Skip to main content

Full text of "The Report of the Lawrence survey : studies in relation to Lawrence, Massachusetts, made in 1911"

See other formats 


Glass HD73H 

Book     ■  L  4  "K  S 


THE  REPORT  OF  THE 
LAWRENCE  SURVEY 


STUDIES    IN   RELATION    TO   LAWRENCE,   MASSA- 

CHUSETTS,  MADE  IN  191 1,  UNDER  THE  ADVICE 

OF    FRANCIS    H.    MCLEAN   BY    ROBERT 

E.  TODD  AND  FRANK  B.  SANBORN 

AT  THE    PROCUREMENT    OF 

THE  TRUSTEES  OF  THE 

WHITE  FUND 


LAWRENCE,    MASSACHUSETTS 

1912 


THE      ANDOVER     PRESS 

ANDOVER.       MASSACHUSETTS 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction  by  Wilbur  E.  Rowell  17 

The  Plan  of  the  Survey  by  Francis  H.  McLean  20 

Topography  of  Lawrence  by  Arthur  D.  Marble  22 

Letter  of  the  City  Engineer  24 

PART  I.     HOUSING  CONDITIONS 
By  Robert  E.  Todd 

Housing  Conditions 

The  Early  Houses  31 

Future  as  City  of  Tenements  33 

Fire  Burden  and  Menace  35 

Coming  Conflagration  39 

Houses  Classified  by  Height  48 

Huddle  Fever  49 

House  Census  50 

Land  Occupied  by  Houses  58 

Density  of  Population  60 

Light  61 

Sanitary  Equipment  65 

Tenement  Maintenance  67 

Building  Regulations  81 

Center's  Future  87 

Social  Results  of  Bad  Housing  108 

The  Remedy  in 

Housing  Legislation,  Dire  Need  of  115 


8  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Page 

Housing,  Miscellany  and  Tables  127 

Persons  in  Apartments  127 

Air  Shafts  —  Small  Rooms  128 

Occupancy  on  Corner  Lots  129 

Open  Spaces  on  Lots  129 

American  Woolen  Houses  132 

House  Census  139 

Materials  and  Location  139 

Apartments,  Number  of  140 


Building  Inspectors'  Record  141 

Rents  142 

Crowding  in  Apartments  143 

Boarding  and  Lodging  Houses  143 

Sources  of  Information  144 

PART  II.     PUBLIC  HEALTH 
By  Frank  B.  Sanborn 

Ptblic  Health 

Conclusions  147 

Recommendations  148 

Relation  of  Milk  to  Public  Health  150 

Where  Milk  Sold  in  Lawrence  Is  Produced  152 

Inspection  of  Dairies  153 

Examples  of  Good   Dairies  161 

Examples  of   Faults  in  Dairies  167 

List  of  Good  Dairies  174 

The  Hood  Farms  176 


CONTENTS  9 

Page 

Turner  Centre  Dairying  Association  179 

Milk  Bottling  Plants  180 

Ice  Cream  Plants  185 

Milk  as  Disease  Carrier  187 

Recommendations  for  Improving  Milk  Supply  188 

Heating  or  Pasteurizing  191 

Supervision  of  Bottling  Plants  198 

Inspection  of  Dairies  202 

Laboratory  Tests  204 

Publicity  and  Prices  204 

Organization  of  Producers  206 

List  of  Producers  209 

List  of  Contractors  214 

Water  Supply  of  Lawrence  217 

Source  217 

Filtration  217 

Value  of  Pure  Water  221 

Sanitary  Survey  of  1850  223 

Sewage  and  Garbage  Disposal  225 

Outlets  for  Sewage  and  Manufacturing  Wastes  232 

The  Spicket  River  233 

Garbage  Disposal  236 

Disposal  of  Store  Wastes  238 

Dumping  Grounds  for  Refuse  239 


io  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Page 

Board  of  Health  241 

Duties  of  Board  241 

The  Lawrence  Board  of  Health  242 

Lawrence  City  Departments  246 

An  Efficient  Board  of  Health  247 

Infectious  Diseases  by  Wards  248 

Diagram  of  Rate  of  Infectious  Diseases  252 

Diagram  of  Expenditures  of  City  Departments  255 

Map  of  Civic  Agencies  258 

Summary  of  the  Report  on  Public  Health  259 

The  Milk  Supply  259 

The  Board  of  Health  262 

The  Population  and  Its  Relation  to  Public  Health  263 


THE  REPORT  OF  THE  LAWRENCE 
SURVEY 


INTRODUCTION 

By  Wilbur  E.  Rowell 

The  City  of  Lawrence  is  essentially  an  industrial  community. 
It  was  intentionally  created  to  be  such  a  community.  First  came 
the  recognition  by  a  land  surveyor  of  the  water  power  existing-  here 
in  the  Merrimack  river.  Next  was  enlisted  the  interest  of  Boston 
merchants  and  manufacturers.  In  1845  was  begun  the  erection 
of  a  dam  across  the  river.  There  was  no  village  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city.  The  power  was  developed  and  factories  were  built, 
and  people  came  here  to  do  the  work  of  construction  and  operation. 
It  is  not  exactly  true  to  say  that  the  manufacturers  brought  people 
here,  either  in  the  forties  and  fifties  or  in  recent  years.  Oppor- 
tunities were  offered  and  people  came.  First  came  people  of  New 
England  birth,  and  English  and  Scotch  workers  skilled  in  textiles; 
then  came  Irish,  later  French  Canadians  and  Germans,  and  recently 
people  from  the  Mediterranean  shores  and  Eastern  Europe. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  impulse  for  growth  has  never  come 
from  within  the  city's  own  life;  but  always  from  abroad.  Men 
living  elsewhere  have  built  mills  in  Lawrence,  and  a  population 
has  gathered  and  swelled  in  numbers  to  perform  the  labor  of 
carrying  on  the  industries.  Accordingly,  the  traditions  and  re- 
sources of  a  self-contained,  or  self-sufficient  society  have  never 
teen  available  in  the  development  of  the  city.  Whatever  com- 
munity good  has  been  achieved  has  been  such  as  a  society  of 
working  people  could  gain  for  themselves,  under  the  favorable 
laws  and  customs  of  this  Commonwealth.  Whatever  may  be 
lacking  is  to  some  extent  explained  and  excused  by  the  same  con- 
siderations. 

Lawrence  is  like  a  great  workshop,  so  to  speak.  It  is  not 
the  trading  centre  of  a  surrounding  territory;  nor  the  social  centre 
of  outlying  villages ;  nor  the  home  of  families  who  have  won  wealth 
or  culture  in  past  generations.  Many  a  city  of  half  its  size  does 
have  all  these  characteristics;  and  it  is  obvious  that  they  are 
important  elements  in  the  common  welfare  of  such  cities.  Law- 
rence has  always  had  the  difficult  problem  of  the  conduct  of 
manufactures  in  a  manner  to  secure  prosperity  on  the  one  hand 


16  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

and  the  welfare  of  the  working  people  on  the  other.  The  writer 
likes  to  think  that  his  city  is  working  out  a  typical  modern  problem 
for  other  communities  as  well  as  for  itself;  that  our  troubles  and 
our  shortcomings  are  not  due  to  peculiar  faults  of  our  own,  but 
belong  to  nearly  every  American  industrial  city;  and  that  if  one 
has  faith  in  the  future  of  our  country  as.  a  whole,  he  is  entitled 
to  cherish  the  same  faith  in  the  worthy  future  of  this  city. 

The  following  studies  are  intended  as  a  partial  self-examina- 
tion, undertaken  in  the  hope  that  better  understanding  may  lead 
to  better  achievement.  The  idea  had  been  in  the  minds  of  the 
trustees  of  the  White  Fund  for  some  time  when  they  found  them- 
selves able  to  secure  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Francis  H.  McLean,  then 
Field  Secretary  of  the  Charity  Organization  Department  of  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  now  General  Secretary  of  the  National 
Association  of  Societies  for  Organizing  Charity.  Mr.  McLean 
came  to  Lawrence  in  December,  19 10,  and  laid  down  the  plan  of 
the  Survey.  Mr.  Robert  E.  Todd  was  secured  to  conduct  the 
examination  of  housing  conditions.  Mr.  Todd  brought  to  this 
work  the  results  of  much  experience  in  similar  investigations  else- 
where, and  an  extremely  wide  and  accurate  knowledge  of  this 
particular  subject.  The  health  investigation  was  conducted  by  Mr. 
Frank  B.  Sanborn,  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  in  Tufts 
College.  Prof.  Sanborn  had  given  special  attention  to  hydraulic 
and  sanitary  engineering,  and  had  experience  in  similar  investiga- 
tions. Mr.  Todd  and  Prof.  Sanborn  upon  beginning  their 
respective  tasks  were  given  full  and  independent  control  of  the 
investigations  which  they  conducted.  The  entire  expense  of  the 
Survey  has  been  paid  by  appropriations  from  the  White  Fund. 

It  remains  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  White  Fund.  One 
of  the  men  born  on  the  farms  that  occupied  the  site  of  Lawrence 
was  Daniel  A.  White.  His  birth  was  in  the  year  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  He  was  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College  of  the 
Class  of  1797.  Fie  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  later  for  many 
years  judge  of  the  Essex  Probate  Court.  In  1852  he  gave  to 
trustees  a  considerable  tract  of  land,  of  which  the  site  of  the 
present  Public  Library  building  is  a  part,  to  be  sold  so  that  the 
proceeds  should  provide  a  fund  for  the  maintenance  of  a  course 


INTRODUCTION  17 

of  lyceum  lectures.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  Judge  White 
was  seventy-six  years  old  when  he  established  this  fund  and  that 
he  had  lived  nearly  all  his  life  away  from  the  town  of  his  birth, 
being  then  a  resident  of  Salem.  It  was  according  to  the  best  New 
England  traditions  that  he  should  feel  a  responsibility  for  the  new 
city  which  was  growing  up  about  his  birthplace,  and  should  make 
a  generous  provision  for  its  welfare.  The  fund  much  exceeded 
the  needs  of  the  lecture  course;  happily  the  founder  foresaw  this 
possibility,  and  the  trust  contains  the  broad  power  to  use  the  fund 
"  to  promote  the  moral,  intellectual  and  Christian  advancement  and 
instruction  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Lawrence." 

The  trustees  of  the  White  Fund  with  their  terms  of  service 
have  been  as  follows : 

Charles  S.  Storrow,  1852  -  1865 

Nathaniel  G.  White,  1852  -  1886 

Henry  K.  Oliver,  1852  -  1873 

George  D.  Cabot,  1865  ~  1898 

James  H.  Eaton,  1873  "  T901 

Charles  U.  Bell,  1887  - 

Wilbur  E.  Rowell,  1899- 

Walter  E.  Parker,  1901  - 

The  lecture  course  was  begun  in  1864.  The  introductory 
lecture  was  by  Dr.  James  Walker,  President  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity; the  other  lecturers  of  that  year  were  Rev.  George  Putnam, 
Richard  H.  Dana,  Jr.,  Rev.  Joseph  P.  Thompson,  Ralph  Waldo 
Emerson,  and  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  While  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  not  every  course  has  reached  that  standard,  it  is  true  that 
eminent  men  have  been  heard  in  every  year;  and  that  courses 
of  a  high  degree  of  excellence  have  been  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Many  undertakings  for  the  public  welfare  within  the  terms  of  the 
trust  have  received  assistance  from  its  funds. 


THE  PLAN  OF  THE  SURVEY 

In  the  winter  of  1910-11  the  writer  was  requested  by  the  Trustees 
of  the  White  Fund  to  recommend  to  them  a  certain  line  of  social 
inquiry,  the  cost  of  which  would  come  within  certain  limitations  fixed 
by  the  free  income  of  the  fund.  At  the  same  time,  though  naturally 
this  has  not  been  embodied  in  any  formal  action,  he  was  informed  that 
dependent  upon  the  values  revealed  in  this  investigation,  might  be 
further  action  of  the  Trustees  in  later  years,  as  their  funds  permitted 
other  investigations  of  a  similar  character.  In  other  words,  he  was 
made  to  understand  that  this  proposed  first  inquiry,  while  self- 
contained,  need  not  be  considered  as  the  whole,  but  as  part  of  a 
possible  whole  yet  to  be  created.  Outside  of  these  considerations  no 
limitations  whatever  were  put  upon  the  scope  of  the  proposed  investi- 
gation, nor  was  the  slightest  suggestion  made  by  any  of  the  Trustees 
as  to  the  advisability  of  this  or  that  field  being  omitted  because  of  the 
economic  and  social  make-up  of  Lawrence.  The  only  limitation  in 
fact  was  that  the  investigation  should  cover  Lawrence  and  be  for  the 
education  of  its  citizens,  thus  coming  within  the  provisions  of  the 
trust  imposed  upon  the  trustees  of  the  Fund. 

Armed  with  such  a  carte  blanche,  so  far  at  least  as  offering  pro- 
posals were  concerned,  it  was  evident  that  what  was  required  was  to 
find  some  principles  of  elimination  which  would  logically  point  out  our 
field.  Much  ground  could  be  covered  superficially,  or  a  more  limited 
area  with  some  greater  degree  of  thoroughness.  No  other  policy  than 
the  last  was  thinkable,  considering  the  circumstances.  An  educational 
fund,  such  as  the  White  Fund,  could  not  publish  anything  which  was 
not  thorough  as  far  as  it  went. 

Therefore  it  was  evident  that  a  search  should  be  made  for  the 
definite  beginning  point,  and  that  proceeding  along  the  road  which 
there  lay  stretched  out,  we  should  travel  just  as  far  as  we  could  and 
still  see  what  in  detail  lay  on  both  sides  of  the  road. 

Naturally  the  beginning  point  seemed  to  be  some  understanding 
of  topography  and  physical  characteristics.  Following  that,  those 
conditions  which  affect  all,  or  nearly  all ;  and  what  could  these  be 
excepting  questions  of  public  health  and  of  housing.  Housing  is 
mentioned  apart  from  public  health  because  it  presents  other  problems 
than  the  purely  physical.  In  the  first  drafts  of  the  plan  submitted 
there  were  schedules  covering  education  and  public  recreation.     But 


20  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

it  soon  became  evident  that  these  could  not  be  reached.  This  for  the 
reason  that  the  extremely  serious  housing  conditions,  revealed  by  the 
most  superficial  of  observations,  plainly  indicated  that  a  very  highly 
specialized  and  extensive  investigation  would  here  be  required.  In 
the  field  of  public  health  it  was  later  revealed  that  as  extenisve  an 
investigation  would  have  to  be  made  of  milk,  another  one  of  the 
fundamentals  affecting  all.  Another  fundamental,  water,  required 
no  such  inquiry.  So  our  fundamentals  are  housing,  milk,  water,  other 
general  public  problems,  prefaced  by  a  topographical  sketch.  So  to 
a  later  day  must  be  postponed  consideration  of  education,  recreation, 
child  welfare,  and  so  on  along  the  line  to  living  and  economic  con- 
siderations. 

But  the  foundations  have  been  laid,  and  the  fundamentals  which 
affect  all  community  life,  have  been  presented. 

Two  experts  have  been  engaged  in  making  the  investigations 
which  are  here  presented.  The  soundness  of  their  methods  and  the 
scientific  character  of  their  researches  are  evident.  So  far  as  their 
individual  deductions  or  conclusions  are  concerned  they  stand  essen- 
tially as  they  have  been  presented  and  for  their  individual  verity  the 
investigators  themselves  must  be  responsible. 

In  closing  this  introduction  it  is  well  to  say  that  this  is  to  be  no 
fruitless  investigation,  but  that  the  first  steps  have  been  taken  to  form 
the  necessary  organization  to  carry  on  the  propaganda  for  the  success- 
ful attacking  of  those  evils  which  these  investigations  reveal. 

Francis  H.  McLean. 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  LAWRENCE 

Lawrence  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Merrimack  River,  about 
twenty-three  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  heart  of  a  fertile  country, 
wooded  to  perhaps  10  per  cent,  of  its  area,  within  a  raidus  of  five 
miles.  The  city  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Methuen,  on  the  east  by 
the  Merrimack  and  Shawsheen  rivers,  which  separate  the  city  from 
the  town  of  North  Andover,  on  the  south  by  Andover,  and  on  the 
west  by  Andover  and  Methuen.  The  territory  of  the  city  extends 
about  a  mile  and  one-third  north  and  about  a  mile  and  one-half  south 
of  the  Merrimack,  and  is  about  three  miles  in  extreme  width  east  and 
west.  The  area  is  about  4577  acres,  2097  being  south  and  2216  north 
of  the  Merrimack,  with  about  264  acres  in  the  river  itself.  The 
Shawsheen  river,  about  fifty  feet  wide,  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  city,  winds  gracefully  through  a  wooded 
defile,  about  twenty  feet  below  the  broad  and  gently  sloping  sandy 
plain,  which  at  an  average  elevation  of  fifty  feet  above  sea  level 
stretches  southerly  from  the  Merrimack  to  the  range  of  wooded  hills, 
extending  at  an  elevation  varying  to  200  feet  above  sea  level,  along 
the  entire  southern  boundary.  In  the  westerly  section  of  this  range 
are  located  the  quarries  of  gneiss  which  furnish  the  stone  for  the 
foundations  (and  in  one  important  case,  of  the  superstructure),  of 
all  the  principal  buildings  of  the  city.  This  ledge  which  underlies  the 
whole  ridge  appears  to  terminate  in  an  abrupt  wall  of  rock  some  fifty 
feet  high,  known  as  Den  Rock,  around  which  cluster  many  weird 
legends. 

The  Merrimack,  which  is  about  600  feet  wide,  is  crossed  obliquely 
a  little  above  the  centre  of  the  city  by  the  great  dam,  900  feet  long, 
and  from  near  it  run  the  two  canals  down  along  each  bank  of  the  river, 
the  lesser  one  on  the  south,  the  principal  one  on  the  north,  furnishing 
the  water  power  for  the  mammoth  mills  which  form  the  life  of  the 
city.  North  of  this  canal  in  a  valley  something  over  a  mile  wide,  and 
averaging,  like  the  plain  on  the  south  of  the  Merrimack,  fifty  feet 
above  the  sea,  is  located  the  most  populous  part  of  the  city.  Bounding 
this  valley  on  the  west  rise  the  twin  summits  of  Tower  Hill  to  a 
height  of  245  and  248  feet  above  the  sea. 

This  hill  is  in  the  line  of  the  famous  "  Indian  Ridge  "  which  Dr. 
Hitchcock  particularly  mentions,  and  which  has  been  studied  and 
mapped  for  a  distance  of  some  thirty  miles.     The  nucleus  of  this  hill 


22  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

as  also  of  Prospect  Hill  on  the  east,  belong  to  the  "  till  "  or  ground 
moraine,  with  superficial  deposits  of  sandy  gravel  covering  the  whole 
eastern  slope  to  the  summit.  Extending  to  the  north  the  valley  termi- 
nates at  the  foot  of  the  more  gentle  slopes  of  Clover  Hill,  the  summit 
of  which,  153  above  the  sea,  has  been  called  Sunset  Ridge.  On  the 
east  is  Prospect  Hill,  which  attains  an  elevation  of  190  feet  above  sea 
level,  with  a  moraine  of  sandy  gravel  covering  its  eastern  slope. 

The  Spicket  River,  (about  the  size  of  the  Shawsheen)  falling 
forty  feet  in  its  course  through  the  city,  furnishing  three  mill  privi- 
leges (one  of  which  has  been  purchased  by  the  city)  runs  in  an  easterly 
direction  about  midway  through  the  northern  portion  of  the  city  to 
Prospect  Hill,  where  it  turns  abruptly  almost  at  right  angles  and 
flows  in  a  southeasterly  direction  along-  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and 
discharges  into  the  Merrimack  River  about  half  a  mile  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Shawsheen. 

The  surface  of  the  valley  is  generally  composed  of  drift  deposited 
several  feet  deep  upon  trap  rock,  which  crops  out  above  the  general 
surface  in  various  places  forming  a  line  of  low  elevations  extending 
in  a  northeasterly  direction  from  south  of  the  Merrimack  to  the 
abrupt  bend  in  the  Spicket  at  the  foot  of  Prospect  Hill. 

The  drift  forming  the  surface  varies  from  a  coarse  mortar  sand 
to  a  fine  "  quicksand  "  which  tenaciously  holds  water,  and  forms  a 
treacherous  material  in  excavation.  This  latter  is  particularly  pre- 
valent north  of  the  Spicket,  where  the  surface  was  formerly  damp, 
but  which  drainage  has  mostly  dried  up.  Above  the  general  plain  are 
here  and  there  slight  elevations,  forming  very  desirable  places  of 
residence. 

Arthur  D.   Marble. 


LETTER  OF  THE  CITY  ENGINEER 

To  the  Trustees  of  the  White  Fund: 

In  December,  1910,  Mr.  McLean  asked  me  to  answer  cer- 
tain questions,  and  I  made  a  reply  in  March,  191 1,  which  I  have  now 
revised  at  the  request  of  Professor  Sanborn.  The  original  letter  of 
December  16,  1910,  asked  me  to  answer  the  following  questions : — 

(1)  The  engineering  problems  which  will  probably  be  solved 
the  coming  year. 

(2)  The  possible  engineering  problems  of  the  future. 

(3)  Map  showing  the  sewered  and  unsewered  sections  of  the 
city. 

(4)  Outline  description  of  the  general  sewer  system. 

(5)  Mileage  of  paved  streets. 

(6)  Permanent  sidewalks. 

(7)  Other  important  data. 

The  map  you  already  have,  answering  No.  3. 

I  will  not  consider  No.  1,  as  too  uncertain. 

(2)  The  future  engineering  problems  undoubtedly  will  include 
the  extension  and  improvement  of  the  waterworks  system.  The 
growth  of  the  city  will  require  an  additional  supply.  This  may  come 
from  a  source  more  remote  than  the  Merrimack  river,  or  it  may  come 
from  the  improvement  of  the  present  filtration  plant  at  the  Pumping 
Station.  This  improvement  may  be  the  covering  of  a  part  of  the  old 
filter  built  in  1892,  or  it  may  be  a  new  covered  filter  built  in  another 
location.  If  the  latter,  then  a  concrete  bottom  could  be  laid  in  the 
part  of  the  old  filter  bed  from  which  comes  the  most  trouble  on  account 
of  the  permeability  of  its  present  earth  bottom. 

These  improvements  or  additions  to  the  filtration  plant  will  not 
probably  increase  the  purity  of  the  water  supply,  but  it  may  remove 
some  of  the  color  in  the  city  water,  on  account  of  cutting  off  some  of 
the  ground  water  which  now  finds  its  way  into  the  old  filter  bed. 

The  covering  of  the  filter  would  increase  the  amount  of  water 
capable  of  passing  through  the  bed,  and  prevent  the  freezing  of  the 
surface  in  winter,  thereby  decreasing  the  cost  of  maintenance,  and 
allow  of  more  frequent  cleaning  of  the  surface  during  cold  weather. 

The  improvement  in  the  Spicket  river  which  was  made  during  the 
fall  of  1910  eliminated  the  offensive  condition  of  that  river,  so  that 
during  the  summer  of  191 1  there  were  no  complaints  from  property 
owners  because  of  foul  odors  along  the  banks  of  the  stream.  So  long 
as  the  river  remains  an  open  channel,  constant  and  intelligent  super- 


24  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

vision  will,  however,  be  necessary  to  prevent  its  being  made  a  dump- 
ing place  for  all  sorts  of  refuse  by  those  living  near  to  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  river. 

It  is  quite  possible  that  sometime  in  the  future  the  river  will  be 
walled  and  covered,  and  the  area  thus  formed  be  made  into  a  park. 

Other  engineering  problems  include  the  disposal  of  the  sewage 
of  the  city  in  some  more  sanitary  and  inoffensive  way  than  discharging 
it  from  open  sewer  outlets  into  the  Merrimack  river,  which  outlets 
now  are,  at  certain  stages  of  the  river,  some  distance  from  the  thread 
of  the  stream : 

The  abolition  of  grade  crossings : 

The  construction  of  one  or  more  bridges  over  the  Merrimack 
river : 

The  relocation  of  the  railroad  station  in  South  Lawrence,  con- 
necting the  same  with  North  Lawrence  by  an  electric  car  line,  and 
discontinuing  the  "  cab  "  train  : 

The  sewerage  of  the  section  of  the  city  lying  on  the  westerly  slope 
of  Tower  Hill,  and  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  from  the  same  so 
as  not  to  make  it  an  offense  to  the  citizens  of  the  district  and  an  added 
pollution  to  our  water  supply. 

The  disposal  of  the  surface  water  from  this  same  section. 

The  sewerage  of  the  southerly  slope  of  Phillips  Hill,  and  of  the 
valley  of  Cold  Spring  brook.  These  sections  are  separated  by  ridges 
from  the  Merrimack  river,  and  naturally  drain  into  the  Shawsheen 
river. 

The  State  Board  of  Health  will  probably  not  allow  the  sewage 
to  be  discharged  into  the  Shawsheen  river,  and  the  problem  is  how  to 
dispose  of  it  at  reasonable  cost. 

(4)  Generally  speaking,  the  sewerage  of  Lawrence  is  on  the 
combined  plan.  The  outlets  are  chiefly  into  the  Merrimack  river,  but 
one  main  sewer  discharges  into  the  Spicket  river. 

There  are  also  fourteen  overflow  sewers  in  the  Spicket  river, 
which  are  only  in  commission  during  a  heavy  rainfall,  and  the  matter 
then  discharged  is  almost  entirely  street  wash. 

Portions  of  the  city,  notably  parts  of  Tower  Hill,  Prospect  Hill, 
and  the  valley  of  "  Bloody  "  brook,  are  sewered  on  the  separate  system, 
the  surface  water  finding  its  way  through  street  gutters  to  the  nearest 
water  course  or  river.  The  separate  system  sewers  cannot  take  care 
of  any  roof,  yard  or  other  surface  water. 

The  sewage  from  all  the  sewers  is  discharged  in  a  crude  state 
into  the  river. 


CITY  ENGINEER  25 


(5)      Street  surface  in  Lawrence: 

Granite  block  paving- 

9.18  miles 

Asphalt 

0-33      " 

Wood 

0.09      " 

Brick 

0.42      " 

Macadam 

25.10      " 

Earth 

79-51      " 

Total  streets  open  about 

114.63  miles 

(6)  Permanent  sidewalks,  principally  of  tar  concrete,  are  laid 
throughout  the  thickly  inhabited  part  of  the  city.  Of  late,  many  walks 
of  cement  concrete,  commonly  called  granolithic,  have  been  laid.  The 
city  and  the  property  owner  share  equally  on  the  first  cost  of  these 
sidewalks,  and  the  city  bears  the  expense  of  all  subsequent  repairs. 

(7)  Under  this  number  might  properly  be  mentioned  the  Park 
system.  This  was  begun  by  the  Essex  Company  by  the  gift  of  the 
Common,  which  has  an  area  of  about  seventeen  acres  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  thickly  settled  part  of  the  city.  Through  all  the  years 
since  the  early  days,  the  Essex  Company  has  from  time  to  time  given 
areas  for  parks  which  are  scattered  all  over  the  city.  These  include 
Storrow  Park  in  Ward  one,  10.75  acres,  the  Amphitheatre,  7.5  acres, 
in  Wrard  five,  Union  Park,  11.25  acres,  and  Stockton  Park,  0.4  acres, 
in  Ward  six,  and  lately  the  bank  of  the  Shawsheen  river,  15  acres, 
in  Ward  six,  which  we  hope  will  eventually  be  transformed  into  a 
beautiful  parkway  leading  out  to  Den  Rock,  where  the  city  has 
acquired  by  purchase  about  eighty  acres  of  wooded  hills  and  river 
valley,  including  the  picturesque  rocky  cliff.  In  addition  to  the  parks 
above  enumerated,  there  are  the  following- : 

Jail  Park  area  0.80  acres 
Durant  Park  "     0.04      " 

Pine  Street  Park  "     0.03      " 

Milton  Street  Park  "     0.02      " 

Crescent  Park  "     0.08      " 

The  last  four  items  are  triangular  plots  of  ground  at  the  junction 
of  various  streets,  which  have  been  graded  and  curbed.  There  are 
also  areas  for  playsteads  in  Wards  one,  three,  four  and  six,  all  of 
which  have  been  improved  and  graded,  and  some  of  them  frunished 
with  equipment  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  children.  Some  of  the  parks 
have  also  been  equipped  in  the  same  way.     Ward  four  has  two  play- 


26  LAAVRENCE    SURVEY 

steads,  one  a  large  one  suitable  for  ball-playing  ,and  one  smaller,  more 
particularly  for  children's  use. 

To  the  problems  of  the  future  might  be  added  the  poles  and  wires 
belonging  to  the  public  service  corporations,  and  their  proper  regula- 
tion and  disposition. 

A  topographical  description  of  the  city  is  included  herewith. 
Yours  truly, 

Arthur  D.  Marble,  City  Engineer 
April  21,   1912 


HOUSING    CONDITIONS 

By 

ROBERT  E.   TODD 


This  examination  includes  in  its  census  and 
some  other  statistics  all  houses  in  the  city,  but 
the  rest  of  the  inquiry  does  not  include  the 
houses  of  Lawrence  as  a  whole.  Lawrence 
has  many  good  houses.  The  great  majority 
of  those  outside  the  center  are  such.  Though 
all  defective  houses  are  not  at  the  center  and 
all  center  houses  are  not  defective,  the  city's 
pressing  housing  needs  are  at  the  center:, 
hence  that  is  the  field  covered  in  this  inquiry. 
The  exact  scope  of  the  examination  is  shown 
in  the  diagram  on  page  54.  In  connection 
with  the  description  of  the  most  important 
conditions  an  estimate  is  made  of  the  probable 
extent  of  such  conditions. 


HOUSING  CONDITIONS 


One  of  the  former  trustees  of  the  White  Fund,  a  banker  and 
a  man  who  had  the  interests  of  Lawrence  near  his  heart,  used  to 
delight  in  speaking  of  the  city  as  "  a  city  of  homes."  This  may 
have  been  true  a  decade  ago.  It  is  evidently  the  fact  now  that 
Lawrence  is  by  more  than  one-half  a  city  of  tenements. 

But  the  term  tenement  should  be  given  the  arbitrary  and 
technical  meaning  described  later.  The  essential  idea  in  it  is  not 
necessarily  bad  housing  but  the  nearness  of  families  under  the 
same  roof;  for,  the  word  tenement,  a  "holding,"  and  the  word 
apartment  have  meaning  only  as  opposed  to  the  complemental 
idea  that  several  families  have  quarters  in  the  same  house.  It  is 
the  nearness  with  the  common  use  of  space  and  other  circumstances, 
as  well  as  the  nearness  of  houses  to  each  other,  that  needs  to  be 
controlled  by  legislation.     No  greater  need  exists  in  Lawrence. 

The  Early  Houses 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  following  paragraphs  that  the  early 
houses  were  nearly  all  small  and  that  the  large  houses  have  been 
built  recently.  While  the  work  on  the  dam  and  canal  were  still 
going  on,  as  early  as  1847,  the  m^  owners  began  building  houses 
for  the  operatives  and  continued  at  intervals  for  about  a  decade. 
Most  of  these  houses  were  in  brick  blocks  located  along  Canal 
and  Methuen  Streets.  Many  of  them  have  been  supplanted  by  mill 
warehouses,  offices  and  other  buildings,  but  about  seventy-two  are 
still  in  use,  though  now  largely  owned  by  individuals.  Most  of 
the  houses  are  three  stories  high,  but  some  of  them  have  dormer 
rooms  on  fourth  floors.  One  square  of  forty  two-story  brick 
houses  which  were  built  by  the  Lawrence  Machine  Company  about 
1847  and  are  still  in  use,  are  similar  to  that  satisfactory  type  of 
house  which  for  years  has  been  so  popular  in  Philadelphia. 

When  the  dam  was  being  built,  many  of  the  laborers,  on  it 
lived  in   South  Lawrence   in  the  fields   not   far   from  the   work. 


32  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Their  small  shacks  or  huts  were  built  hurriedly  of  slabs  and 
rough  lumber,  with  roofs  of  over-lapping  boards,  with  sod  piled 
high  around  the  walls,  and  with  stove  pipe  chimneys.  These 
cabins  stood  for  a  good  many  years,  but  gradually  their  occupants 
left,  or  bought  a  right  to  the  locations;  and  the  last  two  of  the 
shacks,  occupied  to  the  end,  were  torn  down,  one  in  1894  and 
the  other  in  1898. 

In  the  same  period  houses  of  a  different  class  were  being 
built  in  the  districts  to  the  east  and  north  of  the  Common.  They 
were  almost  as  small  as  the  shacks,  but  much  more  durable  and 
with  much  better  interiors.  Usually  each  house  had  its  own 
garden,  and  each  occupant  owned  a  few  goats,  pigs  and  hens,  and 
kept  the  rural  habit  of  laying  in  such  stores  both  of  meats  and 
vegetables  as  would  carry  the  family  through  the  whole  winter. 

Several  of  these  houses,  improved  and  well  painted,  indicate 
present  prosperity  and  comfort,  and  look  like  good  homes;  a  few 
remain  in  use  unaltered;  many  have  been  moved  to  the  rear  of 
the  lot;  some  are  vacant,  or  used  as  sheds;  and  many  have  been 
torn  down.  In  a  few  instances,  two,  three  or  four  have  been 
moved  up  together,  attached  and  extended,  and  make,  as  rented, 
a  most  interesting  jumble  of  tenements.  There  are  still  standing 
at  various  locations,  but  not  now  in  use,  three  or  four  peculiarly 
long  and  narrow  houses  that  at  once  remind  one  of  houses  seen  in 
Irish  and  English  pictures. 

Except  those  built  by  the  mills,  nearly  all  houses  were  made 
of  wood.  There  were  some  wooden  blocks,  a  considerable  number 
of  double  cottages  and  houses,  and  several  of  that  type  of  four- 
family  double  house  of  two  stories  with  attic  rooms  which  is  so 
common  in  most  of  the  mill  towns  of  New  England.  As  late  as 
1875,  the  three-story  houses  were  probably  less  than  ten  in 
number,  though  the  population  had  reached  35,000.  Between  1875 
and  1895  the  three-story,  flat-roof  house  began  to  be  more  common, 
though  its  incoming  was  quite  gradual. 

There  is  one  instance  of  a  four-story  frame  house  which  is 
said  to  have  been  built  before  1850.  But  as  late  as  1895  there 
were  not  more  than  six  or  seven  of  these  houses  without  stores, 
and  about  the  same  number  with  stores,   making  altogether  less 


THE  NUMBER  OF  APART 

Grouped  for  Each  Year  in  Relat 

Illustrated 
June  i,  1906  to 


»» 19 


~>1806 


In  Houses  of       In  Houses  of       In  Houses  of  In  Houses  of 

1  and  2  Apts.  3  Apts.        More  than  3  Apts.       1  and  2  Apts. 


In  Houses  oi 
3  APts. 


*■  1 9  O  8  «•« 


In  Houses  of 

In  Houses  of 

In  Houses  of 

1  and  2  Apts. 

3  Apts. 

More  than  3  Apt 

In  Ho 
1  and 


ENTS  IN  NEW  HOUSES 
to  the  Three  Family  Houses 
Area, 
ne  30,  191 1 


Y  «* 


In  Houses  of 
More  than  3  Apts. 


In  Houses  of 
1  and  2  Apts. 


In  Houses  of        In  Houses  of 
3  Apts.          More  than  3  Apts. 


►» 


1810 


of 

)tS. 


In  Houses  of  In  Houses  of  In  Houses     In  Houses  In  Houses  of 

3  Apts.  More  than  3  Apts.  of  1  and  of  More 

2  Apts.  3  Apts.       than  3  Apts. 


HOUSING    CONDITIONS  33 

than  fifteen    four-story   frame   houses   sixteen  years   ago.      Since 
then  the  number  of  these  houses  has  increased  rapidly. 

The  Future  of  Lawrence  as  a  City  of  Tenements 

The  most  common  definition  of  a  tenement  house  includes 
every  house  which  has  three  apartments  or  more.  At  the  present 
time  Lawrence  has : 

17,988  apartments  in  8,202  houses: 

8,599  apartments  in  houses  for  one  and  two  families 

9,389  apartments  in  houses  with  three  or  more  families. 

Forty-eight  per  cent  of  the  families  in  Lawrence  are  living  in  one 

and  two-family  houses;  the  remaining  fifty-two  per  cent  are  living 

in  houses  of  three  apartments  or  more. 

The  number  and  size  of  the  houses  which  are  now  being 
erected  can  be  found  in  the  records  of  the  office  of  building 
inspector  which  was  established  just  prior  to  June  1st,  1906.  In 
the  five  years  and  one  month  ending  June  30,  191 1,  there  were 
constructed : 

3063  apartments  in  1052  new  houses : 

735  in  houses  for  one   and   two    families  24.0  percent 

1335  in  houses  for  three  families  43.6  per  cent 

993  in  houses  for  more  than  three  families        32.4  per  cent 
In  the  accompanying  sketch  the  capacity  of  these  new  houses  is 
shown  as  they  have  been  built  year  by  year.     The  number  of  tene- 
ments  which  were   constructed   in   old   houses   by   additions    and 
alterations  in  the  first  four  and  one-half  years  is  283. 

Thus  we  see  two  facts :  more  than  one-half  of  all  families 
are  living  in  houses  for  three  or  more  families;  and  among  the 
new  buildings  the  large  houses  greatly  predominate.  Only  about 
one-fourth  of  the  families  that  have  been  provided  for  in  new 
houses  are  living  in  one  and  two-family  houses.  In  every  one 
hundred  new  apartments,  seventy-six  are  being  built  in  houses 
of  three  apartments  or  more. 

In  other  words,  the  character  of  the  homes  of  the  majority 
of  families  is  being  rapidly  and  radically  altered.  This  fact  alone, 
as  a  general  statement  based  on  the  building  operations  for  the 
last  five  years,  is  abundant  reason  why  the  citizens  of  Lawrence 
should  be  seriously  interested  to  determine  whether  the  changes 


34  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

in  forms  of  houses  are  good  and  suitable  for  the  preservation  of 
that  healthy  family  life,  upon  which  the  permanent  welfare  of  any 
community  depends. 

In  considering  this  question,  we  must  not  be  too  easily 
influenced  by  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  the  three-family 
houses  located  in  districts  outside  of  the  center  are  good-looking 
houses.  This  is  only  part  of  the  story,  and  in  Lawrence  it  is  less 
than  half  of  it.  Bad  housing  is  not  a  question  of  averages  and 
majorities.  The  majority  of  the  houses  in  a  city  may  be  excellent, 
and  the  minority  so  exceedingly  deficient  as  to  be  a  grave  peril 
to  the  permanent  welfare  of  the  community. 

The  Number  of  Apartments  at  the  Center 

In  Lawrence  not  only  is  there  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number 
of  families  which  are  being  provided  for  in  the  larger  houses, 
but  there  is  steady  growth  in  the  process  which  is  crowding  houses 
together  at  the  center  of  the  city.  In  every  ioo  apartments  of 
the  city,  19  are  located  in  South  Lawrence,  and  81  in  North 
Lawrence.  In  a  central  district  bounded  on  the  south  by  Essex 
Street,  on  the  east  by  Union  and  Garden  Streets  and  the  Spicket 
River,  on  the  north  by  Maple,  Auburn,  Cross,  Broadway,  and 
Acton  Streets,  on  the  west  by  West  Street,  Bradford  Place  and 
the  railroad,  there  are  300  acres.  The  congestion  within  this 
central  district,  relative  to  the  city's  area  and  population,  is  most 
remarkable. 

For  every   100  Acres  in  the  districts  named,  there  are 

In  the  central  district,  2,036  apartments 

In  the  rest  of  North  Lawrence,  443 

In  South  Lawrence,  152 

In  other  words,  the  density  of  apartments  in  the  central  district 
is  about  four  and  one-half  times  the  density  in  the  rest  of  North 
Lawrence,  and  more  than  twelve  times  the  density  in  South 
Lawrence. 

Yet  the  houses  are  made  of  wood.  The  need  for  ceasing  to 
use  wood  for  the  houses  at  the  center  is  very  great.  It  is  this 
piling  up  risk  upon  risk  that  has  made  a  national  burden  which, 
though  general,  is  nevertheless  a  very  real  burden.  It  is  made 
general  by  our  arrangements  for  paying  fire  losses. 


FIRE  BURDEN  AND  MENACE 


What  We  Burn  Each  Year 

The  true  character  of  the  fire  loss  and  the  extent  of  its 
burden  upon  us  should  be  brought  with  such  force  to  the  con- 
science of  the  intelligent  citizens  that  they  will  at  once  bring 
effective  action  for  its  reduction.  We  are  extravagantly  wasteful 
of  our  social  wealth  and  we  need  to  be  told  it  many  times  and 
in  many  ways. 

If  a  man  were  to  sell  all  the  property  he  had  accumulated  during  his 
life-time  for  about  $20,000  in  gold,  put  the  gold  in  a  basket,  and,  taking 
passage  on  a  steamer,  drop  it  overboard  in  mid-ocean,  there  is  no  one 
who  would  not  say  that  the  property  was  completely  wasted.  When 
property  goes  up  in  smoke,  the  loss  is  just  as  absolute;  but  by  our  arrange- 
ment for  distributing  the  fire  loss  over  the  ninety  millions  of  persons 
in  the  United  States,  it  is  not  directly  borne  by  any  given  individual,  and 
its   true  nature   is   not   seen. 

The  fire  game  which  we  Americans  are  playing  is  a  wonderfully  great 
game.  Every  man,  woman  and  child  in  the  country  participates,  but, 
strange  to  say,  few  of  us  realize  that  we  are  in  it.  We  all  need  to  be 
told  how  it  is  played.  Whether  we  carry  fire  insurance  or  not,  we  pay 
landlords  and  merchants  for  carrying  it.  In  effect,  whether  consciously 
or  unconsciously,  whether  willingly  or  unwillingly,  it  is  as  if  each  house- 
holder in  the  country  who  is  at  the  head  of  a  family  of  four,  takes  a  good 
chair,  or  a  serviceable  bookcase,  or  six  valuable  books,  or  any  other 
articles  that  have  a  value  of  eleven  dollars,*  and  goes  every  year  to  the 
landlords  and  the  merchants,  with  a  statement,  "  Here  is  what  we  desire 
to  have  burned  up  this  year."  They  reply,  "All  right!  We  are  a  young 
and  rich  country.  The  nation  at  large  will  see  that  your  iwish  is  carried 
out.  But  these  goods  are  awkward  to  ship  to  the  nation's  great  tax- 
gatherers,  the  insurance  men.  Give  us,  instead,  eleven  of  your  hard-earned 
dollars."  These  dollars  the  landlords  and  merchants  stamp  "  Money  to 
burn,"  and  pass  on  to  the  insurance  men.  The  insurance  men  are  in  a 
ring.  They  throw  the  money  in  various  piles  within  their  circle  and 
stand  guard  over  it.  Up  rush  the  Citizens  called  Unfortunate,  Ignorant, 
Indifferent,  Careless,  Fraud  and  Thief,  each  crying,  "  Hold,  did  you  not 
see  that  smoke?  That  was  my  building  with  all  the  contents.  To  be  sure, 
I  built  cheap.  What  of  it?  Everybody's  doing  that.  Where  is  my  share 
of  iwhat  was  set  aside  this  year  to  be  burned?"  The  circle  of  insurance 
men  send  out  representatives,  investigate,  judge  the  claims,  and  parcel 
out  the  money.     It's  a  great  game. 

*The  source  for  figures  and  quotations  relative  to  housing  conditions 
are  listed  on  page  143. 


36  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

During  each  year  for  the  last  decade,  this  country  has  turned 
into  smoke  $216,000,000,  not  including"  fire  losses  in  forests,  in 
mines  or  at  sea.  These  annual  losses  have  increased  in  the  last 
thirty  years  134  per  cent,  although  the  population  of  the  country 
has  increased  but  73  per  cent.  "If  all  the  buildings  burned  last 
year  (1910)  in  the  United  States  were  placed  together  on  both 
sides  of  a  street,  they  would  make  an  avenue  of  desolation  reaching 
from  Chicago  to  New  York,  and,  although  one  seriously  injured 
person  were  rescued  every  thousand  feet,  at  every  three-quarters 
of  a  mile,  a  man,  woman  or  child  would  nevertheless  be  found 
burned  to  death."  And  it  would  take  eighteen  hours  on  the  fastest 
train,  or  five  days  of  daylight  by  trolley,  to  view  without  stopping 
this  avenue  of  desolation  and  death. 

Huge  as  that  price  is,  it  is  not  all  we  are  paying  for  the  use 
of  fire,  for  it  costs  money  to  fight  fires.  Thousands  of  men  and 
thousands  of  pieces  of  expensive  apparatus  are  employed  con- 
stantly. In  fire  defence,  this  country  spends  yearly,  by  an  authori- 
tative estimate,  $241,000,000,  an  expense  that  is  entirely  additional 
to  the  $216,000,000  that  is  burned  up  each  year. 

The  Fire  Burden  in  Lawrence 

Compared  with  other  cities,  Lawrence's  record  in  the  matter 
of  fires  in  the  past  is  a  remarkably  good  one  in  nearly  all  points, 
such  as  confining  the  fires  to  the  building  or  place  of  origin,  number 
of  fires  to  1,000  population,  losses  which  are  not  insured,  and  the 
average  total  loss  by  fire  each  year :  though  the  record  is  slightly 
less  favorable  in  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  fire  department.  In 
each  year  of  the  decade  ending  December  31,  1909,  the  total  loss 
in  Lawrence  has  been  $53,367,  of  which  $49,975  was  insurance 
loss,  and  $3,392  was  uninsured.  Fifty-three  thousand  dollars  is 
a  large  amount  of  property  to  burn  up  each  year.  It  is  quite  three 
times  the  amount  of  money  which  Lawrence  spends  yearly  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  public  library, 

Yet  this  is  only  about  one-quarter  of  the  amount  that  fires 
are  costing  Lawrence.  The  total  amount  of  fire  insurance 
premiums  paid  each  year,  by  an  authoritative  and  conservative 
estimate,  exceeds  $200,000.     Because  so  many  of  the  other  cities 


FIRE   MENACE  37 

of  the  country,  as  well  as  Lawrence,  have  not  been  willing  to 
restrict  themselves  in  the  use  of  wood,  Lawrence  business  men  are 
paying  out  every  year  more  than  $150,000  which  is  consumed 
elsewhere  in  the  country;  and  this  waste  is  increasing  at  a  very 
rapid  rate.  It  demands  everywhere  and  particularly  in  the  cities 
of  eastern  Massachusetts  a  radical  change  from  the  present  lack 
of  building  regulations.  Cambridge,  Worcester  and  Lowell  have 
made  a  beginning. 

The  Four  Story  Wooden  Houses 

The  most  striking  fact  about  houses  in  all  cities  in  Massachu- 
setts is  that  they  are  almost  exclusively  built  of  wood.  Outside 
of  the  center  in  a  few  cities,  such  as  Boston,  Worcester,  Springfield 
and  Holyoke,  practically  all  houses  are  frame.  Building  in 
Lawrence  goes  to  the  extreme  in  this  respect.  Fully  ninety-seven 
per  cent  of  the  houses  in  Lawrence  are  made  of  wood.  Three- 
story  wooden  houses  with  large  floor  areas  unbroken  by  fire  walls 
are  a  constant  menace  to  their  occupants,  no  matter  where  in  the 
city  the  houses  are  located.  When  these  houses  are  located  at  the 
crowded  center,  they  also  magnify  seriously  the  conflagration 
hazard.  This  is  equally  true  of  all  four-story  frame  houses  and 
in  addition  there  is  a  greatly  increased  life  risk  for  all  who  live 
upon  the  fourth  floor.  They  are  farther  from  the  ground,  and 
the  speed  and  the  volume  of  a  fire  can  be  very  much  greater  than 
it  could  be  in  a  three-family  house.  Also  the  four-story  frame 
house  is  usually  much  weaker  structurally  than  the  smaller  houses. 
In  fire  insurance  rating,  houses  of  one  to  three  apartments  are  in 
one  class,  those  with  four  to  eight  families  in  another.  In 
building  practice  in  most  cities  four-story  frame  houses  are 
relatively  very  infrequent.  Many  cities  prohibit  them.  There  is 
a  concensus  of  opinion  that  they  are  dangerous,  too  dangerous  to 
be  tolerated.  They  are  especially  dangerous  in  the  congested 
wooden  center  in  Lawrence. 

In  the  number  of  such  houses  which  have  been  built.  Worcester 
and  Lawrence  exceed  all  other  cities  in  Massachusetts,  and  the 
condition  in  Lawrence  is  much  worse  than  it  is  in  Worcester. 
Lawrence  has  268  four-story  frame  houses,  216  of  them  located 


38  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

in  the  central  district  of  300  acres,  which  is  described  elsewhere. 
A  majority  occur  in  blocks  where  the  three-story  houses  have 
already  crowded  out  most  of  the  small  buildings  and  where  rear 
buildings  are  the  rule,  some  of  them  being  four  stories  high. 
Worcester  has  120  four-story  frame  houses.  Located  on  its  side 
hills,  there  are  also  200  three-story  and  basement  houses  which 
have  four  families,  one  above  the  other,  or  three  families  above 
a  store.  They  are  not  quite  comparable  with  the  four-story  frame 
house  in  that  one  end  or  one  side  is  only  three  stories  from  the 
ground.  On  the  other  hand  they  are  much  more  dangerous  than 
the  ordinary  three-story  frame  building.  With  them  included, 
the  number  of  these  houses  in  Worcester  is  320.  They  are, 
however,  scattered  about  the  city,  and  are  not  in  one  relatively 
small  area  as  in  Lawrence,  and  where  they  occur  there  is  greater 
distance  between  houses.  Furthermore,  four-story  frame  structures 
are  now  prohibited  everywhere  in  the  city,  and  the  three-story  and 
basement  houses  are  not  allowed  to  accommodate  more  than  one 
family  on  a  floor,  unless  the  building  is  provided  with  a  brick  wall 
from  front  to  rear,  and  from  cellar  to  roof,  with  one  apartment 
on  each  side  of  it.  Worcester  has  a  central  fire  district  which  is 
more  than  twice  the  area  in  North  Lawrence  which  lies  south  of 
the  Spicket  River  and  east  of  the  railroad.  Within  it  no  new  frame 
houses  can  be  built.  Additional  to  this  there  are  two  other  fire 
districts  containing  about  126  acres,  where  the  three-story  and 
brick  basement  houses  are  allowed,  provided  they  are  placed  no 
nearer  than  seven  feet  to  the  side  or  rear  line  of  the  lot.  Such 
buildings  must  also  have  tar  and  gravel  or  slate  roof. 

Lowell  has  140  four-story  frame  houses,  which  is  a  few  more 
than  half  the  number  in  Lawrence.  In  August,  1906,  Lowell 
prohibited  the  construction  of  these  houses  anywhere  and 
established  a  good-sized  fire  district  within  which  wooden  buildings 
may  no  longer  be  erected.  Since  Lowell  ceased  to  construct  this 
form  of  building,  Lawrence  has  built  nearly  one  hundred. 

There  are  three  cities  in  the  state  which  have  smaller  areas 
than  the  6.53  square  miles  in  Lawrence,  and  all  three  cities  have 
greater  densities  of  population.  Lawrence  has  13,210  per  square 
mile.     Somerville's  density  of  population  is  at  the  rate  of  17,160 


FIRE   MENACE  39 

per  square  mile,  and  the  city  has  not  over  50  four-story  frame 
houses.  Cambridge,  with  a  density  of  16,050  per  square  mile, 
has  no  houses  of  this  kind.  Chelsea,  with  a  present  density  of 
14,420  per  square  mile,  is  not  comparable,  because  the  houses  in 
half  its  area  have  so  recently  been  reduced  to  ashes.  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  population  in  Lawrence  is  so  uneven  that  at  the 
center  the  density  is  more  than  five  times  greater  than  it  is  in  all 
the  city.  Such  center  density  is  a  result  of  four-story  houses, 
rather  than  a  reason  for  them.  With  the  268  four-story  frame 
houses  in  Lawrence  we  should  compare  the  number  of  such  houses 
in  Fall  River,  95;  in  Salem,  90;  in  New  Bedford,  55;  in  Lynn, 
less  than  50. 

The  Coming  Conflagration 

The  yearly  fire  loss  in  Lawrence,  $53,367,  serves  well  to 
illustrate  the  tremendous  loss  in  a  conflagration.  This  is  less  than 
a  sixtieth  of  what  was  recently  burned  in  Bangor  in  a  few  hours. 
Chelsea  burned  two  hundred  and  twenty-two  times  as  much  in 
seven  hours.  It  is  in  the  daily  fear  of  such  disaster  that  many  of 
the  citizens  of  Lawrence  are  living.  As  one  prominent  business 
man  remarked  recently,  "  It  hasn't  come  yet.  But  we  will  surely 
come  down  to  the  center  some  day  with  the  face  of  the  earth 
changed." 

The  sticks  are  all  laid  for  a  most  superb  bonfire.  With  the 
prevailing  winds  as  they  are,  from  the  west,  and  north  of  west, 
a  fire  that  originated  in  the  vicinity  of  Broadway  at  any  point 
from  Common  Street  to  Cross,  and  broke  from  the  control  of  the 
firemen  at  a  time  when  a  measurably  high  wind  is  blowing,  could 
not  fail  to  destroy  the  section  north  of  Essex  to  the  Common, 
and,  if  the  wind  were  from  the  west,  could  hardly  fail  to  sweep 
to  the  east  around  the  Common  to  the  Union  Street  district,  and 
possibly  cross  the  Spicket  River  to  the  shingle  roofs  of  the  section 
in  the  vicinity  of  Avon  and  Belmont  Streets.  Excluding,  however, 
the  latter  district,  the  area  threatened  is  300  acres,  and  contains 
6108  apartments. 

It  should  be  noted  that  this  central  district,  as  described,  does 
not  include  the  mercantile  and  mill  buildings  south  of  Essex  Street, 
and  that  additional  values  are  there  endangered. 


4o  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Besides  the  large  number  of  four-story  frame  houses  at  the 
center,  there  were  counted  in  the  house  census  of  this  investigation 
1,000  shingle  roofs  in  this  area  of  300  acres.  As  a  form  of  con- 
struction, shingle  roofs  are  quite  comparable  to  paper  hats  as  a 
form  of  clothing. 

"  In  the  old  days,  roofs  were  covered  with  thatch.  The  process  was 
to  thatch  a  roof,  watch  it  dry  and  eventually  try  to  stop  it  from  burning 
up.  It  was  useless.  We  know  that  a  thatch  roof  is  not  desirable.  But 
we  progressed  slowly.  Our  next  idea  was  to  use  wood  in  the  form  of 
shingles.  We  .simply  changed  the  rate  of  deterioration.  Shingles  dry 
up  and  eventually  burn.  Some  day  we  will  learn  that  shingles  should  be 
given  up   and  placed  in   the   museum  with   thatch. 

"  Have  you  ever  thought  of  the  first  cost  of  a  shingle  roof?  Then 
have  you  added  the  cost  of  the  upkeep?  Have  you  added  the  cost  of  the 
damages  to  materials  under  that  roof?  Have  you  watched  a  shingled 
roof  catch  fire?  Or  seen  the  sparks  fly  to  the  next  shingled  roof?  Or 
realized  that  you   were  viewing  a   conflagration? 

"  Many  people  have.  Many  cities  have  gone  through  this  experience. 
The  mayors  telegraph  for  help.  The  papers  are  full  of  the  pitiful  details 
of  homeless  people,  of  wasted  property,  of  appeals  for  subscriptions.  A 
conflagration  is  a  terrible  menace  hanging  over  many  cities  and  the 
shingled  roof  is  the  main  cause.  The  great  fire  in  Chelsea,  Massachusetts, 
spread  horizontally,  from  roof  to  roof  (burning  down)  instead  of  from 
wall  to  wall." 

The  report  on  the  City  of  Lawrence  made  in  July,  1908,  by 
the  Committee  on  Fire  Prevention  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters,  says  concerning  the  Valley  Street  and  Lowell  Street 
district;  "The  potential  hazard  of  this  considerable  area  of  large, 
compactly  grouped  frames  is  high.  A  fire  once  beyond  the  control 
of  the  fire  department  would  become  a  most  serious  conflagration. 
The  prevailing  direction  of  high  winds  being  from  the  west  or 
northwest  under  ordinary  conditions,  the  principal  mercantile  dis- 
trict would  become  involved  and  the  mill  district  threatened.  Even 
with  the  efficient  fire  department,  the  abundant  water  supply  at 
moderate  pressures  and  the  good  accessibility,  the  probability  of 
a  large  fire  is  great,  due  to  the  character  of  the  populuation  and 
the  extremely  hazardous  construction." 

The  habits  of  the  population  in  the  congested  district,  as  well 
as  the  lack  of  convenience  in  the  houses,  certainly  add  very 
materially  to  the  fire  risk.     The  conditions  which  attend  the  use  of 


i  /■ '  x  |t?R$ 

5^  *  >  W&IS7  \P*I 

dgg 

lv              '    £     Jgflt 

M,K    i\.^  -     " 

f; 

^*^ 

■*-"■•' '  "  ■  ^  iff  J 

\           I                                T 

v 

•w  :    4  ■                 J  V".'.k>  v'lv 

&' 

.\*     •*. 

1    a^^^m^x.,  wis 

. 

- 

^3    I- 

+-•    rt 

Cl    c/> 

5  « 

O     <u  ^ 

.a  o 

CO    L_, 

1/3    t-1  , 

$»  £ 

en  1> 

3  o 

>     ^  CD 

O     G  a; 

<-m    cu  ■£ 

£  ^  o, 

o  a  g 


CO     O 


"3     CD 


CU 

•S  c 


h5« 


_  i> 

fi  »-■  .3 

3  rt  rt 

°  ~  S 


w    X 


.2  .a 


T8     ■    C 

•H    ft  3 

«  8  „ 


3    O  ^3 

3   <->  <u 

2  "3  « 

c3           to  O 

«h    a>  ^3 


W   o   g 


si 


_,    tn    £    u 
<*    rt    w 


O    rt    ™ 


•"■  -^ 
o   «   °  2 

'2  £  -£  " 

2  O     (U 

-5    .^_£ 

.a   >   <u  ■*-• 

3  o  ^       . 
«   .Q    ~     >> 

.2    j-    rt   S 

w  I  ££ 

jh    cfi    aJ    a) 

"3  o  d  •« 

H   o   2  to 


C    S 


FIRE   MENACE  43 

the  cellar,  especially  in  the  winter  time,  illustrate  this.  The  stairs 
are  frequently  very  narrow,  winding,  dark  and,  in  a  considerable 
number  of  instances,  broken.  In  some  of  the  cellars  artificial  light 
is  absolutely  necessary,  and  hence  the  striking  of  matches  and  the 
carrying  of  lamps  is  very  common.  It  is  most  frequently  the 
children  who  are  sent  to  the  cellar,  and  the  load  of  fuel  together 
with  the  lamp,  and  the  conditions  surrounding  its  use,  make  a 
daily  risk  that  is  excessive. 

The  presence  of  piles  of  inflammable  rubbish  in  the  cellar  add 
to  the  risk.  Among  the  houses  examined  in  six  half  blocks,  an 
average  of  one  in  six  had  a  serious  amount  of  inflammable 
rubbish  in  the  cellar.  Where  the  condition  occurs  to  the  extent 
shown  in  the  photographs,  there  can  be  no  question  about  the  risk 
involved.  There  surely  need  not  be  more  than  one  such  cellar 
in  each  of  the  160  half -blocks  at  the  center  to  make  a  conflagration 
hazard  well  worth  periodic  and  efficient  fire  inspection.  This  the 
city  has  not  had,  but  should  have. 

Another  illustration  is  the  practice  in  lighting  kitchen  fires. 
Many  tenements  are  deserted  during  school  hours.  All  the  adults 
work,  and  the  children  below  school  age  are  left  in  other  tenements. 
Hence  the  kitchen  fires  are  allowed  to  go  out  at  least  once, 
and  in  many  cases  twice,  a  day.  At  the  end  of  each  morning  and 
afternoon,  it  is  the  school  children  who  reach  the  house  first,  and 
upon  them  falls  the  duty  of  starting  the  kitchen  fire.  Many  of 
them  are  not  taught  how  to  do  it,  and  others  are  altogether  too 
young  to  be  trusted  to  do  it  safely.  Kerosene  is  used,  and  used 
by  very  young  children.  In  one  apartment  a  small  Italian  boy  not 
over  eight  years  of  age  was  seen  at  the  stove  starting  the  fire. 
He  scratched  so  many  matches  and  went  so  many  times  to  a  small 
closet  that  the  attention  of  the  writer  was  finally  attracted,  just 
as  he  was  raising  a  can  to  pour  oil  into  the  open  hole  of  the  stove. 
A  shout  stopped  him  and  a  glance  into  the  stove  showed  red 
embers.  This  youngster  of  eight  years  and  his  brother,  not  over 
six  years  old,  were  alone  in  the  tenement. 

