center of the foot, 
it loses its cartilaginous nature and becomes coriaceous, or rather ligamento- -coriaceous, 
in texture, agreeing in this with the internal frog.—(C yclop. Anat. and Phys.) 

The horizontal portion or process of the cartilage, known by veteri- 
nary writers as the stratiforin process, is of greater thickness and sub- 
stance than the other parts. It is also of coarser grain and more elas- 
tic nature. Both portions together communicate the general boundary 
of form to the lateral, posterior, and inferior parts of “the foot. When 
the bars and the frog are thrust upward by pressure from without, they 
are acting against this same horizontal flooring formed by the cartilage 
and the frog, and are met by the depression of the bones of the foot’ 
forced down by pressure of the weight of the animal. The whole can 
then dilate exteriorly along with the posterior and more elastie parts of 
the hoof. 

Several important purposes are answered by this extensive distribu- 
tion of elastic fibro-cartilage—tirst, the interposition of a layer of elas- 
tic tissue between the hard hoof and the hard bone prevents shock and 
jar to the body as the foot strikes the ground in walking or running; 
secondly, the coffin-bone not extending posteriorly much beyond the 
middle of the foot, except by its projecting wings, 2 large portion of the 
hinder part of the foot is made up of soft elastic earti lage instead of 
bone, materially breaking the force of the blow of the tre ead ; thirdly, 
the general distribution of elastic cartilage serves to equalize the pres- 


* Fig. 17.—Section of the coffin-bone showing the numerous canals for blood vessels 
and nerves. 


PLATE XL 


. 7. Splint bones. Fig. 8. Pastern bone. 
. 9. Lower pastern, or coronet bone. Fig. 10. Coffin bone. 

. 11. Side view of a nearly perfect hoof. 

12. Vertical section of the hoof, interior view, showing the horny lamin. 


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STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 361 


sure of the bones of the foot upon the broader surface of the hoof; and, 
lastly, this arrangement of an elastic cushion, increasing in thickness 
toward the posterior aspect of the foot, affords an elastic support to the 
movements of the coflin-bone in the hoof, thereby aiding the elastic 
lamine upon the superior convex surface in support of the bone. While 
the toe of the coffin-bone is comparatively stationary, there is consider- 
able motion of the heel upon the toe as a center, thereby contributing to 
the extent, freedom, and ease of movement of the foot. 

Molded upon the surface of the coffin-bone, over its entire extent, is 
a thick, villous, highly vascular, and sensitive membrane having the 
general name of the sensitive foot, besides having several local names 
derived from the part of the-hoof under which it lies, as sensitive lam- 
Me, sensitive sole, and sensitive frog. 

This tissue is derived mainly from the skin. It may be said to bea 
process from the skin, covering the coffin-bone, and altered in its struc- 
ture to adapt it to its office as an excretory membrane. It exactly cor- 
responds to that portion of the human skin which produces the nails. 
The preper skin of the leg, as it arrives at the foot, becomes thickened 
and altered in its structure, constituting the mass around the summit 
of the hoof, to which veterinary writers have given the name of coro- 
nary band. This is lodged ina groove seen around the upper edge of 
the horny wail, and from this the straight fibers of the wail are se- 
ereted. From the coronary band there is a prolongation of the skin 
downward over the coffin-bone. This tissue is thrown into permanent 
folds or lamine, the sensitive lamine, between five and six hundred in 
number, arranged lengthwise of the foot. _They secrete matter which 
enters into the formation of the horny wall, to the lamine of whieh they 
are very closely united. According to Virchow, each lamina corre- 
sponds to a single papilla, as seen on the surface of the skin. Similar 
tissue, thickly studded with secreting papille, covers the inferior sur- 
face of the coffin-bone, the fibro-elastic frog, and the widely distributed 
cartilages, already mentioned. This tissue is richly supplied with nerves 
and blood-vessels, the latter forming large plexuses which extend to 
and above the margin of the hoof. ' 

The elastic lamin are found around the whele convex surface of the 
coffin-bone, having a breadth of about one-tenth of an inch and a length 
of about two inches in front, decreasing to an inch at the heels. These 
laminz, much reduced in size and importance, are continued over the 
bars into the center of the foot. Each lamina consists of a single plait, 
or fold of two layers of membrane, which apply closely to, and are 
firmly attached to, two corresponding surfaces of the laminz of the horny 
hoof. Hither in the laminz themselves, or in the fibrous membrane on 
which they rest, and which is the medium of their union with the bone, 
great elasticity resides, so that the coffin-bone, with the weight it sus- 
tains, receives a large part of its support from the lamina, acting as 
hundreds of elastic springs. It is this structure and arrangemént that 
aid greatly in obviating shocks and preserving the integrity of the soft 
tissues at the bottom of the foot. By taking two strips of paper and 
folding them together in regular, even plaits, we have an illustration of 
the method of union between the soft and sensitive and the herny lam- 
ine. If, in addition, one of the layers be considered elastic, the philos- 
ophy of the elastic suspension of the foot would be obvious. 

The tissue constituting the sensitive sole, averaging perhaps one-oighth 
of an inch, thinner over the frog and thicker ever the heels, is even more 
fibrous, vascular, and sensitive than the lamine. Itis closely connected 
with the fibrous tissue of the sensitive lamine in front and the cover- 


362 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ing of the heels and frog behind. From it the horny sole and frog are 
secreted. 

The sensitive tissues that invest the bones of the foot are covered and 
protected by a thick, dense, horny cap or box, the hoof. (Fig. 11.) 
The physiological relation of the hoof to the parts which it covers is 
essentially the same as that of the human nail to the parts covered by 
it. Functionally, its relations are more extensive and complete, and 


whatever differences exist in structure, in form, or extent of develop- 


ment, come from modifications for special use. 

The hoof consists of three portions, which are so closely united as to 
seem but one; yet, by maceration, or by boiling, they can be separated. 
These are the wall or crust, the sole, and the frog. 

The wall (Fig. 13,* e, e, e) is all that part of the hoof that is visible 
below the hair when the foot is placed upon the ground. It is in the 
form of a cylinder, cut across obliquely at the top. It is deepest in front, 
from three to four inches, and grows gradually less in depth toward 
its posterior aspect. This wall, which is secreted mainly by the 
coronary band, and partly by the sensitive wall beneath, isin front about 
half an inch in thickness, becoming thinner on the back side as it extends 
around the foot. It has an edge bearing upon the ground of about half 
an inch around the outside of the bottom of the foot. (Fig. 13, e, e.) 
Upon the inner side of the foot the wall is thinner than upon the out- 
side. 

' The wall is divided into toe, quarters, heels, and bars, superior or 
coronary border, inferior or solar border, and lamine. 

Passing any special description of the borders, the laminze deserve 
more particular attention. 

The lamina, or lamellee, (Fig. 12,) are the very numerous, narrow, and 
thin plates which cover the entire interior aspect of the horny wall. 
They are in length from two inches in front to less than an inch at the 
heels. They are also visible over the bars. They have a very constant 
width of about one-tenth of an inch, and extend from the lower to 
the upper border of the hoof, are essentially parallel to each other, and 
have a free edge and two free surfaces. Each lamella is received into 
and is very closely united to two of the lamelle of the sensitive wall. 


By this arrangement the surface by which the horny wall is attached to. 


the sensitive heof is very largely increased, (by exact calculation of Dr. 
Evans, increased by twelve times,) and this attachment, while possess- 
ing great strength, has great elasticity, and admits of considerable 
motion between the horny sole and the coffin-bone contained in it. 

The toe (Fig. 13, a) constitutes about two-thirds of the wall, and is 
sometimes subdivided, for minute description, into toe, inner toe, and 
outer toe, (Fig. 13, a, a, a.) It is the deepest and thickest part of the 
wall, and stands at an angle, in the average of good feet, of about forty- 
five degrees. When the angle of inclination is much greater than this, 
the feet are designated as flat and weak. Flat and weak feet usually 
obtain in large and heavy animals, and it has been thought that the 
foot is flattened, the anterior wall drawn down, by the weight. 

The quarters (Fig. 13, l', 0’) are the portions on each side, midway 
between the toe and the heels, and are designated as the inside and 
outside quarters. The fibers composing them run obliquely upward 


** Fra. 13.—Ground surface of hoof, from Miles: a, toe; a1, inner toe; a2, outer toe; 
»1, inner quarter; 62, outer quarter; ¢c1, inner heel; ¢2, outer heel; d, @, d, sole; ¢,é, 
wall of the hoof; jf, f, the bars; g, g, the commissures; h, k, l, the frog; hk, part under 
the navicnlar joint ; k, boundary of fhe cleft; i, ¢, the bulbs of the heels. 


PLATE XIL 


SSS 
EULA TEC A 


iy 


F1g.16 Fig. 7, 


Fig. 13. Ground surface of hoof. 

Fig. 14. Vertical section of horse’s foot. 
Fig. 15. Dissection of horse’s foot. 

Fig. 16. Posterior view of the coffin bone. 
Fig. 17. Section of the coffin bone. 


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‘STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 363 


and backward, parallel to those of the toe. The quarters slope down- 
ward and backward, and become thinner as they approach the heels. 

The heels (Fig. 12 7, 2) are the two protuberant portions of the wall - 
by which it is terminated posteriorly. The wall here is shortest and 
thinnest, the fibers being ouly about an inch in length, and not exceed- 
ing the fourth of an inch in thickness. While, i in its natural state, there 
is some degree of elasticity in the entire wall, there is much more in the 
portion that covers the heels. 

The bars (Fig. 13, f, f) are reflections of the wall in toward the center 
of the foot, on its ground surface. They gradually approach each other, 
and come together a little in front of the center of the foot. The bars are 
usually regar rded as parts of the sole, but maceration shows them to be 
separable from the sole, but inseparable from the wall. In the natural, 
healthy foot, that has never been shod, the bars appear as sharpened 
prominences, like braces, between the center of the foot and the heels. 
The best writers agree that they are well adapted to keep the heels open, 
and prevent contr action of the hoof. Inthe unshod foot, the bars have a 
bearing upon the ground, second only to that of the edge of the wall. 

The sole (Fig. 13, d, d, d) fills the space between the wail and the bars. 
It is in the form of an irregular arched plate, the concavity being 
toward the ground. It is firmly attached, by its outer convex edge, to 
the inner surface of the solar border of the wall, while its inner straight 
edges are attached io the bars. It has been described as joining the 
frog, but throughout its whole extent the bars intervene between the 
sole and the frog. The center of the sole is the thinnest portion of it, 
and it also constitutes the summit of the arch. The lower cireumfer. 
ence of the arch, which is also the thickest and strongest, everywhere 
abuts against the sides of the wall. The result of this mechanism is, 
that atevery step, as the weight is thrown upon the foot, the coffin-bone 
descends, elongating the elastic fibrous tissue connected with the sensi- 
tive lamin, and, pressing upon the highly elastic tissue of the sensitive 
sole, which rests. upon the arch of the horny sole, causes the latter to 
yield and descend. The wall being elastic, especially toward the heels, 
is readily pressed outward, so that the ¢ eround surface of the foot is 
larger while bearing the weight than it is when the pressure is removed. 
Whenever the weight i is taken off, the wall springs back, and the sole 
recovers its arched form. By this means the step is rendered elastic, 
jarring is obviated, and injury to the sensitive sole and sensitive frog i is 
prevented. 

The frog (Fig. 13, h, k, 1) is a wedge-like mass filling the angular 
space between the bars, and consists not of solid horn, as might at first 
seem, but of a series of elastic arches. It has been not inaptly com- 
pared to an elastic keystone received into an elastic arch, communicating 
in some eases, and admitting in all, the springing movements of which 
such an arch is capable. "The base of the frog lies between and con- 
nects the posterior curved portions of the hoof, limiting to some ex- 
tent their action. The sides are connected with the bars by their upper 
edges, leaving upon the ground surface two deep channels between the 
lower border of the bars ‘and frog, which have been termed the commis- 
sures of the frog. (Fig. 13,9.) ‘The horny material arching over these 
channels ic called the arch of the commissures. In the center of the frog, 
as we look upon its ground surface, is a deep, narrow depression, the 
cleft of the frog, (Fig. 13 k,) which extends farther into the soft tissues 
of the foot than the commissures. This cleft is arched over in a similar 
manner; and the cone-like mass, as viewed on se inner upper surface, 
has received the name of frog stay or‘bolt. 


364 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Looking upon both the exterior and interior surface of the frog, we 
see that with the bars it forms three elastic foldings, which act as springs 
to keep the heels apart and the foot well spread. In the natural, unshod 
foot, the frog, though protected to some degree by the solar border of 
the wall and by the sharp prominences of the bars, must still receive 
pressure at each step. The order of force in which the different parts 
of the foot press the ground in walking, running, &c., has been stated 
to be as follows: first, the solar border of the wall; second, the bars; 
and third, the frog. In the foot that has never been shod the frog 
has nearly if not quite as much pressure in the full step as the wall. 
In rapid stepping, the edge of the wall, which is nearest the point of the 
coffin-bone, receives the first force of the blow, while the frog, which 
mainly rests upon the elastic heels, a much more yielding substance, 
receives the weight as the foot settles back to its level. The effect of 
pressure is to flatten the arches of the commissures and cleft, to widen 
the frog, throw out the heels, and keep the foot freely expanded. 

The elasticity of the step of the horse is the result of a highly com- 
pound arrangement—first, the elasticity of the sensitive lamine; sec- 
ond, the greater elasticity of the sensitive sole; third, the elasticity 
of the horny wall; fourth, the arch of the sole; and, fifth, the triple 
spring formed by the foldings of the frog and the manner of its union 
with the bars. 

The movements of the foot are produced by two sets of muscles, 
flexors and extensors, similar to the distribution of a single finger in mai. 

The flexors are two in number, and are situated upon the posterior 
aspect of the leg. In the fore legs these muscles are the flexor sublimis 
perforatus, (Fig. 14, “6,”) and the flexor profundus perforans, (Fig. 14, 
“7,” ) also called in works on farriery jlevor pedis perforatus and flexor 
pedis perforans ; also familiarly designated as the conmon and deep flexor 
muscles. These muscles take their origin in common from the internal 
protuberance of the humerus, and are united for a considerable distance 
down the arm, when they separate to form two distinct tendons. Of 
these, that belonging to the perforatus runs beneath the annular liga- 
ment of the carpus, to be inserted into the upper and back part of the 
lower pastern or coronet bone. Just before reaching the pastern joint, 
this tendon divides, to allow the tendon of the perforans to pass through 
it. Each division where it plays over the joint has init a sesamoid 
bone. 

The tendon of the perforans, lying deeper above, passes between the 
divided tendon of the first-named muscle, to be inserted into the poste- 
rior concavity of the coffin-bone. Attached to this tendon, as it passes 
over the joint formed by the coronet and coffin-bones, is the navicular 
bone, considered as a sesamoid bone in this tendon. Two supplementary 
flexors, the accessorii, are described as arising from the posterior and 
inferior aspect of the ulna and the radius, and uniting below with the 
two main flexors. These muscles flex the foot upon the leg. As antag- 
onists to these, there are three extensor muscles situated upon the front 
of the leg, corresponding to the extensor communis digitorum and exten- 
sor minimi digiti of the human arm. 

The extensor communis, otherwise called in hippotomy extensor pedis, 
arises from the external condyle of the humerus, and from contiguous 
fascia, and from the upper and lateral part of the radius, and has a 
strong, fleshy belly, which terminates in a single tendon which passes 
down over the front of the leg to be inserted into the coronal process of 
the last phalanx—the coffin-bone. It unites by a slip with the tendon 
of the next muscle. The extensor proprius minimi digiti is represented 


I 


— —_ —s 


STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 365 


in the horse by two muscles. One of these, called the extensor of the 
pastern, is inserted by a strong tendon into the side of the first phalanx, 
the pastern-bone. The second muscle, placed between the two preceding 
muscles, furnishes a strong tendon which passes down in front of the 
carpus and becomes united with the communis at an acute angle. The 
anited tendon (Fig. 14, “5” ) passes behind the coronary border of the 
hoof to its insertion in the coffin-bone. The office of these muscles is 
to extend the foot upon the leg. Another muscle, the edductor longus 
pollicis, called in hippotomy the oblique extensor of the cannon, by its 
insertion into the base of the cannon-bone, acts as an extensor of the 
foot. 

A similar arrangement exists in the muscles of the hind leg. The 
tendon of the plantaris, of great strength, has a divided insertion cor- 
responding to that of the flexor sublimis perforatus of the fore leg, while 
the fleror perforans sends its single strong tendon between the two 
divisions of the preceding muscle to be inserted into the terminal pha- 
janx. These flexors of the foot are assisted by the tendon of the flexor 
hallucis, which unites with the tendon of the perforans. 'The extensor 
tendon of the hind leg, of great strength, is furnished mainly by the 
extensor communis muscle. The extensor brevis is represeated by a few 
fibers which come from the cannon-bone, and unite with the tendon of 
the communis. The united tendon passes, as the corresponding one of 
the fore leg, (Fig. 14, “5,”) to its insertion in the coflin-bone, — 

The arteries of the foot are branches of the radial, in the fore, and of 
the tibial in the hind legs. The former descends along the radius, 
accompanied by the radial nerve, to a point a littie above the knee, 
where it divides into the large and small metacarpal arteries. Of 
these the large metacarpal is the principal trunk, passing under the 
posterior annular ligament. While passing down the cannon-bone it 
divides into three branches. The middle one is distributed to surround- 
ing tissues, while the cther two become the plantar arteries, internal 
and external. The plantar arteries of the fore leg result from a divi- 
sion of the metacarpal, and in the hind leg from a similar division of the 
metatarsal, and the terminal distribution is alike in both. They descend to 
the lower part of the cannon-bone, (Fig. 15*, “19,” “20,” ““21,”) pass the 
fetlock joint by the side of the sesamoid bones, in company with veins 
and nerves of the same names, and pass into the substance of what is 
sometimes called the fatty frog. They then pass the extremities of the 
cofiin-bone and enter the foramina on the posterior concavity of the 
bone. (Fig. 16, a, a, a, a.) The branches of the plantar arteries are 
very numerous, and no part of the body is more fully supplied with 
blood than the foot. (Fig. 17.) 

The veins of the foot constitute a very intricate net-work of vessels. 
The veins of the frog, the sole, the lamin, the superficial and deep- 
seated coronary veins, unite to form coronary and plantar plexuses, 
(Fig. 15, “25,”) from which are formed plantar veins, (Fig. 15, “22,” 
25,”) which, by their union, constitute metacarpal and metatarsal veins, 
which lie anterior to, and by the side of, the plantar arteries. 


“Fic. 15.—Dissection of the horse’s foot. From Owen: 1, general integument, turned 
hack; 2, fatty mass, forming a cushion behind the great pastern ‘joint; 3, wall of hoof 
turned back, showing the vertically laminated processes projecting from its inner sur- 
face; 4, section of wall of hoof; 5, the articulation between the cannon and pastern 
bones; 6, 6, 6, aponeurotic tissues; 7,7, extensor tendon of the foot; 8, 9, 10, flexor 
tendons of the foot; 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, expansion of the great cartilage of the foot; 16, 
the coronary band raised from the hoof; 17, the vascular or sensitive hoof; 18, elastic 
eushion of the heels; 19, 20, 21, plantar artery; 22, 23, plantar veins; 25, part of cor- 
onary venous plexus raised from its position ; 26, 27, 28, plantar nerves. 


366 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The nerves of the foot are known by names corresponding to those of 
the blood-vessels which they accompany. The plantar nerves (Fig. 15, 
6696,” “627,” 28”) lie by the side of and behind the corresponding artery, 
and, as they descend into the foot, are distributed to the same organs 
and regions. The final branches enter the foramina in the coflin-bone, 
ininutely subdivide in it, pass through its many canals, and escape at 
the edges of the sole to the sensitive parts of the foot, in company with 
the terminal twigs of the arteries. (Fig. 17.) 


DISEASES OF THE FOOT. 


The most practical division of this subject is based upon the structures 
affected, so that we may have diseases of the bones, of the joints, 
of the soft tissues, and of the hoof. A large portion of these are in- 
flammations or the results of inflammation. 

Original inflammation of the bony tissue is comparatively rare, while 
that of the periostial investment of the bone is quite frequent. A 
variety of causes may account for this. Perhaps the most common is 
the evil of overwork. Hard driving on a hard road, as on a plank 
road, on the frozen ground, or on the ice, or the strain of draught at too 
heavy a load, may excite periostial inflammation, and from this as a 
commencement we may have splint, spavin, ring-bone, nodes, &c. 

Splint (Fig. 18) is a bony tumor at some point about the cannon and 
splint bones. The knee-joint is formed at its inferior part, between the 
lower row of carpal bones and the cannon and splint bones, the two 
latter forming a considerable portion of the joint. As the leg is flexed 
these bones slide upon the cannon-bone, contributing to the elasticity of 
the step. When the motion is violent and long continued, especially 
with striking upon a hard surface, irritation first and inflammation after- 
ward may be produced in the periostial membrane covering these bones, 
Bony matter is thrown out in the immediate vicinity of their adjacent 
surfaces, and the result is a sealing together of the bones and the for- 
mation of a bony tumor. Unfortunately the condition is frequently 
overlooked until the change is complete and the disease beyond a remedy, 
for when the bony union is thoroughly consolidated it cannot be reme- 
died. For a time, while the deposit is fresh callus, and the circulation 
active, measures to abate the inflammation and to excite the absorption 
of the deposit may restore the integrity of the part. 

Ringbone, (Figs. 19 and 20.)—In the pathology of the disease splint 
and ring-bone are the same. They have the same causes, and are pre- 
ceded by the same stages of morbid action; but, from the relation of 
parts, ring-bone, at its forming stage, gives rise to earlier and greater 
lameness. Attention is earlier called to the disease, and treatment is 
usually sooner applied. Splint may goon to its final stage of bony con- 
solidation without giving rise to much lameness, and without attracting 
attention to the diseased part, which may escape observation unless the 
hand is passed over the small tumor; but in ring-bone usually the lame- 
ness appears with the inflammation, and the earliest effusion over the 
region calls attention to the seat of the disease. 

Spavin, (Figs. 21, 22, 23, and 24.)—When it consists in the deposit 
of bony matter about the hock joint, and the consequent cementing to- 
gether of the tarsal bones, or the destruction of the tarso-metatarsal 
joint, is a similar disease, having essentially the same causes. This form 
of disease may exist in every degree, from a slight exostosis near the 
joint to such an amount as will entirely destroy the joint, and so invade 
the soft tissues that the slightest movement is productive of\great suf- 
fering. : 


; 


PLATE XIII. 


Fig. 18. Cannon bone with splint; a the splint. 

Fig. 19. Pastern and coronet, showing ring-bone. 
Fig. 20. Pastern bone, showing commencement of formation of ring-bone. 
Figs. 21, 22, and 23. Spavin. 


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STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 367 


Treatment.—Cure or alleviation is possible only in the first stages of 
the disease, so that on the occurrence of lameness for, which the cause 
is not obvious, careful search should be made in the localities in which 
splint, ring-bone, or spavin may occur. Tenderness and perhaps swelling 
may be detected by careful examination. The first requisite is rest. 
Bathing with warm water should be prompily and perseveringly resorted 
to. The foot should be put into a bucket of warm water, which should 
be applied with a sponge to the locality of inflammation. Should there 
be pain, as shown by general uneasiness and constant movement of the 
limb, a poultice should be applied, moistened freely with a mixture com- 
posed of equal parts of the tiactures of aconite root, opium, and bella- 
donna. The application of a mixture of one part chioroform and two 
parts sweet-oil may act asa revulsive. Later, when the pain has sub- 
sided, the tenderness somewhat abated, and only swelling remains, an oint- 
ment of one part of the iodide of lead with eight parts of lard will be found 
useful in removing the swelling and remaining engorgements of the 
parts. When put again to use, the animalshould be at first gently ex- 
ercised and brought gradually to his work. 

‘The abuse in driving, which gives rise to periostitis and the deposi- 
tion of bone about the joints, may result also in ulceration of the ecarti- 
lages and bones entering into the composition of the joints. The parts 
most usually affected are the knee, the hock, and the joints of the navicu- 
lar bone, with the coronet or coffin-bone. The commencement of the 
disease is an inflammation of the synovial membrane which lines the 
bony surfaces between which the motion of the joints occurs. Prolonged 
lameness follows. Perfect rest at this time with proper treatment may 
remove the condition, but by neglect, and continued use, the disease 
is readily carried to its advanced stages. The inflammation extends to 
the cartilages covering the joint-surfaces of the bones. The vitality ot 
this tissue is so low that it readily breaks down under the inflammatory 
action, and is removed by the ulcerative process. From this condition 
perfect recovery is impossible. The best result possible is the formation 
of a blind spavin, by the cementing of two opposite surfaces of bone 
by an intermediate bony deposit. Instead of this,the ulcerative pro- 
cess may extend to the bony tissue itself. In Fig. 25 may beseen this 
ulcerative disease as it invades the navicular bone. 

‘That disease of the navicular bone may and does exist is undoubted, © 
as witness the two diseased bones in Fig. 25, but that itis one-tenth 
part as frequent as some claim admits of great doubt. Navicular 
disease, like “ shoulder lameness,” has been made to answer all obscure 
causes of lameness. Except as a constitutional disease, it can only 
occur, under any ordinary circumstances, in a wide-spread and flat foot. 
In ordinary forms of the coffin-bone it is raised so high above injury 
that one can hardly conceive it to happen from this cause alone. The 
only condition from which it can ordinarily arise is inflammation of the 
synovial membrane. This may be excited by a bruise, communicated 
through the sensitive sole and frog, and also the tendon of the perforans. 
It more frequently occurs, however, as the result of violent and long- 
continued movement, as in fast driving over long distances; and even 
in this case there probably exists a constitutional disposition to disease. 
The disease is one fruit of inflammation of a low grade, terminating in 
ulceration of the cartilage, and finally of the bone. Itin no way dif 
fers from ulceration of the bones in other joints except in its termination. 
Being on the under surface of the bone on which moves the tendon, it 
cannot recover by becoming cemented to a fellow-bone; so that it is 
doubtful whether navicular disease, when it has proceeded to the extent 


368 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


of ulceration of the bone, ever recovers. Treatment in the earlier stages, 
by rest, by foot-baths, by tonic and alterative medicines, and by good, 
nutritious food, may arrest the disease and restore health to the part. 

There is another form of disease which is produced by the irritation 
of hard driving upon a hard road-bed, or by the constant strain of 
moving heavy loads, and especially in heavy horses. I refer to the ossi- 
fication of the cartilages of the feet. (Fig. 26.) During the trans-. 
formation from cartilage to bone, any unusual exercise may produce 
some degree of lameness. Fullness, heat, and a doughiness of the part 
may be detected by careful manipulation. Later, in place of the soft, 
elastic feeling of the healthy foot, we find the solidity of bone. As the 
change becomes complete, there is but little direct lameness, but the 
part becomes stiff. The animal is unfitted for the saddle and rapid 
driving, but may still be useful for draught. Before the bone is fully 
formed, and especially during the earlier stage of inflammation, the 
trouble may sometimes be prevented. The measures to be adopted are 
similar to those previously mentioned—rest, abundant warm-water bath- 
ing in the earlier stages; stimulating friction, and the use of the iodide 
of lead ointment in the later stages. 

Of the affections of the soft tissues, perhaps the most common is 
laminitis. This term applies to inflammation not only of the laminze 
but of the entire fleshy portion of the foot. It is not always the most 
readily detected, and in some of its more common and milder forms it 
entirely escapes notice. The lameness is assigned to the shoulder or 
some other locality; but when we refer to the position of this tissue, 
between a dense bone and a dense unyielding horny envelope, and toits 
use to suspend the bone and consequent entire weight of the animal 
from the wall, and consider that it suifers some degree of pressure at 
every step, we can understand how the slightest morbid condition of the 
part, the congestion of its vessels, or irritation of its nerves may—nay, ’ 
must—give rise topain and consequent lameness. Fortunately, in prac- 
tice this is much less frequent than, theoretically, we might expect it to 
be. Any horse that has been driven for several hours upon a hard, or 
stony, or hot and sandy road would seem to be fairly fitted for some 
degree of congestion of the soft tissues of the feet. At the close of 
such exertion he is stabled, perhaps upon a damp floor, or where a 
draught of air may blow upon him. No thought is given to the condi- 
tion of his feet. He is fed, and perhaps he may have been moderately 
eroomed; but of the entire animal no part has undergone so much 
exposure or hardship.as the feet, and no part really needs so much 
attention. 

Laminitis, or, as it has been called by writers, fever of the feet, or 
“ founder,” may exist in all degrees, from the simple congestion of the 
part to the most severe and disorganizing inflammation. It is mainly 
exhibited in the fore feet, being an uncommon disease in the hind feet. 
This is mainly due to the different kinds and degrees of force used in 
the action of the fore and hind legs and fect. In movement a much 
ereater amount of weight comes upon the fore legs and feet, the direction 
of the blow upon the ground is different, and the consequent strain and 
pressure upon the soft tissues much greater. 

If acute laminitis is present in one or both fore feet, itis manifested by 
the very obvious efforts of the animal to relieve itself from pressure. If 
one foot only is suffering, this is put forward and is so rested upon 
the heel that not only is pressure taken off, but the parts are relaxed to 
a still greater extent by the weight of the limb. At the same time, the 
foot is kept in continual motion, indicating extreme pain. There is heat 


PLATE XIV. 


# A Sta st 
PE 


ca eo 


Fig. 24. Spavin, the lower tarsal bones cemented by bony deposit. 
Fig. 25. Navicular disease; ulceration{/of the bone. 
Fig. 26. Coffin bone, side view, showing ossification of the lateral cartilages. 


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STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 369 


in the hoof,and especially in the coronary band around its summit. 
There may also be tenderness in this tissue on pressure. If both fore- 
feet are aifected, the animal endeavors as far as possible, by settling back 
over the hind feet, to take off the pressure from them. This attempt 
may also be shown by the continuous change from one foot to the other. 
In severe forms of the acute disease the entire system will sympathize 
with the local disease. The arteries supplying the part or parts will be 
found throbbing; the general arterial circulation will be quickened; the 
pulse will become considerably accelerated, and the constitutional con- 
dition will be one of symptomatic fever. 

The disease if unchecked may go on to the destruction of the soft tissues 
of the foot. Cases are on record in which the entire hoof has been shed 
by the separation of the soft from the horny foot. This is a rare termi- 
nation, but the formation of an abscess and partial separation is not so 
uncommon. Before this result occurs, however, the disease has usually 
passed into the chronic form. Prompt resort to appropriate treat- 
ment may result in restoration to health. 

By no means advocating indiscriminate blood-letting, we would in 
this case recommend the free local abstraction of blood, either from the 
toe of the afflicted foot, or from the plantar vein. If the case is a very 
severe one, a branch of the plantar artery of one side may be divided. 
The foot should be placed in a large bucket of warm water, and allowed 
to bleed in it. Care should be taken to keep up the temperature by 
frequent additions of hot water. When the foot is removed, it may be 
placed in a large poultice, having previously been drenched about the 
coronary border with a liniment composed of two ounces each of the 
tincture of aconite root, belladonna, aud opium, with six ounces of soap 
liniment. 

Hor the constitutional disturbance, the tincture of aconite root, fifteen 
to twenty drops in water, may be administered every hour or half hour 
until a decided impression is made upon the frequency and hardness of 
the pulse.* Later, saline medicines, such as the nitrate of potash, wili 
aid in preventing secondary affections. 

Laminitis may have a variety of terminations. First, it may terminate 
in a complete disappearance of all the symptoms, that is, by resolution, 
and there be a complete recovery. Second, it may pass into a chronic 
condition in which all the symptoms are of a mitigated character. When 
quiet, the pain is slight, and the heat is little, if any, in excess of the 
natural state. If the animal is allowed rest upon a soft floor, or is turned 
to run in a paddock, the lameness may be scarcely obvious; but attempt 
to drive him, and, either while on the road or afterward, he becomes very 
lameagain. This condition may continue almost indefinitely. Third, the 
inflammation may terminate in suppuration, which may be confined to a 
small region of the foot, and eventuate in a partial recovery, or it may be 
general and so extensive as to destroy the connection of the hoof with the 
soft tissues. Under the latter circumstances the hoof may be lost. When 
the destructive suppuration falls short of producing complete separation, 
it may be sufficient to permit of a change of relation of the coffin-bone 
to the hoof. A portion of the anterior attachments may be destroyed so 
that the bone may fall away from the horn. In a flat and weak foot this 
may cause a bulging of the sole, producing what is called the pumice 
foot. If the hoof is preserved, the space produced by the falling of the 

*Half a drachm of belladonna with fifteen grains of digitalis may be given every 
half hour, or in emergency the following draught may be given overy hour until the 
proper impression is made on the system: Tinct. aconite root and tinct. beHadomma 
fifteen drops cach, and sulph. ether and laudanum half an ounce each. 


24 A 


370 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


coffin-bone is filled by fleshy granulations. The foot, however, suffers 
permanently, and lameness is constantly present. 

Such is the structure of the foot that, even when the damage is less 
than that just described, the suppuration continues and burrows in vari- 
ous directions, seeking an outlet. Except when the inflammation and 
. suppuration are confined to a limited space in the sole of the foot, the 
discharge must escape from the crown. At some part of the coronal 
border of the hoof, swelling is perceived, which either opens of itself or - 
is opened by the knife, which is preferable. When suppuration has 
commenced, the animal should receive better and more nutritious food, 
while stimulating injections to the opening may be useful. Should the 
sinuses become chronic, it has been recommended to trace their number 
and direction with a delicate probe, and then freely lay them open. To 
do this, the hoof must be softened by soaking in warm alkaline water, 
when it may be cut easily. 

Limited suppuration of the soft tissues of the foot may occur from a 
variety of other causes, such as a wound made by the shoe of one foot 
in the coronet of the other, or by the prick of a nail driven into the 
quick or so near it as to cause inflammation by pressure, or by a bruise 
made by the heel of the coffin-bone, to which the term corn is applied. 
In all these cases suppuration may follow inflammation, and the severity 
and extent of the trouble will depend upon the locality of the injury, 
and the distance the product of suppuration has to travel to reach a 
point of exit. 

A fourth termination may be designated—that by metastasis. The in- 
flammation being situated in the fibrous tissues of the foot is liable to 
leave that locality and to seize upon similar tissues elsewhere, and under 
unfavorable circumstances we may have resulting inflammation of the 
brain or pleura, or indeed of any of the fibrous tissues. A fifth termina- 
tion may be in mortification, the result of which would be almost cer- 
tainly fatal at an early period. 

Laminitis may be sub-acute from its commencement. it is apt to take 
this form in old horses that have been subjected for a long time to hard 
work. Its approach is gradual, pain at first small, and lameness slight 
and not constant. The foot should be given the same treatment 
as in the more acute form. The warm bath should be used freely. 
Bleeding would probably be injurious, and any debilitating medicines 
must be withheld. The bowels may be loosened by fresh vegetable 
food, such as potatoes or carrots, and if pain is present one ortwo 
draughts in the day containing an ounce of suiphuric ether and a drachm 
of laudanum may be given. Plenty of good, nutritious food should be 
given. The horse should not be used on the road until all the symp- 
toms have been absent for several days. He may be gently exercised 
on a soft sward as soon as the inflammation is subdued. 

A permanent, incurable lameness often results from the contimued use » 
of ahorse suffering from some degree of inflammation of the soft tis- 
sues of the foot. Whenever this condition is detected, the animal should 
be given rest, and subjected to treatment with a view to the cure of the 
disease, 

We have spoken of a limited suppuration with sinuses between the 
hoof and the coffin-bone as the result of injury to the coronet, the prick 
of anail, or a bruise, which form an abscess at the crown of the foot. 
To certain abscesses in this region, resulting from an ulceration of the 
deeper-seated cartilages, the term quittor has been applied. The local 
condition on which this disease depends differs widely from that causing 
a similar discharge in a healthy foot by direct injury. Quittor is a deep- 


ip cts ela 


STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT: Bri i! 


seated lesion of the foot, seated in the cartilages, or perhaps even in the 
coffin-bone itself. It may follow the inflammation of injury, orit may 
originate in constitutional conditions. Neglected corns, increasing by 
continued bruising, may cause by pressure the ulceration and mortifica- 
tion of the cartilage, or even of the bone. Fracture of some part of the 
coffin-bone may eventuate in this disease. It rarely gets well without 
assistance. When itis diagnosticated, a well-informed veterinary sur- 
geon should be called. The treatment is mainly by local injections, aid- 
ing nature to discharge the product of ulceration and stimulating to 
healthy granulations. Of course the animal is utterly unfit for use. 
We have spoken of corns. These make their appearance in two forms, 
the true and the false. The locality of the true corn is the angle caused 
by the inflection of the bars, and is between the bars and wall. In this 
space the posterior extremities of the coffin-bone move freely in the 
movements of the foot. By the irritation of frequent, prolonged, and 
severe use, a thickening of the laminew is produced. This hardens and 
ultimately becomes a semi-corneous tumor. It may remain in this con- 
dition, or it may become a smooth, dense horn, more dense than any 
part of the hoof. It is a constant source of pain and consequent lameness. 
The more common false corn is a bruise of the sensitive sole which 
lies directly under the hee! of the coffin-bone. This occurs most fre- 
quently in feet having a flat, level sole, deficient in the arch. It may 
oceur in any variety of foot which is kept badly shod. A shoe with a 
broad web level upon its foot-surface, and seated for its whole width 
upon the wall and sole, will aid in the production of this form of dis-. 
ease. Several varieties of the false corn are described, but they are 
simply different stages of the same disease. The true corn is essentially 


_jineurable. For the false, in its early stages the general principles of 
y) 7 Q < I p 


treatment to abate local inflammation may arrest the disease. If sup- 
puration can be prevented, the duration of lameness will be much lim- 


-ited. Care should be taken that the shoe should have its bearing only 


on the solar border of the wall, and a very slight portion of the outer 
border of the sole. ‘To this end, a shoe should be used with a narrow 
web, but little over half an inch in width; or the shoe with a wider web 
should be seated so that its bearing-surface would be narrow. Sup- 
posing the case has been neglected and suppuration has occurred, the 
pain and lameness will be great until the matter isevacuated. The sole 
must be carefully pared away until the horn is very thin, when an open- 
ing must be made through it, and the pus evacuated. If great pain is 
inflicted by the attempt, the foot should be soaked in a warm alkaline 
bath, by which the horn will be softened, and the extreme tenderness 
abated. If possible, the foot should be kept in a poultice for a day or 
two, or three, according to the previous severity of the disease. After 
that the shoe may be reapplied, care being taken that the opening through 
the horh be so protected that no dirt or gravel can enter. 

A condition similar to false corn may exhibit itself in any portion of 
the ground surface of the foot as the result of a severe stone-bruise. If 
detected early, the warm foot-bath, with rest, will be sufficient treatment 
for it. : ; 

One of the most common of the diseases of the foot bears the popu- 
lar name of thrush. Of its exact nature and locality perhaps no two 
hippopathologists agree. Mayhew, Youatt, Spooner, and others char- 
acterize the disease by one of its symptoms, and speak of it as “an 
offensive discharge from the cleft of the frog,” to which is sometimes 
added “ with disorganization of the horn.” Both these are symptoms 
of the real disease, which is a low. form of inflammation in the soft 


siz AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


tissues of the sensitive frog. It exists in feet that have been allowed 
to stand in damp, ill-cleaned stalls, where they are continually covered 
with wet manure. Running in a wet yard predisposes to it. Gamgee 
describes thrush as “a diseased condition of the villous membrane cover- 
ing the frog,” and says that it is, in its usual form, produced by filth and 
neglect. 

The true seat of the disease is, we believe, in the superficial and less 
fibrous tissues of the sensitive frog. Itis doubtful if true inflammation 
is present. Pain is usually present in inflamed tissues, and thrush is to 
a remarkable degree a painless disease. One of the properties of the 
sensitive frog is to secrete the tissue that becomes the horny frog. 
Now if, by reason of local or constitutional debility, the secretive action 
of the part is imperfect; if the secreted matter, lacking vitality, instead 
of producing horn breaks down _. pus, or pus mingled with half- 
formed and decomposing horn; we shoul 1d get just the condition we 
have in thrush. 

in the healthy frog the cleft is so perfectly covered over by an arch 
of horn that fluid could escape only through an artificial opening; but 
in this diseased condition, the horn is both in so imperfect a state from 
defect in its original secretion, and so disintegrated by the direct 
influence upon it of the dise eased secretion, that the offensive pus escapes 
freely irom it. 

It has been claimed that contracted feet, and too great and long-con- 
tinued paring of the frog, are the main causes of this disease. They 
undoubtedly predispose to it, as they contribute, by change of the form 
of the foot, to affect a change in the nutrition of the organ. But thrush 
is seen, perhaps, in a well-spread, open foot as frequently as in a con- 
tracted one. Constitutional condition has much to do with the local 
manifestation. An animal poorly nourished and cared for, other things 
being equal, will be more likely to exhibit the disease. 

Any treatment that loses sight of the constitutional condition wiil. 
fail to do its best work. First of all, the horse should be placed in a 
stall having a dry floor, or on a short and dry sward, covering @ warm 
sandy soil. Then he should have thoroughly nutritious diet, and, if the 
disease has been of long standing, aiterative and tonic medicines may 
be given. Red bark, sulphuret of antimony, and niter, in the propor- 
tion of two parts of the first to one part each of the last two; or a ball, 
consisting of a quarter of a grain of strychnine, half a drachm of iodide 
of iron, half a scruple of extract of belladonna, and extract of gentian 
and powdered quassia sufficient to make it, may be given night and 
morning. The foot should be put into a path of warm water and 
thorough! bly cleansed; all dust and pus should be carefully removed from 
the commissures, and the part dried by the use of dry tow. Then into 
the crevices should be poured, once a day, a little of a solution of the 
chloride of zine, (three grains to the ounce of water). The foot is to be 
kept shed with calkins, so that afree space may be left under the foot for 
the circulation of the air. Cases will yield more readily to simply con- 
stitutional than to simply local treatment. A judicious combination 
of the two will have the happiest results. 

The condition of thrush neglected may pass into that of canker. Canker 
of the foot joo be an original disease in low-bred, ill-conditioned horses, 
exposed in wet or filthy stables or yards, and poorly cared for. It more 
frequently, however, follows thrush which has been neglected. It com- 
mences in the same ‘tissues, rapidly extending frem the frog to the sole 
and the laminated structures. The disease consists in destructive in- 
flammation, with ulceration, which destroys the connection between the 


STRUCTURE AND DISEASES OF THE HORSE’S FOOT. 3738 


sensitive and horny sole and frog. After atime a foul fungus sprouts 
from the ulcerations, accompanied with exceedingly disagreeable dis- 
charge. The horn of the sole and frog becomes disorganized, and breaks 
down. Thefungoid granulations, with the constitutional depravity which 
predisposes to them, constitute the disease. 

The treatment consists in the removal, by the knife, of all the detached 
horn, together with as much of the fungoid tissue as can be removed 
without “the loss of too much blood, and the application of astringents 
and mild caustics, so applied as to remove the remaining fungus and to 
change the action of the part. Constitutional treatment, tonics, and 
alteratives, with good care and nutritious food, will do much i in causing 
a successful issue. 

It is believed that much of the obseure lameness to which horses some- 
what advanced in years, and especially those that have had much 
severe driving and work, are subjected, is rheumatic. From the nature 
of the tissue composing the sensitive foot, so largely fibrous as it is, we 
might anticipate that from long-continued ‘hard usage there would arise a 
degree of irritability in that tissue that would cause lameness. This con- 
dition must not be confounded with acute rheumatic fever, to which 
horses are sometimes subject, and which is a different disease. The 
disease of which I speak in this connection is an irritability and painful 
condition of the fibrous tissue, without any of the products or results of 
the inflammatory action. 

The animal should be housed in a dry and airy stable, but sheltered 
from draughts of air, and should be blanketed. The feet should be 
treated to a warm bath, and then be rubbed dry, and have an application 
of Fahnestock’s liniment, and be bandaged. At the same time there 
may be given daily in meal an ounce of acetate of potash, with a 
seruple of powdered colchicum; or a draught of the following: iodide 
of potassium, two ounces; liquor potasse, one quart; of which two 
. tablespoonfuls may be given, night and morning, in a pint of water or 
mixed with feed. 

There are several diseased conditions which manifest themselves in 
the horny foot. Of these the most important are the flat or convex sole, 
or the pumice-foot, and the sand-crack. The false quarter is in no very 
great degree different from the sand-ecrack. All disease or malformations 
of the horn must originate in injury or in disease of the soft tissues from 
which the horn is a secretion. 

The pumice-foot, which consists in a falling of the sole to a level with 
the solar border of the wall, or even so as to constitute a convex surface, 
is usually preceded and caused either by a destruction of the elastic 
lamin® attaching the coffin-bone to the horn, or to an elongation of the 
same, or else to a softening, spreading, and flattening of the entire hoof. 
Animals with natural flat feet—those that have been bred on marshy 
land, where their feet have been kept soft, are most liable to exhibit this 
form. Probably nothing can restore this kind of foot; but care in shoe- 
ing may enable the animal to be of some service. 

‘Sand-crack is a fissure in the hoof, which begins at the caronet, the 
thin edge first breaking away. It is a disease of nutrition, the horn of 
the foot being secreted in diminished quantity and impaired quality. The 
break, small : at first, is extended until it may divide the entire hoof. It 

usually 0 occurs in the quarter, and perhaps most frequently at the inner 
quarter. It has been asserted that the whole difficulty is produced by 
bad shoeing. Low condition, impure state of the blood, and lack of 
care are predisposing causes. In this conjuncture slig oht injury to the 


374 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


coronet may be followed by such deficient secretion of horn at that place, 
that the weakened part may give way and sand-crack take place. 

if possible, the animal should be given entire freedom from work, and 
should be turned into a small paddock, or have a loose box, in which he 
may move somewhat. He should have nutritious food, and sufficient 
green food or bran mash to keep his bowels free. During the early 
stages of the disease, and while efforts are being made to restore the 
soundness of the foot, the horse is better without shoes, as the natural 
movements of the parts tend to restore their vitality. The bar-shoes, 
recommended by some writers, are useful only in those cases of long 
standing which are essentially incurable, and where the horses are to be 
putto slow work. The part should be interfered with as little as possible ; 
there should be no cutting, paring, or burning; and care should be taken 
to keep dirt, gravel, &c., from the open sore. The healthy condition of 
the open and granulating surface should be maintained by frequent 
washing with soap and water, and the application of the solution of 
chloride of zinc, (three grains to the ounce of water.) If the animal is 
in use, before being taken out the crack should be filled with lint satu- 
rated with the solution, which should be confined in place by a strip or 
cloth completely covered with tar. This should be removed as soon as 
the horse returns, and the wound be cleansed, if it is at all foul, and 
carefully dressed again. If treatment is commenced early, a fair degree 
of expectation of recovery may be entertained; but, in many cases, 
through neglect or lack of proper treatment, a permanent deficiency 
of the hoof remains. In such cases, by the use of a bar-shoe, properly 
adjusted, the animal may be made of some use. 

Contraction of the horn of the foot is a frequent cause of lameness. 
This may occur at some part of the coronary border, or may be in the 
quarters, or may be confined to the heels; the last being, perhaps, its 
most frequent locality. Contraction at the cornorary border produces 
lameness mainly by pressure on the extensor tendon. Movement pro- 
duces irritation dnd consequent pain, which is shown when the animal 
is at rest by his putting the foot forward. This position relieves 
the pressure upon the tendon, and gives partial relief from pain. Con- 
traction at the quarters and heels may not always cause lameness. If 
the condition comes on very gradually, changes of the contained parts 
may so accompany it that little if any lameness will be eaused simply 
by the contraction. Again, the contraction may be the consequence of 
other disease, and the result of a partial cure and a previous lameness 
lessened. Contraction may result from cbronic founder or fever of 
the feet. It may be produced by long-continued stabling upon a dry 
plank floor. Thrushes may so demoralize the floor of the foot as to 
cause contraction. Too great and constant paring away the bars of the 
foot may destroy their. resistance to the approach of the heels, so the 
paring of the frog may destroy the function of that organ as an 
elastic spring to keep the heels open. The degree of lameness that 
follows the change of form produced by these causes is not so great 
as when it results from inflammation of the elastic portions of the 
foot. ‘The changes are more rapid, and pressure is made upon the sens- 
itive portions of the foot. The horse indicates the amount of pain he 
suffers by the peculiar short and quick character of his step, and the 
gentle. and light manner in which he places his feet upon the ground. 
When not in motion, he rests his feet forward, and is continually chang- 
ing them. Contraction is apt to be seen most frequently in bighly bred 
horses with a naturally high and narrow foot. This is one of the causes 
of Jameness in which the advice and probably the treatment of an edu- 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 315 


cated veterinary surgeon are important. No definite directions for treat- 
ment can be given. 

There are several other forms of disease in the foot, but they are 
either so slight, or so rare, or so little amenable to treatment, that we 
will not cumber this article with them. In closing, we advise that in all 
serious or doubtful cases of lameness an educated veterinary surgeon 
be called. If such a one is not obtainable, the advice of an educated 
physician may aid in determining the locality and cause of disease. 
This known, treat the case according to the suggestions of this article. 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 


Though not generally appreciated, the importance of the Alaska fish- 
eries to the population of our western coast can hardly be overestimated. 
At the present time, however, the American fisheries upon the coast of 
Alaska are almost exclusively devoted to the capture ofthe cod. In the 
following paper we give a résumé of the growth and condition of that 
fishery, and also some account of the other marine and of the fresh- 
water fish of the Territory, the periods when they appear, the methods 
of capture, and the extent to which they may be made available by our 
American fishermen, either as bait or for home consumption. For con- 
venience in reference, they will be divided into two classes, marine and 
fresh-water fishes, and the details of the fisheries will be given in gen- 
eral under the respective heads. To assist the fishermen and others in 
their intercourse with the inhabitants of the Territory, the native and 
Russian names of the several species are given, whenever known, as 
well as the English and scientific names. The range of the several 
kinds in these waters is also given, as far as possible, and the seasons 
during which they especially abound. Few observations having been 
made by competent men upon these points, the information here recorded 
is necessarily very far from complete. When we recollect that a popu- 
lation of thirty thousand souls has from time immemorial sustained 
itself chiefly on the product of the fresh-water fisheries, and that, with 
all the prodigality and want of forethought characteristic of aborigines, 
few ever suffer with hunger, we may more adequately recognize the 
abundance of the finny tribes. 


MARINE FISHES. 


The principal marine fishes of Alaska are the cod, halibut, herring, 
ulikon, smelt, mullet, and tom-cod. 


Cop.—Gadus macrocephalus, Tilesius; Russian, Treska. Gadus, Sp., 
“small cod” of the fishermen. 


Cod, in the North Pacific, as in the North Atlantic, are the most 
important of the marine fishes from a numerical as well as an eco- 
nomical point of view. They form the staple of the Alaska fisheries 
at present. They have from time immemorial formed one of the staple 
articies of food upon which the littoral inhabitants of the Territory 
rely. Their distribution is extensive, ranging from the Straits of Faca 
to the ice-line of Bering Sea, in latitude 59° north. This line appears 
to be their northern boundary, although itis possible that stragglers 


376 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


may find their way north of it during the summer season. This ice-line 
is the southern line reached in mid-winter by the fioating ice, and 
it forms the northern boundary of many southern animals, as well as 
the southern limit of many arctic forms, not only of fish, but of other 
animals, and of plants. The distribution of the cod, east and west, 
north of latitude 50° north, is only limited by the line of the coasts of 
Asia and America. The shallow waters of the Ochotsk Sea were 
noted for their cod fisheries before the Alaska fishing grounds were 
open to American enterprise, and have only been less frequented since 
the latter, more easy of access and provided with numerous safe harbors 
of refuge in stormy weather, have come under our jurisdiction. 

The time of reaching the peninsula of Kamehatka, according to Mz. 
Davidson, who has collected many facts in regard to the North Pacific 
cod fishery, is about the 1st of July; but good, small fish may be taken 
as early as the ist of June in the Kurile Strait. At this date, fish 
are not found on the west coast of the peninsula. In July fish may be 
taken in moderate quantities on the southeast side of Cape Lopatka, 
the southern extremity of Kamchatka, and in the western part. of 
the Kurile Strait; but the best fishing grounds commence about forty 
miles northwest from Cape Lopatka. Here, at the beginning of the sea- 
son, the fishery is near the shore, but it is twenty to twenty-five miles 
from land in latitude 52° 30’ north to latitude 53° north. On this 
ground they are usually taken in twenty-five to thirty fathoms of water, 
though they are found in sixteen fathoms within three miles of the 
land. They are also caught eighteen to twenty miles from shore, in 
depths from forty-five to sixty fathoms, according to latitude. 

When the fish first come upon the west coast of Kamchatka, about 
the first of July, they are thin and poor, but improve rapidly. Fish 
taken here two weeks after their arrival on the ground are alittle larger 
than those taken on the coast of Labrador, but not so large as those 
taken on the Grand and other off-shore banks in the North Atlantic. 
in quality they compare very favorably with the latter. For bait the 
vessels have taken salt herring from San Francisco; some have carried 
fresh herring, from Petropavlovsk, in snow and ice; others have used the 
small halibut caught on the cod banks. 

4n 1866 about fifteen vessels sailed for the Ochotsk. Vessels should 
leave San Francisco as early as March, arriving upon the grounds in 
April, and leaving the banks for San Francisco in September. The 
most fruitful of the Alaska fishing grounds are considerably to the 
north of the southern limit of the migrations of the cod, and may be 
said to extend northwest from Yakutat or Bering Bay along the coast 
and the line of the Kadiak and Aleutian archipelagoes. The cod-banks 
are generally in the vicinity of land, yet off-shore banks have been and 
will continue to be discovered, though the fishermen endeavor to retain 
the secret of such discoveries. Such banks are usually to be looked for 
in the direction of the trend of the adjacent islands or in lines parallel 
to that trend. The soundings of Portlock, Vancouver, and the 
United States Coast Survey expedition prove the existence of a com- 
paratively shoal bank extending along the southeastern coast of Afog- 
nak and Kadiak, with a deep pocket (no bottom at ninety fathoms) 
twenty-five miles east of St. Paul. The shoalest water found upon this 
bank, by Mr. Davidson, of the United States Coast Survey, was forty- 
five fathoms. It probably extends along the southeast shore of Kadiak. 
Belcher caught cod and halibut under Cape Greville, the eastern point 
of Kadiak. South by east, fourteen miles from the eastern end of the 
easternmost point of the Trinity Islands, Vancouver found bottom at 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 377 


fifty fathoms; and fifteen miles south of Ukamok at seventy-five fath- 
oms. Thirty-five miles east of the south end of the island of Niuniak, 
the most southern of the Shumagin group, Mr. Davidson obtained bot- 
tom at forty fathoms, and nine miles southeast of the Sanak reef at 
thirty-five fathoms. Near this last-named locality, Cook caught over 
one hundred halibut, ranging from twenty to one hundred pounds each. 
He therefore called it Hatibut Island. Mr. Davidson discovered a fine 
cod-bank about sixty-five miles southeast (true) from the middle of the 
Akutan Pass, and forty miles south-southeast from the Unimak Pass. 
Here the water has a depth of sixty fathoms, with pebbly bottom. 
Many fine cod were caught, of which one was thirty-six inches long, 
twenty-three inches in girth, and weighed twenty-seven pounds. ; 

Some of the vessels are said to commence fishing along the coast 
north of latitude 54° 40’ north, and to work northward along numerous 
banks which they have found. The fish are taken in from fifteen to 
forty fathoms, the very best fish in thedeepest water. The banks along 
the Gulf of Alaska, around the Kadiak group, and part of the Aleutian 
chain, have an area of not less than forty-five thousand square miles, 
with a depth of not over fifty fathoms. If the fishing depth extends 
to one hundred fathoms, there is little doubt that the cod-fishing area 
will reach one hundred thousand square miles. In addition to the fish 
eries of the great bank, the cod are reported to run in great numbers in 
and around the entrance of Hamilton Bay, near the western part of 
Frederick Sound. Lisiansky caught them with hook and line in Sitka 
seaemt Portlock, abundantly, at Port Etches; and Belcher near Cape 

iniak,. 

The importance of the possession of the Aleutian chain can hardly be 
overestimated; not only can our fishermen enter and fish in every bay 
when heavy weather compels them to leave the banks, but they are 
afforded ample opportunities for the successful curing of the fish, cer- 
tainly as great as, if not greater than, exist on the southern shore of New- 
foundiand. Mr. Davidson suggests that, instead of making the long 
trip to and from San Francisco, and keeping the fish so long in salt, es- 
pecially if imperfectly cleaned, it would be feasible to make a general 
depot and curing establishment, for instance at Kadiak, where vessels 
could carry the catch of all the smacks, which might easily refit in 
winter and be ready for the opening of the next season. Kadial is 
preferable, as affording the nearest timber available for repairs, and as 
already being the depot for the ice-trade of the Pacific. The Aleuts are 
patient, skillful, and fearless in their fishing, and under proper guidance 
might be very profitably employed in the taking and curing of fish. 
The waters between Aliaska Peninsula and the Shumagin Islands are 
well protected from the heavy swell of the Pacific, and afford the great 
advantage, that vessels while fishing may always lie under the lee of 
some one of the numerous high islands, thus making fishing a much 
more comfortable business than when riding out in the open sea. 

The fish abound in proportion to the quality of the bottom, and quantity 
and kind of the food it affords. A muddy bottom seems to supply the 
greatest development of the marine life upon which it subsists, and when 
the depth of water is greater than fifteen fathoms the flavor of the fishis 
not impaired thereby. Ata less depth, however, the fishermen report 
that the fish are of an inferior quality. The spawning ground of the 
North Pacific cod has not yet been discovered, and a rich harvest will 
await the fortunate fisherman who may chance to light uponit. Itis 
well known that at the spawning season the fish are in their finest con- 
dition, most abundant, and most easily caught. It is possible that the 


378 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


southeastern coast of Kamehatka and the Kurile islands may be the 
locality, and it would be worth while to examine these localities at the 
season when the fish are absent from their usual feeding grounds among 
the islands. 

The cod have been found in more or less abundance along every 
part of the northwest coast within the limits above mentioned, but at 
present the favorite locality appears to be in or about the Shumagin 
group of islands. These islands were discovered by Bering, in his 
second voyage, on the 29th of August, 1741, and were named after one 
of his crew who died and was buried upon one of them. They are 
situated in longitude 160° west and latitude 55° north, and comprise 
four large and about a dozen small islands, with a total area of about a 
thousand square miles. They contain several Aleutian settlements, 
and Unga, the largest, has two fine ports, the north and south harbors, 
where wood, water, bait, and fish abound. The banks already discovered 
exceed in extent those of Newfoundland. The best banks in the Ochotsk 
Sea are on the west coast of Kamchatka, and near the north end of 
Sakalin Island. The round voyage to the Ochotsk Sea averages one 
hundred and seventy days, without facilities for obtaining bait or fresh 
provisions, and with no good harbors. The voyage to the Shumagins 
and back occupies about one hundred and ten days, a saving of two 
months and two thousand miles in time and distance, in addition to 
the facilities for obtaining fresh provisions, wood, and water, and the 
proximity of good harbors of refuge in bad weather. The fishermen 
about the Shumagins usually run into North Harbor on Saturday night, 
and spend Sunday in resting from their labors. 

The fishermen who make the voyage on a “lay” are said to clear about 
$100 per month during their voyage. The supply of bait has some- 
times been taken from San Francisco, at a cost of about $100 for a 
vessel of one hundred-tons. Others have relied on halibut and seulpins 
taken on the ground. There is hardly a locality with a muddy bottom 
where the dredge would not bring up, with but little labor, an abundance 
of shell-fish suitable for bait. Thisis known to be the case in North 
Harbor, Unga Island, and we are informed that it is also true of all 
the places where the dredge has been tried. Herring and other small 
fish in their season might be obtained with a seine in immense numbers 
at slight expense, and the squid, the most taking of all baits for the cod, 
is extremely abundant at Sitka and many other localities. There appear 
to be two kinds of cod on the North Pacific fishing grounds, which may 
or may not be stages of growth of one species, but they are certainly 
different from the Atlantic codfish. The first of the two kinds referred . 
to is small, but of good quality, and is supposed to frequent the banks 
during the entire year. The larger species arrives on the banks about 
May 10, and disappears about the 10th of September. These average 
7.2 pounds when salted, and are a little smaller than the fish obtained 
in the Ochotsk Sea; but they dry heavier, averaging about four pounds. 
Both kinds differ from the Atlantic cod in having larger heads in pro- 
portion to the size of their bodies. 

Cod have been taken in abundance at Nootka, Sitka, Lituya Bay, 
Yakutat Bay, Chugach Gulf, Cook’s Inlet, Bristol Bay, and throughout 
the Kadiak, Aleutian, and Pribyloff Islands. In 1865 and 1866 the 
Western Union Telegraph exploring vessels obtained an abundance of 
fine cod in North Harbor, Unga Island, and off Unimak Island, in forty- 
five fathoms, in the months of August and September. 

The weather on the fishing banks from June to the middle of August 
is rainy and foggy, with light southeast winds. From that time until 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 379 


the latter part of September northwest winds and fine weather are the 
rule. Later in the season heavy southerly gales occur. Notwithstanding 
the weather, which much resembles that of the Newfoundland banks, 
there is no serious obstacle to drying and salting the fish ashore, as on 
the Labrador coasts. The folly of statements to the contrary is ¢vident, 
when we recollect that the principal dependence of the large native 
population in winter consists of fish dried without salt during the sum- 
mer season. It may be safely estimated that not less than five hundred 
thousand fish are annually dried in this way for winter use; indeed, 
Russian statistics show that, in a single season, at one station alone, over 
four hundred thousand were thus prepared. The Aleuts and other 
tribes fish for cod with a large hook made of wood and barbed with bone, 
lashed on with seal-skin thongs, and with a line of the twisted fibers of 
the Macrocystis, or giant kelp, which often grows to the length of one 
hundred and fifty feet. 

The supply from the Alaska banks has stopped the importation of 
codfish from the eastern ports into San Francisco, and much larger ex- 
ports may be expected, when the curing process is properly understood 
and carried out. The yearly supply from the Atlantic States was for- 
merly about five hundred tons. The fish were not cured upon the 
Aleutian Islands, because the territory belonged to Russia, but were 
kept in salt about six months, or until the return of the vessel to San 
Francisco, evidently to the injury of the cargo. Many of the persons 
engaged in the fishery knew nothing of the proper method of curing and 
preparing the fish, yet the prices commanded were from 74 to 13 cents 
per pound in gold; in February, 1868, the average rate was 9 cents per 
pound. One vessel carried a full cargo direct to Australia, and received 
8 cents per pound. The price in 1870 averaged 7 to 83 cents per pound 
in gold. New cargoes of fish have been disposed of as high as 13 cents 
per pound. In the quarter ending June 30, 1868, five hundred and 
twenty-one hundred-weight of fish were exported from San Francisco to 
New York. These exports are constantly on the increase, and San 
Francisco, at this moment, supplies the Sandwich Islands, Australia, 
and the entire west coast of North and South America, with the pro- 
duct of her fisheries. Many Cape Ann and Gloucester fishing schooners 
have gone around Cape Horn, and are now plying their vocation in the 
North Pacific. The total amount of fish imported from foreign waters 
into the United States during the eight months ending August 31, 1867, 
was nine hundred and ninety-four thousand nine hundred and eighty- 
eight pounds; for the same period of 1868 it was nine hundred and 
twenty-seven thousand five hundred and forty pounds; and the value 
of cod imported during the quarter ending June 30, 1868, was $119,127. 
These facts show abundant room for the extension of the fisheries in 
American waters. It is to be regretted that since the purchase of the 
Territory of Alaska no exact record of the imports of fish has been 
kept, as they come under the head of coastwise trade. The immense 
catch of 1867 temporarily overstocked the market, which will account 
for the fewer vessels employed in 1868; yet this fact stimulated foreign 
merchants, and ‘the result has been a large and rapidly increasing ex- 
port trade. . 

No tongues and sounds and but little cod-liver oil have been saved. 
In 1866 ten thousand galions of eod-liver oil were reported. There is 
no doubt that this amount will, in future, be largely increased. The 
following is the extent and value of the Pacific cod-fishery since its 
origin, estimated from all the available sources of information, and with 
the valuation computed from the average of the rates for the season: 


380 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


No. of | Pounds of salt- | Value of the fish 


tear | vessels. ed fish. in gold. 

As cle EO he ee oe 
TBO Reps Sao ayemtnals att etete Seta eaten er i 288, 000 $31, 680 
MBO ae ects «Matin. Lon cise Lats CORA Ra CA By Bis | 1, 255, 200 125, 520 
UBGG Ys eee eee, SRE oS 5 pans ee Bese 18 2, 873, 600 332, 624 
Pe hte siege ceils Comoe he em 23 5, 121, 600 348, 110 
TESIETCL. CSS RARER pie ae al we gl eo a i 19 3, 417, 600 273, 408 
(elo) aaa Ses SA Secs Es pee lies 2 27 7, 390, 400 591, 232 
UC LUSen 2M cok, Cle Sees a ds oa a 33 10, 612, 000 754, 840 

PEM tte RN et Be BC ka ellen ible 30, 958, 400 2, 457, 414 


Tom-cop. Gadus gracilis, Tilesius; Russian, Warkhni; Innuit of Norton 
sound, Jkothlik. 


This fish much resembles the common tom-cod of the Eastern States, 
(Gadus polymorphus, Mitch.,) but, while the latter is of most insignifi- 
cant importance from its scarcity and poor quality, the former species 
occupies a very important place in the domestic economy of both na- 
tives and Russians, on both shores of Bering Sea. Itis apparently a 
permanent inhabitant of these coasts, but is most abundant in the fall of 
the year, when the ice begins to form in the rivers and along the shores. 
The Waukhni fishery commences about the middle of October. At first 
it is caught from boats anchored close in-shore, but later the natives cut 
holes in the new ice, set up two or three stakes, with a mat hung upon 
them to keep off the wind, and sit there all day, hauling them in as fast 
as the line is dropped into the water. The hook is made of white 
walrus ivory, furnished with a sharp pin set in obliquely, but without a 
barb. The whiteness of the ivory, which is kept constantly in motion, 
attracts the fish, but no bait whatever is used. In November, when 
the ice becomes very thick, and the cold increases, the fish retire to 
deeper water, and the fishing is over until the following spring. In the 
summer the natives are oceupied with the salmon fishery and pay no 
attention to these small fish. They are preserved by removing the in- 
testines, and drying in large bunches strung on seal-line, or by throw- 
ing them as they are into long cylindrical baskets made of twisted 
grass, and keeping them entire ina frozen state. On the Kamchatka 
coast they are caught in seines, and preserved frozen in great heaps 
upon staging erected for the purpose. They are among the most pala- 
table of the many fish found in these seas, and the number preserved is 
So great as to be almost incalculable. They serve the natives for food, 
either boiled or in the frozen state. They also form an important arti- 
cle of dog-feed in the northern portions of Alaska, near the eoast. They 
are well suited, from their abundance and firm flesh, to be used as bait 
in the cod-fishery. 


HERRING. Clupea mirabilis, Girard; also, Clupea sagax, Jen.; and 

. . ) ? . ? > aed . Y y ) . 

probably other species of Clupea; Russian, Koraski, Selotka ; Innuit 
of the Kuskoquim River, K’pookachat. 


The herring of Bering Sea, and the North Pacific generally, resemble 
those of the North Atlantic, but belong to different species. They 
arrive in Norton Sound about the 15th of June, in countless myriads. 
They visit Sitka earlier in the season, but we have not been able to dis- 
cover the exact date of their appearance. They are equally abundant 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 381 


in June on the coasts of Kamchatka, and, indeed, throughout Bering 
Sea, as far north as Bering Strait. On Norton Sound the fishery lasts 
but a fortnight. The fish are secured in seines, and kept until they are 
half putrid, when they are reckoned a great delicacy. The same custom 
obtains in Kamchatka. Near Sitka, and through the adjacent archi- 
pelago, they come in vast schools, and the Indians of the Thlinket | 
nation go out in their cedar canoes, furnished with a lath, through 
which three nails are driven, and the projecting points well sharpened. 
Beating the water with this implement they throw the fish by a dexter- 
ous motion into the canoe, which can be filled easily in half an hour. 
So greatis the abundance of the fish that it is “‘ rare not to see a herring 
on every nail.” 

In September, when drawing the seine for salmon at Diuliuk Harbor, 
Unalashka, the Coast Survey expedition obtained herring of large 
size, fatter and of much finer flavor than the herring caught on 
the California coast. Portlock mentions that when hauling the seine, 
June 11,in Port Etches, hogsheads of small but very good herring were 
obtained, and salted for the use of the crew. Lisiansky says that her- 
ring swarm in Sitka Sound every spring; and Seemann states that her- 
ring and whiting are caught in great quantities in Hotham Inlet, 
Kotzebue Sound, in latitude 67° north. These fish, besides their intrinsic 
value, have an important bearing on the question of the cod fisheries, 
in supplying bait, which is now brought from San Francisco for that 
purpose at high prices. Up to the present date no attempt appears to 
have been made by Americans to utilize this herring fishery. 


Uxicon. Thaleichthys Pacificus,Givard; Ulikon of the natives and 

English. 

The ulikon has long been an icthyological curiosity, and has been 
noticed by almost every traveler who has visited the coasts of British 
Columbia and Southern Alaska. It is a small, silvery fish, averaging 
about fourteen inches long, and, in general appearance, much resembling 
a smelt, (Osmerus.) They are the fattest of all known fish, and afford 
a very superior oil when tried out. Dried, they serve as torches; when 
a light is needed, the tail is touched to the fire and they will burn with 
a bright light for some time. No description can give an adequate idea 
of their numbers when ascending the rivers from the sea. The water is 
literally alive with them and appears to be boiling. Wild animals draw 
from the stream with their paws sufficient for all their needs. 

These fisheries, as far as we are aware, have not been utilized except 
by the natives. The most important of the native fisheries is on the 
Nasse River, near the southern boundary of Alaska. Thespot is named 
Kit-lak-a-laks, and a Catholic mission was and still may be situated 
there. Many tribes come to these fisheries, which begin about the 20th 
or the 25th of March. The first fish is addressed as a chief; apologies 
are made to him by the Indians for the necessity of destroying his 
kindred for the supply of their own wants; a feast is given with appro- 
priate songs, speeches, and dances in his honor; and after that the 
fishing goes on. The fish are caught in wicker baskets, and are dried 
or smoked as much as their oily nature will allow. The fishing lasts a 
fortnight or three weeks, and supplies many hundred aborigines with 
food for a considerable period. 


HAuisut. Hippoglossus vulgaris? Cuv.; Kdmbala and Pdltoose of the 
Russians. 


These fish are frequently smaller than those of the Atlantic fisheries, 


382 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


but near Sitka and along the coast they are often taken from three 
hundred to five hundred pounds in weight. Their range is from the 
Aleutian Islands southward to Cape Flattery. They are not found north 
of the ice-line in Bering Sea, except, perhaps, in summer. They extend 
_ westward into the Ochotsk Sea with the cod, and already form an article 
of commerce among the west-coast fishermen. They are said to surpass 
the eastern halibut in flavor when properly cured. The-weight of the 
annual catch has not been recorded. 


SMELT. Hypomesus olidus, Gunther; Kariskka of the Russians. 


This excellent table fish ranges from San Diego, California, northward 
along the entire coast. It does not occur in sufficient numbers to render 
it an article of commerce, except near large settlements. It is very 
abundant, however, at Sitka, and in other localities. 

Other marine fishes exist on the coast of Alaska, which form articles 
of food to a greater or less extent. The mullet (a species with which we 
are not familiar) is said by Seemann to replace the salmon on the sea- 
coast north of Kotzebue Sound. Among other species noticed, but not 
yet determined, the following are known to occur on the Alaska coast: 
Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus, Pallas; flounder. Platessa stellatus, 
Girard; spiny flounder. Hexagramma stellerit, Tilesius; seulpin. 
Hemilepidotus trachurus, Pallas; sculpin. Mallotus villosus, Miller; 
capelin. Orthagoriscus analis, Ayers; sunfish. Humicrotremus orbis, 
Gunth.; globe-fish. Hippocampus ingens, Girard, and another species 
of Hippocampus, the sacred fish of the Makah tribe of Indians at Cape 
Flattery, who have many superstitions connected with it. 


FRESH-WATER FISHES. 


The fresh-water fishes, in point of numbers and the quantity of food 
which they furnish, are even more important than the exclusively ma- 
rine fishes. These chiefly comprise salmon, white-fish, losh or burbot, 
(sometimes called eelpout,) pike, and suckers. We have thought it 
best to give the names and descriptions of these different fish, and ap- 
pend an account of the method of fishing for them, which is much the 
same for all the species. 


KING SALMON. Onchorhynchus orientalis, (Pallas,) Gunth.; Russian, 
Chowichee ; Tinneh tribes of the Yukon, A’hak ; Innuit of the Kus- 
koquim, Tagyakvdk; Indians of Cook’s Inlet, Teldgi; Thlinkets or 
Koloshians of Sitka, Askat; Innuit of Norton Sound, Takiyukpuk. 


This is the largest and finest of the Alaska salmon, reaching a weight 
of sixty to ninety pounds. Those weighing eighty pounds are not un- 
common, and others weighing a hundred-weight have occasionaliy been 
taken. This fish, or a fish called by the same name, ranges from Sitka 
to Bering Strait, and is found in ali water-courses from the tideways 
of the Alexander Archipelago to the broad current of the Yukon. It 
ascends the latter river for at least twelve hundred miles, and 
perhaps farther. It is a short and broad fish, with a large head, 
but comparatively small mouth and fins. It reaches the mouth of the 
Yukon about the middle of June, and runs for six weeks. It ascends 
‘the river slowly, reaching Fort Derabin (about three hundred and sixty 
miles above the mouth of the river) about the first week in July, and 
Fort Yukon (about one thousand miles above the mouth) about the mid- 
dle of July. It is dried for winter use by the natives. All dry fish is 
called wkali (or yodkalee) by the Russians. The chowichee ukali are 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 383 


made by cutting the fish in three slices, after removing the head, leav- 
ing the back-bone in the middle slice, and all three connected by the 
tail. ‘Two or three dry chowichee ukali will weigh at least fifty pounds. 
One of them is accounted sufficient for a day’s food for six men or dogs. 
They cost, from the natives upon the Yukon, one leaf of tobacco each, 
or, when dry, five to eight musket-balls per ukali. The more northern 
the ground where the fish are taken, the finer their flavor, and the cho-. 
wichee of the Yukon were held in such esteem that several hogsheads 
were annually salted for the Emperor’s table by the Russians. 


SALMON. Onchorhynchus lagocephalus, (Pallas,) Gunth.; Russian, Kée- 
zich; Tinneh tribes of the Yukon, Nutglaghih; Innuit of the Kusko- 
quim River, Kakia. 

SALMON. Onchorhynchus proteus, (Palias,) Gunther; Russian, Hoikoh ; 
Yukon Tinneh, Nig laghih; Innuit of the Kuskoquim, Nikniat. 


These two species have the same range as the king salmon, and are 
dried for food in the same way. They are, however, much more common, 
much smaller, and are held in less esteem. They form the bulk of the 
better class of salmon in all the rivers of Alaska. They arrive later 
than the king salmon, remain longer, and travel more rapidly. They 
reach Fort Derabin upon the Yukon abont the 10th of July, and Fort 
Yukon early in August. They weigh from ten to thirty pounds, and 
dry, after cleaning and removing the back-bone, to about two or three 
pounds. They are more slender than the king salmon, and the males 
are furnished in the breeding season with a formidable array of recurved 
teeth, so that the natives are accustomed to knock them on the head 
with a club before attempting to remove them from the nets. 


RED-FISH. Onchorhynchus. sanguinolentus, (Pallas,) Gunther; Russian, 
Krasnoi riba; Yukon ‘Tinneh tribes, Neliyih ; Innuit of the Kusko- 
quim River, Nikeet. 

BLACK SALMON. Salmo purpuratus, Pallas. 

DoG-FISH. Onchorhynchus lycaddon, (Pallas,) Gunther; Yukon Tinneh, 
Nulaghih ; Russian, Korbushka; Innuit of the Kuskoquim River, 
Amakak. 


These species are principally valued for use as dog-feed. They are 
placed in the order of their quality as articles of food. The purpuratus 
is not found north of Aliaska Peninsula. They are all exceedingly com- 
mon, of small size, and appear later than the previously mentioned 
varieties. The red-fish, as its name denotes, is partly of the most bril- 
liant searlet, but its flesh is not so red as that of the king salmon or the 
hoikoh. They arrive in July, and disappear late in August. ‘ 


SALMON TROUT. Salmo alpinus? Linn.; Russian, Kolshéh; Yukon Tin- 
neh tribes, Kholotusih; Ulukuk Tinneh, Kokolimydé; Innuit of the 
Kuskoquim River, Ankliogat. | 


This fish appears much more abundant in the smaller rivers than in 
the larger ones, such as the Kuskoquim and Yukon. They are seldom 
or never found in the lakes, as far as we have been able to ascertain. 
They remain in the rivers during the entire year, and are caught in the 
greatest abundance during the winter months. The Ulukuk River, in 
Northern Alaska, is especially noted for these fish, which are most de- 
licious, far exceeding any other fish of the country in their delicate and 
delightful flavor. They seldom weigh over ten pounds, and average 
two pounds in weight. They are very beautiful in appearance, silvery, 


384 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


purple, and olive, with scarlet spots, and are very slender, almost sub- 
cylindrical in shape. 


Brook TROUT. Salmo sp. 


Brook trout are not found north of the peninsula of Aliaska, on the 
American side of Bering Sea. They are obtainable at Avacha Bay, on 
the Asiatic side, but probably do not go much farther north. They have 
been observed at North Harbor, Unga Island, in the streams of Cook’s 
Inlet, and near Sitka. They are usually very dark colored, indeed 
almost black. 


THH SALMON FISHERY. 


Next to the cod and herring, the salmon fishery is undoubtedly the 
most important branch of this traffic. The number of this fish on the 
Alaska shores is inconceivable. ‘Chatham Harbor,” writes Portlock, 
“is filled with salmon; the smail river which empties into it is swarm- 
ing with them; the bears come down and feed upon them, catching the 
fish with their paws, and eating only the head. I have sometimes seen 
twenty bears thus engaged in one day.” On the same authority, the 
anchorage at Port Ktches afforded two thousand salmon at one haul of 
the seine; they existed in such numbers that any quantity might have 
been obta ined. Vanc couver reports ‘‘ salmon in great quantity leaping 
in all directions” in the Portland Canal, July 29, 1793. Salmon and 
trout were found in great abundance in the rivers falling into Lituya 
Bay by La Perouse. The Stikine River, according to Mr. Davidson, of 
the United States Coast Survey, abounds in salmon, which are split 
and the back-bone taken out, and are then cut into strips and smoked 
by the natives. Thirteen hundred natives, living between Chugach 
Gulf and Yakutat Bay, live exclusively upon fish, which they obtain 
with the greatest ease, according to Tebenkofi. Mr. Davidson says: 

At some of the entrances to shallow fresh-water streams the water is packed with 
salmon. On some ef the beaches near these streams the seine will take them in 
thousands. In the bays leading to the small streams at their head, on the southeast 
side of Aliaska Peninsula, the salmon are crowded so thickly that the progress of a 
boat is impeded, and should a southeast storm arise at such times, the fish are driven 


upon the beach in innumerable quantities. One of the Russian navigators assures us 
that he has seen the beach strewn two or three feet thick with the stranded salmon. 


The chief winter food of the natives is salmon, dry and smoked, of 
which they provide very large quantities. Seemann says: 

Salmon, so numerous in Norton Sound, latitude 64° north, are not found to the north- 
ward of Buckland River, emptying into Kotzebue Sound, in latitude 66° 05’ north. 
They appear, however, to be replaced by the mullet, which attains a considerable size. 
I obtained for a blue bead a mullet thirty-three inches long, weighing twenty-one 
pounds. 

The number of salmon annually consumed by the natives of Alaska 

cannot be less than twelve millions, at the lowest estimate. At the 
Russian fishery near Deep Lake, Baranoff Island, eighty-four thou- 
sand one hundred and fifty-nine fish were obtained during a single 
season, of which two-thirds were salted. At the fisheries upon Kadiak 
and Cook’s Inlet, four hundred and sixty-five thousand salmon were 
caught annually. Among the articles sent by Baranoff to the Sandwich 
Islands were four thousand three hundred and forty-four casks of salted 
salmon, which realized the sum of $69,871 in coin. At the mouth of 
the Yukon not less than two million salmon are annually dried for winter 
use, and probably double that number. Words fail to give an adequate 
idea of their number. We have seen the weak and injured fish which 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. °- 385 


die after spawning stranded in piles, three or four deep, on the banks 
of the Unalaklik River, a small stream flowing into Norton Sound. 

The following notes in regard to the running of the Yukon salmon 
were obtained from the natives at Fort Derabin, Nulato. ing salmon: 
arrive at Nulato “‘ when the trees have got into full leaf,’ about the 20th 
of June, and continue to run about three weeks. The last that come 
up are poor and lean. Hotkoh: the first arrive about the 10th of July, 
just as the king saimon are about gone, and they last about three weeks. 
Stragglers are occasionally canght as late, as January. fed fish: this 
arrives about a week or ten days after the first hoikoh, and continues 
with the latter until about the end of August. A few straggling dog- 
fish are occasionally caught with it, but the majority of this species do 
not ascend the river as high as Nulato. eezich: this is the last of the 
salmon to ascend the river, and is obtained until the cold weather sets 
in and puts a stop to the summer fishing. 

In Kazarn Bay, Clarence Sound, a Russian, in July, 1868, put up two 
hundred barrels of salmon a week, and, had he been provided with 
sufficient facilities, might have packed double that number. The salmon 
run there from July 1 to August 39. 

The United States Coast Survey has made a sketch of the outlet of 
Glubokoi, or Deep Lake, near Sitka, on the south side of Sitka Sound, 
where the Russian American Company have built traps, dams, foot- 
bridges, and houses in the most substantial manner. The dams and 
traps lie across the upper part of the rapids, which have a fall of nine 
feet over rocks. The traps are large rectangular spaces, made with 
stakes placed near enough to each other perpendicularly to allow a free 
flow of water, and yet to prevent the salmon passing between them. 
The side of the trap toward the descent has an opening like the entrance 
to an ordinary rat-trap on a large scale. The fish rush up the rapid and 
pass through the opening to the staked inclosure, where they remain 
swimming against the moderately strong current. When several salmon 
have entered, they are lifted out with a kind of wicker basket and placed 
in large boxes lying between the traps, of which there are six, with 
means of adding as many more. The last year’s catch that was packed 
for market amounted to five hundred and twenty barrels, containing 
eighteen to twenty-five salmon each, and weighing, when packed, about 
two hundred and fifty pounds. As high as one thousand salmon have 
been taken in one day. In 1868, the year’s catch, under the impetus of 
American enterprise, was two thousand barrels. 

There are, however, many localities at which salmon are much more 
plentiful than at Sitka. Mr. Davidson states that at the Russian trading 
post and salmon-fishery at Karta Bay, in 1868, it was expected that three 
thousand barrels of salmon would be put up. Mr. J. Piluger, Hawaiian 
consul at Petropaulovsk, on the west coast of Bering Sea, informed us 
that, with the aid of two men and a few native women, he was enabled 
to put up six hundred barrels of salmon in the course of the season of 
1866. The fish were caught with a seine, in a smail cove of Avacha 
Bay, and, being sent to the Sandwich Islands, were sold at a great profit, 
the gain from this operation alone amounting to much more than the 
profit upon the trade in Siberian sables, in which he was engaged for the 
previous three years. Large fisheries have been for some years located 
upon the Columbia River. The fish are taken only in gill-nets, at night, 
when the water is clear. Two men, with their boat and net, will average 
twelve hundred pounds in one night. The river being a mile and a half 
wide at the locality of the fishing grounds, most of the salmon escape, 
and the product of a night’s work seems paltry and insignificant, com- 

25 A 


386 , AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


pared with the catch which may readily be obtained by the Russian 
method practiced in Alaska. The northern ‘salmon fisheries, after the 
traps and dams are once laid, ean be prosecuted with a tithe of the 
labor employed on the Columbia River. The northern salmon are also 
superior 1n size and flavor. 

Five establishments on the Columbia have put up salmon for several 
years in hermetically-sealed cans. This canned salmon will keep for 
many years in any climate without deterioration. Hence it brings a 
very high price. In 1870 these establishments canned about one mil- 
lion eight hundred thousand pounds. This was sold at prices averag- 
ing 14 cents per pound, a total value of $252,000; beside which, other 

‘parties salted salmon to the amount of five thousand barrels, which, 
selling at 5 cents per pound, afforded the sum of $62,500. 

It is certain that salmon can be packed in almost any part of Alaska 
and landed at San Francisco at a cost of not more than $5 a barrel, in- 
cluding freight and all ether expenses. There they will readily command 
$12a barrel. Should parties desire to can the salmon, though requiring 
at first a larger investment of capital, the prices and profits realized 
might be much greater. 

The white-fish of Alaska have not yet entered into commerce; those 
of Lake Superior command very high prices, and it is reasonable to sup- 
pose that when the fisheries of Alaska are worked in earnest by Amer- 
ican enterprise, so fruitful a source of profit will no longer be neglected. 
The species are as follows: 


GREAT WHITE-FISH. Luciotrutta leucicthys, (Pallas,) Gunth.; Russian, 

Naylima ; Tinneh tribes of the Yukon, N@lagha. 

This enormous white-fish is the finest of its tribe, both in size and 
flavor. It is found in the rivers most of the year, but is most plentifully 
obtained and is in its best condition about the months of June and July. 
We have seen them four feet long, and weighing about fifty pounds. It 
is distinguished by its long nose and slender form, and is of a silvery 
white, somewhat darker above. It is fuli of spawn from September to 
January, when it disappears. 


BROAD WHITE-FISH. Coregonus muksun, (Pallas,) Gunth.;- Russian, 
Miksin; Tinneh tribes of the Yukon, Teliyuh ; Innuit of the Kusko- 
quim, Ka-ukhtoot. 

This is the next in size of the Alaska white-fish, and reaches a weight 
of thirty pounds. Itis distinguished by its broad body, short head, and 
large scales. It is usually very fat, and excellent eating. It abounds 
in both winter and summer, spawning in September in the small rivers 
falling into the Yukon. 


ROUND-FISH. Coregonus nasus, (Pallas,) Gunth.; Tinneh tribes of the 

Yukon, Htivien; Russian, Krug. 

A long, slender, subcylindrical fish, not very abundant, but of exeel- 
jent quality. They are caught occasionally throughout the winter on 
the Yukon, and are distinguished by their attenuated muzzle and peeu- 
liar form. 


Humppack. Ooregonus, sp. indet.; Russian, Kozabati; Tinneh tribes of 
the Yukon, Kolokith. 
A common species, charaeterized by the strongly arched back and 
broad tail. The scales are large, and the fish rather bony, and inferior 
in flavor. It is generally used for dog-feed, exveps in times of scarcity. 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 387 


WHITE-FISH. Coregonus, sp. indet.; Russian, Morskot ciga ; Tinneh tribes 
of the Yukon, Telmikkah. 

This is the most abundant and best-flavored species of Coregonus in 
most localities. It is distinguished by its small scales, fins, tail, and 
head, and is of symmetrical proportions and moderate size. It rarely 
exceeds three pounds in weight, and is the staple article of food in 
winter on the Yukon. Te 


NULATO WHITE-FISH. Coregonus, sp. indet.; Russian, Nulatoski ciga ; 
Tinneh tribes of the Yukon, Sceghuh. 


This is a small, thin, bony species, common near Nulato, on the Yu- 
kon, and is rarely more than half a pound in weight. It is of little use 
as food, and is principally abundant in summer. 


GRAYLING. Thymalis Pallasiit, Cuvier; Russian, Koruski; Tinneh 
tribes of the Yukon, Telmyah ; Hudson Bay traders, blackfish or blan- 
ket fish. ! 

Abundant in the small rapid rivers of Alaska. It is the only fish in 
the Yukon Territory which will take the hook. It is of moderate value 
only, for table use, and is especially abundant in spring, when the 
white-fish begin to be scarce. It is a most beautiful species; a specimen 
obtained at Nulato, April 7, 1866, gave the following notes: “ Dorsal 
fin extremely long, gray, with clear spots, each centered with scarlet. 
The extreme tip of the fin, dark blue. Tail broad, dark, flecked with 
streaks of crimson. Abdominal fins each with four narrow streaks of 
light pink. The pectoral fins with several scarlet blotches. Eyes sil- 
very, grass-green on the upper part of the orbit. A large black blotch 
on each side below the lips, and twelve or fifteen small ones well for- 
ward on each side. Belly with bright coppery reflections, all the side 
seales reflecting pink, and dark yellow or coppery.” 


PIKE. sox estor, Leseur; Russian, Sukkuh; Tinneh tribes of the 
‘Yukon, Khikiyiih; Innuit of the Kuskoquim River, Chukak. 
Common in all the lakes and ponds of the Hudson Bay Territory and 

Northern Alaska, but absent from the rivers. It is caught with seines 

in summer and early wintef. It is principally used for dog-feed, being 

of little value for the table. It is noticeable as being one of the East 

American species which north of the Alaska Mountains nearly reach 

the tide-water of the western slope of the continent. It spawns in April 

and May on the Yukon. 


Losu. Lota maculata, Linné; Russian, Nalime; Tinneh tribes of the 
Yukon, Ligtsh; Innuit of the Kuskoquim, Managnat. } 
This fish (known on Lake Erie as the eelpout, and elsewhere as the 
burbot) is exceedingly abundant in the rivers and lakes of the Hudson 
Bay Territory and of Alaska. They grow to a very large size, and form 
an acceptable dish in the absence of white-fish, They sometimes reach 
a length of five feet, and a weight of sixty pounds. The flesh is com- 
paratively hard and dry, and they are chiefly valued for their livers 
and roe. The liver is of a triangular shape, weighing a pound or two, 
and is an extremely rich and delicate morsel when broiled. It affords a 
pint or so of sweet rich oil, used by the Russians in cooking, and which 
doubtless might be used instead of cod-liver oil. The skin is stretched 
and dried, and serves the natives for trimming their deer-skin clothing, 
and also for windows in some localities. It resembles a dark, trans- 
lucent, marbled paper. 


388 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


These fish are most abundant in the early autumn, and even as late 
as December. They feed upon white-fish, lampreys, &¢., which are 
found abundantly in their stomachs. They are soslow in their motions 
that it seems incomprehensible how the nimble white-fish can allow 
themselves to be caught. They are fall of spawn from November till 
January. The roe and milt are carried in two large sacs opening into 
the cloaca a short distance from the fundament. They lie beneath the 
intestines when the fish is in its natural position, are four to seven 
inches long, and when full are about four inches in circumference. The 
ova are very minute, and of a creamy yellow color. <A single losh 
contains millions of them. The milt-sacs are smaller, and the milt is 
white. The males are usually much smaller than the females, averaging 
eighteen or twenty inches in length, while the female reaches four or 
five feet. The male has a smaller liver, and one pyriform gall-bladder 
on the left side; some specimens, however, present the physiological 
peculiarity of having two or even three distinct gall-bladders opening into 
the same duct, and uniform in size and shape. We have never seen a 
double gall-bladder in a female. The roe of the white-fish is contained 
in two cylindrical canals running from the gills to the vent above the 
intestines, close to the back-bone. They are never more than an ineh in 
circumference ; the eggs are larger than those of the losh, and of a very 
deep yellow color. 


SUCKER. Catostomus teres, Mitchill; Russian, Kraskee ; Tinneh tribes of 
the Yukon, Stinoyiih. ‘ 


This fish is abundant in the Yukon and other large riversin Northern 
Alaska. It is of moderately large size, reaching five pounds in weight. 
It is generally of a reddish color. The body is so full of bones that it 
is unfit for food, but the heads, when boiled with the roe, make a very 
palatable soup. These fish are filled with spawn in April, a period when 
other fish appear to be out of season. The eggs are of moderate size, 
of a yellow color, and are contained in triangular sacs, one on each side 
of the visceral cavity. 


BLACK-FISH. Cottus? sp.; Russian, Tchorny riba; Tinneh tribes of the 
Yukon, Undik; Kutchin tribes of the Upper Yukon, H’leeweh. 


A smali cottoid fish, about three or four inches long, is caught in bas- 
kets made of grass, in the spring-time in the Yukon Territory. It is 
found in the greatest profusion in the shallow ponds in the Kaiyuh 
marshes, and is principally used as feed for dogs, though occasionally 
eaten by the natives. lt has a muddy, sweetish taste, and is of value 
only on account of the enormous numbers in which it is taken. Holes 
are cut in the ice in April and May, when these little fish swarm about 
them, and are dipped cut with net-like baskets. 

A small cyprinoid fish, measuring three or four inches in length, is 
caught in some of the small rivers in summer with pin-hooks, and is 
eaten raw by the natives, who regard it as a delicacy, under the name 
of aliweetly. 


This completes the list of the economical fresh-water fishes of Alaska, 
as far as known at present. The fishery is carried on in summer in some 
localities with gill-nets, and in others with seines, which are manufae- 
tured by the Tinneh tribes out of the inner bark of the willow and alder, 
and by the Innuit out of fine seal-skin line. In the Hudson Bay Ter- 
ritory pounds are established by the traders, and also by the Kutchin 
indians, in which a considerable number of fish are taken. In winter the 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 389 


Hudson Bay men have a method of passing the seine under the ice, and 
obtaining a number of fish. 

In strong contrast to the above awkward and clumsy method, is that 
practiced by the Tinneh tribes of the Yukon, the Innuit of the Lower 
Yukon, and the other tribes near the sea-coast to the south and east. 
This method has been copied by the Russians, and seems to be worthy 
of more extended use. I refer to the Yukon fish-t traps, the morda of 
the Russians, and Talpiakniat of the Innuit of the Kuskoquim River. 
While the ingenuity of the white man can greatly simplify the native 
method in making the traps, the principle “would seem to be hard to 


improve upon. We give a concise account of the manufacture and 


use of these traps, describing the winter traps, which differ but little 
from those used in summer. In the fall, or during the summer, spruce 
trees about six inches in diameter are obtained and laid aside for use. 
These logs must be green and full of sap, straight-grained, without 
twist or knots of any kind. When the cold weather sets in, these logs 
are taken into a warm room or Indian hut, and when the sap, which 
renders them tough and pliable, is thoroughly liquefied, they are barked, 
and split by wedges into pieces about an inch thick and three or four 
inches wide. The workman then sits on the ground, and taking a knife, 
makes an incision, into which he inserts a wedge, and carefully splits 
these pieces, partly by hand and partly by the wedge, into pieces an 
inch wide and thick, and the length of the log. These pieces are then 
picked over, all in any way imperfect are rejected, and the best are 
selected to make the materials for the basket, or receptacle of the trap. 
The rods are split at one end, and taking one-half in his teeth the work- 
man gradually and carefully strips it off, until the whole are reduced to 
tough, pliable wooden rods a quarter of an inch each way, and about six- 
teen feetlong. These rods are then carefully trimmed with a sharp knife, 
all the corners and splinters being removed, until the result, a smooth, 
cylindrical wooden thread, sixteen feet long, and about a quarter of an 
inch in diameter, is attained. The refuse rods, and all which are in any 
way knotted or imperiect, are reserved for the mats. These are quad- 
rangular nets of wooden rods, some of which are an inch in diameter, 
to stiffen and strengthen the mat. They are perfectly flat, and about 
eight feet by ten or twelve feet. The rods are tied to each other at 
right angles by stout green-willow withes, a full supply of which can 
be obtained on any beach. 

The basket is made as follows: The Indian women go out among the 
willow brush, and, selecting straight shoots without knots, strip off the 
bark, outer and i inner coming off together. This is taken into the house, 
and the coarse outer bark ‘stripped off, leaving the tough, white inner 
bark in broad strips six feet or more in length. This is split into strips 
an eighth of an inch wide, which are twisted into a kind of twine, similar 
to that employed for nets. A stout, flat, wooden hoop is made, to the 
circumference of which the wooden rods before mentioned are tied, at 
right angles; other rods are then curved in a spiral form, and the longi- 
tudinal rods firmly lashed to them. About twelve feet from the boop 
the basket is tapered off to a point. The hoop at the mouth is about 
two feet in diameter; the opening at the other end is about eight inches 
in diameter, and here a small flat cover, or door, is attached in such a 
way that it can be readily opened or closed. The next thing is to make 
the funnel. This is done by lashing four stout sticks so as to form a 
square eight feet high by six wide, to all sides of which rods similar to 
those of which the basket is made are lashed, and a spiral series is passed 
around these to which they are again lashed, so that the opening at the 


7 


390 © AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


small end of the funnel is not more than six inches in diameter, and 
somewhat resembles the opening to a rat-trap on a large scale. The 
small end of the funnel is put into the large end of the basket, and the 
two are firmly lashed together. For this lashing, stout hempen twine 
is used by the Russians in preference to the trouble of getting willow 
twine made by the Indians. 

The next step is to lay the different portions of the trap in their proper 
positions. When the ice is strong enough to bear the weight of a large 
party, a suitable place is chosen to lay the trap. This is usually a place 
where the shore slopes very rapidly, and the water is deep and flows phaelaes | 
Stout stakes of some sweet wood, such as birch, willow, or poplar, are 
eut of such a length as to project some feet above the ice while firmly 
implanted in the bottom of theriver below. The Indians say that stakes 
of resinous wood drive away the fish. These stakes are then driven into 
the bottom in a line at right angles to the current, the ice being cut 
through with four-sided iron chisels fastened on ‘to heavy wooden 
poles, and very sharply pointed and edged. The stakes being driven, 
the mats are lashed to them on the side from which the current comes. 
The mats overlap each other a little, and at each junction a stake is 
driven, to which they are lashed. They are pushed clear down to the 
bottom, so that when finished the mats and stakes form an impervious 
fence, with interstices so smail that, though the water flows freely through, 
no fish can pass. For the sake of convenience, the mats are usually 
lashed to the stakes before the latter are driven down, a procedure which 
requires some little care, to avoid breakage. This fence is carried out 
into water at least eight feet deep; it is supported by the mud into 
which it is driven at the bottom, and by the ice, which soon freezes 
firmly at the top. 

At the end of the fence a cross-piece, or short fence, composed of two 
mats, is placed so that the whole resembles the letter T in shape. The 
whole is strongly supported by stakes. The baskets and funnels are 
now brought. The cover at the small end of the basket is made tight by 
lashing with a piece of twine. One long, stout, pointed pole is lashed, 
about three feet from the pointed end, to the small end of the basket, and 
two others to the sides of the funnel. A rectangle of ice, three feet wide 
and about sixteen feet long, is then cut out on each side of the fence, and 
the two baskets are put down so that one has the small end of the funnel 
pointing up stream and the‘other has it pointing down stream, while 
the outer side of each funnel is pressed close to the stake which forms 
the ear of the cross-piece of the T on the respective sides of the fence. 
The slender network of the basket offers little resistance to the water, 
as the meshes are an inch wide and two or three long, but it is maintained 
in its position by the pointed poles before mentioned, which are pushed 
deeply into the mud, and by another stake on thei inner side of the funnel. 
The accompanying "Roures will illastrate: 1. Small stream closed with 
fascines and two basket traps. The arrow indicates the course of the cur- 
rent. 2. Diagram of an ordinary trap on the bank of a wide river——o, 
mouth of funnel; b, basket; /, fence; oo, river bank; x, poles attached 
to funnel and basket. 3. Side view of same——79, river bank ; s, stakes ; 
w, w, water line; m, mats of fence; o, funnels; b, baskets; p, p, poles 
attached to baskets by which they are held in position against the 
current. 

It is evident that any fish coming up or down stream in the shallow 
and more quiet water near the river bank (as they invariably do, always 
avoiding the current) will meet an obstacle to its progress in the fence. 
It will follow this in search of an opening until it arrives at the eross- 


THE FOOD FISHES OF ALASKA. 391 


piece of the T, and still continuing it reaches the funnel, in which it 
sees a small opening, and, in the vain hope of escape, passes through it 


Alam 


and finds itself in the basket, from which it cannot get out. The slen- 
der wooden rods, extremely brittle when dry, are exceedingly tough 
when wet; the strongest fish cannot break them. The basket being 
open to the water, they remain alive as long as the basket remains 
untouched, unless the larger ones indulge in a cannibal feast upon their 
smaller relatives. 

The fish-traps are visited every other day by the Russians. The space of 
ice above the basket, being cut three or four times a week, never 
becomes more than a few inches thick, and is easily broken up by the 
heavy ice-chisels used, while that which remains untouched often 
becomes six feet thick. When the trap is visited, the ice is broken and 
the fragments taken out with a wocden shovel or scoop, with a bottom 
of network. The basket is not raised until all the water above ii is free 
from fragments of ice which might cut it. The poles are then pulled up 
and the basket raised above the level of the ice, the cover at the small 
end untied, and the fish emptied out; whenit isreplaced as before. The 
water below the ice of course falls as the springs which supply the river 
become frozen. This necessitates an extension of the fence until deep 
water is again reached, and the baskets are moved out. Or, if they 
should be left in their place, others are put at the extremity of the new 
fence. This process, except when the original trap is placed directly m 
the channel, has to be repeated several times during the winter. 

_ The water is lowest in January and February, and begins to rise 
again in March. By the end of April it frequently overflows the top of 
the fence, thus rendering the traps useless. When the ice breaks up 
and the spring freshets occur, the fence stakes and traps are ¢arried 
away ard are seen no more, unless the owner has taken the precaution 
of placing his baskets on the river bank, out of reach. They are usnu- 
ally so worn and patched when spring arrives that they are hardly 


392 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


worth the trouble. With the changes in the Jevel of the water occur 
changes in the local abundance of the fiSh. If the trap is unhappily so 
placed as not to intersect the main current of the river at any point, 
when the water falls it will cease to catch fish, and will become entirely 
useless. Much depends, therefore, upon the judgment and experience 
of the trapper. 

In many localities, where the river is small and narrow, the natives, 
instead of making mats and driving stakes, tie huge fascines of willow- 
brush together, and place them side by side until the river is completely 
closed, except at the point where the baskets are set—one up and the 
other down stream. In such a case it is evident that no fish can go up 
or down the stream where it is intersected by the brush without being 
caught in the trap. Some such localities are exceedingly prolific. Ulu- 
kuk, in the valley of the Unalaklik River, is noted throughout Alaska 
for the great abundance of the salmon trout which are thus obtained. 

' We close this article with a memorandum of the catch of the Nulato 
fish-traps, as observed by the writer during several seasons. We pre- 
face it by mentioning that the summer fish-traps are in most respects 
similar to those used in winter, except that the stakes are more firmly 
driven, to make up for the want of the support at the surface afforded 
by the ice in winter; and the baskets are smaller, for greater con- 
venience in emptying and raising them, which is done in boats, usually 
birch canoes. 

November.—The fish-traps are set for winter. A week or two usually 
elapses before the trap takes any fish. The natives say that it is ne- 
cessary for the resin to be washed out of the wood of which the basket 
and funnel are made before the fish will approach the trap. The first fish 
taken are the losh, which usually come in great numbers. December.— 
Suckers and losh predominate. A few white-fish and a straggling salmon 
are occasionally taken. January.—Much the same; but the white-fish 
begin to be more plentiful. #ebrwary.—Losh scarce. The traps are filled 
with the different species of white-fish. March—Much the same; but 
suckers begin to enter the traps. April—Graylings and suckers very 
plenty ; white-fish more scarce; a few losh taken. May.—A few poor 
white-fish and small losh are taken, but the bulk of the catch is composed 
of graylings. Ice carries away the traps. As soon asthe river is clear new 
traps and gill-nets are set. June.—King salmon appear toward the middle 
of the month. July.—Hoikoh, red-fish, dog-fish, and a few white-fish. 
August.—Keezich and straggling salmon of the other species. White- 
fish, especially the Luciotrutta and Muksun, are more abundant. Sep- 
tember.—Salmon trout and white-fish are in their best condition and 
most abundant. October.—Much the same; but toward the 20th of the 
month ice begins to form and puts a stop to fishing until it is firm 
enough to allow of the setting of the winter traps, which does not 
usually occur until early in the following month. 


AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINKS, 
ANCIENT AND MODERN. 


The history of agriculture embraces all the implements which man- 
kind have employed in the cultivation of the earth, and the improve- 
ment made in the mechanism of agriculture from time immemorial. 
When men were compelled to till the soil as slaves, sowing a crop they 


AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. 393 


were not sure of reaping, and being uneducated, invention was slow. 
In the early history of England, every plowman was compelled by law 
to make his own plow. The natural result was, that the implements 
used were heavy, rudely constructed, and of ail kinds and shapes. But 
the improvement of farming implements advanced in all countries 
where the science of agriculture was promoted until, Dodd says in 1851, 
Speaking of the collection of agricultural implements at the Crystal 
Palace: 

Nor did foreign countries neglect to show us to what extent similar aid is available 
among themselves, difficult as it must have been to send many of these ponderous 
machines across the wide ocean. Austria, for instance, sent us seed-harrows, carrot- 
drillers, seed-coverers, seed-looseners, weed-destroyers, subsoil-plows, and harrows. 
Belgium exhibited her seed-bags, cast-iron rollers, seed-mills, plows, harrows, winnow- 
ing-machines, weeding-machines, straw-choppers, and grass-cleaving machines. Canada 
contributed grain-cradles, many-pronged hay-forks, and plows. Egypt showed us her 
somewhat rude bill-hooks, sickles, hoes, plows, and the Novez machine for seed. From 
France we had plows, harrows, winnowing-machines, clover-thrashing machines, corn- 
cleaning machines, &c. Holland contributed seed-cradles, liquid-manure machines, 
swing-plows, turnip-cutters, and a very curious instrument called the dynamostater, to 
measure the strength of the action in plows. Switzerland illustrated her hand hus- 
bandry by such simple implements as pitch-forks, rakes, scythes, pruning-knives, and 
so forth. Prussia and the various German States sent us chatt-cutters, sowing-machines, 
drills, thrashing-machines, Flemish plows, subsoil-plows, water-furrow plows, and 
potato-mills. The United States—busy in all the fields of industry—exhibited to us 
some of her grain-reapers, smut-machines, horse-rakes, hay-forks, scythes, plows, 
cultivators, railroad horse-power, seed-planters, grain-drills, and reaping-machines. 

The great difficulty the farmer labors under is, to know what imple- 
ment to adopt when so many are placed before him. THe hears of won- 
derful inventions which are entirely to supersede the old implements in 
every-day use, but in the majority of instances he hears that the new 
inventions have been abandoned—they did not answer the purpose— 
even before he has:had time to make a trial of them. Thus it is, the 
agriculturist often gets bewildered with the many things placed before 
him, and consequently continues to go on in the old way rather than 
to accept the plans of others of which he knows nothing only by the 
many failures constantly represented to him. The question naturally 
arises, Why are so few inventions successful? Is it because perfection 
is reached and the doors of invention closed? We think not; but 
because, when the result is once attained, the means by which it is 
reached are considered complete, when in reality this is the point where 
inventions should commence, and the means be simplified by doing away 
with the useless elements, and combining the useful in the simplest 
manner possible, and the implement or machine be given thorough and 
well-appointed trials before offering it to the public. 

We propose to notice some of the many inventions and improvements 
in agricultural implements and machines during the past year,.and very 
briefly to note their origin. 

The following is an alphabetical list of patents issued from the United 
States Patent Office for the year 1870, for implements and inventions 
having a direct bearing upon the practical operations of agriculture. 
Jt will be understood that this list contains only those cases that have 
been actually issued during the year, embracing about 70 per cent. of 
cases for which applications have been filed. The 30 per cent. remain- 
ing are either still pending or have been finally rejected for want of 
novelty : 


BGC OS eee saat aan So oa acs «la 3 40 | Comn-haskert ss 4<.djs5<0n)5 aneees a: 17 
Se UN POU ise a rat ciaeereh a apse = dioica oe 100 | Cotton-pickersyss sos: sess 5 
(Qlaah of eye eas ee ee eee 89 | Cotton-scrapers............-.-..-- 8 
SEOLU-BHOUIOTHS, of .atee wacga> is coe a~--i 16, |. Drags, (ManUKe) 4... gaan tee a 5 
Potton-choppers . 5:0 .o0ce0s ons as 6 | Diggers; (potato).........---....- 39 


394 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Egg boxes, carriers, &c-.-...--.-.- 10 | Markers; (land).....-.---15.. Sdee 4 
Forks, spades, hoes, &c...-:.-.---- Ot AA PlOWS )aepcts ae <>: L5t oc eee 182 
meed-CuLrtelse-2 25 24eF pepe ees pias 6 | Plows, (steam)..---.----2» p-2mee ~~ 4 
PIU Ib-PAbHerers 22. encase oe Soe : 13 | Planters, corn, cotton, potatoes,&e. 144 
Wertilizersis 2: sews evince ashe eee 10'|' Plant-protectors .-....-5-2.5 2 eee 22 
Grain-bindera.- -A\---veoab lee. =5-< 47' |) Proninp-toolge: :... 2 <2t:/so2eeee 22 
Grubbing-implements ....-.-.----,- 2.| Pokes, (cattle): 2....-.-s3s..00reee 5 
SI Ones Sipe eo ele Sheba ia ep 150, | Reapers 22- cee .cee-> -2ea-s 11 
PINION Wee eae ene eee se eter c Al'| Rollers, (land). >=. -..-2 22. eee 8 
Bay -sarengers oo, oo Stace sense ve 11 | Shears for clipping animals........ 10 
Hamerakes, (hand)! 20) jehciscs « b.05 6 ||, Seed-sowers:: on. - 22-222 ooe eee 41 
Hay-rakes, (horse) .....-.:..<-..-- 74 | Stalk-cutters ............ er 6 
pas (aprse) tis cack dduke sins 2 6 |. Straw-cutters...-.2.s26 sfepee eae 19 
DISRLOMO OTE oo pclea te iltipaea- op exne 15 | Thrashing-machines ......--..---- 31 
Hulling-machines ....,...-...---.-- 11 | Miseellaneous.... .........-4leeaeee 
BY NOR Pe se eecr ob oceas esse 6 ——= 
Milking devices, stools, pails, &c- -. 40 Dotal .-/005 4 22ts coco ites eee 1,385 
Mowers, (lawn).-.--..----.------- il == 


The improvements in these various implements and inventions relate 
chiefly to minor points, aiming at greater simplicity, durability, and 
efficiency, and thus obviating defects in the earlier constructions. A 
minute description of each individual subject cannot be expected in 
this connection. There is undoubtedly an increasing interest in bee eul- 
ture, but no radical improvement has been observed in the construetion 
of the hive. A device for emptying the comb by a centrifugal motion 
has contributed to a greater accumulation of honey, by the restoration 
of the uninjured honey-comb to the hive, to be again fiJled by the bees. 
Several attempts have been made to form an artificial comb acceptable 
to the bees, but hitherto without marked success. During the year con- 
siderable attention has been paid to modifications of corn (maize) 
planters and cultivators, to adapt them to the planting and cultivation 
of the cotton crop, and with prospects of ultimate'success. A number 
of ingenious devices have been presented for the protection of choice 
and tender garden plants from the depredations of worms and insects in’ 
their earlier periods of growth, which will commend themselves to publie 
use. Much attention has been paid to the dairy business, by which the 
cheese product has been largely increased ; but this increase is due, per- 
haps, more to the union of small dairies, thus forming what are known 
as cheese factories, where the work can be more economically performed, 
and by experienced workmen. We need have no alarm about becoming 
overstocked with inventions, as every improvement introduced tends to 
enlarge the field for still further investigations; and the only limit to the 
exercise of human ingenuity and skill will be found in the most perfect 
adaptation of machines and implements to the performance of the labor 
of the world. 

THE PLOW. 


‘The plow is the most important implemeut in agricultural operations, 
and is common to allages and countriesas far as history extends. The 
Book of Job, one of the oldest, if not the oldest, books of the Old, Testa- 
ment, speaks of “The oxen ploughing and the asses feeding beside 
them ;” and we find by First Samuel, xiii, 20, that the plow had a share 
and colter. Mr. Adam Dickson, in his works on the Husbandry of the 
Ancients, says: 

It is probable that I shall be considered as very partial to the ancients, if I do not 
allow the moderns to excel them in the construction of their plows. We are not 
indeed so well acquainted with the ancient plows as to make a just comparison. I 
shall only observe, that from the few passages in the rustic authors concerning them, 
it appears that the ancients had all the different kinds of plows that we have now in 
Europe, though not perhaps so exactly constructed. They had plows without mold- 
boards and plows with mold-boards; they had plows with colters and plows without 


PLATE XV. 


Fig.l) JETHRO WOODS PLOW, PAT. 18/9 


See a 


ROAD CUTTER & PLOW LIFTER 


AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. 395 


colters; they had plows with wheels and plows without wheels; they had broad- 
pointed shares and narrow-pointed shares; they even had what I have not yet seen 
among the moderns, shares not only with sharp sides and points, but also with high 
raised cutting tops. Were we well acquainted with the construction of all these, per- 
haps it would be found that the improvements made by the moderns in this implement 
are not great as many persous are apt to imagine. 

We think Mr. Dickson must have viewed the rural mechanism of the 
ancients by the light of modern implements; for, while it is true that 
the plow has been known and used trom the earliest period of ancient 
history, it is also true that with all the improvements the beginning of the 
present century found us with the rudest implements, made in the most 
careless manner, scarcely any two being made alike. For the most part 
the mold-board was hewed from wood, with old hoes, horseshoes, and 
thin straps of iron nailed thereon to prevent it wearing out. The land- 
side was wood, the bottom being covered with iron. The share was 
generally made of iron, with a hardened steel point. The beam was a 
Straight stick, and the handles were cut from the branches of a tree. 

There is no doubt that Ex-President Thomas Jefferson was the first 
to lay down the principles by which mold-boards could be made by any 
one with the certainty of having them all alike. This was done upon 
mathematical principles, as set iorth in a communication to the French 
Institute, by which the plow should act as two wedges; one acting ver- 
tically and the other laterally, and so blended in a curve surface that 

the furrows should rise and turn over smoothly and continuously. 

The second American who appears as an inventor of improvements 
was Charles Newbold, of Burlington County, New Jersey. His plow 
was the first cast-iron plow ever made in America, and was all cast in 
one piece by Benjamin Jones, of the same county, and cdn now be seen 
in the museum of the Agricultural Society of New York, at Albany. 
Mr. Newbold obtained a patent for -his plow June 17, 1797, which was 
signed by John Adams, President, and Timothy Pickering, Secretary of 
State. The following is the specification : 

The subscriber, Charles Newbold, of Burlington County, New Jersey, has invented 
an improvement in the art of plow-making, as follows, viz: 'Yhe plow to be (excepting 
the handles and the beam) of solid cast iron, consisting of a bar, sheath, and mold- 
plate. The sheath serves a double purpose, of colter and sheath, and the mold-plate 
serves for share and mold-board—that is, to cut and turn the farrow. The forms are 
to be varied, retaining the same general principles, and to meet the various uses as 
well as inclinations of those who use them. 

It is, however, but justice to state that Jethro Wood was the first to 
cast the plow in sections, so that the parts most exposed to wear could 
be replaced by others cast from the same pattern, by which means the 
iron plow became a success,.and for which he received a patent in 1819, 
(Pig. 1, Plate 15;) but his effort to introduce his plow into public use, 
coupled with the great expense of making and altering patterns for the 
purpose of correcting defects, and for furnishing different styles and 
sizes of plows, consumed a handsome fortune, and the life of Jethro 
Wood and that of his patent terminated at about the same period, he 
leaving his children in penury and want, and it was not till the session 
of 1870 that Congress considered his claim upon the public in a bill 
granting to his surviving daughters the sum of $20,000, which has not 
yet passed. 

Thus we have by Mr. Jefferson’s discovery the idea of making plows by 
mathematical rule, although his plow when constructed contained a 
number of defects. So, too, with the cast-iron plow of Mr. Newbold. The 
defects are already seen, but the two steps were thus gained which gave to 
others the principles by which our plows have been made so nearly perfect 
as they are. Next among American inventors came Peacock, Pickering, 


‘ 


396 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Davis, Hitchcock, Nourse, McCormick, and Knox. Aboutthe time Knox 
obtained his patent, Joshua Gibbs, of Canton, Ohio, selected a large 
piece of wood, and formed it as nearly as possible into the shape he 
considered a mold-board should be, attached to it a beam and handles, 
and with this rough implement commenced his labors in the field, stop- 
ping now and then to hew away with his adze that part of the mold- 
board which he found scoured most by the soil, until, by successive 
trials, he obtained a wooden mold-board all parts of which presented 
equal resistance to the soil in its forward movement. August 15, 1854, 
he obtained a patent for his mold-board, and to enable others to con- 
struct it he thus describes it in his specification: 


The working surface of the mold-board consists of about one-fourth of the interior sur- 
face of a hollow cylinder. If the plow is intended to turn a surtace six inches wide, a 
mold-board made from a cylinder with about a twelve-inch bore is desirable ; but if it 
is intended to turn a furrow twelve inches wide, the mold-board should be made from 
a cylinder with a bore of about twenty-four inches; as these plows have been found 
to work best when they turn a furrow about as wide as the radius of the bore of the 
cylinder from which the mold-board was made. It has been found from experience that 
these plows work best when the length of the mold-board is from one and a half to 
twice the diameter of the bore of the cylinder from which the mold-board is made. 

The advantages of this form of mold-board are also set forth in the 
specification as follows: 

1. The plow draws easier. 2. It raises the furrow from the point and share more gener- 
ally, naturally, and easily, turns and lays the furrow more uniform, smooth, and even, 
than any other mold-board, and leaves the trench wider in proportion to the width of 
the plow, and consequently the rear of the plow need not be set so wide as when @ 
different mold-board is used. 3. It breaks the sward or furrow far less than any other. 
4. The mold-board, being move arched, is stiffer and stronger than others of the same 
size and weight. ° 


He claims: : 

Making the working surface of the mold-board in the form of a section of a hollow 
cylinder; the center or axis of the cylinder being parallel or nearly parallel horizon- 
tally to the base of the moid-board, substantially as described. 

For the past few years no marked advantage has been gained in the 
form of the mold-board, although bundreds of patents have been ob- 
tained, and many applications rejected. During the past year inven- 
tion has been turned to a considerable extent to “plow attachments,” 
one of which is represented by Fig. 2, Plate 15. 

The object of this invention is to produce a device which shall cut 
asunder all the weeds or stalks that may come in contact with the 
colter, and it consists in an adjustable revolving hub having radiating 
arms or cutters upon it, which, as the plow is drawn forward, insert 
themselves into the ground, making the axle with the hubs and arms 
revolve, and as they revolve in contact with the adjustable colter of 
the plow, the weeds, &c., gathering in front of the colter, must be cut 
by the colter. A represents the plow-beam; B the long arm of the 
colter, pivoted to the plow-beam A at a, and has arm b projecting up- 
ward, and pivoted to Bata. This arm l passes through a screw staple 
f,in the beam a, by which means the arm B and colter B are adjusted 
to go deep or shallow as desired. C is a hub which revolves freely on 
its axis d, and has four or more radial arms or cutters c, secured by 
screw-bolts, and as the plow, with the inclined colter, moves forward, 
the cutters ¢ are brought successively in contact with, and pass along 
the edge of, the colter in such a manner that the weeds, &c., accuma- 
lating in front of the colter must be cut, leaving that part en the land 
to remain till the next succeeding furrow is made, and that part lying 
on the furrow slice being cut will be turned under by such furrow slice 
into the bottom of the furrow. The hub ©, with its arms or cutters ¢, 


AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. 397 


is adjusted to any desired position by means of the supporting bar ¢; 
which passes through a screw clamp bin the beam A. 

_Fig. 3, Plate 15, represents a root-cutter and plow-lifter. The au 
of this inven tion is to furnish a means by which the roots may be cut, 
as the plow is lifted over them, and to separate the trash that may be 
on the ground in front of the plow. G is the cutter, the forward end of 
which is curved downward and rearward, so that its lower end may rest 
against the plow-point F. The rear part of the cutter G extends back 
with a slight upward inclination, and is attached to the standard C, and 
te the rear part of the beam A. The convex edge of the cutter upon 
the mold-board side is beveled off, leaving the land-side of the cutter 
straight, and in a line with the land-side of the plow. 


CULTIVATORS. 


Next to the plow in importance to the farmer is, undoubtedly, the 
cultivator, an implement that has taken the place of the old-fashioned 
hand-hoe in the cultivation of such plants as are growninrows. By the 
use of this implement, a man with a span of horses is able to do the 
work of ten or fifteen men operating with the hand-hoe, especially in 
the cultivation of maize or Indian corn. 

The efforts at improvement in this machine have been chiefly directed, 
of late years, to mere modifications, with a view of rendering it more 
simple and effective. Some of these machines possess a complicated 
structure, and are, consequently, costly, besides being liable to get out 
of repair. For durability and effective use, it is important that they 
should be made of the fewest number of parts consistent with strength 
and their automatic character. 

Those most generally in use at the present day consist essentially of a 
rectangular frame mounted on wheels, and provided with a driver’s seat, 
and have two gangs of shares, the inner shares of each gang having a 
lateral movement, subject to the control of the operator, to accommo- 
date the sinuosities of the rows of plants. Most of these machines at 
the present time are provided with guards upon the inner sides of the 
inner shares to protect the young plants from being covered by the 
loose, falling soil. 

- Cultiv vators, or horse-hoes, as they were called by English farmers, were 
in use in England in the very beginning of the eighteenth century. 
They were used in the cultivation of various kinds of crops planted in 
rows or drills, especiaily the small cereals, as wheat, barley, and oats, 
leguminous plants and succulent roots. These being planted or sown 
in “drills, at equal distances from six to twelve inches apart, by the use 
of this machine a number of rows could be cultivated at a time by hav- 
ing a share so adjusted as to fit the interval between the rows. The 
horse-hoe of that period possessed all the essential elements of the 
straddle-row cultivator of this day and country, and the changes it has 
undergone on this side of the Atlantic have simply adapted it to the 
cultivation of maize or Indian corn. 

Jethro Tull, an English farmer who flourished in the early part of the 
last century, may justiy be called the pioneer in the construction and use 
of this class of implements. The following extract from the Complete 
Farmer, published in London, England, in 1807, will serve to give a 
very correct idea of the state of the art at the period referred to: 

Horst-Hor, a very powerful tool of the hoe kind, which is much employed in the 
cultivation of crops that are sown or planted in the drill or row method, with suffi- 


ciently large intervals. These, like the hand sort, are of very different forms and con- 
structions, “aecording to the uses for which they are designed ; and likewise vary much 


398 ' AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


in their weight and size, as well as the shapo of the hoes or cutting parts. These sorts 
of hoes, from their executing the work, when constructed for the purpose, on a number 
of rows at the same time, have much superiority in point of dispatch, as well as in 
performing the operation to a greater depth and in a more perfect manner, over those 
of the hand kind. As by means of these boes the mold can be more effectually stirred 
about the plants and the land kept more clear and free from weeds, they should be 
more constantly employed whenever the nature of the crop and the method in which 
it has been sown admit, as saving much labor and expense, as well as executing the 
business in a far more efficient manner. 


We learn from the same work that even expanding horse-hoes were 
then in use, and in construction were adapted to work in drills of dif- 
ferent widths, that is to say, the bearing wheels were adjustable upon 
the axle in such a manner as to accommodate the space between the 
rows of various crops, aS wheat, barley, beans, turnips, cabbage, &e. 
Drill-machines, which have been long in use, were converted into horse- 
hoes by removing the drill teeth and substituting cultivating shares, 
and so adjusting them as to fit the spaces between the rows of growing 
plants. It was also discovered that soils of different textures will re- 
quire to be hoed with shares of different form and size, and that noth- 
ing but experience in the field can point ont that which is best adapted 
to any particular soil. 

In Loudon’s Encyclopedia of Agriculture, sixth edition, page 125, we 
have the following statement : | 


In England, from the Restoration tothe middle of the eighteenth century, very little 
improvement took place, either in the cultivation of the soil or in the management of 
live stock. Even clover and turnips (the great support of the present improved sys- 
tem of agriculture) were confined to a few districts, and at the close of this period 
were scareely cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern parts of the island. 
From the Whole Art of Husbandry, published by Mortimer in 1706, a work of consid- 
erable merit, it does not appear that any improvement was made on his practices till 
near the end of the last century. In those districts where clover and rye-yrass were 
cultivated, they were cut_green and used for soiling as at present. ‘Turnips were sown 
broadcast, hand-hoed, and used for feeding sheep and cattle, as they were used in 
Hloughton’s time, and are still in most districts of England. 

tn the beginning of the eighteenth century a considerable improvement in the pro- 
cess of culture was introduced by Jethro Tull, a cultivator of Berkshire, who began to 
drill wheat and other crops about the year 1701, and whose Horse-Hocing Husbandry 
was published in 1731. In giving a short account of the views of this eccentric writer, 
itis not meant to enter into any discussion of their merits. It will not detract much 
from his reputation to admit that, like most other men who leave the beaten path, he 
was sometimes misled by inexperience and sometimes deceived by a too sanguine im- 
agination. Had Tull confined his recommendations of drill husbandry to leguminous 
and bulbons-rooted plants generally, and to the cereal gramina only in particular cir- 
cumstances; and had he, without puzzling himself about the food of plants, been con- 
tented with pointing out the great advantage in pulverizing the soil in most cases, and 
extirpating weeds in every case, he would certainly have deserved a bigh rank among 
the benefactors of his country. A knowledge of his doctrints and practice, however, 
will serve as a necessary introduction to the present approved modes of culture. 
z * as The extraordinary attention Tull gave to his mode of culture is, 
perhaps, without a parallel. ‘I was formerly at much pains,” he says, “and at some 
charge, in improving my drills for planting the rows at very near distances, and had 
brought them to such perfection that one horse would draw a drill with eleven shares, 
making the rows three inches and a half distant from one another, and at the same 
time sow in them three very different sorts of seeds, which did not mix, and these, too, 
at different depths.” 

Ht will be seen by these quotations that the broad idea of cultivating 
more than one row of plants at a time by horse-power did not originate 
in this country. What, then, are the improvements in this implement 
claimed by American inventors? Perhaps the first and most important 
is the provision of a driver’s seat upon the frame of the machine, and 
the adaptation of the cultivating devices by which they were brought 
within the perfect control and guidance of the operator. Invention 
does not often make gigantic strides; and hence we see that little by 


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AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. 399 


little has been added to the original idea, and it is under this influence 
that farmers have reached the high standard now presented in culti- 
vators. 

Thirty years ago, aman with a hand-hoe could, by the aid ef a horse and 
plow, for plowing furrows between the rows of corn, cultivate an acre in 
aday. Now, with a span of horses, and one of our best riding cultiva- 
tors, fifteen acres can be accomplished, and this with almost as mueh 
ease and comfort as a day’s journey in a buggy. 

In looking back over the last thirty years, and tracing from year to 
year the improvements that have been made in this implement, to more 
perfectly adapt it to the cultivation of maize, or Indian corn, it would 
seem that this machine had almost reached perfection, and that there’ 
is litthke more that is desirable. Looking at the subject from another 
stand-point, however, we are forced to acknowledge that the field for 
advancement is constantly enlarging, and that every new improvement 
introduced only widens the area for others. y ; 

Let any one trace the successive steps that have been taken, from 
the initiative idea of Jethro Tull, in the year 1701, to the present time, 
and consider in this connection the liberal policy of. the Government in 
granting protection for improvement in art, and he will be no longer in- 
doubt as to the cause of the issue of so many patents for improvements 
in this and kindred inventions. 

It has already been said that different soils require different modi- 
fications of implements for their management. Now, a farmer who 
purchases a cultivator that is well adapted to a ight, sandy soil, while 

is own may be heavy, tenacious, or stony, soon finds that the machine, 
in the form of its shares, and perhaps in some other details, is not exactly 
what he desires, and in order to improve his machine he makes 
changes in this‘ or that particular, and finds its work more satisfactory, 
and, believing that he can benefit the public as well as himself by his 
ingenuity, applies for and obtains a patent for his invention. Others 
follow his example in an effort to improve their agricultural machinery, 
and thus little by little is added to the great and constantly acenmula- 
ting store of knowledge; and it is in this way that inventions grow 
up from small beginnings to the highest state of perfection hitherto 
attained. 

It should not be understood by this remark that every alleged im- 
provement is valuable, There are many for which letters-patent have 
been issued that are scarcely heard from after their unobtrusive birth. 
It is only by actual test in the field that their value can be established. 
And again there may be, and no doubt are, many meritorious inven- 
tions that are never put toa practical test, simply from the pecuniary 
inability of the inventor to bring them into public notice. It would, 
perhaps, be thought invidious should we attempt to draw a comparison 
between cultivators still operating under unexpired patents with older 
inventions. We will therefore merely give an example of the earlier 
conceptions in this department in our own country, and leave the sub- 
ject of comparison to the reader. (Plate 16.) 

We cannot leave this branch of our subject without allusion to another 
fact that seems to need some explanation. It is sometimes said that 
patents are refused for meritorious inventions. This is undoubtedly 
true, at least in some cases. Original inventors are not always the first 
inventors. For example, the straddle-row cultivator was invented as 
long ago as 1701, but this fact may have remained unknown even to the 
present day to a great majority of inventors of agricultural implements 
in this country. In such a case a broad ‘claim must, of necessity, be 


400 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


refused. Again, an invention may contain two or more claims, while 
but one is really patentable. In the examination, references are cited 
against those only that are old, and a patent refused on that ground; 
whereas, if the inventor would amend by erasing the anticipated claims, 
a patent would be issued. In other cases, in which the applicant is 
entitled to a patent, the specification is so imperfectly prepared that, 
should a patent be issued, it would be worthless from lack of perspicuity. 
Some cases are fairly and properly rejected upon reference. When this 
is the case, the applicant has no cause for complaint. It is the spirit 
of the patent laws to grant full protection to every first and original 
inventor. 
GRAIN-DRILLS AND CORN-PLANTERS. 


From history we are led to believe that the first, and for ages the 
only, mode of sowing seed was by hand, by which the seed was used 
with but little economy, and scattered with but little precision. In the. 
East it was the-custom to prepare the soil by treading it with the feet of 
the ox and the ass. (Isaiah, xxxii, 20; and Matthew, xiii, 3.) History, 
however, fails to tell us who invented the first seeding-machine, or even 
where it was made, yet it does tell us that a rude kind of drill has been 
‘used from avery remote period. The husbandmen of China, Japan, 
Arabia, and the Carnatic, have drilled and dibbled in their seed from 
time immemorial. (Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol, 1, page 675.) 
There was invented in Germany, about the year 1056, a drill-plow, the. 
construction of which is unknown. In England, the first patent for a 
seeding-machine was granted to Alexander Ha amilton, November 27, 
1623, which was the twenty- seventh patent granted under the old law. 
The construction of the machine is not described in the specification, 
nor isa plate furnished ; accordingly we have nothing to guide us in 
arriving at an understanding of what the machine was. All we can 
learn is set forth in the following words, copied from the title of the 
invention : 

A spiall priviledge graunted to Alexander Hamilton, esqre., (for twenty-one years,) 
of the sole practise webjn England, Ireland, and the dmons thereof, of a newe inven- 
con, by him invented and perfected, as well for the ploughinge, as for the harrowinge, 
sowinge, seedinge, and settinge of corn and grain at greater ease and w'* more pfett 
than by anie other means heretofore used. 


About the year 1733, Jethro Tull invented a machine to sow wheat 
and turnip seed in drills, three rows at a time, and to Tull is given the 
eredit of inventing the cylinder with cavities in the surface of the same 
for feeding the seed. About the year 1790 James Cooke invented a 
machine by which manure was deposited with the seed. It is observed 
that while in later English inventions machines were constructed to 
plant several drills at a time, and aiso to adjust the machine so that the 
drills would be a greater or less distance apart, yet until William Groun- 
sell obtained his patent, June 12, 1839, it does not appear that a machine 
was constructed to drop the grain in hills, or at intervals, the distances 
of which could be regulated at will. 

In the cultivation of corn and other cereals in this country, in the 
earlier times, the condition of the newly cleared land precluded the em- 
ployment of machinery in the planting and sowing of seeds; and hence 
corn was planted by hand, and wheat and other small grains were sown 
broad-cast. Machinery could not have been made available to any 
great extent for this purpose, in consequence of the presence of roots 
and stumps of trees of the primitive forests; and it was not until the 
lands of the New England, Southern, and Middie States had become 
cultivated, and immigra tion extended to the prairies of the West, that 


AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. 401 


a necessity for this class of agricultural machinery was felt. The first 
patent granted for a corn-planter in this country was to Eliakim 
Spooner, of Vermont, January 25, 1799; the first for a cotton-planter 
to Christopher Ford, of Virginia, May 26, 1825. From 1800 to 1828 
there were but few patents granted for seeding-machines of any descrip- 
tion. August 13, 1828, a patent was granted to Austin H. and Levi 
tobbins for a machine for planting different seeds. The machine is 
placed upon a frame and wheel similar in construction to that of a com- 
mou wheel-barrow, and was pushed over the ground, the operator walk- 
ing behind. A writer, speaking of this machine, in November, 1828, 
sets forth its value as follows: 

There can be no difficulty in the application of this machine to the planting of any 
kind of seeds, and any number of them at a time, and at any required distance, as fast 
as a man can walk. When the rows are set four feet apart one way and eighteen 
inches the other, there is no difficulty, nor is it a very hard day’s work, for a man 
to plant ten acres after the ground is properly prepared to receive the seed. 

August 22, 1828, a patent was granted to Orson Starr, of Richmond, 
Ontario County, New York, for a “ machine for planting grain and other 
seeds.” This machine differs from the one above mentioned in several 
particulars. It has handles and a beam similar to the common plow, 
supported from the rear by wheels; beneath and about the center of 
the beam there is a shovel plow to open the furrow for the reception of 
the seed, and to the rear of the machine is attached an iron seraper to 
close the furrow after the seed is dropped. On the top of the beam is 
placed a hopper in which a cylinder is made to revolve by suitable 
mechanism. The cylinder is made of sheet iron; the edge of it is perfo- 
rated at suitable distances to receive pieces of metal which act as valves 
working upon a pin, and forced out by springs contained within the 
wheel, so as to project beyond its periphery, but capable of being forced 
in when passing the ends of the slot in the bottom of the hopper. 
These valves contain the quantity of seed to be dropped in each hill, and 
may be more or less numerous according to the distance at which they 
are to be dropped in the furrow. For a full description and representa- 
tions of the two last-named machines, see the Franklin Journal, vol. 
6, second series, pages 343 to 348. 

Numerous patents have been taken out within the past few years for 
seeding machines, which may be divided into the following classes, viz: 
Ist. Broadcast seeders, by which the seed is sown broadcast over the 
land. 2d. Grain drills, by which the seed is deposited in drills. 3d. 
Corn planters, by which the seed is, for the most part, planted in hills. 
4th. Cotton planters. 5th. Potato planters. Not a few persons have at- 
tempted to combine all the above-named machines in one, and besides 
add a plow, harrow, cotton-chopper, and cultivator. It is enough to 
say that the attempt has been a failure. A machine can easily 
be so arranged as to be changed trom a grain drill to plant in 
ills, by diminishing the number of cavities on the dropping wheel ; 
then, by removing the dropping mechanism the machine may 
be used as a wheel cultivator, a wheel plow, or a harrow, or even a 
land-roller may be attached; but to plant cotton or potatoes a general 
shange in the whole dropping mechanism would be required. Cotton 
seed cannot be dropped with accuracy either by a slide or by a revolv- 
ing cylinder, owing to the lint with which the seed is covered. It 
requires a cylinder (revolving in the bottom of the hopper) provided 
with arms, slightly curved in the direction in which they move, so 
that as the arms pass-through a slot in the bottom of the hopper a 
certain quantity of the seed will be carried with them. Potatoes could 

26A 


402 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


not be planted because the whole dropping mechanism is too small. To 
plant potatoes, a cylinder with arms similar to the cotton planter is 
required, but placed higher in the hopper. Each of these arms (being 
sharp at the end) picks - up a potato as they revolve, the cylinder being 
so arranged as to allow its arms to pass through the side of the hopper 

_ (instead “of the bottom, as in the cotton planter,) into a tube or spout 
where the potatoes are deposited by the arms of the cylinder, and thence 
eonveyed to the ground. 


POTATO DIGGERS. \ 


There is no agricultural implement (except, perhaps, the steam plow) 
requiring more improvement than the potato-digger, it being very doubt- 
fal if there ever was one constructed which can be pronounced a sue- 
cess, among the many hundreds upon which a vast amount of money 
and labor have been bestowed, although reports have been'received of 
satisfactory work under favorable circumstances. At the beginning of 
the present century we find that in England the mode of taking up the 
potatoes depended very much upon the manner in which the seed was 
planted. If planted in drills, a furrow was turned from each side of 
the drill, and then that part of the drill in which the potatoes were lodged, 
was turned over with aplow; or after the furrows were turned from each 
side of the drill, the middle was turned over with a hand-fork. At 
other times a spade was used for the same purpose. If the potatoes 
were planted in hills, which was rarely done, a fork or spade was the 
only implement used. There was also used in England, about the be- 
ginning of the present century, “an implement for teari ing the furrow 
to pieces and laying bare the mass of the crop,” consisting of the ordi- 
nary plow-beam and handles with a crosspiece attached ‘to the rear of 
the beam, to which was affixed a diagonal harrow having three or four 
vertical teeth: After this harrow had been once over the ground, the 
potatoes unearthed by the operation were picked up, and then’ the 
ground was cross-hai rrowed and the potatoes uncovered by this second 
harrowing were Hithered. While at this time, in our own country, po- 
tatoes were unearthed generally by the common hoe, we believe the 
idea of digging, separating, and gathering potatoes by one opera- 
tion—by passing once over the ground—originated here, and the 
machine by which the same was to be done was invented and con- 
structed by an American. While the first efforts in this direction were 
not entirely successful, those who have the most nearly attained suecess 
within the past few years have employed the same mechanism, operat- 
ing upon the same principle, and constructed in substantially the same 
manner, as the first machine made for this purpose. 

Among the first inventors in this line was Levi Rice, of Robbinston, 
Washington County, Maine, who obtained a patent for his machine 
June 29, "1833, which he describes as “a machine for furrowing, dropping 
and covering, and for digging potatoes.” The machine consists of a 
scoop cr shovel at the extreme front of the frame, which raises the pe- 
atoes and dirt together, which, as the machine is moved forward, pass on 
an endless belt or apron, while a roller shakes thé same, causing the 
dirt to fall through the open belt or apron to the ground, while the po- 
tatoes pass along to the end of the apron and fall “into a box placed on 
the rear of the frame. The rear of the frame is pa eet oe by an axle- 
tree and wheels, the wheels containing spikes to keep them from slip- 
ping. The apron is moved by cog wheels, one of which is placed on the 
axletree and the other on a shaft or cylinder above, around which the 
apron moves. There are leyers by which the shovel or scoop is ‘regu- 


oi’ 


it if "4 Ts f PS Th ‘) s@.\, ; tinase! ; 
a certs uisiniia ae Reem 


Beals: 


ay 


i 


ig 


ZA 


Sw 
\\ 
Want 


Was 
q WE 


1 n 


= 


_ 


—— 


SN Ve 
a | 
Wee i ik iN 


WAG 


ahi 


iN) 


es 


ZAM PLOW. 


REDMOND’s S 


AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES. 403 


lated, to take more or less earth as required. The whole is supported 
by a triangular-shaped frame, to the forward part of which the shovel 
or scoop is attached, which rests on the ground, while the rear part is 
supported by the axletree and wheels before mentioned. Beneath and 
to the frame are attached three plows, placed in the form of a triangle, 
to be used when the machine is required as a planter. The forward 
plow opens the furrow for the reception of the seed, and the other two 
cover the furrow after the seed is dropped. The dropping mechanism 
is not described by the inventor, and the original papers were destroyed 
by fire when the United States Patent office was burned. While the prin- 
ciple above set forth has been generally followed in the construction of 
potato diggers, it is deemed proper to remark that in some machines a 
revolving disk has been substituted for the shovel or scoop and apron. 
These disks have been used in a variety of positions; as, for instance, being 
placed upon a longitudinal shaft revolving in the center of the frame 
and operated by suitable mechanism. In other machines the disk is 
placed upon a vertical shaft, and in others upon a shaft extending over 
the rear of the frame and inclined to the side of it at an angle of about 
45°, The general construction of these disks consists in a hoop placed 
upon the shaft conveying the power. To this hoop are bolted, or other- 
wise firmly secured, arms or tines, which are either curved, straight, or 
spiral, as desired, arranged to go beneath or through the hill or drill, 
according to the construction of the machine. Others have used a 
common shovel-plow, provided with handles and beam, with a rack 
pivoted to the rear of it. This rack is agitated by a wheel with pro- 
jecting arms, which strike a friction roller pivoted to the rack, thus giv- 
ing to the rack the necessary motion for separating the earth from the 
potatoes. ¢ 

As before remarked, none of these machines have been noted for suc- 
cess, and we instinctively ask, Why? Can it be that it is impossible to 
construct a successful potato-digger? We think not, but believe that 
one could be constructed upon the general principles already applied. It 
must be considered, however, that we have a treacherous soil to deal 
with, which, as it is agitated, divides itself into minute particles, and 
introduces itself into every opening of our mechanism with which it 
comes in contact, and serves to retard motion. Another fault is, that 
the earth is raised too high, which requires double the power that 
should be required to do the work. The potatoes must be raised, it is 
true, but the less we raise the earth the less power we require. 
Another useless expenditure of power is in driving ratchets and pawls 
and operating springs; and, still further, the general construction of the 
machine is too cumbersome, and we might add that in many instances 
the ground is not properly prepared before planting. 


STEAM PLOWING. 


This subject has been so fully discussed in the reports of the last three 
years that a few words will suffice to convey all the information in our 
possession upon the subject of recent attempts at improvements. For 
the last year but two applications for patents have been filed for steam 
plows, and these are based upon suggestions set forth in an article upon 
this subject in the report of 1867. These applications show that the 
subject has been considered in its proper light, and it is believed with 
results favorable to the final solution of this important question. But 
the problem is not yet fully solved. It requires time, the exercise of 
inventive genius, and a large outlay of capital, to finally settle the ques- 


404 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


tion of the utility and practicability of the application of steam power 
to the cultivation of crops. 

Redmond’s steam-plow.—Plate 17 represents a steam-plow patented by 
Owen Redmond, of Rochester, New York. The illustration is copied 
from a photograph of the machine at work in the field; a gang of 
six plows, designed to go with the engine, has since been constructed, 
intended to be operated by one man, who may also be the fireman. The 
machine is five feet ten inches wide and weighs less than 5,000 lbs. The 
boiler is placed directly between the two driving-wheels. The tender 
carries a two-barrel water-tank, upon which is the seat of the engineer. 
The hold of the engine on the ground is secured by the protrusion of a 
series of fluke-shaped anchors through the rim of each wheel, which are 
pressed into the ground by a cam on a friction roller on the stem of the 
anchor, the cam being held by a coil spring, which gives if the anchor 
meets with unusual obstruction. The force required to drive the anchors 
is a lifting one on the wheels, tending to prevent them from sinking into 
the soil. It is claimed that this machine can plow three acres an hour. 

Lord Dunmore’s steam-plow.—Plate 18 is an illustration of Lord Dun- 
more’s three-furrow balance steam-plow with traction engine, exhibited 
in the presence of a committee of the Royal Highland and Agricultural 
Society. Lord Dunmore had been interested and successful in experi- 
ments in cultivating, pulling out tree-roots, carrying timber, hauling 
railway luggage, cutting hay and straw, working saw-mill, pumping 
water, and various other useful work, in which successful competition 
was maintained with horse labor; and he determined to test fully its 
capabilities for plowing, but was unsuccessful until he invented the 
three-furrowed balance-plow shown in the engraving. The experimen- 
tal trial, after a heavy fall of rain, upon land untouched by plow share 
for forty years, gave much promise of future success. It cut clean and 
straight furrows six inches by ten inches, five acres per day, at a cost of 
19s. 9d., or about $1 per acre. 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN 
INDIANS. 


An inquiry into the means of subsistence of the aborigines is attended 
with much curious interest. It discloses many plants almost unknown 
to the people, and very little known to science, which may be utilized 
in the arts and in food products. This paper has been prepared with 
reference to so probable a result. The articles of food hereafter enum- 
erated may not be employed by and may be unknown even to such tribes 
as receive annuities, or which, being partly agricultural, dwell in villages, 
and are otherwise provided for; but the wilder Indians, who roam over 
thousands of square miles of territory, are almost entirely dependent 
upon them for existence. Their habits have naturally become no- 
madic; the camping-ground at one place being exhausted, a removal to 
another is imperative. Sometimes in autumn, when fruits and grain 
are ripe, the women gather a small store for winter. Exposed to the 
vicissitudes of the weather, improvident and reckless of the future, 
depending on their bows and arrows, their nets and traps, gorging 
themselves when the opportunity is offered, and stolidly submitting 
to starvation in seasons of scarcity, and at all times indolent, the art of 
cultivating a crop is either unknown to or despised by them. When the 


ATE XVIII 


4 


EI 


See 
: aS 


La Ve = 


LORD DUNMORE’S STE 


AM PLOW, 


Wis 
(44 
QA YL 
bows V/- 


Me 


if. 


YIN 
Fags AY 
ie LL 


My WANING! 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 405 


larger game fails, with senses sharpened by hunger they snatch the 
smnallest and vilest animals and insects, or insipid and innutritious roots 
and grass. Nothing, however coarse and filthy, isrejected; thereis nothing 
that grows out of the ground or that creeps upon its surface which they 
will not devour, unless it is known to be poisonous. The Indian’s dwell- 
ing is sometimes a Wigwam; not unfrequently the hollow of a tree or a 
eave in the rocks; even a pile of brush to the windward of his camp- 
fire is sometimes the only shelter of his family. It is thus evident that 
in his mode of foraging he resembles in his nature the more savage ani- 
mals which share the forests with him, and which frequently fall a prey 
to his ferocity, as he does sometimes to theirs. 


ROOTS AND TUBERS. 


Ground-nut, (Apios tuberosa.)—The tuber of this common plant, which 
grows on the banks of streams and in alluvial bottoms, is the true 
pomme de terre of the French, and the modo, or wild potato, of the 
Sioux Indians, and is extensively used as an article of diet. When 
properly boiled itis by no means unpalatable. It should not be con- 
founded with the ground-nut of the South. 

Dill, (Anethum graveolens,) called by the Snakes and Shoshone Indians 
yampah .—This spindle-shaped root grows in low, timbered bottoms, and 
is esteemed as the best of its kind when used for food. It is analogous 
to the parsnip, and is an article of commerce among the Indians. "The 
seeds are used to flavor soup. 

Milkweed, (Asclepias tuberosa.)—The stem of es plant expands under 
ground into a tuber of considerable size, which is boiled for food. The 
flowers are odoriferous, and the Sioux of the Upper Platte River pre- 
pare from them a crude sugar by gathering them in the morning before 
the dew is evaporated. They also eat the young seed-pods of the plant, 
after boiling them with buffalo meat. Some of the Indians of Canada 
use the tender shoots of this species aS we use asparagus. 

California horse-chestnut, (Aisculus Californica.)—An ornamental 
dwarf tree, producing large quantities of fruit. To render the nuts edi- 
ble, after being pulverized, water is freely used to remove their disa- 
greeable, bitter ta ste, and they are then made into bread. The Indians 
of California use this food in large quantities. 

American aloe, (Agave Americana. )—This plant is commonly called 
mescal, and forms one of the chief articles of food of the Indians of New 
Mexico, Arizona, and Sonora in Mexico. It grows upon the most barren 
mountains, and is taken for food when old enough, at any season of the 
year. It is in its prime, however, when about putting forth its flowering 
stem. ‘To prepare it for use, the leaves are cut off at the base, or crown, 
leaving a hard, white, bulbous mass, measuring one or two feet in cir- 
cumference, having a flavor like chestnuts, but somewhat peppery. Jt 
cannot be eaten in its fresh state, but must becooked. For this purpose 
the Indians dig a hole or pit ten to twelve feet in diameter and three 
feet deep, lined with stones, upon which a fire is made and the stones 
thoroughly heated. The fire being removed, a layer of damp grass is 
placed on the rocks; then the bulbs, which are covered with the tender 
inside leaves taken from the crowns; a layer of grass is placed over 
these, and over all a thick coating of earth. After three days the con- 
tents of the pit are found to be thoroughly baked, and converted to a 
sweet, juicy article of food, a favorite for use in camp, of a brown 
color, and resembling pears in taste. It is used as an article of com- 
merce, and when the writer was at Camp Grant, Arizona, the Apaches 


406 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


often brought it to the post for trade, where it found a ready market, 
as it is not only pleasant to the taste, but acts as an antiscorbutie, so 
necessary at military posts in the Territory of Arizona. Cut up into 
slices, it is easily dried and retains its sweetness for years, as evidenced 
by specimens in the Smithsonian Institution, now three years old. If 
the crown of the Agave be charred to blackness and mingled with water, 
a fine black paint is produced, which is used by the Apaches to paint their 
faces. The leaf, when washed and dried, is employed by the Indians 
for smoking, like tobacco; but being sweet and gummy, it chokes up 
the pipe. The Hualipais, of Arizona, press the roasted heart and leaves 
of the mescal into thin cakes, thirty inches long and eighteen broad, 
and trade them to the Moquis Indians for corn. In this form it has a 
shining, granulated look like opium. The crowns are sometimes baked 
in hot ashes, but are not so good as when baked in the pit. Itisa 
common practice in uncovering a mescal pit to collect the roasted leaves 
into suitable bundles and press them flat. They soon dry and are very 
sweet, but inferior to thecrown. These roasted leaves being of a fibrous 
nature entangle a white man’s teeth to an objectionable extent. The 
leaf has a dirty, black, stringy look, but it is the favorite food of the 
Apaches, and when they are at war or on the hunt packages of it are 
tied up with strings and carried around the person, or made fast to the 
saddle, and are their only subsistence. A fine mescal spirit is prepared 
by the Papajos and Apaches from the roasted heart of the Agave 
Americana. The sugar is developed by heat during the roasting, and 
when taken out of the pit the heart is cut into pieces, and put into 
hide bags or earthen jugs. Water is then poured over it, fermentation 
follows, and at the end of a week it is distilled. The process is carried 
on in secret. It is a strong, fiery drink, but not haif so injurious as 
modern whisky. It is much used by Mexicans, and will tempt an In- 
dian to any undertaking which promises to furnish a supply. The 
wasted pulp, when cut up, mixed with water, and boiled, forms a fine 
sirup, gnd when dissolve d in cold water forms a pleasant ‘drink and an 
excellent sauce to the usuaily very dry and insipid articles of Indian 
food. Although the roasted root is very. dark, the distilled spirit is of 
a clear yellow ‘color. It cannot be adulierated with water without im- 
mediately rendering it ropy and distasteful, the water precipitating 
some mucilaginous matter or resin contained in it. 

The leaves of this plant afford an excellent, strong, and rather coarse 
fiber. The Indians of Arizona and Southern California use it exten- 
sively, preparing it either by drying the leaves and beating the dry 
pulp from the fiber, or by using the fresh leaves and soaking in water 
until the rotten pulp falls off “the fiber. On one occasion, “when the 
writer was out against the Apaches with a scouting party, twenty of 
whom were Papajos, our Indian allies, when camping during the day, 
would gather the dead plants after they had bloomed, beat out the 
dry pulp from the fiber, and twist the latter into picket ropes; and, on 
the expiration of the scout, they had many lariats for sale made of this 
article. 

Balsamorrhiza incana and B. helianthoides—Both of these species 
have thick- roots, which are eaten by the Nez Perces Indians without 
previous cooking. 

Pimple mallow, (Callirrhoé pedata.)—The root of this plant resembles 
a parsnip, and is used as food by the Indians of Nebraska and Idaho. 

Wild sago, (Calochortus luteus, Fig. 5, Plate 1.)—The Utahs call it 
sago. The root is the size of a walnut, very palatable and nutritious. 
The Indian chjidren of California, Utah, and Arizona prize it as the 


PLATE XIX. 
{Puate 1 InpiaAn Foops.]} 
\ “Sess alg yy, na 
W ~ S WG \ \\\ 
\ S ay i \) \ 
Sw alt “ : \ | i \ \ 
. 4 NI Mi \V 
X = = fl \ SN : \\\\ \" 
< S thine <$ wii aN NAY th 
\ S MM “fila N\\, 
Ate SS a. 
S : \ tiv a tt aes MH) 
S S ‘\ \ \ NN {AN \\ ‘Wee i Ik y 
NY Mt \ \ \\ Nt NM ie : Mele nt Mn 
: 


Fig. 1. Kamass root (Camassia esculenta). 
Figs. 2and 3. Kouse root (Peucedanum ambiguum). 

Fig. 4. Prairie potato, or bread root (Psoralea esculenta). 
Fig. 5. Wild sago (Calochortus luteus). 


1Oe 95) Ores Thee his “ipa ia WL 

abt LA MRL Y tri a i aay | ey 
OP Seliu, Se ie | writ epmoaie: ‘ abd 

. (Oe Sasi eae 


Fi a" a 
Bi Fr a, ee antl ~ 


vn 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 407 
' 


children of the whites do confectionery. The Mormons, during their 
first years in Utah, cansamed this root extensively. 

Bdosmia montana. —The Nez Perces Indians collect the tuberous roots 
of this plant and boil them like potatoes. They are the size of a man’s 
finger, of a very agreeable taste, with a cream-like flavor. ; 

Licorice, (Glycyrrhiza lepidota. )—This American form of licorice root 
is eaten by the Indians of Alaska and the northwestern States. . 

Wild artichoke, (Helianthus tuberosus.)—Very common on the river 
banks of the St. Peter’s and St. Croix, and is much eaten by the Dakota 
Indians. 

Helosciadium Californicum —The tubers of this species form one of 
the dainty dishes of the Oregon Indians. Tliey are black, but when 
boiled like potatoes they burst. open lengthwise, showing a snowy-white 
farinaceous substauce, which has a sweet, cream-like taste, with a slight 
parsley flavor. It is an excellent root, the cultivation of which might 
prove useful among the whites. 

Wild potato vine, (Ipomea leptophylia. \—This showy plant of the dry 
deserts of the West is commonly called man root, or mau of the earth, 
being similar in size and shape to a man’s body. ’ The Cheyennés, Ara- 
pahoes, and Kiowas roast it for food when pressed by hunger, but it is 
by no means palatable or nutritious. Its enormous size and depth in 
the ground make its extraction by the ordinary Indian implements a 
work of much difficulty. 

White Lewisia, (Lewisia rediviva.)}—The Indians of California call it 
spatulum. The root is large and fusiform, the outer portion of a dingy 
color, the inner white and farinaceous. It abounds in concentrated 
nutriment, a single ounce of the dried article being sufficient for a meal. 
It is worthy of cultivation. 

Yellow pond lily, (Nuphar advena.)—The roots grow four or five feet 
deep in water, and Indian women dive for them, obtaining large quanti- 
ties, one or two feet long. They are very porous, slightly sweet and 
gintinous, generally boiled with wild fowl; but often roasted. Muskrats 
- store large quantities of these roots in their dwellings for winter use, 
which the Indians contrive to steal. The plant is called tah-wah-pah 
by the Dakota Indians. The seeds form an important part of the diet 
of the Klamath Indians of California, and when pulverized they are 
made into bread or gruel, but are often parched and eaten as pop-corn. 

Ginseng, (Panax horridwn.)—Some of the Alaska Indians believe that 
the root of this plant, consumed by their sorcerers, gives them power 
over others. It is therefore an important ingredient of the medicine- 
man’s commodities. 

Kouse root, (Peucedanum ambiguum, Figs. 2 and 3, Plate 1.)—The 
root of this plant is dug in April or May when in bloom. It grows on 
hills and mountains which are so poor that grass will not grow upon 
them. When fresh it is like the parsnip in taste, and as it dies becomes 
brittle and very white, with an agreeable taste of mild celery. Itis easily 
seas the to flour. When its brown epidermis is removed, innumerable 

mall dots are revealed. Both the roots and the flour will keep several 
siiiiiia, It is sometimes called bread or biscuit root by travelers, and 
Kouse root by the indians of Oregon and Idaho. The Canadians know 
it by the name of Racine blanc. After the bread has been made g short 
time, its taste is not unlike that of stale biscuits. When the roots have 
been pounded fine, the flour is pressed into flat cakes, one foot wide, 
three feet long, and from a quarter to half'an inch thick, of an oblong 
rectangular form, with a hole in the middle by which they are fastened 
on the saddles when traveling. The cakes have a ribbed appearance, 


408 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
J 

cansed by being laid on sticks stretched over the tent fires, for the pur- 
pose of smoke-drying or baking the bread. When broken up the bread 
has a coarse granulated appearance, especially when not ground very 
ja, and is very insipid. 

Prairie potato or bread root, (Psoralea esculenta, Fig. 4, Plate 1.)— 

Tt ‘is aiso called Indian turnip, pomme de prairie of the French, and 
tip-sin-nah of the Sioux, who use this root very extensively. It is gen- 

rally the size of a hen’s egg, of a regular ovoid shape, with a thick, 
leathery envelope, easily separated from its smooth internal parts, which 
become friable when dry, and are readily pulverized, affording a light, 
starchy flour. It is of a sweetish turnip-like taste, is often cut in thin 
slices and dried for winter use, and is very palatable, however prepared. 
The Indians of Kansas and Nebraska consider this rootan especial lux- 
ury. ‘The Indians of the St. Croix River offer these roots as a peace- 
offering to the Great Spirit. 

Brake or bracken (Pteris aquilina.)—The root of this species of fern is 
eaten by several of the nortbern tribes of Indians. It is about the size 
of a man’s finger, externally black, and rather rough, and easily sepa- 
rated from the heart, which is white. After being roasted it resembles, 
both in appearance and flavor, the dough of wheat. It has a pungency 
which is disagreeable to the whites, but by the aborigines is much rel- 
ished, and it proves to be nutritious. 

Cattail flag, (Scirpus lacustris.)—The root of this plant is much eaten 
by the Indians of the Upper Missouri. In California it is called tule 
root, and is a great favorite, whether raw, or pounded and made into 
bread. The flour is white, sweet, and very nutritious. The roots are 
sometimes bruised, mixed with water, and boiled, when a good sirup is 
produced. The Cocopah Indians, of Arizona, before starting on a 
journey procure some of these roots to chew as a preventive of thirst, 
and at the same time to afford them nourishment. The roots resemble 
artichokes, but are much longer. 

Arrowhead, (Sagittaria variabilis.)—Sometimes called swan or swamp 
potato. The Chippewa name for it is wab-es-i-pinig. It grows inmuddy 
margins of northwestern lakes and rivers, and its tubereus roots furnish 
an important article of food. Aquatic birds are fond of them, and 
resort to favorite spots in spring to feast upon them, when the In- 
dians slay the birds for their own feasts. The tubers are generally as 
large as hens’ eggs, and are greatly relished when raw, but have ea bitter 
milky juice not ‘agreeable to civilized man. ‘This is destroyed in boil- 
ing, however, and the roots are rendered sweet and palatable. They 
are considered excellent when cooked with meat, either salt or fresh. 
To collect the roots the Indians wade into the water and loosen them 
with their feet, when they float up and are gathered. They are of an 
oblong shape, in color whitish-yellow, banded with four black rings. 
The plant is also common in the Atlantic States. 

Kamass root, or wild hyacinth, (Camassia esculenta, Fig. 1, Plate 1.)— 
This root resembles an onion in shape and a hickory-nut in size. It bears 
a pretty blue flower, and grows on rocky hills. The root is dug in June 
and July. When eaten raw the taste is pleasant and mucilaginous ; 
when boiled it somewhat resembles that of the common potato. The 
Indian mode of preparing it for future use is to dig a pit, line it with 
rocks, upon which a fire is made, and, when heated sufficiently, the 
heated stones are swept clean and the roots are heaped upon them ; 
grass or twigs are next laid over the pile, and, finally, a covering of 
earth. After several days the pit is uncovered, when the white roots are 
found to be converted into a thoroughly cooked, dark-brown, homoge- 


LF 


aby. os ‘ dina pov wes 


PLATE XX. 


[Piate 2 Inp1aw Foops,] 


ay 


H Y ( YY AP 
Wee 


\ 


\ 


NATIVE POTATO (Solanum Fendleri). 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 409 


neous mass, of about the consistency of softened glue, and as sweet as 
molasses. Cooked in this manner, the roots are often made into large 
cakes, by mashing and pressing them together, and, when slightly dried 
in the sun, they become rather pliable and tough, and look like plugs 
of black navy tobacco. Its color does not recommend it to the taste, 
but it is sweet, mucilaginous, and as agreeable as the fresh root, ex- 
cepting a slight smoky flavor acquired in baking. In this pressed form it 
keeps softer than in the raw state or when simply cooked, and may be kept 
for a year or more. The roots, when boiled in water, yield a very good 
molasses, which is much prized, and is used on important festival occa- 
sions by various tribes. The Indians of Cape Flattery, the Nez Perces 
of Idaho, and those of Pitt River, California, are the greatest consumers 
of this article of diet, under the name of kamass root. 

Scorzonella ptilophora.—The root of this plant is small, succulent, 
and almost transparent, full of a bitterish, milky juice, and is eaten raw 
by the Nez Perces Indians. 

Potato, (Solanum Fendleri, Plate 2)—Supposed to be the original 
of the cultivated potato. The writer found this plant growing in great 
abundance in that portion of northern New Mexico lying between Fort 
Wingate and Fort Defiance. The Navajo Indians inhabit this section, 
and this native potato forms one of their chief articles of diet in win- 
ter. The women dig the roots with whatever implemeuts they can get, 
often using a strong, smooth piece of wood with a wedge-shaped end. 
The plant grows on low, rich spots, and by spring the earth is torn 
up in every conceivable direction in the search for potatoes. The 
tubers are quite small, one half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, of 
good taste, and somewhat like a boiled chestnut. The Navajo Indians 
consume so large quantities at one time as to cause griping pains, and 
as a remedy take at the same meal a quantity of earthy matter contain-. 
ing magnesia, which relieves the stomach. 

In 1869 a quantity of the bulbs was received by the Department of 
Agriculture, from New Mexico, and distributed to various parts of the 
continent. A few, planted in this vicinity, have largely increased in 
size. 

Wild valerian, ( Valeriana edulis,) called kooyah or tobacco-root by the 
Indians of the Northwest, and raceme de tabac by the French trap- 
pers. The root of this plant is remarkable for a very unpleasant taste 
and odor, which resemble those of chewing-tobacco. When first taken 
from the ground the root is very repulsive, and it must have been under 
the compulsion of severe hunger that the Indians discovered its edible 
qualities. In its fresh state it has poisonous properties, which are de- 
stroyed by baking the root in the ground for two days, when it is trans- 
formed into a nutritious and palatable article of food. The stench of this 
root is much more offensive when fresh, especially if made into bread or ° 
cookedin soup. The Indians of the North and Northwest are fond of it. 


DRIED FRUITS AND NOTS. 


Acorns.— Quercus agrifolia, Q. Hmoryi, Q. oblongifolia, Q. lobata, and 
(). Hindsii, are the principal large oaks which aftord food for Indians, 
who eat,their acorns raw, or roasted like pop-corn. When bread is to 
be made of them the acorns are ground raw or parched to suit the taste, 
and the flour is mixed with water and dried in the sun or baked in ashes. 
The bread tastes and looks like coarse black clay which has been sun- 
dried. Some tribes gather great quantities of acorns for winter use, 
especially the Diggers, who store them in round wicker baskets, holding 


410 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. - 


about ten bushels, which are covered with grass and earth to keep out 
moisture. The Apaches and Mexicans gather and consume the fruit of 
the dwarf oak, which grows abundantly in many parts of New Mexiéo 
and Arizona, this fruit being smaller and not so bitter as the former. 
Some of the species are quite sweet, and in seasons of plenty the Indians 
gather large quantities and sell them to the people along the Mexican 
frontier, and they are often to be found for sale in the stores of Arizona 
and New Mexico under the name of bayotis. 

Mesquite, (Algarobia glandulosa, Plate 3.)\—Frequenitly called mosqueit. 
The bean-like production of this common tree of the deserts is an im- 
portant article of food with the Indians living within its reach. The pods 
are seven to nine inches long, of a buff color, ripen in June sufliciently 
for summer use, and travelers, both Indians and whites, chew them as 
they journey ou. ‘They are not only nutritious, but a preventive of thirst, 
having an agreeable blending of acidity and sweetness, somewhat like 
the early harvest apple. The pods, when in their fresh ripe state, are 
put into a wooden or stone mortar and bruised, then emptied into an 
earthen dish, mixed with water and allowed to stand a few hours, the 
result being a kind of cold porridge or mush. AIH] present then collect 
around the newly-prepared mess, seating themselves on the ground near, 
the dish, and, pressing the fingers of theright hand tightly together, at 
the same time bending the hand so as to form a scoop, dip in without 
ceremony, and without distinction of rank, age, or sex, forming a gro- 
tesque sight rarely to be witnessed outside of an Indian camp. The 
nearly naked bodies of the Indians soon become smeared from head to 
foot, and the shaggy appearance of their hair does not exhibit a lively © 
sense of cleanliness. Each face wears a complaisant look, while their 
tumid abdomens afford certain proof of the quantity consumed. As the 
fruit or bean-like pods ripen they are gathered for winter use, being 
thoroughly dried and stored in cylindrical-shaped baskets, made of twigs 
and covered with grass and earth to keep out rain, in which shape they may 
be preserved a long.time. They form a sweet, nutritious food, and are 
among the great luxuries of the Apaches, Pimas, Maricopas, Yumas, 
Yavapais, Mohaves, Hualipais, Cocopahs, and Moquis of Arizona, besides 
many tribes in New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, and the southern portion of 
California. The Indian women pound the dry pods until reduced toa fine 
powder, which being mixed with a little water, is pressed into large thick 
cakes of several pounds’ weight, and dried in the sun, to be used as circum- 
stances require. They are often kept in the pulverized state in bags, or 
stored as pods, but if not thoroughly pulverized so that the seeds are as © 
fine as the pulp they will soon become a living mass, since from every seed 
will come forth an insect, a species of Bruchus. This, however, makes 
littie difference to the Indians, who do not pick the insects out, but let 
them become an ingredient of the bread. Ifreduced to fine flour the larva 
of the insect becomes a part, forming a homogeneous mass of animal and 
vegetable substance. The flour, being very sweet, when mixed ith water 
forms an agreeable drink, and when made into gruel is very palatable. If 
boiled in water and fermented, a pleasant and nutritious drink, much 
esteemed by the Indians, is the result. When the crop of mesquite beans 
fails there is great suffering among the tribes. Excellent vinegar can, 
be made from the pods, and horses and cattle soon-grow fat by eating 
them. The gum which oozes out of this tree, when perforated by 
insects, is often eaten. All the Ihdians of Arizona mix this exudation 
with mud, which is then daubed over the entire head, serving two pur- 
poses—killing all the insects, and rendering the hair very black and 
glossy. It is in facta very good hair-dye. The women use the bark 


PLATE XXI. 


—" 
a 
(=) 
ie} 
° 

oF 
A 
=| 
a 
eA 

i 

a 
g 
& 
<q 
4 

My 

os 


MESQUITE (Algarobia glandulosa). 


ae a1 koa . ; 
sje 


exe “s 

has + aes 

en. 7 

7 : | 

hg nany iP 7 es | as 
a 4 ‘ ‘ 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 411 


of this tree to make skirts, and twist it into rope or twine, and even 
weave it into baskets. 

Western juniper, (Juniperus oecidentalis.\—The fruit of this tree is a 
large and tuberculated berry, sweet and nutritious, especially when it 
is first ripe; nevertheless it has a resinous taste peculiar to the juni- 
per. It is largely consumed by all the Indians of Arizona and New 
Mexico, who gather great quantities for winter store. When dried and 
ground into flour, mixed with water, kneaded into a hard mass, and 
dried in the sun, it has a chaffy look of a brownish yellow color, is very 
light, easily digested, and not offensive, as its juniper taste is not objec- 
tionable to the Indians. The bread, having a chaffy or sawdust con- 
sistency, would not be palatable to the white man. Mexicans consume 
this fruit in large quantities, and it constitutes an article of trade among 
them. An analysis of the bread shows: Water, 14.34; proteine com- 
pounds, 5.69; starch, 17.87; sugar, 10.66; cellulose, gum, oil, &c., (by 
difference,) 47.58; ash, 3.86100. 


NUTS. ' 


Hickory nuts, (Carya alba ;) Pecan nuts, (Carya oliveformis ;) Hazel 
nuts, (Corylus Americana ;) Walnuts, (Juglans nigra.)—Tiaese nuts grow 
abundantly in most of the States east of the Missouri River, in the 
Indian Territory, and in Arkansas. In former years they furnished the 

‘food for a much larger number of Indians than at present, the greater por- 
tion of the tribes having been removed farther west. The quantity con- 
sumed at one time seems incredible, and would certainly be unsafe for 
more civilized stomachs. 

Iron-wood, (Olneya tesota.)—This tree grows in the most desolate and 
rocky places of Arizona and Sonora. The seeds are produced in bean- 

- like pods of a shiny mahogany color, in size and shape somewhat lke 
@ pea, and are eaten raw and roasted by the Indians. When care is 
taken to parch them they equal peanuts, with no perceptible difference 
in taste. The Mohave Indians, of Arizona, store them for winter use. 

Pine nuts, (Pinus Sabiniana, P. monophylla, P. Parryana, P. Lambert- 
jana flexilis, P. Coulteri.\—These trees grow in the mountains of the 
western Territories, and the seeds are commonly called pine nuts, and 
are used as an article of food by all the Indians inhabiting the regions 
in which they grow. The seeds are oily, of a very disagreeable flavor, 
but highly nutritious. The woodpeckers coliect them for winter use, 
and the Digger Indians hunt for the hidden stores and pilfer them with 
much delight. The Indians of California, Nevada, and Utah consider 
these nuts one of their main articles of subsistence. 

Edible pine, (Pinus edulis.\—This small scrubby pine grows on the 
dry rocky mountains of New Mexico, and is called by the Mexicans 
pion. The seed is about the size of a kidney bean, with a rich. oily 
kernel in a thin shell. It has a pleasant flavor, and sometimes oil is 
expressed from it. In favorable seasons the seeds are gathered in quan- 
tities and sold by the Indians to the people of New Mexico, Arizona, 
and the border settlements of Mexico. The price is 50 cents to $1 per 
pound. They should be roasted before eaten, though sometimes they 
are consumed raw. 

The Indians of Alaska in the spring are in the habit of stripping off 
the outer bark of Pinus contorta and seraping the newly formed cam- 
bium from the trunk. This is eaten fresh or dried, pressed into com- 
pact cakes of a dark claret brown. It has a coarse look, as if made of 
tanner’s bark, and if broken up it presents a checkered appearance. - 
When fresh it is not unpleasant, and the effect is that of a gentle lax- 


412 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ative, but as the season advances it becomes strong in turpentine. 
When the cakes are old they have a bitter taste not unlike that of pine 
chips. 

Sugar maple, (Acer saccharinum.)—In the spring the Indian families 
throughout the Northern States repair to their respective sugar camps. 
The sap collected from the trees is carried in bark buckets and boiled 
down in the usual way. Sugar-making forms a sort of Indian carnival, 
and boiling candy and pouring it out on the snow to cool is the pastime 
of the children. The women make the sugar, which is put up for sale 
in boxes made of white birch bark and called mocoecks. The boxes 
designed for sale are of all sizes, weighing from twenty pounds to 
seventy, and are generally exchanged for merchandise. Winnebagoes 
and Chippewas are the largest manufacturers, the former often selling 
to the Northwest Fur Company fifteen thousand pounds a year. 

Soap berry, (Sapindus marginatus.) So ealled from yielding a soapy 
substance when soaked in water. It produces its berries in large clus- 
ters the size of cherries, containing a clear, creamy, yellow, glue-like 
substance surrounding large, hard, black seeds. The Alaska Indians 
pound these berries and press the pulpy mass into round cakes weighing 
two or three pounds. These look like anything but bread, being a black, 
forbidding mass, with the shining black seeds, but partially broken, 
studding the outside. The taste of this is much worse than that of the 
meanest tobacco, having a smoky flavor added. The latter is acquired 
by the suspension of the cake over the fires in the tents to dry, which also 
gives it a black color. It is the most repulsive of all Indian articles of food. 
The white albumen in the interior of the seeds contains the nutritive 
substance. An analysis of the soap-berry bread gives the following 
result: Water, 18.16; proteine compound, 14.44; starch, 12.10; sugar, 
14.71; cellulose, gum, oil, &c., (by difference,) 36.98; ash, 3.61 =100. 

Screw bean, (Strombocarpus pubescens, Plate 4.)—A translation of 
the Spanish word tornillo, being twisted like a screw. It does not ripen 
until late in the fail, nor is it fit to use until ripe and quite dry, being 
insipid; but no sooner is it ripe and divested of moisture than it 
becomes excessively sweet and very palatable, and is considered a superb 
article of diet by the Indians along the Colorado River of Arizona, and 
by the Utahs, who collect with assiduity all they can and store for 
winter use. It wiil keep a long time, but is subject to the attacks of a 
species of Bruchus, a small insect which is buried in the fruit, and con- 
sequently, when pulverized and made into bread, is eaten with the rest. 
if the beans are left in the storehouse unpounded, the insects will 
escape, but, as sometimes happens, when it is wished to reduce the sup- 
ply of beans to a smaller compass, they are somewhat coarsely pounded 
up. The seeds, however, being hard, are generally kept whole. This 
coarse meal undergoes a peculiar change, like fermentation, and after 
being put under pressure for a short time acquires the taste desired by 
the Indians. When bread is to be made from the beans or the pulver- 
ized meal, the whole mass, as in the case of mesquite, is finely ground 
in a mortar, mixed with water, kneaded hard, and baked in the sun. It 
is then fit to use and will keep some time; is sweet and more nutritious 
than the mesquite bread. The flour makes an excellent gruel, or if 
mixed with water is not to be refused as a beverage by either red or 
white man. By boiling the coarse meai in water a good molasses is 
obtained, and a pleasant and stimulating wine may be made from this 
fruit. All kinds of animals are fond of it and fatten uponit. It might 
iorm an excellent hedge plant for many parts of the United States. 

Giant arbor-vite, (Tha gigantea.\—The Indians scattered along the 


PLATE XXTI. 
[PLATE 4 InpiIaw Foops.] 


WAS ay, 


ANY IRIE Os 


y aN 


lal LILI 
a > ome 
4 = I 2 


eA j 
S 
<A! 


SCREW BEAN (Strombocarpa pubescens). 


ys ae 
/ el 
4 
hs) and Th, 
ne ‘ 4 
7 . 
a9 
—- 
i 
> 
“2 
al 
i 
‘ 
r, 
, ¢. 
I 
‘4 
at 
a 
4 
-_: 
< 
. ki o \ 
¥ 
‘ 
y; se 
7 con: ry 
é 
4 A 
: J 
} a , 
¢ 
oe 4 
2 
, . 
~ 
t My ie 
‘ 
ca 


enh hie ea 


i iti Rall 


eek usta aa 3 
iy; te ep vat hei © 


> 4 
This 
¥, ‘ 
5 
7 
i 
o<y » 
¥ 
} — 
= 4 
aw 
* 
\ 
4 
" - 
a 
’ et al 
~~ 
AR » 
v4 
y ‘ 
A ee Md 
i be i , 
as 
« A Wray ») 
i - o%, 


: iret 


; ay cbs? neh 
| ashi err 7: 


on te 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 413 


Columbia River, in Oregon, collect the cambium from this species ot 
cypress in the same manner as the Alaska Indians do that from Pinus 
contorta, and preserve and use it in the same manner. 


BERRIES. 


Manzanita, (Arctostaphylos tomentosa.) —The manzanita of the Span- 
iards. Itis a dwarf evergreen, producing a small fruit similar to the 
well-known bearberry, of an astringent taste. It also possesses acid 
properties, and by the early Spanish settlers of California, Arizona, and 
New Mexico was called manzafiita, or little apple, as, when not fully 
ripe, it tastes like an agreeably tart apple. When bruised and mixed 
with water it forms a cooling drink for summer. The fruit is exten- 
sively eaten in a fresh or dried state by both Indians and wild beasts. 
When dry it is husky, though sweet to the taste, and is often ground, 
made into bread and baked in the sen. The meal from these berries is 
often mixed with other substances, as corn meal, pounded berries, sirup 
of Cereus giganteus, &c., to cause fermentation, forming various drinks 
used by the indians. 

Menzies’s arbutus, (Arbutus Menziesit.)—A fine, showy evergreen shrub, 
with red berries, in clusters, eaten by birds and Indians of California. 

Bearberry, (Arctostaphylos wea-urst.)—This plant is the killikinick of 
the Indians and larb of hunters. It is a small plant growing among 
rocks in the western mountains; has a deep red berry somewhat larger 
“aaehe the common currant; has a sweet spicy taste, and is very pleas- 

¢ food. 

Dckachonn y, (Amelanchier Canadensis.)\—This shrub grows in the mount- 
ains of California, Oregon, Utah, and Alaska; and the berries are 

eaten, both fresh and dried for winter use, by all the Indians. They are 
used by white settlers also, who call them shadberries. They are good 
when fresh, and when dry have an agreeable taste, are excellent for 
mixing with pemican, (preserved meat ) and when boiled in broth of fat 
meat are a dainty dish and used in all the Indian feasts. In preparing 
the fruit for future use a favorite plan is to take a tub holding twenty 
or thirty gallons, on the bottom of which bark of the spruce tree is placed ; 
upon this bark a quantity of berries is laid; stones nearly red hot are next 
laid on; then another layer of berries, then hot stones, and so on until 
the tub is filled. The whole is then allowed to remain untouched for 
six hours, when the fruit will be thoroughly cooked. It is then taken 
out, crushed between the hands, and spread on splinters of wood, tied 
together tor that purpose, over a slow fire, and while it is drying the 
juice which was pressed out in cooking in the tub is rubbed over the 
berries. After two or three days’ drying they will keep a long time, 
and are very palatable, more so when a few buckieberries are mixed 
with them. 

Barberry, (Berberis aquifolium,) sometimes called false Oregon grape. 
Tt has deep blue berries in clusters somewhat resembling the frost grape, 
and the flavor is strongly acid. It grows in the mountains of the North- 
west. It is used as food, and when bruised and mixed with sugar and 
water forms a pleasant drink. 

Hawthorn, (Crataegus coccinea.)—The fruit of this plant is eaten fresh 
and mixed with choke cherries and service berries, which are bruised, 
then pressed into cakes, and dried for winter use. 

Crowberry, (Empetrum nigrum.)—This interesting species of heath-like 
plant produces a black berry which is consumed in its ripe state, also 
dried for winter. It grows on the alpine summits of the Northwest. 

Wild strawberry, (Fragaria Virginiana.)—This fruit grows abundantly 


414 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


in Kansas, Rocky Mountains, California, and Minnesota, and the Indians 
hold the fruit in as high estimation as more civilized persons. 

Wintergreen, (Gaultheria procumbens.)—The spicy berries of this plant 
are eaten by the Indians of Michigan and Wisconsin. 

Honeysuckle, (Lonicera involucrata.)—This plant grows in damp places 
in the Cascade Mountains. The Indians residing there eat the fruit, 
which is sometimes called bearberry. It is also eaten by the Indians 
of Alaska. 

Honeysuckle, or Twinberry, (Lonicera ciliata,) grows abundantly in 
the mountains of Oregon and Alaska, is considered good to eat by the 
hunter, and is much used by the aborigines. 

One-flowered pipsissewa, (Moneses uniflora,) grows in Alaska. The 
fruit, often called moss berries, is used as food. The yield of the berries 
is scant, however. 

Crab apple (Pyrus coronaria, Fig. 1, plate 5) grows in the Cascade 
Mountains and in Alaska. Specimens are in the Department of Agri- 
culture, collected in latitude 54° 45’ north, longitude 130° 41’ west, 
presented by ‘T. A. Henriques, of the United States revenue steamer 
Lincoin. 

Wild cherry, (Cerasus Virginiana.)—Commonly called choke-cherries. 
This fruit is used both fresh and dry, and in the latter condition is often 
mixed with meat, pounded together, and dried for winter. The bark is 
made into tea, and drank by some of the Indians. It grows in Utah, 
Oregon, Arizona, and in the Rocky Mountains, and is much relished by 
all the aborigines. ‘The fruit is sometimes pounded fine and dried in 
the sun, and in this condition is boiled in broth or with meal made from 
various roots or seeds. 

Wild currant, (Ribes.)—In New Mexico it is called samita. The fruit 
is not very palatable, being offensive to some, bet the Indians eat it. 
The berries are a bright amber color, and very tempting to the sight, 
somewhat resembling the gooseberry. In Colorado several settlers 
came near losing their lives by eating this berry. . 

Buckthorn, (Rhamnus croceus.\—This is a fine evergreen, producing 
numerous red berries which render it very showy. The Apaches collect 
and pound them up with whatever animal substances may be on hand, 
the berries imparting to the mixture a bright red color, which is ab- 
sorbed into the circulation and tinges the skin. On one occasion a 
detachment of the First Arizona Infantry attacked a camp of Apaches 
in the Mogollon Mountains, Northern Arizona, killed twenty-two and 
captured two children. The writer, being with the party as surgeon, 
examined the dead. Their abdomens were much distended from eating 
greedily of these berries and other coarse substances. Their bodies 
exhibited a beautiful red net-work, the coloring matter having been 
taken up by the blood and diffused through the smallest veins. 

Raspberry, (Rubus strigosus.) —This fruit, known to whites and Indians, 
grows in Texas, Arizona, Colorado, Oregon, Alaska, and other sections, 
and is a universal favorite. 

Missouri currant, (Ribes aureum.)—Black and yellow varieties of the 
wild currant are much used by the Indians of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, 
Texas, Oregon, Ualiforhia, and Alaska. 

Gooseberry, (Ribes hirtellum, Fig. 2, Plate 5.)—It is abundant, and 
used by the Indians of Colorado, Oregon, Alaska, Arizona, and Utah. 

Wild rose, (Rosa cinnamomea.)—The berries or seed capsules of this 
plant, when turned by frost, are very pleasant to eat, not being woolly, 
as the rose berries of the States, but sweet and juicy, and serve as an 
excellent antiscorbutic for the Indians of Alaska. 


PLATE XXII1. 


[Puiats 5 Inpr1anw Foops.] 


Fig. 1. Crab apple (Pyrus coronarta). 
Fig. 2. Gooseberry (Ribes hirtellum). 


a AN 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. .415 


Ash-leafed rose, (Rosa fraxinifolia.)—This plant grows in the Cascade 
Mountains, where the Indians eat its fruit. | 

Salmon berry, (Rubus spectabilis.)—This is used largely by the Indians 
along the northwest coast. In the spring the young sprouts of the 
- salmon berry and thimble berry, (Rubus Nutkanus,) are consumed in great 
quantities. They are very tender, have a slightly acid and astringent 
taste, and appear to serve as an alterative to the system, which has be- 
come loaded with humors from the winter’s diet of dried fish and oil. 
The sprouts are sometimes cooked by being tied in bundles and steamed 
over hot stones, and are highly relished. The fruit is an excellent 
antiseorbutic. 

Common blackberry, (Rubus villosus.)—Found in Northern Missouri, 
Texas, California, and Minnesota. The Indians keep in remembrance 
the localities where this plant grows, and are as fond of its fruit as are 
the whites. 

Thimble berry, (Rubus Nutkanus.)—Grows throughout the Northwest, 
and is a great favorite with the Indians. It acts as a fine antiscor- 
butic. 

Dewberry, (Rubus Canadensis.)\—Grows abundantly in Southern Kan- 
sas, having a fine rich flavor, and is held as a great delicacy by Indians 
and whites. 

Buffalo berry, (Shepherdia argentea.)—This is a shrub fifteen feet high. 
The berries are about the size of peas, of a bright scarlet color, eontain- 
ing but one seed. ‘They are pleasantly acid, and the Indians are ex- 
travagantly fond of them. Utah, Nebraska, and Oregon produce the 
plant in abundance. 

Snowberry, (Symphoricarpus racemosus.)—Grows in the mountains of 
Oregon and Washington Territory, and is eaten by the Indians. — 

Cranberry, (Vaccinium macrocarpon.)—Grows in lakes and swamps, 
sometimes under water. The Indians gather the fruit from September 
to the time of snow-fall. To them it is an important fruit az food, and 
as an article of commerce with the tribes of the Northwest. 

Blueberry (Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum.)—Grows abundantly along the 
northwest coast. The Indians are very fond of this, to them, very de- 
sirable fruit. They collect large quantities, and smoke-dry them for 
winter use. 

Huckleberry, (Vaccinium myrtillus.)—This favorite fruit of the Indians 
grows in the Rocky Mountains. 

Squaw huckleberry, ( Vaccinium staminewm.)—This is an agreeable fruit, 
growing in Wisconsin and Michigan, of which the Indians make exten- 
sive use. 

Wild grape, ( Vitis Californica.)\—It grows in Texas, the Indian Terri- 
tory, Arkansas, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Arizona. The quan- 
tity of this fruit that an Indian wili consume at one time is scarcely 
credible. The ancient Pueblo Indians were in the habit of cultivating . 
it, as is evident from the peculiar distribution of the plants near ruined 
settiements. In Arizona, near Fort Whipple, they are arranged in rows 
and are very-old. At Camp Lincoln, on the Verde River, near which 
were @ number of ancient Indian ruins, a small stream called Clear 
Creek passed close by, on each side of which was a narrow strip of rich 
land, covered with under-brush, among which were found several grape 
vines, planted at short intervals, that differed in many particulars from 
those native to the locality.” The small kinds, found so universally in 
the woods, were growing abundantly all around, but on no other spot 
could the cultivated kinds found on Clear Creek be discovered. The 
latter were near dilapidated habitations, the owners of which were evi- 


416 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


dently domestic in their habits. The vines were quite old, and had 
been repeatedly burnt off, as the stumps testified. The fruit ‘vas supe- 
rior in flavor to the common wild grapes, being sweet and slightly acid. 
Some were foxy in their nature, while others “resembled the Isabella ; 
and one was much like the shriveled Frontignac in taste, size, and habit 
of plant. Some were short growers, while others ran, like the frost- 
grape. Specimens of each were dried and sent to Dr. George Engle- 
mann, of St. Louis, who had the seeds planted: There seemed to be 
five or six varieties. Dr. Englemann is of opinion that they are one 
species distinct from the eastern plant, closely allied to Vitis Californica, 
if not a mere variety of it. He has provisionally named it Vitis Arizo- 
NENSIS. 
FLESHY FRUITS. 


Giant cactus, (Cereus giganteus.)—This noted plant of the barren hills 
of Arizona is commonly called monumental or giant cactus. It grows 
twenty-five to fifty feet high, and four and a haif in diameter, is 
deeply ribbed, and covered with long black spines. Its fruit (Fig. 1, 
Plate 6,) is pear-shaped, of a ereenish- yellow color, with a few small 
spines scattered over the surface, which fall off as the fruit becomes 
thoroughly ripe. The fruit is borne upon the highest part of the plant, 
and is usually gathered by means of long, hooked sticks. The interior 
of the fruit is of a beautiful red color, and looks tempting; the rind is 
pulpy, fibrous, juicy, and sweet; the pulp is very palatable, and is 
full of small biack seeds, which are also eaten, reminding one of 
figs, the only difference being that it has more moisture. The seeds are 
indigestible, unless well chewed. he Indians of Arizona, Sonora, and 
the southern portion of California consider this one of their greatest 
luxuries, and as long as the fruit is obtainable care for nothing else. To 
dry this fruit as a preserve, the seedy pulp is placed between | soft inner 
corn-husks, the ends of which are tied, and it is then dried in the sun, 
for winter use or trade. It is also put into earthen pots when fresh, 
secured from the air, and sold in the settlements. It retains its sweet. 
ness for a long time, as is shown by a sample in the museum of this 
Department, deposited three years since. In one instance it has under- 
gone a Slight fermentation, and its color has changed to a Vandyke red. 
A clear, light- brown sirup is expressed from the pulp, and sold in one- 
gallon jugs, (also made by the Indians,) for $2 to $5. The Papajo In- 
dians are the largest producers of this sirup. The Pimo Indians, of 
the Gila River, annually prepare a wine from this fruit, called by the 
Mexicans tiswein, by taking the fresh pulp or the sirup and mixing 
with it a certain quantity of water in earthen vessels, and exposing it to 
the sun for some time to ferment, after which it is fit for drinking. It 
is highly intoxicating, with the taste and smell of sour beer; but some 
time elapses after drinking before its stimulating effects are felt. When 
the wine is ready for use, the Indians celebrate an annual drinking 
festival. These gatherings are anxiously anticipated for months, and 
expeditions which have been planned against the Apaches, while under 
the influence of drink, are then carried into execution. A sample, 
three years old, in the Smithsonian Institution, has improved by age, 
having acquired a slight sour muscat taste, but is still very disagreeable. 
It is of a clear, amber color, and in every respect superior to much of 
the wine on sale. 

Thurber’s cactus, (Cereus Thurberi.\—This is commonly called pitahaya 
by the Mexicans. It grows in the Papajo Indian country, on the bor- 
ders of Arizona and Sonora, e eighteen to twenty feet high, and four to 


PLATE XXIV. 


[PLate 6 Inpi1an Foops.] 


"HANAN (Fi 
AN AN | 


i) 


_AC\N 
ZL 


Me 
“UB AIIN. Ng 


Fig. 1. Giant cactus (Cereus giganteus). 
Fig. 2. Echinocactus Wislizeni. 
Fig. 3. Prickly pear. 


VLA (a a 
Wy fo PE iv SD} 


Fig. 3 


TE I I a ET I aa SSSE aS or 


Ben vy 


afte 1 en lak 


 - iia 
“ig er 


‘an 
Wit rege abst 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 417 


six inches in diameter, and bears two crops of fruit per year. The fruit 
is the size and shape of an egg, and is thickly covered with long, 
black spines. As it ripens it becomes tinged with red, the spines fall 
off, the fruit splits open, and exposes a rich red, juicy pulp, with smail 
black seeds. This is a decidedly better fruit than that of the Cereus gi- 
ganteus, but it is used in every respect for the same domestic purposes. 
The Papajo Indians, in transporting earthen vessels filled with sirup 
or jreserves made of this fruit to market, cover their jars with a thick 
coating of mud, which renders them less liable to break in handling, 
and at the same time keeps the contents cool, and prevents evaporation, 
the crockery used being very porous. The fruit is eaten in enormous 
quantities, and, being very nutritious, the consumers quickly acquire an 
extraordinary increase of bulk. Jn making wine or sirup the seeds are 
easily separated from the pulp by the use of water. They are carefully 
collected, dried, parched, and pulverized, after which process they are 
digestible and nutritious. 

The persimmon, (Diospyros Virginiana.)—This fruit grows abundantly 
in the Indian Territory and in Arkansas. The Indians consume large 
quantities of it when ripe. It is prepared for future use after the man- 
ner of making apple-butter. 

Eehinocactus Wislizeni, (Fig. 2, Plate 6.)—This singular species of cac- 
tus fs commonly called by the Spaniards biznacha, and being twenty 
inches or more ip diameter, a section of the stem is often employed as a 
cooking vessel. The seeds are small and black, but when parched and 
pulverized, make good gruel and even bread. The pulp of the fruit is 
rather sour, and not much eaten. Travelers in passing through the 
cactus wastes often resort to this plant to quench their thirst, its inte- 
rior containing a soft white watery substance, of slightly acid taste, 
which is rather pleasant when chewed. It is a common sight to see on 
each side of the road these plants with a large perforation made by the 
thirsty traveler. An Indian, when traveling and wishing to make a 
meal, selects a large plant, three feet or more long and two in diameter, 
cuts it down and hollows it out so as to form a trough; into this he 
throws the soft portions of the pulpy substance which surrounds the 
central woody axis, and adds meat, roots, seeds, meal, fruits, or 
any edible thing on hand; water is added, aud the whole mixed 
together; stones are then highly heated and dropped into the mixture, 
and, as they cool, are taken out, licked clean, reheated, and returned to 
the cooking vessel, until the mixture is thoroughly boiled. This is a 
favorite dish with the Yabapais and Apaches of Arizona. The Papajo 
Indians pare off the rind and thorns of large plants of this species of 
cactus, letting it remain several days to bleed, when the pulp is pared 
down .to the woody axis, cut up into suitable pieces, and boiled in 
sirup of the Cereus giganteus or Cereus Thurbert. Tf a kind ef sugar 
which is made by the Mexicans is attainable, it is employed instead of 
the sirup, thus forming a good preserve. These pieces, when taken 
out of the liquid and dried, are as good as candied citron, which they 
much resemble in taste and substance. 

Mulberry, (Morus rubra.)—This tree grows abundantly in Northern 
Missouri and along the rivers of Kansas, the fruit being large, sweet, 
and of a black color. The Indiaus will travel many miles in search of 
it. It is found also in the Indian Territory. ; 

Prickly pear, (Opuntia Engelmanni, O. vulgaris, O. Camanchica, 
O. Rafinesquii, O. occidentalis, Fig. 5, Plate 6.)\—The fruit of these 
species of cactus is much eaten by all the Indians of New Mexico, 
oo California, and Utah, under the common Spanish name of twnas, 

27 A 


418 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 

great quantities being dried for use in the winter. These plants grow in 
arid desert localities which produce nothing better; they are large and 
of a bright red to purple color; of a rather pleasant, sweet, somewhat 
acid taste, and have thin skins and rather large seeds, which are dis- 
carded. The skin is studded with bunches of very fine downy spines, 
which the Indians brush off with a bunch of grass. The Apaches use 
wooden tongs to gather the fruit, to prevent being scratched by these 
spines or the thorns of the plant. The Pawnees and Papajoes dry the 
unripe fruit of the Opuntia tor future use, to be cooked with meat and 
other substances. The fresh unripe fruit is often boiled in water from 
ten to twelve hours, until soft, when it becomes like apple-sauce; then, 
being allowed to ferment a little, it becomes stimulating and nutritious. 
Some Indians roast the leaves of the Opuntia in hot ashes, and, when 
cooked, the outer skin, with the thorns, is easily removed, leaving a slimy, 
sweet, succulent substance, which is eaten. Hunger and destitution 
frequently compel Indians and white men to live for many days on this 
food. A yellowish white gum often oozes out of the leaves of the 
Opuntia, which is also eaten. 

Indian pear, (Pyrus rivularis.)\—The fruit of this tree has a very pleas- 
ant flavor, and is largely consumed by the Indians cf Alaska. , 

Prunus Americana is found in Colorado, Kansas, Utah, Oregon, and 
Texas. During the ripening of the fruit the Indians live sumptuously, 
and collect quantities for drying. 

Dwarf cherry, (Prunus pumila, Figs. 3, 4,5, 6, Plate 7.)—This inter- 
esting species of the plum is but asmall bush two to six feet high. The 
fruit is larger than a damson, sweet, and in color varies from a light 
pink to a deep crimson, and from a light to deep yellow, and grows 
abundantly in the Indian Territory. Every Indian, young and oid, capa- 
ble of traveling, goes to the plum ground in the proper season, as it is 
their great harvest. The fruit is dried, and also made into preserves. 
The plant thrives in sandy wastes, and is sometimes called sand-hill 
plum. 

Spanish bayonet, (Yueca baccata, Figs. 1 and 2, Plate 7.)—The fruit 
of this spinous-leafed plant is commonly called banana. It is produced 
upon a stem a little longer than the leaves, with several laterals. The 
pumber of the fruit that matures on a plant varies from one to six. 
When ripe they are the size and somewhat the shape of the West In- 
dian banana, from their resemblance to which the common name of the 
plant is derived. The fruit is of a greenish yellow color, of a soft, 
pulpy nature, very sweet and palatable, with large black seeds. It is 
produced every.other year. The Indians of Arizona, New Mexico, and 
Utah are very fond of it, and they dry great quantities for winter use. 
On one occasion the troopsin Northern Arizona captured a quantity of 
- the dried fruit from the Apaches, and, being sweet, it was generally 
eaten; and for some time neither salts nor castor-oil were needed from 
the medicine-chest, as this fruit proved to be a vigorous cathartic when 
dry. The unripe fruit is roasted in hot ashes and then eaten. The 
young flower-buds when about to expand are also roasted, being a 
highly-prized article of diet. To a white man it is an insipid substance. : 
The leaves of this species of Yucca produce a long and strong fiber, 
somewhat coarse, but very durable. The Indians of New Mexico and 
Arizona prepare the fiber either by first drying the leaves, and then 
beating off the dry pulp, or by macerating them in water, which rots off 
ibe pulpy matter. The plant will grow on the poorest kind of dry 
soil, and its introduction into such portions of the Southern States as 
are suited to its growth would seem to be desirable. 


PLATE XXvV. 
[PLATE 7 InDIAW Foops.] 


Figs. 1 and 2. Spanish bayonet ( Pucca baccata). 
Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6. Dwarf cherry (Prunus pumiia). 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, 419 


SEEDS. 


Mith vetch, (Astragalus.)—A genus of leguminous plants. several species 
of which are used as food by the Indians of the Western Territories, and 
are commonly called Indian pea, pop-pea, ground plum, or rattle-box 
weed. The pods adhere to the wool of sheep, and become objection- 
able to the farmer. ‘The pea divested of the hull is boiled for food. 

Lamb’s quarter, (Chenopodium aibwm.)—The young tender plants are 
collected by the Navajoes, the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, all the 
tribes of Arizona, the Diggers of California, and the Utahs, and 
boiled as herbs alone, or with other food. Large quantities also are 
eaten in the raw state. The seeds of this plant are gathered by many 
tribes, ground into flour after drying, and made into bread or mush. 
They are very small, of a gray color, and not unpleasant when 

‘eaten raw. The peculiar color of the. flour imparts to the bread 
a very dirty look, and when baked in ashes it is not improved in 
appearance. It resembles buckwheat in color and taste, and is regarded 
as equally nutritious. The plant abounds in the Navajo country. 

Ericoma cuspidata.—This is a singular species of grass, which is found 
growing wild in moist, sandy spots in Nevada, Arizona, and New 
Mexico, and produces a small, black, nutritious seed, which is ground 
into flour and made into bread. It is held in high estimation by 
the Zuni Indians of New Mexico, who, when their farm crops fail, 
become wandering hunters after the seeds of this grass, which is 

. abundant in their country. Parties are sometimes seen ten miles from 
their villages, on foot, carrying enormous loads for winter provision. 

Panic grass, (Panicum.)—It grows on the bars and moist sides of the 
Colorado River, in Arizona. After the June rise in the river has 
subsided, the plant rapidly perfects its seeds, which the Indians collect 
with much care, cleaning them by means of the wind, and store them 
for winter use. After the seeds are ground into tlour, water is added, 
and the mass is kneaded into hard cakes, which, when dried in the sun, 
are ready for use. Gruel and mush are likewise made of the flour. 
Sometimes the Indians plant this grass near their homes, to avoid the 
trouble of hunting it.. When the water has laid bare the river banks 
during the month of June, they scatter the seeds over the ground by 
blowing them from their mouths, and a crop is the result, which for 
them is equal to wheat. 

- Wild oat, (Avena fatua.)—Indigenous oats of California. This plant 
covers hundreds of thousands of acres of hill and plain, from Upper 
Sacramento to San Diego, and the mountain sides east and west, as 
also the San Joaquin plains and mountains of California. The Indians 
gather this grain and use it as wheat or any other seed. Some of the 
early travelers call this plant pin grass. ' 

Sunflower, (Helianthus..—From one or several species of the dwarf 
sunflower of the West, which grows on river bottoms and rich, 
moist spots on the prairies, the seeds are often gathered. Being very 
sweet and oily, they are eaten raw, or pounded up with other sub- 
stances, made into flat cakes and dried in the sun, in which form they 
appear to be very palatable to the Indians, 

Bur clover, (Medicago lupulina.)—This common plant of Southern Cal- 
ifornia produces abuudance of seeds, which are much relished by the 
Indians and by cattle. It bears a small kidney-shaped pod, containing a 
single bean. - 

Indian corn, (Zea mays.)—If the ancient use of this plant as food by 
Indians needs verification, evidence is now accessible both from North 


~ 


420 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and South America. The Smithsonian Institution has an ear of corn 
(ig. 3, Plate 8) found deposited in an earthern vessel eleven feet under 
Red in a grave with a mummy, near Ariquipe,in Peru. The grains 
are rather r sharp- pointed, small, and slightly indented at the apex, lapping 
one over the other, in thirteen rows. A small portion of this specimen 
is broken off, hence it is but four and a half inches long. When sta- 
tioned at Camp Lincoln, Arizona, as post surgeon, the writer explored 
some ancient rock caves near by, which were plastered in the interior, 
and obtained several corn-cobs, two of which were preserved, and are 
now in the museum of the Smithsonian Institution. One is slender and 
natrow, (Fig. 1, Plate 8,) being five and one-quarter inches long; the 
other is thicker, but its length is only four and one-half inches. The 
former had ten and the latter eight rows of grains, with no more dif- 
ference discernible than exists among the corn raised by all the Pueblo 
Indians of to-day, and which certainly is the kind grown by them at 
the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The ruins in which the cobs were 
found have not been inhabited by the present Indians of the country, 
who are Apaches, as they believe that evil spirits hover about them, 
and therefore will not enter them. The past summer the writer 
opened a mound near St. George, Utah, in which several nicely made 
and well-burnt earthen pots were found, "full of human ashes, charcoal, 
and several pieces of charred corn- cob. Corn may be said to be the 
most universal article of food cultivated by the Indians of New Mexico, 
Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah, while the tribes of the Indian 
Territory consider this grain their staff of life. The cultivation of corn 
has not been acquired by them from others. It isa matter of historical 
record that, when living in the Southern States, long before the white 
man set foot in the country, it was cultivated, and by nearly ali the 
Indians of the present United States to a greater or less extent. The 
Indians who grow it in the primitive manner, and have tae original 
corn of America, | are the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona. The 
grains vary in color through shades of pink, blue, and white, and the 
ears are generally rather smail and slender. The blue variety (Fig. 2, 
Plate 8) is preferred for bread, and is sorted from the rest with much 
care, and stored by itself. The ear has fourteen rows of grains, which 
are full and plump, and is six and three-quarters inches long, and four 
and three-quarters inches around. The corn, after being reduced to meal 
in a stone mortar, has a peculiar bluish-white appearance. In convert- 
ing it into bread, it is mixed into a thin batter, a brisk fire is made to 
heat a slab of iron, or stone, or a flat earthenware plate, which is ele- 
vated from the ground by stones to admit the fire; when sufficiently 
heated, the women press the fingers of the right hand together, dip 
them in the batter, drawing them out thickly covered with the mixture, 
at the same time drawing the hand equally over the heated baker, leav- 
ing a thin coating, w hich quickly curls up, a sign that it is cooked on 
that side; it is then taken off, another dip is made with the fingers, and 
the baker i is besmeared again; then the upper side of the first cake is 
laid on the top of the new dip ; ; when the second one is ready to turn 
the first one is already cooked, ‘and the second is put through the same 
process as the first, and so on until a number of these large thin sheets of 
wafer-like bread is accumulated. They are rolled up together, and form 
what is called by the Moqui Indians guagave. It looks like blue wrap- 
ping-paper, but somewhat coarser, and hasa polished appearance. During 
the summer of 1869, the writer and Mr. Vincent Collier, with Lieuten- 
ant W. Krause, visited the Moquis, an: were feasted bountifully at every 
house with this blue paper-like bread. At first it seems dry in the 


PLATE XXYVI. 


[PLatse 8 InDIAN Foops.] 


INDIAN CORN (Zea mays), 


wy em etl tana 9 
=A re 


oo) dp 


Ce ak 


. 


i i 


See a eee 
46 5a 
ar } 


ay Bee 


ya" 


my 


we’ Caine \5 ends 


‘alent 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 421 


mouth, but it soon softens, is quite sweet, and is readily masticated. All 
three of us, doubtless, will ever remember with pleasure the relish which 
our hunger gave to this singular bread. At one house the nicest dried 
peaches, of their own production, well cooked, were set before us, into 
the juice of which the bread was dipped, at the same time serving as a 
spoon. At another house the roasted mescal, dissolved in water, was 
set before us, in which to dip our bread or guagave rolls, the ends of 
which we bit off from time to time, after saturating them, until satisfied, 
each declaring the food excellent. A favorite mode of preparing corn 
is to boil itin weak lime-water, to remove the husk bran. It is then 
ground into a soft pulp, and made into bread like the above, but is not. 
So palatable to the general taste. The corn, thus hulled, is often mixed 
with chopped meat, formed into cakes, and dried for future use. Often, 
when new corr is ground, it is mixed with pieces of meat, and red or 
green peppers, placed between soft corn husks, tied at the ends, and 
boiled. This dish is called by the Mexicans tomale, but is not accept- 
able to civilized palates. Corn meal is also made into attole or gruel, 
and, when mixed with sugar, or the flour of the mesquite, it is called 
pinole, and is much relished by all Indians. Water is sometimes added 
to it, forming a cooling, sweet, nutritious drink. To make this nicely, 
the corn must be carefully parched, then pulverized, and prepared as 
above. The raw meal is often made into a kind of bread, called tortillas 
by the Spanish. Some Indians prepare the roasting ears by stringing 
and drying them for winter. The Apaches, and many other Indians, 
toast their corn in baskets with much dexterity. This is effected by 
placing the grains and a few live coals or hot stones in the basket, and 
keeping up a brisk agitation, occasionally holding the open basket to 
the fire. The Indians are very fond of parched corn, and consume it in 
surprising quantities. Sometimes it is made into bread after being thus 
roasted. The Apaches cook their mush in rather flat wicker baskets, 
which are water-tight. They heat stones very hot, and, with wooden 
tongs, the ends of which are charred, take them up and drop them in 
the mush. As soon as tool, the stones are taken out, licked clean of 
the adhering mixture, and fresh ones take their places, and so on until 
the mush is cooked. The family then gathers around, and with the 
fingers scoop out the contents. The Navajoes have a national dish 
formed of pounded roasting ears, wrapped in the soft coru-husks, and 
baked in hot ashes. Corn bread, as made by some of the Indians, and 
baked in ashes, would fail to have an appetizing effect upon most people. 
The Navajoes are not very fastidious as to their food. 

An intoxicating drink is made of corn by the Apaches, called tiswein. 
The grain is first soaked for twenty-four hours; a hole is then dug in the 
ground, generally in a wigwam, and some dry grass laid on the bottom ; 
then the corn is laid in and covered with grass; warm water is sprinkled 
over four or five times daily; at night the family sleep on it to increase 
the warmth and cause sprouting, and in four or five days, it is ready 
for the next operation. It is then dried, pulverized, put into a kettle, 
and boiled five hours; when cooled, it is mixed with sugar and flour, 
and left to ferment for twelve hours, when it is ready to drink. If no 
sugar is at hand, the flour of the mesquite beaus is used, or the sirup 
from the fruit of the Cereus giganteus. This is a strong drink, and is 
made whenever corn can be procured. The Indians living principally 
upon the chase, in their wild state, cultivate less corn than those settled 
in villages. Small patches are planted jn the clearings in the woods, 
where the soil is easily worked, and there are no trees to cut down. Asa 
sample of the farming of the Pueblo Indians settled in villages, it may 


422 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


be stated, that on the Colorado River, in Arizona, they are in the habit 
of cultivating corn on the river bottom. After the high rise in June, 
they simply make holes in the moist ground for the seeds, and the plants 
are started three or more inches below the surface, so that the heat of 
the sun may not injure the tender corn. The ground is disturbed only 
sufficiently to enter the seed below the surface. 

Kidney bean, (Phaseolus.)—A large bean growing wild among the moun- 
tains around Fort Whipple, Arizona. It is used, both green and dry, by 
bat Apaches of that Territory. The root, being perennial, becomes very 
arge. 

Dock, (umex.)—This common plant of the Colorado River, Arizona, 
produces abundance of seeds, which are gathered by the Indians living 
along its banks, and ground into flour for bread. The bulky root is 
much used instead of bark for tanning fine hides. The local name of 
the pliant is yerba colorado. 


Wild rice, (Zizania aquatica, Plate 9.)—The Sioux call it pshu, and the : 


Chippewas man-om-in. It is a constant article of food with the north- 
ern Indians of the lakes and rivers between the Mississippi and Lake 
Superior. This plant delights in mud and water five to twenty feet 
deep. When ripe the slightest wind shakes off the grains. After be- 
ing gathered it is laid on scatfolds about four feet high, eight wide, and 
twenty to fifty long, covered with reeds and grass, and a slow fire is 
maintained beneath for thirty-six hours, so as to parch slightly the husk, 
that it may be removed easily. Its beard is tougher than that of rye. 
To separate it from the chaff or husk, a hole is made in the ground a 
foot wide and one deep, and lined with skins; about a peck of rice is 
put in at a time; an Indian steps in, with a halfjump, on one foot, then 
on the other, until the husk isremoved. After being cleaned the grain 
is stored in bags. It is darker than the Carolina rice. The hull ad- 
heres tightly, and is left on the grain, and gives the bread a dark color 
when cooked. The husk is easily removed, after being exposed to heat. 
In Dakota the men gather this grain, but all other grain: the women* 
collect. An acre of rice is nearly or quite equal to an acre of wheat in 
nutriment. It is very palatable, when roasted and eaten dry. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Staff tree, (Celastrus scandens.) —The Chippewa Indians use the tender 
branches of this climbing shrub, the bots retors of the French, or twisted 
wood, which is sometimes called bitter-sweet. It has a thick bark, and 
is sweetish and palatable when boiled. 

Storksbill, (Hrodium cicutarium.)—This plant, when young, is gathered 
and cooked, or eaten raw, by the Blackfeet, Soshones, and Diggers. 

Unicorn plant, (Martynia violacea.)—The Apache Lndians gather thehalf 
mature seed-pods of this plant, and cook them with various other sub- 
stances. The pods, when ripe, are armed with two sharp, horn-like pro- 
jections, and, being softened and split open, are used on braided work 
to ornament willow baskets. ; 

Odontostemum Hartwegi.—A species of sea-weed used as an article of 
food by the Indians of the northwest coast. 

Round-leafed sorrel, (Oxyria digyna.)—The leaves of this plant are 
chopped up with: seurvy-grass or water-cress, and made into a kind of 
salad, which is allowed to ferment before it is eaten. The Alaska In- 
dians are very fond of this dish. f ; 

Common purslane, (Portulaca oleracea.) —The Apache Indians eat this 
Species of purslane raw. When they cook it at all, it is merely suffi- 
cient to wilt it. 


at i ay 


PLATE XXVIII. 


[PLare 9 Inpian Foops.] 


A 


t,t heey 4 7 SE 
Preitt eqn 94 Nii 


PLATE XXVIII. 


[PLATE 10 Inptan Foops.] 


TUCKAHOE, OR INDIAN HEAD (Lycoperdon solidum), 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 428 


Palmetio, (Sabal.)\—The Indians remaining in the Southern States, and 
the negroes, use as an article of food the embryo leaves of the palmetto, 
mec are cut out of the top of the young plant, and boiled like a cab- 

age. 

Sorrei, (Rwmex.)—The leaf stalks of a species of rumex, or wild rhu- 
barb, are much eaten by the Indians of Alaska. ~ 

Dandelion, (Taraxacum dens-leonis.)—The leaves of this plant are eaten 
raw or cooked by the Diggers of California and the Apaches of Arizona, 
who travel over a wide scope of country to find sufficient food to ap- 
pease their appetite. So great is their love for this plant, that the quan- 
tity consumed by one person exceeds belief. 

Clover, (Trifolium.\—This is eaten, cooked or raw, by the Diggers of 
California and Apaches of Arizona. The former tribe cook it by heat- 
ing large stones and placing a layer of clover, well moistened, between 
. the layers of stones. This attempt to adapt the food of ruminating ani- 
mals to human wants involves the necessity of consuming it in very 
great quantities. Sometimes young onions and common grass are thus 
cooked with clover. The Apaches boil clover, young grass, dandelions, 
and pigweed together in a water-tight basket, heated rocks being put in 
and removed as they become cooled, until the mass is cooked. Where 
this vlover is found growing wild, the Indians practice a sort of semi- 
cultivation by irrigating it and harvesting. 

Stramonium or Jamestown weed, (Datura metel, D. siramonium.)—The 
first-named species grows abundantly on the Colorado River, in Arizona. 
The Mohaves g gather the leaves and roots, bruise and mix them with 
water, and after being allowed to stand several hours the liquid is drawn 
off. It is a highly narcotic drink, producing a stupefying effect which 
it is not very easy to remove. The Mohaves will often drink this nause- 
ous liquid, as they are fond of any kind of intoxication. . 

Honey.—The Winnebago and other tribes of the Indian Territory, 
near the borders of Texas, gather large supplies of wild honey, which 
is very abundant and much ‘esteemed. 

Bent grass, (Arundo phragmites.)—This species of reed, which grows 
abundantly around St. Thomas, in Southern Utah, during the summer 
months, produces a kind of white, sweet gum. The Utah Indians cut 
down the reeds and lay them in piles on blankets or hides, and let them 
remain for a short time to wilt, when the bundles are beaten with rods 
to release the gum. The small particles so detached. are pressed into 
balls, to be eaten at pleasure. It is a sweet, manna-like substance. 

Tuckahoe or Indian head, (Lycoperdon solidum.)—Two specimens of 
this fungus are in the collection of the Department of Agriculture—one 
from Nottoway County, Virginia, (Fig. 1, Plate 10,)-and the other from 
Leroy, Kansas, (Fig. 2, Plate 10.) These singular fungous growths are 
- Subterranean and parasitic on roots of large “trees. A piece of root is 
often inclosed in the mass. The form is ir regularly globose, about the 
sizeof a man’s head. It is very rugous, and filled with cracks; the color 
externally is ashy black; in the interior, white, or nearly so, of a starchy 
appearance, very firm, and breaks into irregular masses. The Kansas 
specimen is rounded i in shape, with a black, “rough exterior, and a white 
and compact interior. When broken it had the appearance of a mass 
of dried dough, full of fissures and very granular. Booth and Morfit’s 
Cyclopedia of Chemistry gives the following under the article of Pic- 
quotaine: “A highly nutritious plant, nsed as food by Indians. It re- 
sults from a disease of the Psoralea esculenta. its composition is as fol- 
lows: Nitrogenous matter, 4.09; mineral substances, 1.61; starch, $1.80; 


424 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


water, 12.50.” The following remarks relative to the Tuckahoe are fur- 
nished by Dr. John Torrey: 

It was first brought to the notice of the public by Dr. Clayton, who sent it to Gro- 
novius, under the name of Lycoperdon solidum, and, as such, described it in the Flora Vir- 
ginica about one hundred and twenty years ago. Next it was described by the late Dr. 
Von Schweinitz, in his Synopsis of the Fungi of North Carolina, under the name of 
Scleroticum cocos. About the same time Dr. Macbride, of Charleston, South Carolina, 
sent to the Linn:ean Society of London his observations on that fungus. Without 
being aware of having been anticipated by Schweinitz, I described it in the New York 
Repository about the year 1819, under the name of Sclerotium giganteum. I gave also 
a chemical analysis of it, showing that it is chiefly composed of a singular substance, 
which I named sclerotine. Braconoet, some years after this, described the same prin- 
ciple, which he called pectine. In the Synopsis Fungorum of Fries the fungus is called 
Pachyma cocos. In the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London is an account by 
Rey. M. J. Berkely of a large subterranean fungus that is sold as food in the streets of 
Shanghai, undoubtedly the same as the Tuckahoe. ; 

Sand food, (Ammobroma Sonora.)\—From ammos, sand, and broinos, 
food. This herbaceous and fleshy plant is of a dull orange color, para- 
sitical on the roots of an unknown shrub, which grows in the State of 
Sonora, Mexico, in sandy wastes, near the head of the Gulf of Califor- 
nia. The root upon which it livesis composed of thick, tortuous fibers, 
dilated near the extremity. This is the point of attachment to the 
plant from which the parasite draws its nourishment. The stems are 
two to four feet long, and three-fourths of an inch to an inch in diame- 
ter. The Papajo Indians are very fond of this rcot, which is eaten 
after being roasted upon hot coals ordried inthe sun. It is often ground 
on a metate, (curved stone,) with mesquite beans, forming pinole. The 
fresh root, when gathered and cooked, is very luscious, and resembles 
in taste the sweet potato, though far more delicate. Rain seldom falls in 
the arid region producing this plant, and consequently it becomes both 
food and drink-to the traveler, its roots being very watery when fresh. 
For description see Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, 
Vol. 8, June, 1861, by Dr. John Torrey. ‘ 

Bearded inoss, ( Alectoria jubata.)—The Indians residing on the Colum- 
bia River, according to Dr. Morse in his report on Indian affairs to the 
War Departinent for 1822, subsist in summer on a kind of bread made 
of the long, hair-like lichen which grows on the spruce fir;tree, and which 
resembles spiders’ webs in fineness. To prepare it for food, it is gath- 
ered from the tree, laid in heaps, sprinkled with water, and then left for 
some time to ferment. It isnext rolled up into Dalls as large as a man’s 
head, and baked for an hour in ovensin the earth. When taken out it is 
fit for use, but it is neither palatable nor nutritious. 


Wheat, (Triticum vulgare.\—This grain was first introduced by the 


Spaniards among the Pueblo Indians, and forms one of their principal 
articles of food. Se fond are the Apaches, Papajos, and Utahs of it that 
they will pick up individual grains which may have been teft by animals 
on old camp-grounds, and will enter wheat fields, after white men 
have cleared oif the crop, and glean the seattered kernels. The patient 
manner of the squaws, who prostrate themselves on the ground day 
after day to pick up the loose grains, shows plainly how highly they 
estimate them. The Indians of the Rio Grande, New Mexico, of the 
Gila and Colorado Rivers, of Arizona, with the tribes of California and 
Utah, are the principal wheat-raisers among the aborigines. The Pimds 
grow the largest crops in Arizona. In addition to what is retained for 
their own use, as food and for planting, they sell annuaily large quantities 
to the traders who have Government contracts for flour and grain, 
wheat being often fed to animals in this section. A lively grain trade 
is carried on by the whites with these Indians. Their wheat and 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 425 


corn are sold ‘by measurement, a tin-cup holding about two pounds 
being used. Twenty-five of these measures are worth 25 cents in silver, 
which the traders will sell at 7 cents per pound, after being reduced to 
flour. In 1867 one million of pounds were sold; and this year they have, 
no doubt, a large surplus stock on hand. As wheat producers, the In- 
dians of New Mexico are the most successfui. The mode of reducing 
the grain to flour is by rubbing it with a flat stone in a scarcely con- 
cave mortar or metate. This is performed by the females. The 
flour is mixed with water and salt, and kneaded into a rather stiff 
dough. A gentle fire is kindled under a rock, where an iron fan or flat 
earthen plate, supported by stones, is used as a baker of the tortillas or 
thin flaky bread. These tortillas are made as follows: The women take 
a small piece of dough and flatten it into a round caike, then throw it 
backward and forward between the paims, at the same time whirling it 
around, until it becomes wide and thin; it is then placed on the baker, 
and in a.minute it rises up full of blisters, and when turned on the 
other side it is quickly done. This is probably the best way mere flour 
and water cam be baked. Wheat, when parched, pulverized, and mixed 
with sugar or the meal of mesquite beans, is called pinole, and when 
mixed with water forms a cooling and nutriticus drink. Flour made 
into gruel is called attole. Most of the Pueblo Indians lay by an extra 
supply of wheat, corn, and other grains, so that if one crop fails they 
will have seed for another year. Wheat is planted in hills, several 
grains in each, about one foot apart each way, and the fields laid off 
with ditches, so that water can be turned on to irrigate the crop. 

Beans are largely grown, and are used green or dry, and the tender 
green pods are dried for winter use. Red peppers are universally grown 
in Sonora and New Mexico, and the pods while green are eaten with 
various substances, under the name of chille verde, while the dishes 
prepared with the red pods are called chille colorom. 

Pumpkins, squashes, musk-melons, and water-melons have become 
not only articles of food but of commerce. As these plants belong to 
the same natural family, and are grown promiscuously in the same fields, 
one is nearly as good as another, so much do they cross or hybridize 
with each other. 

CULTIVATED FRUITS. 


Several varieties of fruit have been introduced among the Indians, 
and have not only become cherished articles of food, but also of com- 
meree. Peaches, grapes, olives, pears, apples, quinces, dates, pome- 
granates, figs, &c., are the principal surts. The tribes most benefited 
by the cultivation of fruit are those of the Indian Territory and the 
Pueblos of New Mexioo, Arizona, and California. The quantities con- 
sumed and sold are very great. Other eatables have been aequired 
by them from intercourse with more civilized communities, from the 
Mexicans on one side and the white traders and immigrants on the 
other. Their most valuable lessons in agriculture and fruit-raising, 
however, must be credited to the patient teachings of the Jesuit mis- 
sionaries. 

ANIMAL FOOD WITH VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES, 


The various tribes living on the shores of Alaska, as the Kaloshes, 
Esquimaux, &¢., eat the raw flesh and blubber of the walrus and whale. 
The spawn of the herring in a putrid state is considered a great delicacy, 
and iveaten raw or dried. Some species of alge (sea-weeds) are often 
eaten with this unsavory dish. The flesh of sea otter, fur seal, sea lion, 


426 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


fish, and shell-fish, with cold tallow is, eaten raw or cooked, being fre- _ 


quently mixed with wild parsnips, some kinds of fucus, the licorice 
root, the stalks of a rumex or wild rhubarb, snake-root, with various 
berries, and formed into various dishes of food. The stomach of the 
reindeer, distended with well masticated willow sprigs, in a half 
digested state, is highly esteemed. This is dried over the fire or in the 
smoke of the huts for winter use, and when mixed with melted suet, oil, 
and snow, is highly relished. It is deemed a powerful antiscorbutic. 

The various berries coilected by the tribes of Oregon Indians are 
sometimes, for variety, mixed with the dried eggs of the salmon; also 
with crickets, dried and pulverized. The siphons of Panopea excelsa, a 
marine shell-fish, are used as food after being smoke-dried. 

By the Diggeis of California and the Plains grasshoppers are caught 
in great numbers. When the insect attains its best condition, the 
Indians select some favorable locality and dig several little pits, in shape 
somewhat like inverted funnels, the aperture being narrower at the 
surface than at the base, the object being to prevent the insect which 
chances to tumble in from hopping out again. The pits being ready, an 
immense circle is formed, the surrounding grass is set on fire, and the 
Indians, men, women, and children, station themselves at proper inter- 
vals around the fiery belt, keeping up a continual ring of flame, until 
the luckless orasshoppers are corraled in the pits or roasted at the 
brink. They are eaten after being mixed with pounded acorns, and 
constitute one of the national dishes. Grasshoppers are sometimes 
gathered into sacks saturated with salt, and placed in a heated trench, 
covered with hot stones, for fifteen minutes, and are then eaten as 
shrimps, or they are ground and put into soup or mush. This tribe also 
feed upon ants, catching them by spreading a dampened skin or 
fresh-peeled bark over their hills, which immediately attracts the inhab- 
itants toits surface. When filled, the cover is carefully removed and the 
adhering insects shaken into a tight sack, where they are confined until 
dead, and are then thoroughly sun-dried and laid away. Bushels are 
thus gathered annually, and are not more offensive than snakes, lizards, 
and crickets, which the tribe also eat. Grasshoppers are pounded up 
with service, hawthorn, or other berries. The mixture is made into 
small cakes, pressed hard, and dried in the sun for future use. 

A large fly deposits its eggsin the frothy edge of the surface of Mono 
Lake, in California, each of which when hatched becomes a larva of 
considerable size, and is called ke-chah-re by the natives. These larve 
when dried and pulverized are mixed with meal made of acorns, to be 
sun-dried or baked as bread, or mixed with water and boiled with hot 
stones for soup. The color of the powdered larvee being similar to that 
of coarsely-ground black pepper, gives a forbidding appearance to the 
compound. 

Among the Indians of Hudson’s Bay it is the practice to prepare 
pemican, which is the common mode of condensing food among northern 
Indians. The lean meat is dried, pounded up, and mixed with melted 
fat, and put into buffalo-skin bags to congeal and become solid. Sugar 
is often added, or dried berries of various kinds. When other fruits or 
vegetables are not attainable the Indians are forced to employ a kind of 
lichen which grows upon rocks, having an egg-like appearance. It is 
boiled with pemican and dissolves into a glutinous substance, and if, 
or some fruit or vegetable, is held to be an “indispensable ingredient in 
the mixture. 

Raw fish eyes, the roes of salmon, and other small scraps are buried 
in the earth until putrid, and then eaten, cooked or raw. These sub- 


FOOD PRODUCTS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 427 


stances produce a horrible stench when exposed to the air. The Chip- 
pewas are said to indulge in this diet. 

The Sioux prepare a favorite dish, used at great feasts, called wash- 
en-ena, consisting of dried meat pulverized and mixed with marrow, and 
a preparation of cherries, pounded and sun-dried. This mixture, when 
eaten raw or cooked, has an agreeable vinous taste. To this compound 
is frequently added, when to be cooked, a kind of flour made from the 
root of pomme blanc, (white apple,) thus designated by the French 
Canadians, and derived from the Psoralea esculenta. 

Among the Pimos Indians, as among the savages of Africa, tobacco 
worms, which are the caterpillars of Macrosila Carolina, are gathered 
and made into soup, or fried until crisp and brown. Vegetables, meal, 
or seeds are usually added to the composition when made into pottage. 
The writer has seen this tribe gather bushels of the worms for immediate 
consumption, or to be dried and pounded up for winter stores. 

The review of the articles of food consumed by the Indians will show 
that many of the substances are not only distasteful but disgusting to 
civilized persons, and many, also, are not of a nutritious character. It 
is barely possible that there is a tlavor in some of these undetected by 
the whites because untried; nor is it logical to believe that all articles 
which are favorites with the latter class should be necessarily so with 
Indians, or vice versa. Their senses are keener, it may be, to appreciate 
an obscure flavor to others undiscoverable, The ivory hunter on the 
bank of an African river, having killed a hippopotamus for the supper of 
his negro attendants, leisurely watches their proceedings in preparing 
the feast, and observes that the entrails, without being cleansed, are 
earefally preserved as the choicest morsel, and subsequently cut up and 
distributed in shares to the party according to rank. When slightly 
roasted they are devoured with unmistakable signs of enjoyment. Being 
disposed, philosophically, to inquire into the nature of things, the hun- 
ter tries the taste of the extraordinary food, and leaves on record that 
the savages are certainly not without reason for their preference. It is 
easy to understand how the wild creatures, impelled by gnawing hunger, 
out on the mountain side or on the unsheltered prairie, fearing the ven- 
geance of the whites, and not daring to apply for fuod at the settle- 
ments, will have recourse to any description of organic matter, vegeta- 
ble or animal, to appease hunger. Unusual substances are thus experi- 
mented with, and some rude process for making them more palatable 
isinvented. A g¥ance at the methods of cookery may raise a sinile, 
but the ingenuity exhibited in many cases cannot be denied. These 
people carry their domestic arrangements with them in their wander- 
ings, generally on the backs of the women, and cooking, provisions, 
and everything pertaining to their al fresco house-keeping must be 
extemporized on the spot. If the chase or fishing should fail, they 
must find substitutes in berries, herbs, roots, seeds, &c.; and fortunate 
is it for them if the season be propitious. In winter, if from improvi- 
dent recklessness no store has been accumulated, starvation necessarily 
follows. The chances, at any time, of attaining a regular supply of 
food, are so precarious that it is not uncommon to find recorded 
observations of travelers concerning the gormandizing habits of the 
aborigines. This is not, however, universally the case, since the tribes 
which are settled on reservations and raise annual crops, and those 
receiving annuities, and many others, are to be excepted. ‘The reports 
of the desperate expedients resorted to for sustaining life, by such 
tribes as the Diggers of California, who are of a low grade of mental 
organization, and of the enormous quantities of reptiles, insects, roots, 


; 


428 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


grass, and lichens which they consume, are unquestionably trre. In 
proportion to the small amount of real nourishment contained in the 
articles, the bulk consumed must be increased. ‘The stomach becomes 
distended and the visceral function overworked; the organs are enlarged 
to protuberant dimensions, producing a distortion which would be ludi- 
crous were it not pitiable. Itisaremark of military men who have been 
much with the Indians, that if they are fed much on the flesh and 
cereals and other adjuncts of the white man’s table, they pine away and 
Jead an abandoned and unhappy life, and that, confined to this fare, 
many would die as if visited by an epidemic. There is an unsatisfied 
craving within them for the rude fare of their wild life, for the coarse, 
bulky, precarious food of their younger days, for the messes of their 
tribe, however rude and unsavory they may appear to others. They 
hail, therefore, with a yell of pleasure, the opportunity to leap over the 
bounds of civilization into the wild scenes familiar to their childhood. 


THE PRESENT THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MIN- 
HRAL MANURES. 


For some year's past anxiety has been felt by cultivators of the soil in 
densely populated countries, as Belgium, France, England, and Ger- 
many, from a growing conscrousness that the ordinary farm or cattle 
manure is insuflicieut to sustain the feod growth of the cultivated land 
requisite to meet the demands of the present population, and the con- 
viction has arisen that guano does not supply that deficiency, and that 
itis not a substitute for farm manure in many situations. Agricul- 
tural chemists during this time have been experimenting with new sub- 
stances to be used as manure, either singly or as compost; their theories 
and views, as interpreted by Dr. Antisell, of this Department, are here 
presented. The high price of guano, and the knowledge that the sup- 
ply of this substance from the present source must in a few years be ex- 
hausted, have influenced manufacturers to flood the market with all 
kinds of manufactured fertilizers, many of which are of little value, 
and the most of them but poor representatives of what they purport 
to be. The overwrought and exhausted condition of many lands in 
Europe on the one hand, and the necessity for raising a sufficient food 
supply for an increasing population on the other, have produced in 
some localities, and may shortly produce in all, an agricultural crisis, 
for which at present there is no remedy. ‘The problem is, how to make 
the land produce abundant and continued crops without increasing the 
cost of food produced. This question presses very strongly on Great 
Britain and France. While the former by manufactures and commerce 
cau stave off the crisis for a time, France, with her legion of small land 
holders, and no colonial market for manufactures, is more immediately 
dependent on the soil for the support of her population. Although our 
country is differently situated, and the “struggle for life” among our 
poorer population is not so severe as in Hurope, the consideration of 
this question of obtaining fresh supplies of manure is of material inter- 
est to our people. What is the manure of the future to be? This 
question is to be solved within a few years. In old times, letting the 
land lie fallow restored it to fertility ; but then the population was small, 
and the cultivation of a few acres more or less was not felt; now, as 
the population increases and land becomes occupied, fallowing must be 


PRESENT THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MINERAL MANURES. 429 


abandoned. “Tull and Buel believed in deep cultivation, as enabling the 
soil to produce larger crops by supplying food more abundantly to the 
crops, and so it did; but it was costly and advanced the price of food, 
and after a while the ground would bear no more deep cultivation, not 
yielding an increased return commensurate with the increased labor. 

Von Thaer in Germany and Boussingault in France were the ablest 
supporters of the view that organic matter (chiefly vegetable matter 
decaying) is the great pabulum of plants, and, if this is in sufficient 
amount in the soil, crops will grow luxurianily. But even with abund- 
ant supplies of humus, as this vegetable matter is called, in the soil the 
ground deteriorated, less weight of roots and grain was raised, and the 
land became exhausted, or sick of the crops, as it is sometimes said. 
Then followed the belief that farm manure, the excrement of cattle and 
horses and the waste of fields, is the true fertilizer, and that if it is ap- 
plied to the soil in sufficient quantity all crops will grow and produce 
abundantly. This belief now holds firm possession of the minds of the 
agriculturists of Great Britain and the United States, and the agri- 
cultural logic in a circle, heard in the after-dinner speech at the Farm- 
ers’ Club, expresses it forcibly:—The more manure the more reots, the 
more roots the more cattle, the more cattle the more manure, and the 
more manure the more roots, and soon. Itis very difficult to make the ag- 
riculturist see the error in this argument, or to convince him that every- 
thing that passes through the body of a four-footed animal is not manure 
or food for plants. Nothing of late years has more fully demonstrated 
the fallacy of depending upon farm manure as the only and sufficient fer- 
tilizer for farm crops of all kinds, than the experiments of Georges Ville, 
carried on near Paris during the past ten years, and, although but little 
has been heard of them outside of that country, they have taken a deep 
hold on the public mind in rural France, and therefore deserve to be 
brought fully before the farmers of this country. While Liebig has 
demonstrated that barn-yard manure is the most complete of all natural 
manures, as they may be called, he has also shown us that it does not suf- 
tice to restore to the earth all the substances which have been abstracted 
from it, because the manure is made only from the straw and the resi- 
duum of the food consumed by cattle, while a large portion of the grain, 
the live cattle, and the wool of the flock, is sold off in the market, and 
returns nothing to the soil. TFarm-yard manure, therefore, will not 
wholly suffice as a fertilizer, and the necessity for complementary ma- 
nures arises; that is, the use of chemical substances which shall supply 
those mineral elements which have been abstracted, and are not in the 
barn-yard manure. Perhaps too much reliance has been placed upon the 
use of farm manure alone as the only fertilizer necessary. It is dif- 
ficult to make American farmers think otherwise, and if the experiments 
and results given here should shake their faith and sole dependence on it, 
some benefit may accrue from this presentation of the subject. Liebig 
uses the following strong language in reference to the experimental 
farm at Hohenheim: 

The history of the farming at Hohenheim is particularly worthy of attention. Up 
to 1064 the directors placed at the head of the establishment were what people called 
practical men; thatis to say, the management of the farm was intrusted to agricultur- 
ists, who knew how to work the soil with profit, meaning by this word profit the 
amount of money got out of the earth, without reference to the condition in which the 
earth has been put by this so-called profitable farming * * * At Hohenheim 
complete accounts are kept of the yearly yield, and the results of successive years give 
no uncertain reflex of the condition to which the soil is reduced. Aecording to the 
rules adopted in the management of this farm, it was necessary that the conditions of 
fertility should be found perpetually in the soil, which should have been inexhaustible. 
According to these principles, success should solely depend upon the skill and dexterity 


430 ‘AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


of man, and consequently it was regarded as useless to enrploy mantres drawn from 
other sources. The Hohenheim managers drew from their tands large supplies, but 
took no care to compensate the soil by imported manures. But if soon appeared, and 
in an alarming manner, that their skill, so highly prized, bad lost its power over these 
fields. So long as the soil remained rich, it reciprocated the care bestowed upon it; 
but, when it became poor, appeals were in vain. The directors imagined that it was 
nature that had changed; that climate and season, before so favorable, had become un- 
accountably hostile to their efforts; nevertheless, and as if they thought that farm ma- 
nure produced crops, and that they only wanted this material in order to obtain better 
harvests, they sought to remedy the evil by making a larger quantity of farm-yard 
manure, which they were able todo. During the years 1852 to 1841 they employed at 
Hohenheim only one-fifth of the farm-yard manure, and yet obtained from the same 
, amount of land under cultivation 20 per cent. more corn than in the years 1854-1860. 
It is easy to understand thisdecrease. By the sale of cereal produce, the fields of Ho- 
henheim lost, between 1821 and 1860, 108, 000 pounds of phosphoric acid which had not 
been restored; the absence of one of the elements which are specially essential to the 
production of wheat became very conspicuous in the diminntion of the harvests. To 
keep tle harvests constantly to the same level, it would be necessary to give to the 
fields of Hohenheim 396,000 pounds of bone dust; so the working of the Hohenheim 
lands, being considered a model of excellence and recomraended for imitation, “has 
proved very clearly that when nutritive principles are carried off the farm, and no 
compensation is given to the land, the soil, however good, will, little by little, lose its 
productiveness.* , 

Almost daily in the agricultural journals we read of experiments made 
with chemical manures, and the terms chemical manures and comple- 
mentary manures have become stereotyped phrases, unknown thirty or 
forty years ago. In fact it was not known then how plants grow, or 
what they feed on. It only needs a slight glance back to the opinions of 
the guiding spirits in agricultural progress to ascertain how vague and 
unsatisfactory was the information on mineral substances as food for 
plants. While we are yet in much obscurity in regard to plant food, we 
are still far beyond the first and second quarter of this century in our 
knowledge of the wants of growing plants. Sir Humphry Davy was much 
in advance of his time on notions of agricultural chemistry, yet even he 
had very vague notions on the relation which the mineral matters of 
the soil bore to the growing plant, and his idea of a manure was that it 
should be of an animal or vegetable nature. In his first lecture he says: 

“Plants are found by analysis to consist principally of charcoal and aeriform mat- 
ter,” and that the principles which they yield, on burning or distillation, were derived 
from elements “ which they gain either by-their leaves from the air or by their roots 
from the soil. All manures from organized substances contain the principles of vegeta- 
ble matters, which, during putrefaction, are rendered either soluble in water or aeri- 
form, and in these states they are capable of being assimilated to the vegetable organs. 
No one principle affords the pabulum of vegetable life; it is neither charcoal nor hy- 
drogen, nor azote, nor oxygen alone, but all of them together in various states and 
various combinations.” 

Here, while he enunciates broad principles truly, he narrows the nu- 
trition of the plant to carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen, and their 
combinations as the essential necessities of a manure, and says that veg- 
etable substances decomposing are the true manures, because they yield 
these elements. When he treats of gypsum, alkalies, and saline sub- 
stances, or simple manures, as he calls them, he says their action is very 
obscure, and likens them to condiments or stimulants in the animal 
economy, which render the common food more nutritive, but never states 
that they are the food of plants. He approaches closely to Liebig’s 
idea when he alludes to the operation of the true alkalies, whose mode 
of action he thought was most simple and distinct. He says: “They 
are found in all plants, and may, therefore, be regarded as their essen- 
tial elements.” But he loses this idea and adds, “they may be useful in 
introducing various principles into the sap of vegetables which may be 


* Translation from vol. viii, International Jury Reports of Paris, 1867; p. 221. 


PRESENT THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MINERAL MANURES. 431 


subservient to their nourishment.” Chalks, marls, and powdered lime- 
stones were, in his view, only amendments to the soil,‘and not any ma- 
terial which could supply needful food to plants. He writes: “They act 
merely by forming a useful earthy ingredient of the soil.” Thus Davy 
gave the stamp of his genius to the extension of the idea that manures 
are improvements or amendments to ground in the first instance, and 
that their value as food materials to the plant is only secondary. 

Jethro Tull was the first writer who brought forward the idea that 
minute earthy particles supply the whole nutriment of the vegetable 
world. He anticipated Liebig in the grand idea that the mineral mat- 
ters of the soil are the food of plants; but his notion of manures was 
that they act in no other way than in ameliorating the texture of the 
soil; that in fact their agency is mechanical. “AI sorts of dungs and 
compost,” writes Tull, “contain some matter which, when mixed with 
the soil, ferments therein, and by such ferment dissolves, crumbles, 
and divides the earth very much. This is the chief and almost the only 
use of dung, for, as to the earthy part of it, the quantity is so very small 
that, after a perfect putrefaction, it appears to bear a most inconsider- 
able proportion to the soil itis destined to manure, and therefore, in 
that respect, is next to nothing.” This view of Tuil, which was first 
published in 1753, was given out when he was unable to support it by 
any experimental proof; and the idea, therefore, fell lifeless, to be re- 
suscitated by Liebig, with the many proofs which he adduced. 

Nearly thirty years ago Liebig pointed out that farm-yard manure is 
not indispensable; that it may be successfully replaced (although not then 
economically) by the employment of various substances of mineral ori- 
gin, bodies containing nitrogen and those devoid of that element, se- 
lected from those which can yield to plants all the constituents which 
they need for development. Since that time the experiments of Kuhl- 
Imann, and subsequently these of Boussingault, Barclay, Hannan, Gil- 
bert and Lawes, Schattenmann, Turner, Wilson, and others, have con- 
firmed the views of that great chemist, and demonstrated the special 
fact that nitrates and ammonia salts are able to supply to the soil all 
the nitrogen necessary to endow it with fertility; and finally the more re- 
cent results of Georges Ville prove that these nitrates and ammonia 
salts, united with phosphate of lime, with potash salts and gypsum, are 
sufficient to replace farm manure where it cannot be supplied. 

It will be seen in this summary that no mention has yet been made ot 
humus, or the decomposed vegetable matter of varied composition known 
under that name. Boussingault, in his work, Rural Economy, treating 
of the rotation of crops, (Chapter 7,) gives his view as to what the food 
of plants consists of: ‘It is known that the atmosphere and the organic 
matters diffuséd through the earth concur simultaneously to maintain 
the life of plants, but how far each contributes is undetermined ;” but 
of the real practical value of humus he had no doubt. Some of Liebig’s 
strongest efforts were directed to show that it may be dispensed with asa 
food of plants, and consequently as a manure; and the experiments of 
Gilbert and Lawes and of Ville seem to show that humus is not abso- 
lutely necessary as an amendment to land; yet, after the lapse of twenty- 
nine years, the statement of J. W. Johnston, of England, as to the im- 
portance of humus in the soil, is as true now as then: 

It is consistent with almost universal cbservation that the same soil is more pro- 
ductive when organic vegetable matter is present than when it is wholly absent. In 
fact, humus acts in a way so different from the chemical substances which Liebig and 
others have shown may be substituted for it, that it eannot be fairly estimated when 
contrasted with them. Humus gives physical qualities to the soil which cannot be 
bestowed by any of the food materials of plants. It places a soil in relation with the 


432 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


forces of nature, with heat, light, electricity, and with energy generally—with that form 
of it called vital force—and thus regulates the rate and mode of growth m a manner 
wholly unknown to mere chemical food elements. Thus, humus retains the moisture 
in a soil; by its slow decomposition it evolves heat, and raises the temperature above 
that of land not supplied with it. Thus heat and moisture are gradually offered to the 
growing vegetable germs. By its darker color it absorbs the solar heat, which is for a 
time retained, and is therefore converted into energy or vital power by the presence of 
humus. <A gentle development of carbonic acid takes place, which, dissolved and 
retained by the moist humus, dissolves phosphate and carbonate of lime, and renders 
even alkaline soils more readily soluble. And further, this carbonic acid decomposes 
the double and trisilicates in the soil, liberating the silica in a finely-divided and solu- 
ble form suitable for the growth of cereats. 

This isa long list of properties dependent upon the presence of humus 
in the soil, which are too much overlooked by the upbolders of the 
mineral-manure theory. 

When we acknowledge that to Liebig belongs the idea of employing 
mineral agents to increase the fertility of soils, it must not be forgotten 
that marling lands, or applications of lime carbonate, is not new, and was 
practiced long before the birth of that illustrious chemist. Plaster or 
gypsum was similarly applied by our own Franklin and others the lat- 
ter half of the last century. So also the use of common salt, bone-dust, 
and even guano, is little else than illustrations of the practice of supply- 
ing mineral principles to the soil. These were applied from some vague 
knowledge that the land was somehow benefited by their action; but 
the idea of a mineral food for plants—the “ mineral theory” as it is 
termed—and its application to practice dates no farther back than 1839, 
and justly belongs to Liebig; yet the first essays in this direction were 
little else than failures. lLiebig believed that rain-water carried off 
much of soluble saline matter from the land, or sweeps it down into the 
sub-soil out of the reach of any but the deepest-rooted plants. He 
thought also that, as cereals require alkalies and silica, it would be best 
to supply these after they had been fused together, as occurs in glass- 
factories, so that they might very slowly decompose, and keep up a 
gradual but moderate supply of the necessary mineral food. He alludes 
in the chapter on soils in his Agricultural Chemistry (1840) to the ash of 
straw from the bake-ovens of Hesse, and to the use of soluble glass as 
a mode of giving both alkalies and silica to plants. He writes: 

A compost manure, which is adapted to farnish all the inorganic matters to wheat, 
oats, and barley, may be made by mixing equal parts of bone-dust, and a solution of 
silicate of potash, (known as soluble glass of commerce,) allowing this mixture to dry, 
and then adding ten or twelve parts of gypsum, with sixteen parts of common salt. 
Such a compost would render unnecessary the animal manures, which act by their in- 
organic ingredients. 

Here is the idea of replacement of organic by mineral manures, whieh 
lies at the bottom of the system of modern manuring. 

Liebig’s fear of exhaustion of soils by rain-water or drainage carrying 
off soluble saline matter proved to be groundless ; for Way showed that 
arable land, by virtue of the clay which it contains, possesses a remark- 
able absorbing power, rendering it capable of appropriating and fixing 
within its particles the important saline matters and nitrated compound 
suitable for vegetable growth, presented to that clay by the water hold- 
ing them in solution. Liebig’s fear of lixiviation of the soil was ground- 
less, and a growing appreciation of this cireumstance—the absorbent and 
retentive power of saline matter by the clay in a soil—led Kuhlmann, 
Boussingault, Gilbert and Lawes, Voelcker, and above all, Georges 
Ville, to adopt with marked success the employment of various saline 
matters as substitutes for farm-yard manure as a fertilizing agent. 
Hence to the idea of “mineral theory” is now superadded that of 
“chemical manures.” It is, however, to the exertions of Ville that the 


PRESENT THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MINERAL MANURES. 433 


subject of special manures has received so much attention of late; for 
which exertions he has been rewarded with the position of extra pro- 
fessor (professeur-administrateur ) in the Museum of Natural History in 
Paris, where he delivers a course of lectures annually, and subjects 
his theories to practice on an experimental farm at Vincennes, estab- 
lished by the Hmperor upon land adjoining the imperial farm. This 
farm oceupies a surface of three hectares,* divided into five parallel 
lots, each of which is subdivided into twenty-four parcels of land. The 
manures are made with chemically pure ingredients, representing the 
constituent minerals of plants. Operations were commenced here by 
Ville in 1860, the results of which constitute the theme of his yearly 
lectures in the museum. The principle at the basis of his experiments 
is to supply as nourishment for plants those principles or salts which, 
according to analysis, are a part of their composition, and therefore are 
necessary for them; and as the species of plants may be numbered by 
the thousand, the manure or mineral supply must vary accordingly. 
The rule of this modern school, headed by Liebig, Lawes, Voelcker, 
and Ville, is, therefore, to supply to the land more phosphate, more 
potassa, and more lime than the harvests remove from it; and, according 
to the statement of these analyses, to furnish those elements which 
roots need and absorb. The rationality of the theory which underlies 
this rule ought to recommend it to public favor. It is only necessary to 
know beforehand what mineral element a plant requires, and it would 
appear at first sight a very simple matter to have this question deter- 
mined. All our common crops of food for man or cattle have been 
analyzed by accurate and reliable chemists. Select one of these and 
adopt it as the standard. But in looking over the several analyses of 
any simple plant, made by different chemists, we do not find that uni- 
formity of results which is desirable to render them reliable as exact 
statements. The substances present are found to differ very consider- 
ably in their nature, as well as in amount, and we have learned that 
some of this difference is due to varieties of soil, some to differences in 
the manure, and some to changes of climate and season ; that is to say, 
to greater or less continuance of solar heat and varying amount of 
rain-fall. A plant is, to some extent, like an animal; if plenty of food 
is supplied it will take up more than it needs; and if there isa defi- 
ciency of one element it will take up another to supply the vacancy. 
Here, then, is a difficulty at the outset; how much of the quantity taken 
up is the proper sum for healthy existence, and how much is superfluity ; 
and, since the elements vary in their nature, as found in plants grown 
in two localities, we are considerably in the dark as to which is the 
necessary and which the complementary element. We need greater 
exactness, and this we shall not attain until each plant is considered an 
individual requiring a certain amount of soluble food for its growth and 
development; until, in fact, we treat it like an animal or man. Man re- 
quires, when of average weight, (140 pounds,) thirty ounces avoirdupois 
of solid food daily, one-fifth of which, at least, should be albuminous and 
four-fifths amylaceous; about sixty grains of salt,and four pints of 
fluid. Just such a formula is necessary for each species of plant, and in 
order to obtain it exactly we have, by experiments yet to be made, to 
determine the essential and the supplementary food of the species. We 
know that soda will replace potash, and that magnesia may replace 
lime, but we do not always know under what circumstances and how far 
these aliments best subserve the ends for which we grow.the species. 


* Hectare, 2.4711 acres. 
28 A 


434 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Extended analyses of American food crops are needed, for those made 
in one country cannot be made arule for another country, where lati- 
tude, solar heat, and meteorologic influences are very different. The 
plant differs from the animal in this: the animal heat is developed by 
changes within the animal, and the latter is nourished and developed 
in proportion to that internal temperature, the sources of which are 
within; in plants the sources are without. The chemical changes which 
are continually going on in the growing plant are of that smaller 
amount which is not sufficient to increase the temperature of the plant ; 
the energy displayed in the growing plant is expended in the formation 
of lignine, starch, gum, sugar, and proteine bodies, and in the evolution 
of carbonic acid ‘and other gases, and thus none of it appears to warm 
the plant, except in those rare instances of infloreseence in a few spe- 
cies. It is the external temperature which warms the plant; and, as 
the solar heat augments or lessens, so do the physical processes of os- 
mose absorption, selection, &c., proceed with more or less energy as the 
external heat varies. Hence, before we can give a formula for what plants 
need, it will be necessary that a large number of chemical analyses 
should be made. The teachings of Liebig have been carried intu ex- 
perimental practice in France, by Ville, who started with the idea that 
the mineral elements of the soil are the true and only food of plants; 
and, if these minerals are not present or in sufficient quantity, they 
must be added; and that manures, therefore, must be chiefly mineral. 
To explain this practice a few preliminary observations should here be 
presented. The elementary forms of matter which plants require are 
narrowed down to fourteen, four of which are organic, and ten mineral 
or inorganic, viz, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, organic ele- 
ments which represent ninety-five parts ina hundred of the composition of 
plants; phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, silicium, iron, manganese, lime, 
magnesia, soda, and potassa, minerai elements, rarely exceeding five 
per cent., but they are necessary and must be present. The organic 
elements are supplied, as follows: the carbon chiefly by carbonic ‘acid, 
partly by humus in the soil; the hydrogen and oxygen by water, (rain,) 
and the nitrogen by the nitrogen and the ammonia in the air, and by 
ammonia and nitrates in the soil. 

The inorganic elements, ten in number, are not equally absorbed by 
plants; some of them in’ so very small proportion that all soils are 
amply supplied with them; such are sulphur, silicium, manganese, and 
iron. In fact, of the whole series of elements, organic and inorganic, 
only four need to be added in quantity as a manure, namely, nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, (phosphorus,) potassa, and lime. The phosphorie acid 
may be supplied by bones, apatite, phosphorite, coprolites, fossils, marls 
and remains, and greensand. The potassa from the primary or crystal- 
line rocks, as the granites and feldspathic rocks, which constitute chains 
of mountains, and yield 10 to 15 per cent. of potassa; from sea water, 
which, in detect of other sources, may, by Balard’s process, have its po- 
tassa extracted ; and from saline deposits rich in potassa, such as those 
at Stassfurth in Prussia. The lime from the usual sources of gypsum, 
marls, limestones, and other calcareous substances. Out of compounds 
containing these four elements, Ville forms his manure, which, because 
it supplies all that is needed, is termed by him the “ complete manure,” 
(engrais complet.) The proportions in the complete manure are: 


Pounds. Ounces, 


e 
Saperphosphate of lime iii 0 tks en ebe eee seeks ote wale ou veer 8 14 
Nitrate of potassa....-...---...--- 2 prensa) TE aE Sa eee aaa Ae 4 if 


4 


PRESENT THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MINERAL MANURES. 435 


Pounds. Ounces. 


NS GE MINMGRIG is SMiid Sens “a ewles BE ELE tk cali ce wove clue 558 28 
PCO OL SUE at hei cn nit coal Sig nie alata bonny sean in amar 


tw 


lal Se 


This corresponds to 12 kilograms,* French. weight, costs three francs, 
and is recommended for an aret of land. All these substances may not 
be wanting in the soil, nor be needed by the crop; hence any one or 
more of them may be omitted, still preserving the formula with the re- 
sidual components. For example, there is the manure without potassa, 
in which is simply omitted the amount of nitrate of potassa; the manure 
without phosphate, in whichis omitted only the superphosphate of lime; 
and so ot the remainder, which class he calls incomplete manures. The 
term complete, as applied to a manure which is intended to contain only 
four out of fourteen necessary elements, is very inexact, and calculated 
to throw discredit on the efforts of Ville. No doubt many lands are 
rich enough in sulphates, chlorides, magnesia, and iron not to need 
those matters which Ville neglects to supply, but that does not lessen 
the necessity for a complete manure containing everything which the 
crop requires; with less than that it is incomplete, as is his second class. 
Ville has applied his manures, complete and incomplete, with results 
which seem to support the views of the school of Liebig. 

The experiments of Kuhlmann, published in 1843, and confirmed by 
subsequent trials of other agricultural inquirers, have amply proved 
that ammoniacal salts and salts of nitric acid (nitrates of alkalies) fur- 
nish nitrogen as abundantly and rapidly as do the nitrogenized princi- 
ples in farm manure, and that they may be used when ammonia is 
needed for a growing crop. , 

Ville has ingrafted on his practice of manuring the idea that ni- 
trogen may be assimilated by vegetation under three forms: 1. In 
the state of ammonia or its salts; 2. In the state of a nitrate; 3. 
in the state of gaseous nitrogen from the air.. Each of these thres 
_ forms presents advantages to certain species.: Thus the ammonia for 
wheat, the nitrates for beet-roots, and nitrogen in its gaseous form for 
leguminous plants, as clover; so that the amount and the form in which 
the nitrogen is supplied may vary with the crop. The sulphate of 
ammonia and the nitrate of soda are the only two salts which can be 
used economically. ‘The sulphate of ammonia yields 20 per cent. of 
nitrogen, and the nitrate of soda 15 per cent. On account of their con- 
centration and ready ‘solubility, they require to be mixed with four or 
five times their-weight of fine dry clay or mold; animal debris may 
replace these salts. By their slow decomposition a loss of ammonia 
occurs equal to 30 per cent., which escapes into the air as nitrogen gas, 
a loss which happens with farm manure. On a hectare of land in 
wheat, those manures were applied with the following result, the weight 
of graiu being in hectoliters:¢ } 


EGU UUCTOAHEEG 2 an... oa non ae ais at nan on oy Cate om cea eatin 39 hectoliters. 
With complete manure, without fime....-.-....-2.-.--2...---6-- 2 “a 
With complete manure, without potassa....-.....22. 02.222. BE 28 7h 
With complete manure, without phosphate ......-....2.22. 2.2. 24 or 
With complete manure, without nitrogen.......----. 2.220. .0.--- 13 as 
Land without manure .......-......-.-.... Ae A, Se sey ae mS ae il i 


This soil already contained, in 100,000 parts, 984 parts of lime, 58 of po- 
tassa, and 45 of phosphorie acid. 
apt BCP t's Nill EEE) Fetes Jt able lh Nat leg SACI INR TINE! Smt Fk 
* Kilogram, 2.20477 pounds. t Are, 0.0247 acre, or 119.6 square yards, . 
t Hectoliter, 2.88782 bushels. ; 


436 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


In the Department of Somme an experiment on beet-roots afforded, 
(according to E. Marchand, in the Memoirs of the Imperial and Central 
Society of Agriculture of Franee, 1866,) in roots: 


With 50,000 kilograms of farm manure---.-<.--.---22 -----------. 35, 000 kilograms. 
With complete manures <2. ose aeos ees cae mean aan as oe eae 51, 000 

With complete manure, without lime....-....-....--.--------+-- 47, 000 cs 
With complete manure, withont potassa..-....-..-.-..------.----- 42. 000 rn 
With complete manure, without phosphate ---...----.--.-------- 37,000 es 
Witk complete manure, without nitrogen....-....-...-8--.-----. 36, 000 “ 
Land without manure i262H Ss teers eo ces i Le tebe meee ee 25, 000 ae = 


These results accord with the preceding. 
An experiment made within the tropics, at Guadeloupe, on the sugar 
cane, yielded per hectare of canes, stripped of leaf— 


RUD ICOMIpIGle SHAN IITO se ee oes b ea eee = mete ee ies ee 57, 600 kilograms. 
With complete manure, without Bie) cect We 0 enya 50, 000 te 
With complete manure, without potash (= ).-Se2-' 2 te eS ble Se 35, 000 fe 
With complete manure, without phosphoric acid....-...--..----- 15, 000 Z: 
With complete manure, without nitrogen..---..-..-.-----.------ 56, 000 “i 
ae AWA UO b MRARULO epee eos soe oe ovis a aee pine e ea eee 3, 000 4 


This last experiment points to land already endowed with enough of 
assimilable nitrogen, but demanding the active intervention of potash 
and phosphoric acid to give abundant harvests. 

By subjecting small plots of land, as specimen types of extended cul- 
tivation, to trial essays, Ville easily arrived at the power of production 
of the land and its particular need of each fertilizing agent to put it in 
a condition to yield full crops. This, in fact, is what is going on every- 
where in Germany at the various agricultural experimental farms, (ver- 
such-stationen.) The repetition and extension of the plan might be a 
duty of the agricultural colleges of this country. That Ville has dis- 
taneced al] other experimenters in showing the particular value of 
each mineral salt in increasing the produce of the land, there is no 
doubt; and E. Marchand attests the value of the influence of Ville’s 
teachings upon various soils of France. In the Department of Drome 
a rocky hillside was grubbed for experiment, and it gave, without ma- 
nure, 24 hectoliters of wheat—scarcely the seed used. With the spe- 
cial wheat manure, it yielded 30 hectoliters. Ville’s formula for this 
wheat manure is: 


Kilograms. Value in franes. 


ACIdmnOspuaLE OF AMG) LW =. =~ 2 -oio et ce Jobe cok ise sees *» 600 96 
ThE eal UD SENS SES coos Sas gSOO - spe Geos so eSoeeo a Ic 400 248 
(CAE ES oh gee SECs RR IS Sie Se a ee erase 54 255 102 
Sek ah UTE pa 22 ER ak A ay 8 SE ae 350 7 

UPC RAS ach 6 oe Ee ee ee 90S See ae 5 oe ea do sc 453 


In Champagne, uncultivated land, not worth 170 franes the hectare, 
yielded, with 1,200 kilograms of this special manure, 33 hectoliters of 
wheat; with 100 cubic meters* of farm manure, it produced only 13 
hectoliters. Land producing without manure only 24 hectoliters of 
grain, gave 8 hectoliters under the influence of 40,000 kilograms of 
good farm manure, and 28 under the influence of the wheat manure. 
Masson and Izarn, at Evreux, produced, with the complete manure, 40 
hectoliters of wheat, when, with 30,000 kilograms of manure, they ob- 
tained only 19 hectoliters. Land producing 8,000 kilograms of potatoes 
when manured with 35,000 kilograms of barn- yard manure, gave 16,000 
kilograms, or exactly double the product, with the complete manure. 


* Meter, 1.09363 yard in length. 


PRESENT THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MINERAL MANURES. 437 


A document published by the Central Society of Agriculture of Bel- 
gium describes a piece of land of a sugar plantation in the Commune 
of Visé (Province of Liege) which had become so beet-sick that neither 
manure nor rotations could produce any root fit for manufacture. This 
piece was divided into two portions, on one of which Viile’s chemical beet 
manure was used, and on the other a strong supply of good farm manure 
wasapplied. During the early growth the difference was so apparent 
as to astonish the workmen. At the harvest 39,520 kilograms of uniform 
excellent roots were taken off the Ville portion, while from the barn- 
manured piece only 18,200 kilograms of inferior, stunted rocts were 
obtained. It would be easy to multiply the recital of results made 
in different parts of France, all showing the real value of these mineral 
manures. 

To obtain the utmost value of each mineral in the manure, Ville 
modifies his formulas. Thus, in a four-year shift, comprising the rota- 
tion of beets, wheat, clover, and wheat, he prefers to employ each year 
the following manures: 


First year, beet root: Acid phosphate of lime 400 kilograms; nitrate of potassa, 200 
kilograms ; nitrate of soda, 400 kilograms; sulphate of lime, 300 kilograms. 

Second year, wheat: Sulphate of ammonia, 300 kilograms. 

Third year, clover: Acid phosphate of lime, 400 kilograms; nitrate of potassa, 200 
kilograms; sulphate of lime, 400 kilograms. 

Fourth year, wheat: Sulphate of ammonia, 300 kilograms. 


The whole cost of these manures in France is 770 frances, equal to a 
yearly outlay of 192 francs 50 centimes. We watch with intense inter- 
est the working out of this agricultural problem in France, as it involves 
two very important considerations, namely: Ist. The use of chemical sub- 
stances as manures, given in exact weights and in variety suitable for 
rotations; 2d. Of the sole dependence upon these to the neglect, either 
partial or total, of the use of barn manure, and of a sapply of vegetable 
matter in the soil. 

Two questions force themselves upon the consideration of those who 
look on this Trench experiment, viz: 1st. Can land be treated indefi- 
nitely to raise crops by the use of chemical manures alone? 2d. Is it 
advantageous, in a financial or economic point of view, to employ 
chemical manures? The first question is one which no argument can 
decide ; it is one to be settled by repeated experiments. If solved in the 
affirmative, it is a very important step in advance in practical agricul- 
ture. The second question can be decided much sooner. There are, 
already, warning voices raised from different localities in France that, 
with the present prices of chemical substances, these mineral manures 
cannot compete with those of the farm-yard. In that country ammoni- 
acal salts cost 2 francs the kilogram; insoluble organic matter, 1 frane; 
insoluble phosphate, 25 centimes; soluble phosphate, 75 centimes; 
potassa, 60 centimes; pure lime, 14 centime; and Peruvian guano 33 
centimes the kilogram. Whenever chemical manures exceed the pre- 
ceding rates to any extent, they will cease to be remuneratively 
employed. A little time will settle this question, also. Meanwhile, the 
well-known fact of soil exhaustion is apparent, and we should take to 
heart the following language of Liebig: 

The visible, gradual deterioration of the arable soils of most civilized countries can- 
not but command the serious attention of all men who take an interest in the public 
welfare. It is of the utmost importance that we do not deceive ourselves respecting 
the danger indicated by these signs as threatening the future of populations. An ini- 
pending evil is not evaded by denying its existence, or shutting our eyes to the signs of 


its approach. It is our duty to examine and appreciate the signs. If the source of the 
evil is once detected, the first step is thereby taken to remove it forever. 


438 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


We are in the transition state of agricultural theory and practice; we 
may at present believe that Liebig and Ville and Lawes have under- 
estimated the value of humus and of barn-yard manure, and have over- 
estimated those soluble saline preparations which Ville’s chemical 
manures contain; but these men are still working out their problem, 
and if successful in proving their position they will have dashed our 
idols to the ground, and as converts to the new faith we shall have no 
desire to raise them, The science as well as the practice of agriculture 
is progressive. 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. 


FERTILIZERS. 


Manufactured fertilizers at the South.—A letter to the Department from 
Mr. Lawrence Sangston, president of the Maryland Fertilizing Company, 
of Baltimore, Maryland, gives some idea of the extensive use of manu- 
factured fertilizers at the South. He states that during about four 
months from December, 1869, to April, 1870, 30,000 tons of manufactured 
fertilizers passed through Charleston, over the South Carolina Railroad, 
avout one-half of which was manufactured in that city. During the 
Same period the Georgia Central Railroad carried from Savannah 47,000 
tons; and about 25,000 tons were forwarded from other ports in Georgia, 
South Carolina, and North Carolina, making a total of 102,000 tons, 
bearing a valuation, at points of delivery, of $7,000,000. 

A large number of companies and individuals, near Charleston, South 
Carolina, are engaged in mining and preparing crude phosphates for ship- 
ment. Mr. Sangston says: ‘The South Carolina phosphates are fast sup- 
planting those of the West Indies. Being similar to the ordinary bones 
or bone-ash of commerce, they dissolve more easily and in weaker acids 
than the mineral or volcanic phosphates of the West Indies, and their 
comparative freedom from iron or alumina enables the manufacturer to 
produce a better article’at no greater cost. They are used exclusively 
in the Charieston manufactories, and in fully three-fourths of those in 
the Northern States they are used wholly or in part. Nearly every ship 
loaded at Charleston with cotton for Europe takes two to three hundred 
tons as dead weight; and occasionally entire cargoes are sent to England, 
Scotland, and Ireland. Large orders for France and Germany were 
unfilled at the commencement of the European war. A recent Spanish 
paper states that— 

There is about to be built in Valencia an establishment for the manufacture of 
‘miners’ artificial guano.” This new product, which is composed of South Carolina 
phosphatic deposits, subjected to a treatment of sulphuric acid and sal ammoniac, is 
destined to become a formidable rival of the Peruvian guano, large quantities of 
which are consuimed in that province. 

Shipments of fertilizers from Chicago.—A recent statement of the 
amounts of manufactured fertilizers shipped south and east from 
Chicago during several years past shows the annual average to be 6,000 
tons. ‘The material from which these fertilizers are manufactured is in 
very large proportion furnished by the slaughtering establishments, of 
that city. 

Imports of guano.—The first cargo of guano imported into this country 
was received about a quarter of a century ago. The demand grew 
rapidly, and in the year ending June 30, 1848, the receipts amounted to 
1,015 tons, inereasing in the following year to 21,243 tons. During the 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. 439 


ten years ending June 30, 1860, the total imports of guano into the 
United States amounted to 842,787 tons; the amount reéxported during 
the same period being 71,788 tons. The imports of 1854 and 1855 were 
exceptionally large, in the former year reaching 175,849 tons, and in 
the latter year 173,961 tons. The following is a statement of the 
amounts of guano imported into the United States during the decade 
ending June 30, 1870, and the amounts reéxported during the same 
period : 


IMPORTED. REEXPORTED. 
hi) os g 
Years. S 2a 8 
Tons. Value. 2 a a Tons. Value, g E 
S ra = $4 
SB ee 
qs ae 
MSG Leona 112, 202 $449, 822 4 O01 2, 455 $88, 818 $36. 17 
Geese, sss lk 22, 089. 195, 488 8 85 1, 460 55, 039 37 70 
LCS.) a 2, 587 28, 288 10 93 | 56, 324 3, 270, 292 58 06 
Pen) CN 9, 568 138, 555 14 48 | 14, 064 849, 668 60 41 
| i ay Se 17, 241 273, 109 15 85 1, 669 83, 668 50 13 
emcee kL ME 37, 464 397, 184 10 60 240 15, 595 64 98 
Mee Nes wl SG 76, 770 1, 670, 493 21 76 80. 5, 110 63 88 
Mere eink ia 47, 586 1, 219, 519 25. 62 1, 190 71, 793 60 33 
PUNT SG eS ee 13, 329 204, 348 15 33 156 5, 744 36 82 
USP UL ek el a le al 48,749 1, 415, 519 29 04 59 2,700 45 76 
WCE Se 387, 585 5, 992, 325 15 46 | 77,697 4, 448, 427 57 25 


The import values, of course, represent the cost in the countries from 
which guano is received. The Peruvian Islands have afforded the chiet 
supply ; the British West Indies ranking next in importance as a source 
of supply during the last ten years. During the years 1867~70, besides 
the reéxports above stated, there were also exported 3,755 tons, valued 
at $86,610, the product of territory of the United States; and in the 
years 1869~70 there were received 32,690 tons, valued at $645,717, the 
product of islands, &c., belonging to the United States.. Such quantities 
as were received from like sources in years previous to 1869 were 
merged in official statements of imports. A large proportion of the 
total receipts of the last five years has been absorbed in the manufacture 
of artificial fertilizers, but the use of guano for this purpose is stated to 
be now on the decline. 

Manufacture of bone meal. At the New York Farmers’ Club, in reply 
to inquiries concerning the supply of bones and the manufacture of 
bone meal and flour, Mr. J. B. Lyman stated that in cities, on an average, 
the feeding of 20,000 persons turned out as refuse a ton of raw bones 
daily. Newark, New Jersey, has a population of 110,000, and sends six 
tons of bones daily, including heads and heels, from the butchers to a 
large bone-mill two miles distant. The bone-mills of our country are 
supplied from the large cities, and the bone refuse of 35,000,000 of rural 
and town population is lost to the soil. In the cities bones cost $25 to 
$30 per ton. A good plan for a farmer wishing to obtain pure bone 
meal at a cheap rate is to contract with butchers, farmers, and hotel- 
keepers for supplies of raw bones, which should first be boiled for 


440 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


grease in a tank erected for the purpose. When taken from the tank 
the bones should be sorted, and the clean, firm shins of oxen and cows 
be sold at a good price—say $80 per ton—for the purposes of brush and 
button makers. The thin bones can be crushed to bone meal (or coarsely- 
ground bone) in a mill costing not more than a common bark-mill; and 
this coarsely-ground material can be made quite fine by sulphuric acid 
and water. The grease and choice bones will nearly repay the outlay 
for the mixed bones, and the cost of the manure will be substantially 
that of the acid, added to the expense of labor in boiling and grinding. 
Before commencing operations, however, it would be well for the opera- 
tor to examine the working of some large bone-mill. In making bone 
meal, the bones are crushed by iron teeth or prongs arranged as in 
a bark-mill, and are then run through finer teeth. The production 
of bone flour involves a large expense. In this case two broad wheels, 
faced with the hardest ridged steel, revolve in opposite directions, and 
a stream of bone meal passes between the points of nearest centact. If 
the bones were put between flat stones revolving as in flour mills, sufii- 
cient grease and glue would be eliminated to fill the grooves, and the 
faces would slip. 

Leached ashes.—At a meeting of the Western New York Farmers’ 
Club, Mr. Quinby stated that he had used over ten thousand bushels of 
leached ashes in the last three years, and had found them good for all 
crops on a sandy or chestnut loam, and that he would cover his whole 
farm wita them if he could get them. When put in the hill they started 
corn early and vigorously; and when applied to wheat, at the rate of 
two to three hundred bushels per acre, they had increased the crop 100 
per cent. They also proved to be an excellent fertilizer for clover. Mr. 
Collins stated that he had put leached ashes an inch deep on four acres 
of heavy clay land, and had obtained a fine crop of corn. The clay was 
rendered more friable and mellow. 

Marl in Mississippi.—Mr. J. P. Steele, of Savannah, Tennessee, states 
that thousands of acres of land in Mississippi, lying on or near the Mobile 
and Ohio Railroad, underlaid with excellent shell marl, cropping out in 
the valleys, and only threé to six feet below the surface of the ridges, 
ean be bought for $5 to $10 an acre. A large portion of Northern and 
Central Mississippi is underlaid with this marl. 

The menhaden fisheries of Long Island.—Menhaden come in vast shoals 
in the spring of the year, into the bays at the east end of Long Island, 
for the purpose of spawning. At that stage, however, they are gene- 
rally in poor condition, and yield but little oil. They are not caught for 
food, but to be rendered into oil and manure. The number taken 
during the season of 1869 is estimated at 67,500,000. In addition, 
the shore seines and pounds took 5,500,000, of which more than 
one-half were sold to farmers, to be applied to the land for manure, 
while the remainder were taken to factories to be pressed for oil. The 
business of extracting the oil from the menhaden was commenced with 
the establishment of one factory, about twenty years ago. During the 
season of 1869 there were seventeen factories in operation, for a larger 
or smaller part of the time, on the shores of the Peconic and Gardiner’s 
Bay. The capital invested in these factories, with the boats, nets, &c., 
is about half a million of dollars. Similar factories have been estab- 
lished in Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Virginia. 
During the same season there were over thirty gangs of men, three 
boats to a gang, out in Peconic Bay, one of which made a catch of 
5,000,000 fish; the smallest catch was 500,000; the average, 2,500,000. 
For a period of seven months, over one hundred vessels and upwards of 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. 4A 


three hundred men were employed in the bays. The oil extracted from 
the fish is used for various purposes; in dressing leather, in rope-walks, 
in painting, mixing with other oils, &c. The scrap is used as manure. 
Last season the product was 7,105 tons of manure, and 11,460 barrels 
of oil. 

Loss from exposure of manure.—Dr. Nichols, of the Boston Journal of 
Chemistry, states that analyses made of manure taken from a water- 
soaked heap, and a similar quantity taken from the barn cellar, showed 
that the former possessed less than one-half of the money-value of the 
sheltered manure. 

Variation in the quality of guano.—In thirteen samples of Guanape 
Island guano, reported on by the British Board of Trade, the propor- 
tion of ammonia varied from 3.8 per cent. to 18.8 per cent. Farmers 
should carefully investigate the quality of the guano offered, before 
purchasing. 

Artificial fertilizers in Germany.—Mr. W. O. Atwater, in an account of a 
visit to one of the principal agricultural regions of North Germany, 
states that wherever he went he heard complaints of the adulteration 
of artificial fertilizers, and of the immense amount of poor material 
palmed off on farmers. German as well as English and French agri- 
cultural journals are full of such complaints. At the agricultural 
experiment stations distributed throughout Germany, and supported 
partly by the government, and partly by agricultural societies, it is one 
of the duties of the chemists there employed to examine fertilizers. 
Farmers buy of dealers, who warrant the fertilizers to contain a certain 
percentage of nitrogen, of soluble and insoluble phosphoric acid, of 
potash, &c. Samples are sent to the experimental stations, and there 
analyzed, generally free of cost. If the fertilizer falls below the stand- 
ard, the dealer must make proper satisfaction to the farmer. By this 
method of test, an efficient check is put upon fraudulent dealing in fer- 
tilizers in the surrounding regions. 


FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 


Fruit on the Illinois Central Railroud.—Mr. Joseph F. Tucker, general 
freight agent of the Illinois Central Railroad, informs the Department 
that there were received in Chicago, over that road, during the continu- 
ance of the strawberry season, from May 23 to June 9, 1870, 989,476 
pounds of strawberries; nearly 500 tons. The two days of largest receipt 
were May 28 and 30; eight car loads, or 101,571 pounds, being received 
on the former day, and nine car loads, or 115,850 pounds, on the latter. 
In 1869 the fruit business on the Llinois Central Railroad, from Cen- 
tralia and stations south of that place, to Chicago, amounted, in a 
season of fifty-five days, to over 2,500 tons. 

Strawberries in Maine.—Mr. Israel Bemis, of Levant, Maine, during the 
season of 1869, raised, on twenty square rods of ground, 590 quarts of 
Wilson strawberries, which were sold at 21 cents per quart, amounting 
to $123 90. 

Raspberries in Western New York.—Mr. P. C. Reynolds, of Rochester, 
New York, residing four miles from Lake Ontario, states that a neigh- 
bor had two acres, from which he picked 9,500 quarts of Franconia 
raspberries. The fruit was sold in Rochester, and amounted to $750 
per acre. Had it been shipped to New York, the receipts would have 
been doubled. The Franconia raspberry in that locality gave a much 
larger yield than that of the Hudson River Antwerp. 


442 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Blackberries in Georgia.—Mr. J. Van Buren, of Clarksville, Georgia, 
Says: 

The blackberry here is one of the greatest pests we have to encounter in the eulti- 
vation of our crops; it causes more trouble and labor than the vilest weed that ever 
grew. The fruit grows very large, and there seem to be two or three varieties, Any 
quantity may be had from 75 cents to $1 per bushel, and sometimes for less. I have 
known them to be hauled by the wagon-load to distilleries, and distilled imto brandy 
or other liquors. 

Banana culture.—The cultivation of the banana is engaging consider- 
able attention in the neighborhood of Pilatka, Florida, and the river 
counties. It is stated that three years ago a gentleman in Orange 
County set out nine plants, and is now reaping the fruits of a three- 
acre field, and realizes $125 per month from the fruit and the young 
plants that are continually suckering around the roots of the old plants. 
The banana fruits in all seasons, the year round, and is enriched by the 
shedding of its huge leaves. 

Oranberries in the Pacific Statcs.—lt is stated that quite an impetus 
has been given to the sale of marsh lands in Washington Territory re- 
cently by the advent of a New Jersey cranberry-grower in quest of these 
valuable lands. The Oregon Statesman says there isa large marsh near 
Gray’s Harbor, in that State, which is already covered with cranberry 
bushes growing wild, and yielding considerable fruit, which is picked 
and sold by the Indians. This marsh has been purchased of the Gov- 
ernment by several gentlemen of Salem, New Jersey. 

The plum curculio—Dr. Hull, of Alton, Illinois, concludes, from his 
experience, that the curculio discovers its food by scent, and that when 
the temperature has reached a certain height it flies against the wind 
to the spot where it is found. At a temperature of 70° or less it is 
unable to fly, and is comparatively inactive at a temperature of 80°, 

-and may be easily jarred down on sheets. When the temperature has 
risen to 85° the curculio flies so freely, especially in the sunshine, that 
where the trees are in the vicinity of infested and neglected orchards 
jarring becomes ineffective, the curculios coming in great numbers from 
these neighboring orchards. Dr. Hull says that in localities infested 
by the curculio, where contiguous orchards in considerable numbers 
occur, no general success need again be looked for until a scareity of 
fruit reduces the curculios, or the proprietors of orchards unite to destroy 
them. Where it is only necessary to contend with curculios bred on 


the fruit-grower’s own grounds, the process of destruction is easy, with 


the proper facilities for jarring. In the comparatively warm latitude of 
Alton hogs afford but a partial protection, and poultry scarcely any. 
Potatoes in the Isle of Jersey —The Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England for 1870 includes a prize essay, by C. P. Le Cornu, 
on the history of potato culture in the island of Jersey. Vor a long 
course of years the potato has been a leading crop in the island. In 
1812 a full average crop was estimated at 36,000 pounds, Jersey weight, 
per acre—equivalent to 6463 bushels, of 60 pounds each. Potatoes in- 
tended for seed are dug before the stalks are entirely dry, and are hard- 
ened by exposure to air and sun, being occasionally turned during this 
process, after which they are packed away singly in layers on wooden 
floors, the principle of treatment being that of ehecking early sprouting 
and keeping the seed in its utmost vigor. The preparation of the seed 
is deemed of prime importance, and contributes very greatly to the earli- 
ness of the crop. Careful attention is paid to the seleetion of the soil, 
and its proper preparation, ‘by plowing, manuring, &c. Atter plowing 
and harrowing it is customary to spread well-made stable manure at the 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. 443 


rate of about 224 tons per acre. The use of sea-weed has been relin- 
quished generally, and guano is employed with great advantage as an 
auxiliary to the stable manure. Planting 1s done in January and Feb- 
ruary. in drill-rows. As soon as the plants appear above ground, the 
soil between the rows is well loosened, and if frost does not interfere 
the crop grows quickly ; so that about the last of April the first install- 
ment is forwarded to the London Market, the business rapidly increas- 
ing through the following month. <A day is frequently of great import- 
ance to the pecuniary value of the consignment, and the producers are 
regularly informed by telegraph as to the state of the London market. 
The practice is to follow this crop of potatoes with one of roots, the 
heavy manuring of the former supplying an excellent nourishment for 
the latter crop. 


LIVE STOCK. 


Fat steers —Mr. George Ayrault, of Poughkeepsie, New York, reports to 
the Department on four steers, seven-eighths Short-horn, raised by him, 
and sold near the close of 1869 to William Lalor, of Center Market, New 
York City, for $3,200, the age of one of the animals being seven years, 
and of the others six years. The largest stood about six feet high, with 
a girth ef ten feet, and the weight of the animals was 3,300 pounds, 
3,320 pounds, 3,406 pounds, and 3,440 pounds, respectively; their pro- 
portions being good, notwithstanding their enormous size. The agegre- 
gate gain in weight during the season of 1869 was 1,460 pounds. The 
net beef weight of the larger pair after slaughter was 4,537 pounds. 
Their average weight at the age of three years was 1,850 pounds. After 
attaining this age, each received daily a peck of corn-meal and wheat 
shorts, or oatmeal, combined, divided into two feeds, and, as dessert, a 
peck of sugar-beets twice a day. In the summer, until lately, their only 
feed was grass, supplemented with a little sweet hay. The second win- 
ter the daily feed of meal was increased to ten quarts each, given in two 
feeds. In the summer of 1869 each received one peck of meal per day, 
given at morning and at night; and in the winter following, twelve 
quarts of meal daily, in three feeds, besides roots. In the course of 
feeding they have had, in winter, the best of early-cut hay from old 
meadows, and have usually had access to it in summer. They were not 
closely confined in winter, usually having the run of a small yard, with 
access to water, and with sheds under which they could lie protected 
from storms, and were tied at feeding time. 

It is Mr. Ayrault’s opinion that when cattle are fattening, and it is 
desired to give them all the grain they will eat without being clogged, 
it is important to feed three times a day; and he considers beets, or 
their equivalent, essential in winter in promoting the growth of grain- 
fed cattle. He does not advise heavy feeding for beef until.animals are 
well grown, his practice being to maintain his stock in merely thrifty 
condition until they reach the age of three years. 

A committee of the Farmer’s Club, American Institute, reporting on 
these cattle, state that they find that the only profit arising from the 
last year’s growth of the animals was in the increased or “ fancy” rates 
obtaimed on account of magnitude, and that, in Mr. Ayrault’s judgment, 
five years is the age at which fattened cattle will give the greatest profit 
to the feeder. 

English prize steers.—The following table gives the weight, respect- 
ively, of eight first-prize steers recently exhibited at Islington, England, 
the weight at birth being deducted, thus showing the increase from the 


444 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


time of birth. The ages of the animals ranged from two years and 
eight months to four years and one month: 


Beonal Ape. | Increase | Increase per 


from birth. month. 

Monihs. Pounds. Pounds. 
BD Le GSTS LS ee te ps Seen gh, ee Se CAR ete tN 38% 1,574 40 
EIETOIOL eee seen eee Ee eee eee. Meee ces 38 1, 902 50 
HOM e-HORNE este Sts. EAP amet ney Ok, La Saee. Le 38 2, 207 58 
Busnes eee. spl eee. ae ea ee Ds fey 32 1, 998 62 
GY ON sacree cee et : don SNES eo la eels 45 1, 652 37 
EIBTEIOTA pa eee sat Rae ico ceh a ee Pec 49 2,134 43 
UAT LOT ti, ae Se Oe ae ee eee ee Oe 47 2, 274 48 
SURI Nera eee Ae ee on cee 45 2, 522 | 56 


They were full fed on like descriptions of food. 

South American cattle in England.—Alfred Fox, United States consul 
at Falmouth, England, in a letter to this Department, writes as follows: 

A steamer has lately landed here, in fair condition, with a few exceptions, from Mor- 
tevideo, one hundred and forty-two oxen, which cost about £4 per head on board at 
Montevideo; six cows which cost about £3 per head; five calves, which go with the 
cows; two hundred and ninety-seven sheep, which cost about 5s. per head; and six 
horses, which cost about £4 per head. About seventy oxen were killed on the voyage, 
owing, as was alleged, to injuries sustained by the rough manner in which they were 
put on board, to the length of the voyage, (forty-three days,) to the high temperature 
at Bahia, where the steamer called to repair machinery, and to the want of experi- 
ence in the requirements on board in this, the first experiment. 

Sales of stock.—The largest sale of Short-horns ever effected in this 
country oecurred at Xenia, Greene County, Ohio, June 8, 1870, when 
the famous Oakland herd of Mr. Daniel MeMillan was sold at auction. 
Nearly one thousand cattle-breeders, from all parts of the United States 
and from Canada, were in attendance. The number of cattle sold was 
seventy-one, (ineluding feur cows with calves,) producing an aggregate 
of $63,980, making an average of $901 12, or, including the four calves, 
seventy-five head, averaging $853. The largest prices received for sin- 
gle animals were, for a cow, calved in May, 1864, $3,800; a heifer, 
twenty months old, $3,650; and a cow, calved in 1862, $3,600. The 
private sales from this herd, within the preceding six months, amounted 
to $20,100, making the aggregate of $84,080 for the entire herd. There 
were also sold thirty-three Berkshire hogs, aggregating $1,008; and a 
Norman stallion at $3,100. Amount of sales of stock of all kinds, in- 
cluding cattle previously sold at private sale, $88,288. 

The following is an abstract of sales of stock by Kentucky breeders, 
at their annual public sales during the last week of June of this. year, 
the average price per animal of the various lots being given: At Mr. 
Alexander’s sale, six thorough-bred mares averaged $227 50 each; 
eighteen thorough-bred colts, foaled 1869, averaged $471 38; twenty- 
four thorough-bred fillies, foaled 1869, $391; thirteen head of trotting 
stock, $317 31; twenty-seven Alderney cattle, $152 77. At Mr. F. P. 
Kinkead’s sale, fourteen horses averaged $151 42; five buils, $183 60; 
twelve cows, $363 33; three Alderneys, $218 33; thirty-one head of 
Sheep, &c., $17 16; seven hogs, $44 28. At the sale of Mr. Jesse H. Tal- 
butt, twenty-eight cows averaged $221 96; eight bulls, $244 37. At 
Mr. B. B. Groom’s sale, seventy-three cows averaged $249 73; eighteen 
bulls, $185 28; ten head mixed, $83. At Mr. Lewis Hampton’s sale, 
thirty-four cows and calves averaged $323 $2; nine bulls, $255; three 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. AAD 


cows, (miscellaneous,) $225. At Mr. Kinkead’s sale the highest figures 
for single animals were as follows: Sorrel gelding, $280; a bull, $365; 
a cow, $1,000; Essex hog, $75. At Mr. Talbutt’s sale a roan bull, calved 
in 1867, sold for $620, and a roan cow, calved in 1862, $580. At Mr. 
Groom’s sale a cow calved in 1866 was sold for $1,120, and a bull calved 
in May, 1864, $1,015. At Mr. Hampton’s sale the highest priced cow 
was $505 ; highest priced bull, calved in 1869, $500. 

Forty-two auction sales of Short-horns were held in England, Scot- 
land, and Ireland, in 1869, at which 1,585 head were sold at prices 
ranging from 34 to 650 guineas. The average realized was £35 5s. each, 
showing but a slight variation from the average price obtained in 1868, 
when 1,425 were sold at an average of £35 7s. each. 

The highest prices ever known to have been realized in England for 
Short-horns were obtained by Mr. Sheldon, of Geneva, New York, 
United States, for six Duchess, sold to Messrs. Wallcott & Campbell for 
the sum of 1,100 guineas each. 


VALUE OF DIFFERENT FOODS. 


In reply to an Illinois farmer, who inquires which is the cheapest feed 
for fattening sheep, corn at 60 cents per bushel, oats at 40 cents, No. 2 
barley at 75 cents, oil-cake at $35 per ton, or bran at $15 per ton, Mr. J. 
Harris presents the following estimate for one ton of each description of 
food at the stated prices: 


Price per | Value of | Actual cost 
ton. manure. of food. 
$14 59 $0 41 
6 65 14 85 
TOS 15 28 
7 70 17 30 
6 32 


| 25 34 


Mr. Harris thinks there is little difference in the nutritive values of 
corn, oil-cake, oats, and barley, and that (making no comparison as to’ 
bran) at the foregoing prices corn is practically cheaper for feeding 
purposes than any of the other three articles. 

Grinding and cooking corn.—In the district agricultural convention at 
Urbana, Ohio, in February, 1870, several members estimated the gain 
in the feeding value of corn ground and cooked at 100 per cent. over 
that fedraw. Mr. A. B. Buttles, of Columbus, made the only exact state- 
ment of cost of grinding and eooking, saying that he could get his corn 
. ground for 10 cents per bushel, and cooked for 3 cents per bushel. 


PROFITABLE HOGS. 


A farmer in Shelby County, Kentucky, it is stated, bought two hun- 
dred and ten hogs, and corn to feed them, for $3,563; fed and sold them, 
averaging 323 pounds, for $6,640, and refused $954 for one hundred and 
eleven shoats which he had raised from them. Another man and his 
son fed and seld seven hundred and ninety-two hogs, averaging 305 
pounds, receiving $21,000, his outlay having been $9,000. The first 
case shows a total profit (including valuation of shoats) of $4,031, aver- 
aging $19 20 on each animal of the original stock; the second, a 
total profit of $12,000, averaging $15 15 on each animal. 

Mr. William Magie, of Butler County, Ohio, has sold, this season, thirty- 


446 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


eight hogs, averaging 528.87 pounds each, dressed weight. The average 
gross weight was 611 pounds. These hogs were twenty-ene months oid. 

Mr. John Ferris, of Lawrence, New York, states that four nine-months’ 
pigs were killed in that place in 1869, the dressed weight of which was 
400 pounds, 401 pounds, 410 pounds, and 450 pounds, respectively. 
Another, eight months old, weighed, dressed, 405 pounds. 

Mr. D. J. Packer, of Woodbury, New Jersey, who remarks that he 
resides in the village and is not a farmer, gives a statement showing 
the profit realized by him in raising four pigs, purchased January 18, 
1869, and slaughtered December 11, 1869, having been penned during 
the entire period. Their age, when killed, was fifteen months and nine- 
teen days. ‘The gross receipts were: 


1,963 pounds of pork, at $14 per hundred .....-.....---. 0.222. see cee sccewens $274 82 

Privewimed for Dhenanurpe..b oust. - dec. fs --eee Bote 2. eee eee 40 00 
SU Gied WAMLP TECCLV OO 2. 6 vo asso ance = sy 000 foe kepaneaaaad ees tin ee 314 82 

Expenses were as follows: 

DPiguin pips wb alo each .. ono. Re a Gece bys tees - chn- tsp due we---.-- $60 00 

Coie ee ier sete eaten Sain me)= eee woo ae scamlseinle cwite = ow lalvaeae 2 00 

Biliiined seers ses ee sete esl ieee. wo Sok See ELE ee 27 25 

fiogiwhesse, (Cuandler’s SCraps)).cos). cece ~pea csc dits te osers te oe enee 28 36 

EXOMNODVOLIEO COLDS aco. ono kere eee Sore cone cake core = eee 17 60 

RS EC UUR OES eos) nico > Scie et cnn a oes peer peace scence 9 00 

AS huskelsoLcorh, rounds. b iis. SRR RL OR 8 51 20 
Mopalicosh=. ic: 6-' = Bebe SESS seek Cece on te oe 195 41 

Rubies AOU TONG O8s tay opeteee - be - => === cen == conn heen ee eee 119 41 


Raising hogs in Colorado.—A. Colorado farmer urges more attention 
to the raising of hogs in that Territory. He says bacon, hams, and 
shoulders have averaged there more than 30 cents per pound for years, 
and that grain, at an average of 23 cents per pound, as it has been for 
two years past, can nowhere else find so good a market as in the pig- 
pen. Hisexperience is in favor of using early spring pigs. He feeds 
them on milk and offal from the kitchen and garden until they outgrow 
the supply, when he adds bran and shorts to the milk, letting it sour. 
His pigs thrive wonderfully on this fare, much better than on corn alone 
or any other dry grain. He had many pigs that‘on December 1 would 
dress 180 pounds each; while pigs from the same litter, fed on dry 
grain at a mill, would not dress half as much. For about two weeks 
before killing he gives them all the corn they will eat. 


THE DAIRY. 


Dairy farming in Vermont.—Mr. Nahum Brigham, of Bakersfield, Ver- 
mont, reports to the Department that he commenced the dairy season of 
1869, April 1, with three cows, the number gradually increasing, as they 
came in, to fifteen cows at the middleof May. From the first-mentioned 
date to the close of the season, December 1, he made sixty tubs, or 3,000 
pounds of butter, which was soldat the rate of 45 cents per pound, amount- 
ing to$1,350. Heraised ten calves, worth $100, and 1,000 pounds of pork, 
which he sold for $130; total, $1,580, not including supplies for the 
family. The cows were kept up till June 1, previous to which date 
they were fed on hay, Indian meal, and sour milk. From that time 
they received only pasture, until October 1, when they were again 
put up and fed in the same manner as in the spring. The total cost of 
the meal was $75. .The cows were of “native” breed, and were raised 
by Mr. Brigham. Their ages ranged from six years to seventeen years, 
averaging eleven years. 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. AAT 


A profitable cow.—in March, 1868, Mr. G. W. Wild, of Brighton, Massa- 
chusetts, bought a cow for $125. He fed her liberally, allowing four 
quarts of corn meal daily, and after milking her 568 days, (during which 
time she averaged ten quarts daily,) finding her in goot condition for 
beef, slaughtered her, obtaining 805 pounds dressed weight. The 
rough tallow weighed 77 pounds. She was giving seven quarts daily 
at the time of slaughtering. The exhibit of debt and credit account 
stands thus: 


Cr. 
By 5,620 quarts of milk, at 8 cents per quart .--.-. 2.2... 2a cee ee eens vee $454 40 
MR lanes cy Sap an os ote oS ea odds SEES pa eel. aaa! gbin's amb 116 00 
PURERMPEDCNIYUS! «=~ ~ Go an acoso cae o hema ee ase p se ates 4 ee on eo eines 570 40 
Dr. 
CEENGSIN cso oe cine nn ee ae cians «lap ienn tag ee Cams $125 00 
To keeping 568 days, at 40 cents per day.-...--.-.-.---------------- 227 20 
ME etek cp Ook tats oe sian aha eae ESEW ES. Hild - Ske sche eee ee 352 20 
DPI ose acs rem mo a on ae ante oe ine = = enn eae ne ee aan eenn 218 20 


This result shows a net profit of $140 22 per year. 

A grade Short-horn.—Mr. 8. P. Miller, of Fayetteville, Vermont, reports 
to the Department that he has a grade Short-horn cow, eleven years old 

‘in the summer of 1869, weighing about 1,100 pounds. From the milk of 
this cow he made, during the seven months from April 20, 1869, to No- 
vember 19, 1869, 311 pounds of butter, and during the same period sold 
142 quarts of new milk, besides supplying the milk and cream which 
were required for his family of five persons. The butter sold for 45 cents 
a pound, with the exception of that sold during the six weeks previous 
to June 1, which was marketed at a lower price. The cow received two 
quarts of corn meal and wheat middlings or shorts daily, besides hay 
and common pasture. 

Butter from Jerseys.—-The following exhibit is made of the profits from 
two thorough-bred Jersey cows belonging to a gentleman in Lewiston, 
Maine. The cows calved in the latter part of May, 1869. From their 
milk between June 15 and February 15, following, 504 pounds of butter 
were made, worth 50 cents per pound. The calves were sold at eight 
weeks of age for $16. The legitimate gross profits of the cows for the 
eight months are stated at $268. One of the cows calved again April 
10, 1870, and the other in May. 

Spaying for milk.—M. Vattemare, veterinary surgeon, reports that the 
spaying of cows at a proper age and period results in an inerease of 
33 per cent. in quantity of milk. Another expert testifies to similar 
results with twenty-seven cows, of ages ranging from six to fifteen 
years. 

FARM MANAGEMENT. 


An unprofitable harvest—A farmer in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 
states that in 1869 he raised 9,000 bushels of wheat, and 2,000 bushels 
of oats, and was obliged to sell part of his stock to pay expenses. Not- 
withstanding abundant crops, wheat paid little more than the cost of 
harvesting. 

A Southern example.—tin Stewart County, Georgia, in 1869, a farmer, 
assisted only by his wife, who also attended to her domestic affairs, cul- 
tivated forty acres of land, making eleven bales of cotton, eight harrels 


448 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


of sirup, and one hundred and fifty bushels of corn. He had at the 
opening of the year only a few bushels of corn, one mule, and no money; 
but he bought his family supplies on time, and paid for them after the 
sale of his crop. He also paid for the land he cultivated, at $15 per 
acre, out of the proceeds of his crop, and had means enough left to buy 
as much more. 

Employment of farm machinery.—A farmer in Benton County, Oregon, 
in 1868, assisted by two boys under fifteen years of age, with two gang- 
plows, one header, an eight-horse thrasher, in which he held a half in- 
terest, and hired labor, costing less than $200, prepared the ground for, 
raised, and made ready for market 6,084 bushels of wheat, and 2,000 
bushels of other grain. The outlay for hired labor was more than offset 
by the earnings of his header and thrasher in working for his neighbors, 

Change in English methods of agriculture.—Twenty-five years ago, says 
an English agricultural writer, the only profitable practice of enriching 
lighter soils was by growing green crops and consuming them on the 
land, long rest in fallow being almost the only profitable method on 
the heavier soils. At the present day the best farm management in- 
cludes the more energetic use of artificial means; the use of richer 
manures from purchased cattle foods; and especially the larger employ- 
ment of purchased manures, both home-manufactured and imported; so 
that the fertility which was formerly obtained in two or three years 
under the best management is now accomplished with greater profit 
almost immediately. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Cotton-sced oil at Memphis, Tennessee.—During the year ending July 
1, 1870, the Panola Oil and Fertilizer Company, of Memphis, Tennessee, 
manufactured 1,800 tons of oil cake, and 150,000 gallons of cotton-seed 
oil. The Memphis Oil Company manufactured about the same quantity, 
and the Bluff City Company about two-thirds as much. The Panola 
Company propose to convert their oil cake into a valuable fertilizer, by 
mixing with it bone-dust, plaster, salt, and ashes. 

Loss in removal of cotton seed.—Professor Hilgard, of Mississippi, 
makes the suggestive statement that when the lint only of the cotton 
crop is removed from the land, it takes from it not more than four 
pounds of soil ingredients for each bale of cotton made; byt when both 
lint and seed are permanently removed the land loses, on an average, 
forty-two pounds of soil ingredients for every bale. In the former case 
the cotton crop is one of the least exhaustive known; in the latter, one 
of the most exhaustive. 

Cotton manufacturing in South Carolina.—The last annual report of 
the president of the Graniteville (South Carolina) Manufacturing Com- 
pany states the production of the mill during the year as follows: 
3,367,000 yards of 4-4 sheeting; 2,332,800 yards of 7-8 sheeting; 1,103,880 
yards of 7-8 drilling; 1,839,600 yards of 3-4 shirting; total, 3,643,280 
yards. About five hundred and fifty operatives are employed, nearly all 
of them natives of the South. 

California cotton.—A scientific expert in cotton states that the cotton 
grown from Alabama seed in Merced County, California, this year, com- 
pares favorably with Brazilian and Egyptian cotton, and is superior to 
the best southern upland for spinning purposes. He asserts that the 
effect of the dry and equable climate of California is an improvement 
in the staple yielded from the same seed as planted upon southern up- 
lands. There are large sections of the State well adapted to this cuiture. 

Corn and cotton versus cotton.—A correspondent in Lee County, Geor- 


CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. 449 


gia, who employs sixty hands in cultivating his land, and who is also a 
merchant, furnishing supplies to about fifty neighboring planters, tak- 
ing the products of their plantations in payment in the fall, writes that, 
notwithstanding the fact that the same land which grows 15 to 20 bush- 
els of corn, worth $20 fo $30, will produce 700 to 1,000 pounds of seed- 
cotton, worth $35 to $75, experience and observation convince him 
that the all-cotton system is unprofitable. His experience is that those 
who buy all their corn and meat never have any surplus money; 
those who buy all their meat and a portion of their corn have some money 
left, according to the proportion of the home supply of corn; those who 
raise all their corn, buying meat, do better still; while those who raise 
both corn and meat are most prosperous of all. In his judgment the 
explanation is, that a skillful manager can, at the same time, raise an 
ample supply of corn and nearly a full crop of cotton, doing the chief 
part of the work on the corn crop before beginning the harvest work on 
the cotton. It is a question of complete utilization of time on the one 
hand, and waste of time on the other. 

Steam-plowing in Cuba.—A sugar-planter in Cuba writes that in No- 
vember, 1868, he commenced work with one of the Fowler steam-plows, 
(running with two engines of fourteen-horse power each,) and since then 
has broken up 2,000 acres of strong clay land intermixed with stones of 
all sizes, and resting for the most part on a stone bottom, plowing to an 
average depth of eighteen inches. The plow having been managed by 
an experienced hand, the breakages have been few and of a trivial char- 
acter, and the wire-rope is still in excellent condition. The lands of the 
estate have been doubled in value by steam-plowing, and what was for- 
merly almost an impervious marsh, the effect partly of nature and partly 
of inefficient cultivation, has been reduced to a porous soil. 

Harvesting wheat in California.—A. California writer states that in his 
region wheat is often cut, thrashed, and put in sacks on the same day. 
The “ header,” which is now generally used instead of the reaper, cuts 
the straw midway, and makes a swath twice as wide as that made by 
the reaper. With two headers and five wagons a large thrashing-ma- 
chine is kept running, and in this manner 1,500 bushels of, wheat (or 
the crop of forty acres) are harvested in a single day. 

A suggestive experiment.—One of the largest wheat-growers in Cali- 
fornia has avoided the expense of commission, tolls, storage, &c., by 
shipping his ‘wheat direct to Liverpool. He chartered a ship, which 
was hauled in at the end of the Central Pacific Railroad wharf, at Oak- 
land, and in a few hours 1,200 tons of grain were brought alongside and 
stowed, and the vessel returned to the stream, ready for her voyage, 
without having incurred any wharfage charges. 

Preservation of hops.—By means of an air-tight “refrigerating cham- 
ber,” recently invented, hops may be preserved for a long time without 
deterioration. A brewer of Albany, New York, states that he put 
twenty-four bales of New York hops in one of these chambers, February 
15, 1869. They were examined several times during the ensuing sum- 
mer, fall, and winter, without exhibiting any lossin quality. A portion 
of these hops used during the winter of 186970 showed no change of 
color, and proved in every respect equal to the new crop. 

Hops in Alabama.—Dr. E. H. Sholl, of Sumter County, Alabama, states 
that in February, 1868, he and Mr. E. Kring planted one and a half 
acre in hops, manuring liberally with home-made superphosphate. The 
vines grew vigorously, and were poled May 8. At date of June 3 some 
of the hops were fully matured, and the entire crop was gathered by 
July 20. -In January, 1869, seven and a half acres were set out, and 

29 A 


450 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
there was promise of a large yield, but, owing to the impossibility of 
procuring pickers at the proper time, the enterprise was necessarily 
abandoned. Dr. 8. is satisfied that, with a proper supply of laber, hops 
ean be raised in that region very successfully, with a yield of 1,490 to 
1,800 pounds per acre, and that the product cn be put on the market 
from the 1st to the 10th of August, the crop being thus made especially 
valuable by early availability. Ele adds: ‘Good cotton land, in other 
words, a light sandy loam, with clay subsoil, is our best hop land.” | 

Cost of raising corn.—At the Madison County (Lilinois) Farmers’ Con- 
vention, in January, 1870, Mr. J. C. Burroughs made the following state- 
ment of the cost of cultivating and husking twenty acres of corn, no 
allowance being made for manure: 


Toss mioyine, ten days, ab $4 Der GRY - ner. -n---hpurecriennerscenp<1=-n5 pene $30 00 
Becont miowing, ben days, at go per day --.--- -- 2-2 sence: yee eeeerencas eee 30 00 
Two days’ harrowing, at $3 per day -.----'-.-----.-----.---- b Jove LOASE Se 6 00 
One and one-halfiday marking off... 2.5225 c\i22- ~ ese ide a ecie peer 2 eee 4 50 
One aod one-halt day checking off -...-.¢22p 00-3 ere ra-ceien= eer eh e eee 4 50 
RCA IONE EIS RAG COLN, 2.-!-% - nos ampimiceles vesrncoeee’ «<= ek wey = a5) se pce 2 00 
PnOratonpers, UVOlOAVA, at-Ol GAC ...2../s-- 2+ --- 2c, ween ee ===> eae a eee 4 00 
Phree days harrowing and rolling after planting .......-...--- 2-2. s-22-sces 9 00 
Plowing ave days, single team, at $2... ..-.--.---- 26 = ceo. ep ge oe ete an 10 00 
Plowing tour'days, single team, at $2.... .--- -+.--- -e--sees2ee0 o3=-55 58 see » / 8.00 
Plgwing four Gays, Single team, at P2-...- once ueressrh- cess sen sree o- = eee 8 00 
RRP POLO ORNS ee cen ote eee awie vo aoe wens ce cece cdeass he eee 6-00 
Casmignnncnrandicnpping 22. i. 2-2. See ee 22 es cae ste 50 00 
Interest on valuation of land, $7 50 per acre..-....-22--2. 22-2 oe eee eee 150 00 

“ee | oo lal ee OP eee eee eee » in bocsly > ecm 322 00 


Taxes and cost of fencing are offset by the fodder produced. At these 
rates, taking the yield of corn at 60 bushels per acre, the cost, when 
eribbed, would be about 27 cents per bushel. 

Rape culture in Wisconsin.—The rape plant is largely cultivated by 
German farmers in Fond du Lac and Calumet counties, Wisconsin. The 
quantity marketed at Fond du Lac in 1860 is stated at 4,000 bushels, 
and in 1866 at 20,000 bushels. Land under fair culture will yield ten 
to eighteen bushels of rape seed per acre, though thirty-five bushels per 
acre have been obtained. The price for a series of years has ranged 
from $2 to $2 50 per bushel. The seeds yield about two gallons of oil 
per bushel. The crop leaves the soil in excellent condition, and the 
chaff, when mixed with roots, makes an excellent cattle food. The rape- 
seed cake is highly valued in Europe for feeding dairy cows. Prices of 
ground cake this season have ranged from $16 to $20 per ton. 

The cork tree in MississippiimA correspondent in Wayne County, 
Mississippi, planted some Spanish cork-oak acorns received from the 
Department, in the winter of 1859. They all came up, and the largest 
tree had, at the commencement of 1870, attained a height cf about 
thirteen teet, the trunk being eleven inches in diameter, and the cork 
around the body more than an inch thick. His soil is poor, being sandy, 
with a clay subsoil, and, for this reason, unfavorable to the rapid 
growth of these trees. 

A valuable tree—In January, 1866, there was brought to New York 
from the West a black-walnut tree, seventy feet long, containing 4,600 
feet, board measure, which, when cut into veneers, thirty to the ineh, 
would be equal to 138,000 feet, worth, at 20 cents per foot, $27,600. The 

estimated cost of cutting, carting, and storing for sale was $700, 

Utilizing the blue jay —Charles Carlisle, of Woodstock, Vermont, states 
that he has found the blue jay a protection to his crops of small fruits, 


i CURRENT FACTS IN AGRICULTURE. 451 
and that, in order to encourage their presence in the summer, he has 
been in the habit of allowing free access to his corn-crib during the 
winter. 

Solution for destroying insects.—Mr. Cloéz, of the garden of the Paris 
Museum, gives in the Revue Horticole an efficacious recipe for destroy- 
ing plant-lice and other insects. Three and a half ounces quassia chips, 
and five drachms staves-acre seeds, in powder, are placed in seven pints 
of water and boiled down to five pints. When cooled, the strained 
liquid is ready for use, either in a watering-pot or syringe. 

Feeding fish to stock in coast regions.—At the farmers’ convention at 
Lewiston, Maine, in January, 1870, Mr. Warren, of Ellsworth, stated 
that he had fed “ fish-chum” to his sheep and poultry, in the place of 
corn and turnips, for some time, and his experience was that it was 
worth as much per pound ascorn. He gave two quarts of the “chum” 
to eyery dozen sheep. By a new method of preparation, all offensive 
odor had been removed from it, and cows and sheep consumed it eagerly. 
Secretary Goodale, of the State Board of Agriculture, said that he had 
had the feeding of sheep with refuse fish under his observation for ten 
years, and that it had proved very satisfactory. It was used to best 
advantage as a supplement to bog-hay and other inferior fodder, deficient 
in nitrogenous clements. 

Tobacco in Ohio.—lt is estimated that the tobacco crop of the Miami 
Valley this year will reach 12,000,000 pounds. The quality of the pro- 
duct is thought to nearly equal that of the Connecticut gold-leaf. A 
large portion has been sold at 17 cents per pound, at which rate the 
crop would realize $2,040,000. The average value of the crop per acre 
is over $200. Nearly three-fourths of the whole product was grown in 


Montgomery County. 


Tobacco-growing in Massachusetts.—The estimated annual value of the 
tobacco crop of Hatfield, Massachusetts, is $275,000. The number of 
acres planted averages between 700 and 800, with an aggregate product 
of 1,100,000 pounds. Twenty years ago only about two acres were eul- 
tivated in tobacco. 

The castor bean in Texas—A gentleman who has had considerable 
practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the castor bean in Texas, 
writing in the spring of the present year, states, as an example of the 
perennial tendency of the plant in Southern Texas, that B. C. Franklin, 
of Galveston, had a plant in his garden the stem of which was seven 
inches in diameter, and that it had yielded seed for eight years. Cap- 
tain Slaight, of Chapel Hill, relates a similar experience. Mr. McIntire, 
of Washington, reports having raised 70 bushels per acre, and BE. Bell, 
of Gonzales, raised 100 bushels on one acre. The plant is quite ob- 
noxious to insects, and its freedom from their ravages is a strong point 
in favor of its culture. The principal losses attending its cultivation in 
the extreme, south arise from planting the small light-colored bean of 
Missouri and Illinois, instead of the large seed appropriate to the cli- 
mate of Texas and Florida; from planting too thickly; and from mis- 
management at harvesting. The writer estimates that in Southern 
Texas and Florida, on proper soil and under skillful management, the 
product of clean seed would average as high as 2,700 pounds per aere, 
worth, at current prices, 881. 

Remedy for club-foot in cabbage.—Bainbridge Bishop, of New Russia, 
New York, states that he has found, by long experience, that elub-foot 
in cabbage can be remedied by boiling leaves and twigs of the scarlet- 


berried elderberry to a strong decoction, and pouring a gill, cold, on the 


center of the plant. One application is generally sufficient. On heavy 


452 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. " 
soils it may be necessary to loosen the earth about the stem of each 
plant. As a preventive, water the plants once or twice with the decoc- 
tion, after setting out. The application has also a good manurial effect. 

Fifty years ago.—At the Karmers’ Convention held at Lewiston, Maine, 
in January, 1870, Hon. Robert Martin, of Auburh, seventy years of age, 
said that “ fifty years ago the farmer thought if he sold a two-year-old 
heifer for enough to buy a barrel of flour he was doing a good business. 
Now, a good two-year-old heifer sells for enough to buy four or five 
barrels of flour.” 

Seed-ruising, &e., at Hrfurt, Germany.—A recent visitor at Erfurt, Ger- 
many, states that he found 143 acres in and around the city devoted to 
the production of flower seeds, and 136 to that of vegetable seeds, the 
market being chiefly in the larger German cities. The amount of glass 
covering houses for the culture of exotic plants, and the hot and cold 
beds, is 250,000 square feet. More than 300,000 catalogues and price- 
lists are annually printed for the flower and vegetable trade; the num- 
ber of wholesale catalogues being 50,000, of which about one-half are 
prepared for England and America. The making of linen and paper 
bags for seeds gives employment to many poor people in the surround- 
ing villages, involving an estimated annual outlay of $7,000. Several 
small villages are sustained chiefly by the manufacture of flower-pots for 
the Erfurt trade, and about 600,000 of these are annually planted with 
3,600,000 stock-gilly flowers of many varieties and colors—a specialty 
for which Erfurt has been celebrated since 1810. 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 


WHEAT. 


Fertilizers on wheat.—Mr. R. W. Pruitt, of Salem, Alabama, reports an 
experiment with wheat on two acres of common oak and hickory land, 
which had been in cultivation ten years, the last year in potatces. At 
the time of experiment the land was not capable of producing more than 
seven or eight bushels of wheat per acre, without manure. In the latter 
part of November, 1869, the ground was broken up in the following 
manner: A furrow was opened to the depth of about four inches, with 
a turning plow, which was followed by a subsoil plow, running nearly 
eight inches deep; and the field was then cross-plowed with scooters, 
and laid off with a small scooter in furrows ten to twelve inches apart, 
leaving the surface in small ridges. December 3 he sowed broadcast 14 
bushel of Clayton wheat, 30 bushels of cotton seed, and 140 pounds of 
Peruvian guano, per acre, and dragged the ground level and smooth 
with a good home-made brush. The wheat came up “in beautiful 
drills,” and grew so rapidly that on the 1st of February he turned in 
his calves, and grazed it. The field ripened in the latter part of May, 
showing a solid mass of wheat about five andone-half feet high. Sixty- 
four bushels of excellent wheat were harvested from the two acres, and 
11 to 16 bushels were lost by lodging, by ravages of birds, &c. Expenses: 
three plowings, $7 50; laying off, $1 25; 60 bushels of cotton seed, $10 80; 
280 pounds guano, $17 50; hauling out and strewing seed and fertilizers, 
$3;-cutting, binding, and thrashing, $10; total, $50 05. Receipts: 6 bush- 
els wheat, $128; 6 loads of straw, $12; value of pasturage of calves, 
$5; total, $145, showing a profit of $47 474 per acre, besides the im- 
proyement of the soil. 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 453 

Mr. Samuel Bailey, of Maxey, Georgia, reports an experiment with fer- 
tilizers on wheat, on one acre of thin, exhausted land, which, in 1869, 
with the aid of manure, had produced 17 bushels of corn. Late in 
October, 1869, he broke up the land with a two-horse Brinley plow, and 
spread broadcast six two-horse loads of well-rotted stable manure, which 
he turned under by cross-plowing with the same plow. He then sowed 
broadeast 250 pounds of dissolved bone, harrowed, and seeded with 120 
pounds of wheat, covering with aheavy brush. Larly in February, the 
wheat being about six inches high, he top-dressed with 250 pounds of 
ammoniated phosphate. In the latter part of March, when the wheat 
was in the boot, he applied 125 pounds of ammoniated dissolved bone 
and 25 pounds of salt, ground together, the application being made on 
the dew in the morning, and repeated, in the same amount and manner, 
one week afterward. The product of the acre was 3,415 pounds of 
good wheat, or nearly 57 bushels. No estimate was made of the cost 
of the stable manure, but the cost of the artificial fertilizers employed 
amounted to $27 55. 

Improvement by green manuring, &e.—Myr. F. Stephenson, of Gaines- 
ville, Georgia, reports the example of a farmer who, in i865, set apart 
10 acres of an old sedge field, turned it under in June, and sowed wheat 
in September, harvesting the next year 4 bushels per acre. When 
the land got a good growth of weeds, he again turned under, one inch 
deeper than before, and in September sowed wheat, making a crop oi © 
9 bushels per acre. The next year he turned the green growth still 
deeper, and made 17 bushels per acre; and the following year, 1869, his 
crop was 27 bushels per acre. 

Superphosphate on wheat.—A farmer in Peacham, Vermont, re 
ports that in October, 1866, he plowed to the depth of ten inches a pas- 
ture containing about 22 acres, the soil being a brown loam of uniform 
quality. The next year he planted potatoes, the field being dressed with 
200 pounds of plaster; and in the ensuing spring he divided the land 
into three equal plots of 146 reds each. Plot 1 was sown with club 
wheat prepared by wetting with brine, and drying with Bradley’s su- 
perphosphate. After harrowing once,a dressing of this fertilizer was 
applied, the rate per acre (including amount used with the seed) being 
1,939 pounds, and the ground was then thoroughly harrowed and rolled. 
The other plots were treated in the same manner, except that plot 2 was 
fertilized with Paddock and Dean’s raw bone, and plot 3 with Brad- 
ley’s raw bone. The following table shows amounts of fertilizers ap- 
plied and products obtained, calculated per acre: 


| 
\Amount ‘ 
. lhe Weight 
: f ma- | Product = 
Plot. Manures applied. a per 
nure per)per acre. 
abn bushel, 
Pounds. | Bushels.| Pounds. 
i bradley s'superphosphate...2 22-2) 20. scene ene -s L930 | alee 61 
ZPeacdoeke: Deansraw bones: .us.0/2 5-22 Pees) 1579 26.3 60 
ab Mealaw nH Baw bone. 2.145.522.2214... 24 Bae she ees. 1,940 32.3 60 


The excess of product on Nos. 1 and 3 over that on No. 2 paid for 
the excess of fertilizer used on those two plots. An analysis of the re- 
sulis from these expensive applications of manure shows that, whatever 
benefit might inure to asubsequent crop, the immediate returns were un- 


454 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. : 
remunerative. For instance, the application of Bradley’s superphos- 
phate, at 34 cents per pound, would amount to $67 87 per acre, while 
the product obtained, rated at $2 26 per bushel, the average price in 
Vermont for that season, would amount to $71 87, returning only $4 
over the cost of the fertilizer alone. 

New Jersey Agricultural College experiments.—Experiments made on 
the experimental farm of the New Jersey Agricultural College, in 1869, 
exhibit the comparative effects of superphosphate of lime, bone-dust, 
and horn-dust, (the latter containing a large percentage of ammoniacal 
elements, and no phosphoric acid,) applied to wheat on a very poor aud 
sour clay loam, which had been recently under-drained, and had received 
a light dressing of gas lime worked through the soil. The bone-dtist 
showed the least effect; while the superphosphate gave the best return, 
the plot on which it was applied showing the greatest evenness of growth, 
and the earliest maturity, and greatest amount of product. The 
grain on all the plots was much damaged by rust. 

English experiments with wheat and barley—The journal of the Royal 
Agricultural Society of England for 1870 contains a report of experi- 
ments made in 1868 and 1869, in drilling wheat in rows of extraordinary 
distances—eighteen inches apart. The experiments of 1868 were made 
on the experimental farm of the Royal Agricultural College. The experi- 
_ Inents of 1869 were instituted by members of the Cirencester Chamber 
of Agriculture, in accordance with a uniform plan mutually agreed upon, 
the agricultural college being auxiliary to the scheme. The trial lay 
between rows drilled at the usual distance apart, (nine inches,) and rows 
eighteen inches apart, or two rows nine inches apart alternating with 
spaces of twenty-seveninches. The following summary exhibits names of 
experimenters, and indicates the condition of the soils experimented on: 

Eari Bathurst: The land in good agricultural condition, “a free work- 
ing” soil, previously under clover and rye grass. The wheat of the 
more widely spaced plots maintained a dark green color and vigorous 
appearance up to harvest time, although the straw was not so clean and 
bright as in the other plots. Contrary to expectation, the yield also fell 
short of that of the plots of ordinary spaces, the widely spaced rows 
averaging about 29 bushels of 60 pounds each per acre, the others about ~ 
32 bushels per acre. Royal Agricultural College: The land was in poor 
condition, and had been in barley the previous summer. The average 
yield of the rows of ordinary spacing was 254 bushels, and, notwithstand- 
ing the saving of seed, the exhibit of the widely spaced rows showed no 
advantage in deviating from the usual distances. W.Smith, of Bibury: 
The land was in excellent condition and of superior productiveness, well 
prepared for wheat, ‘a quick free barley soil,” dark in color. Here, 
there was a marked increase in yield on the widely spaced rows, and the 
heads were exceedingly large. In one plot where two rows, nine inches 
apart, alternated with spaces of twenty-seven inches, the soil being firmly 
pressed with the foot, there was an increase of 84 bushels of grain and 
889 pounds of straw per acre, over the product of the plot of ordinary 
spaces, which yielded 46 bushels of wheat per acre. In another plot, 
where two rows nine inches apart were alternated with spaces of twenty- 
seven inches, which were planted with potatoes, and consequently 
worked to some extent, there was an increase of 74 bushels of grain and 
760 pounds of straw per acre. Thus, the land of best condition and 
highest productiveness gave a very favorable exhibit even on an 
extremely wide spacing of rows. Another point embraced in these 
experimental trials on wheat had reference to methods of cultivation, 
and the results bearing on this point indicated the impropriety of deep 


aM, RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 455 


cultivation between the wheat rows at an advanced period of the 
season. 

Experiments made with barley on the same fields, and under the same 
conditions that were employed in the trials with wheat, gave results 
decidedly favorable to wide distances between rows and comparatively 
deep interculture. Another experiment on barley by Mr. Iles, of Kemps- 
ford, gave like results, and in this case, although the wide drilled plots 
did not appear to advantage in early summer, at harvest the ears were 
superior, and a larger weight of grain was obtained than on the plots of 
ordinary spaces. Besides the advantage of larger product was that of 
a saving of seed and of greater facility in working the crop. 

Concerted experiments were also made in the application of super- 
phosphate and nitrate of soda on wheat, certain plots receiving only 
one of these fertilizers, others receiving the two combined. The trials 
also included winter top-dressings in contrast with those made in spring. 
As to the application of nitrate of soda alone, results favored a dress- 
ing of 168 pounds per acre, with a probability that heavier dressings 
might be advantageously used. An experiment made by Mr. Ruck, of 
Braydon, on stiff land, sustained the exhibit of former experience, 
namely, that clay land does not respond to applications of nitrate of 
soda so readily as land of lighter character. The results of the various 
experiments are reduced to a money valuation, in which the cost of the 
nitrate of soda is put at 16s. per cwt. of 112 pounds, and the value of 
the wheat at 6s: per bushel, (caleulated in this series at 62 pounds.) 
The increase of grain resulting from each hundred pounds of the fertil- 
izer applied is stated as follows: Earl Bathurst, for an expenditure of 
14s. 34d., obtained 35 bushels of wheat, worth 21s.; or a profit of 6s. 83d. 
on 100 pounds of nitrate of soda. The college farm obtained an increase 
of 4 bushels of wheat, worth 24s.; Mr. Smith, an increase of 44 bushels, 
worth 27s.; Mr. Ruck, an increase of 31 bushels, worth 19s. In these 
cases, respectively, the products of unmanured portions were as follows: 
314 bushels per acre, 244 bushels, 444 bushels, 35 bushels—a significant 
exhibit of the productiveness cf the various soils at the time of experi- 
ment. A satisfactory result was obtained on the highly produetive soil 
of Mr. Smith by adding superphosphate, at the rate of 3 ewt. per acre, 
to the nitrate of soda. Each 100 pounds of superphosphate, used in 
combination at a cost of 54s., are credited with an increase worth 128, 
In the other cases the addition of superphosphate was not remunerative. 
As between spring and winter dressing of these fertilizers, the general 
tenor of the experiments favored the former. 


OORN. 


One hundred and twenty-seven bushels per acre-——Mr. David H. Bronson, 
of Guthrieville, Pennsylvania, in the fall of 1869 and the ensuing spring, 
applied broadcast, on 25 acres of clover and timothy sward, 100 wagon- 
loads of unleached livery stable and barnayard manure, 50 loads of 
which had been hauled a distance of three miles. Besides this dressing, 
the land was liberally limed. On four acres of this field he also applied 
hog pen manure, at the rate of three ox-cart leads per acre, and, after 
plowing and thoroughly pulverizing the soil, marked rows three and a 
half teet apart, with hills at distances of fifteen to eighteen inches. He 
planted May 10th, each hill receiving a handful of hen-manure, plaster 
and ashes, mixed in equal proportions, and two grains of corn. The four 
acres averaged 1274 bushels of shelled corn per acre, the height. of the 
stalks varying from thirteen to sixteen feet, many measuring seven 
inches in circumference. From personal experience and observation, 


456 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Mr. Bronson urges the necessity of sheltering barn-yard manure from 
sun and rain, and the propriety of utilizing fully the manurial resources 
of the farmer’s own neighborhood before resorting to commercial fer- 
tilizers. 

One hundred and five bushels per acre.—Dr. Nichols, of the Boston 
Journal of Chemistry, states the following experiment in raising corn 
on green sward, turned over in the fall of 1868: In the spring barn- 
-yard manure was spread on the furrows at the rate of four cords per 
acre, and harrowed in, and the soil finely pulverized with a Geddes 
harrow. Hills were marked three feet apart, and a handful of his “ bone 
and ashes mixture” (see Report for 1869, p. 431.) was placed in each, a 
slight covering of earth being then drawn over, and five kernels of corn 
dropped upon it. The growth of the field was so luxuriant that it was 
cultivated but once after planting. The stalks bore two or three ears 
each, many of them fourteen inches long, and the kernels were large and 
full, and of a brilliant yellow. The product was 105 bushels of shelled 
corn per acre. This success is attributed to fall plowing, thorough pul- 
verization of the soil in the spring, manure in which was preserved the 
liquid excrement of the animal, the application of this manure to the 
surface of the soil, and the use of the bone and ash mixture in the hills. 
Charging the corn crop with one-half of the cost of the fertilizers em- 
ployed, the cost of the corn was 45 cents per bushel. The market value 
of the quality grown was $1 25 per bushel, leaving a profit of 80 cents 
per bushel, or $84 per acre, besides the value of the fodder. 

Two hundred bushels per acre.-—In the proceedings of the annual con- 
vention of the South Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical Society for 
1869 is a report by Mr. J. W. Parker of experiments in growing corn, of 
which the following is an abstract: Selection was made of a quagmire 
grown over with rushes, willows, and sour grass, abounding with snakes 
and malaria, and traversed by a winding, sluggish stream. Thorough 
drainage was attained by the construction of a canal and underdrains, 
and during the summer the land was cleared, leveled, and broken up 
with a two-horse plow. In November a heavy coat of cow-house ma- 
nure was applied and plowed under, and the process was repeated in 
January, and again in March, with subsoiling. In April, the weeds, 
having attained a luxuriant growth, were limed and turned under; 
in May another coat of manure was plowed under, and the land was 
harrowed perfectly leve] and laid off in rows three feet apart. In the 
furrows were applied Peruvian guano, salt, and plaster, at the rate of 
200 pounds of each per acre. The seed corn, having been soaked in a 
solution of niter and rolled in plaster, was dropped ten inches apart in 
the rows, and covered with rakes, after which the land was rolled. The 
corn was up in five days from planting, and, as soon as it was sufii- 
ciently large, a long, narrow plow was run around it, followed by the 
hoe, the crop being kept clean by shallow, level culture until it began 
to shoot and tassel. The field was then irrigated by conveying from a 
reservoir a gentle flow of water through every alternate row. The yield 
on two acres was 147 bushels per acre. The following year the experi- 
ment was repeated in like manner, except that the rows were laid off 
two and one-half feet apart. One acre yielded 2003 bushels, as attested 
by a viewing committee. Mr. Parker received premiums on these crops 
from the society named. He attributes much to irrigation in these in- 
stances of extraordinary product, and concludes from these and former 
experiments that success in corn-growing depends greatly on thorough 
preparation of the soil during fall and winter by deep plowing, with 
under-draining of moist lands, this preparation to be followed by judi- 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 457 


‘cious manuring. While the early working of the field should be deep, 
the latter culture should be shallow, and the roots of the corn should 
not be disturbed after it begins to tassel. 

Fertilizers on corn.—A field which had been mowed for two years was 
divided into plots, each of which measured two-fifths of an acre, and 
contained ten rows extending across the field. The soil was a gravelly 
loam, and the cultivation was equal. The season was very wet and 
cold, however, and the ground was so moist as to prevent proper culti- 
vation. Plot 1 received no manure; the other plots received, in Decem- 
ber, eighy two-horse loads of well-rotted barn-yard manure per aere. 
Plots 3 to 8, in addition to this, received other fertilizers, as follows: 
Plot 3, poudrette, made by composting night-soil with four times its 
bulk of swamp-muck. The corn having been dropped, one quart of the 
compost was deposited on the corn, and covered with two’ or three hoe- 
fuls ofearth. Plot 4, a small shovelful of a compost (one year old) of one- 
third manure and two-thirds muck was applied to each hill in the same 
manner as fertilizer No. 3. Plot 5, a purchased fertilizer, bearing the 
name of superphosphate, but apparently almost entirely composed of 
the flesh of dead animals, was dropped on the bottom of the hill and then 
covered with earth, on which the corn was planted. Plot 6, ashes were 
dropped and covered with earth, on which the corn was planted. The 
ashes apparently destroyed the effect of the manure applied in December. 
Plot 7, a home-made superphosphate, composed of burnt bones pulver- 
ized as finely as possible, and dissolved with diluted sulphuric acid, in the 
proportion, by weight, of sixteen parts of burnt bone to seven parts of 
sulphuric acid, diluted with seven parts of water, was applied at the 
rate of 125 pounds per acre, at a cost of $5, the corn and superphosphate 
being dropped together in the hill. Plot 8, horn-dust from a comb- 
factory was applied in the same manner as the fertilizer of plot 7. The 
stalks grown on plots 3 and 7 were in each case about twice the quantity 
grown on plot 2, and on plot 4 half as many more as on plot 2. The 
corn on plots 3, 4, and 7 was harvested September 28, in ripe condition; 
that on the other plots was gathered October 13, in an unripe state. The 
sound corn obtained from plots 1 and 5 was not of the first quality. 
The yield of the various plots was as follows: 


Plot 1,35 bushels sound corn, and 174 bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 2,574 bushels sound corn, and 12} bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 3,85 bushels sound corn, and 5 bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 4, 68% bushels sound corn, and 10 bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 5, 23% bushels sound corn, and 153 bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 6,35 bushels sound corn, and 124 bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 7,80 bushels sound corn, and 7} bushels soft corn per acre. 
Plot 8,26 bushels sound corn, and 25% bushels soft corn per acre. 


Mr. 8. C. Pattee, of Warner, New Hampshire, reports an experiment 
made in 1869, on a ridge of dry land of uniform character, which had 
been mowed four years, yielding about one ton of hay to the acre in 
1868. Of the fertilizers reported upon, the hen-manure compost was 
made of equal parts of hen-manure and rich loam, the latter of which had 
received the wash of the barn-yard. ‘My phosphate” was composed of 
bone-flour, treated with sulphuric acid in the proportion of sixteen pounds 
of the former to six pounds of the latter, dried, with ten pounds of plaster. 
The “‘bone-flour and ashes” were in equal parts, mixed according to 
the method of Dr. Nichols. The corn was planted in hills three and a 
half feet each way, and the experimental plots contained one-twentieth 
of an acre each, excepting the plot receiving no manure, which con- 
tained one-fortieth of an acre. The table exhibits the fertilizers applied 


458 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and the results obtained; being arranged in the order of largest pro- 
duet: 


| Amount of | Product per| Sicrease 
Nos Fertilizers. . manure per acre. over unma- 
| acre. nured plot. 
tides barn Aut Ge pie RARE, lhe be 
Pounds. Bushels. Bushels. 
1} E. F. Coe’s superpliosphate.......2:..--- 400 34 24 
2 | Croasdale superphosphate ...-.....---.- 400 332 238 
3 | Hen-manure compost...<.6;2.- -+-. 222s. 60 bushels 324 224 
22) |p lus) O12) re ee 400 3l¢ 214 
5 | Bradley’s superphosphate ...-..-...--.-. 400 30 20 
6 | Glasgow Co.’s ammoniated gttano.-.-..--. 400 29 19 
7 | Wilson’s ammoniated superphosphate. .-. 400 25 15 
Bal baie rag (A8neS. 6: 52082.c0.9202-032 600 234 134 
aIMaMEINUEE GHUM sa4¢ 55% - 5s ous dae cone oa = as 800 18} 8¢ 
MMMMMMIMED P2250) )22524. -s2:2- 2422. s52-).-525552-45- 10 | 


ii, I. Coe’s superphosphate, applied at a cost of $12 per acre, re- 
turned an increase of 24 bushels of corn per acre, worth $30, while the 
hen-droppings used in the composition of No. 2, at a cost of $22 50 per 
acre, (their local value being 75 cents per bushel,) returned an increase 
of 224 bushels of corn per acre, worth $28 124. 