In  Ohio  and  two  other  states,  by  legal  enactment,  the  children 
are  being  taught  in  the  schools  the  causes  of  fires,  the  dangers  in 
handling  materials,   and  what  to  do   in  time  of  fire.      Lawrence 


44  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

would    do    well    to    secure    at    once    the    introduction    of    similar 
instruction  in  the  public  schools. 

The  Suffering  Inflicted  by  a  Conflagration 

What  conflagrations  mean  to  the  individuals  who  suffer  in 
them,  we  do  not  sufficiently  consider.  A  former  Lawrence  citizen, 
who  passed  through  the  Chelsea  fire,  afterwards  described  his 
experience.  Having  taken  some  bundles  to  a  distance,  he  returned 
to  his  house  for  more.  Soon  a  neighbor  called  to  him,  "  Mr.  B., 
are  you  in  there?  Come  out  as  quick  as  you  can.  The  next 
house  is  all  ablaze  and  your  roof  has  caught."  Mr.  B.  escaped 
hurriedly,  and,  in  referring  to  his  loss,  said :  "  No  one,  who  has 
not  gone  through  the  experience,  can  possibly  realize  what  are 
the  sensations  of  those  who  were  driven  from  their  homes,  and 
lost  all  their  worldly  goods  by  the  flames."  He  had  no  insurance, 
and  saved  only  a  suit  and  a  little  other  clothing. 

The  life  risk  in  Lawrence  is  greater  than  it  was  in  Chelsea. 
In  that  city  at  the  time  of  the  fire,  there  was  a  density  of  popu- 
lation at  the  rate  of  16,880  per  square  mile.  The  density  in  North 
Lawrence  is  at  the  rate  of  20,732  per  square  mile,  and  in  the  300 
acres  of  the  conflagration  district,  it  is  at  the  rate  of  72,000  per 
square  mile. 

At  the  time  of  the  conflagration  in  Chelsea,  the  275  acres 
which  were  burned  did  not  equal  the  present  conditions  in 
Lawrence  in  the  congestion  of  wooden  buildings.  The  buildings 
were  not  as  high  and  they  were  not  as  near  together.  In  Lawrence, 
in  the  216  four-story  frame  houses  of  the  300  central  acres, 
between  1800  and  2000  persons  are  living  on  fourth  floors.  As 
shown  elsewhere  in  the  report,  there  are  altogether  too  many 
third  and  fourth  floor  apartments  from  which  there  is  no 
adequate  second  egress.  This  condition  is  most  serious,  and, 
though  the  greatest  risk  involved  is  from  fires  that  originate  inside 
the  houses,  the  lack  of  egress  greatly  complicates  and  increases 
the  life  risk  at  the  time  of  a  conflagration.  But  the  possibility 
of  safe  exit  is  not  the  only  factor  in  the  probability  of  life  disaster 
in  a  conflagration.     In  the  historic  newspaper  fire  of  the  Spring- 


FIRE   MENACE  45 

field  Union,  in  which  about  eight  persons  lost  their  lives,  most 
of  them  perished  because  they  were  in  such  a  condition  of  panic, 
that  no  one  thought  to  break  the  glass  in  an  elevator  door  which 
had  blown  shut  and  locked,  and  through  which  they  might  have 
escaped  to  safety,  as  others  before  them  had  escaped.  The  safe 
egress  of  everybody  in  a  midnight  sweeping  conflagration  might 
possibly  take  place  and  yet  hundreds  be  injured  by  returning  to 
their  quarters  at  great  risk  with  or  without  very  much  reason. 
The  natural  instinct  to  try  to  save  money,  papers  and  various 
articles,  is,  many  times,  responsible  for  more  deaths  than  the 
original  condition  of  peril  in  which  the  individuals  were. 

The  Chelsea  fire  began  a  little  before  eleven  o'clock  Sunday 
morning,  and  yet  nineteen  people  lost  their  lives.  It  is  hard  to 
see  how  a  conflagration  in  Lawrence,  especially  if  it  were  to  occur 
at  night,  could  have  a  loss  of  life  less  than  that  which  took  place 
in  Chelsea;  and  it  might  easily  be  many  times  greater. 

Our  Responsibility 

Lawrence  has  never  had  any  very  large  fire.  The  collapse 
of  the  Pemberton  Mill  when  eighty-seven  persons  were  killed, 
took  place  fifty-one  years  ago,  and  is  not  now  remembered  vividly 
enough  to  stir  anyone  to  action.  In  1906  the  roof  of  a  new  rink 
fell  in,  just  after  a  large  crowd  of  spectators  had  left;  and  out 
of  its  dust  came  the  present  inadequate  building  code.  In  this 
record,  the  absence  of  any  great  fire  has  practically  nothing  to  do 
with  the  danger  from  a  sweeping  conflagration,  and  the  reckless- 
ness involved  in  continuing  the  present  policy  in  the  use  of  wood 
at  the  center.  Lawrence  is  in  the  position  of  the  small  boy  who 
repeatedly  goes  in  swimming  just  above  the  dam.  The  argument 
that  the  city  has  been  getting  along  well  enough  under  present 
lack  of  restrictions  is  no  better  than  the  small  boy's  argument  that 
he  has  never  been  drowned  yet.  Is  it  probable  disaster  or  possible 
disaster  which  causes  individuals  to  carry  accident,  life  or  fire 
insurance?  The  sum  total  of  our  lack  of  real  interest,  as  individ- 
uals, in  the  welfare  of  the  community  in  which  we  live  is  colossal. 


46  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

We  desperately  need  to  be  jeered  at  in  the  manner  of  a  recent 
newspaper  editorial. 

"  '  We  are  greatly  shocked,'  volunteers  the  head  of 
the  pulp  and  paper  company  whose  dam,  collapsing, 
brought  death  upon  Austin,  Penn. 

"  A  proper  sentiment  and  typical.  The  American 
people  are  most  convincing  in  moods  of  amazement  and 
consternation.  They  are  most  themselves  when  they  are 
*  greatly  shocked,'  which  they  are  pretty  frequently. 

"  Temperaments  of  less  ardor  and  more  calculation 
than  theirs  do  not  shock  so  effectively,  because  they  get 
less  exercise.  Instead  of  celebrating  calamity,  less  gifted 
people  merely  prevent  it.  Such  a  people,  for  example, 
would  have  heeded  the  first  warning  given  by  the  Austin 
dam  last  year.  They  would  not  have  permitted  a 
moving  picture  of  the  deluge  to  be  staged  in  a  remote 
Pennsylvania  valley. 

"  It  is  left  for  Americans  to  know  that  in  many 
theatres  exit  doors  open  inward  or  are  locked  during 
performances,  and  then  to  be  greatly  shocked  when  587 
persons  are  burned  to  death  in  an  Iroquois  fire;  to  know 
that  excursion  steamers  are  often  over-loaded,  inade- 
quately manned,  insufficiently  provided  with  fire- 
fighting  appliances,  and  then  to  be  greatly  shocked  when 
a  thousand  persons  lose  their  lives  in  a  General  Slocum 
disaster;  to  know  that  many  factory  lofts  are  unprovided 
with  fire-escapes  and  factory  hands  unacquainted  with 
the  fire-drill,  and  then  to  be  greatly  shocked  when  145 
girls  are  burned  or  crushed  to  death  in  an  Asch  Building 
horror. 

"  By  forestalling  disaster  the  phlegmatic  German  and 
the  dull-witted  Englishman  may  make  life  safer  in  their 
jurisdictions;  but  that  is  dry,  routine  business  that  does 
not  appeal  to  American  emotions." 


FIRE   MENACE  47 

The  Loss  of  Population  and  of  Uninsured  Property 

The  loss  of  population  in  Chelsea  is  interesting,  as  shown  in 
the  five-year  periods  subsequent  to  1895.  After  a  gain  in  1900  of 
8.9  per  cent,  and  in  1905  of  9.4  per  cent,  the  loss  in  1910  is  12.9 
per  cent.  There  is  possible  of  course  only  speculation  as  to  how 
many  persons  would  be  forced  to  leave  Lawrence  after  a  sweeping 
conflagration,  but  the  extent  of  the  risk  should  be  considered. 
In  the  central  fire  district  mentioned,  there  are  at  least  thirty 
thousand  persons  who  could  be  rendered  homeless  by  a  sweeping 
conflagration.  This  would  mean  a  very  great  loss  of  population 
for  a  long  period. 

The  fire  report  of  the  Underwriters  says  in  a  summary, 
"  Structural  conditions  are  poor  except  in  the  manufacturing 
district.  The  congested  parts  of  the  tenement  district  constitute 
a  high  conflagration  hazard."  The  report  concludes  with  the 
recommendations : 

''  That  a  complete  building  code  be  adopted. 
That  the  fire  limits  be  extended. 
That  the  construction  of  frame  tenements  over  three 

stories  in  height  be  prohibited. 
That  incombustible  roof  coverings  be  required  on  all 
new  or  repaired  buildings." 

About  $3,000,000  of  the  $12,000,000  loss  in  Chelsea  was  not 
paid  back  in  insurance.  Is  the  amount  daily  in  jeopardy  in 
Lawrence  much  less  than  $10,000,000,  and  would  the  uninsured 
loss  be  much  less  than  one-quarter  of  that  sum?  Can  Lawrence 
afford  to  continue  to  add  daily  to  this  great  risk? 

Concerning  the  city  of  Chelsea,  the  authentic  insurance  report 
of  the  conflagration  said,  "  Chelsea  openly  acknowledged  a  de- 
plorable condition  of  affairs,  and  yet  nothing  was  done  to 
improve  it." 

What  will  the  record  of  the  business  men  of  Lawrence  be? 


48  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

NUMBER  OF  HOUSES  CLASSIFIED  BY  HEIGHT  IN  STORIES 


LOCATION  HEIGHT  BY  STORIES 

NORTH  LAWRENCE            Front  or  ~  One  and  T        Two  and  ^,         c 

Rear      °ne  one-half  Tw°    one-half    ThrCe  Four  FlVe 
SEC. 

A     West  of  R.  R.  Tracks    .     .     .     F          4  312  232        486        225       18 

R           1  75          21           30          24        2 

B     R.  R.  Tracks  to  Lawrence  St..     F           5  375  156         679         735     no 

R          4  108          41           66          64       25 

C     Lawrence  to  Prospect          .     .     F           1  266  169        695        392     104        1 

R           1  68          30          46          38       24 

D     East  of  Prospect  St F           o  277  149         198           82         o 


R  o  16  10 


3 


Total  Front  Houses    .    .     .  5671       10         1230         706       2058       1434     232        1 
Total  Rear  Houses     .     .     .     703         6  267         102         148         129       51        o 

Total  for  North  Lawrence  .  6374       16         1497         808       2206       1563     283        1 


LOCATION  HEIGHT  BY  STORIES 

SOUTH   LAWRENCE  Front  or  0         One  and   x        Two  and  T,  P         r. 

D  Une  1    if    1  wo  1    .£    1  hree    rour  rive 

Hear  one-halt  one-hair 

SEC 

E     West  of  Southern  Div.  R.  R. 

Tracks F  1  166  18  159  60         6 

R  1  31  4  16  1 

F     Southern  Div.  to  Western  Div.    F  2  167  30  112  50 

R  7  4  1  1 

G     East  of  Western  Div.    .     .     .     F  1  232  146  400  155         4 

R  2  21  6  10  14 

Total  Front  Houses  . 
Total  Rear  Houses    . 

Total  for  South  Lawrence  1828 
Totals  for  the  City 


1709 

4 

565 

194 

671 

265 

10 

0 

119 

3 

59 

M 

27 

16 

0 

0 

1828 

7 

624 

208 

698 

281 

10 

0 

F 

14 

1795 

900 

2729 

1699 

242 

1 

R 

9 

326 

116 

175 

US 

51 

0 

23     2121    I0l6     2904    1844   293 


SUMMARY  OF  TOTALS 

Front    Houses     ....         7380 
Rear  Houses       ....  822 


8202 


HUDDLE  FEVER 

The  increase  in  urban  population,  everywhere  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge,  is  especially  noteworthy  in  the  cities  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1875,  only  thirty-five  years  ago,  620  out  of 
every  1000  persons  were  living  in  towns  and  cities  of  less  than 
30,000:  whereas  the  census  for  1910  shows  that  now  620  out  of 
every  1000  are  living  in  cities  of  more  than  30,000. 

Simultaneously  the  tendency  to  crowd  people  onto  land  at  the 
center  of  a  city  is  universally  increasing.  The  never  ending 
seesaw  on  each  lot  between  new,  high  sale-price  and  increased 
amount  of  rent  goes  on  steadily,  though  by  jerks,  like  a  cutter 
across  bare  ground.  The  increased  amount  of  rent  of  course 
usually  comes  from  a  larger  number  of  persons  using  the  land. 

The  forces  impelling  the  congestion  are  exceedingly  strong 
and  with  their  results,  seen  everywhere  in  the  hundreds  of 
families  crowded  together  in  the  beehives  at  the  centers  of  the 
cities,  make  a  condition  that  must  increasingly  come  to  be  viewed 
as  abnormal,  unnatural,  a  social  disease  rightly  to  be  called  by 
some  such  term  as  huddle  fever. 

In  many  cities  in  Massachusetts  these  forces  have  been  placed 
under  almost  no  legal  restriction.  In  other  cities  the  few  restric- 
tions that  have  been  established  are  pitifully  inadequate.  Disorder 
and  chaos  prevail.  The  progress  toward  wretched  conditions  is 
rapid  and  demands  immediate  restraint.  Such  measurements  and 
equipment  as  will  produce  good  living  conditions  for  healthy  and 
contented  family  life  must  be  set  up  as  legal  standards,  and  it 
ought  to  be  impossible  for  any  builder  to  go  below  them.  The 
need  for  public  intervention  is  seen  to  be  all  the  greater  when  we 
contrast  the  interest  of  builders  with  the  interest  of  the  public. 
Those  who  build  houses  in  quantity  receive  their  reward  within 
a  few  months  or  years.  Their  interest  is  relatively  momentary. 
Yet  the  living  conditions  which  they  create  continue  in  use  for 
50  to  80  years,  and  sometimes  for  more  than  a  century. 


THE  STUDY  OF  LAWRENCE  BY 
A  HOUSE  CENSUS 

For  an  adequate  study  of  the  congestion 
in  Lawrence,  a  special  house  census  was  made, 
and  the  figures  secured  are  the  basis  for  the 
following  sketches.  In  the  first  one,  the  average 
number  of  apartments  per  acre  is  given  for 
thirteen  special  sections  of  the  city.  In  general 
these  sections  comprise  the  blocks  which  have 
the  largest  number  of  apartments  in  a  particular 
locality.  The  second  and  third  sketches  make 
a  study  of  density  by  half-blocks  for  the  three 
sections  nearest  the  center  of  the  city,  namely, 
those  which  appear  in  the  first  sketch  with  the 
averages  69,  60  and  49. 


THE  AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  APARTMENTS  PER  ACRE 


^XL^^r^ 

Xm\ 

\\\\  H 

ni 
1 

■ — 

$   I 

nn 

III;"*  111 

w 

#1 

iii 

A/ 

Q0 

°  <\ 

K 

A/ ' 

in     i* 

m       ^ 

"0 

A/ ; ; 

:i 

;            j 

1 

/<//! :  ,q 

)!: 

//ill!  i 

5' 

' 

1 

_jhf\\^\\ 

|l.        J... 

STREET 

Hi 

SHC 

7 

; 

if 

jOy 

'•'  uj  "11 

1 

1U 

jjjj 

ij-  *  lil'i 

!■!  k  '"I1 
!!!  <0  i.I'i 

i 

I  N 

^'  ui 

^^ 

(TTTT 

1 

^_____^, 

Lllil  iw- 

TTTTT1   Hill 

— ■ 

-ttI 

N     IIIIH 

zr 

1 

'!'!  1 

^     1 

1 '  i '  1 

* 

j     5     |; 

''    1 

^  '1 

ho  P  K 

K  \  <o   fill 

Ik  jc 

0  r 

II    0 

LLU    1 

1 1 

WHITE     STREET 

Ph 

1 

11 

V£T      ST. 

! 

uj  i 

<  u 


en 
H 
Z 

UJ 

< 

< 

0 
as 

UJ 

D 
Z 

UJ 

o 

< 

DC 

UJ 

> 
< 


t     & 


01 


5       o  3 

TO     l-O  O     ™ 


54 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 
The  Investigation  of  Houses 


The  two  districts,  A  and  B,  are  in  a  middle  zone  lying 
between  the  center  and  the  outskirts,  where  several  blocks  are 
badly  congested  but  most  of  the  blocks  are  not.  The  central 
district,  bounded  by  the  broken  line,  contains  the  300  acres  that 
have  been  described.  The  six  half-blocks,  in  solid  black,  represent 
the  center  and  its  future.  In  the  point  of  crowding  houses 
together,  they  are  among  the  worst  twelve  in  the  city.  They  were 
chosen  on  that  account.  It  should  be  noted  how  they  are  dis- 
tributed around  the  center. 


THE  COMMON 
STREET 

Two    Half-Blocks 

They  contain  the 
greatest  congestion  of 
population  in  wooden 
houses  on  any  three 
acres  in  the  state  of 
Massachusetts.  No  three 
acres  exceed  these  ex- 
cept at  the  infamous 
center  of  Boston  where 
the  houses  are  nearly 
all  brick. 

In  the  rear  houses, 
those  at  the  right  in 
this  picture,  the  best 
light  comes  from  an 
alley  fourteen  feet  wide. 


LOOKING  EAST  INTO  THE  CENTER  OF  ONE  HALF-BLOCK 


THE  ALLEY  SIDE  OF  THE  HALF-BLOCK  WEST  OF  NEWBURY  STREET 

These  two  half-blocks  located  on  the  south  side  of  Common  Street  east  from 
Jackson  Street  contain  3.2  acres  with  one-half  the  surrounding  street  space 
included.  An  adequate  idea  of  the  narrow  spaces,  dark  rooms  and  other 
conditions  can  be  secured  only  by  seeing  them.  But  from  the  foregoing  pictures 
it  is  possible  to  judge  partially,  especially  if  one  imagines  himself  standing  in 
among  the  houses.  The  open  spaces  shown  in  the  first  two  pictures  are  those 
between  front  and  rear  houses  at  the  center  of  the  lots.  The  slits  in  the  picture 
above   is   all   the   space   there   is   at   the   sides    of   the   houses. 


The  houses  are  so  close  in  these  half-blocks  that  it  is  said 
to  have  been  the  practice  of  one  agent  to  collect  rents  at  the  third 
and  fourth  stories  by  reaching  out  into  the  apartments  on  the  same 


58  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

floors  of  the  next  house.  Thus  he  saved  himself  trips  above  the 
second  floor.  One  instance  occurs  where,  by  reaching  out  the 
kitchen  window,  four  or  five  kitchen  utensils  are  regularly  hung 
on  nails  which  have  been  driven  in  the  side  wall  of  the  neighbor's 
house.  As  a  matter  of  fact  two  or  three  houses  occupy  so  fully 
the  lots  on  which  they  stand  that  there  is  not  room  to  place  a 
garbage  can  on  the  same  lot  with  the  house. 

These  buildings  are  exclusively  used  for  dwelling  with  the 
exception  that  the  majority  of  the  front  houses  have  stores  on  the 
first  floor,  and  as  indicated  in  the  sketch  which  follows  there  is  a 
small  group  of  one-story  stores  and  a  small  shop.  Except  two 
brick  houses  and  one  concrete  house  all  the  houses  are  of  wood. 

The  Amount  of  Land  Occupied  by  Houses 
At  the  east  end  of  Common  street  the  overcrowding  is 
duplex, —  houses  on  land  and  persons  in  apartments.  The  latter 
form  is  described  elsewhere.  In  the  other  four  half-blocks  the 
densities  of  population  in  191 1  were  due  chiefly  to  the  number  of 
houses  on  the  land,  and  these  half-blocks  represent  more  of  the 
center  blocks  than  do  the  two  on  Common  street. 

In  ascertaining  in  the  six  half-blocks  examined  what  pro- 
portion of  a  lot  is  occupied  by  a  house  or  houses,  the  computations 
that  were  made  used  the  dimensions  of  the  house  at  the  second 
floor.  Thus  the  areas  of  the  houses  do  not  include  one-story 
buildings  or  extensions.  A  house  that  is  not  on  a  corner  lot  ought 
not  to  occupy  as  much  as  70  per  cent  of  its  lot.  The  following 
are  the  facts  as  they  exist  in  the  interior  lots  of  the  six  half-blocks 
examined.     The  amount  of  land  occupied  is : 

less  than  70  per  cent  in  22  lots 

70  to  7S  per  cent  "     7  " 

75  to  80     "      "  "   15  " 

80  to  90     "      "  "   10  " 

more  than  90  per  cent  "     2  " 

Thirteen  of  the  twenty-two  where  less  than  70  per  cent  is 
occupied  are  on  Oak  and  Oxford  streets.  In  the  four  half-blocks 
on  Valley  and  Common  streets,  among  the  thirty-seven  interior 
lots  only  nine  have  less  than  70  per  cent.  This  is  extreme 
congestion. 


Common      St. 


Common    >St. 


THE  AMOUNT  OF  GROUND  OCCUPIED  BY  HOUSES 

At  the  East  End  of  Common  Street 

In  Two  Half-blocks  on  the  South  Side  of  the  Street 


OAK  STREET 


OXFORD    STREET 


H 


m 


1 


a 


MEL.VIN  CT. 


The  amount  of  ground  occupied  by  houses  in  the  Oak  and  Oxford  street  half-blocks. 
the  former  large  new  houses  are  steadily  being  built.  Several  of  the  blocks  in  Oxford  Str> 
though  west  of  the  railroad,  will  soon  be  as  congested  as  any  locality  in  the  central  district. 


Actual 
Density 

Estimated 
Density 

556 

439 
327 

603 
462 
348- 

322 

287 
243 

342 

303 
266 

60  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  Density  of  Population  in  the  Six  Half-Blocks 
With  the  following  figures  concerning  the  number  of  persons 
living  in  the  six  half-blocks,  there  is  a  second  column  which  gives 
an  estimate  of  the  probable  density  at  times  when  there  is  regular 
employment,  for  in  the  spring  of  191 1  the  number  of  vacant  tene- 
ments was  unusually  large. 

The  number  of  persons  per  acre : 

1.  Common  Street  S.  side  E.  fr.  Newbury 

2.  Common  Street  S.  side  W.  fr.  Newbury 

3.  Valley  Street  S.   side  E.    fr.   Franklin 

4.  Valley  Street  S.   side  W.  fr.  Franklin 
'    5.  Oak  Street  N.  side  W.  fr.  White 

6.     Oxford  Street  W.  side  N.   fr.  Essex 

All  Lawrence  citizens  who  go  to  New  York  by  rail  pass  in 
front  of  thirty  blocks  situated  along  Park  Avenue  from  125th  Street 
Station  to  the  entrance  of  the  tunnel  at  110th  Street.  Among  the 
houses  seen  the  five  and  six  story  predominate.  They  appear  oppres- 
sively high  and  close  together,  and  the  streets  are  crowded.  It 
would  seem  scarcely  possible  that  any  congestion  in  Lawrence  would 
be  comparable  with  the  congestion  in  those  blocks.  Yet  according 
to  the  19 10  Census  there  are  only  three  of  those  thirty  blocks  which 
have  a  density  of  population  greater  than  600,  and  only  seven 
others  greater  than  462. 

Semi-Darkness 

The  rooms  which  are  lighted  from  other  spaces  than  the 
side  courts  are  described  elsewhere.  The  following  is  the  state- 
ment for  the  spaces  at  the  side  of  the  houses,  and  it  has  to  do 
solely  with  rooms  for  which  the  chief  source  of  light  is  a  window 
with  the  location  described. 

Window  No.  of  rooms 
On  the  lot  line  58 

Less  than  I  foot  from  lot  line  70 

1  to  2  feet  from  lot  line  163 

2  to  2.7  feet  from  lot  line  145 
2.7  to  4  feet  from  lot  line  131 


o  u 


LAWRENCE     SURVEY 
SUMMARY  OF  RATES  OF  RENT  PER  ROOM  PER  WEEK 


Rates 

Common  St. 

Valley 

St. 

Oak  St. 

Oxford  St. 

in 

No.  of            Per 

No.  of 

Per 

No.  of            Per 

No.  of             Per 

Cents 

Apts.            Cent 

Apts. 

Cent 

Apts.           Cent 

Apts.             Cent 

Less  than 

40      2                 .01 

5 

.036 

14              .152 

6               .10 

40-50 

5              -025 

22 

•159 

19              .203 

7                -"7 

50  60 

3°               -:49 

35 

.616 

28              .304 

19               .316 

60-70 

40               .189 

23 

.167 

26              .283 

24               .4 

70-80 

46     .          .228 

3 

.021 

0 

1                .016 

So-90 

35              .174 

0 

4             -043 

0 

9095 

43               -2I4 

0 

1             .01 1 

3                -05 

60 


On  Common  Street  61  per  cent  have  rates  greater  than  70  cents. 
On  the  other  streets  92  to  98  per  cent  have  rates  less  than  70  cents. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  LOTS  OCCUPIED   BY  THE  HOUSE  OR 
HOUSES  ON  INTERIOR  LOTS  IN  SIX  HALF  BLOCKS 


Number  of 
Lots 


Common  St.  (south  side) 

East  from  Newbury  (Ci  iK) 
West     "  "         (C12K) 

Valley  St.  (south  side) 

East  from  Franklin   (H16K) 
West     "  "         (B17KJ 

Oak  St.  (North   Side) 

West   from    White    (B43L) 

Oxford  St.  (West  Side) 

North   from   Essex  (A52M) 


Less  than      Per  cent    Per  cent    Per  cent    Per  cent 
70  per  cent    70  to  75    75  to  80    80  to  90  90  to  100 


LIGHT  61 

Among  the  fifty-eight  rooms  lighted  from  a  window  on  the  lot 
line,  thirty-live  are  in  rear  houses,  and  in  such  houses  the  best  light 
in  any  room  is  from  an  alley. 

All  of  the  facts  about  the  open  spaces  show  the  variant, 
irrational  and  low  standards  which  have  prevailed.  They  spell 
a  gloomy  future  for  the  working  people  in  Lawrence ;  for  a  proper 
amount  of  light  is  a  prime  requisite  in  any  apartment  that  is 
worthy  of  the  name  home.  But  it  is  no  mere  prospect  that  is 
confronting  them.  The  hardship  of  living  in  gloomy  and  dingy 
homes  is  already  theirs;  for  one  of  the  most  noticeable  results  of 
house  crowding  in  the  center  of  Lawrence  is  the  excessively  large 
number  of  dimly  lighted  rooms. 

The  typical  light  condition  in  these  apartments  may  be 
described  as  follows.  Eighty-three  per  cent  of  the  apartments 
have  either  four  or  five  rooms,  and  in  most  of  them  the  kitchen, 
which  is  unusually  large,  is  located  in  the  center  of  the  floor  space. 
In  the  apartments  of  the  front  house,  one  or  two  rooms  are  well 
lighted  from  the  street;  the  kitchen  receives  but  little  light;  and 
the  two  rooms  at  the  rear  are  almost  as  poorly  lighted  because 
of  the  lack  of  space  between  front  and  rear  houses.  This  is 
just  as  true  of  the  front  rooms  in  the  rear  houses,  because  they 
have  the  same  source  of  light.  The  kitchens  in  the  rear  houses 
are  also  entirely  inadequately  lighted.  Many  of  the  rooms  which 
open  upon  the  alley  are  not  well  lighted,  although  in  others  the 
amount  of  light  is  fair  at  present,  because  there  is  not  yet  a  high 
building  on  the  rear  of  the  lots  across  the  alley. 

The  rooms  which  were  examined  in  the  matter  of  light  are 
grouped  below  according  to  the  location  of  the  window  which 
is  the  chief  source  of  light  for  each  room. 

Source  of  light  Number  of  rooms 
Street  497 

Alley  386 

Yard  574 

Side  court  720 

Outer  court  85 

In  giving  to  each  room  that  was  visited  a  grade  according 
to  the  amount  of  light  in  it,  a  definite  meaning  was  assigned  to 


62  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

each  grade  and  that  method  is  the  basis  for  the  following  summary. 
There  are  342  rooms  in  which  it  is  not  possible  to  read  except 
within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  window.  There  are  561  other  rooms 
where  it  is  difficult  to  read  on  the  side  of  the  room  opposite  the 
window  and  where  also  protracted  eye  work  in  any  part  of  the 
room  is  dangerous  for  the  majority  of  persons.  There  is  a 
satisfactory  amount  of  light  in  only  about  fifty-nine  per  cent  of 
the  rooms.  There  are  31  apartments  in  which  no  room  has  a 
satisfactory  amount  of  light. 

What  these  dim  tenements  mean  to  their  occupants  is  partly 
shown  by  two  casual  comments  made  by  women  at  work  in 
kitchens.  One  woman  looking  up  from  the  peculiar,  double-ended 
wash  tub  which  the  Italians  use  remarked,  "  Don't  know  what  I 
am  doing.  Can't  see  much."  Another  mother  whose  little  child 
was  walking  around  against  her  wish  commented,  "  Windows  no 
good.     Baby  won't  stay  here  in  the  kitchen  near  the  fire." 

It  is  doubtful  whether  architects  and  builders  have  sufficiently 
considered  the  financial  disadvantage  there  is  in  dimly  lighted 
tenements.  There  is  a  constant  loss  of  income  in  the  worst  houses 
in  Lawrence.  In  the  two  half-blocks  at  the  east  end  of  Common 
street,  in  a  total  number  of  thirty  vacant  apartments,  twenty-two 
were  located  on  the  first  and  second  floors  where  the  light  is  the 
least.  It  is  evident  that,  when  tenements  are  not  in  great  demand, 
the  dimly  lighted  quarters  on  the  lower  floors  are  abandoned. 
Smaller  tenements  with  better  light  would  yield  an  equal  or  a 
larger  income  than  do  these  dimly  lighted  houses. 

Nearly  all  factories  now  being  constructed  are  given  a  great 
abundance  of  light,  in  the  belief  that  any  lack  of  light  results  in 
a  reduction  of  the  quality  or  quantity  of  the  work  in  them.  The 
same  standard  for  the  homes  of  the  workers  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered commercially  advantageous, —  not  to  the  builders,  as  such, 
but  as  a  matter  of  general  public  policy.  The  efficiency  of  workers 
is  constantly  being  reduced  by  the  impaired  vision  and  permanent 
injury  to  their  eyesight  that  is  one  of  the  results  of  their  living 
in  darkened  houses. 

The  newspapers  have  at  various  times  in  the  past  urged  that 
the  industries  of  the  city  should  be  diversified,  and  that  one  of  the 


LIGHT  63 

natural  developments  would  be  to  secure  the  incoming  of  clothing 
factories.  The  products  of  the  woolen  and  worsted  mills  are  now 
transported  to  New  York  and  Rochester,  and  there  made  into 
clothing.  The  question  raised  is,  why  the  products  of  the  woolen 
and  worsted  mills  should  not  be  used  in  Lawrence?  If  Lawrence 
were  to  have  clothing  factories,  with  the  usual  accompaniment  of 
sweat  shops  in  tenements,  the  present  houses  are  so  wretchedly 
lighted,  that  the  resulting  conditions  would  need  another  Dante 
to  describe  them  properly. 

From   Darkness  to  Death 

There  are  numerous  kitchens  and  other  rooms  which  have 
a  most  generous  supply  of  glazed  area  in  the  windows,  and  yet 
artificial  light  is  absolutely  necessary,  whenever  any  work  is  being 
done.  In  some  of  these  rooms  lamps  are  kept  burning  constantly. 
The  majority  of  the  rooms  located  at  the  centers  of  the  buildings 
require  artificial  light  when  the  sky  is  fully  clouded.  This  means 
inconvenience,  loss  of  time,  and  expense.  It  also  means  suffering 
and  danger  from  disease.  We  need  again  and  again  to  consider 
seriously  the  chain  of  the  D's,  in  order  to  feel  that  they  do  lie 
bound  together  in  a  CHAIN:  Darkness  and  dampness  and  dirt; 
dirt  and  discomfort  and  disease;  death.  The  following  is  one  of 
the  memorandums  made  on  an  inspection  card.  "  Mother  coughs 
and  looks  tubercular;  just  back  from  hospital;  there  three  months 
after  child-birth.  Kitchen  dirty  and  black  dark;  lamp  burning 
on  stove  at  midday,  March  4th.  Same  March  15th."  This  is  a 
new  house,  less  than  three  years  old,  and  the  kitchen  has  abundant 
window  area. 

In  the  most  recent  report  of  the  state  inspectors  of  health  of 
Massachusetts  the  comment  is  made  concerning  cases  of  tuber- 
culosis in  two  mill  cities :  "  Many  tenements  were  found  from 
which  cases  of  tuberculosis  were  frequently  reported."  Concern- 
ing a  certain  tenement  quarter  in  another  city  the  report  says: 
"  In  looking  over  a  list  of  deaths  from  tuberculosis,  and  the 
residence  of  the  patients,  it  was  discovered  that  a  large  number 
of  persons  were  found  to  have  died  at  the  same  street  number, 
some  of  the  same  family  name,  showing  by  the  dates  that  one  had 


64  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

taken  the  disease  from  another.  Many  were  found  at  the  same 
number  with  different  names,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  question 
whether  the  persons  may  have  contracted  the  disease  from  the 
bacilli  left  in  the  house  by  former  patients."  Tuberculosis  is 
already  costing  Lawrence  dearly,  and  a  toll  of  about  150  lives 
yearly.  Thousands  of  dollars  are  being  spent  in  Massachusetts 
for  the  cure  of  this  dread  disease.  Wise  business  policy  for  a 
successful  city,  and  the  public's  need  for  conditions  that  produce 
health,  not  that  destroy  it,  demand  that  we  place  an  awakened 
and  intelligent  valuation  on  these  dimly  lighted  tenements.  It 
ought  no  longer  to  be  possible  to  build  them. 

Windowless  Rooms 

There  were  fifty-nine  rooms  examined  which  have  no  windows 
to  the  outside  air. 

In  the  six  half -blocks,  there  are  four  rooms  which  have  no 
windows  whatever,  eight  rooms  with  transoms  only  and  21 
other  rooms  which  have  no  windows  to  the  outside  air,  but  inter- 
communicating windows  to  rooms  or  halls.  Among  these  33 
rooms,  25  were  used  as  bed-rooms,  four  as  kitchens,  and  four  as 
store  rooms.  In  the  two  districts,  there  were  examined  seven 
rooms  without  any  windows  whatever;  and  nineteen  rooms  with 
no  window  to  the  outside  air,  but  small  windows  communicating 
to  halls  or  rooms.     Many  of  the  interior  windows  are  immovable. 

When  windowless  rooms  are  used  as  bed-rooms  the  kind  of 
use  they  commonly  receive  may  be  illustrated  by  the  description  of 
one  of  them.  In  it  there  slept  regularly  a  father,  mother  and  a 
three  year  old  girl  in  a  three-quarter  bed,  and  two  boys  in  a  crib. 
Two  weeks  previous  to  the  visit  an  eight  months  old  baby  had 
died.  The  mother  was  still  grieving  over  the  loss,  and  with 
apparent  unconsciousness  of  the  inconsistency  in  her  ideas,  stated 
that  the  baby  had  always  slept  in  the  same  room  with  the  rest, 
that  from  birth  he  had  been  the  strongest  of  her  babies,  and  she 
wondered  why  he  had  died. 

If  fifty-nine  windowless  rooms  were  seen  in  this  examination, 
Lawrence  must  have  a  good  many  more  than  that.  When  the 
intelligent  citizens  have  seriously  considered  how  these  rooms  are 


SANITATION  65 

usually  used  and  what  culture  bins  they  can  become,  pushing  on 
through  the  years  and  piling  up  ill-health  and  death,  suffering  and 
expense  to  thousands,  and  great,  expense  to  the  city,  they  will  not 
submit  to  the  continuance  of  building  regulations  that  permit  the 
construction  of  such  houses. 

Sanitary  Equipment 

The  following  are  the  facts  concerning  the  sanitary  equip- 
ment and  arrangements  as  found  in  the  six  half-blocks.  There 
is  in  every  apartment  a  sink  and  a  supply  of  city  water.  In  five 
or  six  apartments  on  upper  floors  tenants  complained  that  they 
could  not  secure  water  when  it  was  being  drawn  on  the  floor 
below, —  due  probably  to  pressure  reduced  within  the  house  by  old 
or  small  pipes.  The  general  condition  in  this  respect  is  one  in 
which  the  city  may  well  take  much  pride.  The  fact  that  all  the 
houses  are  connected  with  sewers  is  good  reason  for  further 
satisfaction.  There  are  very  many  cities  in  the  country  that  are 
not  to  be  compared  at  all  with  the  New  England  cities  in  these  two 
particulars,  water  supply  and  sewers,  and  among  the  New  England 
cities  Lawrence  is  at  the  front. 

Judging  by  the  six  half-blocks,  the  bath-tubs  and  wash-tubs 
at  the  center  of  the  city  are  few.  In  the  Common,  Valley  and 
Oak  Street  half -blocks  one  apartment  in  nineteen  has  a  bath-tub. 
In  the  Common  Street  half-blocks  there  are  fourteen,  nearly  all 
at  the  west  end;  in  Valley  Street,  nine,  and  in  Oak  Street,  four. 
In  the  Oxford  Street  half-block  one  apartment  in  two  has  a  tub; 
twenty-six  of  them  being  old  pattern  tin  tubs  encased.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  all  the  tubs  have  only  one  faucet,  and  a 
number  of  those  that  have  two  faucets  and  that  are  new  are  not 
connected  with  hot  water,  because  the  tenants  say  they  cannot 
afford  it.  One  apartment  in  fourteen  has  a  wash-tub.  They  are 
distributed  as  the  bath-tubs,  except  that  the  Oxford  Street  half- 
block  has  fourteen. 

All  the  houses  have  water  closets  inside  the  house ;  and  twelve 
out  of  thirteen  of  these  closets  are  located  within  the  apartment. 
All  closets  not  located  within  the  apartment  are  in  public  halls 
adjoining  the  apartment,  there  being  no  basement  or  cellar  closets 


66  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

in  these  six  half-blocks.  Among  132  houses,  there  are  only  four 
where  two  families  are  using  one  closet.  This  is  a  remarkably 
good  showing.  There  are  probably  few  cities  where  the  houses 
are  better  equipped  in  the  number  of  water  closets. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  amount  of  light  in  the 
water  closets  is  not  greater.  Nine  per  cent  of  the  closets  are 
supplied  with  artificial  light  at  night.  Four  per  cent  more  have 
sash  doors,  which  admit  some  secondary  light  at  night.  In  eight 
per  cent,  there  is  practically  no  daylight  whatever.  In  eighteen 
per  cent  more,  it  is  not  possible  to  see  such  obstacles  as  pails.  In 
twenty  per  cent  more,  it  is  impossible  to  see  whether  the  floor  is 
clean  or  dirty.  Altogether  forty-six  per  cent  have  insufficient 
daylight. 

Many  of  the  old  closets  are  encased  in  wood,  and  the  con- 
ditions behind  the  casings  are  not  right.  In  a  considerable  number 
which  were  malodorous,  the  very  apparent  source  was  not 
accessible. 

The  houses  which  have  ash  chutes  number  on  the  average 
one  in  four. 

Among  23  yards  which  are  regularly  used  as  passage-ways, 
eight  are  not  paved.  Among  34  side  courts  similarly  used,  there 
is  no  pavement  in  11. 

Conditions  Within  the  Apartments 

In  grading  occupied  rooms  according  to  the  condition  of 
cleanliness,  it  was  noted  that  there  are  a  smaller  number  of  very 
clean  apartments  in  Common  Street  than  in  the  other  half -blocks. 
So  far  as  very  dirty  rooms  are  concerned,  the  six  half -blocks  do 
not  differ  from  each  other  materially.  The  figures  show  that  they 
all  have  relatively  about  the  same  number.  About  seven  per  cent 
of  all  apartments  seriously  needed  much  cleaning,  and  five  other 
apartments  were  in  wretchedly  filthy  condition. 

There  is  wide  contrast  in  the  facts  that  cause  these  dirty  tene- 
ments. In  some  where  there  are  several  boarders  and  children,  the 
women  work  hard  and  still  are  always  in  dirt.  In  others  the  women 
seem  to  let  dirt  accumulate  in  order  to  be  able  to  clean  it  up  at  their 


SANITATION 


67 


This  water-closet  is  so  constantly  wet  that  cement  is  used  to  keep  the 
water  from  passing  under  the  matched  board  partition  across  the  kitchen 
floor.  The  floors  and  bases  of  most  water-closets  ought  at  least  to  be  kept 
well  painted.     Many  ought  to  have  a  floor  of  some  other  material  than  wood. 


special  cleaning  seasons.    A  few  of  the  families  are  poor  creatures, 
dependent  and  on  the  verge  of  degeneracy. 

The  largest  number  of  water  closets  with  wet  floors  and  the 
greatest  amount  of  dirt  on  the  floors  occurs  in  the  half-blocks  at 
the  east  end  of  Common  Street.  Among  128  water  closets  where 
there  was  a  considerable  amount  of  water  on  the  floor,  91  are 
located  in  those  half-blocks.  This  is  thirty-eight  per  cent  of  all  the 
closets  there.  Many  of  them  had  old  wet,  rags  and  paper;  some 
were  so  foul  smelling  as  to  be  nauseating;  and  dogs  were  kept  in 
two.  In  the  other  four  half-blocks  thirteen  per  cent  were  wet 
and  dirty. 


Overcrowded  Communal  Apartments 

The  great  density  of  population  in  the  two  half -blocks  at  the 
east  end  of  Common  street  is  due  to  the  over-crowding  of  apart- 
ments as  well  as  to  the  crowding  of  houses  upon  the  land.     The 


68  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

prevailing  arrangement  of  four  bedrooms  around  the  kitchen  not 
only  furnishes  economy  in  fuel  expense,  because  all  bedrooms  can 
be  heated  from  the  kitchen,  but  also  makes  easy  the  use  of  the 
apartment  by  several  families.  In  these  two  half -blocks,  in  three 
of  every  five  tenements,  there  were  more  than  one  family;  in  one 
tenement  of  every  five,  there  were  more  than  two  families.  Six 
apartments  of  five  rooms  each  had  fourteen  persons  each;  and  in 
one  apartment  of  five  rooms  there  were  eighteen.  Fifteen  apart- 
ments had  three  or  more  families  and  also  an  average  of  three  or 
more  persons  per  room,  excluding  the  kitchen.  Seventy-three  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  these  two  half-blocks  were  living  in  117 
apartments  where  the  average  number  of  persons  per  room  exclud- 
ing the  kitchen  is  more  than  two.  This  proportion  in  the  other  half- 
blocks  is,  in  Valley  street  40  per  cent,  in  Oak  street  37  per  cent,  in 
Oxford  street  o  per  cent.  In  120  apartments  where  there  were 
more  than  one  family,  there  were  1,152  persons,  202  of  them  un- 
married boarders.  The  foregoing  figures  were  taken  at  a  season 
when  the  mills  were  running  on  part  time.  Nearly  all  of  those  who 
live  in  these  two  half-blocks  are  mill  workers. 

The  manner  of  living  at  the  east  end  of  Common  street  differs 
materially  from  that  in  the  houses  of  the  other  half-blocks.  Many 
of  the  bed-rooms  are  kept  locked,  the  key  being  carried  away  by  the 
occupants.  The  money  paid  to  the  family  who  rents  the  tenement 
is  rent  only  and  does  not  include  board.  Sunday  and  holiday  meals 
are  cooked  and  eaten  separately.  Usually  the  woman  who  rents 
the  apartment  cooks  one  meal  a  day  for  the  others,  but  the  food  for 
this  meal  is  furnished  separately  by  the  couples  or  families  and  is 
usually  eaten  separately.  The  other  meals  are  purchased,  prepared, 
and  eaten  separately.  Such  small  stock  of  food  as  is  carried  from 
one  meal  to  another  is  frequently  kept  in  the  bed-room.  That  the 
dirtiest  water  closets  seen  in  Lawrence  were  in  these  apartments, 
is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  felt  by  all  occupants,  that  the 
water  closet  is  a  community  convenience  and  that  no  one  person, 
not  even  the  one  who  rents  the  tenement,  is  wholly  responsible  for 
its  condition. 

It  is  said  to  be  the  practice  with  some  landlords  in  these  two 
half-blocks,   when   the   work   is   plentiful   and   the   tenements   are 


MAINTENANCE  69 

crowded,  to  make  the  amount  of  rent  collected  depend  upon  the 
number  of  persons  accommodated  in  the  apartment. 

Among  other  serious  disadvantages  in  these  communal  apart- 
ments, two  may  be  mentioned:  the  absence  of  reasonable  privacy, 
since  all  the  bedrooms  are  heated  from  the  kitchen,  and  the  universal 
absence  of  bath-tubs.  Such  lack  is  bad  enough  in  any  apartment; 
but,  where  the  tenement  is  used  by  three  or  four  families  and 
there  is  no  heat  in  the  bed-rooms,  the  confusion  and  inconveniences 
make  bathing  most  difficult. 

One  of  the  worst  conditions  that  is  found  in  large  cities  is  the 
makeshift  tenement  which  is  made  by  cutting  off  space  at  the  rear 
end  of  the  store  with  dwarf  partitions,  curtains,  etc.  The  combina- 
tion of  dark  rooms,  no  ventilation,  food  for  sale,  and  frequently 
dirt  and  children,  together  with  flies  in  season,  makes  a  most  deplor- 
able condition.  Two  such  quarters  were  found  in  February  at  the 
east  end  of  Common  street.  Each  store,  and,  in  one  of  them,  two 
children,  were  in  the  care  of  a  man  who  stated  that  he  could  not  get 
work  but  his  wife  could.  Lawrence  would  be  in  a  wretched  state, 
if  the  city  officials  could  complacently  allow  such  overcrowding. 
Evidently  this  is  realized;  for,  less  than  two  months  later,  these 
stores  had  been  vacated  and  most  of  the  partitions  removed.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that,  with  a  rejuvenated  city  government,  other  investi- 
gations will  not  be  necessary  to  keep  such .  conditions  permanently 
out  of  Lawrence. 

Defective  Maintenance 

The  conditions  of  cleanliness  and  repair  in  public  halls  were 
marked  with  gradations  that  had  definite  meaning.  This  scoring 
makes  possible  the  following  statement.  Twenty-seven  per  cent 
of  the  houses  had  main  halls  a.nd  stairs  which  were  excessively 
dirty.  Rubbish,  ashes,  garbage  and  litter  were  found  in  them,  and 
in  most  of  them  black  dirt  gummed  down  indicated  that  the  floor 
had  not  been  washed  for  many  months.  The  dirtiest  of  the  halls 
and  the  largest  number  of  them  are  in  the  houses  at  the  east 
end  of  Common  street.  In  several  of  these  houses  the  landlords 
themselves  are  living,  but  into  certain  others  the  present  landlord 
has  perhaps  never  entered.     Apparently  there  is  almost  no  attempt 


70  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

to  keep  the  halls  clean.    The  re- 
sponsibility for  their  condition 
has  not  been  placed 
upon  any  one. 
Paint  is 


seriously 
needed  in  the 
main  halls  of  10  per 
cent  of  the  houses,  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  plastering 
in  25  per  cent,  and  whitewashing 
in  66  per  cent. 

Scoring  for  the  walls  of  rooms,  made  conservatively,  shows 
that  the  walls  in  13  per  cent  of  the  rooms  are  in  need  of  repair. 
The  largest  proportion  of  such  rooms  are  in  a  Valley  street  half- 
block  and  the  smallest  proportion  in  the  Oxford  street. 

The  cellar  floors  were  wet  in  thirteen  houses.  The  roofs 
were  in  bad  repair  in  five.  More  than  half  the  pitch  roofs  and 
a  few  of  the  flat  roofs  have  seriously  broken  eaves  and  leaders,  or 
none.  This  is  the  more  serious,  because  of  the  lack  of  pavement 
in  the  yards  and  side  courts  and  because  so  many  of  these  spaces 
are  used  as  passageways.  Some  of  the  courts  and  yards  have 
pavement  in  bad  repair.  At  the  time  of  steady  rain  many  pave- 
ments hold  puddles  to  be  crossed,  or  are  so  graded  that  they  throw 
small  brooks  across  the  street  walks  for  pedestrians  to  wade 
through;  for  almost  none  are  sewer  connected. 

Two  defects  in  water  closet  plumbing  were  the  most 
common.  There  is  frequently  a  leak  at  the  bottom  of  the  flush- 
box  where  the  flush-pipe  joins  it.  This  usually  results  in  a  steady 
dribble  of  water  down  the  outside  of  the  flush-pipe  onto  the  floor. 
The  galvanized  two-inch  pipe  that  ventilates  the  water  closet  bowl 
is  rusted  out  in  many  closets  at  the  point  where  it  joins  the  bowl. 


This  is  the 
passageway  to 
the  street  from 
eight  apart- 
ments in  one 
rear  house  and 
three  in  an- 
other- Pave- 
ment is  dished 
v-nd.  not  con- 
nected with  the 
sewer.  It  is  im- 
possible to  use 
without  wetting 
the  feet,  —  as 
the  mother  and 
child   are   doing. 


The    steps    are     front    entrance     of     the     eight-family   rear    house.      At    its    corner 
in    the    upper    picture    a    boy      is    standing. 


72 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


In  some  bowls  this  gives  at  times  a  quantity  of  water  as  overflow 
out  of  the  bowl.  In  several  closets  this  pipe  is  completely  dis- 
located and  the  value  of  the  vent  destroyed. 

In  a  total  number  of  70  lots,  the  surfaces  of  56  had  a 
considerable  amount  of  ashes,  rubbish  and  garbage,  and  16  had  an 
excessively  large  amount.  There  was  an  entire  lack  of  receptacles 
in  some  yards.  In  others  where  the  supply  is  adequate,  the 
receptacles  are  either  not  used  or  are  used  very  carelessly.  The 
photographs  tell  the  story  better  than  figures  or  words;  though 
even  they  do  not  tell  the  whole  story,  as  any  one  knows  who  has 
tried  to  get  a  photograph  of  rubbish  that  appears  as  bad  as  the 
condition.  Only  a  few  ash  chutes  were  noted  as  clogged  or  in 
very  bad  repair;  though  a  considerable  number  were  seen  which 
were  not  emptying  squarely  into  the  receptacle  under  them,  or 
had  no  receptacle. 


MAINTENANCE  73 

To  give  a  better  knowledge  of  the  conditions  than  figures 
can  give,  by  a  cursory  review  of  the  inspection  cards,  the  following 
hit-or-miss  transcript  was  made  from  the  notes  on  the  back  of 
some  of  the  cards.  Nothing  can  give  the  impression  that  would 
be  made  by  a  visit  to  the  premises. 

—  Bottom  of  air  shaft  loaded  with  rags,  papers,  cans  and 
swill.     Cellar  entrance   loaded   with   rubbish. 

« —  Odors  from  cellars  and  garbage  cans  are  very  strong  at 
the   rear   of   these   rooms;   two   bedrooms. 

—  Cellar  compartments  loaded  with  rubbish,  old  rags, 
mattress,  excelsior,  cans,  two  spots  of  human  filth,  dead  cat. 
Under  stairs   about  a  barrel   of  excelsior. 

—  Sink:  side  gone,  door  off,  trap  leaks;  has  been  repaired 
with  putty  and  rag.  In  bad  condition  for  a  year.  "  Owner  tried 
to  fix  it  about  three  weeks  ago  but  he  has  not  been  to  it  since. 
I've   told   him   about   the    casing  many   times." 

—  Water  warped  floor  boards  at  sink  make  trip  for  feet; 
broken  drain  board;  waste  pipe  at  trap  wrapped  with  grease- 
soaked  rag. 

—  Two   holes   in   bottom   of  sink   stopped   by  rags. 

—  Waste  pipe  tied  with  large  rag.  "Leaked  before,  not  now." 
In  water  closet  leak  from  above  through  ceiling.  Tenant  says 
condition  is  chronic,  and  that  the  water  drops  on  the  seat.  Dis- 
colored   spot,  wet,   confirms   the   statement. 

—  All  paint  at  sink  and  cupboard  scrubbed  off.  Tenant  here 
six   years.      No   painting  in   that   time. 

—  Tenant  here  ten  years.  Two  rooms  white-washed  in  that 
time. 

—  Here  eight  years.  Front  room  done  over  two  years  ago, 
paper  not  paint. 

—  Both  front  and  rear  halls  in  very  dirty  condition.  Two 
tenants  say  they  have  not  been  done  over  in  ten  years.  Good- 
sized  holes  in  plaster  in  rear  hall  and  places  lacking  paper  in  front. 

—  Water  closet  floor  badly  wet  with  dirty  water  as  from  soil- 
pipe.  Tenant  says  the  leak  has  been  here  five  months.  Source 
not  discernible.  Hole  in  kitchen  ceiling  over  stove,  about  four 
feet  by  two  feet.  This  tenant  lived  five  years  at  the  west  end 
of  the  building.     No  painting  there  in  that  time. 

—  Two  holes  in  second  floor  hall  patched  by  nailing  pieces 
of  boxes  onto  them. 

—  Here    thirteen   years.      "He    clean   one    time." 

—  Sink  doors  in  all  these  apartments    (3)    off  hinges. 

—  Entrance  sash  door  (front)  permanently  boarded:  stairs 
with  winders  made  very  dark. 


74  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

—  Here  more  than  twenty  years.  "  Painted  kitchen  once. 
So  long  back  I  can't  remember.  More  than  fifteen  years."  In 
apartment  on  same  floor:  here  eleven  years.  "  Front  room  and 
kitchen  done  two  years  after  we  came.  No  painting."  Three 
owners  in  twenty  years.  Present  landlord  has  owned  the  house 
seven  years. 

—  Hole    in    entrance    hall   at   threshold    of   front   door. 

—  Door  from  hall  into  tenement  (only  entrance),  upper  hinge 
severed.     "  Told   the    agent   three   weeks   ago." 

—  Floors  in  hall  very  thin  and  full  of  humps.  Stairs  same. 
Nosing  on  four  treads  all  gone. 

—  Nosing  gone  on  winder  (triangular  tread).  Girl  fell  on  the 
stair  last   week. 

—  Leak  at  sink  strainer  follows  waste  pipe  to  water  closet 
floor  around  the  bowl  which  is  encased.  Floor  inside  case  soaked 
and  with  filth:  not  accessible.  Water  follows  soil-pipe  into  cellar 
and  keeps  a  section  of  soft  ground  wet.  Sink  waste  pipe  is  not 
trapped,  goes  into  cellar,  thence  into  soil-pipe  direct.  Vent  pipe 
from  water  closet  trap  is  open  into  the  compartment,  due  to  the 
fact  that  a  sink  formerly  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  partition 
was  served  by  the  same  vent  pipe,  and  when  removed  the  tee  was 
not  closed. 

A  house  owned  by  an  elderly  woman  who  is  a  life-tenant  only, 
was  in  particularly  bad  repair.  The  following  are  the  facts  about 
the  first  floor  tenement  at  the  rear.  The  ash  chute  from  the  two 
floors  above  emptied  directly,  without  box,  onto  the  porch  floor 
which  is  the  only  approach  to  the  apartment.  No  barrels  have 
been  provided  for  several  months,  and  the  occupant  of  the  tenement 
was  forced  to  keep  the  ashes  and  garbage  swept  into  a  pile  under 
the  ash  chute  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  climbing  over  them.  In 
the  room  which  was  used  as  a  sitting-room,  the  paper  on  the 
ceiling  hung  down  in  long  strips.  It  had  been  in  this  condition 
for  three  weeks.  The  tenant  stated  that  he  had  been  there  five 
years,  and  that  no  repairs  had  taken  place  during  that  time, 
although  he  had  asked  for  them.  He  had  hesitated  to  move 
because  with  eight  children  he  had  found  it  difficult  to  find  a 
tenement.  In  a  bedroom  off  the  kitchen  such  dim  light  as  could 
have  entered  the  room  was  entirely  shut  out  by  a  blind.  When 
the  tenant  was  asked  why  the  blind  was  kept  closed,  he  pointed 
to  the  fact  that  a  pane  of  glass  was  gone,  with  the  statement, 
"The  landlord  s.aid  if  we  wanted  it  fixed,  we  would  have  to  do  it 
ourselves.  But  I'm  not  going  to.  It  is  not  right.  It  fell  out  for 
lack  of  putty.     None  of  us  did  anything  to  it." 

The  supply  of  water  in  nine  water  closets  was  cut  off  by 
frozen  pipes.  Most  of  these  were  in  house?  owned  by  one  man, 
and  all  the  tenants  in  those  apartments  claimed  that  the  condition 


MAINTENANCE 


75 


The  boys  are  in  the  front  and  only  entrance  to  a  six-family 
rear  house.  The  brace  in  the  upper  left  corner  is  at  the  steps  of 
the  front  entrance  of  a  three-family  rear  house. 


was  usual  in  cold  weather.  In  three  hall  closets  in  two  houses, 
lanterns  were  kept  constantly  burning  to  keep  the  closets  from 
freezing.  In  another  house  where  there  are  six  hall  closets,  the 
water  was  turned  off  in  the  cellar,  and  a  tenant  who  had  been  there 
several  years  stated  that  in  very  cold  weather  the  landlord  habitu- 
ally kept  the  water  turned  off  except  during  the  hours  six  to  nine 
in  the  evening,  with  the  idea  that  so  many  were  out  of  the  house 
during  the  day.  Mothers  and  children  were  found  in  three  apart- 
ments, and  at  the  noon  hour  several  others  were  seen.  The  house 
was  visited  three  times  in  two  weeks  and  at  these  times  the  odor 
from  unflushed  closets  was  sickening. 

About  ten  apartments  on  Common  street  were  found  vacant 
and  unlocked.  The  public  had  free  access  at  all  times.  The  closets 
had  been  used  many  times  and  could  not  be  flushed.  Many  of  the 
floors  had  been  used  in  place  of  the  water  closet.  Six  other  similar 
apartments  were  noted  in  one  of  the  half -blocks  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  street.     There  three  halls  were  also  in  the  same  filthy  condi- 


76  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

tion.  During  the  summer  the  windows  of  these  apartments  were 
open,  and  the  odor  from  them  was  obnoxious.  Flies  abounded, 
and  the  open  doors  and  windows  of  grocery  and  meat  stores  are 
close  at  hand.  Apparently  these  conditions  are  constantly  to  be 
found  in  these  particular  houses,  for  they  existed  through  the 
spring  and  summer. 

Almost  no  halls  are  lighted  at  night  in  the  Common  and  Valley 
street  half-blocks.  Most  of  the  houses  in  these  blocks  are  not  pro- 
vided with  gas  in  the  public  halls.  In  some  where  the  house  is  piped 
for  gas,  there  are  no  fixtures  in  the  halls,  and  in  others  where  the 
fixtures  exist,  either  there  is  no  supply  of  gas  or  no  regular  arrange- 
ment for  lighting  it.  An  examination  of  the  halls  in  the  two  blocks 
at  the  east  end  of  Common  street  made  between  eight  and  nine 
o'clock  on  three  different  nights,  two  of  them  Saturday,  found  less 
than  ten  halls  with  lights  in  them.  Similar  examination  in  two 
blocks  on  Valley  street  disclosed  only  four  halls  which  were  lighted. 
One  yard  in  the  Common  street  half-blocks  and  four  yards  in 
the  Valley  street  are  the  only  instances  where  the  space  between 
front  and  rear  buildings  was  found  lighted  at  night. 

The  Common  Need  for  Better  Homes 

A  chief  of  a  fire  department  recently  described  the  manner  of 
gathering  certain  figures  as  a  "  triangular  dispensation."  The 
phrase  well  summarizes  our  city  life  in  the  tenement  districts.  We 
are  under  a  triangular  dispensation,  the  neglect,  ignorance  and  low 
ideals  of  the  owners,  tenants  and  the  city  officials.  It  is  waste  of 
time  to  debate  with  anyone  which  of  the  three  groups  has  been 
chiefly  at  fault  in  the  past.  But  it  is  quite  worth  while  to  consider 
methods  for  meeting  in  the  future  the  need  for  better  homes. 

The  idea  which  many  have  that  the  owner  of  a  house  is  the 
one  who  should  be  considered  responsible  is  natural,  justifiable,  and 
necessary.  The  clearing  of  the  walks  promptly  in  winter  is  a 
typical  responsibility.  It  can  be  borne  by  no  one  so  well  as  by  the 
owner.  No  one  else  has  control  of  the  spaces  which  are  used  in 
common  in  and  around  the  houses.  The  halls  and  stairways  should 
be  always  clean,  in  good  repair  and  well  lighted;  the  open  spaces 
clean,  well-drained  and,  if  used  as  a  passageway,  lighted  at  night. 