Westminster Farmers’ Club reports.,—Mr. John MeNeil, of the Westmin- 
ster (Vermont) Farmers’ Club, reports that on pine plain land, which had 
been mowed only once, he turned under twenty-one horse loads of mantre 
to the acre, harrowed, and laid out four plots, each over one-thirteenth 
of an acre in area, containing four rows, three and one-half feet apart 
and fourteen rods long, the hills three feet apart in the rows, and 
planted with corn. The first plot received Bradley’s superphosphate, 
at a cost of 98 cents, a tablespoonful being put in each hill, and thoroughly 
incorporated with the soil before planting. The second plot received 
Bowers’s complete manure, at a cost of 98 cents; the third plot, ashes, 
at a cost of 40 cents. The fourth plot received no other fertilizer than 
the stable manure. Putting the average price of corn for the region and 
year at $1 40 per bushel, and rating the corn in ear at 70 pounds to the 
bushel, the following is a summary of the results on the immediate 
crop: 


| 


E A Sd ee 
ge He 5 Bee 
2) =~ ie ie ¢ 
a8 3 a gx So 
3 a 5 a ° 42 aa 
. 3 oe . = * 
Plot. ES) 'y Be Sa, | Sa. 
eS 3) | e° oS n, on 
of = a 42 H ® 428 
a : ao @ 5 Sas 
G4 2 S 1. oe eBese BS 268 
o8 = el Fo) aaa 
» =] ra td als 
z S 3 a 3 es 
= w i 
@) 4 A oO > Fintan 
Bushels. | Bushels. 
Lie eee tease Pew ieee ode es ok $13 20 46. 37 8.27 $11 58 | *$1 62 
2 stg begs a Sip dae SAO oe wie fs hoe aaa dat 13 20 64, 84 26.74 37 44 24 
5 Be es ee BL te Soe? os 5 39 59. 07 20.97 29 36 


*Loss. 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 459 


. Mr. N. G. Pierce, of the same elub, reports an experiment in planting 
corn on hijl land of rather heavy texture, with clayey subsoil. To four 
rows twenty-eight pounds of Bradley’s superphosphate were applied, at a 
cost of 95 cents, being thoroughly incorporated with the soil before drop- 
ping the corn; to the next four rows ashes were applied on the hill after 
planting, at the same expense; to the next four rows, hen-manure in 
the hill at the same expense—the quantity being nearly three bushels, 

at 25 cents per bushel. The next four rows received no fertilizer, and 
their product was 716 pounds of corn in the ear. Plot 1 yielded 1,113 
pounds, showing a gain of 397 pounds over the unfertilized plot; plot 2 
yielded 859 pounds, a gain of 143 pounds; plot 3 yielded 740 pounds, a 
gain of 24 pounds. Thus, on four rows the superphosphate should re- 
ceive a credit of $7 94 as the legitimate net profit over the cost of appli- 
cation; the ashes a credit of $2 86; the hen-manure, even at the low 
rate of 25 cents per bushel, only paying the cost of application. 


POTATOES. 


Mr. 8. C. Pattee, of Warner, New Hampshire, reports the following ex- 
periment with potatoes on a ridge of dry land plowed late in the fall, and 
thoroughly harrowed in thespring, the area occupied being liacre. Rows 
were laid out three and a half feet apart, by running a plow lightly, and 
the hills were marked a little more than two feet apart, and planted 
with potatoes cut to one or two eyes in a piece, two pieces in each hill. 
The hills received a compost prepared by mixing four bushels of leached 
ashes with one peck of lime slacked with a saturated solution of salt, 
and one peck of gypsum. The product of potatoes was 200 bushels, or 
160 bushels per acre, worth 45 cents per bushel. Total expenses: 
breaking up in the fall, $7 50; harrowing, May 12, $2 55; ee 
May 20, $7 75; cost of compost, go 25; 84 bushels seed potatoes, $4 2 
cultivating, June 14, $1 50; June 24, : D5, two hoeings, employing shied 
to four laborers, making a total of fifty. -one hours’ work, $7 65; October 
6 to 9, digging the crop, $14; interest on land, $5; total, $55 45, or 
$44 36 per acre, making the average cost per bushel 273 cents; value 
of the crop, $90. Net profit over all expenses, including interest on land, 
$34 55, or $27 64 per acre. The yield included 15 bushels of Early Rose, 
12 of Early Goodrich, and 4 of Excelsior potatoes, which, if sold at reg- 
ular market prices, would have consi iderably increased the profit. Mr. 
Pattee finds the most suitable soil for the potato to be a light yellow 
loam, elevated in situation, and possessing good drainage, either natural 
or artificial, so that no water will stand upon it in the wettest part of 
the season. All unfermented, nitrogenous manures should be avoided 
as far as possible; but, if necessarily used, they should be applied in the 
fall and plowed in, as ‘they will be less liable to produce disease than 
when spread on the surface. Ashes in liberal quantity make a good 
fertilizer, and plaster is excellent on some soils. Superphosphate of 
lime has, in some instances, doubled his crop. 

Potash, superphosphate, &c., on potatoes.—The following is an abstract 
of reports by Protessor Voelcker, of England, of experiments during 
the years 1867-69, bearing specially on the effects of potash salts ap- 
plied alone, and in ‘combination with phosphatie manures, for the potato 
crop. In 1867, at Carleton, Carlisle, an experiment was inade on a very 
sandy, light soil, in poor agricultural condition, on plots measuring one- 
twentieth of an acre each. Some of the plots were left unmanured; 
others were manured’ with dung at the rate of 20 tons per acre; one 
with mineral superphosphate, at the rate of 4 ewt. per acre; one ‘with 
crude potash salts at the same rate; one with common salt at the same 


460 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


rate; one with mineral superphosphate and potash salts, 4 ewt. of each 
per acre; and one with mineral superphosphate and common salt, 4 ewt. 
of each per acre. The manures were mixed with twice their ‘weight 
of finely powdered earth, and sown by hand during showery weather. 
The potatoes were planted April 23. The season was a dry one. The 
potatoes on the dunged plots made a rapid and luxuriant growth, while 
those receiving the artificial manures suffered much from drought, and 
manifesied a stinted growth, especially those dressed with common salt, 
which exhibited an ‘unhealthy, shriveled appearance. The manured 
plots produced about 74 bushels of potatoes per acre, (60 pounds to the 
bushel,) and the various manures gave the following amounts of increase. 
per acre over the unmanured soil: The dung, 1605 bushels; the mineral 
superphosphate combined with potash salts, 68 bushels; the mineral 
superphosphate with common salt, 57 bushels; the mineral superphos- 
phate alone, 15 bushels; the crude potash salts alone, 94 bushels; the 
common salt alone, no increase. The comment made on these results 
is, that on light la und, in a dry season, rotted dung produces an effect 
which cannot be expected from artificial manures, the former supplying 
a large amount of decomposed organic matter, which serves to absorb 
and retain moisture. Professor Voelcker remarks that very soluble 
saline manures are rather dangerous agents, and when common salt and 
potash salts are used they should be applied early in the spring, so as to 
be thoroughly washed into the soil. 

Experiments were made the same year near Broseley, on similarly 
dressed plots, but on rich land, producing, without manure, 4704 bushels 
of potatoes per acre. Owing to the fertility of the soil, the 20 tons of 
dung per acre produced no increase, the product, on the contrary, fall- 
ing short of that on the unmanured soil, as did also the product of the 
other manured plots, excepting where ‘400 pounds of mineral super- 
phosphate were applied in combination with the same amount of potash 
salts, this application giving an increase of 664 bushels per acre. 

In 1868, experiments were made at Lord Wenlock’s Menagerie farm, 
Escrick, near York, on a sandy loam, in good condition, yielding, with- 
out manure, 12245 bushels of potatoes per acre. The following fertilizers 
were applied: 1. Mineral superphosphate, 4 ewt.; crude potash salts and | 
Sulphate of ammonia, each 2 ewt.; 2. Rotted dung, 20 ee 3. Mineral 
superphosphate and crude potash salts, each 4 cwt.; 4 Mineral super- 
phosphate, 4 cwt.; crude potash salts and nitrate of soda, each 2 cwt.; 5. 
Peruvian guano, 4 cwt.; 6. Mineral superphosphate and common salt, 
each 4cwt. The plots manured with the mineral superphosphate and 
common salt combined showed a weakly condition, and gave but a slight 
inerease of product. The portion dressed with the combination of min- 
eral superphosphate and potash salts manifested at an early period some 
injury from the effect of potash salts. The portion dressed with Pern- 
vian guano at first looked very promising, but later in the season suffered 
much from drought, and final results illustrated the need of abundant 
rains to give this fertilizer its full action. The following is an exhibit of 
the increase of product per acre from the application of $8 various man- 
ures, stated in the preceding order: 1, 1834 busheis; 2, 188 bushels; 
3, 1484 bushels; 4, 1524 bushels; 5, 454 bushels; 6, 174 bushels. Thus 
No. 1, “the mixture of 4 cwt. of tnineral superphosphate with 2 cwt. of 
potash salts and 2 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia, proved to be “an excel- 
lent manure for potatoes on light soil,” producing in this instance ap 
effect equal to that of 20 tons of rotted dung. The effect is diminished 
when nitrate of soda is substituted for the sulphate of ammonia in this 
combination. 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 461 


An experiment made near Carlisle in the same year, on a friable, deep 
sandy loam, well suited for potatoes and root crops in general, gave 
results substantially in accordance with those of the Menagerie farm. 
The unmanured plots yielded 214% bushels of potatoes per acre. Ex- 
periments were made in 1869, at “The Lizards,” in the county of Dur- 
ham, in a region of the carboniferous formation, on a stiff clay loam of 
uniform character, producing without manure 2451 bushels of potatoes 
peracre. On this productive clay soil the various manurial applications 
produced comparatively small effect, excepting the rotted dung. Taking 
some of these applications separately, and comparing effects on this clay 
soil with those obtained on the lighter soils, the following points of dif- 
ference are exhibited: On the stiff clay loam, the mixture of mineral 
superphosphate with potash salts and sulphate of ammonia was much 
less beneficial than on the light, sandy soil. On the latter the mixture 
was quite as efficient as a heavy dressing of dung; but on the clay soil 
the mixture gave an increase of only 60 bushels per acre, against an in- 
crease of 1224 bushels from the dung, the peculiarly beneficial effects 
of which were due, in a measure, to its mechanical action in lightening 
up the stiff soil. On this heavy land nitrate of soda more than equaled 
sulphate of ammonia in the combination with mineral superphosphate 
and potash salts. The application of common salt was even more 
prejudicial than on the lighter soils. Professor Voelcker indicates the 
desirability in future trials on clay soils of experiments with mineral 
superphosphate and potash salts applied separately and in combination. 

Other experiments were also made in 1869 at the Escrick Park Home 
farm, on light land in good condition and very productive, the unma- 
nured plots yielding 2452 bushels of potatoes, producing quite as largely 
as those of “The Lizards.” The results were similar to those obtained 
on the Menagerie farm in 1868, although the effect of the Peruvian 
guano was better, owing to the more favorable season. 


COTTON. 


Mr. J. M. Crawford, of Richland County, South Carolina, reports his 
method of procedure in growing five acres of cotton, on which he obtained 
a premium from the State Agricultural and Mechanical Society. His land 
was an upland basin, surrounded by a gradually rising slope. By under- 
draining, manuring, and judicious cultivation, it has been brought into 
very fertile condition, although, when purchased, it was wet, and com- 
paratively unproductive. Drains were made by cutting ditches two 
feet wide by three and a half feet deep, filling in, to the depth of twelve 
inches, with bricks or stones, afterward throwing straw and corn-stalks 
on these materials, to prevent earth from settling among them, and 
finally filling up with earth. In November, 1868, after gathering his 
corn, Mr. Crawford broke up the ground with a half-shovel plow six 
inches deep, following with a two-horse, buil-tongue plow fifteen inches 
long, widened at the point. The field was then allowed to remain till 
January, when it was harrowed with a large two-horse, iron-toothed 
harrow, completely pulverizing the soil, and leaving the ground clean 
and level. April 1 he plowed and harrowed again, and laid off rows 
four feet apart, in which he applied a fertilizer composed in the follow- 
ing proportions: Peruvian guano, 200 pounds per acre; plaster, 300 
pounds; leached ashes, 500 pounds. He then bedded up, and com- 
menced planting (April 27) Boyd’s Prolific seed, in hills three feet apart 
in the row, covering with the hoe. The cotton came up well, and was 
thinned to one stalk in a hill. Two more plowings were then given, and 
another hoeing. In August the crop was again hoed, the cotton then 


462 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


lapping in the rows. The thorough preparation of the land before plow- 
ing made the labor of cultivating the crops comparatively light. The 
five acres produced 12,510 pounds of cotton, averaging 2,502 pounds per 
acre. Cost of manure: Guano, $44; plaster, $14; ashes, $4; stable 
manure, $20; total, $82; averaging $16 40 per acre. 

. Mr, Crawford also reports that in March, 1869, on a field of one acre, 
he applied broadcast and plowed under eighty loads of manure, costing 
$20, and planted Boyd’s Prolific seed, the land being of the same nature 
as that of the five acres above mentioned, and cultivated in the same 
manner. This acre produced 3,960 pounds of cotton. The excess of 
production on this one acre over the average of the five-acre field was 
1,458 pounds; the excess of cost of manure applied, only $3 60 per 
acre. 

Mr. M. C. M. Hammond, of Beach Island, South Carolina, reports an 
experiment made in 1869 with fertilizers on cotton on a gray soil, thin 
from long tillage, underlaid by a red clay subsoil. The ground was 
opened March 29, with a shovel plow running five or six inches deep, 
at intervals of three feet, in rows north and south, and the fertilizers 
were equally distributed in the furrow, at the rate of 307 pounds per 
acre, and bedded over with a Brinley plow. April 19 the beds were 
opened with a small bull-tongue, and the seed dropped, eight or ten 
together, at distances of fifteen inches apart, and covered with a board, 
a fine rain following at night. The cultivation was done with sweep 
and hoe, each used three times, the first working being on May 12, the 
last, July 30. The spring was cold, and unfavorable to growth. Heavy 
rain storms occurred June 1 and July 27; the interval between the 
two being, in general, one of intense heat; there was a similar heated 
term in August. The stand was defective. The following are the fer- 
tilizers applied, with their respective products of seed cotton per acre: 
Dickson Compound, product, 1,258 pounds; J. T. Gardiner’s Manipu- 
lated, 1,278 pounds; Patapsco, 1,058 pounds; Baugh’s Raw-bone, 1,012 
pounds; Peruvian guano, 999 pounds; Wilcox & Gibbs’s Manipulated, 
988 pounds; “J ,’ 676 pounds; no fertilizer, 481 pounds. The 
small product of the latter shows the great exhaustion of the soil on 
which the experiment was tried. 

Mr. J. W. Roberts, of Osyka, Mississippi, reports to the Department an 
experiment made this year in fertilizing cotton on about 14 acre of poor 
upland, not capable of producing without manure more than 500 pounds 
of seed cotton. The ground was plowed to a good depth, and was 
otherwise well prepared; was manured with 370 pounds of Pierce’s 
superphosphate of lime, and planted with ‘“ Dickson” seed. The 
crop of seed cotton amounted to 1,300 pounds, making 433 pounds of 
baled cotton, which, after paying all expenses, gave a net profit of 
$49 52. According to this exhibit, the fertilizer should be credited with 
an increase of, at least, 800 pounds of seed cotton, on the area named. 

Cotton on drained land.i—A “young planter” at Eatonton, Georgia, 
states his experience with a half acre of land which he under-drained in 
the fail of 1868, and which before that had been wet in the driest 
seasons. He accomplished the drainage by digging a ditch four feet 
deep and three teet wide, across which he placed poles, six feet apart, 
sunk in the earth to within six inches of the bottom of the diteh, 
crossing these with other poles, then overlaying with brush and 
filling up with earth. Before March of the next year the land was dry 
enough to be plowed. Ue then broke it up, opened rows about seven 
feet apart, and applied Dickson’s Compound at the rate of 300 pounds 
to theacre; planted early, and gathered from the half acre 1,500 pounds 


——— ee a 


<a 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 463 


of seed cotton. Later practice has led him to prefer the use of plank 
troughs for under-drains, somewhat in the fashion of an inverted V. 

Fertilizers in drill, and drilled and broadcast.—Mr. Thomas B. West, of 
Thompson, Georgia, reports an experiment with fertilizers applied in 
drills, and partly in drills and partly broadcast, on a field which had 
been in pasture thirty-five to forty years. He broke the land with.a 
two-horse turn-plow, running ten inches deep, and laid off six one-quarter 
acre plots, five of which he dressed with fertilizers, and planted cotton 
May 12. The fertilizers applied were Dickson’s Compound; Peruvian 
guano, dissolved bones, and plaster, in equal parts; and bone flour. The 
following table shows the manner and cost of application, and the 
results obtained per acre: 


2S ae g oi | 8 
2 = e 25 | Be 
~ a a Sa — 
Plot. . Fertilizers. ‘Ein as hae seek es ao 
eS a © on Set 43 3 ab 
On ) SS Ag+ 
S - a on Caan! 
% 3 £ a) a= 
° ° 2 3 BOR 
iS) ) H - oy 
/ Le ia i es eS ee cine ocm'se0 Soc 
2 | Dickson’s Compound....-..-.-. 48) 00) 2222 eee $8 00 | $9 24 |Gain, 154 
3 | Dickson’s Compound......-...- 16:\00: ie bere 16 00 | 14 00 |Loss, 123 
4 | Peruvian guano, dissolved bones, 
DRT IeetOr’-. 8... -5- ~~ --- 8 00 | $800 | 1600} 39 76 | Gain, 1483 
5 | Peruvian guano, dissolved bones, 800} 1600; 2400) 42 28|)Gain, 76 
RUGUMIAReDs. 25-75 ---..-- 25 
SPEMMIB ENT <8 oo vp <a es'e g= oy'r's'8 a 800 | 1600! 24 00| 16 80 |Loss, 30 


In regard to applications of these fertilizers in the drill, Mr. West | 
concludes that an amount costing $8 to $12 is sufficient, and that any ° 
excess over this quantity would be more beneficially applied broadcast. 
These conclusions have been sustained by the results of his general 
cotton crop. . 

Fertilizing old red land.— Mr. J. D. Willis, of Union Church, Missis- 
sippi, reports that in 1868 he planted a piece of old red land in cotton, and 
with common culture and no manure made 300 pounds of seed cotton 
per acre. In February, 1869, he laid off rows four feet apart, by run- 
ning a turning plow twice in the same furrow, throwing the dirt each 
way, following with a long scooter at the bottom of the furrow. In the 
same furrow he then strewed forty bushels of fresh cotton seed, and 100 
pounds of salt per acre, afterward adding a large amount of compost 
prepared by rotting fresh cotton seed with six times its bulk of muck 
and scrapings of the wood-yard, put in alternate layers, one inch in 
thickness of cotton seed being covered with a layer of muck and scrap- 
ings six inches thick. The fertilizers were then covered by a turning 
plow run on each side of the furrow, followed by a scooter. The mid- 
dles were broken out in May, the cotton being planted May 17. As 
soon as the cotton was ready for scraping, he barred off with the turn- 
ing plow, and afterward worked over the cotton every ten or twelve 
days, cultivating to the depth of half an inch. The first bloom was on 
July 15, and the crop yielded 1,170 pounds of lint per acre. 

Cotton on Bermuda grass land.—In 1869, Mr. R. W. Bonner, of Clinton, 
Georgia, employing small, short scooters, thoroughly broke up about 
nine acres of land which had been in Bermuda grass twenty-four years 


464 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


without being disturbed. He applied in the drill 120 pounds of Peru- 
vian guano to the acre, and obtained from the yield 9,376 pounds of 
seed cotton, or about 1,042 pounds per acre. At date of his report, 
February, 1870, very little live grass was left on the field, but large 
quantities of dr y turf, and he was about to plant again in cotton with 
expectations of an increased product. 

Oats as a preparatory for cotton.—Mr. E. M. Pendleton, of Sparta, Geor- 
gia, in recommending oats asa preparatory erop for cotton, states his own 
experience in illustr ation of his views. During the last season he made a 
crop of oats sufficient to last six mules four months, and the cotton seed 
employed as a fertilizer for the crop more than paid for itself by the 
increase of vegetable matter remaining in the soil. The same amount 

-of corn and fodder made on the land would have cost four times as 
great an outlay, and the benefit of the cotton seed would not have 
reached beyond the crop for which it was applied. He adds that, under 
proper methods of culture, a good stand of oats could be assured, and 
the amount of humus practically created by this crop is quadraple that 
left by the corn crop. On his own farm he practices a rotation of small 
grain dressed with cotton seed one year, and cotton dressed with a 
nitrophosphate the next year, and by this course he constantly increases 
the productiveness of his land. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Haperiments on mangolds.—The following table presents results of ex- 
periments made in 1869, under the direction of Professor Voelcker, in 
applying various fertilizers to mangolds on light land in good condition. 
Two localities are included in the report—lvor Moor, near Uxbridge, 
and Escrick Park, near York, England. At Ivor Moor, the seed was 
sown April 27. The artificial manures were sown with ashes to secure 
their uniform distribution, and harrowed in. The roots were harvested 
November 2. At Escrick Park the mangolds were sown May 11, on a 
field which had been cropped in barley in 1868. The soil was of a light, 
sandy character, and though naturally poor was in good condition. The 
roots were harvested November 11. In both cases the experimental 
field was divided into eleven plots of one-twentieth of an acre each. 
Professor Voelcker remarks that in former years he had applied potash 
salts alone to a variety of crops, but had found that in most cases little 
benefit had resulted from these salts unsupported by other fertilizing 
agents; therefore they were not employed in these experiments. The 
table gives the amounts of manure e applied, and the produets obtained 
per acre 


zg 
BS 
Ba Ivor Moor Escrick Park 
: H ; 
I a a product per acre. product per acre. 
5 oO 
Be 
aA 
| Tons. Cwts. Lbs. Tons. Owts. Lvs. 
Ben NP MMAMUTE Looe sc cls cec ee oe co oe 21s \" Vigy 90 a | 0 
2 | Mineralsuperphosphate ----- cwh--| 3 O31 tO 0 23 10 0 
o§ | Mineral superphosphate..-.--. doze Ord on 5 = 
3} ie A ee Apel ea ui ea, pea ape 29 o 4 
Mineralsuperphosphate.-.-.. doo. =| 53 ut eh ee 
43 Peruvian guano......-..---- dot Gegin ieee We sad ? e 
2 tl Peruvian puso 22k She dis 4a /'53 23 10h 24 8615 0 
6 -J\No.munoure J...2-5- 0... 2S cet eseeee lye Bt asl 23 0 0 21 0 0 


. 


RECENT FARM EXPERIMENTS. 465 


Ivor Moor, Escrick Park, 


Manures applied. 
Manures applied product per acre.| product per acre. 


Amount of ma- 
nure per acre 


Tons. Cwts. Lbs. Tons. Cwts. Lbs. 


Mineral superphosphate -...- ewts.|' 3 " 
7% jebotesiisalts-...--.......--..- do=48}) 42 30 10 80 30 5 0 
Sulphate of ammonia........ dose.) f 
Selemanecraune. 2... -..-tons..| 20) 9) 27 0 0 30 10 0 
Mineral superphosphate -..-.cwt-.| 3 
On ebeasbsalts).--... 2.552. 5.-- do...| 2 30 0 0 ol 15 0 
MNiuimate of soda...-..---.---- does) 
PE COUN Oo. om oe = tons oO ei Ors s = 
10 ; Mineral superphosphate ----.cwt-.-| 14 § 3 ® 0 81 : 0 
[oi 2G (1 eee dozeslt 3 9 ae, 2 
HT ; Mineral superphosphate .-.- - do...| 14 ; SB i Oe ee De 1b 0 


At Escrick Park the fertilizer applied on plot 9, a mixture of min- 
eral superphosphate and potash salts with a small quantity of nitrate of 
soda, gives much larger returns than any of the other dressings 
applied ; while at Ivor Moor the use of sulphate of ammonia, in combi- 
nation with the superphosphate and potash salts, gives substantially the 
same results as are obtained from the employment of nitrate of soda in 
mixture. The fertilizer indicated on plot 9 is recommended by Pro- 
fessor Voelcker as an economical and beneficial artificial manure for 
mangolds, on light land. The combination of 10 tons of rotted dung 
with 14 hundred-weight of mineral superphosphate gives as good a 
product, on an average, as is obtained from the application of 20 tons 
of rotted dung. The products on plots 8 and 10 nearly equal each other 
in both experiments. A considerable variation is observed in the re- 
sults obtained from Peruvian guano alone in the two experiments, and 
Professor Voelcker remarks that, while the exclusive use of mineral 
phosphatic manures for mangolds on light land is not advisable, on the 
other hand the best crops are not obtained from the application of 
manures containing, like Peruvian guano, an excess of nitrogenous 
compounds. At Ivor Moor the addition of 2 hundred-weight of potash 
salts to 3 hundred-weight of mineral superphosphate produced fair 
results, giving about the same yield that was obtained from the addi- 
tion of 1 hundred-weight of Peruvian guano to the superphosphate ; 
’ but at Escrick Park the potash salts and superphosphate are decidedly 
more effective than the guano and superphosphate. In both experi- 
nents the mineral superphosphate applied alone ranks low in the scale 
of productiveness, and appears to be an unsuitable manure for man- 
golds on light land. 

Experiments in feeding.—Prof. J. B. Lawes states that numerous experi- 
ments at Rothamsted, England, show that on an average a pig weighing 
100 pounds will consume 500 pounds of barley meal, if supplied with as 
much as he will eat, and double his weight in sixteen or seventeen 
weeks. This amount of barley meal will contain 420 pounds of dry 
substance, and in the period of time stated, 74 pounds of this are util- 
ized in the 100 pounds increase of live-weight, 70 pounds pass into the 
manure, and 276 pounds are expended in respiration and perspiration, 
or, in other words, in the mere sustenance of life. If, however, the 
work of fattening be carried on more slawly, and the 500 pounds of 

30 A 


466 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


barley meal be distributed over a longer period of time, there will be a 
less increase in live-weight, the animal expending a larger proportion 
of this given quantity of food in respiration and perspiration; and the 
period may be so extended that there will be no increase in live-weight. 
Jt is seen, therefore, how important early maturity and rapid fattening 
of stock are to the pecuniary interest of the grower. 

Experiments with six pigs.—Mr. J. 8. Griffin, of Levant, Maine, reports 
his experience in raising pigs during a period of twenty months. April 
28, 1868, he purchased two pigs four weeks old, and fed them through 
the summer with as much milk as they would drink and a little corn 
meal. In September he commenced feeding boiled potatoes mashed with 
meal, with milk for drink, continuing this diet until about the middle of 
October, after which he fed scalded meal and milk until December 1, 
when the pigs were slaughtered. They were then about eight months 
old, and weighed, when dressed, 382 and 386 pounds respectively. 
Two pigs purchased in October, 1868, at the age of four weeks, and fed 
in like manner, were slaughtered when seven months old; their dressed 
weight being 240 and 260 pounds respectively. Two pigs were pur- 
chased May 14, 1869, at the age of five weeks, and were fed with 
milk, meal, and boiled potatoes until September 20, after which they were 
fed .with dry corn and meal, with milk for drink. Their weight, 
when slaughtered, was 250 and 300 pounds, respectively. One of 
the pigs was lame during the summer, and would probably have taken 
on more flesh but for this cause. Receipts: Amount of pork from six 
pigs, 1,818 pounds; worth, at 15 cents per pound, $272 70. Expen- 
ses: six pigs, $28; seventy-two bushels of meal, $79 20; small potatoes, 
$10; total, $117 20. Profits, $155 50. Mr. Griffin advises that pigs 
be kept in a dry yard and a clean pen, with access to clean water. 

Daxperiments in planting rice.—The following is a report of an experi- 
ment made in 1869, by Mr. Henry Shanklin, of Pendleton, South Carolina, 
in planting “ goiden rice,” on a plot containing 2,000 square yards, or a 
little more than two-tifths of an acre: he plowed the ground thoroughly, 
cross-plowed and arrowed; then with a bull-tongue plow laid out rows 
eighteen inches apart, and planted April 6, using seventeen quarts of 
seed, covering and pressing down with a hoe, and tracking on the seed 
with the feet. In the middle of May, after hoeing once and taking out 
the grass with his fingers, he let on water, which he kept flowing 
through the rows until July 1. He then turned off, hoed, afterward 
turned on the water again, and kept it running through the rows until 
the rice began to turn, when the water was gradually drawn off. The 
erop was thrashed by hand, and carefully cleaned and measured. The - 
yield was 564 bushels in the hull, weighing 45 pounds to the bushel, 
being at the rate of 1363 bushels per acre. 

Cotton seed, crushed and uncrushed.—Mr. Van de Wurt states that, in 
December, 1868, he measured 10 bushels of cotton seed, which he re- 
duced to 9 bushels by thrashing, and after sprinkling with lime packed 
away in a close place. At the time of planting corn, selecting two acres, 
he experimented on one acre with 43 bushels of the crushed seed, (equiva- 
lent to 5 bushels uncrushed,) dropping it near the corn. On the adjoin- 
ing acre ke used 5 bushels of uncrushed seed, well rotted. The result 
was that the acre which received the crushed seed yielded 30 bushels of 
corn, while that which received uncrushed seed yielded only 19 
bushels. Two acres of cotton also were dressed with the same quantity of 
crushed and uncrushed seed, applied in the furrow at the time of bed- 
ding. The result from the crushed seed was 1,400 pounds of seed cot- 
ton per acre; from the uncrushed, 1,000 pounds per acre, 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 467 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 


All the States have now accepted the congressional grant, made un- 
der the act of July 2, 1862, for establishing agricultural and mechanical 
colleges, and the dates of their acceptance were all given in the report 
for 1867, except the following: Alabama, December 31, 1868; Arkansas, 
January 31, 1867; Florida, January 30, 1869; Georgia, March 10, 1866; 
Louisiana, March 5, 1869; Mississippi, October 30, 1866; Missouri, 
March 17, 1863; Nebraska, February 13, 1869; North Carolina, Febru- 
ary 24, 1866; South Carolina, December 14, 1866; Tennessee, February 
18, 1868; Texas, November 1, 1866; and Virginia, February 5, 1864. In 
more than half the States agricultural colleges have been established, 
and most of them are in operation. 


CONNECTICUT. 


In the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College, at New Haven, 
no material changes have been made since our last report. It is con- 
templated by the trustees to bring together professors and students in 
every department of study, and to build up a national central school of 
pure and applied science. 

The faculty consists of Theodore D. Woolsey, president; William 
Norton, professor of civil engineering and mathematics; William D. 
Whitney, professor of linguistics and German; Samuel W. Johnson, 
professor of agriculture; Daniel C. Eaton, professor of botany; Ches- 
ter 8. Lyman, professor of physics and astronomy; William P. Trow- 
bridge, professor of dynamical and mechanical engineering; Geo. H. 
Brush, professor of metallurgy and mineralogy; Daniel C. Gilman, pro- 
fessor of physical geography and history ; Othniel C. Marsh, professor 
of paleontology ; Addison E. Verrill, professor of zodlogy and geology; 
Eugene C. Delfosse, instructor in French; Louis A. Bail, instructor in 
drawing; Oscar D. Alien, instructor in metallurgy and assaying; 
Daniel H. Wells, instructor in analytical and descriptive geometry; 
Sidney I. Smith, instructor in zodlogy; Mark Bailey, instructor in elocu- 
tion; Thomas R. Lounsbury, instructor in English; William G. Mixter, 
instructor in elementary chemistry ; Albert B. Hill, instructor in sur- 
veying and mechanics; Charles S. Hastings, instructor in physics; 
Joseph H. Adam, instructor in determinative mineralogy; F. Bacon, 
instructor in the laws of health; J. F. Weir, instructor in arts of de- 
sign; General B. 8. Roberts, instructor in military science. The profes- 
. Sors named constitute the governing board of the institution. 

The regular courses of study occupy three years. For admission, the 
student must pass a thorough examination in Davies’s Bourdon’s alge- 
bra as far as the general theory of equations, or its‘ equivalent; in 
geometry, in the nine books of Davies’s Legendre, or their equivalent ; 
and in plane trigonometry, with analytical trigonometry inclusive; and 
also in arithmetic, including the metrical system; geography, United 
States history, and English grammar, including spelling. An acquaint- 
ance with the Latin language is also required, sufficient to read and 
construe some classical author, and Allen’s Latin grammar is recom- 
mended. 

Course of study inthe freshman ycar.—Mathematics: Analytical and de- 
scriptive geometry, spherical trigonometry, perspective and surveying, 
with practical field-work. Chemistry: Recitations and laboratory prac- 
tice. Physics: Recitations, experimental illustrations of subjects taken 
up. Language: Thecommencementotf German and lessons in respect to 


468 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the use of English, with practice in writing and elocution. Botany: Ex- 
cursions and lectures, Drawing: Lessons in geometrical, perspective, 
and free-hand drawing. ‘ 

At the close of the freshman year the students are assigned to the 
various sections which embrace the studies they respectively desire to 
pursue during the remaining years of their course. In each section they 
also attend to some studies appropriate to other sections. These sec- 
tions constitute eight special courses, as follows: 


1. Chemistry and metallurgy.—Analytical chemistry, theoretical organic chemistry, 
acricultural chemistry, metallurgy, and mineralogy, with weekly exercises in the ident- 
ification of minerals. 

2, Civil engineering.—Spherical trigonometry, higher analytical geometry, differential 
and integral calculus, descriptive geometry and codrdinate branches of study; practi- 
cal surveying with field operations and plotting connected with it; drawing of planes 
and elevations, shading and tinting, linear perspective, free-hand drawing; construc- 
ticn and operation of machines, utilization of water-power; employment of prime 
movers, including hydraulic motors and steam-engines ; the laying out of curves, and 
field operations necessary in locating a line of road, establishing the grade, and deter- 
mining the amount of excavation and of embankment, strength of materials, the estab- 
lishment of foundations, construction of walls and arches, bridges, roof-trusses, &ec., in 
wood and iron, and the graphics in stone-cutting. 

3. Mechanical or dynamical engineering—Mechanical drawing; theoretical or pure 
mechanics; theory and construction of machines, machinery, and theory of mechanism; 
the application of the principles of dynamics to the designing and construction of 
prime movers and other machinery for special purposes; the fabrication of materials 
used in the construction of machinery ; the practical construction of the parts, the fit- 
ting up of machinery generally, and the management and control of the same. 

4. Agriculture.—Agricultural and analytic chemistry, vegetable physiology and botany, 
zoology, entomology, geology, culture of staple crops, principles of stock-breeding and 
rearing, and rural economy. 

5. Natural history.—Physiological and structural botany; geology, with excursions 
to interesting localities, and the study of fossils in the zoological laboratory ; zodlogy, 
including comparative anatomy, embryology, &c.; and mineralogy, showing the phys- 
iological properties of minerals, crystallization, classification, &c. 

6. Preparation for medical studics.—Chemical testing of drugs and poisons; compara- 
tive anatomy, reproduction, embryology, the laws of hereditary descent, and human 
parasites; and a general knowledge of structural and physiological botany, and medi- 
cinal, foed-producing, and poisonous plants. 

7. Studies preparatory to mining.—The regular course in eivil or mechanical engineer- 
ing, and the fourth year metallurgy, mineralogy, and lectures on mining. 

8. Select studies preparatory to other higher pursuits, to business, fc.—Iin addition to 
instruction in German, French, and English, common to all the departments, the gen- 
eral principles of language, the critical study of the English language in its structure, 
history, and literature; constant practice in composing; systematic instruction in the 
physical geography of the globe; in the special, physical, and historical geography of 
Europe and the United States; in the outlines of modern history and in political econ- 
omy; in agricultural chemistry, botany, zodlogy, geology, mineralogy, and mathemat- 
ical astronomy ; lectures on agriculture, rural economy, stock-breeding, and on gen- 
eral and theoretical chemistry. 


Building and apparatus.—Shefiield Hall is a large and commodious 
building, containing recitation and lecture rooms for ail the classes, a 
hall for public assemblies and lectures, laboratories for chemical and 
metallurgical investigations, a photographic room, an astronomical 
observatory, museums, a library and reading-room, besides studies for 
some of the professors. The collections belonging to the school are: 
1. Apparatus in chemistry, metallurgy, mechanics, photography, and 
zodlogy. 2. Metallurgic museum of ores, rocks, furnace-products, and 
an extensive private cabinet of minerals. 3. Agricultural museum of 
soils, fertilizers, and useful and injurious insects. 4. Astronomical 
apparatus, consisting of an equatorial telescope by Clark & Son, of 
Cambridge, and a meridian circle. 5. Cabinet of physiological and 
mechanical apparatus, constituting the “Collier cabinet.” 6. Models in 
architecture, civil engineering, and descriptive geometry. 7. Mechani- 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, 469 


cal drawings recently given by the Novelty Iron Works in New York. 
8. Maps, charts, and reliefs, partly given by the United States Govern- 
ment. 9. Library containing the Hillhouse mathematical library, a gen- 
eral-reference library, and the current English, French, and German 
scientific journals. 10. Access is also had to the extensive college 
library, the cabinets in mineralogy, geology, zodlogy, casts, models, 
designs, &e. 

The tuition is $150 per year, with an additional charge of $5 annually 
for reading-room and gymnasium; $5 to freshmen for chemicals; and 
to special students in the chemical laboratory $25 per term for materi- 
als used. The graduation fee is $10. 

Students for 1870 are: Graduates, 28; seniors, 25; juniors, 57; fresh- 
men, 39; specials, 12; total, 141. 


DELAWARE. 


Delaware College, at Newark, was opened for the reception of stu- 
dents on the 14th of September, 1870, after a suspension of more than 
ten years. 

At a meeting of the board of trustees, held the 19th of July, 1867, a 
committee was appointed to visit the State legisiature, then in session, 
and endeavor to effect a union between the college and the State, by 
which the former should receive the annual interest of the eongres- 
sional grant of land-scrip for establishing a college of agriculture and 
mechanic arts. An agreement was made by which the State was to 
give to the college the annual interest, and the trustees on their part 
were to carry out the object of the grant by establishing a department 
of agriculture and mechanic arts, and to give the State a joint and 
equal interest in the property and government of the college. An act 
‘was passed by the legislature on the 14th of March, 1867, by which the 
institution was incorporated anew under the old name, ‘ Delaware Col- 
lege,” and the board of trustees made to consist of thirty members, one- 
half of whom were to be appointed by the governor of the State, and 
the other half by the members of the old college board. An act 
‘amendatory of the act of 1867 was passed February, 1869, by which the 
powers and duties of the trustees were explicitly defined; and in March 
of the same year a supplementary act was passed giving the appoint- 
ment of students admitted free of tuition, being one from each “ hun- 
dred,” to the members of the legislature from their respective hundreds. 
The new board of trustees organized on the 2d of January, 1869, by 
the election of Rathwell Wilson, president; John Hickman, vice-presi- 
dent, and George G. Evans, secretary. At a subsequent meeting in 
May, 1870, they elected several members of the faculty, and voted to 
open the college on the 14th of September, 1870. 

One of the leading objects of the college is to teach such branches of 
learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts. It is 
designed especially to give a thorough knowledge of the most approved 
methods of conducting the practical operations of the farm, garden, 
and nursery; and to show the results of carefully-conducted experiments, 
and how they may be made of practical value. Particular attention 
will be given to the most profitable kinds of farming for Delaware, 
where the soil and climate are in some respects so peculiar as to 
render much of the instruction given elsewhere of little praetical 
benefit. 

The college embraces three departments: 1. A classical department. 
2. A scientific department. 3. An agricultural department. The fac- 

‘ulty consists of William H. Purnell, president and professor.of moral 


470 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


philosophy and English literature; Edward D. Porter, professor of agri- 
culture, natural philosophy, and civil engineering ; William D. Mackey, 
professor of mathematics and ancient languages; Charles P. Williams, 
professor of chemistry, geology, and natural history; Jules Marchert, 
professor of modern languages and military science; Francis C. Philips, 
assistant in the laboratory. 

The curriculum of study in the agricultural department is as follows: 


JUNIOR CLAss—Virst term.—Practical agriculture—Location of farm and division into 
fields ; soils, classification and mechanical treatment; principles of drainage; laying out 
and construction of drains. Natural sciences—Botany and physiology of plants; princi- 
ples of germination and growth; analysis and classification. Chemistry—Chemical 
physics; inorganic chemistry, nomenclature; laws of chemical combination and study of 
elements. Related studies—Algebra, from quadratic equations; lectures on human anat- 
omy ; physiology and laws of health; English composition, language, and literature. Sec- 
ond term.—Practical agriculture—Farm unplements, principles of construction and use ; 
fencing, hedging, location, and plans of farm buildings. Chemistry—Inorganic chemis- 
try; study of the elements, with laboratory practice; lectures on chemical physics and 
mineralogy. Natural sciences—Systematic botany, classification of plants, including a 
discussion of the general principles of classification in the different departments of 
natural history. Reiated studies—Algebra finished; first book of geometry; lectures 
on anatomy, physiology, and laws of health; study of the English language. Third 
term.—Practical agriculture—Horticulture ; hot-beds, their construction and manage- 
ment; methods of propagating plants by layers, cuttings, buddings, grafting, &c.; 
transplanting varieties of small fruits, and the best means of cultivating them; gen- 
eral nursery management. Chemistry—Lectures on inorganic chemistry ; chemical 
physics and mineralogy, with laboratory practice. Natural science—Practical botany; 
characteristics and geographical distribution of the natural orders, with their relative 
importance; genera and species having agricultural, commercial, medicinal, or orna- 
mental value; weeds and poisonous plants. Helated studies—Geometry, five books; 
lectures on anatomy, physiology, and hygiene; modern history. 

Mipp_Le cLass—First term.—Practical agriculture—General principles of farm econ- 
omy, care and feeding of stock; manure, composition, manufacture, and application ; 
farm machinery, construction and management. Chemistry—Organic chemistry ; 
qualitative analysis, with laboratory practice in the detection of alkalies and alkaline 
earths, metals, mineral and organic acids; use of the blow-pipe. Natural sciences— 
Principles of zodlogy, development, structure, classification, and distribution of.ani- 
mals; principles of geology, dynamical and descriptive. Related studies—Geometry 
finished ; natural philosophy, properties of matter, force, gravity, pendulum, motion, 
projectiles, mechanical powers; French or German. Second term.—Practical agricul- 
ture—Animal husbandry, breeds and varieties of domestic animals, dairy-stock, horses, 
sheep, swine, poultry; principles of breeding, rearing, training, and fattening; compo- 
sition and preparation of food; management of honey bees. Chemistry—Organic 
chemistry ; qualitative analysis, with laboratory practice in the detection and separa- 
tion of the elements ; chemistry of the germination and nutrition of plants. Natural 
sciences—Systematic zodlogy, natural orders, families, &c.; embryology, and peculiar 
modes of reproduction; geology, origin of soils; building materials; coal, coal-oil, and 
metals. Related studies —Mensuration of lines, surfaces, and solids; measurement of 
artificers’ work, timber, lumber, &c.; natural philosophy, mechanics of fluids; con- 
struction and use of barometer, pumps, springs, and wells; French or German. Third 
term.—Practical agriculture—Horticulture, market-gardening, varieties and modes of 
culture of vegetables and their preparation for market; fruit culture, apples, pears, 
peaches, plums, grapes, &c.; methods of pruning and training, and study of diseases 
of fruit trees and insects injurious to vegetation ; special attention given to peach 
culture and management of orchards. Chemistry—Organic chemistry, qualitative 
analysis, with laboratory practice; chemistry of decomposition and fermentation. 
Natural sciences—Entomology, classification of insects, habits of those injurious to 
vegetation ; geology of Delaware and Eastern Shore of Maryland and Virginia, with 
special study of deposits of marl, limestone, iron ores, and building materials. Re- 
lated studies—Surveying, with chain, compass, and transit; field-practice and use of 
instruments; maps of farm surveys; natural philosophy, sound, heat, and light; 
steam and its applications; construction and uses of thermometers, telescopes, and 
microscopes; French or German. 

SENIOR cLass—Virst term.—Practical agriculture—F'arm economy, principles of rota- 
tion of crops, their adaptation to soils and markets; cultivation of farm crops, wheat, 
corn, grass, and roots, and their preparation for market. Chemistry—Agricultural 
chemistry, composition of soils, quantitative analysis of domestic manures and ashes of 
plants. Natural sciences—Lectures on economic geology and mineralogy; diseases of 
domestic animals, and veterinary surgery and medicine. Related studies—Natural 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 471 


philosophy, electricity, statical and dynamical; civil engineering, principles of con- 
struction, strength of materials; French or German. Second tern..—Practical agricul- 
ture—Agricultural book-keeping, farm accounts; herd-book, farm journal; modes of 
conducting experiments and making them useful; collection and use of agricultural 
statistics; history of agriculture. Chemistry—Agricultural chemistry, quantitative 
analysis of artificial manures, and their influence on plant growth. Natural sciences— 
Lectures on economic geology and mineralogy; diseases of domestic animals; veteri- 
nary surgery and medicine. Related studies—Natural philosophy, magnetism; con- 
struction and use of the telegraph ; physical geography and meteorology, laws of dews, 
frosts, fogs, clouds, rain, hail, snow, and winds, with local causes affecting the climate ; 
meteorological instruments, and their use to the farmer; civil engineering, construc- 
tion of roads, railroads, and canals; FrenchorGerman. Third term.—Practical agricul- 
_ ture—Horticulture, construction and management of hot-houses; cold graperies and 
orchard houses; landscape gardening and rural architecture; rural law relating to 
tenure and conveyance of land, highways, cattle, and fences. Chemistry—Agricultural 
chemistry, quantitative analysis of dairy products; chemistry as applied to the arts of 
tanning, dyeing, bleaching, and the manufacture of glass, porcelain, and iron. Natural 
sciences—Ixcursions for practice in geological surveys and collection of specimens in 
botany, zoélogy and mineralogy. Related studies—Natural philosophy, electro-dy- 
namies, electrotyping and gilding; civil engineering, field and office work; French or 
German. 

Candidates for admission into this department must be at least four- 
teen years of age, produce testimonials of good moral character, and 
sustain an examination in English grammar, geography, arithmetic, the 
elements of algebra, and history. Students who satisfactorily complete 
the course of study will be entitled to a diploma as graduate in agrieul- 
ture. The farm contains about seventy acres of well improved land, 
consisting of meadow, tillage, and pasture grounds. There are six 
acres of vegetable garden, eight acres of small fruit trees and 
vineyard, five acres of apples, pears, peaches, and plums, and the 
whole farm is well supplied with stock, tools, and farm machinery. All 
the students, not excused on account of physical disability, are required 
to labor on the farm one to two hours each day, except Saturday and 
Sunday, under the direction of the professor of agriculture. Besides 
this required labor, all students will have an opportunity of working on 
Saturday, and at such other times as will not interfere with their prepa- 
ration for the recitation-room, and will receive for such labor eight to 
twelve cents per hour, according to the work done. The philosophical 
apparatus of the college is very complete. The State cabinet has also 
been transferred to the college by an act of the legislature. The differ- 
ent libraries contain about 7,900 volumes. Expenses of students for 
the year, exclusive of board, are $79 50. Board may be obtained for 
$5 50 to $4 50 per week. 


ILLINOIS. 


The Mlinois Industrial University, at Urbana, has been open for the 
reception of students more than two years. During the past year 
all the fences on both farms have been rebuilt or thoroughly re- 
paired, and about five miles of hedge have been planted. The hedge 
completely surrounds the farms. Forty-five acres of land sown with 
oats produced 1,204 bushels, and 175 tons of hay were cut on 120 acres 
of meadow land. There have been planted in the apple orchard 2,193 
trees, and about 600 more have been set in the nursery to remain till a 
place can be prepared for permanent planting. Shelter belts of maples 
on the north and south, and of Norway spruce and Austrian pine on 
the west, were set outside the orchard, and every tenth row in the orchard 
was left vacant for planting an evergreen wind-break. In the nurseries 
there have been collected during the year for forest plantations and 
shelter-belts, 3,000 ash trees, 1,000 white elm, 1,000 American arbor-vite, 
1,000 balsam fir, 1,000 red pine, 100 Austrian pine, 100 Scotch pine, 18 


472 AGRICULTURAL REPORT, 


varieties of the pear, several varieties of the cherry, some tulip. and 
sycamore trees, and 1,300 small evergreens for forest. Jt is contemplated 
to commence immediately to plant a timber forest of one acre of each 
of the most approved species of trees, to determine the actual cost and 
profit of artificial forests, and the relative value of timber trees which 
may be grown in Illinois. 

Several varieties of different species of small fruits are under culti- 
vation, and it is intended to make large additions in order to test their 
relative value. Arrangements are also in progress to test a large num- 
ber of garden seeds and plants and make a full report of the re- 
sults. Considerable quantities of vegetables have been marketed in 
the city of Chicago, and also in Urbana and Champaign. A gardener’s 
house has been built recently. A new green house is nearly eompleted, 
which will add largely to the facilities of illustration to students, and 
also be an ornament to the horticultural department. 

The university embraces the following departments: 1. Agriculture. 
2. Mechanical philosophy and engineering. 3. Chemistry. 4. Natural 
history. 5. Pure mathematics. 6. Engineering. 7. English language 
and literature. 8. German language and literature. 9. Latin language 
and literature. 10. Greek language and literature. 11. History and 
social science. 12. Commerce. 13. Military science and tacties. 

The faculty of instruction consists of John M. Gregory, regent and 
professor of philosophy and history; William M. Baker, professor of 
English language and literature; Willard F. Bliss, professor of agri- 
culture; A. P.S. Stuart, professor of theoretical and applied chemistry ; 
Stillman W. Robinson, professor of mechanical science and engineering, 
and instructo® in mining engiueering; Thomas J. Burrill, professor of 
botany and horticulture; S. W. Shattuck, professor of civil engineering, 
and instructor in mathematics; Edward Snyder, professor of book- 
keeping and military tactics, and instructor in German; James Bellan- 
gee, teacher of architectural and mechanical drawing; Henry M. Doug- 
lass, assistant teacher of languages; Robert D. Warder, assistant in 
chemical laboratory; Alexander Thompson, practical mechanician, and 
foreman of machine shop; John A. Warder, lecturer on vegetable 
physiology and fruit-growing; Samuel Tenney, lecturer on zodlogy. 

The course of study in the several departments is extensive. Entire 
liberty of choice is alowed to each student in selecting the studies he 
will pursue. Changes from one department to another can be made 
only at the opening of a term. 

The apparatus for illustrating the various branches of study is ample 
and of the best quality. There is a working chemical laboratory with 
tables for a class of twenty-four students to work at once, and all the 
appliances needed for making chemical analyses. This season $3,000 
worth of new apparatus for illustrating the relations of light, heat, and 
electricity to chemistry, and their applications to agriculture will be pro- 
vided. There is also a collection of papier-maché flowers, plants, &c., pro- 
cured from the celebrated Doctor Auzoux, of Paris, several classes of which 
can be dissected, being so much enlarged as to exhibit to the eye the 
minute organs which are almostinvisible in natural flowers; acollection of 
fruits aud grains magnified to show the organs, structure, coatings, starch, 
pulp, germs, and various tissues; herbariums and collections of differ- 
ent species of woods, seeds, and grains; and cabinets of insects, birds, 
reptiles, mammals, shells, skeletons, fossils, minerals, charts, and plates. 
The university farm and gardens embrace over 1,000 acres of fine 1m- 
proved farming lands, on which large model barns are being built. A 
veterinary stable is to be erected to illustrate veterinary science, and 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. AT3 


papier-maché models of the several parts of the mouth and foot of the 
horse have been procured to show the structure and motion of these 
organisms. The library contains over 4,000 volumes, largely scientific. 

Tuition in the agricultural, mechanical, engineering, chemical, and 
military courses is free, a matriculation fee of $10 only being required 
on entering the university, and $2 50 per term for incidental expenses. 

The trustees have voted to admit females as soon as suitable accom- 
modations can be provided. They already attend the lecture courses. 

Students are paid for the labor they perform either on the farm or in 
the workshops, and many young men pay their way through college in 
this manner. 

The college year commences about the first of September, and ends 
about the first week in June. It is divided into three terms of fourteen, 
twelve, and ten weeks respectively. Whole number of students during 
the year, 196. Of these 62 are in the department of agriculture. 


TOWA. 


No important changes in the plan or course of study, or in the board 
of instruction, of the Iowa State Agricultural College, at Ames, have 
been made since our last report. The college has been from its com- 
mencement a marked success, especially in the features that distinguish 
itas an agricultural college. The students, asa body, have shown a 
steady and hearty sympathy with the governmentin its plans, policy, and 
purposes. ‘There has been throughout the year a degree of regularity, 
promptness, and cheerful obedience rarely surpassed in any institution. 

It is the purpose of the college instruction and drill to make profi- 
cients in the sciences which underlie the various branches of industry, 
and by manual labor to produce experts in allits various applications to 
the operations of the garden, farm, and workshop. For the accomplish- 
ment of the former object a thorough knowledge of these branches is 
required, under the instruction of the professors, in the recitation-room ; 
and of the latter, a practical application of the same by labor in the gar- 
den andon the farm. The garden and farm are, therefore, to be brought 
to a high state of excellence, and in the manner in which they are laid 
out, inthe implements used, in the processes of cultivation, in their or- 
der and neatness, and, above all, in their products, they are to be made 
models and striking examples of the results which artistic skill can 
reach when properly applied to these departments of industry. They are 
to exhibit all the modern improvements, to illustrate all the new varie- 
ties of fruits, grasses, and esculent roots that are really valuable, and to 
show to every observer the fact that, when beauty and profit are wisely 
combined, they ultimately produce the highest profits reckoned in ac- 
tual cash. Besides these important results, the garden and farm are to 
be so managed as to contribute something to the progress of agricultu- 
ral and horticultural science and art, and to settle many important ques- 
tions in agriculture. Such appears to be the aim of the management. 
The manual-labor system introduced into the college has succeeded even 
beyond the expectations of its advocates. Its influence on the health, 
progress, and conduct of the pupils has been in the highest degree salu- 
tary. The president says: “ From the experience of the past year, and 
convictions of a lifetime, I have full faith in the wisdom of the law that 
requires manual labor from every student, and I believe that such a re- 
quisition is indispensable to the prosperity of an industrial school. It 
gives needful exercise and bodily vigor, imparts skill in the use of tools, 
helps the student to defray his current expenses, applies science to 
practice, and promotes respect for honorable toil.” 


474. AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The annual income derived from the rental of lands granted by Con- 
gress amounts to about $35,000. The cabinet of the college comprises 
a collection of minerals and the Schaffer Zodlogical collection. The 
board of trustees have appropriated $2,000 for purchasing a chemical 
and philosophical apparatus, and $2,500 for the purchase of books for 
the nucleus of a library. é 

The college year commences early in March, and closes near the end 
of November, leaving the three winter months for the principal vaca- 
tion, which are profitably employed by many of the students in teaching 
in the winter schools. 


KANSAS. 


The faculty of the Kansas State Agricultural College, at Manhattan, 
consists of Rev. Joseph Denison, president, and professor of mental and 
moral science and political economy; J. S. Hougham, professor of agri- 
cultural and commercial science; J. W. Davidson, professor of military 
science and tactics and civil engineering, and teacher of French and 
Spanish; B. F. Mudge, professor of natural science and the higher 
mathematics; Rev. J. H. Lee, professor of the Latin and Greek lan- 
guages and literature; J. Evarts Platt, professor of mathematics and 
vocal music, and principal of the preparatory department; Miss Mary 
I’. Hovey, professor of the German language and literature; Mrs. Hat- 
tie V. Werden, teacher of instrumental music. 

About half the lands granted to this college by the national govern- 
ment have been sold, and the income from interest on the sales now 
amounts to $16,000 annually. The State has also this year made a do- 
nation of about $30,000, which sum is to be expended principally in de- 
veloping the agricultural department. It is hoped that this aid will se- 
cure an enlargement of the farm to 400 acres. It is proposed to add a 
department of veterinary science as soon as the funds will permit. 

The organization of the labor system among the students has been 
improved, and twenty acres of green-sward land have been broken up 
and added to that previously under cultivation, making, in all, sixty 
acres of cultivated land on which the students labor and on which experi- 
mental processes are conducted. 

The college has a well-selected library of about 3,000 volumes, which 
is constantly increasing; also a good assortment of philosophical and 
chemical apparatus, an extensive cabinet of minerals and ores, and a 
good collection of specimens illustrating the geology of Kansas. 

Tuition is free, except in instrumental music. Contingent fee, $3 a 
term. Board, $3 25 per week. 


ICENTUCKY. 


In the annual reports for 1867 and 1869 accounts were given of the 
establishment of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ken- 
tucky University, at Lexington, in 1866. It has now been in successful 
operation nearly five years, and we notice with interest the increasing 
prosperity of this, the jirst college organized under the act of Congress 
appropriating lands for the endowment of Industrial Colleges. 

The library of the university contains 10,000 volumes. Whole num- 
ber of students during the year, 819; of these, 300 were in the Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College. 

Students are permitted to receive instruction, without extra charge, 
in any of the classes of the College of Arts, enabling them to study Latin, 
Greek, &c., and to obtain a thorough classical as well as scientific edu- 
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PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 475 


The number of students in attendance at the Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College last session was 300; whole number enrolled in the 
University, 772. They were from thirty-three States and countries. 

The success of this institution is mainly due to the indefatigable ex- 
ertions ef the regent, J. B. Bowman. In reviewing his annual re- 
ports we notice the steady development of his plans for continued im- 
provement. Devoting his life, fortune, and energies to the cause of 
education, itis not surprising that this young institution has made so 
rapid advancement, and that it now ranks among the very first of its 
classin the country. The corps of professors numbers more than thirty, 
many of them distinguished and experienced educators. 

The agricultural department.—The college farm is located on the beau- 
tifal estate of Ashland, the homestead of Henry Clay, purchased for the 
purposes of education by Mr. Bowman, the founder and regent of the 
University. 

Practical instruction in agriculture is given in two departments, the 
compensated and uncompensated, choice of which is left to the student. 
The labor on the farm, in the garden, and in the mechanical shops is 
almost entirely performed by the students, where they are required to 
work two hours daily without pay, except those wishing to pay a por- 
tion of the expenses of their education by their labor, who are paid five 
to ten cents per hour during the first year, and ten to twenty cents 
during the second and third years, according to the labor performed. 
Many of the students pay a large part of the expense of their education 
in this way. The labor is performed under the direction of superinten- 
dents skilled in their business. By adopting the club system of board- 
ing, students have reduced their entire annual expenses to about $100 
each. 

A series of experiments has been made in the manufacture of sorghum 
sirup from sorghum grown upon the farm, by which a superior article has 
been obtained, worth $1 per gallon. Ten acres of broom-corn have been 
planted, from which three hundred dozen brooms have been made, and 
twenty acres will be planted next season. Additional experiments on 
the farm will soon be instituted, which, it is hoped, will develop prin- 
ciples of importance both to the student and the agricultural interests 
of the country. The gardens, orchards, vineyards, and greenhouse 
plants have been cultivated with much success, and the products sold 
in the city market, where the college has a permanent stall. Forty 
cows have been purchased for carrying on the dairy business, from which 
it is intended to supply the milk for the University boarding-houses and 
the people of Lexington. Although the farm has not been so profitable 
as the horticultural department, both have succeeded to the satisfac- 
tion of the managers, and ultimate success, as experience matures, is 
considered certain. 

Horticultural depariment.—This department embraces the ornamental 
and experimental grounds at Ashland and Woodlands, including gardens, 
orchards, vineyards, nurseries, propagating houses, greenhouses, and 
arboreta. Students laboring in this department are under the supervision 
of a skillful superintendent, who is competent to give them thorough in- 
struction in horticulture and landscape gardening; and they have 
ample facilities for the practical application of the principles of botany 
and vegetable physiology, and for a thorough knowledge of the art of 
grafting, budding, and planting, and the general care and culture of all 
kinds of trees, shrubs, and flowers. 

The mechanical depariment.—The mechanical department has been or- 
ganized under the name of the “ Ashland Mechanical Works,” bythe 


476 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


erection of fine large buildings for shops of various kinds, which have 
been fitted up with the most approved machinery for the manufacture 
of all kinds of agricultural and mechanical implements, including reap- 
ers and mowers, wagons, plows, and cultivators. And in the wood- 
shops, iron-shops, paint-shops, and shoe-shops, skilled artisans are 
employed, who, under the general supervision of an experienced 
superintendent, give practical instruction to a large number of young 
men in the various mechanic arts. With these liberal and unusual 
advantages young men have an opportunity ot learning a good trade 
either at the anvil, the lathe, the bench, or with the brush, while at the 
same time defraying a large portion of the expeuses of their education. 
In the last published catalogue it is shown that several were paid 
upwards of $100 each; in some few cases, from $250 to $300. These 
young men received honorable notice, and were rewarded with the first 
honors. ‘These results prove the advantages of such institutions to in- 
dustrious and deserving young mechanics ambitious to obtain a practical 
education. A good beginning has been made in this department. During 
the year a commodious barn worth $2,100 and a cottage worth $1,000 have 
been built; fourteen houses, dormitories, and club-buildings thoroughly 
repaired; seventy-two rooms painted, white-washed, and prepared for 
occupation; three thousand six hundred and forty-two feet of plank 
fence built ; agricultural implements, barns, and greenhouses repaired ; 
additions made to propagating houses; the small tools for the machine- 
shop and blacksmith.shop made, besides much other important work 
necessary to be done on the farm and buildings. Twenty-two two-horse 
wagons have been manufactured; sixty-four two-horse plows; forty- 
three one-horse plows; sixty cultivators; fifty patent trucks; twenty- 
two mowers painted and repaired ; thirty-five senior combined Climax 
machines ; five harrows, and much other useful machinery ; and one hun- 
dred and thirty-five mowers have been painted and set up. 
ae | 


MARYLAND. 


The Maryland Agricultural College, at Hyattsville, has opened this 
year with encouraging prospects. The number of students in attend- 
ance is much larger than at any previous time. Regular lessons are 
given in practical farming, horticulture, floriculture, experimental sci- 
ence, and natural history, to every class in college. A provision has 
been made for carpenter and blacksmith shops for the benefit of such 
students as have a taste for these mechanic arts. 

The college building is spacious and substantial, and in thorough re- 
pair. It has fine and convenient chambers, and is well ventilated and 
warmed. It is also lighted throughout with gas, and combines every 
requisite for acomfortable home. The farm, buildings, roads, and lawns 
are being improved as rapidly as the funds will admit. The college is 
now free from debt, and the income meets all its liabilities. 

The scholastic year is divided into two terms, with one regular vaca- 
tion, which begins the last week in June, and closes the middle of Sep- 
tember. 

The first term opens on the 15th of September, and closes with Jan- 
uary. The second term begins the 1st of February, and ends with the 
college year the last of June. 

The faculty consists of Rev. Samuel Regester, president and professor 
of moral science and evidences of natural and revealed religion ; Nich- 
olas B. Worthington, professor of mental philosophy, English language, 
and literature; Alfred Herbert, professor of the natural sciences, in- 
cluding chemistry and .its applications, geology, botany, and -mineral- 


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PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. ATT 


ogy; Battista Lorino, professor of Latin, Greek, French, German, Ital- 
jan, and Spanish; Phil. Moore Leakin, professor of mathematics, pure 
and mixed, including experimental surveying, mensuration, ete.; Francis 
A. Soper, instructor in military tactics and tutor in mathematics; Wil- 
liam E. Waggener, tutor in the preparatory department; and J. Esputa, 
professor of instrumental and vocal musie. , 

The number of students during the year ending in June, 1870, was 
98. The present number is 118, 60 of whom are State students, 
who receive their tuition and have the use of text-books free of cost. 
The expense is paid from an annual donation of $6,000, made by the 
State for this purpose. ; 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


In previous reports on the Massachusetts Agricultural College, at Am- 
herst, we have spoken principally of its endowment, buildings, and 
course of instruction. These objects have thus far required a large 
share of the attention of the trustees and faculty of the institution. The 
operations of the farm, the orchard, and the garden, which are of no 
less interest to the farmer, have not been entirely neglected, however. 
A foundation has been laid for carrying out the details of scientific and 
practical agriculture to their full extent. Only within two years has 
any important step been taken by way of improvement and experi- 
ment on the farm. Much time has been expended in laying it out, 
in fencing, under-draining, grading, and constructing the necessary 
roads. During the last season there were raised on the farm 150 tons 
of hay, 700 bushels of corn, 600 bushels of oats, and 600 bushels of po- 
tatoes. Two hundred and fifty standard pear trees, 50 peach trees, and 
25 apple trees have been set. Also, 2,000 grape vines, mostly Concords, 
set six feet apart, in rows nine feet apart, and staked with chestnut 
pickets five feet long. Itis designed to support them with wire trel- 
lises. Several acres are devoted to small fruits and vegetables. Large 
quantities of currants, raspberries, strawberries, asparagus, and rhu- 
barb have been set. It is proposed to institute a series of experiments 
with the sugar-beet, for the purpose of determining what varieties 
are best suited to the soil and climate of Massachusetts, and what per- 
centage of sugar may be expected from them. 

A beginning has been made in stock-breeding. Twelve thorough- 
bred cattle are on the college farm, consisting of Short-horns, Devons, 
Ayrshires, and Jerseys, purchased of the best breeders in the country ; 
also about forty natives, besides twenty-five Southdown sheep, and 
twenty-four swine of the Suffolk, Berkshire, and Chester white breeds. 

The theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture has been un- 
der the direction of Professor Levi Stockbridge, who has devoted him- 
self with much zeal and success to this department. 

The faculty consists of William 8. Clark, president, and professor of 
botany and horticulture; Levi Stockbridge, professor of agriculture ; 
Henry H. Goodell, professor of English, French, and German Tan- 
guages; Samuel I’. Miller, professor of mathematics and farm engin- 
eering; Charles A. Goessmaiun, professor of chemistry; Henry E. Al- 
vord, professor of military science and tactics; H. 5S. Barlow, instructor 
in rhetoric and elocution; James Law, lecturer on diseases of domestic 
animals; Charles L. Flint, lecturer on dairy farming; Calvin Cutter, 
lecturer on hygiene; Joseph White, lecturer on civil polity; Jabez 
Fisher, lecturer on market gardening; Edward Hitchcock, lecturer on 
comparative anatomy; Marshall P. Wilder, lecturer on the culture of 
fruits and flowers, and the art of producing new and valuable varieties ; 


478 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


A. 8. Packard, jr., lecturer on useful and injurious insects; E. 8. Snell, 
lecturer on physics; George B. Loring, lecturer on stock-farming; L. 
Clark Seelye, lecturer on English literature; John Griffin, gardener ; 
A. J. Marks, acting farm superintendent. 


MICHIGAN. 


The trustees of the State Agricultural College, at Lansing, have 
completed during the present year a new and commodious dormitory 
for the accommodation of students, and a farm house for the superin- 
tendent of the farm. The lands granted by the national government 
have been put into the market, and are being rapidly sold under the 
direction of the agricultural land-grant board, consisting of the gov- 
ernor, auditor general, secretary of state, state treasurer, attorney gen- 
eral, and commissioner of the State land office. It is believed that the 
income derived from the sale of these lands will soon make the college 
a self-sustaining institution. The corps of instruction has been enlarged 
by the addition of a professor in botany and an instructor in the French 
language. 

The faculty as now constituted consists of T. C. Abbot, president and 
professor of mental philosophy and logic; Manly Miles, professor of 
practical agriculture, and superintendent of the farm; R. C. Kedzie, 
professor of chemistry; Santord Howard,* secretary; George T. Fair- 
child, professor of English literature; Albert J. Cook, professor of zo6l- 
ogy and entomology; Will. W. Tracy, instructor in horticulture and 
superintendent of the gardens; Richard Haigh, jr., assistant secretary; 
William J. Beal, lecturer on botany; J. J. Golard Fernand, instructor 
in French; 8. 8. Rockwell, steward; Charles E. Stowe, foreman of the 
farm; Edwin Hume, assistant foreman of the farm. 

The departments of instruction were given in the report for 1868. 
The course of study, with the text-books used, is as follows: 

FRESHMAN CLAsSs.—First half year—Algebra, Davies; history, Weber; geometry, 
Robinson; book-keeping, Mayhew. Second half year—Trigonometry, Robinson; sur- 
veying, Davies; practical agriculture, lectures; geology, Dana. 

SOPHOMORE CLAss.—Virst half year—English literature, Chambers, Spauiding; bot- 
any, Gray; elementary chemistry, Roscoe. Second half year—Entomology, Packard ; 
analytical chemistry, Kedzie ; botany, Gray, Darlington, Lindley; horticulture, Thomas, 
Fuller, Henderson. 

JuNIoR cLass.—First half year—Physics, Snell’s Olmsted; agricultural chemistry, 
lectures; inductive logic, Herschel. Second half year—Physics, Miller; meteorology, 
lectures; rhetoric, Whately, Day’s Praxis; animal physiology, Dalton. 

SENIoR cCLass.—VFirst half year—Zodlogy, Carpenter; practical agriculture, lectures ; 
mental philosophy, Wayland; astronomy, Suell’s Olmsted; French, Otto. Second half 
year—Landscape gardening, Downing, Kemp; civil engineering, Mahan; moral phi- 
josophy, Fairchild; political economy, Carey, Walker; French, Otto, De Fivas. 

Among other means of improvement besides the! foregoing may be 
mentioned the college farm of 676 acres, 300 of which are under cultiva- 
tion; the botanical gardens of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, and 
a commodious greenhouse; the vegetable gardens, small fruit garden, 
apple orchard, pear orchard, general lawn, and grounds; the Galloway, 
Ayrshire, Devon, and Short-horn cattle; Essex, Berkshire, Suffolk, and 
Chester White swine; Southdown, Cotswold, Spanish Merino, and Black- 
faced Highland sheep; chemical laboratory and apparatus; philosophi- 
cal and mathematical apparatus; museum of animals and minerals; the 
Cooley herbarium; museum of vegetable products; library and reading- 
room; buildings, workshops, and tools. : 

Students are paid for the labor they perform on the farm according 


* Deceased since the record was prepared. 
\ 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. A479 


to their ability and fidelity. The highest wages paid the present year 
have been seven and a half cents per hour. 

Persons who desire to pursue any of the branches related to agricul- 
ture, such as chemistry, botany, animal physiology, etc., may be received 
for a shorter period than is required for a full course. Candidates for 
admission into the freshman class must not be less than fifteen years of 
age, and must sustain a thorough examination in arithmetic, geography, 
grammar, reading, spelling, and penmanship. 

Whole number of students in the college for the year, 129; of which 
81 were in the agricultural course, 2 in the special course, 36 in the pre- 
paratory course, and 10 are ladies. 


MINNESOTA. 


The design of the University of Minnesota, at St. Anthony, is to enable 
the student, after he leaves the public high-school, to complete his 
education by such course of additional study as he may designate. 
At present the university is doing in its preparatory school much of the 
work of the high schools, which, owing to their limited number, they 
are not yet able to perform. As soon as these high schools can do 
all of this work it is proposed to dispense with the preparatory 
school, and it is announced by the board of regents that the English 
branch will be discontinued at the close of the academic year 1870~71. 
The several departments of the university, as now organized and in 
operation, are as follows: 1. The preparatory school; 2. The collegiate 
department; 3. The college of science, literature, and the arts; 4. The 
college of agriculture and the mechanic arts. It is designed to organize 
a department of law and a department of medicine as soon as the means 
of the university will permit. 

The faculty of the college of agriculture and the mechanic arts con- 
sists of William W. Folwell, president; Daniel A. Robertson, professor 
of agriculture; Richard W. Johnson, professor of military science; Ar- 
thur Beardsley, professor of civil engineering and industrial mechanics; 
Edward H. Twining, professor of chemistry and instructor in natural 
sciences and in French; Mahlon Bainbridge, superintendent of the farm 
and instructor in practical agriculture. 

The course of instruction in agriculture embraces the following 
branches and plan of study: 

1. Chemistry ; including geology and mineralogy, with practical instructions in the 
nature and origin of soils and their analysis, fertilizers, food, processes of the dairy, 
sugar-factory, &c. 

2. Botany ; with practical instructions in horticulture and pomology, arboriculture, 
improvement of varieties, cereals, textile fabrics, &c. 

3. Zodlogy ; including anatomy, entomology, and ornithology, with practical instrue- 
tions in stock-breeding, veterinary science, insects injurious to vegetation, poultry, 
and pisciculture. 

4, Physics; including meteorology and climatology, with practical instructions on 
the effects of light, heat, and electricity, theory of winds and storms, and acclimation 
of plants and animals. 

5. Mechanics ; including engineering, architecture, with practical instructions in 
construction and tests of farm implements and machinery, roads, ditching, fencing, 
farm buildings, and grounds. 

6. Economics; with practical instructions in the general theory and practice of agri- 
culture, rent, wages, accounts, markets, and transportation. 


7. Jurisprudence ; including the history and literature of agriculture, with tenures of 
jJands, laws of highways, taxation, estrays, contracts, etc. 


This course of study occupies two years. Applicants who have com- 
pleted any scientific course of the collegiate department are admitted 


without further examination. Other applicants must be at Jeast sixteen 
years of age, and pass satisfactory examinations in the English language, 
. ’ 


480 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


arithmetic, algebra, geometry, plain trigonometry, mensuration, indus- 
trial drawing, geography, and elements of botany, zodlogy, chemistry, 
physics, and general history. Students who satisfactorily complete the 
course of study in this department will receive the degree of bachelor 
of agriculture, but any person not a candidate for this degree, who 
appears to be competent to receive the instruction given, may attend 
the classes and undergo examination in any subject, and if suecessful, 
will receive a certificate to that effect. A special course of instruction 
in this department will be opened about the Ist of November, and con- 
tinue during the winter months, if there should be a sufficient number 
of applications to warrant the undertaking. 

The scholastic year commences near the Ist of September, and closes 
about the end of June. It is divided into three terms, with three vaca- 
tions. ‘Tuition in all the departments is free. Board in families may 
be obtained for $4 per week. In the boarding club it has not exceeded 
$2 per week. 


MISSOURI. 


The act of the legislature for locating the Agricultural and Mechanical 
College, in connection, with the University of the State of Missouri, at 
Columbia, Daniel Read, LL. D., president, was approved February 24, 
1870, and the conditions required of the citizens of Boone County, to 
donate $30,000 and an experimental farm of not less than 640 acres, 
were complied with on the 3d of June following. Measures were imme- 
diately taken to put this coilege into operation, and one professor of 
agriculture, G. C. Swallow, the State geologist, has been appointed, and 
a class formed which is now receiving instruction from Prof. Swallow and 
the professors of the university in the different branches which form the 
course ofstudyinthisdepartment. Sufficientincome willnotfor some time 
be derived from the land granted by Congress for the support of a full 
corps of professors, but the agricultural course will be continued in 
connection with the university, and be enlarged by adding new studies 
and increasing the number of professors as the pecuniary means permit, 
till a college complete in itself, with an independent faculty, is estab- 
lished. Arrangements will be made immediately for the employment of 
students in cultivating the university garden and making improve- 
ments and experiments on the farm, by which they may be able to pay 
a portion of the expense incurred in pursuing their college course. 

The farm is beautifully located on the north side of the Missouri 

tiver, and contains a valuable mansion worth $15,000 or $20,000, which 

is of special value for the accommodation of students, and two large 
vineyards in a flourishing condition. By the terms of the law, this land 
can never be converted to any other use than that of the college farm 
for instruction in practical and scientific agriculture. 

In conducting experiments on the farina, the land is to be divided into 
fields, each tobe designated by aparticularname. The quantity of ground 
devoted to each experiment and the character of the soil are to be accu- 
rately defined. If cultivated, the mode of treatment of the crop, the 
cost, and the profit and loss are to be definitely stated, and credited or 
charged to the farm, as the case may be. Students working on the 
farm or in the garden will beallowed ten to fifteen cents per hour, accord- 
ing to their skill and the amount of work performed. 

Three-fourths of the income derived from the lands given by the con- 
gressional grant are to be appropriated for the support of the Agricul- 
tural and Mechanical College, and one-fourth for the support of the 
School of Mines and Metallurgy. Propesals were made by different 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 48} 


counties for the location of the latter in their territory. iron County 
offered to give $83,000, 5,000 acres of land, and 20 acres for a site for 
the schoo! ; Phelps County, $75,000, 7,500 acres of land, and a site. I! 
has been recently located at Rolla, in Phelps County, where a colleg:: 
building, costing about $15,000, is soon to be erected. 

Whole number of students in the University during the year, 243.) /. 
portion of these have been pursuing agricultural studies. 


NEBRASKA. 


The congressional grant of 90,000 acres in land scrip, made to the State. 
of Nebraska, has been accepted, and commissioners have been appointe:! 
to select the lands. In order to carry out the object of the Nationai 
Government in making this donation, the legislature of the State passed 
an act, approved February 15, 1869, to establish a University to be called 
the University of Nebraska. It is located at Lincoln, the capital of the 
State, and is governed by a board of regents, consisting of the governor, 
the superintendent of public instruction, the chancellor of the University, 
and three persons from each judicial district, appointed by the legisla- 
ture. The University embraces six departments: .1. A college o! 
ancient and modern literature, mathematics, and natural science; 2. 
college of agriculture; 3. A college of law; 4. A college of medicine ; 
5. A college of practical science, civil engineering, and mechanics; 6. 4. 
college of fine arts. Each department or college will have a corps oi 
instructors, and when the plan of instruction is fully developed, and al: 
the colleges are in operation, fifty professors will be required to constitute 
the different faculties. The several buildings of the University are to 
be erected within a radius of four miles from the State-house, and the 
immediate government of each college will be by its own faculty. 

No person is to be deprived of the privileges of the institution be- 
cause of age, sex, color, or nationality. A matriculation fee of $5 will 
be required for admission into any department of the University; but 
applicants residing within the State, or, being non-residents, who pay, or 
whose parents pay, a school-tax of $30 or more to the State, and who pass 
the prescribed examinations successfully, will not be required to pay 
any tuition during the term of four years. All other students, and all 
who elect to remain under instruction for a longer time than four years, 
will be required to pay such fees as the board of regents may determine. 
Persons who produce a certificate from a county superintendent of the 
common schools, certifying that they have passed honorably through 
the course of study prescribed in a high school under the common-school 
laws of the State, may be admitted to any college of the University 
without further examination. Other applicants for admission will be 
required to pass an examination in the course of studies prescribed by 
the board of regents. 

In the College of Agriculture there are to be six professors: A pro- 
fessor of applied chemistry, of botany, of agriculture, of horticulture, 
of meteorology and climatology, of veterinary surgery, and a superin- 
tendent of the model farm. 

In February, 1869, the legislature of the State appropriated $100,000 
to be derived from the sale of its own lands, for the “ construetion and 
erection of a suitable building for a State University and agricultural 
college.” In pursuance of this act a beautiful four-story building has 
been erected at Lincoln during the present year, and is now ready for 
occupancy. The board of regents are about to organize the faculty and 
prescribe a curriculum of study, and the University will soon be opened 
for the reception of students. Two sections of the State lands have beep 

31 A 


482 AGRICULTURAL REPORT, 


set apart fora model farm, upon which improvements will be commenced 
as soon as the agricultural college is opened. . 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


The trustees of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Me- 
chanic Arts, at Hanover, are making progress in establishing this 
institution on a firm basis. The general government of the institution 
is vested in nine trustees, five of whom are appointed by the governor 
of the State, and four by the trustees of Dartmouth College. Its connec- 
tion, therefore, with Dartmouth College is such as to secure to it all the 
advantages which can result from the wisdom and experience of that 
institution, and at the same time enable it to retain all the rights and 
privileges which pertain to it as a separate organization in accomplish- 
ing the particular objects for which it was established. 

The new college building is now nearly completed, and will soon be 
opened for the reception of students. It is called Culver Hall, in honor 
of the late David Culver, who was the principal contributor to its 
erection. It isa large and elegant building, 100 feet long by 60 wide, 
and four stories high. The basement is made of granite, and the super- 
structure of bricks of the best quality. The rooms of the first story 
are designed as depositories for improved agricultural implements and 
models of machinery employed in the mechanic arts. The second con- 
tains a lecture-room sufficiently large to accommodate 500 persons, a 
chemical laboratory for the use of students, and aroom for alibrary. In 
the third story are recitation-rooms, a room for lectures on natural his- 
tory, and one for a museum of the agricultural products of the State. 
The fourth is designed for the museum of natural history. The building 
is complete in all its arrangements, and surpasses all other buildings 
which have been erected in connection with Dartmouth College. For 
the erection of this building $25,000 were derived from the estate of 
Mr. Culver, $15,000 were appropriated by the State legislature, and 
$12,000 have been received from private donations. 

The college farm contains 158 acres of excellent land, and embraces 
a great variety of soils. It joins the college grounds on which Culver 
Hall is situated. Seventy-two acres of the farm are tillage land, 
twelve acres wood land, and the remainder pasturage. Nearly all the 
land could be easily converted inte tillage if desired. The farm was pur- 
chased by Hon. John Conant, and presented to the college, and in 
his honor it has been named the Conant farm. Mr. Conant has aceu- 
mulated a property of $100,000 by farming, and has done honor to 
himself and the fraternity of farmers by his liberality, not only to this 
institution but to many others of his State. 

The faculty is the same as given in the report of 1868, with the addi- 
tion of David French Thompson, instructor in drawing. The curricu- 
lum of study in the college of agriculture and the mechanic arts 1s as 
follows: ‘ 

JUNIOR YEAR, (both courses alike.)\—First Term: Mathematics—Loomis’s algebra; 
botany—structure and physiology of plants, Gray; physics—physical geography ; 
drawing—free-hand, Chapman; book-keeping—Crittenden’s, counting-house edition. 
SECOND TERM: Mathematics—algebra completed, Loomis’s geometry; botany—char- 
acteristics of plants and their classification; drawing—free-hand, Chapman; chem- 
istry—chemical physics, metallic and non-metallic elements and their compounds, and 


lectures. 

MIDDLE YEAR, (course in agriculture.)\—First TERM: Mathematics—Loomis’s tri 0- 
nometry, surveying and leveling, with the use of the instruments and practice in the 
field, drawing of plans and mays, lectures on civil engineering; practical botany— 
useful and noxious plants, propagation of plants, fruits, &c.; organic chemistry— 
gums, sugar, alcohol, essential oils, organic acids and bases, fermentation, putrefaction, 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 483 


&ce., and lectures. SECOND TERM: Mathematics—geometry completed, mensuration 
and navigation, spherical trigonometry; analytical chemistry, Atfield’s and Bow- 
man’s; physics—Loomis’s natural philosophy; zodlogy—human and comparative 


anatomy. 
Course in mechanic aris.—FIRST TERM: Mathematics—Loomis’s trigonometry, sur- 


veying and leveling, with the use of the instruments and practice in the field, drawing 
of plans and maps, lectures on civil engineering; descriptive geometry, Church’s ; 
organic chemistry—gums, alcohol, essential oils, organic bases, fermentation, putre- 
faction, &c., lectures. SzcoND TERM: Mathematics—geometry completed, mensura- 
tion and navigation, spherical trigonometry; analytical chemistry, Attield’s and 
Bowman’s; physics—Loomis’s natural philosophy ; zodlogy—human and comparative 
anatomy. 

SENIOR YEAR, (course in agriculture.)—First TERM: Agricultural chemistry—soils, 
manures, natural and artificial, and various farm crops; zodlogy—general principles, 
classification, and special relations to agriculture; physics—astronomy and meteor- 
ology, Loomis’s and Brocklesby, and lectures; political economy. SECOND TERM: 
Agricultural chemistry—use of the various crops in the feeding of stock, and the pro- 
duction of milk, butter, cheese, fruit, &c.;. zodlogy—human and comparative physi- 
ology, and veterinary medicine and surgery; rural economy—lectures ; intellectual 
and moral philosophy, Haven. p 

Course in mechanic arls.—FIRST TERM: Chemistry—the analysis of rocks, ores, miner- 
als, and organic bodies ; mechanics—the principles of mechanism applied to the strength 
of materials, the working of stone, the location and construction of roads, and the 
building of bridges, including graphical problems; physics—astronomy and meteor- 
ology, Loomis and Brocklesby; political economy. SECOND TERM: Technical chem- 
istry—the construction and management of iron-works, glass-works, bleaching-works, 
salt-works, dyeing and calico printing; technical mechanics—lectures on mill-work 
and other topics relating to manufacturing industry; also, on applied electricity; in- 
tellectual and moral philosohy, Haven. 


There are now about 1,000 volumes in the library of this college. The 
State museum of general and applied science contains about 10,000 speci- 
mens, a part of which has been purchased in Europe, and the remainder 
contributed by the State and individuals. It is intended to make large 
additions to this collection at an early date. 


NEW JERSEY. 


The faculty of Rutgers Scientific School, at New Brunswick, Rev. 
W. H. Campbell, president, which is designated, by an act of the legis- 
lature of New Jersey, the ‘‘State College tor the Benefit of Agriculture 
and the Mechanic Arts,” is the same as given in our last report, with 
the addition of one professor recently appointed to fill the chair of ana- 
lytical chemistry, which has been established and endowed during the 
present year. The chair of mining and metallurgy has also been fully 
endowed. 

The two principal courses of study, namely, civil engineering and 
mechanics and chemistry and agriculture, have been extended from 
three years to four. The number and difficulty of the subjects pursued 
rendered this measure absolutely indispensable to the successful work- 
ing of the school. 

The recitation-rooms have been ‘enlarged and improved, and thor- 
oughly refurnished. Means have been provided for building a new “ geo- 
logical hall,” with rooms for a geological museum, recitations, ete., and 
it is to be erected at an early day. 

Under the direction of Professor George H. Cook, the college farm is 
rapidly recovering from its condition as a “worn-out” place, and very 
strikingly exhibits the sound economy of abundant fertilizing and care- 
ful underdraining. It is also being stocked with thorough-bred cows. 

The number of students for the year ending in June, 1870, is 46. There 
are more students in the school now than at any former period, the in- 
coming class numbering 27. The trustees give diplomas conferring the 


484 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


degree of bachelor of science on all members of the graduating class in 
full and regular standing. 


OHIO. 


The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ohio, at Columbus, was 
incorporated by an act of the legislature the 22d of March, 1870. On 
the 18th of April following an additional act was passed authorizing 
the several counties of the State to raise money to secure the location 
of the college. Several of the interior counties made liberal proposals. 
Montgomery County offered $400,000; Champaign, $200,000; Clarke, 
$200,000; and Franklin, $300,000. In September of the same year the 
board of trustees determined that, on account of the central position 
lecal advantages, and the generous donation of Franklin County, the 
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ohio should be permanently 
located at Columbus. The board selected from the several farms offered 
in different localities, the “Neil farm,” situated about two miles north 
of the State-house, and containing, with an adjoining lot, 378 acres, 
for which they have agreed to pay $103,000. 

A farm superintendent has been appointed, and is making prepara- 
tions to engage, in the spring, in such operations and farm experiments 
as the board shall direct. This winter the board will complete and 
adopt their plans for the college buildings, and commence erecting them 
as soon as the season will permit. They will also devise a plan for the 
organization of the college, which it is intended to establish on a broad 
and liberal basis, adequate to the wants of the State, and in such a way 
as to carry out faithfully the requirements and spirit both of the con- 
gressional and State enactments. 

The fund derived from the sales of land scrip, and from interest accu- 
mulated, now amounts to $500,000. The annual interest derived from 
this fund is $30,000. As the board are able to pay for the farm, and 
erect the necessary college and farm buildings from the liberal dona- 
tions of the citizens of Franklin County, the $50,000 annual income 
from the fund will be applied to the support of an able corps of profes- 
sors, and to the payment of other expenses connected with the college. 


VERMONT. 


The faculty of the University of Vermont and State Agricultural 
College, at Burlington, consists of James Burrill Angell, president ; 
professors: Samuel White Thayer, Walter Carpenter, Rev. McKendree 
Petty, Joseph Perkins, Matthew Henry Buckman, John Ordronaux, 
Alpheus Benning Crosby, Peter Collier, Henry Williamson Haynes, 
Edward Swift Dunster, Rev. Henry A. P. Torrey, Volney Giles Barbour, 
George Henry Perkins, and Louis Pollens, instructor. 

The departments of the University and college are as follows: 1. The 
academical department; 2. The agricultural and scientific department; 
3. The medical department. The agricultural and scientific department 
embraces a course (A) in civil engineering; (B) in metallurgy and 
mining engineering; (C) in chemistry; and (D) in agriculture. The 
several courses of study pursued in this department are as follows: 

First year, (same for A, B, C, and D.)—First term: Algebra, Loomis’s; geometry, 
Loomis’s ; chemnistry—laboratory practice and recitations, Eliot and Storér’s. Second 
teym : Geometry, Loomis’s ; chemistry—laboratory practice and recitations, Eliot and 
Storer’s; French; geometrical drawings, Warren’s. Third term: Geometry, Loomis’s; 
French ; chemistry—qualitative and laboratory practice, Fresenius’s; drawing, prin- 
ciples ef perspective. 2 

SECOND Year, (same for A and B.)—First term: Trigonometry, plane and spheri- 
cal, Loomis’s; descriptive geometry, Church’s; chain and compass surveying ; physics, 


PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 485 


Silliman’s. Second term: Analytical geometry, Loomis’s; descriptive geometry, 
Church’s; physics, Silliman’s; German; botany, Gray’s. Third term: Isometrical 
drawing, Church’s; surveying and plotting; botany, Gray’s; physics, Silliman’s. 

(C.) First term: Physics, Silliman’s; general chemistry—lectures and recitations, 
Bloxam’s; laboratory practice; trigonometry; qualitative analysis, Fresenius’s. Sec- 
ond term: Physics, Silliman’s; general chemistry, Bloxam’s; qualitative analysis; lab- 
oratory practice, Fresenius’s. Third term: Physics, Silliman’s; quantitative analysis ; 
laboratory practice, Fresenius’s ; mineralogy; lectures. 

(D.) First term: Physics, Silliman’s; general chemistry, Bloxain’s; plane and spher- 
ical trigonometry, Loomis’s; chain and compass surveys; German. Second term: 
Physics, Silliman’s; German; general chemistry—recitations, Bloxam’s; botany, 
Gray’s; laboratory practice, I'resenius’s. Third term: Physics, Silliman’s; botany, 
Gray’s; mineralogy, lectures; laboratory practice; quantitative analysis, Fresenius’s. 

THIRD yar. (A.)—Virst ierm: Harbor and river surveying; analytical geometry 
of three dimensions, Davies’s; shades and shadows, Church’s; isometrical drawing, 
Church’s. Second term: Differential calculus, Loomis’s; mechanics, Peck’s; drawing ; 
linear perspective, Church’s; topographical drawing, Smith’s; shading and tinting. 
Third term: Integral calculus, Loomis’s; hydrographical and topographical surveying 
and drawing ; astronomy, Loomis’s ; rhetoric. 

(B.) First term: Shades and shadows, Church’s; isometrical drawings, Church’s; 
chemistry, laboratory practice; quantitative analysis, Fresenius’s; recitations and 
lectures; general chemistry, lectures. Second term: Mechanics, Peck’s; linear per- 
spective, Church’s; topographical drawing, Smith’s; laboratory practice—quantita- 
tive analysis, Fresenius’s. Third term: Topographical and mining surveying; survey- 
ing and drawing; astronomy, Loomis’s; mineralogy, lectures; use of the blow-pipe 
and determinative mineralogy, Elderhorst’s; general metallurgical processes, fuel, &c., 
Kerl; rhetoric. 

(C.) First term: Laboratory practice; examination of poisons; analysis; physi- 
ology and zodlogy. Second term: Botany, Gray’s; zodlogy, anatomy, and physiology, 
lectures; assaying of ores; mineral water analysis; laboratory practice. Third term: 
Botany, Gray’s; geology, lectures ; general metallurgy, lectures; volumetric analysis ; 
laboratory practice—use of blowpipe and determinative mineralogy, Elderhorst’s ; 
. rhetoric. 

(D.) Pirst ierm: Mineral analysis; agricultural chemistry, Johnson’s; recitations; 
analysis of ash of plants; soils and fertilizers; zodlogy and physiology ; laboratory 
practice. Second term: Meteorology, Loomis’s; mechanics, Peck’s; botany, Gray’s; 
anatomy and physiology, lectures; laboratory practice; volumetric analysis. Third 
term: Use of blowpipe and determinative mineralogy, Elderhorst’s; botany, Gray’s ; 
geology, lectures; organic analysis; laboratory practice ; rhetoric. 

Fourtu yuar, (A.)—Virst term: Railroad surveying, Henck’s; location of roads . 
and laying out of curves; drawing maps, profiles, and sections; geodesy, coast sur- 
vey methods; bridge construction, Haupt’s; structuraldrawing. Second term: Higher 
mechanics; steam engine and other prime movers; stability of structures; strength 
of materials; hydraulics; theory of arches, Woodbury’s; stone-cutting, Maban’s; 
history. Third term: Geology, lectures; civil engineering, Mahan’s; properties of 
building materials; foundations ; lithology and economic mineralogy, lectures; prac- 
tical astronomy ; designing of structures. 

(B.) First term: Structural drawing ; special metallurgy, Kerl; recitations; assaying 
of ores; quantitative analysis, Fresenius’s; laboratory practice. Second term: Higher 
mechanies; steam engine and other prime movers; stability of structures; strength 
of materials; hydraulics; assaying continued; special metallurgy; recitations, Kerl. 
Third term: Geology, lectures; designing of structures; volumetric assay ; practical 
mining; ventilation; draining; sinking shafts; tunneling, and dressing ores. 

(C.) First term: Drawing ; laboratory practice ; agricultural chemistry ; analysis of 
agricultural products; recitations and lectures, Johnson’s. Second term: Laboratory 
practice ; analysis of soils and fertilizers; mechanics, Peck’s. Third term: Laboratory 
practice ; organic analysis; analysis of technical products; preparation of chemical 
products. 


The library of the University contains about 15,000 volumes. Import- 
ant additions have recently been made to the cabinet of natural history, 
which now contains 3,500 hthological specimens, 3,000 mineralogical, 
1,000 metallurgical, 5,000 geological, 6,000 conchological, 350 ornitholog- 
ical, 1,000 zodlogical, 10,000 botanical, 200 archeological, and 250 numis- 
matic. Besides these, there are 10,000 zodlogical specimens, 5,000 geo- 
logical, and 5,000 miscellaneous, belonging to individuals connected 
with the University, to all of which the students have access. 

The scholastic year commences about the first of September, and 


486 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


closes near the end of July, having three vacations. Whole number of 
students in the University and college, for the year, 115. Of this num- 
ber, 23 are in the scientific and agricultural department. 


WEST VIRGINIA. 


The faculty of West Virginia University, at Morgantown, consists 
of Rey. Alex. Martin, president and professor of mental and moral 
science; I*. S. Lyon, vice-president and professor of English literature 
and principal of preparatory department; S. G. Stevens, secretary and 
professor of astronomy and physics; H. H. Pierce, professor of mathe- 
matics and military tactics; J. J. Stevenson, professor of chemistry 
and natural history; F. W. Wood, professor of ancient and modern 
languages; O. W. Miller, tutor; D. B. Purinton, tutor in preparatory 
department; George M. Hagans, superintendent of grounds and build- 
ings; Hugh W. Brock, lecturer on physiology and hygiene; John A. 
Dillie, lecturer on civil and constitutional law; H. H. Pierce, register and 
librarian; A. G. Alcott, teacher of elocution. 

It is the design of the board of regents to make this University, by the 
thoroughness of its discipline and culture, as well as in its adaptation to 
the demands of the age, “ deserving of no second-rate position among 
the institutions of our land.” The legislature at its last session made a 
special appropriation of $22,855 to finish the University hall, which is 
now completed, and is a model of architectural beauty and convenient 
arrangement. It contains labo.atory, office, and recitation rooms, 
rooms for the preparatory department and library, and a chapel 52 by 
40 feet, with gallery; also rooms for the cabinet and museum, and two 
free halls for literary societies connected with the University. The 
grounds inclose more than twenty acres, which are tastefully laid out and 
surrounded with scenery of rare beauty. A part of this land is cultivated 
for experimental purposes in agriculture. The remainder is ornamented 
with forest and fruit trees, shrubbery, &c. Dr. B. Sears has made from 
the Peabody Educational Fund an annual appropriation of $500 for the 
education of indigent young men. 

There are now six departments of instruction in successful operation, 
viz, a preparatory department, literary department, scientific depart- 
ment, engineering department, agricultural department, and military 
department. 

The library contains about 1,500 volumes of carefully-selected books 
and standard works in the departments of history, biography, agricul- 
ture, theology, art, science, and general literature. 

The apparatus is sufficiently extensive for a thorough illustration of 
chemistry and physics. The museum embraces collections in mineralogy, 
geology, natural history, and paleontology, with characteristic speci- 
mens from all the geological formations. 


“WISCONSIN. 


The most important change which has been made since our last report 
is the introduction of one term of agricultural studies into the regular 
scientific course of the University during the winter of the sophomore 
year. In consequence of this change all the scientific students in the 
University will attend one course of lectures on agriculture. Agricul- 
tural experiments are conducted on the farm, in which the students 
have an opportunity of participating. 

Students who have satisfactorily completed the three-years’ course of 
Study can graduate and receive the degree of bachelor of philosophy. 

The University library comprises nearly 4,000 volumes, which the stu- 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. A87 


dents of all the departments are permitted to use free of expense. They 
also have permission to consult, without charge, the historical and 
State libraries, the former of which contains 35,000 volumes, and the 
latter a choice collection of miscellaneous works and a complete law 
library. There are also extensive and valuable geological and minera- 
logical cabinets and collections in natural history, besides well-seleeted 
philosophical and chemical apparatus. 

One student from each assembly district is admitted into the Univer- 
sity free of charge. ‘To all others the tuition is $6 per term, with $2 for 
room rent. Board in clubs or private families will not exceed $3 per 
week. The number of students in the college of arts for the year end- 
ing June, 1870, is 94. . 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 


The annual reports of the agricultural organizations of Missouri, 
California, Michigan, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, New York, Llinois, 
Ohio, Iowa, and Connecticut, for 1869, have been received, embracing 
all that have been published, as far as is known to the Department. A 
concise abstract of the most important features of each is given. The 
discussions at the meetings of the boards contain many valuable sugges- 
tions, though remarks are sometimes made that will not bear indorse- 
ment. The essays and lectures appear to have been weil considered, 
and comprise the results of many actual experiments. 


CONNECTICUT. 


The fourth annual report of the State board of agriculture of Con- 
necticut has been prepared and its original papers arranged by the secre- 
tary, T. 8S. Gold. It embodies the discussions at the meetings of the 
board, and several original articles, of which the leading subjects are 
swine, poultry, sheep and sheep husbandry, horses and their common 
ailments, and a second report on commercial fertilizers, with an analysis 
of their contents and their actual money value to farmers. ‘These papers 
are generally replies to queries propounded in a circular addressed to 
leading farmers throughout the State, and contain much information on 
the present condition of its agriculture. There are two lectures by 
Professor A. E. Verrill, on the external and internal parasites of do- 
mestic animals, liberally illustrated, forming a convenient treatise on the 
subject; also one by Dr. N. Cressey, on the natural history and patho- 
logical osteology of the horse; and another by Professor James Law, 
on the common ailments of the horse, and their prevention. 

Mr. Richard Goodman, of Lenox, Massachusetts, in a communication to 
the board, suggests that as a rule the farmers of New England eat too 
much pork as their daily food; men work off its effects, but the women, 
confined by in-door employment, exhibit its evil results in poor com- 
plexions, diseased bodies, and general want of stamina. To raise 
healthy boys and beautiful girls a greater variety of food is needed. 
He recommends placing promising steers on good pasture and early 
cut hay, so that every year one could be put into the beef-barrel, and 
after the first two years one could be killed at that age every fall; so 
that, with poultry and mutton occasionally, a good variety of food may 
be always available, and at a cost not higher than that of pork at the 
usual expense of raising corn in New England. The Chester White pigs 
are considered the best breed in the country; .they are small-boned, easily 


488 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


fattened, and if regularly fed they seldom squeal in the pen, but take 
their food, lie down, and fatten fast. They thrive best on cooked food; 
cracked rye is excellent for this purpose. A reasonable allowance of 
potatoes, pumpkins, and other vegetables, with meal and skim-milk, is 
better than feeding on meal alone, to produce a rapid and healthy 
growth of flesh. Clods of fresh earth should be thrown into their pens 
every few days. There is something about the fresh soil grateful to 
their health and thrift. <A visible improvement in the breed of swine 
nas been noticed for the last twenty-five years in all parts of the State; 
the mixture of the Chester White, the Suffolk, and other breeds, having 
produced a finer form, with less offal, and greater disposition to fatten. 

Mr. Verriil’s lectures on the external and internal parasites of domes: 
tic animals, and their effects and remedies, are a valuable contribution 
to the report. Farmers will here find descriptions, with drawings, of 
the numerous insects that annoy and afflict their live stock; as fleas, 
ticks, bot-flies, meat-flies, poultry-lice, &c., with the modes of preven- 
tion or remedy. We extract the following paragraph: 

The best and simplest, as well as safest, wash to destroy fleas, mites, itch-insects, 
mange acari, and all external parasites of men and animals, (and ‘probably the mange 
in horses, ) i is a solution of sulphuret of potassium in water, say two to four ounces toa 
gallon of cold water, varying the strength according to the age and the tenderness of 
the skin of the animal, as the solution will contain some potash, which, if too strong, 
would irritate a delicate skin. There is no da anger in its application, put it has the 
disagreeable odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. This sulphuret of potassium comes in 
the form of greenish or grayish lumps, put up in tight bottles. Itis used in pho- 
cography, and can usually ‘be bought at the principal drug stores. 

Carbolic acid, diluted in water, is also recommended as an excellent 

wash for killing most kinds of parasites. 

Mr. Bissell, of East Windsor, recommends shearing sheep before they 
are turned out to pasture. This prevents a loss of woo! by their shed- 
ding it on bushes, &c., and it is also cleaner aud freer from grit or sand. 
At the discussions before the board, it was held that sheep subdue the 
coarse plants, and sweeten the pasture more than sufficient to compen- 
sate for what they eat. They go better after cattle than before them, 
and destroy the white-weed and briers on the farm wherever they lie. 
On land formerly overrun with the white daisy, since sheep have been 
xept, not a daisy can be found. Sheep bring up a run-down farm sooner 
shan any other kind of stock. They like variety, and if properly fed 
will return more value of flesh than any animal raised in the State. It 
is claimed that in England the amount of grain raised is not diminished, 
but rather increased, by the vast number of sheep maintained there. 

It is assumed that for mutton sheep, now the chief source of profit in 
Connecticut, there is no breed that surpasses the South Downs. They 
are quiet and hardy, yield a good fleece, and are also good mothers, and 
have a free ilow of milk for their lambs; and if in decent condition, 
their lambs will thrive so that increase of growth can be noticed almost 
from day today. <A good ewe will yield four pounds of washed wool 
and one lamb per year. On a farm adapted to the purpose, one hun- 
dred sheep can be kept as cheaply as ten cows, and with much less 
labor. 

The “blind staggers” in sheep has been cured by injecting diluted 
earbolic acid into each nostril two or three times. The cud was soon 
regained, and the usual health of the sheep restored. Physiologists 
have long noticed that, if nutrition is carried too high, by overfeeding, 
Sterility in the animals is the consequence. Alluding tc the loss of 
sheep by dogs, several farmers remarked that, after losing many, they 
placed bells on each one of the remainder of the flock, and since have 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 489 


seldom lost a sheep where several hundred were kept, though ail their 
neighbors had lost many. Half-starved dogs, however, will kill sheep 
either with or without bells. 

Connecticut formerly did a large business in raising first-class horses, 
but latterly its best horses have been raised in other States. The heavy 
truck horses are brought from Pennsylvania, large carriage horses from 
Ohio, and light roadsters from Vermont, Canada, and other places. 
Horse dealers say Connecticut has been raising the poorest horses of 
late years of any State in the Union. To regain its former position 
in this business full-blooded stallions must be used, and better breeding 
mares. ‘There is a hundred dollars’ difference between the value of 
high-bred colts and ordinary ones, when two or three years old. Farm- 
ers have begun to see this, and a very decided improvement is taking 
place. They pay more attention to the breed of their mares and the 
selection of stallions, and are more careful of their colts. 

Mr. J. G. Stoddard, of Newington Junction, says that, in training colts, 
tact is as necessary as in rearing children. A yearling colt may become 
accustomed te the locomotive, umbrella, wheelbarrow, and other objects, 
and after being once convinced by touch or smell that no harm comes 
from them, he remembers; and all such matters of education tend to 
make him a safe horse ever after. A colt that was accustomed to run 
from his stable to the yard through a narrow door one day struck his 
hip against a door-jamb, and ever after was afraid of doors. Animals 
that think and remember, as the horse, need great care and precaution 
in management. He is an intelligent animal, and in proportion as he is 
well treated wili he be subservient to all demands on his labor. 

We observe with regret, by a note at the close of the report, that the 
State Board of Agriculture was abolished by resolution of the general 
assembly, July 21, 1870. The entire expense of the board during the 
four years of its existence has been but a littie over $13,000, including 
the cost of 12,000 volumes of their excellent reports that have been dis- 
tributed throughout the State. In the opinion of these best qualified 
to judge, Professor Johnson’s analyses of the commercial fertilizers 
found in their markets is alone worth more to the farmers of the State 
than the whole expense of the board. We have no doubt that a reor- 
ganization will soon be effected on a more liberal basis. 

There are sixteen county and town societies that appear to be in a 
flourishing condition. 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


The Seventeenth Annual Report of the secretary of the Massachusetts 
Board of Agriculture, Charles L. Flint, makes a volume of six hundred 
and fifty pages, and gives a comprehensive view of the agriculture of the 
State. lt embraces the report of the committee on contagious diseases 
among cattle, the discussions and addresses at the public meetings of the 
board, abstracts of returns from county secieties, and essays on various 
subjects connected with the pursuits of the farmer and fruit-grower. 

The financial condition of the State and County societies is very satis- 
factory, their permanent funds amounting to $272,225 59; their real and 
personal estate, less their indebtedness, $355,582 33; receipts of the year, 
$135,245 11; total disbursements, $120,981 31, including $30,734 for 
premiums and gratuities. 

In a discussion on mineral manures, Colonel Wilder remarked that 
there is nothing so much wanted on the old soils of New England, that 
have been long under cultivation, as potash. He considered ashes, at 50 
cents a bushel, the cheapest manure for any crop. On orchards it hasa 


490 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


particularly beneficial effect. This is shown by the fact that on all our 
virgin soils, recently burnt over, we get the fairest fruits, the finest vege- 
tables, and the best grain. This was illustrated at the exhibition of the 
American Pomological Society at Philadelphia, where the fruits from 
the new State of Kansas attracted universal admiration. He thought 
that salt, as a manure, should be used with great caution, and that it 
had no beneficial effect on land near the ocean, where there is naturally 
an atmosphere saturated with salt. 

Mr. Thompson, of Nantucket, stated that on land so poor it would not 
spindle corn, he had applied coal ashes, two or three inches deep, 
mixed with a little yellow loam, then plowed and harrowed, and in three 
years the soil was so much renovated that he cut a ton and a half to 
the acre of the best clover.: In another five-acre field, where he had 
applied leached ashes liberally, not much advantage was noted the first 
year, but the next year the benefit was very perceptible, which increased 
annually five or six years, when the meadow was plowed up. In a part 
of the field barn-yard manure was used, which ceased to show much 
effect the third year, while the ashes were effective for many years. A 
compost of three parts of muck to one of coal ashes was used in alter- 
nate strips on another field, by way of experiment, and sown with 
clover, rolled, but not harrowed. Wherever the compost was spread 
the clover germinated and developed handsomely, while the strips with- 
out the compost were barren. Mr. Thompson found it an object to pay 
25 cents a load of 16 bushels for all that were delivered at his farm. 
The alkaline matter of the ashes neutralizes the acid in peat. On Long 
Island the farmers send vessels to the State of Maine to bring ashes by 
the cargo to enrich the famous vegetable gardens that supply the mar- 
kets of New York. On the light, sandy lands of Nantucket coal ashes 
harden the soil, and bring in white clover. 

Mr. Hyde, president of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 
thought no one could go wrong in the use of wood ashes; he had used 
them with the most gratifying results, particularly on strawberries. 
He used peat ashes, chiefly as an absorbent, with the liquid contents of 
privies and with muck, with great satisfaction. He had not found coal 
ashes of much benefit on either wet or dry meadows, except in its 
mechanical operation on soils; as an absorbent it was no better than 
sand. He agreed with Colonel Wilder that salt is of no use on soils 
near the ocean, even in the culture of asparagus, a marine plant. Mr. 
Goodman, of Berkshire County, considered salt beneficial on lands in 
the interior beyond the influence of the sea air. Mr. Beebe, also of 
Berkshire, uses from one to three bushels of salt to the acre on oats, 
potatoes, and wheat, and on grass lands as a top-dressing, sown on the 
sod with the grain, harrowing in the whole together, and then sows the 
grass seed on top without stirring the soil. When used on Jand sown 
with oats it stiffens the straw, increases the weight, and his oats were 
Six inches higher than the crop standing side by side, with the same 
cultivation except the application of salt. He said one of the best 
manures for sandy land is a compost of one bushel of salt and three 
bushels of marl, which should lie four months under cover; then add 
five bushels of this compost to a cord of muck. (Professor Mapes’s 
famous recipe.) He tried it fifteen years ago cn land that still produces 
double the quantity of grass that is yielded on adjoining lands not thus 
manured. He thinks it, also, a great preventive of the rot in potatoes. 
While speaking of salt, he remarked that great care is requisite in 
feeding it te animals; he thought that nine-tenths of the animals reported 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 491 


as dying of murrain are killed by giving them too much salt, particu- 
larly young animals. 

In discussing the subject of dairy stock, Dr. Loring stated that there 
were 150,000 cows in the State, and that nearly $2,000,000 worth of 
milk is annually sold; yet with plenty of good pasture and an increased 
demand for dairy products, there had been but a slight increase in the 
number of cows for ten years, which indicated that the most systematic 
and economical system of producing milk, butter, and cheese has not 
yet been attained. Sufficient care is not exercised in selecting the cows. 
For the climate of the Northern States a medium-sized cow is needed ; 
not too large, too coarse, too thin, nor too fine; but compact, firmly set 
upon her legs, with a lively countenance, and a good straight back. In 
fine, an animal with a clean, well-shaped head, a luxurious mouth, loose 
shoulder, straight quarter, broad back, and great depth of carcass, the 
tail long and the rump level. There should be an increase of the 
number of cows; 300,000 could be sustained in Massachusetts with 
profit; the amount of manure would be doubled, and tlie fields thus 
“made to smile with increased fertility. He considers the feeding of 
oleaginous food, as cotten-seed, injurious to dairy cows. In the course 
of three years he has lost thirty out of fifty Ayrshire cows. He said: 

Their udders are made for work, and they are not to be broken down by a trifle. 
But I found the udders of those cows fed on cotton-seed meal had all got out of condi- 
tion. One teat would go, then another, and at last Thad cows with two teats, cows 
with one teat, and the value of my herd was gone. They lost their appetite, and it 
wns evident that they had been fed on something that did not agree with them, and 
that their lacteal system had been ruined. This little delicate organism had been in- 
flamed, was broken up, and was good for nothing. I supposed it was the cotton-seed 
meal, * * * The nearer you can get to pasture grass for feeding dairy cows, the 
better. Good water, good light, early-cut hay, roots, and shorts are sufficient for any 
cow. It is the cheapest food you can get. 

The Jersey cattle, (known for many years as Alderneys, as vessels 
trading at the Channel Islands usually touch at Alderney last, and 
being reported as from that island, the cows taken on board, though 
really from the Isle of Jersey, are called Alderneys,) are becoming great 
favorites as dairy stock. In the eastern part of the State are many 
herds of the finest animals of this breed. 

Colonel Wilder, in his address on the culture of fruits, urges more 
careful attention to the requirements of different varieties to different 
soils and treatment. Some fruits are suited to one locality, some to 
another, and a very few to a great variety of latitudes. Upon the 
observation and study of these facts depends much of success in fruit 
culture. Some varieties are adapted to a wide extent of territory, as 
the Bartlett pear and the Red Astrachan apple, which succeed through- 
eut our country. The thinning of the apple, pear, peach, plum, and 
grape crop is indispensable for the production of large, fair, and valuable 
fruits. Such fruits command a higher price and a more ready sale than 
those not thinned. By thinning our fruit we also prevent the exhaustion 
of the tree and keep up a regular succession of good fruit. The over- 
bearing of a fruit tree one year almost always occasions barrenness the 
next. In gathering apples they should be packed when perfectly dry, 
not bruised nor chafed. The waxy or greasy secretion observed on 
fruits is a natural provision for the protection of the skin from the effects 
of moisture and air, and should not be removed even by wiping, for 
when the skin is deprived of this protection, or is broken by pressure, 
the oxygen of the air comes in contact with the juices of the fruit and 
fermentation and decay ensue. Colonel Wilder says: 


Summer and early fall pears should be harvested as soon as they commence ripening 
on the tree, and be placed in a dark, cool room until ready for use. This process serves 


492 AGRICULTURAL REPOR7. 


to elaborate the juice and sugar, but if left on the tree until mature, most kinds will 
become mealy and fibrous. Not so with early apples; a contrary practice should be 
adopted with them; for instance, the early apples should be allowed to become per- 
fectly ripe before being gathered. So well convinced of this fact are our best culti- 
vators near Boston, that they mulch the ground under the trees with hay or straw, and 
’ allow such early varieties as the Early Harvest, Sweet Bough, Red Astrachan, Wil- 
liams’ Favorite, and even Gravenstein to drop from the trees, and gather them daily. 

With late varieties, both of the apple and pear, it is best to allow them to remain on 
the trees as long as possible without injury from frost and gales; but when the foliage 
has fallen or is destroyed by frost, the functions of the tree are arrested, and no fur- 
ther advantage to the fruit can be derived. 

As the flavor of fruits is so very delicate, it is absolutely indispensable to keep them 
from all decaying substances, either their own or other matter. The aroma of fruit, 
upon which depends so much of its relish and excellence, is extremely volatile, and 
the fruit should therefore be excluded from the air as much as possible, only admitting 
what may be necessary to preserve proper temperature, and fer the prevention of too 
much moisture. No imperfect specimen should be admitted into the recom, and all 
decaying fruit should be removed immediately. The practice of spreading out fruits 
on shelves, as formerly recommended in this country, and still practiced in Europe, 
requires too much room and waste, and even in pretty close apartments they lose much 
of their flavor, and without extraordinary care will become dry and shriveled. The 
better course, therefore, is to pack in boxes and barrels; and, to avoid the necessity of 
handling, to pack them immediately from the tree. 

In summing up the most important considerations in fruit culture, 
Colonel Wilder urges the following: Thorough and perfect drainage of 
the land, either natural or artificial; proper preparation of the soil, 
clean cultivation, and constant care of orebards; the necessity of 
excluding grass, grain, and all other crops from orchards, except, per- 
haps, a few vegetables while the trees are young; the importance of 
regular manuring of fruit trees, (as well as other crops,) and of applying 
the manure in the fall, on or near the surface, so that the rain, snow, and 
frost may prepare and convey its elements to the roots; the importance 
of thinning the fruit, thereby improving its excellence, increasing its 
value, and preventing the evil effects of overbearing, which always 
results in injuring the constitution and shortening the life of the tree; 
and lastly, clean culture, without destruction of the roots by deep 
plowing or spading, and constant care and vigilance are indispensable 
conditions of success. 

The following select list of fruits is recommended as adapted to 
seasons of maturity, and to most sections of the State: 

APPLES. — Summer: Early Harvest, requires a warm, rich soil; Red Astrachan, 
Williams’ Favorite. Autumn: Foundling, Porter, Gravenstein, Mother, Holden Pippin, 
Hubbardston Nonsnch. Winter: Rhode Island Greening, requires a good soil; Bald- 
win, Roxbury Russet, requires a deep rich soil. 

Prears.—Standards on pear roots: Clapp’s Favorite, large, should be gathered by the 
25th of August; Brandywine, early and productive; Bartlett, succeeds throughout the 
country ; Doyenné Boussock, prolific and profitable; Belle Lucrative, rich, but does not 
color as well as some; Buffum, very vigorous and productive; Urbaniste, one of the 
best autumn; Merriam, golden russet, a fine market variety; Onondaga, good for 
market; Lawrence, a popular winter sort; Beurré d’Anjon, early winter, and the best 
acquisition of the age; Vicar of Winkfield, hardy, fine tree, superior for cooking, and 
frequently good for the table. Dovarfs on pear or quince roots: Louise Bonne de Jersey ; 
Duchesse @Angouléme; Urbaniste ; Vicar of Winisfield. 

GRAPES.—Delaware, small, early, rich, and requires a warm, generous soil; Hartford 
Prolific, early; Massasoit, (Jiogers’s No. 3,) early; Wilder, (Rogers’s No. 4;) Concord ; 
Merrimac, (Logers’s No. 19,) the last three ripening about September 20. 

T. D. Thatcher, in a report on clover asa fertilizer, considers a good 
clover lay worth as muchas five cords of common manure to theacre. To 
insure a good lay, not less than ten or twelve pounds of seed should be 
sown to the acre, on land thoroughly prepared for its reception, and 
well rolled after being sown. Clover not only imparts fertility when 
plowed under, but its reots divide and break the soii while growing, and 
render it pulverous asthey decay. The thicker the plants, the firmer 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 493 


and better the herbage; the more abundant the roots, the greater the 
benefit to the soil, both as regards pulverization and fertility. On wet, 
low lands, or very light, sandy soils, the endeavor to make clover a fer. 
tilizer sufficient to redeem such lands and place them in a good con- 
dition for corn or wheat, or even pasturing, would prove a waste of 
money and labor. 

As good roads are closely connected with agriculture and other promi- 
nent interests, the legislature appropriated $400 for one cr more pre- 
miums on the science of road-making, and the best methods of superin- 
tending their construction and repair, and authorized the printing of 
three thousand copies. Three of these essays are printed in the appen- 
dix of the report. As amethod of economy to the towns, it is found 
cheaper to have roads well built, and to keep them constantly in high 
condition, by daily attention, than to undertake their annual repair, as 
was formerly the custom in New England. In Waltham, for instance, 
with sixty miles of roads, a few men have been employed for twelve 
years past, to watch for the beginnings of any wear upon them, and 
mend a defect when it first appears, instead of waiting till the trouble 
becomes serious and then setting a large force at work. One man, with 
a shovel full of broken stene, can prevent what it may require half a 
dozen men with a team to remedy, after a few months’ neglect. It costs 
that town, to keep its admirable roads in order, and clear of snow-drifts, 
about $66 a mile. In the adjoining town of Newton, where the roads 
are kept in incomplete repair, on the old system, the cost is $176 per 
mile, nearly double, and for very inferior roads. In Waltham the principal 
streets and roads are well macadamised, and sustain loads of six tons 
without being cut into ruts. On passing the boundaries of the town, 
the changed character of other roads, in their ruts, mud, and neglected 
repairs is painfully evident. The heaviest tax paid by the people of 
the State is that for keeping up what one of their writers denominates 
“the worst roads in existence. ” 


NEW YORK. 


The twenty-eighth volume of the Transactions of the New York State 
Agricultural Society (which was not received till after our last report 
was placed in the hands of the printer) comprises the report of Dr. Car- 
malt, commissioner for investigating the causes of abortion in cows; 
several addresses at the State and county fairs; abstracts of the reports 
of about one hundred town and county farmers’ clubs; essays on new 
American grapes; on salt as a manure, and for domestic purposes; on 
the solubility of phosphate materials; the construction and heating of 
dairy-rooms, and the reasons why clover is beneficial as a preparatory 
crop for wheat. Dr. Carmalt’s labors have resulted in overthrowing 
most of the preconceived theories and conjectures as to the causes of abor- 
tion in cows, and he is collecting a fund of information on the treatment of 
cows by dairy farmers, and the character of the vegetable products of 
the farms affected by, as well as those free from, the malady. This infor- 
mation is important, though no certain resuits as to the causes and pre- 
vention of the mischief have yet been reached. The importation of 
thorough-bred stock was large during the year, principally of Jersey 
cattle, a breed rapidly coming into favor; likewise of Cotswold, Lincoln, 
and Silesian sheep. 

Mr. White, president of Cornell University, thinks it a great mistake 
that agricultural colleges should be expected to give primary instruction 
in the rudiments of agriculture and the mechanic arts; that is, that in 
agriculture “ they should take young men who never touched a spade; 


494 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


who do not know wheat from barley ; who are too indolent or too proud 
to go upon a farm—and teach them the A, B, C of farming, the usual 
method of spading, hoeing, and plowing, just as they might learn it in 
every field of this broad land. Or that in mechanic arts they should 
take young men, too indolent or too proud to go into the workshop, and 
set them at playing with tools, in the hope of teaching them to wield a 
hammer or to shove a plane.” There is no “royal road” to farming. 
These institutions should take sound, manly, capable young men, where 
the farms, the shops, and the preliminary schools leave them, and give 
them back to the country, strong to develop and increase the resources 
of neighborhoods, States, and nations. The splendid endowments of 
our leading colleges should not be frittered away on preliminary education, 
that is better given by farms, shops, public schools, and academies, but 
should be concentrated for an advanced education, with the best professors, 
buildings, libraries, models, apparatus, machines, and the best farms and 
shops. It isnot enough to have a professor of agricultural chemistry, 
or of the mechanic arts, here and there. They should be brought to- 
gether, with ample educational material of every sort. Resources for 
primary education should be scattered—but concentrated for advanced 
studies. 

Mr. 8. 8S. Whitman, of Little Falls, thinks farmers lose much money in 
raising inferior hogs, and recommends that they keep only thorough- 
bred boars. It is not advisable, however, to raise thorough-breds merely 
for the butcher. Select the best sows of the common stock, large, even 
if a little coarse, and cross them with a pedigree boar of good shape, 
fine bones, and great aptitude to fatten and mature early, such as the 
Suffolk, Berkshire, Essex, or Yorkshire; and if the young pigs are well 
fed, no more useful hog for ordinary purposes can be desired. It is ab- 
solutely essential at all times to use athorough-bred boar, but whether 
of large or of small breed depends on circumstances. For spring pigs, to 
be fattened in the fall, the small breed will be the most profitable; for 
pigs to be kept tilla year or eighteen months old, the Yorkshire, or some 
other large breed, may be better. Crossing with a large sow, even of 
the smallest of the small breeds, (the Prince Albert) will give a hog 
which will dress four hundred pounds, at a year or fourteen months old. 

Dr. 8. J. Parker, of Ithaca, details interesting results in hybridizing 
grapes, by cutting off the anthers of some hardy native grape, and flood- 
ing the pistils with pollen from the Black Hamburg, or some other su- 
perb foreign grape, from which several fine varieties have already been 
raised, combining the peculiarities of both parents. He asserts that 
even the Black Hamburg never dies from cold, but from disease, 
and says that he has had canes of this grape bear freely after exposure 
to 18° below zero, F. He suggests that hybrids may be made by inter- 
twining bearing branches of two sorts, so that the pollen of one will 
fertilize the other; and is confident that ultimately we shall produce 
scores of grapes as luscious as any now grown in Europe, fitted to our 
varied climate, and eaten everywhere in our broad domain. At Ham- 
mondsport, New York, where grape culture has been so successful, the 
vines are trained on a low wire trellis, so that the fruit is only from 10 
to 18 inches from the ground, just high enough to keep it out of the 
splash of rain-mud. 

Mr. Joseph Harding, of England, in a prize essay, states that the Amer- 
ican factory cheese now finds a ready sale, at high prices, among the 
most fastidious consumers in England, and sells at better rates than 
English cheese, which has solong monopolized their markets. He urges 
greater attention to small details, as milk begins to decompose the 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 495 


momentit leaves the cow, andis easily affected by external influences; and 
if it comes in contact with the effluvia from gutters, or other noxious 
places, or even with meat hung in its vicinity, it will at once absorb the 
taint. This attention is important, as the same milk which is made into 
inferior cheese can as easily and at the same expense be made to yield 
a fine article, and with very different pecuniary results. 

It appears from Mr. Geddes’s essay on salt that, until within a few 
years, the use of Turk’s Island salt had always been required in salting 
pork for the army. But experiments made under the direction of the 
War Department dispelled the prejudice that required the use of this 
salt, and proved that the Onondaga salt, tested in hot climates and for 
long periods, is quite as good as that made anywhere to keep army or 
navy pork, and itis now used by the Government. It has also been 
extensively introduced into the great dairy districts in New York, and 
has given satisfaction after the severest tests. Even the prejudices of 
our eastern fishermen, who, for a century, have imported all their salt 
from the Mediterranean coasts of France, have given way, and salt from 
Onondaga is fast coming into use with them, with satisfactory results. 
The salt springs of Onondaga are now capable of supplying 10,000,000 
people with salt for every purpose; and in Michigan, the supply 
of water from their salt springs is practically unlimited, and that, 
too, where the salt can be rolled directly from the manufactories on 
board the vessels that navigate the great lakes. An immense bed of 
rock-salt has also been discovered in Louisiana, and it is so easily worked 
that the salt can be delivered in New Orleans at $4 a ton, which is a 
lower price than that of the coarse English salt on shipboard at Liver- 
pool. Relative to the expediency of using salt as a manure, experi- 
ments are mentioned with diverse and sometimes opposing results. 
This is doubtless owing to variations in the quantity used, the manner 
of using, and the difference in the compositions of the soils on which it 
has been tried. After weighing all the facts in the case, Mr. Geddes 
comes to these conclusions : 


Some soils have enough salt in them, and more added does injury. Such lands may 
be fonnd along the seacoast, and where salt springs appear. Other lands are greatly 
benefited by light dressings of salt. English farmers “scatter salt over their fields at 
the rate of two bushels per acre, with good success,” and this quantity may be enough. 
Some men have greatly puzzled themselves over the fact that light dressings are bene- 
ficial, while heavy ones do positive injury, and have finally said, as salt in small 
quantities is known to accelerate the puiretaction of animal substance, and when in 
larger, to retard it, and thus is useful in assisting the organs of digestion in men and 
other carnivorous animals, * ‘ e so it may aid in reducing vegetable mat- 
ter in the soil into food for plants, if applied in small quantities. 

Mr. Skinner sowed rather less than half a barrel of coarse salt on an 
old sod filled with grubs. The salt was soon dissolved by rain. The 
ground was harrowed and planted with corn, and half a pint of leached 
ashes was scattered on each hill. The yield of corn was very large, and 
not a hill was injured by worms. 

Mr. Solon Robinson thinks the best lime for farmers comes from oyster- 
shells, or marl, which is a product of small shells. Limestone clay lands 
are always productive, as the blue-grass regions of Kentucky and other 
Western States prove. Their alluvial portions produce wonderful crops 
of Indian corn, and at some future day, he is confident, will give a great 
yield of sugar beets, the culture of which will prove a staple industry 
of American farmers, as it isin France and Germany. Decomposed 
argillaceous rocks, particularly when micaceous, make good soil for 
grapes, as the mica affords potash, which grapes must have. It is also 
a prime necessity for growing wheat, as all good farmers know, and 


496 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


wheat, of all things grown for human food, is the most important. 
Properly cultivated fields never become exhausted, if all that is taken 
from them in grain, grass, or roots, be restored to them in excrementi- 
tious manures. The tobacco and cotton fields of the South are not the 
only portions of the land that have been abused by wasteful culture. 

I‘armers are urged to plant forest trees for timber and shelter, as well 
as Shade trees by the roadside. Every tree set out to ornament a home- 
stead is a profitable investment, increasing the salable value of a farm. 

The receipts of the State Agricultural Society were $47,341 35; ex- 
penses, $29,663 39; entries, 2,662. Receipts of the American Institute, 
$24,811 98; expenses, $14,734 89; balance m both cases invested in 
United States bonds. 

OHIO. 


The twenty-fourth annual report of the Ohio State Board of Agricul- 
ture, with its usual statistical matter, comprises also the proceedings of 
the Ohio Horticultural Society, and essays on cheese factories, flax 
husbandry, the Colorado potato bug, hog feeding and pork packing, 
road making, ergot as affecting the dairy interest, parturient fever in 
cows, several agricultural experiments, (the latter abridged from the 
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society,) and a lecture delivered be- 
fore a farmers’ club in England on the supposed detericration of the soil 
of Great Britain. These articles give a permanent value to the volume. 

The balance and receipts of the board for the last year were $48,448 19; 
expenditures, $24,502 18; leaving $23,946 01, invested chiefly in United 
States bonds. About 80,000 admission tickets were sold at the last 
State fair. The number of entries was 4,100, an increase of 581 over 
that of the previous year. 

The production of cheese in Ohio the past year was. 22,266,927 
pounds, of which nearly 3,060,000 pounds were from Ashtabula County 
This and the other Counties on the Reserve have hitherto enjoyed a 
monopoly of the dairy business of the State, but it is rapidly spread- 
ing. In Geauga County, also on the Reserve, there are twenty-five 
cheese factories, which use the milk of nearly 15,000 cows. The aver- 
age yearly receipts of the best dairies during the last four years have 
been fully $60 per cow, and of dairies generally rather more than $50. 
A farm of one hundred acres, allowing twenty-five acres for woods, 
orchard, garden, buildings, and yard, will keep handsomely eighteen 
cows, and the receipts would thus amount to $900. Besides, from the 
farm would be obtained garden vegetables, fruit, milk, butter, meat, 
and wood sufficient for family consumption. One man could do all the 
needed work on the one hundred acres, with the exception of milking, 
and in this the assistance of only one person would be needed, usually 
one of his own children, or his wife. In five townships on the Reserve 
there are 8,600 cows, which give the following result : 


8,600 cows, 350 pounds of cheese per cow .----- sakes ow, she SEE 3, 010, 000 pounds. 
od pounds of bubter per GOW os ns. osetia =a 258, 000 pounds. 

These amounts of butter and cheese are equal to 35,346,000 pounds of milk. 
3,010,000 pounds of cheese, at 15 cents per pound ...--. ..--.52---------eec6 $451, 500 
258,000 pounds of butter, at 30 cents per pound ........-.-...------------ 77, 400 
Skinstandryy hey, G2 per liead!.2. 23:2 ket he etl 4) ee 17, 200 
546, 100 


There were manufactured, bought, and shipped from Solon, Ohio, last 
year, 2,821,263 pounds of cheese, all handled by three firms. in that 
township. 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 497 


There are ninety-seven cheese factories reported in thirteen counties, 
chiefly on the Reserve. As an evidence of the prosperity of dairymen, 
it is mentioned that in one township on the Reserve nine-tenths of the 
income tax is paid by them, although they occupy less than half the 
land. Their profits are also more certain and uniform than in other 
branches of agricultuze. If a severe drought decreases the yield of milk, 
italsoenhanees the price; and the difference between the product of cheese 
in the best and in the poorest season is nowhere so>great as in the 
_ case of grain, where one sometimes fails to realize the cost of seed and 
labor. The profits of dairying may be largely increased also by improv- 
ing the stock, and breeding with special reference to milking “qualiniee 

The reports of the County societies are generally encouraging. Sev- 
eral new kinds of wheat and oats have been distributed by the ‘Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, of which the Tappaharnnock wheat ‘is considered 
earlier than any other variety. One quart sent to an intelligent farmer 
in Auglaize County, a few years since, had increased to about two bun- 
dred bushels the past season, and was all sold at a good price. From one 
quart of oats distributed by the Department, Mr. “Kinney, of the board 
of managers of the Wayne County Society, raised one hundred and 
seventy pounds. 

Horses of Canadian, English, French, and Norman breeds are raised 
in several Counties for the Eastern markets. Assessors’ returns show 
an aggregate of over 700,000 horses in the State, and but 22,057 mules. 

The apple crop in Lorain County was considered worth more than 
half a million of dollars last year, upwards of 80,000 barrels having 
been shipped. For thelast two years blight and insects have committed 
great ravages. It is estimated that this County alone loses $50,000 an- 
nually by insects, and it is proposed to introduce the English sparrow 
extensively to destroy the insects and their larve. There are about two 
hundred and fifty acres devoted to vineyards in this County, from*which 
were sold about two hundred and fifty tons of grapes, which brought 
the producer an average of 6 cents a poand; about 3,000 gallons of 
wine were also made. The rot and mildew are ‘becomin g ‘troublesome. 

Mr. J. M. Allen says that the annual production of flax-seed in this 
country in 1850, as shown by the census, was 562,000 bushels, and in 
1860 it was 611,000 bushels, an. increase of only about 50,000 bushels in 
that decadg—a period when the manufacture of tow from tangled flax- 
straw was almost entirely unknown; while, with the subsequent intro- 
duction of flax machinery, the yearly product is now believed to amount 
to not less than 2,500,000 bushels. The flax crop of last year was 
equivalent to 75,000,000 pounds of fiber. The average product of seed 
throughout the State is six and one-third bushels per acre, with five 
hundred to eight hundred pounds of straw. Compared with grain 
crops, flax in many localities is a much better crop for farmers. [f all 
the fiber were worked up into bagging it would cover a cotton crop of 
3,000,000 bales. Hence, Mr. Allen coneludes that flax husbandry, 
having become an important braneh of agricultural industry throughout 
the Northwest, with much capital directed to its development, should 
be sustained by the Government against the inferior foreign jute bagging 
now being urged upon the cotton raisers, and which will drive our ‘linen 
bagging from the market should tariff protection be withdrawn. It is 
stated that the tensile strength of flax is double that of Hast India jute. 
Not one-fifth of the American flax fiber has yet been utilized, although 
there are fourteen mills in the West engaged in making gunny bags and 
bagging for cotton, 

32 A 


498 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Mr. Joseph Sullivant, in an article on hog-feeding and pork-packing, 
states, as the result of many experiments, that cotton-cake, beans, peas, 
and linseed-cake contain more of flesh-givers than corn, and might be fed 
very advantageously to young and growing animals; yet, upon the 
whole, Indian corn stands preéminent as the cheapest food material ac- 
cessible to farmers. Estimating the return of perk from a bushel of 
raw corn at nine pounds, his experiments prove that corn ground into 
meal increases in value about 33 per cent. over that of corn fed in the ear; 
and that thoroughly steaming and cooking the whole corn raises its 
value to but little less than that of cooked meal, which he estimates at 
66 per cent. over that of raw corn fed in the ear. He adds: 

It is true that grinding, steaming, or cooking the corn can in nowise add a single 
atom to the elements already existing; it raises its value only by rendering the whols 
nutritive matter available by making it more soluble and of easier digestion, so that 
the maximum of nutrition is more readily and certainly obtained. 

I conclude that nine pounds of pork from a bushel of raw corn fed in the ear, twelve 
pounds from raw meal, thirteen and a half from boiled corn, and sixteen and a half from 
cooked meal, are no more than a moderato average to be realized from a bushel of corn 
under ordinary circumstances of weather, with dry and clean feeding-pens. All this is 


within the amounts we have shown to be probable and attainable upon our chemical 
basis. 


In conclusion, Mr. Sullivant says: 


If I have proved anything, it is that itis possible and comparatively easy to get 50 
per cent. more for corn than we now do for all the millions of bushels fed to hogs in the 
process of pork-making. Sustaining in this industry alone a loss of millions of dollars 
annually, the question of how much pork in a bushel of corn is not an insignificant one. 

It strikes me that the different State agricultural societies could engage in no more 
beneficial work than to arrest the enormous losses of our wasteful feeding processes, by 
the dissemination of correct information ; and, by aseries of well-conducted experiments, 
lend their powerful aid to elucidate so important a subject. 


An account is given of the great sale of Short-horn cattle of Mr. Daniel 
McMillan, near Xenia, which occurred on the 8th of June, a record 
of which is found in “Current Facts in Agriculture,” page 144, The 
‘product of this sale exceeded $64,000, the average being somewhat 
over $900 each. In comparing with English prices, it is stated that 
the great English breeder, Charles Colling, sold out his herd of forty- 
seven animals, in 1810, during the continental wars and general inflation 
of prices. One bull, Comet, sold for 1,000 guineas; the cow Lily for 
410 guineas. The entire herd averaged about $733 each. His brother, 
Robert, sold his herd of sixty-one animals, in 1318, for £7,353, averag- 
ing about $643 each. The executors of the late English breeder, 
Thomas Bates, sold his stock of sixty-eight animals, of all classes in the 
herd, which brought only $22,000, an average of $323 53 each, though 
several of the choicest brought upwards of $1,000 each, and it was a 
time of great depression in agricultural values. After the death of 
Lord Ducie, a careful and judicious breeder, who had purchased the 
best of Mr. Bates’s stock, his entire herd of forty-nine cows and heifers 
was sold at an average of $678 each; his thirteen bulls averaging $930 
each. Several of the Duchess and Oxford tribes were brought to the 
United States, where they have been successfully bred, and many dis- 
posed of at private sale at prices hitherto unprecedented in the annals 
of Short-horn breeding —$3,000, $5,000, and even $7,000 each! No pub- 
lic sale of these tribes of cattle has yet taken place. 

Notwithstanding the general complaint of rot and mildew in grapes 
particularly in the Catawba, the acreage of vineyards has increase 
from 7,574 to 10,446 the past year, and the product of wine from 
143,767 to 155,045 gallons. Mr. Flagg, in a Jetter on the sulphur cure for 
mildew, is confident that as in Europe sulphur cures the oidiwm, with all 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 499 


its train of symptoms, and drainage suppresses charbon and ail its train, 
so in Ohio, sulphur and drainage have cured this fungus disease the past 
year and rendered practically harmless the black sickness of the grapes. 
The best cultivators urge the importance of thinning out the fruit, over- 
cropping being a common fault in the Ohio vineyards. The orchard 
products of the State are estimated at $7,000,000 annually. ‘The ship- 
ments of strawberries from Cincinnati in one week, in June, reached 
18,200 bushels, or more than 455 tons, equal to 45 car loads. 

There is a general complaint that the crops of apples are both decreas- 
ing and deteriorating, which is ascribed to several causes, as, now and 
then, severe winters, killing many trees outright and rendering others 
feeble and sickly for years; severe droughts; undrained and badly-pre- 
pared land before planting, with poor or no cultivation afterward ; 
starvation, by cropping the soil, when naturally poor, with no manuring ; 
bad pruning; and borers. The evils affecting fruit generally are attrib- 
utable to the great increase of inseet enemies, which will not be miti- 
gated as long as an indiscriminate slaughter of small insectivorous 
birds is allowed. The curculio now attacks apples as well as stone-fruits, 
Strong hardware paper, wound tightly around the base of the tree, is 
recommended as a good protection against the peach tree worm. 


MICHIGAN. 


The eighth annual report of the Secretary of the State Board of Agri- 
culture comprises not only the usual statistics and proceedings of the 
board, but also reports from the county societies; discussions of the 
Western Lake Shore Horticultural Association, of more than ordinary 
interest, on the adaptability of that part of the State to the production 
of fruit; essays on wheat culture, grasses, cheese dairying; expergments 
in fattening swine, and the Colorado potato bug; exhaustive articles on 
Short-horn cattle and long-wooled sheep, by the secretary, Sanford 
Howard, and an interesting article on Huropean agriculture, with notes 
by Mr. Howard. 

The receipts of the board last year were $70, 752 17; disbursements, 
$66, 672 69. Receipts of the State Agricultural Society, $22, 863 87; 
disbursements, $22,954 11, including some extra investments. The 
number of students at the State Agricultural College was 69. The 
superintendent of the college farm reports various experiments in fat- 
tening stock, the application of manures and special fertilizers, and 
with varieties of grain. The Excelsior oats yielded at the rate of 60.6 
bushels per acre, weighing 37.5 pounds per bushel; the Somerset oats, 
94.2 bushels, weighing 31 pounds; the White Schonen oats, 62.3 bushels, 
weighing 37.5 pounds; and the Black Swedish oats, 66.2 bushels, weigh- 
ing 30.6 pounds. These four varieties were introduced and distributed 
by the Department of Agriculture. The Prince Edward’s Island oats 
yielded 63.2 bushels, weighing 34.7 pounds ; the Brooks oats, 68.6 bushels, 
weighing 31 pounds; the Norway oats, 50.3 bushels, weighing 28 pounds; 
and the Surprise oats, 38.3 bushels, weighing 36.2 pounds. 

The ravages of the potato bug have been less destructive than usual, 
the chief causes of which were the two or three warm weeks in April 
and May that brought out large numbers before their usual time, which 
were destroyed by cold and starvation in the raw and changeable 
weather that followed; farmers also were vigilant in picking and de- 
stroying the old beetles as fast as they appeared, so that, after all, there 
was raised the largest and best matured crop of potatoes ever produced 
in the State. The potato bug, the grasshopper, rose bug, and army 


500 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


worm are largely under the influence of atmospheric changes and con- 
ditions, which often prevent their deing much harm. 

Mr. Geddes, in an elaborate article on the culture of winter wheat, after 
allowing for ail drawbacks, perils from insects, &c., comes to the 
conclusion that it wjll be profitable as a leading crop as long as people 
prefer wheat bread to any other, although from various causes it may 
sometimes be unremunerative, like all other crops and branches of busi- 
ness. With good wheat land a farmer can combine with this crop the 
raising of other cereals, dairying, stock-raising, or wool-growing, as cir- 
cumstances may make most judicious, thus availing himself of all the 
advantages of mixed agriculture. 

Cheese factories are inereasing in various parts of the State. In Lena- 
wee County 331,000 pounds of cheese were made from 3,140,660 pounds 
of milk, averaging one pound of cheese from 9.49 pounds of milk. It 
was sold for $52)421 25, or at $15 83 per 100 pounds; the total cost of 
manufacture and selling was $2 82 per 100 pounds. There are fifteen 
factories in this County alone, using the milk of upwards of 4,000 cows. 
Other factories in the State are working with satisfactory results. 
Heretofore Michigan has never produced cheese enough for home con- 
sumption, but with the number of new factories going into operation, it 
is probable that the State will soon make a surplus for exportation. 

At the discussions of the Lake Shore Horticultural Association, Mr. E. 
P. Powell, of Adrian, a successful cultivator of pears, recommended 
mulching pear trees as a preventive of blight, and as advantageous 
in other respects. He sometimes uses long manure, though preferring 
only grass. His soil isa clay underdrained. <A few years after planting 
his orchard be ceases plowing the land, and simply cuts the grass and 
spreads it about the trees. No strength is taken from the land 
excep} what is gathered in the fruit, and this is replaced four-fold in 
mulching. No stimulus is given to hasten the growth of the trees, and the 
wood is consequently strong, compact, and ripe each year. He con- 
siders the Flemish Beauty, Belle Lucrative, Louise Bonne de Jersey, 
Lawrence, Seckel, White Doyenne, Onondago, Beurré d’Anjou, Bartlett, 
Howell, and Tyson, the surest bearers. The best keepers, and those he 
finds most profitable, are the Butfum, White Doyenne, Beurré Clairgean, 
Seckel, Sheldon, Onondaga, and Beurré d@’Anjou. For winter pears he 
prefers the Lawrence ‘to the Vicar of Winkfield, or even to the Nelis. 
The Buffum is highly esteemed, has many points of excellence, and occu- 
pies but little space, being nearly as erect in growth as a Lombardy 
poplar. 

Mr. H. Pennoyer, another successful cultivator, sets his trees without 
manure or anything to enrich the soil; lets the grass grow around the 
trees; uses the knife freely, so as to bring the tree into proper shape 
and proportion. Pear trees, he holds, must not be stimulated; high 
manuring forces an unnatural growth, winter kills the soft wood, and 
blight finally finishes the tree. The peach crop has become a remuner- 
ative one; the soil, as well as the protection received from the prex- 
imity of large bodies of fresh water, being favorable; high table-land is 
preferable; one man sells his crop from an orchard of twelve acres 
nearly surrounded by water at $8,000 to $12,000 per annum ; the east 
side of the water is the best, particularly where the west wind sweeps 
over the water. The fruit trade of Southern Michigan is very large; the 
shipments of peaches from St. Joseph to Chicago last year exceeding 
700,000 baskets and boxes, besides nearly 160,000 bushels of other fruit, 
the whole estimated to be worth $1,000,000. 

The article on European agriculture, with notes by Sanford Howard, 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 501 


is filled with details on the production of beet sugar, and is well worthy 

attention. In France, farming without this adjunct is thought a slow 

business. As an instance of this mixed agriculture, a farmer at Lens, 

fifty miles from Calais, has 500 acres in beet root, all on the ridge, with- 

out a single black spot in any part. He raises eighteen tons per acre ; 

keeps thirty horses and eighty working oxen; has a sugar factory on 

his farm, and fattens three hundred to four hundred cattle annually on 

the pulp from his sugar factory. Pigs thrive on it when cooked, and 

sheep eat it raw. He adopts the English “ box” system in fattening his 

cattle, keeping them in darkness; they are then less troubled with flies, 

eat better, and are sooner ready for the butcher than when kept in day- 

light. Near Valenciennes the country is covered with sugar factories ; 

the average size of the farms is 30 to 40 acres, though there are 

some of 400 to 600 acres. About half of the land is cropped with sugar- 

beet, the remainder with wheat, clover, and lucern for fodder; guano 

is falling into disuse, not producing so good sugar-beet as oil cake, 

which is now applied to the land as manure. In these sugar districts 

land has advanced to £100 per acre. The growth of wheat in this dis- 

trict before the production of beet sugar was only 976,000 bushels, the 

number of oxen, 700; since the introduction of the sugar manufacture 

the growth of wheat has been 1,168,000 bushels, and the number of oxen 

11,500. In Southern France a very different state of things exists ; 

there are to be seen many large estates of 5,000 acres, divided into farms 

of 2 acres up to 500, and rented at 5s. to 8s. an acre; rye is the chief 
crop. Wages are low, and the condition of the laborers is deplorable. 

The team-men sleep with the cattle, two in a bed, or rather in a box, on 

a sack of straw, a rude floor being put up at one end of the shed, and 

they may be said to be nearly ina state of slavery. Their hours of 
labor are from 4 a. m. to 8 p. m. in summer, and till noon on Supdays; 

their wages being but 1s. 8d. per day, without perquisites, for these long 
hours. Thus ground down, itis no wonder that the peasantry are crowd- 

ing to the cities. To compensate for this depopulation of the rural dis- 

tricts, boys are sent from the reformatories and employed in farming till 

their turn comes for the dreaded conscription. The reformatories are 
called agricultural colonies. (In Austria the condition of farm laborers 
is still worse.) A marked improvement is taking place in the live-stock 
on French farms, and the best breeds of cattle, sheep, and pigs are freely 
imported. The government has shown a fostering care in importing. 
improved breeds of riding, draught, and carriage horses. Horse-breed- 

ing establishments, termed haras, have been conducted by the state for 
many years, and for a trifling fee all farmers can obtain the use of the 
best stallions at these establishments. Stallions are also sent from these 
haras to various districts of the country, and the government also grants 
a handsome premium to the owner of a good stallion approved by 
the official inspector. The draught horses have been greatly improved ; 

the “ Percherons,” particularly, have been brought to high perfection. 

The French maintain that the English, though good judges of horse- 
flesh, are too careless about their horses’ feet. 

Attention is called to the importance of irrigation, which has changed 
the face of the country in many parts of Europe; and in Egypt, with 
very primitive pumps, worked by a mule, bullock, or a couple of don- 
keys, sufficient water is raised to irrigate 30, 40, or 50 acres, which then 
produce large crops of a kind of clover called “‘ Burseem.” In Lombardy, 
with an area of 6,000,000 acres, more than a million acres are artificially 
irrigated, and upwards of three thousand miles of canals have been cut, 
besides a vast extent of small arteries belouging to private individuals; 


502 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


and the main canals for navigation are always constructed with a view 
to a comprehensive plan of irrigating the country. Switzerland 
also is full of devices for catching the water on the hill-sides and spread- 
ing it on the green slopes; it is then again arrested on its way to the 
valley, and turned over the meadows and fields of maize; every little 
stream of water is thus utilized. In Bedford, England, the growth 
of Italian rye-grass by the town sewage is a most complete success; six 
crops were raised last year, realizing £20 per acre. The grass in these 
irrigated fields is perennial. As the cultivation of cereals and root- 
crops has been carried to a high degree of perfection by the best Eng- 
lish farmers, their next great step in improvement must be irrigation. 
Along their valleys water for irrigating scores of acres is to be obtained 
in abundance at a few feet below the surface, by a centrifugal or 
chain-pump, worked by a horse er an engine. In France irrigation 
has enabled farmers in some distri¢ts to keep double the number of 
cattle and sheep, as well as to raise one-third more corn. There the 
rivers and running water are not under the control of private individ- 
uals, as in England. The water belongs to the owner of the land only . 
through which it flows during its transit; when it passes his boundary 
he has no further control over it. As long ago as 1669 Louis XIV abol- 
ished the feudal rights of the proprietors in rivers, the ownership thereof 
being reserved by the state. 


. WISCONSIN. 


In the eighth volume of reports cf the Wisconsin State Agricultural 
Society (1869) are embodied the transactions of the State Horticultural 
Society and tabular abstracts of the reports of the county societies. It 
is the fourth volume that has been edited by Dr. Hoyt, and contains 
more articles of practical value and interest than any of its predecessors. 
His own report, as secretary, extending over one hundred pages, gives 
a comprehensive view of the character of the past season, and the prin- 
cipal crops of the State, as well as suggestions upon its mining interests, 
commercial development, public improvement, immigration, agrieul- 
tural education, &c. There are also several valuable articles by other 
writers. 

The farming interest suffered considerably from the general failure of 
hops and the low price of wool; besides,in consequence of the cold weather 
of March and April corn was late in being planted, affecting the crop; the 
abundance of rain through the summer was favorable to the potato 
crop, inducing a yield of 300 to 500 bushels per acre, and protecting it, 
in a great degree, from the ravages of the potato bug. The fruit crop 
was one of the finest ever raised in the State. The yield of wheat was 
enormous, the most careful estimates ranging it between 20,000,000 and 
25,000,000 bushels, at an estimated average of 13.3 bushels per acre. 

The Tappahannock and Arnautka wheats, introduced and distributed 
by the Department of Agriculture, gave good satisfaction, though the 
former is better adapted to a more southern latitude. The latter, from 
Russia, promises well, and under reasonably favorable circumstances gives 
a bountiful yield; it is a bearded wheat, with remarkably large heads, 
and avery large, handsome berry, and on new lands it is thought it will 
yield double if not treble the average of the ordinary sorts cultivated 
in the State. More attention is urged to those inexorable laws of na- 
ture that demand a reinforcement of the soil by the careful return to it 
of the necessary elements of which it has been deprived by suecessive 
years of reckless cultivation, by the burning of straw, and the laborious 
moving of barns to escape what was formerly considered the nuisance 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 503 


of manure heaps. The oat crop was estimated to be 25 per cent. larger 
than that of the previous year, with an average yield of 36.2 bushels — 
per acre; the Excelsior and several other new varieties were favorably 
reported on by all who tried them. The question of sugar-beet culture 
is amply discussed, and, as this root succeeds well in Wisconsin, it is 
thought the business deserves attention, if it proves remunerative in 
any part of the Union. 

The culture of rape was introduced at Fond du Lac a dozen years ago 
by General Hamilton for the extraction of the oil. He has raised 3,000 
bushelsin some years. At first it was manufactured into a crude oil; but 
he has invented a process by which an excellent refined oil is prepared, 
equal to any in the market, and arrangements have been made for an annual 
crop of 25,000 bushels of this seed. It has many advantages as a farm 
crop, is of easy culture, and the time of seeding—June 10 to June 25— 
is convenient. The expense for seed is trifling, say two quarts per acre, 
at a cost of 15 to 20 celits. In case a crop of grain gives indications of 
failure, it can be turned under in season for raising a crop of rape in its 
place, which is subject to no disease or insect enemy. Its broad leaves 
shade the soil and stifle any weeds that may spring up after it gets fully 

established, and it prepares the soil admirably for winter wheat; it re- 
quires no labor during its growth, and may be cut with a, cradle-scythe 
or mower, and harvested at a most convenient time, in the first half of 
September, after the summer harvests are out of the way, and before the 
corn and potato harvest begins. It has proved a profitable crop hitherto; 
the price ranging from $2 to $2 75 per bushel. One bushel yields about 
two gallons of oil, superior to the best lard or sperm as an illuminating 
oil, besides being a good lubricator, and enduring an intense degree of 
cold before solidifying. The only conditions unfavorable to the entire 
success of rape as a general farm crop are, that it will not succeed on foul 
land, where it would be choked out by weeds in its early growth, and 
that it must be harvested just as the pods are turning from green to 
yellow or much of the seed will be lost. The mills at Fond du Lac are 
of sufficient capacity to work up 100,000 bushels of the seed, and the 
culture of rape must rapidly extend as its advantages become known. 

The dairy business of the State has had a large development the past 
year; about fifty cheese factories have been established already, and the 
number is constantly increasing. Sufficient attention has not been paid 
to the breeds of cattle. But few Ayrshires are found in the State, 
although considered the best milkers. 

_ The mining interests have received increased attention, and experi- 
ments show that the peculiar iron ore of Dodge County is in much greater 
quantity than heretofore supposed, and, when used with the softer iron 
of Lake Superior and Missouri, its remarkable hardness proves of great 
pei both for working into steel and for making rails. It is stated 
that— 


In 1868 some cheap English rails were laid on the St. Paul track, and in three months 
some of them were in the mill to be rerolled, while rails from the Milwaukee mill, 
{made from a combination of these two kinds of iron,] after one and a half year’s 
wear in the same place, are now as pertect, to all appearance, as on the day when they 
were first put down. ‘This is the difference between good and poor iron rails. 

The County agricultural societies have had a prosperous year, These 
local organizations are doing much geod by stimulating general in- 
dustry, correcting stereotyped errors of practice, diffusing knowledge, 
and elevating the profession. The State society has had the most pros- 
perous year since its organization, and its last exhibition was the largest 
and most complete in all its departments ; number of entries, 3,524; re- 
ceipts, $12,711 31; expenses, $12,032 .54. i 


504 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Mr. D.S. Curtiss, in a brief article, urges the keeping and feeding of all 
stock in yards or stables, on the “ soiling” system. Animals thus reared 
are tamer and more approachable at all times, and are conseqyently 
more salable at better prices, whether horses, oxen, cows, or colts. 
Being handled daily from infancy, the dangers and difficulties of break- 
ing colts, steers, and heifers are avoided; they are secure from many 
accidents incident to roaming, and require less food to sustain the same 
conditions of flesh, milk, or toil; expense is saved in fencing; and, by 
the mode of cropping required, lands produce larger yields annually, 
and, liberally manured, will yield much more in bulk and a better qual- 
ity of feed, when this crop is frequently gathered during the season, than 
if left to grow until ripe. ; 

Mr. N. J. Coleman, in a lecture before the Illinois Industrial University, 
on breeding horses, (copied into the Wisconsin report,) pleads for kinder 
and more judicious treatment of these noble animals. Their stables are 
frequently too close, with too little light and air; the horse has lungs, 
and consumes a great deal of oxygen; he is often confined in a close 
stall, which hardly permits him to lie down; he requires abundance of air 
and light, dark stables being the cause of diseased eyes in many horses. 
Stables require windows as well as houses. Brood mares (of which the 
lecturer keeps forty) should be worked or-exercised a little every day; 
after foaling the work should be very moderate. They require com- 
fortable stables, and they and their colts should be frequently handled ; 
otherwise the celt may be as wild as a deer and not easily controlled at 
breaking time; colts thus handled from the first are very easily broken. 
The horse has more intelligence than he is credited for; he can see and 
hear better than a man, and smeli and feel just as well. These facts 
should be borne in mind in taming him; convince him that you are his 
friend, and will not hurt him; approach him by degrees; let him smell 
of your whip and bridle; put on his bridle, and when that is in your 
hand you are his master, and in ten minutes he will lie down completely 
your slave. With a few lessons of this kind he will know his plage, and 
obey your voice. 

Mr, Jonathan Periam, in a lecture before the same institution, recont- 
mends a more general attention to the culture of root crops, both for 
the table and for stock. Too many farmers are content to live for 
three-fourths of the year on bread and meat, with a scanty and precari- 
ous supply of vegetables, when fifty or one hundred dollars expended 
in seed and labor upon a single acre would produce more healthful and 
palatable sustenance than double the amount spent in pork, flour, and 
doctors’ bills, besides the enhanced pleasure produced by a table laden 
with various vegetable products. For stock, four bushels of carrots are 
as good for feeding as one bushel of corn meal; their chief value, how- 
ever, is in feeding with grain, from their peculiar pectine and their 
action on the digestive organs, which enable cattle more readily to 
assimilate their food. Half an acre in beets should produce seven 
hundred bushels; the mature leaves, stripped off from time to time, will 
feed a cow at night and four hogs principally during the summer and 
fall, and give four bushels per day for feeding for six months in the 
year—enough to fattén one cow, and feed another for milk. One-fourth 
of an acre of parsnips will fatten four hogs, besides feeding four more 
growing ones until the next spring. Even the rich soil of the West, as 
now cultivated, does not produce of wheat and other cereals half as 
much per acre as is grown by English farmers, under the system of root 
culture in that country, with its attendant necessity, deep plowing. 
To keep up the fertility of the West, more mixed husbandry is requisite; 


! 
STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 505 


and to carry its full maximum of stock, more attention must be paid to 

_growing root crops. Some counties in Ilinois, formerly noted for their 
fine stock, are now dependent upon Texas and the Red River countries 
for the steers they fatten. 

In the discussions of the State Horticultural Society the carious’ fact 
was mentioned by Dr. I. A. Lapham that many of the beautiful native 
plants in his collection, (dried,) formerly common, are now scarcely to be 
found in the State, having been driven out by the May-weed, mullen, 
thistles, and other foreign weeds, which have taken their places. The 
time is near at hand when his collection will afford the only evidence of 
we former existence of many native plants in certain counties of the 

tate. 

Peaches are an uncertain crop in Wisconsin, though many cultivators 
keep a few trees in their grounds. It is noticed that whenever the ther- 
mometer falls to 16° below zero the peach buds are surely killed, though 
the trees are not; they will bear whenever a winter is passed in which 
the thermometer does not reach that point. The prairie soil is frequently 
too rich for orchards, preventing a mature growth of wood; the driest 
and leanest places, with an elevated, cool aspect, should be selected for 
the apple and such other fruits as are apt to suffer from excess of food 
in the soil, the cold winds of autumn and winter inducing early ma 
turity of the wood. Such locations are numerous. Screens and belts of 
evergreens are recommended. Wherever they have been planted in 
Illineis a marked amelioration of the severity of the winter is per- 
ceptible. 

Favorable results have been realized from the improved Siberian crab 
apple; many seedlings of great promise have been raised from seeds of 
this apple sent from Vermont twenty years ago. Of these seedlings the 
Marengo, Chicago, Coral, Winter Gem, and Kishwaukee stand high for 
their flavor and keeping qualities. Much is hoped from the introduc- 
tion of the new Russian apples, of which several sorts were introduced 
by private enterprise afew yearsago. Two hundred and forty varieties 
were also imported by the Department of Agriculture, this season, of 
which grafts have been freely disseminated to horticultural associations 
and nurserymen, particularly in the Northwest. 


ILLINOIS. 


The seventh biennial volume of Transactions of the Illinois State 
Agricultural Society, edited by J. P. Reynolds, secretary of the society, 
is filled with facts of permanent interest pertaining to the various de- 
partments of industry and the agriculture of Illinois. Besides the usual 
statistics and reports it comprises the proceedings of the State Horti- 
cultural Society; an elaborate report by the editor, as State commissioner 
to the late Paris exposition; the proceedings of the American Conven- 
tion on Texas fever; essays on Climatology; on Hedges; on Manufac- 
tures in Illinois, and details of the culture of various crops in the State. 

The annual fairs of this society have been uniformly successful; the 
receipts of the last year were $24,096 92; disbursements, $20,191 92. 

The custom of holding large tracts of land, of five hundred acres up 
to ten thousand or more, in some parts of the State, is deprecated, as 
resulting in sparse settlements, few schools and churches, and neglect 
of all the small essentials of society as well asof agriculture. A proper 
system of drainage, both as a sanitary measure and as a means of in- 
creasing the agricultural wealth of the State, it is suggested, should 
receive encouragement and assistance from the State, as is the case in 
England. 


506 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The report on the Texas or splenic fever extends over twenty pages ; 
and, after giving many facts as well as theories, which cover the whole 
range of speculation on this subject, the commissioners come to the fol- 
lowing conclusions, which they assume as proved by their observations, 
though they state that the second and third pojnts may bear further 
discussion : 

1. That isolation of native stock from Texas herds is imperatively demanded during 
the hot summer months. 

2. That one day’s contact, or the crossing of the trail of the Texas herds by native 
cattle, does not infect the native stock, but continuous contact and grazing after them 
is necessary to produce the disease. 


3. The native cattle do not contract the disease by being fed with the Texans in dry 
lots. 

4, That the disease is not disseminated by Texas cattle that have been wintered in 
Arkansas, Kansas, Missouri, [linois, or Iowa, nor has the disease been known to prevail 
after the autumnal rains and frosts. 


The trade in Texas cattle is one of vast importance, not only to Illi- 
neis but to the whole country. Texas wants a market for her untold 
thousands of cattle, and the Western States want this stock to graze 
their millions of acres of rich native grasses, and to give them a market 
for their millions of bushels of surplus corn. Asa means of preventing 
the Texas fever, stock-growers are advised to keep a barrel of heavy coal 
oil, which has from 8 to 12 per eent. of carbolic acid; also a quart of liquid 
carbolic acid, which contains 90 per eent. of pure acid; the latter only 
is soluble in water. The heavy oil should be sprinkled on the floors of 
the barns, and especially on the droppings, as fast as made. The wood- 
work of the stalls should be covered also with the liquid substance, 
spread on by a common whitewash brush, and the stock be kept iso- 
lated. Nostrange animal should be allowed to come on the place, or have 
access to running water visited by other animals. The dung and urine 
of sick animals are the chief means of propagating the contagion ; it 
is often diffused even by the dung which adheres to the shoes of at- 
tendants. . 

Western sheep farmers are urged to pay greater attention to root 
crops, Which can be grown freely throughout the West and which would 
materially improve the luster of the wool. A practical sheep farmer 
says, paradoxical as it may seem, “if sheep are fed with all the roots 
they can eat, they will consume double the quantity of corn and put on 
three times the weight they will do with corn alone.” They should be 
pastured on tame grasses, the higher and more rolling the ground the 
better. No breed can be kept on prairie grass without becoming thin 
and worthless. Many failures in this business might have been avoided 
if this fact had been recognized. The ‘bush sheep,” as those are called 
which feed on this grass, can be distinguished in the pens at Chicago 
almost at a glance; and the character of the country and the extent 
to which tame grass abounds therein, are indicated by the sheep that 
are driven from it. ; 

Mr. Meehan, in an essay on the diseases of the pear, says debility is 
the cause of much of the trouble; and this want of vigor is produced 
by excessive summer and root pruning, which so weakens the wood-pro- 
ducing principle as to induce inflorescence, according the well-known law 
that nature always makes an effort to reproduce the plant, in proportion to 
its danger of death. When pear trees produce flowers and no fruit, and 
the blossoms have had no external injury, it may be safely assumed 
that the soil is deficient in nutritive elements, that too much summer 
pruning has been done, or too many surface roots destroyed by a per- 
sistent stirring of the soil. Pears cannot be grown to great perfection 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 507 


except in rich and generous solls. Root crops cannot be raised between 
the trees without breaking up the ground, which destroys their surface 
roots, the most valuable of all roots. The best method is to sow down 
with grass, and manure the surface two or three times a year; the grass 
roots will never run deep, nor exhaust the soil. Twice as many trees 
can thus be grown on ground where root crops are not grown; and, 
if too thick, after twenty years’ growth, they can be thinned out. Any 
one will notice the comparative freedom from debility of trees grown 
for years in grass, over those grown in constantly-stirred soil. Old pear 
trees in Mr. Meehan’s garden, eight to nine feet in circumference, 
always bear when they have any flowers at all, always have healthy foli- 
age, always set most of their blossoms, and drop only fruit punctured 
by insects, enough being always left to produce plentifully ; while any- 
where in soils with regularly-stirred surfaces will be seen innumerables 
flowers with little fruit, and with those which do set great numbers are 
found afterward upon the ground,, having fallen off from no other 
cause than sheer inability in the weakened vital principle to maintain 
them. Leaf blight and innumerable diseases follow excessively weakened 

- vitality ; and though fire-blight, cracking, and other diseases are the 
means of destruction to many thousands of bushels of pears annually, 
debility destroys its tens of thousands. 

Mr. W. P. Pierson, of Onarga, in an article on the philosophy of under- 
draining, says that thought, observation, and recent experiments have 
brought him to the conclusion that— 

The job of finishing up this world can never be completed until a considerable por- 
tion of it is well under-drained ; and I do not know but I am safe in saying, until it is 
well tile-drained. Very certain it is that there are immense and untold resources in 
air and earth, all intended for the benefit of the human race, that can never be made 
available for the purposes for which they were intended until a vast amount of ditch- 
ing isdone. Nature has already provided, on a most magnificent scale, for the under- 
draining of extensive tracts of country ; but the richer, the better, the greater portions 
of earth’s surface can never be drained by any channels now existing, or that nature 
ever can or will provide. This is a task that is assigned to man. 

Mr, Pierson says the fertile soil of Illinois rests generally on a tight 
subsoil, so that, one season with another, a large portion of it is satu- 
rated with water six to eight months in the year. What is not satu- 
rated is damp and cold, from the presence of stagnant water in the tight 
subsoil. Hence it is that, under the present system of cultivation, not 
one foot in five of this unrivaled soil can ever be made practically avail- 
able for the purposes of agriculture ; and where only fifteen, twenty, or 
thirty bushels of corn are grown, sixty, eighty, and one hundred busheis 
could be raised with less labor and more eertainty. Here, too, is the 
true source of many of the diseases that sweep through orchards and 
vineyards, blasting the hopes of the cultivator. Relief to these draw- 
backs, to a large extent, will be found in the adoption and execution, as 
far as time and means will permit, of a thorough system of tile-draining 
in conjunction with deep and thorough culture. Mr, Pierson, in conclu- 
sion, says: 

Draw off the cold and stagnant waters; check the immense draught from the warmth 
of the soil by evaporation; set in motion the bright steel clipper, the roller, the har- 
row, the cultivator, and the subsoiler; send the richly-laden rain-water, the warm, 
well-freighted atmosphere, and the life-giving dew.coursing down through the soil to 
the utmost depths to which vegetation can penetrate ; let in every clement from the 
surface that will hasten the chemical decompositions and combinations by which the 
elements in air and in earth become available for the support of plant life; let nature 
have free course and do her legitimate work, and results will be witnessed on the 


prairies, in the grain-field, the meadow, the orchard, the vineyard, that will astonish 
the world and gladden the hearts of the tillers of the soil. 


‘Mr. Parker Earle, of South Pass, thinks that drainage and deep culture 


508 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


will afford a remedy, in great part, for leaf blights and mildews, for sus- 
pended growth in summer, and long- protracted, unhealthy growth in 
autumn, with hope of relief from the terrible scourge of rot in peaches 
and grapes, and possibly some amelioration of pear blight. It is a re- 
markable fact that, while Providence has given the Western States more 
than an average amount of rain, which, if properly husbanded by deep 
culture, would add richness to the land and supply every season and stage 
of plant growth with necessary moisture, the West, in fact, suffers every 
year the most damaging droughts. The annual rain-fall in southern Dli- 
nois is about fifty inches, while New England has about forty, and Old 
England about twenty-five. About twenty inches of water are annually 
evaporated in Illinois, which amount would be materially reduced by 
drainage, thus saving heat in the soil in seasons of excessive rain, which 
- are the cool seasons of the year. 

Professor William M. Baker, of the Industrial University of Illinois, 
in an essay on climatology, asserts that meteorology influences the 
health, habits, and even the morals of men. ‘The results of destroying 
the forests in various countries are deplorable, diminishing the annual 
rain-fall, while freshets become greater, though not lasting. Many. 
Streams, formerly with ample power all the year round, now afford it 
only in the spring and autumn, and many others have degenerated into 
mere torrents. His illustrations of these facts, though full of interest, 
are too numerous to be copied or abridged. 

The report of Mr. J. P. Reynolds, State agent at the Universal Exposi- 
tion at Paris, is replete with facts and suggestions. The first and un- 
expected feature in the landscape of France that strikes an American 
is the prairie-like openness of prospect, resulting from the absence of 
farm-houses, with their clusters of secondary buildings, which every- 
where dot American scenery. Now and then a pretentious chateau, 
with some accessories, is to be seen. Proprietors, tenants, and hired 
laborers reside in adjacent villages, where each family occupies the 
narrowest limits consistent with its actual need of shelter and rest. 
Their dwellings may have been built fifty, one hundred, or even five 
hundred years ago; their gray stone walls, red-tiled roofs, or moss- 
covered thatch tell no story of their age. Nothing about them suggests 
an idea of modern or even individual taste. The iron rule of rigorous 
necessity, exacting durability and economy, would seem to have pre- 
seribed their forms, m materials, and proportions. A striking feature of 
the economy universally practiced in France is the utilization of all 
available wall-surface for the production of fruit ; that is, its incidental 
culture against walls, barriers, and structures erected for other pur- 
poses entirely. Mr. Reynolds thinks that this incidental product ex- 
ceeds the entire fruit crop of Illinois. There is scarcely a farmer who 
may not profit by the suggestion. An abundance of delicious fruit 
could thus be raised by every family, without waiting to build a trellis 
oranarbor. The bare walls of his dwelling, fences, and out-buildings 
offer surfaces that would produce better fruit, and with more certainty, 
than the open vineyard or orchard, and are ready for use without the 
outlay of an additional dollar. A large part of the wood consumed as 
fuel in France is afforded by faggots, obtained by pruning poplars, wil- 
lows, elms, and birches, that erow along the margins of brooks, and on 
the confines of fiekls. This is obtained without detriment to the crops, 
or appreciable loss in any respect. More than 160,000 acres are devoted 
to the production of the osier willow, of which a million of pounds are 
exported to the United States. 

Atis singular that no British-made plow received a prize at this in- 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 509 


ternational trial, although one of them was held by one of the best 
plowmen of England, and certainly performed its work to the entire 
satisfaction of its manufacturer. English plows generally do not “scour,” 
and have been condemned ,as unwieldy, heavy-draught “ horse killers,” 
doing little execution in proportion to the strength of team required to 
draw them. The English, however, seem to have attained perfection in 
constructing the plow that realizes their ideas of perfect work—to turn 
a furrow-slice, at whatever depth, so evenly and gradually as scarcely 
to disturb its component particles of earth in their relations to each 
other. The line of furrow must be entirely straight, and the furrow- 
slice unbroken. But other tools and after labors are necessary for pul- 
verizing and preparing the seed-bed for the incorporation of manures 
and the reception of the grain. 

The consumption of cheese in Europe is enormous. Paris consumes 
annually about 11,000,000 pounds, and all France not less than 200,- 
000,000. American factory cheese is now imported largely into France 
and England, ofa quality equalto the best English. Out of the general 
habit of eating cheese, however, has grown up a multitude of tastes, 
prejudices, and notions, so that the richest and best American and 
English cheese, made from the milk of the finest cows, fed on the 
choicest grasses, and having a delicious flavor to the unperverted taste, 
is thrown aside by thousands for a cheese made from goats’ milk, with 
a pungent scent, utterly repelled by the natural nose, and strong enough 
to give early notice of its presence to a person approaching ; or for 
another kind, made from ewes’ milk, into which have been introduced 
moldy bread and the sporules of a cryptogamic plant, after which the 
cheese is placed in cool, moist caves, under conditions developing the 
rapid growth of the fungus and reaching its desirable flavor when a 
blue-mold has permeated and discolored the whole mass. The latter 
is extolled by some as the “king of cheeses,” and upwards of 6,000,000 
pounds are annually made in France, requiring the milk of 200,000 
ewes. It sells at the caves for about 12 cents a pound. It is exported 
to various countries, and in New York its admirers pay 40 cents a pound 
for it. 

. 


IOWA. 


Dr. J. M. Shaffer, secretary of the Iowa State Agricultural Society, gives 
a general view of the agriculture of the State during the past year, 
abstracts of the reports of seventy-five county and district societies, 
and several essays, by western writers, on the agricultural development 
of the State. The volume comprises also the annual report of the Hor- 
ticultural Society, and is entirely original. The total receipts of the 
society were $66,209; paid out in premiums, $39,573, or nearly 67 per 
cent. 

The past year, upon the whole, was unfavorable to the farmers of the 
State, from various causes. The weather and excessive rains were dis- 
astrous to the cereals; there was also a large decrease in the number of 
Sheep, and in the production of wool, with losses of swine from dis- 
ease; a largely increased acreage of wheat, with a crop inferior in 
quality as well as quantity; a lamentable decline in the cultivation of 
artificial timber; a falling off in the corn.erop, though prices were 
higher than for many years; enormous crops of grass, but materially 
injured in harvesting; great inferiority in the quality of apples and a 
potato crop unparalleled in quantity, with a loss of thousands of acres 
from an untimely freeze in October. 

The rain-fall was enormous, 40.56 inches, against 32.25 in 1868, and 


510 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


28.6 in 1867, marking it as the “rainy year.” Seven inches of rain fell 
in April and May, that were disastrous in planting and working the 
corn crop; and the tremendous rains of these months caused a 
partial failure of the wheat, which, just befgre harvest, gave promise of 
the largest yield ever gathered in the State. Besides, the damages to 
roads, bridges, farms, and fences from floods and high waters may be 
counted by millions of dollars. 

Great losses were sustained in swine by “hog cholera,” though many 
affections, causes, symptoms, and results are probably classed under 
this general term. Horses are generally better cared for than any other 
farm stock, and diseases therefore are less frequent among them. A 
marked improvement is also noticed in horses, of which the assessor’s 
returns show nearly 500,000 in the State. Stailions of the Norman and 
other improved breeds have been imported into several counties, and a 
strong infusion of good blood may be expected in the future production 
of this useful animal. In some counties cattle suffered from disease 
supposed to be induced by eating smutty corn. Sheepsustained greater 
losses from diseases than any other farm stock, and a large falling off 
in the wool-clip is shown. This has caused a general neglect of sheep, 
and many thousands have been slaughtered for their pelts; in Jackson 
County alone not less than four thousand. The dogs inerease faster 
than the sheep, and their ravages have been enormous; it is estimated 
that the sheep killed by them during the year were worth $150,000. An 
encouraging improvement is noticed in cattle, by the introduction in 
numerous localities of improved breeds, and fine cattle will induce the 
cultivation of tame grasses and a lessening of the area of wheat culture. 
The new varieties of oats distributed by the Department of Agriculture 
have yielded very largely and met public expectation. . 

The wheat crop was large in the aggregate, notwithstanding the 
heavy rains, and about 10,000,000 bushels were exported; an increase of 
nearly a million of bushels over the previous year. Iowa had alsoa 
surplus of 25,000,000 bushels of corn, and over 4,000,000 bushels of 
other cereals. This gives a large business to the two thousand miles of 
railroad existing in the State, (six hundred of which were built last . 

*year.) Farmers are advised not to give up the culture of sorghum. 
The product of the crop in 1868 was 2,592,393 gallons, and with proper 
care in its culture and manipulation, which, it is alleged, it has seldom 
received, it can be made one of the best paying crops in the State. 

The laws passed in 1859 and 1868 to protect wild game from indis- 
criminate slaughter, and to prevent the reckless killing of insectivorous 
birds, give great satisfaction. Farmers and fruit-growers believe in the 
wisdom of these laws, and are determined they shall not be violated 
with impunity. It is recommended that the legislature also take steps 
to protect domestic animals from the heartless and thoughtless brutality 
of many who use them only as a source of immediate profit. 

The receipts of the society last year were $66,209, the largest of its 
existence, exceeding the previous year by $12,738 19; 60 per cent. was 
paid out in premiums, leaving but little for permanent improvements 
and current expenses. The number of entries at the last State fair was 
2,645, exceeding that of any previous fair by 849. 

To show the rapid increase of population and wealth in the State a 
few counties are mentioned. Black Hawk County has doubled its 
population in two years, and last year it produced 1,500,000 bushels of 
wheat, three times the product of 1867. Similar results are given of 
other counties, although but a mere fraction of the State is yet under 
the plow. ‘ 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 511 


Mr. P. C. Compton, of Ames, Story County, Iowa, gives the following 
account of his experience in plowing by steam on the prairies, the natural 
place for such operations. The machine was invented by Mr. Thomas 
S. Minnis, of Meadville, Pennsylvania: 

The machine (of 15-horse power) consists of a boiler, an engine on each side working 
en the same shaft, a quarter apart, after the manner of railroad locomotives and the 
usual connections, all resting on two runners, six feet apart and nearly eight feet long, 
something like a sled.. These runners glide over rollers fixed in endless-chain tracks. 
The tracks revolve in an ellipse, and the drive-wheels move the chains and propel 
the machine forward or backward by the same motion. Hither side may be run independ- 
ently of the other. By this means, when drawing a load, it is easily turned or 
guided. When ready for work, its weight is about eight tons. The width of the endless- 
chain tracks is one foot, giving a contact with the ground of about 2,300 square inches, 
and a traction power limited only by the weight. 

Attached to the machine were five 14-inch breaking-plows in a solid frame, so ganged 
as to turn an aggregate of a little over six feet. We ran out on the prairie, a crowd 
followmg tosee the machine sink in the first slough. They were disappointed. It 
rode across more lightly or with less impression than did the empty wagous which fol- 
lowed. It drew the five plows through the toughest prairie sod, frequently beam deep, 
on up and down grade, and through hard and soft ground. The “traction” power of the 
machine was not fully tested. It frequently drew the plows with only one side in gear, 
showing this power to be equal to drawing twice a8 many plows. In this respect it 
filled what Professor Brainard, in his excellent ‘ History of American Inventions for 
Cultivation by Steam,” pronounces the great want of all machines heretofore tried. It. 
rode over dead furrows, ditches and rough places as smoothly as a sled, touching only 
- the highest points. It also ran over plowed ground with scarcely an appreciable in- 
crease of power, was under perfect control, and could be moved either way to an inch. 
Tn short, it ran easier, proved stronger, and performé@l every way, in the main, better 
than was anticipated, and in the essential necessities of such a machineis a success. 


MISSOURI. 


The fifth annual report of the State Board of Agriculture of Missouri 
comprises the transactions of the board; abstracts of the proceedings 
ofthe county agricultural societies for 1869; essays on agricultural topics; 
proceedings of the State Horticultural Society; and the second annual 
report on the noxious, beneficial, and other insects of Missouri, by Chas. 
Y. Riley, State entomologist. This report is made to the State board, and 
is full of instructive information, detailed in popular style, and still based 
_ On scientific accurasy. The receipts of the board for its last fiscal year 
were $6,891 60; its expenses $6,509 22, leaving a balance of $382 38.° 

The St. Louis Agricultural and Mechanical Association is an inde- 
pendent organization, projected by several hundred public-spirited citi- 
zens of that city, for the purpose of establishing a popular annual fair. 
It has a capital stock of $82,000, the interest of which is applied to 
improving its grounds. During the last thirteen years it has expended 
several hundred thousand dollars in various improvements and in an- 
nual premiums, and last year its premium list was increased to $30,000. 
It has built a spacious amphitheater, with an arena 250 feet wide, that 
will seat twelve thousand people coinfortably, giving to each person a 
view of the exhibition in the arena, with two promenades accommodating 
twenty-four thousand more, so that this immense structure will shelter 
thirty-six thousand persons; yet at the last fair it proved insufficient, 
as thousands could not be accommodated, and it is now determined to 
erect a new building, one-half size larger than the present one. A 
mechanical hall and one for machinery have also been erected, at an ex- 
pense of $40,000. Its last fair was asplendid success, there being nearly 
six thousand entries, and the spacious apartments of the association 
were overcrowded, and many fine specimens not seen for want of room. 

Mr. A. BE. Trabue, of Hannibal, Missouri, doubts the expediency of 
cookiug grain for hogs. Aftera series of experiments on the most econom- 
ical use of corn and ethgr cereals in fattening and wintering stock hogs, 


. 


512 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


(having reference to temperature also,) he arrived at conclusions exactly 
opposite to those held several years ago by Professor Mapes, Cassius 
M. Clay, the Shakers, and perhaps farmers generally, in favor of the 
economy of boiling food for stock. Mr. Trabue’s experiments, made 
with the ‘Chester Whites,” led him to the following conclusions: 

1. That the breed of hogs has been improved; that we have now one breed, if not 
more, that can extract every particle of nutriment from raw corn; that can do their 
own husking, shelling, taking to mill, grinding, packing back, straining and boiling, 
much: better than we can do it for them. 

2. That the best temperature in which to fatten hogs is from 42° to 60°, which is usually 
found from the last of August to the middle of October. 

3. That they should have shelter, or access to it. 

4. If the fall is dry, they should be turned into the field, to help themselves before 
the corn hardens, and after it is out of the milk. : 

5. All there is in corn is 18 to 20 pounds of pork to the bushel, and if fed to an im- 
mature pure-bred hog, cooking does not help it. , 


Mr. Trabue’s theory is, that nothing should be fed to animals ina 
moist state, whether horses, cows or hogs, as they are thereby tempted 
and enabled to swallow their food unmasticated ; while the more they 
chew it, the better and more intimately it is imbued with saliva, and 
the more easily digested. 

Mr. A. P. Mills, of Warren County, advises greater attention to produc- 
ing combing and delaine wools, for which the climate of Missouri is as 
good as that of Kentucky, where they have been successfully grown. 
While in growing fine woots we have to compete with South America 
and Australia, where they can be produced profitably at eight cents a 
pound, we can raise the grades in question at less cost than England or 
Canada, our greatest competitors; and French and English manufac- 
turers want ali the wools of this description that are produced in their 
respective countries. An immense demand exists for these wools in 
making lastings and uppers for ladies’ and childrens’ shoes, the single 
town of Lynn, Massachusetts, requiring this class of goods to the 
amount of $1,500,000 per annum; and this is only one branch of trade 
in which these wools are used. Upwards of 12,000,000 pounds are now 
annually required in the United States, for which our manufacturers 

*have to depend chiefly on Canada. The fleeces of the Cotswold and 
Leicester are preferred by the best manufacturers. These are also good 
breeders and feeders, and as mutton sheep far superior to the fine-wool 
or the native sheep, and at four years old frequently weigh three hun- 
dred to four hundred pounds. 

Fruit-raising begins to attract attention. Large vineyards flourish in 
various parts of the State, and Missouri wines are well known in the 
Eastern markets for their combinations of rich flavor, delicacy, and 
strength. Apples are a successful crop, particularly on dry or well- 
drained soils; in the northern part of the State early winter sometimes 
catches the applies before they are gathered. If there is snow on the 
ground, 2 loss of the fruit is prevented by shaking it into the snow 
before the sun has power to thaw the apples; they are seldom injured 
by freezing if gradually thawed. Root-pruning has been successfully 
practiced for throwing pear trees into bearing, and also for preventing 
the blight; say, for trees two inches through, prune from twelve to four- 
teen inches in diameter to a ball of roots; trees three inches, prune 
eighteen inches from the trunk; and for every inch of diameter of the 
stem, give a foot of radius in describing the circle around the root-ball 
to be left. Lime slacked with warm water and thrown into trees will 
kill the bark-louse and all other soft-skinned insects. Plums are given 
oyer to the curculios, which are traveling westward at the rate of sixty 

a 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. 513 


miles annually, and must reach California in a few years, as they will 
find their way there in fruits and old fruit packages. No preventive 
of their ravages has yet been found. ; 

At the diseussion of the State Horticultural Society it was stated 
that grapes, much shriveled by long keeping, regain their plumpness by 
being dipped into hot water and honey, or even hot water alone. The 
Concord, Delaware, and Wilder, (Rogers’ No. 4,) appear to be the lead- 
ing varieties for the table, and the Ives for red wine. The Concord is 
productive to a fault, 4,000 pounds to the acre being not an uncommon 
crop. Such overbearing enfeebles the vines, and thinning out to a rea- 
sonable fruitfulness is advisable on all accounts. Mr. A. 8. Burrill, of 
Livingston County, has the largest pear orchard in the State, containing 
upwards of ten thousand pear trees. 

The report of Mr. Charles V. Riley, the State entomologist, comprising 
one hundred and fifty pages, is full of details in regard to the many 
insects that have attracted attention the past year, either by their mis- 
chief or their benefits. ‘The common apple-worm has been less injurious 
than formerly, and consequently the orchards were loaded with fair 
fruit. To destroy this insect it is recommended to place old pieces of 
rumpled rag or carpet in the crotch of the tree; the worms gather and 
spin up in them, and can be gathered and killed by wholesale, by 
scalding the rags, or running them through the wringer of a washing- 
machine. The apple-root plant louse has become troublesome i in some 
parts of the State. It is a woolly insect, visible on uncovering the 
roots, Which will be found in a knotted, "clubbed condition, many of 
them being merely a mass of excrescences, which so check the circula- 
tion of the sap that the tree finally dies. The best remedy is to drench 
the roots of an infested tree with ‘boiling-hot water, in quantities large 
enough to penetrate every part of the roots. No danger of injury to the 
trees need be feared, as it-is a general rule that vegetable organizations 
will stand a much higher temperature than animal, and_ boiling 
water has been effectually employed for many years to kill the borer in 
the collar of peach trees, and the onion maggot, without injuring the 
growing onions. The plum curculio, still master of the field, has found 
a new enemy in a minute yellow thrips that attacks it in a ‘vulnerable 
point, destroying vast numbers of its eggs. Itis hoped that in a few 
years these thrips will reduce the numbers of the curculio, as the lady- 
birds have done with the Colorado potato bug, and that minute insect, 
Acarus mali, with the common oyster-shell bark-louse of the apple 
tree. It is suggested that many noxious insects have been introduced 
from Europe, while the particular parasites that held them in check abroad 
were not introduced with them. Sometimes, in the case of the imported 
currant worm, these foreign noxious insects are attacked by native 
American parasites ; but the wheat midge has flourished for half a cen- 
tury without a single parasite troubling it. Dr. Fitch, the distinguished 
entomologist of New York, as well as Mr. Riley, recommends the im- 
portation of the three different Chalcis flies from the ether side of the 
Atlantic, as they are known to check it throughout all Europe. Ten 
years ago the asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi) was introduced into 
Long Island, and has spread till its ravages have reached $50,000 in a 
single county. Taken in season, its mischief might have been checked 
at the expense of a few hundred dollars. The annual damage by insects 
to all the crops of the Union is estimated at $300,000,000. 

Of all the insect foes of the Western farmer, however, the voracious 
chinch bug, formerly confounded with the Hessian fly, has become the 
most for rmidable ; nothing in the way of grain comes amiss to it. In 

oo A 


514 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. | 


seasons of great drought it makes a clean sweep. In former years 
most of these bugs were destroyed by prairie fires, but as cultivation 
extends less prairie is burned over, and their numbers have annually 
increased. Mr. Daniel F’. Rogers gives the following account of their 
depredations in 1865: i 

There was never a better show for wheat and barley than we had here on the 10th 
of June, and no mere paltry crop has been harvested since we have been a town. 
Many farmers did not get their seed. In a field of barley where the chinch-bugs had 
been at work for a week I found them moving in solid column across the road toa 
corn-field opposite, in such numbers that I felt almost afraid to ride my horse amon 
them. The road and fences were alive with them. Some teams were at work mend- 
ing the road at this spot, and the bugs covered men, horses, and scrapers, till they 
were forced to quit work for the day. The bugs took ten acres of that corn clean to 
the ground before its hardening stalks—being too much for their tools—checked them. 
Another lot of them came from a wheat-field adjoining my farm into a piece of corn, 
stopping now and then for abhite, but not long. Then they crossed a meadow, thirty 
rods, into a sixteen-acre lot of sorgo, and swept it like a fire, though the cane was then 
scarcely in tassel. From wheat to sorgo was at least sixty rods. Their march was govy- 
erned by no discoverable law, except that they were voraciously hungry and went 
where there was most to cat. In a neighbor’s field, that fortunately was sown early, 
we found them moving across his premises in such numbers that they bid fair to drive 
out the family. House, crib, stable, well-curb, trees, and fences, were one creeping 
mass of stinking life. In the house as well as outside, like the lice of Egypt, they 
were everywhere ; but in a single day they were gone. 

‘Their ravages have been sometimes checked by surrounding a field 
with a barrier of pine boards set up edgewise, and partly buried to keep 
them in position, keeping the upper edge moistened with coal-tar, daily 
renewed. Deep holes are dug outside of this barrier, and the bugs, ar- 
rested in their march, wander about and, tumble into the holes, from 
which they are shoveled out literally by cart-loads. In hot, dry sea- 
sons their ravages are always the worst; in wet seasons it is impossible 
for them to do any considerable amount of damage. 

As the chinch bug has to get at the roots in the spring, upon which 
she lays her eggs, the looser the soil is the greater the facilities offered. 
Hence the advantages of fall plowing; or if plowed in the spring, the 
land should have several heavy rollings. Iarmers notice that wheat har- 
rowed in upon old corn ground without any plowing is far less infested 
by these bugs than when putin upon land that has been plowed, and they 
cannot thrive in wet, soggy land. : 

The chinch bug has many insect enemies. Tour distinct lady-birds 
prey upon it, (as well as upon the eggs of the Colcrado potato bug, and 
upon those of certain bark lice ;) also the lace-wing fiy, (Chrysopha plora- 
bunda,) the Insidiosus flower bug, (Anthocoris imsideosus, Say,) and the 
common quail of the Middle and Western States. This bird should be 
protected from the gun of the sportsman in every State where the 
chinch bug is known to run riot. The amount of damage done by this 
insect is almost incredible. It was estimated that in 1864 “ three-fourths 
of the wheat and one-half of the corn crop were destroyed by it through- 
out many extensive districts, comprising almost the entire Northwest,” 
almounting to many millions of dollars. As the ravages of this insect 
have assumed alarming proportions, Mr. Riley has devoted a large part 
of his report to the subject, which farmers will do well to examine. In 
summing up the habits of this insect, he considers the following points 
firmly established : 

1. Chinch bugs hybernate in the perfect or winged state, in any old, dry rubbish, 
under dead leaves, in old straw, in corn-shucks and corn-stalks, among weeds in fence 
corners, &c. Therefore, all such substances should be burned up, as far as possible, in 
the spring. 

2. The earlier small grain can be sown in the spring, the more likely it is to escape 


the chinch bug; for it will then get ripe before the spring brood of bugs has had time 
to become fully developed at the expense of the grain. 


STATE REPORTS OF AGRICULTURE. , Dae 


. 3. The harder the ground is where the grain is sown, the less chance for this bug to 

_penetrate to the roots of the grain and lay its eggs therein. Hence the importance of 
fall plowing, and using the roller upon land that is loose and friable. Hence, also, if 
old corn ground is sufficiently clean, itis a good plan to harrow in a crop of small grain 
npon it, without plowing it at all. Moreover, rolling should always be adopted, as the 
best wheat-growers, both in this countay and Europe, attest that the heavier the 
ground for wheat is rolled, the better the crop. 

4. Asingle heavy rain immediately checks the propagation of the chinch bugs. Con- 
tinued heavy rains materially diminish their numbers. A long-continued, wet season, 
like that of 1865, sweeps almost the whole brood of them from the face of the earth; 
but from the rapid rate at which they multiply, there will always be enough left for seed 
for another year. It is not only a general, but universal rule, that this insect is never 
ruinously destructive, except where there is continued hot, dry weather; and if in two 
adjoining districts there has been a dry summer in one, and much wet weather during 
the summer in the other, however plentiful and destructive the bug may be in the first 
district, it will scarcely be heard of in the second. 

The natural history of the army worm, canker worm, caterpillar, cab- 
bage worm, bee killer, and prominent insects affecting the grape-vine, 
as well as innoxious insects, is given with great particularity, making 
the report of great value to the farmer. 


CALIFORNIA. 


The last volume of transactions of the California State Agricultural 
Society comprises the proceedings for 1868 and 1869. The addresses 
and reports made at the two State fairs are filled with valuable sugges- 
tions on the importance of a more diversified agriculture, on artificial 
forests to ameliorate the climate and beautify the country, on irriga- 
tion, and onimproved culture of the cereals and fruits, which have become 
great staples in the wealth of the State. There are also special reports 
on several subjects, and suggestions on the native grasses of California, 
beet-root sugar, silk culture, rice, flax, mining, diseases of cattle, immi- 
gration, &c. 

The receipts of the society in 1869 were $28,497 85, which was all 
disbursed in premiums and expenses, except $171 78. 

The statistical reports for 1868-69 of leading farm products show 
aggregates of 19,651,984 bushels of wheat, 7,331,333 bushels of barley, 
2,568,757 bushels of oats, 3,226,997 bushels of potatoes, 5,571,132 pounds 
of butter, 4,422,355 pounds of cheese, and 9,402,364 pounds of wool. Of 
fruits, there are now under cultivation over 2,000,000 grape-vines, nearly 
100,000 orange, lemon, olive, and fig trees, and 2,500,000 apple and pear 
trees. Of wine and brandy, rapidly-increasing staples, nearly 3,000,000 
gallons were produced. Of live stock, 636,468 neat cattle, 2,137,948 
sheep, 20,000 Angora goats, and so on, showing wonderful progress in 
a State but little more than twenty years old, and its chief advance 
made during the last ten or twelve years. -The value of the farming 
products is estimated at $30,000,000. This entirely eclipses her product 
of gold, a result which no one would have predicted twenty years ago. 
The wheat culture of the State becomes vivid to the mind’s eye from 
the single fact that, on the 1st day of August last, 50,000 tons of wheat, 
in sacks, were stretched along the banks of the Sacramento River, in 
the counties of Tehama, Butte, Sutter, Colusa, and Yolo, and that 
60,000 tons more were to follow them, making 110,000 tons of wheat as 
the yield of five counties. Five years ago the land from Yolo to Val- 
lejo, fifty-six miles, was unproductive, and almost uninhabited; last 
year it was nearly one continuous wheat-field. A railroad now runs 
through this tract, with two wheat-trains daily, one every night, and 
extra trains on Sundays. Tor miles along the track last year the wheat 
was piled up in satks waiting for shipment, and more than 40,000 tons 
were shipped from Vailejo direct to Liverpool. 


4 


516 . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


It is regretted by many as a great evil that so large tracts of land are 
held by individuals who refuse to sell at prices that emigrants are will- 
ing to pay. The traveler is everywhere impressed with the immense 
extent of fields, farms, and flocks. It is stated that in Los Angeles 
County a person can travel twenty-seven miles of highway through one 
man’s land. Two farmers from Maine, who crossed the mountains in 
1852, with 2,000 sheep, now shear 100,000, having a ranch of 200,000 
acres. Another firm has 3,500 milch cows; another sold $40,000 worth 
of wheat from his farm of 13,000 acres. The valley lands are wonder- 
fully rich and productive, with so mild a climate that farm stock is 
rarely housed. This accounts for the rapid increase of agricultural pro- 
duction. 

The consumption of rice amounts to about 50,000,000 pounds annu- 
ally. As there are thousands of acres of lands on the Lower Sacramento 
and San Joaquin Rivers eminently suitable in every respect for the eul- 
tivation of this valuable grain, and the State has a large population of 
Chinese and other laborers well calculated for this industry, attention 
is called to the utilization of these now comparatively worthless lands. 

More attention is recommended to planting vineyards. There are 
many treeless districts in the State, yielding no pasture for grazing pur- 
poses, which, by being planted with vines, that flourish even in an arid 
soil, would soon be covered with verdure; this, in the opinion of 
meteorologists, would increase the supply of moisture and rain, and 
materially benefit the grain-grower and grazier. Besides, the vine does 
not exhaust rich soils as the cereals do. There are vineyards in Los 
Angeles more than one hundred years old, which still bear full crops 
every year. More than a million of orange and lemon trees were set out 
last year in the southern part of the State. 

The cultivation of silk, it is thought, will eventually become an 
important agricultural industry in the State. A moderate premium 
offered by the legislature has attracted a large number of valuable 
immigrants, skilled in all the branches of this rich industry, and 
numerous plantations of mulberry trees have been started. More than 
4,000,000 cocoons were raised last year, and a party of Japanese have 
purchased 2,000 acres of land in El Dorado County, and are busy in 
raising the mulberry for silk, as well as the tea plant. Some local and 
apparently temporary causes have cast a Shadow over the prospects of the 
silk business for the past year, but it is thought they will be removed, 
and a brighter prospect open for its development and successful prose- 
cution. As in most pioneer enterprises, there have been failures, which 
can now be attributed to plain and palpable causes, and the committee 
report that, ‘‘as a whole, the silk interest is prosperous, and, with per- 
severance on the part of our silk-growers, they have every reason to 
look with certainty for a brilliant future.” 

The question of doing away with fences is now agitating the minds 
of farmers. They are an enormous expense in California, as in all new 
States. President Parks says: 


When a man invests $1,000 here for land he is required to invest $2,000 to fence it. 
Almost every man who desires to farm has the means and ability to acquire a small 
farm in this country, but there are those who cannot acquire even a small farm and 
fence it, as required by law. In other words, one man, with six or eight cows, perhaps, 
will come into a neighborhood and prevent ten men from producing a thousand bushels 
of wheat each. This is most absurd. There is no reason why one individual should 
pursue an occupation to the great injury of hundreds of others; no reason why A should 
be compelled to build two miles of fence that he may raise three hundred bushels of 
grain, to accommodate B, who milks three cows. Let B take gare of his cows. Let 
him fence ten acres, or, in other words, let him keep his property from trespassing on 
mine. 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 517 


This question is just beginning to be agitated, because, perhaps, stock-keepers have 
heretofore predominated, and it would have cost more to fence the stock than the grain ; 
now the thing is reversed, and it costs ten, yes, twenty, times, the amount to fence the 
grain that it does the stock. Should we not, then, weleome any measure of relief from 
this burdensome tax of making and keeping in repair so much superfluous fence ? 


The importance of irrigation is forcibly presented in the address of 
the Hon. Geo. Barstow : 


Next to railroads, we want canals for irrigation, but constructed with sufficient 
depth to make them navigable. The seasons of California are two: one of copious 
moisture, commencing on the 1st of November and closing on the Ist of May; the other 
is rainless, and extends from the ist of May to the ist of November. Could we moisten 
the earth during these last six mouths, the productiveness of the State would be abso- 
lutely without limit. Many rich mines have been opened in California, and their har- 
vest of gold, by lubricating the machinery of manufacturing and commercial industry, 
has enriched the world. But no country has profited by it so little as the State which 
produced it. There yet remains one mine, however, richer than Ophir, exhaustless as 
the sea, the treasures of which are in store for the people of California whenever they 
choose to appropriate them. I mean the melting snow of the Sierra Nevada mountains, 
which the suns of summer send down in fertilizing streams upon the arid plains. We 

* 


have but to utilize them to find them a source of boundless wealth. 3 % 

* There is no country in which irrigation can be more easily applied now, if we ex- 
cept India, upon so grand a scale as in California. A survey, already made, demon- 
strates the practicability of watering more than three quarters of a million of acres on 
the right bank of the Sacramento River, by a canal issuing from that stream, near Red 
Bluff, leading along the outward edge of the valley, and having its outlet at Suisun ; 
and it is probable that the drainage of the Coast range of mountains would swell the 
irrigating capacity of that canal to one million of acres. Large as this area is, a still 
larger one can be irrigated by collecting in a canal the streams heading in the Sierras 
and flowing into the wide plain on the left bank of the Sacramento and the vast basins 
of the San Joaquin and Tulare. 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 


We give short abstracts of the new American books on agriculture 
and rural economy that have been published during the past year. We 
have aimed at furnishing information only as to their contents and char- 
acter, by abstracts of their more prominent points, with now and then 
an illustrative quotation, but offering no criticism, indorsement, or gen- 
eral commendation. It must be an object to the numerous readers of 
this Report to know what works have been recently published on agri- 
culture, with a general view of their contents. A great improvement 
is every year visible in the originality of this branch of American liter- 
ature, and its adaptability to the requirements of the country, so dif- 
ferent from the numerous reprints of the English works, which formerly 
furnished the staple of this kind of reading for American farmers. 
Pracu CuLtTure. By James Alexander Fulton, Dover, Delaware. Illustrated. 188 

pages, 12mo. New York:. Orange Judd & Co., 1870. 

Within a few years fruit-growing has increased to such an extent as to 
become a leading interest. Many horticultural associations and period- 
icals have been established to advance this interest; and these period- 
icals haye been conducted with great ability and with corresponding 
success. Of thesefruits the peach has become one of the most import- 
ant, being easily raised, coming soon into bearing, and a favorite 
with almost all tastes. The area of its culture is tast widening, and 
thousands of acres are now devoted to peach orchards where, but 
a few years ago, none were known. It can be successfully cultivated 
almost anywhere under our bright skies, south of 42°, and below an 


518 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


altitude-of 9,000 feet, though not a sure crop north of 40°, In all the 
States south of Delaware it flourishes with the greatest luxuriance. In ~ 
this country alone is it grown so abundantly as to become a common mar- 
ketable commodity, and so cheap that all classes can regale themselves 
on the Gelicious fruit at a small expense. 

The Delaware peninsula, including the eastern shore of Maryland, 
has become probably the most productive peach-growing region in the 
world, the crop sent to market last year having exceeded 3,000,000 bas- 
kets, from an area of about six thousand square miles. Some planters 
in Delaware have peach orchards of 600 acres, with 10,000 to 20,000 
trees, and ship 1,000 to 1,500 baskets daily through the season, each bas- 
ket containing five-eighths of a bushel. Kent County, in Delaware, with 
an area of six hundred square miles, shipped last year about 1,000,000 
baskets. Ohio and Michigan also raise about a million baskets each in 
favorable seasons; and in California it is estimated that 800,000 trees 
have been planted in only thirteen counties. 

The soil for a peach-orchard should not only be dry, but light and 
warm. <A sandy loam is the best, in which the peach seems to delight; 
and which accelerates its maturity and fructification. A clay soil is 
not suitable ; a gravelly one, artificially enriched, is better, and the rich 
alluvials of our river bottoms do very well. Low lands, or those that 
hold water, are unfit, and must be carefully avoided. 

In planting a nursery, the seed of natural, unbudded fruit only should 
be used, which isa fact not generally known. It is more vigorous, more 
hardy, and more certain to germinate, and the trees livelonger. Although 
the seeds of budded fruit will generally grow, they are not certain to doso, 
and they are often diseased and defective, producing diseased and feeble 
trees. The kernels from natural peaches can be distinguished, as being 
smaller than those of budded fruit; they are also of fairer, brighter 
color, closer-grained, harder, and cleaner, with smaller cavities; the 
two valves are closer and more tenaciously closed. From five to twelve 
bushels to the acre are required, according as it is planted closely or 
widely. In the North they are usually planted seven to ten inches 
apart, while in Delaware only two and a half to three inches; and in 
the latter case the nurserymen raise from 10,000 to 12,000 first-class 
trees to the acre. Jor cultivation in the nursery, transplanting, prun- 
ing, budding, &c., in which only ordinary skill and judgment are re- 
quired, ample directions will be found in Mr. Fulton’s treatise. 

In selecting a site for an orchard, as the young wood and fruit buds 
often suffer from the rough northern and northwestern blasts of winter, 
it is desirable to get a spot where they will be sheltered. A southern 
or southeastern slope, other things being equal, is to be preferred. Prox- 
imity to a large body of water is supposed by some to be favorable, as 
materially alleviating the severity of winter and preventing the inju- 
rious effects of late frosts in the spring. But these beneficial results 
are sometimes impaired or neutralized by counteracting ones in a fruit 
So susceptible of atmospheric influences. Thousands of baskets of 
peaches have been known to rot on the trees in Delaware in a single 
warm, wet day, from the want of dry air and sunshine. As orchards 
near water are more exposed to this danger than others, the advantages 
seem to be nearly equally balanced, and the preference must generally 
be determined by other considerations. In the large peach plantations 
in Delaware it is usual to plant early, late, and intermediate sorts, that 
success or failure may not depend altogether on a single variety, and 
that the fruit may ripen progressively, affording the planter a supply 
during the whole season. He is thus better able to manage the crop, it 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 519 


being easier to send 10,000 baskets of a dozen varieties to market dur- 
ing a season of six weeks than the same quantity of a single variety in 
a single week. Hach kind should be planted in a row by itself, the ear- 
liest next the entrance of the orchard, and progressively to the rear, 
planting the latest last. The planter can thus clear his orchard as he 
goes; the trees in front being relieved, the limbs will gradually regain 
their former position, and little or no fruit will be knocked off in gath- 
ering. The trees may be transplanted in the fall or spring with equal 
success.. In the fall first-class. trees are more readily obtained, as the 
nurseries have not then been culled nor the stock exhausted, as is often 
the case in the spring. The ground is generally in better order then, 
and it isa time of more icisure with the farmer. In fall planting itis best 
to leave a few branches toward the top of the stem, as a sort of shield 
from the frosts of winter. If planted in the spring, the trees should be 
trimmed close and smooth like a rod, every limb taken off, and the top 
cut down to a uniform height of about three feet. Those planted in the 
fall should be treated in the same way in the following spring, as early 
asthe weather will permit. In June, after planting, every limb and 
sucker should be eut off that is nearer than two and a half feet to the 
ground, as well as any straggling limbs that may have grown far beyond 
the general contour of the head. If this trimming is done judiciously 
and timely, the limbs that are left will grow strong and vigorous, the 
fyvood will ripen early, and the vitality of the tree be preserved. A 
height of three feet is a proper distance at which the head should be 
allowed to commence its form. At this height it will naturally strike 
upward at an acute angle with the stem, and thus allow room enough 
to cultivate around it with a mule or small horse. Many planters “ cut 
in” young trees annually, about one-half of each year’s growth, the 
same season or early next spring. When the sap reaches this point it 
is, of course, checked, and sends out new branches; thus more new 
bearing wood is produced, nearer the stem and nearer the ground. This 
does well in small orchards, but is hardly practicable in plantations of 
thousands of trees. Cutting in also invigorates and prolongs the life of 
the tree; the leaves will be greener, the young bearing wood more 
abundant, and the fruit larger and richer. 

A full crop of peaches, say a basket to a tree, may be expected the 
fourth year after planting. This is a full crop for trees of that age and 
size, and quite as much as they ought to bear. It is not- easy to 
account for the difference in production; something depends on variety, 
culture, &c. Some kinds, as Hale’s Harly, uniformly bear large crops, 
while others, as the Susquehanna, a fruit of great beauty and excel- 
lence, are uniformly light bearers. It is not generally desirable that 
trees should bear when very young, it weakens the tree, in diverting 
the vital forces from the formation of wood into the production of fruit, 
oftentimes giving the tree a lasting tendency to feebleness ; besides, at 
an early age neither the stem nor the branches are able to bear a load 
of fruit; they break down, and the tree is thus permanently injured, 
both in usefulness and beauty. 

The culture after a crop should be prompt, careful, and generous. As 
soon as the last peach is gathered the hogs should be turned in to eat 
up the refuse. They will fatten on the decayed and imperfect fruit, and 
multitudes of embryo insects will be destroyed. ‘They will root about 
the trees, which will do almost asmuch good as a plowing. Hf there 
are no hogs at hand, the refuse should be gathered up and removed; 
but this is too seldom done, the more common way being to leave ail 
on the ground, and run the risk. 


520 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The next thing is to remove carefully all feeble, dead, and broken limbs. These are 
such as are near the ground, and have been so far deprived of their sap by the upper 
and more vigorous ones as to become unfruitful. As they would soon die, it is best to 
remove them at once, and thus give more room as well as more sap to the thrifty and 
fruit-bearing ones. After a bountiful crop many broken limbs will be found; some- 
times the whole tree will be demolished and apparently ruined. By careful and 
judicious pruning much may be done to repair the injury and restore the tree to its 
former beauty and usefulness. 

After this the root of every tree should be carefully examined for the borers and every 
one be destroyed, the ground carefully plowed and cultivated down, andall completed by 
the 1st of October. ‘The ripening of late fruit may retard the plowing, but the worm- 
ing must not be deferred if you value fine trees, and wish to preserve them. In a well- 
attended orchard the labor will be light ; for, where the planter is vigilant, few worms 
will ever obtain a lodgment in his trees. After the examination of each tree the soil 
should be carefully replaced, so that the tender neck of the stem will not be exposed. 

After the fall plowing it is advised to give the orchard a top-dressing 
of lime, or barn-yard manure, ashes, or superphosphate about the roots. 
Although this is somewhat expensive, any good orchard that is worth 
keeping at all is worth good culture, and whatever dressing it gets 
should be in the fall, that the fertilizers may dissolve, soak in, and reach 
the roots during the winter, in time to stimulate and strengthen the 
next year’s growth and crop. Neither weeds nor grass should be per- 
mitted to grow, and the ground should be kept as clear and smooth as 
a floor. 

But little is yet settled in regard to the diseases of the peach. The “yel- 
lows” is regarded as ineurable, and eradication is the only remedy recont- 
mended. ‘This disease is ascribed to bad cultivation, or rather to long 
cultivation.on the same soil. Atan early day in this country the yellows 
was unknown, and in newly-cleared districts and fresh soil it is never 
seen except where it has been introduced by diseased trees. The borer is 
the most troublesome enemy of the peach, but if looked after in time it is 
easily subdued, and need not seriously interfere with cultivation. 
The eggs from which this pest is produced are deposited by a four- 
winged, wasp-shaped insect, during the summer, on the tender bark of 
the tree, at the surface of the ground. As the season advances the 
eggs hatch into small white grubs or borers, abowt an inch long and an 
eighth of an inch in diameter, which penetrate the bark and bore into 
the sap-wood, where they remain all winter. The next spring they 
emerge in their perfect winged form, and soon commence depositing 
eggs for another generation. While in the tree they devour voraciously 
the bark and sap-wood, and one or two are sufticient to destroy a young 
tree in a single season, and four or five will destroy an old one. A 
little experience will enable one to detect the borer. The most certain 
and obvious sign is the gum at the neck of the tree; that is, the tender 
part which extends about an inch above and two below the surface. 
When this is discovered, the earth\should be scraped from the root, the 
gum and decayed wood cut away, and a stiff wire or whalebone thrast 
into the curving cavity, and the worm be thus destroyed. Care must 
be taken to kill all, as sometimes five or six will be found in the same 
tree. The dead and diseased wood should be carefully removed, so that 
the new growth may cover the old wood as soon as possible. After the 
operation the soil should be drawn up to the neck of the tree again, to 
prevent the evil effects of the sun or dry winds in summer, or the severe 
frosts in winter. The application of boiling water, the waste water 
from salt-works, and oil diffused in water have all been proposed as 
remedies, but are all inferior to the punching operation with a wire 
or whalebone. Sheathing the tree with strips of thick paper, straw, or 
cloth, a foot wide, is a good preventive, if kept on from the middle of 
June till the middle.of October. The paper should extend two inches 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. ay 


below the surface, the dirt being scraped away for the purpose. After 
adjusting the paper properly, the dirt should be drawn back and pressed 
down firmly. 

The cureulio, or plum weevil, has become very troublesome at the 
West in peach orchards. This dreaded insect has nearly banished 
plums from our gardens. Many remedies have been recommended. The 
most efficacious is jarring the tree with a sudden blow by a mallet; 
this dislodges the insects, which fall upon sheets placed under the tree, 
and are gathered up and destroyed. Bandaging the trees with strips 
or bands of wool, cotton, or rope, dipped in coal or gas tar, is recom- 
mended, the offensive odor of which is always effectual in driving away | 
insects. Covering the ground with a heavy coat of whitewash of lime, 
or of lime and sulphur, and planting in paved yards, or where the 
branches will hang over water, on the principle that instinct teaches the 
eurculio never to deposit its eggs where they cannot be hatched, are 
alsorecommended. ‘They are, at least, palliatives. A cheap, convenient, 
and certain preventive or remedy for the ravages of this insect is a 
desideratum -earnestly desired, but it is a blessing which has not yet 
been conferred. 

In the selection of sorts, it is impressed upon beginners not to 
plant too many varieties. In no case should they exceed twenty; in’ 
most, twelve will be enough, and in some six, say Hale’s Karly, Old- 
mixon Free, Stump the World, Crawford’s Karly, Reeves’s Favorite, 
and Crawford’s Late, (the first three white, and the last three yellow,) 
will be better than twelve, depending on various circumstances. The white 
peaches are distinguished for the tender, delicate, and sparkling quality 
of their flesh; the yellow, for their bright color, rich juice, and great 
size. To the multitude the bright color and large size of the yellow 
peach are irresistible, and generally they sell better in market than the 
white. hy 

Mr. Fulton concludes his book with directions for the construction 
and management of peach houses, and a descriptive catalogue of the 
most valuable, as well as of the fancy varieties, many of which deserip- 
tions are the results of the author’s extensive experience. 


Tne AprLe CuLtrurisr: A complete treatise for the practical pomologist, to aid in 
propagating the apple, and cultivating and managing orchards. Illustrated with 
engravings of fruit, young and old trees, and mechanical devices employed in con; 
nection with orchards and the management of apples. By Sereno Edwards Todd, 
author of the “ American Wheat Culturist,” &c. I2mo, 334 pages. New York: Har- 
per & Brothers, 1871. 

In this work Mr. Todd gives the result of his experience in the propa- 
gation of apple trees and the management of orchards. Propagating 
the trees, grafting and budding, preparation of the soil and laying out 
the ground for orchards, removing, transplanting, pruning, and training 
both old and young trees, and renovating old and declining orchards, 
are discussed. 

Farmers often complain that on light and sandy soils their apple trees 
are failing, and that after one or two fair crops they bear but few or none. 
In such eases their trees require a supply of clay in the soil. This is 
particularly so of the light soils of New Jersey and Long Island, where 
these complaints are general. There is nothing available in the soil 
from which the roots of the trees can produce apples. In sugh cases a 
ton or two of clay, a few bushels of lime, a top-dressing of rich compost, 
would cause the trees to hang down with plump and luscious fruit. 
Fine-looking trees may be grown, but without the proper ingredients in 
the soil they will bear only inferior crops of small, knotty, scabby, and 


522 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


one-sided fruit. A mellow, fertile soil is necessary, which should be 
deep enough to allow the roots to extend, and be dry and well drained, to 
prevent injury from stagnant water below the surface; firm, and not 
peaty or spongy, to preclude disaster from frost, mildew, or rust. The 
only trees that will not bear a high fertility are those brought originally 
from warmer countries, and liable to suffer from frosts, as the peach, 
nectarine, and apricot, which would be stimulated to a late growth, and 
the immature wood be injured in winter. Granite soils are among the best 
for apples, as this rock abounds in feldspar and mica, both of which 
contain potash. As these rocks disintegrate and enter into the com- 
position of the soil, they supply one of the most necessary elements for - 
the formation of good trees and apples. 

In regard to the proper time for pruning there is great diversity of 
opinion among pomologists, their recommendations ranging from mid- 
winter to midsummer. Some, implying that to do the work well is 
more important than to do it at any particular season, say it should be 
done “‘ whenever one’s knife is sharp.” After mentioning the diverse 
and sometimes obscure views of writers on this question, Mr. Todd 
Says it is best to begin to lead and direct i» the bud, and in early spring 
_to pinch off certain buds that would grow into branches which must 
ultimately be cut off. Ina word, the true secret of scientific pruning and 
training is to pinch off a bud that would make a branch that must be 
cut off. An experienced pruner, by a glance at a young tree, can see 
the proper buds to be removed, and in three minutes prune it with his 
thumb-nail, so that the tree may need no more care for the season. Trees 
thus managed will never need the cutting away of large limbs, 
except when injured by teams, or broken by snow or wind. While 
there is no uncertainty as to the expediency of top-pruning, Mr. Todd 
is skeptical as to any advantage in root-pruning; and this, after investi- 
gating the subject thoroughly, and having been on the watch for many 
years for a single instance or experiment affording an argument in fayor 
of the practice. Where there is danger of the growth of wood being 
extended so late in the autumn that the new growth would be killed 
in winter, the true remedy is to pinch off the terminal buds, instead of 
severing the roots. This will check the lateral and upward growth of 
the branches, and the sap and cambium will at once begin to develop 
the buds, thus inducing fruitfulness and promoting the maturity of the 
green wood and tender branches, so that before cold weather every 
twig and shoot will be fully ripened and prepared to withstand the rig- 
ors of winter. By pinching or clipping the terminal twigs late in sum- 
mer on some trees, and late in September on others, the pruner will 
have complete control of the growth and development of the branches. 
If the twigs commence growing a second time, they should be clipped 
again. By such management for one or two seasons this rampant 
growth can be so controlled that the great flow of sap will promote 
abundant fruitfulness, rather than surplus wood. 

The practice of scraping old trees so thoroughly as to remove all the 
shaggy, dead bark is pronounced worse than useless labor, except where 
it is evident that the bark conceals insects or their eggs. In that case 
the denuded parts should be protected with a coat of pitch and tallow. 
This rough bark is provided by nature as a protection against the 
adverse influences of climate, and for maintaining in even balance that 
degree of warmth favorable to the healthy exercise of the functions of 
gréwth and productiveness. Wood, particularly in the direction across 
the grain, is a non-conductor of heat in an eminent degree. This prac- 
tice of scraping off the rough bark promotes no good end. Even the 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 523 


long strips of dead bark hanging from the trunks and limbs of large 
hickory trees are of more service than injury, and it is doubted if even 
moss or lichens are hurtful to trees, as they live exclusively upon food 
drawn from the atmosphere, and in bleak and exposed situations they 
may supplement the bark in affording protection. When covered with 
moss to excess, it may be presumed the trees are in an unsatisfactory con- 
dition, either from impoverishment of the soil, want of drainage, or expo- 
sure to the rigors of a severe and variable climate. Slitting the bark 
up and down with a knife, with the idea that the tree is bark-bound, is 
absurd. Digging about the roots and washing the trank of the trees 
with ley, soap-suds, or chamber slops is all that is wanted. Thinning 
out the fruit, particularly on young trees, is urged; the growth of the 
tree is thus promoted, and the erop will be more abundant as well as 
more valuable. Itis recommended that orchards be well manured before 
the trees are set out, and the surface top-dressed every two years. Mod- 
erate applications of lime and generous ones of wood-ashes are always 
profitable, and phosphates are useful if buried beneath the surface; also 
Peruvian guano, if slightly covered, late in the fall, so as to become 
thoroughly divided by winter rains. Coarse organic manure should not 
be used in contact with the roots of young trees, but chip-dust, fish, 
flesh, and the bones of dead animals, horn-piths and hoofs, hair and old 
plaster, and all like articles, are good for growing trees. Pear trees 
that have not borne fruit for twenty years have been brought into fall 
bearing by yarding two shoats beneath the tree in August and Septem- 
ber, in an inclosure a rod square, having their beds close to the body of 
the tree. In this yard holes were made with a crowbar, into which 
kernels of corn were dropped, and the whole yard was rooted over and 
over to the depth of eight to twelve inches, and many of the roots were 
torn up. The next season every branch was filled with plump, luscious 
fruit, and for many years the trees continued to yield bountiful crops. 

Belts of timber-trees to protect orchards on the western prairies from 
the cold winds of winter are urged as indispensable to successful culture 
in such locations. NReliable authorities at the West estimate the lossin 
fruit trees in [llinois, for the last three years, at millions of dollars, 
chiefly from want of protection, on land underlaid with the retentive 
clayey loam sub-soil of most of the prairies. Ridging such land by re- 
peated plowings is recommended; nursery trees placed on the apex 
of such ridges are not thrown out by freezing, and make a better growth 
in summer. Thorough draining, also, would doubtless lessen the effects 
of severe winters on fruit trees in other regions as well as at the West. 
The scathing influence of these dry cold winds is felt not only on fruit 
trees but in many localities where bountiful crops of golden grain 
were formerly harvested, the tender wheat plants, unprotected by sur- 
rounding forests returning a greatly diminished product. 

The volume closes with a chapter on the general principles of pomol- 
ogy, and a glossary of words used in pomological science. The book 
is well printed and illustrated, and contains what is too often neglected, 
an ample index. 


Tur STRAWBERRY AND Its CULTURE: witha descriptive catalogue of all known varie- 
ties. By J. M. Merrick, jr.; 12 mo., pp. 128. Boston Tilton & Co., 1870. 
The steadily increasing interest felt in the cultivation of strawberries 
has induced Mr. Merrick to prepare a manual on the subject, comprising 
practical directions on the proper manures and preparation of the soil; 
methods of cultivation; insect enemies; on forcing strawberries; the 
production of new varieties; the question of taste, &c. The fact that, 


* 


524 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


forty to fifty years ago, two or three now forgotten kinds supplied the 
market, and a man who picked fifty boxes a day was considered a large 
strawberry-grower, while now hundreds of varieties are cuitivated, and 
single commission houses frequently sell ten to twelve thousand boxes 
a’day, shows the immensely increased estimation of this delicious fruit. 

While the wild native strawberry ripens its small berries on the forest 
soil, and many kinds do well though poorly fed, there is scarcely one 
that will not do better on well-manured land; and it may be said 
generally, as in the case of other crops, that the more manure the more 
strawberries. Almost any fertilizer can be used to advantage, either 
in preparing the soil for a plantation of this fruit or for a top-dressing, 
as stable manure, compost, unleached ashes, superphosphate of lime, 
guano, fish manure, and hen-droppings. Some consider lime injurious, 
when used alone, but superphosphate of lime is certainly beneficial. 
Guano alone scattered. broadcast half a dozen times through the sum- 
mer, before a rain if possible, at the rate of one thousand pounds to 
the acre, produces wonderful results, and may take the place of all other 
manures. Where it is desired to produce new runners in propagating 
new varieties unleached ashes are a good fertilizer, but should, of course, 
never be used with guano. Market-gardeners who plow in stable manure 
liberally, even spading it in between the rows, are rewarded with large 
crops of superior berries. The finer the manure the better. A fall 
top-dressing of horse manure is excellent, acting both as a fertilizer and 
protection, but it should be light and strawy. <A top-dressing of heavy 
green manure applied in the fail is ruinous to this plant. 

The soil for strawberries can hardly be too fine or too deep, as the 
roots extend farther than is generally imagined. Corn, potatoes, and any 
vegetable that requires clean culture, are good crops to precede this 
fruit. An old strawberry bed that is done bearing can be plowed under 
and followed by potatoes, with excelient results. 

Pasture or grass land selected for strawberries must be cultivated for 
at least one year, with some clean-hoed crops, as such lands are apt to 
be filled with the larve ofthe May-beetle, or dor-bug, (Phyllophaga quercina.) 
The ravages of these larve or grubs are sometimes disheartening. They 
abound in old grass land and pastures, and live chiefly upon grass roots. 
When only a few show signs of their presence in well-established beds 
of strawberries they should be at once dug out and killed. They can 
be found in the morning close under the plantthey have killed. Skunks 
are very fond of them, and dig them out and eat them with avidity. 
The well known rose-bug sometimes destroys the foliage of the plants, 
for which there seems to be no remedy but hand-picking and burning 
or scalding. Ants occasionally swarm upon the berries, but may be 
disposed of by pouring boiling water into their hills. A sudden cold 
rain sometimes causes the blossoms to blight, and overripe fruit will 
mold on the vines in damp weather; but, after all, strawberries are 
subject to as few fatal contingencies as any plant. 

With proper appliances the strawberry can be forced with less trouble 
than almost any other fruit. The vines should be of the previous season’s 
growth, with full crowns, plump, well ripened, and mature. The Triomphe 
de Gand and La Constant are excellent varieties for forcing, and often 
produce splendid crops in March. The first runners from good plants 
should be layered in thumb-pots in July, which in a few weeks will be 
filled with roots. The young plants will then be ready for shifting into 
three or four inch pots; they should then be well watered and set in a 
cold frame, and when well filled with roots, again shifted into larger 
pots. When cold weather checks their growth in November, they should 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART.. 525 


be placed in a frame, and covered with leaves and boards till January, 
then gradually started and sparingly watered with guano water, made 
by dissolving four or five pounds of guano in a barrel of water. Keep 
the runners cut off, the temperature at 75° by day and 60° by night, and 
a crop of fruit may be expected in ten or twelve weeks after the vines 
are brought into the green-house. 

Mr. Merrick concludes his book with a descriptive catalogue of several 
hundred varieties, filling sixty-eight pages, compiled from various Amer- 
ican and European authorities, “which shows 2 great amount of labor, 
and is more complete than any other extant. 


CRANBERRY CULTURE. By aes J. White, a practical grower. Illustrated. 12mo. 
pp. 126. New York: Orange Judd & Co, 1869. 

The culture of cranberries is still in its infancy. Within a few years 
they have attracted deserved attention, and the demand has increased 
much faster than the supply. Thirty to forty years ago but few were 
gathered, which were sold at 75 cents to $1 per bushel; “put the steadily 
increasing “demand has caused the prices to advance, and notwithstand- 
ing the greatly extended production, they have risen and ranged from $4 
to $6 per bushel, and in 186869 many growers realized $10 per bushel. 
Some of the best cranberry bogs in New Jersey are worth $2,000 per 
acre. 

The cranberry grows naturally in moist bottoms. It requires a peat 
. or muck subsoil, free from loam or clay, which, where the peat is six or 
eight feet deep, should be covered with beach sand to the depth of five 
or six inches; where the peat is only a foot or two deep, two or three 
inches of sand are sufficient. The latter should be clean, rather coarse, 
and entirely free from any mixture of loam. A good test for the proper 
sand or gravel to be used in cranberr y cuiture is this: Take a portion 
of the soil, and compress it tightly in the hand; if it is suitable, it will 
fall apart upon being released ; but if composed in part of loam, it will 
adhere together after the pressure isremoved. The cranberry will grow 
in pure muck, but in such case the growth is apt to be so vigorous as to 
render the vines unproductive. The sand checks the too luxuriant 
growth of the vine, and prevents the growth of weeds. Flooding in 
winter is desirable, for the purpose of killing the vine-worm and other 
insect pests. 

In planting cranberry vines several modes have been followed: 1st. 
Sod planting, by taking from their native marshes sods containing cran- 
berry vines, moss, turf, &c., and placing them on prepared or unprepared 
meadow, was formerly practiced, but is now discarded. 2d. Hill planting, 
with bunches of clean vines, in drills two feet apart each way, and a 
handful of vines planted at each intersection ; but large bunches have 
a tendency to dry up and become woody, thus injuring the plantation. 
dd. In drills requiring no sanding, but susteptible of being prepared 
with the plow, the best method is to ‘‘ strike out” the eround with a 
plow, in rows three feet apart, and scatter the vines thinly and evenly 
along the furrows, putting only one or two in a place. They should be 
inclined against the “land side,” projecting four or five inches above the 
surface, after which the hoe is required to fill up the furrow and thor- 
oughly cover the roots; this causes them to sucker and grow more 
luxuriantly than when left standing upright, to be swayed by the winds. 
4th. On soils properly prepared by. spreading sand over muck or peat, 
the best mode is to mark out the ground fourteen inches apart with a 
small sled having three runners; ‘the vines are then dropped in these 

marks, say two in a place, fourteen inches apart in the rows, and pressed 


526 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. * 


into the ground with a spade-like tool placed on the vine, about one- 
fourth the distance from the root to the top. The roots of the vine 
should be pressed into close proximity to the muck below, that they 
may be stimulated to grow more rapidly. 5th. Spreading the vines 
evenly over the surface of the meadow, and then covering them about 
an inch deep with sand, has succeeded well in New Jersey. The young 
shoots come up through the sand as thick as wheat, making an excellent 
growth, and the whole surface is soon matted with them. This mode 
requires more vine than the others, but yields a crop sooner than by 
planting in any other way. 6th. Sowing by cuttings can be done success- 
fully, the vines being passed through a straw-cutter, and chopped into 
pieces about an inch long; they are then sown like oats upon an evenly- 
prepared surface, and harrowed in. This must be done early in the 
spring, and upon moist ground, so that the cuttings will become well 
rooted before the heat of summer. 7th. Attempts have been made to 
grow them from the seed; but, owing to the longer time required for the 
vines to become productive, and the increased expense of keeping them 
clean, this system has been abandoned for general culture. * 

Great care should be taken in selecting the vines to procure those 
which yield large berries. The shape of the fruit is of little conse- 
quence, the great desideratum being to obtain berries of good size and 
eolor. Until the vines are well matted, itis important to keep the meadow 
thoroughly drained atleast one foot below the surface. It will.generally 
be found necessary to go deeper than that to effect a thorough drainage, 
without which the vines will not thrive, even if planted on ground well 
adapted to their growth. If the meadowis allowed to remain very wet, 
the vines will make little or no growth. When properly drained, a good 
meadow will become maited in three years, although some of the most 
permanent plantations have required a longer time to come into fall 
bearing, owing to the dampness of the soil. 

There are several insect enemies, however, that the cranberry grower 
has to combat. Tor the extirpation of most of them water is probably 
the most efficient agent. In the climate about Cape Cod it is recom- 
mended to flow the bogs once or twice between the 10th of May and the 
10th of June, say for a day or two, thatis, if the water has been drawn off 
early in the spring. If the water has been kept on till the 1st of June, 
itis well to flow two or three times during the month. The common 
blue-bird is a great destroyer of small caterpillars and worms, and it is 
hoped that the European house-sparrow, now becoming so generally 
domesticated, may prove an efficient auxiliary in destroying the several 
kinds of worms that prey on this fruit. 

Mr. White concludes his book, the results of several years’ experience, 
with directions for picking, keeping, and preparing the fruit for market. 
The home demand is so great that very few are left for exportation. 
Should there ever be a surplus, an active demand for them always exists 
in Europe and the West Indies. The requisites for establishing a eran- 
berry plantation, as gathered from Mr. White’s book, may be summed 
up as follows: 1. A sub soil or bottom of peat, or peaty matter. 2. No 
cold spring, but a head of water, so that the bog may be quickly flowed 
at all times, to protect it from the ravages of insects. 3. The turf or 
top soil of roots, grass, &c., must be removed down to the peat. ‘This 
top soil will make a good material for compost on high land. 4. Ditches 
must be made so that the water can be drained to at least a foot below 
the surface during the growing season; especially the cold water from 
the borders must be drawn off. 5. The surface of the peat, after the 
soil is removed, must be covered three to twelve inches deep, according 


5 CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 527 


to the depth of the sub-soil, with sand that contains no loam, nor grass 

or weed seeds—such sand as will not adhere when pressed in the hand. 

6. Vines should be set in hills or rows, fourteen to twenty-four inches 

apart; spring is the best time for doing it, or say from the middle of 
April to the middle of June. Itisimportant that they should be planted 

at an inclination tn all cases; thus bringing the tops near the ground, | 
and causing them to sucker better than when pressed down perpen- 

dicularly. 


PRIZE Essay ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE Potato. By D. A. Compton; &vo, pp. 30. 
New York: Orange Judd & Co., 1870. 


Two years ago the Rev. Mr. Wylie, of Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, of- 
fered a premium of $100 for the best essay on the cultivation of the 
potato, the premium to be awarded by Mr. Weld of the American 
Agriculturist, Mr. Fuller of Hearth and Home, and Dr. Hexamer, 
who has made the cultivation of the potato a special study. The pre- 
mium was awarded to D. A. Compton, of Hawley, Wayne County, 
Pennsylvania, who, within a reasonable compass, describes with sutti- 
cient minuteness of detail the mode of culture which his experience 
and observation have proved to be best adapted to this crop. The 
writer has been engaged in farming from early youth, and his state- 
ments are based on actual personal experience, being the results of 
many experiments made to test as many theories. He discusses the 
proper soil, manures, varieties, the potato rot, and the various insects 
that prey upon the potato plant in this country. 

‘The potato is most profitably grown in a warm, dry, sandy, or gray- 
elly loam, well filled with decayed vegetable matter. New lands, or 
lands recently denuded of the forest, if not too damp, produce tubers 
of the best quality. When grown in dry new land, the potato always 
cooks dry and mealy, and possesses an agreeable flavor and aroma, not 
to be attained in older soils. Inno clayey soil can it be raised to per- 
fection as regards quality, though large crops of coarse-fleshed tubers 
may be obtained in favorable seasons. The soil must be enriched by 
plowing under green crops, such as clover, buckwheat, peas, &c., or by 
swamp muck that has been drawn to the field in winter, exposed in 
small heaps to the frost, and mixed in the spring with a little lime to 
neutralize the acid. Sea-weed, when bountifully applied, has no supe- 
rior aS &@ manure for the potato. No stable or green barn-yard man- 
ure should be used on this crop. Stable manure predisposes the tuber 
to rot, and detracts from the desired flavor; and not half so large a 
crop can be obtained with it as with different manures. It is a good 
plan to sprinkle a handful of phosphates, wood ashes, or lime in the hills 
at planting, and an equal quantity of wood ashes, or lime slacked in 
strong salt brine, just before the last hoeing. 

No better method can be adopted to bring up partially-exhausted 
lands than plowing under green crops. A farmer cAin thus take up lot 
after lot, and soon bring all into a high state of fertility. It costs no 
more to cultivate an acre of rich, productive land than an acre that is 
poor and unproductive; and the pleasure of harvesting a heavy crop 
abundantly rewards the farmer for his extra labor in preparing his soil. 
Besides, the beneficial effects of manuring with green crops are not tran- 
sitory; the land shows this generous treatment for many years, and if 
lime or ashes be now and then added to assist decomposition, it will 
continue to yield remunerative crops long after land that has been but 
ouce treated with stable manure or guano fails to produce any thing but 
weeds. Manure of some kind must be used, and to most farmers no 


. §28 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


mode of enriching land is so feasible, so cheap, and attended with so 
satisfactory results, as that of plowing under green crops. If the soil 
is so poor that clover alone will not take root, seed it down with millet and 
clover very early in the spring, harrowing in with the millet thirty 
bushels of wood ashes, or two hundred pounds of guano; then sow the 
clover seed, say one peck to the acre, and harrow it in. 

Astonishing results are obtained from plaster, by dusting the vines with 
it as soon as they are fairly through the soil; again immediately after the 
last plowing and hoeing; and at intervals through the whole growing 
season. The first application may be light, the second heavier, and after 
that more bountiful, say two hundred pounds te the acre. The action of 
plaster is not easily explained, but the results are undoubtedly beneficial, 
particularly in seasons of extreme drought. It renders plants less pala- 
table to insects, and appears to be fatal tomany of the fungifamily. The 
vines retain a bright, lively green color, and the tubers continue swelling 
until growth is stopped by the frost; besides, potatoes thus grown are so 
sound and free from disease as to be easily kept for spring market, 
withoutloss by rot. Mr. Compton has seen a field, all of the same soil, all 
prepared alike, and all planted with the same variety, at the same time, 
on one-half of which, that had received no plaster, the yield was but sixty 
bushels per acre, and many rotten; while the other half, to which plaster 
had been applied inthe manner above described, yielded three hundred 
and sixty bushels per acre, and not an unsound one among them. 

Potatoes should not be planted year after year on the same spot; trouble 
with weeds, and rapid deterioration of quality and quantity of tubers, soon 
render the crop unprofitable; and loamy soil thus planted continuously 
soon becomes compact, heavy, and lifeless. Most growers argue that 
potatoes should be planted whole, as a greater supply of starch is thus 
available, until the plant can draw support from the soil and atmosphere. 
Mr. Compton thinks, however, that the poor results attending eut tibers 
are traceable to improper ones improperly cut. Large, mature, sound 
tubers only should be used, cut in pieces of two or three eyes each, with 
as much flesh as possible around and under each eye to the center of 
the tuber. The seed should be often changed. The best and most exten- 
sive growers procure new seed every two or three years; some every year. 

When the tops are two inches high, run a corn plow five inches deep, 
close to the hills, turning the furrows from the hills; plow both ways. 
Standing on the squares of earth, warmed on all sides by the air and 
sun-light, the potatoes grow rapidly. As soon as the tops are six or 
seven inches high, plow seven inches deep, midway between the rows, 
turning the furrows to the hills. Hoeing is generally unnecessary; but 
when needed, draw mellow earth to the plants with the hoe, keeping the 
top of the hills somewhat hollow to catch the rain. ' Then, as far as stir- 
ring the soil is concerned, let ¢é alone, as after a certain stage new tubers 
are formed each time the soil is disturbed; and if the last plowing be 
deferred until the vines are large, a great quantity of small potatoes is 
sure to be the consequence. 

Mr. Compton closes his essay with remarks on the value of the po- 
tato as food tor cattle; and an elaborate chapter, with illustrations, on 
the ten distinct species of insects that prey npon the potato plant. 


ONION-RAISING : What kinds to raise, and the way to raise them. By J. J. H. Gregory, 
seed-grower, Marblehead, Massachusetts; 12 mo., pp. 35. Salem, Massachusetts; 
Geo. W. Pease & Co., 1869. 


This is a small work, but of a decidedly practical character, in which 
the author gives his long experience in onion culture, in a neighborhood 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 529 


where one hundred thousand bushels are raised annually ; as well as the 
‘results of personal observation in other localities ; and facts gathered by 
correspondence with different sections of the Union. 

Onions thrive best on old grpund. ‘They have been grown in some 
parts of New England on the same spot for nearly a century, without 
any perceptible falling off in the quality or quantity of the crop, though 
some think that in such cases there is a greater liability to rust. They 
give the most satisfactory results on soils of light structure, such as a 
sandy loam, or even on a gravelly soil, if it is not of a leachy nature, and 
if it rests on a hard-pan bottom. It should be heavily manured with 
either Peruvian or fish guano, or pig and barn manure, night-soil, kelp, 
muscle-mud, superphosphate of lime, wood-ashes, or muck, all of which, 
used either alone or in compost, are excellent food for the onion. Wood 
ashes are generally used in connection with other manures, at the rate 
of about two hundred bushels to the acre. They must never be combined 
with other manures, as they would set the ammonia free, and thus de- 
teriorate their quality. They should be scattered on the surface at the 
time of planting, or when the crop is about half grown. 

The soil for onions does not require deep plowing; four or five inches 
are sufficient to insure a good crop. The great object is to get the land 
in a thoroughly fine condition, to facilitate the covering of the seed with 
fine earth ; to have the soil light, that there may be a vigorous growth 
of the plants, and to leave the land in good working condition for after 
culture. As onions, when grown from the seed, generally require the 
whole season to ripen, the ground should be prepared and the seed 
planted as early as possible in the spring. As a general rule three and 
a half pounds of seed are sufficient for an acre, or, if the land is very 
highly manured, four pounds may be planted with profit. This is where 
large onions are wanted for fall or winter use. But if it is designed to 
pull them when small for the early market, then seven or eight pounds 
will be required to the acre. There are many different machines used 
for sowing the seed. The Large Red, Yellow, and White are the three 
standard varieties in this country. The Danvers, a comparatively new 
sort, is very prolific and early. This and the Large Red are extensively 
raised tor market as well as for shipping. The Potato and Top onions 
are rather fancy sorts The former is very mild and pleasant to the 
taste, but rather a poor keeper. It has the advantage of being quite 
early, and not very liable to injury from the onion maggot when that 
pest abounds; it is best developed on soil rather moister than the 
varieties from seed require. The Top onion, though of mild and pleasant 
flavor, is coarsely and loosely made up, is a poor keeper, and has no 
particular merit over the common sorts. 

South of New Jersey onions cannot be relied on to mature the first 
year from seed, as the extreme heat of the climate forces the formation 
of the buib, and dries down the top quite early in the season. In the 
Southern States, therefore, two years are necessary to mature the crop. 
The seed is sown very thick, say thirty pounds to the acre; the crop 
matures in July, when it is pulled, stored in cool, airy lofts, and spread 
thinly over the floor. The next spring the bulbs are planted in rows, 
say ten inches apart, and two or three inches distant in the row. 

The onion crop is sometimes severely injured by rust or mildew. The 
tops of the leaves die, and the whole piant is more or less covered with 
patches of thin white dust, which stops the further growth of the bulb. 
This disease is most frequent in very wet seasons, and is more common 
on old onion beds than on new. ‘The best remedy known for old beds 
is to run the plow a little deeper, and thus bring up and mix in a little 


34 A 


530 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


new soil. Mr. Gregory closes his treatise with a description of the 

various drills and labor-saving machines used at the North in the eul- 

ture of this crop. 

Caspaces: How to grow them. A practical tréatise on cabbage culture tiving full 
details on every point, including keeping and marketing the crops. By James J. 
H. Gregory, introducer of the Marblehead ‘cabbage; 12 mo., pp. 72. Salem, Massa- 
chusetts, 1870. 

This little treatise gives plain and practical directions for the cultiva- 
tion of the cabbage, with its congeners, the cauliflower, broccoli, &c., 
describing the proper soil, the diseases of the plant, and its insect ene- 
mies, with a description of the most desirable kinds for either the table 
or live stock. Although it is a familiar plant in almost all gardens, 
there are many hints in Mr. Gregory’s book that will be new and useful 
to beginners, particularly in selecting the best varieties. 

The Winnigstadt variety, that makes a hard head under almost any 
condition, is recommended where the soil is light.- Deep fall: plow- 
ing is urged, that the frost of winter may disintegrate the soil. Almost 
any manure, except hog manure, will answer for cabbages, as barn ma- 
nure, rotten kelp, well-diluted liquid manure, night soil, guano, phosphates, 
wood ashes, fish, salt, glue-waste, hen-manure, all properly composted, 
or slaughter-house offal, and the richer they are in ammonia the better. 
Hog manure is thought to invariably produce the club-foot disease in 
cabbage, though Mr. Henderson, of New York, ascribes it to an insect 
that deposits its eggs in the soil; and in the maggot condition in which 
it appears the second year it attacks the roots, which become large and 
carious, ruining the plant. On this theory cabbages, cauliflowers, ruta- 
‘bagas, and turnips can be safely grown on the same spot only in alter- 
nate years. On soils containing a large amount of lime, this insect can- 
not exist to an injurious extent. 

In New England the largest cultivators for market drop the seed di- 
rectly where the plants are to stand, instead of the old mode of trans- 
planting from a hot-bed. Time is thus saved, risks incidental to trans- 
planting are avoided, and all the plants in the field start alike. Half 
a dozen seeds are scattered in each hill, so that the cut-worm has to 
depredate severely before he really injures the field. As the plants 
grow, the feeble ones can be thinned out, and where the seeds in an ad- 
joining hill have failed to vegetate, the deficiency can be supplied by the 
superfluous healthy plants. Four to six ounces of seed thus planted in 
hills are sufficient for an acre. 

Sprinkling wood ashes and air-slaked lime upon the young plants, 
while the leaves are damp with rain or dew, is an efficacious remedy for 
destroying the voracious fly, beetle, and flea that attack them as soon 
as they have broken through the soil, as well as for most other insects. 
Until the plants have a stump as large as a pipe-stem, they are subject 
to the ravages of the cut-worm, for which there seems to be no better 
remedy than sprinkling liberally wood ashes or air-slaked lime close 
about the stems of the plants. As this pest disappears about the mid- 
dle of June, cabbages that are planted late suffer but little from it. 

A cabbage-field should be stirred with the cultivator and hoe at least - 
three times during their growth; the oftener the better. In the com- 
paratively mild climate of England, cabbages are left unprotected in 
the fields during the winter months; and in the Southern States they 
are principally a winter crop. As we proceed north, a slight covering 
of litter on their heads is necessary. In New England they are placed 
in dry pits, several tiers deep, heads downward, about as thick as they 
will stand, covered with six inches of straw or coarse hay, with a roof 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. - 531 


of rough boards, and about a foot of earth. Repeated freezing and 
thawing, or excessive moisture or warmth, will cause them to rot; while 
the dry air of most cellars abstracts moisture from the leaves, causing 
them to wilt and injuring their flavor. 

For successive crops on a large scale for market, the following varie- 
ties are recommended: Early Wyman, Carter’s Superfine Karly, Little 
Pixie, Early Wakefield, Early Low Dutch, Early Winnigstadt,. Early 
Schweinfurt, Premium Flat Dutch, Stone Mason, Large Late Drumhead, 
Marblehead Mammoth Drumhead, Fottler’s Drumhead, Drumhead Sa- 
voy, and American Green Globe Savoy. It is well to note a fandamen- 
tal distinction between the Drumhead cabbage of England and that of 
this country. In England the Drumheads are coarse, and are raised 
almost wholly for stock, being very different from the tender, succulent 
varieties of Drumheads raised here. 

Cauliflowers, Brussels sprouts, and kale, in the selection of the soil 
and manure, and in cultivation, require generally the same treatment 
as cabbages. , 


How Crops Freep: A treatise on the atmosphere and the soil, as related to the nutrition 
of agricultural plants. With illustrations. By Samuel W. Johnson, M. A., professor 
of analytical and agricultural chemistry in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale 
College, chemist to the Connecticut State Agricultural Society, and member of the 
National Academy of Sciences. 12mo., pp. 375. New York: Orange Judd &Co., 1870. 


Professor Johnson’s able work, “‘How Crops Grow,” noticed in the 
annual report of this Department for 1868, has been received with 
great favor, not only in America, but in Europe. It has been repub- 
lished in England under the joint editorship of Professors Church and 
Dyer, of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester; and a transla- 
tion into German will soon appear, on the recommendation of Professor 
Von Liebig. In this new work, “How Crops Feed,” designed as the 
complement and companion of the former, the author has digested the 
cumbrous mass of evidence in which the truths of vegetable nutrition 
lie buried beyond the reach of ordinary inquirers, and has set these 
truths forth in proper order and plain dress for their legitimate uses. 

_Under the general divisions of the atmosphere as related to vegeta- 
tion, and of the soil as related to vegetable production, Professor John- 
son discusses the atmosphere as physically related to vegetation ; also the 
origin and formation of soils; their definition, classification, and physi- 
eal character; the soil as a source of food to crops, describing the in- 
gredients the elements of which are of atmospheric origin, and such as 
are derived from rocks. He says: 

No study can have a grander material significance than the one which gives us a 
knowledge of the causes of the fertility and barrenness of soils; a knowledge of the 
means of economizing the one and overcoming the other, and of those natural laws 
which enable the farmer so to modify and manage his soil that all the deficiences of 
the atmosphere or the vicissitudes of climate cannot deprive him of a suitable reward 
for his exertions. 

In remarking on the formation of nitrogenous compounds in the at- 
mosphere, the fact, known to the best farmers, is stated, that certain 
crops are especially aided in their growth by nitrogenous fertilizers, 
while others are comparatively indifferent to them. Thus— 

The cereal grains and grasses are most frequently benefited by applications of nitrate 
of soda, Peruvian guano, dung of animals, fish, flesh, and blood manures, or other mat- 
ters rich in nitrogen. On the other hand, clover and turnips flourish best, as a rule, 
when treated with phosphates and alkaline substances, and are not manured with ani- 
mal fertilizers so economically as the cereals. It has, in fact, become a rule of practice 
in some of the best farming districts of England, where systematic rotation of crops 
is followed, to apply nitrogenous manures to the cereals, and phosphates to turnips. 

The foliage of clover, cut green, and of root crops, maintains its activity until the 


5382 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


time the crop is gathered; the supply of nitrates thus keeps pace with the wants of 
the plant. In the case of green crops, the functions of the foliage decline as the seed 
begins to develop, and the plant’s means of providing itself with assimilable nitrogen 
fail, although the need for it still exists. Furthermore, the clover cut for hay leaves 
behind much more roots and stubble per acre than green crops, and the clover stubble 
is twice as rich in nitrogen as the stubble of ripened grain. This is a result of the 
fact that the clover is cut when in active growth, while the grain is harvested after the 
roots, stems, and leaves have been exhausted of their own juices to meet the demands 
ofthe seed. * * * The fact is not to be denied that the soil is enriched in nitrogen 
by the culture of large-leaved plants, which are harvested while in active growth, and 
leave a considerable proportion of roots, leaves, or stubble on the field. On the other 
hand, the field is impoverished in nitrogen when grain crops are raised upon it. 


In the conversion of rocks into soil, the action of freezing water is 
remarkable. Water, in the act of conversion into ice, expands one- 
fifteenth of its bulk, and the force thus exerted is sufficient to burst 
vessels of the strongest materials, and, in cold latitudes or altitudes, 
accomplishes stupendous results. 


Along the base of the vertical trap cliffs of New Haven and the Hudson River lie 
immense masses of broken rock, reaching to more than half the height of the bluffs 
themselves, rent off by this means. The same cause operates in a less conspicuous but 
not less important way on the surface of the stone, loosening the minute grains, as in 
the above instances it rends off enormous blocks. A smooth, clean pebble of the very 
compact Jura limestone, of such kind, for example, as abounds in the rivers of South 
Bavaria, if moistened with water and exposed over night to sharp frost, on the thaw- 
ing is muddy with the detached particles. 


Many interesting illustrations are given of the absorbent power of 
soils. Liquid manure is deodorized, decolorized, and rendered nearly 
tasteless by filtration through garden earth. It is a matter of common 
experience that a few feet or yards of soil intervening between a cess- 
pool or dung-pit and a well, preserves the latter against contamination 
for a longer or shorter period. The foul water of the Seine, at Paris, 
becomes potable after filtering through sandstone. These effects are 
not strikingly manifested by pure sand, but appear when clay is used. 
Solutions of coloring matters, such as logwood, sandal-wood, cochineal, 
litmus, &c., when shaken up with a portion of clay, are entirely de- 
prived of color. 


Garments which have been rendered disgusting by the fetid secretions of the skunk, 
may be “sweetened,” i. e., deprived of odors by burying them for a few days in the 
earth. The Indians of this country are said to sweeten the carcass of the skunk by 
the same process, when needful, to fit it for their food. Dogs and foxes bury bones and 
ineat in the ground, and afterward exhume them in a siate of comparative freedom 
from offensive odor. 

When human excrements are covered with fine dry earth, as in the earth-closet sys- 
tem, all cdor is at once suppressed and never reappears. At the most, besides an 
“earthy” smell, an odor of ammonia appears, resulting from decomposition, which 
seems to proceed at once to its ultimate results without admitting the formation of any 
intermediate offensive compounds. * * * These examples sufficiently prove that 
the soil, even sand, possesses the property of attracting and fully absorbing the ex- 
tractive matters, so that the water which subsequently passes is not able to remove 
them; even the soluble salts are absorbed, and are washed out only to a small extent 
by new quantities of water. 

Professor Johnson concludes this volume with remarks on the signifi- 
cance of the absorptive quality, in which he remarks that disintegration 
and nitrification would lead to a waste of the resources of fertility, were 
it not for the conserving effect of those physical absorptions and chemi- 
cal combinations and replacements which have been described. 

The great beneficent law regulating these absorptions appears to admit of the fol- 
lowing expression, viz: Those bodies which are most rare and precious to the growing 
plant are by the soil converted into, and retained in, a condition not of absolute, but 
of relative insolubility, and are kept available to the plant by the continual circulation 
in the soil of the more abundant saline matters. 


The soil, speaking in the widest sense, is then not only the ultimate exhausiless 
source of mineral (fixed) food to yegetation, but it is the storehouse and conservatory 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 533 


of this food, protecting its own resources from waste and from too rapid use, and con- 
verting the highly soluble matters of animal exuvie as well as of artiticial refuse (ma- 
nures) into permanent supplies. 

The author is preparing another volume on a number of topics con- 
nected with the feeding of crops, which have not been treated upon, 
and which will naturally find their place in a discussion of the improve- 
ment of the soil by tillage and fertilizers. 


TREES, PLANTS, AND FLOWERS; where and how they grow. A familiar history of the 
vegetable kingdom, by the author of “Our Own Birds,” with seventy-three engray- 
ings. 12 mo., pp. 140. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. : 

This little book is intended to call attention to the beauties of, crea- 
tion. It gives the history and associations of the prominent trees of the 
world, as well as the leading grasses, flowers, alpine and aquatic plants 
and ferns, the contemplation of which is neglected because their appear- 
ance is so familiar. A description of the habits and uses of many plants 
is followed by an account of their discovery and introduction; as, 
for instance, the Victoria Regia, with its singular beauty and remark- 
ble size, having leaves six feet in diameter. This plant was introduced 
into England from Bolivia in 1846, and is now to be found in several 
conservatories in this country, as well as in Europe. England abounds 
in trees of historic interest, some of which, there is good evidence to 
show, are upwards of one thousand years old. But there are few trees 
that attain the gigantic proportions and the age of the California pines. 
By counting the annual rings, it is proved that some of the oldest had 
been growing for three thousand years. As there is no good reason to 
doubt the aceuracy of this computation, they must certainly have ex- 
isted in the days of the Prophet Elijah ; or even, as Dr. Lindley observes 
of one of them, “It must have been a little plant when Samson slew his 
Philistine.” The uses and associations of the palms, cedars, oaks, pines, 
magnolias, &c., are given, forming a volume of much interest. 


SEVENTY-FIVE FLOWERS, and how to cultivate them. By Edward Sprague Rand, 
jr., author of “Flowers for the Parlor and Garden,” “ Garden Flowers,” “ Bulbs,” 
&ec. 12mo., pp. 210. J. E. Tilton & Co., 1870. 

Under this modest title Mr. Rand has furnished a valuable book, 
with particular descriptions of seventy-five genera of flowers that are 
grown with the least care, and which will well repay the cultivator by 
their beauty and fragrance. They are plants that can be easily obtained, 
and will grow freely and bloom well in common soil. The descriptions 
of the individual flowers are preceded by general directions for prepar- 
ing the soil, planting, and propagating, on which subjects many of the 
old works on horticulture contain much needless mystery. For instance, 
it formerly seemed necessary in cultivating even a small flower garden 
that a person should have free access to a peat meadow, a sand-bank, 
and a wood-lot, to supply himself with the necessary peat, sand, and 
Jeaf-mold, which looked discouraging to a beginner. Now, while peat, 
meadow-mnnd, leaf-mold, well-rotted sods, and silver-sand are import- 
ant ingredients in potting and garden culture, in general out-door 
gardening, they are not absolutely necessary, and most flowers may be 
grown to perfection without any of them. Very few garden plants re- 
quire a peat soil, and none absolutely need the elaborate combinations 
generally prescribed. 

To prepare a flower border, the soil shouid be excavated eighteen to 
twenty-four inches in depth. If the subsoil is gravel, throw in a few 
inches of leaves, pine needles, old straw, or any coarse litter, and then 
fill up the bed with the good loam usually found in most gardens and 


534 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


fields, and raised slightly above the level of the surrounding ground. 
If the subsoil is a close clay, fill in two or three inches of small stones 
or gravel, before laying on the above covering of litter and loam. A 
liberal supply of thoroughly-rotted manure, well dug into the bed when 
first made, will keep it in good condition for years, if forked over with a 
digging-fork in the spring, the weeds kept down, and the soil frequently 
stirred throughthe summer. Beds for hyacinths, tulips, and other bulbs 
are benefited by a covering of two or three inches of fresh horse ma- 
nure, or litter as it comes from the stable, put on just before the ground 
freezes, and raked off early in the spring. In growing bulbous roots, it 
is well to use one fifth common building sand; as, if the soil is too close, 
the bulbs are apt to rot, or to be thrown out of the ground by the frost. 

Large growing herbaceous perennials should be set deep. The depth 
at which bulbs should be planted varies somewhat according to their 
size, from two to six inches, and even eight inches for very large lilies 
and crown imperials. In sowing annuals it is impossible to lay down 
exact rules, much depending on the size of the seed. Soaking the 
seed before sowing is not generally advisable, except in the case of large, 
hard seed, ag Indian Shot, or those which are a long time in vegetating, 
as Globe Amaranthus. <A great mistake is made in sowing or trans- 
planting too thick; crowded plants never look well. One that is well 
grown will be more effective than a dozen crowded together, and give 
more and better bloom. Each plant should have room to develop its full 
proportions, and to show its foliage, often quite as beautiful as the flower, 
to advantage. Where herbaceous plants form too large clumps, and 
grow out of the ground, or die in the center, they should be divided and 
reset in early spring. Watering is not recommended, but when water 
is given, if should be applied in abundance, as close to the roots as pos- 
sible, and the soil saturated. A slight surface watering is worse than 
none at all. When plants droop, a judicious shading from sunlight is 
preferable to watering. By a little care in planting, with an eye to a 
suecession of bloom, a display of flowers can be kept up from May to 
November. In planting masses for effect, it is not wise to mix colors or 
even shades. Hach mass should be of one color; and if of the same 
plant, uniformity of habit and bloom is secured. In ribbon borders or 
beds, the contrasts should be striking, and the bands never be allowed 
to run into each other. 

The leaves of bulbs should never be cut off until they turn yellow; 
if removed earlier, it is at the expense of next year’s flower; for the 
stronger the leaves are grown, the better will be the condition of the 
bulb. The flower-stalks of bulbs should be cut off as scon as the flower 
has faded. Winter protection is best given by a slight covering of lit- 
ter or coarse manure. Hvergreen boughs laid over plants are excellent 
for preventing the alternate freezing and thawing so destructive in 
winter to herbaceous plants. aga 

After some general directions on the various modes of propagating 
plants, a list is given of the most desirable kinds, of easy culture, for a 
suecession of flowers through the season, beginning with the modest 
snow-drop and ending with the Christmas-Rose, with its blooms, pure 
white and beautiful, when all around is dark and dead. 

Mr. Rand concludes his directions for the management of a flower 
garden with these remarks: 

The propagation of plants is most interesting, both in study and practice. It is 
the creation of new individuals, which, while generally partaking of the character- 


istics of the parents in the case of seedlings, varies most wonderfully, and. continually 
gives new sources of pleasure. 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 535 


Hybridization is one of the most fascinating occupations. Its results sometimes seem 
miraculous, and the pleasure is ever new and ever changing. 

A garden is a constant amusement; a happy combination of work and play. <A study 
and a recreation; a source of health both for body and mind, whence one goes forth 
stronger and better, like the fabled Anteus, having renewed his strength by touching 
his mother earth. ° 


Gray’s Scnoor 4ND Fie_p Book or Botany: consisting of “ Lessons in Botanyy’ and 
“Field, Forest, and Garden Botany,” bound in one volume. By Asa Gray Fisher, 
professor of natural history in Harvard University. 12 mo., pp. 622. New York: 
Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., 1870. 

This is a new edition of a work that for years has been known as a 
standard authority. It combines in one volume the “ Lessons in Botany,” 
and the “Wield, Forest, and Garden Botany,” forming a popular and 
comprehensive school treatise for beginners, as well as for advanced 
classes in agricultural colleges and schools. It is a useful hand-book, 
also, to assist in analyzing plants and flowers in the field-study of 
botany, either by classes or individuals. Beginning with first principles, 
it progresses by easy steps, until the student is enabled to master the 
intricacies of the science. The “ Wield, Forest, and Garden Botany,” 
comprises popular as well as strictly scientific descriptions of the com- 
mon herbs, shrubs, and trees of the Southern as well as the Northern 
and Middle States, and all that are commonly cultivated, or planted for 
ornament, or use in fields, gardens, pleasure grounds, or in house-culture, 
including the plants ordinarily found in the conservatory. 


HEARTH AND Home Boox or PovuLrry: a practical and popular treatise on hens, 
turkeys, geese, and ducks; suited to the every day needs of the farmer, breeder, and 
fancier. 12mo., pp.50. New York: Pettingill, Bates & Co., 1870. 

This little book describes eight or ten of the leading kinds of poultry 
that have been brought to notice during the last twenty-five years 
which are raised for profit, and about as many that are raised by “‘fanci- 
ers,” for variety and the embellishment of their farm-yards. Although 
at their first introduction many of the.breeds were sold at fabulous 
prices, there is no doubt that the Brahmas, Cochins, Créve-coeurs, Ham- 
burgs, &c., have been the means of materially improving the market- 
able quality of the old-fashioned barn-yard poultry of the country. In 
fact, these extravagantly high prices have awakened great interest in. 
the subject, and have been the means of introducing the best breeds of 
Europe and Asia. While it is unnecessary to describe their peculiari- 
ties, an abstract is given of the author’s directions for the management 
of poultry. 

A poultry-house should be located on gravel, or dry sandy loam. 
Standing or stagnant water is always to be avoided. A southern or 
southeastern aspect is the best; and if the yard can be located on a side- 
hill, with the house crowning its topmost point, allthe better. Warmth, 
dryness, and pure air are indispensable. The sides and roof of the 
house must be impervious to water; but it should be so contrived as to 
admit of thorough ventilation and easy means of cleaning it once or 
twice a week. Its size should allow about six square feet for each fowl, 
and no apartment of any house should contain more than fitty fowls, 
unless they can be allowed at least double this space. 

Powis should be permitted to range at liberty a few hours daily, at 
least eight months in the year; and they require both animal and veg- 
etable food. The roosts must be easy of access, and be reached mainly by 
steps instead of flight, and be of poles about two inches in diameters 
and the nests should be kept dark and so placed that the bens can reach 
them unperceived, and lay without fear of disturbance. The floor should be 


536 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


wholly of earth, or earth and cement, and the house never without 
boxes of dry ashes, and, if possible, a stream of running water or troughs 
regularly filled with fresh water daily. 

At leastonce a week the whole of the surface of the yard should be turned 
over or loosened with the tines of a heavy manure-fork, so that 
everything that would emit unhealthy odors may be covered or incor- 
porated with the deodorizing particles of the earth ; or, still better, turn 
over a portion each day, so that the hens can have a little new space 
where they can daily find fresh gravel and other substances veedfal for 
health, Every month the whole surface, to the depth of three inches, 
should be removed, and its place supplied with fresh earth from outside. 
Ten fowls thus cared for will furnish ample manuring material for a 
small garden, while fifty will suffice to manure well half an acre. 

Fowls overfat, or lean, seldom lay. Food that will keep them in the 
best working trim, as is said of an ox or horse, is the best; and they 
should be fed at regular hours with inexorable precision, say with a 
ground mixture of oats, buckwheat, barley and corn, in the morning, 
and whole corn and buckwheat at night, for three days in succession, 
and then a mixture of Indian meal one part, and boiled potatoes three 
parts for the fourth day, and so on through the year. With this, if the 
hens are shut up, they should be fed with some kind of meat, and green 
food, as grass, cabbage-leaves, beet-tops, &c., in season; and, to secure 
the greatest return, fresh oyster shells (pounded) each day in abundance. 
In winter the house must be kept closed, unless for an hour or two in 
the middle of a warm day. 

Hens should have a separate place in or about the poultry-house, for 
sitting purposes, as whenever one commences her incubation there is 
always an inclination among the others in the same apartment to dis- 
turb her and lay in the same nest. Hens are inclined to.sit where they 
have laid, and, if removed, will sometimes leave the newly-made nest. 
Before the eggs are put under the hen every particle of old straw should 
be removed, the nest box thoroughly cleaned, fresh hay substituted, and 
a little sulphur sprinkled in it; twelve eggs for the largest hens and 
nine for the smallest, will be sufficient. After the incubation has com- 
menced never touch the hen or the eggs; nor, what is worse, disturb 
the nest. Itis as bad as digging up a kernel of corn every day to see 
ifithas sprouted. Place food where it will be accessible, give free range, 
keep other fowls and marauding animals away, and let her and her eggs 
and nest alone. The chickens should appear the twenty-first day, and 
the mother knows best when to abandon her nest with her young brood. 
The best food for young chickens is a mixture of hard-boiled egg and 
coarse-ground corn meal; or, at the outset, dry bread reduced to a proper 
form by being run through a coffee-mill. They should be fed sparingly 
every two hours, and kept dry and warm in cold weather. 

Well-protected and carefully-managed hens have but few ailments; even 
the gapes, the most fatal disease among young chickens, is seldom known 
where the young are brooded on a dry surface and are not permitted to 
wander where they would be exposed and overcome by the coid, or by 
wet grass. Vermin must be exterminated by washing the rooms with 
lime water. 

In raising turkeys they should be proportioned about ten or twelve 
hens to one cock. Tosave the trouble of watching them while seeking 
nests, prepare a yard of one-eighth of an acre for every fifteen birds, 
wherein nothing else is allowed to go. The best arrangement for a nestis 
small houses, about three feet by three, gable-shaped, and three feet high 
in the center. Nests should be scattered about the yard, and, if con- 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. Hart 


venient, partially hidden by brush. Turkeys begin to lay in April, and 
if two or three incline to one nest, set another box at right angles and 
adjoining the one they covet. Take away the eggs every night, and 
place them in parcels of sixteen or eighteen. - Set several turkeys at 
the same time, as half a dozen flocks can be as easily cared for as one, 
and those hatched and taken off about the same time usually run 
together without fighting. As soon as they leave the nest they should 
have a yard twelve feet square for every two turkeys, by setting up 
boards, a foot wide, endwise. The mother must be washed with tobac- 
co-juice, and the young chickens dusted with snuff, to kill the lice; or 
sulphur and snuff, mixed in equal paris, sprinkled over the nest soon 
after the turkey begins to sit, and, as opportunity affords, dust the tur- 
key herself. The young ones must be fed sparingly, at intervals of an 
hour, with coarse-ground Indian meal mixed with scalded sour milk 
curds, and fine-chopped hard-boiled eggs; in six or eight weeks they 
will be able to master a whole kernel. They require watching for two 
or three weeks after being turned into the fields, lest they wander into 
heavy, wet grass and perish; and should be driven up every night and 
shut into a stable or barn. They will soon get accustomed to coming 
home, and in due time will aspire to a roost. 5 . 

A good combination in raising geese is one gander to two or three 
geese. In winter they require little or no shelter, and by early spring 
must have access to arunning stream. Each goose requires a little 
house of its own, with five or six inches of dry horse: manure spread 
over the bottom, and a quantity of hay cut to two or three inches in 
length. The goslings appear in twenty-eight days, and if the spring 
grass is started, all they need is shelter from heavy, cold winds. If 
there is no grass they should have ordinary corn meal dough, and dur- 
ing the summer they should be turned into a pasture of short, tender 
grass, having a pond or running stream. An artificial pond, six feet by 
ten, its bottom covered with sand and pebbles, to the depth of two or 
three inches, is ample for a dozen geese or five times as many goslings, 
if the water is changed daily. 

Ducks are hardy, and will eat almost anything. They need a range, 
and must have water. Four ducks are allowed toone drake. They should 
have a lodging place separate from barn-yard fowls. They begin to lay 
early in the spring; and the period of incubation varies from twenty- 
six to thirty days. 


HArRIS ON THE PiG: breeding, rearing, management, and improvement. By Joseph 
Harris, Moreton Farm, Rochester, New York. 12mo., 250 pp. New York: Orange 
Judd & Co., 1870. 

In this work the author endeavors to show that farmers can obtain 
more meat from a well-bred pig, in proportion to the food consumed, 
than from any other domestic animal. Paradoxical as it may seem, he 
asserts that consumers in our large cities are obliged to pay more for 
flesh-meat than it is intrinsically worth, while farmers, with the excep- 
tion of those who produce beef and mutton of the very best quality, 
make nothing by raising and feeding cattle and sheep. While they re- 
ceive more for their meat than it is really worth, it has cost them more 
than they get for it. The remedy for this state of things will be found 
in more thorough cultivation, in growing better grasses, in keeping 
better stock, and particularly in more liberal feeding. 

A farmer who once uses a thorough-bred boar, and adopts a system 
of liberal feeding, will find that he can produce better pork, at a far less 
cost, than when he uses acommon boar. The author considers it im- 


538 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


portant to get a breed of pigs that will eat, digest, and assimilate a _ 


large amount of food, and gives reasons for this opinion, citing some ex- 
periments that confirm it. It is a great point with the author to induce 
farmers to so breed and feed their hogs that they will be in the pork- 
barrel long before they attain the age of an old-fashioned hog. 

The first step of importance in breeding pigs is the selection of a re- 
fined, thorough-bred boar. In raising pigs for the butcher, it is not 
necessary that selection be limited to any particular breed; but the se- 
lection must be made with reference to the points whether the pigs are to 
be fattened and sold when a few months old for fresh pork, or to be kept 
until they have nearly attained their growth before being fattened, and 
whether large hogs are wanted, or smaller and finer ones at a less age. 
Much depends also upon the sow to be bred from. It is an easy matter 
to find strong, vigorous sows of good size in any neighborhood where 
the Chester White or similar large breeds have been introduced. Se- 
lect the largest, thriftiest, and best-formed sows; put them to a good, 
thorough-bred boar; let the sow be regularly and liberally fed, without 
making her too fat. One that has been half starved all her life cannot 
produce pigs of good size, and with a tendency to grow rapidly and 
mature early. The small breeds mature earlier than the large ones, 
which is in itself a great advantage, as the pigs are not only ready for 
the butcher at an earlier age, but as animal life is always attended bya 
constant transformation of tissue, every day we gain in time saves the 
amount of food: necessary to supply this waste and keep up the animal 
heat. Some farmers half starve their breeding sows, from a notion that 
it improves their breeding and suckling qualities, just as some dairy- 
men think a cow must be kept poor if she is to be a good milker; a mis- 
take of the cause for the effect. The cow is thin because she is a good 
milker, and not a good milker because she is thin. So a good sow gets 
very thin in suckling her pigs; but itis a great mistake to keep her tliin 
in order to make her a good breeder and suckler. 

In raising improved, thorough-bred pigs, it is a great object to get a 
breed that will grow rapidly and mature early ; and the better the breed 
the more rapidly they will grow. A thorough-bred boar should be pro- 
cured from some reliable breeder, and put to the largest and best sows 
the farmer has. A highly-refined, thorough-bred boar, at six or eight 
weeks old, can usually be bought for $20 to $25. Such a boar in a neigh- 
borhood is capable of adding $1,000 a year to the profits of the farmers 
who use him. 

Mr. Harris concludes his book with the following summary of the 
facts and principles discussed : ; 

The leading breeds of English pigs are the Berkshire, Essex, and Yorkshire. The 
Essex are entirely black the Berkshire are also dark-colored pigs, but not so black as 
the Essex, and have also white spots on the head and feet. There are large and small 
Berkshires. The Yorkshires are white, but occasionally dark spots show themselves 
on the skin, which are not*considered decisive evidence that the pigs are not thorough- 
bred. ‘There are small, medium, and large or mammoth Yorkshires. 

The Essex, at maturity, will dress from four hundred to four hundred and fifty 
pounds. They are the largest of the smallbreeds. Berkshires often exceed this weight; 
but when such is the case, they would be classed as large Berkshires. The Prince Albert 
Suffolks are small Yorkshires. 

The leading breeds, originating in the United States, are the Cheshires, or Jefferson 
(New York) County, the Chester Whites, or Chester (Pennsylvania) County, and the 
Magie, or Butler (Ohio) County pigs. The China-Polands, or China and Big Polands, 
are said to be the same breed as the Magie, or Butler County. The Illinois Swine 
Breeders’ Association, at its meeting in 1870, resolved to call them the Magie breed. 
They are a large, coarse breed, with black and white and occasionally sandy spots. 
Like the Chester Whites, they will doubtless afford splendid sows for crossing with the 
Essex, Berkshire, or other refined thorough-bred boars. The Jefferson County are 2 
very handsome white breed, essentially Yorkshires. 


—- 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 539 


_ Pigs should always have access to fresh water. No matter how sloppy the food is, 
or how much dish-water is furnished, they should always be supplied with pure water. 
We are satisfied that pigs often suffer for want of it. 

Salt, sulphur, charcoal, ashes, bone-dust, or superphosphate should occasionally be 
placed where the pigs can eat what they wish of them. 

Pigs will eat beans, if thoroughly boiled, though they are not fond of them. Peas 
they eat with avidity, and, when as cheap as corn, should be fed in preference, as they 
afford much the-richer mannre. Half peas and half corn, are probably better than 
either alone. Peas make very firm pork. 

Oil-cake, when fed in large quantities, injures the flavor and quality of the pork, 
but we have fed small quantities of it with decided advantage to the health and rapid 

owth of the pigs, without any apparent injury to the lard or pork. It is quite useful 
for breeding-sows. It keeps the bowels loose, and increases the quantity and quality 
of the milk. 

Bran, except in small quantities, is not a valuable food for fattening pigs. It is too 
bulky. But when rich, concentrated food is given, such as corn, barley, peas, or oil- 
cake, pigs should be allowed all the bran they will eat, placed in a separate trough. 
In this way it becomes a very useful and almost indispensable article to the pig feeder. 
It is also very useful for breeding-sows. The best roots to raise for pigs are parsnips 
and mangel-wurzel. 
_ . The period of gestation in a sow is almost invariably sixteen weeks. In three or 

four days after pigging, a sow in good condition will generally take the boar. But, asa 
rule, it is not well to allow it. If she passes this period, she will not take the boar 
until the pigs are weaned. If she fails the first time, she will “come round again” in 
from two to three weeks. 

For mild cases of diarrhcea, nothing is better than fresh-skimmed milk, thickened 
with wheat flour. 

Pigs should be castrated a week or two before they are weaned. 

Nothing in the management of pigs is more important than to provide a trough for 
the sucking pigs separate from the sow, and to commence feeding them when two or 
three weeks old. 

Many of the diseases of pigs are contagious, and the instant a pig is observed to be 
sick it should be removed to a separate pen; and it would be well to regard this sin- 
gle case of sickness as an indication that something is wrong in the general manage- 
ment of the pigs. Clean out the pens, scald the troughs, scrape out all decaying mat- 
ter from under and around them, sprinkle chloride of lime about the pen, or, what is 
probably better, carbolic acid, Dry earth is a cheap and excellent disinfectant. Use 
it liberally at all times. Whitewash the walls of the pens. Wash all the inside and 
outside wood-work, troughs, plank floors, &c., with erade petroleum. Itis the cheapest 
and best antiseptic yet discovered. 

To destroy lice, wash the pig all over with crude petroleum, and the next day give 
ual a thorough washing with warm water and soap, with the free use of a scrubbing- 


Pigs should be provided with scratching-posts, having auger holes bored for pegs at 
different heights, to accommodate pigs of different sizes. 

The following description may be considered the perfection of form in a fat pig: Tho 
back should be nearly straight, though being arched a little from head tg tail is no 
objection ; the back uniformly broad and rounded across along the whole body; the 
touch along the back should be firm, but springy, the thinnest skin springing most; 
the shoulders, sides, and hams should be deep perpendicularly, and in a straight line 
from shoulder to ham; the closing behind filled up; the legs short and bone small; the 
neck short, thick, and deep; the cheeks round and filled out; the face straight, nose 
fine, eyes bright, ears pricked, and the head small in proportion to the body; a eurled 
tail is indicative of a strong back. 


The appendix contains several letters from experienced breeders in 
England, Canada, and this country, on the breeding and management 
of swine. 

THE PHOSPHATE ROCKS oF SouTH CAROLINA, AND THE GREAT CaroLtiya Marr Bep; 
with five colored illustrations. A popular and scientific view of their origin, geological 
position, and age; also, their chemical character and agricultural value; together 
with a history of their discovery and development. By Francis 8. Holmes, A. M., of 
Charleston, South Carolina, late professor of geology and paleontology in the Col- 
co of Charleston. 8yo, 87 pages. Charleston, South Carolina: Holmes’s Book House, 

70. 

As the scientific character and great value of the immense phosphate 
beds of South Carolina were amply discussed in the last two annual 
reports of this Department, an abstract is now given merely of the his- 
tory of their discovery and development, and present condition. 


, 


540 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


An extract from Judge Drayton’s “ View of South Carolina,” pub- 
lished in 1802, shows that their existence has been known for seventy 
years; but in the state of geological science at the beginning of this 
century a knowledge of their extreme richness in phosphate of lime 
and great importance in renovating the exhausted fields of the South 
was wanting. Thirty years ago Professor Holmes had his attention 
attracted to the nodules or rocks scattered over the old rice-fields on 
the banks of the Ashley, near Charleston, that were generally consid- 
ered useless, and were gathered into heaps, so as not to interfere with 
cultivation. Careful study soon convinced him of their great value as 
fertilizers. The appointment of Mr. Ruffin, in 1842, to make a geologi- 
cal and agricultural survey of the State, awakened public attention to 
them. Ine860 Professor Shepard, appreciating their value, urged upon 
agricultural societies the importance of utilizing them. The war of 
the rebellion soon following, the public mind was wholly attracted to 
its objects, and the phosphates were neglected. In 1867 Professor 
Hoimes and Dr. Pratt satisfied themselves of their great value, and 
after unavailing efforts to obtain means in Charleston to develop them, 
resorted to the North for aid, and over $6,000,000 are now invested by 
northern capitalists in mining the rocks and manufacturing them into rich 
fertilizers. The business is rapidly extending, and is divided among 
about twenty companies, the largest of which has a capital of $800,000, 
and is chiefly owned in Philadelphia. As in all pioneer enterprises, 
many difficulties had to be surmounted by the first company : 

It was a new and untried ficld; thousands of dollars were expended before the 
proper mode of working “ the diggings” could be known. Laborers were scarce, and 
the negro, unaccustomed to such work, accomplished very little toward a day’s task. 
The best time for mining was during the summer or dry season of the year, when the 
white laborer could not withstand the chills and fever of the season; in a word, diffi- 
culties and opposition arose every day and in every form. Where the company ex- 
pected to keep employed one thousand laborers, thirty could not be placed. The thing 
could not be done in a day; time was required to develop and work out the problem. 
And perhaps it was well; for had very great quantities of the raw material been sud- 
denly put upon the market, a substance new and untried, no one can tell what would 
have been the result. Time was required for the manufacturers of fertilizers to test 
the new material. But now that they have done so at the North, East, South, and 


West, in England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, France, and Spain, the demand for the 
raw material has increased twenty-fold. 


ANNALS OF BEE-CULTURE, for 1870: A Bee-Keeper’s Year Book. D. L. Adair, editor, 
Hawesville, Kentucky. With communications from the best apiarians and natu- 
ralists. 12mo., 64 pages. Louisville, Kentucky: C. Y. Duncan, printer, 1870. 

There are now five monthly journals published in this country 
exclusively devoted to the management of bees, showing an extraor- 
dinary increase of interest in this subject within a few years. Many 
improvements have been made in the construction of hives, and new 
. breeds of bees introduced, of which the Italian seems to stand highest 
inrepute. Besides the preceding journals, Mr. Adair publishes annually 
a little volume filled with original articles on this subject by distin- 
guished apiarians and naturalists, as well as translations from European 
bee journals. The present volume has about thirty articles on “The 
principles of bee-keeping ;” ‘“‘ The value of the honey-bee in agriculture ;” 
““Women as bee-keepers;” “The bee-moth;” “Artificial swarming ;” 
“Alsike clover;” ‘‘ Proceedings at the sixteenth anniversary of bee- 
keepers at Nuremberg, Germany, last year,” (in the environs of which 
apiarians have more than three thousand hives); ‘“ European bee- 
culture,” &c. From the valuable contribution of Dr. Packard, on the 
value of the honey-bee in agriculture, we make the following extracts: 


Of what use is the bee? our readers may ask. The answer will recur to but few. 
The grand use in nature of the bee is the securing to the farmer or fruit-raiser a 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. « 5A) 


good crop, and the permanence of the best varieties of fruit: Gardeners have 
always known that bees fertilize squash, melon, and cucumber flowers, by con- 
veying the pollen from one plant to another, thus insuring not only the complete 
fertilization of the seed by the male pollen and improving the fruit, but actually 
causing the production of more squashes, melons, and cucumbers, by causing 
certain flowers to set that otherwise would have dropped to the ground sterile and 
useless. This has been proved by fertilizing the flowers by hand; a very large, indeed 
an unnaturally abundant crop being thus obtained. It has been noticed by a few, 
though the many have not appreciated the fact, that fruit trees are more productive 
when a swarm of bees is placed among them, for when the bees have been removed by 
disease or other means, the fruit crop has diminished. 

In answer to the question whether bees are in any way injurious to fruit or lessen 
the quality or quantity, I would reply that all the evidence given by botanists and 
zoblogists, who have specially studied this subject, shows that bees improve the quality 
and tend to increase the quantity of the fruit. They aid in the fertilization of flowers, 
thus preventing the occurrence of sterile flowers, and, by more thoroughly fertilizing 
flowers already perfect, render the production of sound and well-developed fruit more 
sure. Many botanists think if it were not for bees and other insects, (such as certain 
two-winged flies, moths, wasps, &c.,) many plants would not fruit atail. * * * 
It is alleged that bees do injury in scme way by extracting the honey from flowers. 
What is the use in nature of honey? The best observers will tell you thatit is secreted 
by the plant for the very purpose of attracting bees to the flower; otherwise it is of no 
use to the flower or fruit. 

At the Apiarian General Convention, held at Stuttgardt, in Wurtemberg, in Septem- 
ber, 1858, the subject of honey-yielding crops being under discussion, the celebrated © 
pomologist, Professor Lucas, one of the directors of the Hohenheim Institute, alluding 
to the prejudice that the bee injures the fruit by its visits to the flowers, said: “Of 
more importance, however, is the improved management of our fruit trees. Here the 
interests of the horticulturist and the bee-keeper combine and run parallel. A judicious 
pruning of our fruit will cause them to blossom more freely and yield honey more 
plentifully. I would urge attention to this on those more particularly who are both 
fruit-growers and bee-keepers. A careful and observant bee-keeper at Potsdam writes 
to me that his trees yield decidedly larger crops since he has established an apiary i his 
orchard, and the annwal crop is now more certain and regular than before, though his trees 
had always received due attention.” 

Some years ago, a wealthy lady in Germany established a green-house, at considera- 
ble cost, and stocked it with a great variety of choice native and exotic fruit trees, 
expecting in due time to have remunerating crops. Time passed, and annually there 
was a superabundance of blossoms, with only very little fruit. Various plans were 
devised and adopted to bring the trees to bearing, but without success, till it was 
suggested that the blossoms needed fertilization, and that by means of the bees the 
needed work could be efiected. A hive of honey-gatherers was introduced next season ; 
the remedy was efiectual; there was no longer any difficulty in producing crops there. 
The bees distributed the pollen, and the setting of the fruit followed naturally. 


Mr. A. J. Cook, secretary of the Michigan Bee-Keepers’ Association, 
recommends placing the hives in a grove or orchard, about four inches 
from the ground, the stand projecting some distance in front, with an 
inclining board reaching from this to the ground. If the hive is placed 
ten to twenty feet high, as it sometimes is, the heavily-laden bee, when 
“homeward bound” in a high wind, cannot so readily reach it, and is 
more ‘exposed to the king-bird, which darts from its perch on the tree 
with unerring certainty on the baffled bees. Mr. J. H. Townley, of Michi- 
gan, states that the general culture of the Alsike clover, distributed by 
the Department of Agriculture, which combines the good qualities of 
the red clover for hay and pasture with those of white clover for bees, 
will add immensely to the product of honey. This plant delights in a 
moist, rich soil, and shows very strikingly the beneficial effects of 
plaster. 

1. THe AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL ANNUAL, for 1871. A farmer’s year-book, exhibiting 


progress in agricultural theory and practice, and a guide to present and future la- 
bors. Illustrated. 12 mo., pp. 152. New York: Orange Judd & Co. 


2. THE AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL ANNUAL, for 1871. A year-book of horticultural pro- 
gress for the professional and amateur gardener, fruit-grower, and florist. Dlustrated. 
12. mo., pp. 152. New York: Orange Judd & Co. 


These little works are handsomely printed and illustrated and filled 


542 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


with valuable original articles by experienced writers. The leading arti- 
cles in the former are upon agricultural inventions and novelties, de- 
scribing the different labor-saving machines and implements brought into 
notice the past year; the progress of fish-culture ; notes upon dairy mat- 
ters; upon the diseases of cattle, horses, and poultry; leguminous 
plants; mutton sheep; besides numerous useful tables. 

In the retrospect of the year it is stated that “codperation among 
farmers has extended from the cheese dairies of Central New York over 
a large part of that State and westward into Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and 
other western and interior States. Not only have cheese factories been - 
on the increase, but in other matters farmers are slowly learning the 
advantages to be derived from a similar course of codperation. Along 
the Housatonic Railroad a milk association offers unusual facilities for 
farmers to get a good price for their milk. Butter dairies or creameries 
are springing up in various parts of New England, and similar codpera- 
tion will obtain in regard to other farm products, making the farmers 
less dependent upon middlemen.” ‘The receipts of cheese at New York 
in 1870 show an increase of 43,000 boxes as compared with 1869, and 
the exports were more than 4,000,000 pounds in excess of the previous 
‘year. A patent style of square cheeses, of various sizes up to thirty 
pounds’ weight, has been introduced into Otsego County, New York. 
The most desirable form is ten inches long and five square, weighing 
nine to ten pounds, and it is thought this form has some advantages in 
_ manufacture, packing, and preservation. 

In fish culture a very substantial increase is noted, although not yet 
sufficient to affect the fish markets. It requires four or five years for 
shad or salmon to reach their best condition. Thus far it has only been 
attempted to sow the seed, and to demonstrate, in a limited way, the 
economy of stocking barren streams with fish. These efforts have been 
attended with so much success that men best acquainted with the results 
are entirely confident of the future of fish culture, and are willing to 
embark their capital in fish-hatching houses, in dams, and leases of ponds 
and streams. The legislatures of all the New England and Middle 
States have voted liberal appropriations and appointed fish commis- 
sioners to manage this new industry. Millions of ova of salmon, shad, 
black-bass, white-fish, trout, &c., have been placed in the rivers and ponds 
of the Northern States. In 1867 some millions of shad-spawn were placed 
in the Connecticut River, and in 1870 the catch was without parallel in 
late years, upward of 30,000 being taken last spring. At Holyoke, 450 
were taken at one haul. The results are so satisfactory that upwards of 
50,000,000 of fry have been placed in the Connecticut, at an expense of 
only $500 to the State; seventeen ponds in Connecticut have also been 
stocked with black-bass by the State, besides a large number by private 
enterprise. Numerous ponds and streams, farther north, are being 
stocked with trout. ‘ 

Dr. Hexamer thinks the severe drought of 1869 and 1870 produced 
the beneficial result upon the potato crop of nearly exterminating the 
potato disease or rot, which was so destructive during several preced- 
ing years. Nearly all varieties grown in 1870 have kept well, and are of 
better quality than usual. The Early Rose has become the great favorite 
and fully sustains its reputation. . 

The Horticultural Annual is of a character similar to the Agricultural 
Annual, comprising articles on orange culture in Florida, on dwarfs, 
on conifers, on raising nursery trees from seeds, with notes on new fruits 
and the fruit crop of the year, as well as the new vegetables, roses, and 
other flowering plants that have been tested. 


CURRENT PUBLICATIONS IN RURAL ART. 543 


Both of these works are closed with a farmers’ directory of all the 
leading nurserymen, florists, seedsmen, and dealers in farmers’ and 
gardeners’ materials. 


Toe Pramrm FARMER ANNUAL, for 1871, containing valuable information for western 
farmers, fruit-growers, and housewives, including a list of implement manufacturers 
and dealers, seedsmen, nurserymen, stock-breeders, &c. With illustrations. 18 mo., 
pp.144. Chicago, 1871. Prairie Farmer Company, print. 

This is one of the useful books of the day, neatly and compactly 
printed and illustrated, and filled with practical information for farmers 
and housekeepers, and sold, withal, at a price bringing it within the means 
of every one. Its leading articles are on homes for the people, with 
' plans, elevations, and estimates for building farmers’ dwellings of differ- 
ent styles and sizes, costing from $500 to $2,000, with specifications for 
materials; on the management of lawns, ferneries, and kitchen-gardens; 
on strawberry culture; raising trees from seed; testing milk in cheese 
factories; raising calves; raising colts for the farm and road; breeding 
and fattening swine; poultry and poultry-houses; transplanting large 
trees; canning fruits; and various articles on household economy; 
besides a directory of all the principal nurserymen, seedsmen, manufac- 
turers of agricultural implements, and stock-breeders and dealers in the 
United States, with various national and State statistics, &e. 

To make a first-class lawn, Mr. Meehan says: 

The ground should be heavily manured and plowed deep; grass holds on greener in 
a dry time when the soil is rich; and it is the beauty of a lawn to be always green. 
Frequent mowing gives a chance to the grass to keep green, which it does not get when 
it is seldom cut. This is owing to a lawin vegetable physiology, that the length of 
the roots depends upon the growth of the tops. For instance, if we let grass grow 
eighteen inches, the roots may go down twelve; but if we never permit the grass to 
grow beyond nine, the roots will not penetrate six. Of course the roots absorb moisture 
from the soil. If the roots are not there, more moisture is held in reserve; and as 
the surface dries, the moisture below comes up to the place where itis wanted. A 
closely-mown lawn is a perpetual mulch, keeping the earth cool and moist below. Few 
will believe this unless they try it with a thermometer. An annual light dressing of 
salt is good to keep a lawn green in a dry time. If there is much extent of lawn, a 
hand-mower, costing about $35, is an excellent thing. With a few hours’ work—say 
every two weeks—the lawn will acquire and retain a fine carpety look. As to the kinds 
of grass to grow, beware, above all, of lawn mixtures, which are much like patent 
medicines that contain about two cents’ worth of good at two dollars’ expense. Ken- 
tueky blue-grass (Poa pratensis) makes an excellent lawn; so does red-top, (Agrostis 
vulgaris.) Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) will not stand very close cutting in our climate. 

Mr. Arthur Bryant, in view of the rapidly-increasing demand for lumber 
in the West, recommends that on every farm of forty acres or more, at 
least one-fifth should be set apart for timber. Lands for this purpose 
should be deeply plowed and rendered quite mellow. The seeds of the 
ash, oak, hickory, and tulip ripen in the fall, and should be then gathered, 
mixed with slightly-moist sand, and kept till spring in boxes, in a cool 
place, where they will be safe from rats and mice, and then be sown in 
beds or drills. Oaks, chestnuts, and beeches had better be planted 
where they are to remain, as they do not transplant well. The ash is a 
most valuable timber. In two years, and sometimes in one, the plants 
will be large enough to set out in rows, four feet apart, and two feet distant 
in the rows; these transplant easily. The seeds of both the silver and 
the red maple, and also of the elm, ripen in the latter part of May, and 
should be sown immediately ; those of the other maples ripen in the fall, 
and should be preserved and managed like the ash, &c. The sugar and 
black maples grow slowly at first, and should remain for two or three 
years in the seed bed. The tulip tree should be planted in the spring 
and transplanted when two years old. It is a desirable tree, and 


544 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Downing says that in Europe it is considered the most beautiful of all 
American shade trees. Coniferous trees, as the spruce, larch, and pine, 
require more care and skill, and it is cheaper for a novice to buy the 
seedlings from professional growers than to try to raise them from seed. 
They can be purchased at cheap rates when twelve to eighteen inches 
high. He adds: 

The sides of ravines, river bluffs, and hills too steep for cultivation may be planted 
with nuts, acorns, or young trees, with a garden-trowel or spade. The European 
larch is well suited to such situations. Thousands of farms include more or less land 
of this description, of little value for any other purpose than growing wood. Vegetation 
in such localities is usually thin, and young trees will thrive better without cultivation 
than on level lands. Bushes and rank weeds likely to interfere with their growth 
should be kept down. Farm stock must be carefully excluded from timber plantations. 
Not only so, but they should not be permitted to range in any woodland intended to 
be permanent. Under a persistent course of pasturage a forest will die out, while with 
proper care it will reproduce itself in all time. ; 


AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PERIOD- 
ICALS. 


AGRICULTURIST AND HoME CIRCLE, Mexico, Missouri. Monthly, $1 
per annum. W.G. Church & Co., publishers; W. G. Church, editor. 

AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST, New York City. Monthly, $1 50 per 
annum. Issued in English and German. Orange Judd & Co., pub- 
lishers; George Thurber, managing editor. 

AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL, Washington, D.C. Monthly, $1 per annum. 
Samuel Wagner, publisher and editor. 

AMERICAN FARMER, Baltimore, Maryland. Monthly, $1 50 per annum. 
Frank Lewis, publisher; N. B. Worthington, agricultural editor. © 

AMERICAN FARM JOURNAL, Toledo, Ohio. Monthly, 75 cents per 
annum. Miller, Locke & Co., publishers; William H. Busbey, editor. 

AMERICAN RURAL Home, Rochester, New York. Weekly, $2 per 
annum. <A. A. Hopkins and G. F'. Wilcox, publishers and editors. 

AMERICAN STOCK JOURNAL, Parkesburg, Pennsylvania. Monthly, 
$1 perapnum. N. P. Boyer & Co., publishers and editors; A. Marshall, 
associate editor. ¢ 

ARKANSAS AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL JOURNAL, Little Rock, 
Arkansas. J.S. Duffie & Co., publishers; John 8. Duffie, editor. 

BANNER OF THE SOUTH AND PLANTERS’ JOURNAL, Augusta, Georgia. 
Weekly, $3 per annum. Chronicle Publishing Company, publishers; 
Henry Moore, A. R. Wright, and Patrick Walsh, editors. 

BEE KEEPERS’ JOURNAL AND NATIONAL AGRICULTURIST, New 
York City. Monthly, $1 per annum. H. A. King & Co., publishers; 
Homer A. King, Ellen 8. Tupper, and I. V. Mapes, editors. 

BonHAWS RURAL MESSENGER, Chicago, Illinois. Monthly, $1 50 
per annum. Jeriah Bonham, publisher and editor. 

Boston CuLTIVATOR, Boston, Massachusetts. Weekly, $2 50 per 
annum. Otis Brewer, publisher and editor. 

CALIFORNIA FARMER, San Francisco, California. Weekly, $5 per 
annum. Warren and Co., publishers; Col. Warren, editor. 

CALIFORNIA HORTICULTURIST AND FLORAL MAGAZINE, San Fran- 
cisco, California. Monthly, $4 per annum. F. A. Miller & Co., pub- 
lishers. 

CAROLINA FARMER, Wilmington, North Carolina. Weekly, $3 per 
annum. William H. Bernard, publisher and editor; Robert K. Bryan, 
associate editor. 


AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PERIODICALS. 5A5 


CENTRAL UNION AGRICULTURIST AND MIssoURI VALLEY FARMER, 
Onmaha, Nebraska. Jeremiah Behm, publisher and editor. 

CHAUTAUQUA FARMER, Forestville, New York. Weekly, $1 50 per 
annum. Parker and Russell, publishers; A. G. Parker, editor. 

CoLMAN’S RuRAL WORLD, St. Louis, Missouri. Weekly, $2 per an- 
num. Norman J. Colman, publisher and editor; William Muir and C. 
W. Murtfeldt, associate editors. 

CULTIVATOR AND COUNTRY GENTLEMAN, Albany, New York. 
Weekly, $2 50 per annum. Luther Tucker and Son, publishers and 
editors; J. J. Thomas, associate editor. 

DEITZ’s EXPERIMENTAL FARM, STOCK, AND POULTRY JOURNAL, 
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Monthly, $150 per annnm. George A. 
Deitz, publisher. 

FARM AND GARDEN, Clinton, South Carolina. Monthly, $1 per annum. 
J. R. Jacobs & Co., publishers. 

FARMER AND ARTISAN, Athens, Georgia. Weekly, $3 per annum. 
8S. A. Atkinson, publisher; Daniel Lee, editor. . 

FARMER AND GARDENER, Augusta, Georgia. Semi-monthly, $1 per 
annum. HH. H. Gray, publisher; P. J. Berckmans, horticultural editor. 

FARMERS’ GAZETTE AND INDUSTRIAL INDEX, Richmond, Virginia. 
Monthly, $1 per annum. S. Bassett French, publisher and editor. 

FARMERS’ HOME JOURNAL, Lexington, Kentueky. Weekly, $3 per 
annum. H. T. Duncan, jr., and Hart Gibson, publishers and editors. 

FARMERS’ UNION, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Monthly, $1 per annum. 
J. H. Stevens, publisher and editor; D. A. Robertson, I’. D. Carson, 
W. A. Nimocks, associate editors. 

FRUIT GROWER, Gilman, Illinois. Monthly, 50 cents per annum. 
Edward Rumley, publisher. 

GARDENER’S MONTHLY, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Monthly, $2 per 
annum. Srinckloe and Marot, publishers; Thomas Meehan, editor. 

GEORGIA FARM JOURNAL, Madison, Georgia. Weekly, $3 per annum. 
J. I’. Shecut, publisher and editor. 

GERMANTOWN TELEGRAPH, Germantown, Pennsylvania. Weekly, 
$2 50 per annum. Philip R. Freas, publisher and editor. 

GRAPE CULTURIST, St. Louis, Missouri. Monthly, $2 per annum. 
George Husmann, editor. 

HEARTH AND Home, New York City. Weekly, $3 per annum. 
Orange Judd & Co., publishers. 

Home, Farm, AND ORCHARD, Newburgh, New York. Weekly, $1 
perannum, A. A. Bensel, publisher and editor. 

HORTICULTURIST, New York City. Monthly, $2 50 per annum. 
Henry T. Williams, publisher and editor. 

FLLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, St. Louis, Missouri. 
Monthly, $1 50 per annum. Wolcott and Marmaduke, publishers ; Vin- 
cent Marmaduke and John 8, Marmaduke, editors. 

lowA HOMESTEAD AND WESTERN FARM JOURNAL, Des Moines, 
Iowa. Weekly, $2 perannum. Mills & Co. and W. D. Wilson, pub- 
lishers; W. D. Wilson, editor. . 

KANSAS FARMpR, Leavenworth, Kansas. $1 per annum. G. T, 
Anthony, publisher and editor. 

LIVE-STOCK JOURNAL, Buffalo, New York. Monthly, $1 50 per an- 
num. Henry C. Springer & Co., proprietors ; George A. Martin, publisher 
and editor. 

MAINE FARMER, Augusta, Maine. Weekly, $2 per annum. Homer 
and Badger, publishers ; 8S. L. Boardmay,. editor. 


35 A 


546 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


MARYLAND FARMER, Baltimore, Maryland. Monthly, $1 50 per an- 
num. S. Sands Mills & Co., publishers, 

MASSACHUSETTS PLOUGHMAN, Boston, Massachusetts. Weekly, 
$2 50 per annum. George Noyes, publisher, 

MICHIGAN FARMER AND STATE JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE, Detroit, 
Michigan. Weekly, $2 per annum. Johnstone and Gibbons, pub- 
lishers; R. I’. Johnstone, editor. 

MIDDLE GEORGIA FARMER, Augusta,Georgia. Monthly. Central 
Georgia Real Estate Agency, publishers; J. Howard Brown, editor. 

MIRROR AND FARMER, Manchester, New Hampshire. Weekly, $2 
per annum. John B. Clarke, publisher and editor. 

MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURIST, Meridian, Mississippi. Monthly, $1 
per annum. John H. Miller, publisher and editor. 

MoprEewt FARMER, Corinth, Mississippi. Monthly, $1 50 per annum. 
Barr & Thompson, publishers; J. F. Thompson, editor. 

Moore’s RuRAL NEw YORKER, New York City, and Rochester, New 
York. Weekly’$3 per annum. D. D. 'P. Moore, publisher and conduct- 
ing editor; Charles D. Bragdon and Andrew S. Fuller, associate editors. 

NATIONAL BEE JOURNAL, Indianapolis, Indiana. Monthly, $1 per - 
annum. N. C. Mitchell, publisher. 

NATIONAL FARMER AND HORTICULTURAL REGISTER, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania. Weekly, $1 perannum. Brinckloe & Marot, publishers ; 
W. G. Brinckloe, editor. 

NATIONAL LIVE-STOCK JOURNAL, Chicago, Illinois. Monthly, $2 per 
annum. Geo. W. Rust & Co., publishers; John P. Reynolds, editor; J. 
H. Sanders, associate editor. 

NEw ENGLAND FARMER, Boston, Massachusetts. Monthly, $1 50 per 
annum. RK. P. Haton & Co., publishers; Simon Brown and 8. Fletcher, 
editors. 

New ENGLAND Farmer, Boston, Massachusetts. Weekly, $2 50 per 
annum. RK. P. Haton & Co., publishers; Simon Brown, agricultural 
editor; S. Fletcher, assistant editor; Russell P. Eaton, general editor. 

NEW ENGLAND HoMESTEAD, Springfield, Massachusetts. Weekly, 
$2 50 per annum. Henry M. Burt & Co., publishers and editors; A. P. 
Peck, associate editor. 

NORTHERN FARMER, Janesville, Wisconsin. Weekly, $1 50 per an- 
num. O. F. Stafford, editor. 

NORTHWESTERN T'ARMER, Indianapolis, Indiana. Monthly, $1 per 
annum. ‘T’. A. Bland, publisher and editor. 

Onto Farmer, Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $2 per annum. G. E, 
Blakeley, publisher and editor. 

Our HomE JouRNAL, New Orleans, Louisiana. Weekly, $3 per an- 
num. James H. Hummell, publisher. 

PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, San Francisco, California. Weekly, $4 per 
annum. Dewey & Co., publishers; W. B. Ewer, principal editor. 

PLANTATION, (THE,) Atlanta, Georgia. Weekly, $3 per annum. ‘T. 
C. Howard, editor; R. A. Alston, assistant and corresponding editor. 

PIONEER FARMER, Sioux City, Iowa. Monthly $1 50 per annum. 
A. L. Northup, published editor. 

PLEASANT VALLEY FRUIT AND WINE REPORTER, Hammondsport, 
New York. Semi-monthly, $1 per annum, A. L. Underhill, publisher 
and editor; Dr. E. Van Keuren, T. M. Younglove, and Mrs. B. Bennett, 
associate editors. 

PRAOTICAL FAarMmR, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Monthly, $1 50 
per annum. Paschall Morris & Co., publishers; Paschall Morris, ed- 
itor. 


AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PERIODICALS. 5AT 


PRACTICAL PLANTER, Memphis, Tennessee. Monthly, $1 50 per an- 
num. Geo. W. Gift, editor. . 

PRAIRIE FARMER, Chicago, Illinois. Weekly, $2 per annum. Prai- 
rie Farmer Company, publishers; Henry D. Emery, editor, assisted by 
W. W. Corbett, H. T. Thomas, Rodney Welch, and Dr. E. S. Hull. 

RECONSTRUCTED FARMER, Tarboro’, North Carolina. Monthly, $2 
per annum. Jameés R. Thigpen, publisher and editor. | 

Rook RIvER Farmer, Dixon, linois. Monthly. W. M. Kennedy, 
publisher; W. H. Van Epps, editor. 

RuRAL AMERICAN, New York City. Weekly, $250 per annum. T. 
B. Miner & Co., New Brunswick, New Jersey, publishers and editors. 

RURAL OCAROLINIAN, Charleston, South Carolina. Monthly, $2 per 
annum. Walker, Evans & Cogswell, and D. Wyatt Aiken, publishers ; 
D. H. Jacques, editor. 

RURALIST AND OHIO VALLEY CULTIVATOR, Cincinnati, Ohio. Month- 
ly, $1 per annum. J.S. Sheppard & Co., publishers; J. 8. Sheppard, 
editor. * 

RURAL MESSENGER, Petersburg, Virginia. Weekly, $2 per annum. 
Ege, Bozel & Rogers, publishers; Thomas 8. Pleasants, editor. 

RURAL, SOUTHERNER, Atlanta and Augusta, Georgia. Monthly, $1 
per annum. Samuel A. Echols, publisher and editor; Andrew J. Beck, 
associate editor. 

RvuRAL SoutH Lanp, New Orleans, Louisiana. Weekly, $3 per an- 
num. The South Land Company, publishers; H. F. Russell, editor. 

SMALL FRuIT RECORDER AND CABBAGE GARDENER, Palmyra, New 
York. Monthly, $1 per annum. A. M. Purdy, publisher and editor. 

Sorco JouRNAL AND Farm Macuinist, Cincinnati, Ohio. Quar- 
terly, 50 cents per annum. Sorgo Journal Company, publishers; Wil- 
liam Olough, editor. 

SouTHERN CULTIVATOR, Athens, Georgia. Monthly, $2 per annum. 
William & W. L, Jones, publishers and editors. . 

SOUTHERN FARMER, Memphis, Tennessee. Monthly, $2 per annum. 
M. W. Phillips & Co., publishers; Dr. M. W. Phillips, editor-in-chief. 

SouTueRN Farm AND Home, Macon, Georgia. Monthly, $2 per an- 
num. J. W. Burke & Co., publishers; William M. Browne, editor. 

SOUTHERN FIELD AND Factory,Jackson, Mississippi. Monthly, $2 
per annum. Wall & Rafter, publishers and editors. 

SoUTHERN PLANTER AND FARMER, Richmond, Virginia. Monthly, 
$2 per annum. Ferguson & Rady, publishers; James T. Johnson and 
John M. Ailan, managing editors. 

SOUTHERN TIMES AND PLANTER, Sparta, Georgia. Weekly, $2 50 
per annum. Harrison Brothers, publishers; B. H. Sansett, editor. 

SwASEY’s SoUTHERN GARDENER, Tangipahoa, Louisiana. Monthly, 
®2 per annum. H. A. Swasey, publisher and editor. . 

TENNESSEE AGRICULTURIST, McMinnville, Tennessee. Weekly, $2 
perannum. J. F. & D. I. Wallace, publishers. 

TizTtoN’s JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE, Boston, Massachusetts. 
Monthly, $1 50 per annum. J. E. Tilton & Co., publishers. 

VERMONT FARMER, Newport, Vermont. Weekly, $1 per annum. 
Royal Cummings, proprietor; T. H. Hoskins, M. D., editor. 

VeRMONT RECORD AND Farmer, Brattleboro’, Vermont. Weekly, 
$2 per annum. I. D. Cobleigh, publisher and editor. 

WESTERN AGRICULTURIST, Quincy, Illinois. Monthly, 75 cents per 
annum. ‘JT. Butterworth, publisher. 

WESTERN FARMER, Madison, Wisconsin. Weekly, $2 per annum, 
D. M. & G. E. Morrow, publishers and editors, . 


548 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


WESTERN Pomo.oaist, Des Moines, Iowa, and Leavenworth, Kan- 
sas. Monthly, $150 per annum. Mark Miller, Des Moines, publisher 
and editor. 

WESTERN RURAL, Chicago, Illinois, and Detroit, Michigan. Weekly, 
$2 per annum. H. N. F. Lewis, publisher and editor; T. H. Glenn, 
Chicago, and Edward Mason, Detroit, Michigan, associate editors. 

WESTERN RURALIST, Louisville, Kentucky. Monthly, $1 per an- 
num. H.M. McCarty, publisher; Lawrence Young, editor. 

WILLAMETTE FARMER, Salem, Oregon. Weekly, $2 50 per annum. 
A. L, Stinson, publisher; Simeon Francis, editor. 

WoRKING FARMER, New York City. Monthly, $1 50 per annum. 
William L. Allison, publisher and editor. : 


AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF WYOMING 
° TERRITORY. 


This Territory is situated between the forty-first and forty-fifth paral- 
lels of latitude, and the one hundred and fourth and one hundred and 
eleventh meridians of west longitude, and contains an area of 97,883 
square miles. 

Although lying immediately north of and contiguous to Colorado, and 
like it stretching across the great divide of the Rocky Mountains, in the 
character of its mountains and plains it is very different from that Ter- 
ritory. 

The mountains of Colorado are grouped in a rather compact series of 
ranges on one side, and its plains lie in one body on the other, and are 
of a uniform character; while the mountains of Wyoming are scattered 
in isolated ranges and irregular groups, and the plains are detached 
areas, unsymmetrical in form and differing in character. 

The divide between the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific starting 
from the northwest corner of North Park and running northwest by 
Bridger’s Pass and Creston Station, crosses the comparatively low coun- 
try to South Pass, whenee it follows the Wind River Mountains to 
Mount Madison, where it leaves the Territory, passing out of its west- 
ern border about 50’ south of its northwest corner. It divides the Ter- 
ritory into two unequal parts, the eastern part embracing about three- 
fourths of the entire area, the western part one-fourth. The greater 
portion of the eastern division is drained by the North Platte and the 
tributaries of the Yellowstone, while the western division is drained by 
Green River and its tributaries. 

The arable tracts of this Territory, corresponding with its general 
features, are found in detached areas extremely varied in size and char- 
acter, the extent of irrigable land being limited sometimes only by the 
supply of water, while in others, though the supply of water is ample, the 
extent of level land is very limited. ; 

There is in Colorado no spot that can be called an absolute desert; on 
the other hand, there are few if any spots which wear heavy compact 
swards of green grass, the tuft and bunch being the characteristic growth 
of the plains; but in Wyoming not only the mean but the extremes are 
to be found. 

The chief arable tracts, which as a matter of course depend upon the 
water supply and drainage, are to be found in the following areas, named 
as @ general thing from the streams by which they are intersected: The 
Laramie Plains, the Sweetwater Section, and Hastern Plains, all drained 


AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF WYOMING TERRITORY. 549 


by the North Platte and its tributaries; the Wind River or Big Horn 
District ; the Powder River country, and the Green River District. All 
of these divisions, except that drained by Green River, lie on the east 
side of the main divide of the Rocky Mountain range. 

The district drained by the North Platte amounts to about 22,000 
square miles, and embraces nearly one-fourth of the Territory, and, with 
the exception of a few smal! sections, it includes the most desirable por- 
tions, and the greater part of the arable land. This district is not only 
very irregular in its outline, but it bears the same varied and irregular 
character interiorly. The mighty convulsive force which heaved up 
these vast Rocky Mountain ranges seems here to have scattered the 
hills and mountains in wild confusion. In the eastern portion, stretch- 
ing north and south, is a range of rough and lofty mountains which, at 
its northern extremity, is rent into fragments and scattered in decreas- 
ing peaks and ridges to the northwest. Along the southern border, 
turning in nearly every direction of the compass, are lofty ranges, whose 
summits wear crowns of perennial snow. Westwasd the mountain 
ranges, trending northwest, sink beneath the immense deposit of local 
drift which here covers the mighty chasm; but they show themselves 
farther north in the granite peaks which, like islands, shoot up from the 
Sweetwater Plains, and farther on they emerge in the Wind River 
range. Between these irregular surroundings lie the broad Laramie 
_ Plains, which might appropriately be called the Great Park of Wyoming. 

The plains east of the Black Hills slope toward the Missouri River, 
while the area lying west of them, as shown by the course of streams 
and also by the barometer, slope north and east, sending the waters of 
its streams through the northeast angle of the district. The average 
level of this entire portion is higher than that of either of the others 
east of the divide, the western portion being on an average about 6,500 
feet above the level of the sea. The difference of level between South 
Pass and the mouth of the Sweetwater is about 1,500 feet. The area 
east of the mountains varies from 4,400 to 6,000 feet above the level of 
the sea. On aecount of its altitude and the direction and force of its 
atmospheric currents, the temperature of this distriet is lower than that 
of the others east of the divide, within the bounds under consideration. 
As a general rule only such products as are adapted to a cold climate 
and short seasons can be raised to any advantage; yet it is mmportant 
to know that a mining section can produce the principal cereals, as 
wheat, oats, and barley, and the more useful vegetables, in quantities 
sufficient to supply its own wants; and also to know something in re- 
gard to the locality and extent of its arable lands. A few acres of pro- 
ductiye soil in the vicinity of a rich mine will often yield a greater 
profit than a large farm in Ohio or [linois. 

It is difficult to give any very reliable estimate of the land suscepti- 
ble of cultivation in this district, as much of it is in small bodies of irreg- 
ular shape. By proper efforts at least 2,500 square miles, or 1,600,000 
acres, can be brought under cultivation.- This may be thought 
an exaggerated estimate, when we take into consideration the large 
proportion of the area occupied by mountains, the barren tract south 
of the Sweetwater, and the deficiency in the supply of water on the 
plains east of the Black Hills; but when more effectual means of hus- 
banding the water are adopted, as by tapping the streams near their 
exit from the mountains and keeping it above the surface by forming 
reservoirs, &c., the supply will be found greater than is at present sup- 
“ay and the estimate given, instead of being too large, may prove too 
small. 


.550 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 
LARAMIE PLAINS. 


This secti¢n is bounded on the east and northeast by the Black 
Hills, on the west by the West Rattlesnake Hills, and on the sonth- 
west by the Medicine Bow Mountains. It is somewhat quadran- 
gular in shape, its average length from southeast to northwest being 
about ninety miles, and average width from northeast to southwest 
about seventy-five miles, containing (exclusive of the surrounding 
mountains) a surface area of about six thousand seven hundred and 
fifty square miles, or nearly 4,500,000 acres, It is drained chiefly by 
the Medicine Bow and Laramie Rivers and their tributaries, both 
afiluents. of the North Platte, which also traverses the extreme border, 
The Laramie, rising in the mountains at the southeast angle, flows along 
the eastern side to the northeast angle of the section, where it breaks 
through the Black Hills, and joins the North Platte in the eastern plains. 
The Medicine Bow, receiving affluents from each side, the principal ones 
coming from thesouth, flows through the western part of the seetion, 
and joins the North Platte on the western border. The North Platte 
makes its exit at the northwest angle of the plains, where, bursting through 
the mountains, it bends eastward. The surface varies considerably 
in character and elevation, some of it presenting beautiful meadow ex- 
panses, while other portions are rolling and hilly, and but sparsely 
covered with vegetation. The average elevation of these plains is about 
6,500 feet above the level of the sea, but the height varies as much as 
1,700: feet, counting from the water levels. As most of the streams 
afford an ample supply of water during the irrigating season, their 
volume and fall become important items in estimating the amount of 
land which may be brought under cultivation, and it is therefore a 
matter of regret that we have not more accurate information om these 
points in regard to the larger streams throughout this region. 

The North Platte, at the railroad crossing, has an elevation of 6,477 
feet, and at the mouth of the Sweetwater 6,000 feet, above the level of 
the sea, showing a fall in this distance of about 480 feet, or 7 feet to the 
mile, Medicine Bow River at Medicine Bow station has an elevation 
of 6,698 feet, and at its: junction with the Platte about 6,300 feet, a dif 
ference of nearly 400 feet, or about 8 feet to the mile. Laramie River 
at Laramie City is 7,123 feet above the level of the sea, and at the point — 
where it enters the Black Hills about 5,400 feet, a difference of over 
1,700: feet, giving the very rapid fall of 18 feet to the mile. These 
figures develop the important fact that mot only the bottoms, but also 
the upper levels, except where they are very high, can be irrigated, 
which fact must increase the estimate of the tillable lands of the seetion to. 
an amount considerably beyond the area of the bottoms. 

The southeast part, to which the name “ Laramie Plains,” or “ Lara- 
mie Valley,” is sometimes limited, is decidedly the best portion of the 
section, and contains much the largest proportion of arable land. From 
the head of this valley on the east to Rock Creek on the west it is about 
seventy miles long, with an average width of about twenty-five miles, 
giving an area of one thousand seven hundred and fifty square miles. 
Although it is interrupted at some points by ridges beyond the reach 
of irrigation, especially the divide between the Laramie and the Medi- 
cine Bow, it may be safely estimated that one-half of it can be irrigated 
and brought under cultivation. The greater portion of this beautiful 
valley is covered with a rich growth of grass, and presents the appear- 
ance of one broad meadow. Already numerous herds of cattle and 
horses can be seen roaming over this meadowy expanse, where they feed 


AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF WYOMING TERRITORY. 551 


the year round without other food and without protection save the care 
of the herder; nor are they confined to the broad, open bottoms, but 
graze far up the mountains on the south, cropping the nutritious 
grasses that line the little mountain coves and glens. 

' That portion of the valley lying west of Cooper’s Lake presents a 
barren appearance as faras Rock Creek. This creek, although bordered 
by occasional bluffs, is margined along most of its course by fertile bot- - 
toms, of moderate width, and is tolerably well timbered with cotton- 

wood groves along its upper portion. This valley and that of the North 

Platte north of the railroad will, with proper irrigation, afford a consid- 

erable extent of cultivable land. Judging froin the northern extension 

of the Laramie Valley, its rapid fall, and the general features of the 

surrounding country, not only the bottoms but a large portion of the 

lower ridges and plateaus along this stream may be irrigated and ren- 

dered suitable for farming purposes. Along a part of its northern 

course the bordering lands are quite broken, and the belt of the arable 

land is small. The northwest angle of the section is also uneven, and. 
affords but a small arable area. 

The climate is somewhat severe, and’ the seasons short. The greatest 
drawback to successful cultivation does not appear to arise from these 
causes, however, but from the occasional untimely frosts and gusts ot 
snow which nip the growing crops in the spring, or injure them when 
neatly matured. The cold nights, as is generally the case in these high 
regions, retard growth, especially of the cereals. Notwithstanding these 
drawbacks, repeated experiments made during the past four years have 
shown conclusively that useful crops can be raised. On the 3d of 
August, 1870, in a garden attached to the military hospital at Laramie 
City, where extensive experiments are being made in the cultivatign of 
vegetables and cereals, everything indicated success. Peas, beets, win- 
ter-squashes, cabbages, beans, lettuce, onions, carrots, radishes, &¢., were 
fine and thrifty. Barley and wheat both promised abundant crops, and 
potatoes were of the best quality. Tests made at Fort Saunders were 
attended with like encouraging results. 

These experiments and others made along Laramie River, Rock 
Creek, and at other points, continued as they have been for several 
years, would seem to settle the question as to the practicability of farm- 
ing on the Laramie Plains, as these points are the highest, and per- 
haps the coldest, on the plains. Although this section may not be an 
agricultural region in the broadest sense of the term, a knowledge of its 
capabilities for the growth of the hardier vegetables, and such cereals 
as wheat, oats, and barley, is a matter of importance in view of its sit- 
uation, in the center of the mountains, on the great thoroughfare be- 
tween the Atlantic and Pacific, with a broad barren plain to the west, 
and a mountain stretch to the east, and where a suitable halting place 
is desirable. 

There is probably no finer grazing region in Wyoming than this. The 
southeastern part is literally carpeted with a compact growth of rich 
and nutritious grasses, kept constantly fresh by the water of the numer- 
ous mountain streams. The rain-fall is also greater than in any other 
part of the Territory, and it seems to be on the increase. Notwith- 
standing the elevation of these plains, the winters are comparatively 
mild and open, the fall of snow being light, and stock is wintered with- 
out shelter, and with very little feeding. Large flocks of sheep and, 
eattle have passed the winter here with no other feed than the uncut 
grass of the valleys and plains. Hay in abundance and of the best 
quality can be obtained along the creek bottoms at nominal expense. 


552 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Timber, such as-pine and fir, of excellent quality, may be found in the 
mountains along the southern border, and a vast quantity is annually 
eut and floated down the Little Laramie and other streams, for lumber, 
railroad-ties, &c. Some of the streams, especially along the southwest 
border, are margined by groves of cottonwood, which will furnish fuel - 
and fencing for that locality. 


THE SWEETWATER REGION. 


This section of the Territory includes the valley and bordering plains 
through which the Sweetwater River passes, from the vicinity of South 
Pass to its junction with the North Platte. This stream rises a little 
northwest of the pass, and flows almost directly east about one hundred and 
thirty miles, connecting with the North Platte near the point where the 
latter leaves the Laramie Plains. For twenty-five or thirty miles east 
of the pass it flows throngh a rugged mountainous region, presenting 
no considerable areas that can be rendered cultivable. A short distance 

_west of St. Mary’s station it emerges from the narrow gorges, and enters 
a valley that extends, with occasional short interruptions, along the en- 
tire course of the river. 

Beginning at the summit of South Pass, with an elevation of 7,490 
feet, the descent is quite rapid to the point where the stream issues 
from the gorge, 6,650 feet above the level of the sea. This point, the 
highest of this section that can be counted arable, is 513 feet lower than 
Fort Saunders, and 473 feet below Laramie City, which would indicate, 
other things being equal, a milder climate. 

At the three crossings the elevation is 6,135 feet, showing a fall be- 
tween this point and the head of the valley of 515 feet, or about 12 
feet to the mile. At Independence the elevation is just 6,000 feet, indi- 
cating a fall between this and the last-mentioned point of not more than 
5 feet to the mile. Thence to the junction with the Platte the descent 
is probably 5 to 6 feet to the mile. The average elevation of the valley 
may therefore be estimated at 6,300 feet above the level of the sea. 

For ten to twelve miles below the point where the stream leaves the 
mountains, there is a very pretty fertile valley, averaging about one 
mile in width, bordered on the right, and part of its length on the left, 
with high blutis. The greater portien of this valley is covered with a 
luxuriant growth of grass, from which a supply is usually drawn for 
Fort Stambaugh, Atlantic City, and South Pass City. 

Near the lower end of this opening, the left bank is flanked by a 
second level, or table, which might be reached by an irrigating ditch 
three or four miles long, and which, if watered, would furnish an amount 
of farming land equal to the entire bottom of the valley. Immediately 
below this point the hills close in upon the valley for a few miles, and 
then separate, leaving a triangular area containing thirty to forty square 
miles of quite level and tolerably fertile land, which can be easily irri- 
gated. : 

From the nerth and northeast the hills slope down so gradually that 
a considerable area along their lower margins could be reached with 
water from the river, if the supply is sufficient for this and the bottoms. 
The stream here, on an average, is probably 30 feet wide and one foot 
deep, flowing quite ‘rapidly, the fall being 10 to 12 feet to the mile. 
Here, as well as in the vicinity of St. Mary’s station, small eolonies 
would find very good locations, and, by combining and digging large 
primary ditches, their land could be irrigated at moderate expense. 

The only difficulty aside from exposure to Indian depredations would 
be the scarcity of timber. Near St. Mary’s this difficulty would be ex- 


AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF WYOMING TERRITORY. 553 


perienced. From this point the river bends round to the northeast, 
passing among the hills, and is flanked by alternate bottoms of small 
extent. 

To the south of the river, forming a chord to its circular bend, runs a 
singular valley, ten to twelve miles wide, the general appearance of 
which is that of the bed of a stream which had been wide and shallow, 
although its surface looks exactly like the plateaus of this section. If 
the water of the river can be brought upon this level, as much land can 
be irrigated as the river can supply. 

Where the road again strikes the river, going east, there is a con- 
siderable expanse of arable land ; and, although there is very little im- 
mediate bottom, the second level is quite broad and of moderate ele- 
vation, and might be irrigated by cutting a ditch a few miles in length. 
Below this, near the three crossings, the Granite Hills commence, and 
flank the valley as far as Independence Rock. Near the west end of 
this irregular range, for seven to eight miles, the river breaks through 
it, and is closely walled in by lofty bluffs, with here and there a level 
plat of a few hundred acres of fertile soil. There is an open plain run- 
ning around the south side of these bluffs, several miles in width, which 
probably might be reached by a ditch twelve to fifteen miles in length. 

After passing through the gorge here, the river enters a broad and 
beautiful valley, the upper portion of which is thickly covered with 
chenopodiaceous shrubs, the lower part bearing a tall thick growth of 
grass. From a hill at this point, looking eastward down the river, the 
valley can be seen for twenty or thirty miles, while southeast runs a 
higher valley, which is crossed and dotted with elevated plateaus, and 
flat-topped foot-hills. The mountain which, some distance east, runs 
along the south side a short distance from this point, terminates yest- 
ward, while from the southeast, running northwest, comes another range 
which forms the southern boundary of the plain. At this place the soil 
is rich and light, and, with irrigation, would produce good crops. The 
immediate bottoms are of little value, being quite narrow, but the second 
level, 10 to 12 feet above the water, could be reached by a ditch a few 
miles long. It is probable that an area of eighty to one hundred square 
miles could be rendered suitable for farming purposes, and timber may 
be obtained from the neighboring hills. 

In the vicinity of Hayden’s Peaks the granite hills on one side and 
the bluffs on the other approach the margin of the river for a short dis- 
tance, then recede in a cireular sweep, and again come together a few 
miles beyond, forming a beautiful circular area, containing twenty to 
twenty-five square miles of rich and fertile bottom land which, slightly ele- 
vated above the stream, can beirrigated without difficulty. Passing under 
the overhanging cliff of yellow sandstone, through the gate-like open- 
ing of the little park first described, we enter upon a broad valley which 
continues without interruption to the “ Devil’s Gate,” about four miles 
above Independence Rock. 

The soil of this valley, though covered in part with “ grease-wood” 
and sage, is very fertile, and will produce good crops. Muddy Creek, 
which comes in here from the south, has a considerable margin of level 
land, but affords hardly sufficient water for irrigating purposes. The 
breadth of land here is probably equal to the supply of water. Around 
Independence Rock, and for several miles above and below it, are fine 
irrigable bottoms. Between the river and Horse Creek there is a broad 
delta with an average elevation of twenty to thirty feet above the bed 
of the river, but less than that above the bed of the creek. Irrigating 
ditches could be made to reach this plateau, and also a considerable area 


554 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


east of Horse Creek; but the ditch from the river would require two 
short aqueducts at the Devil’s Gate. The soil of this plain is rich in the 
elements of fertility, though in some places strongly impregnated with 
alkali. At present it is covered with “ grease-wood” and sage, except 
in the little areas which are frosted over with alkaline incrustations. 
Along the ridges and in the narrow valleys which lie around the head- 
waters of Horse Creek, and in the vicinity of Willow Springs, are some 
excellent grazing lands which have long been a favorite resort of the 
buffalo. The country along the North Platte, from the mouth of Sweet- 
water to Poison Spring Creek, is rongh and mountainous, the river for 
the most of this distance running through deep, and often perpendicu- 
lar, gorges. 

The length of the Sweetwater Valley, from its commencement above 
St. Mary’s station to the Platte, is about ninety miles, and the average 
width of the land which can be irrigated and rendered suitable for eulti- 
vation may safely be estimated at five or six miles. This would givean 
area of about five hundred square miles, or 320,000 acres of tillable 
land. Judging from the altitude, surroundings, and slight information 
received on this point, there are good reasons for believing that the cli- 
mate will prove more favorable to agriculture than that of the Laramie 
Plains, to which it.is much inferior as a grazing region, though the river 
bottoms and some of the mountain slopes afford very good grass on 
which numerous herds of antelopes at present graze. Timber is scarce 
from the vicinity of St. Mary’s station to the Platte. The bordering 
hills and mountains bear a few pines, and the bottoms a few small wil- 
lows; but these would hardly furnish a supply to even a moderate pop- 
ulation. A supply might be obtained from the mountains at the east 
or the west end of the valley. 


THE EASTERN PLAINS. 


Under this name may be included all that part of the Territory lying 
east of the Black Hills. It includes, in addition to the open plains, the 
valley of the North Platte from the Red Buttes to the eastern boundary 
of the Territory, and the valleys of the numerous tributaries which enter 
- into it between these points; also the valleys of Crow Creek, Larren’s 
Fork, and Lodge Pole Creek. This seetion contains about nine thousand 
square miles, of which perhaps one-sixth, or nearly one million of acres, 
can ultimately be irrigated and rendered suitable for farming purposes. 
This estimate of the arable portion is much larger than has generally 
been made, but from recent information furnished this Department is 
not considered exaggerated. A more careful examination of the volume 
of water sent down by the North Platte and its tributaries, and of the 
rain-fall during the growing season, may somewhat modify this esti- 
mate, but will not reduce it to any considerable extent. Some idea of 
the general level and topography of this area can be obtained from the 
following list of elevations recently taken: Beginning at Red Buttes and 
following the Platte, the elevations above the level of the sea are as 
follows—Red Buttes, 5,528 feet; five miles below the Old Bridge, 5,252 
feet; on the river bottom near Fort Fetterman, about 4,970 feet; Fort 
Laramie, about 4,500 feet; mouth of Horse Creek, 4,895 feet. This 
shows that the entire fall from Red Buttes to Horse Creek is 1,133 feet, 
or about 7 feet to the mile. From Red Buttes to the Bridge, 18 feet to 
the mile, and from Red Buttes to Fort Fetterman, 9 feet. The elevation 
of the Laramie bottom at the mouth of Chugwater is about 4,500 feet; 
the Chugwater Valley where the stage road to Fort Laramie strikes it, 
5,460 feet; and that of Cheyenne, 6,040 feet. These figures develop a 


AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF WYOMING TERRITORY. 555 


fact of the utmost importance in estimating the agricultural resources 
of this part of the Territory. <A fall of over 500 feet in sixty miles, 
with the volume of water found in this part of the river during the irri- 
gating season, will afford the means of redeeming a very large area of 
and. 

Poison Spring Creek is a small stream coming down from the north- 
west and entering the North Platte at Red Buttes. It passes through 
a very pretty valley which averages about one mile wide, and is flanked 
on the west by a broad plain which gradually ascends as it recedes. On 
the east, parallel to it, runs a sharp ridge of perpendicular upheaved 
strata. It has been stated that the waters of this stream are poison- 
ous, but this is a mistake, as men and animals have been known to drink 
of it without injury; besides, several species of plants grow in it lux- 
uriantly, one of which has been brought to this Department in some of 
the water of the stream, and when submitted to the microscope was 
found to contain minute living organisms. The idea of its being poison- 
ous probably arose from the presence of alkaline matter. The amount 
of water in this creek is presumed to be sufficient to irrigate the narrow 
valley, which is covered with a rank growth of grass. 

Near the Red Buttes, (or Red Blufts,) in the bend of the North Platte, 
isa beautiful bottom of twelve to fifteen hundred acres of very rich 
soil. South of the riverit is covered with a thick grove of willow, cot- 
tonwood, &e., but on the north side the timber has been destroyed by 
emigrants and others who have camped at this point. 

Immediately below this place the river enters a gorge, and breaks 
through a spur of the mountain for nine or ten miles, before it enters 
upon the plains near Old Fort Casper. If canals can be carried through 
this gorge, there will be no serious difficulty in taking the water onte the 
elevated table lands which set in immediately below it; and, from in- 
formation received, this appears to be possible, as the sides descend 
abruptly only at one or two points. Tunneling might be necessary for 
a short distance on the north side, but there will be no other serious 
obstacle. This will not be necessary at any point on the south side. 
The North Platte, just below the remains of the old bridge, when ex- 
amined at the season of the year when it is low, was about 160 feet 
wide, with.an average depth of two feet, and a current of over three 
miles per hour. This would give a discharge of more than 5,000,000 
eubiec feet per hour. As the volume of water at this season is not more 
than two-thirds as great as in the spring and early summer, the dis- 
charge, during the irrigating season, may be estimated at 7,500,000 
eubie feet per hour. If this estimate is even approximately correct, 
(strict accuracy is not claimed,) it is probable that one thousand square 
miles of land may be irrigated from this river alone. 

The following description of some points along this stream will give 
a general idea of its valley east of the mountains. In the neighbor- 
hood of the bridge, on the south side of the river, there is a broad ley- 
el bottom, four to five miles wide, mostly covered with a rank growth of 
grass, mixed with tall weeds, showing the soil to be quite fertile, and 
that it contains a fair proportion of vegetable mold. 

A short distance below Casper a second level sets in, raised but a few 
feet above the first. This is one entire sage plain, and spreads out to 
some eight or nine miles in width, and is composed of a soil somewhat 
inferior to that of the bottom. Before reaching Muddy Creek, the low, 
rounded hills approach the river for a few miles, limiting the bottom to 
a mere strip. At Muddy Creek it again expands to six or eight miles, 
being covered in part by a very thick growth of grease-wood. The lit- 


556 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


tle creek, though very narrow, being confined to a little ditch-like chan- 
nel cut through the compact soil, is deep in proportion to its width, and 
would furnish sufficient water to irrigate a considerable area. The soil 
is very fine-grained, with a marly appearanee. 

On the north side of the river, for most of this distance the elevated 
plateau approaches quite close to the stream, and, descending suddenly, 
forms a line of bluffs 100 to 150 feet high. For some distance above 
Fort Fetterman there is a very pretty and quite broad valley, partly 
bottom and partly a low second level, which ean be irrigated from the 
river at a very moderate expense, and would make good farms. There 
are also some very fine grazing fields here. 

West of the Fort Deer and Box Elder Creeks flow into the Platte 
from the south. Taking their rise in the Black Hills, they run constantly, 
and afford sufficient water to irrigate the narrow valleys through which 
they pass. Here, also, are some fields of excellent pasturage, the prin- 
cipal supply of hay for the fort being cut from the valley of Deer Creek. 
La Perle Creek, which joins the Platte near the fort, is bordered chiefly 
by boulder hilis, and presents but little attraction for the agriculturist. 
. Between Fort Fetterman and Laramie River a number of streams, ris- 
ing in the Black Hills, run east and empty into the Platte, the most 
important of which are the La Bonté, Hikhorn, Horseshoe, and Bitter 
Cottonweod. The valley of the La Bonté, which is two to three miles 
in width, is very fertile, the bottoms easily irrigated, and the supply of 
timber ample. Not only are the hills clothed with pines, but the valley 
at points is covered with tolerably heavy groves of cottonwood, willow, 
&e. Here is a very good point for a smali colony. Horseshoe and Elk- 
horn Creeks traverse small valleys, but as the supply of water is not 
congtant they cannot be depended upon for irrigating purposes unless 
the water is brought down in ditches from the point where they leave 
the mountain. 