MAINTENANCE  77 

This  means  for  the  owner  constant  expense  in  money  and  time,  and 
much  anxiety.  It  can  seem  an  unreasonable  burden  only  to  those 
who  have  been  regarding  their  ownership  as  purely  a  matter  of 
investment,  who  regard  rent  as  identical  with  interest.  Monthly, 
weekly  and  almost  daily  expenditures  for  maintenance, —  cleaning, 
lighting,  repairing  and  watch-care, —  will  come  to  be  common  prac- 
tice; for  the  care  of  the  public  places  such  as  hallways,  yards  and 
walks  is  inherently  part  of  the  business  of  owning  a  tenement  house. 
There  are  in  Lawrence  a  considerable  number  of  landlords  who 
seem  to  regard  the  ownership  of  these  houses  as  they  would  regard 
the  conduct  of  a  store.  They  give  their  time  and  attention  to  the 
details  involved  in  the  business.  In  these  rapidly  growing  cities 
the  idea  will  prevail  with  increasing  speed,  that  it  is  not  good  public 
policy  to  allow  tenement  house  owners  to  ignore  their  manifest  duty 
in  this  particular,  or  to  pass  the  responsibility  to  the  tenants,  or  to 
say  that  the  habits  of  the  tenants  are  beyond  the  owner's  ability  to 
control.  A  janitor  is  needed  in  the  largest  houses  and  a  caretaker 
in  the  smaller  ones.  In  every  house  there  ought  to  be  a  definite 
financial  arrangement  with  a  tenant  or  another  person  for  the 
lighting  of  the  halls  and  the  care  of  all  the  public  places.  Whatever 
arrangement  a  landlord  may  make,  his  responsibility  for  the  success- 
ful working  of  the  arrangement  seems  unavoidably  part  of  the 
business  and,  in  the  event  of  its  failure,  there  ought  to  be  a  recog- 
nized right  with  any  family  to  ask  the  city  for  the  safety  of  light, 
and  for  protection  against  the  dirt  of  other  families.  This  protec- 
tion will  seldom  be  sought  from  the  health  department  directly, 
because  the  families  fear  that  the  landlord  will  know  who  made 
the  complaint. 

That  fact  adds  greatly  to  the  need  which  is  everywhere  recog- 
nized, that  tenement  houses  should  have  systematic  inspection  regu- 
larly within  stated  periods.  For  this  purpose,  though  there  were 
five  sanitary  inspectors  in  the  employ  of  the  city  for  most  of  the 
year  191 1,  Lawrence  has  not  had  the  right  kind  of  inspection.  The 
right  inspection  would  assist  owners  very  materially,  and  they  need 
such  assistance.  Additional  to  a  caretaker  the  presence  of  a  good 
inspector    in    a   tenement    house,    recurring   periodically    whether 


78  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

needed  or  not,  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  better  the  conditions  in 
hundreds  of  houses.  Many  owners  do  not  need  written  orders  and 
many  tenants  do  not  need  reprimands  to  be  stirred  to  remedy  the 
conditions  of  neglect  and  carelessness.  The  right  inspection  should 
of  course  include  conditions  inside  apartments.  For  this  purpose 
and  for  other  reasons,  the  right  kind  of  a  woman  can  secure  the 
best  results.  Women  have  done  some  of  the  best  work  in  sanitary 
inspection.  They  accomplish  most  in  the  education  of  the  tenants, 
and  that  is  important,  for  one  of  the  chief  objects  ought  to  be 
persistant  instruction  in  sanitary  matters.  This  is  needed  by  many 
tenants.  The  health  department  should  deal  officially  and  legally 
with  owners,  but  its  inspectors  meet  the  tenants  incessantly  and  the 
opportunity  for  effective  service  is  constant. 

Our  public  school  curriculum  cannot  be  loaded  with  cures  for 
every  social  ailment,  but  certainly  the  instruction  of  the  young 
concerning  how  to  live  in  the  over-crowded  houses  of  the  tenement 
districts  ought  to  be  serious  and  efficient.  Two  or  three  text  books 
now  in  use  in  some  schools  are  helping  but  they  are  not  compre- 
hensive in  their  topics  and  in  most  of  their  suggestions  are  alto- 
gether too  meager.  The  right  books  and  the  right  instruction 
would  achieve  direct  and  broad  results.  The  education  of  the 
tenants  is  so  much  a  social  need  that  the  community  as  a  whole 
should  be  co-operating  with  the  tenement  house  owners  through 
the  schools  and  the  right  kind  of  sanitary  inspection. 

The  Improvement   of  Existing  Buildings 

If  old  buildings  are  kept  in  good  repair,  that  is  not  all  that  the 
city  might  well  be  requiring;  for  there  are  improvements  which 
can  be  made  in  existing  buildings  at  a  cost  that  is  immaterial  in 
relation  to  the  benefit  secured. 

For  ntany  years  it  has  been  common  practice  in  the  large 
cities  to  paint  or  whitewash  the  side  walls  of  buildings.  In  New 
York  the  law  has  required  for  ten  years  that  the  walls  of  courts 
shall  be  either  of  light  colored  brick  or  made  white  with  paint  or 
whitewash.  Lawrence  should  be  securing  white  side  walls  on  many 
of  the  houses  in  the  crowded  blocks;  for  in  this  manner  the  dimly 


*  ft* 

o 


en 


T3    X?^ 
H-i     O     3 


j  .t!  a 


80  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

lighted  tenements  would  be  very  materially  improved.  This  is 
the  more  desirable  because  there  are  so  many  dimly  lighted  rooms, 
and  the  improvement  that  could  be  secured  is  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  cost  involved. 

There  are  possible  other  low  cost  changes  of  various  kinds 
in  a  good  many  houses.  Better  light  can  be  secured  in  halls  that 
are  now  dark, — by  glass  substituted  for  wooden  panel  in  entrance 
doors,  by  windows  in  outside  walls,  or  by  the  construction  of  a 
skylight.  The  light  in  water  closets  in  some  houses  could  be 
greatly  improved.  In  some  of  the  older  houses  there  are  windows 
only  a  few  inches  in  either  dimension.  Also  in  some  houses  win- 
dows have  been  constructed  through  a  partition  into  a  room,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  water  closet  is  against  an  outside  wall  in 
which  the  window  could  have  been  placed.  There  are  water  closets 
with  doors  coming  from  public  halls  which  could  have  had  doors 
from  each  apartment  and  each  then  would  have  been  within  the 
apartment.  Whatever  question  there  may  be  about  the  city's 
ordering  some  improvements,  there  is  no  question  about  the  de- 
sirability of  removing  the  wooden  cases  around  the  water  closets 
in  many  of  the  existing  houses.  This  would  be  apparent  to  anyone 
from  a  most  cursory  examination  of  the  conditions  which  are  now 
to  be  found  around  many  of  these  encased  fixtures.  The  require- 
ment that  the  floors  of  many  closets  be  kept  heavily  painted  would 
not  be  unreasonable  and  would  be  decidedly  beneficial.  Where  the 
lower  end  of  the  galvanized  local  vent  pipe  has  rusted  out,  a  section 
ought  to  be  replaced  by  another  kind  of  metal ; — that  which  several 
cities  are  now  requiring. 

There  are  buildings  that  ought  to  have  fire  escapes  ordered 
onto  them  immediately.  The  need  for  this  is  shown  later  in  the 
paragraphs  concerning  no  second  egress. 

If  the  board  of  health  were  to  adopt  the  policy  of  bringing 
into  court  regularly  each  quarter,  or  even  each  half-year,  one  good 
case  of  overcrowding,  and  give  it  much  publicity,  the  living  con- 
ditions in  some  of  the  tenements  would  be  constantly  maintained 
on  a  much  better  level  than  they  are  now. 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS  81 

The  Best  Water  Closet  Standards  in  Massachusetts 

If  there  were  anywhere  to  be  found  a  study  of  the  history  of 
water  closet  requirements  as  they  have  been  adopted  at  various 
times  in  all  the  cities  of  this  country,  such  study  would  probably 
show  that  Lawrence  stands  among  the  first  in  this  particular.  In 
fact  it  would  not  be  surprising,  if  it  were  found  that  only  two  or 
three  cities  antedate  this  one  in  establishing  equally  high  standards. 
Since  1894,  Lawrence  has  been  requiring  by  the  regulations  of  the 
board  of  health,  enforced  by  a  plumbing  inspector,  that  there  shall 
be  in  every  house  one  water  closet  for  each  family,  and  that  it 
shall  have  a  window  of  three  square  feet  area.  These  two  standards 
have  not  only  been  secured  in  new  houses,  but  repairs  in  old  houses 
have  been  accompanied  by  the  installation  of  water  closets  within 
the  house,  and  usually  in  the  number  required  in  new  houses.  That 
it  might  be  possible  to  compare  Lawrence  with  the  other  cities 
of  Massachusetts,  the  plumbing  codes  and  regulations  of  all  cities 
with  a  population  of  more  than  20,000  were  studied.  Only  one 
other  city  could  be  found  that  has  yet  established  these  two 
standards  which  Lawrence  has  been  requiring  for  seventeen  years. 

Whatever  may  be  the  results  which  are  being  secured  without 
legislation  in  the  other  cities,  these  two  requirements  are  far  too 
important  to  be  left  to  chance.  Lawrence  has  added  to  them  the 
specifications  that  each  closet  shall  be  "in  a  separate  compartment 
separated  from  all  other  rooms  by  partitions  from  floor  to  ceiling," 
that  windows  onto  air  shafts  shall  be  five  square  feet  in  area;  and 
the  "  area  of  the  shaft  shall  be  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  the 
windows  opening  onto  it."  Eleven  cities  in  Massachusetts  have 
no  requirement  concerning  the  number  of  water  closets  that  shall 
be  placed  in  a  house,  and  a  twelfth  specifies  one  for  every  twelve 
persons.  Concerning  windows :  three  cities  permit  them  to  open  on 
a  shaft  of  3  sq.  ft. ;  three  others  permit  flues  of  six  or  eight  inches; 
seven  accept  in  place  of  a  window  that  two  inch  pipe  from  the 
water  closet  bowl  which  is  known  as  the  local  vent;  two  stipulate 
that  the  ventilation  shall  be  "  adequate  " :  and  six  have  no  require- 
ment. Thus  among  27  cities,  21  have  entirely  inadequate  specifi- 
cations  for  windows.     The  citizens  of  Lawrence  may  well  take 


82  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

just  pride  in  the  record  of  the  city  in  these  particulars.  But  that 
record  does  not  mean  that  there  are  no  water  closet  conditions  that 
need  remedying. 

History  of  Building  Ordinances 

In  the  1908  report  of  the  fire  underwriters,  it  is  said  that  a 
comprehensive  fire  limits  district  which  had  previously  been  es- 
tablished was  abolished  in  1880.  On  June  4,  1900,  a  small  fire 
district,  lying  along  both  sides  of  Essex  street,  was  established  and 
has  remained  unchanged.  This  district  is  less  than  280  feet  wide, 
with  Essex  street's  80  feet  in  the  middle  of  it.  It  does  not  even 
include  the  east  end  of  this  main  business  street,  and  by  1908  the 
city  officials  had  forgotten  that  it  existed. 

In  1 90 1  an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  a  building  code.  The 
interest  began  in  February  and  lasted,  so  far  as  any  record  could 
be  found,  till  the  first  week  in  May. 

In  the  draft  first  proposed,  fire  limits  were  to  be  established 
from  the  river  to  Haverhill  street,  from  Union  street  to  the 
Railroad.  Within  the  district  no  wooden  building  exceeding  one 
story  was  to  be  erected.  Section  13  aimed  a  body-blow,  though 
a  very  clumsy  one,  at  the  use  of  wood  outside  of  the  fire  limits: 
"  No  tenement  house  shall  be  erected  within  three  feet  of  the  side 
or  rear  line  of  the  lot,  but,  whenever  two  or  more  houses  to  be 
used  for  tenement  purposes  are  hereafter  built  nearer  'together 
than  twenty  feet,  the  walls  shall  be  brick  at  least  twelve  inches 
thick  above  the  foundation  walls  to  the  roof."  Another  section 
required  any  tenement  or  lodging  house  "  with  a  frontage  of  more 
than  thirty  feet  "  to  have  a  middle  fire  wall  from  cellar  to  three 
feet  above  the  roof. 

Early  in  April,  the  matter  was  referred  to  a  committee  con- 
sisting of  two  aldermen,  the  city  engineer,  superintendent  of 
public  property,  four  contractors  and  two  insurance  men.  Their 
draft  re'duced  the  fire  limits  to  include  only  Common  street, 
additional  to  the  limits  then  existing.  Sec.  13  was  made  to  read 
"  No  wall  or  part  of  a  wall  shall  be  erected  within  three  feet  of 
the  line  of  an  adjoining  lot  or  within  six  feet  of  the  wall  of  another 
building,  unless  said  wall  or  part  of  a  wall  is  brick  filled  as 
specified  in  Sec.  7."  Sec.  7  provided  that  tenement  houses  having 
two  families  on  a  floor  should  have  a  separating  brick-filled  wall 
four  inches  thick.  The  same  kind  of  wall  was  required  for  all 
partitions  inclosing  stairways  and  light   shafts. 


BUILDING   REGULATIONS  83 

The  ordinance  appears  to  have  been  smothered  some  time  in 
May. 

March  19th,  1906,  the  main  portion  of  the  roof  of  the 
Majestic  Rink  collapsed,  because  of  a  heavy  fall  of  snow.  A  sec- 
tion of  about  100  feet  by  50  fell  to  the  skating  surface.  The  fol- 
lowing day  the  Telegram  said :  "  A  significant  warning,  —  some- 
thing certainly  ought  to  be  done  to  enforce  safe  and  sane  building 
laws  in  this  city.  The  collapse  of  the  roof  of  the  Majestic  Rink  is 
a  case  to  the  point.  No  new  building  like  this  one,  properly  con- 
structed, would  collapse  under  last  night's  snow  fall.  Just  think 
of  what  might  have  happened  had  the  accident  occurred  a  few 
hours  earlier,  while  a  polo  game  was  in  progress.  If  this  narrow 
escape  from  a  terrible  tragedy  means  anything,  it  means  the  city 
government  will  be  remiss  in  its  duty,  if  it  does  not  at  once  pass 
wise  building  ordinances  and  appoint  proper  officials  to  see  that 
they  are  carried  out." 

The  agitation  thus  renewed  secured  the  reconsideration  of  the 
formerly  proposed  regulations  and  of  one  or  two  other  similar 
bills.  The  code  finally  adopted  April  23,  1906,  was  based  upon 
the  proposed  code  of  1901  emasculated. 

It  strengthened  Sec.  13  by  substituting  a  twelve-inch  brick  wall 
in  place  of  a  brick-filled  wall.  It  made  the  distance  between  front 
and  rear  buildings  eight  feet  instead  of  six  feet  and  irrespective 
of  the  character  of  the  walls.  It  added  the  requirement  of  a  bond 
from  the  inspector  and  the  keeping  of  records  and  a  paragraph 
giving  right  to  enter.  It  incorporated  the  establishment  of  the 
office  of  inspector,  the  issuance  of  permits,  and  some  paragraphs 
giving  him  much  discretionary  power  over  unsafe  buildings.  It 
also  included  verbatim  three  or  four  small  paragraphs,  relatively 
unimportant,    and    two    important    paragraphs    weakened. 

The  amount  of  penalty  possible  was  greatly  reduced;  the  fire 
limits  were  omitted;  Sec.  7,  as  summarized  above,  was  dropped; 
and  about  thirteen  paragraphs  of  conservative  specifications  for 
structural  safety  were  ignored. 

The  building  inspector  qualified  for  his  duties  May  28,  1906. 
The  building  ordinance  as  adopted  is  now  in  force,  except  that 
minor  amendments  have  since  been  made  in  two  sections.  The 
inspector's  annual  reports  have  repeatedly  asked  for  a  better 
ordinance. 


84  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  Character  of  The  Building  Ordinance 

Concerning  this,  the  report  of  the  fire  underwriters  said: 
"  The  municipal  building  laws  are  practically  valueless."  The  basis 
for  this  opinion  may  be  seen  by  considering  the  ordinance  in  detail. 
That  can  be  done  briefly.  Several  of  the  sections  have  been  suffi- 
ciently described  above.  There  are  three  about  metal  leaders, 
chimneys  and  projections  into  streets. 

For  the  purpose  of  fire  protection,  there  are  three  requirements : 

First.  "  No  tenement  house  shall  be  erected  within 
three  feet  of  the  side  line  of  a  lot,  unless  the  walls  be 
brick  "  etc. 

The  ordinance  does  not  define  tenement  house,  and  any 
building  inspector  could  legally  allow  three-family  wooden 
houses  to  be  built  on  the  lot  line.  This  would  be  in  keeping  with 
the  legal  definition  of  tenement  house  in  Boston,  Springfield  and 
a  few  other  places.  Fortunately  Lawrence  had  for  five  years  a 
building  inspector  who  had  sufficient  interest  in  the  city's  welfare 
to  define  tenement  house  to  include  any  house  with  more  than  one 
family.  A  second  grave  fault  in  the  section  is  the  fact  that  ten- 
ement houses  are  mentioned  at  all.  Wooden  boarding  houses  and 
other  buildings  are  not  mentioned  and  have  been,  and  are  being, 
erected  on  side  lot  lines. 

Second.  "  Whenever  two  buildings  shall  be  erected 
on  the  same  lot  of  land,  one  in  the  rear  of  the  other,  the 
outside  walls  shall  be  at  least  eight   feet  apart."     > 

Separate  rear  houses  on  lots  of  ordinary  depths  ought  not  to  be 
allowed.  If  allowed,  the  distance  of  eight  feet  is  altogether  too 
small.  Small  as  it  is,  the  phrasing  "  outside  walls  "  permits  all 
sorts  of  encroachments  on  it.  In  very  many  instances  porches, 
stairs,  balconies  and  other  encroachments  have  been  constructed 
in  this  space,  frequently  filling  it  entirely. 

Third.  "  All  buildings  hereafter  erected  two  stories 
above  the  level  of  the  street  shall  be  provided  with  two 
separate  stairways,  placed  in  such  manner  that  the  inmates 
shall  have  easy  means  of  egress  at  all  times,  said  stair- 
ways to  lead  from  each  story." 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS  85 

It  would  seem  to  be  the  purpose  of  this  section  that  all  inmates 
shall  have  two  means  of  egress,  but  the  phrasing  does  not 
explicitly  say  this,  nor  does  it  say  that  the  two  ways  out  shall 
be  independent  of  each  other.  Without  doubt  each  apartment 
should  have  direct  access  to  two  independent  and  safe  stairways 
or  fire  escapes.  The  section  is  from  the  1901  proposed  code 
verbatim  with  two  exceptions.  That  code  read  "  occupants " 
instead  of  "  inmates,"  and  its  final  clause  read  "  each  tenement 
to  have  access  to  both  stairways  "  instead  of  "  said  stairways  to 
lead  from  each  story."  The  section  as  enacted  appears  to  say 
what  it  does  not  say.  There  are  new  buildings  in  Lawrence  where 
one  or  more  third  or  fourth-floor  apartments  have  no  second 
egress.  This  is  radically  wrong,  yet  is  possible,  because  the 
explicit  language  of  the  1901  draft  was  dropped. 

For  ordering  additional  egress  in  old  buildings,  certain 
sections  seem  to  give  the  inspector  abundant  power,  but  leave  the 
question  entirely  to  his  judgment.  Such  a  condition  as  no  second 
egress  from  third  and  fourth  floor  apartments  is  too  important 
to  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  any  individual. 

The  foregoing  three  sections  have  some  value.  A  fourth 
has  none.  Wooden  tenement  or  lodging  houses  are  limited  to  the 
height  of  48  feet.  In  this  height  five  stories  can  be  erected;  what 
more  would  be  desired?  So  far  the  builders  have  not  desired 
to  build  wooden  five-story  houses,  and  only  four  or  five  four- 
story  and  basement  houses.  The  1901  draft  limited  wooden 
tenement  and  lodging  houses  to  four  stories. 

For  the  purpose  of  structural  safety  there  are  three  para- 
graphs; one  against  weakening  timbers  by  cutting  them  for  pipes; 
a  second  which  limits  the  distance  between  studs  to  sixteen  inches ; 
and  a  third  which  gives  two  dimensions  for  certain  timbers.  Both 
these  specifications  are  limited  to  buildings  of  "  over  two  and  less 
than  four  stories."  The  phrasing  is  ridiculous,  for  it  includes 
only  three-story  buildings.  Since  the  passage  of  the  ordinance 
almost  one  hundred  four-story,  frame  houses  have  been  built; 
and  there  is  not  a  word  in  the  code  concerning  the  strength  of  such 
buildings.      Relate   these   ridiculous,    structural   provisions   to   the 


86  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

new  rink  that   fell  and  the  public's   demand   for  protection,   and 
we  have  a  tale  of  comedy  fit  for  the  best  of  court  jesters. 

The  foregoing  summary  states  all  there  is  to  the  building 
ordinance  of  Lawrence  and  it  has  been  in  existence  five  years, — 
three  years  since  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  in 
formal  report  termed  it  valueless.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the 
building  inspector  said  in  his  last  annual  report : 

"  Each  year,  I  have  recommended  that  the  City  Council 
take  up  the  matter  of  revising  the  Building  Ordinances.  That 
suggestion  is  not  out  of  place  at  this  time.  Last  year  and 
the  year  previous,  I  recommended  that  the  Building  Ordin- 
ances be  revised  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters.  This  year  I  make  the  same 
suggestion.  Under  the  present  ordinance,  there  is  no  pro- 
vision for  foundations,  thickness  of  brick  walls,  size  of  floor 
timbers  or  columns,  floor  loads,  lighting  or  ventilation  of 
buildings,  protection  against  fire,  or  any  of  the  important 
matters  which  a  building  ordinance  should  restrict.  Of  course, 
in  a  general  way,  some  provision  has  been  made  in  the 
ordinance  to  cover  some  of  the  matters  above  mentioned.  The 
law  should  be  specific  and  accurate,  in  order  to  be  effective." 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  building  code  has  nothing  in  it 
that  meets  the  conditions  of  defective  maintenance  and  the  need 
for  renovation  that  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  pages.  The 
care  and  improvement  of  old  houses  is  a  need  that  is  found  in 
every  city  and  should  of  course  be  provided  for  in  legal  require- 
ments. Serious  as  this  need  is,  it  is  small  in  comparison  with  the 
need  for  controlling  the  construction  of  new  houses.  Prevention 
not  cure  should  have  first  consideration.  Any  city  of  any  size 
has  this  need.  In  view  of  the  entire  lack  of  control  of  new  houses 
that  exists  in  Lawrence,  it  is  necessary  to  study  in  detail  the 
extent  to  which  this  control  is  needed.  Because  of  the  congestion 
the  character  of  the  new  houses  is  of  supreme  importance. 


THE  CENTER'S  FUTURE 


33,700  Persons  on  300  Acres 

This  is  the  population  in  the  central  district  elsewhere 
described.  There  are  probably  very  few  cities  in  the  country 
where  the  populuation  is  less  than  100,000  and  there  is  so  large 
an  area  as  300  acres  with  an  average  density  of  112  to  the  acre. 
The  density,  if  the  17  acres  in  the  Common  is  excluded,  is  119 
per  acre.  There  is  one  section  of  14.9  acres  where  the  density  is 
216  and  another  of  17.3  acres  where  the  density  is  214.  The 
densities  in  six  half -blocks,  as  previously  stated  on  page  60, 
range  between  243  and  556. 

The  area  of  the  city  is  small  in  relation  to  most  of  the  cities 
in  Massachusetts.  But  the  smallness  of  the  total  area  is  not  the 
reason  for  the  congestion  in  Lawrence,  if  it  can  be  stated,  as  it 
can  be,  that  more  than  one-third  of  the  population  is  living  on  one- 
thirteenth  of  the  city's  area. 

In  the  central  district  there  are  about  thirty  half-blocks 
where  the  majority  of  the  lots  are  so  built  upon  at  present  that 
further  additions  of  houses  will  be  in  the  nature  of  filling  in  the 
light  and  air  chinks;  with  the  result  that  such  additions  will  make 
city  blocks  which  are  solidly  built  upon,  except  the  narrow  slits 
of  space  between  houses.  There  are  numerous  other  half-blocks 
which  contain  many  vacant  lots  and  also  houses  which  are  crowded 
together.  Into  two-thirds  of  the  central  half-blocks,  large  houses 
are  steadily  being  inserted.     The  congestion  is  increasing  rapidly. 

The  Large  Number  of  Rear  Houses 

The  houses  that  are  moved  back  on  lots  are  usually  small 
houses;  but  the  new  houses  that  are  being  built  at  the  rear  are 
large  houses.  Seventy  such,  built  in  the  last  four  and  one-half 
years,  contain  255  apartments.  There  are  in  the  central  300 
acres,  360;  in  a  district  bounded  by  the  rivers,  Park,  May  and 
Margin  streets,  500;  in  North  Lawrence  703;  in  all  Lawrence  822. 

There  is  a  striking  contrast  between  the  insurance  map  of 
Lawrence  and  the  maps  of  other  New  England  cities  in  the 
number  and  size  of  rear  houses.     The  maps  of  all  the  important 


88 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


An   alley  corps  of  "  old  settlers,"  most  of  them  still  in  use  but  marking  time 
waiting  to   be   displaced  by  houses   like   those   in  the  following  picture. 


cities  were  examined.  In  those  for  Manchester,  Lowell,  Salem, 
Fall  River  and  New  Bedford,  certain  streets  have  front  houses 
as  close  together  and  in  some  blocks  as  large  as  the  front  houses 
in  Lawrence,  but  the  rear  houses  are  not  as  numerous  and  not 
as  large.  Cambridge  and  Manchester  have  some  badly  crowded 
blocks,  but  the  houses  are  smaller.  Lowell  and  Salem  have 
sections  of  blocks,  groups  of  four  to  eight  houses,  which  equal 
the  worst  congestion  in  Lawrence,  but  the  pages  in  their  maps 
do  not  display  the  conditions  on  the  Lawrence  map.  The  center 
in  Lawrence  has  the  largest  number  of  large  frame  houses  and 
the  largest  number  of  rear  houses.  With  Boston's  brick  center 
excepted,  the  map  of  the  Lawrence  center  is  the  worst  in  New 
England. 


Rear   houses    in    the    next    alley   to    that   shown   in   the   preceding   picture ;    one 
block  nearer  to  the  center  of  the  city. 


90  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Some  of  the  Recent  Houses 

Lawrence  ought  to  be  examining  with  great  care  every 
house  which  is  proposed  to  be  introduced  into  the  already  over- 
crowded center.  Some  of  the  houses  now  being  built  would  have 
to  be  considered  badly  lighted  houses,  if  they  were  on  a  prairie. 
There  are  kitchen  and  water  closet  windows  that  open  onto  deep 
porches  and  the  windows  give  entirely  insufficient  light.  Builders 
are  constructing  dimly  lighted  and  even  windowless  sink  rooms, 
which  also  frequently  serve  as  pantries.  These  are  the  work- 
rooms for  the  women.  It  is  not  difficult  to  guess  accurately  how 
many  carpenters  would  build  for  themselves  bench-rooms  that 
have  neither  light  nor  ventilation;  but  they  build  them  for  the 
women. 

In  the  two  districts,  there  were  found  fifty-seven  living- 
rooms  where  the  source  of  light  and  air  is  from  ten  light-wells. 
Their  areas  and  the  number  of  living-rooms  opening  from  them 
are  as  follows : 

Area  of  Living 

In 
Two    shafts 
Three     " 
Five        " 

Six  of  these  shafts  serve,  besides  34  living-rooms,  30  sink-rooms 
and  32  water  closets  or  bath-rooms  including  water  closets.  Most 
of  these  shafts  occur  in  buildings  that  are  relatively  not  old 
buildings.  The  practice  with  architects  in  trying  to  secure  light 
in  this  manner  is  current.  The  spaces  on  the  plans  are  usually 
marked,  "  Light  well  —  skylight  over."  All  the  shafts  seen  are 
covered  with  skylights  and  there  are  ventilators  in  most  of  them. 
In  some  of  them  at  the  bottom  there  is  an  opening  to  the  cellar 
but  in  no  case  a  fresh-air  duct.  The  ventilation  is  quite  inade- 
quate. To  the  upper  floors  the  bad  air  and  noise  of  the  lower 
floors  are  furnished.  The  shafts  are  enlarged  speaking  tubes ;  a 
quarrel  or  a  child  being  whipped,  a  sick  baby  or  a  person  who 
snores, —  any  of  these  in  one  family  disturbs  all  other  families. 
Onions  for  dinner  in  a  lower  apartment  means  onions  for  dinner 
in  all  apartments.  The  situation  is  ludicrous, —  except  for  those 
who  live  in  it.     In   the  hot  weather  the  bedrooms  that  open  on 


Each  Shaft 

Room 

20  sq.  ft. 

11 

25  to  27  sq.  ft. 
32  to  36    "     " 

18 

28 

THE  CENTER'S  FUTURE 


9i 


these  shafts  are  a  burden  to  the  strong  as  well  as  to  the  babies 
and  the  sick.  The  light  for  the  rooms  on  the  top  floor  is  fair  at 
all  times.  On  the  next  to  the  top  floor  a  fair  amount  of  light  is 
secured  only  on  bright  days.  For  the  rooms  that  are  three  and 
four  floors  below  the  roof  there  is  inadequate  light  at  all  times. 
Such  construction  as  this  is  not  necessary. 


The  photograph  was  taken  looking  from  a  dark  kitchen 
through  a  half -open  window  into  an  inner  court  between  two 
buildings.  It  serves  six  kitchens  and  at  the  third  and  fourth  floors 
contains  porches  four  feet  wide.  Such  space  in  Brooklyn  and 
Connecticut  would  have  to  be  about  twice  as  large  and  could  not 
have  any  encroachments.  This  inner  court  is  materially  better 
than  the  spaces  that  exist  in  some  buildings,  yet  it  is  entirely 
inadequate  for  the  lighting  of  the  center  floor  spaces  of  the  house. 


Q2 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


The  left  part  of  the  sketch  above  is  the  outline  of  one  of  two 
recently  built  houses  which  are  almost  identical.  The  picture  on 
the  opposite  page  shows  the  interrupted  wall  as  above.  Both 
this  house  and  its  mate  appear  on  their  street  sides  to  be 
among  the  best  of  the  large  tenement  houses,  and  are  good  in 
many  respects.  But  in  the  point  of  lack  of  light  in  the  centers 
of  the  buildings,  they  are  among-  the  worst  houses  in  Lawrence. 
The  two  narrow  slits  shown  in  the  sketch  are  only  three  feet 
wide  and  their  inner  ends  are  twenty-seven  feet  from  the  rear 
wall  of  the  building.  For  the  purpose  which  these  slits  serve, 
other  cities  have  for  several  years  been  securing  by  law  courts 
nine  and  ten  feet  wide  and  in  addition  a  yard  of  five  feet  depth 
at  the  rear  of  the  building.  Behind  one  of  these  buildings  is  a 
very  small  yard  space;  the  other  has  no  yard. 

The  front  halls  have  windows  into  these  narrow  courts, 
but  are  so  dark  that  one  has  to  feel  his  way  at  the  second  and 
third  floors.  The  open  spaces  are  not  even  wide  enough  to  give 
room  for  a  window  of  adequate  size  to  light  the  bedrooms  that 
are  located  at  the  ends.  At  the  rear  end  of  the  two  courts,  the 
sketch  represents,  by  broken  cross  lines,  space  that  is  occupied  by 
porches  at  each  floor.  Kitchen  and  rear  hall  windows  open  onto 
the  porches  and  at  the  second  and  third  floors  receive  almost  no 
light.  On  cloudy  days  artificial  light  is  necessary  in  the  halls, 
kitchens,  sink-rooms  and  bath-rooms.  Such  obstructions  as  these 
ought  not  to  be  allowed.  The  buildings  will  have  even  less  light 
in  them,  when  the  owners  of  the  adjoining  lots  have  built  as  near 
the  lot  line  and  as  high  as  these  buildings  stand. 


1)    o 


On  O 

to    o 

bo  13 


3  IS 


1§ 


•G  to  '3 
£  .2 


bo  <" 
~    to 


"3  2 

£  '<L> 


94 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


ROOM  WITHOUT   LIGHT   OR  VENTILATION 


A  four-story  frame  house.  "  Not  more  than  two  such  houses  built  each 
year." — Building  Inspector.  Such  rooms  are  unnecessary,  and  permission  to 
construct   them   is   not   good   public  policy.      Built   summer  of   191 1. 


THE    CENTER'S    FUTURE 


95 


BADLY  LIGHTED   DOUBLE  HOUSE 


Looking  between  two  rear  houses  to  the  rear  of  the  front  house.  The  court 
between  wings,  obstructed  by  stairs,  serves  six  bed-rooms  and  six  alcove  rooms 
and  is  only  four  feet  wide.  From  eight  to  ten  feet  are  being  required  for  such 
spaces  in  some  cities,  and  the  obstructions   would  be  illegal.     Built  summer  of  191 1. 


96 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


The  foregoing  picture  shows  a  form  of  house  which  is  already 
very  common  and  will  probably  increase  in  number  rapidly.  It  is 
the  double  house  with  two  wings  at  the  rear,  separated  by  an  outer- 
court,  making  a  floor  plan  with  an  outline  that  suggests  a  magnet. 
In  many  houses  in  Lawrence  these  courts  are  not  wide  enough  to 
properly  light  the  centers  of  the  buildings  and  in  numerous 
instances  are  obtructed  by  porches  and  balconies.  In  some  houses 
the  courts  are  almost  entirely  filled  by  such  obstructions.  The 
obstruction  ought  not  to  be  allowed  and  a  court  of  adequate  width 
should  be  required.  Cities  with  populations  of  more  than  a  million 
are  requiring  that  such  spaces  shall  be  eight  feet  wide  and  the 
standards  in  some  cities  are  nine  and  ten  feet.  Surely  Lawrence 
ought  to  be  able  to  leave  more  open  space  around  a  building  than 
is  being  left  in  cities  with  a  population  of  a  million. 

Some  of  the  new  houses  would  not  be  bad  houses  in  open 
fields  but  are  thoroughly  bad  for  the  center  of  Lawrence,  because 
of  their  relation  to  other  houses.  On  the  adjoining  page  is  a 
picture  of  a  building  which  is  practically  the  same  as  that  form 
of  house  known  in  New  York  notoriously  as  the  "  dumb-bell  " 
house,  so  called  because  the  outline  of  the  buildings  has  somewhat 
the  shape  of  a  dumb-bell,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  sketch  below  which 
shows  the  ground  plan  of  a  series  of  these  bad  buildings  as  they 
exist  in  New  York.  Each  of  the  narrow  slits  seen  between  the  • 
houses  is  the  only  source  of  light  and  air  for  about  forty-eight 
rooms.  It  has  been  impossible  to  construct  them  since  the  law 
of  1901. 


j  a  a) 

>^      CO     .<-. 
3      CD      CO 

si- 

vn    «    o 

s« « 

cd  •£  '3 

u3  ° 


.2  *°  w 


^  -£ 


^    <u   5 
co    —    rt 

tu  >>  ji 

cd    £    rt 

rn     <D 

Z  B 

V 


98  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  owner  of  the  "  ten  footer "  in  the  foregoing  picture 
built  the  walls  of  the  store  wide  enough  to  permit  the 
construction  of  a  four-story  building  and  he  is  being  urged  even 
now  to  do  this.  He  says  he  does  not  see  what  he  can  do,  when 
he  builds,  except  to  duplicate  the  recess  of  his  neighbor's  building. 
When  this  has  been  done,  the  narrow  space  between  these  two 
buildings  will  admit  practically  no  light  and  will  furnish  the 
upper  floors  only  with  the  bad  air  of  the  lower  floors.  In  New 
York  City  the  construction  of  such  houses  was  begun  as  early 
as  1879,  and,  although  at  that  time  the  true  character  of  the  house 
was  realized,  this  form  became  the  prevailing  type  of  tenement 
house  for  nearly  twenty  years.  Since  the  passage  of  the  new 
law  in  1 90 1,  the  legal  requirements  have  been  such  that  these 
buildings  can  no  longer  be  erected.  Except  for  the  thousands  of 
unfortunate  families  who  still  live  in  the  old  ones,  the  dumb-bell 
tenements  have  been  for  ten  years  a  matter  of  history.  Certain 
types  of  buildings  such  as  this  one  are  inherently  bad,  and  never 
can  be  otherwise.  It  matters  not  in  what  city  they  are  located. 
Knowledge  of  them  ought  to  be  universal.  The  experience  which 
New  York  has  had  with  this  form  of  building  ought  to  satisfy 
all  the  cities  of  the  country.  It  would  seem  that  the  complete 
demonstration  that  has  been  made  in  that  great  city  should  be 
adequate  to  prevent  the  building  of  such  houses  anywhere.  There 
are  no  peculiar  conditions  in  any  city  which  are  so  fundamental 
that  they  need  to  force  in  the  repetition  of  the  worst  features  in 
the  worst  houses  in  the  old  building  practice  of  New  York  City. 
Scattered  all  through  the  center  there  are  many  other  build- 
ings which  are  paupers  in  the  matter  of  light.  They  are  being 
supported  by  their  neighbors.  In  these  buildings  rooms  are 
lighted  solely  by  windows  that  are  located  on  a  side  lot-line; 
such  rooms  being  the  majority  of  all  rooms  in  some  buildings. 
When  the  owner  of  the  adjoining  lot  comes  to  build,  he  is  almost 
forced  to  do  as  the  man  on  the  other  side  of  the  line  has  done, 
and  by  so  doing  he  shuts  out  the  light  from  the  lot-line  windows. 
There  are  numerous  buildings  where  rooms  have  already  been 
made    practically    windowless    in    this    way.      There    are    several 


THE    CENTER'S    FUTURE 


99 


Old  Settler  "  Marooned."  Two  three-story  houses  shut  it  in  at  the  rear  also. 
Both  four-story  houses  have  lot-line  windows.  What  will  become  of  them  when 
the  old  settler  passes  away? 


instances  where  the  man  who  first  built  kept  away  from  a  side 
line,  then  the  man  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  line  built  close  to 
the  line  and  after  a  while  the  first  man  put  out  a  new  wall  near 
the  line.  Thus  the  failure  of  two  men  to  agree  is  allowed,  by 
our  lax  public  policy,  to  create  dangerous  housing  conditions  which 
will  cost  the  public  dearly.  Considering  the  speed  with  which 
large  new  buildings  are  being  introduced,  it  is  certain  that  this 
blockading  of  windows  at  the  center  in  Lawrence  will  increase 
rapidly  during  the  next  few  years. 

A  house  with  lot-line  windows  and  similar  defects  has  some 
immediate  financial  advantage  to  the  builder.  There  can  be  more 
rooms  in  a  tenement  or  the  rooms  can  be  larger;  so  that  for  a 
few  years  the  rents  are  higher.  The  builder  has  benefited  him- 
self at  the  expense  of  his  neighbors  and  the  public. 


»   [fl   ft 


S   £  a  ■* 


c  iJ   -M 


C    <u    <u  oo  12 

rt  'a;    >    6    £ 


w  .SP  bo 


•£co 


.£   -     S 


,w    bo 

II 
£   6 


Sing 
CD    <u    0 


3  £ 

i/i    o 


o     -g 

2.Sw 


to 

en 

to    c    bo 

o 

— 

7 

£     <L>    C 

1  &2 

CD 

C 

h  rt'S 

c 
CD 

^x 

5 

o 

<-rt 

o 
o 

1 "  « 

CD     o     CD 

of 
co 
3 

CC       ^     -4-> 

a; 

Ml 

B     >,    rt 

o 

£ 

U 

o 

rt 

CD 

O 

^    cd    bfi 

CO    .rt 

«    3  ~ 

V 

be   rt    ^ 

bi 

al 

CD     W     to 

a 

o 

£ 

•>   ^^J 

M-i 

T) 

+j 

rt      CO      n, 

a  ^  rt 

ri 

-= 

o 
u 
o 

.£.'- 
'3 

CD     £H 

rt   ^     CO 

1/5  .5    '°c 

1-1 

o 

c 

,,  ►.a 

CD 

In 

<u 

*C   rt 

u 

bo  rt  ^ 

C     CD 

fcO  X 

= 

^                   rtH 

rt 

-f 

.£ 

C 

<u 

5  rt 

o 

O     O     CD 

0 

a; 

rt 

rtH         „         ^ 

<u 

m 

be  «-;   t> 

u 

o 

o 

if 

.So1" 

-- 

rt 

a; 

0 
CD 

CD     ^     a 

CLi 
CD 

+^ 

CD 
U 

u 

rt 
o 

>> 

CD 

13 

CD 

G 

cd 

— 

Ih 

O 

co 

O 
Ih 

o 

CO 
CD 

rd 

3 
o 

5  « 

o 

c 

CD 

r-1    co    d 

Ih 

CD     o 

J= 

rt 

CO     o 

6*2  * 

fl 

H 

o 

O 
Ih 

THE    CENTER'S    FUTURE  103 

Rooming  houses  were  purposely  not  included  in  this  examina- 
tion. But  they  should  not  escape  attention  entirely;  for  there  are 
a  considerable  number  of  new  ones  and  some  of  them  are  not 
well  lighted,  while  others  will  be  poorly  lighted  eventually.  Most 
of  the  new  ones  have  very  good  exteriors,  but  in  the  interiors 
the  city  is  allowing  the  gradual  accumulation  of  very  badly  lighted 
living  quarters.  The  newest  hotel  in  the  city  may  easily  become 
one  of  the  worst  buildings.  The  building  shown  on  the  opposite 
page  is  by  no  means  a  single  instance,  but  a  fair  sample  of  all 
this  class  of  dwelling-places. 

That  windowless  rooms  are  being  constructed  in  new  houses, 
as  in  shown  in  the  sketch  on  page  94,  needs  little  comment.  For 
more  than  ten  years,  thousands  and  thousands  of  houses  have  been 
constructed  in  New  York  with  a  window  in  every  room,  as  the 
law  requires.  There  is  no  opportunity  for  any  feeling  of  com- 
placency that  Lawrence  is  not  building  a  large  number  of  these 
houses.  We  know  too  much  about  the  use  of  such  rooms  through 
long  periods  of  years  to  make  it  possible  to  think  with  complacency 
of  one  such  house. 

Two  facts  partly  explain  the  bad  new  buildings.  Some 
builders  plan  a  house  which  is  suitable  enough  for  a  good-sized 
lot.  Then  they  use  this  plan  over  and  over  again,  regardless  of 
the  size  of  the  lot  they  are  building  on.  This  frequently  turns 
a  good  house  into  a  bad  house.  There  seems  to  be  no  thought  that 
the  reduced  size  of  the  lot  should  radically  change  the  form  of 
the  building.  The  other  fact  is  the  unwarranted  toleration  of  the 
smallest  lots.  Nearly  everyone  is  ready  to  excuse  wretched  con- 
struction on  the  plea  of  the  smallness  of  the  lot.  It  seems  to  be 
considered  possible  to  take  from  a  very  small  lot  half  the  income 
which  could  be  secured  from  a  lot  twice  as  large.  This  is  un- 
reasonable. In  using  building  material  there  are  certain  minimum 
dimensions  below  which  the  material  has  little  or  no  value.  The 
same  ought  to  be  true  concerning  the  smallest  building  lots.  The 
amount  of  light  admitted  into  buildings  is  subjected  to  definite 
measurements.  The  necessary  measurements  for  open  space  in 
relation  to  width  of  floor  and  height  of  wall  cannot  be  secured  on 


104  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

the  smallest  lots.  It  ought  to  be  impossible  to  construct  a  house 
on  them  which  has  half  the  value  of  a  house  on  a  lot  twice  as  wide. 

As  a  help  to  a  right  view  of  the  seriousness  of  the  conditions, 
we  should  mark  out  as  best  we  can  in  a  coarse,  rough  way  the 
number  of  people  who  will  try  to  use  such  a  house  as  that 
described  elsewhere,  in  which  there  are  eight  apartments  which 
have  eleven  rooms  lighted  solely  by  windows  on  a  lot-line. 
Supposing  that  these  windows  are  blocked  by  an  adjoining  build- 
ing before  the  end  of  ten  years,  and  after  that  the  house  remains 
in  use  for  sixty  years;  using  the  average  number  of  persons  in 
private  families  in  Lawrence,  and  figuring  that  there  will  be  one 
removal  in  each  apartment  every  two  years,  we  reach  the  number 
1,100  persons.  At  least  one  thousand  persons  will  try  to  use 
this  house  after  the  windows  are  blockaded  and  the  rooms  are 
practically  windowless.     This  is  an  underestimate  for  one  house. 

New  houses  so  constructed  that  there  are  dark  halls,  dark 
and  crooked  stairs,  rooms  opening  only  on  vent  shafts,  windowless 
rooms,  lot-line  windows,  large  floors  unbroken  by  fire  walls,  and 
other  similar  defects  are  most  serious.  There  is  possible 
practically  no  alteration  that  betters  these  conditions.  Once  in 
existence,  they  will  continue  the  same  till  the  house  is  burned  or 
torn  down.  Are  not  these  the  conditions  that  have  cost  the  cities 
of  England  millions  of  dollars  in  the  effort  to  better  here  and 
there  a  few  patches?  Is  it  wise  that  a  few  men  should  be  allowed 
to  take  for  a  few  years,  a  little  more  money  than  they  would 
under  reasonable  restrictions,  and  the  whole  city  suffer  for  it? 
Surely  the  intelligent  citizens  in  Lawrence  have  not  stopped  to 
think  about  these  houses.  For  such  houses  at  the  center  of  any 
city,  and  especially  in  Lawrence  where  the  congestion  is  already 
so  great,  are  not  bad  in  any  onefold,  twofold  or  threefold  manner. 
They  are  seventy  times  seven  bad.  The  periods  of  their  existence 
will  average  seventy  years.  Each  one,  because  it  seems  possible 
to  take  a  larger  income  from  it  than  from  a  better  house,  will 
cause  other  new  houses  to  take  the  same  form.  In  fact,  if 
unrestrained,  they  will  become  the  prevailing  form  of  house  at 
the  center.  This  is  exactly  the  history  of  the  infamous  dumb-bell 
house  in  New  York  City. 


THE    CENTER'S    FUTURE  105 

Houses  That  Trap  Men  Like  Animals 

The  life  hazard  at  the  time  of  a  conflagration,  when  fire 
attacks  the  exterior  of  houses,  has  been  mentioned  in  the  first 
pages  of  the  report.  The  life  risk  from  fires  that  originate  inside 
of  houses  is  excessively  high  in  Lawrence;  judging  from  the 
conditions  which  exist  in  the  six  half-blocks  examined;  for  they 
are  typical  of  about  thirty  half -blocks  at  the  center.  There  is 
second  egress  from  thirteen  third-floor  and  two  fourth-floor 
apartments  only  over  the  roof.  When  egress  is  to  be  had  only 
by  entering  the  upper  part  of  a  flight  of  stairs  which  may  already 
be  choked  with  smoke  and  flames,  safe  exit  is  very  questionable. 
It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  women,  children,  the  old  and  the 
sick  will  act  rationally  or  choose  such  exit  when  it  involves  rushing 
through  dense  smoke  or  flames.  Two  other  third-floor  apartments 
are  depending  for  second  egress  upon  wooden  balconies  in 
exposed  positions.  Three  have  egress  only  across  a  bridge  through 
another  apartment.  Egress  that  involves  the  possible  need  for 
breaking  into,  and  then  out  from,  a  vacant  third-floor  apartment 
is  not  what  it  should  be  for  the  young  and  the  feeble.  Four  other 
third-story  apartments  have  dangerous  exit  over  roofs  where  the 
spaces  between  houses  are  from  three  to  five  feet  wide,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  step  over  these  open  spaces.  Three  houses  that  are 
not  included  in  the  figures  of  this  paragraph  had  second  egress 
completely  shut  off  by  obstruction.  A  description  of  one  of  them 
is  sufficient.  In  a  rear  house  there  are  four  apartments,  two  each 
on  the  third  and  fourth  floors.  The  rear  stairs  lead  to  the  alley 
and  were  completely  blocked  by  rubbish  and  wood  at  the  second 
floor  and  on  the  first  flight.  They  remained  impassable  below  the 
second  floor  for  more  than  nine  months,  and  were  in  that  condition 
when  last  seen.  There  are,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  thirty- 
five  third-floor  and  seven  fourth-floor  apartments  which  have  no 
second  egress  whatever.  This  makes  in  six  half-blocks  a  total  of 
sixty-six  third  and  fourth-floor  apartments  which  have  insufficient 
egress.     Under  nine  of  them  there  are  seven  bakeshops. 


io6 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


What  No  Second  Egress  from  a  Third  Floor  Means 


2  KILLED  BY  LEAP  AT  FIRE. 


Fire  started  mysteriously  on  the 
ground  floor  of  a  tenement  house  at 
33o.  250  Powell  street,  East  New  York, 
at  4  o'clock*  yesterday  morning.  The 
rooms  of  Julius  Shapiro  and  his  family 
were  on  the  top  floor. 

The  (Shapiros  groped  their  way  to  the 
front  of  the  building.  Shapiro  stood  on 
l  narrow  ledge  at  the  third  floor  and 
dropped  his  Infant  Sidney  safely  into 
Policeman  Thomas  Goodman's  arms. 
The  father  next  dropped  nine-year-old 
Aaron  with  like  success.  Aaron's  hair 
was  aflame.  George  and  Sadie  Shapiro, 
fourteen  and  twelve,  were  then  dropped 
by  their  father.  George's  right  leg  was 
fractured,  Sadie's  skull  and  left  leg 
were  fractured  and  both  were  hurt  inter- 
nally. 

Shapiro  and  his  wife  jumped  and 
both   were    instantly  killed. 

"I  would  be  pleased  to  receive  con- 
tributions addressed  to  me,  for  the 
children,  care  of  Box  14,  Station  P, 
Brooklyn/'  said  Alderman  Alexander 
Drescher. 


N.   Y.   World,  Nov.   4,    191 1.      (Pg.    16,    Col.   4). 


THE    CENTER'S    FUTURE  107 

East  New  York  is  a  district  in  Brooklyn.  The  house  con- 
tained two  tenements  above  a  store;  and,  because  it  is  a  two- 
family  house,  it  is  not  under  the  state  tenement  house  law.  Each 
item  of  the  accident  as  described  above  has  been  corroborated  in 
a  letter  from  Mr.  Drescher.  Was  there  any  accident  about  the 
fact  that  the  house  had  no  second  egress? 

In  view  of  all  the  knowledge  we  have  of  the  daily  occurrences 
in  the  cities  of  this  country,  was  the  event  described  below  an 
accident,  or  something  else?  The  Hartford  Courant  of  December 
4,  191 1,  under  the  heading  "Woman  Suffocated  in  Old  Fire 
Trap,"  says : 

"  Through  what  the  officials  term  a  violation  of  the  tenement 
house  law  Mrs.  Jane  Banks,  71  years  old,  lost  her  life  late  yesterday 
afternoon  in  a  tenement  house  fire  at  No.  37  Wolcott  street.  The 
fire  was  of  unknown  origin,  starting  on  the  third  floor,  which 
was  occupied  by  Mrs.   Banks  and  her  husband. 

"  Engine  company  No.  8  is  located  only  a  few  blocks  from 
the  scene  of  the  fire.  Two  ladders  were  put  up  the  side  of  the 
house,  but  the  fire  was  so  hot  and  the  smoke  so  dense  the  firemen 
could  not  penetrate  the  part  of  the  building  where  'the  body  was 
later   found. 

"  The  intense  heat  of  the  room  had  baked  the  body.  The  skin 
had  peeled  off  the  face  and  hands,  and  the  hair  was  scorched  off 
her  head.  The  fact  that  her  clothing  was  not  burned  indicated 
that  she  had  not  been  actually  touched  by  the  fire,  but  dropped 
overcome   by  the   smoke,   and   the   heat   of   the   room   did   the   rest. 

"  Medical  Examiner  W.  W.  Knight  was  called,  and  he 
questioned  Ladderman  Collins  about  the  finding  of  the  body.  The 
body  was  lying  on  the  floor  near  a  window,  and  it  is  believed  that 
the  old  woman,  who  had  been  left  sleeping  some  time  before 
the  fire  started,  awoke  to  find  the  place  on  fire  and  that  when  she 
found  that  she  could  not  get  to  the  stairs,  her  only  means  of 
escape,  she  tried  to  get  back  to  the  window  of  her  sitting-room, 
but  was  overcome  by  the  smoke  before  she  got  there. 

"The  house  is  an  old  one,  and  was  originally  a  four-family 
tenement,  with  two  tenements  on  a  floor  on  each  side  of  the 
brick  block.  It  had  been  made  over  into  a  six-family  block, 
however,  and  while  the  tenement  house  laws  call  for  two  means 
of  egress  to  the  ground  from  each  tenement,  there  was  only  one 
from  the  third  floor,  and  that  is  why  the  old  woman  could  not  be 
saved  in  the  early  stages  of  the  fire." 


108  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Lawrence   Needs   No  More  Disasters 

Three  years  ago  the  fire  underwriters  said  concerning  ex- 
plosives and  inflammables  in  Lawrence :  "  The  City  laws  are  very 
meager  and  are  not  being  enforced."  The  citizens  cannot  claim 
that  they  must  wait  for  an  explosion  in  Lawrence  to  make  them 
feel  that  gunpowder  will  do  there  what  it  does  elsewhere.  They 
cannot  claim  that  they  must  wait  for  a  disaster  in  Lawrence  like 
that  in  Brooklyn  before  making  all  buildings  safe,  or  wait  for 
another  sweeping  conflagration  in  New  England  before  estab- 
lishing an  extensive  fire  district.  They  cannot  claim  that  any 
exigencies  in  the  building  business,  no  matter  what  they  are,  make 
it  necessary  to  wait  for  twelve  or  fifteen  blocks  of  windowless 
houses  before  light  and  ventilation  shall  be  required  by  law.  The 
long  period  of  indifference  or  ineffective  interest  ought  to  end. 

The  Social  Results  of  Bad  Housing 

Such  centers  as  the  one  in  Lawrence  are  not  only  seriously 
wrong,  but  especially  dangerous  to  the  common  welfare,  because  of 
the  new-comers  who  are  filling  the  centers.  In  each  of  the  three 
states,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and  New  York,  among  every 
three  persons  only  one  has  parents  who  were  born  in  this  country. 
In  Lawrence,  among  every  five  persons  four  are  the  children  of 
foreign-born  parents.  The  English-speaking  element  in  Lawrence 
is  large,  but  in  the  last  decade  the  non-English  speaking  element 
has  been  growing  rapidly. 

This  is  adding  to  our  problems  rapidly.  Already  the 
great  majority  of  those  who  live  in  the  crowded  districts  of  the 
cities  are  persons  from  countries  where  the  theory  and  practice 
of  democracy  either  do  not  exist  or  have  not  progressed  as  in 
this  country.  Good  citizenship  is  based  on  the  moral  integrity 
of  individuals.  We  cannot  have  good  citizens  who  use  honestly 
and  intelligently  the  opportunity  to  control  our  city  affairs  unless 
as  children  they  are  protected  and  helped  in  houses  that  are 
worthy  the  name  homes.  Many  tenement  houses  at  the  center  in 
Lawrence  are  permanently  injuring  the  child-life  that  is  in  them. 
Because  of  the  dim  light,  eyes  are  being  strained  and  the  rooms 


THE    CENTER'S    FUTURE  109 

are  not  being  properly  cleaned.  Children  are  being  brought  up 
in  rooms  where  it  is  constantly  possible  to  see  into  and  across 
the  bed-rooms  of  other  tenements,  because  they  are  so  near.  Dark 
halls  at  night  are  universal;  yet  they  offer  grave  moral  risk  for 
the  young,  as  many  realize  who  know  the  life  in  the  tenements. 
Some  of  the  most  important  testimony  taken  by  the  New  York 
1900  tenement  house  commission  shows  what  potent  adjuncts 
dark  halls  are  in  demoralizing  and  ruining  the  lives  of  young 
people.  The  overcrowding  of  tenements  with  numerous  boarders 
is  demoralizing.  The  presence  of  dissolute  tenants,  especially  the 
women,  is  debasing. 

There  are  other  social  results  of  poor  houses.  We  are 
inclined  to  consider  the  dimly  lighted  tenement  too  superficially. 
It  is  not  a  home  but  a  tool-box.  The  gloomy  rooms  are  not 
only  not  attractive  but  actually  drive  the  children  and  many  an 
adult  into  the  street  and  away  from  the  home.  To  the  many  other 
forces  wrhich  are  constantly  interfering  with  family  life,  drawing 
and  keeping  the  members  of  the  family  away  from  each  other, 
we  are  allowing  the  repellant  home  to  be  added.  The  members 
of  a  family  ought  to  know  each  other  better.  We  need  better 
and  stronger  home  influence,  to  preserve  and  foster  the  integrity 
of  the  individuals;  and  we  are  not  wise,  if  we  do  not  see  that 
bad  housing  has  a  distinct,  deteriorating  influence  on  character; 
while  on  the  character  of  the  individuals  the  stability  of  our 
institutions  is  based. 


"  Since  things  alter  for  the  worse 
spontaneously,  if  they  be  never 
altered  for  the  better  designedly, 
how  is  the  evil  to  stop}1' 

—BACON 


THE   REMEDY 

It  is  mid-day.  The  time  for  inaction  is  long  passed.  But 
action  should  be  in  the  direction  that  will  lead  to  the  speediest, 
the  most  fundamental  and  the  most  secure  relief.  It  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  adequate,  effective  action  for  the  control  of  the 
conditions  in  Lawrence  is  attainable  through  any  city  legislation. 
Those  among  its  citizens  who  know  the  city  best  and  have  the 
best  interests  of  the  city  near  their  heart  know  better  than  the 
public  knows  what  an  extremely  weak,  and  exceptionally  broken 
assembly  of  peoples  the  city  is.  Though  the  pride  of  the 
individuals  in  their  city  may  be  as  great  as  it  is  in  most  cities,  the 
best  of  the  citizens  if  they  are  honest  with  themselves  must  quietly 
acknowledge  the  fact.  But  the  fact  because  of  its  relation  to  the 
housing  condition  is  not  one  that  can  be  merely  quietly  asserted. 
It  must  be  openly  faced,  publicly  asserted,  if  the  help  is  to  be 
secured  that  will  bring  in  adequate  remedies.  It  is  not  just  to  the 
better  citizens  in  Lawrence  to  speak  of  it  in  direct  comparison 
with  other  cities.  The  citizens  with  influence  and  civic  ideals  are 
too  few.  The  prospect  of  successfully  controlling  the  building 
of  houses  in  the  indefensibly  congested  center  cannot  be  considered 
without  mentioning  the  absence  of  the  mill  owners  as  residents. 
Stated  baldly,  Lawrence  is  an  appendage  to  the  textile  industries  — 
a  tool-room  attached  to  a  workshop.  Many  cities  have  such 
economic  balance  within  themselves  that  they  are  far  more 
integers  than  Lawrence  and  far  better  able  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves. The  city  is  woefully  weak  because  there  is  lacking  in  the 
control  of  its  civic  affairs,  the  direct  sense  of  shame  and  personal 
responsibility  and  the  efficient,  public-spirited,  controlling  interest 
which  the  mill  owning  families  would  have,  if  they  were  residents. 
Because  the  mill  owners  live  outside  of  the  city,  the  housing 
problem  is  a  state  problem,  and  can  be  solved  only  by  state 
legislation. 

This  is  true  of  other  factory  cities  in  New  England.     The 
economic  power  of  the  corporation  over-shadows  and  dominates 


ii2  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

for  corporate  purposes  the  weak  city  government  in  which  the 
owners  of  the  corporations  as  individuals  and  citizens  have  no 
responsibility  and  little  interest,  because  they  are  not  residents.  To 
these  political  units,  which  are  not  economic  units,  or  are  so  out 
of  balance  with  the  economic  facts,  the  theory  of  home  rule  is 
ill-suited. 

Our  economic  relations  have  greatly  changed.  This  is 
remarkably  well  exemplified  by  the  early  relations  of  the  textile 
employers  to  their  employees  as  tenants.  The  mill  owners  founded 
the  town  for  their  manufacturing  purpose.  It  was  a  component 
part  of  their  project.  They  planned  painstakingly  for  it  and  its 
welfare.  They  built  sewers  at  their  own  expense  and  planted 
ornamental  trees  and  shrubbery.  For  their  employees  they  built 
houses  that  were  large,  but  considering  their  date,  exceedingly 
good  houses.  Some  are  still  in  use  and  are  superior  to  many  of 
the  houses  that  are  being  built  in  the  center  now.  For  certain 
streets  they  stipulated  that  no  lot  should  have  on  it  more  than 
one  house  and  no  house  contain  more  than  one  family.  They 
limited  the  height  of  and  specified  material  for  buildings  on  the 
main  business  street.  But  their  intentions  extended  beyond  the 
founding  of  the  town  as  a  business  project. 