The immediate bottom of the Bitter Cottonwood is rather narrow, but 
is flanked by a low second ievel of considerable breadth, so that the 
amount of land within reach of irrigation is fully equal to the supply of 
water from the creek. 

The valleys of the Laramie and Chugwater present the most desira- 
ble points for agricultural purposes along the east flank ef the Black 
Hills. The short valley of the Laramie River, between the mountains 
and the Platte, will furnish an arable area of perhaps seventy-five to 
eighty square miles. With an elevation of abeut 1,500 feet less than 
Cheyenne, and 2,600 feet lower than Laramie City, and shielded from 
the winds by its elevated surroundings, it has a climate several degrees 
warmer than most of the section; and, with a rich soil and ample sup- 
ply of timber, it is destined to be soon filled up when the tide of emi- 
gration turns toward this section of the Territory. 

The Chugwater runs northeast for thirty-five or forty miles along the 
base of the Black Hills, watering a beautiful valley which averages 
about two miles in width. This valley, for the.greater part of its length, 
is berdered by high, rocky walls or steep bluffs; the bottoms are fertile, 
and, being quite low and level, can be easily irrigated. The supply of 
water is sufficient during the season when needed, but it sinks at some 
points in the latter part of the summer and autumn. 

There is a considerable amount of valley land and level bottoms along 
Horse Creek and its affluents, but the supply of water is limited, and 
therefore it is not probable that any great area will ever be rendered 
available for tillage. It is possible, however, that by making reservoirs 
along the little ravines, which at certain seasons of the year are filled 


AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES OF WYOMING TERRITORY. 557 


with water, a sufficient quantity might be collected to irrigate a large 
number of acres, thus materially increasing the agricultural resources of 
this part of the Territory. 

Lodge Pole Creek is an isolated stream, rising near Cheyenne Pass, 
in the Black Hills, and flowing, with a moderate eastward descent, 
through a narrow valley, bordered on each side by broad, rounded 
ridges. The amount of bottom-land is quite limited, but is all the 
stream will irrigate, as the supply of water does not appear to be very 
constant. A canal, drawing off the water near the mountains, would 
probably furnish a larger and more uniform volume. : 

Crow Creek rises in the Black Hills, west of Cheyenne, and, running 
east a short distance beyond the city, turns south and passes into Col- 
orado. Although this stream is small, its proximity to the city of Chey- 
enne makes it important, and measures have been inaugurated to pre- 
serve and utilize all the water it can supply. With sufficient water, the 
entire plains around the city could be irrigated, and the land made to 
produce useful crops. There are some reasons for believing that the 
rain-fall is increasing in this vicinity. 

The temperature of this section varies considerably in its different 
parts, corresponding somewhat to the elevation and freedom from the 
prevailing winds. All the agricultural products which can be grown in 
other parts of the Territory can be raised here, such as wheat, oats, 
barley, rye, and hardy vegetables; and it is probable that in the valley 
of the Lower Laramie, and at some points along the Platte, Indian corn 
and hardy fruits may also be raised. 

Fine grazing-fields are to be found throughout this section in the val- 
leys and along the slopes of the mountains, and, even where there are no 
running streams, wells may be dug and water found at moderate depths, 
which can be raised by wind-mills in sufficient quantity to supply stock, 
and possibly to assist in irrigation. Timber can be obtained in abund- 
anee from the Black Hills and along the streams near their base. 

Successful experiments have been made in farming and gardening 
around Cheyenne and at Fort Fetterman, which are, perhaps, the coldest 
portions of the section. 


THE WIND RIVER DISTRICT. 


Very little information has been received in relation to this district, 
yet the following facts are an important addition to our knowledge of 
this region: 

The district is drained by the Wind or Big Horn* River and its tribu- 
taries, and is situated between the Wind River Mountains on the west, 
and the Big Horn Mountains on the east. Its length from Little Po- 
poagie to the Big Horn Caiion is about one hundred and seventy miles, 
with an average width of about one hundred miles. 

Wind: River rises in Wind River Mountains, and, flowing southeast 
for about sixty miles, bends abruptly north, which is its general course 
thence to its exit from the Territory. The valley is estimated to be two 
hundred miles in length, and two to fifteen miles in width; but it is very 
frequently interrupted by irregular ranges of hills and spurs of the mount- 
ains, and at one point a considerable range sweeps across from east to 
west. The following tributaries flow into the rwer from the north and 
west, viz: The North Fork, Owl Creek, Gray Bull, and Stinking Water 
Creeks. On the south and west sides are the following affluents: South 
Fork, Buffalo Bull Creek, Big Popoagie River, Beaver Creek, and No- 

* This stream is called Wind River until it passes through the first range of mount- 
ains, north of which it receives the name of Big Horn River. 


558 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. | , 
Wood River. The valleys of these streams furnish arable land which 
is quite fertile, and can be easily irrigated, and all of them except No- 
Wood River are skirted by groves of cotton-wood and willow. 

Some experiments in farming have been made ix the south end of this 
district, which have proved more_ successful than could have been an- 
ticipated from the latitude, surroundings, and knowledge of the regions 
south of it. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye can be raised with ease, but 
the seasons are not quite mildenough forcorn. Potatoes and cabbages 
grow finely and of good size; and even beans grow well, producing fine, 
large pods, indicating a comparatively mild climate. Although the alti- 
tude of this section is unknown, there are some reasons for believing 
that it is less than that of the Sweetwater Valley. It is probable that 
it will. not average more than 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
Some good grazing fields are found within its bounds, yet it does not 
appear to equalas a pasturing region the Laramie Plains and Platte 
district. . 

GREEN RIVER DISTRICT. 


This part of Wyoming lies west of the main divide of the great Rocky 
Mountain range, its waters passing through the Colorado of the 
West, to the Pacific Ocean. It is a part of that vast inter-alpine 
valley lying between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada 
ranges, which reaches north to the plains of the Columbia, and south to 
the broad plateaus of Arizona and Mexico. 

That portion of the area drained by Green River and its tributaries, 
which lies within Wyoming, amounts to fifteen or sixteen thousand 
square miles. Its southeastern part consists principally of broad, bar- 
ren, sage plains, with little water, and is of but little value. The 
southern part is composed chiefly of boulder ridges and plateaus, with 
washed and bluffy escarpments. This portion is partially supplied with 
streams bordered by narrow arabie strips of a very barren appearance, 
but quite productive when irrigated. The southwest corner is broken 
and mountainous, and contains very little land that can be cultivated, 
but affords some fine grazing fields. The northern, triangular portion, 
lying between the Wind River and Wahsatch Mountains, contains the 
greater part of the arable land of the district. It is composed of three 
distinct parts, as follows: The Green River Valley, the Big Sandy Val- 
ley, and the broad, elevated plain lying between them. 

Green River, rising near Fremont’s Peak, runs south about one hun- 
dred and twenty miles to the forty-second parallel, where it turns south- 
east, and is joined by the Big Sandy, where it crosses the one hundred 
and tenth meridian. It continues the same course, after receiving the * 
waters of the Big Sandy, to the crossing of the Union Pacific Railroad, 
where it again turns south and passes out of the Territory. _ Between 
its: source and the forty-second parallel it receives the following tributa- 
ries, which flow down from the Wahsatch Mountains on the west: Lead 
Horse, Marshy, White Clay, Butternut, Pitey, LaBarge, Fontenelle, 
and Slate Creeks. Although the immediate bottoms which flank these 
streams are generally narrow, the upper or second level is easily reached, 
and a large amount may be irrigated from these constant streams. 
Green River, just above the mouth of Big Sandy, even as late as the 
1st of September, where running rapidly, was found to be about 
120 feet wide and 15 inches deep, indicating a discharge of about 
2,500,000 cubic feet per hour. This amount ef water, with a fall of $ 
or 10 feet per mile, and an almost illimitable area of level land each side, 
shows that a large extent of country may be rendered suitable for farm- 


THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN. 559 


ing. It is safe to estimate the available land iu this part of the district 
at 500,000 acres. 

The broad tract that spreads out between Green and Big Sandy Riv- 
ers is level and sandy, presenting a barren and desolate appearance, on 
which account it is sometimes called The Colorado Desert. Itis covered 
with alow growth of Artemisia ; but, notwithstanding this, the soil pos- 
sesses the elements of fertility and needs only the addition of water to 
make it productive. 

The Big Sandy rises in the Wind River range a few miles northwest 
of South Pass, and runs south until itis joined by the Little Sandy, 
when, bending southwest, it continues this course until it joins Green 
River. For most of its course it runs through a very narrow valley pre- 
senting but little bottom land, averaging perhaps half a mile in width ; 
but, as its fall is rapid, being 18 to 30 feet to the mile, its waters can 
easily be carried to the highest bordering plateaus, which seldom rise 
over 100 feet. 

The elevation of this triangular section varies from 5,500 to 6,500 feet 
above the level of the sea. Its climate corresponds very nearly with 
that of the Sweetwater Valley, and, as its soil is very similar, its produc- 
tions will be about.the same as in that valley. 

The north part of Green River Valley may have some good grazing 
lands, but neither the lower part of this valley nor that of the Sandy 
afford any extensive areas suitable for pasturage. As a general thing, 
this entire area is destitute of timber, none, save a few cottonwood 
groves on the lower part of Green River, being found nearer than the 
mountains. Black’s Fork is bordered by a bottom of moderate width, 
which will afford space for a number of farms and a fine grazing field. 
Around Fort Bridger, on the headwaters of Black’s Fork and its tribu- 
taries, Smith’s Fork and Cottonwood Creek, and on Henry’s Fork are 
some fine farming lands. On Smith’s Fork several farms are already in 
cultivation, producing fine crops of wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, &c. 
The altitude here is about 7,000 feet above the level of the sea. 

It is probable that this entire district, if irrigated to the full extent of 
the water supply, would furnish 600,000 to 700,000 acres of tillable land. 


THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN. 


This basin is a vast elliptical depression, in the great interalpine 
- trough of North America, lying partly in Utah and partly in Nevada. 
It extends north and south about three hundred and fifty miles, varying 
in width from fifty to three hundred miles, averaging about one hun- 
dred and eighty or ninety. As but little of it has been surveyed and 
much of it but partially explored, it is difficult to give a reliable esti- 
mate of the proportion oftillable lands. 

An irregular range of hills or mountains, starting from the southwest 
corner of Salt Lake, and running south, a little west of the one hundred 
and thirteenth meridian, extends to the thirty-eighth parallel. Here it 
bends to the southeast, and forms an imperfect junction with the 
southern extremity of the Wahsatch Mountains. The basin is divided 
by this range into two unequal parts; that on the east being much 
smaller than the western portion. An examination of the latter develops 
the fact that the lake formerly extended over a much larger area in this 
direction than at present, as it consists chiefly of broad, flat, sandy 


560 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


plains, often destitute of vegetation, and in many places covered with 
saline incrustations. The arable lands of this western section are lim- 
ited to the extreme southeast border. As the entire basin consists of 
smaller basins with distinct water systems, a description of it will be 
better understood by basins and valleys than by arbitrary sections. 
Omitting the broad plains of the northwest, the following are the more 
important of the minor basins: Salt Lake Basin proper, Rush Valley, 
Sevier River Basin, and Beaver River Basin. 


SALT LAKE BASIN PROPER. 


The territory immediately around the lake, and that drained by the 
numerous streams flowing into it, are embraced in this basin. Of these 
streams the principal ones are Bear, Weber, and Jordan Rivers, the last 
ineluding as its tributaries the streams that discharge their waters into 
Utah Lake. 

This basin is nearly two hundred miles in length, and contains one- 
fourth of the entire district, and within its boundaries are to be found 
the choice lands and chief population of Utah. The division is best de- 
seribed by taking the valleys in order, beginning at the north end of the 
lake, moving east, and then south. 

Hansee Spring Valley and Blue Spring Valley lie north of the prom- 
ontory. Their southern portions present a barren appearance, and are 
but thinly covered with vegetation ; the soil is impregnated with salt 
or alkali. The first of these valleys is not supplied with streams suffi- 
cient to furnish water for irrigating purposes, and the principal stream 
in the other is strongly impregnated with saline matter. It is probable 
that some better portions and some small areas susceptible of cultiva- 
tion may be found toward the north, and grass may also be found near 
the mountains. 

The Malade Valley, which extends north into Idaho, is drained by the 
Malade River. It is a tolerably fertile section, and, including the shore 
of Bear River Bay, is about forty miles in length, with an average width 
of five miles. Within its boundaries are about one hundred and fifty 
square miles of irrigable land, with some fine grazing fields in the north- 
ern part. Although‘the Malade River is narrow, it has a sufficient vol- 
yme of water to irrigate all the level land of the valley as far south as 
the “ gate,” or cation, through which Bear River emerges. 

The south end of the valley can be irrigated from this point by the 
latter stream, and it is understood that a project has recently been in- 
augurated to accomplish this. There are several thousand acres in the 
vicinity of Corinne that can be brought under cultivation, and would 
undoubtedly prove quite profitable, theugh a great portion of the land 
near the bay is too much impregnated with saline matter for cultivation. 

Next, on the east, is Cache Valley, which extends north and south 
from the divide between Muddy and Box Elder into the southern bor- 
der of Idaho, and is an expansion of the otherwise narrow valley of 
Bear River. It extends from Paradise to thesmountains above Frank- 
lin, a distance of about fifty. miles, and varies in width from six to six- 
teen miles, with an average of twelve. About one-half of its area, or 
three hundred square miles, can be irrigated and rendered suitable for 
cultivation. The benches and uplands as well as the bottoms, between 
Paradise and Franklin, may be irrigated by digging ditches a few miles 
in length; for, in addition to the river, a number of little streams flow 
into the valley from the Wahsatch Mountains, as follows: Muddy, 
Blacksmith’s Fork, High Fork, Gros Bois Creek, and Logan’s Fork, on 
the east, and Rush Creek from the west. 


THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN. 561 


This is probably the finest grazing section in the entire basin, and be- 
ing situated near the junction of three railroads, must become a favorite 
pasture ground for stock-raisers and stock-traders. Occasionally, feed- 
ing may be required for a short period during the winter months, which 
seldom continues over three or four weeks. This is also one of the best 
wheat-growing valleys in the district, being second only to the San Pete. 
It is not so well adapted to the culture of “fruit or corn as the sections 
farther south, both it and the Malade being colder than the valley of 
the Jordan ; yet apples and some of the har dier fruits can be raised. A 
considerable population has been attracted hither by the delightful fea- 
tures and situation of this valley, and already between thir ty and thir- 
ty-five thousand acres have been irrigated. 

Box Elder and the other little streams that connect with it are bor- 
dered by some excellent lands, which can be easily irrigated, and upon 
which a settlement has been made and a portion brought under cultiva- 
tion. 

Bear River rises in the Uintah Mountains, near the southwest corner 
of Wyoming, and running north within Utah Territory, but very near 
the eastern boundary, passes up into Idaho forty or fifty miles, where, 
bending suddenly southwest, it enters the Cache Valley. Most of the 
distance, from where the Union Pacific Railroad strikes it to its north- 
ern bend, it is flanked by a narrow strip of bottom land, which expands 
occasionally to four or five miles in width, as in the vicinity of Medicine 
Butte, and near the point where it crosses the boundary line; but for 
the whole length the average width is perhaps not more than one mile. 
The chief value of this belt will be its use as a grazing region when the 
broader valleys have been taken up, its elevations and mountainous 
surroundings making it too cold for any but hardy cereals and vegeta- 
bles. The river has an average fall of about 12 feet to the mile, sufficient 
to carry it upon any of the bordering table lands not over 100 or 150 
feet high. Around Bear River Lake there is a strip of arable land and 
some grassy meadows. 

There is a little park in the Wahsatch Mountains, about fifteen miles 
long and seven miles wide, called Ogden’s Hole, which is drained by 
Ogden Creek. This charming, little valley is surrounded on all sides by 
lofty mountains, from which flow little streams of crystal water, sufficient 
to irrigate nearly the entire area. A thick growth of nutritious grass, 
affording excellent grazing, covers the greater part. The climate and 
products are similar to those of Bear River Valley. 

Weber River, along which the railroad runs for some distance, from 
the place where it emerges from the cafion to where it enters Salt 
Lake Valley proper, passes through a very pretty and, for the most 
part, fertile section, which is rapidly filling up with villages and settle- 
ments. Its low bottoms are easily irrigated and quite fertile, the greater 
portion being already under cultivation or occupied. At some points 
the ite seat deposits interfere with its cultivation, but these areas are 
limited. 

The valley contains about one hundred square miles, or sixty-four 
thousand acres of arable land, including the little spots on Echo 
Creek. Although the climate is somewhat colder than that of Salt Lake 
Valley, apples and even other fruits can be raised without difficulty. 

‘The “Salt Lake Valley,” which name is limited to the strip of level 
land lying along the eastern shore between the lake and the Wahsatch 
Mountains, in a direct line from Salt Lake City to Willard City, is about 
fifty miles long, varying in width from two to fifteen miles, and averaging 
about ten. -Abeut three-fifths, or three hundred square miles, of this area 

36 A 


562 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


are susceptible of cultivation, though with the present system of irriga- 
tion it would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain sufficient water toirri- 
gate this extent; but, by making reservoirs, and bringing upon it all the 
water that is within reach from the streams north and south, this esti- 
mate will not be too large. In this way part of the higher lands South 
of Weber River may be rendered fit for culture. The farms already 
under cultivation show that the soil is rich and productive, though in 
many places covered with artemisia, and more or less impregnated with 
saline matter. The northern and southern portions contain the princi- 
pal settlements, as there the land is lower and more easily irrigated. 

-The valley of the Jordan extends almost directly north and south from 
Utah Lake to Great Salt Lake. The distance from the lower end of the 
eafion, near Utah Lake, to its northern boundary, where it expands and 
forms apart of what has been included in the Salt Lake Valley is about twen- 
ty-sixmiles, with an average of fully fifteen miles, This gives nearly four 
hundred square miles as its area, the estimate being confined to the valley 
plains, four-fifths of which can beirrigated. Lieutenant Beckwith gives 
thirty miles as its length and twenty as its width; but he counts from 
Utah Lake, and includes the mountain slopes. The direct length, by 
Government survey, from the base line which runs near the north 
side of thecity to the southern line of Salt Lake County, which crosses 
near the caiion, is just twenty-four miles. This beautiful valley has a 
cultivable area of three hundred square miles. 

Most of the tributaries of the Jordan enter it from the east side, and 
the only ones of any importance south of the creek that waters the city 
are Mill, Big Cottonwood, Little Cottonwood, and Willow Creeks. 
Ditches have been made recently along the eastern border of the valley, 
drawing the water from Cottonwood Creeks, near the mountain, and 
carrying it on the somewhat elevated plateau that occupies a consider- 
able area on this side of the river. 

This effort has clearly demonstrated the possibility and practicability 
of irrigating nearly every acre on the east side of the river, north of 
Willow Creek. Although but little of this plateau or higher level has 
been tilled, the primary canals and a number of the smaller ditches are 
already made, and early in the fall of 1570 were filled with runnin 
water. In the vicinity of Willow Creek there is a small area of slightly 
rolling land which probably cannot be irrigated, not because of its ele- 
vation, but because this stream does not furnish sufficient water. If 
reservoirs can be established along the base of the mountain there will 
be no necessity for even this portion remaining idle. 

An extensive canal is now in course of construction for the purpose 
of irrigating the great body of land on the west side of the river. 
Starting within the cafion, and but a few feet below the level of Utah 
Lake, the water is to be conducted from the Jordan along the base of the 
Oquirrh Mountains, at as high a level as possible. This will furnish 
sufficient water to irrigate the larger portion of the lands on that side; 
but the fall is not sufficient to reach the higher margins of the sloping 
plain. When these works are completed and the fresh water from Utah 
Lake has permeated the soil for a few years, this valley, seen from the 
neighboring heights, will appear as one vast garden. 

The soil of the flat lands around the city, when first settled by the 
Mormons, was so thoroughly saturated with saline matter that for sev- 
eral years there were considerable areas upon which no crops could be 
made to grow. Atlengthexperience taught them that by sowing herds- 
grass, and irrigating freely, it could be rendered suitable for the culture 
of other crops. Mr. R. L. Campbell, of the Agricultural and Manutac- 


THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN. 563 


turing Society, states that lands which were formerly rejected on this 
aceount are now being rapidly appropriated for farms. Wecannot give the 
exact number of acres that have been irrigated in this valley, as the 
latest returns are only up to 1867, but there are probably twenty thou- 
sand to twenty-five thousand acres, exclusive of the area that may be 
reached by the Jordan canal. . 

The Tooele Valley is about sixteen miles long and ten miles wide, and 
is probably the most fertile spot in the Territory. The small streams 
that run through it afford sufficient water to irrigate the greater part of 
its area, and therefore its agricultural lands may be estimated at one 
hundred and sixty square miles, the full extent of the valley surface. 
The soil appears to be peculiarly adapted to the growth of the cereals, it 
being not uncommon to cut sixty to seventy bushels of oats from an 
acre, and last year one field of ninety acres averaged sixty bushels to | 
the acre. It is already pretty well occupied, having one woolen manu- 
factory and five grist-mills, and fourteen to fifteen thousand acres irri- 

ated. 
3 Lone Rock, or Spring Valley, which lies at the southwest corner of 
Salt Lake, does not appear to have attracted much attention, and is not 
so well known as others in the region, probably on account of its lecal- 
ity. It is about twenty miles long and eight to ten miles wide, and, 
with the exception of its northern end, is well covered with grass, af- 
fording excellent grazing fields. A small area can be irrigated and 
brought under cultivation around the southwest margin, but the central 
portion is watered principally by springs, which render the surface 
marshy in places. Ditching through the marshy parts would doubtless 
draw off sufficient water to leave the ground firm and suitable for graz- 
ing, and perhaps for culture. ‘The northern portion, as it approaches 
the lake assumes a more barren appearance, and in some places is frosted 
over with saline incrustations, while the southern end is much like 
Tintie Valley. 
UTAH LAKE VALLEY. 


‘Passing southward over the ridge at the upper end of the Jordan 
Valley, we enter the Utah Lake Basin. The principal portion of the 
arable lands of this basin, or valley, stretch along the eastern shore of 
the lake, and back from its margin to the foot of the mountains, which 
here descend abruptly to the plains. The length of this semicircular belt, 
from the exit of the Jordan to Santaguin, is about fifty miles, with an 
average width of six miles. ‘This entire area of three hundred square 
- Iniles can be irrigated, the numerous streams that rush down from the 
mountain cafons affording sufficient water not only for the lower bot- 
toms, but also for the broad, elevated plateau that extends from Battle 
Creek to Proyo River. This plateau was supposed to be beyond the 
reach ofany of these streams, and was considered uncultivable; butalittle 
energy has recently shown to the contrary. A canal, commencing some 
distance up Provo Caiion, has been constructed along the steep mountain 
slopes, and now brings the water from Provo River to the highest point 
of this elevated plain. In the fall of 1870 the secondary ditches were 
filled with water, spreading here and there large pools over the dry 
plains. Although but one or two fields were in cultivation at that time, 
farms were being marked off and preparations made for cultivating the 
soil. It is probable that this rejected plat will prove the best wheat- 
growing tract in the valley of Utah Lake, and that ere long it will be 
dotted over with farm-houses and fields of golden grain. 

The following is a list of the streams that run down from the mountain 
and .cross .this shore strip, given -in the order in which they come, 


564 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


beginning at the north end of the lake: Dry Creek, American Fork, 
Battle Creek, Provo River, Spring Creek, Hobble Creek, Spanish Fork, 
and Petenéte Creek. These streams are ‘bor dered by no valleys or bot. 
toms within the mountains; for, with the exception of Provo River, they 
do not reach beyond the first range, but, rushing down its slope, enter 
suddenly upon the plain and sweep across it to the lake. 

The soil is generally very fertile, that along the margin of the lake 
containing a large proportion of vegetable mold; that near the meun- 
tain and on the plateau i is inter mingled with small boulder s, but not to 
such a degree as to injure it. From | Battle Creek north, and from Provo 
River south, it is pretty well settled, and most of the choice bottom lands 
are occupied ; but there is a broad strip along the lake margin not culti- 
vated, but used as grazing ground for the cattle of the citizens of the 
villages located on the creeks. Including Tintic and Cedar Valleys, 
there are at least twenty thousand acres of irrigated land in Utah 
County; and, if the canal cut from the Provo is of sufficient capacity 
to water the whole surface of the plateau, twenty thousand acres more 
may be added. Tintic Valley, which lies southwest of Utah Lake, is a 
a narrow, bay-like indentation in the range of hills or low mountains 
that sweep around the west side of the basin. It is about twenty-five 
miles long, north and south, and four or five miles wide, and is watered 
principally by springs. As there are very few streams from which water 
can be drawn to irrigate the soil, a small portion only of the land can 
be brought under culture; but as a grazing section it probably stands 
next to the Cache Valley. The grass grows luxuriantly, and is kept 
fresh and nutritious by the water from the numerous springs; and the 
comparatively mild climate precludes the necessity of winter feeding or 
shelter, as 1s sometimes required in the northern part of the Territory. 

Cedar Valley lies west of the lake, behind the range of hills that here 
rises up near the shore, and is about thirty miles jong from north to 
south, and averages ten miles in width, and contains, perhaps, one 
hundred and fifty square miles of cultivableland. It is watered by two 
small streams that run in from the west and northwest, which are suffi- 
cient to irrigate the northern and western portions, especially around 
Crittenden and Cedar City. The soil is good and productive. The val- 
ley is partially settled, and there are already two saw-mills and one 
flouring-mill in operation. 

Moving southward from Santaguin, we enter the Juab Valley, which 
extends from this point to the divide between Utah and Sevier Basins, 
a Short distance below Nephi. It is about fifty miles long and six miles 
wide, and contains one hundred square miles of irrigable land, princi- 
pally along Salt and Clover Creeks. The most of the remainder is well 
grassed over and affords good pasture land for sheep and cattle. 

Everything that can be raised in the Middle States can be raised in 
Salt Lake, Jordan, and Utah Valleys, and these sections bear about the 
same relations to the colder elevated mountain districts and southern 
borders of the Territory that the Middle States do to New England and 
Georgia. 

This basin, with all its drawbacks, may be truly called an oasis on the 
great continental highway of trade and travel. Possessing the advan- 
tage of situation, surrounded by mountains rich in the precious metals, 
and having a healthy climate, it must, in the course of a few years, 
become densely populated. 

The general level of the Salt Lake Valley is about 4,300 feet above 
ie sea level, and that of Utah Lake Valley between 4, 550 and 4,600 

eet. 


THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN. 565 


In the mountains east of the Jordan are three little parks, or elevated 
valleys—Parley’s Park, Kansas Valley, and Round Prairie—which be- 
long to the basins under consideration. Parley’s Park is elevated about 
2,000 feet above Salt Lake, and is five to six miles long and two to three 
miles wide. Itis watered by Canon Creek, and could be easily irrigated ; 
but, on account of its elevated situation and mountainous surroundings, 
it is too cold for any except the hardier productions. The recent dis- 
covery of mines in the mountains in its vicinity may bring it into notice. 

Kansas Valley, which is similar to Parley’s Park, is about ten miles 
long and two to four miles wide, and can also be irrigated. Both 
afford good grazing fields; but, on account of the difficulty in reaching 
them, and their small size, will not be of much value in an agricultural 
point of view. 


RUSH VALLEY. 


‘This valley appears to be a small, isolated basin, having a distinet 
water system of its own, Rush Lake, 1 ying in the north part, being the 
reservoir. It is about forty or fifty miles in length from north to south, 
and averages fifteen miles in width, a large portion of which can be 
irrigated, estimated at three hundred square miles. Clover Creek, 
which flows into Rush Lake, is a stream of considerable size, and ai- 
fords sufficient water not only to irrigate a large extent of land, but also 
power to drive machinery. ‘The lake is about ei ight miles long and three 
to four miles wide. Some mines recently discovered at the north end of 
this valley, if they prove productive, will furnish a market for farm pro- 
ducts. Stockton, at the north end of the lake, is a village of considera- 
ble size. The farms in this vicinity are irrigated from a stream running 
from the mountains near by, and emptying into the lake. 


SEVIER RIVER BASIN. 


‘This comprises the country drained by the Sevier River and its trib- 
utaries. The river, rising in the southwestern part of the Territory, 
runs a little east of north between two ranges of the Wahsatch Moun- 
tains for one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty miles, where 
it breaks through the western ridge and runs southwest forty to fifty 
miles, and empties into Sevier Lake. Its principal tributaries are the 
San Pete River and Meadow Creek. The former, rising a little south of 
Mount Nebo, runs southwest through the San Pete Valley and joins the 
Sevier River near the crossing of the one hundred and twelfth meridian 
and thirty-ninth parallel. The latter commences in the divide south of 
the Rush Valley and traverses the plains west of the mountains, unit- 
ing with the Sevier atthe bend. From information furnished the Depart- 
ment, it appears that the south side, at least, of this lake has a well-defined 
shore, and that the river, for some distance above its entrance into the 
lake, is occasionally flanked by bottoms which are susceptible of culti- 
vation, and that a number of spots west of this, formerly supposed to 
be utterly sterile, may be rendered productive. The irregular form of 
this basin and the uncertainty in regard to its western rim make it 
impossible to give a reliable estimate of its area. 

The San Pete Valley, which is watered by the San Pete River and 
numerous small tributaries, counting from Fountain Green to Gunni- 
son is forty-four miles long and averages fully five miles in width. At 
least two hundred square miles, or nearly the entire surface of this beau- 
tiful and fertile valley, can be irrigated. The returns of the Agricul- 
tural and Manufacturing Society for 1866~67 give nearly twenty thou- 
sand acres as the number .then .under irrigation, which has been in- 


566 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


creased fully 25 per cent. during the past three years. This valley, as 
& wheat-growing section, stands among the first in the Territory, its soil 
being peculiarly adapted to the production of this cereal. It is also the 
best potato region in the Territory. Its altitude averages about 5,000 
feet above the level of the sea, the elevation at the mouth of the San 
Pete River being 4,960 feet. 

The Sevier River Valley is a long, narrow belt lying between the 
wings of the Wahsatch range, and extending southwest and northeast 
one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifteen miles. For fifty to 
sixty miles above Gunnison it averages six to seven miles in width, but 
is wholly without timber, and has a barren appearance, even the arte- 
misia being scattered and stunted. The river channel is generally a 
deep ditch-like cleft in the soil, six to eight feet below the surface of the 
plain, its immediate bottoms being very narrow. With the considerable 
fall in the stream a great portion of the valley can be irrigated, and, not 
withstanding the present barren appearance, after a few years’ irtiga- 
tion, may become quite fertile and produce good crops of wheat, oats, 
potatoes, &c. There are some settlements in the north part of the val- 
ley, and a few thousand acres under cultivation in Sevier .and Pinto 
Counties, which embrace this valley. The elevation ranges from 4,800 
to 5,500 feet above the level of the sea, and the volume of water in the 
river is ample for all purposes. From Gunnison to Chicken Creek, a 
distance of forty miles, the valley of this river averages three to four 
miles wide, and is similar in character to that farther south. 

Leaving the Sevier and following the road over the ridge to the south- 
west, we enter an isolated basin, called Round or Lake Valley, which 
appears to have little or no connection with the water systems of the 
Sevier Basin. This is ten to twelve miles long and six or seven wide, 
but for want of water only a limited portion of it can be brought under 
culture by irrigation. There is probably sufficient to supply a strip of 
about a mile and a half in width, and there are some small grazing-fields. 
Passing westward out of this valley we enter upon the margin of the 
plains, which spread out with a gentle slope to the northwest. The 
little streams that run down from the mountains and pass off into the 
plains afford a belt of arable spots along the foot of the range, concern- 
ing which the following particulars have been obtained. Going south 
from the latter point, after passing some ten miles over the divide, we 
reach a little stream where there is a settlement and a small extent of 
irrigable land, and an area ten to twelve miles long and four or five 
wide, suitable for grazing sheep or cattle. Passing over a dry level 
plain for about eight miles, we reach Chalk Creek, bordered by a val- 
ley eight to ten miles long and about two miles wide, the greater 
part of which can be irrigated. Crossing another dry level of about 
four miles, we reach Meadow Creek, which has but little bottom land 
adapted to agriculture, and not sufficient water to irrigate more than a 
few hundred acres. It is probable, however, that a ditch could be 
brought around from Chalk Creek, by which a considerable area of the 
upper level could be rendered tillable. 

Corn Creek, which is about five miles farther south, is flanked by a 
moderately-broad area of flat land, which can be irrigated to the full 
extent of the supply of water. Cove Creek Vailey, about ten miles 
farther on, furnishes but little farming land, but contains some good 
grazing fields, and is already occupied to a considerable extent for this 
purpose. Five or six miles south is another small stream, (probably 
Pine Creek,) where sufficient land for a few farms might be irrigated. 
Passing over a divide of nine to ten miles, we reach Indian Creek, 


THE GREAT SALT LAKE - BASIN. 567 


a tributary of Beaver River, which brings us into another basin, Al- 
though there are two stage routes through this section, there is little 
known respecting its water systems; in fact, the very existence of Preuss 
Lake appears to be a matter of doubt, and future investigations may 
show that this is but a part of the Sevier River Basin. This is a differ- 
ent stream from the Meadow Creek, previously mentioned as coming 
down from Rush Valley. The most reliable information received tends 
to the conclusion that it is a separate basin, and that Beaver River, in- 
stead of running west into an imaginary Preuss Lake, bends around to 
the north, and after breaking through a low range of hills is lost in the 
sandy soil. Considering it as a separate system, it consists of Bear 
River and its tributaries, which rise in the western slope of the moun- 
tains before mentioned. 

There is a considerable area of laid on Beaver River that can be irri- 
gated and cultivated, and the probability is that its breadth might be 
inereased by extending canals on the upper levels below the mountain. 
or ridge that crosses here. Passing over Beaver Mountain, we reach 
Yellow Creek, where there is a fertile belt, about ten miles long and six 
or seven miles wide, reaching from the creek to about two miles south 
of Parawan. Here and at Beaver River are some settlements and some 
land already under cultivation. Between Parawan and Cedar City there 
are a few arable spots, of small extent, which are already partly occu- 
pied. Cedar City is situated on Cole Creek, a stream about the size of 
the American Fork, which will irrigate four thousand to five thousand 
acres, Shirt’s Creek, running by Kanara, is flanked by a considerable 
bottom, but the stream affords water sufficient to irrigate only a part of it. 
West of this, twenty to twenty-five miles, on another branch of Beaver 
River, are the celebrated Vegas de Santa Clara, noted as a resting-place 
after the fatigues of the desert march from the west. By following 
these various streams as they move north toward some common reser- 
voir, it is probable a number of irrigable spots may be found. 

Crossing over the divide, which here sweeps round in a semicircular 
form from a southwest to a northwest direction, we enter the valley of 
the Rio Virgin, a part of the vast territory drained by the Rio Colorado 
of the west. This stream, which sends down a considerable volume of 
water, is wide and rapid, and consequently shallow. Jt runs through 
an apparently barren country, here and there cutting through rocky 
cliffs and lava ridges, with occasional broad stretches of sandy land, 
covered with a very scanty growth of vegetation. Notwithstanding the 
unpromising appearance of this section, there are several settlements, 
some of which (as Washington and St. George) number several thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

‘There are some very productive spots, aud wherever water can be ob- 
tained, and the land irrigated, the soil becomes very fertile. The arable 
areas around Toquerville, thence up the river, are very limited, but 
about Washington and St. George they are more extensive, and the en- ' 
tire Santa Clara Valley for fifteen to twenty miles in length, and two to 
three miles in width, can be cultivated. One or two canals are being 
cut along the Rio Virgin, which will add considerably to the cultivable 
area. This section, on account of its semi-tropical climate, is consid- 
ered by the Mormons of great importance, as they look to it for their 
supply of cotton, raisins, oranges, and other products which cannot be 
grown in Salt Lake Valley. 

In regard to the vast regions east of the Wahsatch range, and south 
of the Uintah Mountains belonging to the Rio Colorado district, very 
little is known. Strawberry Creek, a tributary of the Uintah River, 


568 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


runs through avery pretty valley for twenty to twenty-five miles, which 
averages seven or eight miles in width. The greater portion of this 
area can be irrigated, and would produce good crops. The Uintah Val- 
ley is more extensive, and has in it some very good land, a large por- 
tion of which may be rendered suitable for culture by irrigation, for 
which purpose the supply of water is ample. 


CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. 


Within the Territory of Utah, every grade of climate, from the cold 
regions of the snowy Sierras te the semi-tropical region of the southern 
plains, is to be found, but the central portion, where the greater part of 
the cultivable land is situated, has a mild climate, corresponding very 
nearly to that of the middle States. Going north and northeast, as- 
cending the mountain valleys, the climate increases rapidly in severity, 
and the growing seasons become shorter. Generally the annual fall of 
snow in the valleys is small, seldom more than a few inches in depth, 
and it remains on the ground but a few hours, or days at the farthest. 
a the vicinity of the higher mountains there are occasional injurious 

rosts. 

Wheat, oats, potatoes, and fruit are the principal productions, which 
grow readily and yield abundant crops of the best quality, the soil be- 
ing naturally adapted to their culture. Over one million bushels of 
wheat were raised in the Territory in 1866, but the ratio of inerease 
since that time has not been in proportion to the breadth of land sown, 
as the grasshoppers have been very destructive for the past three years. 
Not only have they injured the growing wheat, oats, &c., but where the 
ground has been replanted for other crops they have in some instanees 
cut the plants down for the sixth time in one season. The average 
yield of wheat per acre, in favorable seasons, is twenty-two to twenty-six 
bushels, but in certain localities it will reach much higher figures. 

Cache, San Pete, and Utah Counties are the principal wheat-growing 
sections, not because they produce more to the acre, but because a 
greater area has been cultivated in this cereal in these counties than in 
others. Itis probable that the superior flavor and lightness of the 
bread made from wheat grown in this Territory are partly due to the 
alkali with which the soil of the valleys is more or less impregnated. 

As is generally the case throughout the Rocky Mountain regions, 
oats grow luxuriantly, the average yield per acre in the Territory being 
thirty to forty bushels. It is no uncommon occurrence for the farmer 
to cut an average crop of sixty bushels to the acre. Although a large 
amount of corn is raised, and crops of forty to fifty bushels to the acre 
are produced, this cannot be considered a good corn-growing country. 
There are many places where tolerably good crops can be raised, suffi- 
cient to supply local demands, but the corn does not compare favorably 
with that of the Mississippi Valley. 

Sorghum grows finely, and itis probable that in this dry soil, con- 
sisting principally of silicates, and containing alkali, the production of 
saccharine matter will be greater than in soil having a larger propor- 
tion of vegetable mold. Whether beets, which grow large and fine in 
this part of the West, will produce a large per centage of sugar, has not 
been thoroughly tested on an extended scale. 

Apples, plums, pears, peaches, currants, gooseberries, grapes, &c., 
can be raised in Salt Lake Basin and south with ease, but apples and 
peaches, especially the latter, will be the chief horticultural product. 
The average yield of peaches to the acre, as shown by the returns, is 
over three hundred bushels; and last year a lot in Provo, twelve rods 


COLONIZATION. 569 


long and six rods wide, produced three hundred bushels. For the past 
three years the fruit has been seriously injured by the grasshoppers 
eating off the leaves of the trees, but the injury was less than it would 
have been in a section depending on rain to supply the requisite moisture. 

AS a grape-growing region this Territory cannot compete with Cali- 
fornia or Southern New Mexico, yet very fine grapes can be raised, and 
the Rio Virgin section can produce a quality equal to the grapes of any 
part of New Mexico, but the area is limited. 

The potato grows to a large size, is of fine quality, and yields heavy 
crops. There are several fields of lucern, which is used to feed the cattle 
of the villages when the pasturage in the vicinity proves insufficient. 

Very few of the valleys, except those in the mountains, furnish any 
timber of importance; but, as a general rule, a supply can be obtained 
from the neighboring ranges, chiefly pine and fir. 


COLONIZATION. 


‘The settlement of countries by colonies is by no means new. The 
children of Israel went to the land of Canaan as acolony. Athens and 
Rome were founded as colonies, and it is well known that much of New 
England was settled in this manner. Of late years few colonies have 
been founded, and settlements have been by individual effort. The 
laws relating to Government land require that titles pass directly to 
an individual, and no combined effort, no codperation is recognized. 
Hence, when a colony undertakes to acquire a title to Government land, 
there are great difficulties; for, as soon as the location is made, squatters 
and land speculators rush in, and appropriate whatever lands they can 
seize, not in good faith, but that they may realize more or less on the 
rise in the price of land, caused by those who do come in good faith. 
Where there are railroad grants covering one-half of the region, the 
difficulties are proportionally diminished. 

The objects to be secured in organizing a colony may be definitely 
stated: First, to secure choice and cheap land; second, to divide such 
land equitably among the members; third, to build a town, centrally 
located, that each may have a share in the increased value of town 
and of country property, and that there may be the advantages of 
schools, churches, and good society at an early day; fourth, to obtain 
reduced rates on freight and passage; and fifth, to prohibit the sale ot 
intoxicating liquors and the introduction of gambling establishments. 
Theoretical ideas are of little value unless enforced by practical exam- 
ples. The most noticeable recent example is that of the Union colony, 
the center of which is the town of Greeley, in Weld County, Territory 
of Colorado. 

A visit was made to Colorado, late in the fall of 1869, by a gentle- 
man interested in the formation of a colony, when the remarkably fine 
climate, the fertile soil, the abundance of minerals, and the majestic 
scenery attracted his attention. Almost every part of the United States 
had been previously visited with a view to impart information on the 
‘best localities for those seeking new homes on cheap lands, and it was 
‘seen that Colorado offered many inducements, an important one being 
its freedom from malarious diseases. But it was seen that to remove so 
far, in the common isolated method, would entail hazards of no ordinary 
character, and .at .the best .it would .be many ,years ,before the settler 


570 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


would have schools and churches near him, while the expense required 
to prepare for emigration presented a formidable obstacle. The only 
plan promising much success was to organize a colony of several hun- 
dred families, that a large body of:land might be acquired, and that the 
schools and churches might be built by a common fund. 

Hon. Horace Greeley, having been consulted, entertained the proposi- 
tion, and a call was made, December 7, through the columns of the New 
York Tribune. The plan of organization was substantially as set forth 
above, and the responses were numerous. December 23, a public meeting 
was held, and Mr. Greeley was appointed treasurer. A locating committee 
was sent outin February, 1870, various parts of the Territory were visited, 
and a selection was finally made, April 5, on the Oache a la Poudre, 
five miles above where it empties into the South Platte, twenty miles 
from the Rocky Mountains, and on the line of the Denver Pacific Railroad, 
midway between Denver and Cheyenne, fifty-five miles from each. 

About twelve thousand acres of land were bought of the railroad 
company, and two thousand from preémptors and squatters. The alter- 
nate sections, belonging to the Government, were to be homesteaded 
and preémpted. In addition, a contract was made with the railroad 
for fifty thousand acres more, running for three years. The Commis- 
sioner of the General Land Office, at Washington, had been visited for 
the purpose of obtaining the privilege of having the Government land 
kept out of market until the colonists could go on from the States, and 
application was made to several members of Congress, but nothing 
seemed likely to be done, and the attempt was abandoned. However, 
a remedy was found, which was not at first fully recognized. As soon 
as the location was definitely made, a charter was taken out, under the 
territorial law of Colorado, for a series of irrigating ditches, which prac- 
tically gave not only control of all the alternate Government sections 
adjoining those held in fee, but also of all the land, whether belonging 
to the railroad or Government, which the ditches might cover; for the 
company were empowered to charge such a sum per acre for the use of 
water as made them masters of the situation, and this has been made 
manifest by the fact that they are not troubled with squatters or specu- 
lators. Had the country been one where irrigation is not required, they 
would undoubtedly have met with great difficulties. The sum fixed 
upon for membership was $150, and $5 in addition for expenses. The 
number of members paying the full fee was about six hundred and > 
thirty, and the total receipts by the treasurer, about $100,000. The 
land purchased was divided as follows: A section of six hundred and 
forty acres, a mile square, was laid off for a town, and divided into lots 
ranging from 25 to 200 feet front. Adjoining the town came, first, lots 
of five, next ten, next twenty, and next forty acres, each of which was 
appraised as being worth $150, and members were to choose which they 
would take. A member could homestead a Government half-quarter 
section, the fees on which would be paid, and have the use of water for 
his share, or he could preémpt the same amount and have water. Thus 
far the smaller parcels have been considered preferable to the larger 
ones; but all are held in esteem, and plowing and improvements have 
progressed about equally over the whole domain. The lots within the 
town are sold to the members at $25 for inside, and $50 for corner lots, 
and the sums received are to be devoted to school purposes and general 
improvements. About one hundred lots are held in reserve, to be sold 
hereafter at an advanced price, for the use of schools. 

Arrangements had been made with railroad companies at New York, 
Boston, Buffalo, Cleveland, and Chicago, for the transportation of the 


COLONIZATION. 571 


colonists at a reduction in rates of about one-third, and early in May they 
began to arrive. The weather was cold, there were no houses, and, al- 
though a contract had been made for 70,000 feet of lumber, it was not 
fulfilled, and there was considerable suffering. The first relief was 
obtained in buying houses at a town five miles distant, and in hauling 
them to the ground with ox-teams; anda large building was bought at 
Cheyenne, and transported in sections on the cars. It was several weeks 
before any considerable quantity of lumber could be obtained, but finally 
there were large arrivals from Chicago and other points. For some time 
there was considerable dissatisfaction. All were strangers to each other, 
some were suspicious, and the officers were charged with inefficiency, 
neglect, and even with dishonesty. Much of the discontent was bred by 
those who expected to get a better chance than others, and much by the 
forbidding appearance of the country. Where irrigation is a necessity 
the grass has a brown appearance at all seasons of the year; and, as the 
ditch contracted for was not completed, many thought it doubtful 
whether life could be sustained. A visit to several ranches, a few miles 
distant, always dispelled the illusion. Water came into the town about 
the 1st of June, gardens and small fields were planted, and by the ist 
of July vegetation grew with remarkable rapidity. Experience has 
demonstrated that the soil is remarkably fertile, and that if there should 
be any difficulty it will be in disposing of surplus crops; but of this 
there need be little fear, as the hundreds of mines and mining towns 
near by will always afford a good market. . 
The working of the official machinery of the colony has been reason- 
ably harmonious. There have been jealousies, unkind remarks, ungrate- 
ful expressions, and some aspirations for position, but, in the main, mat- 
ters have been kept wellin hand. The locating committee received fair 
wages for their services; the superintendent was paid $7 a day until the 
middle of July. The president refused to receive any reward after the 
first week in May, and the only office to which any salary is now 
attached is that of secretary. The property is held in trust by a board 
_of trustees, who grant deeds to members in fee whenever they make im- 
provements on the land they have selected, either within the town or 
on their outlying land, and the charter for the irrigating ditches is held 
by them in trust. When members receive their deeds they are entirely 
independent of the eolony, although they are members, inasmuch as each 
holds a certificate which entitles him to the use of water for all time; 
and in the election of officers he has one vote. No member can hold 
more than one share, and he can buy of the colony no more than one 
hundred and sixty acres of land; but few have boughtso much. The — 
sons and daughters of a member, if of age, can hold shares. The plan 
under which this colony was organized has worked extremely well, and 
in the formation of other colonies which are about to join it, without 
any charge above cost of land or charter privileges, only a few unimport- 
ant changes have been thought desirable. At the close of the year, 
that is, when the town was nine months old, there were nearly four hun- 
dred and fifty houses, many of them large and well finished; about twenty 
stores of all kinds, some of them first-class, both in regard to appear- 
ance of buildings and stock of goods; mechanics of all kinds, a weekly 
newspaper, three schools, and a population of at least one thousand souls. 
No liquor is sold in the place, nor is there a gambling establishment of any 
kind. Perhaps three-fourths of the members belong to some religious 
denomination. The navigation of the river on which the town is situ- 
ated is to be improved for the purpose of floating timber from the moun- 
tains, and extensive saw-mills, as well as other mills are to be erected. 


572 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The experience of the colony in irrigation is favorable. It makes 
farming a scientific pursuit. The expense and labor are by no means 
formidable, and the colonists are found to adapt themselves to their 
requirements without any difficulty whatever. The incentive is, large 
crops; thirty bushels of wheat, fifty of oats, forty of barley, and two 
hundred and fifty of potatoes being a probable average. Finally, its 
success Seems to arise mainly from adopting an organization that gives 
to the producer those profits which, under other conditions, are appro- 
priated by speculators and capitalists. 


CHINESE LABOR IN AGRICULTURE. 


The public mind, within the last three years, has been much exercised 
upon the subject of Chinese immigration. Alarming predictions have 
been uttered as to the probable increase of this movement when once 
the starving masses of Asia shall have been attracted to it. Among 
these gloomy forebodings is the reduction of the wages of our own la- 
boring population to the starvation prices of Asia. Speculations as to 
the influence upon our political institutions of the enfranchisement of 
these Orientals have not been wanting. Fears are expressed that our - 
entire social system is to be overwhelmed by the sudden irruption of the 
great masses of heathenism, and the progressive forces of civilization 
are to be overborne. The movement, however, has of late received 
more careful study; and, as the facts of observation have been multi- 
plied, not only have the intelligent minds of the nation emancipated 
themselves from their first apprehensions, but even the popular uneasi- 
ness has measurably subsided. The revolution which this importation 
of cheap labor is destined to work in our social system now promises to 
take place so quietly and so gradually, that even the most sensitive of 
our vested interests may not be seriously disturbed. 

The movement so far has not assumed proportions at all alarm- 
ing. According to the reports of the Bureau of Statistics of the Treas- 
ury Department, the total number of alien passengers arriving in the 
United States, during the period commencing with 1820 and closing with 
the third quarter of 1870, was 7,448,922, of which number 108,610, or 
less than 14 per cent. were from China. The immigration from Japan 
and all other Asiatic countries could but slightly increase this propor- 
tion. This Mongolian influx was almost imperceptible prior to 1854. 
From 1820 to 1840 the number of arrivals was but 11. From 1841 to 
1852, inclusive, the whole number was 35. In 1853 the report of gold 
discoveries upon our Pacific Coast seems to have made some impression 
upon the conservative Chinese, for in that year there were reported 42 
arrivals, a number nearly equaling all the previous arrivals. The year 
1854, however, witnessed a sudden enlargement of Chinese immigra- 
tion, the aggregate number of arrivals being 13,110, a number not sub- 
sequently equaled until 1869. From 1855 to 1867 inclusive, the annual 
arrivals fluctuated between 2,500 and 7,500, rising in 1868 to 10,684, and 
in 1869 to 14,902. During the first three quarters of 1870 the aggregate 
was 11,051, showing a falling off of 20 per cent. as compared with the 
corresponding period of 1869. The immigration of Chinese females com- 
menced in 1867. During the years ending June 30, 1867, 1868, 1869, 
and 1870, the arrivals were 8, 46, 974, and 1,116 respectively, making 
the total number of Chinese female immigrants, 2,144. The grand total 


CHINESE LABOR IN AGRICULTURE. 578 


of arrivals of Chinese immigrants, male and female, during the last half 
century, is but about one twenty-fifth of the arrivals from Ireland and 
Germany alone during the same period. 

In the character.of these immigrants, and in the motives which are 
‘known to have generally prompted them to seek our shores, is found an 
ample quietus to the exaggerated alarm which this movement at first 
excited. Scarcely one can be found among these coolie immigrants 
who come hither with any purpose of permanent settlement. The Chi- 
naman expects to return to the “ Flowery Land” with a competence for 
life, the result of a few years of patient industry and self-denial in this 
land of high wages. It is stated that a capital of $500 is ample to ena- 
ble the coolie, upon his return home, to live in comparative ease and in- 
dependence, to enjoy among his untraveled countrymen the considera- 
tion of a great adventurer, and to move in a higher circle of society. 
But these worldly considerations are by no means the most powerful of 
the motives urging his return to his native land. His great desire isto 
be buried with his ancestors. ‘To secure this point he stipulates with 
his employers, or with the Chinese associations with which he affiliates 
after his arrival in America, that, in case of his death in this country, 
his body shall be sent back to his native village for interment. 
The carrying trade in dead Chinamen has already attracted attention, 
and is increasing as the tide of immigration rises. 

The feeling which prompts these stipulations is not a mere exag- 
gerated patriotism ; it is the outgrowth of religious faith. Though the 
Buddhist system, as explained by its authoritative expounders to the in- 
telligent and educated classes, seems to be very deficient and intangible . 
in its dogmatic basis, the common people have ingrafted upon it a pop- 
ular mythology which secures the most unquestioning faith. The influ- 
ence of this popular belief upon the family organization of this singular 

‘people deserves especial mention. Deceased relatives are always buried 
in a locality supposed to be under the care of an imaginary spirit of 
good luck, generally called “Fung Sehuy.” Under the inspiration and 
protection of this divinity it is believed that the spirits of departed an- 
cestors will be able to exert a favorable influence upon the worldly affairs 
of their descendants. Hence the coolie desires to return to the locality 
around which these ancestral influences play. Again, the ancestor him- 
self is dependent upon the offerings of mock money upon his grave by 
his descendants to enable him to purchase exemption from the tortures 
of the Buddhist purgatory. The coolie expects the same services from 
his descendants, This association of the interests of different genera- 
tions gives the family organization a controlling influence in Chinese 
society. The practical effect is to destroy almost all desire of perma- 
nent expatriation. The law of the empire further makes this a capital 
offense ; but under the diplomatic pressure of European governments in- 
terested in the coolie trade this law is now a dead letter. 

The Chinese coolie seldom or never removes his wife or family from 
his original domicile. They are left to represent his home interest with 
his ancestral divinities. The women are still less inclined to travel than 
the men. Without any education or mental development, Chinese 
females cherish exaggerated terrors of the fierce “ outside barbarians,” and 
of the tempestuous seas. A number of higher-class females have arrived | 
in this country, the wives of intelligent merchants and business men, 
whose belief in the popular creed is not more profound than that which 
the anciext philosophers cherished for the classic mythology ; but of the 
laboring classes it is believed that not a single instance of this character 
has yet been reported. In regard to the recent remarkable increase in 


5TA AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the importation of females from China, there are painful facts of late 
development which show that they are brought to this country for pur- 
_ poses of public prostitution—a nefarious traffic in which both Ameri- 
can and Chinese enterprise is enlisted. Women are at a great discount 
in China, as in all heathen countries. They are sold by their parents to 
escape starvation. The wife and daughters of a bankrupt Chinese are 
sold among his other goods and chattels to meet the demands of rapacious 
creditors. Many immigrants to this country were compelled to mort- 
gage their families in order to pay their passage-money. Bat, as if 
this legal traffic did not suffice to meet the bestial demands of our 
Christian civilization, it is understood that a regular system of piracy 
in theriver and maritime provinces of China overridesthe weak lecal police 
and seizes whole villages, holding the rich for ransom, and selling the poor 
into slavery. This system of piracy was illustrated by a placard lately 
posted in the streets of San Francisco by a Chinaman, reciting the abduc- 
tion of his sister by these wretches, and her transportation to a brothel in 
that American city. The facts were made public in a legal investigation. 
Itis evident, that with the Chinese female immigration already secured, 
no permanent family organization can be expected, and that consequently 
the Chinese race will not be propagated in this country. Their continu- 
ance as a part of our population is then limited to the natural life of the 
immigrant. Nothing in their deportment points to any permanent 
assimilation with our social system. ‘That the present aggregate of 
Chinese in this country will probably be greatly enlarged in coming 
years there is little room to doubt; but that they will become interested 
_ in our political affairs, or that they will ever amount to a considerable 
part of our population, does not appear from any facts yet developed. 
Certain parties and interestsin this country are demanding legisla- 
tion which shall restrict or prohibit the further importation of these 
cheap laborers. It is not at all likely, however, that such unanimity of 
public sentiment will be secured asis necessary to secure this adverse legis- 
lation. By a majority of two-thirds of both houses of Congress, ratified 
by three-fourths of the State legislatures, all political disqualifieations 
arising from “ race, color, or previous condition of servitude,” have been 
abolished. To revive in the case of the Asiaticthe restrictions and 
disabilities that- have just been removed from the African; to nar- 
row down a broad principle of the universal brotherhood of mankind to 
which this nation was educated only through bloodshed and suffering, will 
require a majority equal to that by which the fifteenth amendment Was 
ingrafted upon our organic law. It will require also a repudiation of 
the Burlingame treaty. It is scarcely possible that the American peo- 
ple can be persuaded upon mere theoretical consideration to re- 
peal their late organic legislation, or to repudiate their public faith. 
That the introduction of cheap Asiatic labor upon an extended scale 
may ultimately affect some of our industries is possible. Labor-saving 
machinery has been doing the same with every improvement that has 
been introduced, yet no one would now be willing to go back to the 
days of primitive, rude processes. It has been found that the disorgan- 
ization of industry resulting from past improvements of this character 
has been but temporary and superficial—preliminary to higher organi- 
zation of productive and financial interests. They have been found to 
elevate and ameliorate the laborer himself. Labor-saving processes 
save much of the drudgery which once oppressed the heart and brain 
and muscles of the toiling laborer. Machinery is now the mud-sill of 
society. While it has cheapened production by superseding useless and 
cumbrous processes of hand labor, it has, by enlarging preduction, 


! 


CHINESE LABOR IN AGRICULTURE 575 


opened to the workman a higher and more remunerative scope of em- 
ployment. Unglish leems now represent the force of millions of men, 
yet [English weavers are paid mpich larger wages, in comparison with 
the cost of support, than the Chinese and Indian artists, whose exquisite 
workmanship has lately been undersold in their own markets by the 
products of English machinery. It is within the recollection of per- 
sons now living that the introduction of spinning machinery into Eng- 
land was resisted by mob violence, as taking the bread out of the mouths 
ofthe laborer. Itis believed that the alarm of the laboring population at 
the prospective rivalry of the Chinese is premature and unfounded. On 
the contrary, it is thought that the introduction of these cheap laborers, 
while superseding the hand labor of our native and naturalized popula- 
tion, in many elementary processes, will open up to the latter higher 
employment, based upon the increased production that will ensue. For 
instance, it is claimed that the immense mineral resources of Missouri 
were hindered in development by the lack of cheap labor, and that, 
with 50,000 Chinese, working with their mechanical regularity and 
low wages, an aggregate production of 600,000 tons could be secured— 
an amount equal to our total importation of iron. This immense mass 
of productive industry would give rise to more varied and intellectual 
employment for the native population. All the branches of manufac- 
tures into which iron enters as a constituent material, would feel the 
genial impulse of a cheaper raw material, and would afford their fin- 
ished products at lower prices, thus stimulating consumption, and awak- 
ening a still greater demand in the market. Atl branches of trade and 
transportation would sympathize with the increased production, and 
would enlarge their activities accordingly, indefinitely expanding the 
field for employment of our intelligent native population, now laboring 
in less lucrative and less dignified occupations. Machinery has greatly 
alleviated farm labor, but not to so great an extent as in manufactures. 
Several of its heavier processes, especially in soil manipulation, await 
the results of inventive genius, which is now devising improvements. 
Until the drudgery of these clementary operations can be devolved 
upon machinery, they must still be borne by human nerve and muscle. 
The costly labor of our American population, applied to these rudiment- 
ary tasks, seriously narrows the profits of farming enterprise, and conse- 
quently tends to drive capital into better-paying investments. This 
again reacts against the interests of labor, by lessening the demand, 
and consequently cutting down wages. The American “laborer is the 
most intelligent of his class in the world. With his increased intelli- 
gence a higher grade of wants and necessities is developed, requiring 
more abundant means of support. Any modification of our social or- 
der which tends to contract his means of subsistence is anti-democratic 
and reactionary. For the present the cheap Government lands of our 
public domain, and the wonderful liberality of the laws regulating their 
disposal, offer to the agricultural laborers of our older States a con- 
stant refuge against the pressure upon wages, by drawing off their sur- 
plus of laboring force. But, with the increasing activity of disposal, 
the time will come when the public lands will have passed into the 
hands of private owners, and this refuge of eastern labor will have 
been cut off. If our democratic civilization is to be maintained, we must 
before that time secure some other refuge, some reorganization of social 
forces, which will save the interests of ‘the laborer and preserve to him 
his full share of the products of industry. 

This problem in social science is, then, no lessimportant to the laborer 
than to the capitalist. The question of present interest, however, is to 


576 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


codrdinate this new element of cheap labor in such a way as not to 
supersede the employment of higher-priced native labor. It is submit- 
ted that cheap labor will operate in the same general direction as labor- 
saving machinery ; that, by cheapening production, it will open up more 
numerous sources of employment, of higher grade and of better wages. 
American labor, if it continues to hold its relative weight in its combi- 
nation with capital, must develop increasing efficiency in producing 
results. If so, it must be emancipated from the drudgery of those ele- 
mentary operations from which machinery has already partially relieved 
it. Labor must be more intellectual, and the native laborer must aspire 
to a larger share of the Jabor of direction. The employment of China- 
men will tend to secure these essential points. While relieving the 
American laborer from the rudimentary task-work of agriculture, Chinese 
cheap labor will impart an impulse to production, as machinery has 
done, opening new sources of employment. In these his conservative 
habits and his mechanical intelligence will forbid his rivalry with 
American labor. He is an excellent imitator, and will perform with the 
exactness of machinery the operations intrusted to him, but he has no 
vivacity of invention to lead him beyond those prescribed limits. These 
conclusions, though in a measure hypothetical, are supported by the 
agricultural and commercial press of the country in general, and seem 
to be gaining ground in public opinion. Of course, their real value can 
be finally tested only by experiment. 

Leaving out of view such theoretical considerations, and estimating 
the experiment of Chinese labor in this country from the results it has 
already achieved, its success seems to be assured. The patient docility 
and remarkable facility of imitation of these immigrants enable them 
quickly to learn any routine operation. They have no wasteful habits, 
and hence the same amount of raw material goes farther in their hands 
than in those of the native or naturalized laborer. Their mechanical 
exactitude and singular carefulness in performing their tasks will go 
far to relieve the labor of superintendence. Their constant industry, 
plying their hireling tasks with as great diligence as though working 
entirely for themselves, makes their labor especially profitable. Their 
habit of boarding themselves relieves the family of the farmer from that 
invasion of domestic help which often imposes a serious burden, both 
of labor and of subsistence. 

In the cotton industry of the South, and in the silk and tea culture of 
the Pacific coast, they find themselves especially at home. In these 
pursuits, requiring such an endless variety of manipulation, the careful 
and mechanical Mongolian will find special adaptation, supplying a 
kind of labor which can be obtained from no other source. He will in 
time adapt himself to other branches of agriculture, with results not 
less decisive. The experiment has been inaugurated, and from 
present appearances seems destined to receive a fair and fuli trial. 


MODES AND RESULTS OF IRRIGATION. 


‘The work of irrigation, a necessity of our agriculture in a large and 
promising portion of its area, is attaining systematic development, and 
assuming larger proportions with the settlement (and especially col- 
onization) of the plains and mountain valleys of our Territories. The 
Union Colony at Greeley, Colorado, furnishes an illustration of the 


MODES AND RESULTS OF IRRIGATION. 5t7 


latest modes of operation, the cost and capacity of works, with some 
indications of pecuniary results. 

Going from the Eastern States, as the people of Greeley have done 
under the organization of this Union Colony, and being almost wholly 
an agricultural people, with no speculative views in regard to mining or 
other uncertain pursuits, a great problem was presented in regard to 
irrigation. It is to be understood that rain falls so seldom in Colorado 
that no dependence can be placed upon it in growing crops, except dur- 
ing March, April, and May, when there is either snow or rain sufiicient to 
germinate the smail grains. After this time the ground becomes so 
dry that any kind of planted crop must perish without irrigation. The 
only possible chance, then, for the farmer to grow profitable crops is to 
construct canals to convey the water of rivers in such a manner that 
it may be conducted over the fields. ; i 

Perhaps there is no more forbidding prospect to the settler than the 
necessity for an expenditure of several hundreds or thousands of dol- 
lars that the want of rain may be supplied, and the mind instantly 
suggests that there is a country where rain is always sure; but when it 
is considered that by means of irrigation crops are always certain, that 
the farmer bids defiance to the drought, and that the yield is nearly 
three times greater than elsewhere, it is apparent that great advan- 
tages may arise. In the case of the Greeley Colony, the cost of con- 
structing irrigating canals has been from $1 to $3 an acre. The right 
to use the water has been attached to the real estate in perpetuity, with 
no other expense than the cost of repairs and superintendence. LHlse- 
where in the Territory and in New Mexico farmers make their own 
ditches as a neighborhood enterprise, which is practicable only when 
the ground is favorable ; or, companies are formed and an annual water 
rent is laid, ranging from $1 to $2 50 per acre. In towns, such as Den: 
ver, the annual charge for water on an ordinary building lot is from $5 
to $10. In Greeley an assessment has been made of $2 50 for each town 
lot, and $5 for five or ten acre lots, for the season, which will be amply 
sufficient to cover all expenses. 

This colony early felt the importance of obtaining a knowledge of the 
best method of irrigation, so that, if possible, material. mistakes might 
be avoided; and accordingly a farmers’ club was established, meeting 
weekly, and correspondence was opened with intelligent cultivators in 
Colorado and Utah. Several gentlemen have also visited the club and 
given the results of their experience. Mr. Robert L. Kennison writes to 
the club as follows: 

I resided in Utah about twelve years, and farmed some ten years of that time.. 
When possible, we always prepared the ground in the fall, and sowed our wheat, oats, 
and barley as soon as we could after the frost was out of the ground, in the spring. 
At the time of sowing we prepared the ditches for each field. The advantage of sowing 
so early is, that it saves one, and sometimes two irrigations. In laying olf the ditches 
to irrigate a farm, we first made mains from the public or company ditch, and in 
making them we kept on the highest land, paying no attention to section or other 
lines. Having our mains on the highest lands, we could easily irrigate each way from 
them. The mains being made, we laid off the field into lands or divisions, varying in 
width, according to the character of the soil and the lay of the land, from one to 
twenty rods, The divisions were always by small ditches, which were made by run- 
ning a furrow both ways, and following with a wooden scraper made like an A, If 
our lands or divisions were dry for a long time, we generally preferred to divide them 
by running another main through. While more water is used by making ditches than 
by laying off the land by raising ridges, I think that the work can be done so much more 
rapidly and perfectly as to make it the better way. 

I should advocate the irrigation of small grain by flooding. Supposing your field 
ready—the main and laterals all in order—we will commence by shutting down the 


gate or damming the main, so as to force the water on the land; and here I would say 
that es 5 aed the amount of water in the main, if we can handle it, the better; but 
A : ; 


578 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


no more is wanted in it than can be taken care of. Tho main, having been closed 
below, is opened at the highest part of the land, where, if the ground is level from side 
to side, and sufliciently inclined from the ditch, the water will soon find its way to the 
farthest end of the land. If, however, some portion is higher than the rest, the safety 
of the small ditches each side of the land is apparent; for then the center opening is 
closed, and the water let through the side ditches until it reaches the point of obstrue- 
tion, when it is let out to low on again; and this may have to be repeated again and 
again upon the same land, though generally there is no such trouble, the water flowing 
unobstructed over the whole. When the land has been fully fooded, the work is done 
and the water is shut off. -If there are low places where the water stands, on the com- - 
pletion of the flooding, it is well to draw it off at once through the side ditches, which 
have come into use again. Beginners are apt to irrigate too early the first time. Ido 
not think that small grain, if sown in season, will need irrigation until about the last 
of May, when, being in the milk, grain suffers the quickest from the want of water, 
and must then be well cared for. 

Corn, potatoes, and garden vegetables we plant in rows, and irrigate by sending a 
stream of water between the rows. Potatoes are easily spoiled by flooding, and do 
not generally need water till in blossom. When the leaves of the corn curl up in the 
middle of the day it is an evidence of the want of water. There are indications of the 
need of water which can be learned only by experience, but the beginner is more 
likely to err in using too much than too little. In the irrigation of trees, avoid allow- 
ing the water to touch the tree, and shut off early in the fall, so as to give the wood a 
chance to ripen, and thus avoid winter-killing. ; 


Mr, J. H. Latey, of the firm of Godbe & Co., writes that— 


Too much water in the summer time causes vegetation to be yellow; if too little is 
used the leaves will parch; if applied too late in the fali it is said to be injurious to 
trees, a3 tending to promote growth which is endangered if frost suddeniy setsin. It 
is almost impossible to wear out land, for the reason that irrigation brings out fresh 
soil and manure. The disadvantage is that it is very hard to keep down weeds. 


Mr. L. K. Perrin, of Denver, makes the following statement: 


There are two methods of irrigation practiced by the older farmers in this section, 
viz., flooding and soakage where the soil is light or does not bake; though I find very ~ 
little of such soil adapted to irrigation by soakage, that is, upon which the object may 
be accomplished in a reasonable time. With grain almost every one floods, it being a 
much quicker mode, You inquire, ‘ Shall we level our land so as to form beds?” Cer- 
tainly not. It is too expensive, and is not necessary. Further, it is too laborious. We 
tried that plan years ago, and it has long been discarded. Most of the grain is put in 
with the harrow, and harrowed both ways, the last time going the way the water is to run, 
the water following the marks of the harrow in little rills. The dead furrow is very 
annoying. Sometimes, when irrigating, it will catch the whole stream, unless watched 
continually, cutting badly. Always have your main ditch on the highest ground pos- 
sible. Lrrigation should commence at the lower end of the ditch, thereby saving time 
in repairs; for, if commenced at the upper end, the water usually makes the banks of 
the ditch soft, and breakages are apt to occur, though that depends on the grade of the 
ditch. It is best to use as large a stream of water as the nature of the ground will 
permit to be handled with profit. | 

Some farmers, with clay lands, make a marker with cultivator teeth, placing them 
18 inches apart, thus forming small ditches where little rills of water can flow, 
which will soak through to each other.in twenty-four hours. This would not do for 
sandy soil, as they would be all together in a short time. The shovel-plow is some- 
times used for making ditches in the grain-fields, but such deep and wide ditches will 
shake the good out of almost any reaper in harvest time. Cultivated crops should be 
put in rows, for then, with the shovel-plow to go between the rows, ditches may be 
reade in which small rills of water can flow, and, if the ground is loose, the crops will 
soon be irrigated by soakage. After a crop has been wet, and the ground is dry enough 
to work, the cultivator should go between the rows, to prevent the moisture from bak- 

ing out. A stream of water constantly flowing on a crop will not do any injury, if it 
drains off immediately. Standing water, with no outlet, will insure the loss ef the 
crep. On side-hills, where the lands wash, we use four laths nailed together, which 
forma trough for the water torun in. They should be placed in the ditch, a rod apart, 
near the bottom, and the water can run night and day without injury. ‘This plan is 
followed to considerable extent, as our land is rolling, and does not require much 
watching. You will not see the time, probably, when you will have to irrigate in the 
spring to get crops up out of the ground. We seldom have to irrigate before the first 
or middie of Jane. With the spade or hoe you can soon tell where water is wanted. 
Experience teaches us where water is needed, even from a distance, without minute 
examination of acrop. I would not irrigate fruit trees after the 15th of August. Dead 
furrows are a nuisance; and, if I were to start anew, I would outfit with the swivel- 


MODES AND RESULTS OF IRRIGATION. 579 


plow. Sod land requires double the quantity of water needed on old ground, also 
much more labor; and if you average fifteen bushels of wheat per acre on sod, you 
wiJl accomplish more than I have done. , 

If your ditch company issues water to its customers with any pressure, you must 
look out for leakage; that is, if you give your customers water with a five-inch pres- 
sure, the ditch will shrink one-third; so if your ditch carries 1,500 inches, you can fur- 
nish but 1,000 with such pressure. Less pressure, more water to furnish; greater pres- 
sure, less water. This fact we did not learn till this winter. 


Captain Boyd, of Greeley, states that he has had much conversation 
with Mr. Eaton, who worked in New Mexico, where there is a light 
sandy soil, and flooding is generally practiced, and that he thinks this 
mode will have to be followed in Colorado. He adds: 


Generally, the land lies to the south and east, and it is necessary to throw up sev- 
eral furrows. Much will depend on the fall of the ground and width of the lands, In 
flooding, a large amount of water is required, but a larger amount on ground quite 
sloping would have a tendency to wash away the soil; still the soil does not wash 
much. Mexican land is of a black color, not gray like that of the Platte. North of 
the river are several intervals of black soil. Water penetrates moist soi] much more 
readily than dry soil, for the reason that particles of water have affinity for each other, 
and on the principle that particles of matter move more easily among themselves. We 
met the difficulty of a dry soi] last year, and along time was required to moisten it. 
A dark-colored soil absorbs heat; a light one reflects it; hence, mucky soil is more 
readily watered by furrows than a light soil. Muck contains fixed carbon or charcoal. 
The particles are separated from each other, and hence it isa powerful absorbent. 
Muck is analogous to charcoal, and the particles of water move through it as through 
sand. Where there aro a great many pebbles and gravel, the soil is moist; they seem 
to have the power to raise moisture. If there is a gravel knoll, the water will gen- 
erally rise to the surface. 


Mr. L. K. Perrin furnishes the following in regard to irrigation in 
Jefferson County, Colorado: 


The Table Mountain Water Company, of which I am superintendent, sell their 
water for $1 50 per cubic iuch, to be taken out of the ditch with spouts or boxes at 
right angles with the ditch; no spout being allowed to take more than thirty inches in 
one body. These boxes are 3 by 10 inches in the clear, are set edgewise and just un- 
der the water,so that the center will give an average of 5 inches’ pressure. Last year, 
and every year since the ditch was built, the water was run throngh a spout into a 
square box one foot deep, with holes. cut 3 by 5 inches, giving a pressure of 5 inches 
over these holes, and each party was required to put in his spout and box. Some put 
in larger spouts, giving them a pitch of 5 or 6 inches in as many feet, and these being 
near the bottom of the ditch, the water came through in great force, and freqitently the 
measuring boxes were found running over; hence we made a change to the effect of 
giving every one a spout just large enough to take what water he wants, and not give 
2 chance to steal. , 

Under the old measurement system, the average supply for three or four years was 
three-fourths of an inch to a cultivated acre. Farmers putting in one hundred acres 
had 75 inches of water for the season. We sell from May 1 to October 1; that is, if it 
is called for so eariy in May. The water runsday and night, but not more than three- 
fourths of the time during the season. The average cost for water with us is 
$1 12} an acre. On the old: farms grain is not irrigated more than twice in a season; 
on many not more than once. ; 

The Smith Ditch Company, of Denver, charge this year $3 an inch, measured in our 
way: for three previous years they charged $5 an inch. The farmers on Ransom 
Creek are charged $2 an acre. 


Judge Osborne delivered an address before the Greeley Farmers’ Club 
which seems to be specially applicable to Colorado farming. He said: 


I came to this country to mine, and undertook it for about four months, and within 
that time I found the gold and silver very much mixed with rocks and dirt, and in many 
places hard to get at. I turned my attention to other business which was quite Inera- 
tive fora few months, and then I turned face about for the valley, and found “ Paradise 
Lost” on Big Thompson. There I gave attention to stock-raising and farming, in 
which I have been quite successful, thongh not so much so as many that have had 
more means. I find there is nothing like sticking to business. The first year or two 
were seasons of experiment. I knew nothing of irrigation, and could not find anybod+ 
who did. I thought we conld raise a crop on the islands and bends of the creek, and 
in tact thought it was the only land that was rich enough to produce. In 1862, 1863, and 
1864 I farmed these lands, but that was the year of high water, which flooded my en- 


580 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


tire crop, garden and all. «The waters began to abate on the 27th of May, and I com- 
menced plowing on the second bottoms, made garden, and put in an entire new crop,’ 
and have never raised a better one, and without irrigation. 

Experience teaches me that fall plowing needs less irrigation than spring plowing, 
and that oats will stand more water than wheat. I reached these conclusions by ex- 
perimenting, first with a crop of winter wheat, which I did not need to irrigate. The 
ground became well settled, and the wheat covered the ground before the warm, dry 
weather came on. I discovered that oats would stand more water than wheat in ths 
season that grasshoppers visited us. I tried to drown them, but I could not, for they 
would crawl to the top of the oats and wheat blades, and bid defiance. 

We can raise good crops here if we do our duty, and take especial pains to keep 
water in full supply. You cannot always tell exactly where the lateral ditches should 
run. A main ditch must be provided on the highest ground; but, in my experience, I 
have found it necessary to wait until water is brought on before establishing the 
smaller water-courses. I have run water-courses through grain after it was well up; 
and though this seemed wasteful, still, on the whole, it was profitable. It costs a great 
deal to irrigate, more than some represent; still, the large yield will pay for all out- 
lays. I have raised wheat which was so heavy that in throwing my hat upon it from 
a distance it would remain on top. We find that our land does not require half the 
water, after a few years, that it did at first. I think that such land as you have 
should be flooded, and that it will not do to depend upon soakage. With a good head 
of water aman will do well if he can irrigate an acre a day. Do not undertake to 
irrigate with a small stream. Water enough must be had to keep a man constantly 
busy, and he must not stand waiting for the water to make its way, for it wiil 
do no such thing ; he musi keep along with the water, hoe in hand, conducting to this 
place and that, and see to it that every point of the field is watered. To turn water 
upon a field or garden and go off expecting it will do what is required, is useless; for 
it will make no progress, or it will run in wrong directions. It is true that, where the 
pocket-gophers are in the ground and have made passage ways the water will run 
for several rods, and irrigate well. Their work may be detected by the fresh dirt 
thrown up, but there are no visible holes. The work of prairie-dogs is different; they 
have deep holes, and water running into them will be wasted. Such holes must be 
stopped. I have seen no land in Colorado which will not yield well if water is applied. 

Ground plowed in the fall will stand more dry weather than when plowed in the 
spring. I sow from ninety to one hundred pounds of wheat to the acre; and as many 
as ninety pounds of oats, and one hundred pounds of barley. In early sowing the grain 
soon covers the ground where it settles, and the water is more easily run over the sur- 
face while moisture is retained. Ground should always be rolled, to pack it on the 
surface. I once sowed oats.without rolling, and only a part came up; then I rolled 
the whole, and it all came up. ki 

Trrigating ground to start the grain I think impracticable, except on small pieces, as it 
would require a vast amount of waiter, far more than any one would suppose, and would 
keep busy four or five men to the acre. Therefore, we all depend upon snow and rain 
to get the grain above ground. I put my grain in deep, and prefer to have the ground 
rather rough until after sowing, when I harrow and pulverize thoroughly. ; 

I sowed about two acres of timothy and clover, which did well. At first the clover 
occupied the ground; after that the timothy came in, and now there is no clover. I 
cut about two tons of timothy hay to the acre, and it is this which gives us the first 
green grass in the spring. Clover does best on upland. The weeds are a great cause of 
difficulty in getting a stand of grasson the bottoms; and I had to weed my timothy and 
clover. It will be several years before you will be troubled with weeds on the upland ; 
need never be troubled if you keep them down as they appear. It is a good plan to 
sow timothy along your ditches; by so doing lam getting a good sod, while wasting 
is prevented. 

We grow as good corn here as is grown anywhere, but the crop is not so large as in 
Mlinois;_I should say not to exceed an average of 25 bushels to the acre. We plant 
any time after the first of May. It will mature if planted by the 20th. -One advantage 
with corn is that it can be put in and gathered when there isno other work; and after 
itis ripe it may stand in the field for years without injury. Corn will not mature 
.without water. I should plant about five inches deep, and I have planted on sod, with 
a spade. A hand corn-planter does well. There isno use of planting corn in 
ground, for it willnever come up. I find that it pays to do work well, and that when 
more work is undertaken than can be done well your labor is thrown away. 

You will be likely to experience some trouble in getting garden seeds to grow. I 
have found it a good plan to lay boards on the rows, when seeds are planted, for moist- 
ure is drawn up, and the seeds are sure to start. When they’are ready to break 
through remove the boards. It will not do to plant as shallow as in the States. When 
we commenced we knew nothing whatever of irrigation, and we were told to do this, 
and to do .that, and there were a dozen ways. Something may be gained from our 
experience. 5 ; 


MODES AND RESULTS OF IRRIGATION. 581 


For our main crop of potatoes we depend first on the Neshannock, and next on the 
Early Goodrich. Of the first I have raised over 400 bushels tothe acre; the average 
yield is 150 to 200 bushels. Bottom land will produce most, but on upland the quality 
18 superior. Some cover with a plow, and others with a hoe, in well-prepared furrows. 
1 plant in rows 3 feet apart and 18 inches in the row, harrowing just as they are 
coming up; then work with a double shovel, and lay by with a single shovel. The 
Early Rose has done well, but whether it is best for general planting or not remains to 
be seen, Potatoes are injured by being flooded; to run the water between the rows 
is sufficient. Last yearI raised 1,100 bushels on the bottom, and did not irrigate at all. 

We have had much trouble with grasshoppers, though not of late years, and we have 
learned so to manage them that our crops never fail wholly. I see there are no eggs 
laid this year; when they are laid it is a good plan in plowing to bury them deep. 
There are several kinds of grasshoppers, but there is only one variety which does any 
harm. When they came thick we used to open all the ditches, and conduct them on down 

“ far as they could float, and thus the farms above were rid of part of them, at least. 
hey never cover a whole county ; and sometimes they destroy only a part or a corner 
of a fielf, and then suddenly disappear. 


Mr. Elisha Evans, of Denver, finds objections to flooding land, inas- 
much as on parts of the field water will be likely to stand and cause the 
ground to bake; hence he is in favor of making the ground as level as 
possible, and then using a machine which causes the water to run in 
little channels, a method which would seem to commend itself. He 
gives the following directions: 1st. Plowdeep. 2d. Avoid “ dead fur- 
rows” as much as possible. 3d. Endeavor to make your land level, 
and keep itso. 4th. Pulverize the soil thoroughly. 5th. Sow pure, 
good seed, and do it properly. 6th. Run your head ditches on a grade 
of not more than a half-inch per rod, and five to twenty rods apart. 7th. 
Run your harrow in the direction you wish to irrigate. 8th. When the 
grain is up and well rooted, the ground moist, (not wet,) roll at right 
angles with your head ditches. 9th. Commence irrigating before the 
crop begins to suffer from drought, and do not quit because you have 
a slight rain-fall. 


THE NEW MEXICAN METHOD. 


All the preceding directions refer to land which lies nearly level, ‘or 
which with some little work can be made so; but it is manifest that 
when land is uneven great difficulties must arise in getting water over 
it. In New Mexico, where irrigation has been practiced over one hun- 
dred years, and where considerable uneven land has been cultivated, 
terraces or benches have been constructed. It seems, however, that in 
the course of time the best of the soil of the upper terraces is washed 
to the lower ones; hence much of such land has become quite poor. In 
the hands of skillful cultivators this evil undoubtedly can be avoided. 
Governor Hunt, living near Denver, has some land of this nature, which 
is used more for the purpose of growing clover than any other crop. 
We give his system of management: ) 


My land being very uneven, I experienced more difficulty than’ those who may 
locate upon more favorable ground, and for this reason was compelled to divide it into 
small beds or lands of 15 to 25 feet, with back furrowing (to form a levee) from three 
to five furrows, and after that threw all the furrows down hill, and finished up with 
shovel and lime; and, when completely and deeply plowed, dragging a heavy stick of 
square timber laterally from end to end of each bed, until all the little elevations were 
dragged into the depressions. I then harrowed it thoroughly, applied plenty of seed, 
and afterward rolled with a heavy roller. The most favorable time to seed is when the 
early spring rains are likely to fall, natural irrigation being far preferable for starting 
such tender plants. A top dressing of fine, well-rotted manure is of the greatest ad- 
vantage in preventing the earth from cracking after the frequent flooding. In case the 
land descends in two or more directions, as is often the case, I divide these long beds 
into others of convenient size, each having a different level, and each provided with a 
bank or level on the lower side of sufficient height and strength to admit of flooding 
to a depth of two inches. If the descent is not too rapid it is much better to level 
each bed so that the water can stand of uniform depth all over it; but when this level- 


» 


582 . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ing will cut away too much of the surface soil, let the level be high enough to “ back- 
water” over the upper’side. My main ditch is arranged to throw its entire contents 
into the highest of these beds, through a sluice-box with gate. A few minutes serve 
to fill this, while the surplus water is discharged into the next lower bed, through a 
box constructed as follows: Take three pieces of inch board 12 to 13 inches wide and 
2 to 3 feet long, nailed together like three sides of a box, braced across the open or top 
side. In this box I fasten a stationary gate, coming within three inches of the top. 
The box I pack in the levee so firmly that there will be no leakage around it, and of 
such kbeight that, when the water has entirely covered the upper bed, the surplus will 
escape over this half-open sluice, falling in the box before striking the ground, by 
which the force of the current is broken and the water is thus prevented from tearin 
up the soil. By the same process a long succession of beds can be throu an 
quickly watered without labor or waste; and also be made to do service while the 
owner is sleeping, and in case of a rainfall none is lost. When the last bed begins to 
fill, I shut the main gate and leave each bed of the series to soak away gratdually.. 
However, if the succession of beds is too long, the first gets too much water, and t 
last scarcely enough; therefore it is desirable to have a sluice-box for each bed, inde- 
pendent of the rest, connecting directly with the ditch. The larger the bed the better, 
for less land is occupied by the levees, and it is easier to work the land and gather the 
crops. If possible, employ an engineer to determine and mark the leve} for beds and 
levees, for much time aud expense wil] be saved by it. The clover once up and once set, 
' itis safe from everything except drought; and until it has grown enough to shade the 
ground somewhat, great care must be exercised to prevent its being burned up by sun 
and wind, After this water does the rest. In my own case this treatment has brought 
the following results: My first successful experiment was with a small piece of land 
measuring about one-eighth of an acre, sown one-half with common red clover, the other 
with lucern or blue Mexican, This piece supplied almost the entire summer feed for 
two cows, during three summers, being cut three or four times each season. In August, 
186Y, I sowed half an acre of common red, slightly mixed with white. This was well 
seeded, came up, and nearly covered the ground before winter set in. In the spring it 
began to grow at least a month earlier than the hardy weeds which had threatened to 
choke it out, and at last it smothered every weed and spear of wild grass which started 
among it. During the winter, while the ground was frozen, I had a small quantity of 
fine manure scattered over it, causing a perceptible increase in its thrift and nutritious 
qualities. I cut the third crop September 15, when it stood 12 to 15 inches high. From 
these crops I fed, from May to July 15, two cows and an average of four horses, and 
since the last date, five cows, eight sheep, aud four lorses, the clover forming almost 
their only food. Of course the Lorses were fed with grain, but the clover took the place 
of hay. The entire space occupied by clover will barely measure two acres; s0 you can 
form some ideaof its enormous yield. No place in Colorado could be more unprom- 
ising than the very spot ou which I have this year made three crops of clover. The 
soi] was below the average of my farm in quality, but it has been flooded ten or twelve 
times during the season, and aided by the top spreading of manure. I lave also had 
one crop from last spring’s seeding, on ground which Yad no manure, irrigated as I 
have deseribed. Of course this system of irrigation niust be too expensive for large 
farmers, although during the preseut season I Lave taken more oats from one acre thus 
treated, than from four acres irrigated iv the ordinary nianner. 

These experiments convince me that farming in Colorado resolves itself into a ques- 
tion of water and its judicious application. My own efforts have been confined to the 
sandy loam and gravelly soils, and I would apply this system only to such. Having 
had no experience in cultivating the heavy clay soils, I cannot speak confidently with 
veference to them. ‘ 

From the experience of the Greeley colonists, which of necessity was 
imperfect, because they did not get water upon the land until late in 
June, Mr. Meeker concludes: Ist. Gardens require water at least once 

‘a week; grain, once in two or three weeks. 2d. The ground must be 
level, or free from,elevations and depressions, and dead furrows should 
always be avoided.. 3d. When water is to be applied, a large head is 
needed, so that the ground may be covered as quickly as possible. Half 
enough water is little better than no water. When irrigating is to be 
done, a man must be with the water ali the time, for if left to itself, the 
work is certain not to be done. 4th. A great deal of judgment 1s 
required, aud no positive directions can be given so that a man would 
not be under the necessity of adding something of his own knowledge, 
because no two pieces of ground are alike, and each requires especial 
study. Sth. Farming by irrigation is, on the whole, more profitable 


MODES AND RESULTS OF IRRIGATION. 583 


than in places where rain is depended upon, because the yield of crops 
is increased, and because there must be large sections of land adja- 
cent which cannot be irrigated, and which, being devoted to stock-grow- 
ing, afford a good market fer the comparatively limited supply. 
The certainty and exactness which enter into the pursuit of farming 
by irrigation tend to make it more attractive than when floods and 
drought take away a heavy percentage from the labors of the year. _ 

One thing must be especially considered with reference to farming in 

Colorado, and also in the whole region of the immediate eastern slope 
of the Rocky Mountains; which is, that there are no fall rains as in 
Utah, California, and in all oriental countries. From September 24, 
1870, to March 24, 1871, not a drop of rain fell, and but a slight 
quantity of snow; although within a distance of thirty miles, among 
the mountains, there were frequent rains, and in many places, in full 
sight, snow fell day after day and month after month, which, when 
spring comes, will melt and fill to the banks the many rivers and 
mountain torrents pouring out into the plains, giving through all 
the summer season abundance of water for the irrigating canals. 
This absence of rain during the fall and winter leaves the grass 
‘of the vast plains to cure into hay; and, remarkable as the statement 
may seem, it is still true that here thousands of cattle live all winter 
and grow fat without any other feed whatever. 

Theirrigating canals of the Greeley colony are the most extensive in Colo- 
rado,and they make an aggregate length of about forty miles; while of lat- 
erals there must beas many more miles, which will supply water for at least 
30,000 acres. The cost has been about $45,000, but a considerable addi- 
tional outlay will be required in bringing the water in small ditches to 
the several farms. Some years, however, will be likely to pass before 
the whole of this land will be brought under cultivation, for in making 
canals it is always important that they should have greater capacity than 
is immediately required. The size of cutlying farms ranges from five 
to eighty acres. It is conceded that forty acres make a farm as large 
as one man can possibly cultivate, while it is granted that five acres will 
produce all the food that a common family can consume. 

In acountry so new and so rich in resources of every kind as Colorado, 

-only a part of its capabilities can be learned at atime. The future 
prospect is extremely promising, and the possibilities of tie country are 
likely to attract the attention of the American people for many years. 


IRRIGATION IN TEXAS. 


The following account of irrigation in the San Antonio Valley is 
given by Thomas H. Stribling, in a letter to the Commissioner of Agri- 
culture: 


The San Antonio Valley was first settled by the Spaniards about the year 1718. It 
was not until after 1740 that the principal works for irrigation were completed. They 
were projected and superintended by the missionaries of the (Jesuit) Dominican 
and Franciscan orders, the Indians of the missions established at various points in the 
valley doing the manual labor. 

The irrigable portion of the valley has au average width of about a mile, but Iand 
has been irrigated for a distance of fourteen miles. The soil of the valley is a rich 
black mold, and very deep. The river bursts fall grown from the base of a range of 
hills, abont four miles above the city of San Antonio. From the springs to the eity the 
fall is 34 feet; in the next ten miles about 40 feet. Two of the main irrigating canals, 
or ditches, as we call them, are taken ont a few hundred yards from the head of the 
river, one from each side, They skirt the outer edges of the valley. A third ditch is 
taken from the San Pedro, a small tributary coming from the west. Many branches 
run from the main ditches, reaching every part of the valley. 

The lands were granted with reference to irrigation. Indeed the grant of water (so 
many hours of water) was the prime object, and was in proportion to the amount of 


584 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


land. A light tax was levied annually to keep the ditches in repair. There was, and 
still is, a ditch commissioner to keep the ditches in order, and see that every man gets 
his water at the allotted time, to prevent filching, &c. Fines are imposed for breaches 
of the rules. The time for irrigation is once in ten days, and the hours are fixed. 
Every man has his dam and gate, and when his hour arrives (the man above haying 
finished irrigating and raised his gate) he lowers his gate, and at once the water over- 
flows his land. A busy time follows. The water may seem very perverse in seeking 
its level, but hoe in hand, he trenches here ard dams there, until! all the ground is wef. 

The land should be well prepared beforehand, and the rows, beds, &c., be constructed 
with reference to the ditch. Some skill is necessary to do this work properly, but it is 
soon acquired. ‘There is no great mystery about it, and with a little experience and 
reflection all difficulty disappears. Ordinarily it requires about a third more labor to 
caltivate by irrigation than without it. 

In old Spanish times five or six thousand acres were irrigated, but hardly half that 
number is now under irrigation. Three ditches taken out below the city are not now 
used, but they will soon be repaired and even new ditches made, and more land will 
be cultivated than ever before. 

Trrigable land everywhere in the valley is worth $100 to $200 per acre, while adjoin- 
ing land of the same soil, but not irrigable, is not worth $5 per acre. Sixty to seventy 
years ago wheat grown and ground here was packed on mules to supply the United 
States military posts in Western Louisiana. 

Thesystem of embankments, canals, &c., adopted by the Spaniards for irrigation, seems 
almost perfect, but their cultivation of the soil was rude. In one respect, particularly, 
it was very bad. They were always taking from, and never adding to, the soil. The 
idea of manuring never entered their heads. In the spring they raked up and burned ~ 
everything above ground. Hven now we cultivate badly, but a spirit of reform and 
progress is being awakened. 

Much of our land has been improved by manuring. Three hundred to four hundred 
bushels of sweet potatoes per acre are not an extraordinary crop. Of sorghum sown 
broadcast for fodder I have known twelve tons grown on an acre, three cuttings a year. 
The ribbon cane grows to great perfection. Corn and cotton do well. Irrigation is of 
great value to orchards, shrubbery, ornamental trees, &c. For gardening it is of in- 
estimable value. We have the greatest abundance and variety of vegetables almost 
the year round. All kinds of melons, cabbages, turnips, tomatoes, beans, peas, &c., 
are raised in great profusion. I know of no cheaper vegetable market in the United 
States. Beantiful streams of pure, clear water run through every part of our city, and 
seem to reach every man’s door. They are the glory of San Antonio. 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. 


. 

The following communication, from Mr. 8. E. Todd, of New York City, 
embodies the results of his experience and observation in underdrain- 
ing: 

There are vast tracts of land which are cultivated every year, besides certain por- 
tions of cultivable land, which are not considered wet at any season of the year, thé 
produectiveness of which might be greatly increased by a system of thorough under- 
draining. Of course there are large areas which never did and never will re- 
quire underdraining, as nature has made ample provision, in the character of the sub- 
stratum, for the effectual removal of all the water that will not be retained by absorp- 
tion. Whether the ground be underdrained or not, the surface scil and substratum 
will retain all the water that may fall on the surface, or that percolates through the 
strata from springs, until the greater capacity of the soil to absorb moisture has been 
reached. If good tile drains be constructed every ten feet distant, when the pores of 
the soil are filled, the surplus water will flow into the drains. There need be no fear 
that underdraining will render land too dry. The soil will hold all the moisture 
that vegetation requires. Many of our best farmers affirm that draining dry soils tends 
to promote desirable dampness during periods of dry weather. 

During a discussion of the subject of thorough underdraining, at a legislative agri- 
cultural meeting at Albany, New York, one of the best farmers of the Empire State, 
who has had extensive experience in underdraining wet and comparatively dry till- 
able ground, stated that “an underdrained soil will be found damper in dry weather 
than if it had not been underdrained, and the thermometer will show a higher tempera- 
ture in cold weather and cooler in hot weather, where the subsoil has been under- 
drained, than if no underdrains had been made.” «These facts are accounted for on the 
principle alluded to under another head, that, eyaporation being a cooling process, and 


s 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. 585 


moisture being absorbed from the atmosphere rather than yielded up to the dry air, 
the temperature is maintained at a higher degree than it would be if the water-line 
were nearer the surface. With the foregoing remarks we may understand what kind 
of ground needs underdraining, as well as what kind will not be sufficiently benefited 
to justify the expense of underdraining. Some land is only wet a little in the early 
part of spring, or during very wet periods in summer. Of course such ground would 
be benefited by a thorough system of underdraining only in proportion as itis too 
wet. S&me ground may be so nearly “dry enough” that if would never pay to under- 
drain it, although underdrains would be of more or less advantage. The main, prac- 
tical consideration is, what land may be improved in fertility to such an extent, by a 
system of underdraining, as to warrant the expense of excavating and filling ditches 
with iles, stones, or wood. In most instances underdraining may be considered as a 
systenr of prolit or loss. Where land is very cheap, and the products of the farm are 
sold at prices which barely cancel the expense of production, it may pay to underdrain 
certain portions of the cultivable land, and it may not. Of course there would be 
many modifying circumstances to affect the profit arising from the increased amount 
of products and the expense of making the drains. In case a tiller of the soil could 
not inerease his crops in a few years in sufficient quantities to cancel the expense of 
making drains, if may be said that it would not pay to underdrain, although the pro- 
ductiveness of the ground might be somewhat improved by underdraining. On the 
contrary, where the price of land is high, and a ready market for farm producis is at 
hand, it will usually pay well to underdrain land that exhibits only slight signs ef ex- 
cessive moisture. 

-1. Grass land, whether meadow or pasture, where red clover is lifted out by the 
frosts of winter, can be greatly improved by underdraining. 

2. Any .kind of land, where the cultivated grasses, such as timothy, (Phleum pra- 

tense,) orchard grass, (Dactylis glomeraia,) or other upland grasses, do not grow luxuri- 
antly, and where tufts and scattering spears of wild grass are coming in and crowding 
out such plants as should occupy the entire ground, may be greatly improved by un- 
derdraining. ; 
3. .Juands with a heavy and retentive subsoil, whether the surface-soil be a light 
loam,'a mixed soil, in which black muck and leaf-mold constitute the predominating 
characteristics, or a light, clay loam, if the surface retains water in small ponds one or 
two days after a heavy fall of rain, should be underdrained. 

24.,Slopes of hills, where the subsoil is almost impervious to water, and where differ- 
ent ‘strata crop out, between which water works out and saturates the entire soil at 
certain seasons, may be greatly benefited by deep underdraining. 

5. Heavy, unctuous clay land, and any heavy ground which is to be appropriated to 
the cultivation of either spring or winter wheat, rye or barley, in case the surface is at 
all-disposed to heave out the young plants, should be well urderdrained by cutting 
ditches thirty to forty feet apart over the entire field. 

(6. Heavy land, or even light soils, where fruit trees are to be transplanted for 
orchards, if the water-line in the soil and subsoil is not at least three feet below the 
surface, should be improved by deep drains. é 

‘7.,All land about dwellings and ont-buildings of such a retentive character that 
water will stand in post-holes or in little excavations during the early portion of the 
growing season, as weil as late in the autumn, should be well underdrained. 

8, Land to be used as a flower or vegetable garden, where early produce is to be cul- 
tivated, should be well underdrained, as security against injury from protracted dry 
weather in summer, and the injurious influences of long and cold storms in the vernal 
months. -Plants started in the growing season should not be exposed to a serious set- 
back, arising from a long and cold storm, and a complete inundation of the mellow seed- 
bed. 4 The same is true of most kinds of flowers. It will take them a long time to recover 
from ‘the .detrimental effects arising from a cold storm of ten days’ duration, during 
which the roots have been standing in a soil saturated with “snow-cold” water. The 
water-line must be sunk at least thirty to forty inches below the surface. 

‘9. Deep :underdrains should be sunk by the sides of highways, where the rolling 
wheels of passing vehicles frequently make deep holes and ruts which retain water 
longer than one or two days. -Many a bad piece of highway may be made satisfacto- 
rily dry by simply sinking a deep underdrain on the upper side of the carriage track, 
to cut off all the surplus water that is constantly working down from the land above, 
and «which ,keeps ‘the bed of the road .wet during most of the days of spring and 
autumn. i 

310. Shallow valleys and river flats through which small streams of water often wind 
and double, like the Mississippi , River, rendering worthless a broad area of good land, 
should be improved by cutting a large ditch of sufficient capacity to carry any amount 
of water that will ever be likely to flow there. ’ 

;11. Morasses, frog-ponds, fever and ague holes, and all low, marshy ground near hu- 
man habitations should :be thoroughly .drained, and the land should be cultivated in 
‘some way or other, if nothing but grass be allowed to grow. *Such places are almost 


586 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


always a source of malarial disease. Nearly all can be drained at a comparatively 
small expense. After the surplus water has been removed, and the soil has been prop- 
erly subdued and civilized by cultivation, sach low ground often becomes the most 
productive and the most easily tilled of any portion of the farm. 
: Manner of laying out ditches.— 
Fig. 1. The accompanying diagram 
l | P Fig. 1, represents a large field 
that was actually draizfed in the 
manner shown. ‘The soil was a 
heavy clay loam, and the subsoil 
a. retentive caleareous clay. 
The ditches were made about 
forty feet apart over the entire 
field, During a portion of the 
time a small stream of water 
that would all pass through a 
four-inch tile flowed over the 
surface in the valley from B to 
L, where a main ditch was sunk 
to a minimum depth of three 
feet, in which a course of four- 
inch egg-sole tiles was laid. 
As there was a valley at B O, 
and at D D, submains of three- 
inch tiles were laid as repre- 
sented to connect with the main 
drain. The paralle} ditehes were 
then made up and down the 
slopes as nearly as practicable. 
From A the water would ran 
most readily to B B. AtG H 
short branches were made up the 
slope, in which one and a half- 
inch tiles were laid. At POthe 
; ditches all ran directly up the 
| islope. From F the water ran 
| either toward the main L or the 
| 


| 
} 
| 
| 
By 
\ \ ! 


am a 


sub-main D. From C the de- 
; Scent was more uniform toward 
D D. Hence parallel ditches 
were made as represented. The 
object in laying out the ditches 


in so many directions was to 


— 


have them extend, as nearly as 
practicable, directly op and, 
down the slopes, which is the 
true system of thorough under- 
draining. Intelligent tillers of the soil and engineers of extensive experience agree in 
this one point, that in a system of thorough underdraining it is better to have the 
ditches made up and down a slope rather than diagonally across it. Hence main and 
sub-imains must be formed in the valleys, and parallelsand branchesshould run up and 
down the slopes. Even when the strata crop out on the side of a slope, between 
which surplus water renders the soil too wet, it will always be found more satisfactory 
to cut the ditches up and down the slope, rather than in a diagonal direction across it. 
Determining the size of ditches.—The size of a ditch must depend, in a great measure, 
on the quantity of water to be conveyed through it. When an underdrain is made in 
a valley through which passes a stream sufficiontly large, during some of the months 
of spring and autumn, to 4] a six-inch tile, the capacity of the underdrain should be 
fully equal to the volume of the stream when at its greatest height. Ifa considerable 
portion of the stream flows over the surface of the ground during the period of pro- 
tracted storms, the ground will be liable to be gullied, and large quantities of the soil 
will be washed away... Previous to making a drain in such a place, it is an excellent 
practice to ascertain the capacity of the stream at high water, by making a temporary 
dam of sods, or with a board, aud fixing a square tube made of boards in the dam, 
throngh which the water may pass. A drain will often draw four times as much water 
in one part of a field as in another. Hence, no engineer can determine with certainty, 
Without practical calculation, what should be the size of the tiles or the capacity of 
the water-course to he formed. In case a stream of water is allowed to fiow for only 
a few days on the surface over a stone drain, the water will be likely to find a passage 


| . 
———————————— 


| 


Ls 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. 587 


to the water-course of the drain, and will wash mellow earth down between the stones, 
thus obstructing the flow of the water in its proper channel. 

. It is always desirable, so far as may be practicable, to make the water-course of a 
drain only equal to the fullest capacity of the stream at any time. In many ditches, 
tiles having a bore of one and a half or two inches in diameter, will carry all the water 
that the drain will ever draw. In such places small tiles would be preferable to ethers 
twice as large, as a smal] passage, carrying a stream about equal to its capacity, will 
be kept ‘clear longer than one much larger. Economy may be exercised, in many 
places, by laying tiles of the smallest size, say one-inch tiles, at the upper end of the 
ditch, for a distance of several rods; then, for another distance, lay one and a half inch 
tiles; then, as the capacity of the stream increases, use two-inch tiles, increasing to 
three-inch, four-inch, five-inch, at given sections of the distance. In many instances a 
stone drain or plank drain is made through a field as the main drain, or four-inch tiles 
are employed, into which not a few branches, some short and others long, empty their 
water. In many such branches one to two inch tiles would serve the purpose of 
four-inch tiles. 

The size and form of the stones to be used in filling a drain must be taken into con- 
sideration when cutting the ditch. If the side stones are about six inches in diameter, . 
and the stream seldom fills a four-inch tile, the bottom of the ditch shouid be made 
fourteen inches wide, which will give a water-course four inches up and down, and 
two inches wide. If the ditch be made of the size indicated, the same kind of stones 
may be used for covering the water-course that are employed in the side. It is im- 
portant that the width of a ditch should conform to the size and shape of the stones. 

Draining large marshes.—The first. consideration in draining a marsh is to determine 
the source of the water. If the water backs up and overflows from a river, lake, or 
other body, the construction of a dike should be the first step. If the surplus water 
flows down from the uplands, or issues from springs near the foot of a slope, spreading 
over the surface of the low ground, a deep drain should’ be made between the slope of 
the marsh, called a “catch-water drain,” for the purpose of receiving the water as it 
spreads along on the surface or through the soil at a period of high water. A good 
drain in the right place, near the source of surplus water, will often be more effectual 
in draining the soil than four times the length of drain made directly through the 
marsh. Marshes are always supplied with surplus water from a source higher than 
the surface. In many instances a small stream flows directly through the marsh dur- 
ing the greater part of the growing season, and at periods of high water the stream 
will be so large that the water cannot be conveyed in an underdrain. _ In such a case 
the first step will be to cut a broad, open ditch through ‘the middle. This should be 
done when there is little or no water. In some instances laborers must do the first ex- 
cavating in mud and water ankle deep. In case the natural course of a stream lies 
directly across a field, an open ditch, to carry the flood water, may often be made more 
conveuieutly on one side of the swamp, which will sometimes serve the double pur- 
pose of an open ditch and a main drain, into which branches may empty. If, for in- 
stance, as is frequently the case, a spring issues from one side of a swamp, so that the 
water spreads over the surface of a broad area, ascertain and stake out the most con- 
venient place for a deep underdraiy, to extend from the. spring to some river, and let 
the water be all collected at the head of a ditch before any portion of it is allowed to 
spread over the low ground. One good drain will sometimes be sufficient to relieve 
several acres of all surplus water. 

In many instances swampy depressions are found on table-land having no natural out- 
let of sufficient depth to draw off all the water, even in the driest month of the year. 
The source of the water in such “ pond-holes” or “cat-holes,” as they are sometimes 
denominated, can be found in no particular place, but it soaks in on every side. The 
proper way to render such places dry is to sink a deep ditch entirely around the outer 
edge, a rod or more distant from the lagh-water mark. Of course the distance of the ditch 
from theedye of the swamp will depend on the slope of the land, In case the land is dry 
enough to be plowed and cultivated close to high-water mark, let the ditch be made 
only a few feet from that point. On the contrary, if the partially dry land near the 
swamp is only a few inches higher than the level with high-water mark, and wild, 
coarse grass appears over the surface for a distance of several rods from the swamp, let 
the ditch be sunk a few feet beyond everything that indicates wet land. Such ditches 
should be made not less than thiee feet deep, having a good outlet, so that water from 
the farthest side will flow away as readily as from the side nearer the outlet. Fig. 2 
furnishes a more correct idea of the true manner, of draining “cat-holes” and frog- 
pouds on table-land, The irregular line W indicates high-water mark. The dotted 
line L represents tho extreme point occupied by wild and coarse grass and aquatic 
plants. AtOis the ontletofa tiledrain, where it may be necessary tosink the main ditch 
four or five feet deep in order to secure a true descent from T to O on both sides of the 
wet ground. It isa rare occurrence that a cat-hole is not thoroughly drained when 
tiles are laid entirely around the outside,as indicated. The grand difficulty in many 
instances is that the ditch is sunk on one or both sides of the wet ground deeper than 


588 AGRICULTURAL REPORT: 


at the outlet. Itis an excellent practice to grade the entire ditch before laying any 
tiles; then Jet in the water at T to test the descent. In case the water does not dis- 
Fie, 2 ; appear from the swamp in a few weeks 
Bs after the tiles are laid, let another ditch 

“ be made directly through the pond. 

Another difficulty of common occurrence, 
when swamps are drained, is that the 
ditches are.made too shallow. In case a 
frog-pond covers an area of only a few 
square rods, and it is a long distance from 
and nearly level with the final outlet, it 
would be allowable to sink the ditch at 
T onlytwofeetdeep. Still, if the bottom 
of the ditch can be graded with only two 
inches fall in every one hundred feet, it 
would be desirable to sink every part at 
least thirty inches in depth. 

In most instances one-inch tiles will be 
sufficiently large to convey all the water 
that would be collected around a pond 
occupying half an acre to an acre. In 
some instances two-inch tiles will be re- 
quired, with those having a two and one- 
half inch caliber for the main drain. If 
25 tiles are somewhat expensive, many dol- 

ab lars’ worth may be saved by employing 
+ those of a small size when there is only 
iad asmall quantity of water to be conducted. 
_ Thorough draining of slopes.—On the table-lands between many of our lakes and 
rivers there will be found large swamps, and in some instances extensive ponds, many 
of which never dry up, even during the summer. In numerous instances the water 
from these swamps percolates through the strata below, and spreads far and wide in 
the fissures until it reaches the surface soil on the slopes, which it keeps thoroughly 
saturated, even in dry weather. In one such instance, a type of many others, a field 
lay on a slope, as in Fig. 3, above which, on the table-land, was a large tract of 
swampy ground, chiefly woodland. This slope descended about six inches per lineal 
rod; and there seemed to be no reason why the soil should be so wet when such land 
ought to be dry. The entire slope, over 
an area of many acres, was rendered very 
wet by the water that came to the surface 
from the swampy land above. 
| _ The first step toward draining that field 
thoroughly was to sink a three-foot ditch, 
{ with a stoned throat, across the upper 
end from a to b, from b to c, and from ato 
e, letting the water discharge into a deep 
gutter at one side of the highway. .As 
there was a' low place at f, a ditch was 
sunk from f tog. The deep “ catch-water 
drain” across the upper end, from a to }, 
cuts off a large proportion of the water. 
Yet six or eight yards down the slope 
the water would soak out from the catch- 
water drain, rendering the soil on ,the 
lower side of the slope as wet as ever. It 
is probable, also, that the veins which 
conducted the water from the swamp to 
= the lower part of the field were not yet 
reached by the catch-water drain ab. Hence other drains were made about forty 
feet apart, as shown by the dotted lines up and down the slope, ending four or five 
rods below the catch-water drain. These latter drains collected the surplus water 
in the most thorough manner. For the catch-water drain two-inch tiles would have 
been preferable to stones, and one-inch to one and one-half inch tiles would have been 
sufficiently large for the parallels, as represented by the dotted lines. Ate was the 
lowest point. Hence, if there had been no deep highway gutter along e, g, ¢, it would 
have been necessary to make a drain in that place to receive the water from the paral- 
lels. As the slope below, which was wet also, belonged to another person, it would 
be necessary for him to sink parallels directly up and down the slope, ending two or 
three rods below the highway, if he would carry out the system of thorough drainage 
commenced above the highway, as represented by the diagram. 


Fea 
4 
. 


ee ee ee ene 


oe 


i! Hs Soins re 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. 589 


Excavating small ditches—The most economical and expeditious manner of excavat- 
ing ditches of ordinaryssize is to stake out the course of the ditch, using many short 
stakes not more than a foot high, and three or four long ones ; then, having put a sharp 
point and a sharp colter on a common two-horse plow, strike a straight furrow, only 
four or five inches deep, in case the surface is covered with turf, and let the furrow- 
slice fall back again into the furrow. Hf the furrow-slice does not return to the furrow, 
let it be turned back with iron hooks. Now let the plow be run back in the same 
place, so as to eu a farrow-slice about ten inches or one foot in width, which the plow 
will throw entirely out on the bank. A goed plowman will remove all the “ first 
spading,” by operating in this manner, faster than twenty men can cut the turf and 
throw it out with spades. In case the first furrow-slice is not of sufficient width for a 
deep ditch, tet the plow be run along back and forth to cut off another furrow-slice of 
the desired width. If a double team can be employed, where the land is not stony, a 
depth of six or eight inches may be thrown out with a plow. Should there be much 
loose earth after the sod has been removed, let it be shoveled out with round-pointed 
shovels; then drive a common plow, without a colter, back and forth in the excava- 
tion, until the impleinent has loosened a depth of nearly two feet. After the mellow 
earth has been thrown out with shovels, hitch a team to a subsoil plow and loosen the 
hard under-stratum, and continue to plow up and throw out the earth until the desired 
depth has been reached. The writer has sunk many hundreds of lineal rods of tile 
ditch in the foregoing manner, the expense of which did not exceed eight cents per 
rod. The bottom must necessarily be graded with a ditcher’s pick if the ground be 

_very hard. It will be understood, also, that after the excavation has been made over a 
foot deep, a long whifietree should be employed, so that each horse may travel at 
least two feet away from the bank of the excavation. A chain also, two or three fect 
in length, must extend from the end of the plow-beam to the double whiftletree. When 
the sod is removed with spades and shovels, a vast amount of hard labor maybe saved 
by making the ditches as narrow as they can be excavated, as a narrow cut across the 
water veins will stop the onward flow of water, and conduct it to the bottom of the 
channel quite as effectually as if an excavation were made in the same place one foot 
wide. I, for example, the ditches are to receive two-inch or even three-inch tiles, and 
the excavating is all to be done by hand tools, let a line be stretched, say, fifty or a hun- 
dred feet in length, and with the spade cut through the sod beneath the line. Then re- 
move the line eight inches distant, and cut the sod for the other side of the ditch. Ifthe 
ground can be spaded, a digger will be able to excavate from ten to twenty lineal rods 
in a day, according to the compactness of the subsoil. As the ditch is sunk, the sides 
should be dressed off roughly, merely to keep the banks true, and tapering to a width 
of only four or five inches at the bottom of a ditch thirty inches deep. 

An experienced ditcher will probably demur at the idea of working in such a nar- 
row excavation. The writer once employed a digger who made true ditches, but he 
had been educated to excavate ditches for receiving stones, and he would not cut less 
than one foot wide at the surface and ten inches at the bottom. He would not be con- 
vinced that an excayation only seven or eight inches wide at the surface, and four or 
five inches wide at the bottom, could be made with about one-half the labor. When 
excavating such narrow ditches the digger must be provided with a good narrow spade 
and a ditcher’s scoop. Then he must learn to work with one foot forward of the other. 

Ditching implements.—There is a great difference in spades. Some are made of the 
poorest kind of rolled iron. The blade of such spades must be very heavy to endure 
severe usage in the hands of carelesslaborers. Besides this, they will not wear smooth; 
and the blades cannot be kept bright without much difficulty. Hence, iron spades are 
heavy, unwieldy, and always so rusty as to hold the earth, thus making hard work 
still more laborious. Figs. 4 and 5 represent two steel ditching-spades, of the most 
approved forms. Fig. 4 represents a steel spade of extra length, ironed extra strong 
on the handle. Fig. 5 shows a concave blade, having a circular edge. This spade 
is made of good steel, properly tempered and polished, and is much lighter than the 
other, although very strong. This concave blade is used in removing the first sod-spad- 
ing, when excavating narrow ditches for small tiles. Fig. 4is designed for digging 
in heavy, unctuous clay, where a tool of unusual strength is requisite. To work 
easily, steel spades should be kept bright on both sides, and the blades should be 
ground to a sharp but abrupt edge. If spades of the desired length and breadth of 
blade cannot be obtained readily at country stores, the nearest manufacturer of spades 
and ditching tools could be addressed, with directions for making tools of the desired 
form and size. 

Fig. 6 represents a spade of the latest improvement. The blade is twenty inches 
long, five inches wide, and circular at the entering edge. This style of spade is de- 
signed especially for excavating deep and narrow tile ditches. ‘The handle is longer 
than the handies of ordinary spades. The blade is concave -on the front side, and is 
usually made of steel neatly polished. .As the shoulder at the head ,of the blade is 
quite too narrow to receive the .digger’s foot, an iron adjustable shoulder jis held by 
two screw-bolts to any desired place .on ‘the handle. ‘With .such a spade, ‘after the 


590 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


> 


first spading of sod has been removed, a digger can sink a ditch fo the desired depth 
whilestanding on the bank. Fig. 7 isa steel spade similar to ig. 6, yet having a shorter 
blade. Fig. 3 represents a very convenient and useful tool for shoveling the loose 
earth from the bettom of ditches that are of sufficient width to receive the blade. The 
corners of the entering edge are made square and sharp, to facilitate dressing out the 
corners of the bottom of a ditch. 

Cleaners are valuable and convenient tools to aid in excavating very narrow ditches. 
They are of several forms, as represented by the accompanying illustrations. Fig. 9 
should be bnng similar to a round-pointed shovel, so that the blade will rest flat 
on the ground when the handle is beld across one knee. The blades of the other 
cleaners, Figs. 19 and 11, are hung at about the same angle as a broad hoe, so that 
the operator can stand on the bank of the narrow ditch and scoop out the loose earth 
from the bottom. In many instances where the earth to be excavated is soft, these, 
cleapers are employed to excavate the ditch after the first spading has been removed, 
and to grade the bottom while the operator stands on the bank. Fig. 11 is a slen- 
der scoop having a long handle. ‘ 

The blades of such cleaners should be made of good steel, with a strong shank and a 
handle that cannot be broken by a careless thrust. It should be remembered also that 
such cleaners are not designed to endure the strain of a pick ora crow-bar. Hence the 
edge should not be driven down into compact ground, and foree applied to pry more 
earth than the tool can lift at one time. All such tools are made strong and light, to _ 
handle loose and yielding earth. But diggers who have not been educated to use tools ° 
with care will often employ a cleauer when they should use a crow-bar. 

A boot spading-iron.— After the spade has been used for a few hours, anless the sole of 
the boot is nuusnally thick and bard, the foot which is employed to thrust in thespade 
will become tender and lame. To prevent such an occurrence, all skillful ditchers. em- 
ploy a spading-iron, to be lashed to the hollow of the foot. 

A Convenient Drain Level.—A convenient level is an important instrument to be em- 
ployed when making drains. When there is only an inch fal) per lineal rod, the use of a 
Teliable level is requisite to grade the bottom of the ditch ata true inclination, so that 
the water will flow away without being forced along on a level in certain places. The 
surface of the land is often deceptive, so much so that it is frequently unsafe to depend 
on cheap spirit levels, much less to rely on random gnessings. 

Fie, 12 Figure 12 represents a wooden leyel 
= ale that a mechanie can make in half an 
hour; a@are pieces of light wood one inch 
thick, eight feet long, four inches wide at 
the lower ends, and twe at the top; b is a 
gradnated cross-bar, screwed to aa; p 
consists of a plumb and line. Before the 
gradnated scale is made on b, let the 
leve] be turned half way around. Ifthe 
plumb-line indicates the same point or 
mark, the level is practically correct. 
Let the pieces be planed and painted, 
and the joints glned together. Then 
let it be handled with care and housed 
from the influences of the weather. 

Ditchers Metallic Shoes.—When laying 
tile in a narrow ditch in which there is a stream of water, it is very desirable to 
have a pair of metallic shoes lashed beneath the feet. These are usually made of thick 
sheet iron, with the two edges riveted together at the bottom. The object of such 
shoes is to allow the water to flow through the orifice freely, without forming a pool 
of water directly where the operator is Jaying tiles. When a ditch is only wide 
enough for a man’s feet when one is directly forward of the other, they will obstruct 
the water, rendering it rather disagreeable for the ditcher. When the bottom of a ditch 
is soft, the feet of a heavy man will constantly poach up the soft earth, making it more 
difficult to lay the tiles properly, while the hollow shoes will aid materially in keeping 
the bottom true and smooth. The orifice through the shoes need not be over two 
inches deep by four inches broad. Leather straps may be riveted to the sides, or they 
may pass through the sides. The shoes should be about two inches longer than the 
boots of the operator. A block of hard wood three by four inches square, with two 
one-and-a-fourth-inch holes bored through lengthwise near the bottom, will setve the 
parpose. 

Spirit-levels.—Many spirit levels are not sufficiently correct for leveling the founda- 
tion for a building, nor for grading a ditch where the surface of the ground is nearly 
level. In many instances the vial which contains the spirits is of such form that the 
air-bubble will not indicate a trifling movement. But a plumb-line will never fail to 
correspond exactly with a water-level. Fig. 13 represents a cheap and convenient . 


spiritlevel, which a worker in ywood will be able to make in an hour. ‘The part repre- 


oa —— eo ee 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. ; 591 


sented by A should be about eight feet long and five inches wide at the middle; B B 
are legs three or four feet long, and C C are braces. The spirit vial is set in a recess, 
eut in the middle of A. A joiner’s “spirit- Fie. 18 

level and plumb” may be fastened to eases 
the side of A with two screws. Then the i 
sight is taken over the upper edge of A. 
In some instances, if there is no wind 
to blow the plumb-line, and one has a ; 
true steel square, he may strike a level Pi 
pretty correctly by placing the long part ‘ 
of a steel square on two stakes and plumb- - 
ing the arm of the square as it hangs 
down. A small thread should be em- 
ployed as a plumb-line for such a pur- 


SLT IER habe Se PAP HR sealant ach eat 
aa. ey " miei Ae eros ates 
o 4 


A 


pose. 

Shovels for ditching.—LEvery laborer who 
shovels earth, whether from ditches or other excavations, should be provided with a 
good steel round-pointed shovel. If the handle be of the proper curvature, so that 
the blade will rest almost flat on the ground when the handle is dropped across 
one knee, a large proportion of the labor and consequent fatigue will be avoided, 
as one knee can be employed as a fulcrum to lift the shovelful of earth withont 

‘employing the muscles of the back. With such a shovel properly ‘hung, a laborer 
sill be able to throw out more than twice the amount of earth from a ditch, with 
less fatigue, in a day, than with a common dirt-shovel having a short handle. When 
excavating narrow ditches one inch or more may be turned up on each side of the 
blade, or it may be cut off, making a blade. five or six inches broad. When a digger 
must bend his back to enable him to get down to the dirt, every time his shovel is 
thrust in, the fatigue resulting from the elevation of the body and bending down also 
will exceed the fatigue arising from the expenditure of the force employed in shovel- 
ing. A laborer must keep the back straight when shoveling, or his power of endurance 
will soon fail. i 

A diichers’ steel pick.—On many farms the substratum is so compact and full of 
“hard pan,” and smal) stones imbedded in the rock-like earth, that the best steel spade 
will scarcely enter one inch. For excavating such land, a ditcher requires a good steel- 
pointed, double-bitted pick, one end pointed four square, and the opposite end chisel- 
shaped, about one and a quarter inch broad. ‘The best auality of steel should be em- 
ployed ; the temper should be as hard as the stee] will bear to be made without being brit- 
tle. As steel varies so much in quality, no particular rule can be given as to tempering 
the pick. The maker or the blacksmith must “temper and try.” The end of the handle 
that enters the eye of the pick should be large, strong, and dovetailed, so that the end 
can be kept tight in the eye without difficulty. Such handles should be made of the 
best quality of hard and tough timber; and the large end should be soaked in linseed 
oil two or three days before it is used, to render the timber durable, and to prevent 
shrinkage and working loose. 

Excavating very deep ditches.—It frequently occurs, in cutting a large main ditch, 
that it is necessary, at certain places, to sink it five or six feet deep, in order to 
make the bottom of a uniform grade. When cutting a ditch through some kinds of 
ground, unless the banks are left so sloping that the earth carfnot cave in, a great deal 
of labor is required in throwing out much more earth than is really necessary. To 
avoid this, after the surface of the ditch has been excavated about two feet in depth, 
procure two wide planks sixteen or twenty feet long; place one on each side of the 


Fig. 14. 
SURFACE 
4 ‘, 4 


SURFACE F 


excavation, and drive in a brace or prop between the planks, as represented by Fig. 
- 14, in which a large plank is shown, placed against the bank of a ditch, with two props 
extending across from one plank to the other. A width of two feet will enable a dig 


s 


592 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


er to sink the excavation five or six feet without incurring any danger from caving. 
By employing the level, Fig. 12, and grading the bottom of a section one rod in 
length of the correct inclination, and laying the tiles or other material, as soon as about 
twenty feet can be excavated, the earth can be returned at once, and the props be re- 
moved to plank another section of the ditch. When the banks are stayed for a long 
distance with planks and props, a large quantity of lumber will be required. Besides 
this, the injury done to clean planks, when employed for such a purpose, wouJd render 
them of little value for most building purposes. 

Finishing the bottom of a ditch—When tiles or stones are employed to fill a ditch, it is 
of little acconnt whether the sides, a few inches upward from the bottom, be dressed 
true or left as uneven as a rough rock; but when filling with pieces of plank, it will be 
easy to finish the sides and corners of the bottom so smoothly that the pieces 
will fit neatly by usinga gauge, represented by Fig. 15, which consists of a piece of 
hard-wood board ten inches long by four inches wide, having one end of a handle 

e nailed firmly across the middle, as shown. When finishing the bot- 

Fig. 15.  . tom of a ditch, the ditcher should be provided with such a gauge, 
and be instructed to have the bottom of the ditch dressed so trus 
that the gauge will barely pass through it endwise. 

The correct depth of drains.—Where the ground is to be cultivated 
by deep plowing, or by spading, whether the ditches are filled with 
tiles, stones, or wood in any form, the excavation should never be 
made less than thirty inches deep. No plowing or spading will ever 
disturb the tile in a ditch of this depth. Ifa ditch is stoned, so that 
the surface of the leveling stones is ten to twelve inches above the 
bottom of the ditch, a suitable plow might disturb some of the stones, 
and cause mellow earth to work down into the water-course, and 
thus obstruct the stream. So long as a drain has a free outlet, there 
is little danger of sinking a ditch too deep. 

The rule adopted by all intelligent ditchers is, to sink the ditch at 
the most shallow place, not less than thirty inches; then, if the ditch 
will draw all the water when graded to that uniform depth, thirty 
inches will subserve the purpose as well as if the drain were three or 
four feet deep. After a ditch has been sunk thirty inches, any farther 

depth should be determined by the distance required to cut off the water-veins. The only 
objection that can be urged against a greater depth than thirty inches is the expense 
of digging. When the earth is so firm that the lower part of a ditch must be dug up 
with a sharp-pointed pick, it is estimated by practical ditchers that the labor of mak- 
ing a ditch four feet deep is fully equal to cutting two ditches, in the same kind of 
soul, only three feet deep. This assumption will not always be found reliable. If aditch 
be excavated to the depth of three feet, while it is of sufficient width to enable the 
digger to sink it another foot without increasing the width, it is evident that the labor 
required to excavate the fourth foot will not equal the labor of sinking it threé feet. 
If the ditch is so narrow, after having been sunk three feet, that the digger cannoé 
work conveniently at a greater depth without increasing the width, the labor incident 
to excavating the fourth foot may equal the expense of digging the first three feet. 

Most writers on underdraining have fixed the minimum depth of drains at four feet 
for all ordinary underdraining, but none of them have assigned any plausible reason 
therefor, except that it brings the line of saturation farther below the surface of the 
soil than the same line would be in case the drains were only three feet deep, which is 
correct. Yet, if a system of draining thirty inches in depth draws all the superfiu- 
ous water, we are not warranted in assuming that the soil would be any more produc- 
tive if the drains were sunk four feet deep. The roots of growing plants will not 
strike more than thirty inches deep, on an average, even if the ditches were sunk six 
feet deep. Hence, we shall need the evidence of well-conducted experiments to prove 
that it will pay to sink ditches four feet deep, before recommending the adoption of so 
expensive a system. ‘ ee 

Grading the bottom of ditches—When there is considerable slope to a ditch, if is im- 


portant that the bottom should be of uniform descent from the sammit of the slope to. 


the lowest point of the outlet. This is particularly desirable if the ditch is to be filled 
with stones, planks, or horseshoe tiles, in which cases the water flows on the ground ; 
and if the earth should be soft and readily washed away in some places, and be com- 
pact in other places, the bottom of the channel would be liable to be gullied where 
the water runs most rapidly. The object in having the bottom of a true grade is 
to secure a uniform current of the stream. The subject may be elucidated by the 
accompanying diagram, (Fig. 16,) in which a b represents the uneven surface of the 
slope, where the drain is to be made. There may be, for example, a marsh a little 
above b, to be drained. Instead of making the bottom of the drain to correspond as 
nearly as may be with the uneven surface of the slope, as represented by the line ed, 
of numerous angles, the bottom should be graded as straight as a line from ¢ to f; then 
water will flow from one end to the other with a uniform rapidity. A horizontal base- 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. 593 


line at the outlet of the drain is represented by the dotted lineog. To commence 
properly, drive a stake three feet high at h and one at *, where the ditch is to be cut ; 
then drive another at i, so that the Fie. 16 

tops of each will be in an exact line sa Site 
as represented by the dotted line be- 
neath, hik. The stakes at h and i 
must be just far enough apart to sup- 
port the two legs of the level, (Fig. 
13.) After the stakes, h i, are driven, 
place the level on the top of them, 
and make a mark on the cross gradu- 
ated bar at the point where the f 
plumb-line settles while the rfile is 
on the tops of the stakes; the ditcher 
will then have a cheap and reliable 
rule to enable him to grade the bot- 
tom of the ditch with the most desirable accuracy, at any point from atob. Let him com- 
mence at a and sink the ditch as deep as the outlet can be dug; set the level in the bottom 
frequently until the correct inclination is secured; then, if there should be any danger 
that either bank will cave in, let the tiles, planks, or stones be put in the bottom and 
covered with dirt at once, when the digger can proceed to excavate another lineal 
rod, and grade the bottom with as much accuracy as it could be done were all the 
ditch excavated before any portion of it is stoned or tiled. 

Different styles of ditching-plows.—By employing strong teams and plows of proper 
construction, a vast amount of manual labor may be avoided. A steel mold-board plow 
with a sub-soil attachment is employed in many States both for ditching and pulver- 
izing the soil, where the substratum needs to be broken up. In many instances it 
becomes necessary to put the weight of a man on the beam in order to make the plow 
enter the hard ground. A strong piece of plank is bolted to the underside of the beam, 
on which aman can stand. The plank also serves to prevent the plow from plunging 
down too deep in a soft place. By having a spar of wood bolted erect to the side of 
the beam, a person can ride a plow-beam without danger and with little fatigue. 
Where there are but few stones to obstruct a plow, a ditch can be sunk rapidly with 
such an implement. 


Fig. 17. 


Figure 17 represents the Iowa deep-trench plow, which is so constructed that the 
entire furrow slice rises and slides up the inclined mold-board almost as high as the 
lower side of the beam before it is turned over. By driving twice or thrice in a furrow 
where it is desirable to make a ditch, if the substratum is not too stubborn and strong, 
such a piow will open a ditch thirty inches deep, which will only require a small 
amount of manual labor to grade the bottom for a course of tiles. 

These plows are very large, strong, and heavy, weighing three or four hundred 
pounds. Three or four yokes of strong, heavy oxen are required to draw one satisfac- 
torily. No part can be broken by any tair means. <A gauge-wheel should be employed 
beneath the beam until the implement is required to enter its full depth, when the 
wheel may be removed and the plank-shoe substituted. Where there are many large 
boulders, or much hard-pan, such a plow would require more teams than could be made 
to draw advantageously in a line withont much previous training. 

The subsoil plow proper, (Fig. 18,) is employed extensively, in sinking deep ditches, 
simply to turn up and pulverize the hard substratum in the bottom of a ditch, so that 
the earth may be thrown out with shovels. The standard consists of a plate of cast- 
iron nearly one inch thick, of the form shown by the cut. The share or point is made 
strong, so that it cannot be easily broken. The light-colored portion above the share 


38 A 


594 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


represents a “‘throat-piece,” which is subject to severe wear, and which can be easily 
renewed at an expense of a few cents. On the side of the standard a flange or kind of 
shelf jis shown, which assists in elevating and pulverizing the subsoil. When such a 


Fig. 18. 


plow is drawn in a deep ditch, a chain from three to six feet long extends from the end 
of the beam to the whiifletree. If oxen are employed, the draught-chain is lengthened 
at pleasure. 

A cast-iron ditching scraper.—Figure 19 represents a cast-iron scraper, or “ ox-shovel,” 
employed in excavating large ditches. It is provided with an iron bail, as shown, in 
lieu of a log-chain, which is frequently used. Such scrapers are comparatively light 

: and strong, and are made of 
Fig. 19. various sizes. The inside 
Fa should be kept as bright as 
the mold-board of a plow. 
When not in use, the surface 
should be washed clean and 
covered with a little linseed 
or cotton-seed oil, or with 
fresh tallow, to prevent rust- 
ing. When alog-chainis em- 
ployed instead of a bail, a 
wooden stretcher should be 
used to hold the chain apart, 
so that the earth will slide 
- nore easily into the imple- 
ment. 

Gearing a team to work near a 
ditch.—After a ditch is about a 
foot deep, a horse or a mule, if possessed of much spirit, will be afraid to travel near the 
bank! It isa good practice to provide a double whiffletree, eight feet long from the center 
of one single whiffletree to the other. Then a light “ jockey-stick,” or coupling-bar, about 
seven feet long, is tied between the bits of the two horses to hold their heads the desired 
distance apart. A piece of pine, basswood, or any other light wood, one and a quarter 
inches square midway between the ends, tapered to three-quarters of an inch square at 
the ends, will be found about the right dimensions. By this arrangement, two horses or 
two mules attached to a plow may each travel more than three feet from the bank of 
a deep ditch. A person leads one horse carefully at the proper distance from the bank 
of the ditch. The other horse is kept in his correct place by means of the coupling- 
pole. If oxen are employed, procure a stick of yellow willow, basswood, or white- 
wood, six inches square; bore the holes for the bows as for a yoke, and dress out a sad- 
dle at each end to fit the necks of the oxen. Grea care should be exercised in turning 
a team around, and in crossing a ditch, that the animals do not step so closely to the 
edge of the bank that it will cave in. By using a chain of two, three, or four feet in 
length, between the double whiffletree and the plow, a good team will move along 
steadily, without pulling or hauling through fear, thus enabling a plowman to turn up 
the compact earth in the bottom of a three-foot ditch faster than ten men can dig it up 
with picks. As the depth of the ditch increases, the chain between the plow and 
whifiletrees must be lengthened. 4 

How to make large open drains.—The most economical way to make a large open drain 
is to do almost all the excavating with a plow and dirt-scraper. For example, stake 
out a section, say thirty or forty rods long, and with a plow mark out a land twelve 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. 595 


to sixteen feet in width, according to the proposed depth of the drain, and plow that 
strip deep, turning the furrow-slices outward, or each way from the point where the 
center of the drain is to be. If there is no sod on the surface, let this strip be plowed 
over and over again, working the dirt outward at every plowing. One man witha 
team and a good plow will move more earth than two men with a team and scraper, 
until the depression is two feet in depth; then hitch the team to a good dirt scraper, 
and scrape the dirt each way from the center of the middle furrow. There will be 
more or less depression perhaps a rod from the middle furrow, which should be leveled 
up with the dirt that is scraped out. Continue to plow and scrape the earth each way 
until a valley three feet in depth is excavated, having a smooth slope clear down to 
the lowest point. Such a ditch will never cave in. Besides this, the land can be 
seeded with grass-seed, and the grass be mowed with hand scythes, or with a horse- 
mower, clear down to the water. Two and one-half or three feet deep wil! furnish a 
satisfactory outlet in most instances for branch drains. After the valley is excavated 
as directed, cut a water-channel with the plow and ditching tools about six or eight 
inches in depth, and from one to two feet wide, according to the amount of water that 
will probably flow when the stream is at an-ordinary height. The reader will be sur- 
prised to see what a long line of open drain two faithful laborers, with a team, plow, 
il and hand-teols will be able to make ina day, when they operate as above 
ected. 

Let it not be understood that such a drain as the foregoing is recommended where 
all the water can be carried in an underdrain of large capacity. There are places on 
many farms where the stream of water is so large during most of the time in late 
autumn, winter, and spring, that an underdrain, fifteen or twenty inches square, would 
be inadequate to the volume of water. In such instances the proprietor must resort to 
an open drain. 

In many instances the open drain may be made on a straight line between two fields 
or plots of ground, rather than in the natural channel of the water. The writer has 
frequently turned small streams from their natural course through the middle of culti- 
vated fields, by excavating such an open drain as has been suggested along the margin 
of tillable land. In the natural channel of the water-course an underdrain was made, 
so that the low ground, which had always been inundated with “flood-water” at cer- 
tain seasons of the year, was never overflowed. By adopting such a system of drain- 
age, the open drain will appear at the margin of a field where it will cause less incoen- 
venience than if it were to be made in the middle. By sinking a channel, as directed, 
all the silt from the side drains, and the wash from the slopes, will be collected and 
not be carried beyond the farm, Every autumn the channel should be cleaned out, as 
more or less grass will have sprung up during the summer to obstruct the water. 

Brooks of considerable magnitude frequently flow through a farm, winding and 
doubling over a large area of choice ground. By excavating such a ditch as we have 
indicated, one can frequently save nearly enough choice land to defray the expenses 
incurred in its excavation. The proper time to make such an open drain is during the 
summer, when there is very little or no water. In case there should be some water, 
keep the middle furrow clean, so that the stream will not spread and wet the dirt that 
is to be scraped out. 

Making outlets of drains.—Many an excellent underdrain has been seriously damaged 
in consequence of a poor outlet. When the outlets are made of stones, the influence ot 
the freezing and thawing of the ground, and the tread of heavy animals, will frequently 
displacg many of the stones, so that the passage soon becomes obstructed. If tiles are 
employed, one or two are sometimes broken, or they disintegrate after having been 
frozen and thawed a few times. It is a common occurrence to see a pond of water 
several inches deep at the outlet of a drain, with the water-course six inches below the 
surface of the water. Such drains are liable to be obstructed in one or two years. The 
outlet of every drain, especially of main drains, should be made with much care. If 
stones are employed, a good outlet may be made by using a covering-stone two or three 
feet long. Otherwise it will be advisable to make a wooden outlet, as illustrated by 
Figure 20, which is made by first placing a board or plank on the bottom of the ditch, 
if the ground is soft, then by setting 
a strip four inches wide on each side 


and covering with short pieces, as TUNINNTNIN 
shown by the cut. A board is fre- \\ 
quently laid on lengthwise, whichis = N 


objectionable, as the covering will 
not be so strong as if the same board 
were cut in pieces and laid crosswise. 
The water-channel beyond the outlet should always be kept clear of mud and gravel, 
so that the water will flow away rapidly from the drain. If a pond is desirable for 
collecting water for stock to drink, let an excavation be made at a short distance from 
the outlet of the drain, so that the water may wash out all the fine earth that may be 
accumulated in the water-course of the drain, 


596 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


How to make a, convenient watering sluice—Figure 21 represents the mode which the 
writer employed to construct watering sluices in those fields where all the water had 
been collected in underdrains. A gorge eight or ten feet wide was excavated with 
plow and scraper directly across a deep drain, and a plank box without bottom or top, 
eight or ten feet long, was set from bank to bank as represented. A hole in the end- 
plank permitted the water to enter the box, and a similar orifice allowed it to escape 
through the other end. By this arrangement sheep and swine, as well as horses, mules, 
and cattle, could step down to the sluice and drink at pleasure. The water should be 
four or five inches deep in the box, and the inclined excavation should be paved with 
stones, so that heavy animals may not poach up the ground, and thus make a deep 
mud hole. The surface of the pavement should be as low as the surface of the water. 
Such sluices should be constructed when deep drains are made, if water for domestic 
animals is an object. The holes in the sides of the box, through-which sheep and 
swine may put their heads, should not be made so large that small animals may get into 
the water. 

Filling ditches with flat stones— Where there are no cobble-stones to place on the sides 
of a ditch, but a liberal supply of flat stones, the ditches may be dug as narrow for a 
small drain as can be excavated to a depth of thirty inches. Then, if only a small 
water-course is required, stones may be set on the edge against each side, and a third 
stone be dropped in between the two side-stones, like the key-stone of an arch, 
as represented by Figure 22. Large flat stones may then be broken into small pieces, 
and the cavities filled with them, the surface being leveled up, earth-tight. A drain 
filled properly with flat stones placed in such a manner will render excellent service 
as long as water continues to flow, provided the outlet is kept clear from all obstruc- 
tions. ‘ 

Another mode of filling a ditch with flat stones is shown by Figure 23, in which is 
shown a water-course of a much larger capacity than is represented by the preceding 
illustration, (Fig. 22.) We will assume that a ditch is ten inches wide on the bottom. 
A course of thin stones is set on one side, as shown, another stone is set on one edge 
in the opposite corner, and the top inclined against the side of the other stone. The 
surface is then leveled up properly with suitable fragments. The operator should have 
a good stone hammer which he can handle with one hand, to dress off the edges of 
stones, and to break large pieces to fragments of a desirable size. 

When a water-course of a large capacity is desirable, flat stones may be set on edge 
on both sides and a flat stone, dressed off with the stone-hammer, be fitted to rest firmly 
on the upper edge. Great care should be exercised, however, when flat stones are em- 
ployed in this manner, to see that the covering stones rest on the side stones with 
sufficient weight to keep them from falling over into the middle of the water-course. 
Thin and scaly pieces should not be employed for covering stones except over the joints 
of strong pieces which cannot be crushed by the superincumbent pressure of the earth. 

Careless boys and heedless men, who possess no mechanical skill and who care little 
whether a drain operates satisfactorily or not, should never be permitted to place the 
side stones and covering stones in a ditch. They may aid in leveling up and in finish- 
ing the stoning, but some careful and intelligent person should be employed to place 
the side stones and covering stones. Oue or two stones carelessly placed wiil cause great 
damage to a drain. 

A convenient guard-board.—When laborers are distributing stones along the bank of a 
ditch, many of the stones will rebound and roll into the ditch, where they are not wanted, 
thus making much disagreeable labor in removing them. ‘To prevent stones from fall- 
ing into the channel, employ a stiff board piaced on one edge at one side of the exca- 
vation, which allows the stones to accumulate in a ridge close to the ditch without 
rolling into the channel. Two sticks, one near each end of the board, hold it on the 
edge. One end of each stick enters a hole through the board, while the other rests 
against the opposite bank of the ditch. Such a board may be twelve or sixteen feet 
long, and it should not be less than one foot wide. In casestones are distributea before 
the ditch is made, the guard-board will aid materially in keeping the stones in a close 
ridge. 

Filling ditches with irregular stones—When small boulders of almost every shape and 
size are to be employed, great care should be exercised to leave no passage for the water 
except the interstices between the stones. In laying a row of stones on each side of a 
ditch, the operator should exercise judgment in selecting those of a uniform size, as 
nearly as may be, so that the covering stones may rest on every side stone on both 
sides of the ditch, to prevent rolling toward the middle of the channel. When 
necessary to use side stones it is necessary to use several of that size, placed side by 
side, rather than to lay a few small ones between the large ones, which will often{be. 
one or two inches below the covering stones. 

“How to place the side stoncs.—The operator Jays one of the stones in the desired place, 
and supports it with one foot while he lays the covering stone in its place, which 
tends to hold the side stones firmly against the walls of the ditch. The entire super- 
incumbent pressure is .zpon .a narrow ,space near the .corner of the ditch. “By ;this 


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PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. Bot 


manner of placing the stenes the water cannot undermine them; neither can a 
stream wash out a passage behind them. In case the stream should wash away the 
earth to such an extent that the side stones must settle, more or less, they will still 
retain the desired position, and continue to drop directly downward, the covering 
stone holding them just as they were originally placed. After the covering stone is 
laid, every large cavity should be filled with smaller stones, and the surface be 
leveled otf with numerous small stones all laid with care, so that the earth cannot 
work down into the water-course. A great many small stones, not larger than hens’ 
eggs, should be employed to #il the interstices, so that the water-course may not be 
obstructed, as otherwise the passage for water is very liable to be completely clogged 
with earth. 

Fiiling ditches with poles and flat stones.—In the year 1843 a large open ditch was filled 
by laying round poles on each side and covering them with flat stones, as represented 
by Fig. 24. Flat stones were scarce, and could not be obtained within’a distance of 
three miles. The poles were chiefly white and red beech, laid in the ditch the same 
day they were cut, and were usually about four to five inches in diameter. The 
bottom of the ditch was about fourteen inches wide. All the joints between the stones 
were covered with thin, small pieces of flat stones. That drain has never, up to the 
present time, failed to deliver a large stream of water, and to drain the soil thoroughly 
on each side of it. It was not expected that those green poles would last ten years. 
If such perishable timber as white beech will last in a ditch twenty-seven years, surely 
cedar and other durable timber will endure a life-time. Poles will last much longer if 
the timber be thoroughly seasoned before being laid in the ground. If small boulders, 
or even hard-burned bricks, could be substituted for poles, they would be far prefer- 
able to wood. 

Filling ditches with rails or poles—This mode of filling ditches is noticed chiefly to 
point out the defect incident to the use of such materials for making a water-course. 
Fig. 25 represents a ditch filled with poles, one being laid in each corner of 
the ditch, with a third covering the space between the two. On account of the want 
of uniformity in size and shape of the poles, it is difficult to make a satisfactory water- 
course, unless the pieces are first sawed into short lengths of two or three feet. It will 
always be found difficult to make the top poles or rails fit Gown to the surface of the 
side poles sufliciently close to prevent mice from hauling the earth into the water- 
course. Unless the poles are unusually straight and of uniform size, there will be a 
large opening every few feet through which loose earth will fall and soon obstruct the 
water. If one pole be large and another small, it will be quite impracticable to put 
on a cover “dirt tight,” unless the covering pieces are first sawed of suitable length to 
be laid crosswise. By preparing the covering in this manner, rails or poles can be 
advantageously employed. Rails of durable timber may be sawed up, say ten inches 
long, and laid crosswise on the side rails, thus filling a ditch in a very economical 
mapner where timber is cheap. If poles are employed, let them be sawed of the 
desired length, then split in two equal parts, and thoroughly seasoned before being 
laid, and it will be found that timber will render excellent service for an age. 

Slabs from timber-logs sometimes make an excellent covering in wood drains. They 
should first be sawed of the desired length, the edges cut off straight, so that the 
pieces will make dirt-tight joints, and after they are seasoned the pieces are used for 
filling ditches. The bark side is always laid up. If the bark does not peel off readily, 
the pieces should be laid in the ditch with the bark on. Some men of extensive expe- 
rience contend that timber, when buried a foot or more beneath the surface of the 
ground, will be more durable if the bark is not removed. 

Filling ditches with planks.—In many localities suitable stones cannot be obtaimed for 
filling a large ditch, except at a distance of several miles, and at a much greater 
expense than most tillers of the soil are willing to incur, while durable timber may be 
so abundant that planks will constitute the cheapest material which can be employed 
for making the water-course. The writer once made one in this way: The ditches were 
cut ten inches wide at the bottom, and the corners were dressed out true and square, so 
that a piece of scantling would fit closely without falling over toward the middle. 
After the bottom was well graded, a channel, as represented by D, (Fig. 26,) was cut 
in the bottom about five inches deep by four or five inches wide. After the channel was 
formed, pieces of scantling two inches square, or two by three inches, were laid in the 
corners of the ditch, and pieces of plauk ten inches long were laid on these side- 
pieces. In some instances side-pieces two by four inches were employed. . The object 
of the channel in the middle of the ditch is to keep the stream of water midway be- 
tween the side-pieces, and thus prevent the stream from undermining the sides; also 
to increase the capacity of the drain. The side-pieces will sustain the planks and 
keep the channel open, even if the water were to wash away the earth; but by direct- 
ing the water, at the outset, in a channel, the banks will soon be smaothed over, so 
that the earth will not wash away, except in sandy soils. Many hundred rods were 
made by simply laying the pieces of plank directly on the banks of the channel in > 
the bottom of the ditch, as represented by Figure 27. Yet, planks were never_laid on 


598 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the banks of the channel where the ground was so soft that it could be readily spaded. 
For drains of ordinary size, the bottoms of ditches were dressed only eight inches 
wide and the channel was excavated about five inches deep. By this arrangement an 
excellent ditch was made at the cheapest possible rate. One great advantage in the 
use of planks laid crosswise, in filling ditches, is the effectual exclusion of mice. 

How to prepare the planks.—For ditches ten inches wide, our practice has been to saw 
the planks into pieces ten inches long. When the pieces were placed in’the ditch, the 
_ ends fitted so neatly to the side walls that even mellow earth could not be washed 
into the channel. For sawing the planks, a common circular horse-saw, driven by a 
two-horse railway power, was employed—the machine used for sawing fire-wood—with 
which a man, aided by a boy, could sawa thousand feet of planksin onehour. Planks 
of any width and of available lengths were worked up in the most economical manner. 
The pieces were assorted before they were laid in the ditch, as one poor piece 
of plank in the middle of a long drain will cause an obstruction in a few years, as 
one bad shingle will make a leaky roof when almost every square foot of surface 
is made of the best of shingles. Any kind of durable timber may be employed 
for filling ditches in the foregoing manner. Before the pieces are laid in the ditch, the 
timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and, if the pieces could be dipped into boiling 
coal-tar after they are seasoned, they would not decay for a hundred years. 

The writer employed hemlock to fill several miles of ditch; and every lineal rod of 
it has rendered excellent service for the last twenty years, showing but little decay. 
One drain filled with planks has sent out a large stream of water for more than thirty 
years. It is impossible to keep the water out of such a ditch, if the planks be laid as 
close together as the pieces can be placed. The water will percolate down past the 
ends, and flow into the channel. 

Filling ditches with oak timber—In certain localities in Ohio, where stones were scarce, 
‘and tiles could not be obtained, and where white oak was abundant and cheap, many 
tillers of the soil have filled their ditches with split timber. Some of the trees were 
sawed into cuts about four feet long, or eight feet if the timber would split easily, 
after which the logs were split into billets about three or four inches square, according 
to the capacity of the drain. Other trees were sawed into cuts, some eight inches, 
some ten, and others twelve inches long, allof which were riven into slabs about two 
inches thick, which were employed for covering, placed from one billet to the other, 
across the ditch. In case there was but little water, only one billet was laid on one 
side of the bottom of the ditch, and the covering pieces were laid with one end on the 
billet, and the other end on the bottom of the ditch. If thoroughly seasoned before it 
is buried in a ditch, oak timber will endure a life-time. If near a good market, it 
would be more economical to sell oak timber and to purchase tiles. ; 

Objections to stone drains.—Unless stone drains are made three to four feet deep, and 
great pains taken to fill all the interstices with small stones covered with hard dirt, so 
that mice, rats, frogs, and other animals cannot work through and haul the earth down 
into the channel, the water-course is liable to be obstructed in many places. In many 
instances, a stream of water flowing on the surface of the ground, along or across a 
stone underdrain, will almost always form a large hole down to the stones, and wash 
the channel fall of earth. One instance may be referred to, of a large stone drain that 
was made forty-five years ago, no part of which has ever failed, although the ditch was 
sunk only two feet in depth. The stones were laid with much care, and the surface 
was so neatly chinked with small stones that mice could not work through. We have 
also known stone drains made in a careless manner, which did not operate satisfactor- 
ily for two years, as the surface was not properly chinked with small stones. 

Comparative cost of stones and tiles—When the writer first commenced underdraining 
with stones, he learned that he was obliged to work faithfully and to move qnickly to 
gather and distribute stones enough along a ditch in one day of ten hours, to stone ten 
lineal rods of ditch. Common laborers, when employed by the day, would not accom- 
plish so much as that. Then, on an average, he could stone one rod per hour, and do 
it well. Some “jobbing ditchers” professed to stone twenty to forty rods in a day; 
but the depressions and interstices and holes would not be well filled with small stones. 
No value was placed on the stones; and the labor of the team was of no account, as the 
horses would require no more feed to perform that little labor than if they were idle. 
Hence there were the wages of one man three days to stone twenty rods of ditch, com- 
puted at $6. It would require for twenty rods about two hundred and eighty-two tiles 
fourteen inches long. At i+ cents each for two-inch tiles, the expense would be about 
$3 52, besides the laying, which one man would easily performinanhour. This shows 
a difference in favor of the two-inch tiles of about $2 48 in twenty rods, or about 12 
cents per lineal rod, even where stones cost nothing except the labor of gathering. 
When four-inch tiles were employed, which cost, when delivered, about 4 cents each, 
there was a marked difference in favor of the stones. Hence it-was concluded to be 
most economical to employ stones if they could be obtained on the farm, if not needed 
for other purposes, when drains were required of a larger capacity than a two-inch 
tile. If stones are abundant, and must be removed from the field, employ them to fill 


PRACTICAL NOTES ON UNDERDRAINING. . §O9 


ditches rather than purchase tiles and cart stones off the field, to be deposited in 
large heaps. : 

Covering the tiles and stones in a ditch.—Straw, hay, and sods have been unwisely rec- 
ommended as a covering for tiles and stones. A more unsuitable material than sods 
cannot be employed, especially for covering the stones ina ditch. Sods will decay in 
a few months, and thus cover the stones with a mellow mold, which will be constantly 
working into the water-course of the drain. Mice like no better earth to work in than 
decayed sods. Straw, also, will soon decay, and the fine material will be washed into 
the water channel, and thus obstruct the passage. All such material as straw, sods, 
and the surface soil or mold, should never be placed in contact with the stones or 
planks of a drain. On the contrary, the heaviest and most compact earth or sub-soil 
should be returned first to the tiles or stones. As soon as the tiles are laid, some care- 
ful man should cover them by carefully shoveling over them a few inches in depth of 
the heaviest soil, after which the earth may be returned with a plow, on a team at- 
tached to a dirt-scraper. ‘There will usually be more or less stone among the earth 
that was drawn out of the ditch; and, if great care is not exercised in returning the 
first few inches in depth, stones will crush the tiles in numerous places. 

The writer once directed the laborer to lay the tiles in a ditch and return the earth, 
and to corer the tiles first by shoveling in earth with extreme care. The drain failed to dry 
the land. Upon digging down the tiles were found full of standing water. A large 
site of the drain had to be taken up and relaid. In five different places small stones 

vad been allowed to fall’ on the tiles, crushing them to such an extent as to obstruct 
the flow of the water. A small stone, half as large as a man’s fist, if allowed to fall on 
a tile at the bottom of a three-foot ditch, will crush it. Consequently, this part of the 
filling should be performed with great care. If by accident a stone breaks a tile, a 
sound one should be substituted at once. One thousand tiles may be laid well, and 
covered in the best manner, and yet if only one near the outlet be crushed by a stone 
the entire drain will be of little value. 

The most expeditious way to return the dirt after the tiles have been covered is to 
hitch two horses to a plow having an evener eight or nine feet in length. The heads of 
the horses should be held apart at the proper distance by a jockey-stick, about eight feet 
long, as suggested on a preceding page. Another economical way is to employ a dirt- 
seraper, to which the team is hitched by a chain six to ten feet long, according to the 
width of a ditch. ‘Then, let one person drive, hauling the scraper to the bank of the 
ditch, and stopping the team just in time to allow the scraper to be dumped without 
being drawn across the ditch. Two men, with a team and scraper, will haul in dirt 
more rapidly than twenty laborers will cast it in with shovels. We have frequently 
read the recommendation to lead a horse lengthwise of the ditch, as the earth is being 
sheveled in, for the purpose of treading it down firmly. It is an unwise practice, 
as there is great danger of injuring the animal, and still more danger that his feet 
will damage the water-course. 

Ditching-machines.—We have not yet met with a really successful and reliable power 
ditching-machine, one that will excavate the desired depth through “hard-pan” and 
such stubborn land as is frequently found on the slopes of rivers and lakes. There 
are many power-machines for ditching, which will operate very satisfactorily on any 
kind of ground, where there are no small boulders as large as a man’s fist, and where 
the substratum can be spaded; but when a machine is started in ground where there 
are some small stones, and occasional bars of hard-pan, a hand-digger is required with 
rts ct set of tools {0 excavate certain parts, which cannot be done by a power 

itcher. 

Tiles and stones together.—Fig. 28 represents a mode of filling a large ditch, which 
has frequently been employed with satisfactory results, where a drain of large capacity 
was desirable, If flat stones can be readily obtained, say one foot in width, excavate 
the ditch about fourteen inches wide on the bottom, dressed out at the corners, so that 
tiles will fit closely at each side. Before the tiles are laid, a channel should be scooped 
out in the middle, as represented, that the stream may not undermine the tiles. Then 
lay a course of tiles on each side, and place flat stones carefully on the top, as shown 
by the cut. It is important that the top stones be laid on with care, and neatly leveled 
up, with thin pieces on the under side. The joints of the covering stones should be fitted 
closely and covered with small thin pieces, to prevent mice from hauling earth into the 
main water-course. In case the stones should be more expensive than another course 
of tiles, it would be preferable to lay three, or even four courses of tiles, side by side. 
When large tiles could not be obtained readily, we have sometimes laid three or four 
courses of small tiles in the bottom of a ditch, thus forming a water-course fully equal 
to the capacity of the stream when the water was at its greatest height. 

Laying tiles on boards.—it is the practice of many tillers of the soil to lay a narrow 
board in the bottom of the ditch on which the tiles are placed. This is more particularly 
the practice when horse-shoe tiles are employed. It is not a commendable practice to 
place timber of any kind beneath tiles, as some portions of boards will almost always 
decay in a few years. If proper care is exercised .in selecting sound pieces, aud seru- 


GOO ° AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


pulously rejecting every cull, a drain will endure much longer than when all qualities 
of lumber are employed. If horse-shoe tiles are employed, they should be placed on 
plates, or soles of burnt clay. Soles of burnt clay will cost but a trifle more than lum- 
ber. We would not recommend soles, however, nor horse-shoe tiles, if pipe tiles or 
sole tiles can be procured. 

The correct way to lay tles—Some writers on the subject of underdraining recommend 
the practice of laying tiles on the bottom of a ditch while standing on the bank. 
For this purpose they recommend the use of a “tile-layer,” with a long handle 
like that of a pitch-fork. The hooked rod is thrust into the bore of a tile, with 
which the latter is let down to the bottom of the ditch and placed as nearly in its posi- 
tion as a tile can be. If every tile were quite true and straight, and the bottom of the 
ditch were as smooth and true as a newly-finished pavement, tiles could be laid in this 
way. It must be remembered, however, that almost every tile is a little crooked, or 
twisted, or warped, and that it is almost impossible,in many places, where the ground 
is full of small stones and large gravel, to make the bottom of a ditch true and smooth. 
Consequently, if the operator lays the tiles while standing on the bank of the ditch, 
the form of some of them will frequently be such that the ends will not match satisfac- 
torily. Hence, the only correct way to lay tiles of any kind is for the operator to stand 
in the ditch, and place each tile in the best possible position. In case a joint is too 
open at the upper side of the tiles, try.another tile. In many instances a tile will rock, 
as the middle rests on a bar of hard earth or a small stone, in which case the promi- 
nence should be rammed down, so that the tile will not rock. Sometimes the digger 
finds it necessary to remove a small boulder from the bottom of the ditch, thus leaving 
a depression one or two inches deep. Ali such cavities should be rammed full of hard 
earth before the tiles are laid, so that the end of one section may not be forced down 
by the superincumbent pressure so far that the chliber of the two adjoining tiles will 
not correspond. Placing tiles in the bottom of a ditch is a piece of labor to be per- 
formed but once during a life-time; hence, the importance of laying every one with the 
utmost carefulness. It is far better to take fhe time to lay every tile properly than to 
hurry them in at random, which may necessitate the redigging and reconstruction of 
2 portion of the drain. When ditches are unusually deep and very narrow, and the bot- 
tom consists of earth free from stones, so that a true channel can be formed for the tiles, 
they may be laid with the tile-layer. 

Silt-wells in drains.—It is an excellent plan to construct silt-wells in several places in 
main drains,as they facilitate observation as to the flow of the water, and provide 
effectual means for collecting the fine silt that is washed into the drain by the constant 
influx of water, especially when the soil is thoroughly saturated. They also furnish an 
oul for mice, frogs, &c., which frequently enter the water-course if they have access 
to drains. 

Silt-wells should be made when the ditch is dug. Such wells are to a drain what a 
man-hole is to a street sewer in acity. An excavation should be made across and in 
the bottom of a ditch about two feet square and at least one foot deeper than the bot- 
tom of the ditch; then a curb of planks, bricks, or flat stones set on end may be em- 
ployed. The water discharges into the well and flows away by entering the tiles on 
the opposite side. The silt washed along in the tiles is deposited in the well, which, 
when filled up as high as the tiles, should be cleaned out. A curb made of planks of 
durable timber will endure a great many years. 


RECLAMATION OF MARSH LANDS. 


The subject of the reclamation of marshlands is one which must claim 
the attention of the country in the immediate future, as agricultural 
lands advance in price and population increases. A few instances of 
successful reclamation upon the Atlantic and Pacific coasts have been 
reported in the publications of this Department. 

An elaborate communication trom Mr. Jerome J. Collins, civil engi- 
neer, of Hudson City, New Jersey, gives at length an account of the 
reclamations accomplished in other countries, and in the vicinity of New 
York City, with a statement of the principles upon which such work is 
properly conducted and the obstacles to be overcome in its prosecution. 


RECLAMATION OF MARSH LANDS. 601 


He also gives an exposition of his theory of the formation of tidal 
marshes, and medical views concerning malaria or miasma and the adapt- 
ability of marsh lands for cultivation, which are not subjects suited to 
the original and practical character of our reports. The following 
extracts are given: 


A GLANCE AT THE HISTORY OF RECLAMATION. 


If we glance back over the many centuries the brave inhabitants of the Netherlands 
have held their fertile country against the ocean, after rescuing it from the waters, we 
must be struck with admiration at such an instance of a nation’s perseverance. The 
Hollanders found their country a morass; they now present it a very picture of fertility 
and abundance, and we must not forget that, though they worked hard at their na- 
tional defenses against the ocean, they were not spared the horrors of war by their 
neighbors. The country they strove to rescue from the sea became, on account of its 
position, the battle-field on which many European quarrels were decided, and the in- 
habitants were often compelled to cast aside the spade and grasp the sword in defense 
of their lives and property. 

The pericdical overflowing of the Nile to uncertain limits necessitated the control- 
ling of the waters within defined boundaries, and this control was most undoubtedly 
exercised by means of embankments. 

The Pheenicians—the people of Tyre and the ancient sea-ports of the East, the Greeks 
and the Romans erected extensive works on their sea-coast to protect their cities and 
ships from ocean storms and foreign enemies, and no doubt they inclosed low-lying 
lands in many instances for the purpose. The Romans during their occupation of Brit- 
ain raised immense lines of embankments at several points along the coast, the re- 
mains of which are still in existence. In fact, all nations as they advanced in civiliza- 
tion seem to have recognized in reclamation a means of extending the area of land to 
. distributed among the people without necessitating an emigration of surplus pop- 
ulation. ‘ 

This has been the case in India and China, where the dense population manages to 
accommodate itself to the limits of those countries, and it is only within the last few 
years that we have seen any signs of a movement by these people to other countries. 

The original settlers of the Netherlands were the descendants of those wandering 
tribes whose emergence from their homes in the North heralded the downfall of the 
Roman empire and laid the foundation of the nationalities which at present checker 
the map of Europe. 

The first steps toward erecting barriers against the tidal overflow in Holland are 
stated to have been taken in or about the second century of the Christian era. It is 
probable that vanguards of the great army of invasion which in later times overran 
Europe from the north had begun to move forward and occupy in small bodies the 
country lying along the northern coast. As the population increased and the groups 
of mud huts grew into large towns and cities, the necessity for placing under cultiva- 
tion more extensive areas of land became imperative. The more valuable these 
settlements grew to the people, the more desirous were they to guard them against de- 
struction by the sea, and the attention of the government and people was directed to 
the general and permanent embanking of the whole coast. How they have succeeded 
we all know. The country which was once a desolate marsh is nowagarden. Visitors 
passing through it acknowledge that in no part of the world is scientific agriculture 
better understood or applied, although the fields and dwellings are in many places 
twenty feet below the level of the sea. It was not alone necessary to embank 
against the sea, but also against the waters of some of the great rivers whose sources 
are to be found in the very heart of Europe, and which would overflow all the low 
lands they traverse had not the precaution of confining them to their natural chan- 
nels been taken by the Hollanders. 

Many works have been written which give detailed descriptions of the manner in 
which the diking of the Netherlands was carried on. The foundation of the work 
was laid by nature. The superstructure is the work of man. Along the coast exposed 
to the northwestern storms a bank of sand was washed up by the action of the 
waves, and a natural barrier was erected against the incursion of the tidal waves. A 
belt of wood which grew along the coast, and against which the sand was heaped, 
assisted the early toilers in their labors by afiording both shelter and material. 
This wood has since disappeared to a great extent in the constant repairs rendered 
necessary by the action of the waves in stormy weather. 

Beyond strengthening and connecting these mounds or banks of sand, and securing 
the lands in the immediate peighborhood of the ocean from tidal overilow, little was 
done in the beginning on the main embankment along the coast, while the river 
banks were left wholly exposed. The great work once initiated, however, it has pro- 


602 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


gressed steadily to the present day, and we find that after a struggle lasting many 
centuries the energy and perseverance of man have wrested a kingdom from the sea. 

Wtiters on the subject of the early condition of Holland tell us that the country was 
covered with lakes, varying in size, which have been drained and converted into 
fruitful farms. The most important operation lately and successfully completed is 
the draining of the Haarlem Lake, which covered an area of about 45,000 acres. A 
een a of this work was given in the report of the Department of Agriculture for 
1866. ; 

Extensive tracts on the western coast of England, called the Fen country, have been 
embanked and drained, and added to the cultivable land in that section. As many as 
680,000 acres of fen have been reclaimed, and the works rival those of Holland in 
extent. The Encyclopedia Britannica says: 

“This fen country has for centuries been the scene of drainage operations on a 
stupendous scale. The whole surface of the great basin of the fens is lower than the 
sea, the level varying from four to sixteen feet below high-water mark in the German 
Ocean. The difficulty in draining this flat tract is increased from the circumstance 
that the ground is highest near the shore and falls inward toward the foot of the 
slope. . These inland and lower grounds consist of a spongy peat, which has a natural 
tendency to retain water. The rivers and streams which flow from the higher inlands 
discharge upon these level grounds, and originally found their way into the broad 
and shallow estuary of the wash, obstructed in all directions by bars and sand-banks. 
These upland waters, being now caught at their point of entrance on the fens, are 
confined within strong artificial banks, and so guided straight seaward, and are thus 
restrained from flooding the low grounds, and by their concentration and momentum 
assist in scouring out the silt from the narrow channel to which they are confined. 
The tidal waters are at the same time fenced out by sea-banks which are provided at 
certain intervals with sluice-doors by which the waters escape at ebb tide. When 
this does not provide such a drainage as to admit of cultivation, the water is lifted 
mechanically by wind or steam mills into the main aqueducts. 

# #* * * x 

“Yn the district called Marsh, in Norfolk, extending between the Ouse and the New, 
in that called South Holland, in Lincolnshire, stretching between'the New and Welland, 
northward of Spalding, and also northeast of Boston, there are considerable tracts of 
marine clay soil. In Marshland this is chiefly arable land, producing large erops ef 
wheat and beans, but in Lincolnshire it forms exceedingly fine grazing land. This 
tract lies within the old Roman embankment by which the district was first defended 
from the ocean. Outside this barrier are the proper marsh lands, which have been 
reclaimed in portions at successive periods, and are still intersected in all directions 
by ranges of banks. The extraordinary feature in this tract is that the surface outside 
the Roman bank is three or four feet higher than on the inside, and the level of each 
new inclosure is more elevated than the previous one. The land rises step by step as 
the coast is approached, so that the most recently reclaimed land is often twelve and 
sometimes eighteen feet higher than the lowest fen land in the interior, the drainage 
np which must, nevertheless, be conveyed through these more elevated marshes to 

© sea. 

These extensive works are represented by many hundreds of miles of river embank- 
ments, and the sea-coast line embanked exceeds one hundred and thirty in length. 
This fen land, once, like that of Holland, a wild marshy tract, impassable to man or 
beast, is now a fertile farm, rich in agricultural products, and inhabited by a healthy 
and wealthy population. 

Another instance of successful reclamation is to be found in England: the Bedford 
Level, called after the Earl of Bedford, who in the year 1634 expended over £100,000 
to reclaim these lands, and whose son completed the work at an additional cost of — 
#%300,000. These lands have since that time been kept perfectly free of water by means 
of windmills and other pumping engines. 

Extensive drainage operations have been carried on in many parts of Europe, par- 
ticularly in France and Italy. The celebrated Pontine marshes, near Rome, are men- 
tioned by early historians as a source of great danger to the public health, and several 
unsuccessful attempts were made to reclaim them. The popes at different periods re- 
newed these efforts, and their success, though partial, proved that the drainage could 
be effected with sufficient capital. 

In Ireland immense tracts of peat-bog have been drained and converted into arable 
land. The bog of Allen is an extensive area of peaty soil, extending into several coun- 
ties, and covering many thousand acres. In the southern part of Ireland, along the 
rivers and shores of the main estuaries, large areas of alluvial deposits have been 
inclosed by embankments, and a rich soil made available for cultivation. 

The cotton lands in the valley of the Mississippi are exceedingly fertile when prop- 
erly protected by levees from the periodical overtlow of the river. The construction 
and maintenance of these levees are often the subject of discussion in Congress, and it 
would seem proper that the nation’s representatives should interest themselves in what 


RECLAMATION OF MARSH LANDS. 603 


= the only protection to the agricultural interests of several of the States of the 
nion. 

In Canada the question of reclaiming the marsh lands is receiving considerable 
attention from both the government and the people. Extensive works are about to be 
commenced, with a view to these reclamations; and vast areas of fertile soil will be 
added to the lands of the New Dominion. 

In this country the question of utilizing marshes has not yet attained the import- 
ance it deserves. 

In the neighborhood of New York a considerable tract of land, known as the Newark 
Meadows, lying between the Newark and Paterson range of hills, on the west side, 
and the Palisade ridge of Bergen Hill on the east side, has been embanked and other- 
wise drained and reclaimed within the past two years. 


WILL RECLAMATION PAY? 


A question for consideration is, will reclamation of marsh lands pay those who 
invest their capital in such undertakings? When we invest our money in that which 
is perishable, stealable, or depreciable in value to such an extent as to become posi- 
tively worthless, we have an uncertain security for the principal invested, and profit 
is doubtful. We can invest in that which is itself a standard of value, such as the 
gold coinage of the country. In this case the security is good in the thing itself, but 
the profits are uncertain. Or, investment can be made in that which has an intrinsic 
value of its own, non-depreciable, independent of any standard value but its own 
worth, and above all indestructible and immovable, and advancing in value with time, 
such as good Jand. For this investment the security is certain, visible, and tangible, 
and the profits are equally certain, and limited orly by the inactivity of the investor 

*in developing them. 

As it is the interest of every State to develop its resources, and as the principal 
source of wealth to a country must be the productions of its soil, it is of the highest 
importance that these should receive attention. Capitalists will unhesitatingly engage 
in speculations for the working of distant gold mines, where the chances of profitable 
return depend almost entirely on the lucky striking of a rich vein of the precious 
metal, of which we hear of more disappointments than successes. With a plethora of 
money in our markets, men are continually seeking for safe and profitable modes of 
employing their idle capital and in lieu of the desired investment they are often con- 
tent to accept the comparatively small percentage allowed by the banks, while almost 
at their doors may be found the means by which their capital can be safely and profit- 
ably employed in the reclamation of these much-needed marsh lands. 

Tn the case of the Hackensack meadows near Newark, New Jersey, reclaimed by the 
Iron Dike and Land Reclamation Company of New York, the whole area selected for 
reclamation was about 4,500 acres, which were purchased by the company at an average 
price of $50 per acre. The cost of inclosing this area with an embankment, and the 
cutting of a series of main ditches and drains throughout the whole area, did not 
exceed $250,000, which would be equal to about $55 per acre, making the cost of pur- 
chase and reclamation about $105 per acre. Previous to the commencement of the 
works, the marsh was completely overflowed at every tide, and the entire embanking 

- and ditching were done by manual labor, while the insertion in the whole length of 
river embankment of Driggs’s patent iron dike plate added considerably to the cost of 
the works. They have 4,500 acres of wet marsh purchased and reclaimed for $105 per 
acre. When this land has been thoroughly drained it will be worth $1,000 per acre. 
If it takes three years’ cultivation to bring it to this condition, the tract at the end of 
that time will be worth, say, $4,500,000. Meantime the land will rent for $50 per acre . 
per annum, which sum is, at the end of three years, equivalent to $675,000 or $200,000 
in excess of the original cost. 


We deve une! valde, that. Wb. bel). sees cee le ck wi LU Jn Rap ed $4,500,000 
Add amount of rent for three years at $50 per acre ..---. 2. a0. ene ne een ene 675,000 
5,175,000 
Cost 6f land und reclamation, - .c2255.2.05..4.-5 seeds foesds olds $475,000 
Interest three years, at 7 per cent. 22 22. 105-21. se ewe Cee sce 99,750 
Cost of maintaining banks, &c., three years -.....--.-.-------+.-- 27,000 
ee 601,750 
Profit to otiginal investors in three years ...2-. ...22. 2s eee ae see eee 4,573,250 


The location of the land near the city of New York has, of course, much influence on 
its value, and itis not intended to convey the idea that all reclaimed land will be 
equally valuable, or capable of returning so enormous profits as the Hackensack mead- 
ows promise. , 


604 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


The tracts of marsh lying at a distance from the great cities are not less valuable in 
proportion, because, if their value is not so great when reclaimed, their present value 
is very much less, being in many cases as low as $5 per acre, while there would be no 
increase whatever in the expense of reclamation. 

Professor Cook, speaking of the marshes lying along the coast of New Jersey and the 
neighboring States, says: “The value of banked meadows in Salem County, New Jer- 
sey, and along the Cohansey Creck and Maurice River, in Cumberland County, ranges 
from $200 to $500 per acre. Previous to banking, these meadows were comparatively 
worthless.” 

If, therefore, almost worthless marshes can be raised in value to $200 per acre by 
merely banking them against tidal overflow at a very small cost per acre, what may 
not be the increase in value when these lands are properly reclaimed, and drained and 
fitted, at a small increase in the cost, for the highest class of cultivation ? 

Professor Cook also makes the following statement: ‘The meadows on the Wallkill, 
the Pequest, the Paulinskill, and the Passaic are rich lands, and comparatively unpro- 
ductive, though lying in the midst of the finest part of the State. The improvements 
must be made, and the land brought to the degree of productiveness which the best 
interests of the State demand. ~* = * We have between one and two millions 
of acres of land in southern New Jersey which are comparatively unimproved. Private 
enterprise is doing much for its development. Millions of dollars have been invested 
for its improvement within the last fifteen years, and thriving settlements have been 
formed. These pioneers deserve well of the State, and they should be furnished with 
every information and facility for pushing forward their improvements.” 

Considering the high rents paid at present by market gardeners, amounting fre- 
quently to $150 per acre per annum, it is quite certain that every acre of marsh land 
reclaimed within the next twenty years will find willing purchasers or tenants. 

On well-drained land, such as we would wish to see made of our marsh lands, @ 
farmer paying an annual rent of $100 per acre would realize fully treble the profits 
derivable trom the cultivation of upland ground, as he is certain to raise crops such as 
the upland ground, with any quantity of fertilizers, could not produce; and further, the 
question of expense in working such ground is important in supporting our arguments, 
as manures and fertilizers are wholly unnecessary, and a series of heavy crops can be 
raised for thirty years without the soil requiring any stimulant in the shape of manure. 

Farmers complain that the most serious item in the expense of farming is the con- 
stant renewal of the vitality of the soil by manures. In the case of reclaimed marsh 
land this expense is saved, as even the soil itself can be used as manure on upland 
ground with great advantage. The plowing is also attended with more ease. No large 
boulders are met with to interrupt the work or interfere with the proper tillage of the 
soil. 

We have here, then, an investment for the capitalist which will return him enormous 
profits; a rich and productive farm for the agriculturist, that will yield him tenfold 
for his labor; a means of employing the thousands who are daily flocking to our shores 
from Enrope; and last, though not least in importance, a means of providing an 
abundant supply of fresh, cheap food for the people who are compelled to purchase the 
diseased meat and stale and unhealthy vegetables and diluted milk which are to be 
found in our markets. All these advantages lie within our reach, and we should be 
blind, indeed, to our own interests did we not seize them. 


RECLAMATION OF NEWARK (N. J.) MEADOWS. 


The following notes, taken from the engineer’s field-books, of a test survey on the 
Hackensack meadows in the spring of 1867, will give a general idea of the kind of soil 
to be found on the salt marshes along our coasts and tidal river banks, being records 
of a series of experimental borings into the soil, made to ascertain the nature of the 
substrata for a depth of from nine to twelve feet. The boring was taken within fifty 
feet of the water's edge. 

The soil in many parts of these marshes was tested, and, with the exception of some 
difference in the thickness of the various strata, very little difference occurred in the 
several tests. The only marked variation in the character of the soil that occur is where 
large cedar stumps are met, either on the surface or some three feet beneath it. The 
roots of these cedar stumps are invariably sound, while portions exposed to the air 
soon rot away. The closeness of the soil, and the uniform state of moisture and non- 
exposure to the air evidently interrupt their decay. In some places the cedar roots 
showed on the surface, while in many others they were buried deep in the soil. In 
drainage the water is not removed to a greater depth than five feet, so that the surface 
mold and marls are dried while the grass peat bemeath still holds the moisture to 
some extent. Drainage without cultivation will not, of course, develop the good 
qualities of the soil, but the two judiciously combined cannot fail to produce the results 
most beneficial to agricultural wants. 


RECLAMATION OF MARSH LANDS. 605 


Even after tho surface drainage, regarded as sufficient to insure thorough reclama- 
tion from a state of swamp, the surface soil when turned by the plow presents that 
rich and friable appearance so highly valued by the farmer. The growth of aquatic 
plants speedily becomes stunted, and a richer vegetation takes their place. Then, 
with embankments securely constructed, and adequate pumping-power or sluice-way 
provided, a thorough knowledge of the theory and practice of agriculture will enable 
the farmer to reap a rich reward for his labors. 

An attempt was made about thirty years ago to reclaim the Newark, or more 
properly the Hackensack, meadows by inclosing them with an embankment, and con- 
structing a number of sluice-ways to carry off the water. Owing to the neglect of the 
proprietors, these banks were completely destroyed by the musk-rat, which burrowed 
into and through them, below the level of high water; and the tide, following the 
excavation, soon demolished the embankment. 

The difficulty to be contended with in this work of reclamation was not the pres- 
sure of water, the presence of springs, or exposure to heavy waves in stormy weather, 
or in removing the water from the soil itself. It was simply to prevent the musk-rat 
and other borers from penetrating the embankment, and admitting the tide-water on 
the land. Thick embankments will not resist the boring powers of the musk-rats; 
they have been known to bore through a solid bank in one night for a length of over 
sixty feet. 

Mr. S. B. Driggs, of New Brunswick, New Jersey, invented the “iron dike,” or asystem 
of cast-iron plates inserted in the core of the embankment between the levels of high 
and low water, by which means the bank is made impenetrable to the rats, where 
penetration would result in the destruction of the bank and the failure of the recla- 
mation. The limits of the operations of the musk-rat, dangerous to the bank, lie 
between high and low water levels, as these animals will not work below the level of 
low water for any distance, if at all, and their borings above high water level are 
easily repaired and comparatively harmless. 

The musk-rat begins boring at the lowest point, and penetrates upward in an inclined 
direction, so that when the tide falls the excavation is self-draining. For this pur- 
pose, then, the boring is commenced at about the level of quarter-flood tide, and is 
always dry on tidal river banks during low water. The iron dike plates used in the 
reclamation of the Newark meadows were five feet long, eighteen inches wide, and a 
quarter of an inch thick. The plates were strengthened by ribbings cast on each side, 
and were connected to each other by clips cast on one perpendicular edge of the plate 
which held the plain edge of the next plate, and a continuous line or wall of iron 
plates was thus erected against the rats. 

The embankment erected to exclude the tide waters was constructed over this line 
of iron plating, with an average base of eighteen feet wide, and a height over the 
marsh surface of five feet. The material of which it was built was excavated from 
the main ditch which followed the line of embankment and received all the marsh 
waters through the main internal ditches and lateral drains. A pumping station was 
established at a suitable point, and one of Gericke’s patent turbinate drainage pumps, 
capable of discharging 12,000 gallons of water per minute, was erected, with steam- 
engine and boiler complete. Several sluices of various forms were inserted in the main 
embankment, by which the water on the land was reduced considerably, and to such 
an extent that it was deemed inexpedient to use the pump. The entire area of the 
marsh has been intersected by drains of various sizes, which have been connected with 
the main surrounding drain and with the sluice-ways and pumping station. By these 
drains the inland water is brought directly to the outlets and the land dried thoroughly 
wherever the drains are constructed. 

Corn, potatoes, cabbages, onions, peas, beans, tomatoes, melons, and tobacco have 
been grown on these lands, and the corn evidenced the great richness of the soil by 
the extraordinary growth which it attained. A considerable area of this land is not 
yet fitted for cultivation, and another portion of it is covered with huge cedar stumps, 
the remains of a great forest; but the land is very valuable for farming, grazing, and 
building purposes, and is worth on an average fully $700 to $800 per acre. 

The embankments erected around the meadows varied in form as the peculiar wants 
of the position demanded. As a general rule, the outer slope, or that which received 
the wash of the tidal wave, was much longer than the interior slope, and the width of 
the bank on the top varied from three to five feet. The mouths of all tidal creeks 
were carefully closed, and all connection with the outside water cut off. The com- 
plete exclusion of the river water was essential to success in this case, as in all others, 
and experience shows in & marked manner the value of pumping-power as compared 
with sluices. 


GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF RECLAMATION. 
In effecting the reciamation of a tract of marsh land, three. distinct objects must be 


attained before the work can be considered complete. First, the exclusion of all 
waters having their sources of supply or operating trom the outside of the limits of 


606 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


the marsh land reclaimed. Second, the collection and expulsion, by means of drains, 
ditches, sluices, and pumps, of all waters lodged on the marsh or having their sources 
inside its limits. Third, the control of all waters that may afterward accumulate on 
the marsh from springs, rains, or other causes, so that the danger of drowning the land 
may be avoided and the cultivation of the soil be uninterrupted. Each of these con- 
ditions must exist to insure the harmonious working of the other two; the absence of 
one is fatal to the usefulness of the others. In case of the first condition, when we 
undertake to exclude waters having their sources outside the limits of the marsh to 
be reclaimed, it is necessary to erect a dike; but the shape, size, and mode of con- 
struction will be governed by the locality, material, and the amount of resistance the 
dike must offer to the return of the excluded water. The collection and expulsion of 
waters accumulated on the marsh from rains, or the interception of that it its 
source from springs within the marsh limits, will depend considerably on area, loca- 
tion, and outfall, as well as on the power and capacity of pumps and other water-engines. 
The control of the water in the soil and its removal for agricultural purposes will 
depend on the excellence and completeness of the other works, but will also be affected 
by climate and the character and treatment of the crops raised. The location of the 
marsh with respect to high lands is of the utmost importance, as, when adjoining 
upland, it receives the rain-fall of the hills in addition to its own, and unless precau- 
tions are taken to control this irregular addition to its own waters, so that the land 
shall not suffer from it, the third condition for a complete reclamation cannot be said 
to be complied with. ; 

Embankments are necessary for the exclusion of water from an area where the 
source of that water is above the level of the surface to be kept dry. For instance, 
the embankment of a reservoir must of necessity be above the level of the river, spring, 
or other reservoir from which the first receives its supply, unless, indeed, the discharge 
from the latter be equal to that which it uniformly receives, and its embankments lose 
their retaining character, and become simple diverters of the stream. In like manner, 
any space inclosed by an embankment for the purpose of excluding water must have 
that embankment higher than the highest level of the encroaching water, if an inland 
stream, or the highest known range of the tide, if on a tidal river bank or the sea- 
coast, unless, in the case of the inland stream, the water becomes simply guided in its 
course, and not confined. 

As our principal marshes requiring embankments are located along the shores of 
the large bays and inlets, or on the banks of tidal streams, remarks will be confined 
to such marshes and their requirements. In erecting a dike to resist the pressure of 
the tide, the shape, the size, and the mode of construction of the dike must vary with 
the location and the range of the tide. Location aftects it because the bank may at 
one point be sheltered from the eroding actien of the waves, while at another point it 
may be exposed to their full force. It is therefore evident that some dissimilarity 
must exist between the work to be done by the two sections of the bank, and a conse- 
quent difference becomes necessary in their shape, strength, and mode of construction. 

Many plans have been projected for the erection of dikes, sea-walls, and embank- 
ments, each possessing some peculiar merit, while failing to fulfill equally important 
requirements. No particular form of dike can be recommended for all cases, as the 
necessity of each case demands special treatment. The Dutch engineers favor long 
slopes for sea-banks, constructed of sand or other light material, but the length of the 
exterior slope can be safely diminished where a durable material, like stone, can be pro- 
cured, with the additional security of piles and other protection; it is also certain 
that where the material is not adhesive and durable, long slopes, especially facing the 
waves, are advantageous, when not exposed to the face of the ocean waves, as on the 
coast of Holland. 

A base of about five to one, divided between the internal and external slopes, in ad- 
dition to the width of the bank on top, would afford ample base for an embankment. 
Thus, if we require an embankment six feet high to resist the encroachment of the 
tide, we cannot with absolute safety construct it with a base of less than thirty-five 
feet to resist effectually the wash of the waves. This width of base would admit of, 
in the first place, a width on the top of the embankment of five feet and external slope 
of three and a half to one, and an internal slope of one and a half to one. The bank 
with a thirty-five foot base is suited to exposed situations, where wind and wave act 
directly but moderately. Where the bank is subject to a heavy blow from the waves, 
the slope will be so graduated as to receive and gradually deaden the effort of the 
wave as it traverses its surface. 

The shape of the bank is of as much importance as its constraction and dimensions, 
because, if by unsuitable proportions we subject the very best material and workman- 
ship to extreme and unnecessary strains, it cannot be expected that the work of resist- 
ance will be performed as effectually as if due consideration were given to the relations 
which should always exist between the shape, material, and amount of resistance the 
bank is expected to offer to the water. Durable material is not always to be had where 
wanted for embankments, but in the case of salt marshes, with very few exceptions, 
the soil excavated forms a superior material for their construction, ‘Ibis is more gen- 


RECLAMATION OF MARSH LANDS. 607 


erally the ease along the shores of large rivers and estuaries, where the silt from tho 
river-bed is continually being washed up against the bank, and during high tides car- 
ried over and deposited on the surface of the marsh along the river-banks, forming a 
compact soil, which, when used in the construction of a bank and dried, becomes hard, 
durable, and water-tight—the three most important requirements for an embankment. 

The fitness of these marsh soils for embankments has been tested, and where used 
not the least trouble has been experienced with them either by a settlement or breach, 
but the shape of the bank has been preserved unchanged after severe winters and 
heavy rain storms. 

When banks are erected to exclude water, they must be made perfectly impermeable 
to that element. The least leakage is but the forerunner of “a burst,” unless quickly 
attended to. These leaks are frequently caused by the imperfect construction of the 
bank itself, where the material is not packed close, or some of the joints between the 
sods of soil have not been thoroughly closed by the workmen. Another cause may be 
the shrinkage of the material when drying in the bank, joints that were close while 
the moisture swelled the material of the bank being opened by the shrinkage of the 
soil, and admitting tiny streams, which soon become serious leaks, and finally the cause 
of the destruction of the bank. Of the two causes, either may be guarded against by 
proper care in constructing the bank. 

There is still another cause of leakage and the failure of a bank—the penetration of 
the bank by musk-rats and other boring animals, whose attacks must be steadily resisted 
by constant vigilance and the adoption of some plan of construction which will defeat 
their operations. Several attempts which have been made at reclamation in this 
country owe their failure to the musk-rats. These animals are not to be despised as 
enemies to marsh reelamation. As workers they are unrivaled in perseverance, for 
. they will return again and again to the attack on the same point of an embankment, 
until they succeed in boring it to their satisfaction, or are killed by a lucky shot. On 
the Newark meadows, New Jersey, they were defeated eifectually by means of theiron 
plate inserted in the embankment, and covering the space between the range of high 
and low water. The rats penetrated the bank in many places, but were stopped by the 
pies and they either gave up their excavation or cut their way over the plate at a 

evel above that of high water, and the consequent injury to the bank was slight and 

easily repaired. A core composed of aless expensive material than iron would answer 
the same purposes, and a well-constructed dike core of wood, hemlock for instance, 
will probably be found fully equal to all requirements. There are conditions, how- 
ever, under which the iron core might be preferable. 

To accomplish the second important condition, the collection and removal of all 
waters lying stagnant or otherwise, and having their source of supply within the lim- 
its of the marsh, a series of main and intermediate ditches or drains must be cut 
through the marsh, for the collection and conveyance of these waters to some point 
or points on the line of the main embankments from which it can be forced out by 
pumps, or drained out by sluices. 

In the case of tide marshes, where the range of the tide brings the low-water level 
sufficiently below that cf the marsh surface to admit of the drainage of the soil to a 
proper depth, and a fair outfall for the water collected in the ditches, a number of 
well-placed and properly-constructed sluice-gates will assist: considerably in draining 
the land, as the volume of water drained into the river or bay will be in proportion to 
the fall and capacity of the sluice to discharge it. Although many advantages are 
derived from the use of sluices on marsh lands, they are not to be compared in 
efficiency with a well-construeted pump, worked by steam-power. No matter how 
well constructed a sluice may be, or of what material, there is always a weakness 
about it and a liability to accident that must impress itself upon the observer. The 
connection made between the embankment and the wood-work or masonry of a sluice 
is, in nine cases out of ten, the site of numerous leaks, which are continuously enlarging 
and are the more dangerous on account of their apparently trifling character. The 
material of a sluice may be iron; it corrodes and gets easily clogged by slight ob- 
structions, such as small branches of trees or tufts of grass. If made of wood, it is 
liable to rot away under water, and be unexpectedly destroyed by a violent storm or 
other cause. The stone-work setting of a sluice, on account of the alternate wetting 
and drying process that goes on, particularly during the winter frests, will work out 
all the mortar or cement from the joints, and the whole sluice is liable to be under- 
mined by the action of the current passing through the sluice twice in every twenty- 
four hours. If the sluice is self-acting, it is a source of danger, as it is liable to be 
obstructed by floating wood, grass, weeds, &c., and is certain to be frozen up in winter 
time, and in case it should be so prevented from working properly, the sluice being 
set to low water, the obstruction to the free flow of the water or to the closing of the 
gate against the rising tide will not be discovered until, in the latter case, the tide 
begins to flow in through the sluice, when the obstruction is placed out of reach. 
In this way considerable damage may be done to young creps by an overflow of salt 
or brackish water. If the sluice.is worked by hand, it is equally dangerous, as 


608 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


neglect will result in a general overflow of the reclaimed land and a probable 
destruction of valuable property. The best provision that can be made against an 
overflow from a neglected or defective sluice-gate is the use of pumps exclusively for 
the drainage of tidal marshes. A considerable saving is also effected by using a pump, 
as fuel can be economically used and only when required, while the cost of pumping 
from one station will be much less than sluicing from a dozen points, when a larger 
staff of workmen is required. 

The general plan of the ditches and drains is regulated as much by the location of 
the outfall as by the actual wants of the land. The object being to remove the water 
as quickly as possible from the place where it accumulates, and by that means to save 
every inch of the fall, the ditches should be laid out with that object, and every part 
of the tract to be drained should be connected with the outfall as directly as possible. 
It is also desirable to keep a current flowing through the ditches to the outfall as uni- 
formly constant as possible, so that no deposit can occur in the drain to obstruct the 
passage of the water. This uniformity of motion and direction cannot be obtained by 
the use of sluices, or rather can be obtained by no other means than by pumping-power, 
which has no cause for stoppage by reason of the ebb and flow of a tide, the etiect of 
prevailing winds, or any other obstacle to the free and constant flow of water through 
a sluice-way. F 

By the use of pemps a uniform and unbroken line of embankment is presented to the 
outside water, having no weak places to cause a fear for its stability, no wood-work to 
rot away, iron-worls to corrode, or masonry to be destroyed. Complete control is ob- 
tained over all accumulations of water that may occur after rain storms; a deeper 
drainage of the land is possible, as the level of low-water outside does not affect the 
operation ; and in the case of heavy rains due preparation can be made by the engineer 
to deal with the water, for when the barometer indicates a change of weather or the . 
approach of astorm he can pump his ditches dry if necessary, and keep the water very 
low during the heaviest rains; on the other hand, the pump need not be worked more 
than one day in the week during dry weather. When certain conditions favor the 
adoption of the sluice in preference to the pump, it is wise to adopt that system; there 
are some cases where no choice can be exercised. ‘ 

Where springs are fonnd on these marshes, either isolated or in groups, it is proper to 
connect them with a main drain through a lateral] ditch; and when found in groups to 
surround them with a ditch by which their waters may be removed as fast as dis- 
charged, and not permitted to saturate the soil for any distance around. 

The removal of water from the soil for agricultural purposes is the last and most im- 
portant condition to be fulfilled in the work of reclamation. The fitting of soil suchas 
is found on our marsh lands for the reception of suitable crops calls for the exercise of 
considerable skill on the part of the agriculturist. He finds a virgin soil in the forma- 
tion of which almost every fertilizing element is employed. His experience of upland 
farming may be very extensive ; but here he has land that requires peculiar treatment, 
but no manure, no invigoration, to call forth its productiveness; nothing except the 
ditching tool and the plow, and the farmer’s personal care and management, is required 
to achieve success equal to the highest expectations. 

An excess of moisture in a soil hurts vegetation by keeping the temperature of tho 
subsoil low, and weakening the effect on the plants of the various chemical constituents 
that assist in the development and support of vegetable life. The remedy for this 
evil must necessarily be drainage. The absence of a proper moisture is equally dam- 
aging to vegetation, as many of these chemical constituents of soils are brought into 
active operation by the water in the soil and the vitality of the plant is thereby sus- 
tained. Water is the principal constituent of the sap of plants, and its absence in 
proper quantity must cause an exhaustion to the vegetable similar to that produced in 
the animal life by loss of blood. The want of natural moisture is usually supplied 
artificially by what is known as irrigation. We must seek a mean between the two 
conditions of excess and total absence of moisture, in order to arrive at that in which 
a soil is best fitted for the production of a healthy vegetation. 

Some*soils, owing to their formation, will retain moisture more readily than 
others, and, therefore, require a different style of cultivation. Sandy soils are dry 
and represent the opposite extreme to the marsh in point of humidity. This is due to 
the composition of the soil. Sand, being purely granicular, permits water to pass 
easily through it until it sinks to the level of some denser substratum. Marsh soil, 
especially alluvial or vegetable deposit, is absorbent; its particles are so minute as tu 
form a closer and more compact combination not easily penetrated by any foreign mat- 
ter moved by the force of gravity alone, insoluble, and possessing in a high degree the 
property of inducing capillary attraction. Nothing but deep incisions into the surface 
of this soil creates that positive disconnection of the mass which is necessary for the 
liberation of the water held in the soil by the sponge-like substance which enters so 
largely into its composition. ; 

The low situation of marshes and bogs is not a reason for the presence in excess of 
moisture in their soils. In many instances these bogs are found on the tops of high 


RECLAMATION OF MARSH LANDS. 609 


mountains. Tracts of peat bog in various parts of Ireland and England, where the 
surface is soft and shaking, are as high as eight feet above the level of the adjoining 
dry and arable land, and the water of these bogs rarely interferes with the dry land in 
the immediate vicinity, as it is held by the soil of the peat bog by capillary attraction 
stronger than gravity itself, which latter force asserts itself wherever the particles of 
soil are incapable of losing their identity by being blended in a general mass. The 
action of this capillary force on the water in the subsoil and the result in favor of 
vegetation has already been stated in this article and needs no further explanation. 

When an outfall is secured, and aregular system of main drains established, the 
freeing of the excess of moisture for the purposes of cultivation is accomplished by the 
smaller drains, which intersect the areas not immediately affected by the main drains. 
The size and capacity of these sub-drains will of course be suited to the area affected 
and the degree of humidity of the soil. In some parts of the same marsh tract the soil 
differs so considerably in its nature as to necessitate a variation in the plan of drainage. 
The proximity of high lands, woods, springs, er other causes of excessive moisture in 
the soil, must be taken into consideration and provision be made accordingly, but the 
general principles by which the detail drainage of the land is affected must be observed. 

A general inclination or fall of all minor drains to a main drain is as necessary as 
the fall of the main drain to the outlet, sluice-way, or pumping station. Where tile 
drains are laid, a fall of one foot in two hundred is sufficient to carry off the water, but 
as there are many cases in which drain pipes cannot be employed, it is desirable that, 
while affecting as much ground as possible by a drain, every advantage should be taken 
of a good fall on the line of each drain, whether a main or an intermediate drain. Va- 
rious plans for intermediate drains have beensuggested and adopted from time to time. 
Among them may be mentioned one that is formed by a simple trench, cut with a 
shoulder to support a covering sod, laid grass down, and covered to the surface with 
the excavated soil. This drain does not last long, but is an economical form. Another 
kind of drain is made by leaning the flat tiles bridgewise against one another on 
top, the apex of the triangle so formed being covered with a thick sod, and the 
remaining part of the trench filled with broken stone and excavated soil. The tile- 
and-shoe drain has been used extensively in many parts of England. It is a horse-shoe 
tile, resting on a flat tile, thereby forming a kind of arched drain, from one to four 
inches in diameter. This style of drainis not now used so much as the simple circular 
drain pipes, with collared joints, where such a precaution is necessary to preserve the 
efficiency of the drain. These drain pipes are of burnt clay, about fourteen inches in 
length and from one to fourteen inches in diameter. ; 

In very humid soils it is necessary to provide a sufficient number of drains to carry 
off the water after heavy rains as fast asit soaks into the greund. Experiment will soon 
establish the proper positions and distances apart for these drains. As it is necessary 
to the productiveness of a soil that the warm rain-water should penetrate below the 
line of vegetation, the drains should be laid at such a depth as to be clear of the plow 
and spade, and the frost and the tap-roois of larger plants. As soils are very rarely 
broken below eighteen inches from the surface, and roots are known to reach down as 
far as the soil is rich, while the frost penetrates to an average depth of three feet, 
it would be safe in districts affected by frost to lay drains four feet under the sur- 
face, and in warmer climates at a depth of one foot below the line of cultivation. 
With a suitable connection between the main and the drains, no soil, no matter how 
wet it may be, can failto be reduced to a condition fit for cultivation. 

As localities differ widely in their physical features, and various circumstances com- 
pel special treatment in almost every case, it is not practicable to designate, beyond 
the general principles that should govern the construction and arrangement of reclam- 
ation works, any form of embankment, drain, sluice, or pump to be adhered to under 
all cireumstances. Locality, prevailing winds, climate, range of tide, strength and ve- 
locity of local currents, the nature of the soil and vegetation, all combine to alter the 
character of the works, and a common standard would be impossible. It may be said 
of all these that locality is the one on which all the others depend for their importance. 
We find as we traverse the Atlantic coast of this continent a great many varieties of 
soil in the marshes. This is owing to the different kinds of vegetation produced on 
these marshes, or which composed their soil originally, and the rapidity of decomposi- 
tion of this vegetable material in the soil. With locality, climate varies considerably, 
and climate regulates the character and growth of plants, their development, their 
time of maturity and of decay. A natural result of all this influence must be that in locali- 
ties possessing warm climates the vegetation is more varied, more luxuriant, and con- 
sequently enters more largely into the composition of the soil than in places where the 
climate is less favorable for the development of vegetation. The rapid growth and 
quick succession of crops must tend to a large annual deposit of vegetable matter on 
the surface, which, before it becomes thoroughly decayed, is itself a soil, from which 
other plants spring, and the deposit becoming in this way more rapid than the decay 
which should convert it into vegetable mold, a soil is formed many degrees Tess dense 


39 A 


§10 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


in its structure than that of a place where the climate is colder and the growth ot 
vegetation is slower and Jess luxuriant. 

{t has been remarked that spongy, vegetable soils will retain water, when sandy 
and petreous soils will not, and the work of drainage will be increased in proportion 
to the quantity of vegetable matter found in the soil. It also occurs that this rapidly- 
formed soil is less fitted for the construction of water-tight embankments than that of 
a more gradual deposit, on account of its being more permeable to water, and it is often 
found necessary, therefore, to reject the soil we propose to reclaim, as a material for the 
embankment, and use that from another place. 

While locality and climate materially affect the manner of reclamation, prevailing 
winds also exercise an influence by their action on the tidal wave. In exposed situa- 
tions, the winds exercise this influence to such a degree as to necessitate a complete 
change in the plan of reclamation, especially on the tidal marshes along the coast and 
the shores of our rivers. According to the course of the river, against the overflow of 
which embankments are erected, as well as the direction of the opening by which the 
waters reach the sea, the wind, at certain seasons, causes a raising of the tide wave 
above its ordinary level, and of course necessitates higher and stronger embankments 
to resist it. 

Reference is net made to the semi-monthly occurrence of spring tides, but to the pow- 
erful effect of strong winds on the surface of water, forcing it in the direction in which 
it blows. When a strong wind and a spring tide occur at the same time, the tide will 
be raised over the level of spring tide in proportion to the strength of the wind; and 
when both meet a heavy freshet after a rain storm, the increased volume of the stream ° 
is not unlikely to overflow the banks, and inundate the surrounding country for many 
- miles, doing much damage to property, and sometimes cansing loss of life. 

In level countries the wind blows in a downward direction at an angle of something 
over 18° with the horizon. The pressure of the wind is in proportion to its velocity— 
the former increases as the square of the latter. 

The following table of velocities and pressures.of the wind is taken from Burnell’s 
Hydraulic Engineering: 


5 S 

a |g 

* Name of wind. $5 eS 

o> @ ore 

as Be 

an a) 

Ft. In.| Pounds. 

Light breeze, hardly perceptible -..---..----- e--0 sceece= Oe eke 1 8 0. 04989 
Gentle DreeZ0. ~~ oon. ton - He e—n nw na ae pe eee ewww enna nee es 3.4 0. 19756 
rs ce tone n= bp ae see eas eee gee st eees Mecere stn ree 6 8 0.79130 
Rather strong wind, best for sailing -.......----. 2-5 .-.-2---. 18 0 6. 06996 
PUNT ee eine Cries Seino as ness se eae tee C ania sees Oat 33 0} 20.06690 
Wine cing AVAT oo oe we ete eo re ctenae of oes eete ae ones eae ee 66 0 | 80.26760 
WenINGRMOVISIOTIO. Goo aoe ee fae ce lee eee eee cleb waceee sees 70 0 | 101. 62790 
Gren BiOMm me ot seer tees ee me oa 2) ein ely Ana Dee ee 90 0 | 146.34430 
Elgrrican vas tN Tie seo sae Gta ie ne See aoe cee ee 8 118 0 | 260. 05670 
Hurricane able to tear up trees, &c., &e ..----- 2s oreo ee ene ee 150 0 | 406. 51180 


An instance of the effect of strong wind on water is mentioned by Franklin. A pond, 
nine miles wide, and of an average depth of three feet, was acted on by a strong wind, 
which forced the water from one side so that it was laid bare, and the depth of water 
on the other side was increased to six feet. 

Next to the influence of winds and waves on reclamation works, is the action of 
currents: Where the shore is concave, if would be imprudent to erect embankments 
close to the water-line, unless some protection in the shape of masonry or piling be 
placed against the wearing action of the current; while, on the other hand, when the 
shore is convex, the embankment may be placed even at the water’s edge, as the fore- 
shore will continue to gain in the latter case as it loses in the former. 

In like manner, on sea-ceast embankments, where the bank is likely to be washed by 
any of the numerous currents created by the movement of the tides, the greatest cau- 
tion should be exercised in protecting the works from injury, and the exterior slopes 
should be strengthened in the best manner to resist the action of the water. 

To preserve the embankment against the damaging effects of frost, it is well to cover 
the face of the exterior and interior slopes with thick sods, cut from the surface of the 
marsh at the time of the construction of the bank, by which means a protection is 
afforded to the bank by the covering of grass, and the frost is not permitted to pene- 
trate 50 deep into the soil composing it. 


RECENT SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 611 


It is impossible to give, within the limits of an article like this, sufficient informa- 
tion to guide the operation of reclamation through all its stages, but enough has been 
said to impress on the minds of thinking men the importance of the scheme, its feasi- 
bility, and its value to public interests. : 

The work has been initiated in New Jersey; it is about to be continued in New York, 
Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, and the distant State of Califormia; and itis prob- 
able that, within a few years, we shall see a general reclamation of these plague-breed- 
ing swamps throughout the country. ' 


—————SS 


RECENT SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 


THE FARM YARD. 


Carbolic acid and rinderpest—Dr. Hope, in a communication to the 
British Association, stated the result of certain experiments upon cat- 
tle with carbolic acid, during the prevalence of rinderpest in 1867. Of 
about 270 cows under his charge, the majority were attacked by the dis- 
ease; but by injecting a solution of carbolic acid, either through the 
mouth or rectum, he was enabled to save 111 of them. The remain- 
der, not so dealt with, died, or had to be slaughtered. For this reason, 
he argued that the chemical treatment of contagion is much better than 
the medicinal, both in respect to man and adult animals. 


Cooling of brooded eggs.—An inquiry is made of the German Poultry 
Journal whether eggs brooded upon and allowed to become cold can be 
hatched ; in reply to which it is stated that, from extensive observation, 
it has been shown that eggs which have remained cold for two days or 
more may even then be successfully brooded, and that the nearer to the 
period of the escape of the young, the longer may this cooling last. It 
is, however, necessary that at least half of the brooding period be 
passed, as, if eggs are left too long in the first half of the period, espe- 
cially if this is repeated many times, the embryo will, in almost every 
instance, die. In the second half of the period the chick is already so 
far formed that a prolonged cooling is not especially injurious to it. It 
is also established that eggs thus cooled require a longer time than usual 
to come to maturity. ; 


Preservation of beet leaves for fodder.—In France beet leaves are used 
very largely as food for cattle. <A difficulty has hitherto existed in 
reference to this application, on account of the readiness with which 
the leaves become decomposed, and the impossibility of keeping them 
fresh for any considerable length of time. Weare now informed that 
this has been overcome by M. Mehay, who subjects the leaves to the 
action of dilute hydrochloric acid, by means of which, after under- 
going a special treatment, they can be stacked away in large quantities 
and kept indefinitely for future use. The application of the acid em- 
ployed, so far from injuring these leaves as food, seems to impart to 
them special alimentary peculiarities, visible in the production of an 
improved quality of butter. Several veterinary surgeons have certified, 
as the result of a critical examination of the experiments, that the food 
gave rise to no disturbance of the digestive system, and that in every 
respect the new preparation was to be considered a success. 


Feeding unbroken grain to hogs.—Dr. Lehmann has already communi- 
cated to the Agricultural Association of Saxony the results of some ex- 
periments in feeding unbroken grain to hogs, the animal to which the 


§12 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


test was applied being a three-year-old pig, of an English breed, which 
had previously been fed, for a year and three-quarters, exclusively with 
rye bran. Four pounds of bran were given to it every twenty-four hours ; 
and on each of the first two days of the experiment an addition was 
made of one pound of the grains experimented upon, the rations being 
furnished in only aslightly moist condition. The first of the undigested 
grains were passed off after the lapse of from twenty-four to twenty-five 
hours, the last of them appearing at various intervals; as, at the end of 
sixty-two bours for oats, seventy-two hours for barley, seventy-eight 
hours for rye, and the same for peas. In reference to the quantity 
of undigested and unaltered grains found in the excrement, it is stated 
that in one hundred pounds there appeared unchanged and entire 
50.6 of oats, 54.8 of barley 49.8 of rye, and 49.4 of peas. From these 
results it will be seen that in general only half of the entire grain is . 
used in the process of digestion, and that every one who furnishes food 
in this manner has to supply twice as mueh as is actually necessary, at, 
of course, double the necessary cost. It is, therefore, very evident that 
a due regard to economy makes it expedient to reduce the food toa 
condition more or less fine before it is given to such animals. 


Feeding nettles to laying hens.—The Vienna Agricultural and Forest 
Journal states that hens fed in the winter with chopped and boiled nettle 
leaves, or with the seeds, and kept in a warm place, will continue to lay 
during the entire winter. The experiment was first suggested by noticing 
the eagerness with which both domestic and wild fowl devour the nettle 
leaves and seeds whenever the opportunity is afforded. This proclivity 
is believed to be the reason why, with the’enormous yield of seeds 
by the nettle, comparatively so few plants are produced. It is stated 
also that in Denmark the seeds and leaves of the nettle are fed very 
carefully to horses, after having been collected, dried and ground ; three 
times a week, morning and evening, a handful of this nettle dust is 
mixed with the oats, in: consequence of which the horses are said to 
become fleshy and sleek, and their hair to grow unusually long, and to 
assume a silky luster, remarkably beautiful. 


PRESERVATION OF MEATS AND FRUITS. 


Preserving meat in cans.—A new method of preserving meat in tin 
cans, which is favorably commented upon, is that of Mr. R. Jones, of 
London. In this process the meat is first packed in its raw state into 
tins of any desired size. The lids are then soldered down, the top of 
each lid having asmall tin tube inserted init, which communicates with the 
interior of the tin. These tubes are next inserted into the exhauster, 
which is a receptacle connected with a machine designated a ‘ Torricel- 
lian vacuum,” an apparatus in which the air is exhausted by the action 
of water. The tins are then placed in the cooking-bath, and at the 
proper juncture the vacuum is created and the meat thoroughly cooked, 
at a temperature varying from 180 to 228 degrees. At this stage an- 
other feature of the invention comes into play., The vacuum having 
been created, a supply of gravy is turned on from a receptacle, and the 
tins filled with nutritious fluid. The feed-pipes of the tins are then 
nipped and the eases hermetically sealed. By thus filling the tins with 
the gravy the difficulty of collapse, which has always hitherto prevented 
large tins from being used, is obviated, while the whole space of the pack- 
age is utilized. Testimonials, from captains of ships and others who 
have used it, are furnished by the inventor, certifying to the excellent 
quality of the meat. By this improved process overcooking the meat 


RECENT SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 613 


is prevented, and as now prepared it would seem to merit general appro- 
val. 

Prepared meat-extracts in Java.—It has been frequently remarked that 
the best inventions of the western nations have, in nearly every in- 
stance, been anticipated by processes long since devised and in use by 
the Orientals, especially by the natives of China and Japan; and we 
are assured that the subject of prepared meat-extracts takes its place 
in this category. We are informed by a recent communication of Dr. 
Pott thatthe inhabitants of Java have for many years been in the habit 
of preparing flesh extracts of various kinds, and especially of beef, fish, 
and erabs, and that in this form they enter very largely into the inter- 
nal commerce of the country. The preparation is known by the general 
name of petis, while the particular substance, whether the flesh of 
oxen, fish, or crabs, is indicated by a special affix. The preparation of 
the petis appears to be very simple, consisting merely in boiling the 
raw material and chopping it very fine, and then putting it in a press 
and forcing out all the juices. This juice is then boiled down, at a 
moderate temperature, to the consistency of sirup, and kept for use. 
As a general rule, the preparation is made of such pieces of meat of all 
the animals used as are not sold before the close of market, a precaution 
rendered necessary by the heat of the country, and the possibility of 
obtaining ice to carry the food over until the next day. The substance 
from which the petis is expressed is also dried and introduced into com- 
merce, but is generally used immediately, while the petis is distributed 
widely throughout the Indian Archipelago, and can be kept a long time. 
These preparations have an extremely saline taste, due almost entirely 
to the concentration of the organic salts originally contained in the ex- 
pressed juice. The smellis said to be quite agreeable, and the taste very 
appetizing. 

Artificial ice in packing jish— As might have been expected, the arti- 
ficial ice machines have been extensively called into play for the manu- 
facture of ice to be used in packing fish. In corroboration of previous 
statements, it is said to be far more durable than natural ice, the crys- 
tals being much more solid and exhibiting less tendency to split into 
flakes. The estimate has been made that thirty per cent. less of artifi- 
cial than of natural ice will secure the same preservative effect. One 
objection to some forms of artificial ice is said to be the opacity of its 
color; but an inventor announces his discovery of a method by which 
perfectly transparent ice can be obtained, and for its publication to the 
world he asks the modest sum of five hundred pounds sterling. 


Chinese method of preserving grapes.—Travelers inform us that the 
Chinese have a method of preserving grapes, so as to have them at 
their command during the entire year; and arecent author gives us the 
following account of the method adopted. It consists in cutting a cir- 
cular piece out of a ripe pumpkin or gourd, making an aperture large 
enough to admit the hand. The interior is then completely cleaned out, 
the ripe grapes are placed inside, and the cover replaced and pressed in 
firmly. The pumpkins are then kept in a cool place, and the grapes 
will be found to retain their freshness for a very long time. We are 
told that a very caretul selection must be made of the pumpkin, the 
common field pumpkin, however, being well adapted for the purpose in 
question. 


VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY AND PRACTICAL HORTICULTURE. 


Rearing grape-vines in pots.—A horticulturist in Stuttgardt has de- 
vised an ingenious method of rearing grape-vines in pots so as to ob- 


614 } AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


tain grapes with very little trouble in a room or other sheltered 
place. For this purpose a vigorous, healthy cutting of the late growth 
of the wood is taken, from three to five feet in length, having at the 
upper end two fruit buds. The cutting is to be entirely enveloped with 
moss, and bound with bast, but so as to leave the extremity bearing the 
fruit buds uneovered. The cutting thus prepared is to be inserted 
spirally into a sufficiently large flower-pot, leaving the fruit buds pro- 
jecting above the edge of the pot, which is then to be filled with rich 
hot-bed earth, well moistened, and placed in the sun behind a window, 
and kept uniformly moist. The water applied should never be cold, but 
rather lakewarm, so as to stimulate to the utmost the development of 
the young roots. When the weather is such that there is no danger 
from night frosts, the pot may be placed outside the window or against 
a Sunny wall, or even inserted in the ground, in order to secure a more uni- 
form moisture and temperature. When the two fruit: buds have produced 
branches, having bunches of grapes upon them, these shoots are to be 
trimmed, so that two sound leaves remain over each grape shoot, in 
order to keep up the circulation of the sap, since without this the grapes 
would not develop. A single leaf would be sufficient, but two are bet- 
ter, for greater security. An occasional watering with a liquid manure 
is advisable, in order to stimulate the growth of the plant, although this 
must be applied with care, since an excess will do more harm than good, 
In one instance a grape shoot treated in this way produced nine large 
bunches of fine grapes, although such a number would be rather more 
than could conveniently be supported by the plant. 


Colors from wild plants—A German writer shows that a great variety 
of colors and dyes can be readily obtained from common plants found 
almost everywhere, the method consisting principally in boiling them in 
water at a high temperature, so as to produce a strong decoction. Thus, 
for instance, the well-known huckleberry, or blueberry, ( Vaeciniwn,) 
when boiled down, with an addition of a little alum and a solution of 
copperas, will develop an excelient blue color. The same treatment, 
with a solution of nut-galls, produces a clean dark-brown tint; while. 
with alum, verdigris, and sal-ammoniac, various shades of purple and 
red can be obtained. The fruit of the elder, (Sambucus niger,) so fre- 
quently used for coloring spirituous liquors, will also produce a blue 
color when treated with alum. The privet, (Zygustrum vulgare,) boiled 
in a solution of salt, will furnish an excellent color; while the overripe 
berries yield a scarlet-red. The seeds of the common burning-bush, 
(Luonymus,) when treated with sal-ammoniac, produce a beautiful pur- 
ple-red; while the juice of the currant, pressed out and mixed with a 
Solution of alum, will furnish a bright-red color. The bark treated in 
the same way produces a brown. Yellow can be obtained from the bark 
of the apple tree, the box, the ash, the buckthorn, the poplar, elm, &c., 
when boiled in water and treated with alum. A lively green is fur- 
nished by the broom-corn, (Spartium scoparium ;) and brownish-green 
by the Genista. 


The ailantus tree—The disagreeable smell of the ailantus tree while 
in blossom need be no objection to the planting of it on a large scale as 
a timber tree, ‘since, as is well known, it is dicecious, and the male tree 
alone possesses the unpleasant peculiarity. It is only necessary to 
propagate the female tree, therefore, in order to have an equally fine 
grove without the practical inconvenience referred to. It so happened 
that on the first introduction ef the tree into this country the male tree 
alone was propagated. The female, however, is coming more rapidly 


RECENT SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 615 


into use, and may readily be known by the elusters of seeds it bears, 
similar to those of some species of the ash family. There are few trees 
more valuable for timber than the ailantus. The wood has much of the 
same properties as the chestnut, and is equally durabie, grows with as 
great rapidity, and in its native country obtains a height of between 
two hundred and three hundred feet. It is said to be well adapted to 
growth on the western prairies, and will undoubtediy perform an 
important part in clothing them with forest vegetation. 


Propagation of the grape by eyes —A German agricultural journal in- 
forms us that the grape-vine can be propagated by means of eyes, so as 
to save three years’ time in the growth, each eye furnishing a new shoot. 
Hach grape-vine will furnish as many shoots as it has sound eyes, and 

‘they are to be eut off about a quarter of an inch from the eye on each 
side, so as to leave a cylinder of wood about half an inch long, with the 
eye in the center. If prepared in the autumn, these eyes may be putin 
a cellar in winter. In April they are to be laid down, at a depth of two 
or three inches, in furrows about six inches apart, and covered with a 
little manure, watered in dry weather, and the earth about them occa- 
sionally loosened. 3 


Cinchona in Java.—According to Professor Hasskarl, the cultivation 
of cinchona in Java continues to be a success, the weather having been 
favorable and the growth of the plant perfectly satisfactory. The num- 
ber of plants obtained from seeds and layers was about one and a half 
million, principally of the species C. calisaya; eight hundred and sev- 
enty thousand were transplanted in addition, and over one thousand 
pounds of the dry bark were sent to Holland in 1869, bringing from 
thirty-six to fifty-four cents per pound. The total product of 1870 is 
estimated at eight thousand eight hundred pounds for exportation, 
besides some hundreds for home use in the island. 


Circulation in planis.—In conducting experiments upon the transpira- 
tion of fluid by leaves, it is a matter of importance to determine the 
rapidity of ascent of the fluid. Professor Church suggests for this pur- 
pose the use of lithium citrate, a salt easily taken up by plants, and one 
which can be detected with the greatest readiness by means of the 
spectroscope. Its advantages consist in its containing an organic acid, 
and in its not being likely to meet with any obstruction to its passage 
from the tissues. An experiment has been lately made with this liquid, 
as suggested, with great success; in one instance the fluid having risen 
nine inches in thirty minutes, in another five and a half inches in ten 
minutes. This is thought superior to the use of coloring matters, which 
have seemed to experience considerable resistance in their passage 
through the vessels. 


Watering plants with hot water.—It has lately been shown, by careful 
experiment, that sickly potted plants, even some that have almost died, 
can be greatly benefited, and sometimes, indeed, entirely restored 
to vigor, by applying to them warm instead of cold water. In certain 
cases, oleanders which have never bloomed, or which have done so only 
imperfectly, after being treated with lukewarm water, increasing the 
temperature gradually from 140° to 170° F., produced the most magnifi- 
cent luxuriance of bloom. Similar results oceurred with an old plant 
of Hoya; and also with an India-rubber tree which had nearly withered 
away. In all these cases the application of water heated to about 1109 
F., without any other precaution, caused a new and flourishing growth. 


Giant marmont potato —A potato known as the Giant Marmont is 


616 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


much praised by late German writers, as occupying the very first rank 
among potatoes, in consequence of various excellent peculiarities, A 
single tuber is said to have produced a weight of twenty pounds. 


CHEMICAL NOTES. 


Improvement in refining sugar —A much-needed improvement has 
lately been made by Dr. Seyforth, of the Brunswick sugar refinery, in 
regard to the purification of sirups.and molasses, in the manufacture 
especially of sugar from the beet. As is well known, the juices and 
liquors employed in the first extraction of beet sugar from the raw 
material, as well as the sirups resulting from the sugar-refining process, 
generally contain a certain quantity of alkaline substances. By treat- 
ing the saccharine juices with milk of lime, several of the bases of the 
alkaline salts present in the juices are separated from the acids they 
were at first combined with, and by thus being set free, and remaining 
mixed with the sugar, impede crystallization. One part of alkaline 
matter can absorb as much as four parts of sugar, and some kinds of 
molasses contain as much as 8 per cent. of alkali. 

Various means have been used to remedy this defect ; among them, 
more particularly sulphuric and phosphoric acids, the use of which, 
however, is in most instances unadvisable, for various reasons. Sul- 
phurous acid has also been recommended, and used with excellent ad- 
vantage. 

The method of Dr. Seyforth consists in introducing the sulphurous 
acid either in the form of gas, or as a weak active solution, into the 
vacuum-pans. In this way it becomes possible to bring all particles of 
the sugar solution (or sirup) into contact with the sulphurous acid, and 
to eliminate, by the joint action of heat and vacuum, any excess of that 
acid which, however, not only saturates free alkalies and carbonate of 
lime, but also sets free from those combinations the organic acids which 
may be present, as alkaline salts. The sulphurous acid thus takes 
hold of the bases they were combined with, while the greater part of 
the erganic acids are volatilized along with the steam. Thus the sul- 
phurous acid promotes the good and ready crystallization of the sugar, 
while its action as a decolorizer comes also into play. The details of 
the new process embrace the two operations of the manufacture of the 
acid in a simple form and its introduction into the vacuum pans. The 
quantity to be applied in any solution varies from 4 to 8, or from 19 to 
15 per cent. of the bulk of liquid sirup to be evaporated. The pro- 
cess is said to involve very little cost, to require no inconveniently 
large space, to be applicable to any existing manufactory, and to be 
very easily understood by manufacturers. 


Analysis of the ash of the potato.—-A careful analysis has lately been 
made by Dr. Schoras of the ash resuiting from the burning of potatoes, 
this amounting to from 3 to 4 per cent. of the dried potato. Ac- 
cording to this chemist, the proportion of potash amounts to over 50 
per cent., 45 per cent. being the smallest quantity observed. Of 
soda there is generally from 2 to 3 per cent.; in most cases only 
i per cent. being appreciable. Next to the potash, magnesia enters 
as the principal constituent among the bases; nevertheless amounting 
to only the tenth part of the proportion of potash. Lime is a subordinate 
element, in most cases scarcely equaling half the amount of maguesia. 
The percentage of potash was found to increase or diminish as the yield 
of the crop was large or small; but of the other bases little difference 


RECENT SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 617 


was found in this respect. It was also observed that the percentage of 
phosphorie acid inereased as that of potash diminished; so that in the 
abundant harvests it is proportionally less than in the scanty ones, vary- 
ing from 10 to nearly 18 per cent. The proportion of sulphuric 
acid is tolerably constant, varying from 5 to 6 per cent. The per- 
centage of chlorine ‘vé aried very much; namely, from 2 to nearly 8 
per cent. The quantitative difference in the percentage of chlorine in 
the ashes was found throughout to have a direct relationship to the 
amount of the crop itself. Should this inference, which the author now 
presents as provisional only, be substantiated by the further experi- 
ments he proposes to make, it may be considered that the combinations 
of chlorine have the same significance in the cultivation of the potato, 
‘that gypsum has to various other cultivated plants. 


Constituents of the milk of different animals—From a late examination 
of different kinds of milk, with reference to their solid constituents, it 
has been ascertained that asses’ milk is most diluted, containing 
searcely 9 per cent. of solid matter. Next comes human milk, with 
somewhat over 11 per cent., while mares’ milk contains ‘L7 per cent. 
The average is seen in the milk of the goat and of the cow. In refer- 
ence to the percentage of caseine and albumen, human milk is poorest, 
containing only 4 per cent. of caseine; cows’ milk nearly 5 per cent., 
with more than 4 per cent. of albumen. Again, goats’ milk, with 
nearly 6 per cent. of caseine and albumen, as far as known, has a larger 
amount of albumen than that of any other mammal. The smallest 
quantity of butter is found in asses’ milk; that of the goat contains 
the largest, or nearly 7 per cent. Sheep, milk is most nutritious, as it 
contains 11} per cent. of proteine matters and hydrocarbons ; and while 
the milk of the cow contains only about 4 per cent. of milk sugar, that 
of the mare has § per cent., which renders it very prone to alcoholic 
fermentation, and has given rise to its employment by the Tartars in the 
production of an intoxicating liquor, known as quass. 


FERTILIZERS. 


Sulphate of magnesia as a manure.—The accumulation of sulphate of 
magnesia, or epsom salts, as a waste product at a mineral-water estab- 
lishment in Konigsberg, where it is offered for sale at about 15 cents 
per hundred-weight, has suggested its use for agricultural purposes, as 
its constituents enter largely into the composition of most vegetable 
substances. Magnesia especially is found in considerable quantity in 
the seeds of various cultivated plants, and especially in corn, &c. The 
experiment has already been tried of applying the sulphate of magnesia 
to one part of the field, and the sulphate of lime, or gypsum, to the other; 
and, according to Protessor Goltz, it is stated that, in the case of clover 
especially, the difference in favor of the magnesia was very marked, 
although the general nature of its agency appears to be quite similar to 
that of the gypsum. Both seem particularly valuable in this connec- 
tion, on account of entering directly into the composition of the plant 
instead of requiring a ecrtain transformation before being taken up. 
The sulphate of magnesia, as stated by Professor Goltz, has perhaps a 
still more important application in the stable, acting like gypsum in 
retarding the decomposition of the manure, and fixing the ammonia de- 
veloped trom it. The sulphate of magnesia, however, acts more quickly 
and energetically than gypsum, in consequence of being very soluble in 
water; just the contrary being the case with gypsum. Jrom the pre- 


618 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


ceding considerations, therefore, it is inferred that sulphate of magnesia 
is quite equal to gypsum as a fertilizer, and decidedly superior fer use 
in stables. From one pound to one and a half pounds per day per head 
will suffice for the latter object, or from four to five hundred-weight per 
annum. The cost in the vicinity of Kénigsberg being less than one-half 
that of gypsum is an important point in favor of the epsom salts. 


Action of potash on fruit trees—Dr. George B. Wood, in a late com- 
munication to the American Philosophical Society, in Philadelphia, pre- 
sented the result of certain experiments made by him upon tue effect 
of salts of potassa when applied to grain and fruit-producing soils. In 
his view, the depreciation of the productiveness of apple, peach, and 
quince orchards is due to the exhaustion of potash from the soil. Sev- 
-eral such orchards, formerly very valuable, but which had within a 
few years ceased to bear much fruit, on being treated with an applica- 
tion of wood ashes to the roots of the trees, were completely revived, 
producing full erops the following year. A still more striking effect was 
seen the second year, under a renewal of the application. He cited sey- 
eral other inétances where the same results followed ; in one ease where 
an apple orchard, planted on an old orchard’s site, which had never borne 
fruit, was made to produce a good erop by the application of ashes. 


Effect of manure on plants—A communication, illustrated by diagrams, 
was lately presented to the Horticultural Society of London, in reference 
to the effect of manures upon plants in the experimental grounds at 
Chiswick. As a general rule, plants in unmanured boxes were less vig- 
orous than in those manured; and while purely mineral manures had little 
effect upon the grasses, they produced a marked improvement in the ease 
of the clovers. Experiments with solutions of ammonia salts and with 
nitrate of soda showed specific differences in the results in the case of 
almost all the different species of plants, and if was found that a plant 
affected favorably by one of these groups of salts was influenced in quite 
the opposite manner by the other. 


Manure from Indian corn.—It is said that a new manure is prepared 
in France from Indian corn, which is now largely used in French dis- 
tilleries. The graim, previously coarsely broken, is first subjected to the 
action of dilute sulphuric acid to convert its starch into sugar. After 
fermentation the refuse is placed in large tanks, and when all the solid 
matters have subsided, the clear liquid is drawn off, and the residue 
yields an excellent manure, containing about 9 per eent. of water, 68 - 
per cent. of organic matters, including nearly 5 per cent. of nitrogen, 
and about 19 per cent. of mineral matter. 


Utilizing fish offal—An ingenious method, lately proposed, for utiliz- 
ing the offal of fish, consists in first boiling it with one-tenth of its. 
weight of cheap oil, heating it from 250° to 300°F. It is then treated 
with sulphide of carbon, whereby the oil naturally contained in the 
fish, as well as that which was added, is extracted, and a mass is left, 
quite dry, and containing from 5 to 6 per cent. of nitrogen, and from 12 
to 15 per cent. of phosphate of lime. 


ECONOMIC SUGGESTIONS. 


Vinegar from wrripe fruit.—Unripe fruit, especially apples and pears, 
is much used in the manufacture of vinegar;. but the process usually 
adopted is defective in many important points. We therefore give, for 
the benefit of our readers, the substance of an article from Graeger’s 


RECENT SCIENTIFIC NOTES. 619 


Manual of Vinegar Making, just published in Germany. The principal 
fault of the old process consists in throwing away the pulp after the 
juices are expressed. As this, however, contains a large percentage of 
starch, excellently adapted for conversion into vinegar, it is necessary 
to prepare the fruit so as to save this portion of its substance. With 
this object itis to be grated, exactly as potatoes are prepared in the man- 
ufacture of starch, and the pulp passed through a moderately fine sieve, or 
through a coarse and open-meshed cloth. There isthus nothing left behind 
but the pomace proper, or cellulose, dll the starchy matter having been 
passed through the sieve with the janice. This is next to be diluted with 
water in proportion to the quantity of starchy matter thus obtained ; 
and the whole is then placed in a clean copper kettle, 1 or 2 per 
cent. of concentrated sulphuric acid being added, and heated long — 
enough to transform the starch into grape sugar. The sulphuric acid 
is to be neutralized by means of carbonate of lime; the gypsum or the 
sulphate of lime thus produced allowed to settle, and the liquid to be- 
come clear, and then poured off. This liquid is to be left for fermentation 
to take place, either with or without the use of yeast. A liquid having 
8 or 10 per cent. of sugar can easily be made to have 4 or 5 per cent. of 
aleohol after fermentation, which, by its subsequent acidification, will 
yield vinegar containing 5 to 6 per cent. of acetic acid. 


_ Season for cutting timber.—According to Dr. Hartig, March and April 
are the most favorable months for cutting timber intended to be used 
by builders and carpenters, the average per cent. of moisture being less 
than 47, while in the three following months the average is 48, and in 
the three winter months, 51. He states that properly-seasoned timber 
contains from 20 to 25 per cent. of water, and never less than about 10 per 
eent.; and if the moisture is entirely removed by artificial means the 
wood loses its elasticity and flexibility and becomes brittle. Any artifi- 
cial seasoning of wood should be carried on very gradually; the tem- 
Sage at the beginning being low, and the process not carried too 

ar. 


Seasoning of wood.—A writer in an English journal states that 
small pieces of non-resinouS wood can be perfectly seasoned by boiling 
them four or five hours, the process taking the sap out of the wood, which 
shrinks nearly one-tenth in the operation. The same writer states that 
trees felled in full leaf, in June or July, and allowed to lie until every 
leaf has fallen, will then be nearly dry, as the leaves will not drop of 
themselves until they have drawn up and exhausted all the sap of the 
tree. The time required is from a month to six weeks, according to the 
dryness or wetness of the weather. The floor of a mill laid with poplar 
so treated, and cut up and put in place in less than a month after the 
leaves fell, has never shown the slightest shrinkage. 


Baobab bark as a new jiber.—it is well known that great efforts are 
being made over alli the world to increase the supply of material for the 
manufacture of paper and textile fabrics, by caliing into play substances 
previously unthought of in this connection. Among the later addi- 
tions to the series may be mentioned the fibrous bark of the baobab 
tree, (Adansonia digitata.) This is said to be worth in England from 
$70 to $75 per ton. It furnishes, also, an almost indestructible cordage. 


Utilizing the grease of sheep's wool.—An additional instance of the 
possibility of converting what, was formerly considered refuse into 
valuable material is seen in the case of the fatty matter contained in 
sheep’s wool, and technically known as suant. ‘This contains about 40 


§20 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


per cent. of potassa, and when ignited the alkali becomes entirely mixed 
theteby with strongly-nitrogenized animal charcoal. The result of 
recent experiments tends to show that suant, thus treated, may be used 
with profit in the manufacture of prussiates and cyanides. 


Hard cement.—A cement which becomes excessively hard in time may 
be prepared by mixing two parts of silica, one part of silicate of alumina, 
and nine or ten parts of carbonate of lime, all in powder, and then roast- 
ing in a puddling furnace. The remaining mass is then to be ground 
and again roasted with two or three parts of carbonate of baryta. In 
practice, very pure sand will answer for the silica, and challx for the 
carbonate of lime, the remaining ingredient being supplied by mineral 
witherite or natural carbonate of baryta. 


Petroleum in dry-rot.— According to Herbst, petroleum may be applied 
with good advantage in the extirpation of the dry-rot, it being only 
necessary to paint with the petroleum the surface of wood thus affected. 
A solution of carbolic acid, however, answers the same purpose and 
involves much less danger from fire. 


Destruction of grain by tnsects.—Some idea of the injury caused by 
insects to agricultural products may be formed from the statement that, 
in one instance, from seventy-four tons of Spanish wheat stored in a 
granary, ten hundred-weight of beetles were screened out, and in another 
thirty-five hundred-weight were removed from one hundred and forty- 
five tons of American corn. The offender in both cases was a weevil, 
known as Colandra orise. 


Calomel a poison for mice.—A preparation of one part calomel, five 
parts of wheat fiour, one part of sugar, and one-tenth of a part of 
ultramarine, mixed together in fine powder and placed in a dish, is 
said to be a most efficient poison for mice. 


Glyconin.—A mixture of five parts of glycerine and four parts of the yelk 
of egg, under the name of glyconin, has been used to some advantage 
for the healing of wounds, the mixture forming a varnish over the skin 
impenetrable to air and moisture. 


Curing dampness in walls.—A Russian preparation for curing moisture 
in the walls of houses consists in the use of a mixture made by adding 
two pounds of white resin to a boiling solution of three and three-fourths 
pounds of green vitriol in one hundred pounds of water. To this are 
to be added ten pounds of sifted red ocher, or other color, eight pounds 
of rye meal, and six and a half pounds of linseed oil, and the whole stirred 
together until it forms a completely homogeneous mass. Two coats of 
this mixture are to be applied successively, while hot, but only in dry. 
warm weather. 


Preparation of wooden labels for plants.—W ooden labels for plants, to 
be inserted in the ground, may, it is said, be preserved for an indefinite 
time by first dipping them ia a solution of one part copper vitriol and 
twenty-four parts water, and subsequently immersing in lime water, or 
a solution of gypsum. 


METEOROLOGY OF <1870. 621 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 


COMPILED #ROM REPORTS OF OBSERVERS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, MADE THROUGH THE DE- 
PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 


Tables exhibiting the highest and lowest range of the thermometer, (with dates prefixed,) the mean 
temperature, and amount of rain-fall, (ingluding melted snow,) in inches and tenths, for each month, in 
the several States and Territories, and at the stations named. Also the averages of mean temperature 
and of rain-fall for several States. _Daily observations were made by the observers, generally at 7 a.m. 
and at 2 and 9 p.m. 


JANUARY. FEBRUARY. 
! 
So 3 OF i ss a & Che bai 
g a | gis 8 s | ais 
am a & 2 a a B o 
State and station. Fa a = | 4 . B 8 @ | & : 
Po ro v E Po os =F ES 
Date. # | Date. H| Gf |36 | Date. &|| Dates)! | > Siaieea 
Fs gE a aq ge aE a as 
| 1S aa i=} 5 Cae] 
4 5 A i= I FI 
o | 4 Bs 4 4 EI 3 & 
A a | a |e A a | Ale 
MAINE. 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. Deg. Deg. | Deg. In. 
Hoalton --....-... 23 46 14 | —22 | 17.2} 7.90 19 50 4|—40 | 16.7} 7.50 
Stenben.......-.-. 20 56 | 14,31 | — 5 | 27.2 /10. 64 20 56 4,14] — 5 | 23.0] 4.45 
Mrono aes). 2. .. Q3 44 14 | —14 | 22.4 | 5.62] 15,19 44 4] —15|18.2] 4.30 
Williamsburg. ... 18 40 14 | —12 | 17.8 | 5.37 19 48 4 | —21 | 16.7 | 6.95 
West Waterville. 3 45 14 | — 7 | 24.8 | 6.44 15 46 4) — 17 | 2055!|| 755,70 
Gardiner. -.-..-.. Ks ee 6 42 14 | — 3} 25.9 | 6.13 19 46 5 | —10 | 21.95] 5.93 
TSISPOMIs oe =. =... 4 50 14 | — 8 | 26.1 | 5.80} 15,29 49 5 | —12 | 21-9}. 5.30 
Standish... ..... 23 51 14 A SO) Pie OB) tora cna rel eee ae Not ere [meat aed ee etetel teste 
INGUWay.- a): ---- 23 48 14 | —11 | 23.4 | 5.50 15,18 42 5) | —14 |\18:8) 6.59 
@orniaie es. .*.. 23,27 44 14 | — 2 | 24.9 | 5. 71 15 46 5 | — 3 | 20.3 5. 30 
Cornishyille ..... 23 48 14 | —2 | 28.8 | 7.55 18 44 4,22 | — 2 | 21.3} 6.40 
PMMRTEE tee 5)2.5.ai5< | eewa |= <2 d= ofa ca pr C-a t5 Cal RE Sea ete Seal Sede mist Ae 19.9] 5.84 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
Stratford ........ 17 42 14 | —12 | 21.6 | 4.46 | 15,18 38 4|—12/15.4]| 5.19 
Whitefield ....... 7) | ye se 14 | —12 | 22.3 | 4.53 12) 43 4|—12] 16.4" 2.92 
Hiamover)...------. 17,23 33 i (oa) (tenia (y(t SG 18 3l 22: | —17 Bi yite il ee ig 
Tamworth -..-.-.- 23 50 14 | — 9 | 24.4 | 8.58 15 52 5 | —20|.18.2) 7.55 
eM Seas. fc 5s cso teatoe ce locisanc saliadee Ss |eesaes [nade se 18 47 4 |'— 5.| 23.0} 3.08 
Goffstown Center. 27 55 |10, 14,15 10 | 29.3 | 4.20 12 46 | (22,25 4| 23.0) 6.01 
JO 202 G0 Sa ee ed ee eee pre Ui ae ee ee) eae ee Bot al ema ke 16.9 | 4.95 
VERMONT. 
Lunenburg ....-. 17, 23 42 14 | 19) | 200% |) 4,55 18 44 2 | —13,| 152 155,00 
North Craftsbury. 2 AL 14 | —18 | 18.8 | 4. 67 18 40) 4)—16|13.2) 5.47 
Newport...-.-.-.- 17 42 14 | —22 | 21.1 | 6.40 18 42 4 | —a9 | 15.9 6. 70 
East Bethel.--.-.. 23 47 14 | —7 | 25.0) 6.71 12 44 5|—13] 17.31 4.44 
Woodstock .-...-- 23 49 14 | — 4 | 23.6 | 6.20 12 43 4,24)}—9]16.1); 5.21 
Near St. Albans... 17 44 14 | —30 | 21.2 |..-.--. 18 42 4 | —29 |. 15,0 )es25-- 
West Charlotte -. 17 47 14 | — 8 | 27.0 | 2.66 15 49 4|— 6 |.22.1) 488 
Middlebury-...-- 17 52 14 | —10 | 27.0 | 2.88 18 42 4°} — 3'] LONT ie Bua 
SERIO ssa. 5-- = 2 23 44 14 | —14 | 27.9 | 4.20 18 43 4;—6 1921 4.24 
Castleton ......-.. 23 46 ee ei 2772 | 2.21 138 46 4) —2| 20.2); 3.15 
Jn EL RBG | Se [eel Seed eae meer 249K | 4500 as... cae aba s este pune 17.4 | ° 4,75 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
Kingston .-.....-. Q7 56 9 13 | 33.9 | 6.05 18 54 | 22, 25 7} 28.5) 4.00 
Topsnelas's.-.. 23 54 9 2} 31.1 | 6.04 12 44 |4, 14, 25 4} 23.2 | 5.98 
Lawrence .-.-..-.. 17, 23 55 9 5 | 30.4 | 6.98 15 45 4 4} 22.4) 3,91 
Newbury ---.---- 23 57 9 Ay Slag, (essa 15 50 4 4.) 25, Lp eee 
Georgetown... -- 23 56 M4 9 | 31.6 | 8.50 15 46 4 0 | 23.3) 7.89 
ORDO R >. tena Soe = ws 23 65 9 DSL Weds L, |(pwemmolidaies Manis) sus antec e be ae rea ee ela | eee 
Oh a oe 23 54 9 9 | 35.9 | 5.32 18 54 20 9] 271) 4.64 
Cambridge .....-- 23 62 9 GrihsG. 0) j=. =e 1 53 22 3S | 2a. Oiiee see 
North Billerica. -. 2 56 9 Ql SZ. Sr posse ee 15, 18 50 7 5 de Pe 
West Newton. ... 23 62 9. 4/348 |...... 18 54 2,25 GAT Giiessess 
New Bedford... -. 26 51 9 9 | 35.4 | 5.96 15 52 22 8] 28.7) 4.36 
Worcester: 2s.-.. 23 54 9 6 | 31.4 | 6.34 18 50 22 3 | 25.5 |] 3.04 
Mendon... -<:--.. 17 56 9 2 | 31.4 | 6.20 18 2 22 4 | 23.3 | 3.95 
Lunenburg -..-.. 23 St 9 4 | 30.2 1.8.25 15 49 | 25 0 1.23.81 4.25 


§22 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteoroiogy of 1870-—Continued. 


and melted 


Mean temperature. 
Maximum tempera- 


FEBRUARY. 


JANUARY. 

2 ; | é 

ee 

co ° 

B a 

State and station. a 3 

~ >) ~~ 
Date. ad Date. £ 
af 8 Bc} 

By dee z 

is A 

oS — 

A A 

Mass.—Cont'd. 
Deg. 
Ambherst......... 5 
Richmone . .----.- w 
Williams College. 2 
Hinsdale. ........ — 8 
OVERAROS 568. |0 =U... 9.2|2o2cms (b= <t se 2s kane ‘ 


RHODE I6LAND. 


NEW YORK. | 


Moriches’v..::.-. 26, 27 59 9 12 
South Hartford -.| 17} 56 16 |= 
Fort Edward. .... 17 52 14 | 4 
OC aa 23 54 14 5 
Garrison’s ...--.- 2 58 9,14 11 
Throg’s Neck..-. 24 56 9 8 
White Plains ....| 16,18 | 60 9| 
Cooper Union.... 23 56 9 15 
Columbia College-|.-......|......|].---.--- aos ee os eee 
Rutger’s F. Coll.. 13 64 9 14 | 39.7 
Platbush:<. -...-.. 22 56 10 13 | 36.8 
GAaACOD-e-= e- -- 24 55 14 wi 328 
Newburgh ....... 23 57 14 12+} 35.3 
Minaville ........ 17 50 14 | —2j 27.1 
Sloansville ....... Ty, 68 14 8 | 29.6 
Cooperstown... - -. 17 57 14 | — 1 | 28.0 
Gouverneur...-.. 17 49 14 | —14 | 22.5 
North Hammond 17 50 14 | —14 | 24.4 
Honuseville ....... a by § 49 14 | —11 | 24.6 
Deydenn22- 522 =- 17 47 14 | —13 | 23.1 
WiCa.. 2252. . Jo.c 26 53 14 3) | 312 
South Trenton... ile 52 14 | —2 | 26.1 
Cazenovia -..-....- 17 53 14 | — 1] 28.0 
Oneida: s2-) 3.2 =: 17,18 56 14 2 | 29.7 
Depauville......- 17 47 14 | — 9 | 24.6 
Oswego .--....-.- 23 57 14 1 | 30.1 
Paserinid Se-22: -- - 17 50 * 14) — 9 | 21.4 
North Volney .-.. 17 50 14 3 | 28.1 
Waterburg ...-.- i 54 14 3 | 2.1 
Nichols 2.--.-.--'. 17 60 7,14 9 | 31.8 
Newark Valley .- 17 57 14 4 | 31.2 
Hamrpds 222. SS: 17 53 14 4 | 23.7 
Rochester, (M)..- 2 53 14 8 | 30.4 

Dp Ae yes: 17 51 14 7 | 29.4 
Little Genesee. -. 17 52 9,14 8 | 23.3 
Suspension Brid’e, 17 52 14 7 | 23.3 
Batialow bs... 17 51 14 8 | 29.0 

AVEPBEPR: oc} fe. oon ale dense |boew cease goes 

NEW JERSEY. 

Pattersons. -5 2 =. 23 55 9 13 
Newark 22.52... 23, 26 57 9 


16 
New Brunswick . 17 61 9 16 
Trenton <2- 22222. «16 67 9 18 


5 Date. 
a 

55 25 
48 25 
45 4 
438 25 


56 22 
56 4 
45 22 
58 22 


55 29 
48 4 
50 4 
“ar | 92) 
54 23 
47 22 
52 92 
50 | 21,22 
60 22 
48 25 
47 29 
5rd 22 
39 22 
45 21 
43 4 
45 4 
42 11 
38| 3,21 
41 25 
40 |11, 13, 25 
42 21 
46 13 
43 4 
44 21 
43 4 
44 4 
ag 
45 23 
46 23 
42 4 
47| 19,21 
48 i 
43 23 
48 | 21,22 


Minimum tempera- 
ture. 


BWADANWMDMWOW CAI AWWD 


i 


. Lm] 
oc o 
a 13 
618 
Br Peg 
i=} 
8.) 93 
a | fs 
Deg. In. 
25.3] 5.25 
22.3} 6.47 
21.9) 5.80 
19.2] 6.15 
24.71 5.05 
30.2] 5.32 
23,3} 7.22 
27.1 |) 4.86 
21.5). 5.41 
30,8 | 47.80 
26.9 | 6.32 
8} 3.61 
7143.73 
ie | eri 
28.0 | 6.78 
SLA eae 
Bi fy ieee 
30.8 |x 4.47 
31.0 | 27.39 
34.4 | 4,27 
29.7) 4.27 
26.7 | 6.84 
29.9 | 4.50 
20.1] 4.90 
20.3 | 3.72 
17.6| 2.73 
18.7 | *3.11 
18.1] 2.87 
16.4 | 4.05 
24.7 | 5.33 
19.4] 2.91 
Do bee 
24.2) 5.60 
19.5 | 4.42 
21.3 |..1.98 
20.3 |=4.10 
22,4 |....- 
BOG I<. 
24,8 |....-- 
23.3 | - 4.90 
22.3 | 4.50 
24.7 | 3.38 
24.0 | 2.67 
21.5} 3.98 
OA Ny ae 
25.0] 2.22 
24.4) 4.19 
29.5] 5.26 
30.7] 4.27 
30.5 | 3.37 
34.8! 3.20 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 623 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JANUARY. | FEBRUARY. 
: ; es : - , 
é gel 2 lz | g A | el 
ro) cS) | no cP) cP) =I = 
= c=] RE z = fo7) 5 2 
State and station. EI 2 al ee 3 a & : 
oi. 6 Oo E eS +6 & e 
Date. | g 3 | vate. 5 Ey 6 | Date. | gs | Date. ai| & a9 
5 ~ 3 ~ 8 | a 5 ~ 5 — g ea 
g a |e 3 q |g q 
Ci Ra o a oS 3 Cy 
A a Ale a A |e 
N. J.—Cont’d. 
Deg. Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Rio Grande ..-.-. 13 62 9 52 22 12 | 34.6] 4.48 
Moorestown .. - - - 17 67 9 58 22 9| 32.3] 2.97 
NewGermantown| 2,23 56 9 54 22 5 | 29.2] 2.63 
Lesser Cross R'ds.)2, 17, 23 58 9 56 22 9 | 31.4) esas . 
Haddonfield. ....- 17 67 9 59 22 12 | 33.1} 2.22 
Newfield ......... V7 68 9 57 22 5 | dacaulemaw ae 
Greenwich. .....- 13,17, 23] 62 9 54 22 12 | 35.0] 3.01 
Vineland ......-. 17 63 9 58 22 0| 33.2] 2.88 
eee eee ie 38. 2 bonis oe] wee cet aoe ~~ ot tno aml Ome eae 
9 48 21|—5| 22.7] 3.67 
9 52 |) 21,22 6 | 27.1] 3.98 
9 49 23 | —2| 26.8) 3.75 
9 60 22 10 | 33.0] 2.60 
9 59 22 13 | 34.8 | 2.56 
9 58 22 ht teen Oe tae 
9 60 22 12 | 33.3] 5.43 
9 56 22 9| 31.8] 3.35 
9 59 22 10 | 32.0} 2.89 
9 54 22 5) [30. Gylsesese 
9 46 23 | —2| 246] 4.20 
9 60 22 10 | 33.9] 5.88 
9 58 22 6] 31.2] 3.89 
Parkersburg - ---. 26 60 9 52 22 9] 31.9] 3.55 
Ashland ...-...--. 26 STH So Bee Eee 54 22 1 | 27.5} 7.10 
Tamaqua .--.-..-. 17 59 8 53 21.) — 1 | Serie eee 
Ephrata...-.-..--- 23 64 9 57 22 6 | 32.3} 2.49 
Monnt Joy ------ 23 58 9 60 22 12 | $4.0 nee 
Harrisburg... --- 23 62 9 55 22 9| 34.3} 412 
anise’ o----.-. 17 60 9 50 22 7/318] 4.35 
Fountain Dale --.. 23 64 9 51 21 6 | 31.0] 3.50 
Wae@ tess. -) =. - 17,|| 58 9 48 | 21,23 | —10 | 23.5) 3.50 
Williamsport .... 17| 55 8 48 22 6 | 29.7 |.12--. 
Lewisburg --..-.-. 2 54 9 48 23 | —1 | 26.8) 4.39 
Grampian Hills.. 17 43 9 42 23 |] — 8 | 22.1} 4.54 
Johnstown.....-. 13 57 9 50 21 0/28.3) 5.01 
renin. 2... .. 17 55 9 49 | 21,23 0| 25.6} 4.07 
BoE a |S | ee aes eee 9 (ee ee ee ene ee 5D 21 4] 31.1] 3.40 
Connellsville. .... 22 60 9 55 | 21,22 0 | 28.6 4eecee. 
Brownaville....{| 253% | }6o 8 6o| 2] 0/314] 183 
New Castle ...... 17 56 9 45 21 3) 204) S20 
Boy as aS 17 56 9 51 21 5 | 30.4 | 2.80 
Canonsburg...... 22 62 9 54 21 0} 30.2} 3.46 
MSE OR F. . Uae ns ool soa os | oes a a -[eieee| SOLO | 4200) to Sectas bees bsa 8s eel naa tn 29.7 | 3.83 
DELAWARE. 
pT ct eee ae 17 79 9 60 p-7) 13 | 36.4 | 2.70 
MARYLAND. 
Woodlawn ...--.. 13 62 9 58 22 7| 31.9) 3.44 
Annapolis -..-.--. 13 69 9 56 | 21, 22 11} 37.7] 4.52 
St. Inigoes. ...... 17| 70 9 60 92] 11/358] 2.36 
Frederick. -.:..-. 23 |. 58 9 55 21 13 | 36.7 | 3.42 
Mount St. Mary’s. 23 60 9 52 21 5 | 30.9 | 3.70 
AVEPAZES« .--]- 22.222 -fece ew efeceee pe ghewe-e-| 39.3 [3.38 J.0... 22 e eee eee ene fennaes 34.6 | 3.49 
DIST. OF COLUMBIA. 
Washington ....- 17 57 8 52 21 13 | 38.9] 3.08 


§24 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JANUARY. FEBRUARY. 
‘ ' ‘ | ‘ 
E fF i ¢({3 z #133 
oe 0) =) = o c 5 P=] 
a a = o oy a o 
: | A =I | | A ‘3 (oe 
State and station. BI Oy | Pies fr 5 o . | ee 
ws +S 2 eS ro ~~ 7 5 
Date. | 25 | Date. | 2.8 | & | 3g | Date | 48 | Date. | 3 ze so 
ae a2] 8 | Be Be a2] 8 | 82 
z Ae leapl | A a ie 
% _ ZDALG % F 
i ail 3 |4 E ajdila 
a A A |e | A A Ale 
VIRGINIA. 
Deg. Degq,| Deg.| In. Deg Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Johusontown..--- 13,17 66 9 23 | 45.7 | 2.60 15 60 | 21,22 17 | 39.7] 3.10 
« Hampton .-...-.---. 17 70 9 22 | 45.8 | 3.30 18 65 22 16 | 41.5} 3.10 
Zuni Station ---..- 17 il 9 22 | 47.1 | 3.04 18 68 22 18 | 42.2] 3.27 
Garry, we. bo Lyf 80 a 24 | 48.2 | 6.88 18 73 22 16 | 42.1] 8.93 
Comort ae... ee -- a 72 9 16 | 425/171 18 60} 21,22 14 | S771 et 
Miennarcce:- 2. - 13 69 9 14 | 41.0 | 2.99 17 55 | 21,22 8} 36.0] 2.10 
Fairfax 'C; 9 -- -.- 17 70 8 13 | 38.2 | 3.70 17 60 2 10 |.32.5| 2.20 
Pjedmont .....--.. 23 67 9 13 {37.0 1/2. 95 |) 22, 17 54 22 5 | 34.6] 2.80 
Piedmont Station. 23 70 9 10 | 36.1 | 3.3 2 56 22 1 }:30.7 | 255 
Staunton......-.. 17| 66 89] 18] 41.5 | 3.40 2 | 57] 21,22] 11] 36.1] 2.30 
Lexington ------- 23 74 9 13 | 43.0 | 4.65 26 70 22 0 | 40.0 2.21 
Lynchburg ..-... 17 66 9 ISAs: S| sens 15 55 bi | i by i fe Pe | 
Snowville........ 23 66 9 6 | 36.5 | 7.30 26 66 22|—1| 33.9 6. 56 
Near Wytheville.) 23, 26 60 9 6 | 37.3 |'2.35 2 54 21 5 | 34.7] 3.00 
BX (2301): re) ea esas ea sb) Leone BIB 9s 10) |e ~~ - melee Sic Saiae| = 37.3 | 3.36 
———S _———=  —===— 
WEST VIRGINIA. 
Wy estour.).-2---. 15, 22°12 "60 9 ie | a ee 26 69 19,22 | — Dees 
Cabell C. H --...- 16 60 8 21 | 39.0 | 3.00 | 12,13 54 21 12} 37.0} 2 
et ————— ———— 
NORTH CAROLINA. 
Kenansville. ---.- 17 £0 10 QA 08.10) [enue 27 16 21 22 Ae ° 
Goldsboro ..--. ee 17} 80 10} 22) 52.6)3.00] 14,18] 71 QL) 19] 46.4) 4.60 
FETT E77 ee Pa S| 1s |S Vi i (See | A 12 62 | 21,22 12} 39.8] 4.15 
Oxtord ees; --| 17 7 9,10 22 | 46.7 | 3.50 12 66 22 17 | 43.0} 4.20 
Chapel Hill ...-..- | 22 71 3 2 FN) yt DT fol nee 15 68 20 18 | 44.0 |...... 
Albemarle .-.--..-- 17 74 5 12 | 43.9 | 4.51 26 73 21 9 | 40.9] 3.66 
Statesville ..-..-. 13,17 62 | 5,9, 10 14 | 39.5 | & 85 26 62 21 8] 36.7] 2.94 
Asheville, (A). --- 23 65 9 12 | 41.7 | 3.50 26 64 21 7| 38.8] 2.20 
Woosh)... 29 66 9 TN a7 Bod ae ee 26 66 21 4.) ARCS seen 
Averages ....!......-- 1 see. eee tate a 46.4 | 4.08 |.--..--- ae eee ota: 
SOUTH CAROLINA. | Cage? 
Blutiion so... - =~. 18 78 32 | 56.1 | 3.70 Q27 7 
Gowdeysville --.-. 13 66 18 | 47.1 | 4.45 26 68 
Holland’s Store..) 15,1 66 20 | 47.2 | 5.70 26 68 
Asker See fw. ! 17 V7 23 | 49.1 | 2.86 26 70 
Averages ....|....#... [ea age ee a | 49.9 | Ait) |e se PSE es 
GEORGIA. | > 
IbeIMe ys s2e25---.-- 17 73 3 2 Ts a al ees QT 74 
Penfield 22.2... 13,14,17) 67 940 20 | 47.0 | 2.90 26 68 
12, 13, 
Atlantace----=: ; 14, 15, t 63 9, 10 15 | .45.2 | 5. 31 26 65 
@ 16, 17, 28 
Syrccuverages ....|.-....--|--.-.. eee oe, 48.1 | 4:11 || Sone. eee 
ALABAMA. r 
Rockville ......-. | ae! age 9| 33] 540] 4.13 14] 69 
Carlowville ..-...- 16 74 2,9 28 | 50.3 | 5.05 14 72 
SOUNBs wees). 16 73 5, 10 32 | 53.7 | 4.55 14 2 
Greene Springs -. 23 7 5 23 | 48.4 | 5.00 14 69 
Coatopa::.--.----- 16, 24 73 9 23 | 50:2 | 6.50 14 AZ 
Fish River. ...... 15 72 4 30 |-2-22. 1. 70 14 70 
Mobile Sees cee == | 17 68 5 | Q7 | 52.7 | 3.51 |12,13,35) 68 
| 51,5 | 
| : 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. ea 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JANUARY. FEBRUARY. 


| 
: - : 7 2 “ = aa] 
5 5 | g/3 Bs a |} ets 
= = ee a Ey & Fs 
State and station. 8 eel eo prs é. Facade Evil ee 
Date an Date ¥e Bie 5 Date ae Date we a ae 
ae fag | Dae | ae] a | ee | | ae | Me) es | 2 | Es 
5 E a 8 5 2 
i a | aig i a | s&s |q 
Gs qa o oe e 3 S) oS 
A a | ala A a | 
FLORIDA. | 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In Deg Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Port Orange ..... 18, 19, 24 76 3 34) GEE tl... a2 15 7 21 34. |) 52.3) [ee setae 
Jacksonville ..... 17| 92 10} 32] 59.3] 1.05 27| 80 21| 28|55.5| 225 
Pilates. ..-2.... 15, 17 4 5 29 | 59.6 | 2.38 2 7 21 30 | 56.3} 5.29 
Ocalaie-c.-+-..... 19 89 5 22 | 60.8 | 1.12 17 79 | 21,25 32 | -secueleeaane 
Manatee ....... §] array |} 9 5| 42] 670/300] 215] 78| 19,22) 40/617] 290 
it 20 Ne EIR SS a ee BOP TED (Boece Jleosse. |eaee gael cae 56.5 | 3.25 
——————| Pe a fe 
TEXAS, 
Cleripese...-- =... 29 70 2 24 | 49.9 | 2.58 16 &2 20 22 0.53 
Houston .....-... 16 80 2 Bo) | D408 |. ce sa 15, 16 83 20 of fF S6rL Pees. 
Palestine ........ 12, 22 76 17 24 | 51.1 | 1.70 16 22 20 20 0. 52 
Blue Branch ..... 16, 31 74 18 30 | 53.1 | 0.90 |15, 16, 28 80 20 28 0. 30 
Det 20, 26 7 3,8 38 | 53.2 | 4.30 23 &38 18 30 1.00 
Clinton ~ 3 16 80 2 31 | 55.2 | 0.80 16 83 18, 20 30 0.90 
Lng 15 76 17 29 | 51.2 | 0. 64 22 5 20 27 0. 58 
Bockhart>. =... .-. 22 76 2 OU Rose tw aecien 25, 28 xi!) 20 25. 54: Fe iteeee. 
40009 1 al ae Sy eee ee SOG) || Wo 82 jess edule Pye ase eee 0. 64 
_ LOUISIANA, La 
New Orleans..... 92] 76 12,5,9,10| 34] 55.0 | 4.75 28] 80 a1} 29 2.12 
oth a Se ee RR RRS 3 a eee 16, 28 76 20 20 | 53. Ohl aseee 
. MISSISSIPPI. =] Tare 
Columbus. -.-...-. 16 7 9 23 | 46.4 | 7.73 14 69 Q1 20 3. 88 
Enterprise .....-.. 15 73 | 2,5,9 30) | as 0) ete ee 1,14 val 21 24. 50: One e. ce 
Marion C. H..... 12, 30 78 2,10 24 | 50.3 | 4.10 12 76 o1 18 3. 70 
CLT ES SS ee eee ees eee oe eae 14 70 | 19 2. 50 
Grenada ......-.. 16 70 9 Dele Ce 1S a dl |e Ge eoety esse nae eerer) see cscs 
Cob a srrip SR ER RS | Se) ee (|e ees as 73 21 24 1. 68 
Near Brookhaven. 16 75 5 26 | 51.0] 9.40} 14,15 75 21 25 1. 60 
Watchez ......... 16 12 2 Q7 | 51.9 | 7.72 16, 28 73 o1 22 1. 67 
PAVERAPON. -s|2 ccccaetcsced oP Aes [aecte Ses SONS 54. |b soe stn |e sal ats Se on |em aan 2. 51 
es | oe | 
ARKANSAS, 
Helena...... .... 9,18,19 | 26 | 45.0 |...... 15] 69 2; 14 | 46-400 
" (TENNESSEE: ae AT 
Elizabethton. .... 9 6 | 41.7 | 2.65 14 71 Q1 6 | 44.5 3. 22 
Tusculum College 8 19 | 42.3 | 2.10 14 66 21 6 | 40.3 | 1.90 
Knoxville ........ 9 12 | 41.1 | 3.30 1L 67 Q1 5 | 39.7 3. 60 
Lookout Mount’n. 9 WW eS eid eee 12 68 21 5) | 40s Guise eee 
Phin 5,9 12 | 40.9 | 8.60 11, 26 66 21 8} 41.4] 5.15 
Clarksville....... 9 15 | 39.8 | 8.39 1 66 20 7 | 40.3 3. 03 
Trenteneso.. <2. 9 19 | 43.7 | 5.58 26 G7 20 10 | 43.8 4.41 
Memphis ........ 9 20 | 41.7 | 4.96 14 69 20 12 | 43.1] 469 
ATE OS al tae s'a\e| esa os fect -/> sf come #A590 1) 5308: |B eeeee- [Gast |e see chip 41.8] 3.71 
Pine Grove ...--. 9|— 21] 36.0 | 9.93 14| 57 a1|—2/327| 4.17 
Darivilles: 25 .-. 9 2) 41.1 | 729 11,12 64 Q1 1} 387 368 
Shelby City. a 9 0 | 37.7 | 8.28 i1 63 21} —2) 365 3. 88 
Louisville ........ 9 LE 36S) j-25 2. 26 61 21 3.) SG Sifeseees 
Near Louisville... 9 6 | 36.2 | 9.30 26 60 at 3 [136.2 2. 68 
Po ycinrta: SS) eee al SARS Pee a5 ot oe BA Wide Ar (fe AES eee | baer ee 36.3 | 3.60 
onto. 
\ 
bw Panis io. . - lees aftoas.-- SPs cpeetesetet. 2s. 17| 56 a1|—3 | 29.0} 3.10 
Salem....--- ena ~9h— 2 L 32. 2 1.6. 05 -14 46 21 .— 2! 29.3 | 2.60 


626 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Metcorology of 1870—Continued. 


JANUARY, FEBRUARY. 


5 2 |gl% | a: 
3) ro) s P=] (3) (3) I a 
= a a oS = A 2 =) 
State and station. a 5 il 5 B e |e. 
Date. | 48 | Date. |~ 21 & | a5 | pate, | 8 | pate | 81 & fee 
ae ae| 8 | Bg Be gS | 8 pag 
is Al a B qd | 
K ‘| Z A zt a a c= 
3 5 a S B 
a | aA | a |e A a |a |e 
a | ee eee 
OnIp iid es Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. 
Steubenville -..-. 17 56 9 D | 30.9 | 5. 73 12 | a 22 9|32.0| 3.51 
Painesville.-.....- 17 54 9 2} 29.3 | 6.50 11 44 21 3126.4] 278 
Milnersville.....- 17 60 8 10 | 31.0 | 3.30 16 53 19 | — 4} 30.0 }|---+-. 
Cleveland........ 17 56 9 2) 29.4] 6.15 11 45 21 4} 26.5) 168 
Gallipolis -....... 17 66 9 8 | 37.6 | 5.72 14 62 21 3) 341) 3.15 
horteeere ee aso. t |S 3.) See LR 11 48 21] — 2) Qos eeeeee 
Kelley’s Island -. 22 46 9 4 | 29.3 | 4.95 xk | 43 21 0| 27.7] £1.00 
Sandusky.-.-...-.. 12 48 9 3 | 30.5 | 7.30 11 45 Q1 1 | 23.5.1) 1:22 
North Fairfield -. 15 53 9} — 2] 30.7 | 5.02 11 46 21 | — 4] 27.7) 1.82 
Gambier ..-....... 17 BOE Ak. 2 bee eelb eee eee Fai il 47 21 | — 4] 238.2} 3.00 
Westerville. ..... 17 50 9 1 | 31.7 | 6.05 11, 26 dl 21 0| 30.9} 3.00 
Williamsport .-... 20 50 9 6 | 34.1 |13. 35 26 56 21 0 | 32.2 |. 4.04 
North Bass Isl'd.. 22 44 9 3 | 23.1 | 5.40 11 45 21} — 2] 272): L% 
Marion .......... 17,22| 49 9|—5 | 23.9] 728] 11,26] 46 21 | — 3 | 27.0] 206 
Hillsboro .-....-.. 16 54 9 0 | 32.1 | 6.25 26 54 21} —2)] 31.5) 3.13 
Mpledo 3. 25--3- =<. 17 49 8 3 | 29.0 | 4.50 iL 48 21|— 4] 28.1) 169 
Bowling Green... 12 dl 9 0 | 30.5 | 6.65 11,15 47 21|—5] 238.3] 1.40 
Kenton ..-..-.... 15 51 9 4 | 33.8] 8.88 12 48 21|}—2)] 315] 198 
Wrbansa ser en's -- 16 54 9 | — 4} 29.9 | 6.66 26 53 21|— 7] 29.1] 207 
MASON Secs ns = os 26 55 9 | a i lide ep 26 5d 21|—3] 328] 3.75 
Jacksonburg ...-. 15, 17. 51 9 2{| 31.7] 6.65] 11,26 56 21}—4/3L6| 275 
Mt. Auburn Sem. 16 57 9 2 | 33.4 | 6.67 14 59 21}; — 4] 32.6] 206 
Cincinnati, (H)-.-- 16 56 9 4 | 33.2 | 5.35 14 59 21 0 | 33.0] 1.55 
Dp, (2) ves: 26 60 9 7 | 35.4 | 6.10 11 58 20 7 | 33.1) 2.98 
College Hill...... 26 52 9}; —1] 32.3] 888 14 54 21|}—4/]3L4|] L774 
ES STR DIE a0 tal | ae 8 eee (eee | Seer 9 De (A i is aise | SP ly Fr al oe — 29.9} 2.39 
MICHIGAN. ' | 
Ee ee eS a eee ee eee Pere bee) pase ‘ 11 41 21;—9|23.6) 2.68 
Monroe City ..--. 12 47 9 0 | 23.7 | 3.36 il 48 21|— 7] 27.8| 0.70 
Wenings sco 2.2)... 22 42 9 | — 4] 24.7 | 5.86 11 45 Q1 | —12 | 22.1 |] 248 
One (i=. ss 15, 17 36 13 4 8 |e OS 4,9 34 22! — 3] 20.8) 3.00 
State Agr’l Coll-. iby 46 9 2} 25.4 | 1.93 7 44 21 | —13 | 243) 1.20 
Litchfield .-...... 17 44 9 | — 4 | 24.3 | 3.18 11 47 21 | —18 | 23.3] 2.10 
Cold Water...-.. 12 46 9} —2| 24.7 | 8.13 11 49 21 | —11 | 25.1 | 1.00 
BS ‘ 
Grand Rapids, (H) ; a } 41 ; int ; a9 u| 48 a1 | —10 | 25.5 |.----- 
? 
Northport ....... 17 40 ARON, ons oe 11 40 22 | —12 | 20.4 
BEN ZOOTE se we 30 35 | 13,14 as | pees eo ie er if 41 22 | —12'4 Ser 
Homestead .....-. 22 38 13,14 | — 2 | 21.0 |.-..-. 16 42 22 | —16 | 24.5 }.----- 
Pleasanton....... 22°28 38 | 13,14 | —1 | 20.5 | 2.75 11 45 22 | —12 | 19.9 
Muskegon ....... 22 42 18 rat eG ON eee 16 48 21 | —2 | 26.7 
Oisere sts 2s... 12,22] 50 9) foul as. Bile 2! 16,18| 54 21 0 | 32:Oieeemee 
Copper Falls. .-... 16 24 18 |} —13 | 11.2] 895 11 38 20 | —18 | 12.1 
Ontonagon -.....- 25 32 18 —14 | 16.2 }.--:-- 11 40} 20,21 | —24]} 15.1 }..--. 
Aiprapans...|. 0.5.35. | pita sg [eee 23,1 | Be BON ae wc» Sc]: cere: ep Se 22.8 
INDIANA. | 
BULGER ots. - - = - 22 57 9 1} 33.1 | 7.33 11 58 Prt 2] 33.0 | 259 
Wevay 2s e~...-- 16 60 9 5 | 34.7} 7.18} 11,26 58 21 2|34.4} 2.47 
Mt. tooniel percents 22 59 9 01 31,5 | 4.53 | 11,14 52 21 0} 30.5} 2.00 
PGUCIB Ren = - nos 22 53 9 | —1 | 29.5 | 4.00 26 58 21| — 6] 287) 1.50 
Spiceland .-...--. 12, 16 51 9 | — 3] 29.7 | 5.03 ike 55 21); — 7} 29.7) Lse 
atone. > 5-5 16 62 9 3} 35.4 | 6.89 11, 26 62 21|—3| 345] 2.43 a 
Columbia City - -- 11 48 9 | — 4] 27.6 | 3.10 10 54 21|—5 | 29.8}; 0.70 
Knightstown --.. 16 54 9} —5] 30.1 | 5.14 11 56 21 | —10 | 29.1 | 1.28 
Indianapolis -.-.. 12 55 9 1 | 33.0 | 3.73 11 58 21} — 8] 32.6] 1.08 
Near La Porte... 10 438 9 | — 4] 25.2 | 4.20 16, 25 47 20} — 2) 23.21 1.35 
Rensselaer...-.-. 11 47 8, 27 0 | 25.6 | 3.95 26 o2 21|— 9] 26.6] 1.60 
La Fayette... .. 12| 56 8,9 re a ie ir eee | ---2c0]o-2+----|2--705) ern 
Merom: 2223...-<. 12 58 8 6 | 31.7 | 411 11,14 | 62 21|— 3 
New Harmony. .- 12 58 8 13 | 35.3 | 4.35 11, 26 56 21 os 
Harvyeysburg .-.’.. 22 53 9} — 2] 26.1 | 4.60 il 56 21 | —12 
to Peny i , x Ee : 5 
Se cr i PON | ETE, Bae el ee er os ta |e 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 627 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JANUARY. FEBRUARY. 
: o s |ro ‘ : = |r 
= a £ |"s a = B |'s 
State and station. ce iB 5 5 3 go.) gale 
ro , Fo os m a) Oo 2 E 
Date. & | Date. | = || Date. | a3 | Date. | 8 e |wo 
E 3 LE = a , | ae HE! a ee 
5 p aa 5 = xg a 
5 8 = = A z 
iA a oe ie 4 a a |). 
i “4 i] = =<] ra | & a 
a A A | ee} a A a | 
ILLINOIs, ' 
4 J. Deg. ; Deg. | In. Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. 
P 4} 27.1 | 2.37 11 50 20|— 8] 30.0) 0.86 
i : 2) || auth | eee 1 47.| 20,21 |'— 4| 23 ene sees 
Evansto ? — 1 | 25.0} 3.25 IL 46 20 | — 7 | 26.9 1.25 
— 7} 20.9 | 2.28 11 45 20 | —13 | 23.3] 0.59 
2 | 30.2 | 1.76 14 51 20} — 6 | 28.8] 0.93 
Pas OEE GS or Gal ES eee ese eciceieee peers (cic) Ac 
— 2) 22.3 | 5.48 26 48 21 | —11 | 243) 2.45 
10 | 33.0 | 4.90} 11,14 64} 20,21 | —2)|3L7)| 1.30 
16 | 39.2 | 4.50 17 69 21 2;)39.5| 7.50 
— 7} 20.9 | 1.72 il 45 20 | —12 [-23.0 | 0.78 
— 3] 23.4] 4.45 26 50 21 | —12 | 25.9 | 1.10 
0 | 27.9 | 5.29 26 57 20 | — 3 | 29.6] 0.70 
3} 27.6 | 2.85 26 59 20|— 6 | 285] 0.95 
5 | 29.1 | 2.30 2 61 20} — 4] 30.3] 0.30 
— 8} 20.4 | 2.87 11 47 20 | —11 | 22.3] 0.75 
—= (4/24. 1 }i-.5-- 11,16,26 47 20} — 9 | 25.1 |...... 
— 3 | 25.5 | 3.30 26 56 20|— 8 | 26.3} 0.70 
Oh] 25.8) | -<.55- 26 54 20 | — 6 | 27.5 j...... 
—@2 | 26.0-1.2.... 26 58 20 | — 5 | 24.0 |...... 
1 | 26.7 | 1.65 26 56 20} — 7 | 28.4 |...... 
4 | 28.0 | 2.05 26 63 20 | — 7130.2) 0.33 
2 | 27.6 }.....- 26 56 20 | — 4-| 29.1 }...... 
4 | 32.9 | 3.64 14 68 20 0|}342) 1.46 
p32) By i) eee 14 68 20 O:} BGi4 Vescos. 
— 2 | 21.4 | 0.63 2 63 20; — 8] 238.0} 0.30 
0} 29.5 | 1.16 26 67 20} —9|-315] 0.35 
— 2} 26.4 |...... 26 69 20 | —10 | 29.7 | 0.50 
Oh ee 26 64 20 | — 4} 28.0 j..-... 
— 2 | 26.9 | 2.12 26 67 20} — 9} 30.8] 0.12 
— 2} 27.3 | 2.2 26 72 20; —9 | 32.3] 0.05 
SB Gap 2040 
18.2 {| 2.18 
23.1} 1.65 
21.0| 1.40 
25, 2ileeaene 
24.0 | 1.32 
1 20.7] 0.64 
23.7/| 0.46 
1 24 seses~ 
1 é 17.1 | 1.35 
22.2} 1.99 
20.9} 1.35 
25.5] 2.78 
16.1,j 0.82 
: : : g 22.5 | 3.25 
New Lisbon.....-. 28 AG 18 | .—18 | 17.2 |...... 10 54 20 24 } 22.5 
Bayfield ......... 3,29,30| 23] 1823|]—18| 9.6]...... 11} 42 21 | —28 | 13.3 
a j 
TS 2 ee ey aa bee |:-22222-[e-en-- BRI RS ey ee! nail eS Se ee, 21.0 
MINNESOTA. 
Beaver Bay...-.-. 15 34 18 | —19 | 11.4! 2. 67 12 43 21 |.—26 | 15.5) 2.7% 
g. Sse a ARE See 28 36 21 |. —21 | 10.9 | 2.45 26 44 20 | —26} 15.1] 0.85 
St. Panl...--...... 5, 28 33 18 |.—20 | 14.8 | 1.34] 10,26 39 20 |.—23 | 17.8} 0.60 
Minneapolis -..-.. 23 +32 18 | —30} 9.9 | 2.15 19, 10, 26 -36 20 29 $14.9] 0.56 
Sibley sea--4-- =~ 28 736 23 | —e 9.3 | 1.53 10 339 :20 | —32 | 14.6 }..-.-. 
Koniska ......--- 23 32 | 17,23 |.—241-10.7 | 2.05 10 4D "20 |.—3 14.8 | 0.40 
New Ulm........ 5,28] 32 17 | —18 | 11.0] 1.74] 11,16] :38 19 |.—22 | 15.3 | 0.17 
Madelia.......... 5| 32 23 | —23 |" 9.7 | 2.05 10| 43] 20 |.—34] 14.0] 0,10 
White Earth. -.... 24, 29 30 27 | —30 | :3.7.]...... 25 42 19 |.—32 4} 10.9 | 1.8 
i i ae 
PEVERORIONT - o-ln ce ~ oe elgsee-- eee eat Os B22, OO NS bs . 2 a. aa ce [ase 14.8] ,0.91 
Ss i SSS 


Rp 


28 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


Date. 


25, 


9 19) 
we OTST 


14, 


Maximum tempera- 
ture. 


JANUARY. 
£ eg s |B 
2 & | 213 
State and station. 5 ie ae 
ce re] ee E 
Date. ae Date. | #8 a |e 
BP ' BP] o lak 
= 5 = 
a2 A a | 4 
a pat a =| 
a a A | 
IOWA 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Giinton'e2e-) 22. 11 44 18 | — 5} 22.1 | 4.50 
Wankouees. 2... : 16 40 17 | —15 | 14.4 |...... 
Dubuque -.-...--.. 16 43 17 | — 6 | 21.2 | 2.22 
Monticello ....-... 16 40 8,17 | —10 | 18.8] 1.35 
Bowen's Prairie... 11 54 8,17 | —12 | 19.9 | 4.10 
Fort Madison.... did 48 18 | — 2} 25.6 | 2.89 
Guttenberg ...--. 16 42 8) 197) 17,3422. -- 
Mt. Vernon...... 16 40 17) 164) QE Aa 
Iowa City.-....... 16 44 8} — 5} 22.1] 2.30 
Independence.... 16 4) 8,17 | —11 | 18.1} 1.7 
Near Independ’ce 16 43 8,17 | —12 | 17.3 | 4.57 
Waterloo .....-.-. 11,16 38 17 | —10 | 21.0 |...... 
Rockford ........ j 16 39 /17,18,23 | — 7 | 18.9 )...... 
1, 15, 
Tows Falls......- 27, 28, , 38 16 | — 8 | 20.9 | 1.18 
29 
Aivonay -----.=-- 11, 28 33 17 | —13 | 15.8 | 1.80 
West Bend....--- 11} 36 17 | —18 | 12.6 | 2.10 
AVC) OSTEO ng el Ee ee el ee ere ee ae | ae 
Boonesboro .....- | 11 48 8,17 | —10 | 18.7} 6.50 
Mineral Ridge... 1i{ 50] 817]—8] 20.5] 0.73 
Fontanelle.....-. 10 45 17 | —13 | 21.4 | 0.68 
Bolieis---po---> == 11 40 17 | —17 | 16.5 | 1.38 
Grant City. ..-.-- 98| 42] 89,17 | —12 | 17.5 | 1.10 
TiO Sa epee on = 10 49 17 | —11 | 19.5 } 0.90 
Woodbine ..-.... 10 42 17 | —18 | 18.8 | 0.29 
West Union ...-.. 10, 30 46 17 | —19 | 17.9 | 1.72 
PAW OERION seo 2) Ne z.o='-| ao Soke <ll ate Bets 2. Pape TES Oe rt 
—————— 
MISSOURI. 
Sionis-—.-.---.- 12 63 8 8 | 34.7 | 2.25 
Allenton .....-.-. 12 64 8 6 | 32.8 | 2.31 
Hematite ...-...-- 12 69 8 8 | 35.8 | 2.60 
ROME rasseee te J-\2< 16 64 17 8 | 34.5 | 1.18 
Jefferson City.... 16 61 17 DNS OMe s2-- 
UC TGS) Gln” S58. g Basedsad [Esresa) Seen Seee Borsemel lee at ERE Eee 
Bolivar s-5------ 11;22;29 58 17 4 | 35.5 | 0.31 
Harrisonville .... 11 54 17|}—2 .2 | 0.50 
St. Joseph........} 11 56 iz is As) OND Sos ae 
? 
Oregon=s----- ===. 10 55 17 | — 8 | 26.2 | 1.00 
LIS Sel ee a ee ee eS 31.9 | 1.45 
KANSAS. 
Atchison]. .|-2-- - 11 58 8 | — 3 | 27.3 | 0.50 
Leavenworth .... 29 56 8 | — 2 | 26.3 | 0.62 
Olathe 2 ------- 11 56 17 | — 1] 28.7 | 0.70 
‘Pala pop sas => ==. - 11 57 aly 1 | 30.2 | 0.50 
Baxter Springs. -. 16 63 17 6 | 35.6 | 0.70 
Lawrence...-...- 11, 29 57 8 0 | 29.4 | 0.67 
Williamsburg.... 11 56 11 | —3)) 279". -- 
Holtonees=-<2 == 11 60 8,17 | — 4 | 27.2 | 0.75 
Neosho Falls. .--. 25 57 17 | —1 | 27.3 | 0.30 
Le Roy &-22.-: =e 29 5 17 0 | 32.2 | 0.25 
State Agr’1Coll..| 11,29 5 17 | — 3 | 27.7 | 0.05 
Council Grove ... 11 62 17 2 | 30.5 | 0.50 
Crawtordsville...| 11,24 58 8,17 4 | 32.3 | 0:20 
BAG BI GH Bate o/s aa (crcia|'a\oineln n)| om wteminiale | lant 29.4 | 0.48 
NEBRASKA. 
Omaha Agency .- 29 46 17 | —10 | 21.8 | 2.50 
Blairges i2--.2 10! 43! 8 1—9 1.20.0 |.....- 


FEBRUARY. 


Date. 


. 
+ + ts 
a lala 
#31 oe (ae 
a5 5 ag 
a” ae 
P| A 
a.| 8 Ia 
A A |e 
Deq.| Deg.| In. 
—12 | 23.5] 0.50 
—16 | 20.1 | 0.50 
—7/|25.3] 1.36 
—10 | 25.2] 0.31 
—12 | 24.9] 1.50 
—9/2.7) OG 
—12 | 21.2] 0.33 
— 9 | 24.0 }.-.... 
—10 | 24.9] 0.25 
—14 | 21.9] 0.50 
—18 | 21.7] 0.30 
—16 | 22.7 |....-. 
—16 | 21.9 }..... > 
—IT |cseues 0.00 
—18 | 20.0} 0.00 
—25.| 17.1] 0.00 
—17 | 24.6 |...... 
—18 | 24.6] 0.00 
—13 | 26.4} 0.01 
—14 | 28.0] 0.00 
“15 | 29.6 | 0.00 
—14 | 28.0; 0.01 
—17 | 23.4] 0.78 
aaainne 0. 34 
Q 0. 33 
—1 0. 59 
1 0. 20 
2 1. 06 
0. | .S450n seas. 
—1 0. 00 
"4 136.9 | | 0. 00 
3 | do, 0 leoseen 
—9 0. 03 
sesame 0. 32 
— 6; 33.9 | 0.00 
— 6 | 32.8} 0.00 
— 5 | 34.5] 0.00 
— 2| 36.2] 0.00 
2| 41.2] 0.69 
— 2) 35.4 90N03 
— 6 | 34.4 |..-.-.. 
— 5 | Saas Onon 
— 2| 35.2*| 0.00 
0 | 40:3 |e 
— 3] 341] 0.00 
0 | 38.3] 0.00 
— 2) 40.8] 0.02 
36.3 | 0.05 
—14 | 32.6; 0.00 
0 | Sovaiaee os 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 629 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JANUARY. FEBRUARY. 


o cS) H ae o (a) ‘=| ee 
a = t= o a a 5 E 
State and station. a ane: Be E a | § ; 
~ oO Yo z, Ee s ro ro S IS 
Date. ad Date. g | F S 6 | Date. ag Date. a q q |3e 
pe 5 ~ 3) a A =! ~” =} ~ ‘2 a A 
5 eI 3 hs | a 
4 = oe |g 4 i Ute 
3 = 2° =i 3 | 2 cs 
a a Aa |e A P| ie =| 
Nezs.—Cont’d. 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.\ In Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
WepsOLOs 2a==-2.4-. 10 43 17 | —14 | 19.5 | 0.35 oy 57 20 | —1d | 28.7 0. 03 
Bellevue........- . 10 49 17 | — 8 | 24.1 | 0.40 25 62 20! — 5 | 32.5] 0.00 
Nebraska City... 10 5S4 17 | —12 | 23.5 | 1.74 25 64 FD) |) = lates 0.00 
2 EG 260 bea BSE beeen) Berean Maeacs QE a TRS a. Se atersia|| Sessa > Note Miers aterel| in Setar 30.9 | 0.01 
UTAH. 
G’t Salt LakeCity| 29,30{° 48 BION) Peat Weslo eee 24] 58 18! | 20n30ed) (PSeee. 
Coalville: ..-..--- 21 51 1 —30' | 26:4 |..-.-. 9 52 L7)|, AS RB aee le oelaiae 
CALIFORNIA. 
Monterey ..-..--- 31 7 2,8 35) } 51.08) JE13 1 70 17 34] 52.7} 3.80 
@iicoe----------- 30 70 5 26 | 49.4 | 2.70 4 70 17 32°) S13) |) 3.70 
Watsonville ...-. 29, 30 78 16,17 34 | 53.8 | 3.00 9 79 16 33 | 54.2] 3.59 
Vacaville ..--..-... 29 68 2 26 | 46.2 | 2.92 3 69 25 ae oy (a iP an AP 
HCO. soaa~ 3-5. = 28, 31 68 | 5,6,9 33 | 48.0 |15. 00 3 66 17 32 | 49.1 | 9.40 
Niche S a a 31 78 2 Q1 | 45.7 | 0.14 8 78 5 29 | 51.8} 2.76 
Clayton .......... 31 75 2 29 | 46.1 | 1.52 5 74 25 351-5270) ia. £9 
R506 58 eee Eee Geen Cee CALA MSS Gl ee ee ee ie ee teeta oem cec 51.8) 4.2 
——|— —_—_——| ——— 
MONTANA. : 
Deer Lodge City. 31 51 18 | —36 | 22.0 | 0. 64 21 55 17 | —15 | 29.4] 1.05 
—S——_—— oes 
COLORADO. 
Denver .-........ 31 60 16)—5 AO] ek 24 64 5 P|) 33.00 |pekae 
WASHINGTON. | al 
Port Angeles ...-. 2 53 17 25 | 43.8 |10.95 | 22, 23 Ed) |) Gea iy 38 | 45.7 | 8.70 
Walla-Walla..... 30 64 a SYR gd Gaal ae Ae 9 A | Pe ebe bpomenod bechou|senaacileninscc 
OREGON. 
Poriann 22 s.<5-- 28 63 18 17 | 40.2 | 4.85 22 58 |16,27,28 32 | 42.5 4, 30 
Os seea cose. 28 56 18 16 | 36.5 | 4.35 Pp 54 16 | 27 | 39.2 5. 63 
MARCH. APRIL. 
MAINE. 
Hionlton:..24:..:. 20 56 12 | —18 | 26.2) % 70 28 72 1 20 | 45.0 Roe 
Steuben.......... 31 51 12 | —13 | 29.9 | 4,21 9, 26, 29 57 2 30 | 40.3 6. 40 
Orono.........--- 30 | 52 12 | — G | 27.9 | 2.11 27 69 16 | 27} 43.5} 3.95 
Williamsburg. .-. 20 48 12 | —15 | 27.3 | 3.45 28 de 16 26) 41.1 4,50 
West Waterville. 30 50 12 | — 7 | 29.7 | 3.15 24, 27, 28 70 3, 16 30 | 46.3 | 3.80 
Gardiner .......-. 30 47 12 | — 2 | 28.6 | 3. 22 27 66 1 29 | 45.3 4.7 
PASDOMH ase acin«=' 31 56 12 3 | 29.5 | 2.50 Q4 72 1 28 | 44.8 4.0 
Norwa oe ee 30 52 1 0 | 28.4 | 4.60 28 73 1 30 | 44.6 4.75 
Cornish. ........- 30) | 51 1 4 | 28.0 | 5.15 28 9 1 29 | 44.6 | 6.28 
Cornishville ..-.. 30 50 11 7 | 28.5 | 4.80 28 80 4 20 | 45.3 9.30 
DAS On ee eal Me eee ere o> par) SeSON le tees oot a= oele aoe oe eee 44.1 | 4.59 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. | | area a 
Stratford .......- Sty) 54 12 | —18 | 23.7 | 2.44 OT 2 1} 25] 43.6] 2.22 
Whitefield......-. 31 55 12 | —18 | 24.3 | 2.65 28 78 ii 20 | 46.6 1. 86 
Tamworth ......- | 30 50 4|— 4 | 26.8 | 4.38 28 79 1 25 | 44.0 | 5.99 
WONCONGs. cae en= =~ | 29° 54 5 9 | 30.0 | 3.33 27, 28 76 1 3% | 465 G) (eee 
Goffstown Center 20 60 11 10 | 29.8 | 3.74 28 8&7 4 30 | 46.7 | 5.04 
AVETAGES .---|-------- [2-222 - |e eee enol ene salt 2Oeo: Wedel |= scicmtoats | Seistaca'e | Sara's oferta ete ASO Gat 
_—— | 


630 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


MARCH. APRIL. 


‘ : 5 pes ‘ : : rs 
3 ese A | ee 
i= = £ 2 i= = tS o 
State and station. FA FA a | A : EI 8 5 A : 
aa “£] & | cE | pate. | a8 | Date | 8 | & | o& 
gq ae 5 28 ato. qi ate. | 48 5 Ee 
Be ae 2 Sa pe Bee aH 
a EI = 8 8 - 
‘9 a A Y ‘ a q 
a S| ®o |-q 3 fi o “4 
A A A | A a a1 
VERMONT. 
De Deg. | De: In De Deg.| Deg.| In 
Lunenbnrg -....- a 12 | “73 | 23.9 2. O1 or | 68 4|° 25 | 43.3] 2.50 
North Craftsbury 20 48 12 | —10 | 21.9 | 0.95 14, 27 68 4 24 | 42.1 1. 06 
Newport........- 20, 31 50 12 | —18 | 23.4 | 1.50 14 73 2,4 30. | 45.5} 1.20 
East Bethel....--- 30 ys 4) — 4] 26.5 | 1.39 28 T7 1 23 | 44.1 3.00 
Woodstock ...... 30 52 4,6 | — 3.| 23.7 | 2. 60 23 74 1 25 | 42.0) 3.27 
Near St. Albans.-| 30,31 OL 12 |} —124 } 23.7 j_..... 14 71 2 29 | 4672" eee 
West Charlotte .-| 29,30 oe 11 | — 4 | 29.2 | 2.26 14 vi) 2,4 30 | 47.4 | 3.25 
Middlebury. --..-- 31 51 11 4 | 26.8 | 2.11 28 3 4 28 | 47.7 | 2 67 
Panton. 204-42. 31 50 4,11 2 | 25.2 } 2. 67 14 74 4 28 | 46.9 | 3.50 
Castleton ..-..... 30, 31 oL 11 6 | 2%. 2 } 2.89 28 75 4 30 | 47.2) 3.75 
INVOLAGESh= = <|\~.2.oc2.|sacecs|a5 cogand Boacce D502 | VOiO4 |= acs ccs |ob cece [eee se se eee 45.2 | 2.80 
MASSACHUSETTS, 
Kingston ..--.--- 28 54 6 12 | 31.0 | 4.77 Q7 73 3 30 | 43.9 | 6.07 
Topsfield ..-..--- Q1, 22 50 4 9 | 29.6 | 4. 64 14 80 1,3,4 32 | 45.8) 5.84 
Lawrence. .-.---- 22, 30 50 12 13 | 30.3 | 5.72 28 79 4 31 | 42.1 | 7.44 
Newbury .-.------ 21 55 11 LO. WSK Shilc-wce 28 86 4 32 | 46,5. fesceee 
Whit S  Seee 22 61 4 13 | 32.8 | 3.07 28 81 3,4 34} 46.2) 6.34 
Cambridge. .-.-..- PAL 56 4 J.) SoBe aces 28 82 3 32 | 49.9 toe 
North Billerica. -- 30 p2 6 ID PORT toe 28 80 3,4 32. | 4005 ce-<5. 
New Bedford. - --. 20, 22 48 4 13 | 31.6 | 3.16 14 63 3 33 | 46.1 | 5,95 
Worcester .....-- 31 47 11 10 | 29.3 | 2.34 14 75 4 30 | 47.2 | 6.038 
Mendon...-.-...--- 21 48 4 12) 28.2 | 3.60 28 wis) 6 30 | 46.2; 3.90 
Lunenburg -.---- Q1 54 11 10 | 30.4 | 4.35 28 81 4 31 | 47.1) 7.380 
Amherst.-....--- Bia got 6 UN 730) 9: 2) 71 14] 7% 4| 35 (eon azo 
Richmond .....-- 21 56 15, 25 10 | 29.6 | 7.64 2 74 4,12 30 | 482) 840 
Williams College. 31 50 15 2 | 26.3 | 4.76 14 77 4 29 | 47.9] 3.30 
Mimpdale-es-, =: -- 21 50 11 6. | 23.6 | 5.90 28 T4 4 28 | 44.1] 3.79 
PRM OE AD OS etete cal ole tolo ale mia} (a bietnni='| = wiein cm =| wlaleinte ALUN Pe Gi BARE Sse Baers lose Anecc|fe sci 46.4 | 5. 71 
RHODE ISLAND. | 
Newport......--- 31 50 4 Qt | 33,2: + 3.95 29 59 3,4 34 | 46.8 | 4.52 
CONNECTICUT. | 
Colambia.-----.-- Q1 56 4 16. | 32.3 | 7.58 28 | 34,5 32 | 49.3) 4.63 
Middletown... --- 20 54 6 12 | 29.3 | 5.58 14 80 4,6 33 | 49.2 | 5. 41 
Southington -.--- 20, 21 Byes) l| creteton ie ole eee Als ES Saas 14 78 4 33 | 50.21 5.61 
Colebrook..-...-- 20 52 il oy st poseae 28 76 3, 4 31 | 46.4 4.9% 
Brookfield ......- 21, 22 5o | 3, 4,17 18 | 33.0 | 3.50 2 81 8,9 32 | 46.4 | 3.30 
Bie eee dees || eee else cnn sest-poene G16") Sead [esse | eS ee 48. 3 | 4.63 
NEW YORK. 
Moriches ..-..--- 15, 31 59 6 16 | 36.7] 4.14 14 70 | 4 35. | 49:2 | 4,94 
South Hartford -. 3l 59 15 1 | 29.4) 3.58 14 718 4 32 | 50.3; 1.85 
Fort Edward. .--. 30 63 4,15 (Splits 9) ae 28 76 4 30 | 48..0,).-.... 
Vassar College. - - 31 56 9 rate GS 4 Sc: Sn Ea 14, 15 80 4 30 | 50.7 | 2.41 
Garrison’s --.----- 3L 56 4 15 | 34.4 | 5.74 14, 28 79 4 32) 51.0] 3.84 
Throg’s Neck .--- 3l 58 ike( Silt 5 2p] bel 28 83 4,5 34, ||! See 
White Plains -...- 31 60 17 197 SS Soe. - D4 tb, a8) | Srp 4 32 | 4058 Tan ees 
Cooper Union .--- 31 54 4 22 | 35.6 | 4.17 28 79 4 33 | 52.0] 5.61 
Columbia College 21 54 3 20 | 33.6 | 2.29 238 80 4 33 | 50.6 | 5. 60 
Rutgers F. Coll -- 21 60 17 Qe Si. 1 | 3.20 28 86 il 35. | 53.8 | 3.91 
Flatbush —..-.--- 22 51 2 17 32.77 | 2.19 28 81 5) 30 | 50.1 | 4.18 
Gilascose eee 31 58 6 12 | 30.7 | 8.43 24 80 4 35 | 49.6-| 7.27 
Newburg ...--.--- 31 58 6 16 | 33.1 | 3.40 14 80 4 30°] 52.91) S.a8 
Minaville.......- 31 52 4 4 | 25.5 | 6.30 14, 27 75 4 30 | 47.6] 5.65 
Barmeryata) a. ol tears 2-2 t= nee o 1215 SO Rs hse os 9 83 3 25 | 46.1] 9.50 
Cooperstown. -.--- 20 55 « 15.) —=— BF) 25.0.) 2253 28 78 | 4,8,10 29 | 47.0] 2.36 
Gouverneur....-- 20 56 11 | — 9 | 24.9] 2.79 14 73 |1,3, 4,8 30 | 45.7 | 0.96 
North Hammond. 31 BO), dt 12))) an or mere | 23 66 24 | 45.95 0,65 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 631 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


MARCH. / APRIL. 
. : ANY) ge: : ‘ e i] 
g 6 | 8 |z 3 a 18/38 
. i=) i= Ss o f=") i=) & oO 
State and station. FI A a | A. EI a 1 8 A. 
Ss oul oS E +96 see |i E 
Date. | g& | Date. I Ey gs Date, & | Date. g y & ge 
5 ~ g +~ 2 wa g ~~” 5 ~~ 2 og a2 
4 q 4 ne a A FI 
q a o |-3 3 E © q 
a A A |e A A | 
N. Yorx—Cont’d. 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Houseviile.....-. 3 538 12 | — 2} 25.7% | 3.60 14 76 4 26 | 45.6] 1.39 
Leyden eet ios == 31 45 il 2 | 23.7] 4.30 14, 27 68 4 23.) 45.3 1.75 
iin te 30, 31 57 3 8 | 29.8 | 409 Q7 80 5,8 35 | 49.8] 1.36 
South Trenton -.. 29 50 15 2 | 24.1 | 4.13 24 70 |3, 7, 9, 10 30 | 44.7 2, 54 
AZONOVI2......-- 31 50 3,15 0 | 26.0 | 6.13 15 Clg 4 30) |) 468i. Sears 
Qneida....:....-. 20 56 15 5 | 29.1 | 3.40 15,27 78 4 33 | 49.6} 2.41 
Depauville....... 20, 30 49 11 2 | 26.0} 4.68 27 66 4 30 | 45.7 Las 
Oswego .........- 20 46 11 10 | 28.4 | 2.92 14 75 4,5 33 | 45.4] 1.38 
WIGTINO o2-2.<--- 31 52 3 2 | 25.4 | 3.80 14 MG 4 30 | 46.9 1.50 
North Volney .---. 31 54 11 i BeaGule caos: 14 77 4 30. | 47.0) fone ne 
Waterburg =5- Aes 30 56 14 |S 2 2a Shs 3. 15 85 4 CANE. ies 3) [ea 
ighols, 5.04: ... 31 56 19 Dy Wes Or een 26 Q4 83 4 30!) SS. 
a Eveey - oe 31 54 19 | — 8 | 27.2 | 4.80 |16, 25, 28 78 |4, 8, 9,10 30 | 46.6 | 2.50 
“Ae 31 47 3 5 | 262) 4.13 Q7 76 4 26 | 45.4] 3.06 
ep tra a 31 51 15 10 | 29.2 | 4.66 Q7 76 5 33 | 48.0} 2.75 
Little Geneseo 31 56 19 | — 9 | 26.8 } 4.05 15 82 4,8 27} 45.6] 2.49 
Suspension Br’dge} 19, 20 48 19 P1208: 2 |Saase= 2 73 5 32 | 48.0 1.20 
afalo +. eee 26 55 3 11 | 30.1 | 5.41 9 73 4 32) 47.1} 1.15 
OLE el a ee ee ee eee res | ASA, |< ereretatere| triads |ieteretal at ate [he = ee 48.0 | 3.03 
NEW_JERSLY. 
Paterson......--. 30 58 17 18 | 34.3 | 5.56 28 85 4 33: |) S2n2u vo..G4 
Newark .....-..- 21 55 4 18 | 34.8 | 4.56 28 81 5 31 | 51.1 7. 00 
New Brunswick - 19 58 3,9 20 | 36.9 | 3.75 28 73 4 $2) [Sess 5. 78 
Trenton ..#...... 21 60 3 23 | 38.1 | 309 15 80 4 36 | 54.3} 3.84 
Rio Grande ...-.-- 30 52 6 22 | 36.5 | 5.43 15 82 5 31 | 49.7] 5.00 
Moorestown ...--- 20; 21 60 3 20 | 35.5 | 3.48 aby 82 4 33 | 50.3 6. 80 
New Germantown 30 55 17 16 | 33.1 | 2.64 28 83 4 33 | 50.8] 5.32 
Haddonfield ...--. pal 59 3 22 | 35.8.) 3.91 28 84 4 34 | 51.0 5. 67 
Newfield... Be. 20} 63] 3,5,6| 21 | 36.3]._.--. 15| 86 4 | \92.| Biba e 
Treenwich....... Q1 61 3,5 23. | 3%.9 | 3.45 28 81 4,5 35 | 51.97 5.70 
Wire lends: s...- - QI 60 5 23 | 36.5) 3.10} 15,28 84 4 33 | 51,2-} 5.07 
2A ee ee a eee SOON | hoa aD) | ate a= a= |le—teteter| cet atte | erent 51.4] 5.58 
— —_ —————— ———S 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
INiVMES iF ings - 30 52 ye 7% | 26.7 | 3.93 Q7 78 5 30 | 46.1] 4.71 
Hamlinton...--.-. 20 56 17 14 | 30.3 | 4.15 24 76 4 31 | 48.5) 4.25 
Dyberry See daca: 21 56 19 1] 2% 4) 3.35 27 81 8 2 46.3 3. 00 
Se Pee em Lae 20 56 6 20 | 36.0 | 3.60 15 81 4,5 35} 51.0] 410 
Philadel phi ake 21 61 3 23 | 37.9 | 4.52 15 82 4 34 | 52.5 5.41 
ie ea a Py We o54S, O17. 2085.5: (422. 15,28| 83 Gil) 33} 48°Oy beaks 
Bo 21 59 3, 4,9 23.| 36. 0 3. 20 15 $2 4,5 3D) 53 3. 80 
Horse ae ee 21 59 QL | 33..6i} 3.53 | 15;.28 80 4 34 | 50.9} 6.98 
‘th Meeting: 21 61 3 21 | 34.7 | 4.64 15, 23 80 4 33} 50:5), 5. 79) 
= ite Hall .....-. 30, 31 58 17 $4) 38.3i)...... “15 82 8, 26 32) SRY |e. 2 5 
Factoryville . ..-. 31 56 17 | — 4] 28.2 | 3.67 15 78 4 28 | 47.4} 3.30 
Reading 5 2.16.5. 31 60 6 ly £22 | 37.5 | 4.61 15 84 4 36 | 53.8] 6.46 
West Chester Siete 21 63 3, 17 19 | 34.6 | 4.41 15 84 4 32) | Sask 6.45 
Parkersville ..... 21 54 10 19 | 35.4 | 2.91 15 80 4 34 | 50.4 6.27 
Ashland ......... 30 61 g hr 13 | 32.0 | 4.80 15 84 4 30} 51.6] 5.20 
Tamaqua .......- Q1 aT 16 SH ORS occne = 15 83 7 28 |}. 47. 8 |e. 
Diphvrata,...<..5.- 30 56 3 19. | 34.4 | 3.73 28 84 5 34 | 52.4 5.72 
Mount Joy.....-- 3 67 TBs Soh eS) |e eG: 15.) 85) |) 453% | Sou) Saeeesaag 
ADEE) ean © 30, 31 62 17 19 | 39.0 | 3.76 15 84 4 32} 53.5] 4.46 
@arlisha i. gc.... 21 60 16,17 19 | 36.7 | 3.95 15 94 4 33 | 54.6] 5.90 
Fountain Dale... Q1 58 i 17 | 35.5 | 4.92 |14,15,28) 80 4 33.) S20 543 
i tity: as | ae 31 54 17 | — 8 | 29.2 | 3.95 24 84 13, 13, 26 28 | 48.4) & 65 
Lewisburg Ys ae 30 57 17 3 | 32, 1. 96 15 81 4 32 | 51.0 4.74 
Grampian. Hills-. 30 50 3,16 8 | 27.0] 3.99 15, 24 78 4 26 | 45.8] 1.35 
Johnstown....---| 11,30 54 15,19 14 |} 31.0 | 3.92 24 79 4,8 28} 488] 2.38 
Hrankime tes. 3. 23 30 56 3 12 | 31.7 | 4.58 | 14, 24 82 8 98 | 50.6} 260 
Pittsburg .....--- 12 57 16 16 | 35.0 | 3.20] 14,24 73 4,8 35 | 52.1 | 3.50 
Connellsville..... { 3 58 16") (WU Se SLs. 14,24] 80 41 30,50, 4) hiusd 


632 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continned. 


State and station. 


PENN’A—Cont’d. 
Brownsville.....- 


PAM ONROCS na | ass tcc|a-ee=~|= pens s|o0msine 


Woodlawn .....-. 
Annapolis. .....- 
Frederick........ 
Mt. St. Mary’s... 


Averages. .- 
DIST. OF COLUMBIA. 
Washington 


VIRGINIA. 


Jobnsontown .-..- 
Hampton ......-. 
Zuni Station 


Vienna, (B.).--.-- 
DOW) 2..-- 
Piedmont... ..... 
Picdmont Station. 
Staunton......... 
Lexington ....... 
Lynchburg. .....- 
Snowville -....... 
Near Wytheville. 


PAVEPALCS =~ 3-5 bioe~-- 


WEST VIRGINIA. 
Weston 


Averages....|.--.--.- 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


Kenansville 
Goldsboro 


Cracel Hill 
Albemarle ......- 
Statesville ......-. 
Asheville, (A.) . 
Do; 2 (H.) .. of 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


Bluffton . 
Hort Mill 


oe te ene 


Date. 


16, 


20, 


30 
30 


2, 30 


30 


30 
30 


21 


21 


Fi 


APRIL. 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


90 


80 


Date. 


an 


ao 


TSK 
COP RRUAAATAUAN 


ee ee ees ee ry 


MARCH. i ee | 
= = 1 g 
A = | & 
2 rs) 2 oO 2 E 
a3 | Date.| 5 e 2g | Date. 
= a Bes (3) aa 
# ses 
A 5 a | 4 
CS iq o a 
a | a | P= om 
Deg. Deg. | Deg.| In. 
53 16'|* have Geos 15 
54 16] 15|33413.10 15 
54 16] 12] 37.0] 3.00 14 
63 16] 11 | 35.3] 3.95 24 
| 33.6 | 3.79 
62|5,6,17| 27 | 39.8 | 3. 88 28 
61} 3,17] 20| 35.8] 3.21 15 
64|3,9,17| 24] 47.6] 3.17 28 
65/7917| 28) 4221] 1.77 15 
60 16] 16 | 36.0] 3.38 15 
tae a, Pet kt 40. 4 40.4 | 2 2. 88 | 
57]. 9,17| 26 | 40.3 | 3.70 15 
61| 6,10} 28| 43.5] 4.08] 15,28 
66|3,9,10| 28) 43.3] 27 25 
64 0} 26| 44.11 3.61| 15,25 
a Se eae be Oe Wee AER 15 
64 6| 27 | 42211.78 15 
G4 17| 22] 40.0] 4.00 15 
67] 16,17| 23! 40.3 | 3.70 15 
G4 17| 16 | 383| 3.70 14 
67 17| 18 | 39.21 5.35 30 
GO 17] 19 | 39.1] 3.66 23 
71 | 17| 19| 431|3.50| 15,23 
64 16| 30 | 4421310 25 
66 17] 10 | 37.5 | 3.25 23 
Go 17] 10 | 37.3] 4.30 24 
pe.) ee a ea | 40.9 | 3.59 
64 16 Ba Be. dae ee ee 
48 |10,13,17| 26 | 37.1 | 2.10 15 
. pee ee ie 36.6 | pM0)|. 05... 
70 10| 28] 50.7|...... 93 
76 10| 29] 49.5| 230] 23,95 
63] 10] 96| 426] 3.45 95 
68 9} 26 | 46.3 | 2.35 25 
70 9}) oT Mee. 3... 23, 29 
"3 10] 16 | 441 | 7.05 25 
67| 10,17] 18] 41.6] 8.00 2 
68 17| 14] 42.1 | 4.55 24 
68 17| 10] 41.9|...... 23, 24 
45.2 | 4.60 
74 10 | 33 | 57.7 | 5.30 25 
68 181) Soa ty al eee 25 


| 
g s |3 
Be) B13 
| Ss | 
26 aS E 
5 Ey 36 
BS g Ba 
& go dig 
A S |-4 
A a |e 
Deg.| Deg.| In 
35 | 54.0 |....-- 
28 | 51.6) 2.60 
34 | 52.2 | 4.30 
34/524] 261 
50.5 | 4. 
34 ||: 7.70 
31| 51.5] 6.05 
34 | 53.8] 5.17 
40 | 56.6 | 5.44 
33 | 51.5 | 5.65 
| 53.4] 5.58 
35 | 53.8] 3.70 
36 1952.9 | 3.00 
33 | 55.1 | 5.50 
40 | 56.6 | 3.61 
40| 587) 8.58 
35 | 55.3 | 2.10 
34 | 55.0| 5.50 
36 | 54.8] 5.50 
32 | 52.8] 5.15 
32 | 52.4] 5.95 
34| 52.7] 3.92 
33|55.7| 4.51 
39 | 55.9 |...--- 
29 | 50.5 | 5.40 
35 | 525] 2.80 
544] 4. 
"35 1548] 110 
re 548| 1.10 
35 | 60.6 |...-.- 
40|61.5| 3.15 
33! 55.3) 2.40 
40 | 57.8] 3.35 
35 | 59.7 |..0ue 
34| 57.6] 4.02 
32 | 54.0] 2.50 
321543] 2.80 
30 | 52.40 tenon : 
Bye iy 57.0 | 3.04 
40 | 63.4} 2.30 
33 | 62.2 |...... 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


State and station. 


S. C.—G@ont'd. 


Gowdeysville .... 
Holland’s Store .. 
VT pr 


G0 DEL seee Se Seed! So eee ieee 


GEORGIA. 


Greene Springs -- 
Coatopa;. ......-. 
Fish River. ...... 


Averages.... 


FLORIDA. 


Manatee 


Oakland 


Averages. ... 
LOUISIANA. 
New Orleans. .--. 


Near Cheneyville 
Shreveport 


Averages. ... 


MISSISSIPPI. | 


Enterprise . .- 
MarionC. H.. 
Philadelphia 
Brookhaven 


Date. 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


MARCH. 


Date. 


Minimum tempera- 
ture 

Mean temperature. 

Rain and melted 
snow. 


a} a3 ot 2 7 
mle COR 0D 


(3) ore ne 2 <4) 


se neee 


or en er ot 


SSSys 
wnworeaor- 


25 
24 


ees ee eee eee eed ee 


i 


12,1 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


9 
g 


APRIL. 


g 
Pp 
co 
oO 


Minimum tempera- 
ture 


Rain and melted 


59.5] 1.13 
63.3 | 2.84 
63.2 | 2.15 
60.1 | 2.76 
61.2 | 3.00 
61.5] 2. 
64.0 |...... 
67.2 | 3.20 
67.9 | 1.38 
Gia san sian 
69.7 | 1.70 
67.7 | 2.30 
66.7 | 2.15 
65.4] 6.41 
62.3 |.----. 
68.6 | 4.36 
67.5 | 7.25 
73.7 | 9.05 
6620) 22225- 
70.2 | 0.50 
68.3 | 3.15 
67.6 | 2.74 
68.5 |.-.--. 
67.8 | 4.73 
64.0 | 3.75 
Gielen aes 
63.5) 2a 
64.9] 3.75 
60.7 | 3.13 
61.2 | 3.60 


634 


2 SUIT oS BE a eens ee ene 


re Oe a ee) ee ee weer SD 


_ State and station. 
Date. 
Miss.—Cont’d. 
Near Brookhaven. 28 
Natchez .......-- 4 
ARKANSAS. 
Helena s2ace2. 6: < 24 
TENNESSEE. 
Elizabethton..... 20 
Tusculum College Q1 
Knoxville ....--. 21,29 
Lookont Mount’n. 29 
RUB ees ok as 2: 12 
Clarksville. ....-. 29 
ONAN ee) co. 12 
Memphis ........ 28 
KENTUCKY. 
Pine Grove...... 25 
Danville? 2_; 22 25 
Shelby City..-... 25 
Near Louisville... 25 
OHIO 
New Lisbon..... 14, 26 
Salem 53-25 225 30 
Steubenville ..... 30 
Painesville ...... 30 
Milnersville ..... 30 
Cleveland........ 26 
Wooster, (W) ---- 30 
Gallipolis........ bt 4 
} 7 =D, 
Qhierlin = =. 30, 31 
Kelley's Island... 19 
sandusky--...---. 20 
North Pairfield..| 25,30 
Gambier, (C.) .--- 
Westerville...... 30 
Williamsport --..|12, 21, 30 
North Bass Island 19 
Mazion'=.25...-.. 30 
Hillsboro ........ 20 
Toledp: --s--.2- 19 
Bowling Green...| 19,25 
Kentonieoct... case 22, 30 
Urbana Univer’y. 25 
Bemiek 55,5... 25 
Edgerton _....... 20 
Jacksonburg..--. 25 
Mt. Auburn Sem.|12, 20, 25 
Cincinnati, (HL)-. 25 
Do 2k Ce. 31 
College Hill...... 2 


Maximum tempera- 


ture. 


50 
62 
58 
51 


62 
53 
62 
64 
49 
45 
51 
53 
58 
61 
58 
51 
oT 
58 


50 
51 
48 
58 


59 


’ 
AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Melcorology of 1870—Continued. 


pera- 


i] 
= 
et 
'g 


ture. 
show. 
ture. 
ture. 


Mean temperature. 
Rain and melted 
Maximum tempera- 
Minimum tempera- 
Mean temperature. 
Rain and melted 


Minimum tem 


iss) 
_ 
ee RR CTD AIO OO 


PE PO ge 
UsSeAS 


es ees ees er ee es 


BSSRSEE 
|poper 
BSSRo 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 635 


Meteorology of 18¢0—Continued. 


MARCH. APRIL. 
o : ee : : Pe Vi 
=) ae | Se ie Ey =e eS 
State and station. 8 a) ee ee 8 5 a |a. 
Date a 5 Date yee Be |g E Date _ 5 Date. | 8 5 c 5 
: 8 : Be] 8 | ge : 8 * PEE 
2 aq |.2 14 7 a | 8 |4 
ce = S) iB oS | o =} 
A = a | 6 A A at ls 
MICHIGAN. 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. In. 
Dirom 5: -~<... 19 47 5 0 | 29.9 | 3.40 0. 96 
Monroe City...-. 10 50 16 8} 32:8] 2 1. 03 
yas 19 3) 16 | — 4] 28.1) 3.63 5. 94 
Felnenae s+ - 55.4. 29 43 8,12 10, | 26.6.) 2 3 1.84 
State Aer] Col...| 17,18 50 18 10 | 30.3 | 3 2, 02 
Litchfield. ....... 20 52 16 2) 29,2) 3 2.58 
Coldwater. ...... 20 50 15, 16 6 | 30.1 | 4. 2. 38 
Grand Rapids, (H) 19 56 16 Oh SiGe 266. |! 27) 182. Te: Le i SON eee eee 
OS Sin i) 19 49 16 Dey) SB} 2: 1.88 
Northport . .....- 24 49 3 | — 4] 272} 2 3. 88 
Benzonia........ 31 49 A O 2S Gi ssseeir 2) 23) SRB Oe 5. i) Se eae ee ee ee 
Pleasanton....... 28 54 3 | — 2} 28.5) 3.25 2.50 
Muskegon .....-- 30, 31 58 16 4) 34.5] 3.9 ‘| 30.) S205) oo. 
Otsezo..........- 28| 58 8 |) Sep aa lee hd So i Bh eee (SO ene eee 
pe ed Falls. .... 24 43 11 | — 4 | 229 | 1.30 1.30 
Ontonagon....... 24 46 12 | —14 | 2h: 4,f.-2--5) 9 12] VRISSAS i BO. | Aer sees 
EIB Efe ols case ne] lamale = |nintinw == +|qeamne 29, 0 | 2.98 2. 39 
INDIANA, 
AURA oo5<.55-- 25 62 17 12 |, 38, 6 || 3: 1,92 
Be eee 25 62 | 16,17 16} 39.1 | 3. 5 9. 37 
Mt. Carmel ...... 12, 25 56 16 12'} 36.1 | 3. 1. 83 
MamMcie... ==... - 24 63 15 14 | 36.0 | 2. 1. 60 
Spiceland .......- 25 59 16 10 | 35.3 | 3. 1.59 
i: ae 25, 30 66 17 11 | 40.1 | 3.81 24 87 Liv 32 | 56.5/] 2.78 
Columbia City ...| 20,29 54 15 | 9 | 36.2:| 173 24 85 17 24.) 53%3) 231 
Knightstown ..-. 25 60 16 12 | 3%.0 | 2 37 24 86 17 31 | 53.1] 1.66 
Indianapolis ---.. Pa 65 16 12 | 36.6 | 2 77 24 82 16 31 | 53.4] 1.94 
Near Laporte -... 29 52 | 15,16 4 | 33.2 | 2.90 |13,24,27 84 16 29 525) 5.45 
Co 2 cL ee ee ey (ee ee es A eee 23, 27 82 16 30 |. 53.2 |) 1.95 
eee ooS.. J... 25 62 aly 10 | 38.1 | 2.63 23 82 16 31 }55.6) 13 
New Harmony. -- 12 63 17 14 | 44.3} QS 23 86 17 33.| 567 | 272 
Harveysburg ---. 29 58} 16,17 10 | 33.7 | 3.30 23 80 17 24) 531] 2.40 
SVGUBEOS = -|2 = ic-aoe|mnan cel qanceae| sooner we On S, OF leo oo. |eocenslesaeeaet eee cee 54.1] 2.38 
ILLINOIS. 
ee 24 53 15 16,35. 0 |) 182 13 80 16 33.) 52.2) Aas 
Near Chicago .-- 25 42 16 Dh |) de [eons ae 24 82 16 28: | ASSO. coos 
Evanston .....---. 25 45 16 8 | 3L9. | 3.24 13 79 16 33. | 47.1 1,20 
Marengo.-.....--. 25 52 16 | — 2} 2.3 | 443 24 86 17 24 | 49.8) 1.37 
Charleston 25 64 15 13 | 37.2 | 3.04 23 |* 86 16 31 | 54.0} 1.92 
Mattoon 25 55 | 16,17 12 | 34.7 | 3.00 |13,14,23 80 |5, 16, 17 32 | 53.4] 1.63 
Aurora 25 53 16 Si} SOLS | 192 83 16 29 150.9] 1.58 
Louisville 30 66 17 12 | 40.0 | 3.70 | 23,24 88 4.5 32} 56.8] 2.50 
Golconda 31 79 17 10 | 39.3 | 4.60 2Q4 92 18 26 | 55.91 3.80 
Belvidere 25 53 16 | — 2] 29.5 | 3.69 23 86 16 27) 5L 7] 0.69 
Sandwich 25 58 16 1 | 32.0 | 3.70 23 85 4,16 3L PS2aL | 22 
Ottawa 25 62 15 2] 35.1 | 3.28 ~ 24 87 16 33.| 54.3: 0.85 
Decatur 25 62 16 9 | 34.7 | 297 23 86 5 31} 53.4] 1.30 
Pana 25 63 15 10.| 36,3.| 2 70 oF 83 15,17 32 | 54.9 | 0.90 
‘Winnebago -.-...- 25 49 16 | — 3} 27.6 | 3. 41 24 85 16,17 26.) 50.8] 1,32 
Rochelis....-..... 25, 26 48 16 Pies: le i aa Q3, 24 &4 } 17 QB: | SQ3.esecee 
Wiganet oe. ..25.- 25 57 15, 16 5,| 32.1 | 6 25 24 88 16,17 26.} 51.0 0. 60 
"Risking 2.3.22. . 25 54 15 Bi Sete ee |= scares 13 86 16,17 28,.| 532 
Hennepin, (S.) .-- 25 60 15 G, |) SO |. ee ~ 2 e4 4 28 | 53.0 
Dpz-2Oex-- 95| 58 15 Sy Fes | eke 23] 89 /4,1%16| 30.1 55.8 
Megvine 22-5... 29 60 15 11 | 35.5] 4.37 33 86 17 31 | 535.6 
Springtield So: a 10 63 15 Ce | ee ee ee meeemee eee oP 
Dabo: 225 0522.. 29 65 17 13) | 39.9] 215 23 88 | 16,17 32.) 5&9 
Galesburg -...-... 28 62 15 2.) 33.2] 2.80 14 79.| 16,30 30} 55.1 
Manchester .....- ips 63 15 5 | 37.2} 461 24 86 16 28 | 55.2 
Mt. Sterling.....- 10 62 15 5 | 37.9 | 7.20 14 82 16 31 | 56.8 
Andalusia -....-.] 24,251 58 15 Sei Sap aaleeeees 23,24! 821 16,17 | 29 | 52,6 


§36 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


MARCH. APRIL. 
& 4 ; 13 & e | 518 
SB g = es 
State and station. EA Ss = ae = 3 a ae 
+o ro = Ee +o 6 2 EB 
Date. | g& | Date. ae e =o | Date. | «3 | Date. | .8 Ey 39 
a~ ew] g | ea he a7 | 3 | ea 
& | A iI EI b= 
& a|s3 4 E a |3ia 
A a a |e A A a |e 
i) SOU OE OS SE | 
Iniiwois—Cont’d. | 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In De Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Augusta ..--.-:.- 11 64 15 0 | 35.3 | 5.82 14 83 | 16, 17. 29 | 55.8] 0.63 
Warsaw .=.-.-2-- 10 66 15 2} 35.5 | 4.45 23 92 | 16 29 | 57.2] 0.83 
gis ed De ered ae SO) BGS | 242s Wee Peet Pe 53.2| 1. 
WISCONSIN. 
Sturgeon Bay .-.-.| 25, 28 44 °8| — 6 | 26.5 | 2.60 23 V7 6 27 | 45.4 | 1.25 
Manitowoc .....- 24 45 16 4 | 29.3 | 3.58 23 7 16 31 | 46.3 | 0.58 
Plymouth-....--. 6 34 3 C7 Eee Sea es eens ee ee 
Hinghames... 2). 30 49 16) 3 237 6.3222 14 78 16,17 | 32 | 4ehieepee . 
Milwaukee .....-. 19 47 16 | — 2} 29.9 | 5.01 13 8U | 16,17 28 | 47.0} 0.51 
Appleton .......- 828 50 16 AT eS Is diatow os = 14 74 16 33 | SLONeaeees 
Genevas-ss-- 22. 25 50 16 | — 3 | 29.3 | 3.35 2 84 +t 28 | 49.8] 0.15 
Waupaca ........ 12,29| 52 12 7h 14.23| 80] 1617| “So iemeneeeee 
Embarrass.....-. 18 47 16 Dil Dee Bel eam oe 14 82 4 27 | 48.6 0. 81 
Rocky Run ...... 19,28} 44 16 | — 4 | 29.0 | 6.38 13) | enes 16} 28] 51.8] 0.16 
LET 25 42 16 | — 8 | 27.0 | 3.85 23 7 16} 25 | 49.7 0.19 
Edgerton ........ 29 48 16 | — 4] 31.1 | 2.22 23 89 17 30 | 54.3 |.-... 5 
Mosinee ......... 18, 28 46 8 | — 2} 25.7 | 3.76 |13,14,23 78 4 25 | 46.5] 2.70 
IBALADOO Deen. sos 26,28,31 50 16 | —10 | 29.4 /|11.00 86 4,17; 26 | 49.9 0. 75 
New Lisbon ..... 24, 25 53 16 | —10 | 30.2 |-..--.- 23 86 16) (20 ote 
Bayfield ......-.- 24 50 12 | —12 | 24.1'|.---.. 22 42 4| 24] 40.8 }.-.... 
FAG OLSON mete | 2-2 a- bos) torch e| = See -=-|aneeee 28,0 (B84 |. ssdes0s|aeter=|s sooeace -eaeee 43.8 0.79 
MINNESOTA. | 
Beaver Bay ..---. 23 SL 12 | —12 | 24.9} 1.80 | 26,27 69 4 97 |-48./8 eo 
Atom he. 22. 27 47 8 | —15 | 26.6 | 3.35 87 4 24 | 50.1 1.10, 
Bib ee Atleee oe oes 28,29,31 46 8 | —10 | 27.5 | 2.10 13, 23 83 15 27 | 51.2] 1.38 
Minneapolis ..... 28, 30 46 8 | —16} 25.2 | 2.86 23 84 15 23 | 49.3 1, 04 
BHDLOVE eure. oe. 28 49 8 | —23 | 20.2 | 2.22 23 £0 15 18 | 50.4 | 0.17 
eeomisks aes 22. 39, 31 50 8 | —26 | 23.9 | 1.65 3 82 15 19 | 48.4 | 0.40 
Wew Ulmes 5.02... 27, 30 45 8 | —20 | 22.4] 1.78 23 2 15 19 | 50.5 | 0.56 
Madeliat 2 ot... 30 48 8 | —20 | 20.8 | 3.27 23 85 15 18 | 50.4] 131 
White Earth..... 28,20,3 438 7 | —16 | 18.2 | 3.38 
Avverages ..-.|----- SAE SY eo Pee eee 23.3 | 2.49 | 
IOWA. 
Clinton--2. 22% - 25 50 15 5 i ; 
Wankon se: 2 28 45 16 |—3 i 
Dubuque .....-... 28 52 16 4 | 30. 3. 3° 
Monticello ....-.. 28 54 16 3 % f 
Bowen’s Prairic..| 28 56 |15,16,17 4 | 29. ae 24 
Fort Madison -... oe 59 15 2)| 33. " j 
Guttenberg ..-..- 23 52 16 0 a= j oa 
Mt. Vernon ...... | 25) G50) 25et6 6 | 2 j 4 
Iowa City.......- | 25 56 15 4\° 5 
Independence. --. 23 Bi eno | at : 5, 16 
Near Independ’e - 25| 48 16 |—2 5 5 
Waterloo -....... 28 50 16 2/2 j 
Roekford -......-. } 19, 31 44 8}/—5|2 j 74 
Iowa Falls ....... ! 24| 48 8|—6 2 
Ames: sean 2 e5.- 24,28 50 8 | —12 - 
Algona pose J. 52. /: 23 60 8} —9]| 2 5 ‘ 
West Bend ...... | 95] 45 8 | —19 15 
Webster City---.| 18 46 8 | —i0 
Boonesboro ....-- i b) 48 8 | —12 } 
Mineral Ridge - ..| 43 50 8}—8 
Fontanelle....... 10 53 8|—5] 2 : 
Grant City......- 27 50 8 | — 7 | 26 
Sae (City 4.2 2055. 1h Sea | AD | 
Thopan) zee. 28. 26 60 15 | Fab: Jala ee | 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 637 


Meteorology of ipi0--ankuanee 


MARCH, APRIL. 


: = 5 : 1 
3 ae! a he E a4 
BS} 3 ee |i o 3) aS ia 
= = 2 /¢ S ee ted 
State and station. g 3 E A 5 s. a : 
« ws: fs) 
Dates | Se | Dates |G | & Vets | Date: | a | Dates! 2) & res 
Es AS =| AA a5 Ae I aa 
oe a 3) an ge b= had oO an 
| A = E A = 
a A | 5 | 5 | 
4 A ow | 4 4 A a | A 
ot 4 ° oS as | o = 
A A a |A A A 4a |e 
Iowa—Cont’d. | 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. 
Woodbine ....... 25 60 8) — 7! 26.7) 1.30] 13,23 &2 16 20 | 50.2 0,14 
West Union...... 28 62 16 | —1| 286 | 3.73 23 84 16 22} 54.1] 0.44 
J Be Ae Seer | Bsias ein =| ee 27.2 | fs Ty eae ae Re tare [eer 51.1] 0.63 
MISSOURI. 
Spe 10 63 15 5 | 40.0 | 2.76 24 84 16 28 | 56.4] 2.39 
Avienton>.-<...-. 10 70 15 7 | 40.2 | 4.95 23 93 16 28 | 56.0] 2.60 
Hematite .-....-.-. 10 67 15 9 | 42.1 | 4.05 23 91 16, 17 30 | 57.3] 2.55 
EES oS Seal SSS | es ee er omens eer 14 8 17 30 | 54.8] 1.489 
Lobb aa BF) 65 15 0 | 40.7 | 4.64 23 89 17, 18 26 | 53.4] 2.64 
Jefferson City.... 11 68 15 GipspsOnls es 5 - 2d, 26 3 17 Py pl a7 (|| |32 =e 
Kansas City .----. 11 72 15 4 | 41.0 | 0.63 21 88 16 25} 57.1] 0.25 
Harrisonville -... 11, 25,27] 66 15 2| 38.4 | 0.97] 21,22 88 |15,16,17 30 | 57.8] 0.63 
St. Joseph ....... 11 66 15 3) 37.5 |1.45 } 21,22 85 |} 15,16 31 | 59.6 | 2.20 
Cera. =... - 10 65 15 5 | 342} 2.30] 21,22 88 16 20 | 56.0 | 1.99 
Sf. - sic) Bais |S SS 2 OS ees peeoee 23 86 16 22 | 54.8] 2.10 
2 Cpl ES ee (een eee BB28) | QiG2 12 oc ey. |'G. oe =| Roeser 56.0} 1.88 
KANSAS. i. 
‘Atchison=- -. 2... 11 67 15 1 | 36.0 90 16 O24) 56.1 |) LS 
Leavenworth .... 11 70 15 2) 34.7 90 16 20} 55.8 | 2.17 
Oise asc--.-2--. 11 72 15 4] 38.2 89 16 22 | 55.0} 120 
COtik a 11 73 15 2] 38.2 88 16 24 | 57.0 | 0.68 
Baxter Springs. -. 28 79 15 CANCE, 86 | 16,17 32 | 59.4] 2.80 
Lawrence.....-.. 11,27 67 15 3 | 37.7% 89 16 23 | 56.8] 1.08 
Williamsburg. -.. 28 7 15 2 | 36.0 86 16 190) Sond ewan 
Penuon:-----.---. 19 68 15 2) 32.1 91 16 92) | aie a ea 
Neosho Falls..-.- il 74 15 2) 31.4 8&7 16 24 | 53.4] 2.00 
ive 25 aa 28 7 15 3 | 39.6 86 16 23} 55.8 | 2.39 
State Ag’l Coll...) 21,27 68 15 0 | 36.2 85 16 19 | 53.5 | 0.50 
Council Grove ... 28 72 15 6 | 40.3 89 16 24 | 57.3 | 1.65 
Crawfordsville...) 11,25 7A 15 5 44 SWS GD) [aaa 2s. ante sterere ore | ero eee eee ee eae 
DUT el PEAR Bee Caen oe Ry nd ie (il IE ear acl ae a) Pie ea Feo 55.9 | 1.62 
NEBRASKA. 
Omaha Agency -. Q7 62 15 | — 3 | 27.8 84 16 18 | 51.8] 1.00 
Digi 2. eee 23 59 1D NSE Osa 3 a.5:- | Sao cel Bee ee eeta ss se te ae ae 
WE SOLO. <.26---.< 25, 27 55 15 | — 6 | 27.7 83 16 18 | 52.9] 0.62 
Bellevue ......-.. 10 64 15 0 | 32.5 88 16 23 | 54.4] 2.70 
Nebraska City... 10 66 15 0 | 32.4 89 16 22 | 55,7 | 2.00 
i) ae 27 57 15 | —5 | 34.2 84 16 23 | 51.7 | .240 
ATO aa fae Se) ee ee Pee 31. NO Serene Ee eo 6 are a pee 53.3 | 1.74 
UTAH. ae 
Gt. Salt Lake City 20 64 14 9 | 39.2 78) 15,30 30°} 51.4 |.-.5<2 
Coalville.......-. 26} 60 15 | —18 | 32.8 7811,6,14| 31 | 480 |-..... 
CALIFORNIA. 
Monterey 67 7| 35 | 50.3 76.| 5,14) 37] 54.2] 1.44 
Chico .....-- 72 | 5,6,14 32 | 51.8 87 13 38 | 60.7} 0.85 
Watsonville . 76 5 35 | 52. 80 5 32 | 56.0 | 1.21 
Vacaville 66 14 34 | 51.3 80 4,5 .42| 57.3] 0.84 
Calter 27-65 2-dss~ 66 14 34 | 48.0 80 4 35 | 53.8] 6.00 
Wisaliaise-: 5... 7 5 30 | 51.2 87 5] .38] 60:5) 1.40 
Clayton.....-..-. 69 14 30 | 50.5 86 13 42] 59.2) 136 
Averages «---}--.--00-]--aee0l-oes bashes <no} 50,8 [°2.99 |..-.....]- Spd Rae Se Bess 57.4 | 1.87 


- 


638 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


MARCH. . APRIL. 