What  we  call  the  industrial  revolution  had  at  that  time 
brought  in  machines  and  factories  in  large  numbers,  but  had  not 
yet  spoiled  the  feelings  of  the  employers.  Their  point  of  view  was 
that  of  the  employing  artisan  toward  his  apprentice.  Large 
numbers  of  the  employees  were  unmarried  and  away  from  home. 
Boarding-houses  were  maintained  or  controlled  by  the  companies 
at  a  low  profit,  and  sometimes  at  an  annual  expense,  for  the 
purpose  of  preserving  a  proper  supervision  over  the  operatives. 
The  mill  agents  were  chosen  as  men  who  had  wisdom  for  super- 
vision of  the  houses  as  well  as  the  mills.  By  rules  and  regulations 
posted  in  all  the  houses,  the  attempt  was  made  to  safeguard  not 
only  the  physical  welfare  of  the  tenants,  but  their  moral  and 
religious  life.  Men  and  women  were  not  allowed  in  the  same 
boarding-house.  Tenants  were  cautioned  to  pay  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  cleanliness  and  daily  ventilation  of  their  rooms,  were 
required  to  keep  a  quiet  bed-room  for  the  sick,  and  were  vaccinated 


THE  REMEDY  113 

at  the  office  of  the  company  at  the  company's  expense.  They  were 
required  to  be  in  the  house  by  ten  o'clock  at  night,  were  expected 
to  keep  their  twelve  to  fourteen  year  old  children  constantly  in 
school,  and  were  expected  to  attend  divine  service  on  the  Sabbath. 
The  corporation  furnished  a  library  and  maintained  a  relief  fund. 
We  may  smile  when  we  first  read  their  rules,  but  our  sober  second 
thought  ought  to  bring  us  a  deep  feeling  of  gratitude  that  the 
philanthropic  purpose  in  the  employers  was  once  so  strong.  What 
we  smile  at  is  the  method  of  expressing  the  purpose,  because  the 
method  is  so  ill-suited  to  our  present  social  conditions.  The  com- 
panies were  not  many  years  in  finding  this  out.  The  surveillance 
of  course  proved  too  troublesome.  They  learned  the  lesson  that 
some  other  industrial  corporations  have  yet  to  learn.  They  ceased 
to  be  landlords  long  ago,  and  have  thus  escaped  the  tangled 
relationship  which  made  the  town  of  Pullman  a  failure  for  many 
years,  and  has  given  serious  trouble  at  Ludlow  and  elsewhere. 

Recently  one  of  the  largest  mill  corporations  has  resumed 
this  relationship  in  Lawrence,  to  the  extent  of  building  in  1907-8-9 
houses  for  142  families.  Fifty-two  are  in  cottages  of  exceedingly 
good  design.  They  are  on  large  lots,  and  serve  as  a  benefit  to  a 
few  families,  an  attractive  feature  of  the  town  and  an  advertise- 
ment to  the  company.  The  rest  of  the  houses  are  good  houses, 
almost  too  good  to  be  interesting  to  commercial  builders.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  this  Company  employs  from  three  to  four  thousand 
operatives  who  rent  apartments,  the  142  apartments  in  these  good 
houses  are  as  a  drop  in  a  bucket.  If  anyone  asserts  that  the 
purpose  of  the  corporation  in  maintaining  the  houses  as  a  financial 
burden  is  to  benefit  the  employees,  he  should  be  asked  whether  the 
method  is  not  still  missing  fire  like  an  old  flint-lock  gun. 

There  are  other  great  civic  needs  in  Lawrence  besides  the 
housing  conditions.  It  is  symptomatic  of  a  general  condition.  We 
can,  any  of  us,  dream  in  a  Utopian  manner  of  an  interest  among 
the  mill  owners  that  would  make  them  willing  to  say  definitely  to 
their  representatives  in  Lawrence :  "  We  feel  that  the  city  has 
reached  a  position  which  demands  some  of  your  attention  and 
time,  and  we  are  willing  that  you  should  consider  yourself  free  to 
participate  in  any  civic  movement  which  seems  to  you  to  be  worth 


ii4  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

while  for  the  immediate  betterment  of  the  city's  affairs.  In  fact 
the  need  there  is  sufficient  to  make  us  desire  to  have  your  influence 
count  even  though  in  some  particulars  your  activities  should  tem- 
porarily work  against  our  interest  as  a  corporation.  We  will  trust 
your  judgment.  You  will  be  acting  as  an  individual.  You  are 
not  representing  the  corporation;  but  in  the  end  you  are  working 
for  the  corporation's  best  interests,  and  we  shall  so  regard  the 
time  you  spend  in  enterprises  that  are  genuinely  for  the  best 
interest  of  the  city  as  a  whole." 

Dreams  sometimes  come  true,  but  even  if  this  one  should, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  actual  results  achieved  could  be  more 
than  a  partial  remedy  for  the  housing  conditions.  The  forces  at 
work  are  too  deep  and  too  strong.  Huddling  people  together 
is  a  disease.  It  generates  profits  that  are  a  poison,  intoxicating 
the  whole  community.  With  unusually  strong  religious  prejudices 
and  race  hatreds,  and  with  the  absence  of  those  who  conduct  its 
chief  enterprises,  such  a  community  would  seem  to  have  the  chances 
all  against  its  being  able  to  cure  itself. 

The  citizens  who  are  genuinely  interested  in  the  city's  welfare 
will  welcome  the  day  that  wipes  out  the  fictitious  lines  of  the 
present  political  unit  and  establishes  the  unit  more  nearly  according 
to  the  economic  facts  by  including  in  it  the  towns,  Methuen  and 
the  Andovers.     Lawrence  needs  state  legislation. 


THE  STATE'S  DIRE  NEED  IS  HOUSING 
LEGISLATION 

Contemporaneously  with  a  cholera  epidemic  in  1849,  Lemuel 
Shattuck,  one  of  Boston's  citizens,  became  actively  interested  in 
securing  healthful  living  conditions.  With  two  others  he  was 
appointed  by  the  state  legislature  to  bring  in  a  report  on  the 
conditions.  "  The  report  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  of  Massa- 
chusetts:  1850"  is  a  historical  document  of  500  pages,  simple 
in  its  purpose  and  comprehensive  in  its  argument  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  State  Board  of  Health.  It  was  chiefly  a  housing 
investigation  and  so  is  one  of  the  earliest  in  the  country.  Besides 
describing  the  conditions  in  the  center  of  Boston,  it  presents  in 
about  thirty  pages  a  sanitary  survey  of  Lawrence,  to  illustrate  one 
of  its  chief  objects,  namely :  "  We  recommend  that  special  sanitary 
surveys  of  particular  cities,  towns  and  localities  be  made  from  time 
to  time,  under  the  direction  of  the  general  Board  of  Health." 

The  examination  of  Lawrence,  then  a  town  of  8,000,  was 
quite  comprehensive  and  has  preserved  a  picture  of  its  life  in  the 
early  days  as  no  other  book  has.  It  has  much  praise  for  the  living 
conditions  found  there.  One  of  its  conclusions  concerning  the 
town  is  especially  interesting  in  view  of  the  present  congestion. 
"  We  recommend  that  every  practical  effort  be  made  to  prevent 
crowding  too  many  houses  upon  one  lot  and  too  many  families 
or  persons  into  one  house." 

It  is  a  melancholy  fact  that  this  young  town  that  happened 
to  be  chosen  as  a  field  to  illustrate  a  method  for  improving  living 
conditions  should  have  developed  since  that  time  the  most  con- 
gested center  in  New  England,  apart  from  Boston.  But  Lawrence 
is  fortunate  in  having  some  citizens  who  are  interested  in  finding 
out  the  facts  and  willing  to  face  them  publicly.  Outside  of  Boston 
it  is  the  first  city  in  the  state  to  have  a  formal  housing  investiga- 
tion and  print  an  extensive  report.  It  is  fitting  that  Lawrence 
should  call  the  attention  of  the  other  cities  to  the  state-wide  need 
for  housing  legislation. 


n6  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  direct  arguments  for  state  control  of  housing  which 
have  been  set  forth  by  Mr.  Lawrence  Veiller  in  his  book  "  Housing 
Reform,"  are  incontrovertible,  and  there  is  no  state  that  needs 
such  legislation  more  than  Massachusetts.  No  other  state  has  an 
equal  urban  population  distributed  in  many  cities.  There  are 
twenty-seven  cities  and  one  town  that  have  populations  of  more 
than  20,000.  Sixty-two  per  cent  of  the  people  in  the  state  live 
in  cities  of  more  than  30,000.  An  increase  in  population  of  more 
than  30  per  cent  each  decade  is  common.  The  prices  of  real  estate 
at  the  centers  are  going  up  by  leaps  and  bounds  —  frequently 
doubling  in  less  than  ten  years.  There  is  being  repeated  in  many 
of  the  centers,  the  crowding  of  houses  which  has  been  going  on 
in  Boston  for  one  hundred  years  and  has  made  its  center  notorious. 
Into  already  congested  centers,  large,  poorly-lighted  new  houses 
are  being  crowded  rapidly.  For  a  century  their  dark  rooms  will 
continue  to  drive  occupants  into  the  street  and  foster  disease  as 
much  as  the  old  houses.  With  greater  fire  risks,  conditions 
identical  with  those  of  New  York's  East  Side  are  increasing  yearly. 

Yet  the  state  law  has  practically  no  housing  requirements  and 
the  ordinances  in  the  majority  of  the  cities  are  either  worthless 
or  ignore  the  subject  of  light,  ventilation  and  sanitation.  In  a 
few  cities  such  as  Cambridge,  Worcester  and  Lowell,  there  are 
a  few  fair  requirements. 

But  most  of  the  real  and  best  housing  interests  of  the  cities 
are  wholly  unprovided  for.  Nine  out  of  ten  of  the  building  codes 
treat  of  no  other  subject  than  fire  protection  and  structural  safety, 
and  for  these  two  purposes  many  of  them  are  gravely  inadequate. 

Consider  the  requirements  for  part  of  the  sanitary  equipment, 
the  water-closets.  There  is  no  requirement  concerning  the  number 
of  water-closets  that  shall  be  placed  in  a  house  in  eleven  cities; 
and  in  a  twelfth  city  the  requirement  is  one  for  every  twelve 
persons,  a  method  of  measurement  that  is  almost  useless.  Three 
cities  permit  water-closet  windows  to  open  on  a  shaft  of  three 
square  feet- area,  three  others  permit  flues  of  six  to  eight  inches; 
seven  accept  in  place  of  a  window  the  small  two-inch  pipe  known 
as  the  local  vent ;  two  say  the  ventilation  shall  be  "  adequate,"  and 
six  cities  have  no  requirement.  Practically  no  one  of  the  cities 
has  anything  to  say  about  the  floors. 


THE   STATE'S    DIRE   NEED  117 

In  securing  building  codes  from  the  twenty-seven  cities  which 
have  a  population  of  more  than  20,000,  it  was  found  that  two 
cities  have  no  code,  and  four  codes  were  out  of  print.  Among 
twenty-one  codes,  fifteen  speak  of  the  space  from  the  sides  of  a 
house  to  the  side  lot  line,  specifying  distances  that  range  from 
1.5  feet  to  three  feet,  with  only  one  city  requiring  four  feet; 
such  restrictions  in  all  codes  being  made  applicable  to  frame  build- 
ings only.  Six  codes  are  silent  on  the  subject.  Five  codes  only 
have  anything  to  say  about  yards.  Two  codes  only  speak  of 
courts.  Shafts  and  light-wells  are  almost  unmentioned.  Only 
three  codes  have  anything  to  say  about  the  size  or  presence  of  a 
window  in  a  room.  Life  is  too  short  even  to  read  a  summary  of 
all  the  important  matters  upon  which  these  codes  are.  silent. 

If  one  glances  casually  into  the  paragraphs  of  many  of  the 
codes,  he  is  impressed  with  the  fact  that  they  read  well.  Some 
of  them  have  good  requirements,  very  good  requirements.  But 
the  impression  that  the  paragraphs  are  good  is  not  sufficient  basis 
for  judgment  of  the  code  as  a  whole.  Such  impression  is  based 
on  an  altogether  too  meager  view, —  the  comparison  of  these 
paragraphs  with  nothing.  We  ought  to  read  the  building  code 
of  our  city  with  a  point  of  view  different  from  that.  In  view  of 
the  rapid  growth  of  these  cities  and  their  centers ;  in  view  of  the 
present  pressing  need  that  conflagration  hazard  and  fire  waste  be 
reduced,  not  augmented;  that  old  houses  be  improved;  that  all 
houses  be  maintained  in  safe  and  serviceable,  clean  and  sanitary 
conditions;  that  every  new  house  shall  for  all  time  have  adequate 
light  and  ventilation;  in  view  of  these  needs,  most  of  the  present 
building  ordinances  are  so  ineffective  and  archaic  as  to  be  fit 
chiefly  for  a  place  in  a  historical  library  under  the  label,  "  The 
first  crude  playthings  of  the  infant  cities."  This  is  not  extrava- 
gant language  spoken  by  an  idealist.  The  better  class  of  architects 
know  and  acknowledge  it  to  be  true  and  the  prominent  insurance 
men  are  active  in  proclaiming  the  fact  to  the  public. 

The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  is  one  of  the  few  legis- 
latures that  persists  in  meeting  annually.  It  holds  long  sessions 
and  has  created  innumerable  commissions :  it  has  the  commission 
habit.     Yet  none  of  the  commissions  in  recent  years  has  been  on 


n8  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

housing,  except  the  Homestead  Commission,  established  June  30, 
191 1.  This  act  provided  for  a  permanent,  unpaid  commission  of 
seven  to  report  plans  whereby,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, homesteads  may  be  acquired  by  workmen  in  the 
suburbs  of  the  cities  and  towns.  As  an  attempt  to  foster  com- 
munities like  the  garden  cities  of  England  such  legislation,  though 
desirable,  is  but  a  slight  palliative.  It  does  not  deal  with  the 
problems  discussed  in  this  report.  The  Legislature  has  jealously 
held  with  tight  hand  to  its  great  power  over  the  cities;  yet  the 
sum  total  of  its  acts  for  the  control  of  houses  in  a  state  which 
has  twenty-seven  large,  rapidly-growing  cities  is  a  few  trivial  and 
ineffective  paragraphs.* 

In  contrast  with  this  most  deplorable  lack  of  legislation  as 
it  existed  in  January,  1912,  we  may  well  place  the  statement  of 
one  of  Massachusetts'  most  prominent  men. 

"  We  cannot  push  the  troubles  and  cares  of  working 
men  and  women  into  the  background,  and  trust  that  all 
will  come  out  right  in  the  end.  Practical  measures  are 
plentiful  enough:"  among  others:  "economical  and 
energetic  municipal  governments;  proper  building  laws. 
Here  are  matters  of  great  pith  and  moment,  more 
important,  more  essential,  more  pressing  than  any  others. 
They  must  be  met;  they  cannot  be  shirked  or  evaded." 

These  are  the  words  of  Senator  Henry  Cabot  Lodge  spoken 
twenty-eight  years  ago. 

Lawrence  at  that  time  was  a  city  of  38,000  and  the  history 
of  its  center  would  have  been  far  different  if  action  to  remedy  the 
need  that  was  then  recognized  had  not  been  delayed  through  all 
these  years. 

But  the  national  prize  for  procrastination  in  housing  legis- 
lation    is     held     by     Boston.       Boston     began     having     housing 


*Just  after  the  completion  of  this  report  a  bill  was  introduced  into 
the  Legislature  and  passed  May,  1912,  which  gives  permission  to  the 
towns  to  enact  the  housing  regulations  therein  specified.  The  legislation 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  cities  considered  in  this  report.  It  serves 
for  the  towns  as  a  model  law  which  has  received  the  stamp  of  approval 
by  the    State    Legislature.     They   may   adopt   it,   if   they   choose. 


THE   STATE'S   DIRE   NEED  119 

investigations  almost  as  early  as  New  York.  The  1849  report  of 
the  cholera  epidemic  shows  the  crowded  tenement  districts  in  clear 
and  definite  lines.  The  report  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  of 
1850  not  only  sets  forth  at  length  the  evils  of  bad  houses  in 
Boston  and  London,  but  states  the  need  for  prevention,  rather 
than  cure  so  clearly  that  it  reads  as  if  it  had  been  written  for  our 
needs  as  we  see  them  now. 

After  citing  various  philanthropic  purposes,  the  report  con- 
tinues :  "  A  great  amount  of  labor  and  money  are  spent  in  the 
propagation  of  these  sentiments.  But  how  few  of  such  persons 
(the  philanthropic)  apparently  turn  aside  to  notice  the  thousands 
of  lives  that  are  unnecessarily  sacrificed  —  the  social  murders  and 
suicides  that  are  daily  occurring  around  us  on  account  of  the 
existing  evils  which  might  be  removed.  If  the  same  seal,  labor 
and  money  were  expended  in  diffusing  correct  sanitary  inform- 
ation among  the  people,  in  removing  the  causes  of  diseases  which 
prey  upon  them, —  how  many  more  lives  might  be  saved.  We 
woidd  not  lisp  a  word  against  the  great  charities,  nor  wish  the 
contributions  to  them  had  been  smaller.  It  may,  however,  be 
stated  that  the  number  of  recipients  of  these  charities  is  com- 
paratively few  and  limited.  They  comprehend  a  very  small  part 
only  of  the  great  masses  of  the  people.  And  there  is  no  doubt 
that  if  the  same  amount  of  money  which  our  measure  might 
require  were  applied  to  the  careful  ascertainment  of  the  causes,  a 
much  greater  number  of  beneficiaries  might  be  assisted.  All  along 
we  have  endeavored  to  prove  that  prevention  is  better  than  cure. 
We  urge  the  removal  of  the  causes  that  produce  the  misery  which 
these  streams  of  benevolence  are  applied  to  alleviate:'  This  is  not 
"  Boston —  1915  "  but  Boston —  1850. 

Since  1850  numerous  investigations  have  taken  place  with 
little  or  no  adequate  result  beyond  the  printed  report.  Until,  after 
all  these  years,  the  last  word  at  the  opening  of  19 12  is  a  small 
pamphlet  which  bears  the  significant  title,  "  Boston's  Housing 
Problem  —  Preliminary  Report."  It  professedly  takes  up  the 
work  of  the  Housing  Committee  of  "  Boston —  1915  "  where  that 
committee  left  it,  saying  that  the  needs  have  been  sufficiently 
investigated;   hence   its   pages   are   devoted   to   the   discussion   of 


120  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

so-called  remedies.  There  is  but  one  remedy  —  and  that  is  barely 
alluded  to  in  the  report.  Nothing  is  said  of  legislation  directly. 
It  asserts  the  duty  of  the  city  not  to  bear  down  heavily  on  the 
holders  of  small  equities  in  tenement  houses  as  if,  inferentially, 
this  is  an  insurmountable  obstacle  and  ought  to  dispel  from  the 
mind  of  the  reader  any  consideration  of  legislation. 

Of  course  the  word  preliminary  in  the  title  of  this  last  pam- 
phlet merely  means  that  it  is  the  first  report  of  another  new  group 
who  are  beginning  to  take  an  interest  in  housing,  and  that  fact 
leads  one  to  wonder  what  has  become  of  the  interest  of  the  men 
who  brought  in  all  the  previous  reports.  When  the  need  has  so 
long  been  so  pressing  and  overwhelmingly  great,  the  fact  that  all 
reports  have  been  so  fruitless  should  in  itself  be  a  subject  for  serious 
study  and  report.  For  Boston's  history  in  this  subject  is  not  dif- 
ferent from  New  York's  through  all  the  years  of  its  dire  need  for 
action  up  to  the  year  1900.  There,  too,  reports  had  accomplished 
almost  nothing,  while  the  most  dangerous  and  defective  houses 
were  being  added  by  the  thousands  for  every  year  of  delay.  From 
1900  on,  the  preeminently  singular  fact  among  a  score  of  salient 
facts  is  that  the  small  group  of  men  who  were  active  in  the  1900 
tenement  house  commission  were  just  as  active  twelve  years  later 
and  just  as  single  in  purpose.  Apparently  for  them  the  main- 
tenance of  a  decent  law  well  administered  that  prevents  the 
construction  of  the  worst  houses  admits  of  no  action  on  their  part 
in  any  tangential  line,  tax  reform,  model  houses,  city  planning  or 
any  other.     The  results  have  been  most  remarkable. 

Chicago  has  a  strikingly  similar  historical  fact  in  another 
field  of  activity.  A  handful  of  men  around  a  stationer  began  to 
tell  in  the  bulletins  of  the  Municipal  Voters  League  who,  and 
exactly  who  with  all  their  characteristics,  were  being  nominated 
for  election  as  aldermen.  The  majority  of  the  men  in  the  council 
chamber  for  years  had  been  venal,  and  the  city's  streets  were  about 
to  be  sold  to  the  street  railways  for  fifty  years.  The  League's 
succinct  statements  based  on  comprehensively  minute  examination 
continued  for  at  least  a  decade  to  appear  just  prior  to  each 
election ;  but  they  gave  no  advice  on  any  other  candidates  than 
those    for  council   and   on   no  public   questions.      By   this   method 


THE   STATE'S    DIRE   NEED  121 

this  very  small  group  of  men  turned  the  council  inside  out  in  time 
to  save  the  streets  and  kept  it  renovated. 

In  contrast  with  innumerable  reports  brought  in  by  different 
groups  at  different  times  and  bearing  no  results,  what  we  have  in 
these  two  historical  instances  seems  to  be :  A  program  so  simple 
that  it  can  be  stated  in  a  sentence,  yet  is  fundamentally  adequate, 
adhered  to  undeviatingly  through  a  long  period.  The  prime  need 
in  Massachusetts  where  so  many  centers  are  crying  to  heaven  for 
preventive  legislation  is  a  small  group  of  wise  men  with  money, 
who  care,  will  keep  on  caring  and  will  keep  together.  To  secure 
a  good  law,  keep  it  and  keep  it  well  enforced  cannot  be  accom- 
plished in  one  or  two  winters,  nor  can  it  be  accomplished  by  the 
intermittent  attention  of  any  number  of  social  workers. 

The  hardships  involved  in  new  legislation  are  not  extensive. 
The  wiping  out  of  the  equities  of  small  owners  is  a  minor  incident, 
full  of  hardship  for  a  very  few,  but  not  adequate  ground  for 
further  criminal  waiting.  This  hardship  was  not  a  convincing 
argument  to  a  single  judge  in  all  the  various  courts  up  to  and 
including  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  through  which  the 
historic  Katie  Moeschen  case  passed,  though  it  was  the  main 
argument  in  that  case.  It  is  not  a  convincing  argument  after  all 
these  years  during  which  the  introduction  of  new  machines  has 
been  displacing  so  many  industrial  workers.  The  hardships  of  a 
few  can  not  be  placed  over  against  the  welfare  and  progress  of 
the  whole  community. 

If  this  is  true  of  those  who  at  present  hold  control  by  small 
equities  over  tenement  houses,  what  shall  we  say  of  their  right  to 
build  new  tenement  houses  at  the  crowded  centers?  They  build 
wretched  houses.  One  of  the  worst  of  the  recently  built  tenements 
in  Lawrence  was  constructed  under  the  control  of  a  laborer,  who 
makes  his  living  delivering  baskets  of  coal  on  his  back.  He  has 
secured  control  of  a  lot  adjoining  his  first  house  and  is  planning 
to  erect  a  second  one  of  these  wretched  beehives  for  twelve 
families.  One  of  the  worst  new  rear  buildings,  less  than  four 
years  old,  was  constructed  under  the  control  of  another  recent 
immigrant  whose  family  lives  in  a  small  house  which  he  owns, 
in  the  front  of  the  lot.     His  aged  mother  sleeps  in  a  windowless 


122  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

room;  his  wife  and  daughter  are  kept  hard  at  work  in  the  kitchen 
for  boarders,  and  he  is  away  all  summer  on  his  truck  farm.  He 
was  planning  to  erect  soon  a  second  wretched  tenement  at  the 
front  of  the  lot.  Such  hard-working  but  ignorant  and  unskilled 
laborers,  whose  sole  object  is  the  saving  of  money  and  whose 
standard  for  themselves  and  their  families  is  often  miserable,  are 
able  to  save  one  or  two  thousand  dollars.  They  have  no  sense 
of  civic  responsibility  and  not  the  slightest  ability  to  design  a 
house  for  that  most  difficult  of  sites,  the  narrow  city  lot.  Their 
right  to  own  their  own  home  is  one  thing,  and  their  right  to  go 
into  the  business  of  providing  and  maintaining  homes  for  other 
people,  under  no  control,  is  quite  a  different  matter.  Such  men 
as  these  apply  to  the  banks  and  secure,  many  times  with  little  or 
no  examination  of  plans,  loans  that  make  it  possible  for  them 
to  burden  the  future  of  the  city  with  their  low  standards  built  into 
a  house.  This  is  not  peculiar  to  Lawrence;  it  is  taking  place  in 
all  the  cities  of  Massachusetts.  The  wretched  houses  that  are 
being  thus  constructed  will  last  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  years, 
and  they  will  cost  the  cities  dearly  in  weakened  lives  and  lowered 
standards. 

There  are  twenty-seven  reasons  why  the  state  should  not 
enact  any  housing  legislation.  They  are  the  groups  of  men  who 
are  taking  inordinate  profits  in  the  houses  at  the  centers  of  the 
twenty-seven  cities.  There  are  twenty-seven  other  groups  of  men 
who  would  be  found  favoring  the  legislation,  especially  after  they 
consider  what  it  means  to  them.  These  are  men  who  know  what 
a  good  building  is  and  are  doing  their  best  to  construct  only  that 
kind.  They  have  been  and  they  will  increasingly  be  forced  into 
bad  construction,  because  they  are  in  competition  with  unre- 
strained, conscienceless  or  ignorant  builders.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  they  will  welcome  housing  legislation.  Naturally  some  of 
them  may  hold  back  from  favoring  some  of  the  standards  that 
might  be  enacted,  but  their  approval  would  be  forthcoming  shortly, 
if  they  were  to  inquire  into  the  experience  of  other  cities.  One 
reason  why  the  hardship  of  new  high  standards  is  more  mythical 
than  real,  is  because  every  builder  at  first  thinks  of  himself  alone 
as  complying  with  the  standards.     In  reality,  all  builders  bear  the 


THE   STATE'S   DIRE  NEED  123 

change,  and  the  figures  of  the  better  builders  can  be  made  to 
accommodate  themselves  to  the  standards. 

The  two  strongest  arguments  against  a  state  law  are,  first 
that  minimum  standards  enacted  will  level  down  some  of  the 
construction  now  taking  place,  and  second  that  it  would  be 
almost  impossible  to  make  a  law  which  equitably  deals  with  the 
varying  conditions  that  exist  in  different  cities.  To  illustrate  the 
possible  leveling  down  effect  of  the  law,  let  us  consider  the  open 
space  between  the  side  wall  of  a  house  and  its  lot.  Some  builders 
who  are  now  making  the  width  of  this  space,  without  a  law,  six 
or  seven  feet,  might  with  a  law  leave  only  the  minimum  demanded 
and  that  might  not  be  more  than  five  or  six  feet.  Thus  a 
considerable  number  of  houses  might  be  given  some  less  light 
than  they  would  have  been  given,  if  the  law  had  not  been  passed. 
It  is  conjectural,  of  course,  how  extensive  such  leveling  would 
be.  The  reason  why  six  or  seven  feet  and  more  is  now  left  by 
some  builders  is,  they  believe  the  houses  are  better  houses, — 
have  more  value  in  them.  It  is  questionable  whether  there  would 
be  any  considerable  leveling,  except  possibly  in  a  narrow  zone  just 
at  the  edge  around  the  centers.  Even  if  it  were  positively 
determinable  that  there  would  be  considerable  leveling,  the  idea 
that  it  should  be  avoided  by  allowing  the  centers  to  fill  up  solidly 
with  any  kind  of  construction  is  untenable. 

The  loss  made  by  the  law  is  far  outweighed  by  gains.  Con- 
sider the  question  of  leveling  down  in  connection  with  a  minimum- 
sized  room.  The  minimum  in  the  New  York  law  of  seventy 
square  feet  floor  space  was  enacted  for  the  most  exceptional 
crowding  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Outside  of  Boston's  wretched 
center  there  is  no  reason  for  enacting  a  standard  anywhere  near 
so  low.  If  we  can  judge  from  the  conditions  in  Lawrence,  the 
cities  have  not  been  constructing  any  considerable  number  of 
rooms  nearly  so  small  as  seventy  square  feet.  In  general  the 
public  has  not  become  accustomed  to  such  small  rooms,  and  will 
not  rent  them.  It  ought  to  be  possible,  now,  to  enact  a  require- 
ment for  cities  outside  of  Boston  that  no  room  shall  have  less 
than  ninety  or  one  hundred  square  feet.  But  will  that  be  possible 
ten  years  from  now  ?    Already  in  Lawrence  in  some  of  the  newest 


124  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

houses  there  are  rooms  of  seventy-five  and  eighty  square  feet. 
They  are  occupied  by  recent  immigrants  and  they  have  lot  line 
windows.  Evidently,  the  point  has  been  reached  already  in 
Lawrence  where  the  large  returns  desired  must  come  from  making 
the  rooms  smaller  and  forcing  people  to  become  used  to  them. 
No  matter  how  many  rooms  would  be  leveled  down  by  the  enact- 
ment of  a  hundred-foot  minimum  now,  they  do  not  outweigh  the 
probability  of  having  to  accept  ten  years  from  now  a  minimum 
of  seventy  square  feet. 

To  write  a  law  that  would  deal  equitably  with  the  varying 
conditions  in  the  different  cities  is  neither  impossible  nor  almost 
impossible,  but  simply  difficult.  The  housing  problem  is  of 
course  a  group  of  problems  in  any  city,  and  when  we  add  the 
differences  that  exist  between  cities,  as  Springfield  contrasted  with 
Lawrence,  Chicopee  with  Pittsfield,  etc.,  we  have  made  the 
question  somewhat  complex.  Yet  it  is  seriously  questionable 
whether  our  sense  of  the  complications  is  not  due  to  too  hurried 
and  superficial  consideration  of  the  subject.  Lowell  has  a  center 
full  of  bad  old  houses  and  has  indefensibly  bad  new  houses,  but 
the  Lawrence  center  has  not  been  duplicated  there.  It  is  probably 
demonstrable  that  the  house  huddle  in  Lawrence  is  not  due  to 
the  wage  scale.  It  is  chiefly  difference  in  wages  that  would  make 
any  reason  for  thinking  the  standards  of  a  state  law  ought  not 
to  be  equally  applicable  in  all  the  cities.  For  the  other  elements 
are  all  common, —  the  human  need  for  safety,  sanitary  equipment, 
light  and  air.  To  secure  these,  irreducible  minimum  standards 
would  seem  to  be  related  only  indirectly  to  the  character  of  the 
population  or  the  locality.  If  the  same  social  foresight  will 
prevail  in  housing  legislation  that  has  already  prevailed  in  some 
of  the  state  legislation,  it  will  make  the  common  need  for  safety, 
sanitary  equipment,  light  and  air,  the  all  controlling  factor  in  the 
question.  Without  doubt,  the  law  should  be  specific  in  its  demands 
and  they  should  be  based  on  an  extended  examination  of  the  facts 
gathered  and  related  in  a  scientific  spirit. 

Massachusetts  will  find  a  way  to  meet  the  need.  Anyone 
would  have  thought  that  Boston's  crooked  streets  would  have 
been  one  of  the  last  places  for  a  trial  of  cars  with  trolley  poles  and 


THE   STATE'S    DIRE   NEED  125 

wires.  Yet  Boston  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  largest  cities  to 
make  use  of  such  arrangements.  Boston's  center  needed  the 
electric  power  more  than  most  cities.  The  transportation  per- 
plexities in  Boston,  with  such  traffic  as  one  hundred  and  twenty 
cars  per  hour  passing  steadily  through  Tremont  Street,  and  with 
a  most  difficult  topography,  made  one  of  the  worst  problems  in 
the  country.  But  Boston  was  one  of  the  first  cities  to  come  some- 
where near  adequately  solving  her  transportation  problem,  and 
apparently  she  is  doing  more  than  many  cities  in  keeping  pace 
with  it.  The  exceptionally  great  need  brought  the  adequate  and 
seemingly  impossible  remedy. 

The  statement  that  the  need  for  restrictive  housing  legislation 
is  greater  in  Massachusetts  than  in  any  other  state  is  probably 
unquestionable,  based  on  the  present  lack  of  legislation,  the  total 
number  of  lives  involved,  the  number  of  urban  centers  and  the 
speed  with  which  those  centers  are  filling.  Massachusetts  has  an 
exceptionally  great  opportunity  to  lead  the  other  states  in  estab- 
lishing and  maintaining  an  adequate  remedy.  The  subject  is, 
primarily,  a  question  of  public  health.  Massachusetts  was  the  first 
state  to  establish  a  State  Board  of  Health  with  state-wide 
functions. 

Xo  state  law  meets  the  need  .that  does  not  provide  adequately 
for  supervising  the  local  administration  of  the  law.  Connecticut 
has  a  fair  state  law  and  no  provision  for  direct  or  indirect  watch- 
care  of  its  enforcement.  New  Jersey  has  direct  state  enforcement 
of  a  law  that  is  most  seriously  defective.  State  supervision  of  a 
locally  administered  law  has  yet  to  be  effected.  If  a  permanent 
housing  commission  of  the  dignity  and  status  of  the  Railroad 
Commission  were  not  established,  Massachusetts  has  already  estab- 
lished, and  was  among  the  first  states  to  establish,  state  inspectors 
of  health,  with  whom  the  supervision  of  a  State  housing  law  could 
be  placed.  It  was  the  first  state  to  establish  a  health  district  system 
with  physicians  as  state  inspectors.  These  physicians  are  doing 
pioneer  work  in  demonstrating  that  factory  and  tenement  house 
hygiene  are  a  part  of  community  hygiene. 

No  state  law  would  meet  the  need  that  did  not  require  that 
the  cities  shall  keep  uniform  statistics  and  that  the  statistics  shall 


126  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

be  subject  to  a  ready  verification  as  is  demanded  in  auditing 
financial  accounts.  The  statements  of  a  city  department  concerning 
its  activity  in  enforcing  the  law  must  be  based  upon  records  which 
can  be  readily  examined  and  verified.  It  must  also  be  possible  to 
compare  the  working  of  the  law  in  the  various  cities,  and  that 
would  require  uniform  statistics.  In  its  bureau  of  statistics, 
Massachusetts  has  already  adopted  the  principle  of  demanding 
uniform  financial  statistics  from  all  its  cities  and  towns.  It  was 
among  the  first  to  do  this,  and  is  leading  the  others  in  its 
accomplishment. 

The  long  list  of  progressive  movements  in  which  Massachu- 
setts stands  first  and  near  the  first  is  an  earnest  that  the  shameful 
neglect  of  the  housing  conditions  will  not  continue  much  longer. 


HOUSING,   MISCELLANY  AND  TABLES 


Stairs  With  Winding  Treads 

The  New  York  state  law  excludes  from  all  stairs,  except  those 
in  elevator  houses,  every  step  which  is  not  of  uniform  width 
throughout  its  length,  that  is,  the  triangular  treads.  They  are  com- 
mon current  practice  with  architects  in  Lawrence.  There  are  ap- 
proximately 600  such  triangular  steps  in  seventy  of  the  houses  ex- 
amined. By  day  these  steps  are  a  trap  for  unwary  feet,  especially 
for  the  very  young  and  very  old.  They  are  constantly  an  unmit- 
igated nuisance  and  danger  for  every  one  in  unlighted  halls  at 
night.  They  are  extremely  dangerous  at  time  of  panic  in  a  fire  at 
night.  If  thousands  and  thousands  of  houses  have  been  built  for 
ten  years  in  New  York  without  these  steps,  it  is  a  fair  question  to 
raise  whether  they  are  necessary  in  Lawrence. 

The  Number  of  Persons  in  Apartments 

The  proportion  of  apartments  which  contained  more  than  one 
family  is  as  follows. 

The  number  of  families  in  each  apartment  is : 


More  than 
Two 

Two 

More  than 
One 

Common  Street 

Valley 

Oak 

Oxford 

21  per  cent 
1    "      " 
0    "      " 
0    "      " 

40  per  cent 
14    "      " 

22    "      " 
0    «      « 

61  per  cent 

15     "      « 

22     "      " 

0    "      « 

The  following  statements  apply  to  the  Common  Street  half- 
blocks.  In  the  twenty-two  per  cent  (forty-two  apartments)  where 
there  are  more  than  two  families  in  each  apartment,  there  are  460 
persons  living,  an  average  of  eleven  persons  per  apartment. 

In  forty-one  apartments  there  is  an  average  of  more  than 
three  persons  in  each  room,  excluding  the  kitchen.  Each  of  six 
apartments  is  the  home  for  fourteen  persons,  one  for  fifteen,  and 
one  for  eighteen;  all  the  apartments  having  four  rooms  besides  a 


128  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

kitchen.  The  rate  of  four  persons  per  room  is  reached  in  the 
apartment  where  eighteen  live  and  also  in  another  apartment  where 
eight  persons  live  in  two  rooms  and  kitchen. 

The  average  number  of  persons  per  apartment  was  as  follows : 
in  the  two  half -blocks  at  the  east  end  of  Common  Street,  the  average 
was  eight;  in  one  of  the  Valley  Street  half-blocks,  6.5;  in  the 
other,  6 ;  in  the  Oak  Street  half-block,  5.9  ;  and  in  Oxford  Street,  4  6. 

Air  Shafts;  Windowless  Halls;  Small  Rooms. 

Air  shafts  that  serve  solely  water  closets  and  bath-rooms  are 
being  constructed  in  Brooklyn.  The  area  required  in  a  three-story 
house  is  at  least  fourteen  square  feet,  in  a  four-story  house  at  least 
seventeen  square  feet.  There  can  be  no  dimension  less  than  four 
feet,  no  hall  or  room  window  opening  to  the  shaft,  no  roof  of  any 
kind,  and  at  the  bottom  there  must  be  a  horizontal  duct  of  four 
square  feet  to  furnish  a  supply  of  fresh  air. 

In  the  six  half-blocks  four  air  shafts  were  measured  where 
the  area  is  less  than  ten  square  feet.  A  fifth  has  twelve  square  feet. 
One  of  the  shafts  is  the  only  source  of  light  and  ventilation  for 
eight  living  rooms,  the  other  shafts  serve  26  water  closets,  19  sink 
rooms  and  one  living  room. 

In  the  district  examination  there  were  found  20  air  shafts 
which  do  not  serve  living  rooms,  six  of  them  have  areas  smaller 
than  would  be  required  in  Brooklyn  practice.  All  the  shafts  are 
covered  with  a  skylight ;  a  few  are  open  to  the  cellar  and  no  one 
of  them  has  a  duct  supplying  fresh  air  at  the  bottom.  The  shafts 
serve  115  water  closets  and  50  sink  rooms.  This  location  of  the 
sink  rooms  which  are  the  work  rooms  for  the  women  is  seriously 
defective  in  ventilation  and  light. 

Among  twenty-two  stair  halls  where  there  are  no  windows, 
there  are  nine  that  have  no  skylight.  A  skylight  that  serves  to  light 
halls  ought  to  be  twenty  square  feet  in  area  and  there  should  be 
immediately  under  it  that  open  space  at  the  side  of  the  stairs  which 
is  called  the  stair  well.  This  stair  well  to  be  effective  should  be  at 
least  twelve  inches  wide.  There  are  five  windowless  stair  halls 
where  the  skylights  have  an  area  less  than  eleven  square  feet,  and 


HOUSING  129 

in  four  of  them  there  are  no  stair  wells.  In  sixteen  of  the  halls 
where  there  are  skylights  there  are  no  ventilating  attachments. 

In  the  six  half -blocks  there  are  no  rooms  with  a  strikingly 
small  floor  area  excepting  in  the  two  half-blocks  on  Common  street. 
There  twelve  rooms  in  six  houses  have  areas  less  than  seventy 
square  feet;  six  of  them  being  from  fifty  to  sixty  square  feet  in 
area.     Eleven  were  used  as  bed-rooms. 

In  the  windowless  rooms  mentioned  on  page  64  the  area  of 
the  intercommunicating  window  is  less  than  six  square  feet  in  each 
of  eleven  rooms.  In  two  others  there  is  an  area  from  ten  to  twelve 
square  feet.  Among  the  remaining  eight  where  the  area  is  more 
than  fifteen  square  feet,  in  four  rooms  the  large  interior  windows 
secure  no  secondary  light,  and  they  are  practically  dark  rooms. 

Percentage  of  Occupancy  on  Corner  Lots 

On  corner  lots  less  than  50  feet  wide,  less  than  90  per  cent 
of  the  lot  should  be  occupied,  and  there  ought  to  be  a  rear  yard  of 
not  less  than  five  feet  for  the  full  width  of  the  lot.  In  nine  corner 
lots  two  are  occupied  to  the  extent  of  95.5  per  cent,  and  there  is 
no  yard  whatever  on  either  lot.  On  another  lot  where  the  per- 
centage of  occupancy  is  not  too  high,  the  rear  yard  is  less  than  two 
feet  deep. 

There  is  another  class  of  corner  lots  where  instead  of  a  second 
street  at  the  side  of  the  house,  a  fourteen-foot  alley  occurs.  A 
house  on  such  a  corner  does  not  receive  more  than  a  third  as  much 
light  as  one  on  an  ordinary  street  corner.  It  ought  not  to  occupy 
more  than  75  percent  of  the  lot.  There  are  five  such  corners  in 
these  six  half-blocks;  and  on  one  of  them  the  house  occupies  91.7 
percent  and  has  no  rear  yard.  In  two  others  82  to  85  percent  is 
occupied,  one  of  the  rear  yards  being  3ft.  6in.  in  depth. 

The  Open  Spaces  on  the  Lots 

Concerning  the  open  spaces  at  various  points  around  a  house, 
there  are  one  or  two  terms  which  have  the  same  meaning  in  nearly 
all  laws,  but  there  are  some  spaces  for  which  there  is  no  one  term 
commonly  used.  If  a  name  is  to  be  given  them,  it  has  to  be  ex- 
plained. 


1 3o  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Rear  yard  in  this  report  means  the  space  between  a  house  and 
an  alley  or  rear  lot  line.  Such  spaces  in  connection  with  corner  lots 
have  been  mentioned.  There  are  two  rear  yards  on  interior  lots 
less  than  7.5  feet  deep;  one  16  feet  deep;  the  rest  more  than  25  feet. 
In  the  majority  of  the  lots  there  is  either  a  rear  house  on  the  alley 
line  and  so  no  rear  yard  or  else  there  is  only  a  front  house  with  a 
rear  yard  of  good  depth. 

Interior  yard  means  the  space  between  front  and  rear  houses. 
If  such  a  yard  were  to  occur  in  connection  with  new  tenement 
houses  in  the  Connecticut  cities  it  would  have  to  be  thirty  feet  deep. 
It  is  prohibited  in  Brooklyn  on  lots  less  than  fifty  feet  in  width,  and 
on  other  lots  it  would  have  to  be  twenty-four  feet  deep.  Hence 
there  are  practically  no  interior  yards.  In  effect  they  have  been  out- 
lawed. In  the  six  half-blocks  examined  there  are  forty-one  such 
spaces;  ten  of  them  less  than  7.5  feet  in  depth;  nineteen  from  7.5 
to  12;  eleven  from  12  to  24;  one  25  feet. 

By  side  court  is  meant  the  space  at  the  side  of  a  house,  if  such 
space  extends  fully  from  the  front  to  the  rear  of  the  house.  The 
widths  found  in  the  side  courts  are  shown  in  the  following  state- 
ment. There  is  no  reference  in  it  to  any  other  walls  than  those 
which  contain  windows  to  living  rooms.  The  distance  of  such 
walls  to  the  opposite  side  lot  line  is  as  follows : 

on  the  lot  line  12  walls 

less  than  a  foot  18     " 

1  to  2  feet  31     " 

2  feet  to  2.7  feet  35     " 
2.8  feet  to  4  feet  30     " 

These  figures  should  be  related  with  the  commonly  accepted  prin- 
ciple that  in  the  matter  of  light  every  house  should  be  entirely  in- 
dependent of  adjoining  lots. 

An  outer  court  is  the  open  space  at  the  side  of  the  house  that 
does  not  extend  through  for  the  full  depth  of  the  house.  In  the 
six  half-blocks  examined,  among  five  such  spaces  located  on  the  lot 
line,  one  is  2.7  feet  wide;  the  others  four  feet  or  more.  Outer  courts 
between  the  wings  of  a  house  ought  to  be  at  least  8  feet  wide. 


HOUSING  131 

Among  ten  such  courts  nine  have  a  width  less  than  eight  feet 

and  serve  altogether  sixty-seven  living  rooms.  The  following  are 
the  details. 

In                         Widths  Rooms 

One  court                     6.  J  feet  6 

Six  courts               4  to  6     "  49 

Two     "                        3.2     "  12 

There  are  in  the  two  districts  houses  where  105  living  rooms  re- 
ceive their  light  from  18  outer  courts  in  which  the  widths  are  less 
than  eight  feet.  All  these  courts  are  between  the  wings  of  a  double 
house.  Their  widths  and  the  number  of  living  rooms  they  serve  is 
as   follows: 

In  Widths  Rooms 

Seven  courts  6  to  8  feet  38 

Seven      "  4  to  6     "  43 

Four  4  feet  or  less  24 

Many  of  these  outer  courts  contain  various  encroachments 
such  as  porches  or  balconies  and  several  are  thus  almost  completely 
filled.  One  of  the  narrowest  is  entirely  roofed  over  with  the  boards 
of  a  clothes-yard.  No  obstruction  of  any  kind  is  allowed  in  Con- 
necticut or  in  Brooklyn  practice. 

Another  court  not  included  in  those  mentioned  above  is  situated 
between  wings.  A  roof  covers  all  of  it  and  stairs  and  porches  oc- 
cupy the  greater  part  of  it,  but  the  porches  are  intermitted  at  the 
inner  end,  more  than  25  feet  from  the  rear  of  the  building.  A 
skylight  is  placed  over  this  open  space,  making  what  might  be  de- 
scribed as  a  porch  well.  Six  bed-rooms  and  water  closets  are  lighted 
from  this  well,  but  the  amount  of  light  secured  in  the  two  lower 
floors  is  very  meager,  the  bed-rooms  having  almost  no  light. 

An  inner  court  is  open  space  that  is  wholly  surrounded  by 
a  house,  or  is  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the  same  house,  and  on  the 
fourth  side  by  a  lot  line.  Two  such  courts  on  lot  lines  serving  three 
living-rooms  each  occur  in  two  four-story  houses  located  in  the 
two  districts  examined.  One  of  these  courts  is  eight  feet  long, 
where  Brooklyn  and  Connecticut  practice  would  require  it  to  be 
fourteen  feet.  The  other  is  three  feet  wide,  and  10  feet  deep,  as 
against  a  standard  of  eight  feet  wide  by  14  feet  deep. 


1 32  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  American  Woolen  Company's  Houses 

From  1906  to  19 10  the  American  Woolen  Company  built  in 
South  Lawrence  houses  for  142  families  as  follows :  Twelve  one- 
family  houses  for  overseers;  fifty-two  cottages;  forty-two  one- 
family,  two-story  brick  houses;  six  three-story  three-family  frame 
houses;  and  three  six-family  frame  houses.  All  these  houses  are 
superior  to  most  houses  that  have  been  erected  by  manufacturing 
companies,  and  they  are  superior  to  most  of  the  commercially 
built  houses  in  Lawrence.  The  most  interesting  as  homes  for 
working  people  are  the  cottages  and  the  two-story  brick  houses. 

The  following  description  of  the  single  family  brick  houses 
is  given  by  the  architect  who  built  them,  Mr.  James  E.  Allen  of 
Lawrence. 

Six  buildings  erected  by  the  American  Woolen  Company  on 
Market  Street,  for  occupancy  by  their  operatives  are  perhaps  worthy 
of  more  than  passing  mention,  not  that  any  new  type  of  building 
has  been  evolved  but  that  an  old  type,  the  Philadelphia  House  so 
called,  has  been  carefully  studied.,  improved  as  regards  the  interior 
arrangement  of  its  rooms,  and  carefully  designed  as  regards  its 
exterior  with  the  result  that  very  comfortable,  economically  ar- 
ranged interiors  and  particularly  pleasing  exteriors  have  been  pro- 
duced. 

The  lot  of  land  upon  which  these  six  buildings  were  built  has 
a  street  frontage  of  475  feet,  and  is  100  feet  in  depth,  and  is  sub- 
divided into  four  parts  by  three  forty-five  feet  private  ways  ex- 
tending from  the  street  to  the  rear  of  the  lot.  The  buildings  are 
fronted  upon  these  private  ways  which  are  traversed  by  eight  feet 
walks  running  the  entire  length  with  narrower  walks  leading  to  the 
front  doors,  and  the  ground  areas  between  these  walks  are  planted 
with  shrubbery.  The  utilization  of  the  land  in  this  way  not  only 
allowed  the  erection  of  two  more  dwellings  than  would  have  been 
possible  had  the  buildings  been  faced  on  the  street  and  been  built 
in  one  continuous  block  of  dwellings  but  also  allowed  two  out  of 
every  seven  dwellings  to  be  of  five  rooms  and  with  light  on  three 
sides.  Moreover,  it  greatly  added  to  the  appearance  of  the  street 
and  buildings  and  is  a  plan  which  might  be  followed  to  advantage 


HOUSING 


133 


ONE  OF  TflE  SIX  BLOCKS  OF  SEVEN  HOUSES 


on  land  having  a  depth  of  100  feet  or  more,  because  each  dwelling 
by  such  arrangement  occupies,  including  back  yards  and  propor- 
tionate part  of  the  front  passageway,  an  area  of  about  1130  square 
feet,  as  against  an  area  of  1400  square  feet,  if  fronted  on  the  street 
on  a  lot  100  feet  deep. 

Each  of  the  buildings  is  98  feet,  8  inches  long  and  39  feet 
wide  and  contains  seven  dwellings,  each  with  a  frontage  of  four- 
teen feet,  and  a  depth  of  thirty-nine  feet,  two  of  which  contain 
five  rooms  and  five  of  which  contain  four  rooms,  besides  front  ves- 
tibules, rear  entries,  bathrooms  and  all  necessary  pantry  and  clothes 
closets.  Each  of  the  dwellings  is  entirely  separated  from  the  others 
by  a  brick  partition  wall  running  from  cellar  bottom  to  roof  and 
each  has  its  independent  front  and  rear  entrance  and  a  rear  piazza 
6x10  feet,  which  is  arranged  within  the  main  walls  of  the  building 
and  consequently  is  included  within  the  size  given.  Each  dwelling 
has  also  its  own  small  back  yard,  fenced  with  a  wire  fence  four  feet 
high. 

The  plumbing  system  of  one  has  no  connection  with  that  of  any 
other  dwelling,  in  order  that  those  unoccupied  in  cold  weather  may 
be  properly  drained  and  freezing  avoided,  and  a  separate  water 
meter  is  provided  for  each  tenant  in  order  that  water  waste  may  be 
properly  traced  and  corrected. 


i34  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  interiors  of  these  houses  are  quite  as  unusual  to  this  type 
of  house  as  are  the  exteriors,  the  arrangement  of  the  rooms  and 
stairway  being  such  that  a  single  stairway  is  able  to  serve  as  both 
front  and  back  stairs  and  may  be  approached  and  entered  onto  from 
either  the  living  room  or  the  kitchen. 

The  first  floor  of  each  dwelling  is  divided  into  a  small  front 
vestibule,  a  moderate  sized  living  room,  a  generous  kitchen  together 
with  the  necessary  accompaniments  of  pantry  and  dish  closets,  a 
back  entry  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  a  refrigerator  and  the 
cosy  recessed  piazza  before  mentioned. 

The  second  floor  is  utilized  for  bed  rooms  and  bath  room, 
three  bed  rooms  in  the  five  room  dwellings  and  two  in  the  four  room 
dwellings,  the  bath  room  being  so  located  that  a  register  in  the 
kitchen  ceiling  provides  the  necessary  heat  in  cold  weather. 

Throughout  the  buildings  the  window  and  door  openings  have 
been  placed  so  as  to  preserve  the  greatest  amount  of  unbroken  wall 
space  and  in  each  dwelling  one  of  the  bed  rooms  has  been  made  of 
sufficient  size  to  accommodate  two  beds,  thus  small  houses  by  skillful 
planning  have  been  made  comfortable  quarters  for  reasonably  large 
families. 

The  buildings  are  built  of  common  red  bricks  laid  to  easy  joints 
in  white  mortar,  all  stone  trimmings  are  of  white  marble  with  tooled 
surfaces  and  all  wood  trimmings  including  the  sash  are  painted 
white.  The  color  combination  of  the  red  bricks  with  the  white 
stone  and  wood  trimming,  taken  together  with  the  refinement  of 
detail  in  the  design  of  these  buildings,  their  unusual  arrangement 
on  the  lot,  the  avoidance  of  monotony  by  harmonious  diversity  of 
exterior  treatment  of  the  buildings,  which  are  all  of  the  same  floor 
arrangement  tend  to  make  them  much  more  attractive  in  appearance 
than  is  the  case  with  most  buildings  of  this  type. 

While  by  "  rule  of  thumb  "  figuring  of  the  "  quick  return  " 
speculator  it  does  not  seem  possible  to  erect  such  buildings  as  these 
to  compete,  on  an  investment  basis,  with  the  larger  three  and  four 
storied  frame  tenement  block  or  even  the  so  called  "  Three  Deckers  " 
both  with  their  common  halls  and  stairways  and  other  undesirable 
features,  it  is  believed  that  the  net  returns  from  such  buildings 
covering  a  period  of  twenty  years  with  their  obvious  smaller  repair 
bills  and  less  loss  of  rent  by  reason  of  empties  will  compare  very 


HOUSING  135 

favorably  with  that  from  the  undesirable  class  of  building  above 
mentioned. 

The  following  description  of  the  cottages  was  furnished  by 
the  architect  who  built  them,  Mr.  Perley  F.  Gilbert  of  Lowell  and 
Andover. 

The  fifty-two  cottages  are  one  and  one-half  story,  six  room 
cottages,  covering  a  ground  area  of  from  576  to  721  square  feet, 
exclusive  of  the  piazzas  and  steps.  Four  of  these,  however,  are 
practically  two  stories  high. 

They  can  be  built  for  a  sum  ranging  between  $2100  and  $2475, 
according  to  the  number  of  buildings  erected  at  one  time  and  to  the 
particular  types  of  cottages  used. 

Arranged  on  the  first  floor  of  each  cottage  is  a  cosy  staircase 
hall  having  a  large  hall  closet,  a  living-room,  dining-room,  kitchen, 
pantry,  china-cupboard,  and  a  large  back  entry  with  space  for  ice 
box  and  storage.  On  the  second  floor  are  the  three  chambers  and 
a  bath-room,  all  connected  by  a  well  lighted  hall  and  in  the  attic 
there  is  a  place  for  storage  entered  by  means  of  a  trap  door  in  the 
ceiling  of  the  second  story  hall.  All  of  the  bed-rooms  are  well 
ventilated,  having  windows  on  two  sides  of  the  room.  The  closets 
are  very  spacious  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  buildings,  there 
being  four  in  every  house  and  five  in  the  majority  of  them.  Pro- 
vision is  made  so  that  all  of  the  first  story  rooms  and  two  or  three 
of  the  chambers  may  be  heated  with  stoves,  and  there  are  floor 
registers  over  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  stoves  for  conveying 
warm  air  to  one  or  two  chambers  and  the  bath-room  above. 

The  clear  height  of  the  basement  is  seven  feet,  of  the  first,  and 
second  stories  about  eight  feet. 

Outside  there  is  considerable  individuality,  for  to  each  type  of 
plan  there  are  many  variations  in  the  exterior  designs :  the  gambrel 
roofs  and  shingled  walls  predominating,  although  there  are  some 
hipped  and  pitched  roofs  and  a  very  few  clapboarded  walls  to  be 
seen.  A  comfortable  and  inviting  porch  may  be  found  on  every 
house,  in  fact,  every  building  was  designed  to  secure  an  attractive 
exterior  and  interior  also  and  to  give  to  the  tenant  a  neat  little 
home  in  very  many  ways  superior  to  the  ordinary  run  of  cottage 
tenement  and  yet  within  reasonable  cost  limits. 


136  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  prices  stated  include  the  following  items  for  each  cottage, 
viz :  —  Setting  the  batters ;  the  excavation  of  the  cellar  under  the 
whole  of  the  building;  foundation-work;  cemented  floor,  coal  bin, 
vegetable  closet  and  bulkhead  in  cellar;  sewer  connections;  car- 
penter-work; brick-work;  plastering;  clothes  posts  in  yard;  hard- 
ware; open  plumbing,  including  sink  in  pantry,  also  a  water-closet, 
lavatory  and  bath  tub  in  bath-room,  supplied  throughout  with  hot 
and  cold  water;  gas  piping  and  gas  fixtures;  painting;  wall  paper 
and  picture  moulding  in  every  room  except  that  the  walls  of  pantry, 
bath-room  and  kitchen  are  painted;  plate-rail  in  dining-room;  fly- 
screens  and  window  shades  throughout. 

Notes  Concerning  Figures  and  Methods 

The  Figures  for  New  Houses 

The  records  of  the  office  of  Building  Inspector  begin  June  i,  1906,  and 
were  examined  to  the  date  June  30,  1911.  The  statistics  in  the  yearly- 
reports  of  this  office  give  the  houses  for  which  permits  were  issued.  This 
is  the  practice  in  most  cities,  but  such  practice  always  includes  figures 
concerning  a  considerable  number  of  houses  that  are  never  built.  Such 
houses  are  not  included  in  the  statement  in  the  first  pages  of  this  report. 

The  figures  for  new  houses,  however,  do  not  indicate  quite  all  the 
tenements  which  are  constructed  each  year;  for  old  houses  are  constantly 
being  enlarged.  One  very  common  form  of  alteration  is  the  change  of  a 
pitch  roof  to  a  flat  roof,  and  one  or  two  tenements  are  thereby  added  in 
each  house,  and  frequently  the  house  is  brought  thus  from  the  two  tenement 
class  into  the  three  tenement.  The  number  of  tenements  which  have  been 
constructed  by  additions  and  alterations  as  shown  in  the  yearly  reports 
of  the  building  inspector  for  four  and  one  half  years  is  283.  Alterations 
which  have  involved  very  extensive  changes  have  been  regarded  by  the 
building  inspector  as  new  buildings,  and  have  been  so  recorded. 

The  House  Census 

Unlike  other  cities  in  New  England  three  or  four  of  the  water  power 
cities  are  laid  out  with  alleys.  Lawrence's  alleys  occur  chiefly  at  the  center. 
For  convenience  in  'this  report  the  word  "  block  "  has  been  used  to  mean 
the  city  square  surrounded  by  streets,  and  "half-block"  is  given  the  arbi- 
trary meaning,  any  sub-division  of  a  block  made  by  an  alley.  One  blank 
census  form  for  each  half-block  or  block  was  set  up  from  the  Sanborn 
insurance  map  for  the  most  of  the  city,  and  from  the  Richards'  atlas  for 
•the  rest.  The  filling  of  the  forms  in  the  field,  verified  and  enlarged  the 
facts  shown  upon  the  maps.  The  most  general  summary  concerning  the 
distribution  of  apartments  has  already  been  given  on  page  33.  It  shows 
that  in  the  central  district  the  density  of  apartments  is  about  four  and  one- 
half  times  the  density  in  the  rest  of  North  Lawrence,  and  more  than  twelve 
times  the  density  in  South  Lawrence. 

Block  and  District  Examination 

Besides  the  house  census,  including  the  study  of  300  central  acres, 
the  other  three  methods  followed  were:  a  complete  investigation  of  certain 


HOUSING  137 

half-blocks,  a  special  examination  of  two  large  districts,  and  an  examination 
of  recently  built  houses  with  a  study  of  new  building  statistics.  In  the 
investigation  of  the  half  blocks  a  5  in.  by  8  in.  card  form  covering  about 
two  hundred  items  was  applied  to  each  house;  another  card  form  was 
filled  out  for  each  apartment;  and  a  lot  occupancy  form  was  used  in  measur- 
ing and  making  sketches  of  the  lot  and  house  dimensions  found  at  each 
premise.  In  the  district  examination  every  house  was  viewed,  and  a  form 
rilled  out  for  each  large  house. 

Density  of  Population  in  Six  Half-Blocks 

In  filling  out  the  apartment  cards  for  the  six  half-blocks  examined  a 
census  was  taken  of  the  number  of  persons  living  in  each  apartment.  For 
this  purpose  an  interpreter  was  used  in  the  Common  Street  blocks,  and 
in  a  few  of  the  apartments  on  Oak  Street.  From  the  data  it  is  possible 
to  study  the  density  of  population  in  the  six  half-blocks  as  it  existed  in 
the  spring  of  1911. 