. . a brs) : : - iw 
State and station. E : oe B a t 8 : b g a 
~o - 
Date. | 3% | Date | 25 | # =e | Date. | 23 | Date. ae | 
Be am") 3 | ad ae Bele ie 
a g a eB E = 
E E22 E a | ae 
a | a |a|4 2 a |2|4 
MONTANA. | | 
; Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. Deg Deg c 
Deer Lodge City. 30 62 14 | —28 | 26.5 | 1.11 25 76 14 16 1.47 
Missoula Mills... 31] 70 15 | 164 O8.G0 2. {--Bieess|. een tate |---20|deuesal een 
COLORADO. i I fee 
Denver ...---.... 27) 67 14| — 8} 32.7 | 0.7 12! 80 15| 16/481] 2.80 
WASHINGTON. a a 
Port Angeles .... 3i a2 13 19 | 43.4 | 7.40 , 28 58 19 | 42 | 47.7] 3.25 
Seattle..-.....2.. 31 73 13 G4) 40. 50 .- 25,29 | 82]|-10,12) 40 | S2Geeeeee 
Cathlamet -...... 31 63 3 17 | ASIGH =o. - 24, 25 77 |12, 15,22] 39 \)) 49RSeeeees 
OREGON cara | _—S—aee 
Portland: ........ 28| 63 13; 18] 43.4] 4.30] 25,27] 80 23 | 41 153.6) 4.30 
Hipla 222 Soo... 31 | . 56 13 | 20 | 39.4 | 5.77 2D ila | 23 | 331) SO aee 
H MAY. | JUNE. 
Honlten ...- =<... 30 96 4 32 | 1.9 | 1.90 5 97 1 54 | 70.1 | 2.40 
Steuben.......... | 20| 80 4) 37| 49.6 |1.05|........._..2.|.......) 
BERN eee eee 3 oe ale see 2 iba - or eed eee eee ws 25 90 9, 10 54 | 67. 6 losers 
Grog ren oes 29] 80 G6} 36] 51.9 | 1.96 25 9 10] °53 | 65.7) Bor 
Williamsburg. --. 30| 83] 10,24] 34]51.9]2.70| 2495] 89! 1297] 50] @Zi 298 
West Waterville. 3 82 10} 38) 55.2} 1.67] 4,25) so 10,11} 52] 699°) 238 
Gardiner:22..2).. 20] 79 10} 39 | 54.3} 1.90 25] 88 10] 47|65.9| 194 
PBOONG pees oe 20'| 83 6| 37] 53.4 | 1.53 25] 9$6/5,9,10] 51] 671] 3.23 
Notways2--.... 29 82 7 36 | 55.5 | 1.40 24 94 21 50 | 69.5] 1.50 
Corian? 22-522: 15| 81| 7,10| 38) 55.0] 1.55 24) 94 ,10} 50] 689] 3.9% 
Cornishville...... 15,20} 82] 7%10| 40| 571] 1.55 25| 96] 9,10 | | 71.0] 3.40 
ZAI Lo ea Pe | ae es Perea! Ge pas DarGil Lee |c<>>--|>>sce-|-oaee see] eee 68.2] 251 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. | i weds 
Stratford .... .... 3 86 5,12 33 | 53.0 | 2.18 5, 24 §2 21 48 | 66.3} 1.63 
Whitefield ....... 29 85 7 31 | 52.2 | 1.74 24, 92 pAl 51 | 69.5} 4.56 
Tamworth ....... 30 83 7 37 | 56.6 | 1.03 20 95 29 53 | 70.5 | 2.63 
Concord.......-..| 15,20 79 7 39 | 96.9 | onescs|- cee cee) eee ne| emo see. [pe a ee 
Goffstown Center. 16; ay 7) | 7.459.441. 3.47 25| 100 | 10,11 | 50 | 70.2| 4.19 
ermap eT CON uit Sana athe eae. 03 |= cec-.|- eects See 69.1 | 3.25 
VERMONT. ; % 
Lunenburg .-... -. 30, 31 82 7 35 | 54.1 | 4.00 29 94 22 50 | 69.4] 3.50 
North Crattsbury. 30 20 13 341/,32.1/1.2 25 88 |20, 21,22} 50] 638] 3.7% 
Newport .---.-.-. 19, 30 84 12 37 | 56.5 | 1.70 5 91 21 53} 71.5 | 4.30 
East Bethel...... 19, 30 | 85 2,6 35 | 57.3 | 1.17 2 95 |21, 22,30) 55) 7L8) 3.45 
Woodstock .. .... 15,16,19} 79 | 11,12] 39] 54.1] 1.88 25} 89] 10,21) 52) 680} 5.35 
Near St. Albans.. BOi| eZ er f2)| Ose e “ 94] 89 21 3 | aa 250 
West Charlotte - 30 88 7 38 53.2 | 0.75 25 S6 22 57 | 74.3] 6.93 
Middlebury -..... 15 20 22 43 | 57.9 | 0.59 25 85 22 55 | 70.9 | 13.77 
Paige. f. 5. 30! 86 12 42 | 59.4 10.31 | 24,25 94 PAL 54] 75.3] 4.36 
Castleton ........ 15 | 82 2,6 41 | 57.6 | 1.23 25 90 22 55] 71.8] 1.97 
PA WSTEOS 020] 22's ve >|- ee eel 2 the ASPB. MS) 1.48 oben |. cen een a 71.4] 3.99 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
Kingston ........ 15 86 17 39 | 53.6 | 3.25 25 95 21 53 | 68.9 | 2.00 
Topsfield .-...... 15 84} 10,11 40 | 55.5 | 2.04 25 93} 10,11 50 | 67.7] 1.79 
Lawrence ........ 15| ,81 /9,10,11| 40/55.3 | 1.49 95 | 99 10| 48] 629] 3.49 
Wewhntyeres: 2.5002 2:|. 22 cele cc... 21: ed ee 25 | 101 10 | 50) 70, 7iceeeee 
Militimn Setset sc nd 15 ;86 | 10,11 .42 | 57.8 | 2 25 98} 10,11 54 | 70.1 | .2.60 
Cambridge. ...... I> | S64 11,174) RAR MBE EL 2 96 11] 53) wee 
NorthBillerica...| 16 | (s¢| (9u1] 40] 57.9 [22222 251 95 11] (52) 5E Dee. 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 639 


Metcorology of 1870—Coutinued. 


MAY. | JUNE. 
ae | & 5 hy | i é: , |% 
ro s | 2 |2 5 s |g |= 
State and station. a | a am tale 8 a a) 8. 
#6 | |[*s| 2 Es aaa) #5 | 2 y 
Date ae | Date. | aa & igo] Date. | gs | Date. ae ed 
as | B= & <a | Ae B= =| Ad 
so | | eine g | Se ae = had 2 eo 
& A = a E = 
‘AI | | " S A ia ‘a Ss a 
tee ae go is | S ig Sue 
ja | A a |e | A A A | 
eS ee ee ee t —— —— 
Mass.—Cont’d. 1 | | 
Deq. | Deg. | Deg. | In. Deg. Deg. | Deg In 
West Newton.... 20| 92 11 42 | 60.3 | 0.53 25 | 104 11 52 | 73.8] 7.96 
New Bedford .... 15)|) -80:}) XO, 11 42 | 54.4 | 3.39 95] $0 21 54 | 66.7 | 3.48 
81 7,11 41 | 57.1 | 2.40 95 | 92 10; 51/697] 2.09 
§2 1 39 | 56.5 | 1.90 25| 92 10 49 | 69.1 | 3.40 
86 11 | 41 | 57.4 | 4.30 9 | 97 10 50 | 71.0) 3.80 
e2 11 43 | 58.3 | 1.72 25} 93] 10,11 54 | 70.5 | 2.73 
90} 8,10 | 40 | 63.5 | 4108 20 92 13| 59] 73.8] 9.86 
81 |2,5,6,11/ 42 | 58.2] 1.27] 25,27 89 22 54 | 70.0 | 5.05 
79 1 | 38 | 55.3 | 1.03 27 89} 10,11 48 | 69.0] 5.80 
PERUSE oe 1h a oe soe. te Wes 2[3 are a Byte Dm eae ee |g 70.2 | 4.16 
RHODE ISLAND. 
Wewport..-...... 26 75 li 43 | 54.8 | 3.54] 25,28 86 | 11,22 58 | 68:2 | 2 £1 
CONNECTICUT. | 
Colambia -....... 16 92 11 43 | 60.2} 1.16 20 95 10 54 | 71.9 | 3.55 
Middletown...... 16 89 7 | Pasa) sees hesor iP 495) 17 95 11 53.1 71.84 2:2 
on pts 16 85 i 42 | 59.6 | 1.31 25'||| 92 il 521 72.7] 4.35 
Colebrook........ 16 84 i 40 | 58.4 | 2.85 25 90 | 10,11 53 | 70.3 | 7.06 
Brookfield ....... 15| 86 2| 40 | 59.2] 3,50 a5| 94 a9" } 60 | 71.2] 4.60 
RE nite ete ls oes ~~ -'-|- eee 59.4 | 2.08 
NEW YORK 
Moriches .-...-.-. 16 85 | 10,11 47 | 59.2 | 2.38 28 | 102 10) 58179) 1.12 
“South Hartford ..| 15,16 85 | 11,22] 49] 61.0 | 0.65 QT 94 22.) 57 195.249) 035 
Fort Edward ae 15 82 il 43) Ose ke sua ee cc le 2S ot o3|2 ee eel ee eed eres 
Baniea= =~ - 15, 16 85 | 10,11 46 | 58.3 | 2.98 | 25, 28 92 11 56 | 72.5] 3.00 
Throg’s Neck.... 17 83 11 7 aE Se. 25 93 11 |) (se) gaa ees 
White Plains -... 16) \) O47 10 || °4G.| 5939) [be 2 28 89 il 5Y | WISE 
Cooper Union.... 16 83 11 47 | 62.8 | 3.08 25:1) 93 11 57 | 74.1] 2.85 
Rutger F. College} 15,16 | 8&6 3,11 48 | 64.7 | 2.55 25 95 | 19,11 60 | 76.7} 1.062 
Wlatbush......... ; } 25 93 10°}! “55:) sake) eas 
Brooklyn -.-...--. 25, 28 96 il 59 | 747] 3.38 
AB Grete a = a : i 25 96 3 52 | Wo. 5) conte 
Newburg. .. f 5 25 95 10 59 | 75.4] 4.63 
Minaville - -. | 52. 28 95 22] 53] 74.3)| 3/50 
Bannerville 3 27 | 100 10| 57| 74.3] 4.00 
Cooperstown - ---. 19 84 2 40 | 59.2 | 1.94 27 92 22 52 | 72.5] 0.95 
Gouverneur...-.- 30] 8&6 1 41 | 57.2 | 1.01 25] 90 21 50 | 70.7] 3.50 
North Hammond. 20, 31 90 22 44 | 66.0 | 0.68 25 95} 21,22 60 | 78.4] 0.97 
30| 85 12] 43} 59.1] 1.30] 25,27 92 21 53 | 72.8] 0.80 
19| 77 FV ak oe Pe es eecmer aee cc ~ 
3 85 1} 43) 60.6 | 1.86 28) 94 22| $3] 73.7 | 3.29 
30 86 7 40 | 59.3 | 2.77 28 94 6 50 | 71.2] 3.81 
19 82 1 2 eee 27 | 92 22 5S |e eas 
1918 83/2) 6, A 45 | 60.2 | 3.36 28; 93 | 21 53; 72.81 4.59 
i 29 82 22 | 40 | 57.7, 1.34 23 | 90 22] 53) WEN er 
31| 80 1} 42| 55.8! 0.83 3| 82 a1| 55] 683! 215 
19; 84! 1 42 | 58.5 | 0.30 25 92 | Q1| 52) 71.6] 0.70 
North Volney.-.. 31| 85 | 1 a i ee P5,27 |) 993.) 21 53) | OKO aaa 
Waterburg -....- 19} 90) 1 40°\ 59.6 |...-.- 25 94 21 49) ) (2t Gotsaeee 
Nichols .--...-.-. vy; 99 | 2: |) PaIP 60-0" 2222 5 251 95 QL) some tess. 
Newark Valley -- 19| 85} 2| 37] 60.0 | 3.10 25 | 94] 21,22] 50/°70.9] 3.40 
GUS... 25-5. 19 80 | 21 45 | 58.2 | 3.19 125,267 89 21 52] 70.4] 2.69 
Rochester. .....-. 16,19 | 8 7,12] 46 | 61.2} 0.78 21 |, {92 | 21 59 | 73.0 | 2.96 
Little Genesee . .. 19 87 2 36 | 56.0 | 1.42 235! 94 22 48 | 69.3] 4.57 
Suspens’n Bridge. 20 87 BI 38 | 59.2 | 0. 80 25 | 99 | 22 50 | 70.9] 5.35 
Lockport Er tad | Sas Re eee Be, A ee, | eS g6| o1! 21) 56) 0.8) 4.37 
Bite osc ~- 20| 388 12 a 588 | 1.51 29 | 95 21! 55} 70.5] 6.30 
A-verages....|..-.---- Ree Lea 2.8 8 aud 89"), 51.36. legates | ‘fee | jaca 72.6 | 3.01 


640 


State and station. 


NEW JERSEY. 


Patersons se. . 22. - 
Newark ....-..-. 
New Brunswick - 
Trenton See s.ce>. 
Rio Grande .....- 
Moorestown ..... 
New Germantown 
Readington ...-.- 
Haddontield ..... 


Vineland ......-.. 


PANETACOS. sec ciece ea 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Nyces\..-. Ria tats 


Philadelphia ..--. 


Germantown. (M) 
Doreew =< = (1) 


Plymouth Meet'g 
White Hall ...... 
Factoryville .--.. 


Reading syee-0.52 


West Chester. ... 

Parkersville .-... 

Ashland, (H).... 
Doz(C))..5-: 


Tamaqua ..-....- 
Catawissa........ 


Ephrata ..-.-:..- 


Mount Joy.....-.- 


Harrisburg ....-.. 
Carlisle .......... 
Fountain Dale ... 


Lewisburg ......: 
Grampian Hills .. 
Johnstown. .....- 
Pittsburg. .-.. ble 
Connellsville... .. 
Brownsville...... 
New Castle ...... 


Beavers sees 


DELAWARE. 
Milford pce peers 


Maximum tempera- 
ture. 
Minimum tempera- 
ture. 

Mean temperature. 


and melted 


Rain 


ae 
wid OR 


WM VOR VIO TW WD S 


5. 10 


FSS SP Se 


Oh Se 9 
WIKIS 
mROUSCS 


art 
ror noes) 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


a 
I 
oO 
= 
a 
$$ 
Date. a3 
a+ 
a 
| 
a 
a 
Deg. 
20 95 
2 93 
ants 26 | 94 
26,30 | 96 
23 95 
yy 28 83 
23 94 
28 92 
19 100 
26,29} 92 
29 99 
Baas pol ae 
28 96 
26,28] 94 
23 94 
25,26,28} 96 
28, 29 94 
23 91 
28 92 
29 93 
27 94 
26 94 
29 95 
20 96 
ays 27 | OL 
27 94 
19, 24, 
27, 28, , 94 
28 
20 99 
26 95 
26 96 
26 94 
27 94 
Ge 93 
24.95.98] 92 
25 92 
27 95 
26 91 
26,27] 98 
27 92 
26 90 
26 89 
26,27] 93 
28,29] 96 
28 94 
28 96 


JUNE. 


Minimum tempera- 
ture 


| Date. 
Dey. 
10 57 
11 55 
1,10,11| 62 
2,3] 60 
4 7 
11 58 
1 60 
1 59 
1 61 
Q 61 
1 57 
6 eee Bape 
21, 22 2 
10,11} 60 
11 61 
22 60 
7 57 
1 58 
1, 22 59 
22 53 
22 54 
22 61 
11 59 
ill 60 
Lees 1] | 4a 
Q1 o2 
11 58 
12,1, 61 
a 2-2) 67 
12 57 
i 57 
22 48 
1 52 
19,5991) 950 
21 52 
22 52 
11 56 
11 50 
9,22} 60 
29 51 


3 ite 

Ea 

ae ce 

3 E 

By = ° 

8 aa 

aia 

a 1a 
Deg. In. 
74.4| 4.20 
72.3] 3.13 
"77.2 | 3.9% 
74.0 | 3.25 
73.3 | 2.80 
73.0] 5.56 
15/84 eo ce E 
73.0| 2.80 
76: Dion aie A 
74.1] 2.38 
76.1 | 4.32 
74.5 | 3.52 
“70.9 | 4.65 
69.4] 2. 
74.7 | 3.60 
76.4 | 2.54 
75,11, |e 
74.3] 2.36 
72.1] 4.25 
73.2] 3.40 
74 eee x 
71,0 | 4.92 
74.6 | 5.69 
73.9| 6,15 
74.5 | 5.60 
"69.9 | 830 
69/8, pes E 
72.0| 4.73 
15.4. |e 
77.0] 7.66 
74.3] 7.80 
72.5 | 6.70 
70.6 | 3.30 
72.2 | 5.17 
68.0 | 2.83 
67.8 | 4.02 
70.3. | 5.60 
71.3 | 3.40 
726 (peas 
15, Odean 
72.1 | 4.90 
69.5 | 6.00 
10.6 | 2.83 
72.5 | 478 
76.5 | 2 
73.1 | 5.81 
76.6 | 4.38 


. 


METEOROLOGY 


OF 1870. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


State and station. 


Mp.—Cont'd. 


Frederick. .-...-. 
Mt. St. Mary’s. ... 


Averages. ... 
DIST. COLUMBIA. 
Washington ...-. 
VIRGINIA. 
Johnsontown ..--. 


Hampton 
Zuni Station... --. 


Near Wytheville. 
Averages. ... 
WLST VIRGINIA. 


Weston. --..----. 
Cabell C. H 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


Kenansville...... 
Goldsboro 


Chapel Hill.....- 
Albemarle 


Statesville 


Asheville, (A).--. 
DO, (EL) a2. 


Averages. -.. 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 


Fort Mill 
Gowdeysville -- -- 
Aiken 


Averages. ... 
GEORGIA. 
St. Mary’s.....-.. 
Penfield’ ---.....- 
Atlanta sence. cue 


Averages. ... 


41 A 


MAY. JUNE. 
= rv te a) = = = 
E 5 a 3 = 3 
oe oe L . Ove Bs nm 
eS Pe Y S Yo oan) 2 
Date. | ge | Date. | 28 = |33 | Date. | a8 | Date. | o8 = 
Pai ES as BG Sa 5 & 
I = eh lie = = £ 

= 5 = a 3 
¥ ar ee bee ci Pee ie 
a Kal ~ a a Re tS 
A a Alm | A A a 
Deg. Deg. | Deg.| In. Dey. Deg.| Deg. 
16| #8 /1,97,98| 56 | 63.2 | 5.06 26 | oT 12] G2] 772.4 
4,21 | 83 | 47 | 626/437) 96] 92 12| 55 | 7.4 
epee senile as) [ke FP: RE ale rbd era meme 
4,16| 8 ‘oo 54 | 64.5 | 4.70 28} 93 2| 63| 73.0 
a = SSE 
24| 81 5| 52 ag | 94 1| 58| 74.6 
24} 90 | 52 og| 93| 1,3] 64| 76.5 
a4| 88 ww] 48 a6 | 98 12] G4| 785 
24} 94 1i| 50 93 | 102 |1,3,4,11 | 68! 80.7 
16| 82 11| 52 og | 92 64| 76.0 
a1} 88 | 48 27,23 | 98 1| 64| 77.5 
2 | 86 2| 48 623 | 91 11| 60| 736 
HC RRS AG (PAE TE 30 | 108 | 56| 76.1 
15 | 8 12 | 42 96,28) 94|~ 11] 57] 72.6 
20} & 12| 42 26 | 94 | 58] 72.9 
17,21| 81] 1,28] 49 24,25} 89 i11| 56| 71.8 
21 | ot 14| 48 a7| $9'| 11,19] 58| 74.5 
| 83 12] 43 a7 | 90 12| 58] 73.4 
93] 88 12| 35 27| 92 11| 51| 6&9 
23 | 84 2| 40 24,9526] 86| 9,11] 56| 68.0 
eS I BS CSO Ae I ae (RE 74.4 
19 | 90 gee: 26,27.| 95 6| 48] 70.2 
30} 91] 11,12] 38 23 | 98 11| 48| 75.0 
22} 97 fehl eae lh paeeme le coke coo ap Sell Ra hese ee 
22| 94 12] 51 a7 | 103 4| 59 | 80.1 
17,24 | 86] 11,12] 48 96 | 95 2) 64| 74.7 
2] 86 3| 50 23| 96| 23] 63] 75.9 
SH woah igre ad. Son Gate lees lulose [leek ea 7 ia 
5| 92| 13,14| 44 23 | 100 11 | 56| 74.8 
26, 27, 

17,21| 88 wu} 42 28, 29, ; 94 { 10, 14, ; 56 | 73.1 

30 12 
22] 86 10| 45 26 |" 87 14| 54| 628 
21, 22 a) “ 23, 24, . ee a 
21,22] 92 12| 36 Be 30 | 80 | 10,34] 52 | O72 
RO eRe 1 Dell a ARORA? FE ee | a Le 73.5 

4 ° on 
17] 92 2| 60 26) 95 |F aga |§ M1 | 79.8 
a1} 90 12| 52 30} 94|. 12] 60 | 71 
22 | 90 1a Seb Wed | SeGb (WSae: eed oy dil 02] 6 
17,1821} 91} 11,13] 6o 30 | 92 10| Gi | 75.7 
eee S22 |teeo eae cell cater BAD. | QACOM ie eke s las «2 etone be feaiae 76. 6 
17| 90 1| 56 30 | 91 110,1913} 68 | 76.9 
17| 88 15} 60 30 | Ot 11| 68} 78.0 
fi. eR oa 13| 52 28; 94] 10,11] 60| 75.7 
91,92,93] 92 |10,11,12| 50 27| 961 1011| 51] 71.4 
LA MaBe PEA eRe be (| sd en 75.5 


We Ove 69 


ae 


642 


State and station. 


| | EE Eee 


Rockville 


Greene Springs .. 
Coatopa -........ 
Fish River. .....-. 


Averages 
TLORIDA. 


St. Augustine... 
Jacksonville 


Orange Grove.... 
White Spring..-. 
Newport......... 
Chattahoochee .. . 


Averages.... 


TEXAS. 


Maximum tempera- 


ture. 


Date. 


Minimum tempera- 
ture 


LOUISIANA. 
New Orleans..... 22 92 9 
Near Cheneyville. 22 92 12 
Shreveport .....-. 20, 21 2 15 
MissIssiwrr. |" 
Columbus. ....-.. 22 92 1 
Enterprise -.....- 20,21,23} 100 14 
Philadelphia... -. 22 90 8,12 
Brookhaven. ...-. 23 91 12 
Near Brookhaven. 23 97 12 
8, 9. 
Se 91 9A f] 
Natchez ......--. pees 13 83 318, 13, 
AVOVECOR, 3» .|'-525 == ie as | 
| 
ARKANSAS. | 
PIG) Ce oe ee 23 93 | 7 
i 


4 


e i=] 
¢/2 
8 |3 
3 A 
= F 
ee 
=} 
g | 38 
qa | 4 
os 
a|e 
Deg. | In. 
69.7 | 1.88 
76.1 | 0.78 
75.0 | 0.55 
68.8 } 0.50 
72.8} 1.00 
bevue 1.00 
72.5 | 0.95 
76.2 
75. 7 
71.4 
79.0 
76.4 
74.2 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 
Sr 
MAY. 


JUNE. 
5 ge | ¢|k 
es 2 1 ee 
a z a | 8 
26 Ss| 2 Ps 
Date. | g 3 | Date. | = 3 a | 29 
ie Bee aa 
5 5 
w “8 EI & 
cS = © I 
A A A |e 
Deg. Deg. In. 
27 | 95 10] 58 4. 00 
271 96 11| 66 6.99 
ys 27 | 95 | 10,13 | 57|75.9| 3.75 
97 | 95 13 | 59 5. 20 
| ABEL | Re Sees Pee 4.99 
92 11} 68 3.10 
95 |10,11,12| 71 8.10 
} 98 31 72 7.80 
28] 95 10 | 65 | SOs hewss.. 
; 92 13 Gee 4,50 
90 10 | a 5.40 
96 Pep ee(tes ee 
92 10 | 69 . 88 
95 71 66 6.50, 
‘ca. | lee | oo 6. 04 


89] 10,13 
90 14 
93] 11,13 
93 10 
103 16 
90 13 
90! 13, 20 


43% 
"70 180.6 | 5.00 
1. 60 
1.80 
0. 40 
3, 24 
a7 
2. 60 
2. 20 
3. 28 
2. 93 
68 2, 30 
68 | 818. 4 |2-=5-- 
OF MD 4 eee 
61 3. 39 
60 5. 20 
58 5. 30 
60 3.00 
58 4.40 
Lhe 4,26 
60.| 76.5 4Gee~.« 


State and station. 


SOUS 0) CE Ee Bees Peeeees Maa pre es Mee 


Date. 

TENNESSEE. 
Elizabethton... .. Q1 
Lookout Mount'n. 23 
MeMinnville..... 23 
ATR: Secon Q3 
Clarksville....... 22 
Erenton ..-...... 22 
Knoxville........ 23 

Averages 

KENTUCKY. 
Pine Grove ...... 23 
Danvilles-....... 23 
Shelby City..-.... 23 
Near Louisville. . 22 

Averages 

OHIO. 

Salem... -- ><... 19 
Steubenville ..... 19, 21 
Painesville ...... 18, 21 
IENOTe .....-.. 18, 
Milnersville . 20 
Cleveland 3 
Pennsville -...... 23 
Gallipolis .-....-. 23 
Oberlin ses... 18 
Kelley’s Island -. 18 
Sandusky..-..... 18 
North Fairfield ..} 3,18 
Gambier a< trou = 293 
Westerville. ..... 18,19 
Williamsport .... 20 
North Bass Island 16 
BRATION tems app - 18 
Hillsboro .-:..... 23 
71 1 VEY: PS ee 18 
Bowling Green .- 3 
ahonton’-..- scm -.- 23 
Urbana Univer’y. 18 
Springfield ...... 21 
IBALO DER Gees cab =~ 23 


Jacksonburg ...-.|18,21,22 


Mt. Auburn Sem. 22 
Cincinnati, (H) .. 22 
De cea Ae ss 23 
College Hill...... 22, 23 
Averages 
MICHIGAN. 
Detroit, .....-.... 16, 31 
Monroe City -.--. 16 
Ann Arbor...-.--- 3,18 
AGIAN) f2 35+ <5 - 3 
AIpens 2 aise. = 19 
State Agr’! Coll -. 14 
Litchfield........ 18 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


is) 


84 
87 


METEOROLOGY OF i870. 


MAY. 


Date. 


10,11,12 
14 


ture. 


Minimum tempera- 


45 


50 


ees eee eee eee eee ee eee ed eee 


Mean temperature. 


65.9 


BARD 
BSS Pts Ste 
WASSCW OAH 


IHIAND 


Rain and melted 
snow. 


PE rath 


Date. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


10,11,13 
10 


10, 11 
10,1113 


19,27 
24,30 | 


um tempera- 
ture. 


| Minim 


| Mean temperature. * 


| 


Deg. 
71.4 


4 


Rain and melted 
snow. — 


In. 
14, 15 


oan 
IS 


eee ee 


ed ad ad ad Ad SS wd 0} 2) AF 3 Od HI 
SSPRSRPSHENEL SSD 
SatKOnaj»nokKuqawow ct 


644 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Coutinued. 


| MAY. | JUNE. 
; ; 7h tain enn irc 2 
Es So Bele z, & | 21% 
State and station. a eI s | A E EI Sie 
26 oe | 2 s PS £5 | ont ete 
Date. | q5 | Date. | .2 | § |S | Date. | -& | Date ae | # les 
ie a7 | £ | 8a ara Ee | s | aa 
A =| re 5 & H 
| z | 8 le | z a 1 ote 
| : Hey les oS | iS Re a 
| s.| |s |4(|é E a) |4 
see r et J | eee 
Micu.—Cont’d. | | 
Dy. Deg.| Deg.| In. De Deg. In. 
Cold Water.....- 18 4 13 40 61. 4 1.31 2 06 8 52 ee 4.31 
Grand Rapids, (H) 31 93 8 48 | 65.1 | 0.93 2 102 10 53] WL 3. 66 
Dor see 5.3 (8) 31 84 8 46 | 62.3 | 0.87 27, 30 94 13 50 | 69.6 | 6.15 
Northport .-...--- 15 82 9, 24 44 | 57.5 | 3.63 | 4 | 93 9,12 48 | 66.3] 3.50 
Benzonia ......-- 31 92 8,12 SV BOi da sees ee Pe es eee eee 
Pleasonton ...--- 31 90 12 36 | 61.3 | 1.09 5) 99 10 | 43 | 67.6 | 3.25 
uskegon .....-.- ikyg 90 | 9 48 | 68.1 | 1.00 25, 26 94 | 15 | 952 Tak 5. 00 
Otsego sses--<-' -- 15 98 10 42 H CBee eect } 25 | 106 | 9 48 | 70.9 }.-.--- 
Copper Falls...-.. 30; 79 16 36 | 53.5 | 0. 90 23 91 | -9,10 41 | 64.7| 1.00 
| Co) ©. 
Ontonagon.......| 30,31| 90] 16,25| 46 | 52.4 ce 5 3s 29 | oo} 12 | 48 | 2G) eae 
| ik tas 
PRU PEAEDS 2 =|b ans .oc<[sceteel> th. ce |s eee (TGS eet oval eee | coe: | sede 69.2} 429 
= | | —————[S>=————S 
INDIANA 
Aurora ......-..- 22 | 96 ; ae ; 48 | 66.9 | 1.93 | 24,25} 100 |10,11,13) 54] 71.0] 3.02 
,12 
MOVAY <5. ------ 22 90 9 46 | 66.8 | 2.37 25 95 10 56 | 72.8] 3.80 
Mount Carmel . --. 22 87 9 45 | 65.7 | 1.00 25 94 11 54 | 73.0] 3.80 
Muncie .......... 5,17,22| 88 11 |) 44° 106625 | res (528s... Fa ol ie \..3 1-4] 
Spiceland ..-..... 22 94 |10,11,12 45 | 67.6 | 0.51 25 96 1) 51 | F256 |p aeae 
MaCOMacerse. 5 =. 22 92 10 46 | 66.1 | 6.50 | 25 93 |10,11,12| 56) 72.9! 2.06 
Columbia City . - -| 18 90 10 48 | 67.5 | 0.00 25, 26 98 | 89,11 | 56) 722 4.00 
Knightstown .... 22 91 12 45 | 67.5 | 0.85 25 98 il 52 | 729 | 6.12 
Tadianapolis - ---- 22 90 | 12 42 | -67.3'| 0.56 |..-..--|-<22--|2-2-4-=-14 ce ee eee ee 
Near La Porte. -- 17 94 | 11 45 | 67.4 | 0.65 30 97 |9, 11,13 55 |) eee 3. 23 
Rensselaer.-..-...- 22 92 12 47 | 67.2 | 1.60 29 98 li 53 | 70.3] 6.85 
MEGTOM foe. ===> - 22 88 12 45 | 68.5 | 1.60 25 98 10 53 | HO) 2B 
New Harmony... 22 91 11 50 | 68.4 | 1.72 | 24,30 4 | ieee Ae 50 | 74.2] 3.94 
Harveysburg -- 22 88 |10,11,29 AQ) 6052.) 1570) 2 2522-2 | Ae tel ete ey eee! ee ee ek 
Averages....|........ | FB od Bie Haar ay Gs |.s2es2 |J2z22:| 3.24 eee 73.0 | 4.09 
ILLINOIS. : 
Qhicagp.......... | 3, 15 85 7,11 47 | 65.5 | 0.80 30} 100 8 54 | 71.8] 1.70 
Near Chicago. -- ; 3/ 88 10 ant | Pe Se 30 | 100 '8,11,13| 54] 68.9 |.-...- 
Evanston ..-....- 3 85 11 45 | 61.5 | 1.21 30 97 8 52 | 63.1] 1.37 
Marengo. -.-..-.. 16, 31 88 10 42 | 63.6 | 0.54 30 100 1 45 | 69.8 | 0.99 
Charleston ...--.- 22 89} 10,12 45 | 66.2 | 2.63 | 25,30 94 | 9,10 53 | 327) } eee 
Mattoon -..:.--.; 22 85 12 45 | 66.9 | 2.63 | 24,25 3 9 54 | 73.3 | 3.38 
‘Aurora .......... 3| 86] 114,12] 46] 64.5 | 1.35 24] 9! 10| 50|694| 1.16 
Louisville......-.- 21, 22 92 12 40 | 69.5 | 3.00 25 99 10 52 | 73.1 4, 30 
Goleonda .-.-..... 17, 22 97 “fs 40 | 64.7 | 2.00 27 99 15 44 | 73.0 | 370 
Belvidere .....-.- Ale ON | eed 46 | 65.2 | 1.10 30 100 9 51 | 70.1 0.54 
Ottawa ...---.... 22 93 11 46 | 68.5 | 1.15 28 105. 9 55 | 75.3} 1.39 
Mecatnryss- 5... <- 18, 22 90 10 45 | 66.2 | 0.80 29 94 9,12 54/1 73.0} 1.50 
Pang pense toes. 22 50 12 46 | 67.0 | 0.90 , 30 96 12 524 73.8} 1.30 
Winnebago -.--.-- 17 8&8 7,10 45 | 65.4} 1.23 | 24,25 99 (8, 11,12 50 | 71.4] 2.12 
Hochelesess <5 2. - 22 90 | 11,12 CCS ae St eee OT | eOD |) At 50 | 70.5 |.--..- 
Wryanet £..!.-... 22} 90 3,10] 40 | 65.0 | 1.42 24 | 104 i 46 | 73.0] 0.70 
'Viskilwa .... .... 3,22} 90] 6,13| 44] 65.4 50 | 73. 
Hennepin, (8). - 22 92 8,10 40 | 61.0 46 
Do..-.(O) 22 $3 10 44 | 63.6 47 
PUTT ey eee ee | hoe ees | ue lice tetas seme eloniee on |inee aie a] 
IBeOvidgeser users. 22 92 10 45 | 68.3 56 
Springfield ie aeieis 22 93 10, 12 46 | 67.9 8 a2 
THOS oe > 21 92 11 42 | 67.2 
Galesburg ....-.- 30 84 a 49 | 66.0 ; 
Manchester......| 16] 86| 12| 45 | 66.2 
Mt. Sterling. -._. 2] 88 10| 48| 723 ; 
Andalusia ...-... 22+} 86 28 46 | 65.8 : 2 
Augusta......-.. 3] 87 10 | 47 | 64.5 
Warsaw 5-.3-2-2. 3 94 10 | 48) 67.1 : 
| 


| i } 
Averages. .-. Fe hes be AE ioe 65.5 


| MAY. 
a a é ua] 
5 Ss | gle 
& = Ss S) 
State and station. 5 = eae 
+o Ss SS b 
Date. # | Date. 5 a | So 
8 =] a = f= ag 
ar gf? s oa 
a 
z a A a 
5 q oy 1) 
ass — S 3 
A A Aa |e 
WISCONSIN. 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. 
Sturgeon Bay.... ite 85 9,24 ‘ } 
Manitowoc -..... 19 81 10 : 
Ingham ........ ig 87 a, 
Miiwaukee ....-- 3 88 8 
Appleton .....-.. 3 80 25 
Geneva:._:-..2.- 16 90 7 
Waupaca....:... S715 87 25 
mobarrass. ....-.. 1 84 26 
ocky Run .....- 17 83 10 
Madison ......... 17 85 10 
Edgerton ........ 30 96 10 
Mosinee ......... 3 86 8,9 
Baraboo ......... 3 92 8 
New Lisbon ..... 3 90 9 
Tunnel City -..-. 18 98 9, 10 
Bayfield ..:...... 14] 84] 19,16 
OU AEY SE dl pe a ee mee 
MINNESOTA. 
Beaver Bay....-- 18 83 22 1, 34 
i oe 17 88 9 3. 
Stebsali--./..2.. 17 &9 9 a 
Minneapolis ...-. 3 91 9 3.98 
CH a ae 3| 85 10 2, 
Koniska ......... 27 85 24 | 3. 
ew Ulm........ 3,17,30| 86 12 3. 
Madelia, ......... 30 90 9 Dd. 
LW GE) ee ee RL ee ee 
IOWA. 
Clintonre= o>... 2t/ 986} 10,11 
Waukon ......... 4,17 86 10 
3, 16, 
Dubnqne .....--- ; 17, 22 87 9 
Monticello ....... 30 | 90 $8910, 
8,9,10, 
Bowen's Prairie. -|16,17,30 88 |< 11, 12, 
13 
F's. Madiwon ..-.. 22 90 13 
Guttenberg .....- 17 91 9 
Mt. Vernon.....- 3 87 12 
Iowa City ...--.-. 21 29 10 
Independence. -.- 17 91 9 
Near Independice) 4,17 86 il 
Waterloo ......-: 415,17 | 87 8 
Rockford .-...... 15,16,17 85 10 
Iowa Falis....... 14, 16 88 12 
Adgpore <-2--45.;. 16,17 83 7 2s 
IWESubenteeesean |= none 2. |..5,-|2 5204 =. aaedea|- 24075 |~ 4 anus 
Webster City.--.| 4,20 85 9 
Boonesboro ...--. 3,15 85 9,10 
Fontanelle. ....-. 15, 27,2 87 9, 10 
Grant City ......: 15 92 9 
Sac City...-..--. 15 85 | 8,9, 10 
Loparee a... 4| 85 12 
Woodbine .....-. 17,30, ; 87} 9,24 
é 17,18 
West Union ...-. j 19, 30, : 86 9, 10 
POVOEAR OR 54 = [52 adc nas |e ccaitin {aa nese afew waism 


{ 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 


4 
Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


. 


um tempera- 
ture. 


ture, 


by | Minimum tempera- 
S 
Ss 


by | Maxim 
s 


© 
Ss 


645 


: sS 
) o 
=} = 
{> cs) 
g | 8 . 
& co] E 
= ag 
2g aan 
A 
s i4 
A lm 
Deg. d. 
69. 1 . 20 
67.5 . 3D 
8 | 2.62 
“69.9 | 1. 45 


Perr se 
tS i—) 
SER 


0. 00 
2.39 
59. 2.59 
rae 0.90 
75. 0. 7 
70. 1.58 
71. 0.38 
67. 0.50 
72.8 | 2.25 
74.8 | 0.40 
70.5 | 1:17 
70.2} 2.75 
GON) I sseee 
74.5 | 0.46 
72.4 | 1.60 
71.3 | 1.50 
76.0] 1.12 
TaN ee 
10: Gilnaee 
7.8] 1.30 
74.0] 0.70 
74.2) 1.45 
72.5} 1.20 
72 (Oh etee 
77.3) 1Lé 
70) 2)\ eae 
WTO) [sues 
70.9] 0.50 
70.5 | 0.48 
74.1 | 1.25 
74.4 | 0.77 
“69.3 | 0.30 
70.6] 0.22 
73.41 1.03 
72.3 | 1.08 
ee js 


646 


& & 3 
a ~ 
2 2 | 3 
State and station. EI Ae 
Dame 2s a? a 
Date. | Date 5 
Eg 85 | 
~ =] aE 
5 Bg 
g | S 
a A a 
MISSOURI. | is 
Deg. eg. 
i 91.99 ca 6,7,10, 
St. Lonis ........! 21, 22 29 417, ¢ 20 
Allenton......--. | 21] 96} 10 | 44 | 67. 
Hematite ......-. 22 95 | li 48 I 
Hannibal ......-. 21,22} 988 10| 48 | 67. 
Holla) fate 2. ee. | 21 91 | 10 43 | 69. 
Jefferson City... 21} 91| 7| 46 | 67.0 
Kansas City -..--. | 21 89 12 44 | 67.1 
Harrisonville . --. 21 90 6,7 48 | 68.1 
St. Joseph ......- 21} 989 6,7| 49} 69.1 
repo 2255.2 22-- 21 89 | 6,9 44 | 67.7 
LESS De) I a BR Se Oe ee pee 
KANSAS. 
Atchison ......-- 21 90 6 43 
Léavenworth .--- 18 90 6 45 
Olathe .........-- 21 92 Zs 45 
Pals soa en hs. 21} 90 12| 45 
Baxter Springs. -- 21 94} 10,11 50 
Lawrence .-...--- | 18, 21 89 6 5 
Williamsburg. -..| 2)” 185 | 11 | 40 
Holton: 2.52-. 25-2 2, 21 91 6 46 
State Agr’l Coll... 21 93 8 49 
Council Grove - - -/18,21,28 90 8 46 
Grratd). £272.52. = &7 | 5 43 
PAETHOE Saas 1: oer es |-sceus|-sc-3ee [beens 
NEBRASKA. 
Omaha Agency .-| 14,15 88 6 43 | 65. 
De $006 4-42-2221. 2 86 10 43 | 65. 
Bellévue...-...-- 4,17,21| 85 6| 48 | 67. 
Nebraska City-.-| 21,28 89 6 43 | 67. 
New Castle -..--- 18 94 | 12,26 43 | 65.6 
SAVOPACOS. => -|-e--205.|-e--5- eee e eens leeeeee 66.3 
UTAH. 
G’t Salt Lake City 13 85 31 42 
Coalville .......-. 25 86 5 33 
St. George -.-.--- AO}, pata). Zee cel = Rc boot 
CALIFORNIA. 
Monterey -...---- 8 93 17 42 
Obici tase s.r. 1;8,9 98 17 40 
Watsonville. .--. 6 92 2 44 
Gants. CA | ee ee 
Wisin: 2 Se 3 8: 7 {| 100 17 47 
Averages .---|-------. | eS ease beer 
| 
MONTANA. 


Deer Lodge City-|10,11,12 


COLORADO. 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


e 
Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


| 
| 
85 | aa | 32 


eG} 1,5] 40 


and melted 


Rain 


0.38 |11,25,26 


JUNE. 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 
i) 
eo 
co 
2 


Minimum tempera- 
ture 

Mean temperature. 

‘Rain and melted 
snow 


Deg. Deg. In. 
94| 9,10] 54 1.46 
99 n| 51 4,88 ° 
98) ii) 2 1.95 
gg | 10,12| 54 2.90 
96 11 | (eed 2.73 
Fi 10| 54 SaaS 
98 | 7,9,10| 52 195 

6, 7,8, 
100 ; 9, 11) , 58 1.99 

12) 13 
“99°30 | 9a | 9" | 51 | vara |? aoe 
ee © 2,92 

101 8] 55 3.05 

102 12] 53 1.95 

160 6| 54 2.70 
99 ery 56 1.00 
94 12|° 56 2.60 

101 Sou 56 1.88. 
98 40} 49 SE 

106 6| 53 "Lis 

102! 8,9] 55 0.79 

100 12| 52 2.50 
95 11 | 56 5.85 

| ye 2.35 
95 10| 50} 74.6}_0.72 

101 8| 49| 74.0 |fo.g9 
96 8| 53| 74.2122 10 

100 9| 52} 7481 *1L.00 
99 9} 47/729 ].0.... 

2. ae eA "1.18 
95|1,2,17| 4566.5 |.---.. 
93° 42 | 65.2 |...... 

102 |....6...|.-<203/eas ~.1°°0,00 
si| 218| 44)643 

104| 15,16] 62| 77.6 

-93| 15,16| 48 | 62.5 
95 29| 50 | 66.7 
94 1| 59] 759 
98 1| 35 
94 3| 48 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. ; 647 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


MAY. JUNE. 
: 7 7 Panta ; ae 
a | Elele leg) le | als 
S| a= B |e ey a 2 \3 
State and station. a | ie ae: Beg 2 ad | a/4, 
Date | gH | Date. | 32] & |ee| vate | ge | Date. | 78) & 1s 
ate, ate. = = iS) ate. = ate. S = z 
aad 'g8| 2 | 38 B= a3 | 8 | Be 
Hig ae) | ea ie 
w ZS gles Z |S a | 4 
Ss | A=] oD =I 3 | | = o a 
la | a | a |e a | ja | a le 
Ee > em Wl | SANDE i: a abe, 
WASHINGTON. | | 
Deg. | Deq.| Deg.| In. Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Port Angeles...... 23] 62 | 2| 44/525 | 4,49 |9,28,29| 69 15|  49| 58.0] 5.00 
So SD OF 1294.15)... ere) Se at yr 97 |16,17,20 50. | 64.49 [2.c8zS 
Cathlamet ..... 2. 9) 80} 15,17] 40] 538).....- 6} 90} ‘1,22] 48] 60.4 ]...10. 
H = | | ——— | —_—. 
OREGON. | | | r 
Portland......... | 9] sv} 29} 44] 592] 2095 7 |) 9513 Foy |$ 5h) 6 S:) adage 
a i cee h) we.)) te | 38 | 52.3 | 2.46 | 7| 86| (20) 44/591] 22 
| | | | | 
| JULY. AUGUST. 
] a tay 
Houlton ...:..... 24| 99 | 2| 551 73.2 | 4.00 11| 93 27 | 46} 683] 4.00 
Mt Dasert.......|........ Soe Ut Rola Bn fa, Daly SR 10,13 | 85 2| 511702] 415 
as... | 24] 93 | 1| 52/6891/1.78| 10,18] 87 a7 | 44:1 66.7] 3.21 
Williamsburg...) “24, 95) 1,99! 54] 69.3 | 2.47 9| 87] 26,31] 52| 67.2] 3.15 
West Waterville! 24, 95) 14] 58] 73.9 | 1.99 9| 95 26} 52/701] 1.90 
iner........ 24| 99 | 4| 55 | 71.5 | 2.43 9| 84 16| 53].68.4| 1.99 
Lisbon...........| 23] 94| 4| 53] 71.4| 3.27] 10,18| 90 e7| 47/684] 3.40 
Norway ee | 24 100 | 4| 54173.4|.1.60| 89] 90 26| 53 | 69.2] 165 
Cornish...-.- 2... 24| 94/ 9,4] 56] 719/274 9| 92 o7| 47 | 69.5] 3.55 
Cornishyille ..... 24} 96 | 1] 57] 740] 3.25 9} 92 97| 52| 71.7! 4.70 
be hee Pee lS ge We eed A hy BEA RR TD 10/ 971 45] 69.7 |. as 
Averages ....|......-. Bh 18 Be eo he es Bee [20 5.) es ee ee 69.0 | 3.17 
: / [Saar perme 8) ey 
NEW HAMPSHIRE | | 
Stratford ........ 24| 98 | 1| 52| 69.1 | 2.47 7| 99 a7 | 40| 65.1] 3.86 
Whitefield ....... 24} 92 | 1| 50| 71.0 | 247 19| 9 27| 33 | 67.7] 3.98 
Tamworth ....... 24| 97) 1| 53| 728] 1.62 9| 96 27} 48} 69.8) 2.45 
Goffstown Center. 23 100° 1| 56| 75.4] 1.87 9| 101] 97,31| 56| 73.7] 1.43 
asters )-..| = Se ayant PS oh Pee eee Pe fad Pea | 5.223.215. 08.2| S eee ee 69.1 | 2.93 
VERMONT. | he 
Lunenburg - Pa | o4| @® 2| 56] 726] 4.56 | 9} 90 26| 48/678] 6.42 
North Craftsbury  24| 89 1} 48 | 69.6 2. 86 | 9| 91 26| 43| 645] 4.62 
Rewer 13-5. se-].-0--- Ae ee A ae 9| 94 a7| 46 | 67.7| 4.15 
East Bethel 24 | 93 | 2| 50 | 741/211 9| 97 97] 421 67.3] 1.36 
Woodstock 18,19,24 87| 1,2] 53| 70.1] 1.82 9} 88 27| 45] 65.6] 1.03 
Near St. Albans. - 24] 90 | 1| 56] 729 | 3.35 19| 88 26 | 47/682] 4:40 
West Charlotte -- 24| 96 1| 57|767|3.41| 7,19] 96 27| 50] 76| 3.25 
Parton... ..... 241 95 1| 58| 77.8 | 5.25 19| 92 | 48| 724]. 2.79 
Castleton ...-.... | | 94 2| 551745/289| 819] 89 27 | 45 | 69.9 |” 0.90 
TE Ee BPP SE) Peeeen Pec sc CoN A SE a ees [eed oe bey ge (Aaa 68.7}. 3.21 
_—[_——S _—> 
- MASSACHUSETTS. 3 
Kingston .....-. 25 | 94 1| 55| 72.0 | 287 7| 93 e7| 52| 720] 1.37 
Vopstield ......-- b4| 92 1| 57|734/141| 7,20] 91 a7.) 54| 72.01 5.97 
Lawrence...-..-- 24} 95 1| 57/744/155; 79] 92 a7 | 55| 724] 3.64 
Newbury -..-..- -. 29 98 1 Sa lot RO ee Oe) ok a ee Eee eee, |S oe. a a 3 
Lo a Cn RE a ee ee 8| 97 a7] 49 | 73.5| 7.38 
Milton........-.. 24) 97) 24|° 591 74.8 | 1.53 4| 100 92] 55:1°25.6| 1.33 
Cambridge... _-- 25| 94 1, | Opt ot 7| 9 if) 57:| 15.4te coe 
North Billerica...) 17,24] 92 1| 58,) 787,|.....- 7,9| 92] 22,97] 53 6983.10.00. 
West Newton...-| 93,244 100 31 521774] 1.42 7 | 100 96 | 57 | Ti:1'| 0:56 
New Bedford..... 25) 89 31 56 | 70.9 | 2.98 5| 86 97] 53] 70.6) “65 
Worcester ....... 24,25) 90. 4} 60 | 73.0 | 2.39 | 7] 88 27 | SBA) That |) Rane 
Mendon.........:/S373¢'|$ 88 1| so|732}26| 7! 90) 98] 56] mee] 1% 
Lunenburg ...../}' 124 |" ,92 1) 58) 744)297|) 7 | 94 a7 | si | 780} 242 
Amberst........ Yoa7o4] 91 2| 551736 | 2.53 $33 a 91 o7| 47) 71.1| 2% 
a " st | aa 


648 . AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870 —Continued. 


JULY. AUGUST. 
, ; 
3 3 ; & a ; 
5 Bf |) & é 3 | 5 | 
= = B | = = 2 
State and station. E 5 g 5 Boh 
or) ~ 2 5 ~ 2 D: - 2 “a 
Date. | a8 | Date. ga! 2 , | Date | ae ate. | 25 | & : 
r= fd 5 ~ Q 3 (=) r = ~ a = 
Bs e cones 8 5 aloe 
% qa || z a.) ae 
cS ae Ss = oI o a 
4 A A | A A A | & 
bas Leo ae ieee | eee = th a 
Mass.—Cont’d 
Deg. Deg. | Deg.| In Deg Deg.| Deg.| In 
Richmond ...-... 17 91 2 fe Wee ice Oa | Aer Nee 2 Pee pereae |---|) asc 
Williams College.| 24 $0 2,4 54 | 72.2 1:3. 89 ) 94 27 44] 69.1 | 5.77 
Hinsdale. foe: 19, 23, 24 86 2 Ov | 70,40) 4:90 |.00..205] bl. oe 
PASER RO Gaal sb cases Je pee aL oc mc, slic eben TSN OO cel mele ee epee sa bon: 72.8 | 3.06 
RHODE ISLAND. ih ho 
Newport--.--2-/-- 19;:25 88 3 55 | 67.1 | 3.06 5 84 27 55 | 75.2] 2.49 
CONNECTICUT. a vi 
Columbia .......- V7 98 1,4 60 | 75.0 | 4.05 2 94 31 54] 73.9] 171 
Middletown...--. 18 95 4 55 | 74.3 | 1.54 7 97 27 48 | 73.2] 3.14 
Southington ..... 17, 23 95 3 58 | 74.9 | 1.02 7 95 27 54) 72.94 1.73 
Colebrook . .....- 18, 19 91 9 36 | 72.8 | 3.77 7 90 27 51 | 70.3 | 2.73 
Brooktield ....... 17 95 4 56 | 74.8 | 3. 40 2,5 93 1, 26 60°) Warr eee 
PACH ONALMOS) sc ola ticeziom olis Waclrcil'sine ses clline oe 74.4 | 2.76 ee eee eee BO 73.0 | 2.33 
=——L So 
NEW YORK. 
WEOTICHES went en 26 93 3,4 7 88 27 51 | 69.5 | 5.85 
South Hartford -.| 17,24 94 2 19 93 27 52) 75.8] 1.45 
Caldwell j..5 17 89 2 3 87 oT 53. | "WO foes 
Gartrison’s ..--... ilzg 94 3 6,7,9 19 99 2 54 | 73.0] 1.91 
Throg’s Neck.... 17| 3 2) 88 14} | 60) ite eae 
White Plains -.-. 17 87 3 17 86 27 52) | F2a2 see 
Cooper Union.... 17 95 3 7 89 28 63 | 77.3 | 3. 79 
Elatbush .- ...-.- 17 97 3) 2 90 27 57 | 75.5 | 3.06 
IBrooklyiteess- = oe 17 95 4 2 g2 27 60 | 76.1) 3.90 
Glasco. eos 6: 17} 99| 1,4,5 18 | 93 15] 50|70.0| 4.40 
Newburg ....--.- 17 97 3 | GO i) PAIS Y 21OD |. accel. = disse ateeie oo] = ane el eee eer 
Minaville ........ 24 7 4 19 94 27 49 | 74.6 | 2.30 
Cooperstown. .... 94 95 Q 9 93 QT 41 | 69.%| 2.74 
Gouverneur. ..-.. 24 90 1 19 88 27 44/683] 1.87 
North Hammond. 19 99 1,9 11 | 100 | 26,27 54 | 76.3) 2.06 
Housevillo......- 20 90 1,8 6 89 | 26,27 50 | 68.7 | 951 
WiC lenis mere ani 20 88 Wy) mies i Osseo al etal O9) 3/2 2 clacperesay tastes ese ee [sos 20= | See e 
LOC eu Saale 19, 24 94 2 8 91 27 48 | 70.8 | 7.26 
South Trenton .. 20 94 4 9 93 2 45 @. 1) Son 
Cazenovia ....... 20 90 30 8 88 27 45 be Fee sta 
Oneida. f252)- 220. 20, 24 94 4 25 93 | 26 27 50 | 70.0 | 14. 40 
Depauville......- 19 a9 1 11 2 27 44 | 70.1 | 1.37 
QOSWEEO te s2 2 se! 20 85 1 29 85 27 51 | 69.4] 3.50 
Palermometss cee 24 §2 12 8 94 26 52 | 69.6 | 0.50 
North Volney-.-./4, 19, 23 89 1 8 94 | 26,275 ST ae eee 
Waterbury ..-... 26 98 io 7 95°| 6, 27 42 | (GQ520 | Pema 
INiehGls eee see. 20 97 | 3, 8, 22 25 96 27 44 | TO ieee are 
Newark Valley ..| 19, 23 94 8,9 25 92 27 Be a 
Himrods.-....-... 17 86 1,3 8 90 27 48 | 65.3 | 1.63 
Rochester......-- 23 87 15 8 91 27 52 | 72.1 3.26 
Little Geneseo...) 3 | 91] 30,31 iy |S 88] \27 || 40) Greene 
Suspens’n Bridge.) 17, 23 94 3,9 19 92 a7 46 | 71.8) 3.35 
Lockport .....-.- 2 87 1 8 89 27 51 | 70.3 | 2.52 
Buttalojeas asec 'e= 6 90 1 7 97 a7 46 | 71.7] 1.58 
POSVGLAD OR erste tic H\ajelsiois'olls amet [sie acietalaie low aaiale ; Ree OP es ace eee Wire ale 71.1) 3.68 
NEW JERSEY. | 8 Pay 
Paterson Bee ere ike 98 3 61 | 77.6 | 3.82 ig 95 |) 27,28 56 | 75.5.| 4.43 
Newarkeeies- fees. 17 9 4 56 | 75.6 | 6.97 7 68 27 54 | 73.3 | 3.10 
AU LONGO ee eet = 17 97 | 3, 4 62 | 80.5 | 3.83 9 93 | 14,27 60 | 783] 3.93 
Rio Grande ....-- 18 |} 101 9 63 | 78.9 | 5.88 25 97 27 54 | 76.6 | 0.38 
Moorestown ...-- 17,18 93 2,3 60 | 76.8 | 3.51 6, 25 92 27 | 58 | 74.5] 3.69 
New Germantown 17 94 3 58 | 76.0 | 5. 74 25 95 31 52! 73.9 | 2738 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


State and station. 


Date. 
N. J.—Cont’d. 
Readington ...-.. 17 
Haddonfield . -_-.. 17 
Newftield......... 17 
Greenwich...-... 17 
Vineland .......- 17 
Averages ....|.....-.. 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
INNG@est ous. =5.- 19 
Hamlinton.--.-.... 23 
FaNsington ....-.. 17 
Philadelphia. --.. 17 
Germantown, (M) 17 
De a oss (T) 17 
Horsham ......-. 17 
Piymonsh Meeti'g} 16,17 
x ate all 5 apie 16, 17 
actoryville ..... 24 
Reading ......... 17 
West Chester....|.....--. 
Parkersville .-... LiF 25 
Tamaqua .....--- 17 
: 17, 18, 
Catawissa .-..... ; 20) 93 
Ephrata ......... 17 
Mount Joy.----..- 16 
Harrisburg ....-- 17 
@arhislo: -5....... 16, 17 
Fountain Dale ... 17 
iGeReeea.-.--- 20, 23 
Lewisburg ....... 17 
Grampian Hills -. 23 
Jobnstown..-.-... 24 
Franklin... ...., 23 
Pittsburg ...---.. 24 
Greencastle...... 17 
Connellsville. .... 23 
Brownsville. ....- 20, 23,27 
New Castle ...... 24 
Beaver. 2.2.22 2 17 
7, 20, 
Canonsburg. ...-- ; a a4 
AVCISLCS! 5 <.. feo. sac 21 
DELAWARE. 
Milonga ce 27 
WOVE aa aah ame. |store 2 ai 
MARYLAND. 
Woodlawn ....... 17 
Annapolis ....-- 17 
Mt. St. Mary’s -- .|25,26,27 
DIST. COLUMBIA. 
Washington -.... 17 


JULY. AUGUST. 

cc) o | cB) 3) >| 

a & 3 4 Ey iz 

A A = A 2 = 

#3 #3/| 2 23 |2s] 2 
Hy | Daten |e | SF Dafoe arash || Date: || ef SU Ve 
Bs as 8 : aS ied FI = 
aa ned 2 = eee ata 3 5 
EI A ea EI 2 2 lee 
EI CMe Bee E a | aie 
I 2 S na OF) a 
A A Aa | & P| A A | 
Deg. Deg. | Deg Ne | Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
96 3,0 V60nl Rosi) wees | 7 | 94 | 16,20), 54 |7379) (eee 
95 2} 59| 77.0 | 3.61 6| 97 o7| 58|74.5| 472 
100 3 75 Ar fa |) A |------|-------- (ea |------|------ 
rT) 3] 61/779 | 2.5 46| 99 o7| 60 | 75.5] 9.84 
99 41 60 | 80.3 | 3.04 5| 95] 14,27] 62/769] 8.15 
LEP | ee a es Bal Age) ogee St Seek ee ee 
92 8| 54| 723 | 2.50 18| 989} 21,26] 50 | 69.1{ 4.50 
94 3|} 56|76.8|3.60| 6,25] 91 97| 48| 75.0] 2.31 
95 3| 61|770| 4.00/2,3,25| 91 271 59/70} 3.90 
95 3| 61 | 80.1 | 3.50 39) 92 27] 60| 731] 5.98 
97 4 \\) gga) FF |t oe. 95| 94 O70 |! GO Wittods (ee a 
94 So) Gaalmee Malena: 6,9,25 | 91 |16,97,98] 63] 76.0 | 3.08 
91 3| 58|75.4|621|3,9,95| 989 271 58] 73.3) 4.13 
93 3|/ 60|765|521| 9,25] 99 a7| 58!73.5| 5.06 
2) at fh) Sept We | Lads. 7| OF |i. Sa a we fe 
94 |3,4,7,9| 60|73.7|5.28| 6,25] 92 a7| 44| 70.0) 1.82 
94 3| 62| 77.8] 3.74 25) 91 o7| 59 | 75.1] 5.58 
<a, RA A ate Na AF 6| 94 a7| 57 | 73.6] 7.76 
94 3| Gi | 739 | 3.35 6| 94| 21,23] 63/762) 815 
92 10| 51 | 71.0] 3.20 a5 | 90 4.196, OF lil aah hae eeperees 
} 93 Soll cat Wes ave ek 6| 94 a9 | 50 | 72.6|..--.- 
98ST |$ 62] 768] 383} 25) 92] 14] 59] 74.7) 3.65 
98 7 SAY SGI eae: ape TEN oreo ame ote Lo wanes oas hee ee 
99 3)| \@aal) Se Ie] Sas, Ion tet, occ le) See Vo ak ae TS ee 
98 3| 59|77.2|5.90] 6,7,8| 93| 22,27] 58| 742) 2.80 
94 3) 59 | 77.0 | 3.66 95| 90| 14,27] 59/738) 3.41 
96 |9,11,22| 56 | 735 | 6.75 ‘ 04 97! 38| 69.4| 4.05 
4 3] 58/762/3.99| 7,25] 91 a7} -53| 7.4] 2.67 
3 '3,8,9,30 | 56| 70.9 | 6.63 |6,7,8,9| 90 31| 46) 686] 3.23 
92 9| 54| 73.5 | 4.47 7{| 90| 15,21) 51 | 69.9] 7.93 
95 9 54 | 73.0 |11. 68 8 93 27 48 | 69.9 | 5.96 
9 91S Bal rere eego ike) | sees, lal tee eee) (he ae 
99 3] 61 | 85.3 | 3.20 8| 97| 16,92] 58/733] 610 
98 8 |) BOul Tei Gili oa:- 8) 9% |. 54). 7S00h eee 

( 6, 15, | 
92 30 |) es eeHOnhe eke. 5,8,25| 92 = a | G4 | 79.0 |....-- 
"30 
91 9| 453 | 74.9 | 7.50 9} 87 97 | 47/720] 6.90 
92, Mee ctdaee eal a eae 18, 24,25} 88 oY || 54. |. Tiseaieeaeee 
} 93 9| 56| 74.6 | 3.46 7,8| 91 (16,9331! 53/ 71.8] 3.81 
Le MA Eo sn Lane CG a) algo) 8 ok ee eee 
96 2,3] 62| 79.6 | 4.30 3] 95 a7} 59 | 824] 3.30 
NEG | hae eS ANS j---|370] 4,95} 92 931 64 | 79.4] 3.35 
ere aes | | es. 
95 3] 58| 77.9] 4.17 2,20,25; 90 7 | 58 | 760] 3.83 
98 3| 64] 81.2] 5.41 95| 92| 93.97| 65/787] 1.77 
ou 3| 59|76.0|3.5013,825| 87 97 | 53 | 727] 3.28 
Lectin re Pe eee eee ee 
o4 9| 67| 79.5 4.20 | 4| 89 ui 63 | 76.9} 205 
beeen | pena —s mo 1 —— eel 


650 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1879—Continued. 


| 


Maximum tempera- | 
ture. 
Minimum tempera- | 

ture. } 
Mean temperature. 
aximum tempera- 
ture. 


| M 


State and station. 
Date. 
VIRGINIA. 
Johnsontown ---- 18 
Hampton ..-....--. 18 
Zuni Station ..... 16 
Surty Coe. 325 -.- 18, 25 
Comorm eee. ee 18 
Vienna,(W)..-.--- 17 
Hairfax C, H..... 16 
Piedmont.---..--- 17, 28 
Piedmont Station.| 17,28 
Staunton .....--. 17, 28 
Lexington ...-...- 17 
Lynchburg ..-..-.- a 
Near Wytheville. 28 
ACVETABES /2.-| 52-0. --- 


WEST VIRGINIA. 


Romney's. 5: 17 

1, 6, 22, 

Weston......-. Q3, 24, 

27, 28 

Cabell C. H....... 16, 27 
NORTH CAROLINA. 

Goldsboro....-..- 28 

Warrenton ...... 1 


Oxford...2-- ate 1 


Albemarle .......|2, 18, 29 
Statesville ......- 1 


Asheville,(A).... 28 


1B) Sere (030 Pee 12 


A-verages...-|...:.... 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


Blnsiion aes. : 2. 28 
Gowdeysville....| 1, 2,15 
AiKenieee merta <1 26, 28 
AVCLAGCS....|..0-.5-- 
GEORGIA. 
BOYNC se aaaie- ai =i- 19, 20, 28 
St. Mary’s ....-.- 19 
Pentiela): 25. --- 28 
ANVOLAP CS. «\20|2 2200 
ALABAMA, 
Rockville.....-.-. ' 14 
Carlowville .-..... 2,7,12,28 
Greeno Springs -- 14 
Coatopa ..... ~..- em 
Fish River....... 6,15 
PVERA CBS (n't ie 2 \a'a =) 
FLORIDA. 


Near PortOrange.| 20, 26 


3 
RS 


jt 
ROC OOP BOS 


as) a 


~ 


CO mI O 


RPOMDNWNWOmMMmDM 
S2SRES5 


We 0 
he 
SROSSHAINNENWS 


on 


aI 221M OO 
HAO er = 
We CD CO et 2D CT 


~ 
2 
for} 


AUGUST. 
& | £ 
A s 
i fa o 
Date. ? = Ey ‘ 
Sal eS a 
| = ws 
qaj¢ig 
— ov eS 
A a | 
Deg.| Deg.| In. 
23 64 | 77.7) 0.45 
23 64 | 79.0) 2.35 
(pie 23| 65 | 81.9 | 2.00 
27 64 | 782) 0.81 
20 57 | 7:0 eo. 
23 59) | 4a eee 
14, 21 61 | 83.8 | 2.75 
16, 22 60 | 74.7] 2.35 
21, 22 61 | 72.4 | 2.74 
23 60 | 77.2) 3.15 
23 64 | 76.3) 1.25 
16 62 | 72.3 | 7.60 
ee asic 76.9 | 2.45 
21, 22 60°) TION \emeuts . 
21,22 '| 58] 727ml ean 


16] 65| 923] 6/95 
16| 62|765| 5.60 

bn!,: 93} 58/783 | 2.13 

16] 58| 74.8] 3.75 

i¢6| 63|724| 5.60 

16°} 62 | 72:0 [eeeee 

Ee Se "6.1 | 4.81 
23] 51 83.0| 6.10 

16} 68| 81.3] 1.75 

14,31} 70} 788] 3.22 

| Poe 81.0] 3.69 

25| 68)78.5] 1.45 

90 |24, 25,26, 72| 81.1 |..--.. 

17,31} 71] 80.2| 2.09 


2 70 | 81.2) 4.43 


31 72 | 82.3) 8,22 

L 70 | 80.6 | 2.55 

30 72) 781) 2.50 

Soeeeeocts esc bcaccshaless5ct 80.6 | 4.42 
—S_ ———— 

4 73 | 80.6 | 2.08 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870, 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JULY. 
3 : : 
a | = 5 
State and station. 3. o . 5 
~o — oO 2 
Date. | g 8 | Date. =| ey Date. 
as | BS/ 8 |] a 
a 5 £ se 
4 A 4 bo 
i ane ae 
oI » o = 
A a | a] & 
FLrorma—Cont’d. 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.) In. 
St. Augustine..../3,13,18 | 92 14] 72] 81.5] 2.50 17 
Jacksonville. .... 19, 20 97 |4, 14, 16 76 | 84.1 | 2.65 (3, 10, 30 
als 2, 7, 
Pinto. |. .:. 34] 98/4568] 74] 824] 4.16 ; 11, 12, 
20, 28 
Manatee ......... 18 94 23 74 | 83,1 |11. 00 
Orange Grove. .-.|18, 20,26) 92 31 73 | 82.1 | 9.55 20 
Hh : 10,13,28 Ate 
White Spring. - ; 29/30/31 5 96 19; 20 i3 
Newport......... 27,31 | 91 9 70 | 79.9} 2.77 9,19 
Chattahoochie ...| 11,12 96 6 72 | 86.1 | 3.20 9 
PUMGRAD ONG nll nen alae os 2 [oe Py ceunie [Shaan 82.5 | 5.08 
TEXAS 
Clatksville....... 2 93, 9 Het] Sd. Oi aecete 21 
Gilmer cs... .... 16,17,18} 98 8 71 | 83.0 | 9.30 3 
Oakland ......... 7,29 | 98 31] 72 | 83.7 | 1.87 16 
Blue Branch, (W). 18 94 10 67 | 80.2 | 1.70 21 
iy ewe (4 717) 95 7| 72] 80.8] 270 
L Brees 21, 26 2 
avaca ........ i, 18/¢ 93 30,31’ |¢ 76 | 83.2 | 5.90 16 
121.00: ae ae 11, ogy 95 |} 22,29 74 | 82.9 | 4.95 | 92,23 
- 7, 8,13, 
Clinton ........ Sheizias 9] 29] wl e24| 5.75) a 
8,7, 13, 
Austin......... eae 95 8, 31 71.| 82.2 | 2.04 22 
16, 
Lockhart -....-... 16,17 95 26 74 | 83.8 | 4.50 | 21,22 
San Antonio ..... OT), 101 4 71 | 79.8 | 3.72 2 
SESE Os aaleiciciet wien |sle mmco'='| == cle mm laa cele 82.3 | 4:25) f-. 22... 
LOUISIANA, 
New Orleans. ...- 9 93 25 71 | 79.8 | 6.00 20 
Shreveport. ...... 13 94 9 ih | Gee Asante 3 20, 23 
Near Cheneyville. 15 93 2, 19 3) | 81.2)... -- -| 21, 22 
ARKANSAS. See 
Helens) 2522, aa - 16 94 8 68) ) G1, Bye. 13, 19, 28 
Mineral Springs..|..--..-.]...-.4 | eee prices ahs [Ea 3 
MISSISSIPPI. 
Columbus......-. 14 oF 9 68 | 82.1 | 4.66 |10, 27, 29 
8.10 10, 11, f 
} ? ’ 9 » 5 
Enterprise. .... ; wis 3 101 |) 17,25, t 73 | 86.5 | 3.30 18 
Philadelphia ..--.. 13,14,15) 94 8 68 | 79.9 | 4.60} 19,20 
Grenada}.....--.. 16 95 5, 9 G5 | 80.2 | 7.55 |10, 19, 25 | 
Brookhaven ...-. 16 95 25 70 | 81.1 | 5.20 20 
9 
Near Br'khaven {7972 | 98) 25) G8 | 81.1] 9.20} 26 
Holly Springs. -..|25, 27,29) 94° 16 61}. 79.9 | 0.90 ]........ 
AVELDPOS << s'e|b qa'gwda|is cen [ow sees clelom naan BI O))|\ SAUG east =| 
——— 
TENNESSEE. | 
Elizabethton...... 15} 94! 9| 58] 77.2] 2.71 |8, 25,26 
‘Lusculum College) 26 90 & 62 a aR acetate ont ch oe ‘ 
Knoxville-...-5.- | 23 91 7 65 3} 3.50 25 


wm 
3&8 


£10929 
00 
ous 


9.10 


AUGUST. 
xs 3 
I oH 
o o 
ry a 
| | 
Ls = 
q = Date. a 3 
oe = lhe 
5 A 
F | 
|i 
a 
Deg. 4,10 pe 
4 igen ts 
94 24, 26 MS 
! 96 |25, 26,31] 72 
94 sia 76 
93|2,812|] 73 
95 24 70 
&8 31 70 
97 31 66 
96 ve 74 
96 4 12 
96 1| 7% 
94 |1,2,7,10] 76 
94 3 70 
96 | 26,31] 72]... 
92 | 30,31] 74 
99 31 73 | & 
92 31 73 
92 30 70 
91] 20,31] % 
90 3 69 
92 31 60 
92 31 69 
101 1 72 
92 1,6 70 
94 31 62 
91 31 70 
95 31 70 
92| 16,23] 64 
fa ee 31| 661 76.7 | 3.88 


652 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


, Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JULY. 4 | AUGUST. 
7? ‘ ' is 1 | * 
o 3 : S ¢ : 
= es £ =) | = & 
State and station. i 3 5 E | | a | A 5 
nnd "oO | ~~ msc 
Date | ae Date. PE Zy . | Date. = & | Date ~ = F 
5 Si 3] =F as ES = fm] 
FI A | ae le | a |2|4 
Z qs \2 a |) ole | ae 
| Ss }/a\é4 4) |3 
eS ee LS ee a fee —————— 
| | | 
TeNN.—Cont'd. | | | | 
| Deg. | Deg.| In. Deg. | Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Lookout Mount’n.| 25,97) 93! 8) 70] 80.5|...... | a6] on Sa 16,1 ¢ 72 | eae 
McMinnville... | | 92 |) oe 8. G24 36:B).2-02.| g95,97| 98) 31! 65 | 72 |e 
Austins. to. | 97] 7| 64 Iva. 4 | 7.08 ‘og a I. s0/ 30} 58 (9.0 | 4.05 
Clarksville. ....-. | 16] 8 9| 62|760|5.97| 23] 88| 31] 62/748) 4238 
Trenton ....----- 21 | 96 8| 62/80.8)1.80] 78] 95) 30,31) 60 | 79.2| 3.40 
La Grange -.---.- ) 15} 99 7,8) 71 | 83.5) 1.90 | 12 94 | 31} 66) 79.5] 95.00 
j 
Sa Es Beg eee pete i read sae |. 3 8 2s)! 4 press pin} 7.5| 4.11 
| i = | | ——— is 
KENTUCKY. 
| | 
Sawer’ | 56,7,8,| | 
Pine Grove ....-. 24,25, , 92 30] 62 | 77.5 | 4.85 oh be : $0 | 21,31] GO| 742) 484 
28 i da 
Shelby City.--.-- 17| 92 Bil. 166 er8a7 1 59664 see lees ce Wee a fe |<< 220] sen ool poe 
Near Louisville... 27/ 96] 8,30] 57| 789/328) 825] 96 30| 52] 7% 2. 22 
, | SS 
OHIO. | 
Sue. ies | 16,24| 92 8} 60] 75.8] 3.17 8} 92] e7| 56| 746) 420 
Stenbenville ..... [i= ay P98] 9! 60| 77.2] 4.83 25 | 89 91] ° 56 | 744] 282 
Painesville ...... 17 80 | 2| 57 | 71.2 [12.13 9} 87| 97] 50| 708) S19 
Gilmore ......... 17| 103 | 2| 63 | 74.7|/260} 7,89) 190 |13,14,20| 58 | 75.2) 2.30 
Milnersville ..._. 20| 9319,11,30] 60/75.7/ 4.90) 6,8| 92] 22,31| 50|71.7) 3.60 
Cleveland........ 23} 91 | 3| 56/723/1015| 19] 89 26| 50} 70.3] 200 
Wooster, (W)-...) 17) 100} 8,20) 64 | 789)... a 2: 30| 54 | 9a B jeceeme 
Dee.) «17 | 401 | 41 61 | 75.4 | ..... | 8} 101 |22,27,30| 59 | 76.9 |.-...- 
Pennsville ....-... 18, 28 96 | 8 61 | 80.6 | 3.75 | 6} ‘8 27 54 | 74.5] 2.10 
Gallipolis ...-.... 27,28 | 96 9] 581784 | 2.99 | 8| 96| 17,92| 58/70) 53 
Adams’ Mills .._.| 17| 94 91 59| 77.8] 3.79 | 8} 92 21 55|75.0] 258 | 
Oberlin .......... 16,17,23| 96 2| 56/}741/290| 7,24] 92 27| 50/712) 155 
Kelley’sIsland...| 23 | 92] 2,30] 64 | 76.6 | 6.32 24] 88 og | 58 | Weems 
Sandusky S....- 17} 93} 89] G2} %5.4.| 5.28 93} 91 26 | 53 | 73.3 12 | 
etn | a ee ee pe Basch (ie Maia) /6- Ses eee 24) 92 26 56 | 74.7 . 
North Fairfield ..| 17| 93 | 91 5917451447] %] a7| 52) 729] 125 | 
Gambier... -.-... 27} 90 30°] 58)°7%8.6') 4.12))...-- 22s) 222 25) nee n no] eo ee | ee . 
Westerville. ..... 25,27! 98] 829] 58] 77.2] 3.33 8 96 22| 56 74.3 1. 83 | 
North Bass Island 20] 96 8] 61 | 75,5 | 7.00 13°) 92 26} 60] 75.2] 1.37 
Marion .......... 26 | 94 S| 59 | 76.2 | 2.43 241! 93) 21,97| 55/728) 170 . 
Hillsboro ........|24,27,28| 90| 830| 59 | 75.5|2 £3 | 8-1 90 91| 56|726| 354 
Bowling Green. -:| 17} 101 29| 57] 78.0.| 6.55 | 241 96 90| 51| 75.1) 3.85 
Kenton 20,23,25| 104} 15,30 i 70 | 84.2 | 3.63 | 8} 96] 22,97] 68)|.77.1] 190 
elefontaine ....|-------:|------ Bee sae Bae) oo 5. eS) 6 92 | 42,25 59 | 729] 3.40 
Urbana Univers'y} 27 | 95 | 29,30} Go| 763|263| 24] 95| 29203] 58|731] 234 
Springfield ...._. 127} 95 | 29,30} 65 | 72.9 | 3.10 | 
= | 7 9 
Bemeee. 3). |§ oa - } 94 30| 56 | 77.1] 3.25 
| ’ | 
Jacksonburg..... | 17 94 8, 29 ® | 77.4 | 6.65 
Mt, Auburn Sem.) 27 95 | 8 66 | 80.4 | 2.38 
} | 
Cincinnati, (P)..., 7| 100 30| 65 | 827]321 
College Hill. -....- LY, 27 97 8 65 | 84.0) 1.88 
Myernmes a2.|: 22s 0c .\-2- seal. ~ pes - \ eee 77.1 | 4.68 
MICHIGAN. | | 
‘ | 
Datiraitiees..2 $2. 20} 94 8| 58| 741] 6.21 
Monroe City ..... 5| 99 | 29| 62| 783] 9.13 
Ann Arbor .----- 1 94 8 57 | 74.3 | 6.36 
Alpena 225 -2-2<5- 25 83 1,8 # 67.2 | 3.29 
State Agr’l Coll 16} 93 | 2 9 | 74.4 | 8.02 } 
Litchfield ..-+..-.| 7 90 | 8 56 | 71.7 | 7.63 
Cold Water ...--- 22 94 8 53 | 73.1 | 4.25 
Grand Rapids,(H), 23. | --99 | 7| 58 | 76.6 | 0.76 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 658 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JULY. | AUGUST. 
& 2 2 | | & & ; 
5 i} 5 | & 5 z 
= | eet | |e | ja | 2 
State and station. ie B x | 8 a 
ian a eS 2 wo +) 2 
| Date. | 4% | Date. | .8 | & | Date. | 48 | Date.| .8 | & 
ae Be) 2 | a | | a5 | \22/ 2 | a 
A ei | ee 1h Ya la | g me 
ss im | = : Ns he von BS a : 
4 a eS A | A i a oS A 
Ss | 3 g = | 1s eS o) I 
A = = a |A A a oo) 
vom ; | Real Toad 
Micu.—Cont’d. | Md 
| Deg. | Deg.| Deg.| In Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Grand Rapids, (S). 23 | 92 8| 57 | 73.1] 5.55 24] 87 19| 53 | 638.2| 204 
Northport ....... 10 | 86 |2,13,44| 54 | 68.5 10.88 11} 82} 26) 50/661) 613 
Pleasanton. ...... be. hs aa 7 | 52 | 69.4] 9.50 | 2| 90| 26,27} 48/651] £385 
Muskegon ....... 115,17,21] 98. 8| 58 | 79.4] 0.50 24) 90; 27) 52/737] 5.00 
Otsego. .......... 2 i ses%) ail onl Bae aed? 23 | 108 3i| 53.| oaaieee 
Copper Falls... 18 | 8 |1,13,29| 50 | 61.5] 2.00 2| 79 11| 47] 61.1] 3.41 
Ontonagon....... 15,16} 90| 5,6,7| 56 | 690]...... 3,4} 78 \11,19,31] 54 | 62.6 |...... 
Joo su 7 I) A ee ed ees | 72.0] 5.70 |-.-.---. eee {eee Se Peeaec 69.0 | 3.02 
INDIANA. | 
| | 
- | 
CS ae 5 oa! D, 100 30} 60 | 79.0 | 3.07 8} 100 30| 56|765| 1-85 
24, 2 
Wovay..........- 27 |" 93 9| 61 | 77.9 | 3.20 8| 94] 30,31] 59|-75.4] 2.55 
Mount Carmel ...| 17,24| 96 29 | 61 | 77.7 | 3.04 a4] 94] 14,91] 60) 75.2) 1.55 
20, 21, 
Spiceland ........ 27| 96 8} G1| 783] 3.15 24] 95 338 Qi, ; 60 | 73.9] 1.55 
at | 
EACoMI ges. -.-2--- QT 95 8 66 | 7&1 | 3.80 24 92 60 | 75.0) 4.71 
Columbia City --. 27 | 96 30 | 58 | 77.2 | 5.56 24] 94 27| 52] 74.0] 2.38 
Knightstown -... : 27 | 98 8| 61 | 79.0} 1.16 24| 96 30| 57] 67.3] 1.77% 
4 7,19, 2,8, E, iL 
Warsaw ......... te 90 fay + “tt 4 BE oo LE eo lM REM E 1. 40 
Indianapolis ..... 26 |° 92 30| 61 | 77.4| 2.84 24 | 89 21| 58 2.97 
Near La Porte ... 25| 98/2,7,29| 62] 77.3 | 5.23 24| 96 26 | 56 1.83 
Rensselaer... 5| 98] 7| 60/70] 510| |. 94) 33] 55 2. 80 
Merom <-...:.-.- 24 98 8 63) |) SBI" |) P60): 55. seek odes [A eo Salk. 2c 23 | ene eee 
1,18, 
New Harmony. .. ja zit 93 8| 66 | 80.5 | 7.00 | 8,24) 92 31! 63 5.17 
Q7 
Harveysburg .... 21 96 8 58 | 72.0 | 3.70 |7, 23, 24 90 13 50 3.00 
Kentland ..-..... QSL) GL) 24.9) GO| Beat | BHO) |! tee cee ee oe) Paes eee Peecen -eeewe 
ve. BES) oe Gee Soe ee eae Be Seti Beg Se 78.0) | 3584 |° 5-2 e 2 fb jpossess- | eee | 2.58 
ILLINOIS. | | | | 
Chicagom........ 24} 100 8 |) (Glo TeLonl 8, 74 24| 96 |19,20,30| 60] 75.0] 2.07 
Near Chicago... 22 | 100 1 ee Pt PEE cee 24] 98] 13,19] 56} 74.1 ]....-. 
Evanston ........ 92 | 94 2| 56 | 75.1| 4.26 24} 92 13| 58] 71.1] 2.28 
Marengo......... 19| 96 8| 53} 74.2] 4.66 24'| 92 20| 481686) 3.79 
Charleston... .. 27 | 94 20 | 63] 78.2] 4.40 1| 92 13} 56] 72.0] 4.34 
Mattoon ......... 21,25,27| 92 30} 60 | 78.8 | 2.38 24| 90 13] 58| 737 |~3.81 
Aurora ....-.....) 4,22] 95 7| .57| 76.2 | 5.50 24} 92 13| 51] 69.9] 3.31 
Lonisville ....... 21| 98 1| 62] 80.8 | 6.30 20| 98 30| 60] 75.7] 5.10 
Golconda ......-. 18,22 | 102 9} 52| 80.5 | 1.50 4} 100 15| 60] 828] 2.50 
Belvidere........ 26 | 94 30} 59 | 75.2 | 4.40 24} 95] 20,27] 53| 69.7] 2.61 
Ottawa ....-..... 25| 105 2{/ 60 | 83.4] 1.90 24} 99 13| 55|726| 2.26 
Decatur ......... 20,21} 98 30| 61] 789 | 1.50 1! 92 13} 55| 726] 4.00 
Patina 2805252: =. 21) 94 30} 62|785|3.50| 1,24| 99 13} 59] 73.0] 4.80 
Winnebago.....- 19| 95 8} 57 | 76.1| 3.74 24] 93 19| 51] 70.2) 3.74 
Wryanet ......... 25} 105 30 |) 5S B49 | WO es... 22] ok tas ee 3] ee 
Tiskilwa .-....-. 17,25 | 102 7, 30 OB) 718..60 | uses Pie taccnloeodns|t Sat cece |ac eae el eee eee 
Hennepin, (S)---. 25 | 102 30 || ‘52 | 78.0 |...--- end. 24; |" 94) st4Q051" 50) Peta eee 
Do. .-.(O) 17} 105 3 54 | 80.1 | 0.00 97| 14,20] 53] 741] 1.95 
Elmira......-.... 16,20} 100 7| 58] 80.1 | 0.66 5| 93 13| 52/71.0| 3.15 
Peoria ....-...-.. 25 | 101 30} 61] 81.3 | 0.68 af} 94 13 | 56| 74.0] 3.26 
Springtield......- 22,25 | 102 1,8| 64 | 81.7 |--...- 24| 95] 25,26] .60| 74.7]...-.. 
Dahoisis8-: 52.2. Pe 101 30| 61] 79.0/212| 6,24] 94 4] .59| 76.91 3.23 
, 1, e 
Galesburg .......| 1s 26, | > 96 7} 614 80.0] 1.10] 23,24] 989} 13,26] .58|7204 370 
27 
Manchester...... 22 |" 101, 7}, 60} 79.7] 4.55 1h wat 30| 54/733] 5.22 
Mt. Sterling ..... | 14] 95 7) .66 4.82.8 | 3.50 23.| 89 134 .55| 73.5] 5.00 
Andalusia .....).| 19,22 | -98 | 0} 54] 79.0,|...... 24/ 87 26 | i531 70.9 |.-...- 
Oquawka ........ | 80} 103 | 8] @9.180.61.2.70! 5,24] 94 13 + 355 193.51 4.98 


654 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1370—Continued. 


do ani, 
AUGUST. 
roy = fe a Be 8 
State aud station. 5 a ie BS a pie 
+s +95 m Dat) eo = 
Date. & | Date. | 44 Ey Date. | g4 | Date. | 28] & : 
qe gS; 8] 4 As dF) 8 |e 
q 8 ae tesa g 8 = ts 
E a | 8] 4 Ei qfi3etg 
os | o = 4 pa] 5) o 
A A Aa | A | Al 
ILLIvoIs—Cont’d. ° | 
Deg. Deq.| Deg.| In. | Deg Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Augusta.........| 17,19,20| 95 7| 59179.51/201] 5,24] 88 13| 53)726] 5.41 
Warsaw ..+---:-- 16,25,27| 100 30 | 62 | 79.4 | 1,38 4) 97 13| 54| 71.2) 5.23 
INE ECE SS Ee ee Ee De a Pe ON) (AEBS eee oa. Pear )sacits A 73.0 | 3,72 
=———|——— | | eee 
WISCONSIN. | | 
| 
Sturgeon Bay....'10,16,26| 87 13.| 54] 71.4 | 5.30 4| $3 26| 55} 67,6] 5.25 
Manitowoc ....-- 26] 93 7| 541706] 4.20] 4,17| 87 20| 52) 67.8) 5.73 
Hingham ........ 2g 92 8) meee Orde 1See. 24] 92| 15,27] 54} 696 |2ece-- 
Milwaukee ....-. 26 | 96 30} 52] 72.4] 4.64 24] 92 27| 49| 69.0| 2.69 
Genévae 2.4.5... 231 96 30} 58] 74.1 | 3.23 | 241 97 20| 53} 70,0 eens 
1,6,7, 
Waupaca ........ 22} 95/2813, |) go | 73.1 |.-.--- 1,418} 99 19| 52] 645 |----.- 
’ ’ 
28, 29 
Embarrass. ...... 18,22} 92/2831) 52] 70.5| 853 18 | & 26| 46] 65.3] 9.86 
Rocky Run ....-. 23,26 | 91 29| 58 | 77.5 | 7.00 24! 90| 13,20! 531684] 663 
Madison ...-..... 23,26) 91 7| 58] 73.8] 5.25 24] 39 9 56 | 67.1] 3.65 
Edgerton ......-. 18, 22+} 100 8| 59 | 77.2] 6.80 24| 96 20| 50) 720] 4.30 
Mosinee ......... 8| 93 7| 52] 69.3 16:32) 418] 987 20 | 35 | 63.3 | 15.65 
Baraboo ......-.. 3,19,22 | 98 2,7} 60] 76.2) 3.63 4] 96] 13,26| 54] 71) 6987 
Tunnel City ..--. 93 4| 50] 69.9 |10.30 24} 92} 19,20] -48 | 67.8 | 11.70 
Bayfield ......... 24 tl 3,29) 54 | 69.7 ].--... 15| 86 20| 50 | 6fS 7... 
‘Averages ts |!.oic ol e.. Leads | eee We? | Gxpa |..c2.0.0| ae | Ae ae 67.7 | 6.79 
MINNESOTA. | | ipeei 
Beaver Bay..--.- 22} 94 10} 50 | 64.5 | 3.18 | 4} 88 19| 46] 60.9] 1.93 
Afton....- peeen 19| 96 7% | 58-(72.9 | 6:93 |_.....-.|:.)__]..&-. ee 
Minneapolis . ....| 23| 96 29) 56/729 | 3.85 1| 90} 19 | 46 | 65.5 | 6.02 
Sibleyese-.--=<.--| 19| 97 S| (55) 78011294 |.-5...2.|.220..|.- suo err 
Koniska. ........ men Og ee ga | 54 1694 3.30 |....2... | ee) 5 a | 2220 eee eee 
Litchfield........ 19| 94 6) 56 |-72.7 | 2.50 4| 90 20| 431 65.41 3.70 
New Ulm........ 19} 100] 6,30| 58) 75.5 | 2.44 4| 100 12| 46] 67.6} 6.95 
Madelia.......... 19| 99 6| ‘55 | 77.9 | 3.05 22| 95 19| 441688] 2.95 
Siipanls i. 3... 19| 95 7 IPP So eed | ss 1| 90] 12,19} 50|661] 856 
Reeaee ee arcee | a |e | ae | ear |..2.20..)) ae ee 65.7| 5.02 
| ae WN Pie 19 
IOWA. | 
| 
Glutton Ss. 2s . 26| 97 12] 58 | 77.9 | 3.00 24/ 94 |14,96,30! 56] 721) 3.20 
Waukon........- 19 93 ir ( 2 Ol eRe bet coe) Pees w= | een» ol oene coed sees 
Dubuque .--..-.. 25 | 100 30 | :58| 77.9] 1.83) 5,24) 95 20} 51] 70.8] 4.20 
Monticello. .-..-- 25 | 101 7} .59 | 78.2] 5.25 5} 98 20| 50} 70.4] 3.65 
Bowen’s Prairie - 3 98 | 6, 7,12 58 | 74.8 | 5.00 5 96 | 12,20] +50 | 70.2) 3.00 
Ft. Madison .-... 19 | -105 30 | .63| 82.0]1.60| 5,23] 91] 13,26] 52|720) 6.50 
Guttenberg. ..... 26] .99 30 |) SS0n| iia He) S 8s = 22] "99 20 | (43 | 6% aaleaeeee 
Mt. Vernon...... }19,23,25 | 198] 8,12] ,54 | 75.6 ]...... 24 95 20 49 | 6956) aeeee- 
22, 23 
Towa City ....... 524,29, io |) Uebel ee 1.85 | 2,5,24| 96 20| 50} 70.9] 5.83 
: 126 j 
| 619, 22, : 
Independence .--! ¢ 23, 25,|$ 99 r 59 | 78.0 | 6.23 5 97 | 19,20 51 | 70.2} 4.13 
3 26 : i 
Near Independ’ce $26] #98 7 60 | 77.9 | 6.60 24 97 19 52 | 71.0} 5.30 
Waterloo ......-. 26 | :101 29] 541] 78.4] 1.20] 45,24] .98] 19,25} 50] 722] 7.50 
Rockford ........ 19,22,23 | 192 6 |, Regione | Ses - 118,24} 90 20} 46] 68.0 }.----- 
Towa Falls. ...... | eae Now stosliceadoeslaseeue)| seeeeelesemes 5,23] 90 26! 40] 67.3} 5.18 
Algona). 20. 5-222. 26 | 497 6 | $55 |\%5.0)|!.22-- 122} 89 19'| 43: | eraeaieee 
West Bend ...... 26] +98 Blame i laren? | SR 1s,{ .92 20] 44 | 66.2 |22eece 
Webster City-.--. 24 | 100 7 |) CSR 6st) aT | 2 Sk eel ls Bes | .oe2c|sne 
Boonesboro ...--. | 15 | +99 7 57 | 77.94 3.06 | 2,5, 24 90 | 19,26 42 | 66.3 | 6.12 
Fontanelle....... 24 | .100 7| 59| 79.4] 2.56 5 | 495. 19 | .47 | 69.8 | 13.00 
Grant City ...... 12 | 104 6| 5Y] 80.5] 2.12] 18,22] 198 1g | .47] 70.7] ,2.60 
Logie 22 -che seek 15,23 | 496 7,81 54 1.75.8 | 7.00 |2,93,31 | .87 19} .42| 66.5! 1.80 


—— 


_— 


State and station. 


Iowa—Cont’d. 
Deg. 
Woodbine ......- 4/ 102 
West Union....-.. 23 98 
| 
Averages ....|.-...-.. Bee 
MISSOURI. | 
ein. Ciaine. 2-2 |. 92.95,97 | 94 
Allenton......... 27 100 
Hematito ........ 21} 100 
Se 22 95 
UE a 22 97 
Jefferson City. --. 17 98 
Kansas City ..... 17, 20,24] 96 
Harrisonville -... 4{/ 100 
St. Joseph ..-..-.. 
Oregon .......... 15, 22,24] 98 
Comune s..1..... 
Averages ....| 
KANSAS, © 
Atenison......... 20,26 | 100 
Williamstown ... 
Leavenworth .... 17} 100 
BIE ays <5 cin ~~ 17} 102 
ARIA con'ae1='5 onm ae 17} 100 
Baxter Springs. -- 1G 99 
Lawrence........ 17 99 
Williamsburg. ... 17 99 
PELTON E itn a.c- 5s 24) 106 
State Agr’l Coll...) 14,15 | 102 
Council Grove -../13, 14,17} 100 
Douglass ........ 24 99 
Averages .... 
NEBRASKA. 
Omaha Agency .. 26 | 102 
SIE eis =| tan ao slsa a sola— > fe =. 
Bellevue ......... 26 96 
Nebraska City ... 15 98 
Newcastle ....... /14, 19, 22} 102 
7 Oe) ee ee Hees re 
UTAH. 
Salt*Lake City .. -| 12 96 
Coalville......... 21 95 
CALIFORNIA. 
Monterey ..-..--. 2,3 90 
OMC0i an 5-5 as - 3 dey 
Watsonville ...-.. Be 98 
Gate. s-24.2 a - - 3,4] 106 
VIBGIBy ior. s au: - 3] 108 
AI BURIOS - oo abe asec aa sence 
MONTANA. 
89 


Deer Lodge City 5 i 28, 29 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


METEOROLOGY OF 


Date 


a7) 
sto 
Ww ONSRIADMDYW 


~ 


a1 O Dall DW Welot 


m_ tempera- 
ture. 
Mean temperature. 


Rain-fall. 


| Minimu 


Oe oo 
mondo 
CORR 


~ 
—} 
a 


G1 G2 9 go 


> 


ookKoar 
Boone 


Bobet 
DoD 
coms 


_ 
: 


16, 17 
10 


1870. 


Meteorology of 13870—Continued. 


AUGUST. 
7 BS & 
a) 8 
ry ry 
a 5 
Si 
Date. Bs Date. ate 
ow oe 
E : 
z i: 
a A 
Deg. Deg. 
2 94 19 43 
24 94 20 
24 93 14 
6 98 30 
11 96 30 
5,23} 90 13 
6,24} 92 29 
5| 96] 13,30 
6 95 13 
4,5,6| 98] 13,14 
5] 95 13 
251 96 19 
5 98 19 
5} 101 | 13,19 
5| 95] 13,19 
5 | 99 |12, 13,19 
1,2] 100 13 
5 | 101 13 
3} 100 25 
3,5] 98 13 
2 99 19 
25} 102 19 
5 99 19 
2| 102 19 
4 19 
| 
19 
12,19 
19 
19 
19 
25 
29 
| 29 
19 
> | 23 
yo 234 
| 27 
Pere 2 hig 
} 
/ 18 
! 


Mean temperature. 


Rain-fall. 


ae 
as 


ors 

= 
Oo * 
ree 


aw 
=) 


a 
on 


See 
oc oo 
Sssss 


tee le 


656 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Ww ieardeunre Bepe=| sic aide Mint? |o stetss| cle dic Kteave| cis aehal| aa wamiell ae aye 


| 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


JULY. AUGUST. 
| 
# | le | ¢ a | a | ¢ 
2 cS) c io, 2 8 
a = Bc} = =a a 
5 5 5 A 5 3 
o . v 3) 2 oO. o 
ara) eS S Yo a) ra 
~ ol = = © 
Ee Date. 5 2 eI a Date. E a Date. = E Fl - 
E Sil baal) E a | ate 
E a |4|8 % q | alee 
eS & 3 A q & é =| 
A = = ° P| a A 
pee pin Ree cat i Ge Bae 
Deg. Degq.| Deg.| In. Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
93 6| 53| 74.2 | 0.51 2) 97 | 45/648] 0.12 
88 13 6| % 
104 15 11, 16,17] 94 
103 a4 5| 99 
| | 
102 14| 55/73310.20| 68| 97] 292,23] 57| 722] 0.90 
| 93] 15| 46/70.8/0.00| 5,6) 92 24| 49| 69.0] 0.08 
1 |f y's’ |¢ 63.5 | 0.74 7| 91 23| 55] 63.6] 1.95 
fz Re 1B Be ee TON a ee ee en 
SEPTEMBER. OCTOBER. 
84] 22,99] 43 | 60.6] 4.00 3] 80 a7| 17| 47.0] 6.60 
78 | 2123} 39| 5781223 )2,10,11] 69 27| 211 47.3] 5.53 
82 a1| 40 | 61.0 |....-. 2| 73 27 | 23 | 507 |e 
2] 68 27| 20| 45.9| 6.90 
85 29 | 43 | 62.2 | 1.37 25| 78 27| 971 50.3| 5.36 
79 13] 45 | 60.6 | 1.33 2] 69 27| 26|49.8| 6.39 
84 13| 36 | 60.5 | 1.97 a) 7 a7| 20| 49.4| 5.55 
85] 21,27] 40 | 60.6 | 1.23 | 74 97| 92/485] 325 
) 12] 44 | 61.4 | 1.31 2| 7 97| 92] 49.1] 4.35 
24 | 29,30] 49 | 63.4 | 0.90 a7} 98 27°| 241 50.9] 7.20 
Thea |S ener PE 7 Me ey hg Wao Se RG A ee SI 48.9 | 5.68 
86 122} 35(579/1.45| 216] 7 ez | 20) 45.5 |- 4.47 
218,12,29| 37] 57.6 | 0.50 16] 72 a1| 16| 46.2] 3.70 
85} 97.99] 34/59.1]1.15| 1625| 71 27 | 10 | 47.4] 5.59 
ag} 1212} 46| 62.8 |-..... 16} 7% 27} 19 | 49.8 |....-. 
90 ee 4s 64.2 | 1.71 10| 79 e7| 24] 525] 3.89 
12, 30 
| | 
De 5} eh Oe ie 60.3 | 1.20 
80 12] 38 | 60.4 | 3.00 
83 12} 301 55.0 | 2.28 
85 12} 36) 58.9 | 2.66 
85 | 12,13} 35 | 60.3 | 212 
24 13] 37] 57.0 | 4.93 
79 98 | 40 | 59.1 | 3.10 
88 12| 42] 64.7 | 3.63 
s1| 6,29] 46] 629 | 3.76 
83 12] 38] 60.4] 2.01 
ER Hea 59.9 | 3.05 
87 we} 44 1.25 
81 13] 40 0.65 


State and station. 
| Date. 
COLORADO. 
Denver sees 82-2 18 
WASHINGTON. 
Port Angeles..... 5 
Seattle... 4... ...- | 6 
Cathlamet .-.....- 4 
OREGON. | 
Portland =-— ~.-<.. 4 
rob Se Se USE el ae 5, 6 
Astoria 5.2224). a 
PA ERIEES  2--]o Hens 2 
MAINE. 
Houlton’ --2;-:\...- 19 
Orono: -2-54 4-2. - 2 
SHELLY fab eu aa 1,4 
West Waterville. 1 
Gandiner>-2 i... 1,4 
Inspon sea! 2~ 15 
NGIWAYe-2e 0-65. 15 
@ornish; --=..-... 1, 22 
Cornishville ..... 
2G 02 ee 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
Stratford. s.2:.- 2 
Whitefield ....... 2 
Tamworth ...-..- iJ 
Contoocookyville- - 1 
Goffstown Center | 1,2 
| 
Averages -...| 
VERMONT. 
Lunenburg ..--.- 
North Craftsbury 2 
Newport..-..-.-- 2 
East Bethel ....-. 2 
Woodstock -.---- if} 
Near St. Albans. - 2 
West Charlotte -- 1 
Panton peewece coe 2 
Castleton ..-..... 1,2 
Averages .... 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
Kingston -.-...<- | 1 
Topsfield ......-. 1,4 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870.. 657 


Meteorology of 1870—Centinued. 


| SEPTEMBER. OCTOLER. 


| — 7 Gi ee |. a Ce ee 
& ae z ’ ee a tres 
| q ¢ | 2 ae | 5 Sipe 
S) ro) = P= "] | co) = aI 
= es Be a | = & |e 
State and station. a. a er lamas: | 2a = a B : 
+o +o a i -o | Pe} a b 
Date. |; 44 | Date. y gq so | Date. | 98 | Date. | 8 = ws 
z= ge] 3 | a8 ae ES | 3 | 8d 
E ie E Be Tig 
4 A a A nw 3 S a 
1 eo 5 oS al v ae 
A A A | a | be A |e 
re ea a eee } | ee 
BiAce—Cont/d Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Ce 2 ae i | Ee Pee | nace ee see 1 ral 27 25 | 52.4] 4,35 
Georgetown ...-. CB see Be ae ees PRE 2 PR ad 17 W | 24,20)" 30) | STSGr i oned 
Mifitenmests =). 4| 989] 12,13] 42] 63.6 | 1.28 16| 79 30 | 301] 54.6] 3.94 
Cambridge. -----. 1 84] 19, 28 51 | Goran sseaes 1 76 | 27 29'\| 55. 3) avons 
North Billerica . 1| 98] 1213] 40] 63.9 |...... “6| 7%; 24| 95 | 528 |. ce 
West Newton.... 1 93 12} 42] 66.3 | 1.79 1 §2 30 | 29] 56.0] 6.46 
Bo TS li |e et ee ee ee eco eee 1 78 27 29 | 54.0] 6.42 
Worcester .-----. 1 81 13} 43 | 61.0 | 1.40 1 72 27) 28 | Stab vaaed 
Mendon ..-....... 1 83 | 13,20] 44] 62.5 | 1.60 1 72 30 | 26] 52.5} 3.90 
Lunenburg -.-.-.-. 1 86 12] 47| 63.8] 2.41 1 74 27} 26) 52.8] 6.95 
Aumherst...-..--. 1 a4 | 12| 40 | 62.3] 1.75 D he a2 27] 26|521) 4.49 
So a el ae ERS Pee © Bee enon Perea 15, 16 70 27) |) 26 o2-An 6255 
Williams College. 1 | al 12} 39 | 60.6 | 2.24 /2,16,25} 70 27| 24) 49.6] 4.30 
i oo Be ee 12 AGS! GORD See os i era ees a ee | 2 eres ae 
PREPS! | 02 < nis se| sae- oa aae fas 2S fone = 2 ay bistt a UC Ual eee ede Acer oe 53.0 | 5,57 
RHODE ISLAND. 
Newport ..--....-- 16 81 13 51 | 66.8 | 1.57 1 79 27 29 | 56.6} 5.88 
CONNECTICUT. H | 
Columbia .--..-- ¢ 23} 90 13 | 42] 66.2 | 1.05 1 80 27 | 728) ]/ Soseeeaaas 
Middletown...--- 1 89 12] 41} 64.5 | 0.96 OES a6 27| 25) 53.8) 4.10 
Southington ..--. 1 84/ 11,12] 50} 64.5 | 1.16 1 73 27 |. 30: | savannas 
Colebrook.-...... fe) 4 Gay 12} 43 | 62.3 | 1.55 6| 72 27| 24/505] 6.94 
Brookfield ....-.-. 2 90} 12,13 42 | 64.6 | 4.50 4 Ww 27 32 | 55.6] 8.20 
PS ce ee] Get 
22 ER Se Oe Be Be oosea teem Gaye) Or RE ees bP aoeeel Beiosesel bares 53.7] 5.54 
NEW YORK. 
Moriches .-....-.. 1 80} 12,22) 44] 60.3 | 2.65 1 15 30) > 730} ole 5a) 3206 
South Hartford --! Tie 68 20} 47 | 66.8 | 2.15 16| 7% 27} 25 | 53.8] 2.95 
Caldwell ...-..... 23 82 12 44 | 63.0 | 5.35 2,16 72 Q7, 19 | 49.9] 8.45 
Garrison’s ....... 3 85 |12,13,19 49 | 63.8 | 2.55 4 71 Q7 28 | 52:31 5.33 
2 
Throg’sNeck..... 24] 83 5 ig } 55 | 68.2|..:-.. 1/ 80 a7! 37 | 58.5 |...... 
’ 
White Plains -... 3| 80 12,10 “AB 0S. 9a eee | 1 | 74 30 31 | 56,03) eee 
Cooper Union.... 25| 84 12} 55] 689 | 2.38 i it 30 36 | 584] 5.72 
Hatbush:......-. 25 86 12 PINGS: Oi) We 20) nse fea scc| , 2c4|- 022 el aaa eee 
Brooklyn ..-..--.. 24, 25 84 £2; |) Pe OTe oa'20 1 82 27 37 | 58.5] 5.50 
i 3 84 12] 40 | 63.6 | 2.34 AON 4s ARB) Soe - 5522 .2| Sk 
Newburg ..--.--. 3, 4, 24 84 }13,19,20] 56 | 68.2 | 1.65 3 75 27 34 | 57.6 | 5.04 
Minaville.....-... 1 85 12] 42] 65.6 | 2.40 Se PGulin aus 30 27: | S208 iano 
Cooperstown. .-... 2 85 12 35 | 61,0 | 2.76 | 16,17 72 30 23 | 49.9} 3.80 
Gouverneur. ..--- 2 81 12 37 | 58.7 | 4.10 2 71 30 22 | 43.3] 3.64 
North Hammond. 1 93 | 10,11 54 | 68.8 | 3.13 2| 7 27 32 | 54.91 6.72 
Houseville ..--.-- 1 $3 | W 42 | 61.1] 4.08] 2,16; 72] 26,80] 26] 49.2] 4,99 
(int ae 1 85 12| 42] 62.8] 3.10 iil ire! 30| 28] 521] 4.36 
South Trenton . -. 15 52 13 40 | 61.6 | 1.48 17 78 30 24] 51.9] 8.00 
Cazenovia -....... 1 85 12 39))\" GIS Ee 16 rol Be 27,|, 40Ri eee 
Oneida..-..... a | 1 8 19 42 | 60.5 | 7.20 W ee See Bee 54.5 | 4.96 
Depanville..-..-. a 8 93) 46 | 62.7 | 4.57 2) 75| 19,30] 28] 501] 3.98 
Osyego -.----.--. 2| 7 13] 43] 61.4 | 2.28 16] 69 3 32 | 51.6] 4.98 
Palermo. -5-—-- 2 86 12 40 | 61.9 | 3.75 2 12 30 27 | 49.9} 2.20 
North Volney..-.. 1 87 13'|  P4SuGStei ist 2. 2 16 17 30)|'. (29 | SesS) teams 
Waterbarg .--.-.- Bil) 487) |/ 10,13 STH MOOS steer 12| 72 30 21 | 48: 3, )eeeees 
Nichols? 22t5.54.. 2 87 20 Sebee So) ess s 16 75 30 23 DOA esos 
Newark Valley -. i 88 13 | 34 | 61.4 | 2.20 16 | 74 30} 24] 50.4] 3.80 
Himrods.-... +... 1 84 20 43 | 62.9 | 3.19 16 71 30{ 28] 44.7] 1.06 
tochester......-. 9 e4 20 AY 64. 2 05, Oh |S oeeee ss | te cw alls. ceen| nn sal = oe arate ene ee 
Little Genesee . . 1 85 22] 37] 60.4 | 3.54 | iG] 74 30.) 25:1 49,2) toon 
Suspens’n Bridge. 8] 86 20 46 | 64.1 | 3.85 | 16 74 30 | 86 | 922) 3.25 
Lockport .....-.. 1 2 20 | 50 | 63.8 | 3.75 | py 78 | 19,30 34 | 5211 2.39 
Buiialog2=35-22-- gs] 91! 12,19] 46 | 64.7 | 3.92 16} 75 19 | °31 \pSRe4 yaaa, 
AO CIE Pai. | ann a3 =| nin aceeaolanea ns 63.5 | 3.19 | Nee net oP abel oe we ames 52.2) 4531 
|| EEE 


658 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


——— ir 


SEPTEMBER. 
: . ers 
| 3 B | 8 |e 
ron a ee 
State and station. Bs 5 eat 
ae) ro ro ie 
Date. af Date. = A S g 
oe 5 ~ = oR 
3 PS ase es 
nw os 43] 
3 A ° ta 
A A A | 
NEW JERSEY. 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. 
Paterson. -----.-- ‘ 90 12 47 | 66.3 
Newark .---. ---- 25 83 13 47 | 65.3 
South Orange. --.- 251 86} 20,22) 44] 65.3 
Trenton ...-..... 1, 24, 25 84 12 50 | 70.3 
Rio Grande ..---- 1 90 20 45 | 68.6 
Moorestown ...-- 2 86 | 12,13 52 | 66.8 
NewGermantown 25 87 13 46 .8 
Readington ....-. 14 84 13 42 .8 
Haddonfield ..... 1,2,25| 82) 19,15] 51 | 65. 
Greenwich. ...... 325 | 79|$ 55 o> | oe 
Vineland .......-.. 1 85 12 49 
JENGA palaseige 4 see) bo bcares boa aee 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
Rv Ceseese= = - =A 1 83 | 11,30 40 
Hamlinton.....--. ie bo 84} 11,21 47 
Dyberry --------. 15 81 20 31 
Vallsington ..---.- 25 86 13 48 
Philadelphia . -... 3 85 12 54 
Germantown, (1) 26 89 12 53 
aie ee ( 94] 96] 12,20] 53 
Horsham .... ..-- 25 86 | 12,20 50 
Plymouth Meet’g 25 86 | 12,20 47 
White Hall ....-. 25 87 12] 38 
Factoryville ..--- 1 84] 12,20 36 
Readitig ......... 25| g4] 12] 48 
West Chester. -- 25| 86 20 | 49 
Parkersville -.--. 2 84} 12,13 5 
‘Tamaqua -.-..-..- 24 88 20 33 
Catawissa . .-.-.-- 25 87 12 38 , 
; 18, 14, 
Ephrata ......... 24] 86 Er os ; 50 | 67.2 
Mount Joy.-.-.--. (3368665 (5 46oe faoeeeeae pocdiad Sceaaal acSer 
Carlisle .-.--..... 1255) 9 86) ae 13 | ay : 
Fountain Dale .. 25 84 12 5 
Wiesaeeres- +=. - 2,3 86 12 36 
Lewisburg ....--- 24 81 13 42 
Grampian Hills - 8 84 20 36 
Jobnstown. -..--- 3 80 20 43 
Wramkiti 72.00... . 8| 91 |20,21,22] 45 
Pittsburg .....--. 8,9 84 Q1 48 
Greencastle. ..... 25 89 20 47 
Connellsville. -- .. 9 88 20 4 
Brownsville. ...-. 9 90 22 4: 
Newcastlo ...-..-. 8,9 80 22 45 
IBGEVeL—c-.s---5-- i 82} 20,21 46 
Canonsburg. .-..- 8 89 21 41 
PVE MCS Sse | kes kas \obos Galt ec - = [ceases 
DELAWARE, 
Milfordescasesac: il 86 20 
DGVEr 2 ees -- 25-5. 25 86} 13,14 55 
PLVGRAMON sate =|\- cape abode -|(sn coh ~--| see aan 
MARYLAND 
Woodlawn .-.---- 2, 24, 25 82 12 49 
Fallston . .....-.- 93 12 iS 
Annapolis ......-. 2, 25 83 23 59 
Mt. St. Mary's. .. 20 83 12 52 
BMC Es -| one's u el apniesl| eeveneeleg ape dhe 


a 


1| %8]| 19,30 
1 nae 19 
1} 80 Qt 
Z|) ee 19} 39 


« ro 
s |8 
£13 
3 |e 
a |'38 
EREL 
a | 4 
S| 


OCTOBER. 
S es 
mal val 
| | 
2 a ar 
Date. H | Date. 5 
=p gs 
A EI 
ik e 
A A 
Deg Deg. 
2 ae 87580. S 
1 16 27 3 
1 78 27 30 
1 80 27 37 
4 79 23 40 
1 76 30 34 
1 7 27 33 
15 76 3 30 
if V7 30 35 
aL 73 19 38 
1) a1) 988 36 
O16 14 9 30 | 25 
16 70 27 29 
1| 79 | 27,30 
1 19 27 
12 79 19 
1 Wis) 3 
1 76 3 
1 T7 3 
1 7 3 
12 74 30 
1 W7 30 < 
1 | 78 | 19/30 | 3% 
1 V7 24 
1| 76] 23,29| 24 
9,16) 75 93} 32 
1| 78] 27,30 
17 rt: 19 37 
1,16| 72] 19,23] 38 
125] 3 21/ 40 
21 721] 19,30] 24 
25 73 23 
24 val 19 26 
ile 76 19 f 
16,24] 74 19 es 
16, 27 74 | 23,31 37 
10 73 19 3% 
15,17,27| 75 |14,22,24| 40 
16, 17,25] 69 19 | 27 
271 72] 19,23] 35 
16,24] 81 19 | 93 


Deg.| In. 
54.9 | 4.84 
55.4] 4,75 
55.2 | 5.64 
59.8 | 5.23 
57.8 | °3.13 
56.0 | 4,82 
54.8 |-.4.86 
55, 6)ocaees 
55.5 | 3.78 
57.4 | 71,92 
57.3 | $1.05 
56.3 | 4.00 
49.3 | 2.40 
51.4 | 3.60 
57.0 | 4.50 
59.3| 4.11 
55, Tose. 
55.4 | 3.25 
55.41 6.41 
55.8 | :6.02 
54,6 | wssce 
50.2] 4.09 
57.2 | 3.00 
55.5 | .4.48 
56.6 | ,4.78 
54.5 | 1.90 
54. 4 eee 
54.5 | 2.82 
Bie Wl eee 
"56.2 | 2.02 
51.0] 3.20 
52.0] 3.38. 
47.5 eee 
53.3| 4.21 
51.7 | 4.91 
55.9 | 3.20 
55s eee 
5S Bilete cee 
54.1 | 2.40 
53.2] 2.20 
54.0 | 3.06 
54.4 | 3.63 
56.0 | 2.70 
58.7 | 1.10 
57.4 | £1.90 
56.7 | 4.56 
56.3 | 4.20 
60.6 | 3.50 
55.2 | §1.30 
57.2 | $3.39 


— 
rect inrernres 


SEPTEMBER. 
| 
cs) o q = ) 
= i) AS ) i= 
State and station. 8 5 a | A EI 
Date. | 3 | Date. | 2% & | oF Dato i: 
a . S ete, =o Ate, 
| Be ge| 2.| 98 As 
a E a g 
A 3 =| A 
a “7 o oS 3 
Aa A Al A 
ea | cs 
DIST. OF COLUMBIA. 
4 Deg. Deq.| Deg.| In. Deg. 
Washington ..... 2 g 14 5L | 68.8 | 1.78 1 79 
VIRGINIA. | ! 
Jobnsontown. .... 4 85 12 56 | 71.0 80 
Hampton ........ 3, 25 86 10 56 | 71.7 82 
Sreryi Geo. 2--.- 3,4,25,26] 91 12) 5) Seehtesta a 90 
Comorn ...------- 2 86 21 54) 71.3 | 1. 82 
Vienna....-.----- a 78 11 58 | 69.7 } 2. vel 
iedmont there eo 24 88 13 52 | 67.2 |10. 40 79 
Piedmont Station 25 86 | 20, 23 50. | 66.9 | 9.55 78 
Staunton. .....-.. 2,7 78 20 47 | 64.3 |11. 24 eo 
Lexington ....... 1 85 13 50 | 66.8 |15. 78 
ak aT. == =. 26| 82] 20,21] 53] 69.8 76 
ear Wytheville 7 80 | 20, 21 45 | 64.2 val 
OS ie A ek Be ee Ges nGada bebe ole elo eee. 
WEST VIRGINIA. 
Romney. -s--0..) 2.25 90 20 461) GONGi IE eee a sect oe coi am ceo 
Westen 22-..2.... 8] 86] 20,21 38 | 64.9 75 
NORTH CAROLINA. 
ldsboro......-. 26] 96] 10,12] 64 76.3 90 
‘arrenton....... 26] 79 |13,20,23) 60 | 69.3 76 
Oxford eet «'a= 25, 26 84 | 12,20 55 | 69.8 78 
Gealoiehs-- 22... 4 83 7, 20 54 | 68.5 
Albemarle ......- 2 92 8 52 | 70.4 85 
Statesville ......-. 26 82 24 GIN ieeocse 74 
Asheville, (A).... 27 77 Pal 48 | 64.4 74 
DOs a5 (XL) FS. 1,3 74 22 48 | 63.4 70 
A303 C2 ee One ae eee GSH OMe Bay aos cee otter e oS 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Bluffton . .------.| 3,18,26] 90] 21,22) 70) 77.8 86 
Gowdeysville -.--.| . 25; 26 86 | 24,25 He eh [he OO: |v aca eoccososeccaee 
TADICGH. soos =. 5s. 25 87 22 OF jesae = 80 
OGL 2: RS ee |e ee eS 75.4 
GEORGIA. 
Beet as 5—-- - = 4 91 29 64 | 72.4 19 
St. Mary’s -...... 4 92 19 69 | 77.0 81 
Penfield . -:...... 26 87 |20, 22,24) 62 | 71.9 82 
Pa, ee a ee Pe ee eo eee 76 
NMR aoa et Oe Se =o 5's S22 2 ciel ee 73.8 
ALABAMA. 
Rockville .......- 6 86 13 62 ,|.76.5° 7 
Carlowville .----- 5 90 13 64+) 75,2 84 
Greene Springs --| 3,5,6 87 24) 59 | 74.0 2 
Coatopa..-....... 6, 26 90 30 | 74.6 86 
Wish) eivonseeect lc becky |< ks oleae olen eal ae ae oe] ate 80 
WA RRNRRC Ry papa Baan an|ane ose arias oes 75.1 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


659 


OCTOBER. 
S| aeke 
oO La] ae 
e = oO 
a | a |8 
Date. |< 8 | a lene 
ate. 5 a ie) 
Be) 3 | aa 
| ~_ 
4 a | s 
A 5 
A a |e 
Deg. | Deg.| In. 
19| 44/595] 3.90 
a1) 42) 61.9] 255 
s38 a ; 45 | 62.3] 2.95 
15|° 39 | 632| 275 
21 | 47/| 62.7] 3.09 
19 | 43| 57.0] 5.00 
21} 38] 57.5] 2.00 
19| 34|560|/ 210 
21| 39] 550] 213 
21,22| 341548] 2.87 
21| 44] 60.5} 3.50 
22,93 | 34] 543] 2.80 
Be 58.7 | 2.82 
i9, 93 |~°30°|53.0 [l...c. 
22} 40/620) 4.00 
21| 48| 627) 210 
93 | 43 | 60.9| 1.20 
8 17;1 2 cal Gea 
5 38 31 38 60.9 | 2.80 
91 |° 32|55.3| 3.13 
a1 | 33|55.3| 2.00 
Of | \ Say faea tales 
Bice 59.7 | 2.54 
21,22] 56 | 71.6| 840 
a1 | "4965.3 | 4.40 
1 ee 68.4| 6.40 
a1} 471661) 5.05 
21| 50 | 70.2 |.---s- 
a1| 42/647) 277 
131 46] 61.5] 0.10 
65.6 | 2.64 
| 
a1} 40 | 642) 1.38 
21| 47| 66.9] 0.57 
21 | 41/648) 0.30 
21} 39\| 65.0! 1.80 
bee -sutlate os ee 0.33 
a8 65.2 |40. 88 
oe es aula 


660 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870-—Continued. 


_ - ret PSE in aaa el Aes Sy te; OE a nee 
SEPTEMBER. OCTOBER. 
| 
a | ee | le! |\@ aa 
o © Feate lo o | Bis 
; = =a anles _ | a {25 | S 
State and station. |B | = & | a |e 18 
\“o $3s| & e | |¥¢ 3 5) Sa ee 
Date. | =& | Date. | 26 = |%o | Date. | g3 | Date. | 8 | =e | se 
| 2° a> | 8 | 58 | a= | s*| 8 | & 
a j =I | & S | 
a a |e 4 z a | ae 
| = to | ee le P= a =) 
A a A |S la | a |/a16 
ee fh toieeatod 2 SSS) Se ee ee a a ee 
| | iad tere 
FLORIDA. | ; 
| Deg. | Deg.| Deg,| In. | | Deg. | Deg. | Deg.\| In. 
Near Pert Orauge | Papal cae! 9 23 68 | 77.6 }11. 88 | i 84 | 21 505 | 74.2 | 13.16 
Saint Augustine | 1,3) 90} 21,22] 70 | 784 | 7.00 | 5| 88! 21) 54) Wane 
Jacksonville -.--. Teall) FOR 22 WL | 7.2) 9:35 || 3 87 | 21 52. Ve tae 
Prlankasees es oe 3| 96 | 19| 68 | 79.4 [11.04] 5,12) 90 | 21| 52/747) 432 
Opals fers. c 8 Bema ae”. £90'| | Meeatere nS S| we tS ee |.. ne 
Orange Grove. ---/2,3,4,5,6 90 | 24,27 74 | 80.7 | 6.57 11} °88 | 21 57 | 75.8 | 9.75 
Newport. ..-.-.--- 3 89 19, 21, 22 68 | 76.0 | 7.02 | 11 84) 14,22 43 | 68.0] 2.45 
Chattahoochee . -- 10 90 | 20 9.0 |---ceees}tec- so) eee 
Averages....|...-.--.|...... |e ies! 7.36 
} ————— 
TEXAS. 
Clarksville....... | 7,19] 87 30| 65} 79.0]......| 27,99] 79) 20] 50) 697 |eee- 
Giimer.---2 = 2... 22) 98 | 30 3.71 
Palestine coe -|--s-~-- a ee ee MN tea bao 6.70 
Oakland ......-.. \ 4) 98 | 29 7, 64 
Blue Branch,(W). aoa 23 10. 00 
1a) eee (G). 17| 94 J videos ad | 2s. 2e ee eee 
nie Se 34,5} 94, 98 6. 50 
Clinton see. 3,4 | 95 | 1,2,24 4. 40 
AMIRI ge sae] n' ere 4) 94} 98 12. 63 
San Antonio -.-.- 3,4 | 100 | 30 5. 60 
| eee, 
Averayes.--.|--------|--.--- at a ell Pee, I 7.14 
LOUISIANA. : | 
New Orleans. .... | 7,25] $8} 30 | 0.30 
Near Cheneyville.'7,11,J4) 90 | 29 35 tea <|- 23 oes eee 
Shreveport. ..-.-- 5,7,8| 89 | 28,30 . | 3 | apes’ 
ee eel | —— See 
MISSISSIVPT. } 
| 
Celumbus...-..-. 4| 87| 21,30| G4] 744/204] 27,28 
| i¢ 8,11, 
Enterprise....-..) 19 6 | 12, 20; ; 63 | 75.6 | 3.20 |......-. 
28, 30 | 
Philadelphia...) 6,788 RES ao} et | 74:7 | 2.40 | 28,90 
Grenada ...-.-..- | 96} 92] 94)" 5B] 73.5 | 4.25 [3, 18, 28 
Near Brookhaven | 5.6 90 | 24 61 | 72.8 | 3.90 23 
Holly Springs. - - 6 94 | 20 67 | 71.0 | 2.90 3 
Averages. ...|... + Re ee 73.7 | 3.11 | Ser pS! | 
| eee | eee 
ARKANSAS. | | | 
' | } 
Higlenate ee --2>. 6 OG | o3| 59] 76.61..-.-. 29 | 
Mineral Springs...) 5, 6,7 38s | 30| 58 | 74.1] 4.19 23 
Fayetteville =o ---|-2-..,25). 4.5 deo et b peeel Sea fesse 27,28 
TENNESSEE. | | 
Elizabethtou ..-_.. 1 88 |20, 21, 22) 52 | 69.2 | 2.10 ry | 73 | 21 32 | 67.8 [BAT 
Lookout Mount’n 10 81 21 Glo | eee srnie as oer 29 81 | + 20 2 | 6L Oe 
McMinnville. . .-. 16,8,26| 81] 19,94] 60] 643]...... | 79 | 21} 37/591) 1.89 
Avastin Sas 2a | 8) & 4, 30 @ | 70.5 | 3.52 /1,3,6,7.28 80 | 14 36 | 60.6 | 3.64 
Clarksville...-.-.. | 6,7 82 19 58 | 69.9 | 3.35 27 82 | 22 42 | 60.2! 2.15 
Trentonsess. 1. oe 7 94 | 29 SL TBS: lke 40 4 | 90; 13,21 41 63.5 | 2.90 
LaGrange ....... } 7| 92} 19| 62) 74.4 | 1.90 |26, 27,28) 84 20,21} 44 | 64.4) 0.70 
Averages. --.|-.-.++7-|---++ oR ene! a8 miata Ad... | yieoe jrosecesefeceees | oa | 241 
| et : Se 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 661 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


| SEPTEMBER. | OCTOBER. 
/ 7) ithe: : “aes 
| g a | te ties = 2 | 8 j|& 
. FE) = Sig eI ey Ste 
State and station. | | 3 5 Be alan a. a Bbae Ihre 
| 25 #5 2 Ee #5 +5 S Ee 
Date. | a8} Date. | 48 = |@o]| Date. a5 | Date. | = = es |so 
Be BB) 58 | 8a BS. | aS | 8 yaa 
= 3) qa s I Be eS 
5 A |g E | Em peal 
¥ 3 s |4 pan | : ¢ | 
~ | _ o Sc ra] ~ [<4 
}a | a |a le a | a | ee | Si 
KENTUCKY. | | 
‘ | Deg Deg. | Deg.| In. Deg. Deg. | Deg.| In. 
Pine Grove ...... 8| 86} 20! 58] 697 | 3.61 27 | 76 21,22,31) 38/568} 2.24 
Danville .......-. &:| {90 16,2001 | tea] 728| B50 | 1,46 | 79 |22-2-2.-|--n2ee 62.9} 1.48 
Shelby City...... "7| 85/ 90] 56| 70.4 | 3.35 1} %%)| 1421] 41/580] 248 
Near “Louisville. . 7} 92 15,2021] 51] 720/238 27; 8l} 22] 37/598) a89 
Averages....|........ oe! Jeveeene | ota) pi 4 Ch eae ie RY Poe ed ae 59.4 | 2.52 
OHIO. | 
Salem...-......-. 2| 87 |) 48} 65.8 | 275 27) 76 | 19,31] 33 | 52.5} 2.35 
Steubenville ..... 8} 84] 20,21] 49 | 638 | 2.73 [16,17,27! 70 19} 36)55.7| 190 
Painesville ...... 8B} 82 12} 50] 65.4 | 4.56 7 | 72 119,91,31| 40/539] 9.18 
Milnersville ...-. 8,9 7 19| 48 | 66.8] 300 1} 68 {10, 19,22} 30 |.-.... 3. 80 
Cleveland........ 1,8] 82 20] 50/647) 4.76] 16,97] 73} 18,22] 37] 53.8] 5.36 
Wooster ......... 8} 96 | 46 | 69.7 ]...... 16,24| 80} 19] 30) 546]...... 
Pennsville ....... 8} 90 12} 48 | 66.9] 0.65] 27,28| 74 22 | 37/588) 1.20 
Gallipolis ........ 8| 88 21} 48 | 70.3] 1.43 of | 76) § Sk) “Smpoee en -- 
Adams’ Mills .-..| 8] 89 22| 46 | 67.7] 1.73 a7 | 77 14} 32/553] 237 
Oberlin .......... Wb Tete Sy, 88 13| 46] 65.6 | 255 16] 76] 18,31] 32) 532) 3.35 
Kelley’s Island. ..| 1 86 {11, 12,20! 62] 70.5 | 1.50 16 fe 1g | 41) 57.8} 3.13 
Sandusky........ 1} 87 20} 51 | 64.7] 1.83 16:15) 75 19| 39)55.7| 4.64 
Geregmeeas...| .- 1} 99 12] 50] 68.3 | 2.40 16] 72 31| 38/55.6] 290 
North Fairfield. 8} 90 |5,11,12| 55 | 69.0 | 1.42 24} 76] 18,31| 38|536| 3.45 
Gambier......... | 16,24] 80] 21,92] 46) 648] 2.74 Daa 93 | 341527] 270 
Westerville...... 9 {| 91 20} 51} 68.5 | 1.37 7 76 | 31} 33) 548) 277 
TNS Shh an Ea FESS eet (epee em Oo | et 10, 28 84 23 30 | 57.7] 3.95 
North Bass Islan 1) 92) 3,4] 61 | 70.4) 1.53 16} |. 31 | 41 SeS 1 as8 
ae 8} 88! 12,20} 49 | 66.3 / 1.10 16| 74 29! 3653.0] 284 
Hillsboro ....... 8] 84| 12} 53 | 67.8 | 0.69 21| 74 31{ 39|55.2| 232 
Bowling Green... B| 95 19| 46 | 69.7 | 285 16 | 92'| 29,31} 361565| 4.85 
eniton ..-....... 9} 95 29 | 58 | 71.9 | 7.65 3| 70; 30,31] 37| 51.8] 4,70 
Bellefontaine ... 8} 90 3] 52] 680) 1.50 16} 4} 31) 33/537) 386 
Urbana .......... 8} 92] 5,21] 54] 69.0 | 0.47 a7 %5 | 29,31) 34| 549] 4.00 
Springtield....... oe ee) On| (ead [sees Q150/ (325.2 auc] skgee | fibe cecal es era feeaee - 
co) 7,8 | 90| 5| 551 685| 1.50 a7 | 73) 31 | 37 | 4] 1.38 
‘Carthagona ...... 78 | MBS! | Oh 48) 5d | MOE | BO fics sata | is d5 2.24. ge ee 
Jacksonburg..... bak a, | a 18} 56] 71.4 | 1.39 Ti ait | Sep owe as0 
Mt. Auburn Inst. 8 7 12} 57| 72.0) 0.49 16| 76 | 31| 39] 588] 2.67 
Cincinnati, (H) .--| 8| 95 12| 57] 72.0} 030 16) asta | 31} 38) 581] 297 
Dow (2). .- 7| 88 21} 59] 72.6 0. 70 | 1: |) 785 31} 39/590] 3.23 
College Hill...... 8} 96] 19,20| 59| 72.6] 0,15 1,2] 84 119,20, oy 42 | 60.1 | 3.69 
GW EES Oar BE eel Reel nem (A ee GERG 1519 93} | a2 ee | Os eee | ee 55.7 | 3. 44 
SS i _—=— 
MICHIGAN. | | | 
| ; i 
f 4,13,t|  - Bh oe ea Sl 
Detroit .......... e | 92 Saher 53 | 67.3 | 1.71 2 53.8 4.7% 
Monroo City...../ 1,8| 98 /{t,03 {| 58 | 71.2 | 2.26 16|' 82, 31| 38) Seapine 
Ann Arbor ...... 8] 89] 5,12] 51/ 648/242 16,0497, 72! 18| 34| 522 | 3.53 
Alpena ........- . 8{ 74 13111617) 52} 61.9 | 297 12| 70 31 | 35 | 51.8) 4.20 
State Agr’! Coll -. 8| 90 | 12,19 AY Ni G30 |PRea5y | ae ee | Peepers Come eee Peeps cnet) oe 
Litchtield........ Il Ww87 12| 49 | 64.9 | 4.20 24) RI 99| 32/518] 5.98 
Cold Water....-- 8} 89 12| 44} 65.4 | 1.81 | Si hee VOM sees eee 52.7 | 475 
Gr'd Rapids, (H). 7a) 12} 49 | 67.6 | 2.77 7| 80 291 33 | 53.0) 5.07 
Rees eres Cy Le ea 19} 47} 63.0] 3.10 24 | 73; 29| 31/1526) 484 
Northport ....... 7/82 | 293) 50] 627/275 1} 74] 31] 35|5L4] 00 
0 ee 6,7} 100 0 |. Sib) GF G6) aes |: cecoc| ae ou S| a ties hee 
Copper Falls..... Tt 2| 44|57.4| Los | 21] %3| 26] 29} 427 
Ontonagon.....-- 21} 78 126, 27, 50 | 61.7 |..... -| 21 70 |25,26,29} 34) 485° 
JSS eA Ue pl a it oe Sl a ie eee) Re ns bette = 518 
INDIANA. ‘ | | | 
AUTOrA ...-..---. 7) .95 |5,90,21} 56] 72.5] 0.42 25] 80}, 31} 36] 57.3 
Vevay ........ = 81 90 20! [53.1714 [1.20 i271 80.) 2 | 39 } 58.1. 


562 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


| SEPTEMBER. OCTOBER. 
2 e , js a ‘ P 
B e || B f 1 eis 
a & = o rH B |'s 
State and station. a aes 2 Fa a Spe. 
Date. | 38 | Date. | 25! 8 | 2g | Date.| gs | Date.) 45) Bigs 
p= S 2 | eS 5B a sé br o E 
a BE ig a- | el 
A 6 | e | 8 g | a Fae | 
E =| o a CS ot 2 a 
a a ei = = A P= a = 
Inprana—Cont'd. 
Deq. Deg. | Deg.\ In. Deg Deg. | Deg.| In. 
Mount Carmel... %{ 91! 12,19 58 | 70.8 | 2.20 9 74 3 38 | S474 2.50 
Spiceland........ | 8] 94 12{| 54) 691]/2.05! 16,25] 76 31 | 33)55.6] 4.06 
Laconia...--2.--.. 8| 87 21} 57 | 701] 233 97] 82 31| 39]583]| 2.86 
LTT oy Bh aa ee a es 2 PR rae Paes lio Sires (2 ee 17 78 29 37 | 56.1 | 2.25 
3, 16, 
Knightstown oi 8 | 91 | 21} 50 | 69.7 | 1.37 jy ; 74 31| 31/564] 4.62 
25 
Warsaweefen.s.|25-2-~-+ | Seek te | ee ees |: Ha Q7 3 22 35 | 59.3 | 4.20 
Indianapolis -.... 8| 38 21} 51 | 68.0] 1.09 97) 74 31| 331558] 2.93 
Near La Porte... 8} OL 4| 54|68112.75 24} 76 31] 36} 55.0} 2.60 
Rensselaer......- 23 87 12 50 | 69.3 | 2.10 9 75 31 30 | 52.6] 4.50 
ar a0 eee oe Baa ee Eee ae | 27) 79 31| 28)555) 3.10 
Merom .......--- 7| 99 Fe } 60 | w.7 | 0.58| 16,97} 78 31{ 33) 59.3] 250 
’ + 
New Harmony..-| 7,8] 86 30} 57 | 70.5 | 2.00 26/ 77] . 2] 38)588}) 269 
Harveysburg .... 7| 84 28 | 54] 67.0| 4.30 |....... wanes) ssee eee |sanens|ennnee|sanen 
OS Se CR le ae Se se | ee 87 ee. eae ee 56.8| 3.13 
ILLINOIS. | | 
Chicago.......-.- 7,8} 90 4| 57|73/282{ 3,24] 77 31| 34/568) 243 
Near Chicago..--.| 8| 90] 2,22] 58] 63.8 ]....-. 24} 80 | 31 | 29) 549 |e 
Evanston ....---- | 8,29] 86 4| 57] 67.0] 3.34 23| 72 31| 32)53.8) 439 
Marengo......-..! 7 “487 4| 47 | 64.7 | 5.36 |) T98 31| 26 | 50.2) 3.14 
Charleston ....... | %8] 88 5| 52 | 68.2 | 0.66 |15,16,27, 77 31] 30] 549) 3.46 
Mattoon .....-.-. 7,8| 86 19] 52] 69.7} 1.44 2 75 31] 35 7} 3.30 
Aurora ...-..---- | 78! 86] 1819] 54 | 66.3 | 363 |15,93,24) 72 3 28 | 51.0) 4.63 
3, 4,5,}) 
Sek: 12, 19, | | | / 
Lonuisville.-...... 7,8} 9214 20,21,|$ 60 | 69.2 | 1.30 | 15| 82 31] 34}59.0! 3.50 
23, 24, | | | | 
30. J | 
Golconda ......-. 10} 95 92 |" 5e | 728 | 1,60 |..:.....|.2s---}.2...-..]--o= | eee 
Belvidere .-...-.- 7| 91] 1819] 52] 65.7] 4.06 241 76 31) 27) 5.310337 
Qitawa?--.-..5:: 8} 93 18] 55 | 69.1} 3.63 Abily ees 31| 34] 55.0} 4.99 
Decatur ......-.- 7 89 5 54 | 68.7 | 2.60 27 78 31 34 | 56.3.| 3.30 
Panag eee. 7| 86| 19,25| 56 | 68.9] 3.55 27 || 16 31] 30|547] 2.40 
Winnebago .....- 7 86 12 51 | 65.2 | 3.92 1, 24 72 31 26 | 50.4] 2.75 
SUN ah Gy. he Se | el Pa peer (2 A Sey 2 ee 2,15 74 31 26.1 50. Gite 22 
Wyanet ......... 7| 89 19| 47 | 67.2] 669 24) 78 3 28 | 53.6} 3.62 
poser) insti (2) eS ee eS a I oy oe 5 ee 15 76 31 29) | 220s eee 
DOLE) ++ =: 7| 89| 12,19] 54] 68.3] 3.10] 24) 77 31] 30|53.3] 4.20 
Poor tomes es rail tod 19} 56] 70.3 | 3.56 | 15| 79 31 |. 31 oases 
ayaa oe eee coe 71 90 19} 53 | 67.0 | 3.36 | 15] 80 31 | 301 53.1 | 3.95 
Wiatenlonmeee eel sos iet. Peli: . 2 le Salar ee Ke poral iaeze: 31 | ' 33 |\5eeee 
Dabois se 2 2s.) 5 71 92 29] 58 | 72.3 | 2.32 7 St 21| 37/595] 2.38 
Galesburg ....... 7h Sf 19| 56] 66.7|3.96] 15,24] 75 31| 311) 55.2|] 446 
Manchester... ... 21,22] 90 4] 56} 69.8 | 2.61 12} 80 31] 30] 57.0] 2.43 
Mount Sterling... 8| 83] 4,19] 58] 691/437] 1415] 78 31] 32/568) 3.15 
Andalusia .....- 7) 84 19) o56P | GBsieh fe. 15, 23,24, 74] 22,31] 31) SRON ee, 
Oquawka .....--. 7| 90 3] 52| 68.6] 6.55 15| 81 31] 35]56.1) 412 
ugusta...-...-- 7| 85| 19,25] 54] 67.8] 5.78 15 | 978 31| 30/545] 5.20 
Warsaw ..--...-- S95 ,97.1 S490 19 | 55 | 67.9 | 4.12 15] 84 31] 351556) 5.08 
PAMELA OAS Sc ch cocs ac |sseeante tenis op hes sone TU Be gl as 1 ie eee) |e ad ese el = = 3.65 
/ === SS 
WISCONSIN. | | 
| 2,3,11, | | 
Sturgeon Bay-...! q 86 |< 17, 18, t 51 64.0 | 3.05 2 72 | 26 32 | 51.0.) 4.30 
1,24] 70 31| 32] 51.6] 1.80 
i) BE 31} 27 5. 2 aoe 
q 4 | 73 31 30 | 51.9} 1.99 
7 2,24) %5 31} 27] 49.6] 4.05 
7] 88 50 20 { So Grae ose Le ee | oes |. 2 cset[oc. fl eo 7 


Wanpaca sooteeee| 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 663 


Meteorology of 1870—Continned. 


SEPTEMBER. OCTOBER. 
; Pelt Gee oe aaa ; we 
’ a a fered . a lps 
3 gc] 272 Eat | s |g 
a = = 2 = car T= o 
State and station. a b 5 i fe, a 5 . 5 A 
Date aa Date ee = ae Date..| @ 4 Date ee = 2& 
"| g8 ‘|e |) 8 | ee.) | ge ‘|s2| 2 | 38 
I +2 = ~ 
g a S | q ie 
q ‘a a | 8 a ‘g at eed 
g i oa |r s 2 oon |e 
| a A |e = a ale 
Wis.—Cont’d. 
Deg. Deg. | Deg.| In. Deg. Deg.| Deg. | In 
Embarrass. .-...- me 81 12 45 | 61.8 | 3.35 2, 23 74 21 30 | 48.1] 1.59 
Rocky Run...... 7| 84 12} 50 | 64.7 | 2.50 2| %3 31] 28) 50.8] 0.88 
Madison ......... 7 83 5 54 | 61.2 | 4.00 1 vi) 3L 29 | 50.6] 2.04 
Edgerton ........ 7 |) G88" )) 64,19) 1)? 500) exez0} io inet 31] 27| 53.0] 1.30 
Mosinee ......... 11 7 4 43 | 60.1 |10. 20 1,8} %5| 31 22 | 449 |, 3.85 
Baraboo ......... qi 88 20 49 | 64.2 | 1.69 2 73 31 28 | 50.6 | 275 
Tunnel City.---.| 29} 92| 11,28] 48/643/290] 1,2] 90 31| 26] 49.6] 0.70 
Bayfield ......... | 9 78 ABNGLSO Hole < ) 74 | 18,31 28) | 47.45 yee 
Averages....|........ ieee 1 bleak E Resi BOS YESS lt ER RD ea Ie Nea | es 50.1} 2.30 
MINNESOTA. ve oo A nian 
Beaver Bay.....- BN or 28} 42] 59.4 | 1.82 13] 80 31] 26] 47.3] 0,95 
2 a 21] 81 6{ 53] 64.8 | 3.28 Aap oss) 31] 21/482] 1.95 
> 2, 23, i 
Minneapolis ..-.. 21] 82 $25 2 ; 50 | 63.5 | 4.07 | yee 80 31} 20] 47.0] 205 
30 
Sibley snc)... 15,21 | 980 2)° 43°) 64.1 | 1.55 2]. 79 31} 16] 46.2] 0.50 
10, 12, 
Koniska ......... 19, 21, , 76 20] 46 | 60.2 | 2.50 | 96 31] 20] 45.3] 1.10 
i 29 
Vitchfield........ 10 | 82 |26,29,30) 50 | 63.8 | 5.00 1,2] %8| 25,31] 26] 46.2] 1.10 
ew Ulm........ 15| 81 25| 46 | 65.8 | 2.01 21 82 31} 26] 49.0! 0.73 
Madelia........-.) 15,27} 985] 2425] 50] 67.0] 4.15 2) 86 31} 24) 48.6] 0.75 
20.2: ae re rae Fawn gee GS Ga ODy|oc'r. p20] tebeeel oct. aes (ate eee 47.2) 1.14 
IOWA. ee i 
GHatoné. 5.2... | 195 4| 56 | 67.9 | 2.65 | 24| 79] 30,31] 28/518] 2.50 
Dubuque .....--. tines 19| 51 | 65.9 | 3.98 Lp 72 31} 26| 50.7] 1.22 
Monticello ...--.. 7| 90 18] 50 | 67.7 | 3.95 | 1) 82] 1831] 26] 518] 1.55 
Muscatine ....... es eee! PR: |p een) PRRRI ETS | Ba 3k ee De vis 31} 98] 521] 3,95 
Bowen's Prairie..| 6,7 82 11 54 | 65.2 | 2.33 2 76 31 22 | 50.9] 1.35 
Fort Madison. -- Set 19} 51] 67.4] 4.52] 15,94) 73 18] 32) 54.2] 4.68 
Guttenberg ...... ole nat 19| 49 | 64.6 |.__... 1) 781) 18582") Sn edn |e Be 
Mount Vernon... 7 83 11 Bea it: i: 4 ee 1 76 31 94) S058 ees 
Towa City........ 7| 90 \4,5,9,18| 56 | 67.8 | 6.67 93°) 75 31] 25] 51.8] 3.16 
Independence. --- ile 38 19| 54] 65.9 | 5.65 Te gli SL) 240 aoe ee 
- Near Independ'e.| 7| 86] 12,19] 57] 66.1 | 5.26 | 12,23] 6} 31} 26] 50.0) 1.00 
Rockford ........ | 82 | es 1) -% |) 31 | 26 epupaees 
Towa Falls ....... 7| 84 1,2] 56] 69.2] 9.33 TT ee 13 | 38: Saeeog 
hoes Sa | 6,15] 384 2.1 °50:| 63-0 |.....- 2\| 5 31} 94 | aust 
Webster City... 10} 90 28} 47 | 64.0 | 8.04 Sts 31] 22/481) 2.06 
mesboro ....-- 6| 84 2] 47 | 63.6 |12.08 2] %6 3I} 28] 484] 2,94 
¥ontanelle....... 5| 87 2} 51 | 65.4 |11. 75 2} 79 31) 27/511] 4.63 
Grant City....... Gt 1, 86 2 AB: one: |i ke 2! 80 31} 30] 50.0] 0.65 
Sao City ss. 2-. 20] 84 24| 52] 63.5 | 4.60 1,2:\" 77 |) 28:31 | 32 4Bhe eee 
Lio hey ae | G| 84 2,4] 48 | 62.2 | 9.90 EE ope! 18| 25] 51.4] 1.10 
Woodbine. ...... fee ae, ee Set aaa IE a Pe aS 7. 00 L. |" “ee 31} 20] 50.0] 2.03 
West Union ..... 30 | 87 | 13,19] 54 | 66.9 | 5.16 1| 88 31] 24] 514] 1.95 
Averages....|........|.....- a ee fb. saa 66/5, GMT Liaw, te ee ates ss a ee 50.7 | 2.43 
MISSOURI. | : 
| ‘ 
St. Louis...-..... | 6,7! 89 | 25,30! 58) 71.8 | 1.08 97} % 31] 37] 59.2 34 
Allenton. .~~.222_) 7{ 97| 25] salésejo.99| 15| 85] 31| 991568| 433 
Hematite ........ | ae 85) see TES laa 24] 85 31} 29 | 57.4 | 4.45 
Hannibal ........ Sess) §88" 25| 54| 68.6 | 7.30 15] 80} 1831] 34] 55.5 90 
Roles aes | -6| 91 | 25| 53] 70.3 | 2.33 15;|) st 31{ 30] 56.9 56 
Jetferson City. .... 1 91 25 OW eee bee 15 82 31 38 | 60.0-}..5.58 
Kansas City... 6] 84 4} 55 | 68.2 | 3.25 24| 78 31| 30] 55.6 
Harrisonville .-- Bayer wes! |) 27,28.) BAD 6B Bi asTs. So ts ee |e eee 
Oregon. 25: 6| 91 4| 54] 67.9 | 4.20 tite 31.) 33°) Soar 
Corning.........- 7| 88) 24,30] 54] 681/473 3] 82 31] 30| 54.7 
Phaser aa Raa! Coe ae (3 930 Me CR a OMe ame gt 28 AP : 
— 


664 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


SEVTEMBER. | OCTOBER. 
: wae ~ a aanan aaoaee 
= a eee 2 x | 2 ie 
State and station. | 8 Baa BI 3 A Aa 
a) So gL Pa Sey ar) 2 E 
Date. | ¢ | Date. | .58 | & | Be | Date. | oe | Date | 8) B' 198s 
iad ef ® ak at BS o ag 
5 S| a a z a | 
| & — s | 9 4 3 3 | 9 
oi oy oe 3) cS 4 ° | =} 
A A aj | A A Ale 
tas uJ Ee Sa be a eel SE) | 5 sce a 
| 
KANSAS. | t 
| Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In 
Atchison ........ | Gi) Miss 4| 56 | 68.3 | 4.20 2/ 79! 31| 28] 56.2] 9.20 
-Wilhamstown -..| 6} 90} 4,23] 54 | 69.0 | 4.09 2| 86 31| 32]585]) 795 
Leavenworth --..| 7| 88| 24,27] 52 | 67.6 | 4.60 tia 1) ten 31! 361568) 9.85 
Williamsburg....) 6,7 | 86 Pa G5e|( GA [hae aae 3} <82 12 | 32 | S5sgn/seaaee 
Olathes terrane: 6| 88 24] 51 | 67.8 | 3.15 fei ee 31| 26]55.9] 6.10 
Paola tent... 6) 89 a7} 52| 68.4] 2.69 ; eae ; 78 31/ 2961571] 5.67 
3,14 
Baxter Springs. -. 6| 92] 24,30! 60] 74.41 4.70 a3 26 80 20) 36] 624] 7.20 
29 

Lawrence.......- G| 89 |24,25,28] 55 | 67.9 | 2.82 | 89 3 32 | 56.5 | 6.96 
Holton Ga) ro 25 | 51 | 67.8 | 5.00 Dest 22 | 92 | 55.8). 725 
State Agr’l Coll.. G| 92 241 52) 68.3 | 4.57 93] 178 31/ 20] 56.6} 5.06 
Couneil Grove. -.. 6 90 | 23,24 54 | 69.4 | 7.50 2 80 | 20,31 28 | 60.5] 8.45 
Dougiass'.-.....- 5,6 90 23 52 | 683 | 4.03 5 82 31 32 | 57.2] 6.45 

AHOHHE ES 48508 (ARBs eapcaol eepecesd posccc (Hobed [PCRS N auise ames ere Joneses amis 57.4] 7.29 

NEBRASKA. | fay ingl 
Omaha Agency .. 6| 91 4| 50 | 67.3 | 4.46 91) 198 18| 32)541| 6.77 
Deisotosees se: 6| 89 24| 49 | 63.6 | 6.79 2| 79 31] 291 50.8] 0.88 
Bellevue via es) 3,4| 53 | 66.3 | 6.60 2/ 79 31 | 30!) S34 Qise 
Nebraska City .-- 6| 92 4| 51] 65.9 | 7.10 1,2] 79! 31 | 28 153.4] 2.55 
Neweastle ..2...- 20) 87 24| 43 | 62.7 |11.50 13 | 69 | 18,24) © 93) |; Seeeeeeeeee 

ACVeTa Pes)... |... -.- Waaats)Msapeaeg sod iss 65.2 | 7.29 | ise BA acs smal Aarne cell |iSac 3- Sd. 0) ae 

UTAH. a 

Coalvilioweerees | 3| 85 26. ||) Saliba: oneereee 3| 82] 29,30] 923 )| 46.0 1dezee: 
CALIFORNIA. | 
Monterey .-...... | 21,22) 80 19| 48] 63.2 | 0.00 6| 90 24/ 40]585] 0.46 
Ghicos eee ees i 992) 96 O3)il)) all neil Meee 7| 99] 1819] 40] 63.8] 1.10 
PVADSOMIE LO eects oat tak aioi4| oh ote ms,| eisme t elel| ere sisal SEE oll mre 15 98 Q5 36 | 61.2] 0.30 
Calito Seoreen se. OMe 5 25 | 51 | 66.5 | 0.20 7| 94 26| 31] 63.0] 0.00 
pep lline Sean Cae 1,2) 97 Pn ames) Rice are ase 7] 90! 16,19] 40| 61.1] 0.86 
PARVGTa CCS ac. | [2 2-2 -|/--aisin- Weick! Sead “yl flags She GBD OL2O! [on ck oe | eisai eral eel bee 61.5} 0.54 
MONTANA. | 5 rt a 
Deer Lodge City.| 9,11} &4{ 7,22) 26} 523} 1.62 3{ 81 24 6 | 39.5 | 0.66 
COLORADO. aoa. 
Denwer soepee.-.: | 4 89 (22, 24,26 40 | 60.1 | 2.85 1 83 Q7 | (27 | 478} 0:68 
WASITINGTON. oe 
Port Angeles .... Bil | 68 Q 50 | 57.4 | 4.50 5} 63 18| 42] 51.7| 3.50 
Cathlamet ...-... 1 88 21 BO QoS Pe eI tl gee. ise Id aisle cle ll oe See 

OREGON. zi cn 
Portland. ........ Q|- 91 201 49 | 63.4 | 0.45 2} 77| 97,28] 36/5401 0.55 
Holes tous 2] 85 Q4] 45 | 59.3 | 0.71 6,8] 72] 25,27] 281481! 0.90 
Astoringess 2... 22] 20] 51/587] 3.04 5,6 | 67 2 38. | 52.11 1.82 

rx iM | 1 i ~ 
NOVEMBER. ~ DECEMBER. 

MAINE. | | | 
Houltonmeas soos 3| 58 30 | 15 | 33.5 | 6.01 11] 50] 241 —10 | 93.91 5.10 
Qrono_#.-..2--- aia gave 30 | 21 | 36.6 | 5.61 2| 43) 24,30|—5 | 244) aim 
Sirry. areca ne. Sb | BOW A, 305) ) BONN SB, altace 2,13 | 46 25 | — 3 | 26.74 eaeee 
Williamsburt, 3| 47 eg! 16 | 31.2] 5.75 2) 40 86 | —10 | 18.2 2.10 
West Waterville | 5 61 El mod | 37.6 | 4.34 2! 461 25,30 0 | 26.81 2.60 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 665 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


| NOVEMBER. DECEMBER. 
ry Alay . iT) “a6 Lear} . . 3 | ro 
i =" & g = S Ee g 
State and station. a 2 ea Tee a a .1 : 
Dee Me | tate ee | Nome | males | SE) pate | SE) BS bee 
« . ao} z . a te. =~°o 
gS go/ 8 | 88 ES as| 8 | aa 
& EI i z q = 
aI | g 5 a | 3 | 4 
7 or 4 4 3 
| | a |e =| =| A |m 
Mamr—Cont'd. | 
2 | Deg. Deg.| Deg.) In Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In. 
Gardiner......... 3 56 17 27 | 39.5 | 4.19 2 46 Of) | raed 2. 82 
1 Bear 58 17 18 | 38.7 | 3.40 2 50 | 24 | — 9 | 25.8 2,25 
Wetwiys-s---... 3 59 17 19 | 35.9 | 3.40 2g 4G | TA) ——) A) 2a 1. 85 
Cornish ......... H 3 60 22 24 | 36.5 | 3.89 1 47 25, 30 | — 1 | 25.8 2. 20 
Cornishville ..... 3 61 22 24 | 37.9 | 4.60 2 47 25 0 | 26.3 3.00 
PAVERSCOS.. -.|.~000.5.)2-.-5- joctectt pees CAGE ASI Reece ce ean) Go OApaeel Hepa ee 24.9) 277 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. head RE 
Stratford. ..... ie 2 58 16 12 | 34.6 | 5.42 2 44 30 | —12 | 20.9 1. 70 
Whitefield ....... 2 59 22 13 | 33/5 | 4.58 1 45 30 | —19 | 31.9 LB 
Mt. Washington. - 25 2 30 Ov pTGron eee. oe 13 29 OD es a hig ay | ees 
Vamworth ....... a 56 17 15 | 35.7 | 4.05 1 49 24,30 | —13 | 25.3 2.25 
Contoocookville. . 2 63 17 AGN Ade See. 1,2 50 D5 | a aap nee as 
Goffstown Center 3 63 |16,17,18 26 | 38.9 | 2.34 2,5 48 25 | == 91) 24.6 1. 69 
MURR fe | alata a oa <f aaiein'e apa sieais sos [rice se Bo A SS LON hte crac ni toca ial bint ciate Iereaaes 23.9 | 1.69 
VERMONT. a 
Lunenburg ..--... 9 56 22 TS Sau Gud5. 2 40 95 | —18 | 21.8 | 0.80 
North Craftsbury 2 62} 22,30 Si SH Seo 1 41 30 | —18 | 18.8 | 2.28 
PPR Me MMe Ns fats ae |e alb/a ease nn ai-e|s ceive Nees atets Maeee|selaws techy tue ee 30!)|) 1G HRS ee 
Newport......--. 9| 55 30: |) TB Saye a¥ed Nhe. NOUN Ne Ue a eee 
East Bethel......- 9 63 16 17 | 35.6 | 2. 40 1,2 45 | 25 | —13 | 24.4) 2.02 
Woodstock .....- 2,5, o1 16 15 | 34.2 | 1.87 1 44 30 | —12 | 22.6; 2.56 
Near St. Albans-. 3 62 30 19 | 34.8 | 2.30 1,2 42 29 | —11 | 22.5 2. 70 
West Charlotte -. 2;9 60 16, 20 20 | 38.4 | 2.38 2 49 30 | — 4) 277 1. 44 
Loa 9 59 20 19 | 35.5 | 2.38 2 46 30 | —12 | 24.9] 212 
Castleton ......-. 9 62 16 22 | 37.3 | 1.64 2 47 30) | —137)}) 26i40 0. 47 
2 nO Bea BRE ScD P eee PeSeeerss Peeaee BO) les} PE See baer Nae aaa ed Oe A! 23.1} 1.80 
MASSACHUSETTS. pags. am 
Mineston’.i.-..-- 9 66 | 17,306 28 | 43.4 | 2.65 2 53} 25,30 0/330) 3.15 
Topsfield ......-- TE ee cies eS ee Ie ees WY m= 12 48 30 | — 2 | 29] 339 
Lawrence.....--- 3 65 17 25\} 41.1.) 3/62 2 50 30 0 | 30.6] 3.03 
BS) cS Se eR S| oR 0 BRT en PO ae om pe (ec 2 50 30 LD, | SO.Die sees 
Georgetown ateted a 2 65 ig 93 | 41.0 | 4.53 | 2 50 Q5 4 | 29.8 4,45 
Miltomsto2s 2... .. 3 68 17 95 | 43.4 | 3.08 2 65 30 3) S428 
Cambridge. ...... 3 68 17 Q7 | 44.0 ]....-- 2 53 25 4.) S3.Deecese 
North Billerica - 3 65 17 16 | 40.5 | 2.50 2 50 25 5. SOu a eee 
gin ES ar Zar Re I We ee ef | | 5 56 25|— 6133.1) 435 
New Bedford --- 3 61 19 99 | 43.4 | 3.15 2 Sl 30 4 | 32.1 She 
Worcester .....-- Q 62 19 27 | 40.3 | 3.48 1,2,4 48 2a 5. | 2901 4.10 
Mendon.......... 3 66 17 23 | 40.4 | 3.40 , 13 50 30 | — 2} 28.2 1, 20 
Lunenburg ...-.- 2 65 19 26 | 40.3 | 2.55 2 50 30 0 | 28.4 5. 02 
Ammherstys ssc. 2,9 61° ave 25 | 39.1 | 3.28 2 47 30 1 | 23.0 1, 84 
Richmond ....... 9 60 11,17} 26) 37.4/)3.% 5 47 25, 29 2 | 27.6 L753 
Wilhams College. 2 62 16 18 | 37.1 | 2.25 1 49 30 | — 3} 26.6 0. 76 
Hinsdale......... 9 58 16, 19 18 | 33.6 | 3.98 4 56 25 | — 4 | 25.6 0. 95 
De ee ee a heel ee AD: Ay ||S200u 8 Sp SS Ue be ae aed PC : 2. 84 
RHODE ISLAND. a 
Newport. .....--. 2 66 17 28 | 42.3 | 2.38 2 51 25, 30 10 3.06 
CONNECTICUT. iff 
Columbia.....-.. 2 
Middletown... -- 2 
Southington ..-.- 2 
Colebrook ..-.--- 2 
Brooktield ...-..% 6 
FROUNC. EU eae neces ews 


666 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


NOVEMBER. 


Mean temperature. 


sc 
8 
x3) 
=| 
ry z Date. 
aa 
xs] 
oS 
In. | 
ak 2g 
1.13 1 
2,15 2 
2, 22 | 1,2 
eh. 4,5 
ae 3 
2.41 2 
0. 93 11 
2.25 5 
2.70 2,7 
1.90 2 
1, 60 1 
1.92 5 
pByal 1; 2, . 
2 ee. 
2,14 ; ree 
2.09 4 
2.58 1,4 
ey: 5 
24 
1.95 24 
2, 75 1 
3.00 5 
5 oi eee 4,5 
i ee 5 
1.00 5 
0.69 1,4 
3.15 4,5 
oo 
2. 835 4 
2.54 4 
2. 89 5 
2.16 
2.68] 2,5 
2. 46 2,4 
3.18 4 
1. 67 5 
4.75 4 
1.95 4,5 
1, 68 2 
1.88} 4,12 
1. 65 5 
2.80 | 4,5,12 
2.47 
2.92} 1,4 
1,50 4 
4 
1.50 4,5 
1.97 5 
apo 1 
2.23 
1. 30 4 
2.24 4 
LOR: 4 
1.83 5 
2. 09 4 
1.99 4 
1.42 2.5 
o 
5 See 4 


rot 3 
B 5 
& = 
State and station. § :- § 
oO 
Date. g 2 Date. 3 E 
a 3 
Ei = 
oS 7 
A A 
NEW YORK. 
Deg. Deg. 
Moerichas\:- 2): ..<. 2,9 60 17 16 
South Hartford -- 2 68 | 16 22 
Galdweller: ..... 1 ne 54 16 14 
Garrison’s ..-..-.- 9 58 | 16,19 Q5 
Throg’s Neck .--. 19 64 | 19,20 26 
White Plains .... 2 72 16 29 
Cooper Union. --. 9 65 20 30 
Flatbash, .......-. 8 65 | 19 29 
Brooklyn .....-.- 9 66 19 32 
GiaRCp ees. 15 58 10 22 
Newburg ......-. 2 66 19 29 
Minaville ........ 2 60 15 20 
Cooperstown. .-.- 2 64 16 19 
Gouverneur. ...-- 2 63 22 14 
North Hammond. 23 65 22 24 
PON aso en S-3e 2 59 16 20 
South Trenton. -- 2 61 22 16 
Cazenovia.....--- 2 62 22 15 
(UL Se ee es eee 
Depauville 2 66 22 20 
SWEZO .... 2 63 22 25 
Palermo. .........| 2 63 | 16,22 19 
North Volney....| 2 65 , 22 Q1 
Nichols .......-.. 2 66 16 4 
Newark Valley -- 2 66 16 14 
epTeus eee a. > = 2 63 19 20 
Little Genesee. -- 2 68 11 12 
Suge te oa ee A Pee 
Suspens’n Bridge. 28 65 19 23 
Tock porthic.... =. 8 67 22 22 
Lin ci 8 66 22 22 
PAVOTAGOS Se 2: ep emoo-| soc nie| sss oceer|qaoess 
NEW JERSEY. 
Paterson... ...--- 9 64 |} 16,20 Qi 
Newark 2... ..-.. 9 65 19 34 
South Orange.--. 9 69 19 25 
Prentowsrs . 22 =. 9 74 20 29 
Rio Grande ...-..- 2 69 20 25 
Moorestown ..--- 9 72 | 16,20 26 
New Germantown 99 65 19 20 
Haddonfield ...-. 9 70 20 26 
Greenwich. .....- 9 val 25 30 
Vineland: 2 >./.5 2. 9 vi 20 25 
TSEC EGE) sil BS See BE PA Bee ens bs, 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
Murcer meses. 220 2] 64 16| 15 
Hamlinton......- 7 70 |16,17,19 25. 
gO a a) anh De ape em Ie 252 ek =o, 1 
Fallsington ...... 9 68 19 Q27 
Philadelphia... -. NN 20} 30 
Germantown, (M). 29 67 19 28 
Dee pee (LD). 2; 66 20| 27 
Horsham aso-23 2 2 67 20 26 
Plymouth Meet’g. 2 68 | 17,20 26 
ppt ae ee 28,29 | 60 18} 20 
Factoryville ..... 2 Ot 16 17 
Reading ......... 2 67 16 29 
West Chester... 9 67 22 23 
Parkersyille ....- 2,29! G4] 17,19] 24 
camaguaeec< 55. | 4. o.2222\4-s256 Ess eae 
Catawissa ...--.. 1 70 | 16 22 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


DECEMBER. 
3 
~ 
oO 
ay 

i 

Date. P | 
=) ~ 
FI 

a 
_ 
A 


—9 


- Leo] 

g|3 
B | 
a |i 

# ; 

@ ete 

a lage 

& ow 

A 

a a 

a |, 

a |¢ 
Deg.| In. 
a9 | 3.32 
93.41 1.73 
241] 2.81 
33.0 | 2.06 
Eo: eee 
35.9 | 2.83 
34.4 | 3.19 
35.8| 1.85 
mol cae 
25.2} 1.30 
25.0} 1.96 
21.3| 3.34 
95.0} 2.50 
97.4| 3.31 
24.6] 2.45 
25.5 |en-cn0 
97.8 | 3.56 
24.2] 3.57 
29.0} 3.33 
94.9 | 1.55 
27.0 |..---< 
28.3 }...... 
97.5 | 2.90 
36.71 1.44 
25.8] 3.03 
2at |... 
98.3 | 3.95 
28.1] 3.26 
29.3 | 3.44 

.3 | 262 
32.7| 1.36 
33.4] 2.19 
31.8] 258 
37.0] 0.90 
34.5 + 4.30 
33.6] 1.59 
31.3] 1.86 
33.4] 1.59 
35.51 1.60 
34.1] 232 
33.7| 2.03 
25.8] 1.04 
32.0] 1.13 
95,5 | 1.55 
33.0] 1.80 
36.8 | 2.12 
33.3 [ennace 
"33.1 | 1.50 
33.1] 1.49 
31. Of es 
97.7 | 1.65 
36.11 2°39 
1-9 | 39 


ee a 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 667 


Meteorology of 1870-—-Continued. 