In  the  spring  of  191 1  the  number  of  vacant  tenements  was  unusually 
large,  the  mills  were  running  on  part  time,  rents  in  several  apartments  were 
said  to  be  twenty-five  and  fifty  cents  a  week  lower  than  formerly,  and  ex- 
pressions concerning  poor  business  were  common.  So  that  an  estimate 
of  the  probable  density  at  times  when  there  is  regular  employment,  is  not 
without  value.  Computing  such  density  on  the  basis  that  half  the  apart- 
ments found  vacant  would  in  other  seasons  be  occupied,  at  the  same  rate 
as  the  other  apartments  in  the  same  block,  the  figures  secured  are  those  in 
the  second  column  on  page  60. 

Density  in  Two  Districts 

The  following  statement  refers  to  the  table  given  on  page  60,  and  the 
districts    mentioned    on    page    87. 

Including  one  half  the  surrounding  street  space,  the  area  for  the  fourth 
half-block  is  slightly  less  than  an  acre,  and  for  each  of  the  others  between 
one  and  two  acres.  It  is  not  possible  to  secure  from  the  1910  census  the 
necessary  figures  for  a  comparison  of  all  the  foregoing  densities  with 
those  of  adjacent  larger  districts.  There  are,  however,  available  figures 
for  two  districts  in  which  two  of  these  half-blocks  occur.  One  district 
lies  between  Hampshire  and  Franklin  streets,  the  alley  south  of  Common 
Street  and  Bradford  Street.  It  contains  fourteen  and  nine-tenths  acres, 
and  includes  half-block  number  three.  The  average  density  of  population 
in  this  district  is  216  per  acre  to  be  compared  with  327  in  the  half-block. 
The  other  district  lies  between  Hampshire  and  Lawrence,  Oak  and  Chestnut 
streets.  It  contains  17.3  acres  and  includes  half-block  number  five.  Here 
the  average  density  of  population  is  214  per  acre  to  be  compared  with  287 
in  the  half-block. 

Density  in  the  Central  District 

The  figure  33,700  elsewhere  given  for  300  acres  is  chiefly  the  actual 
count  made  in  the  federal  census.  But  a  few  of  the  census  enumeration 
districts  are  split  by  the  boundaries  of  the  central  district,  and  for  those 
areas  the  number  of  apartments,  as  secured  in  the  house  census  examina- 
tion, was  applied  to  the  average  size  of  family  in  that  district.  This 
method  yielded  the  total,  33,760. 

Four-Story  Frame  Houses 

The  figures  given  for  the  cities  of  Massachusetts  in  the  first  pages  of 
the  report  are  not  on  record  in  the  various  cities  or  anywhere.  They  were 
secured  from  the  Sanborn  insurance  maps;  the  first  count  was  verified;  and 
the  number  that  has  been  given  is  the  multiple  of  five  next  above  the  count. 


138  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Definition  of  House 

House,  lot,  apartment,  family,  living-room,  these  most  common  of 
words  that  appear  so  constantly  in  all  building  regulations  and  statistics 
are  never  given  any  definition  in  the  law;  yet,  on  the  content  of  the  word 
both  statistics  and  the  administration  of  the  law  seriously  depend  in 
hundreds  of  cases.  They  are  a  fair  example  of  the  inexact  and  unscientific 
basis  on  which  many  laws  are  drawn.  The  inexactness  gives  opportunity 
for  favoritism  in  the  administration  of  the  law  and  it  vitiates  comparative 
statistics. 

The  ordinary  meaning  of  the  word  house  is  of  no  use  in  dealing  with 
long  rows  of  houses  of  the  form  that  exists  exclusively  in  Manhattan  and 
is  found  almost  exclusively  in  Brooklyn  and  Philadelphia.  There  the 
subdivision  of  blocks  into  houses  is  not  always  easy,  but  it  is  much  easier 
than  it  is  in  some  cities  where,  as  in  Lawrence,  the  so-called  semi- 
detached, attached  and  detached  houses  are  found  mingled  promiscuously 
in  all  sorts  of  relation  to  each  other,  to  the  street,  to  the  lot  and  to  the 
fact  of  ownership.  In  the  administration  of  a  law  it  is  unavoidable  that 
values  be  assigned  to  the  separating  and  unifying  facts,  interior  common 
use,  exterior  common  use,  common  ownership,  marketable  unit  and  others. 
Such  values  must  be  balanced  off  against  each  other  as  they  exist  in 
various   combinations   at   given   premises. 

In  a  house  census  no  extended  inquiry  at  each  premise  is  feasible.  The 
structure  must  be  classified  quickly.  To  accomplish  this  in  the  Lawrence 
census  it  was  necessary  to  consider  the  so-called  double  house  as  one  house. 
Hence  the  definitions  that  are  found  below  were  given  to  the  young  men 
who  did  the  work. 

The  number  of  double  houses,  as  thus  defined,  are: 

,678  double   houses   which   contain   2432   apartments, 

259  are  two-family   houses. 

213  are  four-family   houses 

104  are  six-family   houses 

102  are  in  various  combinations,  2  and   1,   etc.,  up   to  4  and  4. 

The  definitions  that  were  given  in  the  instructions  for  the  census  were: 

HOUSE:    Four    outside    walls    with    not    more    than    one    party    wall. 

(Four  outside  walls  with  more  than  one  party  wall  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  group  of  houses,  each  house  being  the  space 
between  the  party  walls.  If  in  some  peculiar  arrangement  there 
seems  to  be  good  reason  for  making  an  exception  in  this  method 
of    classification,    the    reason    should    be    discussed    at    the    office. 

PARTY  WALL:  Query:  Do  the  tenants  on  either  side  of  the  tvall  use  in  common 
any  stairs  or  halls  or  parts  of  them?  If  the  answer  is  negative  the  wall 
is  to  be  regarded   as  party  wall. 

(For  the  purpose  of  this  classification  balconies  or  porches 
need  not  be  considered.  Porches  connected  by  stairs  are 
sufficiently  covered  in  the  question.  The  direction  of  the  wall 
is  of  no  moment.  The  idea  of  marketable  unit  is  ignored. 
Emergency  use,  as  fire  egress,  is  not  to  be  considered.) 


HOUSE   CENSUS 

(April,  191 1 ) 


NUMBER    OF    HOUSES    CLASSIFIED    BY    MATERIALS    AND 
BY  LOCATION    FRONT    AND    REAR 


WOOD  ,        MISCELLANEOUS 


SFC 

NORTH  LAWRENCE 

Front 

Rear 

Total 

BRICK 

Front 

Rear 

Total 

A 
B 
C 
D 

West  of  R.  R.  Tracks       .     . 
R.  R.  Tracks  to  Lawrence  St. 
Lawrence  to  Prospect 
East  of  Prospect  St.     .     .     . 

1272 

2021 

1494 

700 

152 
308 
206 

34 

1424 

2329 
1700 

734 

3 

39 

134 

3 

2 
3 

1 

3 

1 
4 

Total  for  North  Lawrence,   . 

5487 

700 

6187 

179 

5 

3 

8 

SOUTH  LAWRENCE 

E     West  of  Southern  Div. 

R.  R.  Tracks 408  53  461  2 

F     Southern  Div.  to  Western  Div.  360  13  373  1 

G     East  of  Western  Div.       .     .  894  53  947  44 

Total  for  South  Lawrence,    .  1662  119  1781  47 

Total  for  Lawrence,  .     .  7149  819  7968  226 


SUMMARY  OF  TOTALS 

Wood, 7968 

Brick, 226 

Miscellaneous,     ....  8 


(A  table  classifying  the  houses  by  height  in  stories  appears  on  page  48.) 


140  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

SUMMARY  OF  NUMBER  OF  APARTMENTS 


2606 

279 

2885 

5366 

784 

6150 

3844 

517 

4361 

1 146 

52 

1 198 

NORTH  LAWRENCE  Front  Rear  Total 

SEC. 

A  West  of  R.  R.  Tracks 

B  R.  R.  Tracks  to   Lawrence  St. 

C  Lawrence  to  Prospect 

D  East  of  Prospect  St.  .... 

Total  for  North  Lawrence  .  .  12962  1632  14594 


SOUTH  LAWRENCE 

E     West  of  Southern  Div.  R.  R.  Tracks 
F     Southern  Div.  to  Western  Div. 
G     East  of  Western  Div. 

Total  for  South    Lawrence 

Total  for  Lawrence 


THE  TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  APARTMENTS 


756 

67 

823 

595 

20 

615 

1854 

102 

1956 

3205 

189 

3394 

1 61 67 

1821 

17988 

Totals 


In  houses  of  one  and  In  houses  of  three  In  houses  of  more  than 

two  apartments                apartments  three  apartments 

North  Lawrence,       .        6528                         3360  4706  *4>594  (81%) 

South  Lawrence,      .         2071                            696  627  3>394  (T9%) 


Totals,       .         .         8599(48%)  4056(22%)  5333(30%)    17,988(100%) 


TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  REAR  HOUSES  AND  APARTMENTS 


Number  of 
Houses     Apartments 

Average  Number  of 
apartments  per  house 

North  Lawrence, 

703               1632 

2-3 

South  Lawrence, 

119                 189 

1.6 

Total  for  Lawrence,      822  1821 


HOUSE  CENSUS 

BUILDING  INSPECTOR'S  RECORD 

(June  i,  1906,  to  June  30,  191 1) 


141 


NUMBER  OF  HOUSES  BUILT,  CLASSIFIED  BY 
HEIGHT  IN  STORIES 


HEIGHT  BY  STORIES 

Year 

One 

One  and 
one-half 

Two 

Two  and 
one-half 

Three 

Fou 

1906  (7  months) 

5 

44 

37 

6 

1907        .... 

4 

49 

96 

25 

1908       .... 

12 

3 

48 

64 

7 

1909       .... 

1 

56 

100 

140 

38 

1910       .... 

39 

73 

ior 

16 

1911  (6  months)  • 

1 

7 

22 

!5 

35 

7 

Five 


Total  (5  years,  1  month) 


123 


25 


329 


473 


99 


NUMBER  OF  HOUSES  BUILT,  CLASSIFIED  BY  MATERIALS 


Year 

1906  (7  months) 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

191 1   (6  months) 


Total  (5  years,  1  month) 


Wood 

Brick 

Miscellaneous 

9r 

1 

.       166 

8 

•       135 

0 

•      333 

1 

I 

226 

1 

2 

86 

1 

1037 


NUMBER  OF  APARTMENTS  IN  HOUSES  CONSTRUCTED 
FROM  JUNE   1,    1906  TO  JUNE  30,    1911 


165  Apartmen 

ts  in  165 

Houses  of 

One  Apartment  each 

570 

«    285 

u 

Two 

" 

335 

"    445 

<« 

Three 

" 

188 

"      47 

" 

Four 

" 

15 

3 

(< 

Five 

" 

384 

"      64 

" 

Six 

" 

84 

"      12 

" 

Seven 

" 

112            " 

"      14 

" 

Eight 

tt 

210            " 

"      T7 

" 

more  than 

eight  apartments  each 

3063  Apartments  in  1052  Houses 


142 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


EXAMINATION  OF  SIX  HALF-BLOCKS 

(April,  191 1 ) 


SUMMARY  OF  RENTS 


Common  St.  (south  side) 

East  from  Newbury  (C11K) 
West     "  "  (C12K) 

Valley  St.  (south  side) 

East  from  Franklin  (B16K) 
West    "  "  (B17K) 

Oak  St.  (north  side) 

West  from  White  (B43L) 

Oxford  St.  (west  side) 

North  from  Essex  (A52M) 


IN  OCCUPIED  APARTMENTS 

Annual  Rent  for 
No.  of  Sq.  Ft.  in  Lots         Occupied  Apartments 
Occupied  by  Houses        y,      1 


3533S 
45.425 

44,412 
26,784 

52'703 
33,600 


$17,488. 
17,774- 

12,078. 
6,587. 

12,606. 

8,447. 


Average 
per  Sq.  Ft. 


•391 

.272 
.245 

•239 
.251 


ESTIMATE  OF  THE  TOTAL  RENTS 


Annual  Rent  for 

Annual  Rent  for 

Common  St.  (south  side) 

Occupied  Apartments  1 

Stores  at  Apt.  Rate 

Total        Avg.  per  Sq. 

and 

Ft. 

Occupied  Apartments,  Vacant 

Apartments  and  Stores 

Total        Avg.  per  Sq.  Ft. 

East  from  Newbury  (C11K) 

$20,270. 

.565 

$22,285. 

.621 

West  "             "          (C12K) 

24,027. 

•529 

25,821. 

.568 

Valley  St.  (south  side) 

East  from  Franklin  (B16K) 

15,042. 

.338 

16,251. 

.366 

West   "             "          (B17K) 

8,095. 

.302 

8,758. 

•327 

Oak  St.  (north  side) 

West  from  White,  (B43L) 

14,388. 

•273 

15,584. 

•295 

Oxford  St.  (west  side) 

North  from  Essex  (A52M) 

9,279. 

.276 

10,805. 

.321 

(A  table  summarizing  rates  of  rent  per  room  per  week  appears  on  page  60b.     Also 
the  percentage  of  lot  occupied  by  houses.) 


HOUSE  CENSUS  143 

THE  EXTENT  OF  CROWDING  IN  APARTMENTS 


More  than  two  persons  per  room 

More  than  one  family 

excluding  the  kitchen 

in  each  apartment 

No 

.of              No.  of  persons 

No. 

of 

No.  of  persons 

AF 

>ts.*               in  the  Apts.* 

Apts* 

in  the  Apts .* 

Common  St.    . 

117 

60%              [160     73% 

120 

61% 

1 1 52     72% 

Valley  St. 

40 

28%                348     40% 

22 

15% 

183     21% 

Oak  St.    . 

26 

27%              202    2,7% 

21 

22% 

148     27% 

Oxford  St.       . 

19 

Three  and  more  in 
each  room 

7 

More  than  two  families 
in  each  apartment 

Apts.                       Persons 

Apts.                   Persons 

Oak  St.    . 

6 

6%                48 

0 

0 

Common  St.    . 

4it 

21%              460     29% 

42t 

21% 

460     29% 

Oxford  St. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Valley  St. 

10 

7%              102 

2 

23 

*  Percentages  for  all  the  apartments  examined  on  the  street  named. 

t  Only  15  apartments  are  in  both,  i.  e.,  15  apartments  have  more  than  two  families, 
and  an  average  of  three  or  more  per  room. 


BOARDING  AND  LODGING  HOUSES 


The  Number  in  the  City .         139 

Under  State  Inspection 60 

Not  under  State  Inspection 79 


THE    SOURCES    OF    FIGURES   AND    QUOTATIONS 
RELATIVE   TO    HOUSING   CONDITIONS 

Page 

35  ff.     The  facts  concerning  fire  loss: 

Proceedings  of  the  Forty-fifth  Annual  Meeting  of  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  (pp.  69,  70) 
May  11,  191 1. 

Conservation  of  Utilized  Resources  from  Destruction 
by  Fire,  1910,  (pp.  5,  6). 

Address  of  the  President  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters  of  the  Forty-fifth  Annual 
Meeting,  May  11,  191 1. 

36  The  Survey,  July  1st,  191 1,  "  Fire  Waste,"  Powell  Evans. 

40  Pamphlet,  "  Individual  Fire  Fighting,"  Pub.  by  Rochester, 

N.  Y.   Chamber  of   Commerce. 

44  ff.     Facts  concerning  Chelsea : 

Quarterly  of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association, 
July,  1908:  "  Chelsea  Conflagration,"  (pp.  25-35). 

46  Editorial  in  the  New  York  World,  October,  191 1. 

49  The    Population    of    Massachusetts    in    19 10:    Pamphlet 

issued  by  Mass.  Bureau  of  Statistics.     Pub.  191 1. 

118  Speech  of   Senator  Henry  Cabot  Lodge  in  New  York, 

December  22,    ii 


The  facts  concerning  early  houses  were  secured  from  Charles 
H.  Littlefield,  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  Arthur  D.  Marble, 
City  Engineer,  J.  J.  Carey,  Building  Inspector,  Oswald  J.  Culling- 
ton,  Plumbing  Inspector,  and  R.  A.  Hale  of  the  Essex  Co. 

The  sketches,  maps  and  tables  were  made  with  the  assistance 
of  George  W.  Hinchcliffe. 


PUBLIC    HEALTH 

By 

FRANK  B.  SANBORN 


PUBLIC  HEALTH 


This  investigation  of  Public  Health  conditions  has  comprised 
chiefly  three  phases:     (i)    The  healthfulness  of  the  Water  Supply; 

(2)  The  present  methods  of   Sewage  and  Waste  Disposal;  and 

(3)  The  Milk  Supply  and  its  relation  to  Public  Health.  The 
investigation  began  in  the  spring  of  191 1  and  continued  through 
the  fall.  During  the  summer  special  attention  was  given  by  myself 
and  two  or  more  assistants  to  a  personal  examination  of  existing 
conditions;  and  these  conditions,  accompanied  by  certain  recom- 
mendations, are  discussed  fully  in  the  report,  but  for  the  con- 
venience of  those  who  may  not  wish  to  read  the  whole  report,  a 
summary  of  the  essential  points  will  be  given  in  the  paragraphs 
that  immediately  follow : 


Conclusions  —  Stated  Briefly. — 

1.  The  Water  Supply  is  ample  in  amount  for  present 
needs  and  after  filtration  is  of  a  quality  that  is  favor- 
able to  good  public  health. 

2.  The  Sewage  and  Garbage  Disposal  methods  are 
passable  from  the  public  health  viewpoint,  but  in- 
volve important  engineering  features  which  need 
attention. 

3.  The  Milk  Supply  I  have  found  to  have  been  neglected 
and  I  believe  that  it  needs  material  improvements  in 
the  interest  of  Public  Health. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 

The  importance  of  the  Milk  Supply  as  affecting  the  general 
conditions  of  Public  Health,  the  lack  of  supervision  at  present, 
and  the  great  advantages  that  all  classes  of  population  would 
derive  by  improvements,  have  caused  me  to  give  attention  par- 
ticularly to  an  investigation  of  the  Milk  question. 

I  have  found  that  much  of  the  milk  that  is  sold  in  Lawrence 
is  produced  under  conditions  which  expose  it  to  serious  con- 
tamination; there  is  little  or  no  supervision  or  inspection  from  the 
time  it  is  produced  until  it  is  consumed;  the  City  has  been  giving 
practically  no  attention  to  the  milk  supply;  licenses  to  sell  milk 
have  been  only  partially  required;  there  has  been  no  list  of  milk 
producers  or  contractors;  few  citizens  know  where  the  milk  they 
drink  comes  from,  in  fact  the  milk  dealer  is  the  only  one  who  is 
likely  to  know. 

Epidemics  in  Lawrence  have  rarely  been  traced  directly  to 
milk,  but  serious  epidemics  have  occurred  in  other  cities  when  the 
milk  supply  has  been  neglected  and  such  epidemics  may  at  any  time 
occur  in  Lawrence. 

Summary  of  Recommendations: 

For  improving  the  milk  supply  certain  recommendations  are 
offered  of  which  the  following  are  general  summaries :  — 

To  classify  the  milk  there  shall  be  three  grades : 
i.  Certified  Milk  which  shall  be  milk  of  distinctly  superior 
quality;  produced  from  tuberculin-tested  cows  on  the  best  of 
farms  scoring  90  or  above  out  of  a  possible  100,  (according 
to  the  method  of  scoring  to  be  later  described).  It  shall  be 
certified  by  a  proper  medical  commission  as  required  by  the 
existing  state  law;  and  the  milk  shall  have  a  bacterial  count 
at  the  time  of  delivery  in  the  city,  of  10,000  or  less  per  cubic 
centimeter.  Such  milk  would  sell  at  a  price  of  fifteen  to 
eighteen  cents  a  quart. 
2.  Inspected  Milk  Heated  which  shall  be  milk  produced  on  farms 
better  than  the  ordinary  and  under  clean  conditions.      Such 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  149 

farms  should  score  sixty-five  or  more,  and  the  milk  at  the 
time  of  leaving  the  farm  should  not  contain  over  100,000 
bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter.  Before  delivery  to  consumers 
the  milk  should  be  further  safeguarded  against  infectious 
diseases  by  being  brought  to  a  temperature  of  1450  Fahrenheit, 
held  at  that  temperature  for  twenty  minutes,  then  suddenly 
cooled  to  400  F.,  and  should  be  kept  at  about  that  temperature 
until  it  is  used  by  the  consumers.  The  price  of  this  milk  in 
Lawrence  would  be  nine  to  ten  cents  a  quart. 
3.  Market  Milk  Heated  which  shall  include  common  milk  — 
four-fifths  of  the  total  supply  —  produced  on  farms  of  fairly 
acceptable  quality,  but  many  of  which  are  trying  to  produce 
large  quantities  with  no  special  attention  to  quality.  Milk  from 
sick  cows,  or  from  dirty  farms  produced  under  conditions  that 
are  dangerous  to  good  health,  should  not  be  admitted  to  the 
City.  Every  farm  should  show  a  score  of  at  least  40  points 
out  of  a  possible  100,  and  a  bacterial  count  of  500,000  or  less. 
All  of  the  milk  included  in  this  class  should  without  exception 
be  heated  to  1450  F.  for  twenty  minutes  and  suddenly  cooled 
to  400  before  it  is  delivered  to  consumers. 

Furthermore,  the  people  should  have  opportunity  of  knowing 
what  grade  of  milk  they  are  buying,  and  for  that  reason  every  can 
or  bottle  should  be  labeled  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  requirements 
of  pure  food  laws  as  Certified  Milk,  Inspected  Milk  Heated, 
or  Market  Milk  Heated. 

Besides  a  reasonable  inspection  of  farms  and  dairies,  the 
twenty  or  more  bottling  plans  about  the  City  should  be  examined, 
and  their  managers  advised  as  to  improvements.  The  sanitary 
conditions  of  the  bottling  plants  are  of  equal  or  greater  importance 
than  that  of  milk  farms.  The  City  authorities  could  well  maintain 
general  supervision  of  dairies  and  bottling  plants,  inspect  them  and 
make  laboratory  tests  of  samples  of  milk,  and  then  in  fairness  to 
all  make  public  the  results  of  these  inspections  and  tests.  Thus  the 
people  would  be  able  to  select  the  best  supplies  and  the  farmer,  or 
milkman,  could  find  a  market  in  accordance  with  the  quality  of 
milk  offered  for  sale. 


1 5o  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Finally,  as  a  recommendation  of  great  importance  —  second 
only  to  that  of  heating  or  pasteurizing  —  I  suggest  the  formation 
of  a  business  organization  of  producers,  or  dealers.  The  special 
object  of  this  organization  would  be  to  centralize;  to  have  one 
central  plant  for  receiving,  purifying  and  safeguarding  the  milk, 
and,  in  due  course,  delivering  it  to  consumers,  all  more  thoroughly 
and  systematically  than  can  be  done  by  a  dozen  small  dealers 
handicapped  as  at  present. 

These  constitute  the  principal  recommendations  of  the  report, 
but  to  understand  rightly  the  reasons  for  them  it  is  necessary  to 
have  in  mind  some  of  the  conditions  that  exist  and  the  relation 
that  these  conditions  bear  to  Public  Health. 

The  Relation  of  Milk  to  Public  Health  :  — 

The  necessity  of  having  safe  drinking  water,  which  has  been 
notably  demonstrated  in  the  past  history  of  Lawrence,  is  now 
accepted  without  question  by  the  public  at  large.  Less  general, 
however,  is  perception  of  the  fact  that  milk  is  hardly  second  to 
water  as  a  means  of  spreading  disease  through  a  community  when 
once  the  milk  supply  becomes  infected  with  the  organisms  of  disease. 

That  milk  does  offer  such  an  avenue  to  infection;  and  that 
the  possibility  of  infection,  and  hence  of  serious  epidemics,  is 
peculiarly  great  in  a  city  which  receives  its  milk  from  a  great 
variety  of  sources,  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated. 

In  Washington,  D.  C,  about  ten  per  cent  of  the  cases  of 
typhoid  fever  can  be  traced  to  milk.  Attleboro,  Massachusetts, 
with  its  population  of  16,400,  had  forty-six  cases  of  typhoid  during 
last  August  and  September,  that  were  caused  by  typhoid  from 
one  farm. 

In  1901  Schiider  of  Germany  tabulated  650  typhoid  epidemics; 
of  these  the  supposed  causes  of  462  were  reported  as  spread  by 
water;  no  by  milk  and  78  by  all  other  means.  In  Massachusetts 
Dr.  Harrington  reported  that  in  two  years,  out  of  eighteen  local 
outbreaks  of  typhoid  fever,  fourteen  were  traced  to  milk.  Stam- 
ford, Connecticut,  a  town  of  15,000  population,  had  160  positive 
cases  of  typhoid  and  twenty-four  suspicious  cases  in  a  period  of 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  151 

nine  days.  One  hundred  and  forty-seven  of  the  cases  received 
milk  from  one  dairyman.  The  epidemic  continued  until  there  were 
386  cases. 

Although  the  medical  profession  has  yet  been  unable  to  deter- 
mine the  specific  organism  that  causes  scarlet  fever,  ample  proof 
has  developed  showing  that  the  disease  is  frequently  transmitted 
by  the  medium  of  milk.  Dr.  Trask  has  compiled  a  list  of  fifty-one 
epidemics  of  scarlet  fever  as  spread  by  milk,  twenty-five  in  the 
United  States  and  twenty-six  in  Great  Britain.  In  Boston,  Cam- 
bridge and  Somerville,  Massachusetts,  an  epidemic  of  scarlet  fever 
occurred  in  1907  which  comprised  717  cases,  and  85  per  cent  of 
the  cases  were  found  to  be  supplied  by  milk  from  one  dealer. 

Diphtheria  is  known  to  be  spread  by  milk.  Dr.  Trask  has 
reported  that  twenty-three  epidemics  from  1895  to  1907  have  been 
traced  to  milk  —  fifteen  occurred  in  the  United  States  and  eight 
in  Great  Britain. 

Also  a  few  epidemics  of  sore  throat  have  occurred  in  Great 
Britain  that  were  traced  to  milk,  and  during  the  past  year  one 
developed  in  Boston,  Cambridge,  and  Brookline  that  was  most 
virulent  and  alarming.  In  a  period  of  a  few  weeks  there  were  in 
these  three  localities  1043  cases  of  tonsilitis  and  sore  throat. 
Among  children  the  disease  was  mild,  but  among  middle-aged 
persons  it  was  severe;  forty-eight  deaths  are  known  to  have  resulted 
from  these  cases.  Many  physicians  at  first  attributed  the  sickness 
to  "  dust  in  the  air,"  or  "  influenza  "  and  pronounced  as  absurd  the 
report  that  milk  was  the  cause.  A  thorough  investigation,  how- 
ever, has  established  the  fact  that  a  majority  of  all  the  cases 
indisputably  came  from  one  milk  supply. 

When  milk  is  infected  at  only  one  milking  the  epidemic  may 
be  confined  to  a  few  cases,  but  when  the  milk  is  infected  day  after 
day,  the  outbreak  will  be  prolonged,  increasing  in  broadening 
circles.  A  milk  epidemic  is  therefore  typical  in  its  onset.  If  cases 
are  promptly  reported,  classified,  and  their  origin  traced,  an 
epidemic  can  be  stopped  at  the  beginning.  Furthermore,  a  practical 
way  to  prevent  such  epidemics  would  appear  to  be  some  form  of 
heating,  or  sterilizing,  the  milk. 


152  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  relation  of  milk  to  public  health  begins  on  the  farm  at  the 
time  of  milking  and  continues  through  the  dairy,  the  bottling,  the 
transportation,  delivery  to  the  consumers,  and  handling  in  the 
household.  It  is  a  long  and  circuitous  route  open  to  contamination 
at  many  points.  That  Lawrence  has  so  far  escaped  serious 
epidemics  by  infected  milk  is  good  reason  for  expecting  one  at  the 
present  time.  Furthermore,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  an 
increase  in  sickness  and  death  by  epidemics  or  otherwise  is  more 
liable  to  occur  from  dirty  milk  than  from  clean  milk. 

It  may  be  of  interest,  then,  for  the  reader  to  ascertain  where 
the  milk  that  is  sold  in  Lawrence  is  produced,  and  the  character 
of  some  of  the  farms  that  supply  the  milk. 

Where  the  milk  that  is  sold  in  Lawrence 

is   PRODUCED. 

As  an  indication  of  the  chaotic  condition  which  prevails  in 
regard  to  the  milk  supply  of  Lawrence,  it  is  worth  recording  that, 
when  this  study  was  begun,  it  was  found  that  the  City  Board  of 
Health  could  not  supply  a  list  of  licensed  dealers  who  were  selling 
milk  in  the  city  nor  of  the  farms  from  which  the  dealers  drew 
their  supplies.  The  only  city  list  available  contained  no  names  of 
dealers  who  had  taken  out  milk  licenses  either  in  191 1  or  in  19 10. 
For  1909,  there  was  an  incomplete  record  extending  from  January 
to  August.  During  this  period  of  seven  months,  Dr.  Thomas  H. 
Collins  had  been  acting  as  Milk  Inspector;  and  records,  which  at 
the  beginning  of  his  term  had  been  fairly  satisfactory,  gradually 
declined  until  for  the  past  year  and  a  half  no  official  records  were 
made  of  any  licenses.  For  1908,  while  Eugene  A.  McCarthy  was 
inspector,  a  fairly  complete  list  was  kept,  which,  although  three 
years  out  of  date,  appeared  to  be  the  best  means  available  for 
ascertaining  the  present  dealers. 

As  shown  by  the  map  on  next  page,  nearly  all  milk  is  from 
the  north,  and  one-fourth  of  it  comes  from  Maine  and  Vermont 
towns  150  to  200  miles  away.  Very  little  milk  comes  from  the 
South  of  Lawrence.  The  total  milk  supply  of  Lawrence,  amounts 
to  about  24,000  quarts.     There  are  three  main  sources :  — 


jniiiwiiwimj/i 


MILK  r/7/eA/S  NEAR  LAWRENCE 

*,«,„  •   ^^^""LOC/ITIONancf  QUARTS  PRODUCED  DAILY 
X,  Prepared  for- 

Daniel  J.  Donovan ,  I OO  Qrs.         0 

9rs  oaily  /Report  on  /ni/esfigaT/or? 

Z   R  \\^  of 

C  HEALTH 


•G.Af  Cai-te.r 
/oo 


\j°UBLI 

*l  Nfm*    Sca/e  /inch  m 


•  W.J  Clmr* 
40 


eo 

•r  e  Llv.njjfont 


9yiauPoft  (p.  0OAAArtn*iS:C. 


■    . 


. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  153 

1.  The  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  milk,  amounting  to  about  3,500 
quarts,  comes  from  two  general  sources,  —  the  Vermont  supply, 
which  totals  about  2550  quarts,  and  which  is  collected  by  a  daily 
milk  car  running  south  on  the  railroad  from  Newport,  Vt. ;  and 
the  farms  of  Londonderry,  Hudson,  and  Windham,  N.  H.,  amount- 
ing to  about  950  quarts.  All  this  milk  goes  to  Derry,  N.  H.,  and 
the  supply  for  Lawrence  is  pasteurized  and  part  of  it  bottled  for 
shipment. 

2.  The  Supply  from  Maine,  consisting  of  approximately 
4000  quarts  of  milk,  is  collected  from  about  ten  towns  by  the 
Turner  Center  Dairying  Association.  The  milk  is  shipped  first 
to  Auburn,  Maine,  where  it  is  pasteurized,  then  separated  into 
cream  and  skim  milk  and  afterwards  shipped  to  Lawrence. 

3.  The  supply  that  comes  from  nearby  farms  within  a  radius 
of  ten  miles,  amounts  to  nearly  16,000  quarts  or  two-thirds  of  the 
total  supply. 

Included  in  the  above  three  sources  of  supply  are  600  farms 
that  send  milk  to  Lawrence. 

Inspection  of  dairies  :  — 

Of  these  farms  150  are  near  the  City;  and  the  map  on  pre- 
ceding page  shows  their  location,  gives  the  name  of  the  owner  or 
lessee,  and  the  quarts  of  milk  produced  daily. 

In  order  to  determine  the  quality  of  dairies  thus  located  near 
Lawrence  all  that  are  shown  on  the  preceding  chart  (150  in 
number)  have  been  inspected  and  rated  according  to  a  score- 
sheet  tkat  was  especially  prepared  for  this  investigation  and  is 
shown  on  the  next  two  pages. 

The  values  assigned  to  the  various  items  that  go  to  make  up 
the  score  of  Equipment  and  Method  of  this  sheet,  are  values 
recommended  by  the  United  States  government  and  the  Official 
Dairy  Inspectors'  Association.  It  will  be  noted  that  perfect  condi- 
tions would  mean  a  score  of  forty  points  for  Equipment  and  sixty 
points  for  Method. 

One  advantage  of  this  form  of  score  card  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  an  untrained  person  can  use  it  with  fairly  satisfactory 


DAIRY    INSPECTION    OF    LAWRENCE    MILK    SUPPLY 

One  copy  of  this  report  is  sent  to  the  Owner,  or  Lessee  of  Dairy ;  one  to  the  Milk  Contractor ;  and  one  copy  is  kept  on  file. 


OWNER,  or  LESSEE,  of  Farm. Dairy  No. 

TOWN  OF STATE  OF Date 

Quantity  of  milk : 

Produced  here quarts  per  day.    Number  of  cows ;  number  milking. 


Receive  about quarts  per  day  from  dairy  of 

Shipment: 

Milk  is  taken  from  this  dairy  by  teams  of. ;    about a.m.  p.m. ;  delivered  at 

station  usually  about a.m.  p.m. ;    shipped  to  Lawrence 

by  railroad,  electrics,  team ;  reaches  there  about a.m.  p.m.,  and  is 

delivered  to  consumers  about a.m.  p.m. 

Milk  shipped  includes  :    Night  of  day  of  shipment Yes,  No ;   morning  of  day  of 

shipment ;  night  of  day  before  shipment ;  morning  of  day  before 

Exposure  of  milk  to  contamination: 

Water  supply  is  from  open  well,  covered  well,  spring,  pond Supply likely  to  be  contaminated. 

Privy  vaults protected  against  flies. 

Any  case  of  typhoid,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  tuberculosis,  tonsilitis at 

this  farm? What  cases  during  the  past  year? 


Milk  Cooling : 

Milk  is  cooled  by  placing  closed  cans  in  brook,  well,  spring,  tank 

Temperature  of  water  at  date Ice  is  used  for  cooling  during  months 

of Ice  on  hand sufficient  for  present  season. 

Other  method  of  cooling  is 

Inspector's  recommendations : 

Minor  improvements  suggested  

Important  improvements  especially  recommended 


Inspector  interviewed  at  dairy. owner,  lessee,  laborer. 

Sketch  or  photo  of  dairy  and  surroundings  : 


DAIRY    INSPECTION  — SCORE    CARD 

Approved  by  the  United  States  Government  and  by  the  Official  Dairy  Instructors'  Association 


EQUIPMENT 


COWS 
Health : 

Apparently  in  good  health  

If  tested  with  tuberculin  once  a  year 
and  no  tuberculosis  is  found,  or  if 
tested  once  in  six  months  and  all 
reacting  animals  removed 

(If  tested  only  once  a  year  and  react- 
ing animals  found  and  removed,  2.) 
Comfort : 

Bedding    

Temperature  of  stable 

Food  (clean  and  wholesome) 

Water : 

Clean  and  fresh  

Convenient  and  abundant 


STABLES 

Location  of  stable  : 

Well  drained 

Free  from  contaminating  surround- 
ings    

Construction  of  stable : 

Tight,  sound  floor  and  proper  gut- 
ter    

Smooth,  tight  walls  and  ceiling... 

Proper  stall,  tie,  and  manger  

Means  of  light :  Four  sq.  ft.  of  glass 
per  cow   

(Three  sq.  ft.,  3  ;  two  sq.  ft.,  2  ;  one 
sq.  ft.,  1.  Deduct  for  uneven 
distribution.) 

Ventilation:    Automatic  system 


(Adjustable  windows,  1.) 

Cubic  feet  of  space  for  cow :  500  to 

1000  feet  

(Less  than  500  feet,  2 ;  less  than  400 

feet,  1 ;  less  than  300  feet,  0  ;  over 

1000  feet,  0.) 

UTENSILS 

Construction  and  condition  of  uten- 
sils   

Water  for  cleaning 

(Clean,  convenient,  and  abundant.) 

Small-top  milking  pail 

Facilities  for  hot  water  or  steam  

(Should  be  in  milk  house,  not  in 
kitchen.) 

Milk  cooler 

Clean  milking  suits 

MILK    ROOM 
Location  of  milk  room  : 

Free  from  contaminating  surround- 
ings    

Convenient 

Construction  of  milk  room  : 

Floor,  walls,  and  ceiling 

Light,  ventilation,  screens 


Score  for  equipment. 


SCORE 


Perfect    Allowed 


40 


METHOD 


COWS 

Cleanliness  of  cows 

STABLES 

Cleanliness  of  stables  : 

Floor    

Walls 

Ceiling  and  ledges 

Mangers  and  partitions 

Windows  

Stable  air  at  milking  time  : 

Freedom  from  dust  

Freedom  from  odors 

Barnyard  clean  and  well  drained 

Removal  of  manure  daily  to  field  or 

proper  pit 


(To  50  feet  from  stable,  1.) 
MILK    ROOM 
Cleanliness  of  milk  room   ... 


UTENSILS  AND    MILKING 
Care  and  cleanliness  of  utensils: 

Thoroughly  washed 

Sterilized  in  live  steam  for  30 
minutes  

(Placed  over  steam  jet,  or  thor- 
oughly scalded  with  boiling  water,  2.) 

Inverted  in  pure  air 

Cleanliness  of  milking: 

Clean,  dry  hands 

Udders  washed  and  dried 

(Udders  cleaned  with  moist  cloth, 
4 ;  cleaned  with  dry  cloth  at  least  15 
minutes  before  milking,  1.) 

HANDLING   THE   MILK 

Cleanliness  of  attendants  in  milk  room 
Milk     removed     immediately    from 

stable  

Prompt  cooling  (cooled  immediately 

after  milking  each  cow) 

Efficient  cooling ;  below  50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  4;  56°  to  60°,  2.) 
Storage;    below  50°  F 

(51°  to  55°,  2;    56°  to  60°,  1.) 
Transportation ;  iced  in  summer 

(For  jacket  or  wet  blanket,  allow 
2 ;  dry  blanket  or  covered  wagon,  1.) 


Read  your  score  card 
carefully  and  improve 
where  score   is   low 


Score  for  method 


SCORE 


Perfect    Allowed 


60 


Score  for  equipment  of plus  score  for  method  of equals  Total  Score 

NOTE  1.— If  any  filthy  condition  is  found,  particularly  dirty  utensils,  the  total  score  shall  be  limited  to  49. 

NOTE  2. — If  the  water  is  exposed  to  dangerous  contamination,  or  there  is  evidence  of  the  presence  of  a  dangerous  disease  in  animals  or 
attendants,  the  score  shall  be  0. 

(Signed) Inspector. 

Inspection  sheet  prepared  by  The  Lawrence  Survey,  June,  1911 


156  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

results.  It  would  be  possible  for  a  farmer  to  fill  in  allowable  values 
for  the  various  items  that  would  give  him  a  fair  indication  of  many 
of  the  good  and  bad  features  in  his  own  dairy. 

Some  of  the  items  that  are  listed  pertain  to  the  location  of  the 
dairy,  the  amount  of  milk  produced,  or  bought,  the  water  supply 
and  method  of  cooling  —  all  of  which  is  useful  information  for 
comparing  one  dairy  with  another  or  for  tracing  a  milk  epidemic, 
but  the  principal  features  that  make  up  the  total  score  pertain  to 
elements  that  may  be  explained  in  a  general  way  by  describing 
what  would  be  especially  required  in  a  dairy  that -scored  seventy 
points  out  of  a  possible  one  hundred.  Such  a  dairy  should  have 
a  well-lighted  stable  —  preferably  four  square  feet  of  glass  per 
cow  —  better  lighted  than  a  house  cellar  and  about  equal  to  an 
ordinary  kitchen;  there  should  be  enough  cubic  feet  of  space  to 
provide  the  right  breathing  space  for  each  cow  —  500  to  1000 
cubic  feet  per  cow  is  recommended.  Small  top  milk  pails  should 
be  used.  See  types  shown  in  photo  on  page  157.  These  pails 
exclude  a  surprising  amount  of  dirt  that  otherwise  drops  into  the 
milk;  with  them  no  cloth  strainer  is  needed  while  milking.  A 
separate  room  should  be  provided  for  milk.  This  need  not  be  an 
expensive  building  or  room.  See  photo  on  page  190,  which  shows 
a  good  type  of  inexpensive  milk  room.  In  any  dairy,  however,  of 
first  importance  is  method.  First-class  cleanliness  of  cows  counts 
eight  points  out  of  the  100;  of  stable,  six  points;  freedom  from 
dust  and  odors,  six  points;  care  and  cleanliness  of  milking  utensils 
and  men  engaged  in  milking,  seventeen  points;  similarly  of  milk 
room,  attendants  and  methods  of  handling  the  milk,  nineteen 
points.  Thus,  by  maintaining  excellent  care  and  cleanliness, 
it  would  be  possible  for  even  an  old  and  poorly  equipped  dairy 
to  obtain  a  score  of  sixty  points  out  of  a  possible  100.  This  places 
a  premium,  as  it  should,  on  method  rather  than  on  equipment. 


Bull.  56,  Hygienic  Laboratory. 


TYPES  OF  MILK  PAILS.     NARROW-TOP  PAILS  ARE  BEST. 

One  copy  of  the  score  sheet  as  made  out  for  each  dairy- 
inspected  has  been  furnished  to  the  owner  or  lessee  of  the  dairy, 
and  when  there  was  a  milk  contractor  one  copy  has  been  sent  to 
him,  and  one  copy  of  each  inspection  has  been  kept  on  file  at  the 
office  of  the  Survey.  These  inspections  have  all  been  made  by  two 
persons,  the  writer  covering  thirty  dairies,  and  Mr.  G.  S.  Miller 
120  dairies.  In  order  that  our  methods  might  be  fairly  comparable, 
Mr.  Miller  at  first  inspected  in  company  with  me,  and  together  we 
compared  notes  and  scores  until  we  were  assured  that  our  complete 
scores  when  added  up  checked  within  two  per  cent. 

At  the  completion  of  our  inspection  of  farms  on  the  South 
of  the  Merrimack  a  report  was  sent  to  each  farm  indicating  the 
averages  of  all  results  obtained  to  that  date.  Similarly,  at  the 
completion  of  all  inspections,  the  following  letter  was  sent  to  the 
remaining  farms :  — 

September  15,  191 1 
Dear  Sir: 

I  am  sending  to  you  herewith  a  copy  of  the  report  of 
our  inspection  of  your  dairy.  You  may  be  interested  to  compare 
the  conditions  as  indicated  by  your  Score  with  those  that  we  have 
found  in  other  dairies.  For  that  purpose  I  am  including  a  summary 
result  of  all  dairies  that  we  have  inspected.  This  includes  at  least 
four-fifths  of  all  dairies  that  are  located  within  a  radius  of  fifteen 
miles  of  Lawrence  and  which  supply  milk  to  this  City. 


158  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Number  of  dairies  in  all,  148 

Number  of  dairies  supplying  directly  to  consumers,  52 

Number   of   dairies    selling   milk   to    contractors,  96 
Number  of  dairies  out  of  the  148  that  have  at  least 

4   sq.    ft.    of   glass   per   cow,  36  or  24.3% 
Number  having  500-1000  cu.  ft.  of  space  per  cow,  in         75.0 
Using  small  top  milk  pails,  16         10.8 
Washing  udders  of  cows  before  milking,  or  wip- 
ing  with    a    moist    cloth,  8           5.4 
Cooling  milk  below  55  F.  at  date  of  inspection,  80         54.0 
Using  ice  for  cooling  and  storage,  84        56.7 
Having  a   separate   milk  room   that   is   used  for 
washing  the  utensils,  handling  the  milk  and 
storage,  49        33.1 
That  remove  milk  immediately  from  the  stable,  52         35.1 
Average    score    of    the    148    dairies,    for    equipment  21.2 
Average    score    of    the    148    dairies,    for    method  32.3 
Average    total   score,  53.5 
Lowest   total   score    of   any    dairy,  24.0 
Highest  total   score   of  any   dairy,  92.5 

A  Dairy  to  be  classified  as  having  especially  good  qualities, 
and  able  to  furnish  a  superior  milk  that  could  be  classified  as  an 
Inspected  Milk  selling  for  nine  or  ten  cents  a  quart,  should  have 
a  Score  of  at  least  sixty-five;  and  if  the  bottling  station  is  in 
another  plant,  that  also  should  have  a  Score  of  at  least  sixty-five. 

We  expect  to  publish  a  list  of  dairies  and  bottling  stations 
supplying  Lawrence  that  now  score  sixty  or  more.  Should  you 
carry  forward  improvements  which  materially  change  your  score, 
please  notify  us  and  we  will  credit  the  report  that  we  have  on  file. 

The  object  of  this  investigation  is  to  secure  an  improved 
quality  of  milk.  It  is  a  movement  for  Clean  Milk  and  a  Fair  Price 
to  the  Farmer.  May  we  include  your  name  in  a  list  of  those  who 
are  willing  to  cooperate  in  carrying  forward  such  a  movement? 

Yours   truly, 

FRANK  B.  SANBORN,  Engineer 

Tabulated  sheets  have  been  made  out  showing  for  each  farm 
the  general  condition  of  its  equipment  and  method,  and  the  sum 
total  of  all  these  sheets  has  given  the  following  summary  results 
for  the  different  towns:  — 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  159 

Results  of  dairy  inspections  of  150  farms,  summarized  by  towns. 


1 

1* 

3 

Is 
=  i 

d 
0 
y 

"73 

^0 

"0  «» 

=  1 

^7     CO 

"73 

^  S. 
I"8 

i  s 

«8     O 

< 

«  5 

s  ° 
JS  0 

"°  t3 

Z'-B 

c   u 
is   « 

"8  ~ 

d 
Z 

u 

0 
0 

V 

< 

Andover 

25 

2240 

7.8 

9 

16 

52.0 

Boxford 

8 

745 

8.1 

1 

7 

57-i 

Haverhill 

3 

300 

— 

— 

3 

Lawrence 

1 

150 

— 

1 

— 

Methuen 

47 

7700 

9.2 

27 

20 

55-3 

North  Andover 

27 

2560 

7-9 

3 

24 

564 

Pelham,  N.  H. 

10 

595 

9.2 

0 

10 

43-9 

Salem,  N.  H. 

20 

1350 

9-4 

11 

9 

52.3 

15640 

Boxford,  Methuen  and  North  Andover  lead  in  standards  of 
dairies  and  methods  of  producing  milk. 

Total  amount  of  milk  supplied  to  Lawrence. 

From  farms  within  seven  miles  of  the  City,  15,640  quarts  daily 

Derry,  N.  H.,  and  Vicinity,  delivered 

by  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons,  about  965      " 

Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  towns 
included  between  Newport,  Vt, 
and  Wells  River,  Vt.,  also  de- 
livered by  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons,  2550      " 

Ten  towns  in  Maine  located  in  the 
vicinity  of  Rumford  Falls,  and 
delivered  by  the  Turner  Center 
Dairying  Association,  4000     "         " 


23155 
In  our  inspections  we  have  included  farms  which  deliver  some 
milk  in  Andover,  North  Andover  and  Methuen.    This  amount,  how- 
ever,  is  estimated  at  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  total   and  is 
probably  about  balanced  by  farms  which  have  been  overlooked. 

Total  supply  to  the  city  would  appear  to  be  approximately 
24,000  quarts  daily. 


160  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Total  number  of  farms  that  send  milk  to  Lawrence. 

Number  of  farms  near  Lawrence, 

Determined  by  field  inspections  of  this  Survey,  155 

Around  Derry,  N.  H., 

Reported  by  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons,  and  in  part  verified 

by  inspections  of  farms,  45 

In   Vermont    (and   border   towns   in   New   Hampshire) 
Reported  by  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons,  as  furnishing  the 
milk  from  which  their  supply  for  Lawrence  is 
taken,  63 

In  Maine, 

Reported  by  Turner  Center  Dairying  Association,  as 
furnishing  the  milk  from  which  the  supply  for 
Lawrence  is  taken,  281 


544 

This  list  does  not  include  all  miscellaneous  farms  that  supply 
small  quantities  of  milk  —  ten  to  twenty  quarts  per  day  —  nor 
those  that  supply  the  cream  that  comes  from  Boston. 

In  all  over  600  different  farms  doubtless  send  milk  to  the  City. 

Examples  of  dairies,  good  and  faulty :  — 

The  statement  is  often  made  that  dairies  which  fulfill  modern 
sanitary  requirements  can  be  maintained  only  by  rich  people  — ■  that 
the  common  farmer  cannot  afford  to  equip  and  run  his  dairy  in 
that  way. 

I  wish  to  show,  however,  by  the  following  views  and  descrip- 
tions that  some  of  the  farms  that  we  have  credited  with  high 
scores  are  not  exceptional  ones.  It  is  true  that  modern  require- 
ments call  for  some  up-to-date  dairying  methods  and  the  farmers 
to  pursue  them  must  have  sufficient  funds  to  make  a  small  invest- 
ment. Two  or  three  hundred  dollars  in  many  instances,  would  be 
sufficient  to  meet  all  requirements,  and  many  of  the  farms  that 
have  been  inspected  and  have  scores  of  fifty  or  thereabouts,  could 
easily  raise  those  scores  to  over  sixty  by  merely  changing  some 
of  their  methods,  without  added  expense.     For  example : 

By  having  the  milkmen  wash  their  hands  before  milking; 
wipe  the  udders  of  the  cows  with  a  moist  cloth;  remove  the  milk 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


161 


from  the  stable  immediately  after  milking;  and  by  washing  the 
floors  and  walls  of  the  milk  room  and  white-washing  the  tie-ups 
in  the  stables.  These  are  improvements  that  can  readily  be  made 
with  little  or  no  expenditure. 

Although  modern  dairying  methods  do  require  some  outlay 
and  the  farmers  must  be  sufficiently  well-to-do  to  spend  a  small 
amount,  these  requirements  seldom  prevent  an  ordinary  farmer 
from  fulfilling  them.  The  difficulty  usually  is  that  the  farmer, 
who  does  not  improve,  is  one  who  is  either  too  indifferent  to  pursue 
dairying  methods  or  too  conservative  to  adopt  modern  methods.  One 
of  the  dilapidated,  neglected  farms  that  was  visited  belonged,  I 
was  informed,  to  "  the  richest  man  in  town." 

Examples  of  good  dairies : 

The  following  cuts  show  some  of  the  creditable  dairies.  A 
few  of  these  have  expensive  equipments  and  excellent  methods 
maintained  at  great  expense  as  model  farms ;  others  represent  the 
dairy  of  the  ordinary  farmer  who  is  carrying  on  his  business 
primarily  for  the  reasonable  profit  that  it  returns  to  him. 


View    of    an    excellent    farm    which    evidently    would    produce    milk    under    sanitary- 
conditions. 


1 62 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Cow   stable,   well   lighted,   ample   space.      Cleanliness   of   cows,   buildings   and   utensils, 

excellent. 


Modern    stable    with    tie-up    in    basement,    yel    ample    lighl    and    air    space.      Good 

condil inns    throughout. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


163 


Same  farm  as  preceding.     A'  herd  at  pasture  under  favorable  conditions. 


Common  farm  buildings.  A  few  years  ago  this  farm  was  converted  into  a  milk 
farm  under  modern  requirements.  A  run-about  automobile  provided  with  an 
enclosed   top   serves   for   delivering   milk   quickly. 


164 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Modern    one-story    dairy   built    especially    for    milk    business    and    maintained    under 

good   conditions. 


Special     form    of    cow    si  iblc. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


i6< 


Stable    yard    and    herd    of    excellent    dairy    that    is    maintained    at    greater    expense 
than  possible   on  most   farms. 


Common    farm    buildings    having    ample    means    of    light    for    the    cows    and    good 
conditions    maintained    throughout   with    small    outlay. 


i66 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Newly  constructed  sanitary  milk  farm  under  the  very  best  conditions ;  excellent 
equipment  and  methods  throughout.  Photo  shows  milk  house  and  loading- 
platform    in   foreground. 


Hu  u  ~^^5                                    HHB 

■*■■     ■    -;:  . 

'    ■        •  •.^^..^.^Vw-*-*  *»■  *X: 

iTSUff  f7^r»  ■***    'W^T 

-^-%'^ 

pgpg«  *** 

Up  I-  date    fa 


dern 


consi  rucli 
readily 


n     and     equi 


>pte< 


>ment.      Progressive    methods 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


167 


Examples  of  faults  in  dairies. 

The  following  farms  illustrate  certain  of  the  objectionable 
features  that  have  been  noted  during  our  inspections.  It  will  be 
appreciated  by  every  intelligent  reader  that  without  question,  the 
most  serious  fault  existing  in  these  farms  is  that  attributed  to 
lack  of  cleanliness.  Neglect  in  methods  of  handling  milk  entirely 
transcends  the  advantages  of  first-class  equipment.  An  old  farm 
scrupulously  clean  is  better  than  a  modern  dairy  carelessly  main- 
tained. It  is  true,  however,  that  neglect  more  commonly  goes  with 
the  old  dilapidated  places. 

Some  of  the  lowest  scoring  dairies  are  shown  herewith. 

It  is  not  my  desire  to  point  out  by  referring  to  these  dairies 
individual  instances  of  neglect.  Instead,  I  wish  to  show  character- 
istics, and  in  some  of  the  views  that  have  been  selected  as 
illustrating  objectionable  features,  the  owner,  or  manager,  at  the 
farm  agreed  with  me  perfectly  in  recognizing  these  objections, 
and  in  several  instances  expressed  the  intention  to  remedy  the  faults. 


4> 

__            ,^  \ 

iii  1  tiiniii         iifow 

^              ■            JL          ■              ■             ■      .             m     m       ^~f 

- 

1 

, 

Ample  light  is  as  important  for  cows  as  it  is  for  poultry  and  horses.  Formerly 
very  little  attention  was  paid  to  window  space  for  cow  barns.  This  photo 
illustrates    a   barn   that   has   only   one-fourth    enough    window   space. 


i68 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


This   place   is   run   by   men   of    foreign   birth   who   have    no    one    to    keep   house   for 
them,    and   there   were   many  evidences   of   lack   of   cleanliness. 


The  lcanto  on  this  barn  makes  a  covered  space  for  cows  when  in  the  yard  but 
seriousl)  interferes  with  light  so  that  the  interior  of  the  stable  is  dark  and 
objectionable.      A   new    barn    is   contemplated,    and   should   be   built    at    once. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


169 


Noticeable   lack   of   equipment   and  method   at  this   farm, —  as   the   picture   indicates. 


Similarly,    conditions    at    this    dairy    are    plainly    told    by    the    photograph  ;    they    are 

seriously   objectionable. 


I/O 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Illustration   of   an   old   and   cluttered   farm.      Will   modern  methods   be   adopted   here? 


Insufficient    light,   no   milk   room. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


171 


H 

;,i  ■::.-■: 

HhK^j9VW«F'  v                    ^  ./4i3MBi&? 

Hife 

Insufficient    light ;    no    milk    room  ;    improvements    needed    which    possibly    would    be 

made   if   properly  urged. 


Large  and  adequate  farm  buildings  may  be  run  without  sufficient  regard  to  modern 
requirements.  This  farm  does  not  need  new  buildings,  but  with  improvements 
in    methods   high-class   milk    could    be    produced    here. 


172 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


^B  *  '?  HI  if 

1      -»4'   -V'V* 

F 

.       .  ,  fc          MM      ,.„...■  J±              :^jS\ 

'  1    f-.-t 

am 

- r  -  — 

1 

A  typical  view  of  conditions  which  would  be  objected  to  by  many  people  ;  but  one-half 
of   the   farms   that   supply   milk   to   Lawrence   are   no   better. 


Piles  of  manure  al    times  extend   to  windows.     Conditions  inside  similarly   neglected. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


173 


- 

• 

«        * 

4  v": 

' 

** 

»* * 

The  milk  bottles  and  wash-tub  occupy  the  only  milk  room  in  use  at  this  dairy. 
This  is  out-of-doors  and  near  a  brook.  Here  the  bottles  are  rinsed  after 
washing  in  a  tub  with  water  that  is  brought  from  the  house  kitchen.  Three 
hundred   quarts   of   milk   are   sent   from   here   to    Lawrence   each   day. 


This  box  made  of  rough  boards  loosely  put  together,  allowing  dust  and  rain  to 
penetrate,  is  the  only  place  for  storage  of  milk.  Open  cans  filled  with  milk 
were  found  to  contain  specks  of  dirt,  while  in  one  can  there  was  a  live  frog. 
Extended  improvements  were  recommended  to  the  owner  who  said  that  he 
would  see  that  they  were  made.  A  second  visit  a  few  weeks  later  showed 
a  small  beginning. 


174  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

List  of  good  dairies  :  — 

When  we  consider  the  means  of  improving  the  dairies,  two 
alternatives  are  usually  open; — To  condemn  the  bad  dairies  and 
compel  the  owners  to  better  the  conditions  or  go  out  of  the  milk 
business :  or  instead,  to  approve  the  good  dairies,  publish  a  list  of 
them  and  thus  give  the  consumers  an  opportunity  to  buy  the  best 
quality.  The  proper  authorities  should  doubtless  prohibit  the  sale 
of  milk  from  some  of  the  worst  of  the  dairies,  but  for  the  purposes 
of  this  investigation  I  have  decided  to  designate  only  the  good 
dairies,  and  I  am  including  herewith  a  list  of  twenty-eight  dairies 
that  were  found  to  be  supplying  milk  that  is  produced  under 
especially  good  conditions.  Any  farm  that  is  included  in  the 
following  list  has  obtained  a  score  of  at  least  sixty  points  out  of 
a  possible  ioo  and  either  delivers  milk  directly  to  consumers  or 
sells  to  a  contractor  who  has  a  bottling  plant  that  also  has  been 
found  to  have  a  score  of  sixty  or  more. 

Several  high-grade  farms  are  omitted  because  at  present  they 
sell  milk  to  contractors  who  have  bottling  plants  that  score  under 
sixty.  A  few  other  farms  contemplate  making  improvements 
which  would  materially  increase  their  scores,  but,  as  these  farms 
are  now  a  little  below  sixty  they  are  not  included  in  this  present  list. 
A  few  farms  have  followed  the  suggestions  made  in  our  reports 
on  their  dairies  and  have  accordingly  raised  their  score  above  sixty 
since  our  first  inspection. 

Following  is  the  corrected  list  of  names  with  the  quarts  of 
milk  produced  at  the  time  of  inspections  in  the  summer:  — 

Andover  :  —  Shattuck  Bros,  produce  400  quarts  daily ;  sell 
direct  to  consumers.  Wm.  M.  Wood  produces  160  quarts;  40  of 
which  are  delivered  to  the  Wood  Mill  Restaurant;  rest,  not  sold. 

Boxford: — J.  W.  Chadwick  produces  300  quarts  and  sells 
direct  to  consumers;  Thomas  Downes,  50  quarts  and  sells  to 
C.  D.  Glennie,  contractor;  J.  Henry  Nason,  100  quarts  and  sells 
to  C.  D.  Glennie. 

I  JERRY,  N.  H.  :  —  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  deliver  six  to  ten  quarts 
of  special  milk,  and  designated  "  Hood  Farm  Milk  "  to  distinguish 
from  their  general  supply. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  175 

North  Andoyer  :  —  Chas.  Appleton  produces  30  quarts ; 
James  Glemiie,  150  quarts;  North  Anclover  Town  Farm,  30  quarts; 
Wm.  H.  Phelps,  35  quarts,  and  all  sell  to  C.  D.  Glennie,  contractor. 

Lawrence;  —  Theobald  Daley  produces  150  quarts,  sells 
direct  to  consumers. 

Methuen  :  —  All  of  the  following  producers  sell  direct  to 
consumers:  —  E.  L.  Bragdon,  325  quarts  daily;  L.  S.  Cox,  250 
quarts ;  D.  F.  Connelly,  200  quarts ;  W.  M.  Dooley,  220  quarts ; 
G.  E.  Flanders,  160  quarts;  Fred  L.  Gardner,  130  quarts;  F.  H. 
Giles,  140  quarts;  Harnisch  Bros.,  300  quarts;  John  Hoh,  190 
quarts;  Fred  Miller,  375  quarts;  E.  D.  Taylor,  450  quarts;  W.  E. 
Williams,  450  quarts;  G.  K.  Webster,  250  quarts;  and  F.  L.  Currier 
produces  35  quarts  and  sells  to  F.  L.  Gardner;  Chas.  Kitchin  pro- 
duces 100  quarts  and  sells  50  quarts  direct. 

Salem  :  —  P.  H.  Caron  &  Son  produce  160  quarts  and  sell 
direct  to  consumers;  R.  H.  Dunbar,  200  quarts  and  sells  direct  to 
consumers. 

The  foregoing  farms  furnish  a  grade  of  milk  that  would  be 
classified  as  Inspected  Milk.  In  addition  there  are  a  few  sources 
of  Certified  or  Special  milk  as  follows : 

The  Walker-Gordon  Laboratory  Company  furnishes  special 
or  modified  milk  that  is  sold  principally  by  prescription  and  for 
infants.     Price  eighteen  to  fifty  cents  a  quart  taken  in  Boston. 

Certified  milk  is  furnished  by  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons,  from  the 
Middlebrook  Farm,  Dover,  N.  H.  This  milk  is  certified  by  the 
Milk  Commission  of  the  Suffolk  District  Medical  Society.  Retail 
price  is  sixteen  cents  a  quart. 

Certified  milk  is  also  available  from  the  farms  of  J.  A.  and 
W.  H.  Gould.  The  milk  is  certified  by  the  Medical  Milk  Com- 
mission of  Boston.  The  Messrs.  Gould  have  three  certified  farms : 
one  in  Reading  with  about  forty-five  cows,  another  in  Beverly, 
with  180  cows,  and  one  in  Essex  with  100  cows.  Milk  would  be 
delivered  by  express  and  price  would  be  sixteen  cents  a  quart. 


176  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Inspection  of  the  Hood  Farms  :  — 

From  farms  located  in  towns  of  Londonderry,  Hudson  and 
Windham,  all  within  six  miles  of  Derry,  N.  H.,  about  965  quarts 
of  milk  at  the  time  of  our  inspection  were  being  shipped  to  Law- 
rence daily.  This  milk  is  collected  by  three  teams  which  take  it  to 
the  plant  of  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  at  Derry  Depot.  There  it  is 
pasteurized,  bottled,  and  afterwards  sent  to  Lawrence  by  railroad 
milk  cars.  The  writer  visited  this  plant  August '15th  and  16th 
and  on  the  18th  visited  some  of  the  farms  that  produce  this  milk. 

Milk  is  received  at  the  bottling  plant  from  many  farms  in 
surrounding  towns,  which  make  up  the  general  supply  for  both 
Lawrence  and  Boston,  Mass.,  but  the  three  routes  referred  to  above 
constitute  in  ordinary  cases  the  supply  for  Lawrence.  Forty-five 
farms  make  up  this  supply.  The  writer  selected  ten  from  the  list 
as  typical  ones  to  visit  and  made  a  personal  examination  of  them, 
filling  out  a  score-sheet  for  seven,  which  enabled  him  to  compare 
with  the  conditions  that  were  found  in  farms  nearby  Lawrence. 

Before  inspecting  these  farms,  the  writer  was  informed  by 
milk  contractors  and  disinterested  parties  that  farms  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  a  city  would  be  found  to  score  less  than 
those  nearby;  whereas  representatives  of  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  said 
that  they  regarded  the  dairies  in  Vermont,  the  most  distant  they 
have,  as  being  better  than  those  near  at  hand;  but  of  all  their 
sources  they  considered  the  farms  around  Derry,  N.  H.,  the  best 
because  those  farms  were  within  the  influence  of  their  own  model 
farm,  and  therefore  of  the  highest  excellence.  Milk  from  these 
farms  near  Derry  is  bottled  to  supply  the  family  trade,  while  milk 
from  Vermont  is  sold  in  eight-quart  cans  at  wholesale.  For  these 
reasons  it  seemed  desirable  to  make  as  fair  a  comparison  as  possible 
between  the  conditions  at  Derry  and  those  near  Lawrence. 

As  a  result  of  an  inspection  of  these  farms,  it  appears  that 
conditions  there  are  not  greatly  different  from  those  in  the  farms 
that  are  nearer  Lawrence.  The  Derry  farms  are  slightly  better 
than  dairies  in  Pelham,  N.  H.,  and  inferior  to  those  in  Salem,  N.  H. ; 
they  are  decidedly  below  those  of  Boxford,  Methuen  and  North 
Andover. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  177 

Milk  is  taken  from  the  above  farms  to  the  plant  at  Derry  in 
eight-quart  cans  of  ordinary  construction,  many  of  which  by  hard 
usage  have  become  battered  and  rusted,  and  transportation  is  by 
ordinary  open  wagons,  in  which  the  cans  are  covered  with  blankets. 
The  maximum  haul  is  about  seven  miles,  over  roads  fairly  free 
from  dust,  and  better  than  found  in  many  country  districts.  The 
residences  of  two  of  these  teamsters  were  visited,  and  the  teams 
of  empty  cans  and  cans  of  sour  milk  were  found  without  any 
special  sanitary  protection.  In  fact,  in  the  transportation  of  this 
milk  and  the  methods  of  handling  by  the  teamsters,  there  was  no 
apparent  advance  over  the  ordinary  methods  of  thirty  years  ago. 

After  the  milk  is  delivered  at  the  Derry  plant,  about  seven 
o'clock  each  morning,  each  can  is  sampled  by  an  inspector  who 
takes  out  a  spoonful  and  tastes  of  it,  rejecting  any  can  of  milk  that 
is  sour.  A  number  of  ordinary  spoons  are  used  for  this  method  of 
sampling,  and  commonly  each  spoon  is  dipped  in  a  dish  of  water 
after  each  sample  is  taken  and  before  it  is  used  again.  Milk  that 
passes  this  inspection  is  poured  into  a  heater  where  the  temperature 
is  raised  to  1460  F.  It  is  then  pumped  through  pipes  to  a  heating 
tank  in  a  separate  room  in  the  third  story.  It  flows  through  this 
tank  slowly,  taking  about  twenty-five  minutes  to  pass  through.  It 
then  passes  over  a  large  cooler  in  a  separate  room  directly  beneath 
the  holding  tank.  Here  it  is  quickly  cooled  to  about  400  F.  It  then 
flows  through  pipes  to  rooms  in  the  first  story  where  it  is  either 
bottled  or  put  in  cans.  This  process  constitutes  one  form  of  pas- 
teurizing milk  in  bulk. 

The  milk  from  the  Vermont  supply,  also  received  at  the  Derry 
plant,  is  generally  used  for  wholesale  trade  in  both  Lawrence  and 
Boston.  The  milk  that  goes  to  Lawrence  comes  principally  from 
farms  that  are  located  between  Newport  in  the  extreme  northerly 
part  of  Vermont,  and  Wells  River,  Vermont.  From  this  source 
about  2550  quarts  per  day  were  reported  as  being  shipped  to  Law- 
rence at  the  time  of  the  writer's  visit  in  August.  This  milk  comes 
in  milk  cars,  in  eight-quart  cans.  It  was  found  to  be  thoroughly 
iced,  and  at  a  temperature  of  below  500  F.  when  received.  In  the 
same   way   as    for   the   milk    described    above,    this    supply   when 


i78 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


received  is  first  sampled  by  tasting  for  sourness,  then  heated  to 
1460  F.,  cooled  to  about  400  F.,  and  put  in  cans  ready  for  shipment 
to  Lawrence  the  same  day,  and  delivered  to  customers  the  following 
day.  The  interval  from  the  time  that  milk  is  produced  on  farms 
around  Derry  to  the  time  of  its  delivery  to  consumers  in  Lawrence 
is  from  thirty-six  to  forty-eight  hours;  and  the  corresponding 
interval  from  the  farms  in  Vermont  to  consumers  in  Lawrence  is 
from  sixty  to  seventy-two  hours. 

In  order  to  secure  desirable  improvements  in  conditions  at  the 
dairy,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  working  spirit  of  cooperation  between 
the  farmer  and  the  milk  contractor.  This  cooperation  is  not  as 
evident  at  Derry  as  in  the  places  near  Lawrence.  Many  of  the 
farmers  have  outspoken  grievances ;  some  were  considering  selling 
their  milk  to  other  contractors,  and  others  were  disposed  to 
abandon  milk  production  unless  they  could  realize  better  returns. 


The    Bottling   Plant   of   H.    P.   Hood   &   Sons   at   Derry,    N.    H. 

Besides  the  milk  supplies  from  farms  around  Derry,  and  the 
supply  from  Vermont,  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  also  have  a  farm  of 
their  own  at  Derry  and  the  milk  from  this  place  is  sold  as  the  Hood 
Farm  Milk,  a  special  milk,  at  twelve  cents  per  quart.  The  main 
stable  contains  eighty  cows.  It  is  a  two-story  building,  the  upper 
story  being  used  for  hay,  the  first  story  for  cows,  the  cellar  for 
manure  which  is  removed  daily.  Although  this  building  is  not  of 
modern  construction,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  bring  conditions 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  179 

up  to  a  high  standard.  Besides  this  main  stable,  there  are  two 
others  associated  with  this  Hood  Farm,  the  Bradford,  about  half 
a  mile  away,  and  containing  twenty-seven  cows;  and  the  Clark, 
one  mile  away,  and  containing  twenty-five  cows.  These  two  farms 
are  now  conducted  by  the  superintendent  of  the  main  farm.  Milk 
is  all  brought  to  the  bottling  station  at  the  main  farm,  where  it  is 
bottled  without  pasteurizing  and  shipped  to  various  cities.  Six 
to  ten  quarts  a  day  are  sent  to  Lawrence. 

Turner  Center  Dairying  Association  :  — 

The  milk  that  comes  to  Lawrence  from  the  Turner  Center 
Dairying  Association  of  Auburn,  Me.,  about  4000  quarts,  con- 
stitutes a  sixth  part  of  the  total  amount  that  is  used  in  the  City. 
It  is  received  at  the  plant  of  the  Association  here  in  Lawrence 
as  skim-milk,  cream,  and  buttermilk.  About  one-half  is  sold  as 
skim-milk,  800  quarts  per  day  as  ordinary  milk,  prepared  by  blend- 
ing cream  and  skim-milk,  and  the  rest  as  buttermilk  and  cream. 
Only  a  small  amount  is  sold  at  retail;  but  mostly  to  hotels, 
restaurants,  stores,  and  milkmen,  many  of  whom  buy  here  when 
their  regular  supply  runs  short. 

The  Turner  Center  milk  comes  largely  from  farms  in  ten 
towns  around  Hartford  and  Livermore  Falls,  Maine,  constituting 
what  is  known  as  the  Rangely  division  of  the  Turner  Center  dairies. 
The  Association  has  furnished  a  list  of  these  farms,  together  with 
score  cards  made  by  their  inspectors. 

The  average  scores  as  here  credited  are  apparently  higher  than 
scores  obtained  by  our  methods  here  in  Lawrence.  This  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  form  of  card  has  been  used  that  is  less  exacting. 
Also,  different  inspectors  are  likely  to  have  different  standards,  and 
in  order  to  make  a  fair  comparison  of  the  score  of  one  district 
with  that  of  another,  either  the  same  inspector  should  do  the  work, 
or  the  different  inspectors  should  be  guided  by  one  common  method. 
It  is  noted  in  the  Turner  Center  score  cards,  that  two  farms  were 
inspected  by  a  different  inspector  from  all  the  rest  and  these  farms 
have  particularly  low  scores. 

It  is  claimed  by  this  Association  that  they  make  a  special  point 
of  cooling  the  milk,  that  their  "  farmers  have  ice,  and  the  milk  is 


180  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

put  in  ice  water  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn,  and  never  gets  warmed  up." 
This  is  a  requirement  that  probably  would  not  be  fully  lived  up 
to  by  all  the  farmers.  The  importance  of  cooling  milk,  and 
keeping  it  cold  by  proper  icing  is  doubtless  well  appreciated  by  the 
Association,  and  the  necessity  is  evident  when  one  considers  the 
time, —  not  less  than  three  days  —  that  must  elapse  between  the 
production  of  this  milk  and  its  delivery  in  Lawrence. 

Milk  is  taken  from  the  farms  to  the  various  railroad  stations, 
then  transported  by  cars  to  Auburn,  Maine,  where  it  is  pasteurized 
and  clarified  through  separators,  brought  to  the  required  standard 
of  fats,  drawn  into  cans,  put  in  storage,  and  later  shipped  by  rail- 
road to  Lawrence.  This  is  the  usual  procedure  for  the 
Lawrence  supply ;  but  at  times  when  railroad  trains  are  off  schedule, 
and  during  certain  of  the  hot  spells,  the  usual  order  of  shipment  is 
disarranged,  and  milk  from  various  other  sources  which  is  received 
at  their  Auburn  plant  must  be  sent  forward. 


Milk  Bottling  Plants  for  Lawrence. 

Out  of  the  total  amount  of  15,640  quarts  of  milk  per  day 
that  is  supplied  to  the  city  of  Lawrence  from  nearby  towns,  7688 
quarts  or  about  one-half  is  received  by  contractors,  and 
bottled  near  the  City  before  being  delivered  to  consumers.  There 
are  twenty-two  of  these  bottling  plants,  thus  supplying  milk  to 
the  City. 

The  standard  of  methods  used  in  bottling  should  correspond 
with  the  requirements  in  the  dairies.  A  dairy  that  has  excellent 
equipment  and  maintains  excellent  methods  should  have  associated 
with  it  a  bottling  plant  of  equal  standards. 

In  order  to  determine  the  qualities  of  the  various  bottling 
plants  a  form  of  inspection  sheet  or  score  card  has  been  prepared  as 
shown  herewith.  The  values  assigned  to  the  various  items  corre- 
spond with  those  recommended  by  the  United  States  government 
This  score  card  lias  been  used  for  fifteen  of  the  above  bottling  plants 
and  the  results  have  been  tabulated.  The  following  is  a  summary 
of  these  results : 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  181 

Number  of  plants  inspected,  15 

1  has  a  separate  handling  room. 
8  have  hot  water  heaters. 

13  have  apparatus  in  good  condition. 

2  are  free  from  odor  and  flies. 
10  have  floors  clean.    • 

10  receive  and  store  milk  below  550  F. 

Total  quarts  of  milk  furnished  daily  by  these  15  plants,     6855 

Average  score  for  equipment,  18.8 

Average  score  for  method,  26.8 

Average  total  score,  45.6 

Lowest,  26.0 

Highest,  62.0 

INSPECTION   OF   MILK   BOTTLING   PLANTS 

BY 

THE  LAWRENCE   SURVEY,  520   BAY  STATE  BUILDING 


Owner  or  manager  Plant    No 

Trade   name  State  of 

City   or   town  Date  of  inspection 

Permit   or   License    No. 

Business    of    plant:     Bottling    milk,    separating    cream,    preparing    butter, 
making    ice    cream 

Milk   is    furnished    by 

In    summer   is   received   packed   in   ice:    comes   by   team,   refrigerator   cars, 
freight    cars: 

Temperature   of  newly  received  milk 

Exposure    of    milk    to    contamination: 

Water   supply   is    from    covered   well,    spring,    pond,    city   pipes 

Supply likely   to   be   contaminated 

Privy  vaults protected   against  flies 

Drain    pipes    connect    to    public    system,    to    cesspool,    to    river, 

cases     of     typhoid,     scarlet     fever,     diphtheria,     tuberculosis, 
tonsilitis,    or among    employees    at    this    plant 

What   cases    during   the   past   year? 

Inspector's    recommendations: 

Minor   improvements    suggested 

Important    improvements    especially    recommended 

Inspector    interviewed    at    plant owner,    lessee,    laborer 

Sketch   or  photo   of  plant   and   surroundings. 


CITY   MILK   PLANTS-SCORE  CARD 

RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  UNITED  STATES   GOVERNMENT 


BUILDING 

BUILDING 

EQUIPMENT 

SCORE 

METHOD 

SCORE 

Location:   Free  from  contaminat- 

Cleanliness: 

ing   surroundings 

2 

Floors 

3 

Arrangement: 

Walls 

1 

Separate  receiving   room 

1 

Ceilings 

2 

Separate  handling  room 

2 

Doors  and  windows 

1 

Separate  wash   room 

Shafting,  pulleys,  hangers,  pipes 

1 

Separate  sales  room 

Freedom  from    odors 

2 

Separate  boiler   room 

Freedom  from    flies    and    other 

Construction: 

insects 

3 

Floors  tight,  sound,  cleanable 

Drainage 

2 

Walls  tight,  smooth,  cleanable 
Ceilings    smooth,    tight,    clean- 

APPARATUS 

able 

Cleanliness: 

Provisions  for  pure  air 

Thoroughly  washed   and   rinsed 

6 

Screens 

Sterilized  in  live  steam  30  min- 

Minimum   of    shafting,    pulleys, 

utes 

5 

hangers,  exposed  pipes,  etc. 

(Thoroughly      scalded      after 

Provisions  for  light 

•washing      with      water      over 
2000  F.    or   live    steam,    3) 
Boxes,    papers    or    caps    steril- 

APPARATUS 

Boiler 

2 

ized 

3 

(Hot-water  heater          i) 

Protected  from  dirt 

2 

Milk    cooler    or    ice-cream    ma- 

chine 

2 

HANDLING  MILK 

Refrigerator 

2 

Received    below    500  F. 

5 

Appliances  for  cleaning  bottles 

(5p°-55°,  4;  55:-6o°.  3) 

and  utensils 

2 

Rapidity  of  handling  in  plant 

3 

Racks,     etc.,     for    utensils     and 

Freedom     from     undue     expos- 

bottles after  cleaning 

1 

ure  to  air  in  plant 

2 

Sterilizer   for  utensils   and   bot- 

Capping bottles   by  machine 

1 

tles 

2 

Bottle  top  and  cap  protected  by 

Bottling  or  package  machine 

1 

covering 

2 

Wash  bowl,  soap  and  towel  for 

Storage  450  F.  or  below 

3 

attendants 

2 

(45°-5o0,  2;  5O0-55°,  1) 

Protection  during  delivery 
Condition  of  apparatus 

2 

INSPECTION 

(Make    deduction    for    inacces- 

Bacteriological   work 

4 

sible  parts,  open  seams,  rusty 

Inspection   of  dairies   supplying 

ware,     decayed     or     battered 

milk 

5 

tables    or    sink,    milk-carrying 

(Once   a   year,    t  ;    four   times   a 

pipes     with     rough     interiors 

year.  4) 

and     lack    of    frequent     hand 

MISCELLANEOUS 

couplings,      and      for      badly 

Cleanliness  of  attendants 

worn      and      poorly     repaired 

2 

(General      Appearance,      hands, 
etc.,    1;    clean    washable  cloth- 
ing,   1) 

Cleanliness   of  delivery   outfit 

material) 
Laboratory   and    Equipment 

4 

2 

Water    Supply: 

Clean,     fresh,     convenient     and 

1 
40 

2 

abundant 

Score  for  method 
Total    Score 

60 

Score  for  equipment 

1 n  spector 

THE  MILK  SUPPLY  183 

There  is  even  greater  need  of  raising  the  standards  of  these 
city  bottling  plants  than  of  improving  the  conditions  at  the  farms. 
A  bottling  plant  may  receive  milk  from  a  dozen  farms,  and  if  con- 
ditions at  one  of  those  farms  are  unsatisfactory,  milk  from  that 
farm  can  be  excluded  without  disturbing  the  supply  from  the  other 
eleven  farms.  But  when  the  conditions  at  the  bottling  plant  are 
unsatisfactory,  a  discontinuance  of  milk  from  that  station  or  plant 
cuts  out  the  supply  from  all  twelve  farms.  Further,  it  is  not  fair 
to  ask  a  farmer  to  maintain  excellent  conditions  and  then  have  the 
quality  of  the  milk  that  he  furnishes  vitiated  by  careless  handling 
in  the  bottling  plant.  The  sanitary  conditions  at  the  bottling  plant 
should  be  in  every  case  equal  to  or  even  better  than  those  at  the 
farms.  The  standard  should  be  maintained  as  a  protection  to  the 
city's  health;  but  it  is  also  needed  as  an  object  lesson  for  the 
farmer,  who  can  then  well  understand  that  he  is  only  expected  to 
satisfy  requirements  similar  to  those  that  are  in  force  at  the  milk 
bottling  plant. 

Unfortunately,  many  of  the  existing  bottling  plants  are 
inferior  in  standards  to  the  farms  from  which  they  receive  milk. 
In  some  cases,  there  is  also  more  discredit  and  disapproval  of 
modern  methods  at  the  bottling  plant  than  at  the  farm.  There  has 
been  a  wide  movement  by  State  and  Nation  to  develop  and  improve 
farm  conditions,  but  little  attention  has  been  given  to  milk  handling 
methods  as  practised  by  small  milk  contractors  for  cities. 

Here  in  Lawrence  wholesale  prices  vary  today  from  four  to 
five  cents  per  quart;  and  instead  of  prices  being  governed  by 
quality,  the  two  principal  causes  of  variation  now  are  length  of 
haul;  and,  as  one  of  the  contractors  has  put  it,  "  sharp  trading." 

Improvement  is  needed  in  the  Lawrence  bottling  plants.  En- 
forcement of  proper  city  requirements  is  one  means  of  securing 
this  improvement.  Another,  is  by  more  general  pasteurization  of 
milk.  A  third  is  by  a  greater  union  of  bottling  plants  and  con- 
tractors, so  as  to  substitute  improved  conditions  for  the  small 
bottling  plants,  and  unite  the  fifteen  that  now  exist  into  about  three 
first-class  groups. 


1 84 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


The  following  bottling  plants  have  been  credited  as  scoring 
over  sixty  points  out  of  a  possible  ioo: 

C.  D.  Glennie,  North  Andover,  inspected. 
H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons,  Derry,  N.  H.,  inspected. 
Turner    Center    Dairying    Association,    Auburn,    Maine,    not 
inspected. 


Objectionable  conditions  found  in  many  of  the  milk  bottling  plants 


\  milk  bottling  room  in  the  basement  of  a  dwelling-house.  In  the  foreground  are 
cans  and  bottles  of  milk  left  around  in  disorder;  in  the  background  is  the 
tub  that  is  used  for  washing  the  bottles  and  cans.  There  is  no  sink  nor 
provision  for  floor  drainage,  nor  stove  nor  heater.  Hot  water  is  brought 
here  in  eight-quarl  cans.  The  ice-chest  is  dirty  and  foul  —  conditions  resembling 
those  ilia!  arc-  sometimes  found  in  dark  corners  of  neglected  cellars  or 
basements. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


A  bottling  room  in  a  shed.  Milk  is  received  here  from  some  of  the  best  farms 
that  send  milk  to  Lawrence.  The  quality  of  this  milk,  if  judged  by  the  cream 
line,  would  be  rated  very  high;  but  any  neat  housekeeper  would  object  to 
conditions  here  existing.  A  milk  bottling-room  should  certainly  be  kept  as 
clean  and  orderly  as  a  kitchen.  The  floor  here  is  broken  and  dirty.  The 
stove  as  arranged  is  a  poor  substitute  for  a  water  heater.  At  the  end  of  the 
ice-box  is  seen  the  sink  where  the  cans  and  bottles  are  washed  and  over  the 
sink  is  the  soiled  and  sour  cloth  that  is  used  for  washing  the  utensils. 


Ice-cream  plants  in  Lawrence. 

Besides  a  general  supply  of  milk  for  both  stores  and 
houses,  there  is  another  note-worthy  means  of  distributing 
milk,  namely,  through  the  medium  of  ice-cream.  Although  milk 
for  ice-cream  in  some  cases  is  cooked  sufficiently  during  manufac- 
ture to  destroy  most  of  the  disease  germs,  very  few  of  the  plants 
that  supply  ice-cream  for  the  open  market  make  any  attempts  to 
cook  the  ingredients. 

Cream  and  skim  milk  are  bought  up  at  wholesale  and  com- 
bined by  a  manufacturing  and  freezing  process  into  a  great  variety 
of  flavors  and  qualities,  and  usually  sold  within  a  day  or  two  after 
it  is  manufactured,  although  in  some  few  cases  ice-cream  is  kept 
in  storage  at  zero  temperature  for  many  days.  In  this  freezing 
process  the  germs  of  disease,  or  of  fermentation  and  organic  change, 
are  retarded  in  development,  but  the  cold  does  not  kill  all  of  them 


186  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

nor  prevent  later  growth  at  a  higher  temperature.  Typhoid  and 
other  diseases  may  be  transmitted  by  ice-cream.  After  being  held 
for  three  months  frozen  in  ice,  typhoid  germs  have  been  found  to 
be  alive  and  able  to  transmit  disease.  The  importance  of  ice- 
cream as  a  factor  affecting  public  health  has  become  greatly 
increased  recently  on  account  of  the  extensive  sale  of  ice-cream  at 
soda  fountains  and  in  ice-cream  cones.  It  seemed  important  to 
make  an  examination  of  plants  that  supply  Lawrence.  For  the 
purposes  of  this  inspection  Mr.  A.  R.  Miller  was  employed  and  he, 
or  the  undersigned,  visited  all  of  the  principal  plants  in  the  City, 
examined  the  conditions  in  detail,  and  filled  out  a  score  sheet  that 
was  adapted  from  the  form  recommended  by  the  United  States 
government  for  city  milk  plants.  Copies  of  these  sheets  are  shown 
on  a  preceding  page  under  Milk  Bottling. 

This  score  sheet  was  found  to  satisfy  the  proper  requirement 
fairly  well.  It  does  not,  however,  readily  permit  of  high  scores 
nor  of  low  scores  so  that  the  range  of  variation  between  the  best 
plants  and  the  lowest  is  not  as  marked  as  might  have  been  desired. 
It  has  served,  however,  to  point  out  many  features  that  must 
necessarily  have  important  bearing  on  the  equipment  and  methods 
of  first-class  plants. 

Summary  of  Inspection  of  Ice  Cream  Plants. 

Number  of  plants  in  all,  16. 

I   has  a  separate  handling  room. 

7  have  hot-water  heaters. 

5  have  apparatus  in  good  condition. 

10  are  free  from  odors  and  flies. 

ii  have  floors  clean. 

8  store  milk  below  500  F. 

Total  quarts  of  milk  and  cream  used  daily  in  summer,  about 
2000. 

Average  score  for  equipment,  20.1 

Average  score  for  method,  30.6 

Total  score,  50.7 

Lowest,  40.5 

Highest,  65.5 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  187 

Further  improvements  can  well  be  made  in  the  sanitary  con- 
ditions of  making  and  handling  ice-cream  and  moreover,  the 
conditions  that  exist  in  some  of  the  inferior  places  are  alarmingly 
bad.  In  many  of  these  the  ice-cream  manufacturing  is  done  in 
rooms  connected  with  tenement  houses.  Ice-chests  or  refrigerators 
for  family  food  are  commonly  kept  in  the  same  room.  Children 
from  the  house  or  from  the  streets  pass  in  and  out  of  these  manu- 
facturing rooms  without  restriction.  Ventilation  and  lighting  are 
neglected.  Screens  are  seldom  provided.  In  many  places  the 
people  speak  poor  English  and  are  wholly  unfamiliar  with  the 
dangers  of  disease  or  the  probability  of  infection  through  milk. 
Nearly  all  of  the  ice-cream  makers  visited,  however,  showed  a 
willingness  to  improve  their  methods.  Their  interest  impressed 
the  writer  and  Mr.  Miller,  who  inspected  most  of  the  plants,  more 
favorably  than  did  the  attitude  of  the  milk  bottlers. 

Milk  as  a  carrier  of  disease. 

I  have  indicated  that  milk  at  the  dairy,  at  the  bottling  station, 
or  at  ice-cream  plants  may  easily  become  infected  and  transmit 
disease. 

Why  is  milk  an  effective  carrier  of  disease? 

Because, 

1.  It  is  an  important  article  of  food,  in  fact  next  in  impor- 
tance to  air  and  water. 

2.  As  a  beverage  and  in  the  form  of  cream,  butter  and  cheese, 
it  is  more  extensively  used  than  any  other  article  of  food. 

3.  It  is  commonly  consumed  in  a  raw  state  which  favors  the  de- 
velopment of  germ  life. 

4.  Bacteria  grow  in  it  so  rapidly  that  frequently  when  consumed 
it  is  "  richer  in  bacteria  by  far  than  the  sewage  of  our  large 
cities." 

5.  The  fact  that  it  is  a  fluid,  and  not  a  solid,  intensifies  it  as  a 
carrier  of  disease. 

6.  It  is  difficult  to  see  impurities  in  milk.  It  is  opaque.  As  an 
experiment,  add  half  a  dozen  teaspoonfuls  of  dirt  to  a  jar  of 
milk;  shake  thoroughly,  and  see  if  the  dirt  is  discernible. 


1 88  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

7.  Thus  the  germs  of  disease  grow  profusely  in  milk,  trans- 
mitting typhoid  fever,  diphtheria  and  many  abdominal  diseases, 
especially  among  infants,  and  we  cannot,  as  a  rule,  detect  the 
presence  of  this  infection  by  taste,  odor  or  color. 

8.  Neither  can  infection  in  milk  be  detected  quickly  even  by 
experts.  It  requires  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours 
to  test  milk  chemically  and  bacteriologically.  When  disease  is 
discovered  it  is  often  too  late  to  stop  an  epidemic. 

9.  Milk  transmits  disease  many  times  elusively,  concealed  and 
without  detection.  If  babies  that  die  each  year  by  disease  and 
impurities  in  milk  were  instead  scalded  to  death,  there  would 
be  a  popular  uprising  against  such  barbarity.  Why  not  elim- 
inate disease-laden  milk? 


Recommendations  for  improving  the  Milk  Supply: 

Classification  of  Milk : 

The  farmer  classifies  apples  as  No.  1  and  No.  2's;  and  the 
run  of  the  orchard  he  may  classify  as  just  apples.  So  it  should 
be  with  milk.  The  farmer  that  can  "  raise  "  all  No.  1  milk  should 
get  the  highest  price  for  it;  if  he  does  not  care  to  go  to  the  expense 
and  bother  required  in  raising  No.  1  milk  he  could  classify  nearly 
all  as  No.  2 ;  or,  he  may  decide  to  have  but  one  common  market 
grade,  just  milk.  For  apples  or  milk  undoubtedly  the  grades 
should  be  distinct  and  the  farmer  should  receive  a  price  according 
to  the  grade  he  produces. 

For  the  No.  1  grade  I  have  adopted  the  name  of  Certified 
Milk.  This  should  be  milk  of  excellent  quality,  produced  on  farms 
scoring  over  ninety  from  a  healthy  mixed  herd  of  cows  which  are 
tuberculin-tested  once  a  year  when  no  tuberculin  cows  are  found, 
or  twice  a  year  when  tuberculin  cows  are  found  and  removed.  This 
milk  should  show  in  fats  about  four  per  cent  and  13.5  per  cent 
in  total  solids,  and  have  a  bacterial  count  of  10,000  or  less  when 
it  is  delivered  in  the  City.  It  should  be  certified  by  a  medical 
commission  in  accordance  with  the   Massachusetts  law  and  plainly 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  189 

labeled  as  Certified  Milk.  Such  milk  should  sell  for  a  price  of 
fifteen  to  eighteen  cents  per  quart. 

Inspected  Milk  Heated.  This  includes  milk  that  is  produced 
under  reasonably  clean  and  careful  conditions,  in  dairies  that  are 
better  than  the  ordinary,  but  not  necessarily  having  expensive 
outfits  and  using  extra  precautions  and  great  care  as  must  be  done 
in  Certified  dairies.  To  come  in  the  Inspected  class  a  dairy  should 
have  a  score  of  at  least  sixty-five  when  marked  rigidly  as  we  have 
done  or  75,  when  marked  leniently  as  is  done  in  some  cities.  On 
a  preceding  page  we  have  given  a  list  of  twenty-eight  dairies  that 
have  scored  over  sixty  and  probably  nearly  all  have  now  made 
further  improvements  which  would  raise  their  scores  to  sixty-five 
or  more.  These  are  dairies  that  have  willingly  and  voluntarily 
adopted  improvements  on  their  own  initiative.  They  are  the  pro- 
gressive dairies.  But  there  are  also  other  farms  that  could  easily 
come  in  the  Inspected  class.  Some  would  merely  need  to  sell  their 
milk  to  a  contractor  who  has  an  approved  bottling  plant,  others 
now  have  scores  of  fifty  to  sixty  and  could  make  certain  improve- 
ments at  small  expense  that  would  raise  their  scores  to  sixty-five. 
Recommendations  for  improvements  have  been  made  to  them  and 
I  believe  that  the  city  authorities  would  do  well  to  publish  at 
intervals  additional  names  of  dairies  that  come  into  this  class. 

Further  requirements  of  inspected  milk  should  be  the  standards 
for  fats  and  solids  as  fixed  by  the  State  and  when  the  milk  leaves 
the  dairy  it  should  not  contain  over  100,000  bacteria  per  cubic 
centimeter. 

Furthermore,  before  the  milk  is  delivered  to  the  consumers 
it  should  be  further  safeguarded  against  contamination  and 
infectious  diseases  by  being  scientifically  heated.  This  process  may 
be  called  Pasteurization  and  closely  resembles  what  the  house- 
keeper calls  parboiling.  The  milk  is  brought  to  a  temperature  of 
1450  F.,  held  at  that  temperature  for  twenty  minutes,  then  suddenly 
cooled  to  400  F.  and  should  be  kept  at  about  that  temperature  until 
it  is  used  by  the  consumers.  This  process  of  Heating  or  Pasteuriz- 
ing I  shall  refer  to  more  fully  after  describing  the  next  grade  of 
milk.  The  price  of  Inspected  Milk  Heated  should  be  nine  to  ten 
cents  per  quart. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  191 

Market  Milk  Heated:  When  dairies  that  produce  Certified 
Milk  and  Inspected  Milk  have  been  deducted  from  the  total  supply 
of  a  large  city  like  Lawrence  we  have  left  many  ordinary  dairies 
of  fairly  acceptable  qualities  —  dairies  that  would  have  been  con- 
sidered as  good  enough  ten  years  ago,  but  which  have  not  adopted 
modern  methods  and  do  not  appreciate  the  advance  that  is  rapidly 
being  made;  there  will  also  be  many  dairies  that  are  trying  to 
produce  large  quantities  of  milk  and  do  not  care  to  adopt  any 
improvements  which  they  regard  as  "  frills."  They  prefer  to  keep 
cows  that  give  twelve  to  twenty  quarts  of  milk  a  day  and  wish  to 
put  this  milk  into  the  market  with  the  least  possible  labor  and 
expense  and  the  minimum  regard  to  regulations  and  rules.  They 
wish  to  run  their  business  exactly  as  does  a  grocery  man  who 
keeps  a  cluttered,  disorderly  store,  but  sells  a  large  amount  of  goods. 

These  methods  cannot  all  be  condemned,  nor  forbidden.  A 
fair-minded  inspector  would  find  that  many  of  these  objectionable 
dairies  are  in  the  hands  of  owners  who  are  competent  to  improve. 
They  would  listen  to  suggestions.  But  there  are  some  dairies, 
undeniably  bad  and  a  menace  to  public  health,  whose  owners  would 
not  make  improvements.  Such  owners  should  be  persuaded,  if 
possible,  to  adopt  passable  methods  of  cleanliness;  but  where 
changes  are  hopeless,  in  some  cases  bluntly  opposed,  then  unques- 
tionably the  public  should  first  of  all  be  protected  by  excluding 
such  milk  from  the  city.  Every  farm  should  have  a  score  of  at 
least  forty  points  out  of  a  possible  100  and  the  milk  should  have 
a  bacterial  count  of  not  over  500,000  per  cubic  centimeter. 

Heating  or  Pasteurizing. 

Finally,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  it  takes  a  long  time  to 
bring  about  material  improvements  in  the  dairies  and  bottling 
stations  that  supply  milk  to  a  large  city.  Are  the  methods  at  dairies 
and  bottling  plants  for  Lawrence  today  much  better  than  they  were 
five  or  ten  years  ago?  Five  or  ten  years  can  easily  pass  without 
marked  changes ;  meanwhile  what  of  sickness  and  disease  that  is 
being  unnecessarily  transmitted  through  the  City  by  the  medium 
of  milk?     About  how  many  children  and  adults  per  year  must  we 


192  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

allow  to  contract  sickness  or  death  by  disease  in  milk?  We  have 
in  Lawrence  1500  deaths  per  year,  and  we  have  12,000  to  15,000 
cases  of  pronounced  sickness.  Other  cities  which  have  been  care- 
fully studying  the  causes  of  sickness  find  that  a  surprising  amount 
of  the  reported  cases  and  deaths  can  be  directly  traced  to  milk. 
If  in  Lawrence  one-fiftieth  of  the  sickness  is  due  to  milk  —  250 
cases  of  scarlet  fever,  typhoid,  diphtheria,  septic  sore  throat, 
dysentery  and  other  diseases  —  and  if  one-half  of  that  sickness  can 
be  prevented  by  reasonable  means,  should  we  not  expect  it  to  be 
clone  and  done  quickly? 

As  a  practicable  and  reasonable  way  of  eliminating  much  of 
this  sickness,  lessening  the  death  rate,  and  improving  the  public 
health  of  the  whole  City,  I  wish  to  urge  that  all  milk  that  is  not 
Certified,  be  heated,  or  pasteurized,  before  it  is  sold  to  consumers. 
I  have  come  to  this  view-point  not  by  a  hasty  glance  over  the  field 
of  possibilities,  but  by  trying  to  consider  carefully  during  the  past 
nine  months,  the  various  interests  of  farmer,  milkman,  and  con- 
sumer. The  milk  question  is  a  complicated  one;  it  will  not  be 
settled  quickly.  Pasteurization  can  be  applied  as  an  immediate 
remedy;  and  as  filters  are  unquestionably  needed  for  the  Lawrence 
water  supply,  so  I  believe  is  pasteurization  for  the  milk  supply. 

The  process  of  scientifically  heating,  or  pasteurizing,  consists 
of  heating  the  milk  at  a  temperature  of  1450  F.  for  twenty  minutes, 
then  suddenly  cooling  it  to  about  400  F.  This  treatment  destroys 
any  disease  germs  that  may  be  in  the  milk,  while  leaving  its 
quality  as  a  food  nearly  or  quite  unchanged.  Raw  milk  is  an 
excellent  culture  medium  for  a  great  range  of  organic  growth.  It 
normally  contains  lactic  acid  bacilli,  which  cause  its  souring,  yet 
which  are  helpful  in  the  digestion  of  the  milk  after  it  has  been 
taken  into  the  stomach.  Raw  milk  may,  however,  contain  a  great 
variety  of  other  organisms,  derived  from  dust  in  the  air,  from 
dirty  utensils,  dirty  Hanks  of  cows,  dirty  human  beings  who  handle 
the  milk,  and  who  may  infect  it  with  the  germs  of  many  diseases. 

Pasteurizing  has  become  an  approved  method  of  treating  milk 
because  it  destroys  disease  germs  that  the  milk  may  contain,  yet 
it  does  not  impair  the  quality  of  the  milk;  but  in  pasteurizing  —  it 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  193 

is  necessary  not  only  to  parboil,  or  cook,  the  milk  for  twenty 
minutes,  but  afterwards  to  cool  it  rapidly  to  a  temperature  of  fifty 
degrees  or  less.  If  the  milk  were  allowed  to  remain  warm,  lactic 
acid,  or  souring  bacilli,  which  remain  alive  after  the  heating, 
would  cause  the  rapid  souring  of  the  milk.  The  cooling  is,  there- 
fore, a  preservative  measure,  adopted  for  the  same  reason  that  ice 
is  used  to  preserve  raw  milk. 

Pasteurizing  is  a  very  effective  process  when  properly  done. 
For  example :  it  has  been  found  that  temperatures  higher  than 
about  145  degrees  lead  to  changes  in  the  chemical  character  of 
milk,  and  therefore  in  its  food  characteristics.  Absolute  freedom 
from  living  germs  can  of  course  be  assured  by  the  boiling  of  milk; 
but  milk  that  has  been  boiled  is  very  different  both  in  taste  and 
in  other  respects  from  either  raw  or  properly  pasteurized  milk,  and 
generally  speaking,  it  is  not  suitable  as  food  for  young  children. 
The  most  important  changes  in  the  milk,  produced  by  excessive 
heating,  are  changes  in  the  character  of  the  proteids  which  are  the 
tissue  forming  substances  that  give  milk  its  peculiar  value  as  a 
food.  Long  and  careful  experiments  have  seemed  to  prove  that 
properly  pasteurized  milk  comes  through  the  process  with  its 
proteids  practically  unchanged,  so  that  it  is  for  all  persons,  except 
possibly  a  few  babies  (who  might  in  any  event  furnish  digestive 
puzzles)  as  good  a  food  as  before  it  was  heated.  Properly 
pasteurized  milk,  and  there  is  need  of  emphasizing  the  word 
"  properly,"  is  not  distinguishable  from  raw  milk  by  either  its  taste 
or  appearance ;  and  even  the  chemist  has  great  difficulty  in  detecting 
any  difference  between  raw  milk  and  pasteurized  milk. 

In  the  bulk  process  of  pasteurization,  that  is  extensively  used, 
milk  is  run  through  a  heater  and  thus  raised  to  the  required 
temperature;  it  is  then  run  into  a  tank  where  this  temperature  is 
maintained  for  twenty  minutes;  afterwards  it  is  drawn  through 
cooling  tubes  which  quickly  reduce  its  temperature  to  the  proper 
point.  When  this  process  was  first  started  twelve  years  ago,  many 
people  thought  that  it  was  affecting  the  taste  of  the  milk,  and  that 
the  cream  line  in  milk  jars  was  less  noticeable  after  pasteurization. 
As  a  substitute  Flash  Pasteurization  was  tried.     By  this  method 


194  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

the  milk  was  heated  to  a  temperature  of  1400  to  1450  just  for  a 
minute  or  two ;  but  this  brief  interval  did  not  prove  to  be  sufficient 
to  destroy  disease  that  the  milk  contained,  and  in  place  of  Flash 
Pasteurization,  the  Bulk  process  has  been  generally  adopted. 

But,  within  the  past  two  years,  a  new  process  has  been 
developed  by  which  milk  is  pasteurized  in  sealed  bottles.  This 
method  has  been  used  for  many  years  in  the  best  processes  of 
manufacturing  beer.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  it  remained  only  to 
apply  to  the  purification  of  milk  these  scientific  and  hygienic 
standards  that  have  been  thus  used  for  beer.  But  the  milk  bottle 
must  have  a  water-tight  cover  and  commonly  this  is  made  of  tin 
foil,  crimped  as  for  ginger  ale  and  birch  beer  bottles.  The  bottles 
are  filled  with  milk  and  tightly  covered;  then  subjected  to  a 
shower  of  water  the  temperature  of  which  is  gradually  raised  by 
the  admission  of  steam.  Pasteurization  is  completed  in  about  one 
hour.  Then  the  steam  is  shut  off  and  water,  continuing  to  run 
in  a  few  minutes,  becomes  cool  and  the  sealed  bottles  can  after- 
wards be  removed  and  placed  in  ice  or  immersed  in  ice  water. 

This  method  affords  the  best  possible  protection  to  good 
health.  After  the  bottle  is  sealed,  the  milk  is  not  again  exposed. 
Possibility  of  disease  transmission  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
the  expense  involved  is  not  increased  seriously.  The  principal  in- 
crease is  in  the  price  of  the  bottle.  The  common  form  of  bottle 
is  not  air-tight  or  water-proof,  and  so  far  no  practicable  way  has 
been  devised  for  adding  an  air  and  water-tight  cap  to  the  present 
style  of  bottle.  Instead,  a  new  form  has  been  developed  that  has 
a  projecting  bead  at  the  top  of  the  bottle  on  to  which  an  overlapping 
cap  of  tin  foil  is  forced  by  a  special  machine.  A  milk  jar  with  this 
form  of  cap  is  a  little  more  difficult  to  open  than  one  with  the 
pasteboard  cap  and  it  will  not  stand  hard  usage  as  well,  since  chip- 
ping of  the  glass  bead  may  render  the  bottle  defective.  The  advan- 
tages of  pasteurizing  in  sealed  packages,  however,  are  very  evident, 
and  doubtless  this  method  will  soon  become  the  most  acceptable 
one.  Manufacturers  claim  that  within  the  year  191 1,  the  process 
has  been  introduced  in  over  one  hundred  towns  and  cities. 

Pasteurizing  by  the  consumer,  in  his  own  house,  is  possible,  but 
difficult  to  accomplish   satisfactorily.     The  milk  bottle  should  be 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  195 

placed  in  a  kettle  of  cool  water  and  the  temperature  gradually  raised 
until  a  test  thermometer  indicates  1450  on  a  Fahrenheit  scale,  or  6o° 
on  a  Centigrade  scale.  It  should  not  be  raised  more  than  a  degree 
or  two  above  this  temperature.  After  being  heated  or  cooked  at 
this  same  temperature  for  20  or  30  minutes  the  bottle  should  be 
removed  and  immediately  cooled,  preferably  by  immersing  it  in  ice 
water  or  by  packing  in  chopped  ice.  ,  The  process  cannot  be  left 
to  the  manipulation  of  a  careless  cook  or  maid;  commonly  the  milk 
is  heated  too  high  and  is  not  rapidly  nor  sufficiently  cooled.  The 
required  temperatures  —  just  1450  F.  for  heating  and  500  F.  or  less 
for  cooling  —  can  only  be  correctly  determined  by  actually  testing 
with  a  thermometer. 

The  process  can  be  somewhat  improved  by  using  one  of  the 
small  pasteurizing  outfits  that  can  be  bought  in  the  open  market. 
Home  pasteurization,  however,  should  not  take  the  place  of  public 
or  commercial  pasteurization  on  a  larger  scale.  It  can  be  used  in 
special  circumstances  to  advantage;  for  example,  when  a  family 
buys  dirty  or  disease-laden  milk,  (just  as  many  families  are  now 
doing  in  Lawrence),  until  a  better  supply  can  be  obtained,  home 
pasteurization  should  be  employed ;  also,  in  certain  cases  of  sickness, 
or  infant  feeding,  whenever  emergency  precautions  are  called  for, 
home  pasteurization  is  to  be  recommended;  but  when  we  consider 
the  best  means  of  advancing  public  health  as  a  whole,  there  are 
urgent  reasons  for  a  large  and  general  pasteurizing  plant  that  will 
be  equipped  with  the  best  of  apparatus  and  produce  effective  and 
reliable  results,  just  as  a  city  plant  for  filtering  and  purifying  an 
impure  water-supply  is  recognized  to  be  an  indispensable  public 
utility.  Both  are  invaluable  safeguards  of  public  health.  In 
Lawrence  the  water  supply  has  been  protected,  but  the  milk  supply 
has  not.  An  effective  and  urgent  remedy,  I  believe,  exists  in  the 
process  of  pasteurization.  It  has  been  used  for  years  in  Denmark 
and  Germany,  has  lately  been  introduced  in  Chicago,  recently  adop- 
ted in  New  York  and  at  present  is  used  by  the  large  milk  contractors 
that  supply  Boston  and  by  H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  and  the  Turner 
Center  Dairying  Association  for  milk  that  they  deliver  in  Lawrence. 
I  recommend  that  milkmen  and  contractors  adopt  pasteurization  as 
a  means  of  promoting  their  business  interests  and  safeguarding  their 


196 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


trade,  and  that  the  City  authorities  pass  necessary  ordinances  there- 
by to  require  the  pasteurization  of  all  milk,  except  Certified  Milk, 
beginning  19 14. 


Bull.  56,  Hygienic  Laboratory. 


A   MODERN    HIGH-CLASS   PASTEURIZING   PLANT. 

The   following  manufacturers   and   agents   deal   especially   in 
pasteurizing  apparatus : — 

BARRY-WEHMILLER    MACHINERY    CO..    21st    &    Walnut    Sts.,    St. 
Louis,  Missouri. 

Makers  of  Continuous  machines  for  Pasteurizing  bottles  filled 
with  milk  and  sealed  tight.  These  machines  have  been  exten- 
sively used  heretofore  for  Pasteurizing  beer.  Adaptations  of  the 
same    for    Milk    Pasteurization    is   a    new   development. 

CORNISH,  CURTIS  &  GREENE  MFG.  CO.,  Fort    Atkinson,  Wisconsin. 
Makers    of    the    Farrington    Pasteurizing    Machine.      No    reply    re- 
ceived   to    recent    letter    of    inquiry    concerning    their    machine. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  197 

CREAMERY  PACKAGE  MFG.  COMPANY,  Albany,  New  York. 
Makers  of  the  Wizard  Pasteurizing  Machine.  Used  for  Bulk 
Pasteurization  and  consists  of  three  sanitary  vats  identical  with 
each  other  and  each  equipped  with  a  spiral  disc  coil  for  heating 
and  agitating  and  is  usually  associated  with  a  Continuous  Cooler 
of  the  disc  type  that  has  three  compartments,  the  first  two  being 
used   for   cooling  with   water  and   the   last   for   brine. 

CROWN,    CORK   &   SEAL    CO.,    Baltimore,    Maryland. 

They  make  a  form  of  seal  for  special  bottles  that  render  them 
air-tight  and  permits  the  bottles  thus  sealed  to  be  emersed  in 
water  or  subjected  to  vapors  of  steam.  This  form  of  seal  is  used 
in  the  process  of  Pasteurization  known  as  the  Spray  System  where 
water  is  heated  and  pumped  over  cases  of  bottled  milk,  stacked 
one  upon  the  other.  This  company  furnishes  bottles  and  seals  and 
has  agreements  with  certain  manufacturers  of  Pasteurizing  ma- 
chines   for    furnishing    complete    outfits.    ' 

DAIRY  MACHINERY  &  CONSTRUCTION  CO.,  Derby,  Con- 
necticut. 

Makers  of  the  Progress  and  Willmann  Regenerative  Pasteurizers, 
which  are  used  for  Bulk  Pasteurization  and  consist  of  a  heating 
cylinder  and  a  holding  machine. 

JENSEN  MANUFACTURING  CO.,  154  Lake  St,  Chicago,  Illinois. 
Reported  to  be  manufacturers  of  machines  used  for  pasteurizing 
cream  for  butter-making  purposes.  No  reply  received  to  recent 
letter. 

THE  LOEW  MANUFACTURING  CO,  Madison  Ave.  and  W.  90th 
St,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Makers  of  Intermittent  machines  for  Pasteurizing  bottles  filled 
with  milk  and  sealed  tight.  These  machines  have  been  extensively 
used  heretofore  for  Pasteurized  beer,  but  a  few  plants  have  lately 
been  equipped  for  Milk  Pasteurization.  Experiments  are  now 
being  made  for  the  company  by  Dr.  Charles  North,  New  York  City. 

MILLER  PASTEURIZING  MACHINE   CO,   Canton,   Ohio. 

Makers  of  the  Miller  Pasteurizing  Machine.  No  reply  received 
to  recent  letter. 

A.  H.  REID  CREAMERY  AND  DAIRY  SUPPLY  CO,  69th  and 
Haverford    Ave,    Philadelphia,    Pennsylvania. 

Makers  of  Regenerative  and  Continuous  Pasteurizers.  The  Con- 
tinuous Pasteurizer  consists  of  a  vat,  Pasteurizer  (which  is  a 
cylindrical  vessel  of  three  copper  cases),  and  an  aerator  or  a 
Combination  Expansion  Cooler,  the  upper  section  of  which  is 
used  for  milk  and  the  lower  section  for  brine  or  ammonia. 


198 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


HENRY    E.    WRIGHT    &    SONS,    50    Spice     St.,     (Charlestown    Dist.), 
Boston,  Mass. 

Agents  for  pasteurizers.  Also  agents  for  coolers,  milk  .bottles, 
fillers,  washing  powder,  separators,  bottle  caps,  Babcock  testers; 
and  they  manufacture  a  variety  of  cans,  milk  pails,  bottle  fillers, 
milk  chests. 

P.  R.  ZIEGLER  &  COMPANY,  7  Merchants  Row,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 
Various    forms    of    apparatus    for    the    supply    of    dairies    and    cow 
barns.      Special   agents    for    D.    H.    Burrell    &    Co.    of    Little    Falls, 
N.  Y.     Milking  machines  and  dairy  apparatus. 


Supervision  of  Bottling  and  Pasteurizing  Plants 

Bull.  56,  Hygienic  Laboratory. 


A  VERY  NEAT,   INEXPENSIVE,  SMALL,   BOTTLING  ROOM. 

By  the  present  methods  of  supplying  milk  to  Lawrence  a  Bott- 
ling plant  usually  serves  for  several  farms ;  one,  in  fact,  serves  for 
twenty-eight  farms.  For  reasons  that  I  have  tried  to  point  out,  it 
is  more  important  even  to  have  the  Bottling  plant  safe  than  the 
farm.  The  Bottling  plant  is  an  intermediary  between  the  farmer 
and  the  consumer. 


202  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  Bottling  plant  should  receive,  bottle  and  transmit  milk 
without  adding  any  form  of  impurity  or  contamination.  The  re- 
sponsibility it  bears  in  relation  to  public  health  should  be  evident  to 
the  milk  contractor  who  runs  the  Bottling  plant  and  especially  should 
this  responsibility  be  appreciated  by  the  City  Board  of  Health,  which 
heretofore  in  Lawrence  has  done  practically  nothing  in  inspecting 
or  investigating  these  plants  which  contribute  favorably  or  unfavor- 
ably to  Public  Health.  I  earnestly  recommend  that  more  attention 
be  given  to  the  sanitary  conditions  of  milk  Bottling  plants. 

Plate  3  shows  a  proposed  plan  for  a  Modern  Milk  House.  This 
is  intended  to  be  a  practicable  and  reasonable  lay-out,  suitable  for 
an  average-sized  milk  farm.  Milk  is  received  at  one  end  of  the 
building,  passes  in  order  through  cooling,  bottling,  pasteurizing, 
iceing,  storing,  and  afterwards  to  the  delivery  door.  Here  also  are 
received  empty  bottles  which  in  turn  are  washed,  sterilized  and 
passed  along  to  the  Bottling  room.  The  arrows  indicate  the  order 
of  passing  milk  and  empty  bottles  through  the  various  processes. 

Inspection  of  Dairies. 

The  City  can  properly  supervise  Bottling  and  Heating  plants 
but  it  is  expensive  and  inexpedient  for  any  city  to  inspect  all  the 
milk  plants  that  send  milk  to  that  city.  As  we  see  in  the  case  of 
Lawrence  a  large  number  of  these  farms  are  150  to  200  miles  away 
and  in  the  states  of  Maine  and  Vermont.  Large  contractors  who 
handle  these  distant  supplies  buy  in  large  quantities  and  from  many 
farms;  then,  they  mix  the  supplies  in  pasteurizing  and  blending 
processes  and  deliver  part  of  the  general  supply  to  Lawrence  and 
perhaps  part  to  Boston  or  other  cities. 

Thus,  for  Lawrence  to  inspect  these  supplies  at  regular  inter- 
vals and  for  Boston  to  do  the  same  thing  would  involve  dupli- 
cation. I  should  recommend  that,  for  the  present,  inspection  be 
made  of  these  distant  dairies  sufficient  to  ascertain  their  general 
sanitary  qualities,  thus  to  obtain  assurance  that  these  supplies  are 
acceptable.  But,  finally,  these  inspections  should  doubtless  be  made 
by  State  Inspectors  and  it  is  recommended  that  the  City  urge  the 
enactment  of  laws  that  will  authorize  inspection  by  State  authorities. 


PLATE  3. 


/?  MODERN  MILK  HOUSE 

Proposed  floor  plan  and  arranaementofeauihment. 


Chute. 


The  size  here  shown  iwou/d  he  suitable  for  hand/ in  a  from  300 
to  700  cjuarfs  of  mil k  da/iu. 

For  Certified  Milk  the  wa//s,f/oors,andceilinys  shou/d be  faced  with 
piaster  cement  orsitnilar  mater ial  that  can  be  washed  and  kept  clean. 

For  Inspected,  and  Market  Milk  a  smooth  interior  surface  of  wood 
wcu/d  be  satisfactory,  f?  white  surface  assists  in  detectina  dirt. 

The  Lawrence  Survey  -Report  on  Pu/buc  Health 

Lawrence,  Mass.,  March  19/2  &.  &,  fO e^tcW^f^vrU^y' ,   C.  &  , 

Geo  H/  Hinchcliffe,  Del. 


204  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Laboratory  Tests. 

Inspection  of  the  dairies  reaches  to  the  very  source  of  pollution. 
Milk  that  starts  in  a  pure  and  clean  condition  from  the  farm  should 
reach  the  consumer  in  a  safe  and  healthful  condition.  Through  the 
bottling  station  or  in  transportation,  however,  impurities  are  likely 
to  enter  the  milk,  and  one  way  of  detecting  either  dilution  or 
pollution  in  milk  is  by  Laboratory  tests.  Such  tests  are  common 
procedures  in  nearly  all  large  cities.  The  chemical  tests  can  be 
easily  made  but  the  bacterial  tests  are  more  difficult  and  really  re- 
quire the  skill  of  a  physician  or  bacteriologist.  The  laboratory  in 
Lawrence  is  very  well  equipped  and  for  a  short  time  two  years 
ago  it  was  run  effectively,  but  during  the  past  year  the  Board  of 
Health  dismissed  the  City  Bacteriologist  and  practically  closed  the 
laboratory. 

It  should  be  used  each  day  for  tests  of  milk.  Samples  should 
be  taken  by  the  City  Inspector  of  Milk,  from  delivery  teams,  from 
stores,  railroad  stations,  hotels  and  ice-cream  plants.  These  sam- 
ples should  show  by  tests  a  quality  equal  to  the  standards  set  by 
law.  Laboratory  tests  afford  a  convenient  way  of  testing  the  qual- 
ity of  milk  that  is  being  sold.  By  such  tests  poor  quality  or  neglect 
in  cleanliness  can  be  detected,  and  sometimes  the  beginnings  of  an 
epidemic  can  be  accurately  forecast. 

Not  only  should  laboratory  tests  of  milk  be  made  but  as  with 
dairy  inspections  I  believe  that  the  public  should  know  the  results 
of  these  tests. 

Publicity  and  Prices. 

I  recommend  that  the  City  adopt  the  method  of  publishing 
the  results  of  dairy  inspections  and  laboratory  tests  that  has  been 
used  in  Wheeling,  West  Virginia;  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  Richmond, 
Virginia;   South  Orange,  New  Jersey  and  elsewhere. 

Similarly  in  the  way  of  publicity  I  recommend  that  all  milk 
that  is  offered  for  sale  in  bottles,  or  cans,  be  plainly  labeled  as 
Certified  Milk,  Inspected  Milk  Heated  or  Market  Milk  Heated. 
The  object  of  labeling  would  be  primarily  to  inform  the  con- 
sumers of  the  grade  of  milk  that  is  being  sold;  but  it  would  have 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  205 

another  object:  It  would  enable  the  producer  who  supplies  a 
first-class  grade  of  milk  to  get  more  for  it  than  for  a  common 
grade.  Should  not  some  advantage  thus  come  to  the  farmer  who 
has  a  clean  barn,  a  clean  milk  room,  and  sells  clean  milk? 

Furthermore  to  encourage  the  safe  farmer  and  restrain  the 
reckless  one  it  is  believed  that  licenses,  or  permits,  should  be  re- 
quired as  carefully  of  milk  dealers  as  of  plumbers  or  chauffeurs — 
in  fact,  milk  dealers  may  offer  a  greater  peril  to  public  health 
than  any  of  the  other  public  servants.  During  the  years  19 10  and 
the  first  half  of  191 1  few  milk  licenses  were  issued  in  the  City. 
Many  of  the  milkmen  claim  that  they  called  twice  or  three  times 
at  the  City  office  but  could  not  obtain  licenses.  The  importance 
of  the  milk  business  demands  licenses  if  they  are  to  be  required 
for  any  public  health  measures. 

Sample  form  of  Publicity  Report. 

BOARD   OF    HEALTH 

Report  of  Milk  Examination,  June  i,  1913 


rats 

Solids 

Bacteria 

Dairy 
Score 

% 

% 

per  c.  c. 

4.2 

I4-63 

80,000 

4-1 

12.75 

500,000 

72.5 

3-9 

12.95 

95,000 

4-1 

13.02 

65,000 

4-3 

12.66 

100,000 

75-4 

Name  of  Milkman  :  John  Smith,  East  Dracut. 

This  is  a  small  place.     New  bain  is  needed.     14  cows.     Good  care  is  maintained. 

1913 

January- 
February 
March 
April 
June 
July 
August 

Notes  Butter  fats  and  solids :  The  Massachusetts  State  requirements  are  for 
fats  3.25  per  cent;  for  solids,  12.15  per  cent.  The  cream  line  and  butter  fats  are 
less  important  than  total  solids,   and  both  are  less  important  than  cleanliness. 

Bacteria :  Milk  containing  large  quantities  of  bacteria  turns  sour  more  quickly 
than  clean  milk.  A  high  bacterial  count  may  occur  from  accidental  causes  in  a 
single  sample  without  condemning  the  general  quality  of  the  whole  supply,  but, 
if  habitual,  it  indicates  unsanitary  methods  on  the  part  of  the  milkman.  Milk 
produced  under  good  sanitary  conditions  should  not  show  more  than  35,000 
bacteria  to  the  cubic  centimeter.  To  obtain  a  low  and  favorable  bacterial  count, 
have  clean  conditions  everywhere,  remove  the  milk  from  the  stable  immediately 
after  milking  and  keep   it  on  ice. 

Dairy  score:  A  perfect  score  is  100  points.  40  is  the  lowest  score  that  is 
passable.  90  is  required  for  a  dairy  to  be  classed  as  "  Certified,"  and  65  as 
"  Inspected." 