NOVEMBER. DECEMBER. 


& 3 a es pC : oe atures 
~ ~ 
State and station. a a E A 5 a. # Bi 
~ ~ ~ ~ 
Date. | ¢ 5 Date. y 5 Ey s z Date. | g z Date. P 5 Ey 3 E 
o ~ Bo ~ 8 q 8 = fond 5 ~ 2 i] a 
5 q 3 A A 
B eel @ ie E a ai he 
a a A lf A Fe A |e 
| 
Deg. In Deg. | Deg. In. 
64| 16,19 1.59 4| 58 30 4 2. 00 
67 TG OO ahh ecole se Se oe Pr) Rpm a tlandiel jas. = 
) 66 20 aay Gi) 4 61 24 8 i 2.35 
A rea Dale . . .|2, 2 62 5 5 ee 4 61 | 24, af 5 ep “14 
Ol 2 64 0. 7. 3 54 5 0 1.1 
Lewisburg ......- 2} 61 16 1. 60 4| 57] 24,30 4 1.53 
Grampian Hills. - 2 G4 i 1.55 i 51 24] — 6 3. 30 
Johnstown......-. 2 67 11 1.32 5 60 24 0 (eee 
Riamnwun 1. -... 2 67 it 2.35 4 55 |23,24,29 2 4. 66 
tea 8 - cee 2 2 67 a 43.0 | 1.30 5 at a ; 2. 00 
onne. eeekee 2 71 adi ll Si EE 5 2 24) — encase 
Brownsville ..-... 2,8 70 19) [Oar ae ress 5 62 24 CON as 230) EAS 
pewasstle meee ee 9) : 60 : : .6 | 2.20 4 55 = 1 1,50 
Bayete ->...-... 2, 65 iy | Saaee 5| 56 2 4 0.70 
Caronsburg...... Peper: il 41.7 | 1.06 4| 62 2) 1.78 
A-yerages....|..-..---|.. Be oral bpm s'ais altars Ay de ee 0 Ree) are Beeman ia (oe 1.90 
————> | === ——— 
DELAWARE. 
Putt be 5 65 20 2. 20 5 58 Q7 1.06 
Wo oy ee 9 73 20 1.10 2 58 |24,25,30 10 0.97 
is —= = 
Woodlawn....-.- 9 7 20 2. 24 2 60 24 6 1, 84 
F allston eee 29 72 20 1. 66 4 65 24 7 2.10 
wesc |. |” me) 4) 8) 8] |e) 28 
URC Re ee a Se ee ee ee) | 5g : a 
Mt. St. Mary’s 29 64 20 1. 83 5 59 24 5 2.05 
Averages..-./.... fied Sidge| SAeece ca Lee LY CBO Res Rpt acinar pele Aira | 
65 19 1. 37 5 58 24 8 0.95 
=—— | | 
76 20 2.00 5 66 30 9 | 38.7) 2.15 
72 20 1,55 4.5 1\ 21Go 25 6 | 338.7) 2.50 
78 20 2.54 5 71 25} —4] 38.2] 3.80 
71} 16,19 0. 94 5 61 25 6 | 35.9] 0.99 
69 20 1.30 5 59 235 8 | 348) 3.40 
Ww 16 » 0.50 4,5 60 | 24, 25 10 | 32.1] 0.60 
68 | 19,20 1.75 45 60 30 4} 33.0] 1.45 
67 20 1. 80 4 63 30 3 | 36.6 
69 20 2. 00 5 64 30 2/323 
Th 5 5 7. 2. 4 
oa 13} 0G] 1020 i7| “s| os| os|—a{are 
Lynchburg a 2,13] 68 "20 1.63 4] 62 24 9 | 38. 
ear Wytheville. 2 66 20 1.55 4 60 24) —4 
LPC BARRE Aad Bop eoran Zc ek Ao POL bs sao. ~ cada wci|oram=nin Pa esate 
NORTH CAROLINA. { 
Goldsboro ......- 3, 5,9 80 17 2. 00 5 72 25 8 
ee Sette 9, 30 69 Q1 : a 5 67 | 24,25 Y! 
i as 9,13 70 20 2. 4 5 63 25 5 
Prot a apaine 1 a8 re t 4 2, 4,5 70 25 0 
esvillo ......- 6 7 2 56 | 24,25 0 
Asheville, (A)...- 2) 69 20 1. 80 5| 64] 24,25] —12 
Wc 0H) os: 1,2] 66 20| 48 | 44.1 ]...... 5| 62] 24,25 0 er 
| 


CAD aaets baa dsoa|Snixacafssao0 «2 fastens . 2S, Jl EEE) | Pree eee ere err 
| 


668 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


| NOVEMBER. | DECEMBER. 

i Bales : 

ay | oll og bps B 6 || ele 

} = = ie m SL 2 S 

z Bo bats z, | 2 | 5313 

. 6 Hae =| = A = =I = r=] 
State and station. 5. iB a i B = 5 ‘ 
5 ol) +95 [7] > es +s 2 E 
| Date. = | Date S| & |<] Date. | =& | Date. | & leas 
Bs BE =| a= 5= =I 
= ed | 2h o 8 5 Saf =~ o 8 5 
FI 5 ~ a = = 
5 4 os iS | i Bayes 
2 A elie [ies a | a |e 
as S | ee OOS eee ee 
‘ SOUTH CAROLINA. | } 

Deg. | eg | Deg. Deg. | In. | | Deg. 
Blnffton.......... 3,8] 86 | { aa ; 39 | 60.9 | 4.20 5 | 5.20 
Gowdeysville .... 9| 7) '20|° 27] 521|250 4,5 9 | 5 | 0 
Aber et... 3} 7] 19| @1527/211 5 | 3 

GEORGIA 
lifer jig eae 1,9 u 0. 75 19 2.10 
St. Mary’s -..---- 9 80 | 2. 65 19 ‘i 5 3. 07 
Penhela ye: --..... ae 7 2. 95 5 Ze 3. 40 
Atlanta.-.-.....-. 16 76 4. 62 4- 7 6 
Ayerages...-|........ | =-4095 Eraene } . 9B 
ALABAMA. 
Rockville........ 25| 7 5 4.00 
Carlowville.-.--- 2 84 7 P 7.70 
ilies 5a ae PAB} 85 5 5. 20 
Greene Springs -. 4 80 7 P 5.13 
Coatopa.....----- 4 83 5 ¢ . 5. 80 
Fish River. ..-...- 5 76 1, 6,7 5.25 
Averages....)..-....-|-..---|.------.|------| 53.6 | 5.18 |.....--.)....-- 1 
FLORIDA. 
Near Port Orange) 2, 4,14 78 17,19 30 
Jacksonville ..--- 2 85 6, 8,19 % 
Wilatks 2: .|-5. = -- 9 i) 31 11 
Newport..-.-.--. 3. SL 2 . 15 
Wlapepdcnee:.. fone hi. 2 fa stess |. 2 ten a| a see ae eee me locas 14 . 50 
Averages....|...-.-.. Geecod Bema beeace jis Ui lei b Si See soe 4. 
TEXAS. 
Clarksville. .....- 8 MBA) (22525 4}) sesSudd te soe a- 4} 68| 24) 15) 
Gilmer... .--- =. | 2 90 4 19 
LOVTS G12) 3 48 5. CAC ean! (es So Se eee oss Sa ee ee ee See 46] .80| . 23 | LOU eeeee 
Oakland’... ------ 4 88 4 . 00 
Biue Branch...-- 6 9 6, 31 Ww 
10) Feit 8 3, 4,5 86 4 37 
Clinton .5...-.... 2 89 4 10 
AUStin 25 --\.-. 2 90 4 . 30 
San Antonio ...-. 2 89 31 . 60 
PAW RENE PSs 2 cn citln~ = =| 'sese == EL Ble ico = -[ eee e eI MOR ee ete IE tee acl goers 55 
LOUISIANA. 
New Orleans. .--. 4 85 z{ 
Shreveport. -..--. 2,5 80.) 27) 220 1) 45:6 je...--).28.. 2c 5 ee 
Ponchatoula .---. 2,3 SO 5 
MISSISSIPPI. 
Columbus ..---.-- 5 80 aF Hf 
Enterprise. .-.--- 6 895) (23,24) SU OO Ih sono 3 
HUA GI NER Soo cl: secs oa fetap ecle cree 2 =| sans aelbeoase | ssee- 5,7 
Grenada ......-.. 5| 86 5 
Near Brookhaven! 3 84 7 
Ciinton'Gallage ©. |- . 2os-|- gape -|2 sees - =| eee os |p Sees eee 7 
Hoy Springs. --. 5 67 Leek aes 
AAVEPASER pi alt a2 -~- a >)eo ans <|ethw ace c[k aeae 50.8] 3.58 1.22.0... 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 669 


Meteorology of 1870—Gontinued. 


| NOVEMBER. DECEMBER. 


| 
; ras : sicko a GS 
# 2 slg es f2| ae 
State and station. ae yey Sle 5 salvia | ates | a 
ars) +o 2 & +o YS 2 ! & 
Date. = | Date a =| 36 | Date: | «8 } Date. ca a Mal IB 
i= ae =e A ag RE = & RE 
z ge) 2. ee cb E=| 5 | 38 
i=] iol 
c zg | 8/4 c #142 la 
s — oe a 3S os A=} = 
A A A | 4 a A A | 
ARKANSAS 
_ | Deg. Deg. Deg Deg.| Deg.) In. 
Helenaiace:-: <... 4,5 | °86 26| 31 7| 2 24] 4.) Sa eee 
Mineral Springs. .| 2 80 22 24 4,5 66 24 8] 40.3) 4.50 
Fayetteville .-... Be ig2 22] 20 SAU Ap 24 | —12| 33.0] 9.74 
TENNESSEE. } 
Elizabethton. ---. 2 72} 19,20 22 4 E 4 60 25 | — 2} 33.2] 0.65 
Tusculum Coll.--|..-.-...|..-... Ps cisteic cies |oa atte alee cee = ie 5 64 a ie 82h el eee 
Knoxville.....--.. 7 Vee 18 22 5 65 24)" — hea 1.70 
Lookout Mount'n. 6 72 | 19,23 30 5 67 | D4) | — Bi Wate esses 
MeMinnville. .-.. P|) Mice 19) pekee 5| 68 24 0 | 36.9 | 3.20 
Clarksville....-.-. 4 it at) 24 4,5 65 24 0 | 35.7 | 307 
La Grange Aossace 4 83 2 29 4 66 | 24 4137.3| 47 
Pemetmmes re. | LS... c sk. | secured | 2h Rs Pe BAca Be Bees Beemer: 35.5 | 2.66 
_——S_ 
KENTUCKY. | | 
| 
Pine Grove trip wag 2 72 19 20 } 43.9 | 2. 46 | 5 64 24)— 6 | 34.1] 2.36 
Danville . tS aim « 2 15 19 26 | 47.7 | 1.26 5 7 24)/—4/349) 2.64 
Shey cy Seoos 2 76 19 24 | 46.6} 1.91 5 65 24,—4/ 341] 2.48 
Near Louisville. . 2 | 15 19 20 | 46.6 | 2. 40 4,5 58 | 24 | — 2 | 33.4] 2.20 
PAN (S15 22 2 90) A SS ee a ee SG Os She clea Seats a ate oc ferte te 324] 2.42 
Owo. 
PRIORY we-ss- o- 42. 2,8 70 25 22 | 39.5 | 1.84 5 59 25 | — 6 | 27.2) 2.79 
Steubenville ...-. 2,8 63} 11,19 28 | 43.0 | 125 4 54 | 24,25 2)310}] LB 
Painesville ...-.-. 8 68 | 25, 26 23 | 40.9 | 3.88 5 54 25} — 1] 26.0] 6.10 
Milnersville...... | 8 62 11 20 | 35.8; 1.40) 1,2,3 50 24} ==. 4 Pa 0. 58 
Cleveland ......-. 8 72 29 22 | 40.2 | 3.07 5 58 | 24,25 1} 28.9 | 282 
Wooster ------... Bee rer Leeeed be oBa Bae Enseee coca beemse a) he 24] — 4] 30.3 ]...-,- 
Pennswille --.----|.--.....).0---|--5-----[oo-=--|enense|------ 5 54 24 | — 6 | 23.9} 3.00 
Gallipolis........ 2 2 16| 28] 45.2] 1.35 5 | 63 24|—1/ 31,3] 2.28 
Adams’ Mills ... 8 68 19 21 | 42.2] 1.56 5 61 24)— 4/310) 2.10 
Oberlin 2.2. --... 8 71 25 18 | 38.9 } 2.60 o{ 58 24)— 5 | 27.2) 2.35 
Kelley’s Island -. 8| 70 19| 30} 43.21 1.64 5| 55 | 23,2 0} 29.9} 2.23 
Sandusky.....--- 8 72) 19,25. 27 | 41.8 | 293 5 57 24} — 1] 29.7) 2.48 
Gataoirsces- cone 8 70 25 24 | 42.6 | 1.95 1 by 23 0 | 29.8] 1.60 
North Fairfield -. 8 74 19 24 | 42.7 | 2.16 4 60 24/—8 | 25] 1.81 
Gambier ......-.. | 64 OR ea es Ee el ee Pee Bere ee = 
Westerville...... | g 70 19 20 | 40.9 | 1.63 5 61 24) — 7} 29.2) 2.43 
North Bass Island) Ds. Gi 19| 27| 4.9} 3.01 Silene 25|— 2} 29.5] 2.68 
Marton: 9.252. 05s | 2,8 G7 19 18 | 389 | 2. 42 1,3, 4 49 24|/—9 | 26.5) 2.63 
Hillsboro ........ ‘ 2} 66 25.| 21} 42.3) 1.59 5} 60 24{— 6129.1] 2.41 
BowlingGreen...|  2| 7. 19| 21|425|/165| 45] 57 23 | —10 | 29.3 | 3.75 
Kentonigess. 2.03. 2 61 19 30 | 42:3} 1.75 5 21 24,25 | —12) 31.5] 5.08 
Bellefontaine -...; 2,8 68 19 26 | 40.3 | 2.25 5 58 24 | —l4 | 26.7 | 2.72 
Uxbana ...-. a 8 69 | 17,24 23 | 40.4 | 1.90 4; 33 24 | —12 | 26.9) 3.13 
Betliole-5 32.2 At. 2 7} 24,25 17 |) 425196 2.50 5 63 24) — 8 | 2223) 2.10 
Carthagena ...... 8 70; 10,22 27 | 43.5.) 2. 75 5 59 24 | —15 | 28.7 | 3.8 
Jacksonburg satay 2,8 74 19 29 | 44.2 | 1.50 4 oT 24 | —12 | 29.7} 3.10 
Mt. Auburn Inst. 2 val 19 28 | 45.5 | 2.21 q 60 24 | —10 | 30.9 | 2.09 
Cincinnati, (H)-.- 8 75 24 24 | 45.0 | 1.50 4 60 24|/— 8] 30.4] 2.17 
Dorks (Eye. 2 67 19, 23,24) 27 | 44.2) 1.40 5] 63 24|— 7/ 31.8 | 2.30 
College Hill ...... 2| 72 |19,23,24) 27] 438/200} 3,45! 52 24 | —10 | 29.4] 2.95 
AVEIAZER)“6e-|- = 62 -.-|---65 + A Bee Beer 41 9 | 201 2s Ceshile Saba pean eee 2. 66 
———— | _————— 
MICHIGAN. | | 
Detroit. 422-225. 21 <68 19 22 | 39.0 | 2.00 | 4 55 23 | —11 | 27.2} 2.90 
pity a Lhd ARS Oe go ee ee) (Se eee ote | 4 60 | 24) —5 | 29.2) 1.40 
Ann Arbor....-.. 2,8 64 19 22 | 3868 | 2.10 4 5B | 23,25 | — 4); 27.9] 4.99 
oe Sn acs i =f 12 56 21 26 | 385 | 0.96 a 44 23 G | 27.4] 2.02 
SO RUC LA PAM MOMs] oat see fercten|'s a ~-----|o2so05|enenac|anwnne 4 52 23 | —11 | 24.8} 2.57 
Oh yvat Covleresna| se - sae slowtecet~ ns <-4nclesecsnlawcncalecson= 4 49 291 —4124.71 3.97 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


NOVEMBER. 
3 a 3) alee 
5 3 £12 
Sy a ie © 
State and station. | = EI a . , 
Date. g 3 Date. I 3 g 5 8 
= 5 AE an 
iI q a | 
A a | 8 |4 
a A A | 
Micu.—Cont’d. | 
Deg. Deg.| Deg.| In 
Litchfield......-. 2 66 22 19 | 37.1 | 1.98 
Cold Water. ....- 2 66 22 18 | 38.2 | 1,44 
Grand Rapids (H) 2 69 22 16 | 39.4 | 1.37 
Do (5) 8 65 22 16 | 39.6 | 0.88 
Northport .-.....-. 1 62 21 23 | 39.0 | 1.58 
Benzonia .....-.. 8 61 21 20 | 39.4 | 1.30 
pe sa Falls... .. 1 50 21 9 | 32.0 | 1.85 
Ontonagon .-...-. 2 50 21 20 | 39.0 | 0.90 
PASTRIES ee og See | ee ee SN we Ee 38.2 | 1.58 
INDIANA. 
MVE = oo |i 2. 2-|oaeas. [ose ce ccs |b oO eewleteeeelody.. 
ABBEDT A oc ae-'5 =. 4,8 70 24 22 |} 43.4 | 1.16 
WOVE <se0ss---- 2 74 | 19,23 24 | 44.9 | 1:50 
Mount Carmel ... 2 68 19 PSR he EO} eases 
Spiceland ........ 2,8 7 23 22 | 41.1) 1.75 
Laconia...-.-.... 2,4 74 19 22 } 45.7 | 2.26 
Columbia City ... 2| 69 ; ey 32 | 44.1 | 1.94 
AD 
Knightstown --.. 2 7 23 20 | 42.6 | 1.62 
Warsaw -.---.--.. 28 65 22 2B jeweses 2.33 
Indianapolis -.-.. 2,8 71 19 20 | 42.7 | 1.27 
Near Laporte. -.. 8 65 22 24 | 53.7 | 0.70 
Annapolis .....-.. 28 68 19 16 | 39.1 | 1.10 
Moeromy een ---~ - 2 73 UD 26 | 46.5 | 1.50 
een lanes 20 2|5 2 OSE oo |c tee eco ke | eae eeu ce ee 
New Harmony ... 2 72 19 23 | 46.8 | 1.27 
Averages ....|..... SSS 5] Pas a een ee 8 2 44.3 | 1.53 
ILLINOIS. 
Chicaro..-....... | 8 69 19 27 | 43.8 | 1.16 
Near Chicago oe 28 74 19 92! | 4250. 52 
Evanston -.-..--. 2 66 19 22 | 40.2 | 1.58 
Marengo..---.--- | 8 68 | 19,22 17 | 37.8 | 0.69 
Charleston .-..--. 2 13 19 17 | 41.9 | 2.01 
Mattoon ---.-.---- 1,2 68 22 21 | 43.7 | 3.00 
Aurora --~...---- 8 67 | 19,22 19 | 38,2 | 1.51 
Louisville -... ... 2 79 19 20 | 46.4 | 1.80 
Belvidere .-...--- 8,12 64 22 11 | 36.6 | 2.33 
Ottawa ....------ | 8| 69 |21,22,30| 26] 42.9 | 1.538 
Decatur -_.-. -i-- 2 69 | 19,22 20 | 43.4 | 1.68 
1 eae Sate 2 72 22 22 | 42.9) 1.25 
Winnebago -.-.-- 12] 62] 21,22} 17] 37.5] 0.60 
Rochelle .....---. 2 63-| 19, 22 20 | 38.2 j...... 
Wyanet .--..-... 12 3 2 19 | 44.1 | 1.84 
Hennepin, (S)---- 8 70 22 U7, {4310 4o =. su 
Do..-.(O)---.| 1, 2,28 66 22 18 | 41.9 | 2.10 
ROMA see === 2, 28 68 22 20 | 43.3 | 1.21 
Havana 2 2e:.-+=. 28 70 22 15 | 41.6 | 2.50 
Waterloo ........ 2,4 72 22 20: | 442722 ae. 
Duabois.ss-o..- 2: 2 75 23 22 | 46.2 | 2.20 
Galesburg .-...... 12 66 22 22 | 43.1 | 0.60 
Manchester - ----- QT 73 22 20 | 44.0 | 1.65 
Mount Sterling -. 28 69 22 22 | 45.8 | 1.55 
Andalusia ...-.-. 3 64 22 LS A ee eet 
Oquawka .--.---- 12 80 22 20 | 44.2 | 1.67 
Agusta 222522. 12, 27,28) 69 22 | 17] 42.9°| 1.40 
Warsaw <22.:2.: WL (16,18, 22) 25 | 43.9 | L533 
Averages ....]......-- 


Date. 


Maximum tempera. 
ture 


> 
os 
WS 


feb OS He CT He 
nS 
© 


pes ee 
DECEMBER. 
: ; =} 
Slee 
By o 
| 3 S| 
2 ) o° E 
Date. 2 = = 3S 
Moss 
: A 
Ee a 2) 
A a| & 
Deg.| Deg.| In. 
29 | —12.| 243 |) 2ea6 
23,24 | — Beer 3.50 
23 | — 2.) haw awe 
23 | —AL eee 3. 89 
22 10 | 27.6) 3.08 
23 10 | 28.3) 4.01 
23,24 | — 3 | asa TS 
22 | — Pi 2eoaceee 
= oe eiiz.= 1 a 26.1 | 3.32 
24 | —16 | 27.4 6. 71 
24} — 8 | 30.7) 2.37 
24) — 4] 32.1 mas 


LS 
ee OT OT 

or 

~ 


be eet ee COR ROOT 
or 
@ 


~ 


Ree PRR OLR eS 
or 
co 


dns 
fe ele 
PARE ORDOM AAA REDO ROR 
© 
a 


os 


« 


ee ees ee 


24} —10 | 26.5 | 2.07 


23,24 | —9| 22.3] 2.46 
23 | —14 | 26.9 |...2.. 
23,24 | —10 | 96.3 | 2.15 
23 | —18 | 22.5] 1.50 
93 | —22 | 96.5 | 1.85 
24|— 8128.4] 2.38 
24 | —93 | 93.4] 1.47 
24 | —14 | 30.4] 2.60 
23 | —15 | 22.8 | 2.53 
na! a4 | ig fer | 2.95 
24 | —11 | 27.2] 1.65 
23 | —15 | 21.5] 0.78 
23 | —15 | 24.0 |..5--- 
23 | 13 | 26.2] 1. 
24 | —12 | 25.0 |... 
93 | —11 | 26.2] 1.10 
23,24 | —13 | 27.7 | 1.07 
23) —19 | 26.4 | 1.71 
23 | — 6 | 29.0} 1.07 
24 | —16 | 30.6] 215 
23 | —10 | 27.3! 1.08 
ue laa ae 
24 | — 7 | 29. . 2 
93 | — 8 | aime ome 
93,24) — 5] 285] 0.62 
24 | 12] 97.0] 141 
24| 10] 97.1] 129 
Ea) ce |..----| 26.7 [duo 


METEOROLOGY OF 1870. 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


NOVEMBER 
# s 5 |3 
Oo 3) =| P| 
a Boe 
State and station. a SBE RA ve ae 
+o ~o ay E 
Date. & | Date. cs wo 
85 g5/8 saa 
oS ~ B ~~ 2 Ga 
| q 4 
A 3 aS A 
cs - (3) 3 
A A als 
— Ce ee ee ee eS ee 
WISCONSIN. 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. 
Sturgeon Bay....| 2.26 58 21 18 | 38.8 
Manitowoc -... -- 2 60 19 20 | 40.0 
i 8 65 21 20 | 40.4 
8 69 22 20 | 30.0 
2 62 Q1 14 | 383 
a ley 60 Q1 18 | 38.2 
4 | 62 QL 16 | 36.5 
8 71 Q1 16 | 338.4 
i 8 64 22 19 | 33.7 
Edgerton .......- 27| 66 |19, 21,22] 20 | 40.6 
Mosinee .-....... 13, 27 55) 21 10 | 32.5 
a 5 60 21 0 | 29.7 
Tunnel City .-.... 7 ( 60 21 12 | 37.6 
i 26 60 oF 8 | 36.5 
Asyerapes ....]......-.. | Bs fore) eee! [6S ey 25 36. 8 
MINNESOTA, | 
Beaver Bay..-... 26 62 21 20 | 36.3 
BtsPamie ce. f.2... 1 64 18 19 | 38.4 
Minneapolis --.-. 1 63 pal 6 | 36.8 
iin a ae 3 60 21 10 | 36.4 
Koniska ..... bives gf 60 Q1 4 | 35.4 
Litchfield........ 1 64 21 16 | 38.5 
Ow Wits s.55.. 1 68 21 14 | 39.4 
ONAL Se. sec. 25 | 74 21 10 | 38.6 
Averages ...-|...-.-.. BE eee ey oesse ee 37.5 
| irs! 
IOWA. | 
lites oo... 5. 30 70 |18, 21,22) 18 | 37.5 
Waukon......... | 1| @ 18| 18 | 36.7 
Dubuque ---.---. 6 60 22 22 | 39.7 
Monticello ....-..| 2,12,26) 60 21 17 | 38.0 
_Muscatine ....... 2 62 § 21,22 21 | 39.7 
Bowen’s Prairie. . il 70 |16, 18, 21 20 | 39.4 
Fort Madison..... 28) 65 22| 19 | 42.8 
Guttenberg..-..-.- 1 64 | 18,21 16 | 36.7 
Mount Vernon... 12 61 | 21,22 19 | 38.0 
Towa City. --..-.. 1 66 22 20 | 39.4 
Independence. --. 1 61 | 16,18 18 | 37.6 
Near Independ’ce. 1,26 62) 19, 24 12 | 33.0 
Rockford ..--..-- 1 62 18 20 | 37.8 
TPT pee a eee be ee aude Ueee sicl bowtrenile 
as ars eee it 66 21 8 | 37.8 
Webster City---. 26 67 21 10 | 33.3 
Boonesboro .....- | 1| 62 21 | 11 | 38.0 
Fontanelle......-. eee di bet Od, 21 13 | 40.4 
Grant City....--- | 26| 71 21| 10 | 40.2 
Sao City -.-..-..: 26 68 21 10 | 39.3 
(i) i Be Se 27 65 21. 8 | 41.6 
Woodbine .....-. 3 78 21 8 | 39.9 
West Union ..... il 7 18 19 | 40.9 
TAG eae 2 Sane (Sees! Pt ae eet 38. 8 
MISSOURI. 
St howls: a6. 2,4 74 22 25 | 47.3 
Allenton......... 4 80 22 14 j 45.9 
Hematite ........ 2 83 22 14 | 47.0 
Hannibalss2-52.- 1 69 22 92 | 44.0 
Rollac take». F554 4 77 2 15°} 45. 7/7 
Jefferson City. --. Q7 78 22 21 | 46.6 
Kansas City ..-.. 20 74 21 20 ' 45.5 


671 


| DECEMBER. 
es ace ke: 
a a a 
8 3 @ | 48 
3) oO. is] : 
baa +9 a E 
Date. | g& | Date) 8) 5° | Bg 
a g 2 ia 
oS ie 3 e 
A A Aa |e 
Deg. Deg. | Deg. | In. 
ft 46 24 | —3 | 249) 2.39 
Qi}, 48 23°| —10 | 25/61] 2.13 
2 48 | 23,24 | —10 | 24.3 |.....- 
2) 50] 23,24] —10| 25.2) 1.79 
2 49 23. | —17 | 21.7 VTi 
2 49 |23, 24,29) —10 | 24.2 1.20 
2| 54]  23|—14] 21.4] 1:95 
2 49 29 | —14 | 23.2] 1.40 
2 48 Q4 | —13 | 22.2] 0.67 
3| 55 | 23,24 | —12 | 2491] 0.90 
4 48 23 | —24)17.3 | 1.66 
3 50 23 | —16 | 22.3) 4.00 
3] 48 94 | Saas Ie ea 
il 50 23. | —12 | 21.6 [_-.... 
os feign ate Guie aif = Uegeoicio| Sie RNS 23.0 | 1.74 
bemoan anne] 
5 43} 22,28 | —16 | 21.9 | 4.80 
3 52 23 | —15 | 19.7 | 0.90 
1] 53 23 | 21] 17.3 | 0.60 
a 53 23 | —21|188] 0.10 
Z 54 23 | —20 119.2] 0.45 
1 54 26 | —14] 18.5] 0.30 
3 55 23 | —20 | 20.7} 0.35 
3 70 23 | —22 | 28.8] 1.00 
Ene eee reed (5 Seer eel sea 20.6 | 1.06 
2 64 23 | —14 | 25.1] 0.52 
|). oa | 23, 94)) Gi eh 5 
2 51 23 | —12 | 24.0] 0.68 
3 53 23 | —12 | 22.7] 0.54 
3 52 23 | —18 | 23.7] 0.80 
4| 56] 23,24|—8|284] 072 
3| 52] 93,241 —14 | 20.2 |_-..2. 
1 52 23 | —14 | 23.4 |... ce 
i 54 23 | —11 | 24.4] 0.35 
3 52 23 | —15 | 20.9] 0.90 
3 53 23} —17 | 19.5] 0.70 
4 54 23 | —11 | 23.3) 0.45 
P4 2 25 | —16 | 23.3 | 0.56 
3 57 23 | —17 | 21.1 | 0.40 
2 54 23 | —14 | 22.1] 0.06 
3 53 93 | —14 | 23.4 |...... 
3 53 23 | —14 | 24.0] 0.10 
3 60 23 | —20 | 21.8] 0.20 
3 521 22,23 | —14 | 22.31 0.30 
2 58 23 | —17 | 24.4] 0.20 
3 56 23 | —19 | 23.0] O32 
2 61 22,23 | —18 | 21.8} 1.40 
BEES wet a o:| Sele e ofa Conte ten [ek cn ee 23.0] 0.5L 
4 58 24)—4/32.0); 1.89 
4 Gt 24 | —16 | 29.6 | 2.85 
1 val 24 | —25 ] 31.5] 3.62 
4 66 24 | —10 | 27.4] 1.10 
4} 62 24 | —23 | 30.5.) 2.44 
1), 654) 24 | 101396, 0nlc ae 
4 58 ! 241—6! 29.41 0.60 


AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


State and station. 


JASE DS) 6 55) BOS Soom psobes| ocese eed paca 


Date. 
Mo. —Cont’d. 
Oregon .--. -:--.- 1,12 
Corning .--.--.-. 12 
Averages 
KANSAS. 
ATch ones 6s. 12 
Williamstown . -. Q7 
Leavenworth ....| 12,27 
Williamsburg.-...} 26,27 
Olathe seo -s.. 12, 27 
Paolseece ss. sec 2 
Baxter Springs -. 4 
Lawrence. ....... 12 
ERBIEON cap atest = ain = 12 
State Agr’) Coll Qt 
Council Grove .-. 27 
Douglass .... .... 1 
Averages ....|-------- 
NEBRASKA. 
Omaha Agency .. 26 
Deisoto-secee-- =" OT 
Bellevue ....----. 26 
Nebraska City... 1, 26, 27 
Newcastle ......- 1 
UTAU. 
Salt Lake City --. 1 
Coalville. .-...... 26 
CALIFORNIA. 
Monterey .....-.- 20 
Chicowesee622 19 
15, 16, 
Watsonville ..-..- ; 18, 19, 
Qh 
@abtoes Asis ite 15, 18, 19 
Waspliaeset =) -262 20, 23 
Taylorsville . -..-. 1 
PAVIA EES -) celle =~ <n 
MONTANA. 
Deer Lodge City. 25 
Missoula...-..... 3 
COLORADO. 
Denver City -.-... 24 
WASHINGTON. 
1,2,8, 15, 
Port Angeles... ¢ |16, 18,21, 
29, 23 
Cathlamet ...-... 23 
OREGON. 
Portlandsse222-= - 12 | 
Hola) Jems 24 
Astoria 2.205--5.. 22 


Meteorology of 1870—Continued. 


Maximum tempera- 
ture 


72 


73 
72 
65 


68 


NOVEMBER. | 
Sel 
Be | fale 
=| s | 8 
a . 
Date. =e = 3 5 Date 
=i 2 aR 
ee ps 
2 a | 4 
— ped a 
| A Aa | ae 
Deg. | Deg.| In. 
21 17 | 45.2 | 0.35 3 
21 18 | 42.7 | 0.45 3 
B5p5N 1.4041..28. 2. 
ree 
21 16 | 43.5 | 0.65 3 
21 19 | 46.3 | 0.64 30 
2 17 | 44.01 0.7 3 
16 hy lat: 7 | 2 
21 15 | 43.4 } 0.50 | 4 
21 17 | 45.6 | 0.47 3,4 
21, 22 22 | 48.8 | 1.50 4 
21 17 | 44.9 | 0.57 3 
21 14 | 43.4 | 0.50 4 
21 17 | 45.6 | 0.13 4 
21 16 | 45.6 | 0.20 4 
21 eh eto) bosses 3 
Sees Boanc Oe OM Oso o Moe ate 
18 22 
A 13 
21 15 
21 13 
21 10 
2a ee 
24] 14 
28 39 
27 36 
26,27 | 33 
10 38 
11,26} 37 
28 | 36 
be) 15 
29 24 
14] 20 
7| 40] 48.8 [15.32 | 10,28 
20 S2t DBI ete see 30 
[Saar ca freee oem 
17| 37] 48.0 | 6.05 | 30 
6.4 25) |), 4203") 5.1054 30 
7 i | 47.3 110, 31 30 


DECEMBER.’ 

i We mae Stra 
por) os as oO 
El EI & | 4 
26 eee : 
=; Date. a! o' |36 
2h d=) 8 18a 
3 ae Y= 

A a ¢ | 4 
& ood a) = 
A P| a |e 
Deg. Deq.| Deg.\ In. 
63 23 | 11] 288! 0.45 
65 93 | —13 | 200 Wo Ones 
oa sine ea |----+=] PoE aes 
62 24 | 7 onl 0. 73 
66 24) —10 | 30.4] 1.12 
62 24 | —11 | 28.3] 0.65 
65 23 | —13 | 28) 9iaenuee 
63 24 | —11 | 27.1] 0.40 
63 24 | —12 | 29.3] 0.80 
64 24 | —10 | 31.7] ‘0.90 
64 24|—10] 28.7; 0.72 
66 23 | —12 | 28.2] 0.48 
68 23 | —11 | 30.1] 0.45 
66 23 | 12 | 29.2] 0.50 
66 93 | _ 7 | Sia) dees 
MTeoR Nemes PIR 29.2 | 0.73 
" 23.| —15 | 27.1] 0.58 
BY 23 | —18 | 24.7] 0.13 
63 93 | —11 | 28.1] 0.10 
66 23 | —14 | 26.1] 0.17 
68 23 

66 20 

52 22 

4 [17, 18, 22 

65 1 

"3 18 

58] 16,93 

65 28 

56: 16 

56° 21 

56 18 

60 2t 

48 |18, 21, 22 

52 21 

61 at 

53 - 21 

53 20 


DONATIONS TO THE AGRICULTURAL MUSEUM. 


DONATIONS TO THE AGRICULTURAL MUSEUM. 


Name. Residence. 

Abou, HOD. ds Hino... 1.0 sc Abbottsburg, N.C ...-..-..- 
Weaame. Mrs. 1. Bw. s25 2-324 Constantine, Mich .....-.-. 
Akhurst, John ...-...-..-...- Brooklyn; Ni ....152.2545 
PAMGISOU OTE Js. ssases asses Washington, D.C ........- 
Army Medical Museum....../..-.-- Ge or hopes Garcons 
Baily, G. W .----------------- New Yorl: City........... 
TUS 2 3)0| BOSS eee eee eee Biehland ys 332.320.0225. 
Baker & Smith .............. Wanego, Kansas. .......-- 
Barient, WOVi=.255---.+5.--55 NWWATTGDYING Eo code scecee. 
to: an) di 4 Bement. c.s2schnees wen 
Belden, Samuel A ...---.-..-- Brownsville, Texas.....-.. 
ae Did is) 66h aaa Surgeon General's Office -. 
Bliss. t., 6 Som..-...-.--3- New! Yorke... stay lasts 
Beawaman, G. As... ...sl.. 58. Calais MON. 1.0 sco ccda cea 
LG. (Can ' ea 4.| Waupon wis: <<... 50-4 
Bonnelli, Daniel.......-...--- St. Thomas, Utah ......... 
Bondick, Miss BH. ............ Camden, N.J ..--.....---. 
Callam, Dr. C.S. N ..-.-.-.... Tenallytown, D.C..-....--. 
Samrat WG. ccss-c5sse Baker County, Oregon ..-. 
Carpenter & Cross ....-...-..- Providence, R.I....-...... 
Gary vames B'. ...--.525 5-2! Blair, Neb ....- ai 
aM yT Oe Wi. J-0 2-242. ase) Pension Cal... i... sccc55 
Cespides, Juan de Deos --..-..- OST belts ccisaciss lm cwniafes 
Chamberlain, S. E............ Waterford; Va ...-..-..2<% 
Cay A eee ote Holyoke, Mass .-.-...-.... 
TEIN as ies Los Vegas, N. M .......-.. 
@lavik; Charles -...-.-.....4. Washington, D.C......... 
Siar 2 LC a Montgomery County, Tex. 
Cornaby, Samuel.....-.-.-..- Spanish Fork, Utah ....:.. 
Otiarede Gee sense wasn sees. Consul at Fayal, Azores, 

Portugal. 
107 Cy, OA eee Allegan, Mich ...-........ 
Do 0 ae Washington, D.C ..-.....- 
De Leon, D. Camden...-.- «--- | Albuqaerque, N. M ....... 
Prokonson, Ov... 2-6. ..s5- 20. Salem, Oregon ...-...-. Pee 
PUENENGIN, VaP sa. 5 =o 5-s'<0% New Berne, N.C - Sai3 
Dodge, Allen. - . Georgetown, D.C th 
Darr Be Ls... ==. -| Depauville, N. Y. BE 
Douglass, A. H Newark, N.d. .....-..s2s0- 
eat {Ole Ee) |e eee 
iireretere Mra 1) 62. oe cee dee Washington, D.C ..-...... 
BGO es Oa cD Re CT ee eee 
Edwards, William H......... Coalburpyiw. Via:...5.25... 
TOE tices bts ee oe was Agent Kansas Pacific R. R. 
Emmert, George W....--.---- Elizabethtown, Tenn...... 
Lines C4 a 2 eae ase 2 Forestville, Minn ... ...... 
ORME PONY, FL ono ., daneaces tee U.S. Consul, Basle, Swit- 

zerland. 
Fahnestock, §.S .....-....... Washington, D.C......-.- 
Fleming, James........-..-.- Toronto, Canada .......... 
Dy 415 200 fy a Washington, D.C ...-..... 
Gibson, Hon. J. R....-.......- Eighth District, Virginia . 
Glover, Prof. Doi s25e5 242552! Washington, D.C ......-... 
(OORRIO Pe luu. clack so tae Saco, Maine..............-. 
ORICA Freie oe Aeircig Seana Lower Waterford, Vt ...-. 
Grant; Mrs. WS: 2202.65.25: Executive Mansion, Wash- 

ington, D.C. 
Hampi, WO) 222 oe S554 Mt. Victory, Ohio ......... 
EPRI, ents: «up caeaceece es SirAword. Vitls.s......+- 4: 
Heatan; dno 5 eases ces ae DiavaCd, POXAS ....ccsse2 
Hershoy, J. F ......------.... Spring Forge, Pa....------ 
lel Sey 510 pe eee Btaroremconer Pine Grove, N.J ..-.-..--- 
Henderson & Fleming ..--... New York City..-.-.-.-.- 
allehrastinhe 22. ssctec~'s U.S. Consul, Canea, Crete. 
Humphrey, KR. W..-..-..-.... Floyd County, Iowa. .----. 
Hungarian Dep’t of Agricul- |..............2..-0026- acer 

ture, Industry and Trade. | 
» 
43 A a 


673 


Article. 


Upland cotton and North Carolina rice. 

Specimens of insects. : 

Five varieties silk cocoons and specimens of 
silk, (Bombyx mori;) larve of Attacus 
permmyi. 

Tnsects. 

Fir wood from Alaska; insects, spices, &c.; 
tour lots. 

Plotus or snake-darter of Florida. 

Fine variety of grain. 

Tappahannock and Tonzelle wheat. 

Seven specimens of wheat in the ear. 

Apples. 

Pod of Mexican butterfly plant. 

Honey ants from New Mexico. 

Fifty-three varieties potatoes ; four varieties 
onions; one barrel fancy gourds. 

Skins of Florida ground-doves, snake-bird, 
and four other valuable skins. 

Red-tieshed apple, called the ‘‘ Curiosity.” 

Fiber of Apocynum cannabinum. 

Wristlets manufactured from Angora wool, 

Curious growth of corn, from C. R. Belt. 

Large crickets, (alcoholic.) 

Samples of worsted braids, from long wool, 


-| Fiber of Apocynum. 


Prunes, (Pond’s seedling.) 

Wild silk. ¥ 

White guinea-fowls and improved white corn, 

Insects. 

Very large onion, grown on the farm of Lo- 
renzo Labadi, at Agua Negro, N. M. 

Colocynth, and large beans, (seed from 
South America.) 

Ramie. 

Samples of cocoons (Bombyx mori) grown on 
Osage orange. 

Specimens of lace-work made by native peas- 
ant women from the fiber of the bitter aloe. 

Fruits, to model. 

Palmetto leaves, Florida. 

Samples of beet-root and specimens of cotton. 

White Australian spring wheat. 

Fine specimens of southern corn, 

Large corn. 


.| Wool. 


Species of Gecko. 

Collection of apples. 

Bird-skins. 

Ramie, China grass, prepared and raw. 

Collection of insects; two lots. 

Wheat grown at Carlyle Station, 2,948 feet 
above the sea. 

Specimen of Dynastes tityus. 

Stalk and fiber of Apocynum. 

Eighteen samples of aniline colors, from R. 
Geigy & Co.; silk-weaving on Jacquard 
loom; specimens of silks, ribbons, sashes, . 
and other silk samples. 

Peck of very large potatoes. 

Nineteen specimens of grain, &c., Canadian. 

Cotton grown in District of Columbia. 

Hottentot apne for modeling; other fruits 
also for modeling. 

Large collection of foreign game birds. 

Specimens of wheat, rye, barley, &c., from 
Maine. 

Maple-sugar. 

Large pears from California. 


Wheat, and New Brunswick oats. 

Five samples maple-sugar; cakes and gran- 
ulated specimens. 

Insects and cocoons. 

White wheat. 

Red-cob gourd seed-corn. 

Asylum sugar-corn. : 

Specimens silk, four yualities, (Bombyx mori.) 

Rio Grande spring wheat. 

Two hundred cases of seeds for museum. 


674 AGRICULTURAL REPORT. 


Name. . Residence. Article. 
SS ee 
rt Mra. Nos seers eons sss Abingdon, Va.-.--.-..cbes Hybrid fowl. 
FITIORINE Re, Wscerseaye>s ane Yosemite Valley, Cal......| Insects and large almonds. 
Judson & Sikes .......-.-.-.. Springfield, Mass - - Joint corn, with packages of seed. 
Kauffman, ——.. -| Alexandria ....... Ferrets, 
Keuling, J. H - Washington, D. C-. .-| Skins of *‘ Least bittern.” : 
Kingsland, G-. Rutherford Park, N.J ....| Sample of corn. 
Lamonte, F. A . -| Vandalia, Cal ............-| Living centipede. 
WE Unie eons A asses TUUGNAG EE oe <2. 2 <a see | Fine cigars. Tobacco grown from Cuba 
; | seed sent out by the Department. 
Teswmenee) ise. <5 2.25263. Plaquemine Parish, La....| Sample of sagar. Very fine. 
Lawrence, Miss Nannie B.-..| Ocean County, N.J.--...-.. Humming-bird nests. 
TALTAND nee sey esse acee nen New Orleans, La.......-.. Ramie cleaned by Lefranc’s machine. 
INGLAy Basel seis. ones ab Greensboro, N.C......--.. One hundred varieties Southern apples. 
Mabrey, Mrs. C. W.......... La Grange, Ga.........-.. | Cocoons (live) of Bombyx mori. 
BVESUIBON NEON Jat mie ccs tees seo shan pac Usivcepep ccccweesyaes Cotton from Canton, China, 
McClary, Benj. R.....-.-..--- Newport, Vt........-----.| Specimens. 
McCought, Miss Eliza ....... Union reward Rap eesae Kentucky corn. 
McGuire, Ji Goon 2 ---.--2----- Washington, D.C..-...... Red squirrel. 
Mechling, Mrs. F. E.D..-...-.. British Honduras, Central | Large collection of snakes and reptiles, and 
America. insects. 
Wei h e oss beh oes. doe Farmingdale, N. Y.....-. Sample of red-bearded Mediterranean wheas. 
Meservey, C. A..-.--.- Sates ame, hie--.-- 2 - os Specimens of ‘silk. Three samples of co- 
coons, &¢, 
Morphy, J. Mol. ...3.-..-<.. PRPIENIOIN, IN ccncssaqa bee Specimens of ixtle fiber. 4 
Newman, Joseph...-..-..-.-- Columbia, S. C......-....- Skins of birds and animals; Indian hatohet; 
’ insects. 
Neumann, Joseph .-..-.------ San Francisco, Cal.....-.-.! Manufactured California silk. 
To foe GR ts BAG oe oe CREE ee 2 ee eee 2 | Specimens of insects; skins of birds and 
| “animals; specimens of faim fibers, In- 
dian food, &c., and rude Indian mannu- 
‘ facture, from Sonora, Mexico, and Arizona. 
Barry: Mire C.0..22-..-26-2-5 Washington, D.C......... Singular corn; kernels inclosed in a husk. 
Parmerson, Mra, C-.---.------|.2.-.- ir Se eS teeta ee Florida orange and lemon. 
1 GIT OND : ee ies UWVIBSLREEY Ste L.. = sincmaenmee Curious specimen of yellow pine. 
Periam, Jonathan.-......-.-.. ‘Chatsworth, Ill............ Samples 1, 2, 3 white sugar from native beets. 
BP fo 0) Oe ees Consord) N.C . ..sameccstes Ramie. . 
LY GO i ea Petersburg, Va..........-- Peanuts. 
Todas bya) 4550 soe son Geese sees San Francisco, Cal..-..... Sorghum sugar and sirup. 
FRSCONOL PEW eso 53-255 66e05 PTAA ola widcmnm came at Leaves of Ilex Cassine, a substitute for tea. 
TED 1 oe Se a ee Tuscaloosa, Ala........-.. Okra paper. 
Rosenhammer, M.....--..-.. Rattlesnake, Oregon .....- Bird-skins and insects. 
Banndoera: Wm... 5.256026. Washington, D.C.......-.. Pear, shaped like an apple. 
Saunders, Wm .. .--| ondon; Canada........-.- Fruits and collection of Canadian insects, 
Sells, Wi cose. oe eee sas. code Shi Bana ro-... <5 caed Prize cotton. 
PG ea: a, Ee ee eee Washington, D.C..-....... Double apple from New J area 
SrdGalie vember coelrele 205i teeta 5 a Cee ea een Specimen of hemp, broken and scutched at 
; one operation. 
Smart, Charles. ....-.-------- United States Army ...... Ontos of microscopicpsects from Lower 
California. ; 
Smithsonian Institution...... Washington, D.C......... Bird-skins, from Hayden’s Geological Sur- 
; vey; mounted pheasant, fibers, lace-bark, 
and bark-cloth, from Sandwich Islands; 
- | collections of insects, from Mazatlan, 
Rocky Mountains, Mississippi, and other 
, localities; silk cocoons, &c. 
Vavlor, Georee;--<:-------<05 Washington, D.C......-.. Chinese golden pheasant. 
POHGINAS NO ine catalase aces Da ot Tl... = sips t+, Collection of lepidoptera in papers. 
Todd, James....---.-..--.--- New London, N. H........ Collection of grain. 
WOPPAD, ioc. coe eic cna sone Boston, Mass.......--.-..- Products of petroleum. 
Townsend, Hon. W..-..-..-.. Pennsylvania ....-..--.-.- Corn grown by David H. Bronson. 
Trowbridpe...-.--..-..-2 Peeps eh Five varieties of cranberries. 
TFOUVG1OU, Ls. . 2. aes co aes = Medtoril. a ass. 2... -.--22 Silk from Telea polyphemus; silk fabric 
from Samia cynthia. 
Tima Woe 6 Ste os oot Charles County, Md......- Connecticut seed leaf tobacco. 
Ulke, Manny. ss.) 2 2.2: Washington, D.C......... Rrepared. (dry) specimens of European 
caterpillars. 
University of Virginia, (by | Charlotteville, Va......... Epeniteas of cottons, (silks, &c., foreigu,) 
exchange.) paper and paper niaterials, cocoa tiber, 
gums, resins, &c. ; 
IWaKkenold dine ac. aces cesses Fremont, Wis.....---.--<- Apple, to model. 
AVA yh 3 O15) 2 ee eae See Mansfield Valley, Pa...... Bird-skin and Indian arrow-points. 
Warder & Barnett........... Springfield, Ohio......-..- Samples of Ohio wheat. ‘ 
Waller, Woiss 22-22. - en. pi ashington, D.C...-..--. Japan quince. 
Whitman Wes: 2 ssvtea.. oes Lewiston, Mo...........-- Nonpareil white berou, night-hawk, &c. 
Wallonson,d.H..2-25---2.2-- Washington, D.C......... Specimens of sali and salt-brine, from Great 
Salt Basin, Lincoln, Neb: ; minerals. 
WALLIN iene le oi scree oe eR SrA wag bode ove waite Canadian wheat, peas, &c. . 
Wilson, Wms seca Goes oes BOW. a1: es as Sucka Ramie fiber. 
Wing, Minerva E.......-..--. West Charlotte, Vt.....--. Collections of insects, grain, fruit, &ec. 
Wingate: dd soss222: 2 5 eee: Bellefonte, Pa Insects, two lots. 
Wolter, await. ye sates tess. Washington, D Marsh owl. 4 : 
Wrevny Aor o- UC cea oe atc pee Cet Oe os oo A cemeenee Specimens of grain, potatovs, and sirup. 
Zeledon, Jos6 C.........-...- Conta Gage os oven cccncs | Caracolille cottee. 


Acaroid resin 


nS ee PCE eae Ebi dd til adaaleadies ab atari 127 
Agriculture, Chinese labor in....-.---- Wedesuve owes serrotarnern cash 1 3°c%s sree epee arena ane nS 572 
Commissioner of, report Of..-..-------------secer terete erste 5 
CUETOND AHGHA GEL. sodas npacssecvssssesssss29ns2 rashes r= eeat cine se aneem ans 7a whe aoe 438 
BE GrONGAT ede camseck os e-esus2ssotenvesxensescen pane oessccarcs coer rr sc rrr eeere Tee 448, 500 
im Wines in 1BI0.,..s2rcareecoccssst got par aesssser ac en gna 7s nes eNInae SRE erinae 267 
State reports Of, 5-----s----72--sesseer-sae-nensseansesn so Manisa ne aoa 487 
CAT Gilkc WOI os esse s-s-e-pestcrase rcs seaesseasrssee recognisers as io ah a ee oe 81 
PG eee cen ccna sp coeede sateen onos 592 Seen AAE Skee rale ee eT 614 
Air passages, condition of, in cases of lung plague .-.--- $e abla. dacle uses aa ari toe ae era eae 22 
MRE MAERUA IE «oc 550cennnsor ess rns sn range ca rcnonarngen sanars +9770" n are anaes Ban 375 
Albany, market system of .-.--.-------:----+errreerr ree aca dala cms sn ae cae seeing elena cinta 242 
‘Alkali of the western plains, analyses Of ..---.--+-++--+-+--srerccsss ns t este tsetse r eres sees 96, 100 
Pg sadn dade aan mennenean gaan es gasses $> 1567" 22 1 74se ae 179, 200 
RTT ila e coe asa ee oe sr awane nese oe epsee ae rae mins sonar ate score cen a eae 176 
Tne Se I le one fale naomi mir AA SSN Ree enn as -- 185, 405 
Alsike-clover ..-.------------+----+--- k cpimnyakains ane canes Rana =ns saa 9 sass 4 170 
‘Alum springs, residue from, analysis of ..-------+++-+++-++--seeetr csr enecte ccc snr nates 95 
‘Alvarado (Cal.) beet-sugar manulactory.-..-.-------+---reeerteet scent rret tenet essen tts 211 
‘American Agricultural Annual .....---------0--+e2-seeceeecs cece terns ese tset en see srr asn sess LAL 
Horticultural Annual ...--------- -0-----+--22-2-on2 eseen etn n en ant nse nts ses 541 
Pomological Society, a report on its history and progress..---------------+-+++-++--- 149 © 
MonTHONIACUIN 22204 -2sche ssanesssssen---rosisssn seemsnces geno rsceehesnre +n as a kscpisos nessa S oe 183 
MRSIVRES oon eee sae oapys pen cse er nants --2er nos - see nneesansensr—oesere srl rs see esaa 92-107, 208, 299, 616 
Anatomy of the horse’s foot..---..-.-.---------eeee seen ee cece secasent cer r esse rsessesss ste sts re 358 
Andes, vegetation of the..---..----------------- oa ke gnae eee nce eniede ways ls sete aaa sarees 172 
‘Animal food with vegetable substances, eaten by the Indians. .see6<ss2<5cae--6 doves ees Ais wa 425 
Te en eet a enanrcssanen sae metingasss sancnasierseussaan Tao 955" Suse Sa gee 189 
err Ol) Mee cece weno = haw ash doses scerenese mses premonsaus ere rite mn s(n 5s Abus sininrNs 179 
Antisell, Thomas, chemist, report: of. ....-..---------+-f2222e seers terete teste teers tne gt 
Apple borer, flat-headed ....-..-..------2eceeeeee cence cers enc recta tensessenatecscensrcsssss rss 67 
coddling moth ......------+----++-++-) seer ce streets S95 alg sade eaeoarite acesieats see geee 86 
CE a nn enslonc ow nenaeie taceasna sem saeesan aor yer ss" ae OO eae oe 414 
Culturist, by SE. Todd .......-----.--------2-+escnenersnsnnees nc steer scree cs seeens sass 521 
improved Siberian crab.....---------------- Jeued ge ecbie gel malbe sc’ nadsic'@= oq aia qe = meee 505 
GrclaxdsrrestOMNP .2-<0 5.2.5 --- 202 cee as > cepm an o's mee vee = ominnn ae ny 521 
or oyster shell bark louse ...----------+-----+-2--- 2 ee erene scence tenner ener ose res ce 88 
POGU Damt WSS. ~- « «-' aay = = = oes ney = 22 ae can den ~~ sca a esas onan saan ae “sen nah Ree ieee 86 
trees, pruning and scraping. ---- Bok os So cdeaseek aaen concen eels wa tee ais on sere a 522 
nie) FOND 2- ---- 2 ~~~ --5- 722 2e ee nn ne ne nnn e sa emhamens ts sEAr SENSE? roan oP aren 497, 499 
the new Russian.........--------20-- cence nee ener n teens tens sstsess Oia aw olg cates 505 
+ Sra 2 ee aS Se reer rer tree erree rere cre ooh 194 
PsliOr witipy Piadltle= 22a - -2-- cn 222-22 <2 y= 92 sas dene => ogesesss 2279s Weoeeseee none ens eta 412 
Arbutus, Menzies’s .-..---..------0----- ne ene reece etter esses PR ENR a ee 413 
AYMY WOIM ...-...------+------+---- LUgl ecb as ae ccogcneceeeeeagegsyssstsses -seapmlnnbn sa pmarme ea 83 
Arnautka spring wheat ........2-0.------2--- ec ence ee tee eet eee ce cern etree ces amanen oneness caens 162, 502 
7 as Gir ree merrrr rt CCE OR er ec COC es hc 408 
TPR TOTIE I ee ie oi a oo Se ew ions g oe oan eeeca sae =~-5os 5 waeeess senna pe Loe Suita eda sicre'ee ea a ere 183 
Ashes, coal and Wood .....-----.2------e--- 2 ene e eterna ease es rere e cesses cesecnscerr ncn ern sos 440, 490 
DUR IGGTARITORO Goods cece sods dane bd ecedeis ssn ce leone + sveoscavanades ess seesse es (nanos ssn e omnes ~ 415 
B, 
Bacalia: Oil ..dcccn. case cen - cece velda- pases eedes - con cemvesroscurcserssechac- 5-5 <ne Cts amer he ege <- 179 
Balata pum ..---.-----.-------s---6--- 490 
Balsam ot copaiba 190 
MPMCIae sob ocace becuse ce nese ecscesderssteut ene Pd aveensacnes SUyeuhamaes a Spee 188 
OM os oar 1835 


676 


Balsam of tolu 
Tn) 

Balsamorrhiza helianthoides.-.-.-.--/---------- 
Banana culture ...----------------- er enn e er er ser cst ecenece= See Ba Be a ee eee 4-2 
Baobab bark as a fiber ----------------------- de awacs expeGnp nena a Boseeooe ss ob bese comeen ss See 619 
Barberry ..-----------eeeee ccna ee ec recs ececet ese eeseeceteeeetceeeeeeeegeneceeee scenes cer ereees 413 
Bark louse, apple or OvEEe Bie S. once oe oe ee Semen Heo otcedids settee cc tee eee 28 
Bayee Tinlnginetees <. ot eee neon seeks aoe SRM EEE SRI sels w =o chee ss Seen ioe eee eee 188 
Bay or laurel Oil ..-------------------n--+---nen-saneresan sa cnccnacnncancnserecenacecccnc-anenns 178 
Bean, kidney .--------------- ++ 2------ 22 - ne crew ne nnn eee ee nsec e nce en ence cecenrererencccwnn cence 422 

SCTOW «once ce --- oe ence n ne enn ne rene nent ene e ene ne ene rnseee wddtiee Bee's ao deoe asses ee eee 412 
Bearded MOss.----------- ----- ee ee ea ee ee eee eee te eee ne ee een ner e en cere eens 424 
Bee culture, annals of, by D. L. Adair 540 
Beef express.----------------- <2 2005 enn e ne nnn een ener e seer cen cee nnn cence cnnn ence nnnn ences 253 


extracts, nutritive value of 
Bees, alsike clover for 
ang armib;---2>----=> 
Beet leaves for fodder 


Beetles -.---------------- 2-2-2 + serene een escent ener e nese ree 
Beet-sugar...-.---------------+-- ° 
Bencoolen TOA. 2-2 an ne ne oe ne enn ne nee nee ee neem nen nw enc tenn en en nen een een ewnecnn 
Ben Ob... 2.22 ne noe en en nnn ne en nn nnn cent een rene enn nema w wesc nnn nec annnnnnsnecenns 
Bent'grass ..----------------- 4-2-2 een cee enn enen ne ern eeeeeee Oa new nee cern ec ene n wwe ncene 423 
Benzoin, or gum Benjamin....------ -----------------+ 2222s eee e een e tee ee rece cee eee eee ee 181 
Benpam Oy OUeess aaa meres nnn oe wn oe wa = win on anin owen ele ein ani“ eel a Soe 181 
eee inex by the Indians. ..---------------+---+--------- 2020-222 e ee eee renee ee eee eee eee 413 
Berry, soap .--------------------- + eens ene eee ne eee ee een ne een rn renee eee 412 
Bete has ail betel pepper ..----- ----------- 2+ +--+ + 2-22 eee ee eee eee eee ee ene eee e eens 197, 202 
Birch PE op I a Rr dein I 205 
Birds as insect destroyers. -----------------------0--- 2 ee cee eee eee ee en teen eer neers 90, 510 
Blackberries : ...------------------------------ ee eee @ 2. Sos celsenenwennnc= 415, 442 
Black fish | black salmon of Alaska 383, 388 
RSHMIEE 22202 oo eA a oo orca Pa rdncc odes naecd lie 35252 coa esos aes «<7 = 5> see 201 
Blind’ es in sheep ------ = 488 
Blister fly -<-------------------+----- 68 
Blue berry -----------------+------ 222-20 secstecrserc cere 415 
jay, utilizing the+..---------.------------- joerc te eee ee eee nner eee eee 450 
Boll worm: .....------------------------- 22 - eee nee eee OS eee eee 84 
Bone meal; manufacture of....-..------------------ e+ 2+ 22-2 eee ene en ee ee eee eee eee ene e eee 439 
eames Mier ienlbur sl: 3. °+2-5--2-2-2220.8¢.-22-2028 ot 2eer cee ess berks Loe eee ee 517 
Borer, peach ......------------------ 2-22 - = 2 eee n e ene eee en een eee nee eee eee 520 
Boston; market system of ..-.---.---------------+------ 0-2-2 2-22 e ee nee ee eee eee eee 243 
Botanist, report of the ..--.--------------- poses beccesens bee cesses eae sh econ ees ee eer aaa ene 108 
Brake, or brocken.-..-.--.---- eae Ue ELS oe sence cabare > snces sao cee cee eeeee cence see eee ease een 408 
SBYaaiaN tOS- 8 = poe nono we oo o-oo ene w ecw concen eee ee ey a a 194 
Brazil nut, or castanha oil...-...-.--------------- +--+ 2-0 - rece eee eee ee eee eee eee 179 
Bread root; or prairie potato. --- - Be nesussae sere becaa sans os dens o cos ceretee eee nae an eee 408 
Trnotavitite nel orenlaskal- so as so s~ 2eee leu st tees oe eee cr ew cee see ee eee teen eer ee een ¥ 386 
Brook Prout Or Alasks.- == - 3252 25-622 = ste ssncecst cts ecsast ess Steno ss cose pees een eee 384 
Brassels sprouts, cultivation of 531 
Buekthorn.<...---.------2-----5-- 414 
Buffalo berry..----------------$--------+2-220---+-- 415 
. * market system Of, ...------ 22. oe =e eon ene ee eee econ e cence 249 
ee Pee nes se aewss oo tee esse bes eSwebeeeces >t scl er keine = ema 534 - 
Baprests, thick lepeed.--- 2.2 --25--- 225s. tees 220 Shee tet oak et eee eco s eee sow ee ane sees 67 
Buricloveres-- ue se = <== ~ ee bie Senses esnun et sebenstete ceeene ene eer eae eteree espa sean 419 
Lig sl ty: Oot a, eee, ee eR ee tae an IS ESS 194 
Butter and cheese factory, prize design for. ...2-.-.---------- 0-0-2 0 e eee ne ee ene eee wan nse wnne 325 
dromdlie Baile milk. -«<--2-2cu+2<'-0 228. sssseue set +o ckes pee 311 
facwory, Hoon, Tlinois <2. ~~ obec cece eset eau os ee een wooo eee a ae Jaane Fetes Cee 313 
FepMiPIOTROVa moet eet -.- vont cecal es ose occtencts sc eosveCs aol ee ee eee eee ee 447 
TARAS wenn Soe pa era everson nseessuntes we cc cent en elet pwceeree ae ese sean esa 315, 322 
Cc. 
Cabbage bug, harlequin........--.---2eee sec e ee cee e eee ee cnn ee eee eee ee eee ee cee ne ccenee 90 
DWbieCn yee eee Soe esos: wenn oeasaawineredeewe Bee 78 
how to grow, by James J. i. Gregory 530 
MANNE COlee eee ree eb e hak bee case cecil slow Wied wet cele seetarts epit= tee eo a ee 529 
Plarib eee ee  e e eo wasn a eee np = eae ew oe noe week eee ee ee 530 
PeMea yuor Clanfoot Wo.) <- s ee = toe ee oe ewe = eee oo Soe ee eee eet 451 
destruction Of Insects ONl 622 -o)- 22 s2.e one eto. nese Sen ae eee 530 
VATIOHES OGENO i oe ode oe rane = Se a oe Paap oe See sone spec ee Soe tee a= eee , 531 
WOLM, ANG TOMO Y LOL. a. oar c ona ote alsa caw inwewenieee aise oe ee se ee 78, 79 
CxCdO ee cere ee eae eee oe ee ee eee Shen Sette tere ree ise ibe eee ed mete aaa ae el ee 194 
Gachrisen tee tee ee bec mee eee eee eke 5 EU cereale ees de ee ee oe ae ee 416 
Caer es a ere Lic a Sa aie ods Sele Sete eer oa et 66 
Gageprttiorl see eS oe 5 ee; wo Series ae se os eee ne ae 174 
Galitorniaiagrigulenural TOnert 2.2 22c 2 scnho-s2= <ose teed ae Doe oe eee ee ee nee ee 515 
COBUOT ee ee a oe ae ce ac oc Sow Ie ee ae ee ee ene ee eee Cae ae ee 448 
PAIGE Wie coe ee oce eee e eae eee Tee Be ees py eRe aca ch c= 326 
horse chestnut.......... ee, 403 
Calomel a poison for mice .....-...-- 620 
Mamphor-oils-oooe sean hosaess Seaeeeee 176 
Candleberry. or myrtle wax .......-----:-.-- 204 
Ganker of the fout.-.<2.ccsass sssbesedesecenee ale 


. 
INDEX. 677 
Page 
BOAMUET WOOP oc 2225 enc cae coe ns --caceccauseunnsiae Chee ob stot a adedeea aa te alaa tele waales donehe aes 5 
Cantharis, or blister-fly----.-.---- oF See SS rai metclcata Ualctom te aie Simtel oe stat i aces dthchae eae ate 68 
Caoutchouc, or India rubber ..-..-..----------- 0-22 eee eee ene cence e cece t ete n eect eseees 190 
Cape mastic... .--.--- 2-22 ------ = ene enn pon nnn cen en nnn terres ace n enn aeeetccnsacesccn= 486 
MERIBTN: 26 Soe laa = Sakae enna ene noo one nae ecnn see —Snnoensecccer area manson owinsnaclenn sss ma das ae 
Capitao do matto.....---- eS beecee tee gn cn wen cnn e een n ee sen enn cece ne nse ceecennnecewern cee ae 199 
Capron, Horace, Commissioner, report of. .-....---------- 2-20-22 eee eee e eee recente este ree nee o 
G@aponizing. . oes. coool ce cece ce cece cm en nnn nnn nce cone ce nsec seinccecs acon neanenen= ‘3 
BERMUE TONITE cos 5. < Succ oacdacsss+- 0-4 se pe S RI ee acces Jopiiae <2 2 <'oe cone dae aaa Hy 
Carap, or crab Oil ..... 2... 22. - 20-222 - ee ee cee ce cence ener cece ene e nec c ces sees eneeener scenes au 
Caraway seeds.......---...---- PePereeeererrrrerrrrrecerrtrr eee errr ae 
Carbolic acid and rinderpest iL 
ESeTMAMOM o- 56505 5c0c-6 
Carnauba wax.....-.... 
SERRE TRONS. 6.5 cock c desscccacseccnededwn 
PREMEMAIIEN OL oe Se coos ha oo ae a's daxWalsccsscesas=sdeescss 
eT ae nt oS ne ae ee Oo enn at ances, ceca oa eae as eaceasmaae=- 
MMBEFIEEM ES TERE sae co be PBA Ne a es aoa ca cea tds ue ent acandas ste eemeine 
os 7, pe Zee 1g ARs er liaitad tind elie aly Waa ae aie REPOS Em eM Be ek re 2 
BME E een nn eter sone e corto me oo snc 2 Scenics suas eedenscssesseocec ses fa -< ees reemaearas 
MEITUMGREGRNER Gis es er eee, Sond ote encod aaa dosn ae ane tea enn ae ere 
er erage tee Le ee Oe Seo, Csee oeaacdaceas cea anes ss. 2 ase aeeenaetee 
CTT NPT SV ECT 4 OCT ee BS Ne ae en PR rere ore tr noch cece 
SMa eRCreNs CHILL VEIIOM Of. coc coke occ tea onan cee ak en eece oes sane oaen Sepsee tae aaa ees 
“coy ha Guy Bape eras = RRS Saori Se RR Ho Fe een cris arta Cumin eh Sree TF eel 2 pS 20 
(TTR LN a] OB et EE ie Pe eS Yn Bci cto Shs 620 
Chatsworth, Illinois, beet sugar manufacture at..-..-...--.----------22- 22-2 eee eee : 
MMHUREATIICRIOAM fACLOLY S222. fo. occ so nen scene dc ovase ceases cee lse ees cas ae aaenss se eens 
and butter factory, prize design for...-....-----.--.---esce-ennn en nee een ene nee 
fran theraamer mille cscs. de ca he cae owen ee Foon eer ae a rere eee 
Consumption in) Muropes <<. ...52-20.0-- 5-0 one no ean c ea en nnss seen se Sages tea an ss = 
factories in Michigan .....-.....---------20-- 2-22 n ence nnn ene n ne een anc enscennsennenneas 
TAM ECDC DU DES OIG nae on ae cas aan canis dascecsssarans of trie Ge ok Ts oes Sa 
BIOLTONAY Olen spanner anasto an cane anata EI eis CAE RR ene Cet 
LEP T ETE TACTT EMO) CS Ce a <9 SR ee Sa Ee a ochempmocee coe 
PRR TIT ORS soe oe eee eee ce cone vecnwn nwo aoe Sone e Sone eee ood on eee aan ae alae 


MORON = asa an adam acenepetana a ceecnen 


PTYeTTTPT ETT TTT 


MERRIER Olt Aen cre aca n sac ceca acesdescesene Bonen a nea eee 

REMIT OCHER Pett aiaa ia sae a cilca's « ccna anja ao caensndteneaas eRe CELE ee ee ee 

MPUEVeNWArL ANG) Wild... ---5-.-<.---5-2--5-2-1--ccenencenceouppanadsanq4=remarae 

MIPIM WILE DW ANG oo 2220 soso a gacnk<-accesassan aes wee an ATONE ES he da ae uae eee eae ee r 

Chicago, market system Of.........--....-.-.-s0ss peers S28 RRS PRN G ORIG | ARS ed 2 2 J 

MIGRATE Bes 2. Sas nat wea tocacqgeacaccessnasae aan dacacctdwteraee a aie de ade te ies 250 

hd uu 2a ae ee a ie ere ere maa ai Ree PE SS ENE ETS PSE RE Ae ye ne SE 67 

Sere uy MIEN ia saan nk Lash ganaadinn chagenn coaceenesseeuneaeeae hy ietoo coe eee 536 

Bry, BUCO Ee idee tak ean os no accep eaacdaeee IRIE E SN SPE, TRIO ee og EE A 

ina grass....- 4 aids ABS aR aS fot ve, Hie ARON OE SER RES | Re PIS OF Ya AE 3s Oe 

Chinel bu ehh cee eee i ea i Rates ile IA PROS WR BUG ET MS i os ye te, - 89, 513 

BMMICHOIAUER WOT chee oo nicn rack oc se oko are ccancnee sia conn adedae oxen ee ee eZ 
BN ns own po datanendeasnanseneanndap en PIEPER ES LT Soon Be 572 


Cincinnati, market system of. 
DERI ee on oo ons knoe sce mcmesdawoceme aidan ala 
Circulation in plants 
Tian Ae ae SSRN Oe ee le i ee mena eT Sey Bie Dine Ores Ns Set Ens 2 - 
Parma ann production Of Utal:...... 0 <,<caecc-ncesenasccocnacqusdessa-sees-s¢ sore eer ae aa 
PeaGs OL WIL OL GLOVES... =< on om 2 enna cams cpacimu mace faeces ae ee tate as cee ees 


TRS gests 25" Sade ibe Le lel eae BEARER IIE, Co 3 Bc erieig fi. kat oe. 2 419, 423, 492 
WOM) OC Old ArINPS MOU .-.. snecyeo-acaescnceensaadgaqenns==-¢ .ser oe <a> mg= nanos a 
(Cin Sree SA ee a Se ie ee ee a Ce pina oer as owas Sa Ww dene cadens eid wa =i =Ninaeniieiaiom a riae 51. 530 
UTERO UOHDIREO eee so on oe ec eae 5 Joos gees of tao ae for ae ween se 451, io 
ToS sg 2 YE ee) en ee RO EOE ORT URLER BOON ENE So BESS kee fa 
ec eRER SARTO Pee es Mere te ek De Se ee an 
from the Rio Grande, analysis Of .....-..--04r00-+entanncnceescens mn saeeceen esters nna = 
Garter OAGHOAs GOSLENOHION Of. 0. sac ol. wen -k ceecn code wsce acbiancaetie bad tee os sna ae 3 : : 
| i ses. eT ae? ae ee, SR Siena ee Pe ER SSE My 28 oe Ah a eB at a 
Peng Tat aTIpIO . = 20 con ona) - ~~ = s-8eeanocascuuecossccacudedcesstess 2 tiest ee aera sae 
Cod fishery of Alaska... -.--- 2-8 ec anenn nae nnnennnnqe---nnncesas gos ense nena s ores 92 197 
i SOG aa 8 Ue ne es Ren See SERRA RP, BRE oe Se ecg e ee ee 7 
(ST ea aaa 201 
Collecting opium:.-.............. ee eee af 
Colonization ........-.... a = 
Colorado, colonization in .......... - 576, 582 
irrigation in. ........ Seas au ete tedipnnen -malnnieeen aucbide aastdte ~ 05 7S 
iS i aS ee eae Ten RUE TS Et BAPE San Soe A ad REE Ser RS 2 ng 

Color of walls, influence of, upon espaliers.............2-------------e-eeeenee eet _ 
Calnratronteni lds plamte-. - ova ee ss Sas kena dee sane sence bacenud eee ee cel toes ra serene ns 
COLT SOM nes Livi (e ko as AS ES ee eee 8 Se ee BE ee Laer oe yd Bee ee ese ooh > ae 
Alaura CA ee ei eee ce ee a, Sa eh ees ie eee # 
Commissioner of Agriculture, report of }......--. Sa aae ae ne OA Beet ee oy 3 yy 
@Grorerisad: witiiee nr ee "eges BLL St sR ae eee’ Rite Dara os Ss | ah 
- Condiments,and spices. .... nes LS es Nae SG BAIR SL LTE WERE TREE 2 ps 
Connecticut, p: ss of industrial education in,j......-..------0+-2+-++++-+ ened (aan ess ool 
BRSUOU SAL GODAOCO. HA cak dond<kagans dancane sat anteaeeeeedomincna6 coe be ees aot ee 3 


* 
678 INDEX. 
Page. 
Connecticut State Board of Agriculture, discontinuance of............--..-2--0------20-eeeeeee 429 
Conservatory of the Department SS Se ICON en eed te ane el dad cer aa ds pie ees ee oe 13 
Coustituents of the milk of different:animals. = 80/52 oo we aie eee ream cnce en dessheeee 617 
Contraction of the horn of the foot........-...-----.-.-. Bet hs ee eee tt Cree ee 374 
EO) CANN GO ARTY CN TPES ORIN ETN es siete a aloha Sear a te inlining ore eles ee eee Se aS) 445 
PIER OT te ae a oe cio ne ie oni riety eet ee ie Ape 
Cooling of brooded epgs.....-.---..------------ A AAA cE Sars ele eee se lg a ae ee 611 
Co-operation among farmers......-.---.-- SE 2b joie ead fs odbc daceels ogee caeatdesuidcs ne 542 
GGONIANGEt BOCU gees ees a ean Oe te de neil de AR a ee ee ee ee 202 
Cork trees in Mississippi. ----- .----- 2-25-52 ane oe nn en een eee n ee omen enone en vee seas 450 
Corn, Cosh OF Tawi. oa... =. EAS: SIERRA EES US See aA ee 2305s toate eee 450 
fertilizers ‘on: 2.0.25, o3s 457 
grinding and cooking. ..- 445 
Ween cee ae ees Sate lass boca del ocd dhe ddsedddans: cde siaeal cciadbbseaceee te 419 
HNTENO SPONN 5 oe eso ae oe pe Ace cies phe ee eine asa ee aa reet oot ods as eee 618 
planters’ and grain drills 400 
WTI) OPMMGA WDM on cn = Seat 5 2355 L244 nth bee ces eabce eaten beens. See eee neem 84 
Corns, falee and true.........-----..--4----« cae th sence once Dee ow dene ib ab bien ene te an 371 
Cotton after oats. ..-.- Bee Sector at ites tL akL ech eee et teh eLk eee CL tite eee cake pene 4f4 
ORITRONIN iertne ses eh eee te ne Se dae Nhe See oes ase wo eee oe 448 
consumption .....-- oie Stet eee testi ae tee Deters o2 1S ee re 52 
J Fee) 35 See See ee ere Se ie Se ee Se 169 
EE POTIMIOBUA, With 92ers no et Ae Bae, eG CEL pas eee Loe eal ah eae e eee 461 
manufacturing in South Caroling. cnc oscc oc seva wee noes seca 448 
on Bermuda grass land.-.-..------.--: Sette ate’sebiaeiesbts asthe LiAkce fo eee ee 463 
UTC SANG A oso a ical fo aida ile wb abe Ve aeies Bes poke eee bt ae eee eens 462 
Seat OTuenod wae TNGRUBHOR /~ 0 one oe ee a os Fle Se SL SR eee 466 
LORD ATE MOMIO Vet OR 5 ye oe a awa De oa a wk ob Sine aes eens eee ee 448 
oil at Memphis, Tennessee 448 
VN AOONUIGN 1902 on aia tar a'e Soot Sain en's 493 
Ciftorones dn wield OF cits este ee eck eee shee. chide be pee eee Eee 316 
IRLA Pp ORcto i, | oe  e Oene Oe ae Seem eeee enn ny Tt. fe asaaar 491 
milch, green fodder for. -.-.....--.-..-- Wie Wiablele'e'els on wie co'weh San cee oy Coe Eee Eee 291 
PD TN OM le ae oa ie a ne oo a Sera hea ate eee tnt Sect eh eee bate bones) ac- 5 ee eee 198 
Crab apple Beene Pome S ocaseeceedced thew scattele cider tons coclee ose ss cece eee eee eee 414, 505 
Dra UEUPA OUT O) 2A0 N32 sede Saeed aca sedee loan sooo se oes a desea eek oe eee 
BBEEL ON CNION Ot 2 er ERR LEER tae BS Shes cas ob oo baee nae eeee 70, 85, 
Creameries, butter and cheese trom the same milk.............22 2222-22 e eee ne ene ene ene ee eee 
RAIS OURO a tia Foe as ae ths Sat i orcs oo Selassie clee es Uc ewes ene ens sae a aa eee 
COLON OF oe ctor eens ee See ee Re eA eee Eee tert es Gabe eas Den beh oc bet eebisee noe eeleeeeeeneS 
RTOWDEITY 2 Ss cose scare cased os corset Re ete eet eee ae nll. oe elec cee bt coe oe ee anes cone 
Cucumber beetle, striped, and cucumber moth..........22.2.220--2--2-eeeen ee ene e ee enen en ceenes 
Cultivated fruits ' amonp the Indians <se.~ evicesa ttt tee tp ek = sek eset as caesnceeenemeeee 
Cultivators; or horse: hoes; history: Of 52. roses eee ree eta eee eee eee en is enone osha ee ane 


Curator of the museum and Sask report ee 
Curculio 


WOLIR: OF PAW AYs 2-22 scssccccoteccubassscassesccs 
Current facts in agriculture 
publications in rural art..-..-.2...... bins bettas set eeses sabes seen os cee: eee 517 


Oy eet Sess kc ds snus sl caeecacorencceansesssestacsetdenlete See 310, 446, 491, 


503 
182 
Perens in alla CULE ee ee ete, 2s ge SC Se Ene oon saa soso = Sse s 2 am 620 
WANG OUOME = font ses ao lo sa sa tee ua Seabee LEG ee SSL SSE LLbstSLeuee ec lhe Chee nae eee enn 423 
Deep culture as a remedy for blight, mildew, &¢ ‘ . 508 
Welaware Comers 253422 costs nec c spe cccdseenksccosabiaceeses tesccclnsces ooee en pe eee eee 469 
Delaware, progress of industrial education in 469 
Department, conservatory and grounds ....-....-...-..-- 12 

MPLAL Yio 2 oes te yee ioe teeetyeeseesses 

HOCUS TESt8 Ol... 2s. cnccevitacatetxescesi< 


520 
506 
UO WOPMD 2b ad see vores cdecdeests sebsesencttics 2acgd2 hese 23 239 
Ditches, COnsicuewIGN OF o.- 3 enc ad bla abe codoawecd fed Bos cstv sted seecaee eee eee 586-599 
Mittin implements 2 st5e 2 -¢ bec ccnceec je abea Daetcew led sha loanestise i eee 586-599 
Division of meteorology, proposed -..-...-..--------+-se+++++ cts Heese ccscetil ls see ee See 114 
BOCK 25h 522 See eee se 32 sod SSse ecrrwecen cas vaceetess stan s4cceae stases os decks 422 
Hodge, 'd: RM GAHOl, TFOPOTH OD o-3es cack os os swemasd a cade dees daecdecsds ses es eee 
Sialastical MANOR OF a. Sone veces Gunes écc awe cess eheasecs bree een eee 
IRMA Neh er Pee e Se Ne yes <2 One Speoenesceaeuee sicde ieee. or aa 
Donations to the agricultural Museu .-.-.--.---0.-sees case en aesscesstectcetenssensnge-6 Peers 
Brainine large marates. «2 oc. so sree cee 
Drains, construction of .....-..--------++-sssssscs0- 
Pivnaelanente te 0) oc a eae : 398 
Pronght beneticial to the potatat<. occ. wccw csc ane sevssedsdacuaess ston terlese dh ae eee eae 542 
‘Dry rot, petoletm die: i.< feccecc epee euc wee ne piers a utein a ene 620 
537 
404 


Ducks, ROARIB GS 2 oc cece ke peep eae renee Soe eens Alera uta cra Aaa wine ON ee ee 


Dunmore’s, Lord, steam eS Seen ene REE SRE Tay ee EP e Jiaseninee EP ed ate - 
Dwarf cherry seea'sewenate a 


oe ee nen wee cee een cneennewnsen succes taness cucnebanessarcccscsenccecnes 418 


INDEX. 679 


E, 


: Page. 
BIOMIE WOMANI ft ocr ha tds oats ste ite dda tanddas Seccced cot ease oe mance aa paws sk eeceues 554 
PIITOOMHOLS WV ERMZCRT. «oe ene. ie ateinuelh on swan ndmebhs etensenseaneera ee deere ee 417 
hia SURES EE eRe eee eee See ie eProp me eeeniaeie Aree i es 411 
ESM Nar arte ee Wats oto tliat antes aacialdowas seats t = sa eaes sad dale ade eae Pare 153 
Tare. LOR CSCS eS at Se ey ae re aeege eae y Cee ee Oe eee ee CCST FS 407 
Resi Tirier = (HARTI AD 2 9 ho a ww rs Se es wis a EE 6, 467 
EE TRCR AE AE POON OO 82th oo aia ween acide enn ow tos wine sessile cin cele c owe c amare oeaeeeee cae 611 
Beyptian REUNEN BORG pact a ata) PET ahaa chet tele fa n'a igh Maal sea oe eee ee 169 
es Oe a ate lait rec fee ais ida a ocaels Se'slsai ids 25 sce sue wield ben ee ee 186 
Peer lsritiner NaGUOIY, Tuli. VINOIS. 2225752 bee Lk cee Debt eta acs sesame eee seeae eee ome 313 
ou aT E/E ILE le EIS St ees, ee ea et renee ea a 73 
Paoranexperiments with wheat and barley .:.....922--.--22---0002sscccsdcecaacanccessccnauas 454 
meuioos of aericulture, change in: ......J22-0-5-2-2-2:s---ssise-nespeeeesses 448 
aIEIRaRE eats ete ner ea See oes cemee 508 
CLEC CUTTS SS a aU ee lene Re 443 
Entomologist and curator of the museum, report of 65 
IMG NTIS: (UL Suni oc upei ama Sober aca aieteanapeme ane Ju Joes cook Be hee a 177 
NE IILURANTES ERAT AMIDES A) 2S matte cine’ Ewin own ora in Sole arioe moe deo ata a cle as 393 
IGBNGH OCCARIONGE ys - <2 So ss. enue a =o tteebeces sha Ua kighascace cess Ae eaeaenee 355 
MUBRLILG AEE: «ceo oid a aCe Duce ups dent Somgee eee ae eeu Lela dict 5153 ie 352 
origin of the present outbreak of, in America.............-.2-.2--22-02000-0-- 356 
PREV GIGIOW, OF in ccio sow ays win\nlajare ~ atatearea amet el darcrein' hae ofan AI ard ee 357 
relative susceptibility of different animals to.....-........ ap 22 Sue aes 354 
SAPUPCOUIS Olas one oan ae ce mene neem ali bana aca uh bebawe beac aoe Lee Mes eee 354 
REOMSUCUL DE. worn coe ian Cee Ran etre 2iRe den tne. See eae Le ep eee 356 
BMCETaINn GeO Perio: ote ee. ee eae Be ae ee — ER et De ee k= 419 
Espaliers, influence of the color of walls upon .......--------------- Richt ath pier lean Renee 139 
BARUO! STORS sce oo wos gama Scale a8 PR, Fe Sees VL. STE ak PR DS ea sae 21 
ENTE EET| OS a aR ok: Soe ea ee ree ees See mbes er Fee Sf Ce 22 
Excelsior oats...........-. Per pew pn ceareae wa cecekueet babes Ten eeek ware ben coon eae oe eee 166 
RMA SANTIS. SOP c oC one eco cae a netun Vat eaeoea akan bewate neon stent nae 452 
PT PARIS nc S ean ble aks wees slncb aca nets dbcokab sats ce sedue eo = See eee 445 
ei = EO es, Sea eae eg are He ee nh ee tpwine hammer anne Ea eberte Boe 4 
mports; Bericultural ..............--2-----20 e aug 2 
2) SESSA EORTE Us is oo a a i eee ae Dee tear OS Sat ees sn Se oe 105 
F, 
0 TSE LC TIL ir 0 gg RR ee ee ee eae sik mas <iuaihp help eed alee cake 193 
Farm animals and improvement of stock in Virginia ........-.-..224.2..22---202 ne eencencesee= 287 
number and prices of....-..-....-.--- falninienie'e Sain /sininia = a hin’ c'o)mte mow ae 46 
GEPSFMNGNIS . 225225 4.522254-52555 faa sialon tas aelate om ees ainiala& oie Se oe mw as ates a er 452 
0 an A IE ee ae a pia oe) a aaa aaa ede Sa ha oa a2 dee ee © 447 
stock, numbers and conditions of. 39 
pete VOANS BOO 5 aso sea ne ooo elon waa ls wane iene cle otto ne loenateirie a5 eee 452 
TMI Pe Sen toss send ns teas ont anaes ae Smee ea elnse cinders e asaeeee A . 255 
Farms, small vs. large - 356 
RALOOIS.© 2-7 oto. ofan 443 
Siisey CRETE Sn nals non aad @ aan ane aoe sant sispenie te ee ee nae 465 
Ann GO Rigi TP OOARE TOPION Se acon nS be seb en eee sso nse = eee ene eee 451 
CRIME AY MEU IISUTIONA ooo 02. caste 2 pasa oa see meno oe a eats Dei ae eee oe 612 
THULORON PRAM IO UOLS- 225. 2252 one Samer aine nie 1 eine pee ME sin8- « aaacsin enews 611 
TIGA SIE TI SPOLISID ese 2S se ee ee nlp ase be oo Seis wane ae « oe eR oe 566 
| DERMIS 42 Ae 8 AES i eee ee AAR RR SAA Bhs site Be il Pe wee 179 
BRBREOPOD IE RECUR) osny oo aan at senna es sunaececcnee eens sams ee em eep gene a hethh auel/a seen nee 199 
2 TOL ee Ri Eee ee eee ee = ns Aaa RE A | bons 2H1, 438, 452, 457, 463 
(GG Hie CU ey OS Aes oe Spas a a ee a See ee RE chee 2y LA Pe oto sc acoeee 368 
Mees MBE Read ate e een oma ceo ses se caesaeess aspctscavensn ese pe lee ee sade ss Hee ees 2 619 
aR ees Bete ap Ae ees SAS Se RE ae ee see eee ee ee 205 
DUEL a Seine ole 6 Ad a ei Sd eS SRS dR eee eee eer ieee Col Sy Eee ee, 85 
Fish, artificial ice in ego OO In A Ie Se Ir PAPEL ARES <n awe 613 
COS antty fo) 1) GE Fae SR At eA Se Re ns Mee See EE pS has me aoe 451 
Meee eee naan eS west sea eee Bae yaa comet a emcees na ata dee temeets cae eee = 542 
Sb TnL eho Ss 2 4 as SS BS Ae care Se etd Ak gat Bihan Ae eb ee ee ee 618 
EAU AAAS” eee hon ttt) tt ehh eee ee aL Lk Oe Ce eee eee’ cee 389 
RL RLCeS MEME CLE EES FINITE ERIE tS 5.n0- 252 eet Ae ena eae ne ante me uaeoe oe dee 440 
ae of tie: TS OSE Ra aie i ae eine op teens a, CAA) ALL Oe ais 
Flax, Lo wade ee es Sees Tes Sa ee ae eo eee «eee pee es 
SE SR Ee ee eee 20 
seed production..........:-.---..- 497 
Flower beds, how to prepare 533 
RESET SIT LECR UII LUT ott ne ee eh ee eR Ct tol to eee Regs ae 611 
es oR Ee | i SS ESS ES oe eho ee eee ee LE ay. 22 299 
Mee Sites En AB eee) eee eeu Loot. ak eee ool. Vee us oe 375 
procuowm er tne Worth American Indians .. 7... 2. oa aot nome eeneese emcoduoae 405 
Foods, value of different......-....-. aS PEAVEY <2 2 1S aN SS he olathe 445 
Foot and mouth disease, (see Lpizovtie aphtha.) 
Forest, consumption of, in the United States ...... <A <a Pes (ere Lae aed oe B44 227 
Poh it cea eres seen a Sao Re Raa SENT? 2 hs eee See REN SII ae - 226, 548 
SORE UeGent 4 ONCOEO Cie". 255 ARER Let SO eeee Re eee =: 0 + ooo oan ant cope 508 
Piet Eo ai! ge ee EE eS ANTS LE G8 > ee eee Tae INTIS Ch 368 
OWING GISCRBER OL 504s as 5 none jc asss =o ans55 to. eee een as ia Ue cievec ous Soca ieee ee 536 
management and profit of .....:....-....2.---20.-- eee e pr eRe nat ben ee 329 


Pesuklin Cremmeny, Urankliny Mew VOLK. 2.652. sener woes ca 22 3c 52s. -oshesdtuavsaceoueebea a0 313 


680 INDBX. 


‘ Page. 
TENT CATOr HiRes OL AUIS)» chasisslat ewes pam apnea an suk snbininc civic niasmnicWn Seaton 5 a7am sacs sei 5 382 
epst, methods for protecting plants from. --. so. oe ene eee epee nes eeg ne rerere ses scnaneeer 131 
RIPON ANUS; A CHOD OL serancap er ces sce sk ona cece bs ener’ ween ewee hee see ee eee 125 
Stenit Culture, Colonel Waller Onn ccc pute seewmes cme eaesopsn enw ocb sr pone Skee a swieo sean eee 491 
PU UL SSOMIN ones were Sota cimiae heron alo ciate tala dele cisalee se aie ies cintalaige dines La 512 
List TOrsVssaCOUSGULS-oa= cnet veep acbeknsese ris cms case eesheas Be Se ee er ie tc 492 
On dhe MINOW CO CNUT AL IRAN TORN oe. <a wes cnicele a reise ab Ulin belslwe'cl cerin' so nmitiees oe ee ae 441 
TEIBTOUS.Of DO POS 10 - ccaciouine ts Sn bie science cle retinal ole wiealeles v elev c's sin oe nina’ s os eee 540 
TTEGR ACMOMUL MOLAR MIONectopesspeseerec east cee ebes bs nan seelceee deine sa eet meen daktmis ie 618 
RrDits ANG ePeta LOS see = wim = meinem See imcan'ec wan p= ercls cies velo ltelaer snipe s\sclnn oss reas eterna 441 
BONS Ghe INGANS .....-woese.neeseatonscsconcues Seabee = Dec enes rere AP ER bean eaten 409 
G. 

CHAR So q)b ae omor Ime a AGOARe age Gone GEC Sen See Jae SO RE SOC SAGSEERGOSSSRONREaormareccc ngs 186 
TOI Dib e ee os cio oer = Sak eee aes eo ae ede pp slows one Pee seed wee cRenercas Evie nels eaeoeaese lesen 177 
Galvanic/and electrical relations of the earth... -....--- sec esccn cc ennencresce neo denna meee 147 
Sampler iOrstenta tApODICis- enh cn = nace accesson@ceceebecssecs cespcas ce os ohh wanna eee en 184 
(EOS) 4 Shon ganee ae oooh Us SSB SSRIS ECS Sa sBeEes Sebo Ip eSCeOnCEEOeOe Mano. sasses hos ok Sasc 5 182 
Garden and grounds, report of the superintendent of .........-.-.--. een e nnn ce ee nem ann ce sncnne 16 
MoRisDNY GeETHO OT GED pe alert ata bs le mioimin nie ef etm iniaie ail ate is cham a/atle ola a icim nial mialay alale ieee Rinete eel ate fae 412 
CAG LHS eae cisaae acl valcke bis sins Se Se mamas s sisip oes nackte ce apa ane wisp cote Stam erie asters ees 416 
IIBONG POCATO se == 'cnlseenaseis fea nbimeninc =e eee seals ce teuinels Spi salinetn eatin eee ee 615 
CIDOB BNO OSOUR sDlOWr anos cess lscceaccdealicsccacesacessbacesce crepes cau teeter eeeee eae 396 
Go PeVOU eee emer ere com tisnesa cee acaempesiceniancsmelcmcs tic sen annem ee Mc bicieaacie home eee a 173 
AUB neeeer hee eee ee rane =p ateostie cnn ssccaeosicecs sc sene sno dcepmceeese< sass e an cee 202 
SSIMBG HIRE ree eee caer eee ss pec aess cscs acs pew'etcescnechscrt begbc = ieee eue akebl dee een 407 
Glover, Townend, entomologist and curator of the museum, report of .... 65 
SRUVROMIT sence ocean ities cis Saas arte saccbsareilesmicccce 620 
SOMO MOL Wome cok asas cases caccces se ces sadapece 84 
TOOL MD LOBEL on a oares chp kinnsdecsceece ccaastcecsescacacboscnieecasnseeccnceseoes sen 181 
aS UT PET OU IMieee < oi as sa a clei Acie ciae cine cine cian daa a eccsWle nods cine so swesics spRme eee See me ea 188 
SACRE DEILU een hl 2 Meee UG occ Lccislscbeldaadales scar senda be's eis bo Sc ah bts Re 3 414 
Government plantations of cinchona trees........-.---- Sdn acenerardacocsaaccic aN, -« 8 
SEM CIBNOTE MOI) «co: venie sve cssmwueckegntatnce alaciasteececcnbescabcatekuslse nie eae haan 447 
(Sra MUNGENOWON OLY MNAOCUS.<\./- «+ nace scacese cnn ninanewsnctecce sic necsice nase enn eee neem 620 
EIEN AN COLN PLONLODS a) ol! a ccinia cies cnm'ccae ae sisal s cles ola bla nines One eda gion fone meee eee ane 400 
COrAINS (Ol MATANISO Lees so ken aecle a Sccmte adel ocdenkcisels sc ea cc cscs ca smt once scilnusenec eae eee 200 
ire UENO AOU remem ms cnnen st naties cates cclcciston lac emalntmeca ce cwistlntsc cet eweaeatioce eee eee 86 
CO rere amen Choe a a oiataenls aa alsa daals dee sass ame cecleca sina vans ons ecuine ceeeaae ea kaa 87 
propagation of the, by eyes .......-.---..---.--2--- He Dorm qacras Sanne re tena an ee ee 615 
PDOURONBO cate asses Sela e eee Oleaase oes Sete ceawencieas sak omumeran OM cna p ees haem 87 
WANG MEA ORO UO se teisteae cee atc a ta ccce tk etee ean Lapsed a Rae a PSRs SA 74 
@ NAOT IN VOUS seem nne clon n= anno eo came aes nae oes cele cineen cman ads en ean spon eee 613 
NVA se aL ASE S REDS Se yal hoe va ite eee ce 415 
Grapes, Chinese method of preserving. - 613 
VDTidizine eee ase ee ene eas a aer ee! 494 
RST eS OLS epee ee ncaa sam ee fn NE Lo ree Deca steuaceee ele eee 21 
CSUADLO Mr Caen amc h eats non minds Mallee acceie doves nese cena ne sme calentaarets Cee eae 21 
BUMVOM ACATOIG MESIN Wee sete cice da ccna deaccewaeeea dees can cae ee aul aceeeee oe 182 
OLIN VAVOLIN ee a see See eee ss noc hea didces aneeeee aos weld clee clan oe ae Sein etna oe ete eee 83 
Grnsses experiments with 2)oo. fii Aced 2 seh eck ec oe ee ee _19 
of the plains and eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains...-.-...... ee See 3 Ze 217 
Grosshopperpioaten bythe MNGisns 22...) esd codwss one caewned asan cece nm eee sulene aaa eee 426 
Rocky Mom tain’ ©. 2.0225 s oas Sec ea SS Ae ed eee a eee eee 76 
CraVL inc iOrsAdas kines some) Neo SRT ESS ees so eis Se SE Se ee eee 387 
Gray’s School and Field Book of Botany...-...---.--cc.-sscs-scseccsscccccsessccccecsececeseoae 535 
GARZTHP MAGS OLPATIENI CAs) och) t's Boo ea ice dcucen oct ocse cn ac ckceeeus eect eeL eens an aan 301 
Grease oneneons moo. watilizing yy. 2 fe. 2 ble kc coc calua a owcuaccanmoneaencas eae eae eeee pena 619 
(Eee uyistilly Onis SS li ee ii nnn et EEe RANE OTS ok oo. - 559 
WWHIDe MIS MOL AllasIcaS S20 5205 RNAS Ge NORA Sl ee ooo Sods seen ae eee 386 
(ar eHley aC OLOnaOre merce nia sce erie Ue es EE Wa ee 569 
EEeMCOL MOC ORR oe mare 2 28 A cle kN ARNG 3 Bn NT ON 291 
analysis of, compared with other soiling plants 299 
Opinions'of ‘leading farmers on! 2s. osc. soa tee ceo - ee ce eee conn e eee eee eee 293 
CROPS TAS eh aMeIIT OSs Sos ses wale cin sttee scan nae comes onbe ceo eee ee ekent oo ene ae 527 
TOUGHT ATIAIyNESOlise 2s ne eee ee ae eee edi Nee See a ee 299 
MUMMIES AIO HLOVEION tS: DY oss cece se ccewas econ eek cone obese cbse oR cn ae 453 
TRV OLMMGiLUUI ee eee case amare oases Pettey EAN RIC SANE Phd Ser Sa 558 
rindinpraud cookin corn 25). 62 22. Seek se bbe ae oe Le ee 445 
UG UN Mit ee ee aa SOEs RS SF A Le eS aes Se 92, 176, 405 

CCA OMIT HOLES OL seen eats cee oe cae ee OES SO NS ED SS oe Sipe 
Varigtioninvehe quality ols os. 2s SSP eee ae eee eee eee 441 
(Corre hae eae ee ME RAE RR Lote ag 8) SSAA AOD oe en Se re 196 


Halibut of Alaska .........-.- Pe ee ae ae aE E aie e SL LAD LEME a em 381 
Ardieemente st rhe se PSPs Ea aE es Ca IRS Pe ee ec 620 


/ INDEX. 681 


Page 

Harlequin cabbage bug .....-----------++-+5-- Bee duicisidiaie aie /cuistalelslaninialelwciate Osiveletelalemuintalaetelaiziete 90 
Harris, Joseph, on the pig ----------------- Seg eee can Sass ac case e anv cietee dee se oi saa aaatas 537 
Mee THOM) 2.022 sec ce oan o esac enn nn cee cerns cnc mere nc cc ede se ccc cane nance mecnn sawn dnigadnanl= 413 
MEF Ol NESS oe ss oa cles eo cc ow wpe ewe nc ce cece cme n acne ene nn ces emeesasemennecisenainnss <suisiai~ 411 
Hearth and Home Book of Poultry... AR nS eR I a CS Sra ecoer te alefcatal aie tara niet etaapete aed 535 
OT reese a eared fae facta clon cclocalte nce ws +snewae squiccasceeener eons cea eclecnln sie asin inamnnlalels 78 
WMEETITIG Gili |. con ccs noc c know k Oh oo cue cme ce mency cme area nse cden acer cnesdammaseadsnce dnacisisisesay 178 
Heiosciadium Californicum ....-...--.--- 22 eee eee nee ee eee eee eee teen enter ete eeceeneee 407 
Herbariwn, ens ieee Ree ae Rees Se ee AEN PO Stamp aie sees nieteniaiaiaie'= w aleinimloisile ate ata 108 
Herring of "Alas 380 
Hickory eve ne ee ee Tees oudaea ewes = 1 ay Boe noe aa ene onan 


” fee eeeeatategataatelela tela 
i tetta eases ode scesadiaacsonsis-so5-2se--2255-55 
Hogs, raising 
Honeysuckle. .......-.-------0e eee ee ee ee nee een n eee n ee cen necro csc ete eces 
srmey, srt Fy ee ene ER RIO oe A) OL eh pha aw deen seite cee cisise.s efalsiteciad/samaaieelalare 
RRB A eNO T Loc ek cata siscsee cos sssiesoe aa eeese sess sasjocaseccs tos errrrrrer cer” 
eal Ghestnits Calivornidi.).c <2. osoc~-< se wade nc ncncw se cceueweses Jeane sannsieeeen eh were s 7 405 
ETT eee et ne oo eae cieitea cin <jeje Stew ote nals tain. qj-inie mere 397 
Horse raising in Connecticut.............--.------0---2eerceeececerececnes ee resee ns tsnes esse 489 
Horse’s foot, structure and diseases of the .....--.-------------- +02 e eee erent eter 357 
MIU E G12 Etec ad car ocSecnes sentenccansensseseegee=s<uaeeiues 504 
Horticultural and agricultural periodicals..........------------20 2-2-2 e eee eee eee eerste 544 
How crops feed, by Prof. S. W. Johnson .......-...-.-2----0ee-2 eee ene eceee eects ereetst ee 531 
Merrie Teapraric Meenas ee Nek Pe SEE ease eee eee eee ca owe cm ne cine aceivaincijeeaasnienapr aioe 415 
Hamiboldt's palm wax .-........0. 2-2 -- enn nee nnennn enna cnc ete teense enenee nes etensenssaenn ess 204 
CO Tearehrry ee ere concn ect een -neciocsaan ss mene be samen ensicieminemmeens 336 
BPS MGV e Ss so atthe oss el tek kk cewsss sce TRU RCRRm Tne eae NERS Daianae thin NER eR Be 431 
PAD OT AMICOONAIU OLLIE conc blac cdwcccaecsoaadcacccetacccsccbanwessnnnsenseccmcined sala 174 
PRIMM eM CT STA CS kas e ese eee eso eae saeeescns nceenscnneemcnnaee crear Bi 494 
: I, 
Pilepe oil...-.-5.224s262255s-05-- Ria ee REA EOL A LE RAIO ER ELT R IS Sate ctetetermmestereietaiatetabstatais ee 177 
Dilinois agricultural report ...........-.20-0cseeeeeeceeeeccec ce enee neces amansenssesemeaseanens 505 
Industrial University: ........-...2--2-2cc eee ene e eee ence neem cece nc eee eden an aan nes 471. 
peerees of industrial education in .....----.-2-.-ccec- sete cen nec nnn ee namens cn ccensenn 471 
SRrrre en cA ELTA tera ater oh ata aula sais iainialLla Aisle sp elsninds Seiemiaeciepe © seis wenenslaeelacinamsiaaisinas 60 
OREN eee ceed R IN FN Ye g(ulatare ain mimioial an) uleia\ allele a1e)/6'pa)atalnlatalal tala S72 
Imports of ae eera Day LERUUh a: SIP CU er eee Ree R USC ARATE GEA SRL RAE AR Lb Ale nS sc 438 
Oils, gums, tea, coffee, &c....... eas AS anl e aac EE RNG Oe AS OCU 6 eet aaa 205 
MURAL MSs dae asses sscee See neh ost onas nodeanncladne es mecia wale sanaeenenns cincwcinmaicnmn 214 
PIR EeM Tae Lehane ents ke Shae LAS Luca eens sks he Scies obaniclacommenlom ms scjenimmeimtelaaatan 183 
PERE STN ee Me a gah os abide Dacdacinciniauca waic's-ale oowialqmiaete alalsialnisiain\siataiaatslalata= 190 
SPER NERT MUNSTER tsp eee oe ene ek Ssh a ici aiuin m clave aiata vate and Wjererafalciainini=\elimiain/ateinlainiaale/aatnteinla 419 
SSETEUERCA NC ASCONN re oar ea aha le ae chips aielaina nia diaiafolate aid chc\aja aie aatecals ayalsia’elntetn miajntale alent 618 
using alta SSCS Ole seme nd ee cot ecicle ds cad aaaae stole we aa mcpln calbaa cla nis cinta ofnianlaetein wetedataetop 107 
recht tase aera enn seas WR OS) SEL os Uelaamels Dahan penned SAAR ESA eR Pee 423 
Pal atl sos aa tenet ce snc te cite nn cian ecalemiatsaciale(assltipinremanalnlaia Siw epee 418 
Indians, North American, food products of. ........-.-.02--- 22 essen eee eee tenn teeter teres 405 
SPER ELA RETR ELIE O TEV Soe see ts hte he Ge) oS UN ie arctic ale alain pralneia him ala alae Hyine Bie 6, 467 
Influence of the color of walls upon espaliers......-...-+-----+ceesee cence ee ee eece sense een an ees 139 
simple earth on the germination of seeds.....-.-..-----+-++--+---2-eeneetet ee 148 
Insect enemies of the cranberry ........-...--2- 22+ --2-2eeeee cece cee eee nec cess teens eseses ss 526 


Insects, destruction of grain by 
HOW; TO GESIMOY sess ttre isacsccsccesiceses 
Insectivorous birds, preservation of 


Inspection of milk in Boston, New York, and Brooklyn 316 
Oe aprioMltnral Lepoxty sens ce ican cele en cates alee talons oc cden see cenes 509 
es ogress of industrial education in.......-..---..-------neeceenee eens ee eee eee eeseeeeetete 473 

fate Acricultural: College ts 22222 22). 2s ince oe eae ccinns sine one mags esensen fae : 473 

BRR ERY Either ae winnie sg AN RAAB HAY SNE ER YT oo le wininee matomic’eateaaiage 411 
SPALL se eae ee Ae ne CRA CME SPORE NET ELS etal aa leecinetaiscia saj<ialnage 501, 517, 576 

J. 

DMM ans etA ae ert d oa cea ea2 2 hae ee 222 h-/--2 22 oes ecic eco see sean ad de aa adtenh ecco eae mee 183 
GEIBIDA DOPE Wa ee aea tits eset las ese tca ls taesa eels ceeciccecnelaceepseeesscsecensenele ta -saalee = 200 
REI PREC EER asd he nea sh ons nates sah Ril meee th be hee REE nS he Ue wieleniqidteinie asia secicate 423 
1 UEC OTS TSG Gyr aloe ol ne RE Sy Seat a ein a ep ee a IR Oe ee Te 81 
Geen OF C binGke Peplekies sss sean sates Sees ks besa eels colada cece cineces/easianciyace aeeaaacl 202 
PTL jul eSHT Soe DRE ee ae eR RIES TEE OSS ESS Sp geet see eas ac I hey, A 2k RE SES 205 
SRE ATAT EN CORREA NTT ete Sat tare ee a nes WSS SR RN tes SnD A WRG sk Sd Ue aera aiain tanta cia 190 
TORT PNA OM oni as asso s «328k eee ei oan ete tt ae eect naan tween esp en ennnanennnseeetenenns 180 
BERETSON BAHT S AND LO th ead tad sole a ee ee ee eee eee mn e/cuiaaledd 4 ='n'<ix/ehaictine 395 
Jersey cattle not Alderney 491 
a butter from ........ 447 
Jesuits* tea 193 
Juitawan 191 
WI PEL W WORLOEIE tsa. oc wee aa ew lat gae cea cac cae PONIES tate eso LP 411 


Jute plant in Florida ..........-..-.0cs0- Deas a te ee eee len ate Woininik\e aise s'en ate ead eioaieaaratn 169 


§82 INDEX. 


KK. 
Page. 
Demo GulMvattON Of. - 22222022 72c28 S05. Sais an ess ses 36 Soils on teeeweas ne haceanaen pete ee 531 
REMIMNNAS TOOT OF WOE NVACINUN fone oo coc ace acdaceradaewwanntecaeweee sen sos laser ee enone 408 
Mansas Stato Agricuiforal College -- > 22 - oo c.25 5-2. n2 + 2600-2 = ss nen eee renee eee een on 474 
Arr) TEU on ssa as seann aes ae eases = he cneee bees Sear eee pena oes cs Peeks eee 5 eae ate 182 
TRG OUAIDY Ors op aan sane eee meee err es <accmede pes sua saoem aed om stata eee ols a ee ee 426 
Kentucky University, Agricultural and Mechanical College of..........---.--- ans-asanes aie je 474 
Kaew, England, Royal Gardens at, sketch of - 2.) 2.23262 conc ccc acdenccecsscdseteus oeeheupemen 109 
Teeioy BEAM eto nae ae asia sansones Snaeebe as ceecnsnemson scoseeadsaee ns shi oy ae ee nn 422 
See? BAlIKION OF -ANASiG: .--22) 520225 Gite na. sb ecaec chase ss sesame bakbas ses. sp enee ae en ie 383 
BPOUOUIUG DIE Speenssee ste sense tele: Foote peer ad UST SES ENS See ee ee re 174 
Bae kanes e ae ean s tthe See ae so asses eaaasepcnaan cars antacus Wa nen ae acee haere 197 
bo TUITEI GT | La ORS RS SORE IS eps a ee OE a pe ea he ae pn aes oad a, 407 
eeRIsy et sneak ek Aka ern a aw sant saasobios as this aoamewe petlad em encnineauae een te : 187 
i. 
SSL SS ea dids22isriecetsdedstssiiptadcas sens chen den 186 
PeaCIs WOOMEI FOr planta ss Soe 2<225¢ibas tise l llth lst ee eto e eS ee 620 
SEEDOU, (MESO IT SOMME IBRED => ==> — 22 52-- sacs asa saens <2 =" <= pene =o" paneer pate 572 
saving implements in Virginia 278 
Labrador tea 3 
Lamb’s quarter 
BeRSATH DED ee ee er eeen as ehenan hese so anas oa s- 368 
Laramie Plains .. 550 
2) nes) WU Ss ees 178 
Lavender oil 180 
Tat Hag iGe MMO ob HTS CLASS =<. 22. 522252 223s c adsl soe cen dnc acecnocecnesnes duce cee S43 
Leland’s, Warren, system of poultry keeping..-......-.-----..----.---.--2 oer ene neneee wae 331 
RUDE MERene eee 222522 scel ele ce tt se sets cs eesacstn fesse. cc kkkl ae cseke cs eeee eee saree 590 
Metaty, APPAR GMONU:==52 222-2 ces sen tecceneacse ee cneecanseccatecanacetecosscess= eae 12 
IP EICO ens Ore nao Nook cones enasecensntens cake edges csseraccaccecens=s0neneeEen eee eee 208, 407 
Ppa IpES Metre once a ois aaa den onde —nneenas=scslaen EE Ee pe ie Se ‘a3 aa 189 
BID UTOM BNE Sas. cls onic <cceess arta te wcceeesandss padsccwsccedwandsewenaneee eee _ 495 
2) USSD bie Se Oe nr ee a ame TT 180 
amo Stock it New fenPland)? 22: 2.622 2222 2i tke fiisklleii li lil ccc eteoepeae eee : 265 
IR Te oy 6 dicta are ech operas pie tet kombat bees kasha Peer ee eee Be we 49 
BIBL NOTED ee eos n kone tancseraccescnonseatanne ress speancunone peeps parma ae== an B 
5c LUE Es Lee el pe leg Rp A Bole eek See Nes aaa dialing Sa eke Sep sain 76 
PRIPINGNDRY 20 oo S525. coat eb aaccnecerececcsas bn noes encase aces cmarsenneswaemen oe san 202 
Pepe OL MURR 3 ooo ree enn cs cee coke i to hii de coe cnscceecoecs scan aethiey ace aoe 387 
WAN Vien Ae KDE SYStO Ols <9 ons asc scnc aces acecsscesacacceacaswewe suenessaeneeaeeee pa 250 
7 Cp Pe ea Ps I Nee snc cmaacadelaeeeane es 170 
M. ; 
MG ene e nn eh een ae kee ae Sotne bas n = noceecctnn sees cpansa rs esaseenanenaanenes =e eee eed 181 
Machinery, farm, employment of....--....------.--------- a eee 448 
RED SIDA OUOL 22582 eto ea se ches celsecccacecaneesecaceeaeeneeeeeee PP Pere 175 
Magnesia, sulphate of, as a manure...--....-- Seeet seas enrcea~acmae an 2 opens ain o> ome a; 
MMBIZC, ANALYSES OL. 225 05S2522552282 52522562 RR SOE ie ee ee 299 
Mea CuEN DEP POL): cae se c8 lo cec 2 =. soo as ony nape we be nen arn eoeneers Geren Be eS 200 
Wanarenent 2nd prot Of LOWS’ -: 222.022 ecseceosasevecs cuensoscacscinauen tenens aoeeen eee 329 
WMOpIAs OXPOMMMIONIG UN? © 22255202 .cce ce csp edcnceces cuncseeenlbasana eee wereae 464 
MUI finite 2a8 2 ne scares ccss 2 fsoes occ. abo eeceenc~ seen carspenesnenny nee asa 375 
RTECS ee eee Se ae as teats Sn ee oe ss Us ceuee eee Jitaapn wets aptue bemaeee “ate 184 
Manure, ettects Of, on planis:-: <<... 32... 2 oec isk anante dr pancad ousecheeeaaunegaee bana 618 
ATOM MNIAN COND 22265 ocs5225 2s ccccklan bonne cacencccwons semees naa) oe 3 618 
LORS frOM \OXpPOsUTS Of. /2-.)2ss oc o-oo eves ames toe > -onp en eeomebenaneee ee eee 441 
sulphate of magnesia as a.........--..-- 617 
Manures, mineral, present theory and practice of 428 
STIPAR hehe we ne eee es ys 2s 24 Tee hued a Sihies sales LACRRI ONT? SN eg ee eee 413 
SUPPRW NES EEL eae ees aU ED V8 R45 Nye a te de PP Ee AED ee ee 412 
Marketing in cities of less than 100,000 population -........------2---seeeee---- eee eee eens ed 242 
Market prices ot farm produce. ::-...-2---.----agsccecre eenen de ce decbnens beweeet eee eee 56 
PEER YO DONO BORLON bee lok Sais coo o. cas Sen weno mee on oe eek woes nee ee et as 243 
: ’ DRLAIO INOW WORK 253 occccccas soko oyosnoc occ nn aceon e eee ee 249 
ries Sh 532 ee Fn SNS OO Pe NE eS Te 245 
@inennigil sas PAS: 2 So ee Sas NE ee ee 249 
Honisyitle, Kentneky 2.26222. 2 cdo. coded t cen ot es cans case ee 250 
Nowanks iNew Jersey 2.22222 fgets ads I ele oes 248 
PNG Ww Orie eto So 22 +> SENS BRAS ee es a ee 244 
Phnadehphis S25 oo eee oe avon cannes dee cee 245 
San WWrancise0rs 222. 02-5 2c oe ooo coe asec eee 246 
systems of ee CHGS So ee eee 5 eee _ 
the country, their usages and abuses. ........---2----ceens-nieeeacccereanh 
A ana ten tartnde. PINS * ae * a SAS Te, RErAtns “ne rrocences ceca 180 
Marland snuck from Worids; analypes'of:;- 220222... 0.0ococcce sense ons dnc ae nen 98 
PN Ere teen ee oe a kee A ae REED 440 
Mears: their usés and ‘infinences: 2-2. oe ee eee ee 96 
Marmonty paagit, potato 2228 oe eee CU ee Se 615 
Migrahies ramming so cons een ot eis oe 2s Oe OR RE Re ee 587 
Marah lands reclamation of: 65-. 26... occa ne. ice eee 600 


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Massachusetts Apricultural Collego...... 2.2.2... 02 0ceecs nena nneannns neces eceee-aneeecesoce= 477 
DEBOK Gs < 4205 cee iene aeiemevipe se erierindan aS ek Me misemnn oer oe ange 429 
DDG elec BOIS EE pie areinnimninmais See ne aint means Ss Sob bess 2b) Usa ie ees 185 
eee amie anil snes Ol) SOONG BOPDSS. - 2 noo A 5 clei onle winnie acee aigcaw dae emcgia a snaenirireodae ee 444, 498 
EN) an RB het i= ia ingen min ocngiew nciaieaweavens anebancinns ecinnnenaveeracanansaiviesenamas's ae 105, 613 
111 GASES, PLESEPVING 2 aaa enn mnwewe nn caciemerenwen area saaceraeenseaesnnengsecasenecr 
supplies of great cRies,....-- 2-2. ----sennnccansnooenaetescenscc cessed nencncensnenncenan a= 
BDO D TION Oft sada tan <n cinctdaine adm aniacrdvebaneaeinesnecenecvaepna sacadetna apn san nim = 
Mediterranean wheat .----...--- v : 
AEE ate FONT ODS (ten onic een een odee mel eenasWierer eneniiwan\smaeensneclenancs'> semanas 
Menhaden fisheries of Long Island. 
Menzies’s arbutus.....-.....-... 
EUG tele ome sain simian a <b a 
EERE EU eee eee siteenena eee : 
Meteorology ...:...--------- Seat Sonam nakeeen ni Anais sscaawsnns mone wate = same 
Misthods for protecting planis from frost. -...--222.--02--c-csceccncaencccnaasmcnccencnsacedane - 131 
ETN SE 2 SR ee ee eee ae ee ions ae 190 
ae RE en Soe onion anlckaln'e Palio sar dascetranr wash rune Re tun tenane erent 194 
Re A RUNIET OTS oad oes an Siem aco nod pads Dame pile can wcepom sae suites atone snemeemepe 620 
Be ean OTIONIGL Al TANOT ho. 5 = 6 sano nanan cnn scnanwnneasendwinsstasersncensswercmee 499 
State Aprieuliural Colles .......--..esecaccoccaccansncccannuons ees sstnty 478 
PSH IROTONCO 901 VIOIG Ol isn acon ocancnssacepscosescerncccodsalete sesh aac seesaseueman 316 
PRORCN GOIN LOMMGM MOMS q\pc amon oneness name neni nes shaun wee elwaee de vcnn ie eaete eee 291 
Soot LTS PET Tid Gil 2 oS eS es ee eee ane ee ERE BER Sere ey 318 
business in Connecticut and Massachusetts ....--.-. 2.2 ..--00--esee ene n ne ede e ee ennnanaces 320 
eee ene ey ee es ag) SS a ictalonia aware ncaa doslceiaulamrcieetetic aisle waa a's o aa Sale peas 314 
inspection of, in Boston, New York, and Brooklyn... .-...-..--.-- scs0--2c00--cncensennnee 316, 318 
Opuiseront aninals constituents Of the \.-- sc nase~s este ce cus siweserocsescs sesaesnesesene 617 
RIE CARYN UG fa te SSS ne ie tose os dad aeons au sewer new ans osaseeaed cele sedeaeeee 198 
production near New York 
spaying for ........-. Seana soem cad dcelas causa swat Wodan Navan sane cuetape tee oman 
supply by railroad ...... x 
ot cities and towns - 
EH oe eee ee ee 
TEE eI 3 RSS ee oes Clatmiaidien cenwacse none duke Rev en enukepelane Reem eke eee 
Mineral manures, present theory and practice of.......--..---.--- 0000222 en ee en eee e ee eeeee eens 428 
SEE REESE PRL AI VW IR COU RUNG fais 52 tae me come sep were cmeb ee smth enn sesent se ae way oeesapetin same 503 
PEACE REATICO UNE) COUAKG [<<< 22000 codes es tecnwn deuwnacenseddcdwenesanad ddecdeeedenas sas ATO 
PREMIO IIOR SLOAN DLW so oa a xcawawd Janome succeveud vaaWddwe send es doanue soueheen ee epee Sil 
ener veratable products aud their sOULCEs «2 <<6\scni<ncceweweewiadatwdees seme ceanneaperesase ese 170 
ISO ARR Ne tila oot iv orwell t eta all ee = Po ae eae eee eee 440 
Menage! Aprioglpural and Mechanical College ....-<\0cc0.vsisc-veneceweesssnsscdeaneussessaanee 480 
é RAMORUM spe stoves 2a elsd tale a dale mood mile sa Walaa slonis sites Seo aes el ett eee ut 


curran 
“Modes and results of irrigation 
(USE APRS GDS SENS RSS EE SRG Se Se Oe ape ety aie COU eg seane erp? See ieeey ter estes per ee Le 
Mountain sprout water melon 


SO eee Seen ya R Eee neem eh esbiak casos t cw L me Sen CE seeN er eenoe ek enupsmesamae 
hbo TSS SEE Se ee Re Sees Saneeeeenery arerys see ys de Be eee | tins eee 
CET Gira is SA ES SAS a Ses SAT fn Fades Ne geen ES PEROT eR SCneT SR) ae MOR Wey rire 2 
(TLR ne 2 EIR SSSR aap 5 Sarde ener 
(Ua | ee 
Museum, agricultural 
report of the curator of 
Sdn He Seger ea a oe, Ee ae eee Soe SN Sere De) kk Bes 
Myrtio Date aaa Ce Io ice ih wre Soa cemin ae mma bunard ww anhe Decree: ame eae xe ee pane 
N. 
ERIE Gils eee a poate cdl sacswhlesseavesvascessstbaei ss5502-5ds0c/ys-Sedoues.2 sedi teeee 178 
Native plants driven out by weeds in Wisconsin ........5...-. 20. scee cece nee seccee ce cceeacccs 505 
Re PEND LURODQNORD. <0 rs sin eau ou dens ansoessesoeo¥sssei27isdessscs tei cjedaa tele sane 481 
Nettles, feeding, tO laying BONS s.6 24s os 55 oles cnsease Rates soe ies roc os sass asel ake ase eee 612 
Vem TIS TOCA NOLIN sa s/ass obs). ss' eas spdesescsccizc cud co douse coal eee ake eee 604 
Newark, New Jersey, market system of 248 
Newbold’s, Charles, plow 395 
New Brunswick oats.............-.-.-: 5 164 © 
New England, farming in 255 
New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 482 
eI MUL IGM IDLE tt sid oe woe Su dee wre idee nc ies Nasie chicos ses sce scmbant sO ee 202 
New Jersey Agricultural College, experiments with fertilizers...............-..-..------------ 454 
New Jersey Gallego at Agriculture and Mechanic Arts) 12. 155.252 256.5 edb vac ceo cdecew no cee 483 
Vide beNauewee Heese cussuabe thwlat ss odavé codes s oss sca cccdadecstsssedtadse danas 197 
MINED IRLE See oe te oes SU slau Uavvdenlere MVE ows pauacer asec csiccwinco2odces ace coe 544 
Peat ee Ua GeO RTA TOBDLG tiveasp sss ess Seece sibs ae dailies oc32 sulsa0s6tucsccsmetnesccan eee 493 
PRE UET OL sas taut -' oss as ace agulous yesh Ueeaae aa 2cecksecscesdoete ao aeeeeeed 244 
URN PAI GaN See Ao eis Seek Nerpite SO ne niale o'wicinte dia kid'c otal stele viet Sa 251 
Ni ERE DRC cco alk tah ese ch wel Ube Peni eunmedk aco user. a bacon en uebeac chan bee 20 
EN OUTER AMEN eed gd eo id sata we oiain u ks Uiee MART ae Oats oc cia b's saws deem Sd bss oe 270 
Wulato whife fish of Alaska....-.....--.cc-ceccsescesase RSPR bisinc cass Soa Spots See an See ic 387 
DUO Ree mane ena eno rasta kus cows twee sauce saa cea RWEMR Ed Scott as-2a,c0cqicaseue Saaeeee 200 
Nuts and dried fruits eaten by the Indians................... Bebe enes sds acese oem ieee 409 


684 INDEX. 


Oo. 
Page. 

Sate NOTTDN ieee asan cream os saee eo eenk peor hae eee crsees ee eee 66 
Oats as a preparatory for cotton.-.......--.-..--. : 464 
TORUS Ole on eens crn ses e mean an eren es asonalde chess sanbalewandoht pete apes = ode tas ee 163 
UE ig Ls eS ee eee ed ee PO te ee 419 
MHontoctentam Harbweei oes bs secs Se ce waotinnte be aevns sca cstedewaeeeeeeee 422 
Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College 484 
PSDOND Ei Gsinin able 2 496 
cheese product of -......--------- 497 
WIDO YARNS | «co Sosedkcwas a cccas  cuseake cs seeveccsceceuecnucnes'snehe sous soos ee ep eee 498 
Oidiam, sulphur a cnve f0T,- 6- <<< sos sca ean soa ceccce dnledeacccnccense-seueesacbse ne bese 498 
Ri OL OUNGNE a. 0255-8 6a dancxc secceesneaes eauclbmedewnt wencrsetetevqscs oscssauecs bees 181 
“dite ihr Beeae Os ae an. Daan ee tee ein onl ST 181 
ils, vegetable, and their sources ...-......--.... ab eeewaw codestcases céceneacnsaseeesee eee 173 
ORO ome oe eee nee OLE oe ee ae ek ewe b wisn Seasons i jnd Seno descctoutests oases 178 
ea DUMGHYO 25 eae sn ues des oemerdcakwddsas eee ee ee = 

PRPEEIN SED Miles ws wor on ce Om Sa Cisse one wemae sudan Swen aba des sols bee cereee eet eee e eee 
ear POMS ana eernge asa sesce cece ee obuckonaceeccavel dnd ccecsieee esos eee 189 
@renards; timber protection for - 22.2... hse cccckescccscccctoescen ss ccc ccc. oceet ae otek 523 
MIROHIG GOR Sena pcaeed cintsacds as cnkcnccss sews ede cdewestwcccnededacesedze soos eee 193 
Shrapantim. -225.055e55 02522 ap rn een ser 174 
@zare orange as feed for silk Worms: .--..........0ccee+cccccccce cece lel onees oe eee ue 82 
pater Abe Dark LOUGH. <<< 2. boca ce doc ccnvnnececcvceccccveccdesevsc nee 88 

P. 

LEAT) 1 2 423 
Palm wax......-. 204 
Panic grass 419 
Paragaay tea, or yerba de mate 193 
erry, 5, DOTAMISH, TEPOLG Ol} 25 once oo ns nce ess enercvecceeesnceanstsccesess seeeee eee 108 
eastoraliands Of AMOLCS -.--2-652-0-- ccwescsnndansccccseaccsrdennicceces2ecnol eee 301 
Patchouli ...... pene aah een ia asp cine eam nninwisawalennlesicseie sc siobn0,5820 eo eee 175 
Patents issued for the year 1870.....-.... SE ee ee seoeswsasssee 393 
RC DPOR oe tees besee ca case nis fod 10 Send/enedaw slacwoarcacten tani seeee ee eee . 520 
CULO ooo 5 to eick nas oe nnn nn sence ema anine caida deuGees ahaa Sete JERSE See ee 517 
PACKER AN NY ISCOUSIN, .02c02 seccoks seas cor cee seed este cases sacnohssccs.25 eee 505 
RE RARNNSD Sete ct ete oi Satine wie ae aa pind anomie w)s nine ni ate'adpiwins sierpproleloubias toner ee ee - 92,506 

Pe COSPASES OF GHG «6 coisas) Secon ccna aca cesewaic cue duoatrabacecaan. tee oe 
RCL cneitae peat coan se cee creeks eee deeacece aa 417 
RI penisene she se ane ne an a= Oia a a ose ei ela oe ew mm me el ips pe end ere once mip eto slo ose nett 73 
trees in Michigan............ ; 500 
ORGS DBR eae eee 71 
Pecan npts ..-...-- : 411 
Peetha wax......... 205 
Eire? ie Se a ee ne eNO OE 426 
Dares A Oe a ee Be es ae ene sna ceuleencen asin daa dae ee aaa : 200 
PAP RBENIO GON: S29 Maso bales Soe dawns an dawabe banuancs secabecunee nent oe e 179 
Periodical phenomena, instruction for the observation of.........-.-.s---------0--ee-eeacene-- 121 
PEPER eo oe eke oS casas cance canes bees onlepiaca& wedes ale Goma ceteL cL 417 
LDant in Citi bine) ee nm Ge SENET Ti 620 
nuladelpiis, market system Of . cc: .-.<0+scseecsee0ee od becabcansostesescteoR een 245 
LTO) ee ee ee en names eT 1i7 
Phosphate rocks of South Carolina and the great Carolina marl bed, by Francis 539 
TATA OL EHOW OU; 5-0 2.55 sone c einen nninicn onion cance wen'ctvice stedcd sun eee 17 
Narr PINON TUG) <8 2625 2 Ao oe oo oe unin c Sune bond a davabucdeh ole eee 537 
HPD OXPSRUNOUES With. -- oo - -5o 25 cise cacddienecact > 466 


Pimento, allspice, or Jamaica pepper 
Pimple mallow 

Pine apple beet 
Pine, edible ........ 


aiaim hg BOs 


oll 
593 


BOS eoa ceca oda boon okt oh et oe 508 

ee ds dee a os, eee ee 442 

fs ey ie Ok RI TES PORE NOR TT eS 70 

OnE RENE OS EOD S Mea N SETS STEER R 418 

2 pene One Ene een ene e LIEN REE SIOBNMSRS CU ERE POTTS (VS 68, 521 
oéy, André, report of, on agricultural meteorology ........--.-----.-ccccecceeeeececceeeeeeee-s 113 
Polish wheat Lae eras AEE Bs ase oo he ee te ee eee 162 
omological Society, American, report on its history and progress..........-------------++---- 149 
Pond lily, yellow v's Te peck on fa laity Urn ae ee 407 
WOON PA Oil ee sas ols oe ade haar sont oe ce een es ee 174 


INDEX. | “685 


Page. 
Poppy, Opium -.-.-- 2 see eee cece eee eee eee eee eee enn es anes q a Seas aaa a)dg aa aagecan aa aememrne 180, 206 
Pork making .-.--------- ------+------- 0-22 eee eee cere ee renee tee e ee eee Bee eee we cer eneenessccewe 493 
Potash, action of, on fruit trees.-.--..--.-- ed ee oe ol el leg 618 
superphosphate, &c., on potatoes -..--.----------+++--- 22 eee e ee eens eee eee eee eee 459 
Potato, analysis of the ashes of the...--..----.-----+------+----+++ alae ee ae aloe ee 616 

as food for cattlo........-----.-------2--- ------- 222-2 eee eee eee eee Re pr ship Seago: ao2 52 
(Sai oe alta es nice acti aca 65, 75, 499 
NEVA E AY CULTS ea Se a i SS ee nt ee NPR mE eae ME MIE ALI 527 
diggers ...-,-.------------ 402 
giant Marmont ....-.-.--- 615 
Ate cena eos oaet-. sae neces 5 164 
prairie, or bread root ------.----- : 408 
RPO Tac icc ac aistciss wia'sintsia'n ono 6'sin\misinla i=in wo sinie sienwie's'n «\eslulmin en ainnins => nem ohio w mw amalaate 527 
Solanum Fendleri-.-...-.---- pine secu means onan sm ae miseiam amis os a'e'= me ain w qfaitnla elo wl inom 409 
IRATG aedaa nce arn foc cca es oie ain aim) =initinia wield mia a\= is sinineiml nisl ofei ima bairclo ator eee 407 
Potatoes, change of land for... .-.-- .4-.-- 2-2 ety eee ee eee een eee see cones eee e enn ee ene snen nce 528 
TECd ES Abe APSO er OE Se IDC OE Sr PIE DECI DEE ROD OED E ORO Deas cer Soom Oac go. 528 
Experiments With... .--..- 2222. ---- jee nen een eee een een n een ne nee ene c ee sewenns 459 
PMRNERIE GHP OLEOY 22 <- setae or scr asec een nincaescem seas aoccsmno sas asec Ae oak eenas 442 
PUBS OBE LOM! oo een co nistnna aacece ae cecnwnemnsnen sans <nsicieine== osm eseinsen es ce eninvicceseleate 528 
Potter wasp beneficial. ..........-....---------------- eee eee eee eee eee 5 dla S's a Ihe a ere 18 
Poultry, Hearth and Home Book of ...--....--------++----220 2-22 een nce een ee ee ree eeen en 535 
REESE Oy AAG PLU Ol ns aioe oo cele ella ein nian wle init tea ee 334 
Panrridio, or rottimp = --.......-.------..------------------- fae aaa sale sania haan a el ee a eee ee 87 
AMEE UNTITIGER ORT tees a oicie oa ae = re emcidia a cinta ae nino aela viatS ula aiaw Seis aie'e aatal aah doce aaeeee 543 
PpLaud, OE PLEA TOOL <<< << - - oie ie oo on - ased nc cans ese cscs nanos sn ses asad san asasnnee 408 
Present theory and practice of mineral manures.......--.-----------------2---- +--+ 2 eee e eee eens 428 
RUA EE TSECUVOLOUS DICUS 6-2-4 5-~- 6062 = ae Benn aman mn os omnia = nl oe eee a oe aoe 90 
MEAS ADO ALOLR sch me as nance ees ca saan sem Be Sie sate du atnite date gee ete oe 612 
Prices of farm produce. ..-.---.---.-.-- i 56 
BeREIUANOAD. «222. 705 o ne ance an eseee= == 417 
Primary instruction in agricultural colleges. - 494 
SRT HOLNEO 20-5 eae eos er osee see ccs cccce- ceca veccesee 72, 
Prize design for butter and cheese factory .....-..-..----------- 2-2 een ne ene ee nee ewe wee 325 
essay on the cultivation of the potato, by D. A. Compton..-...-...-.-..-.------------------ 527 
PP eeSrenCUGENG MiAnG AChE Oe ss= 5. sc 2c «se Oe <= ooo eas caves eeaad odds ines alee 310 
: PHOMRMIAN OUUCAUOM 24222 55 -22sc2 oe stec dest sscscscgdeadeee dace sian saan eae a eee 467 
NEI MERE e en oe ene cmon a anios ene ce cea nact tes -csSeoncmnareee sumed 2a cease eee 522 
IEE EM OL Ye ee Seon me sae ea ena ae aoe coe ewe kee alet es ane sa auaiee renee encarta tae ae eae 418 
LU baie sto 6 sot BSS oe SSS peo eee eo EEe EP ROS eerngr rer oomenerr eee cacred sks oy 369, 373 
2 EG. Sea Gy a ae a ee ern n ar aan Ramee renee es meme Fi. 422 
RIMM TO tere eine cen stance Soa e no acne av ne wine cc oe cena cman ansina sence cweidh wetin ae aes Gea eeaemea 190 

R. 

MEPMEN DING ceca sv occc een ckes canes besos sew cs cs Se ceeds cesscceest assesses cede CdUdeoentemeeicee 169 
IRON ete eres ae ne nela cc aco ae che cctert deccneseia\sccane ses = See ciaenssoclemua sald aaa 175 


BEPEEEGCUNnO tM PEAGGHODHOD coc at sec cccccec ccd de cee ses es ss jod Jaa ioe out ate ae eee 76 
Spee LEAN O Winton an. a2 cess eo senccs weadssdsece cn casecea en tela ted vasddas suewemoae 404 
SES Ee OE ee he ties aoaira ee ore ent windicne oma ses 32 saacicassseu ssssc seas — ec 7se  eeeeee 108 

HIGHS) aoe sok HER GE MOC E OEE apon EHC CEE ODoRee oer Re tehbn cotere rere aere ne 91 

commissioner ......-- Bresette ess eeetes Ss dedcisv alread tasaieaeetresusdcce sigan sae 5 

entomologist and curator of the museum. .......-...----- 2.2222 cee ee eee ee eee ne 65 

BiRUA LUD ene mein tee ne te tol hale naa aeee ss Sandi Sale nica tates = peepee’ Sages Soe ae 24 

superintendent of gardens:and grounds... <2.) 000-2250 ene cceseetec on-scene 16 

PM APe OL MNELOULOLORY 3.32 Sos boo care cod vccsoe cosas uh weew ole deed Yad Ocads aenebe 113 

the history and progress of the American Pomological Society.-..--..-.--..------.-- 149 

Reports of agriculture, State ----..-....-.-..---- cece -cceeesnceee---- beh eta ooo Ada aa ee 487 

MER UNIS tO tee NS A healed ea auia dle ddl dail daa ae dene win dia sao dee ta eee GE 181 

PIMEECAINPHUOSA TN MNOTSOSS 2 22285 é222 92cdsssactssedsscecdsdscctuarrsdcdedensscacess steeds 373 
Ba SS ea lca Fare aA TSI TSE aU ae eo teeta eee ee oe ee pie eae 


Rinderpest, carbolic acid aud 
LEPC GG 0 EE se Deer eee eee 
Road making 
Rocky Mountain grasshopper 
Huet, OfOpNe>- oe <se soe cccss Mean te ces csreesdewsGn sence tacos seated Celie Wes udtccks Joo ae Se 
Roots and tubers as Indian food : 
ERIUN, Ulta MEENUROR OL sri tods sss s5sdn sco g7sdecawaderddorasnysecovseess sere we Nb tee ce ee 

PRON Reet e es radars 00 tos daw oan na sadee Gidea daeouenenn dion ascae deena wedunstabaeeeonl 
ses HRCA es Dao CRAs Ss et hes So eyed b canoes uae dame Seas eels dun clewanedeneellaaes dee oes 


Ree AEH GR OPOTBANTIR W IEPA ny 5 os gaan os oS auiamet aco mee ee paadenoes dee on noa- cosssaehewenagionts 
TROUGH CHATE WHEAb i226 nsc sewed esecradeowvevncuces Sie ese ees a osc wo a Sea Uae SS. 
ROUT CL Bete Of ALAR Rivers ad a pour vows ow daemon n nna inne foe Roe Je de SESE. ~e PUR a 5 
JORIOU BOLTOIE = ces dune Os cen eteuee pat dle nace cae RTOs vice duo wwidievadlwadehesi here see 
TRV O VOU is. aster dits u oe Saeko oS a Metta deeae eee at Seti ae eee ea an cae cetnGganeteewg iio lce 
Royal Garden of Kew, England, sketch of........... eee geass ovacyacseewervcearesvecas=eets 109 


Page. 
Bush Valley -. 20.20 so ccccsscccvecsccvreuce sesencsewce Ss nacelle Leacrasoemeae toa Oe 565 
Russian apples. ...... 02+ - se cccccsnccccseccsccves ee a ey 505 
Meet OF DHA DITIGD EHO MRION). csccecseccunseerooeesererercemmescclhsnrnamsbh ee ae ig We'elie ha, SO 529 
Ratger’s Scientific School, New Jersey. .-.------ See | tne Bile neck a ieeKe oe 483 
Ss. 
Sagapenum gum ....-.-...--.------ 
Sabnon berry ...-----.-------------- 
Salmon fishery of Alaska ...-.-.---.---- 
PL SH A MORNULD: Osos o> ceeae rc ceceeesrenn sears 
remedy for grubs 
Wake WAR 2o. Soe eee oo taa see eae orden cc ang reeds caaseccce vacean tq assis scene an ne 
Gand CAG <2 2 oo nc <n a cone nic se n= om mc nmemencven~-0s~ cese ann ereesssne ae se anes -<cons see 
FOO. - «2 oe nw nnn wenn ee nnn we ree nc we renee cen ne cen nce meen een ans psee nc eresesccasera= 
San Francisco, market system of.-..-..-.- SAAS ae Sod eats eee es ieee ae ae See 246 
peendcrs, William, superintendent of gardens and grounds .....-..-..-.--.---.-----+--+-+ce--- 16 
W fly. ..---- pn ee een eee enn ne enn een nner ene cern ne err ars eneranenns 2 oe ae 71 
Scammony. .----------------- 22-22 eee ee cece renee een ee tee ene renee penne eeeeee 183 
Schonen oats, white..-..-.----------------- eee ee ee nee ene ee ene ce ee nee eens cere ee ce en wenn ee 165 
Scientific notes.......----------- a at a adic ane aa es aie eee are ettanemaMse FE 611 
Seorzonella ptilophora . ...--.-----+---+------ ++ eee ee eee ee cece c erent eect eee pee eee eee ee 409 
Seraper, ditching ...-..-.-------------------- 022 ee eee erent e ete creer eee’ aA eH ee Se 594 
Seraping old trees..-.-.----------- +--+ 222 eee ene een te cen tree ee tenner eee et cree nee ee 522 
Screw bean ...--------------- eee ee ene enn ne nen te tenn renner rene een ner eeeaee 412 
Seed raising at Erfurt, Germany. --------------+-------s++---2+--22ee rere renee ee Jinn 9 ane 452 
Seeds, Department tests of -..-----.-----------2---- +--+ 22 - ene erent tenn tte nnn 155 
distributed by the Department of Agriculture. -..-.-.--..-..-+--+----+-+---+---+----+---! 156 
eaten by the Indians. ....--.----------+- +++ ++ +--+ 22+ ese en nee ee ene nee ee ee ee teen 419 
Serpolet .....-..------------2---- eee en eee nen eee eee eee eee eee ene eee teres e ee 175 
Sesame oil ....-...----------------- 2-22 eee ee net nn te te eee reer e tt ete n eens 13 
Seventy-five flowers, and how to cultivate them, by E. S. Rand, jr ..-------------------.------. 533 
Sewage, crops grown from ..--.-----------+-----+ +--+ 2-2-2 ee nee eect ne teres resent crests ees 502 
Shadberry -..---.------------------ 2-2-2 nee cn ee nce erent rene n nnn cent e een re nest eens pen ene 413 
Stock, diseases of ...-..----------------- +--+ --- een ne eens ee eee nnn en ner ener tee e eee 40 
Stramonium ....-..------------- 22 = ae nee ene nn een een ee cme n nn een n na wenn nceness PPP om oe 423 
Shea butter.....-...--------- 222-22 eee n nnn en cee en enn ene reece ene tenneeensens ‘17 
Sheep, bells on, to protect from dogs. ..----.-----------------++++- 222222 een n nee nen ene eres 488 
in Connecticut.---...----------------- +--+ - 25-2 ono nen tne ne een ne ene ne ene ene os 488 
roots for ....--.----------+ 2-2-2 en nee een tener nnn eee eens d= secnaes *s 506 
Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College ---------------------------+-+--+--++-+-+--+--++-+------- 467 
Shell m6. --<- - 22 2 oc nnn cee nn on aan so a no ce ce renee ceca ns cecncecnncnaccccesanessucousenen 495 
Short horn cattle sales ....-.-------------------- 0 ene ne een nn cee eee ene een tenn eee nee 444, 498 
Shovels for ditching...-.-.----------------+-----+ ce-e-2 eee ee ene n nner n cee tere cece e ences 591 
Siberian crab apple .-------------------------+--++-2+- sere eer etre eters fone e eee eeeeee 505 
Silk culture.....-..----------------- 22-2 eee ee ete ere nee ete ence cece renee cc eeees 8, 235 
manutacture ...:-----------22 02-22 e nee eee tenn een een ee en eee Senter ee 238 
SUpPY - .-.------2--2-----22- een ec ene eseeee so teteeeeeee 241 
worm, diseases of ..-..----- Peper eee 239 
eggs, profits of growing. ..----.----------- +--+ -2--- 22 eee eee ener eee ents 237 
SURI I oS heen ia Sern wale nalabw ata = oneal Saimin ania ane ee ae gL 
Silt wells in drains. ...--.-.--:------------ + 22 eee eee ener ene nen eee een e rene sxa09aaaea ee 600 
Simbolee oil.....-..---------- 2 ee een eee ne en ene ene ee renee enn e ees nnnes ens eae 180 
Symplocos alstonia....-...-------------- Maa enancnnadngns ean nnacasan=saessaece ss -saesnaaeeee aan 198 
SlInice, how to make a water ...------------ +--+ ---- 2+ ene een nnn e cette ree nent neces enene rn 596 
Smelt of Alaska ..-...---- 22. e022 ee nee nn ene ren eee ne cee eee teen ne ene e ene nnnne ean merennes & 382 
Snapping bugs ....--------+----++--+-++ 222222 25- fete eee e teen ene e eee eee eee Been ene e es een terrane 67 
Snowbeiry. .----------- +--+ e222 22 seen e nett ene tenner sete te ttteeee dee wccceees Onn Senn nansquances 415 
Soap berry... ---------------+-e0--0e scene rennet ecen ne cette curses pence tener n eee nen een e ee neenee 412 
Soiling stock..-.-..-----.------------ 22-2 2c rte e stern es ceeee ey ere re 7 aeeee 504 
Soils, absorbent powers Of. ..-...----------- +2222 +e e eens eee e ee nee een een nee tenet e nen e ne eee 532 
Segre ee ee one eee ecrcncs ce i es Pte a ey a ss tn 422, 423 
South Carolina phosphates and marls .-.---.-----------+--+---+--+--se-e0eee- sans haces estan 539 
Southern example of farming ..-~.-----~--++--+ 22-222 eee en ene e een e cee seers eset ttt ete ates eens 447 
Sonthside Virginia. ...--..-.--------+--+---2-++----++-+- cass enasaws a6 Glee aR eee adnan <a 270 
Southwest Virginia ..----.--..-.--------- 22s ee een ne en nnn en ne en ete nee n nn nent teens 972° 
gel ANTONIS cases 5 oe inn a ong cna see snencosn es quenn=eo=m a= ane ean ob ame nee winn/letn ae 418 
arrows, English, value of, as insect destroyers ....--------------- +--+ +e eee eter e ene n eee 90 
PAVIN. -- ~~ = one nn ne nn ene ee ee ene ect nnn cee ene enn e nen n erence ne tenes tenn ec asnnen 366 
Spaying for milk ....-.-...----.---- eacansees Rem nennwwiananneqes==5--—"n/nen encnsesssaccneemecsse 447 
Spices and condiments .....-....-----------+-+-+++-+ maqqeenqneqaceenen=ne= sash ein ~ ss as aa eee - 199 
Splenic or Texas fever, Illinois report on....--.--.---------+----------- 222-200 -- 2 teeter tere eee 506 
Splints 2-25 oo. 50 o acca wen sn ew ame nwnnennaas sancweeersenisannnsna-=0= sadenasseneneas (nee 366 
Sonsash bug 2. ~~ oo gn wenn enn enema qanensqencenqnnecsese~=senssnncen==ssnnm amare 89 
Squaw huckleberry ...--- 5... ------ nee ee enn n en nena ne eee eee ence tense ene een erences enaccenes 415 
DRRATE Trice eee ete a ro wow a ee elena one Simin essa nig me RS ee 422 
SPOUT pPe ee ee ne SE se ene rtm cee ces 199 
State reports of agriculture --.. ---- 20-2. ---nno nnn en nn nnencennee cane een nnn en snenseness 487 
MLALIShI CIN ATAPOLOL GUO <<. cc0 5 s-csuane ned oorcnenanaacnmaena ssac—s canes se 24 
RRThIShIOS Of CLOPASsiaees saese cease seanenwaesaseauadeaecasmaaaaaneesnaaeeN nanan 26 
PUAN ATADOTUG «doen oaec nebo mcsadocenansanexes ee re ee 439 . 
WOULEEY KGS DING - < 25 54) a oso nck we ee nn eeeenmennne a aigsae an ee 334 
production of New England States. ..-.-..-----------++-+--se222--2-ee teers 264 
silk manufacture in the United States..<.--.-.-.<-s.--.ascaseeceeenaannpnaes = 238 
the cod fishery of Alaska ..........-...-- ea Hea eerste wigase<csnsenaane pee 3380 


Page. 
BETO) POR DUTITNOLG A. << = onsen s ~- cana vesicwarsen eve scees ess samsasenasinms Se ea cee 404 

MGA de avec oc cobaccec se swede one cee aee poke a sale Vaid decute ae a = wa aie ener aes 40 

3 SURI OCHSE UG) it fee eee eR eee ee ee ECS TEESE ETE SKC a 511 
oo Tn LGR Ne ee aS ee eee See pat Petia Se eepr ce roe Oar cbce ne 7, 403, 449, 511 
Steers, English BILAO nip erinee saa vita nn ois = Gales anise = See en a aalm wee Smee md wala oats went mee) Jo alee a 
St. Tile. ‘a pe and Mechanieal Association ....--.-----.----------+----------+----+---- 511 
BUpply Of... ..-- ov - eee eee oe eee ee ee tee eee nee eee eee nec e ence -Oeauaskke 321 
Stock, fish as food for...... RESEC CECE TE RREU KER UEP REL PMEEAES cLEL Lega uecbonhs Eo aes cat uheneebiniy 451 
(| Seer er reeenenr eter sni ged) “leona, 1 Sees eee fe) a! 444, 498 
PII Hs SNOW SONIC - Vif en wind ts able eee ree ocean net eae ~ baa: vee nuns) sae = 251 
AE RS ee ss Nop blow eb Seth eb hee ok wlan e oceans csc eaiccln es he siseiwisteiuln 7 181 
TEE re ood Saeco ata ate onic wate ela! alate endows se now wn etdee = bv Seon Se sea ee eele = == 422 
SPREE DDOTUIOD fo ln ono a aw owes ww en yaw a net wae etme bon se cee ens vette weer es peewee rere tsemuesnna- 441, 523 
ag BMP BISOINES OL (iM NOrse 8 1000. = =~ 22-5 seare esas eet l ce cue st ven eset ame dees seer aeere 357 
EER oe cet eae sain ola oe incon a\nbelplialn ce\snic' as sone e shee eb ee oeree ae tease ae 187, 198 
poker PPT ER as fo FS lore eee ate aistclp oot sheets ols ol ts etaielalo mets etal bisi= Seat tame ieee 385 
Dugar beet. ..---- oe ne eee see eee cen ene new ee coms cress eee sewn ce ssaece 98, 210 
Fn MeN | PNM OHON Ofes-c.s kes 522s tscoa et ane sins See. e eso ne ee =e op ele eee eee 94 
imports Of....---..--2+---2-- +2 epee eee see ee eee ee eee eee eee r ener ce eee 214 
SRM VERNON G TT TONMITNS or .8 s/s = wwe 0-2 bee oe eek e sa lek ome winee -- -l ares ae ee ene 616 
TE Pee eile esa Cele miriam a oe cp oe vi c'sie eels So ane ea Se = ain = = neal eae 412 
Sulphate of magnesia as a manure... .-- sfbapeec ss ects Seance BS iicowesaklnwse ccc eem see eee 617 
eee ese Stet oa bes cos on ae doce ces noe e tensa sane soe acdc seuecssacus Ceameeneee 180, 419 
Superintendent of gardens and grounds, TORALG Olae pe eae ene = Seep acicen sas Sees yeaa 16 
Superphosphate on wheat........----.-.-+--------2-00- secre cere reece ee eee t eet eee eres 453 
TIkASH, , 620s, OD NOCGOES 2 os caram nwa a newer armen enlenecen nm sse= eee eS 459 
ch doce samo eosin aces oe ps annette ae apm ork acs = ponies hod ose 2 197 
ee panes vec csheen saver oss oaenp year pr esces sseneava hig eyas ace re aeer siiiteetd aiid 164 
wcotwater “STE SR I SO eens Sm son eh on eels San A ee er as ee ee 552 
IE ESR sa oom nc nesis sion lainleminiowi <a ae eon lo me swale mn neta Eee me me Baie ain 538 

; i 
SNS PCy tice op ce aeeiennar: a<siae enna ean anat= a2 i==\-2> 2 <)seean = eee aa Se 182 
ee eae ln iene ain cing wae. ome «.d'e 2 9 mv neo nin on iee wig ivi mig piace ein ia ele eea tee 174 
Tal RE re teats ne poe vin cisinin iad npn anne nasa ese me roy ms ole arrive has eee ae at ee 174 
‘amanu oil ..... an SEER EEE Sega ESE EPSP naree Ie Denmnrcemebemeeci= oeecdsdsd: fo 455 1% 
ee OSE eee Peer rece monet erect ere rece ee) es 203 
MISA EOIN isis sins amiencee oir nan ncemnnnannrsins sansn cnc s© ese mem < a0 GUN SSUN yen eee oeeene 184 
Tappahapnook wheat...--.----2<-----0--ce ne nee enn eee cone n en conn ee een e ane en eee nnnnangsarmeene 156, 502 
Tea, coffee, &6 ...-.-..---- aon ee setae SERRE CE So oP REECE SES UR SSS Saeco fe 192 
IT RE SRNL oon cas gas ge.actsyeade xu scna'sayes+49<8s0542555 599997 197 
CHS PO a ie Oe ei Re ay a PPAR oer eria- preter neccpreeercermee 6 tLe. 199 
plants.....-..--.- Jeerantanprannnes en sect omenssoneponcenar ahr aaeas an sn a ove rs.0-=ssnemeaae 19, 170 
A Ia ao ora inl aie Sh leptin s Seeley nla se nn a mle nia ee 173 
Ment caterpillar. --.--...--.2-0----- 2-0 nnn nn een nn enn e eee nen nnn nen ee ene ne conten 83 
NTE NRT NE a te a ca crn ncoe el mine we plai9 oe en ee ee a 184 
Bel DENOTMNIGNY OF BOGUS |- ote <ia.0=6.<34+ ans nn orspriesinn =s09.4-05. sseees eae ae od daaaan 155 
Texas, cat 1) BOD. now ganar semen cmenearsnsereninrerarcsnsee- FE RHE Seed stone eee ee eee 506 
or aplente SOVGEY HIDOIS) HONOLG Ol. nn apc sa eama pao. sic naneeagmel- -eassieapaaneronr eae 506 
Ee ee oe RRR ES ee PE eee reper rere renee fae ta alee ee 194 
Thick 1oygen STNG ete ete eee oni eee ener ens ee rnp anaes a an ae eee ee 67 
RATA REI a ee oan gas du a Sain scien oan em ae oa te ne pam acta ae ne saa 415 
Thistle aco ot CoS AL SEES Oe BoE eee ene eee aa Prensa, 181 
0 FL eS aR RS acho ae Ses oe ere C are CO ce ch Cee neat 371 
RE ORO UNM ee uae wean s eng see sess ed newsy neha cose cc ss peso sa sega osiecb eres. n eee ee eee 416 
Serre ON OT GPU Sere cisnips are ene =r Jpnerrice ni arada ner pan caean Pree ees 174 
Tiger beetle -....- --.----+---2---0g--eeen sess eee Sigite Sate <epbiahin ilo dds tg dune sic 3¢ iss eeeaeen 65 
UAE PO TC ee SR ER Sa Se le ee pi eyes RU 72 
THREE Ey TST la Ce) are) eel EG ee eae) dee 
UME IUONUUE Me eee stern go piece os Amina mie ore =n Ho Seine deans tae ee ede Cre 619 
SRGH0S 4B UGECK GESITOVOIS-. 2-09 02-09 2 cng ys neg 22-22-22 52- ¢ aes s= +s eemeeee sb as 90 
Tobacco culture in Massachusetts and Obio.........---.-..-----.-- * 451 
RRINOUTS cet hecn sone yer sa — 5 <= 2 427 
Todd, S. E., on underdraining...-........-.-. 5a4 
Talavera wheat.......--......- 162 
Tomato or potato worm........ 80 
PEGUZONG WHERE < ooo cn ieee nrc n ew ecn enn s= 162 
PRRAGACANGN 2-2 oso com ene mee nce we nnsecern : 182 
PBNEPULGEIONL OF CAGLIO ANG CrESSOU VOGL - -.- =... 64-.--- 22-52 204s--s 5 eens cance sseenee panes 251, 352 
2 PTO Ea a ee ety Samer ae ee pA eee 2 226, 543 
Trees, plants, and flowers, where and how they grow ..-..--------. 2-22. seen cence cee e ene ee ee 533 
Trout, salmon, of AE eee oe eae sale dann Vassar cur eaeee coud ed eamee i ncaane ett ee 383 
Tuckahoe, or Retntamielsiae\ < O6i< 3 eke: hah, s\n uvek 2 ak Gate nk as ee 423 
SURI AE Cece aoe balay aaw lo Gn Ae eubt Sb atin sea ook wise = oatmeal ia ae soe n woe clods meta eee 203 
EA ated SO eee econ. oan he kha teenie Lan en (ecu ti te aya eb tnep Gena ones nate mee ee 536 
PMID SIOT suensttasadans dosasssidca wstsunsmsstUeouesacstcsdl cata sbbechs sbomeateheweemebesseaeen 414 
Uv. 

RRO ON A MBA gan sce wr ordme ste ean ab pate Ws SoA ote nC oa\nnein HES eu vip mae aie aeaadininaelsot a 381 
Umdordraining «-- 0-25 1. n 0s 2 anon enc n ene vernon oer e sen nn seed ee enon setenescnss nesecennes 507, 584 
PCE UR PLANE techs ovis ced s bases sob wer oS sivas accuauee deen enc ot rans wae ews denitceh a aabe oe eos 422 
tion PEDO ents, GOHICn a TINOS 5. sec oath tate Aeon sani n aaa caoies eae wae = cae 250 


Universities of Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin .........--. 470-486 - 


688 INDEX. 


Page. 
Utah, climate and productions Of. ......-- seve e- cee nn ee ene wee ener e ent e ween cence sree ere holwiviene 568 
PAKS Valley. on... ae ce eww wen wenn nec wana pew n cen osaccne- ncn enma gr esicaceaneenbuuns 562 
Vv. 
Walerian, Wild 20. <<a nee cases ccc censceunmcccene=cuunnecnaeciness 0 wee wee ses cneescenecseue woknis 409 
Male OL UIteTeaNG LOGGS oo caer ene. oe ee sae nice me sme ees cece seer sree nies wom <ivgnaneeeeee 445 
Weare ere poe eens sc een eee ance shane ee ep a ivop ee sep nis puis eee niaialg es ee elaol= eee Se xia ara 204 
Vogetable physiology and practical horticulture .......------.--------0+----2 22 eee e ee eee enone zi 613 
PLOCUCLS, MMINOLVANd THEI SOULCEB. oO. soe owen oe ee ee ene ee wee eee nea eee 170 
RIN PORUS Ober sew ea weas vie ee eave cclawlec ea a eialel= ene ees ee 205 
REGUS: aNis 6c, DOSUS Olise ee cae mnieeon nin eine oie cree adie eneen see ee eee 168 
TWEE GION MA SHS OS eg C DEBE Oe Ae SESS SMS ASE EES SO OMS SOO NOO SNE EcccS 204 
Mer ouaMlen mio lis Sarat ences since) cele ois aisle ants = iSainla ie miei aint net ee oer “98s eminent 441 
Vegetation OP MDE PACS sce ce reer ionsenaanleseanes ene eiealam iin mnlonemin’ sais anise slo ee 
IMETOUy Dube ene poe reciteacisncsanicictas scien als anlnisiais o (ain ain ts wielenie mio aim)n ooo lemin = ele oa a 
Vermont Agricultural College ...-------------+----220 +2202 sence eeee eee eene eee Ppa c- 
Vinegar from unripe fruit 
Vineyards .....-.-----------.------------- 
VAT Cuma ae TLC Mtn W860) 2 eee mln nelalelm on ele nie w= wlele el invic es nmin 
ww. 
Willa ope ac eircwiaeiemieliewic cena ese r ee tens ace cecscencesenescscssnen css emwsce scencew=a¥enseaneee 
Wralnnuts 222. - 22a oon nnn eee rece een es we ce een scene eee one ene nine sens esecesnaaeae 
Weash-0n-enar .-.- en = = oe ane nn en ene nen eee cee ces e nen n cence cece emerecncencess 
Wasp, potter, betleficial....--.-----.------ 222-2 - nnn e eee eee ene eee ene nee en eee eee ee eens 
Watering plants...---.----- 
Waxes, vegetable ..-.-..---------+----+ --- 2-2 eee eee eee ene crete eee cence eee es 
Wax tree of the Cordilleras. 
Vicstern yjunIpOte ao. cee sce sacena~ on 


or alkali soils, analyses of 
Westminster Farmers’ Club reports 
West Virginia Agricultural College 


Wheat among GHB MARS 22.262 .0--e-ssedec dee -cancraceceeoeete. secant ce settee a 
experiments with -.--.-.-.----+---+-+---2-- 22-2 ee ee eee eee ene eee e ee eee <paEe eee 
harvesting in California. ..-..-----------------+- +++ 222-200-2222 oe eee ee eee eee eee eee ee 
DORIS OlMemee = cesses hem =a ciena soon a nena sare semcomacii=-sh oma =n manasa. sexe See 
WantOr (Gx Cole Gr. CUdGs O0 ean pec cee cee em ale! serene sen kee eee EE owes wen e caesar ea ae eae 

White dammar or gumanine..---.---------- 22-26 --e een wee ene se wen e ese e nec eenenennsee oma 56 183 

LEST (0 J io te Spgs OD SHO Sao SOS SEES SS OASIS OSI IOI Ay ot 386 
HG WASIA aeons nis wei in = Gee wwe eee Ole w nim nln = wien neo © ww emis =|eie ele eile = wim veelmie( vw elmals = eels eee 407 
Pine weevil .....------ 22-2 oo ene eo ewes eee rene wenn one cece ac secewseeesucommeeeen 71 
SCHONGNIORLS 2s oa cece cece nose cesinc sme secretin sae seach seed ses= = heel = eem See = ae ee eee 165 

SHUG) aeons sh ee oe Sos te seeme bo smge Stee Se Bode SUC SU Se IS a ISOC OC or IIIS 407 

414 
414 
415 
408 
183 
203 
Q@HiS) Jasin pases 6 a5 s090 60s seas sO uee MICO U COU Ee BO COU MSrsopUU dome ceguadesoc shed cocci 419 
PINES NCOLOTSHTOMN. cee = scenes ees cecemesteele sone =e ceca eerie = he mec =e se eee eee 614 
POtAtO VING..------ ~~~ o-oo eee ee eee ene eee ee nee een eee ee eee n ewe en es 407 
MGEee ese hermes sess ec cete sacs cumbeseescsbecnesnueccccer bescer tense ort ee ee se —e kaa” 422 
TUSSI SQ GEER COCO b DOSE SO EEO COCO OC OSS CRISIS OHI OUD SSE OCMC IONIC 414 
BRO eee saistere oe ties cat clo ciclo tees wow ies cimaicwes ala nwisacice ae mtetaicelme te ees Cea ee 406 
WALAMIAM ese siehess ce. cs ccck ocinds cae casscedcodea ts sd edeeccdscced! sess cee eee =e een 409 

Wilder, Marshall P., report of, on the oe. and progress of the American Pomological Society. 146 

Sygd bance aiaatriets 4052. ccc22- sc-a< ccs giccuctessscovicddevdeocsddonceesaoaueae =n 557 

MAING WVOTTMIS Ses mere coe ccscuct ese cea tates see ste e ecb ose wecocce cca nie cece Meee eee cee aan 67 

MVBURCLP TOON enmrctosulee ec coree Ses sen cc ese ces ceca ees secraucr ost ae een c et Eee eee tae 414 

Wisconsin Agricultural College. : 486 

report 502 

Wood, seasoning of ...-.-..-- 619 

Wood’ s, Jethro, “plow BUS M es sce he Mee tess awewente Ste 395 

Wool, production and consumption of 52 

Wool PTOWINE ON GS PLAITIOS = c/ Siio. 8 Gs sete die to hte be ea se wae ae eee ee eee ne 306 

Wools, combing, and delaine, production of, recommended. ..-.......--..--2----------+---------- 512 

Wyoming Territory, agricultural TOSOULCES OF o0oc.i3 dees cess cbsccuses teas does cepa ene eee 548 

X. 

SAIN DAO Se ioicc cncecoascswekoclee veeimseedseee SeamhieSepics Roniee siden beac alien yee 175 

BION ER eens ops sarees ees nore dere ah baie oes Mee meee eauee hon c GeR eae eee cateae ened 197 

Mellow MOTMUNY Pee oc see teoae sje sat Salvin ae sei sive hee k oun eect einem eh bocce aetna eases 407 

MMO MSE keen ea cinja vin oioie scien suaisiers veka abeeeeseabaccueroese se iejaleeis soe geiaaaee tate eee 520 


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