206  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Business  Organization  of  Producers. 

Many  of  the  foregoing  recommendations  of  this  report  could 
be  embodied  in  City  ordinances  and  enforced  by  the  Board  of 
Health,  but  often  compulsory  compliance  with  rules  and  regula- 
tions does  not  lead  to  complete  success,  and  furthermore  sugges- 
tions that  involve  much  outlay  could  not  be  expected  of  some  of  the 
small  farms.  For  example,  I  have  recommended  that  all  milk  ex- 
cept Certified  Milk  be  heated  or  pasteurized.  That  is  a  process  that 
cannot  be  successfully  accomplished  at  each  farm.  It  should  be  done 
at  some  central  plant.  Such  a  plant  could  afford  numerous  advan- 
tages to  producers,  and  the  question  arises,  Could  the  producers 
own  and  operate  this  central  plant  themselves?  The  difficulties  in 
organizing  the  producers  seem  to  be  a  drawback.  Several  of  them 
have  said  to  me,  "  the  producers  will  not  pull  together  " —  and 
undoubtedly  there  is  some  truth  in  the  statement.  But  Erie,  Penn- 
sylvania, has  a  central  Producer's  Association  that  is  claimed  to  be 
successful  and  ought  it  not  to  be  possible  to  have  similar  success 
in  Lawrence  ?  In  Homer,  New  York,  there  is  also  an  organization 
of  milk  farms  which  is  being  directed  by  Dr.  Charles  North  of 
New  York  along  a  mutual,  or  cooperative,  basis. 

The  Association  in  Erie,  I  am  informed  by  the  President,  was 
started  twelve  years  ago.  Sixty-five  farmers  formed  a  Stock  Com- 
pany and  signed  a  five-year  contract  to  deliver  all  their  milk  to 
one  central  plant.  An  old  market  house  was  first  utilized,  but  later 
a  special  building  was  erected  in  the  center  of  the  city,  convenient 
to  steam  and  electric  cars.  Milk  as  received  here  is  inspected  for 
odor,  and  at  least  once  a  week  it  is  tested  for  butter-fats,  solids, 
adulteration  and  impurities.  After  being  sampled  the  milk  is  fil- 
tered, or  passed  through  a  separator,  then  heated  or  pasteurized. 
Afterwards,  a  large  part  of  it  is  bottled  and  delivered  to  customers 
the  day  received,  or  the  day  following.  Besides  selling  common 
milk  and  cream,  the  Association  makes  butter,  dry  curd,  schmier- 
kase,  and  considerable  ice-cream.  All  deliveries  throughout  the 
city  are  made  from  this  central  Plant. 

About  10,000  quarts  of  milk  are  received  daily,  much  of 
which  comes  from  non-members  and  in  some  cases  forty  miles  by 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  207 

trolley.  Fifty  men  are  employed,  twenty-three  being  regular 
drivers  and  five  special.  During  the  first  year,  in  1900,  the 
business  amounted  to  $100,000.  During  1909  it  was  $225,000. 
The  association  handles  now  about  one-half  of  the  milk  business 
of  the  City.  Each  month  the  producers  receive  $10,000  for  milk. 
The  stock  originally  sold  for  $50  per  share,  but,  I  understand 
that  it  cannot  be  purchased  for  anything  like  that  amount  at 
present. 

The  plan  of  organization  was  to  issue  stock  to  the  producers. 
If  a  man  had  a  milk  route  his  business  was  taken  over  at  the  value 
of  $3  a  quart  and  in  payment  stock  was  given  him  at  $50  a  share. 
Each  share  entitled  the  holder  to  deliver  into  the  Association  16  2-3 
quarts  of  milk  per  day. 

The  advantages  in  having  an  association  of  this  sort  are : — 

(a)  A  gain  in  standardizing  the  products — milk,  butter  and  ice- 
cream. 

(b)  An  improvement  in  quality. 

(c)  Cooperative   inspection  of  dairies   and  methods   of   handling 
milk. 

(d)  Economy  in  delivery  and  number  of  employees. 

(e)  Better  market  and  better  prices  for  producers  than  now  exist. 

(f)  Satisfactory  provision  for  surplus  of  milk  in  rush  seasons  and 
for  shortage  in  scant  seasons. 

The  President  of  the  Erie  Association  believes  that  such  an 
organization  of  producers  could  be  formed  to  advantage  in  a  city 
like  Lawrence.  There  should  be  a  central  building  that  should  have 
especially:  A  cement  floor;  abundant  supply  of  pure  water;  rooms 
conveniently  arranged;  an  equipment,  for  a  plant  of  three  to  four 
thousand  quarts  daily,  of  a  25  horse-power  boiler,  12  horse-power 
engine;  a  separator  of  capacity  700  to  800  pounds  an  hour;  a  pas- 
teurizer large  enough  to  handle  the  whole  supply  of  milk  during 
the  rush  season;  butter-making  machinery  of  capacity  at  least  for 
100  pounds  of  butter;  machinery  for  making  dry  curd,  schmier- 
kase,  buttermilk,  and  especially  modern  appliances  for  making  ice- 
cream which  adds  materially  to  the  income.  Such  a  building 
should  be  located  near  electric  and  steam  railroads,  and  might  serve 


208  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

for  supplying,  and  washing,  all  milk  cans  and  pails,  and  there 
should  be  a  distinctiveness  to  the  whole  affair.  The  delivery 
wagons  should  be  painted  a  uniform  distinctive  color;  distinctive 
suits  should  be  worn  by  the  drivers;  there  should  be  distinctive 
cleanliness  of  the  apparatus  and  the  products  furnished  by  the 
Association  should  be  distinctively  reliable;  there  should  be  dis- 
tinctive sanitary  rules  and  regulations  effectively  enforced,  thus 
to  build  up  a  business  profitable  to  the  farmer  and  helpful  to  the 
City. 

An  association  as  described  above,  similar  to  one  that  has  been 
tried  and  succeeded  in  another  city,  if  put  in  operation  in  Law- 
rence should  solve  the  major  part  of  the  milk  question.  It  should 
afford  the  farmer  a  direct  share  in  the  whole  profit  from  dairy 
to  household;  it  should  especially  benefit  the  small  producer  who 
now  claims  to  be  sometimes  "squeezed"  by  the  milk  contractor; 
it  should  provide  for  surplus  milk  and  for  shortage  —  two  of  the 
most  troublesome  phases  of  the  milk  business  and  especially  trouble- 
some for  small  dealers;  it  should  reduce  the  cost  of  delivery,  now 
placed  at  two  cents  a  quart,  by  one  half;  instead  of  a  dozen  dif- 
ferent milk  teams  racing  up  and  down  a  street  and  drivers  taking 
empty  bottles  from  any  or  all  of  the  back  door  steps,  one  team  and 
one  driver  should  cover  all  of  one  section;  thus  less  noise  and  less 
vexation  to  residents;  but  such  an  association  should  be  favored 
by  the  City  authorities;  it  would  tend  at  once  to  better  sanitary 
regulations.  The  small  milk  dealer,  who  has  perhaps  a  dozen 
cows  and  a  kitchen  or  a  cellar  for  a  bottling  room  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  put  in  appliances  for  bottle  washing,  sterilizing,  or  more- 
over for  pasteurizing  which  undoubtedly  is  going  to  be  required 
in  the  near  future,  but  an  association  controlled  by  fellow  pro- 
ducers of  which  he  owns  a  part  would  ensure  him  a  good  market 
and  fair  treatment,  and  enable  him  to  comply  with  modern  de- 
mands. 

Can  such  an  organization  be  formed?  It  seems  possible  to 
me  but,  as  I  have  said,  some  of  the  producers  doubt  if  many  of 
their  number  would  agree  to  unite.  In  order  to  ascertain  what 
can  be  done,  I  would  suggest  that  a  canvass  be  made  among  the 
producers  interested  and  should  it  finally  be  found  impracticable 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  209 

to  organizers  the  producers,  I  would  suggest  that  a  similar  con- 
solidation of  interests  be  effected  by  the  milk  contractors.  At 
present  there  are  fifteen  or  more  such  contractors  supplying  milk 
in  Lawrence.  I  believe  that  better  results  could  be  obtained  in 
the  healthfulness  of  products,  and  in  economy  of  collecting, 
bottling  and  delivering  by  having  modern  apparatus,  fewer  and 
larger  plants.  Instead  of  fifteen,  three  to  five  would  be  preferable. 
The  advantages  of  consolidation  and  a  central  plant  will  doubtless 
be  quickly  appreciated  by  contractors,  but  in  proposing  the  plan 
I  have  had  foremost  in  mind  the  interests  of  the  producers.  They 
should  benefit  first  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will  be  leaders 
in  promoting  the  movement,  yet  it  would  seem  to  be  practicable 
and  in  fact  advisable  to  include  in  the  association  contractors  and 
business  men  of  the  city  who  could  aid  in  managing  and  financing 
the  undertaking  in  the  best  possible  manner.  I  earnestly  advise 
the  producers  to  discuss  the  plan  as  outlined  above,  to  appoint  a 
committee  to  examine  into  the  feasibility  of  it,  and  to  ascertain 
exactly  what  farmers  are  willing  to  cooperate. 

List  of  Producers  who  supply  milk  to  Lawrence:  — 

(The  towns  are  arranged  alphabetically  and  in  each  town  the 
names  of  producers  are  given  alphabetically.) 

These  farms  are  shown  on  Plate  II,  that  is  designated  Milk 
Farms  near  Lawrence.  They  include  all  farms  from  which  milk 
is  delivered  by  teams  to  Lawrence.  Greatest  distance  of  any  farm 
from  the  center  of  the  city  is  seven  and  a  half  miles.  Total  amount 
of  milk  supplied  by  these  farms,  about  16,000  quarts  per  day. 


NDOVER 

Qt 

s.  daily 

C.  J.  Bliss, 

Sells  to  C.  D.  Glennie, 

50 

E.  W.  Burtt, 

C.  D.  Glennie, 

25 

Sam.    D.    Berry, 

C.  A.  Stone, 

30 

Jno.    J.    Crowley, 

Sells  to  various   stores, 

75 

Geo.    M.    Carter, 

C.  D.  Glennie, 

100 

W.   J.   Clark, 

J.  L.  Noyes, 

30 

Luke    Collins, 

H.   Taryzian, 

30 

J.  Dagdigian, 

Sells  to  H.  Taryzian, 

98 

Dan.    F.   Donovan, 

G.  C.  H.  Dufton, 

and  C.  D. 

210 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Dan.    Fitzpatrick, 

J.  W.   Godin, 

A.  Kasabian, 

Jos.  T.  Lovejoy, 
P.    E.    Livingstone, 

J.  L.  Noyes, 

Shattuck    Bros. 
Manuel    Silva, 
James    Suitor, 
Frank    Smith, 
Chas.   A.    Stone, 

A.    R.    Stevens, 

Hudson    E.    Wilcox, 
R.   A.   Watson, 
George    D.    Ward, 


Sells  to  C.   D.    Glennie, 

Sells  to  C.    D.    Glennie, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers, 

Sells  to  C.    D.    Glennie, 
Sells  to  C.    D.    Glennie, 

Sells  directly   to    consumers, 
Receives  from  another  dairy, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Sells  to  Antonio    Mello, 
Sells  directly    to    consumers, 
Sells  to  J.  Robinson, 
Sells  directly    to    consumers, 
Receives   from   other  dairies, 
Sells  to  C.  A.  Stone, 

Sells  to    Antonio    Mello, 
C.  D.  Glennie, 
Wood   Mill   Restaurant, 
(160  qts.  produced  in  all) 


Qts. 


daily 

50 

80 
ISO 

80 
60 

40 
30 

400 

85 
120 

175 

40 
150 

70 

100 
60 
40 


AUBURN,   ME. 

Turner  Centre   Dairying  Association, 

Receives  from  other  dairies,  4000 

(See  Contractor's  List  for  statement  regarding  the  supply.) 


BOXFORD 

J.    G.    Chandler, 
J.    W.    Chadwick, 
Thomas   Downes, 
Charles    Gardner, 
Charles    M.   Moulton, 
J.    Henry    Nason, 
Myron    Pearl, 
J.    C.   Whitney, 

DERRY,  N.  H. 

H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons, 


Sells  to  C.  D.  Glennie, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Sells  to  C.  D.  Glennie, 
C.  D.  Glennie, 
C.  D.  Glennie, 
C.  D.  Glennie, 
C.  D.  Glennie, 
C.  D.  Glennie. 


Sell  directly  to  consumers  from  the 
Hood    Farm, 

(See    Contractor's    List   for   statement    of   the   balance 
of  their   supply.) 


DRACUT 

Kelle    Brox, 


Sells   directly   to   consumers, 
Receives    from    other   dairies, 


30 

300 

So 

60 

55 

100 

100 

50 


TO 


100 

200 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


211 


HAVERHILL 

E.    S.    Blodgett, 
G.   A.    Mills, 
E.    M.    Nason, 


Qts.  daily 

Sells  to  W.    O.    Putnam, 

50 

S.    Taylor, 

IOO 

W.    O.    Putnam, 

150 

LAWRENCE 

Theobold    Daley, 


Sells   directly  to   consumers, 


150 


METHUEN 

Geo.  M.  Adams, 


E.  L.  Bragdon, 

B.    Boornazian, 

Jos.  Bedard, 

Batty   Bros. 
Cyril    Bedard, 
Mrs.  A.   Ball, 
Wm.    Bodwell, 
Barker    Estate, 
Bishop, 

Louis    S.    Cox, 
Patrick    Cox, 

F.  L.   Currier, 
D.    F.    Donnelly, 
A.    C.    Clough, 

Frank   Dietzel, 
J.   F.  Donovan, 

W.   M.  Dooley, 
Joseph   E.   Dowding, 

Wm.    P.    Fogg, 

G.  E.    Flanders, 

F.  W.   Foster, 
Fred  L.   Gardner, 

Frank  W.    George, 
Henry   Griffin, 


Sells   directly  to   consumers, 
Receives    from    M.    Garabedian 
S.  Garabedian, 

Sells   directly  to   consumers, 
Receives  from  another  dairy, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Receives  from  G.  O.  Stevens, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Receives  from  Cyril  Bedard, 
Sells  to  J.  T.  Roche, 

Jos.   Bedard, 

Chas.  Nimmo, 

A.    C.    Clough, 

J.   B.  Richardson, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Receives  from  another  dairy, 
Sells  to  F.  Gardner, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 

Sells   to   C.   Bleicher, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Receives  from  another  dairy, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Sells  to  Peter  Alford, 

Sells  to  W.  E.  Ralton, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Receives  from  J.  E.  Merrill, 
Sells   to   W.   E.   Ralton, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers, 
Receives  from  F.  L.   Currier, 
Sells  to  C.    Bleicher, 
Peter   Alford, 


and 


70 

55 

325 
30 

130 
80 

380 
60 

225 
60 
60 

25 
40 
30 

250 

140 

20 

35 
200 

95 

5o 
130 

30 
220 
120 

80 
160 

35 
40 

130 

35 

120 

no 


212 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


F.  H.  Giles, 
J.  E.  Griffin, 
Harry   Harris, 


Qts.  daily 
140 
80 


Hurzenger    Bros., 

M.    S.    Hill, 

Harnisch    Bros., 
John   M.   Hoh, 

Jarman, 
Chas.    Kitchin, 

Fred  H.  Miller, 
Edward  Moreau, 
J.   T.   Merrill, 
Gustave   Miller, 
Meth.  Town   Farm, 
Morse    Bros., 
I.   Nelson, 
Charles    Nimmo, 

Fra,nk    C.    Perley, 
Petzold   Bros., 
J.   B.  Richardson, 

Edmond    Richardson, 

J.    A.    Shea, 
G.    Simonian, 
Scannell    Bros., 

C.  A.    Stevens, 

G.  O.  Stevens, 

E.  D.  Taylor, 

G.  Taylor, 

W.   E.  Williams, 
Horace    Whittier, 
G.   K.  Webster, 
A.   G.  Wood, 

J.   IT.   Welch, 
Walter   Welch. 


Sells  directly   to    consumers, 

Sells  to   Peter  Alford, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers, 

Receives  from  C.  W.  Colburn,  Ar- 
thur Emerson,  Chas.  Fossie,  John 
Quigley,  Patrick  Quigley,  H.  S. 
Russ,  G.  B.  Smith,  and  John 
Mansfield, 

Sell  to   C.   Bleicher, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers  and  to 
John   Hoh, 

Sell   directly  to   consumers, 

Sells  directly  to  consumers, 

Receives  from  M.  S.  Hill, 

Sells  to  Frank  Duffin, 

Sells    to   druggist, 

(100  produced   in   all) 
Sells  directly   to   consumers, 
Sells  directly   to   consumers, 
Sells  to    G.    E.    Flanders, 
Sells  directly   to   consumers, 
Sells  to  E.  Moreland, 
Sell  to  R.  W.   Carleton, 
Sells  to  R.   E.   Carleton, 
Sells   directly  to   consumers, 
Receives  from  Mrs.  A.  Ball, 
Sells  to   S.  Taylor, 

A.  C.  Clough, 
Sells   directly  to  consumers, 
Receives   from    other   dairies, 
Sells  to  Jos.  Edwards, 

Sells  to  C.    Bleicher, 

A.  Torisi, 
Sells  directly  to   consumers, 
Receives  from  other  dairies, 
Sells  to  F.  Duffin  and  J.  Edwards, 
Sells  to  B.   Boornazian, 
Sells  directly  to   consumers, 
Sells  to  S.   Taylor, 
Sells  directly  to  consumers,  450 

Sells  to   R.    E.   Ralton,  280 

Sells  directly  to  consumers,  250 

Sells  directly  to  consumers,  50 

Receives  from  other  dairies,  45 

Sells  to  Moreland,  20 

Sells  to  Moreland,  20 


350 


390 
60 

200 
300 
190 
40 
40 
50 

375 
190 

35 

40 

120 

200 

35 
70 
60 
80 
70 
60 
40 
100 

55 
125 
175 

30 
160 
170 

450 
80 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY 


213 


NORTH  ANDOVER 
Chas.   Appleton, 
Jacob    Barker, 
Jesse    Coe, 

Mrs.  James  A.  Davis, 
(A.  M.  Robinson,  Mgr.) 
John   Driscoll, 
George   Eglofe, 

J.    F.    Foster, 
Chas.    D.    Frost, 
Bes.   W.   Farnum, 
Miss    C   A.   French, 
Orrin    Foster, 
Nathan    Foster, 

James    Glennie, 
E.   F.   Leland, 
N.   A.   Town    Farm, 
C.   A.    Newhall, 

Wm.    W.    Phelps, 
J.    C.    Poor, 

Calvin   Rea, 
George    A.    Rea, 
Orris    Rea, 
A.    Rogers, 
Richard  Russell, 
A.    M.    Robinson, 

L.    R.    Starrett, 

E.    R.   Tucker, 

A.  N.  Talbot, 

H.    M.   Whittier, 
Mrs.  H.  M.  Whitney, 

PELHAM,  N.  H. 

Chas.    W.    Coburn, 
Arthur    Emerson, 
Charles    Foisie, 

John    Mansfield, 
W.    Morrison, 
Patrick   Quigley, 
John    Quigley, 
H.    S.    Russ, 


Sells  to  C.  D.  Glennie, 
M.  McDermott, 
P.   J.   Doherty, 

Sells    directly   to   consumers, 

Sells  to  C   A.    Stone, 

Sells   directly  to   consumers, 
Receives  from  A.  N.  Talbot, 
Sells  to  C.   D.   Glennie, 
C.    D.    Glennie, 
P.    F.   Doherty, 
M.   McDermott, 
C.  D.  Glennie, 
C.    D.    Glennie, 

C.    D.    Glennie 

W.    O.    Putnam, 
Sells  to  C.    D.    Glennie, 

P.  J.   Doherty, 
Sells  to  C.   D.   Glennie, 

Otto  Mitzner, 

Sells  to   C.    D.    Glennie, 

G.    Hatem, 

P.    Doherty, 

W.    Putman, 

M.    McDermott, 
(See   Mrs.   James   A.   Davis.) 

Sells  to  P.  J.  Doherty, 

Sells  to  C.    D.    Glennie, 
Geo.   Eglofe, 

C.  D.  Glennie, 
M.   McDermott, 


Qts.  daily 

30 

90 

120 

240 

50 

40 
130 
120 

7o 

30 
240 
100 

50 
150 
100 

30 
12s 

35 
275 
100 
100 

55 
120 
290 

25 

50 
90 

50 
25 


Sells  to  Harris   Bros., 
Sells  to  Harris    Bros., 
Sells  directly    to    consumers, 
Receives    from    other   dairies, 
Sells  to  Harris   Bros., 
Sells  to  R.  E.   Carlton, 
Sells  to  Harris  Bros., 

Harris  Bros., 

Harris  Bros.  &  Moreland, 


55 
50 
30 
300 
70 
20 
40 
60 
90 


214 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Geo.   B.    Smith, 
Henry  E.  Titcomb, 
Edward  Young, 
SALEM,   N.   H. 

Margaret   Barry, 
Samuel    Beauche, 
George   A.    Brown, 
Brady  Bros. 
F.  H.  Coran  &  Son, 
B.  E.  Davis, 
R.    H.   Dunbar, 
Isaac  Emerson, 
S.  W.   Forsythe, 
H.    P.    Findeison, 


M.    Garabedian, 
S.    Garabedian, 
David   Hird, 


J.  C.  Hazeltine, 
A.    Kinzler, 
A.  G.  Kelley, 
Kachadorian    Bros. 
J.    Learmonth, 
W.   A.   Littlejohn, 

L.   A.   Machan, 
Arthur   Mitzner, 
J.   A.    C.   Machay, 

E.  J.   Manor, 
William  Turner, 

F.  L.   Woodbury, 


Harris  Bros., 
R.  E.  Carlton, 
R.  E.  Carlton, 


Qts.  daily 
40 
50 
no 


R.  E.  Carlton,  80 

R.  E.  Carlton,  15 

R.  E.  Carlton,  40 

H.  P.  Findeison,  160 

Sells  directly  to  consumers,  160 

Sells  to  D.   Hird,  45 

Sells  directly  to  consumers,  200 

Sells  to  R.  E.  Carlton,  50 

Sells  to  R.  E.  Carlton,  30 

Sells  directly  to   consumers,  30 

Receives   from    Brady    Bros.,    A.    G. 

Kelley,  Albin  Kinzler,  250 

Sells  to  G.  M.  Adams,  30 

G.  M.  Adams,  25 

Sells  directly  to  consumers,  20 

Receives    from    A.    E.    Davis,    J.    C. 

Hazeltine,  E.  J.   Manor,  145 

Sells  to  David   Hird,  50 

Sells  to  H.  P.  Findeison,  45 

H.  P.  Findeison,  45 

F.  Jedziniak,  90 

Sells  to  R.   E.   Carlton,  50 

Sells  directly  to  consumers,  85 

Sells  to  another  dairy,  30 

Sells  to  R.  E.  Carlton,  10 

H.   P.   Findeison,  50 

R.  E.  Carlton,  60 

D.    Hird,  50 

Sells  to  R.  E.   Carlton,  50 

Sells  to  R.   E.   Carlton,  35 


List  of  Contractors  who  Buy  all  of  the  Milk 
that  they  supply  :  

(Names  are   arranged  alphabetically  by  towns   in   accordance  with 
location  of  bottling  plants.) 
ANDOVER 

G.    Dufton   buys   from    D.    F.    Donovan   50   quarts   daily. 

Antonio    Mello    buys    from    Manuel    Silva    85    quarts    daily;    from 

H.   E.   Wilcox,   100.    Total,    185. 
H.   E.  Wilcox,   100;   Total,   185. 

H.    Taryzian    buys    from    John    Dagdigian    90    quarts    daily;    from 
Luke   Collins,  30.     Total,    120. 


THE  MILK  SUPPLY  21  j 

AUBURN,  MAINE 

Turner  Center  Dairying  Association  receives  milk  from  281 
dairies  in  the  vicinity  of  Rumford  Falls,  Maine.  (See  Plate  I.) 
(Milk  as  shipped  to  Lawrence  is  mostly  skim-milk,  and  cream.) 
Total,  4000   quarts   daily. 

BOXFORD 

No  contractors  located  here,  who  buy  all  of  their  supply. 

DERRY,  N.  H. 

H.  P.  Hood  &  Sons  receive  milk  for  Lawrence  and  Boston  from 
45  dairies  in  Londonderry,  Hudson,  Windham  and  Pelham  and 
deliver   of   this    amount   in    Lawrence,   965    quarts    daily. 

They  also  receive  milk  from  63  dairies  in  towns  between  New- 
port and  Wells  River,  Vermont,  and  deliver  in  Lawrence,  2550 
quarts    daily.      (See    Plate    I.)      Total,   3515. 

HAVERHILL 

No  contractors  located  here,  who  buy  all  of  their  supply. 

METHUEN 

Peter  Alford  buys  from  Jos.   R.   Dowding  120  quarts  daily;   from 

Henry   Griffin,   no;   from  J.   E.   Griffin,  80.     Total,  310. 
C.    B.    Bleicher   buys    from    Frank    Dietzel,    50    quarts    daily;    from 

Frank  W.   George,   120;   from   Huizinger   Bros.,  60;   from   Mrs. 

J.  A.  Shea,  55-     Total,  285. 
A.  C.  Clough  buys  from  W.  Bodwell  25  quarts  daily;  from  Petzold 

Bros.,   70.     Total,  95. 
R.    E.    Carleton   buys   from    Isaac   Emerson   50   quarts    daily;   from 

Samuel  Beauche,  15;  from  G.  A.  Brown,  40;  from  J.  Learmonth, 

50;  from  J.  A.   C.  Mackay,  60;  from  H.  E.  Titcomb,  50;  from 

Wm.    Turner,    80;    from    F.    L.    Woodbury,    35;    from    Edward 

Young,   no;   from  Morse   Bros.,  200;  from  L.  A.   Mecham,   10; 

from  J.  S.  W.  Forsythe,  30;  from  M.  Barry,  80.     Total,  810. 
F.  Duffin  buys  from  C.  A.  Stevens  170  quarts  daily;  from  Jarman, 

40.     Total,   210. 
Jos.    Edwards    buys    from    G.    O.    Stevens    80    quarts    daily;    from 

Edmond    Richardson,    100;    from   Joseph    Barrie,    R.    Griffin,    C. 

Young.     Total,  310. 
F.   Jedziniak  buys   from   Kashadoorian    Bros.   90   quarts   daily. 
Henry    Jacob    &    Son    buy    from    Edmond    Richardson    35    quarts 

daily;   from   Long,   50;   from  Whittaker   Bros.,    140;   from   Geo. 

A.  Trumpold,   13.     Total,  238. 
Otto  Mintzner  buys  from  J.  C.  Poor  275  quarts  daily. 
E.    Moreland    buys    from    Methuen    Town    Farm    120   quarts    daily; 

from  J.  J.  Welch,  20;  from  Walter  Welch,  20;  from  H.  S.  Russ, 

45.     Total,   205. 
S.   Taylor  buys  from   George   Taylor  80  quarts   daily;   from    G.   A. 

Mills,   100;  from  F.   C.   Perley,  80.     Total,  260. 


216  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

NORTH  ANDOVER 

P.  J.  Doherty  buys  from  Jesse   Coe   120  quarts   daily;  from   B.  W. 

Farnum,    30;    from    C.    A.    Newhall,    125;    from    Orris    Rea,    55; 

from   L.    R.    Starrett,   25.      Total,   355. 
C.   D.   Glennie  buys  in  Andover,  from   C.  J.   Bliss   50  quarts  daily; 

from   E.   W.    Burtt,   25;    from    G.    M.    Carter,    100;    from   D.    F. 

Donovan,  50;   from  D.   Fitzpatrick,  50;  from  J.   W.   Godin,  80; 

from  P.  E.  Livingstone,  60;  from  J.  T.  Lovejoy,  80;  from  G.  D. 

Ward,  40;   from   R.   A.   Watson,  60. 
In    Boxford,    from    J.    G.    Chandler,    30    quarts    daily;    from    Thos. 

Downes,  50;  from  Chas.  Gardner,  60;  from  C.  M.  Moulton,  55; 

from  J.  H.  Nason,   100;  from  M.  Pearl,   100;   from  J.   C.  Whit- 
ney,  50. 
In    North    Andover,    from    Chas.    Appleton,    30    quarts    daily;    from 

J.  F.  Foster,  120;  from  N.  Foster,  50;  from  O.  Foster,  100;  from 

C.    D.    Frost,    70;    from    J.    Glennie,    150;    from    N.    A.    Town 

Farm,  30;  from  W.  W.  Phelps,  35;  from  Calvin  Rea,  100;  from 

E.  R.  Tucker,  50;  from  H.   M.  Whittier,  50.     Total,   1825. 
Michael    McDermott    buys    from    Jacob    Barker    90    quarts    daily; 

from  Miss  C  A.  French,  240;  from  Richard  Russell,  290;  from 

Mrs.    H.    M.    Whitney,   25.     Total,   645. 
W.    C    Putnam    buys    from    E.    S.    Blodgett    50    quarts    daily;    from 

E.  F.  Leland,  100;  from  E.  M.  Nason,  150;  from  A.  Rogers,  120. 

Total,  420. 

LAWRENCE 

G.   Hatem  buys  from   George  A.   Rea   100  quarts   daily. 

J.  T.   Roche   buys  from   Batty   Bros.   225   quarts   daily. 

W.  E.  Ralton  buys  from  W.  C.  Fogg  80  quarts  daily;  from  F.  W. 

Foster,  40;  from  H.  Whittier,  280.  Total,  400. 
A.  Torisi  buys  from  G.  Simonian  125  quarts  daily. 
Wood  Mill  Restaurant  buys  from  Wm.  M.  Wood  140  quarts  daily. 

PELHAM,  N.  H. 

No   contractors   located   here   who   buy   all   of  their   supply. 

SALEM,  N.  H. 

No    contractors   located   here   who   buy   all   of  their   supply. 

Total    amount    of    milk    furnished    to    Lawrence    by    the    above    con- 
tractors is   15,193   quarts  per  day;   or  five-eighths  of  the   total  milk  supply. 


THE   WATER    SUPPLY   OF   LAWRENCE   AND    ITS 
RELATION  TO  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH  * 

Brief  Statement  of  Conditions  : 

Lawrence  takes  its  water  from  the  Merrimack  River;  a  very 
foul  source,  but,  by  excellent  methods  of  nitration,  it  is  made, 
not  only  equal  in  purity  and  healthfulness  to  the  water  supply  of 
the  average  Massachusetts  city,  but  it  is  superior  to  many.  The 
percentage  of  sickness  and  death  by  diseases  that  are  transmitted 
by  water  has  materially  decreased  since  filtration  was  started. 

Source  of  Supply: 

The  Waterworks  plant  is  located  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Merrimack  River,  and  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  above  the 
dam  and  South  Broadway,  which  connects  North  and  South 
Lawrence.  The  river  water  carries  many  impurities,  a  serious 
part  of  which  is  sewage  that  enters  the  river  from  cities  upstream. 
These  cities  include  Franklin,  Laconia.  Manchester  and  Nashua  in 
the  State  of  New  Hampshire,  and  Fitchburg,  Leominster  and 
Lowell  in  Massachusetts.  These  towns  and  cities  have  an  aggre- 
gate population  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  and  none  of  the 
sewage  is  purified  before  it  enters  the  river.  Lowell,  with  its 
population  of  107,000  is  located  eleven  miles  above  Lawrence.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  the  amount  of  sewage  that  enters  the  river 
and  its  branches  is  over  one  gallon  per  six  hundred  gallons  of 
water  flowing. 

Filtration  : 

The  problem  of  transforming  this  impure  and  dangerous 
water  supply  into  a  potable  and  safe  drinking  water  was  in  reality 
solved  in  1893  when  Slow  Sand  Filters  were  first  installed. 
Previously,  typhoid  fever  and  death  rates  in  Lawrence  had  been 
alarmingly   high,    but   immediately   after   the   filters   were   put   in 

*  Many  of  the   facts  in  this  chapter  were  compiled  by  Mr.  J.  J.   Haley  in   an 
engineering  thesis   taken  in  conjunction  with  this   Survey. 


PLATE  «4. 


Deaths  per  /  OOO  population 


(0 

«0 

* 

*0 

OJ 

«». 

o 

<M 

<\l 

<\J 

<\J 

<\J 

H 

<\J 

Deaths  per  I  OOO population 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY 


2ig 


operation,  both  the  cases  of  typhoid  and  the  total  deaths  from  all 
causes  were  materially  reduced.  The  death  rate  and  averages  are 
clearly  shown  by  the  diagrams  of  Plate  4.  The  increase  in  rate 
from  1886  to  1893  *s  indicated  by  the  first  straight  line  of 
averages  that  is  shown  steadily  ascending.  Similarly  the  decrease 
in  rate  since  1894  to  the  present  time  is  shown  by  the  second 
straight  line  of  averages  steadily  descending. 

Comparison  of  the  death  rate  in  Lawrence  with  that  of  other 
Massachusetts  cities  is  given  by  the  U.  S.  Census.  For  Lawrence 
the  rate  in  1910  was  17.7  per  cent  per  1000  population;  and  of 
the  fifty-five  largest  cities  in  the  State  ten  have  equal,  or  higher 
death  rates  as  follows:  Chelsea  18.8;  Fall  River  18.4;  Holyoke 
17.7;  Lowell  19.7;  Milford  18.3;  New  Bedford  18.6;  Newbury- 
port  18.7;  Northampton  18.9;  Taunton  23.3,  and  Westfield  18.7.- 
The  average  of  the  fifty-five  cities  is  15.9.  The  lowest  is  that  of 
Winthrop,  10.2. 

The  reduction  in  death  rates  in  Lawrence  compares  favorably 
with  results  that  have  occurred  in  other  cities  where  changes  have 
been  made  from  a  polluted  to  an  unpolluted  water  supply.  The 
following  interesting  comparison  has  been  made  by  Mr.  Allen 
Hazen,  Engineer  of  New  York: 

Reduction  in  death  rate  per  100,000  population  by  changing 
from  a  polluted  to  an  unpolluted  water  supply : 


City 

Location 

How 
changed 

Date  of 
change 

5  years 
before  change 

5  years 
after  change 

Reduction 
in  5  years 

Hamburg 

Germany 

Filtration 

1892 

2400 

1770 

630 

Albany 

New  York 

River  water 

1899 

2330 

1840 

390 

Newark 

New  Jersey 

to 
upland  water 

1892 

2510 

2200 

300 

Jersey  City 

" 

" 

1896 

2540 

1930 

610 

Lowell 

Mass. 

River  water 
to  ground  watei 

-    1893 

2510 

2050 

460 

Lawrence 

Mass. 

Filtration 

1893 

2440 

2000 
Average, 

442 

472 

A  reduction  in  the  death  rate  of  442  for  five  years  with  a 
population  of  100,000  corresponds  to  359  for  a  population  of 
81,200  as  Lawrence  has  averaged  for  the  past  five  years.  I 
believe  that  it  does  not  overstate  the  facts  to  say  that,  with  the 


220  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

present  population,  nitration  is  saving  from  350  to  400  lives  every 
year,  besides  a  greater  saving  would  occur  in  years  that  might 
have  epidemics  as  were  common  before  the  filters  were  installed. 

Not  only  has  nitration  reduced  in  measurable  terms  the  total 
death  rate  of  the  City  and  the  sickness  and  death  due  to  typhoid 
fever,  but  unquestionably  many  minor  ailments;  diarrhoea, 
dysentery,  stomach  disorders  have  been  greatly  reduced  and  the 
health  and  working  strength  of  all  the  people  have  been  promoted 
by  having  a  water  supply  that  is  made  reasonably  pure.  Confidence 
in  the  quality  of  the  water,  however,  is  not  as  general  throughout 
the  City  as  it  should  be,  and,  in  many  offices,  stores,  and  residences, 
spring  water,  or  pseudo-spring  water,  is  drunk  instead  of  city 
water.  This  water  is  delivered  is  bottles  from  a  variety  of  places 
and  with  very  little  sanitary  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  farmer 
or  dealer  supplying  it,  the  consumer,  or  the  Board  of  Health.  I 
believe  that  these  supplies  have  become  so  extended  that  all  of 
them  should  be  examined  and  regulations  prescribed  and  enforced 
that  will  insure  more  protection  of  the  public  health  against 
possible  epidemics. 

In  addition  to  the  direct  benefits  that  the  City  has  derived 
from  filtration,  there  are  several  indirect  benefits  that  should  be 
mentioned. 

The  filter  of  1893  was  the  ^rs^  noteworthy  one  used  in  this 
country  for  the  removal  of  bacteria.  The  following  excellent 
results  were  obtained  even  from  the  beginning: 

In  water  In  effluent  of  Per  cent  of 

Year  applied  to  filter  at  pumping  reduction  by  passing 

filters  pumping  station  through  filter 

1894  10,800  per  cc.  1 50  per  cc.  98.6 

1895  11,000  120  98.9 

1896  7,600  no  98.6 

1897  10,900  57  995 

1898  4,400  65  98.5 

1899  5,800  55  99-i 

Many  engineers  of  this  country  and  from  abroad,  came  to 
investigate  the  filters.  They  published  reports  and  spoke  far  and 
wide  of  the  methods  and  success  of  the  Lawrence  filters.  This 
all  benefited  the  City. 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  221 

The  Value  of  Pure  Water. 

Sanitary  engineers  agree  that  sickness  and  death  in  any  com- 
munity should  not  increase  above  reasonable  limits  and  whenever 
the  percentage  becomes  abnormal,  it  means  an  economic  loss  that 
generally  must  be  charged  to  the  water  supply.  A  common  method 
of  estimating  the  expense  of  impure  water  is  by  means  of  the 
typhoid  death  rate.  For  example,  the  death  rate  by  typhoid  fever 
from  1885  to  1893,  before  filtration  was  introduced,  was  91.8  each 
year  for  100,000  population;  from  1895  to  1910,  after  filtration 
was  put  in  operation,  the  death  rate  became  24.4,  or  a  saving  of 
67.4  lives  per  100,000  population.  This  would  correspond  to  a 
saving  of  44.2  lives  each  year  for  an  average  population  of  65,780, 
as  in  Lawrence.  A  human  life  is  estimated  at  an  average  value  of 
$10,000  by  some  of  the  best  authorities,  but  placing  it  conservatively 
at  $5,000,  the  saving  of  44.2  lives  should  mean  a  money  value  of 
$221,000  per  year.  But  accompanying  each  death  by  typhoid,  there- 
are  on  the  average  4.5  cases  of  sickness  and  recovery.  Each  of 
these  cases  costs  someone  on  the  average  $125  for  medicine,  nurses, 
and  loss  of  wages,  a  total  of  4.5  x$i25  x  44.2,  or  $24,862.  Thus 
in  reducing  the  typhoid  death  rate  of  91.8  before  filtration  to  24.4 
since  filtration,  a  conservative  estimate  of  savings  to  the  citizens 
would  be  about  $220,000  per  year  for  deaths  and  $25,000  per  year 
for  sickness,  and  this  would  be  for  one  disease.  The  total  cost 
of  installing  all  of  the  filters  and  their  accessories  is  given  as 
$140,000;  this  outlay  has  been  more  than  justified  by  the  reduction 
of  typhoid  in  a  single  year.  The  cost  of  operating  the  filters  is 
recorded  as  $9,000  to  $10,000  a  year;  even  $10,000  a  year  since 
1893  would  mean  $180,000,  approximately  making  a  total  cost  of 
$370,000,  which  the  savings  by  typhoid  alone  would  provide  for 
in  one  and  a  half  years. 

Second  only  to  quality  of  a  water  supply  comes  the  question 
of  quantity.  Every  town  and  city  puts  forth  the  common  appeal 
for  "  an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water."  The  adequacy  of  the 
present  source  of  supply  for  Lawrence  is  unquestioned;  so  long  as 
the  Merrimac  River  has  sufficient  flow  to  furnish  power  for  manu- 
facturing, there  should  be  ample  amount  of  water  to  satisfy  reason- 
able demands  of  a  public  water  supply.     But  as  the  population  up 


222  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

stream  increases  and  more  sewerage  is  added,  will  the  supply  con- 
tinue to  be  acceptable  for  drinking  purposes?  What  deterioration 
has  already  been  observed? 

The  State  Board  of  Health  is  engaged  in  an  extended  investi- 
gation of  the  Merrimac  River,  and  it  appears  from  results  so  far 
announced  that  important  changes  in  the  quality  of  the  water  have 
not  taken  place  in  the  past  ten  years.  It  is  certainly  undeniable, 
however,  even  if  the  processes  of  filtration  are  an  effective  barrier 
against  sickness  and  disease,  that  a  river  which  furnishes  drinking 
water  should  not  be  used  as  an  open  sewer  and  a  common  dumping 
ground  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  population.  It  is 
foolish  to  add  sewage  and  pollution  to  a  river  and  then  proceed  a 
few  miles  down  stream  to  filter  out  this  same  pollution;  yet  this 
is  exactly  what  is  being  done  in  the  Lawrence  case.  Unfortunately, 
the  same  condition  exists  in  many  other  localities  in  the  United 
States,  and  a  question  before  engineers  at  the  present  time  is  to 
provide  reasonable  means  of  sewage  and  refuse  disposal  for  those 
large  cities  that  now  get  rid  of  sewage  by  disposal  without  purifi- 
cation into  rivers  or  other  public  waters. 

The  present  filters  could  be  enlarged  to  meet  the  increasing 
need  for  more  water.  In  fact,  the  Superintendent  believes  that  the 
present  filters  are  being  operated  about  to  their  limit.  He  estimates 
that  the  open  filters  are  doing  about  one-third  and  the  new  covered 
filters  about  two-thirds  of  the  filtering,  and  that  more  filters  will 
immediately  be  needed  if  the  city  is  to  continue  to  grow  at  its 
present  rate.  Considerable  increase  in  the  capacity  of  filters  could 
be  obtained  by  thoroughly  overhauling  the  old  filter  and  adding 
a  masonry  cover  to  obviate  ice  and  increase  its  winter  efficiency. 
Treatment  of  water  by  hypochlorite  of  lime  is  another  possible  way 
of  allowing  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  filtration.  These  matters, 
however,  are  principally  engineering  features  and  involve  financial 
considerations.  The  adequacy  of  the  pumping  plant  has  recently 
been  the  subject  of  heated  controversies  in  the  City,  and  it  has  been 
decided  to  add  a  centrifugal  pump  that  is  to  afford  three  million 
gallons  a  day  additional  capacity.  The  capacities  of  reservoirs, 
stand-pipes,  and  street  mains  do  not  directly  affect  public  health 
and  are  not  included  in  this  investigation. 


THE  WATER  SUPPLY  223 

Conclusion : 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  emphasize  the  success  that  has  attended 
the  methods  of  filtration  that  have  been  used  here  in  Lawrence. 
The  mortality  rates  have  greatly  improved  since  nitration  began; 
serious  epidemics  of  water-borne  diseases  have  been  eliminated,  and 
many  good  reports  have  been  sent  out  that  show  the  results  of  the 
old  and  new  filters.  Such  a  record  is  creditable  and  helpful  to  the 
City.  Those  citizens  that  urged  the  installation  of  a  filtration  plant 
should  feel  satisfaction  in  witnessing  the  improved  health  condi- 
tions that  have  resulted;  and  especially  should  citizens,  who,  with 
honest  purpose,  at  first  opposed  the  proposed  methods  of  filtration, 
now  give  proper  credit  for  the  distinct  advantages  that  have  accrued 
to  Lawrence  and  other  cities. 

The  Sanitary  Survey  of  1850 

A  Sanitary  Survey  of  Lawrence  would  not  be  complete  without 
some  reference  to  the  excellent  survey  of  the  State  that  was  made 
in  1850  under  the  leadership  of  Lemuel  Shattuck.  This  survey 
included  the  City  of  Lawrence,  which  had  then  been  incorporated 
but  three  years.  Throughout  the  report  of  the  survey,  which  was 
published  in  a  volume  of  544  pages,  there  is  expressed  a  keen  appre- 
ciation of  good  health,  its  value  to  the  individual,  and  to  the  city, 
its  value  morally,  physically,  and  even  financially.  A  better  presenta- 
tion of  the  importance  of  public  health  is  seldom  found,  as  the 
following  paragraph  will  show: 

"  We  believe  that  the  conditions  of  perfect  health,  either 
public  or  personal,  are  seldom  or  never  attained,  though  attain- 
able;—  that  the  average  length  of  human  life  may  be  very  much 
extended,  and  its  physical  power  greatly  augmented; —  that  in 
every  year,  within  this  Commonwealth,  thousands  of  lives  are  lost 
which  might  have  been  saved; —  that  tens  of  thousands  of  cases 
of  sickness  occur  which  might  have  been  prevented; —  that  a  vast 
amount  of  unnecessarily  impaired  health,  and  physical  debility 
exists  among  those  not  actually  confined  by  sickness; —  that  these 
preventable  evils  require  an  enormous  expenditure  and  loss  of 
money,  and  impose  upon  the  people  unnumbered  and  immeasur- 
able calamity,  pecuniary,  social,  physical,  mental,  and  moral,  which 


224  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

might  be  avoided; — that  means  exist,  within  our  reach,  for  the 
mitigation  or  removal; —  and  that  measures  for  prevention  will 
effect  infinitely  more  than  remedies  for  the  cure  of  disease." 

Prevention  undoubtedly  will  effect  more  benefit  to  all  citizens 
than  remedies,  but  prevention  is  difficult  to  instill  into  human 
practice.  The  person  who  has  escaped  scarlet  fever,  typhoid,  or 
diphtheria,  is  apt  to  believe  that  others  could  escape  in  the  same 
commonplace  way  that  he  has,  provided  they  were  willing  to 
follow  the  same  methods;  whereas,  the  person  who  has  been 
afflicted  by  any  one  of  these  diseases  will  usually  admit  the 
difficulty  of  escape  and  the  ease  of  catching  such  infectious  dis- 
eases. So  that  the  question  for  governing  bodies  to  decide  is, 
"  How  shall  the  people  as  a  whole  be  properly  educated  in  means 
and  methods  of  prevention?    How  shall  the  benefits  be  secured  of: 

A  safe  water  supply? 

A  safe  milk  supply? 

Proper  disposal  of  waste? 

The  water  supply  of  Lawrence  I  believe  to  be  as  favorable 
to  public  health  as  could  be  reasonably  demanded.  The  milk 
supply,  I  believe,  needs  material  improvement  in  the  interest  of 
public  health;  and  the  sewage'  and  garbage  disposal  methods  are 
to  be  discussed  in  the  pages  that  immediately  follow. 


SEWAGE   AND   GARBAGE   DISPOSAL* 

Brief  Statement  of  Conditions. 

The  sewage  and  garbage  disposal  methods  involve  two  aspects 
of  the  question  of  Public  Health  that  are  of  importance.  The 
first  is  in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  sewage  and  waste  into  the 
Merrimack  and  Spicket  Rivers,  and  the  second  is  in  regard  to  the 
disposal  of  ashes  and  rubbish  on  dumping  grounds,  and  of  kitchen 
refuse  to  swine.  The  present  methods  are  the  result  of  old  customs 
that  have  been  in  use  fifty  years  and  more  without  noteworthy 
improvement.  The  chief  objections  to  them  now  come  from  the 
fact  that  we  know  the  causes  of  disease  far  better  than  we  did 
fifty  years  ago. 

The  Sewerage  System. 

The  sewerage  system  consists  of  a  network  of  pipes  that  join 
into  trunk  sewers  which  empty  either  into  the  Merrimac  River 
or  its  tributary,  the  Spicket  River.  See  Plate  5.  Most  of  these 
pipes  receive  both  surface  drainage  and  house  sewage,  although 
about  one-eighth  of  the  area  within  the  limits  of  the  City  of 
Lawrence  is  on  what  is  known  as  the  "  separate  system,"  and 
receives  only  house  sewage.  Sewerage  of  Methuen  joins  with 
the  Lawrence  system  principally  at  a  point  near  the  Arlington 
Mills,  and  flows  through  an  intercepting  sewer  along  the  general 
course  of  the  Spicket  River,  and  empties  into  that  river  at  the 
Garden  Street  bridge,  a  few  hundred  feet  back  from  the  outlet 
of  the  river.  Thus  into  the  Merrimack  River  from  nine  principal 
outlets,  this  sewage  is  discharged.  There  are  a  few  outlets,  how- 
ever, that  are  indefinite  as  to  size,  location,  and  contents.  At  the 
Pemberton  Mill,  there  is  one  of  the  original  sewers  as  put  in  by  the 
Essex  Co.,  that  empties  either  into  a  race-way,  or  into  one  of  the 
recently  constructed  sewers,  and  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  which 
of  these  hidden  connections  is  at  present  being  used. 

*  Many  of  the  facts  concerning  Garbage  Disposal  and  the  Disposal  of  Sewage 
into  the  Merrimack  River  were  compiled  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Williams  in  an  engineering 
thesis  taken  in  conjunction  with   this   Survey. 


226  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Besides  the  regular  sewer  outlets  as  shown  on  the  drawing, 
it  was  found  by  our  inspection  along  the  river  banks  that  there 
are  many  other  small  drains  that  discharge  into  the  rivers.  Some 
are  at  the  embankment  walls  above  the  water  level,  and  others 
extend  part  way  to  the  water's  edge  through  pipes  and  various 
forms  of  open  and  closed  channels.  There  seem  to  be  no  limita- 
tions in  the  use  of  this  river  for  sewage  purposes.  From  bank 
to  bank,  iooo  feet  in  width,  it  is  veritably  an  open  depository  for 
sewage  and  manufacturing  waste.  At  the  time  of  our  inspection, 
in  July,  a  boat  was  used  to  go  from  place  to  place,  and  by  wearing 
rubber  boots,  we  were  able  to  enter  some  of  the  outlets,  and 
traverse  the  river  banks.  These  banks  in  many  cases  were  coated 
with  sludge  and  dried  sewage  which,  besides  being  objectionable 
on  account  of  offensive  odors,  afforded  breeding-places  for  flies 
which,  according  to  recent  disclosures,  are  a  greater  menace  to 
good  health  than  has  heretofore  been  understood.  In  many 
localities  the  sewage  was  observed  in  a  decomposing  state  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  where  it  had  been  deposited  by  some  outlet 
that  did  not  properly  extend  to  running  water.  These  conditions 
would  doubtless  be  alleviated  after  a  high  run  of  water  had  scoured 
the  river  banks,  but,  during  the  summer  months,  the  conditions 
become  offensive,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  dangerous  to  the 
health  of  mill  operatives  and  employees  who  are  required  to 
work  in  such  localities. 

Sewer  Outlets. 

The  following  pictures,  taken  in  July  191 1,  show  some  of 
these  outlets : 

The  first  view  is  an  outlet  at  the  rear  of  the  Washington 
Mills  that  is  believed  to  serve  now  one  of  the  original  sewers  that 
was  put  in  about  1848.  As  the  photograph  shows,  the  banks  of 
the  river  near  this  outlet,  at  the  time  of  our  inspection,  were 
cluttered  with  rubbish,  pieces  of  wood,  stone,  tin  cans,  and  vegeta- 
tion; much  of  which  was  exposed  to  filth  from  sewage.  This 
sewer  does  not  extend  beyond  the  river  wall  and  the  channel  from 
the  wall  to  the  river  is  one  of  the  most  neglected  of  any. 

The  Lawrence  Street  outlet  is  at  the  rear  of  the  Pacific  Mills. 


The  L/?h//?enc£  Survey 

By  /Appropriations  from  the 
W/f/TE  Fund 

Map  *S  ho  wing 
DRrf/NrfGE    /IRErfS 
Mrf/M  SEWERS  *»*  OUTLETS 

Prepared   for* 

Report  on  Investigation 

of3 

F>UBLIG    HCrtLTM 

<S<spren7ber~/9it 

S<zc7fe  //nch   =  Z4-QO  feet 

Uha,%<d/l  ^•W/Z,WV~Zr~UVL/l  &•&  •  C.Z. Hudson  Del 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


227 


As  in  the  case  of  many  other  sewers  the  wall  has  been  changed 
near  the  outlet  —  the  keystone  in  place  is  dated  1874,  and  was 
formerly  in  another  location.  The  sewer  as  now  existing  also 
took  the  place  of  one  of  the  original  sewers  that  was  referred  to 
in  the  Report  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  of  1850  as  "  a  large 
common  sewer  that  admits  surface  drainage  and  underground 
sewerage,  being  is  size  six  and  one-half  feet  high,  three  feet  wide, 
allowing-  a  man  to  walk  erect,   and  constructed  of  brick  laid  in 


Banks  nearby  are  much  cluttered 


cement,  and  of  stone  masonry,  passes  under,  and  four  feet  below, 
the  bed  of  the  canal,"  following  the  course  of  a  natural  ravine. 
Sewage  from  this  outlet  —  shown  on  the  next  page  —  goes 
directly  into  river  water  which  extends  up  to  the  sewer  at  all  times 
and  obviates  any  serious  objections. 

The  principal  outlet  for  the  section  of  Lawrence  that  is  north 
of  the  Merrimack  River  and  west  of  the  Boston  and  Maine  Rail- 
road is  under  a  fishway  at  the  north  end  of  the  Broadway  bridge. 
It  is  called  the  Water  Street  outlet.     An  open  channel  extends 


228 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


about  200  feet  to  the  low-water  course  of  the  river.  This  channel 
becomes  obstructed  by  the  high  run  of  the  river  nearly  every 
Spring,  and  the  City  fails  to  keep  it  properly  cleaned  out.  Its 
condition  has  caused  objections  in  years  past.  At  the  time  of  our 
inspection  I  noted  that:  pools  of  stagnant  sewage  exist;  the  channel 
is  more  or  less  divided  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  trace  the  exact  course 
that  is  followed  by  the  sewage  from  the  outlet  to  the  River;  many 
of  the  rocks  and  ledges  are  moist  and  slimy,  and  some  have  thick 
coatings  of  dry  and  hardened  sewage. 


A  Sewer  Outlet  in  the  rear  of  the  Pacific  Mills.     This  Sewer 
took  the  place  of  the  old  Stone  Sewer  that  was  built 
by  the  Essex  Company  about  1848  or  earlier 


Across  the  river  there  is  an  outlet  known  as  the  South  Broad- 
way or  Shanty  Pond  sewer  outlet.  From  this  outlet  a  cast  iron 
pipe  extends  part  way  out  to  deep  water.  The  purpose  of  this 
30-inch  pipe  is  to  serve  for  ordinary  flows.  During  storms,  when 
the  sewer  runs  more  than  half  full,  it  discharges  through  the 
upper  portion  of  the  cross  section  directly  at  the  river  wall.  Thus 
this  extension  improves  conditions  somewhat,  and  undoubtedly  has 
advantages  over  the  method  of  extending  an  open  channel  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Water  Street  sewer.  Yet,  for  low  water  conditions, 
this  extension  does  not  reach  to  running  water.  Further  instances 
of  bad  conditions  along  the  banks  of  this  River  are  shown  by  the 
following  photographs :   One  represents  the  condition  at  the  Os- 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


229 


good  Street  Sewer  Outlet,  the  other  the  south  bank  of  the  river 
near  this  same  outlet.  These  are  not  exceptional  localities,  but 
typical  of  many  places ;  vegetation,  earth  and  rocks  are  coated  with 
sewage  deposit. 


A    Sewer    Outlet    at    Osgood    Street 


Vegetation,   earth  and  rocks  are  coated  with  sewage  deposit 


It  is  impossible  to  examine  the  sewage  disposal  system  in  a 
manufacturing  city  without  being  seriously  impressed  with  the 
importance  of  providing  some  improved  method  of  taking  care 
of  the  extensive  wastes  from  manufacturing  plants. 

Here    in    Lawrence    these    wastes    come    from    a    variety    of 


230 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


industries,  and  are  augmented  by  the  wastes  from  three  leading- 
types,  namely,  from  dyehouses,  paper  mills,  and  wool  scouring 
plants.  It  is  difficult  to  show  without  artificial  colors  the  charac- 
teristics of  these  waste  products.  At  times  they  are  a  pronounced 
dark  purple  color  that  affects  the  shade  of  the  water  even  to  the 
middle  of  the  stream.  This  color  was  particularly  noticeable  at 
the  time  the  wall  photograph  was  taken  of  the  Parker  Street  Outlet. 


View    from    Upper    Railroad    Bridge    looking    down    stream,    July,    191 1,    during 
dry  weather  flow   and  showing  exposed  banks  and  bed  of  River 

Again  even  with  equal  pollution,  the  color  is  lighter  in  shade  and 
less  noticeable.  Most  of  these  liquid  wastes  mingle  with  the 
water  so  that  the  discoloration  extends  to  considerable  depth. 
One  of  the  serious  forms  which  remains  a  long  while  on  the 
surface  is  that  from  wool  scouring.  The  general  view  of  the 
river  shown  by  the  photograph  taken  from  the  upper  railroad 
bridge,   and   looking  down  the   river,   indicates  plainly  the  white 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


231 


streak  of  wool  scouring  waste  that  extends  from  the  shore  down 
the  stream  several  hundred  feet. 

Another  photograph  shows  wool  scouring  waste  from  the 
new  Wood  Mill  of  the  American  Woolen  Company.  Even  in  this 
modern  mill  with  its  excellent  equipment,  it  has  not  been  found 
practicable  to  dispose  of  this  wool  grease  in  any  better  way  than 
discharging  it  into  the  open  river. 

The  whole  question  of  economical  and  reasonable  disposal  of 
waste  from  manufacturing  plants  is  an  engineering  problem  that 
has  grown  in  importance  tremendously  in  the  last  few  years. 
Regulation  or  supervision  of  some  sort  is  almost  certain  to  come 
in  the  near  future.  The  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  is 
studying  the  question,  and  especially  in  connection  with  the 
sanitary  questions  that  concern  the  disposal  of  sewage  for  the 
cities  of  Lowell,  Lawrence  and  Haverhill.  Immediate  restrictions 
are  not  likely  to  be  enacted,  but  some  improvement  will  doubtless 
be  asked  for. 


Wool  scouring  waste  from  the  rear  of  the  Wood  Mill  shown 
by   the   scum   and  white   streak  far   out   on  the   River 


232 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Colored    Dye    Waste    and    Sewage    flowing    onto    the    River    Bank 
near   Parker    Street 


OUTLETS  FOR  SEWAGE  AND  MANUFACTURING  WASTES 


SOUTH  SIDE  MERRIMAC  RIVER 

Size 

Area  Drained 
Sq.  Miles 

Culvert  for  Wood  Mill, 

27  in.  x  24  in. 

(Manufacturing  waste) 

Sewer  Pipe  in  rear  of  Wood  Mill 

5  in.  diam. 

Osgood  Street 

54  "       " 

0.27 

Waste  Outlet  rear  E.  Frank  Lewis 

Scouring  Mill 

44  "       " 

Parker  Street 

30  "       " 

O.31 

Outlet  below  upper  R.  R.  Bridge 

18  "      " 

O.045 

South  Broadway  (Shanty  Pond) 

70  " 
(extension  30  in.) 

0.29 

NORTH  SIDE  MERRIMAC  RIVER 

Water  Street 

2  of  30  in. 

O.64 

Upper  Pacific 





Lower  Pacific 

60  in.  diam. 

O.29 

Washington  Mills 

60  "       ■« 

0.095 

Garden  Street  in  Spicket  River 

69  "       " 

2.166 

Canal  Street 

24  in.  x  30  in. 

.085 

High  Street 

12  in.  diam. 

.006 

River  Street 

32  in.  x  40  in. 

.08 

Poor  Farm 

10  in.  diam. 

.22 

Approximate 

Resident 

Population 


3>645 


4,275 
572 

4,121 


10,663 

16,291 

3>466 

44,764 

500 

60 

870 

1,140 

Conditions  above  the  clam  where  the  water  is  held  at  more 
nearly  a  constant  level,  the  river  banks  are  not  so  objectionable. 
It  will  be  seen  that  only  a  few  sewers  empty  into  the  river  above 
the  dam.  These  are  mostly  of  six  and  eight-inch  sizes,  and  serve 
for  street  drains,   carrying  no  house  sewage.      This  part  of  the 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  233 

River  is  used  less  than  formerly  for  boating,  but  on  the  south  side 
there  is  still  a  building  for  a  canoe  club  that  serves  as  an  important 
center.  Should  boating  again  come  more  in  favor,  this  part  of  the 
river  is  likely  to  become  far  more  popular.  Below  the  dam,  if 
the  channel  should  be  dredged  to  the  sea  the  river  would  be  much 
used  for  boating.  It  is  possible,  as  the  city  grows,  the  banks 
could  be  used  for  esplanades  or  parkways  or  playgrounds  for 
children.  The  need  of  improvement  along  these  banks  is  almost 
certain  to  become  more  pressing  each  year,  and,  in  the  immediate 
future,  the  City  must  doubtless  take  action  in  the  matter. 

The  Spicket  River. 

The  Spicket  River,  which  flows  from  the  Arlington  Mills  at 
the  Methuen  line  through  North  Lawrence  and  joins  the  Merri- 
mack just  below  the  principal  industries  of  the  city,  has  been  the 
cause  of  complaint  and  criticism  during  the  past  twenty  years. 

After  the  completion  of  the  intercepting  sewer  along  its 
banks  in  1886,  for  several  years  the  river  was  not  offensive,  but 
remained  clean  and  unobjectionable.  But  as  the  Arlington  Mills 
prospered  and  enlarged,  they  entirely  outgrew  the  drainage  that 
had  been  provided  for  them,  and,  instead  of  dyehouse  wastes 
flowing  into  the  intercepting  sewer  as  originally  planned,  these 
wastes  were  allowed  to  flow  directly  into  the  Spicket  River.  This 
added  more  pollution  than  the  volume  of  water  in  the  River  could 
carry  away,  and  conditions  previous  to  19 10  became  almost  unbear- 
able, especially  during  summer  months.  In  191 1,  however,  changes 
have  been  completed  in  the  sewerage  system  so  that  the  dyehouse 
wastes  from  the  mill  now  all  run  into  the  main  intercepting  sewer, 
and  none  of  the  mill  wastes  reach  the  Spicket  above  the  sewer 
outlet  at  Garden  Street. 

As  a  result  of  this  improvement  hardly  any  odor  has  been 
noticeable  during  the  past  summer  from  this  water.  Below  Garden 
Street,  improvements,  however,  are  still  needed. 

I  have  made  a  personal  examination  of  the  conditions  along 
the  River  by  traversing  its  entire  length  within  the  city  limits. 

The  following  photographs  will  give  some  idea  of  the  con- 
ditions.    Below  the  outlet  at  Garden  Street,  the  River  carries  a 


234 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


There    are    two    Sewer    Outlets    and    general    waste    along    the    Bank    at 
Paper   Mill   near   Marston    Street 


the 


Overflow  Sewer  and  Main  69-inch  Sewer  Discharge  under  the  Garden  Street 

Bridge.     On  opposite  side  of  the  River  is  the  Outlet  of  the  Sewer 

from    the    Lawrence    General    Hospital 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 


235 


large  amount  of  pollution.  The  water  has  a  foul  odor  under 
ordinary  conditions.  The  banks  are  also  foul  and  obnoxious. 
They  are  used  as  dumping  grounds  for  rags,  paper,  bricks  and 
piles  of  dirt,  much  of  which  is  thrown  out  from  paper  mills  along 
the  river. 

Adjoining  the  International  Paper  Mill  and  opposite  Marston 
Street  there  are  two  sewer  outlets  onto  the  banks  of  the  river,  and 
the  photo  on  page  234  shows  the  way  waste  materials  litter  the 
banks  in  many  other  places. 

At  the  Garden  Street  outlet,  at  the  time  of  my  visit  on  Satur- 
day afternoon,  September  30th,  191 1,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
river  was  dry.  The  rocks  and  shores  were  slimy  and 
slippery  due  to  the  foul  condition  of  the  water.  Upstream  from 
the  sewer  outlet,  at  the  time  of  my  inspection,  October  12th,  the 
water  of  the  river  was  fairly  free  from  sewage  and  without 
serious  odor.  The  principal  objections  were  along  the  banks  of 
the  Spicket.  These  were  unprotected  over  most  of  the  distance 
and  were  cluttered  by  all  sorts  of  rubbish  and  filth.  In  many  places, 
not  only  are  the  banks  of  the  river  used  as  waste  grounds  for 
back  yards  of  tenements,  but  besides,  the  city  is  using  one  portion 


Refuse  Dumping  Grounds  of  City  in  rear  of  tenements  at  Brook  Street 

as  a  dumping  ground  for  ashes  and  rubbish.  This  is  at  Brook 
Street,  and  the  photo,  taken  in  the  rear  of  several  tenement  houses, 
shows  the  cluttered  condition  of  ashes,  rags,  papers,  and  tin  cans. 


236  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

I  counted  thirty  children  trying  to  use  these  banks  as  a  playground. 
Amid  these  cluttered  surroundings,  they  necessarily  expose  them- 
selves to  diseases  that  are  transmissible  through  dirt.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Merrimack,  important  objections  to  conditions  along 
these  banks  concerns  the  question  of  breeding-places  here  afforded 
to  flies.  In  many  places  there  were  decaying  fruit  and  vegetables, 
and  piles  of  manure,  which  would  form  suitable  places  for  flies, 
and,  in  providing  for  the  extinction  of  flies,  sufficient  improvement 
should  be  made  to  insure  the  health  of  children,  and  both  of  these 
improvements   can  be   brought   about   without   large   expenditure. 

Although  the  public  health  is  not  directly  affected  by  the 
clutter  of  bricks,  wood,  iron,  old  trees,  tumbled-down  shanties, 
tall  weeds,  and  bushes,  as  found  along  this  river,  yet,  it  is  believed 
that  these  conditions  do,  however,  materially  lessen  the  value  of 
adjoining  property,  and,  from  the  investment  side  alone,  it  should 
pay  to  clean  up  these  banks  and  maintain  them  in  conditions  which 
would  attract  residents.  The  banks  should  be  cleared,  rubbish 
removed,  weeds  cut,  and  all  combustibles  burned,  the  earth  graded 
off,  and  grass  slopes  maintained,  so  that  mosquito  breeding-places 
would  be  lessened  and  opportunity  provided  for  children  to  play 
along  the  river  banks  without  undue  danger  of  catching  disease. 

The  view  on  next  page  shows  the  varying  width  of  the  river 
east  from  Newbury  Street;  and  lastly  is  shown  a  section  of  the 
river  east  of  Bennington  Street.  This  illustrates  the  possibility  of 
improvement.  Here  the  channel  has  been  straightened,  the  banks 
graded,  and  willow  and  birch  trees  are  growing.  It  has  been 
fenced  in,  and  is  not  used  for  a  dumping  ground. 

I  believe  that  similar  improvements  can  well  be  made  the 
entire  length  of  the  river,  and  it  would  then  be  known  as  an 
attractive  stream,  rather  than  a  disagreeable  open  sewer,  as  it  is 
now  regarded. 

Garbage  Disposal. 

Garbage  commonly  includes  waste  pieces  of  vegetables,  fruit, 
meat  and  spoiled  foods  taken  from  kitchens  of  dwellings, 
restaurants,  hotels  or  stores. 

Previous  to  the  year   1904,   various  methods  were  tried   for 


GARBAGE   DISPOSAL 


237 


Varying  width  of  Channel  east  from  Newbury   Street 


The  Banks  have  been    straightened,  Willow  and  Birch  Trees  allowed  to  grow 
and  the  area  has  been  fenced  in  and  no  longer  used  for  dumping 


238  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

disposing  of  garbage.  The  records  of  the  Board  of  Health  for 
1881  state  that  the  garbage  was  sold  for  $4.67  per  cord;  in  1888, 
for  $2.25;  in  1897,  it  was  given  away  and  the  receiver  did  the 
collecting.  In  1900,  the  City  was  obliged  to  pay  $1150  for  having 
it  carted  away,  and  not  including  the  collection  of  it  from  houses. 
But  beginning  in  1904,  a  less  expensive  plan  for  disposing  of 
it  was  adopted.  The  present  method  is  to  collect  the  garbage  in 
city  teams,  deliver  it  to  the  city  stables,  from  there  it  is  taken  by 
a  contractor  who  bargains  for  the  year's  supply.  Collections  are 
made  from  residences  once  a  week,  and  the  city  is  using  for  this 
purpose  five  teams  with  water-tight  tanks.  Two  thousand  dollars 
a  year  is  paid  to  the  city  for  the  garbage  as  delivered  at  the  city 
stables.  The  contractor  feeds  a  small  part  of  it  to  his  own  swine, 
and  sells  the  rest  to  farmers  in  Methuen.  Considerable  garbage, 
however,  from  hotels,  boarding-houses  and  restaurants  is  sold  by 
the  proprietors  directly  to  individuals  independently  of  the  City. 
These  collectors  are  required  to  have  a  license,  and  they  must  have 
receptacles  or  wagons  that  do  not  leak.  The  present  method  of 
disposing  of  the  garbage  for  a  revenue  of  $2000  a  year  appears 
to  be  all  that  could  be  expected  at  the  present  time.  From  a 
sanitary  point  of  view,  however,  it  will  be  readily  understood  by 
good  housekeepers  that  once  a  week  is  not  often  enough  for  col- 
lections. Decay  and  putrification  is  apt  to  become  a  serious  menace 
when  a  garbage  pail  with  its  kitchen  swill  is  left  standing  for  a 
week  in  hot  days.  In  cities  that  are  making  crusades  against  the 
house  fly,  as  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Brookline,  Mass.,  and  a  great 
many  of  the  Southern  cities,  garbage  is  removed,  at  least,  twice 
a  week.  Garbage  pails  of  metal  with  tight-fitting  covers  are  used 
and  chloride  of  lime  or  similar  purifier  is  applied  to  any  decaying 
materials  that  cannot  be  put  in  cans  or  covered  with  earth. 

Disposal  of  Store  Wastes. 

The  city  has  at  present  three  teams,  that  collect  waste 
paper  from  stores  and  shops,  and  deliver  it  to  a  shed  at  the 
city  stables.  Here  enough  assorting  is  done  to  separate  dirt  and 
valueless  waste  from  the  rest  of  the  material.  This  portion  is 
taken  away  by  a  contractor,  who  disposes  of  it,  if  he  so  desires, 


Bu  Appropriations  from  Whjte  Fund 


M<7 13    S^ho?l//f7<7 

1TION  OF  DUMPING  GROUNDS 

Prepared  for- 
Report  on   Invest /'a  at/ on 

cf 

i%„     Public  Health 

■Sept/S)// 


C-  &. 


Geo.  M  fSnehcliffeJtet. 


GARBAGE   DISPOSAL  239 

on  dumps  that  are  being  used  by  the  City.  The  same  contractor 
also  removes  from  here  all  paper,  rags,  strings,  burlap,  excelsior 
and  store  waste,  just  as  it  is  collected.  For  the  privilege  of  having 
these  materials,  he  removes  the  valueless  wastes  to  dumping 
grounds  as  mentioned  above,  and,  for  consideration  of  receiving 
the  rest  of  the  material,  he  pays  the  city  $505  per  year.  The  amount 
of  valueless  store  waste  is  so  large  that  serious  attention  must  be 
given  by  the  City  to  obtain  available  dumping  grounds. 

Dumping  Grounds  for  Refuse: 

The  City  has  had  no  definite  plan  in  disposing  of  ashes  and 
rubbish;  it  has  been  used  for  filling  various  lots  of  land  in  different 
parts  of  the  city.  The  general  plan  has  been,  as  the  city  has  grown, 
to  each  year  find  some  space  that  would  serve  as  a  dumping  ground 
for  the  time  being.  The  sites  that  are  being  used  at  the  present 
time  are  shown  on  Plate  6. 

B,  D,  and  F  are  the  most  important  places  that  are  available 
for  future  dumping.  B  is  located  on  Jackson  Street  just  across 
the  line  in  Methuen  and  serves  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  City,  but 
the  space  that  it  was  first  proposed  to  fill  has  been  covered,  and  it 
is  only  by  an  extension  beyond  these  limits  that  additional  space 
is  obtained  temporarily. 

D  serves  for  the  westerly  part  of  the  city,  and,  although  it 
has  been  a  large  area,  it  was  estimated  in  July  that  its  remaining 
capacity  was  10,000  loads  or  one-fourth  of  a  year  for  the  whole 
city.  If  used  for  sections  that  now  dump  at  B  and  C,  but  which 
must  immediately  use  new  localities,  this  space  would  serve  •  less 
than  a  year.  The  neighborhood  near  D  is  materially  depreciated 
for  residences  by  disagreeable  odors  emanating  from  materials 
dumped  here,  and  on  account  of  the  prevalence  of  flies  that  breed 
in  such  places. 

The  dumping  grounds  at  F,  located  in  North  Andover 
near  the  Shawsheen  River,  are  the  ones  that  are  counted  upon  for 
future  dumping.  The  property  belongs  to  a  man  who  is  allowing 
the  ground  to  be  filled  in,  and  will  probably  permit  a  continuance. 
There  are  no  houses  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  and  dumping 
would  not  be  as  objectionable  as  at  D,  for  instance.     The  distance 


24o  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

of  this  clumping  ground  from  City  Hall  is  two  miles,  and  it  is 
proposed  to  haul  here  by  auto  trucks. 

The  space  here  available  was  estimated  by  the  owner  and 
my  assistant,  as  seventeen  acres,  with  a  fill  of  twelve  feet,  and 
five  acres,  with  an  average  fill  of  four  feet. 

In  1908,  there  were  removed  38,595  cartloads  of  ashes  and 
refuse;  in  1909,  38,104;  in  1910,  38,471.  Allowing  1.8  cubic 
yards  per  load,  would  mean  that  the  grounds  at  F  would  serve 
the  whole  city  approximately  five  years. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  another  question  of  importance  before 
the  City  is  the  provision  for  adequate  disposal  of  refuse.  Shall 
dumping  grounds  be  maintained,  and  even  a  greater  haul  than  two 
miles  be  planned  for,  or  shall  the  City  establish  some  form  of 
incineration?  The  proper  disposal  of  waste  materials  through 
sewers,  from  factories,  and  by  ash  barrels,  and  garbage  pails, 
involves  sanitary  questions  that  should  not  longer  be  met  by 
primitive  methods.  A  city  of  the  size  of  Lawrence  cannot  afford 
to  pursue  those  methods  of  sewer  and  garbage  disposal  that  are 
fast  being  displaced  in  other  cities.  I  believe  that  the  engineering- 
problems  incident  to  the  Merrimack  River,  the  Spicket  River,  and 
the  present  garbage  disposal  methods  must  all,  in  the  next  few 
years,  have  thorough  overhauling  and  distinct  improvements. 

Better  sanitary  conditions  of  the  milk  supply,  better  garbage 
disposal,  and  more  healthful  conditions  along  the  Merrimack  and 
the  Spicket  Rivers  are  improvements  that  depend  primarily  upon 
accomplishments  of  the  Board  of  Health. 


BOARD  OF  HEALTH 

General  Duties  of  a  Board  of  Health  : 

The  Board  of  Health  should  be  especially  charged  with  the 
care  and  promotion  of  public  health;  but  in  a  broad  sense  almost 
every  act  of  a  human  being  is  related,  in  one  way  or  another, 
with  "  health;  "  and  evidently  some  limit  must  be  set  to  the  duties 
that  are  assigned  to  the  average  Board  of  Health. 


The  Duties  of  Boards  of  Health  ; 

In  general  the  duties  include  principally  those  questions  that 
relate  to  sickness  and  health  of  the  individual,  singly  and  collect- 
ively, but  in  some  cities,  the  Health  Department  includes,  not  only 
the  multifarious  duties  incumbent  upon  ordinary  Boards  of  Health, 
but,  besides,  regulations  for  the  location  of  soap  factories,  tanneries, 
horse  and  cow  stables;  the  blowing  of  steam  whistles;  the  ringing 
of  church  bells ;  and  the  smoke  and  soot  from  chimneys ;  the  size 
of  yard  spaces;  widths  of  alleys  and  streets;  the  heating  facilities 
in  public  halls,  and  dwelling  houses ;  the  amount  of  window  space 
and  means  of  artificial  lighting;  the  ventilation  of  public  halls, 
work  rooms,  and  sleeping-rooms;  and,  in  some  cities,  the  duties 
of  the  Street  Department  devolve  upon  the  Board  of  Health.  It 
has  been  believed  that  dust  of  the  street  may  transmit  tuberculosis, 
sore  throat,  pink  eye,  colds,  scarlet  fever,  mumps,  and  diphtheria, 
and  thus  very  properly  come  under  the  control  of  the  Health 
Department,  but  scientists  now  place  less  weight  on  the  dust  theory. 
We  are  finding  that  these  diseases  are  transmitted,  either  by  direct 
contact,  by  flies,  or  through  milk,  water,  raw  vegetables,  and  so 
on,  and  that  street  dust  has  little  direct  relation  to  disease. 


242  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

The  Lawrence  Board  of  Health. 

In  Lawrence,  the  Department  has  in  previous  years  included: 
teams  and  men  employed  in  the  collection  of  garbage,  ashes  and 
waste  papers  from  stores  and  dwelling  houses;  the  removal  of 
waste  fish,  rotten  eggs,  and  decayed  vegetables  from  wholesale 
houses;  dead  dogs  and  cats  from  streets  and  alleys,  the  emptying 
of  private-privy  vaults  and  cesspools;  men  employed  as  inspectors 
of  plumbing  in  new  buildings  and  in  old  buildings;  of  drains  be- 
tween street  sewers  and  buildings;  men  employed  in  tracing  out 
infectious  diseases;  posting  notices  of  these  diseases  at  the 
dwellings;  afterwards  fumigating  the  premises;  men  at  the 
general  office  of  the  Board  making  a  record  of  diseases,  issuing 
licenses  or  permits  for  cemeteries,  slaughter  houses,  stables,  for 
places  to  keep  live  fowl,  for  the  privileges  of  street  peddlers  to 
sell  vegetables  and  fish;  others  to  carry  on  the  business  of  under- 
takers, or  plumbers,  of  drain-pipe  layers,  and  so  on;  and  issuing 
licenses  for  the  privilege  of  making  ice  cream  that  is  to  be 
furnished  to  the  public,  and  for  selling  milk;  finally,  a  corps  of 
school  physicians  who  examine  the  eyesight,  teeth,  sense  of  hearing, 
and  cases  of  infectious  diseases  as  found  among  school  children. 

Here  are  far  too  many  and  diversified  duties  for  a  Board  of 
Health  to  administer  properly  and  still  have  time  and  money  left 
for  its  legitimate  field.  In  American  cities,  our  Boards  of  Health 
are  not  composed  of  specialists;  we  have  plain,  every-day  citizens 
who  take  up  the  duties  for  a  few  years,  then  give  way  to  new 
members.  This  is  particularly  true  in  Lawrence.  We  have  had 
eighteen  different  members  of  the  Board  since  the  beginning  of 
1900, —  in  twelve  years, —  and  nine  different  chairmen.  Of  the 
eighteen  members,  seven  had  some  previous  experience  as 
physicians;  at  one  time  one  was  a  drug  clerk;  but,  of  the  other  ten, 
none  are  reported  to  have  had  any  training  that  specially  qualified 
them  for  passing  upon  matters  of  Public  Health. 

List  of  members  of  the  Board  of  Health  since  the  beginning 
of  1900: 

1900  —  Dr.  F.  W.  Kennedy,  chairman;  Emil  C.  Stiegler,  furniture 
dealer;  Aime  D.  V.  Bourget,  clothing  salesman. 


BOARD   OF  HEALTH  243 

1901 — Dr.  F.  W.  Kennedy,  chairman;  Emil  C.  Stiegler,  Aime 
D.  V.  Bourget. 

1902  —  Aime    D.    V.    Bourget,    chairman ;    Dr.    F.    W.    Kennedy, 

Emil  C.  Stiegler. 

1903  —  Aime   D.    V.    Bourget,   chairman ;    Dr.    F.    W.    Kennedy, 

William  Burger,  cigar  manufacturer. 

1904  —  William   Burger,   chairman;   Dr.    F.   W.    Kennedy,   Aime 

D.  V.  Bourget. 

1905  —  Dr.  Frederick  W.  Kennedy,  chairman;  Dr.  Carl  H.  Eidam, 

Aime  D.  V.  Bourget. 

1906  —  Dr.  Carl  H.  Eidam,  chairman;  Dr.  F.  W.  Kennedy,  Aime 

D.  V.  Bourget. 

1907  —  Aime  D.  V.  Bourget,  chairman;  Dr.  Carl  H.  Eidam,  Dr. 

F.  W.  Kennedy. 

1908  —  Dr.    Carl   H.    Eidam,    chairman;   Aime   D.    V.    Bourget, 

William  H.  Fennell,  pharmacy  business. 

1909  —  Charles    H.    Bossier,    provision   business,    chairman;    Dr. 

Peter  L.  McKallagat,  William  H.  Fennell  (to  March  2), 
Ralph  A.  Brackett,  plumbing  business  (March  2  to  end 
of  year). 

1910  —  C.  H.  Bossier,  chairman;  Dr.  Peter  L.  McKallagat,  Ralph 

A.  Brackett  (all  removed  April  11)  ;  no  board  from  April 
1 1  to  June  22  ;  Dr.  William  J.  Sullivan,  chairman ;  William 
A.  Meagan,  foreman  paper  mill ;  and  one  vacancy,  June  22 
to  end  of  year. 

191 1 — William  A.  Meagan,  chairman  to  October;  Dr.  J.  H. 
Tobin  to  July;  Charles  P.  Garneau,  clerk,  provision 
business,  to  October;  Dr.  Patrick  J.  Hughes,  September 
to  end  of  year;  Henry  Ragot,  driver,  October  to  end  of 
year. 

1912 — Joseph  Harris,  jeweler,  chairman;  Charles  H.  Petit, 
clothier;  Dr.  George  W.  Dow,  City  Physician. 


244  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Associated  with  the  Board  of  Health  have  been  the  following- 
Inspectors  of  Milk  since  1900: 

1900- 1 905  —  M.   A.   Scanlon,  real  estate  and  insurance  business. 

1906  —  Dr.  Patrick  J.  Hughes,  physician. 

1907  —  Dr.  Fred  G.  ■  Bushold,  physician. 
1907-1908  —  Eugene  A.  McCarthy,  insurance  business. 
1909-1911 — Dr.  Thomas  H.  Collins,  physician. 

191 1  to  date  —  Dr.  John  H.  Tobin,  physician. 

The  records  of  the  Board  of  Health  show  that,  in  19 10,  there 
were  forty  meetings,  occupying  sixty-nine  and  one-half  hours,  an 
average  of  one  and  three-quarters  hours  each.  One  member  (Dr. 
McKallagat)  was  absent  ten  full  meetings  and  two  parts  of 
meetings  out  of  nineteen.  Otherwise,  there  were  no  absences  of 
any  members  during  the  year.  In  191 1,  there  were  forty  meetings, 
occupying  about  sixty-one  hours,  or  an  average  of  one  and  one-half 
hours  each.  There  have  been  but  four  absences  and  no  member 
absent  more  than  twice.  The  time  thus  devoted  to  meetings  should 
have  been  ample  to  produce  definite  and  valuable  results. 

An  examination  of  the  records  show  that  foremost  in  the 
deliberation  of  the  Board  has  been  the  subject  of  licenses  for 
stables.  Whether  Polando  Abrahams  shall  be  allowed  to  keep  two 
horses  or  three?  That's  a  question  to  incite  even  a  dormant  Board 
of  Health.  In  1910,  of  thirty-six  hours  used  in  meetings,  over  half 
of  the  time  was  given  to  questions  of  stables,  and,  in  191 1,  nearly 
one-half  of  the  time  was  similarly  used.  It  would  appear  that 
the  Boards  had  gone  daffy  over  the  question  of  the  number  of 
horses,  hens  or  goats  that  citizens  should  keep.  Contrast  the  above 
with  the  time  and  effort  given  to  essential  Board  of  Health  matters; 

During  1910  and  191 1,  the  subject  of  milk  has  received  atten- 
tion at  five  meetings  each  year,  and  ten  hours  in  the  two  years; 
three-fourths  of  that  time  was  consumed  in  discussing  the  question 
of  inefficiency  of  Dr.  Collins  as  milk  inspector.  At  one  meeting, 
it  was  argued,  at  another  argued  and  postponed  because  of  insuffi- 
cient notice,  at  another,  because  of  death  in  his  family,  finally  a 
hearing  given,   then   his   removal   effected,   and   another   inspector 


BOARD  OF  HEALTH  245 

elected.  An  efficient  Board  would  have  required  not  over  two 
meetings  to  have  acted  upon  that  whole  matter. 

Any  Board  must  be  willing  to  stand  upon  its  record;  and  its 
record  must  be  held  open  to  the  public.  I  have  examined  with  an 
open  mind  the  records  of  each  meeting  for  the  past  two  years.  I 
have  talked  with  city  officials  and  many  citizens,  and  I  must  admit 
that  I  can  find  little  to  commend,  but  much  to  criticise.  The  time 
and  energy  of  the  various  Boards  have  evidently  been  given  to 
matters  of  small  importance.  There  has  not  been  a  broad  view, 
a  survey  of  essentials  that  control  public  health.  The  view  point 
has  been  in  the  small,  individual,  restricted  way.  For  years, 
Lawrence  has  not  had  what  we  should  at  the  present  time  consider 
an  efficiently  organized  and  conducted  Board  of  Health,  and  that 
leads  us  to  an  important  question  for  brief  consideration :  What 
should  a  Board  of  Health  accomplish? 

To  accomplish  the  most,  it  is  acknowledged  that  politics  and 
Board-of-Health  measures  should  be  distinctly  and  positively  separ- 
ated. Past  members  of  the  Board  —  some  of  them  excellent  men 
—  assert  that  politics  has  often  been  a  hindrance  to  the  proper 
work  of  the  Board;  that  the  best  possible  plans  would  be  thwarted 
by  some  one  "  higher  up."  After  a  careful  study  of  the  situation 
during  191 1,  for  the  purpose  of  eliminating  politics  and  improving 
general  conditions,  I  suggested  to  the  new  government  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  department  of  Sanitation  and  the  transference  to 
another  department  of  the  Inspection  of  Plumbing.  This  re-organ- 
ization is  indicated  by  the  next  page,  which  shows  the  duties  of  the 
City  departments  divided  in  accordance  with  the  new  charter 
beginning  19 12. 


246 


LAWRENCE    SURVEY 


Lawrence  City  Departments 


mayor 


Finance  and 
Public  Affairs 


Engineering 


Public  Safety 


Public  Property 


Public  Health 
and  Charities 


Treasurer 

Auditing 

Purchasing 

Assessing 

Sinking  funds 

Tax  collection 

Claims 

Registration  of  voters 

City  clerk 

Legal 

Highways  and  other  ways 

Street  watering 

Sewers  and  drains  (including  licenses  to  drain-pipe  layers) 

Water  and  water  works 

Bridges 

Engineering 

Police 

Fire 

Lighting 

Wiring 

Weights  and  measures 

Conduits 

Buildings 

Parks 

Public  grounds 

Inspection  of  buildings 

Inspection  of  plumbing     1 

Sanitation     2 

Removal  of  ashes  and  waste  material 

Removal  of  garbage,  dead  animals  and  decayed  veg- 
tables 

Cleaning  of  privy  vaults,  cesspools 
Poor 
Board  of  Health 

City  Physician 

Public  Hospitals 

Diseases 

Foods  ;  meats,  provisions 

Licenses  ;  stables,  peddling  fish  and  vegetables 

Milk  ;  inspection  and  regulations 

Reports  on  cases  of  infectious  diseases,  of  births  and 
deaths 


1.  In?j  ection  of  plumbing  has  heretofore  been  under  the  Board  of  Health. 

2.  Suggestion  for  the  establishment  of  this  department  has  been  adopted. 


BOARD   OF   HEALTH  247 

An  Efficient  Board  of  Health  : 

The  specific  duties  of  a  Board  of  Health,  organized  with  a 
view  of  concentrating  its  work  solely  on  essential  elements  of 
Public  Health,  should  be: 

To  determine  the  extent  of  disease. 

The  distribution  of  disease  over  the  City,  and  among  nation- 
alities. 

To  examine  into  the  diseases  of  children  and  infantile  mor- 
tality. 

The  origins  and  causes  of  smallpox,  tuberculosis,  typhoid 
fever,  scarlet  fever,  infantile  paralysis,  and  other  communicable 
diseases. 

To  determine  the  means  by  which  each  epidemic  of  any  of 
the  above  diseases  is  transmitted  —  by  flies,  pet  animals,  through 
the  medium  of  water,  milk,  raw  vegetables,  raw  oysters,  and  so  on. 

To  advance  methods  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  epidemics  of 
communicable,  or  "  catching,"  diseases. 

To  prevent  the  adulteration  of  foods  and  drinks. 

To  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  prosecuting  authorities  all  failures 
to  comply  with  measures  that  have  been  lawfully  prescribed  for  the 
promotion  of  public  health. 

To  regulate  the  milk  supply,  approve  of  sources  of  production, 
the  methods  of  handling,  of  distributing  to  consumers,  prescribe 
standards  of  quality,  make  laboratory  tests,  issue  licenses  for  the 
sale  of  milk. 

To  regulate  similarly  the  ice-cream  supply. 

To  prescribe  and  enforce  sanitary  requirements  for  creameries, 
bakeries,  stores  and  markets. 

To  secure  reports  of  infectious  diseases,  of  births,  and  deaths. 

What  sort  of  men  are  needed  to  carry  forward  effectively  a 
city  Department  of  Health : 

Not  merely  the  family  doctor,  a  detective  of  disease,  a  quar- 
antine officer;  medical  training  alone  does  not  fit  men  for  this 
service.  The  work  is  not  primarily  curing  disease,  it  is  that  of 
prevention.  Men  are  needed  who  know;  (a)  mathematics, — to 
anaylze  statistics  relating  to  the  sick  and  the  dead,  thus  to  show 
what  forces  of  disease  are  prevailing,  and  where  the  attack  is  next 


248  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

likely  to  be  made;  (b)  engineering, —  to  provide  against  impure 
air  and  infected  water,  to  dispose  properly  of  garbage  and  sewage, 
and  to  maintain  clean  streets  and  alleys;  (c)  chemistry, —  to  pro- 
tect the  public  against  the  sale  of  adulterated  and  poisonous  foods 
or  beverages;  (d)  bacteriology, —  to  discover  the  germs  of  disease, 
provide  antitoxins,  and  detect  impurities  in  milk  and  other  food; 
(e)  law, —  to  interpret  common  law,  to  prescribe  rules  and  regula- 
tions that  can  be  lawfully  enforced.  And  withal  the  duties  of  the 
health  officer,  there  should  be  education,  that  the  people  may  learn 
the  arts  of  hygiene,  and  the  principles  of  right  living. 

"  Perfect  health,"  says  the  Report  of  the  Survey  of  1850, 
"  gives  to  its  possessor  strength,  energy,  power,  buoyancy  of  spirit, 

happiness It  is  under  the  control  of  public  authority  and 

public  administration  that  life  and  health  may  be  saved  or  lost, 
and  they  are  actually  saved  or  lost,  as  this  authority  is  wisely  or 
unwisely  exercised." 

Lawrence  has  been  a  leader  in  methods  of  water  filtration; 
why  should  it  not  become  a  leader  with  an  effective  Board  of 
Health  —  to  prevent  disease,  advance  the  principles  of  hygiene,  and 
direct  the  people  in  ways  of  better  health? 

Infectious  Diseases  by  Wards. 

A  study  of  the  prevalence  of  infectious  diseases  has  been  made 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  these  diseases  are  more 
common  in  densely-populated  wards  or  in  thinly-settled  and 
residential  wards.  The  three  diseases  selected  were  typhoid  fever, 
scarlet  fever,  and  diphtheria.  The  records  of  the  Board  of  Health, 
although  brief  and  unsystematic,  were  fairly  definite  and  complete 
regarding  these  three  diseases.  An  attempt  was  made  to  include 
also  tuberculosis,  but  the  records  of  that  disease,  even  for  1910, 
show  122  deaths  against  121  cases  reported,  and  I  was  told  by  a 
district  nurse  of  one  of  the  life  insurance  companies  that,  in  her 
experience,  tuberculosis  in  insufficiently  reported,  and  the  dangers 
of  the  disease  are  constantly  ignored.  Diphtheria  and  typhoid  run 
more  virulently  and  are  reported  more  thoroughly.  Scarlet  fever 
is  commonly  recognized  as  a  communicable,  or  "  catching  "  dis- 
ease, and  is  reported  better  than  measles  or  whooping  cough. 


BOARD  OF  HEALTH  249 

In  order  to  determine  the  distribution  of  these  diseases  — 
typhoid,  scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria  — a  chart  of  large  size  was 
first  plotted,  showing  the  cases  for  19 10.  Wherever  the  plotting 
showed  a  cluster  of  diseases,  the  question  of  relation  of  such  to 
density  of  population  was  investigated.  Eight  sections  were 
selected  over  various  part  of  the  city,  the  number  of  cases  counted, 
—  ranging  from  six  to  thirty-four, — and  compared  with  the  popu- 
lation, giving  the  number  of  cases  from  2.1  to  33.1  per  1,000 
population.  To  my  surprise,  for  all  of  the  sections  thus  examined, 
the  percentages  ran  higher  for  the  thinly  settled  areas  than  for  the 
densely  populated.  Although  this  unexpected  result  was  not 
decisive,  still  it  seemed  to  call  for  further  investigation.  I, 
therefore,  plotted  a  map  —  see  Plate  10  —  to  show  the  Density 
of  Population  for  the  whole  City.  This  map  was  made  from  data 
obtained  from  insurance  maps  and  from  the  Housing  Survey  of 
Mr.  Todd.  It  was  found  that  nearly  half  of  the  total  population 
of  the  city  live  within  half  a  mile  of  the  Common.  Ward  1  con- 
tains one  crowded  section,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  ward  is 
residential;  Wards  2,  3,  and  4  are  crowded  and  are  considered 
congested;  Ward  5  comprises  a  large  area  and  is  less  crowded; 
while  Ward  6  has  been  recently  built  up  and  contains  practically 
no  congested  areas.  To  show  the  rates  of  cases  of  the  above 
diseases  in  these  Wards,  I  next  plotted  Plates  7  and  8.  These 
diagrams  cover  the  years  from  1905  to  19 10.  The  average  number 
of  cases  per  1,000  population  is  shown  by  the  heavy  line;  above  the 
heavy  line  means  a  higher  rate;  an  unfavorable  condition,  repre- 
sented by  the  dark  area;  below  the  heavy  line,  a  favorable  condi- 
tion, represented  by  the  light  area.  The  anomalous  answer  is  here 
noticeable  again;  namely,  Wards  3  and  4,  crowded  wards,  have 
the  smallest  number  of  cases ;  Wards  2  and  5  have  average  amounts ; 
and  Wards  1  and  6,  residential  wards,  have  had  excessive  amounts, 
especially  Ward  1,  which  has  exceeded  the  average  each  year. 

To  verify  these  results  still  further,  I  had  the  records  of  the 
Board  of  Health  re-examined,  a  careful  curve  plotted  to  show  the 
probable  population  of  years  between  census  takings,  and  again  the 
evidence  was  plain  that  the  residential  Wards  1  and  6  show  greater 
rate  of  these  diseases  than  the  crowded  Wards  3  and  4;  and  to 


/9oe 


/sos 


/906  /907  /90Q  /90S 

Dark  shaded  areas  indicate   an  increase  in  the  rate  of  cases  as 
reported,  above  the  average  of  a//  Wards- fin  unfavorable  condition 


/SIO 


IS 

!• 
h 

$ 

I- 

if 


^3 


\« 


The   Lawrence    Survey 
Bu  Appropriations  from  the  White  Fund 

♦ 

D/aarams  showing  Rate,  bu  Wards 


Ward  Five 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

TujohoidFe.\/e.ry  Diphtheria,  ^Scarlet  Fei/er 

Prepared  from  Citu  Records  for 
Report  on  Ini/esfiaation  of  Public  Health 

ySept.    1911 

r*^ 

WS^Z' 

sported  in  Ward  S 

^-rlreraye   of 

all  Wards. 

V 

3      a 


/SOS  /BOS  VB07  /BOB  /BOB 

Light  shaded  areas  indicate  a  decrease  in  the  rate  of 
cases  below  the  ai/eraae  at all  Wards.- 4  favorable  condition* 


/BIO 


252  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

ascertain  if  these  diseases  are  reported  as  well  in  one  ward  as 
another,  I  consulted  the  agent  of  the  Board  of  Health,  who  has 
had  many  years  of  experience  in  investigating  diseases,  and  he 
believed  that  the  various  wards  report  equally  well ;  a  district  nurse 
corroborated  that  view,  and  also  some  of  the  physicians  of  the  city. 
It  is  not  claimed  that  the  foregoing  analysis  offers  conclusive 
proof  that  infectious  diseases  are  more  prevalent  in  outlying 
districts  than  in  crowded;  it  does  seem,  however,  to  indicate 
positively  that  in  Lawrence  for  the  past  six  years,  the  thinly 
settled  wards  have  had  more  cases  of  these  diseases  —  scarlet  fever, 
typhoid,  and  diphtheria  —  per  1,000  population,  than  the  crowded 

wards. 

This  result  is  contrary  to  generally  accepted  rules ;  it  disturbs 
some  of  our  popular  theories,  and  it  calls  for  explanation.  The 
answer  seems  to  be  that  these  three  diseases  enter  the  human  body, 
not  through  dust  and  vitiated  air  of  tenements,  but  probably 
through  the  medium  of  water  and  milk.  And  water  and  milk 
would  be  just  as  plentiful  and  just  as  much  infected  with  disease 
in  outlying  as  in  crowded  districts.  If  the  transmission  of  these 
diseases  can  thus  be  traced  to  water  and  milk, —  which  is  the 
conclusion  of  modern  science, —  can  we  not  find  by  similar 
investigations  the  medium  for  tuberculosis,  for  pneumonia,  and  for 
infantile  paralysis?  Are  these  diseases  more  frequent  in  crowded 
tenements  or  in  outlying  sections?  These  are  questions  that 
deserve  prompt  attention  of  our  Boards  of  Health.  What  answers 
shall  we  have  from  the  Lawrence  Board?  What  will  it  do  in  the 
immediate  future  to  discover  the  causes  of  diseases,  to  check  their 
transmission,  and  to  establish  Lawrence  as  a  leader  in  the  pro- 
motion of  public  health? 

Recommendations  for  the  Board  of  Health: 

The  following  recommendations  are  submitted  for  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Board  of  Health,  and  for  such  effective  endorsement  as 
may  be  found  practicable: 

Keep  the  work  of  the  Department  limited  and  free  of  politics. 

Concentrate  half  of  time  and  expenditure,  for  the  next  few 
years,  on  the  Milk  question. 


BOARD   OF   HEALTH  253 

Make  sanitary  inspections  of  milk  bottling  and  ice  cream 
plants. 

Have  farms  inspected  by  own  inspectors,  by  the  State's,  or 
by  other  means  that  may  become  practicable. 

Classify  milk  as  certified,  inspected  milk  heated,  and  market 
milk  heated. 

Require  all  milk  that  is  not  certified  to  be  scientifically  heated, 
or  pasteurized,  beginning  19 14. 

Advocate  a  central  milk  plant  for  heating,  or  pasteurizing  of 
milk,  bottling  it,  and  from  which  it  may  be  delivered  to  consumers. 

Ascertain  the  principal  breeding-places  of  flies,  at  garbage 
dumping  grounds,  sewage  banks  of  the  Merrimack  and  Spicket 
Rivers,  vacant  lots,  back  yards  of  dwellings. 

Find  where,  in  the  city,  each  disease  prevails  most;  which 
parts  of  the  city  have  least  sickness,  and  which  most. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Board  of  Health  can  profitably  in- 
vestigate the  above  questions,  that  it  is  possible  to  produce  results 
along  many  of  these  lines  that  would  be  of  benefit  to  the  city, 
but  for  material  success,  two  important  conditions  will  be  necessary : 

1.  An  efficiently  organized  Health  Department. 

2.  Support  from  the  general  public. 

Regarding  (1)  the  organization  of  the  Department,  it  is  fair 
to  say  that  the  beginning  of  19 12  under  the  new  charter  indicates 
an  improvement;  there  seems  to  be  a  broader  policy,  more  activity 
and  business-like  methods.  The  results  of  public  officials  can  best 
be  judged  near  the  end  of  their  term  of  office.  Pressure  upon 
pressure  is  brought  to  bear  that  will  swerve  many  an  office  holder 
from  the  straight  and  true  course  that  he  had  planned  in  the  be- 
ginning. Sharp  and  insistent  criticism  is  needed  when  city  officials 
let  go  their  grip,  put  aside  their  promises,  and  allow  their  depart- 
ment to  collapse,  but  also  commendation  should  be  given  freely  and 
liberally  when  officials  are  honest,  straightforward,  and  stand  up 
boldly  against  intrigue. 

Before  the  present  Board  of  Health  was  appointed  to  office, 
the  writer  suggested  that  it  would  be  well  to  have  members  who 
possessed  the  following  qualifications,  and,  whenever  it  is  found 


254  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

to  be  practicable,   these  qualifications  can  well   receive   favorable 
consideration : 

Have  one  member  who  is  competent  and  willing  to  devote 
himself  principally  to  questions  that  concern  Vital  Sta- 
tistics and  records  of  the  office. 

One  member  who  is  familiar  with  the  Milk  Question, 
and  will  consider  broadly  and  effectively  both  the 
farmers'  side  and  the  consumers'. 

One  member  who  will  investigate  diseases,  sanitation  of 
buildings,  healthfulness  of  various  modes  of  life. 

Each  year  a  member  should  be  chosen  for  a  term  of  three 
years.  Also  there  should  be  in  the  employ  of  the  Department  a 
few  men  as  field  inspectors  or  laboratory  assistants  who  have  been 
trained  as  sanitarians.  As  explained  in  a  preceding  paragraph,  the 
men  needed  to  carry  forward  effectively  a  City  Department  of 
Health  should  in  these  days  have  special  training.  Two  employees 
thus  trained  could,  at  the  present  time,  be  profitably  employed  in 
the  field,  and  laboratory. 

(2)  Support  from  the  general  public  is  necessary  in  the  case 
of  the  Health  Department.  Poor  streets  mean  inconvenience, 
financial  loss  to  the  city,  but  poor  health  means  stupor,  loss  of  life. 
The  public  in  Lawrence  have  not,  heretofore,  watched  with 
sufficient  care  the  acts  of  the  Boards  of  Health,  nor  the  relation  of 
the  Department  to  the  rest  of  the  city. 

I  submit  in  Plate  9  a  graphical  representation  of  the  ex- 
penditures of  the  City  for  19 10.  Note  the  black  area  which  shows 
the  relatively  small  amount  that  was  expended  strictly  for  public 
health.  For  that  year,  streets  and  paving  together  received 
$360,377.16;  less  than  one-fourth  of  that  amount,  or  $81,054.75, 
was  spent  by  the  Health  Department,  and,  finally,  excluding  the 
cost  of  disposing  of  ashes  and  garbage,  the  expenditures  for 
essential  health  measures  is  estimated  as  $20,000,  or  one-eighteenth 
of  the  amount  for  streets  and  paving. 

In  191 1,  the  appropriations  for  the  Department  were  $65,000, 
but  the  expenditures  were  $106,478.30,  of  which  about  $25,000 
was    for   essential   public   health   measures.      The   Department   of 


PLATE   3. 
SSO  000         /OOOOO        /SOOOO         200  000        250  OOO      -300  OOO    $350  000 


r^OU/nqr 

Lr 


/9/0 
Expenditures  of  City  Departments 

Prom  Spec/a/  /Auditors  Report 
The  black  area  shows  the  re/ative/u  small  amount  that  is 
expended  for  essential  Public  Hea/th  measures 


256  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

Health  does  not  need  large  appropriations;  $50,000,  or  one-half 
of  the  amount  that  is  provided  for  Police,  for  Fire,  or  for  Water, 
carefully  expended,  would  place  the  Department  to  the  front  in 
service  for  the  city,  but  the  public  has  a  right  to  expect  the  money 
to  be  properly  expended  for  the  general  up-building  of  health  con- 
ditions throughout  the  whole  city;  rich  and  poor  should  be 
benefitted,  native-born  and  foreigners  must  be  protected ;  "  public  " 
means  the  whole  people;  the  service  of  the  Department  must  be 
for  all,  and  the  success  or  failure  of  the  Board  must  be  judged 
by  all.  It  is  Public  Health  that  concerns  us  and  to  emphasize  this 
inter-dependent  relation  between  the  public  and  health  is  an  im- 
portant purpose  of  this  Survey.  The  new  health  department  has 
excellent  opportunities,  and  the  people  can  justly  expect  results 
that  will  be  noteworthy  and  generally  beneficial. 

Population  and  Its  Relation  to  Public  Health  : 

A  Safe  Milk  Supply,  and  an  efficient  Board  of  Health, 
would  seem  to  be  reasonable  demands  that  could  be  secured  in  any 
city.  But  of  Lawrence  we  hear  the  excuse :  It  is  a  manufacturing 
city,  containing  many  foreigners,  who  cannot  speak  English,  who 
know  little  of  our  laws  and  customs,  who  do  not  care  to  become 
Americanized,  and  who  frequently  are  indifferent  to  the  rules  of 
good  health  and  the  prevention  of  disease.  Therefore  a  study  of 
population  and  the  relation  of  foreigners  to  public  health  becomes 
of  moment  to  Boards  of  Health. 

In  fifty  years  Lawrence  has  grown  from  a  city  of  17,639 
population  to  one  of  85,892,  and  the  increase  has  been  surprisingly 
uniform  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

POPULATION  BY  WARDS  SHOWING  GROWTH  OF  CITY  SINCE   1880 


Wards 
1880 

1 
6818 

2 
6086 

3 
8184 

4 

7214 

5 

6579 

6 

4270 

lotai 
Population 

39151 

1890 

\02v/o 
6952 

104% 
6338 

102% 
8368 

127% 
9M7 

120% 
7888 

139% 
596i 

114% 
44654 

1900 

141% 
9804 

135% 
8537 

120% 
10159 

128% 
1 1722 

150% 
11821 

177% 
10516 

140% 
62599 

1910 

144% 
I4186 

158% 
i357i 

140% 
14236 

116% 

136% 
16180 

134% 
14138 

137% 
85892 

Average 

I42# 

1 42% 

130% 

122% 

141% 

iS5% 

139% 

Ward    2 


Ward  I 
Pop.  i4iee 


The  Lawrence  Su&i/ey 
By  /Appropriations  from  the 
Wh/te  Fund 


Map  show/ng 
DENSJTr  OF  POPULATION 

Pre/barec/  for 
Report  on  /m/estigation 
01* 

RUBL.K1    HE&L.TH 

Dec.  1911. 
Sca/e  /inch— 2+00 reef. 


(9/OUS.&M9us  3S  892 

*f  3/<J  acres. 

■  of  forri/nock  ffiv*r 

total  jnpu/aticn  //l/e  fit Jt/rt 
Common., 


g*c  \m h/hcAc/;//*.  p*r. 


BOARD   OF  HEALTH  257 

For  the  past  twenty  years  the  average  increase  in  all  wards 
has  been  38  per  cent  each  decade.  Wards  3  and  4  have  fallen 
slightly  below  and  Ward  6  has  risen  above  the  average. 

The  growth  of  population  is  shown  by  Plate  10. 

If  the  curve  of  increase  continues  in  accordance  with  prob- 
ability based  on  the  growth  during  the  past  forty  years,  the 
population  should  become  115,000  in  1920.  Plate  10  also  shows 
the  congested  areas  of  population.  Nearly  half  of  the  total  popula- 
tion live  within  half  a  mile  of  the  Common. 

The  ratio  between  native-born  and  foreign-born  population 
from  1870  to  19 10  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


Native 

Foreign- born 

Total 

Increase  in  10 

Population 

Population 

Population 

Year    Periods 

1870 

16,204 

12,717 

28,921 

64  per  cent 

1880 

21,885 

17,266 

39,151 

3^-4      " 

1890 

24,I36 

20,518 

44,654 

14.1      " 

1900 

33,982 

28,577 

62,559 

40.1      " 

1910 

44,573 

4i>319 

86,892 

37-3      " 

Average,        38.2      " 

In  1870  there  were  3500  more  native-born  population  than 
foreign-born,  and  at  each  census  taking  down  to  19 10  there  have 
been  between  3500  and  5500  more  native  population  than  foreign- 
born. 

The  foreign-born  population  is  distributed  according  to 
country  of  birth  as  follows : 

Canada 
English       French 
1890  4459 

1900  1683  6999 

191 o        1792        7696 

During  the  past  twenty  years  the  population  that  was  born 
in  England  has  remained  nearly  stationary  —  about  5000 ;  that 
born  in  Germany  has  remained  close  to  2000;  Scotland  about  1200; 
and  the  population  born  in  Ireland  has  decreased  from  7700  to 
6000 ;  while  the  number  that  were  born  in  Canada  has  doubled  and 
those  born  in  Russia  have  increased  from  a  mere  handful  to  over 
4000,  and  those  born  in  Italy  to  over  6000.  Russian  and  Italian- 
born  now  constitute  one-fourth  of  the  foreign  population. 


England 

Germany 

Ireland 

Italy     Poland     Russia 

Scotlanc 

4985 
5131 

5659 

1830 
2465 
230I 

7697 
7058 
5943 

46                         60 
936        411         780 

6693                    4352 

IO79 
1 198 
1336 

Total 

Persons  of 

Population 

Foreign  Parentage 

1890 

44,654 

35,670  or  80  per  cent 

1900 

62,559 

51,999  "   83      " 

1910 

85,892 

73,872  "  86      " 

258  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

And  besides  the  foreign-born  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
population  born  in  this  country  have  foreign  parents. 

Having  Foreign  Fathers 
and  Foreign  Mothers 

33,05* 
47,279 
66,791 

The  percentage  of  the  population  that  are  foreigners  has 
increased  in  thirty  years  from  80  per  cent  to  86  per  cent,  so  that 
now  in  the  whole  city  of  nearly  86,000  population,  seven-eighth 
are  foreign-born  or  have  foreign  parents. 

Whether  native  or  foreign-born,  American  citizens  look  to 
the  city  of  their  residence  for  advancement,  for  protection,  for 
education.  To  what  extent  Lawrence  is  fulfilling  its  responsibility 
of  government,  assimilating  foreigners  from  many  countries,  and 
transforming  them  into  good  citizenship,  could  well  constitute  an 
extended  investigation  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  Survey. 

Many  of  the  civic  agencies  —  the  schools,  the  parks,  the 
police  stations,  the  waterworks  plants  —  are  shown  on  Plate  II. 
These  are  some  of  the  agencies  that  benefit  the  City;  the  extent 
and  variety  of  them  is  noteworthy,  but  this  Survey  indicates  that 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  City,  its  very  prosperity  in  fact,  beset  it 
with  cogent  problems  of  Housing,  Public  Health,  Education  and 
Citizenship  that  must  receive  corresponding  advancement. 
Agencies  for  betterment  must  keep  abreast  of  the  growth  of  the 
City,  and  the  promotion  of  needed  improvements. 

It  is  not  the  work  of  the  city  officials  alone,  but  churches  of 
all  denominations,  clubs  and  associations  with  members  native  and 
foreign-born,  all  citizens  are  urged  to  consider  the  report  herewith 
presented  and  by  vote  or  public  statement  to  endorse  such  recom- 
mendations as  especially  appeal  to  them. 


PLATE  II. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  REPORT  ON  PUBLIC  HEALTH 
The  Milk  Supply: 

The   City   has   been  giving   practically   no   attention   to   the   milk 

supply.     Page  148. 
Few  citizens  know  where  the  milk  that  they  drink  comes   from. 

Page  148. 
One-fourth  of  it  comes  from  Maine  and  Vermont  towns   150  to 

200  miles  away.     Page  152. 
Milk  is  taken  from  the  farms  to  the  various  railroad  stations,  then 

transported  by  cars.     Page  180. 
Forty-five  farms  make  up  this  supply  from  Derry.     Page  176. 
Each  can  is  sampled  by  an  inspector  who  takes  out  a  spoonful  and 

tastes  of  it.     Page  177. 
Boxford,  Methuen  and  North  Andover  lead  in  standards.  Page  159. 
In  all  over  600  different  farms  doubtless  send  milk  to  the  City. 

Page  160. 
About  how  many  children  and  adults  per  year  must  we  allow  to 

contract  sickness  or  death  by  disease  in  milk?    Page  191. 
If  babies  that  die  each  year  by  disease  and  impurities  in  milk  were 

scalded  to  death  there  would  be  a  popular  uprising  against 

such  barbarity.     Page  188. 
In  any  dairy,  of  first  importance  is  method.     Page  156. 
An  old  farm  scrupulously  clean  is  better  than  a  modern  dairy  care- 
lessly maintained.     Page  167. 
The  object  of  this  investigation  is  to  secure  an  improved  quality 

of  milk.     It  is  a  movement  for  Clean  Milk  and  a  Fair  Price 

to  the  Farmer.     Page  158. 
The  Farmer  that  can  "  raise  "  all  No.  1  milk  should  get  the  highest 

price  for  it.     Page  188. 
A  list  of  twenty-eight  dairies  that  were  found  to  be  supplying  milk 

that  is  produced  under  especially  good  conditions.     Page  174. 
A   dairy    that   has    excellent   equipment    and   maintains    excellent 

methods  should  have  associated  with  it  a  bottling  plant  of 

equal  standards.     Page  180. 


26o  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

It  is  not  fair  to  ask  a  farmer  to  maintain  excellent  conditions  and 
then  have  the  quality  of  the  milk  that  he  furnishes  vitiated 
by  careless  handling  in  the  bottling  plant.     Page  183. 

Unfortunately  many  of  the  existing  bottling  plants  are  inferior  in 
standards  to  the  farms  from  which  they  receive  milk.  Page  183. 

I  earnestly  recommend  that  more  attention  be  given  to  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  milk  bottling  plants.     Page  202. 

Plate  3  shows  a  proposed  plan  for  a  Modern  Milk  House.  Page  203. 

Ice  Cream  manufacturing  is  done  in  rooms  connected  with  tenement 
houses.     Page  187. 

Children  from  the  house  or  from  the  street  pass  in  and  out  of 
these  manufacturing  rooms  without  restrictions.     Page  187. 

Not  only  should  laboratory  tests  of  milk  be  made  but  as  with  dairy 
inspections  I  believe  that  the  public  should  know  the  results 
of  these  tests.     Page  204. 

As  filters  are  unquestionably  needed  for  the  Lawrence  water  supply, 
so  I  believe  is  pasteurization  for  the  milk  supply.     Page  192. 

Pasteurizing  has  become  an  approved  method  of  treating  milk  be- 
cause it  destroys  disease  germs  that  the  milk  may  contain,  yet 
it  does  not  impair  the  quality  of  the  milk.     Page  192. 

A  new  process  has  been  developed  by  which  milk  is  pasteurized  in 
sealed  bottles.     Page   194. 

Pasteurizing  by  the  consumer,  in  his  own  house,  is  possible,  but 
difficult  to  accomplish  satisfactorily.     Page  194. 

Could  the  producers  own  and  operate  a  central  plant?     Page  206. 

The  Association  in  Erie,  (Penn.)  I  am  informed  by  the  President, 
was  started  twelve  years  ago.     Page  206. 

It  should  afford  the  farmer  a  direct  share  in  the  whole  profit  from 
dairy  to  household.     Page  208. 

The  Water  Supply  : 

The  problem  of  transforming  this  impure  and  dangerous  water 
supply  into  a  potable  and  safe  drinking  water  was  in  reality 
solved  in  1893  when  Slow  Sand  Filters  were  first  installed. 
Page  217. 


SUMMARY  261 

The  reduction  in  death  rate  in  Lawrence  compares  favorably  with 

results  that  have  occurred  in  other  cities.     Page  219. 
I  believe  that  it  does  not  overstate  the  facts  to  say  that,  with  the 

present  population,  filtration  is  saving  from  350  to  400  lives 

every  year.     Page  219. 
The  total  cost  of  installing  all  of  the  filters  and  their  accessories 

is  given  as  $140,000;  this  outlay  has  been  more  than  justified 

by  the  reduction  of  typhoid  in  a  single  year.     Page  221. 
That    measures    for    prevention    will    effect    infinitely    more    than 

remedies  for  the  cure  of  disease.     Page  224. 
The  water  supply   of  Lawrence  I  believe  to  be  as   favorable  to 

public  health  as  could  reasonably  be  demanded.     Page  224. 

The  Sewage  and  Garbage  Disposal  Methods  : 

Thus  into  the  Merrimack  River  from  nine  principal  outlets  this 
sewage  is  discharged.     Page  225. 

There  seems  to  be  no  limitations  in  the  use  of  this  river  for  sewage 
purposes.  From  bank  to  bank,  1000  feet  in  width,  it  is 
veritably  an  open  depository  for  sewage  and  manufacturing 
waste.     Page  226. 

In  many  localities  the  sewage  was  observed  in  a  decomposing 
state  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  where  it  had  been  deposited 
by  some  outlet  that  did  not  properly  extend  to  running  water. 
Page  226. 

It  is  impossible  to  examine  the  sewage  disposal  system  in  a  manu- 
facturing city  without  being  seriously  impressed  with  the 
importance  of  providing  some  improved  method  of  taking  care 
of  the  extensive  wastes  from  manufacturing  plants.    Page  229. 

Regulation  or  supervision  of  some  sort  is  almost  certain  to  come 
in  the  near  future.     Page  231. 

It  is  possible,  as  the  city  grows,  that  the  banks  could  be  used  for 
esplanades,  or  parkways,  or  playgrounds  for  children. 
Page  233. 

From  the  investment  side  alone,  it  should  pay  to  clean  up  these 
banks  and  maintain  them  in  conditions  which  would  attract 
residents.     Page  236. 


262  LAWRENCE    SURVEY 

In  cities  that  are  making  crusades  against  the  house-fly,  garbage 

is  removed  at  least  twice  a  week.     Page  238. 
The  City  has  no  definite  plan  in  disposing  of  ashes  and  rubbish. 

Page  239. 
Shall  dumping  grounds  be  maintained  and   even  a  greater  haul 

than  two  miles  be  planned  for,  or  shall  the  City  establish  some 

form  of  incineration?     Page  240. 

The  Board  of  Health  : 

Evidently  some  limit  must  be  set  to  the  duties  that  are  assigned  to 
the  average  Board  of  Health.     Page  241. 

Here  are  far  too  many  and  diversified  duties  for  a  Board  of  Health 
to  administer  properly  and  still  have  time  and  money  left  for 
its  legitimate  held.     Page  242. 

We  have  had  eighteen  different  members  of  the  Board  since  the 
beginning  of  1900.     Page  242. 

An  examination  of  the  records  show  that  foremost  in  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  Board  has  been  the  subject  of  licenses  for  stables. 
Page  244. 

During  1910  and  191 1  the  subject  of  milk  has  received  attention 
at  live  meetings  each  year,  and  ten  hours  in  the  two  years. 
Page  244. 

For  years  Lawrence  has  not  had  what  we  should  at  the  present 
time  consider  an  efficiently  organized  and  conducted  Board 
of  Health.     Page  244. 

What  sort  of  men  are  needed  to  carry  forward  effectively  a  City 
Department  of  Health?     Page  247. 

Lawrence  has  been  a  leader  in  methods  of  water  filtration,  why 
should  it  not  become  a  leader  with  an  effective  Board  of 
Health?     Page  248. 

The  thinly-settled  wards  have  had  more  cases  of  these  diseases  — 
scarlet-fever,  typhoid,  and  diphtheria  —  per  thousand  popula- 
tion than  the  crowded  wards.     Page  2^2. 

The  answer  seems  to  be  that  these  three  diseases  enter  the  human 
body,  not  through  dust  and  vitiated  air  of  tenements,  but 
probably  through  the  medium  of  water  and  milk.     Page  2^2. 


SUMMARY  263 

Could  we  not  find  by  similar  investigation  the  medium  for  tuber- 
culosis, for  pneumonia,  and  for  infantile  paralysis?    Page  252. 

For  material  success  two  important  conditions  will  be  necessary: 
An  efficiently  organized  Health  Department  and  support  from 
the  general  public.     Page  253. 

The  expenditures  for  essential  health  measures  is  estimated  as 
$20,000,  or  one-eighteenth  of  the  amount  for  streets  and 
paving.     Page  254. 

The  new  health  department  has  excellent  opportunities,  and  the 
people  can  justly  expect  results  that  will  be  noteworthy  and 
generally  beneficial.     Page  256. 

The  Population  and  Its  Relation  to  Public  Health  : 

But  of  Lawrence,  we  hear  the  excuse :  It  is  a  manufacturing  city. 
Page  256. 

In  fifty  years  Lawrence  has  grown  from  a  city  of  17,639  popula- 
tion to  one  of  85,892.     Page  256. 

At  each  census-taking  down  to  19 10  there  have  been  between  3500 
and  5500  more  native  population  than  foreign-born.    Page  257. 

Russian  and  Italian-born  now  constitute  one-fourth  of  the  foreign- 
born  population.     Page  257. 

And  besides  the  foreign-born  a  considerable  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion born  in  this  country  have  foreign  parents.     Page  258. 

Thus  in  the  whole  city  of  nearly  86,000  population  seven-eighths 
are  foreign-born  or  have  foreign  parents.     Page  258. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  City,  its  very  prosperity  in  fact,  beset  it 
with  cogent  problems  of  Housing,  Public  Health,  Education 
and  Citizenship.     Page  258. 

All  citizens  are  urged  to  consider  the  report  herewith  presented  and 
by  vote  or  public  statement  to  endorse  such  recommendations 
as  appeal  to  them.     Page  258. 


LIBRARY  OF  CONGRESS 


000Z55512D5